,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,e ef=t has be5 made to replicate ?is text z fai?fully z possible1 includ+ inconsi/5cies 9 spell+ & hyph5ation4 ,"s corrections ( spell+ & punctuation h be5 made4 ,!y are li/$ at ! end ( ! text4 ,italic text has be5 m>k$ ) und]scores4 ,greek text has be5 translit]at$ & m>k$ ) tildes4 ,,g]man ,,philosophical ,,classics ,,= ,,engli% ,,read]s ,,& ,,/ud5ts4 ,,edit$ ,,by ,,george ,s4 ,,morris4 ,,leibniz',s ,,new ,,essays ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,human ,,und]/&+4 ,,leibniz',s ,,new ,,essays ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,human ,,und]/&+4 ,a ,,critical ,,exposition4 ,by ,,john ,,dewey1 ,ph4,d41 ,,assi/ant ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,mi*igan1 ,,& ,,pr(essor 7,,elect7 ,,( ,,m5tal ,,& ,,moral ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,m9nesota ,,*icago3 ,,scott1 ,,=esman ,,& ,,company #aijb ,copyright1 #ahhh1 ,by ,s4 ,c4 ,griggs & ,company4 ,,preface4 ,! purpose ( ! s]ies ( :i* ! pres5t volume is "o1 is n1 z w be se5 by ref]5ce to ! /atem5t 9 ! initial volume1 to sum up 9 toto ! sy/em ( any philosoph]1 b to give a critical exposition ( "s "o ma/]piece4 ,9 treat+ ! ,n\veaux ,essais ( ,leibniz1 ,i h f\nd myself oblig$1 at times1 to violate ! lett] ( ?is express$ int5tion1 9 ord] to fulfil its _s4 ,! ,n\veaux ,essais1 9 spite ( its be+ "o ( ! two mo/ ext5d$ philosophical writ+s ( ,leibniz1 is a comp5dium ( comm5ts1 r ?an a connect$ argum5t or exposition4 ,x has all ! sugge/iv5ess & ri*ness ( a note-book1 b ) mu* also ( its fragm5t>9ess4 ,i h !re=e be5 oblig$ to supplem5t my acc\nt ( x by con/ant ref]5ces to ! o!r writ+s ( ,leibniz1 & occasionally to take consid]able lib]ty ) ! ord] ( ! treatm5t ( topics4 ,^u ! :ole1 ?is book w be f\nd1 ,i hope1 to be a fai?ful reflex n only ( ,leibniz's ?\ght1 b also ( 8 discussions 9 ! ,n\veaux ,essais4 ,9 ! ma91 ! c\rse ( philosophic ?\ght s9ce ! "t ( ,leibniz has be5 su* z to r5d] almo/ self-evid5t 8 limitations1 & to sugge/ ne$$ corrections & amplifications4 ,inde$1 x is mu* easi] = ^? ^: ?\ghts foll[ ! turn t ,kant has giv5 mod]n ?9k+ to appreciate ! defects ( ,leibniz ?an to realize 8 greatness4 ,i h endeavor$1 !re=e1 9 ! body ( ! "w1 to id5tify my ?\ght ) t ( ,leibniz z mu* z possible1 to assume 8 /&po9t & me?od1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 to conf9e express criticism ^u 8 limitations to ! f9al *apt]4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ,i h attempt$ to br+ out ! relations ( philosophy to ! gr[+ sci5ce ( 8 times1 to /ate ! doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony z he himself meant x1 & to give some?+ l consi/5cy & coh]5cy to 8 doctr9e ( mat]ial exi/5ce & ( nature4 ,?is la/ task seem$ especially to require do+4 ,i h also endeavor$ to keep 9 m9d1 ?r\gh\t1 ,leibniz's relations to ,locke1 & to %[ ! ,n\veaux ,essais z typical ( ! di/9ction betwe5 *>act]i/ic ,briti% & ,g]man ?\ght4 ,,john ,,dewey4 ,may1 #ahhh4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,! ,man4 ,,page ,8 ,p>5ts #a ,8 ,e>ly ,education #b ,8 ,univ]sity ,tra9+ at ,leipsic #d ,at ,j5a #h ,at ! ,univ]sity ( ,altdorf #aj ,8 ,removal to ,frankfurt #aj ,8 ,mission to ,p>is #aa ,discov]y ( ! ,calculus #ab ,libr>ian at ,hanov] #ac ,8 ,activities #ad ,8 ,philosophic ,writ+s #ae ,8 ,ecclesia/ic & ,academic ,projects #ag ,8 ,lat] ,ye>s & ,dea? #ah ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,s\rces ( 8 ,philosophy4 ,"* ( ! ,epo* into :i* ,leibniz 0 born #bj ,! ,?\ght ( ! ,unity ( ! ,_w #bc ,! two ,ag5cies :i* =m$ ,leibniz's ,philosophy #bd ,! ,c>tesian ,influ5ces #bf ,rationali/ic ,me?od #bh ,me*anical ,explanation ( ,nature #cj ,application ( ,ma!matics #cb ,idea ( ,evolution #cc ,int]pretation ( ^! ,ideas #ce ,idea ( ,activity or ,entele*y #ci ,idea ( ,rationality #dj ,idea ( ,organism #db ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,problem & its ,solution4 ,unity ( ,leibniz's ,?\ght #dc ,relation ( ,univ]sal & ,individual #dd ,desc>tes' ,treatm5t ( ?is ,"q #df ,sp9oza's ,treatm5t ( x #dh ,leibniz's ,solution #ej ,all ,unity is ,spiritual #ec ,& ,active #ed ,is a ,repres5tative ,individual #ef ,contra/ ( ,monad & ,atom #eh ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony reconciles ,univ]sal & ,individual #ei ,mean+ ( ?is ,doctr9e #fb ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,locke & ,leibniz4--,innate ,ideas4 ,necessity ( ,prelim9>y ,acc\nt ( ,leibniz's ,philosophy #ff ,locke's ,empiricism #fg ,leibniz's ,comm5ts ^u ,locke #fi ,! ,controv]sies ( ,leibniz #gb ,! ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ #gc ,locke's ,d5ial ( ,innate ,ideas #ge ,dep5d+ ^u 7#a7 ,8 ,me*anical ,conception ( ,innate ,ideas #gg ,leibniz und]m9es ?is by sub/itut+ an ,organic ,conception #hj ,& ^u 7#b7 ,8 ,me*anical ,conception ( ,consci\sness #hd ,leibniz refutes ?is by 8 ,!ory ( ,unconsci\s ,intellig5ce #he ,,*apt] ,v4 ,s5sation & ,exp]i5ce4 ,importance ( ,doctr9e reg>d+ ,s5sation #hg ,! ,two ,elem5ts ( ,locke's ,notion ( ,s5sation #hi ,its ,relation to ! ,object produc+ x3 ,prim>y & ,second>y ,qualities #ia ,locke criticiz$ z to 8 ,acc\nt 7#a7 ,( ! ,production ( ,s5sation #ib 7#b7 ,( its ,function 9 ,k #ie ,! ,mean+ ( ,physical ,causation #ig ,be>+ ( ?is ,doctr9e ^u ,relation ( ,s\l & ,body #ih ,criticism ( ,locke's ,dualism #ih ,leibniz's ,monism #aja ,summ>y ( ,discussion #ajc ,leibniz on ! ,relation ( ,s5sations to ,objects occasion+ !m #aje ,nature ( ,exp]i5ce #ajf ,di/9ction ( ,empirical f ,rational ,k #ajg ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,impulses & ! ,w4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,w dep5ds ^u t ( ,intellig5ce #aji ,! ,"* ( ,impulse #aaa ,( ,desire #aab ,half-,pa9s & ,pleasures #aac ,! ,outcome ( ,desire #aae ,nature ( ,moral ,action #aag ,( ,fre$om #aah 7#a7 ,fre$om z ,cont+5cy #aai ,limitation ( ?is ,pr9ciple #aba 7#b7 ,fre$om z ,spontaneity #abc ,?is ,pr9ciple is too ,broad to be a ,moral ,pr9ciple #abe 7#c7 ,true ,fre$om is ,rational ,action #abe ,our ,lack ( ,fre$om is due to our ,s5su\s ,nature #abh ,innate ,practical ,pr9ciples #abi ,moral ,sci5ce is ,demon/rative #acj ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,matt] & its ,relation to ,_s4 ,locke's ,acc\nt ( ,matt] & ,alli$ ,ideas ! ,f\ndation ( ! ,philosophy ( ,nature ,*>act]i/ic ( ,briti% ,empiricism #acb ,space & ,matt] :olly ,di/9ct ,ideas #acd ,leibniz gives ,matt] a ,metaphysical ,basis #acg ,ord9>y ,misund]/&+ ( ,leibniz's ,ideas ( ,matt] #ach ,matt] is n compos$ ( ,monads #aci ,matt] is ! ,passive or ,condition$ ,side ( ,monads #adj ,passivity equals ,confus$ ,repres5tations1 i4 e4 ,incomplete ,developm5t ( ,reason #add ,matt] is logically ,necess>y f ,leibniz's ,pr9ciples #ade ,be>+ ( ,discussion ^u ,doctr9e ( ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony #adf ,summ>y #adg ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,mat]ial ,ph5om5a & _! ,reality4 ,:at is ! ,connection betwe5 ,matt] z ,metaphysical & z ,physical8 #aea ,! ,latt] is ! ,image ( ! ,=m] #aea ,leibniz's ,reaction f ,c>tesian ,!ory #aeb ,8 ,objections are 7#a7 ,physical & 7#b7 ,logical #aec 7#a7 ,motion is ,s\rce ( ,physical ,qualities ( ,bodies #aee ,h5ce !re are no ,atoms #aeh ,second>y ,qualities z well z ,prim>y dep5d ^u ,motion #afj 7#b7 ,:at is ! ,subject to :i* ! ,quality ( ,ext5sion belongs8 #afa ,x is ! ,monad z ,passive #afb ,space & ,"t connect ! ,spiritual & ! ,s5sible #afd ,di/9ction betwe5 ,space & ,"t1 & ,ext5sion & ,duration #aff ,space & ,"t are ,relations #afg ,leibniz's ,controv]sy ) ,cl>ke #afh ,leibniz d5ies t ,space & ,"t are ,absolute #agj ,:at is ! ,reality ( ,s5sible ,ph5om5a8 #agc ,x consi/s 7#a7 ,9 _! ,regul>ity #agd 7#b7 ,9 _! ,dep5d5ce ^u ,intellig5ce & ,w #age ,leibniz & ,b]keley #agg ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,"s ,fundam5tal ,conceptions4 ,locke's ,acc\nt ( ,sub/ance z ,/atic #agi ,! ,di/9ction betwe5 ,reality & ,ph5om5a #ahj ,leibniz's ,conception ( ,sub/ance z ,dynamic #aha ,8 ,specific ,criticisms ^u ,locke #ahb ,! ,categories ( ,id5tity & ,diff]5ce ,locke also expla9s 9 a ,me*anical ,way #ahc ,leibniz reg>ds !m z ,int]nal & z ,organic to ea* o!r #ahd ,locke gives a ,quantitative ,notion ( ,inf9ity #ahh ,& h5ce makes our ,idea ( x purely ,negative #ahi ,leibniz d5ies t ! ,true ,notion ( ,inf9ity is ,quantitative #ahi ,he also d5ies ,locke's ,acc\nt ( ! ,orig9 ( ! ,indef9ite #aib ,9 ,g5]al1 ,locke has a ,me*anical ,idea1 ,leibniz a ,spiritual1 ( ^! ,categories #aic ,,*apt] ,x4 ,! ,nature & ,ext5t ( ,k4 ,locke's ,def9ition & ,classification ( ,k #aif ,leibniz's ,criticism #aig ,leibniz1 ,b]keley1 & ,kant reg>d+ ,k ( ,objects #aih ,! ,degrees ( ,k1--,intuitive1 ,demon/rative1 & ,s5sitive #aii ,locke's ,contradictory ,!ories reg>d+ ! ,orig9 ( ,k #bjb ,locke />ts bo? ) ! ,individual z giv5 to ,consci\sness & ) ! ,unrelat$ ,s5sation #bjd ,ei!r ,!ory makes ,relations or ,univ]sals ,unreal #bje ,z to ! ,ext5t ( ,k1 t ( ,id5tity is ,wide1 b ,trifl+ #bje ,t ( ,real ,be+ includes ,god1 ,s\l1 & ,matt]1 b only z to _! ,exi/5ce #bjf ,& ev5 ?is at ! ,exp5se ( contradict+ 8 ,def9ition ( ,k #bjf ,k ( ,co-exi/5ce is ei!r ,trifl+ or ,impossible #bjg ,leibniz re/s ^u ,di/9ction ( ,cont+5t & ,rational ,tru? #bji ,! ,=m] may become ! ,latt]1 & is !n ,demon/rative #baj ,! ,means ( ?is ,trans=mation are ,ma!matics & ,classification #bae ,!re are ,two ,pr9ciples1--,"o ( ,contradiction #bag ,! ,o!r ( ,suffici5t ,reason #bah ,! ,latt] leads u to ,god z ! ,supreme ,intellig5ce & ! ,f9al ,condition ( ,cont+5t ,fact #bai ,! ,f\r ,/ages ( ,k #bbb ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! ,!ology ( ,leibniz4 ,leibniz's ,?ree ,argum5ts = ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god #bbd ,! ,value ( ! ,ontological #bbe ,! ,cosmological #bbf ,! ,teleological #bbf ,! ,attributes ( ,god #bbg ,! ,relation ( ,god to ! ,_w1 8 ,creat+ ,activity #bbh ,creation involves ,wisdom & ,goodness z well z ,p[] #bbi ,! ,relation ( ,god to ,intellig5t ,spirits3 !y =m a ,moral ,community #bcj ,leibniz z ! ,f\nd] ( ,mod]n ,g]man ,e?ical ,sy/ems #bca ,! ,end ( ,morality is ,happ9ess z ,self-realization #bcb ,! ,?ree ,/ages ( ,natural ,"r #bcd ,! ,basis ( ,bo? ,leibniz's ,e?ics & ,political ,philosophy is ,man's ,relation to ,god #bcf ,8 /hetics h ! ,same ,basis #bcg ,man's ,_s z ,ar*itectonic #bch ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,criticism & ,conclusion4 ,leibniz's ,fundam5tal ,contradiction is betwe5 8 ,me?od & 8 ,subject ,matt] #bdj ,! ,use :i* ,leibniz makes ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason reveals ?is ,contradiction #bdb ,! ,contradiction is betwe5 ! ,ideas ( ,=mal & ( ,concrete ,unity #bdc ,f ?is ,contradiction fl[ 7#a7 ,! ,contradiction 9 ! ,notion ( ,individuality #bdf ,:i* becomes purely ,negative #bdg ,! ,negative he int]prets z m]ely ,privative #bdi 7#b7 ,! ,contradiction 9 8 ,conception ( ,god has ! ,same ,s\rce #bej ,he really has ,?ree ,def9itions ( ,god #bej ,"o results 9 ,atomism1 ano!r 9 ,pan!ism #bea ,! ,?ird 9 a ,conception ( ! ,organic ,h>mony ( ! ,inf9ite & ,f9ite #beb 7#c7 ,! ,contradiction betwe5 ! ,real & ! ,ideal 9 ! ,monads has ! ,same ,s\rce #bec 7#d7 ,z h also ! ,contradictions 9 ! ,treatm5t ( ! ,relations ( ,matt] & ,_s #bed 7#e7 ,& f9ally1 8 ,orig9al ,contradiction leads to a ,contradictory ,treatm5t ( ,k #beg ,summ>y z to ! ,positive ,value ( ,leibniz #bei ,! ,influ5ce ( ,leibniz's ,philosophy #bfa ,especially ^u ,kant #bfb ,kant claims to be ! ,true ,apologi/ = ,leibniz #bfc 7#a7 ,z to ! ,doctr9e ( ,suffici5t ,reason & ,contradiction #bfc ,:i* f9ds its ,kantian ,analogue 9 ! ,di/9ction betwe5 ,analytic & ,syn!tic ,judgm5t #bff 7#b7 ,z to ! ,relation ( ,monads & ,matt] #bfh ,:i* f9ds its ,kantian ,analogue 9 ! ,relation ( ! ,s5su\s & ,sup]s5su\s #bfh 7#c7 ,& f9ally1 z to ! ,doctr9e ( ,pre-e/abli%$ ,h>mony #bfi ,:i* ,kant trans=ms into ,h>mony betwe5 ,und]/&+ & ,s5se #bfi ,& betwe5 ! ,categories ( ! ,und]/&+ & ! ,ideas ( ,reason #bgj ,conclusion #bgb ,,leibniz',s ,,new ,,essays ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,human ,,und]/&+4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,man4 ,he :o kn[s me only by my writ+s does n "k me1 said ,leibniz4 ,^! words--true1 inde$1 ( e writ]1 b true ( ,leibniz 9 a way :i* gives a peculi> int]e/ & *>m to 8 life--mu/ be our excuse = prefac+ :at is to be said ( 8 ,new ,essays conc]n+ ! ,human ,und]/&+ ) a brief biographical sket*4 ,gottfri$ ,wilhelm ,leibniz 0 born 9 ,leipzig ,june #ba1 #afdf4 ,8 fa!r1 :o di$ :5 ,leibniz 0 only six ye>s old1 0 a pr(essor 9 ! univ]sity & a not>y ( consid]able practice4 ,f him ! future philosoph] seems to h d]iv$ 8 extraord9>y indu/ry & love ( detail4 ,su* acc\nts z we h ( him %[ no traces ( ! wond]ful intellectual g5ius ( 8 son1 b only a dilig5t1 plodd+1 fai?ful1 & religi\s man1 a ?or\ghly consci5ti\s husb&1 juri/1 & pr(essor4 ,nor 9 ! l9es ( physical h]$ity c we acc\nt = ! unique c>e] ( ,leibniz by 8 "m's end[m5ts4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 t %e 0 pati5t 9 all trial1 liv+ 9 peace ) h] neighbors1 anxi\s = unity & concord ) all p1 ev5 ) ^? n well dispos$ to h]1 ?r[s great light ^u ! fundam5tal trait ( ,leibniz's e?ical nature4 ,z 9 s _m cases1 x is ! inh]it$ moral *>act]i/ics :i* =m ! basis ( ! intellectual nature4 ,! love ( unity :i* 0 a moral trait 9 ,leibniz's "m became 9 him ! hung] = a h>moni\s & unifi$ m5tal _w2 ! fa!r's devotion to detail %[$ itself z ! desire = k z m9ute & compreh5sive z x 0 int]-relat$4 ,left )\t 8 fa!r1 he 0 by ! advice ( a disc]n+ fri5d all[$ free access to ! libr>y4 ,leibniz nev] ceas$ to c\nt ?is "o ( ! greate/ =tunes ( 8 life4 ,writ+ 9 aft] ye>s to a fri5d1 he says3-- ,:5 ,i lo/ my fa!r1 & 0 left )\t any direction 9 my /udies1 ,i _h ! luck to get at books 9 all languages1 ( all religions1 ^u all sci5ces1 & to read !m )\t any regul> ord]1 j z my own impulse l$ me4 ,f ?is ,i obta9$ ! great advantage t ,i 0 fre$ f ord9>y prejudices1 & introduc$ to _m ?+s ( :i* ,i %\ld o!rwise nev] h ?\ght4 ,9 a philosophical essay1 9 :i* he describes himself "u ! "n ( ,gulielmus ,pacidius1 he says3-- ,wilhelm ,fri$lieb1 a ,g]man by bir?1 :o lo/ 8 fa!r 9 8 e>ly ye>s1 0 l$ to /udy ?r\gh ! innate t5d5cy ( 8 _s2 & ! fre$om ) :i* he mov$ ab\t 9 ! sci5ces 0 equal to ?is innate impulse4 ,he buri$ himself1 a boy eight ye>s old1 9 a libr>y1 /ay+ !re sometimes :ole days1 &1 h>dly /amm]+ ,lat91 he took up e book :i* pleas$ 8 eyes4 ,op5+ & %utt+ !m )\t any *oice1 he sipp$ n[ "h1 n[ !re1 lo/ himself 9 "o1 skipp$ ov] ano!r1 z ! cle>ness ( expression or ( cont5t attract$ him4 ,he seem$ to be direct$ by ! ,tolle et lege ( a high] voice4 ,z good =tune w\ld h x1 he gave himself up to ! anci5ts1 9 :om he at fir/ und]/ood no?+1 by degrees a little1 f9ally all t 0 really necess>y1 until he assum$ n only a c]ta9 color+ ( _! expression1 b also ( _! ?\ght1--j z ^? :o g ab\t 9 ! sun1 ev5 :ile !y are occupi$ ) o!r ?+s1 get sun-br[n$4 ,& he goes on to tell u t _! influ5ce always rema9$ ) him4 ,_! human1 _! important1 _! compreh5sive ideas1 grasp+ ! :ole ( life 9 "o image1 toge!r ) _! cle>1 natural1 & transp>5t mode ( expression1 adapt$ precisely to _! ?\ghts1 seem$ to him to be 9 ! greate/ contra/ ) ! writ+s ( mod]ns1 )\t def9it5ess or ord] 9 expression1 & )\t vitality or purpose 9 ?\ght1--writt5 z if = ano!r _w4 ,?us ,leibniz le>n$ two ( ! great lessons ( 8 life1--to seek always = cle>ness ( diction & = p]t95ce & purpose ( ideas4 ,hi/orians & poets fir/ occupi$ him2 b :5 9 8 s*ool-life1 a lad ( twelve or ?irte5 ye>s1 he came to ! /udy ( logic1 he 0 greatly /ruck1 he says1 by ! ord]+ & analysis ( ?\ghts :i* he f\nd !re4 ,he gave himself up to mak+ tables ( categories & pr$icam5ts1 analyz+ ea* book t he read into suitable topics1 & arrang+ ^! into classes & sub-classes4 ,we c imag9e ! a/oni%m5t ( 8 playmates z he bur/ ^u !m ) a dem& to classify ?is or t idea1 to f9d its appropriate pr$icam5t4 ,?us he 0 l$ naturally to ! philosophic books 9 8 fa!r's libr>y1--to ,plato & to ,ari/otle1 to ! ,s*ola/ics4 ,su>ez1 9 p>ticul>1 among ! latt]1 he read2 & traces ( 8 influ5ces are to be f\nd 9 ! =mulation ( 8 own philosophic sy/em4 ,at ab\t ?is same "t he took great delight 9 ! !ological works ) :i* 8 fa!r's libr>y ab\nd$1 read+ ) equal ease & pleasure ! writ+s ( ! ,lu!rans & ( ! ,re=m$ ,*ur*1 ( ! ,jesuits & ! ,jans5i/s1 ( ! ,?omi/s & ! ,arm9ians4 ,! result 01 he tells u1 t he 0 /r5g!n$ 9 ! ,lu!ran fai? ( 8 family1 b1 z we may easily imag9e f 8 aft] life1 made tol]ant ( all =ms ( fai?4 ,9 #affa ! boy ,leibniz1 fifte5 ye>s old1 ent]$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipzig4 ,if we glance back ^u 8 atta9m5ts1 we f9d him ?or\ghly at home 9 ,lat91 hav+ made good progress 9 ,greek1 acqua9t$ ) ! hi/orians & poets ( antiquity1 acqua9t$ ) ! contempor>y range ( sci5ce1 except 9 ma!matics & physics1 deeply read & int]e/$ 9 anci5t & s*ola/ic philosophy & 9 ! curr5t !ological discussions4 ,( himself he says3-- ,two ?+s 7 ( extraord9>y aid to me3 9 ! fir/ place1 ,i 0 self-taught2 & 9 ! second1 z soon z ,i ent]$ ^u any sci5ce ,i s\ght = some?+ new1 ev5 ?\gh ,i did n z yet ?or\ghly und]/& ! old4 ,i ?us ga9$ two ?+s3 ,i did n fill my m9d ) ?+s empty & to be unle>n$ aft]w>ds1--?+s re/+ ^u ! ass]tion ( ! tea*]1 & n ^u reason2 & secondly1 ,i nev] re/$ till ,i got d[n to ! v roots ( ! sci5ce & rea*$ its pr9ciples4 ,:ile !re is always a temptation to =ce ! facts :i* we "k ( a man's e>ly life1 s z to make !m seem to acc\nt = :at appe>s 9 mature ye>s1 & to f9d symbolisms & analogies :i* d n exi/1 we are n go+ a/ray1 ,i ?9k1 if we see =e%ad[$ 9 ?is e>ly education ( ,leibniz ! two lead+ traits ( 8 lat] ?\ght1--univ]sality & individuality4 ,! range ( ,leibniz's inve/igations already m>ks him z "o :o w be cont5t ) no fundam5tal pr9ciple :i* does n mirror ! univ]se4 ,! fre$om ) :i* he c>ri$ !m on is te/imony to ! fact t ev5 at ?is age ! idea ( self-developm5t1 ( individual gr[? f )91 0 work+ ^u him4 ,9 ! fact1 also1 t he 0 self-taught we f9d d\btless ! reason t he alone ( ! ?9k]s ( ?is p]iod did n h to retrace 8 /eps1 to take a ho/ile attitude t[>ds ! ideas into :i* he 0 educat$1 & to />t anew ^u a f\ndation !n fir/ built4 ,! developm5t ( ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz is s gradual1 cont9u\s1 & con/ant t x may s]ve z a model ( ! law by :i* ! monad acts4 ,is n 8 e>ly acqua9tance ) anci5t lit]ature & m$ival philosophy ! reason t he c\ld aft]w>ds write t 8 philosophical sy/em connects ,plato ) ,democritus1 ,ari/otle ) ,desc>tes1 ! ,s*ola/ics ) ! mod]ns1 !ology & morals ) reason8 ,& :o c fail to see 9 ! imp>tiality1 ! compreh5siv5ess1 ( 8 self-education ! prophecy ( ! "t :5 he c write ( 8 ideas t !re are unit$ 9 !m1 z 9 a c5tre ( p]spective1 ! ideas ( ! ,sceptics 9 attribut+ to s5sible ?+s only a slight degree ( reality2 ( ! ,py?agoreans & ,platoni/s1 :o r$uce all to h>monies1 numb]s1 & ideas2 ( ,p>m5ides & ,plot9us1 ) _! ,"o & ,all2 ( ! ,/oics1 ) _! notion ( necessity1 compatible ) ! spontaneity ( o!r s*ools2 ( ! vital philosophy ( ! ,cabali/s1 :o f9d feel+ ev]y:]e2 ( ! =ms & entele*ies ( ,ari/otle & ! ,s*oolm51 unit$ ) ! me*anical explanation ( ph5om5a accord+ to ,democritus & ! mod]ns8 ,b we mu/ hurry along ov] ! succe$+ ye>s ( 8 life4 ,9 ! univ]sity ! /udy ( law 0 8 pr9cipal occupation1 z he _h decid$ to foll[ 9 ! foot/eps ( 8 fa!r4 ,x _c be said t ! "* ( ! in/ruction or ( ! in/ructors at ,leipzig 0 su* z to give mu* nutrim5t or /imulus to a m9d l t ( ,leibniz4 ,he became acqua9t$ !re1 h[ev]1 ) ! ,italian philosophy ( ! sixte5? c5tury1--a philosophy :i*1 z =mulat$ by ,c>danus & ,campanella1 =m$ ! transition f ,s*ola/ic philosophy to ! me*anical mode ( view+ ! univ]se4 ,he _h "h also 8 fir/ introduction to ,desc>tes4 ,! consequ5ces ( ! new vision op5$ to ,leibniz mu/ be told 9 8 own words3 ,i 0 b a *ild :5 ,i came to "k ,ari/otle2 ev5 ! ,s*ola/ics did n fright5 me2 & ,i 9 no way regret ?is n[4 ,plato & ,plot9us gave me mu* delight1 n to speak ( o!r philosoph]s ( antiquity4 ,!n ,i fell 9 ) ! writ+s ( mod]n philosophy1 & ,i recall ! "t :51 a boy ( fifte5 ye>s1 ,i w5t walk+ 9 a little wood ne> ,leipzig1 ! ,ros5?al1 9 ord] to consid] :e!r ,i %\ld hold to ! doctr9e ( sub/antial =ms4 ,f9ally ! me*anical !ory conqu]$1 & ?us ,i 0 l$ to ! /udy ( ! ma!matical sci5ces4 ,to ! /udy ( ! ma!matical sci5ces6 ,surely words ( no mean import = ei!r ! future ( ,leibniz or ( ma!matics4 ,b 8 ,leipzig /udies did n take him v f> 9 ?is new direction4 ,only ! elem5ts ( ,euclid 7 taught !re1 & ^! by a lectur] ( su* confus$ /yle t ,leibniz seems alone to h und]/ood !m4 ,9 ,j5a1 h[ev]1 :]e he w5t = a seme/]1 ?+s 7 some:at bett]4 ,weigel1 a ma!matician ( "s fame1 an a/ronom]1 a juri/1 & a philosoph]1 taught !re1 & introduc$ ,leibniz into ! l[] =ms ( analysis4 ,b ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> _h n left ,g]many 9 a /ate ( high culture1 & 9 aft] ye>s ,leibniz lam5t$ ! limitations ( 8 e>ly ma!matical tra9+1 rem>k+ t if he _h sp5t 8 y\? 9 ,p>is1 he w\ld h enri*$ sci5ce e>li]4 ,by #afff ,leibniz _h f9i%$ 8 univ]sity c>e]1 hav+ 9 previ\s ye>s atta9$ ! degrees ( ba*elor ( philosophy & ma/] ( philosophy4 ,x is significant t = ! fir/ he wrote a !sis ^u ! pr9ciple ( individuation1--! pr9ciple :i* 9 lat] ye>s became ! basis ( 8 philosophy4 ,?is e>ly essay1 h[ev]1 is r an exhibition ( le>n+ & ( dext]ity 9 h&l+ logical me?ods ?an a real anticipation ( 8 aft]?\ght4 ,= 8 second degree1 he wrote a !sis ^u ! application ( philosophic ideas to juridic proc$ure1--consid]ations :i* nev] ceas$ to occupy him4 ,at ab\t ! same "t appe>$ 8 e>lie/ indep5d5t "w1 ,de ,arte ,comb9atoria4 ,f 8 /udy ( ma!matics1 & especially ( algebraic me?ods1 ,leibniz _h become conv9c$ t ! s\rce ( all sci5ce is1--fir/1 analysis2 second1 symbolic repres5tation ( ! fundam5tal concepts1 ! symbolism avoid+ ! ambiguities & vagu5ess ( language2 & ?irdly1 ! syn!sis & int]pretation ( ! symbols4 ,x seem$ to ,leibniz t x ought to be possible to f9d ! simple/ notions 9 all ! sci5ces1 to discov] g5]al rules = calculat+ all _! v>ieties ( comb9ation1 & ?us to atta9 ! same c]ta9ty & g5]ality ( result t *>act]ize ma!matics4 ,leibniz nev] gave up ?is ?\ght4 ,inde$1 9 _s 8 philosophy is b its application1 ) ! omission ( symbols1 on ! side ( ! g5]al notions fundam5tal to all sci5ce4 ,x 0 also ! idea ( 8 age1--! idea t inspir$ ,sp9oza & ! ,aufklrung1 ! idea t inspir$ philosophical ?9k+ until ,kant gave x its dea?-bl[ by demon/rat+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! me?ods ( philosophy & ( ma!matical & physical sci5ce4 ,9 #afff ,leibniz %\ld h receiv$ 8 d\ble doctorate ( philosophy & ( law2 b petty jeal\sies & p]sonal fe>s prev5t$ 8 pres5t+ himself = ! exam9ation4 ,disgu/$ ) 8 treatm5t1 feel+ t ! ties t b\nd him to ,leipzig 7 sev]$ by ! rec5t dea? ( 8 "m1 anxi\s to /udy ma!matics fur!r1 &1 z he confesses1 desir+1 ) ! natural eag]ness ( y\?1 to see m ( ! _w1 he left ,leipzig =ev]1 & ent]$ ^u 8 ,w&]jahre4 ,he 0 prep>$ to be no mean citiz5 ( ! _w4 ,9 8 education he _h gone f ! hi/orians to ! poets1 f ! poets to ! philosoph]s & ! ,s*ola/ics1 f !m to ! !ologians & ,*ur* ,fa!rs2 !n to ! juri/s1 to ! ma!maticians1 & !n aga9 to philosophy & to law4 ,he fir/ direct$ 8 /eps to ! ,univ]sity ( ,altdorf2 "h he obta9$ 8 doctorate 9 law1 & 0 (f]$ a pr(essor%ip1 :i* he decl9$1--app>5tly because he felt t 8 "t 0 n yet come1 & t :5 x %\ld come1 x w\ld n be 9 ! n>r[ limits ( a c\ntry village4 ,f ,altdorf he w5t to ,nrnb]g2 "h all t ne$ conc]n u is ! fact t he jo9$ a society ( al*emi/s 7frat]nitas rosecrucis71 & 0 made _! secret>y4 ,h]eby he ga9$ ?ree ?+s1--a k ( *emi/ry2 an acqua9tance ) a numb] ( sci5tific m5 ( diff]5t c\ntries1 ) :om1 z secret>y1 he c>ri$ on correspond5ce2 & ! fri5d%ip ( ,bo9eburg1 a diplomat ( ! c\rt ( ! ,elector & ,ar*bi%op ( ,ma9z4 ,?is fri5d%ip 0 ! means ( 8 remov+ to ,frankfurt4 ,"h1 "u ! direction ( ! ,elector1 he engag$ 9 remodell+ ,roman law s z to adapt x = ,g]man use1 9 writ+ diplomatic tracts1 lett]s1 & essays ^u !ological matt]s1 & 9 edit+ an edition ( ,nizolius1--a n[ =gott5 philosophical writ]4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notewor?y facts 9 connection ) ?is edition is t ,leibniz po9t$ out ! fitness ( ! ,g]man language = philosophical uses1 & urg$ its employm5t1--a memorable fact 9 connection ) ! lat] developm5t ( ,g]man ?\ght4 ,ano!r important tract :i* he wrote 0 "o urg+ ! alliance ( all ,g]man ,/ates = ! purpose ( advanc+ _! int]nal & common int]e/s4 ,"h1 z s (t51 ,leibniz 0 almo/ two c5turies 9 advance ( 8 times4 ,b ! *ief ?+ 9 connection ) ! /ay ( ,leibniz at ,ma9z 0 ! cause = :i* he left x4 ,l\is ,,xiv4 _h brok5 up ! ,triple ,alliance1 & %[$ signs ( attack+ ,holl& & ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,x 0 !n propos$ to him t x w\ld be ( great] glory to himself & ( great] advantage to ,france t he %\ld move aga9/ ,turkey & ,egypt4 ,! mission ( pres5t+ ^! ideas to ! great k+ 0 intru/$ to ,leibniz1 & 9 #afgb he w5t to ,p>is4 ,! plan fail$ completely1--s completely t we ne$ say no m ab\t x4 ,b ! j\rney to ,p>is 0 none ! less ! turn+-po9t 9 ! c>e] ( ,leibniz4 ,x br\ght him to ! c5tre ( intellectual civilization1--to a c5tre comp>$ ) :i* ! highe/ atta9m5ts ( disrupt$ & di%e>t5$ ,g]many 7 comp>ative b>b>ism4 ,molire 0 /ill alive1 & ,rac9e 0 at ! summit ( 8 glory4 ,leibniz became acqua9t$ ) ,arnaud1 a disciple ( ,desc>tes1 :o initiat$ him into ! motive & _s ( 8 ma/]4 ,c>tesianism z a sy/em1 ) its sci5tific basis & its speculative consequ5ces1 ?us fir/ became to him an intellectual reality4 ,&1 p]haps mo/ important ( all1 he met ,huyg5s1 :o became 8 tea*] & inspir] bo? 9 ! high] =ms ( ma!matics & 9 _! application to ! int]pretation & expression ( physical ph5om5a4 ,8 diplomatic mission took him also to ,london1 :]e ! gr[+ _w ( ma!matical sci5ce 0 op5$ yet wid] to him4 ,! "n ( ,sir ,isaac ,newton ne$ only be giv5 to %[ :at ?is meant4 ,f ?is "t "o ( ! greate/ glories ( ,leibniz's life dates1--a glory1 h[ev]1 :i* dur+ 8 lifetime 0 embitt]$ by envy & unappreciation1 & obscur$ by detraction & malice1--! inv5tion ( ! inf9itesimal calculus4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+1 7 ?is ! place1 to trace ! hi/ory ( its discov]y1--! gradual /eps :i* l$ to x1 ! physical facts z well z ma!matical !ories :i* made x a necessity2 b x mu/ suffice to m5tion t ^! 7 su* t ! discov]y ( "s g5]al mode ( express+ & int]pret+ ! newly discov]$ facts ( ,nature 0 absolutely requir$ = ! fur!r advance ( sci5ce1 & t /eps t[>ds ! introduction ( ! fundam5tal ideas ( ! calculus _h already be5 tak51--notably by ,keppl]1 by ,cavali]i1 & by ,wallis4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to foll[ also ! c\rse ( ! controv]sy ) ,newton1--a controv]sy :i* 9 its me?od ( conduct reflects no cr$it ^u ! names ( ei!r4 ,b ?is c be summ$ up by say+ t x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t absolute priority belongs to ,newton1 b t entire indep5d5ce & orig9ality *>act]ize none ! less ! "w ( ,leibniz1 & t ! me?od ( approa* & /atem5t ( ! latt] are ! m philosophical & g5]al1 &1 to use ! words ( ! judici\s summ>y ( ,m]z1 ,newton c>$ m = ! results ?an ! pr9ciple1 :ile ,leibniz 0 9 se>* ( fundam5tal pr9ciples1 & anxi\s to arrive at simplifications & g5]alizations4 ,! dea? ( ,bo9eburg remov$ ! especial reasons = ! return ( ,leibniz to ,frankfurt1 & 9 #afgf he accept$ ! position ( libr>ian & private c\ncillor at ! c\rt ( ,hanov]4 ,x ar\ses our int]e/ & our que/ion+s to "k t on 8 j\rney back he /opp$ at ! ,hague1 & !re met face to face ! o!r future great philosoph] ( ! "t1 ,sp9oza4 ,b our que/ion+s meet no answ]4 ,at ,hanov]1 ! indu/ries ( ,leibniz 7 v>i$4 ,an extract f "o ( 8 own lett]s1 ?\gh writt5 at a some:at lat] date1 w give ! be/ outl9e ( 8 activities4 ,x is incr$ible h[ scatt]$ & divid$ are my occupations4 ,i burr[ ?r\gh ar*ives1 inve/igate old writ+s1 & collect unpr9t$ manuscripts1 ) a view to ?r[+ light on ! hi/ory ( ,brunswick4 ,i also receive & write a c\ntless numb] ( lett]s4 ,i h s mu* t is new 9 ma!matics1 s _m ?\ghts 9 philosophy1 s _m lit]>y obs]vations :i* ,i _c get into %ape1 t 9 ! mid/ ( my tasks ,i d n "k :]e to beg91 & ) ,ovid am incl9$ to cry out3 ',my ri*es make me poor4' ,i %\ld l to give a description ( my calculat+-ma*9e2 b "t fails4 ,above all else ,i desire to complete my ,dynamics1 z ,i ?9k t ,i h f9ally discov]$ ! true laws ( mat]ial ,nature1 by ^: means problems ab\t bodies :i* are out ( rea* ( rules n[ kn[n may be solv$4 ,fri5ds are urg+ me to publi% my ,sci5ce ( ! ,inf9ite1 conta9+ ! basis ( my new analysis4 ,i h also on h& a new ,*>act]i/ic1 & _m g5]al consid]ations ab\t ! art ( discov]y4 ,b all ^! works1 ! hi/orical except$1 h to be done at odd mom5ts4 ,!n at ! c\rt all sorts ( ?+s are expect$4 ,i h to answ] que/ions on po9ts 9 int]national law2 on po9ts conc]n+ ! rights ( ! v>i\s pr9ces 9 ! ,empire3 s f> ,i h manag$ to keep out ( que/ions ( private law4 ,) all ?is ,i h _h to c>ry on negotiations ) ! bi%ops ( ,neu/adt & ( ,meaux ,bossuet1 & ) ,pelisson & o!rs ^u religi\s matt]s4 ,x is int]e/+ to note h[ ! philosophic _s1 ! in/9ct = unity & g5]ality1 %[$ itself ev5 9 ! lea/ ( ,leibniz's tasks4 ,! ,duke ( ,brunswick impos$ ^u ,leibniz ! task ( draw+ up a g5ealogical table ( 8 ,h\se4 ,"u ,leibniz's h&s ?is exp&$ into a hi/ory ( ! ,h\se1 & ?is 9 turn 0 ! c5tre ( an important /udy ( ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,x 0 impossible t ! philosoph]1 accord+ to :om e real be+ reflect$ ! :ole ( ! univ]se f its po9t ( view1 %\ld h be5 able to treat ev5 a slight phase ( local hi/ory )\t reg>d+ x 9 its relations to ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,simil>ly "s m9+ op]ations 9 ! ,h>z ,m\nta9s call$ ! att5tion ( ,leibniz to geological matt]s4 ,! result 0 a treatise call$ ,protoga1 9 :i* ,leibniz gave a hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! e>?4 ,n cont5t ) see+ 9 a ,brunswick m\nta9 an epitome ( ! _w's physical =mation1 x 0 8 int5tion to make ?is an introduction to 8 political hi/ory z a sort ( geographical backgr\nd & f\ndation4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! hi/orical /udies ( ,leibniz took him on a ?ree ye>s' j\rney1 f #afhg to #afij1 ?r\gh ! v>i\s c\rts ( ,europe1--a fact :i* n only _h consid]able influ5ce ^u ,leibniz himself1 b :i* enabl$ him to give /imulus to sci5tific developm5t 9 m ways & places ?an "o4 ,8 philosophical c>e] z an au?or beg9s = ! mo/ "p ) 8 return to ,hanov] 9 #afij4 ,?is lies outside ( ! scope ( ! pres5t *apt]1 b "h is a conv5i5t place to call att5tion to ! fact t = ,leibniz ! multitude ( 8 o!r duties 0 s great t 8 philosophical "w 0 ! "w ( odd mom5ts4 ,!re is no sy/ematic exposition2 !re are a va/ numb] ( lett]s1 ( essays1 ( ab/racts & memor&a publi%$ 9 v>i\s sci5tific j\rnals4 ,8 philosophy be>s n only 9 =m1 b 9 sub/ance1 traces ( its haphaz>d & desultory orig94 ,ano!r po9t ( int]e/ 9 ?is connection is ! degree to :i*1 9 =m1 at lea/1 8 philosophical writ+s be> ! impress ( 8 cosmopolitan life4 ,leibniz _h se5 too mu* ( ! _w1 too mu* ( c\rts1 = 8 ?\ghts to take ! rigid & unb5d+ =m ( geometrical exposition suit$ to ! lonely /ud5t ( ! ,hague4 ,nor 0 ! regul> progression & elucidation ( ideas adapt$ to ! lat] ,g]mans1 almo/ )\t exception univ]sity pr(essors1 suit$ to ! man ( affairs4 ,!re is ev]y:]e 9 ,leibniz ! attempt to adapt 8 modes ( /atem5t1 n only to ! t]m9ology1 b ev5 to ! ideas1 ( ! "o to :om !y are address$4 ,!re is ! desire to magnify po9ts ( agreem5t1 to m9imize disagreem5ts1 *>act]i/ic ( ! c\rti] & ! diplomat4 ,8 compreh5siv5ess is n only a compreh5siv5ess ( ?\ght1 b ( ways ( exposition1 due v l>gely1 we mu/ ?9k1 to 8 cosmopolitan education4 ,! result has be5 to ! great detrim5t ( ,leibniz's influ5ce z a sy/ematic ?9k]1 al?\gh x may be argu$ t x has aid$ 8 indirect & sugge/ive influ5ce1 ! absorption ( 8 ideas by m5 ( lit]ature1 by ,goe!1 above all by ,less+1 & 8 /imulat+ effect ^u sci5ce & philosophy4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! attempt to sy/ematize 8 ?\ghts1 z 0 done by ,wolff1 _h = its result ! disappe>ance ( all t 0 pr(\nd & ?\ght-excit+4 ,if 8 philosophy ?us reflects ! mann] ( 8 daily life1 ! occupations ( ! latt] 7 in=m$ by ! _s ( 8 philosophy4 ,two ( ! de>e/ int]e/s ( ,leibniz rema9 to be m5tion$1--"o1 ! f\nd+ ( academies2 ! o!r1 ! reconcil+ ( religi\s organizations4 ,! =m] te/ifies to 8 desire = compreh5siv5ess1 unity1 & organization ( k2 ! latt] to 8 desire = practical unity1 8 dislike ( all t is oppos$ & isolat$4 ,8 ef=ts 9 ! religions direction 7 tw(old4 ,! fir/ 0 to end ! !ological & political controv]sies ( ! "t by ! reunion ( ! ,prote/ant & ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur*es4 ,x 0 a plan :i* did ! greate/ honor to ! pacific _s ( ,leibniz1 b x 0 pr$e/9$ to failure4 ,bo? sides made concessions1--m concessions ?an we ( to-day %\ld believe possible4 ,b ! "o ?+ ! ,roman ,ca?olic ,*ur* w\ld n conc$e 0 ! "o ?+ :i* ! ,prote/ant ,*ur* dem&$1--! notion ( au?ority & hi]>*y4 ,inde$1 x may be que/ion$ :e!r ! t]ms on :i* ,leibniz conceiv$ ( _! reunion d n po9t to ! greate/ weakness 9 8 philosophy1--! t5d5cy to ov]look oppositions & to resolve all contradiction into diff]5ces ( degree4 ,h>dly _h ?is plan fall5 ?r\gh :5 ,leibniz turn$ to ! project ( a union ( ! ,lu!ran & ,re=m$ bran*es ( ! ,prote/ant ,*ur*4 ,?is s*eme 0 m hopeful1 & :ile unrealiz$ dur+ ! life ( our philosoph]1 0 aft]w>ds accompli%$4 ,x is notewor?y t ev5 be=e ,leibniz w5t to ,p>is & to ,london he _h conceiv$ ! idea ( a society ( le>n$ m5 = ! inve/igation1 ! sy/ematization1 & ! publication ( sci5tific tru? 9 all its v>i$ =ms1--a society :i* %\ld 9 bread? include ! :ole sph]e ( sci5ces1 b %\ld n treat !m z s _m isolat$ discipl9es1 b z memb]s ( "o sy/em4 ,?is idea 0 quick5$ :5 ,leibniz saw ! degree 9 :i* x _h already be5 realiz$ 9 ! two great _w-capitals4 ,he nev] ceas$ to try to introduce simil> academies :]ev] he _h influ5ce4 ,9 #agjj 8 labors bore _! fruit 9 "o in/ance4 ,! ,academy at ,b]l9 0 f\nd$1 & ,leibniz 0 its fir/1 & inde$ life-long1 presid5t4 ,b disappo9tm5t met him at ,vi5na1 ,dresd51 & ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 :]e he propos$ simil> societies4 ,any sket* ( ,leibniz's life1 h[ev] brief1 w\ld be imp]fect :i* did n m5tion ! names at lea/ ( two rem>kable wom51--rem>kable 9 !mselves1 & rem>kable 9 _! fri5d%ip ) ,leibniz4 ,^! 7 ,sophia1 gr&-daught] ( ,james ,i4 ( ,engl& 7& ?us ! l9k by :i* ! ,h\se ( ,brunswick f9ally came to rule ov] ,great ,brita97 & wife ( ! ,duke ( ,brunswick1 & h] daught] ,sophia ,*>lotte1 wife ( ! fir/ k+ ( ,prussia4 ,! latt]1 9 p>ticul>1 gave ,leibniz e enc\ragem5t4 ,%e 0 p]sonally deeply int]e/$ 9 all !ological & philosophical que/ions4 ,^u h] dea?-b$1 9 #agje1 %e is said to h told ^? ab\t h] t !y 7 n to m\rn = h]1 z %e %\ld n[ be able to satisfy h] desire to le>n ab\t ?+s :i* ,leibniz _h nev] suffici5tly expla9$4 ,h] dea? m>ks ! beg9n+ ( a p]iod 9 ,leibniz's life :i* x is n pleasant to dwell ^u4 ,new rul]s arose t knew n ,leibniz4 ,x _c be said t f ?is "t till 8 dea? 9 ,hanov] 9 #agaf ,leibniz _h mu* joy or satisfaction4 ,8 be/ fri5ds 7 dead2 8 political ambitions 7 disappo9t$2 he 0 suspect$ ( coldness & unfri5dl9ess by ! c\rts bo? ( ,b]l9 & ,hanov]2 ,p>is & ,vi5na 7 clos$ to him1 s f> z any wide influ5ce 0 conc]n$1 by 8 religi\s fai?2 ! controv]sy ) ! fri5ds ( ,newton /ill foll[$ him4 ,he 0 a man ( ! mo/ rem>kable intellectual gifts1 ( an en]gy :i* c\ld be satisfi$ only ) wide fields ( action2 & he f\nd himself %ut 9 by n>r[ intrigue to a petty r\nd ( c\rtly (ficialism4 ,x is little wond] t ! foll[+ words fell f 8 lips3 ,g]many is ! only c\ntry 9 ! _w t does n "k h[ to recognize ! fame ( its *ildr5 & to make t fame immortal4 ,x =gets itself2 x =gets its own1 unless =eign]s make x m9dful ( its own treasures4 ,a ,scot* fri5d ( ,leibniz1 :o happ5$ to be 9 ,hanov] :5 he di$1 wrote t ,leibniz 0 buri$ m l a robb] ?an :at he really 01--! ornam5t ( 8 c\ntry4 ,su* 0 ! mortal end ( ! greate/ intellectual g5ius s9ce ,ari/otle4 ,b g5ius is n a matt] to be b\nd$ 9 life or 9 dea? by prov9cial c\rts4 ,leibniz rema9s a =emo/ citiz5 9 t ,k+dom ( ,spirits 9 ^: =mation he f\nd ! mean+ ( ! _w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,s\rces ,,( ,,8 ,,philosophy4 ,:at is true ( all m5 is true ( philosoph]s1 & ( ,leibniz among !m4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 :at !y are unconsci\sly & fundam5tally1 !y are ?r\gh absorption ( _! antec$5ts & surr\nd+s4 ,:at !y are consci\sly & reflectively1 !y are ?r\gh _! reaction ^u ! influ5ce ( h]$ity & environm5t4 ,b !re is a spiritual l9e ( desc5t & a spiritual atmosph]e2 & 9 speak+ ( a philosoph]1 x is ) ?is intellectual h]$ity & environm5t1 r ?an ) ! physical1 t we are conc]n$4 ,leibniz 0 born into a p]iod ( intellectual activity ! mo/ teem+ ) ideas1 ! mo/ fruitful 9 results1 ( any1 p]haps1 s9ce ! age ( ,p]icles4 ,we pride ourselves ju/ly ^u ! activity ( our own c5tury1 & 9 diffusion ( intellectual action & wide-spread application ( ideas ! age ( ,leibniz c\ld n comp>e ) x4 ,b ours is ! age ( diffusion & application1 :ile 8 0 "o ( f]m5tation & bir?4 ,su* a p]iod 9 its e>li] days is apt to be turbid & unsettl$4 ,!re is m heat ( friction ?an calm light4 ,& su* _h be5 ! case 9 ! hundr$ ye>s be=e ,leibniz4 ,b :5 he arriv$ at intellectual maturity mu* ( ! crudity _h disappe>$4 ,! tr\bl+ ( ! wat]s ( ?\ght _h ceas$2 !y 7 becom+ cl>ifi$4 ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 ,desc>tes1 ea* _h cry/alliz$ some?+ out ( t see?+ & *aotic mass ( new ideas :i* _h =c$ itself into ,european consci\sness4 ,m5 _h be5 introduc$ into a new _w1 & ! natural result _h be5 feel+s ( /rang5ess1 & ! vag>ies ( intellectual w&]+s4 ,b by ! day ( ,leibniz ! intellectual be>+s _h be5 made out anew1 ! new m5tal ori5tation _h be5 secur$4 ,! m>ks ( ?is new spiritual picture ( ! univ]se are ev]y:]e to be se5 9 ,leibniz4 ,8 philosophy is ! dawn+ consci\sness ( ! mod]n _w4 ,9 x we see ! v conception & bir? ( ! mod]n int]pretation ( ! _w4 ,! hi/ory ( ?\ght is "o cont9u\s te/imony to ! ease ) :i* we become h>d5$ to ideas ?r\gh cu/om4 ,ideas are con/antly precipitat+ !mselves out ( ! realm ( ideas into t ( ways ( ?9k+ & ( view+ ! univ]se4 ,! problem ( "o c5tury is ! axiom ( ano!r4 ,:at "o g5]ation /akes its activity ^u inve/igat+ is quietly tak5 = grant$ by ! next4 ,& s ! highe/ rea* ( intellectual inspiration 9 ! sixte5? c5tury is to-day ! ord9>y food ( ?\ght1 accept$ )\t an inquiry z to its s\rce1 & almo/ )\t a suspicion t x has a rec5t hi/oric orig94 ,we h to g to ,bacon or to ,leibniz to see ! g5esis & gr[? ( ^? ideas :i* to-day h become mat]ializ$ into axiomatic po9ts ( view & into h>d-&-fa/ categories ( ?\ght4 ,9 read+ ,leibniz ! idea comes ov] u 9 all its fre%ness t !re 0 a "t :5 x 0 a discov]y t ! _w is a univ]se1 made aft] "o plan & ( "o /uff4 ,! ideas ( int]-relation1 ( ! h>mony ( law1 ( mutual dep5d5ce & correspond5ce1 7 n always ! assum$ />t+-po9ts ( ?\ght2 !y 7 once ! cr[n+ discov]ies ( a philosophy agl[ & almo/ intoxicat$ ) ! spl5dor ( its f>-rea*+ g5]alizations4 ,i take ^! examples ( ! unity ( ! _w1 ! cont9uity & int]dep5d5ce ( all )9 x1 because ^! are ! ideas :i* come to _! consci\s & delight$ bir? 9 ! philosophy ( ,leibniz4 ,we d n put ourselves into ! "r attitude = und]/&+ 8 ?\ght until we rememb] t ^! ideas--! commone/ tools ( our ?9k+--7 once new & fre%1 & 9 _! novelty & trans=m+ /rang5ess 7 ! products ( a philosophic int]pretation ( exp]i5ce4 ,except 9 t lat] contempor>y ( ,leibniz1 ! "y & en?usia/ic ,iri% ideali/1 ,b]keley1 ,i "k ( no hi/oric ?9k] 9 :om ! bir?-?roes 7joy\s1 h[ev]7 ( a new conception ( ! _w are s evid5t z 9 ,leibniz4 ,b :ile 9 ,b]keley :at we see is ! "y man c>ri$ away & a/\nd$ by ! gr&eur & simplicity ( a new way ( ideas :i* he has discov]$1 :at we see 9 ,leibniz is ! mature man p5etrat$ ?r\gh\t 8 be+ ) an idea :i* 9 its unity answ]s to ! unity ( ! _w1 & :i* 9 its complexity answ]s1 tone to tone1 to ! complex h>mony ( ! _w4 ,! famili>ity ( ! ideas :i* we use hides _! gr&eur f u4 ,! unity ( ! _w is a matt] ( c\rse ) u2 ! dep5d5t ord] ( all )9 x a m]e />t+-po9t ^u :i* to base our inve/igations4 ,b if we w put ourselves 9 ! position ( ,leibniz1 & behold1 n ! new planet1 b ! new univ]se1 s "o1 s l9k$ toge!r1 swimm+ into our k51 we %all feel some?+ ( ! same exultant ?rill t ,leibniz felt1--an exultation n inde$ p]sonal 9 its nature1 b :i* arises f ! expansion ( ! human m9d face to face ) an exp&+ _w4 ,! _s :i* is at ! he>t ( ! philosophy ( ,leibniz is ! _s :i* speaks 9 ! foll[+ words3 ,qu9 imo qui unam p>tem mat]i compreh5d]et1 idem compreh5d]et totum univ]sum ob e&em p]i*rs9 quam dixi4 ,mea pr9cipia talia sunt1 ut vix a se invicem develli poss9t4 ,qui unum b5e novit1 omnia novit4 ,x is a _s :i* feels t ! secret ( ! univ]se has be5 r5d]$ up to x1 & :i* brea!s a buoyant optimism4 ,& if we ( ! n9ete5? c5tury h *os5 to bewail ! complexity ( ! problem ( life1 & to run hi!r & ?i!r multiply+ insights & po9ts ( view till ?is en?usia/ic confid5ce 9 reason seems to u ! ra%ness ( an ignorance :i* does n compreh5d ! problem1 & ! unity 9 :i* ,leibniz re/$ appe>s cold & ab/ract beside ! manifold ri*ness ( ! _w1 we %\ld n =get t aft] all we h incorporat$ into our v m5tal /ructure ! fundam5tal ?\ghts ( ,leibniz1--! ?\ghts ( ! rationality ( ! univ]se & ( ! reign ( law4 ,:at 0 ! orig9 ( ^! ideas 9 ! m9d ( ,leibniz8 ,:at influ5ces 9 ! philosophic succession ( ?9k]s l$ him 9 ?is direction8 ,:at ag5cies act+ 9 ! intellectual _w ab\t him %ap$ 8 ideal reproduction ( reality8 ,two causes above all o!rs /& out ) prom95ce1--"o1 ! discov]ies & pr9ciples ( mod]n physical sci5ce2 ! o!r1 t int]pretation ( exp]i5ce :i* c5turies be=e _h be5 =mulat$ by ,ari/otle4 ,leibniz has a d\ble int]e/ = ^? ( to-day :o rev]5ce sci5ce & :o hold to ! hi/orical me?od4 ,8 philosophy 0 an attempt to set 9 ord] ! me?ods & pr9ciples ( t gr[+ sci5ce ( nature :i* ev5 !n 0 trans=m+ ! emotional & m5tal life ( ,europe2 & ! attempt 0 guid$ ev]y:]e by a pr(\nd & wide-rea*+ k ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,on ! fir/ po9t ,leibniz 0 c]ta9ly n alone4 ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 ea* felt 9 8 own way ! fructify+ t\* ( ! new-spr++ sci5ce1 & _h attempt$ "u its guidance to int]pret ! facts ( nature & ( man4 ,b ,leibniz /ood alone 9 8 int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,he /&s alone inde$ till he is greet$ by 8 compe]s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,to ,bacon previ\s philosophy--! ,greek1 ! s*ola/ic--0 an eidol ( ! !atre4 ,! human m9d mu/ be fre$ f its b5umb+ influ5ce4 ,to ,desc>tes x 0 useless rubbi% to be cle>$ away1 t we might get a tabula rasa ^u :i* to make a fre% />t4 ,& %all ,locke & ! empirical ,engli% s*ool1 or ,reid & ! ,scot* s*ool1 or ev5 ,kant1 be ! fir/ to ?r[ a /one at ,bacon & ,desc>tes8 ,x 0 res]v$ to ,leibniz1 ) a g5ius almo/ two c5turies 9 advance ( 8 times1 to p5etrate ! mean+ ( ! previ\s developm5t ( reflective ?\ght4 ,x w\ld be go+ beyond our brief to claim t ,leibniz 0 int]e/$ 9 ?is z a hi/orical movem5t1 or t he specially conc]n$ himself ) ! g5etic l9es :i* connect$ ! v>i\s s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,b we %\ld come %ort ( our duty to ,leibniz if we did n recognize 8 consci\s & l>gely successful attempt to appreh5d ! core ( tru? 9 all sy/ems1 h[ev] ali5 to 8 own1 & to incorporate x into 8 own ?9k+4 ,no?+ c\ld be m *>act]i/ic ( ,leibniz ?an 8 say+1 ,i f9d t mo/ sy/ems are "r 9 a good %>e ( t :i* !y advance1 b n s mu* 9 :at !y d5y2 or ?an ?is o!r /atem5t ( 81 ,we mu/ n ha/ily believe t :i* ! mass ( m51 or ev5 ( au?orities1 advance1 b ea* mu/ dem& = himself ! pro(s ( ! !sis su/a9$4 ,yet long rese>* g5]ally conv9ces t ! old & receiv$ op9ions are good1 provid$ !y be int]pret$ ju/ly4 ,x is 9 ! pr(\nd union 9 ,leibniz ( ! pr9ciples :i* ^! quotations image t 8 abid+ wor? lies4 ,leibniz 0 int]e/$ 9 affirmations1 n 9 d5ials4 ,he 0 int]e/$ 9 secur+ ! union ( ! mod]n me?od1 ! _s ( orig9al rese>* & indep5d5t judgm5t1 ) ! cons]v$ results ( previ\s ?\ght4 ,leibniz 0 a man ( 8 times2 t is to say1 he 0 a sci5tific man1--! contempor>y1 = example1 ( m5 z diff]5t z ,b]n\illi1 ,swamm]dam1 ,huyg5s1 & ,newton1 & 0 himself actively engag$ 9 ! prosecution ( ma!matics1 me*anics1 geology1 comp>ative philology1 & jurisprud5ce4 ,b he 0 also a man ( ,ari/otle's times1--t is to say1 a philosoph]1 n satisfi$ until ! facts1 pr9ciples1 & me?ods ( sci5ce _h receiv$ an int]pretation :i* %\ld expla9 & unify !m4 ,leibniz's acqua9tance ) ! high] =ms ( ma!matics 0 due1 z we h se51 to 8 acqua9tance ) ,huyg5s4 ,z he made ! acqua9tance ( ! latt] at ! same "t t he made ! acqua9tance ( ! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes1 x is likely t he receiv$ 8 introduction to ! high] developm5ts ( ! sci5tific int]pretation ( nature & ( ! philosophic int]pretation ( sci5ce at ab\t ! same "t4 ,= a :ile1 !n1 ,leibniz 0 a ,c>tesian2 & he nev] ceas$ to call ! doctr9e ( ,desc>tes ! ante*amb] ( tru?4 ,:at 7 ! ideas :i* he receiv$ f ,desc>tes8 ,fundam5tally !y 7 two1--"o ab\t ! me?od ( tru?1 ! o!r ab\t ! sub/ance ( tru?4 ,he receiv$ ! idea t ! me?od ( philosophy consi/s 9 ! analysis ( any complex gr\p ( ideas d[n to simple ideas :i* %all be p]fectly cle> & di/9ct2 t all su* cle> & di/9ct ideas are true1 & may !n be us$ = ! syn!tic recon/ruction ( any body ( tru?4 ,conc]n+ ! sub/ance ( philosophic tru?1 he le>n$ t nature is to be int]pret$ me*anically1 & t ! in/rum5t ( ?is me*anical int]pretation is ma!matics4 ,i h us$ ! t]m receiv$ 9 speak+ ( ! relation ( ,leibniz to ^! ideas4 ,yet long be=e ?is "t we might see him giv+ himself up to dreams ab\t a va/ art ( comb9ation :i* %\ld r$uce all ! ideas conc]n$ 9 any sci5ce to _! simple/ elem5ts1 & !n comb9e !m to any degree ( complexity4 ,we h already se5 him giv+ u a picture ( a boy ( fifte5 gravely disput+ ) himself :e!r he %all accept ! doctr9e ( =ms & f9al causes1 or ( physical causes1 & z gravely decid+ t he %all side ) ! mod]ns2 & t boy 0 himself4 ,9 ^! facts we h r5ew$ confirmation ( ! tru? t "o m9d nev] receives f ano!r any?+ except+ ! /imulus1 ! reflex1 ! developm5t ( ideas :i* h already possess$ x4 ,b :5 ,leibniz1 ) 8 isolat$ & some:at ill-dige/$ ?\ghts1 came 9 contact ) t sy/ematiz$ & connect$ body ( doctr9es :i* ! ,c>tesians pres5t$ to him 9 ,p>is1 8 ideas 7 quick5$1 & he felt ! necessity--t f9al m>k ( ! philosophic m9d--( putt+ !m 9 ord]4 ,ab\t ! me?od ( ,desc>tes1 :i* ,leibniz adopt$ f him1 or r =mulat$ = himself "u ! influ5ce ( ,desc>tes1 n mu* ne$ be said4 ,x 0 ! me?od ( ,cont95tal ?\ght till ! "t ( ,kant4 ,x 0 ! "m ( ! philosophic sy/ems ( ,desc>tes1 ,leibniz1 & ,sp9oza4 ,x 0 equally ! "m ( ! ,g]man ,aufklrung & ! ,fr5* claircissem5t4 ,its fundam5tal idea is ! ?\ght ^u :i* ,rationalism ev]y:]e bases itself4 ,x says3 ,r$uce ev]y?+ to simple notions4 ,get cle>ness2 get di/9ctness4 ,analyze ! complex4 ,%un ! obscure4 ,discov] axioms2 employ ^! axioms 9 connection ) ! simple notions1 & build up f !m4 ,:atev] c be treat$ 9 ?is way is capable ( pro(1 & only ?is4 ,leibniz1 ,i repeat1 possess$ ?is me?od 9 common ) ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza4 ,! c]ta9ty & demon/rativ5ess ( ma!matics /ood out 9 ! cle>e/ contra/ to ! unc]ta9ty1 ! obscurity1 ( all o!r k4 ,& to !m1 z to all be=e ! days ( ,kant1 x seem$ beyond d\bt t ! me?od ( ma!matics consi/s 9 ! analysis ( notions1 & 9 _! syn!sis ?r\gh ! m$ium ( axioms1 :i* are true because id5tical /atem5ts2 :ile ! notions are true because cle> & di/9ct4 ,& yet ! me?od l$ ,leibniz 9 a v diff]5t direction4 ,"o ( ! fundam5tal doctr9es1 = example1 ( ,leibniz is ! exi/5ce ev]y:]e ( m9ute & obscure p]ceptions1--:i* are ( ! greate/ importance1 b ( :i* we1 at lea/1 c nev] h di/9ct consci\sness4 ,h[ is ?is factor ( 8 ?\ght1 :i* almo/ approa*es my/icism1 to be reconcil$ ) ! /atem5ts j made8 ,x is f\nd 9 ! diff]5t application :i* is made ( ! me?od4 ,! object ( ,desc>tes is ! erection ( a new /ructure ( tru? ^u a tabula rasa ( all =m] doctr9es4 ,! object ( ,leibniz is ! int]pretation ( an old body ( tru? by a me?od :i* %all reveal x 9 its cle>e/ light4 ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza are rationali/s bo? 9 _! me?od & results4 ,leibniz is a rationali/ 9 8 me?od2 b 8 application ( ! me?od is ev]y:]e controll$ by hi/oric consid]ations4 ,x is1 ,i ?9k1 impossible to ov]-emphasize ?is fact4 ,desc>tes 0 pr(\ndly conv9c$ t pa/ ?\ght _h gone wrong1 & t its results 7 wor?less4 ,leibniz 0 z pr(\ndly conv9c$ t its in/9cts _h be5 "r1 & t ! g5]al idea ( ! _w :i* x gave 0 correct4 ,leibniz w\ld h giv5 ! he>tie/ ass5t to ,goe!'s say+1 ,das ,wahre w> s*on lng/ gefund54 ,x 0 out ( ! "q1 !n1 t he %\ld use ! new me?od 9 any o!r ?an an int]pret+ way to br+ out 9 a connect$ sy/em & unity ! true mean+ ( ! subject-matt]4 ,s mu* ( g5]ality = ! me?od ( ,leibniz4 ,! positive sub/ance ( doctr9e :i* he develop$ "u sci5tific influ5ce af=ds matt] = m discussion4 ,( ! ?ree influ5ces :i* meet u "h1 two are /ill ,c>tesian2 ! ?ird is f ! new sci5ce ( biology1 al?\gh n yet answ]+ to t "n4 ,^! ?ree influ5ces are1 9 ord]3 ! idea t nature is to be expla9$ me*anically2 t ?is is to be br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ! application ( ma!matics2 &1 f biology1 ! idea t all *ange is ( ! nature ( cont9u\s gr[? or unfold+4 ,let u consid] ea* 9 ?is ord]4 ,:at is meant by ! me*anical explanation ( nature8 ,to answ] a "q ?us baldly put1 we mu/ recall ! k9d ( explanations :i* _h satisfi$ ! s*ola/ic m5 ( sci5ce4 ,!y _h be5 explanations :i*1 h[ev] true1 ,leibniz says1 z g5]al pr9ciples1 d n t\* ! details ( ! matt]4 ,! explanations ( natural facts _h be5 f\nd 9 g5]al pr9ciples1 9 sub/antial =ces1 9 occult ess5ces1 9 native faculties4 ,n[1 ! fir/ cont5tion ( ! f\nd]s ( ! mod]n sci5tific movem5t 0 t su* g5]al consid]ations are n v]ifiable1 & t if !y are1 !y are entirely aside f ! po9t1--!y fail to expla9 any giv5 fact4 ,explanation mu/ always consi/ 9 discov]+ an imm$iate connection betwe5 "s fact & "s co-exi/+ or prec$+ fact4 ,explanation does n consi/ 9 ref]r+ a fact to a g5]al p[]1 x consi/s 9 ref]r+ x to an antec$5t ^: exi/5ce is its necess>y condition4 ,x 0 n left till ! times ( ,mr4 ,huxley to poke fun at ^? :o w\ld expla9 "s concrete ph5om5on by ref]5ce to an ab/ract pr9ciple end+ 9 --ity4 ,leibniz has 8 ^w to say ab\t ^? :o w\ld acc\nt = ! movem5ts ( a wat* by ref]5ce to a pr9ciple ( horologity1 & ( mill-/ones by a fractive pr9ciple4 ,me*anical explanation consi/s1 accord+ly1 9 mak+ out an actual connection betwe5 two exi/+ facts4 ,b ?is does n say v mu*4 ,a connection ( :at k9d8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a connection ( ! same ord] z ! facts obs]v$4 ,if we are expla9+ corporeal ph5om5a1 we mu/ f9d a corporeal l9k2 if we are expla9+ ph5om5a ( motion1 we mu/ f9d a connection ( motion4 ,9 "o ( 8 fir/ philosophical works ,leibniz1 9 tak+ ! me*anical position1 /ates :at he means by x4 ,9 ! ,confession ( ,nature aga9/ ! ,a!i/s he says t x mu/ be confess$ to ^? :o h reviv$ ! corpuscul> !ory ( ,democritus & ,epicurus1 to ,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,gass5di1 ,hobbes1 & ,desc>tes1 t 9 expla9+ mat]ial ph5om5a rec\rse is to be _h nei!r to ,god nor to any o!r incorporeal ?+1 =m1 or quality1 b t all ?+s are to be expla9$ f ! nature ( matt] & its qualities1 especially f _! magnitude1 figure1 & motion4 ,! physics ( ,desc>tes1 to :i* 0 especially due ! spread ( me*anical notions1 virtually po/ulat$ ! problem3 giv5 a homog5e\s quantity ( matt]1 end[$ only ) ext5sion & mobility1 to acc\nt = all mat]ial ph5om5a4 ,leibniz accepts ?is me*anical view )\t res]ve4 ,:at has be5 said sugge/s ! be>+ ( ma!matics 9 ?is connection4 ,ext5sion & mobility may be treat$ by ma!matics4 ,x is inde$ ! bus9ess ( ! geomet] to give u an analysis ( figur$ space1 to set be=e u all possible comb9ations :i* c arise1 assum+ ext5sion only4 ,! high] analysis sets be=e u ! results :i* inevitably foll[ if we suppose a mov+ po9t or any sy/em ( movem5ts4 ,ma!matics is ?us ! ess5tial tool = treat+ physical ph5om5a z j def9$4 ,b x is m4 ,! me*anical explanation ( ,nature n only requires su* a developm5t ( ma!matics z w make x applicable to ! int]pretation ( physical facts1 b ! employm5t ( ma!matics is necess>y = ! v discov]y ( ^! facts4 ,exact obs]vation 0 ! necessity ( ! gr[+ physical sci5ce2 & exact obs]vation means su* z w answ] ! "q1 ,h[ mu*8 ,k ( nature dep5ds ^u our ability to measure h] processes1--t is1 to r$uce di/9ctions ( quality to ^? ( quantity4 ,! only assurance t we c f9ally h t two facts are connect$ 9 su* a way z to fulfil ! requirem5ts ( sci5tific rese>*1 is t !re is a complete quantitative connection betwe5 !m1 s t "o c be reg>d$ z ! o!r trans=m$4 ,! advance ( physical sci5ce f ! days ( ,cop]nicus to ! pres5t has consi/$1 !re=e1 on "o h&1 9 a developm5t ( ma!matics :i* has made x possible to apply x 9 great] & great] measure to ! discussion & =mulation ( ! results ( exp]im5t1 & to d$uce laws :i*1 :5 int]pret$ physically1 w give new k ( fact2 &1 on ! o!r1 to multiply1 %>p51 & make precise all sorts ( devices by :i* ! processes ( nature may be measur$4 ,! explanation ( nature by natural processes2 ! complete application ( ma!matics to nature1--^! are ! two ?\ghts :i*1 s f>1 we h se5 to be fundam5tal to ! developm5t ( ! philosophy ( ,leibniz4 ,! ?ird factor1 & t :i* br+s ,leibniz ne>]1 p]haps1 our own day ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs1 is ! gr[? ( physiological sci5ce4 ,swamm]dam1 ,malpighi1 ,leew5hoek1--^! are names :i* occur & recur 9 ! pages ( ,leibniz4 ,inde$1 he appe>s to be ! fir/ ( t n[ long l9e ( mod]n philosoph]s to be pr(\ndly influ5c$ by ! conception ( life & ! categories ( organic gr[?4 ,desc>tes conc]n$ himself inde$ ) physiological problems1 b x 0 only ) a view to apply+ me*anical pr9ciples4 ,! idea ( ! vital unity ( all organs ( ! body might seem to be attractive to "o fill$ ) ! notion ( ! unity ( all 9 ,god1 & yet ,sp9oza %[s no traces ( ! influ5ce ( ! organic conception4 ,n until ,kant's fam\s def9ition ( organism d we see ano!r philosoph] mov$ by an attempt to compreh5d ! categories ( liv+ /ructure4 ,b x is ! idea ( organism1 ( life1 :i* is radical to ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz4 ,i d n ?9k1 h[ev]1 t x c truly be said t he 0 l$ to ! idea simply f ! /ate ( physiological inve/igation at t "t4 ,r1 he _h already le>n$ to ?9k ( ! _w z organic ?r\gh & ?r\gh1 & f\nd 9 ! results ( biology confirmations1 apt illu/rations ( a tru? ( :i* he 0 already ?or\ghly conv9c$4 ,8 writ+s %[ t !re 7 two aspects ( biological sci5ce :i* especially int]e/$ him4 ,"o 0 ! simple fact ( organism itself1--! fact ( ! v>i\s activities ( diff]5t organs occurr+ 9 complete h>mony = "o end4 ,?is pres5t$ ?ree notions v de> to ! m9d ( ,leibniz1 or r ?ree mom5ts ( ! same idea1--! factors ( activity1 ( unity br\ght ab\t by co-ord9at$ action1 & ( an end :i* reveals ! mean+ ( ! activity & is ! ideal expression ( ! unity4 ,! physiologi/s ( t day 7 also occupi$ ) ! problem ( gr[?4 ,! g5]alization t all is develop$ ab ovo 0 j receiv+ univ]sal att5tion4 ,! "q :i* ?ru/ itself ^u sci5ce = solution 0 ! mode by :i* ova1 app>5tly homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 develop$ into ! v>i\s =ms ( ! organic k+dom4 ,! answ] giv5 0 evolution4 ,b evolution _h n ! mean+ :i* ! t]m has to-day4 ,by evolution 0 meant t ! :ole complex /ructure ( man1 = example1 0 virtually conta9$ 9 ! g]m1 & t ! app>5t ph5om5on ( gr[? 0 n ! addition ( any?+ f )\t1 b simply ! unfold+ & magnify+ ( t already exi/+4 ,x 0 ! doctr9e :i* aft]w>ds gave way to ! epig5esis !ory ( ,wolff1 accord+ to :i* gr[? is n m]e unfold+ or unwrapp+1 b progressive diff]5tiation4 ,! evolution !ory 0 ! sci5tific !ory ( ! times1 h[ev]1 & 0 w>mly esp\s$ by ,leibniz4 ,to him1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 x seem$ to give a key :i* w\ld unlock "o ( ! problems ( ! univ]se4 ,su*1 !n1 7 ! ?ree *ief g5]alizations :i* ,leibniz f\nd curr5t1 & :i* mo/ deeply affect$ him4 ,b :at use did he make ( !m8 ,he did n become a philosoph] by lett+ !m lie dormant 9 8 m9d1 nor by surr5d]+ himself passively to !m till he c\ld me*anically apply !m ev]y:]e4 ,he 0 a philosoph] only 9 virtue ( ! active attitude :i* 8 m9d took t[>ds !m4 ,he c\ld n simply accept !m at _! face-value2 he mu/ ask aft] ! s\rce ( _! value1 ! royal /amp ( mean+ :i* made !m a circulatory m$ium4 ,t is to say1 he _h to int]pret ^! ideas1 to see :at !y mean1 & :at is ! basis ( _! validity4 ,n _m m5 h be5 s consci\s ( j ! be>+s ( _! own ideas & ( _! s\rce z 0 he4 ,he (t5 all[s u a direct glimpse into ! me?od ( 8 ?9k+1 & n[h]e m ?an :5 he says3 ,^? :o give !mselves up to ! details ( sci5ce usually despise ab/ract & g5]al rese>*es4 ,^? :o g into univ]sal pr9ciples r>ely c>e = p>ticul> facts4 ,b ,i equally e/eem bo?4 ,leibniz1 9 o!r words1 0 equally int]e/$ 9 ! application ( sci5tific pr9ciples to ! explanation ( ! details ( natural ph5om5a1 & 9 ! be>+ & mean+ ( ! pr9ciples !mselves1--a r>e comb9ation1 inde$1 b "o1 :i* exi/+1 /amps ! g5u9e philosoph]4 ,leibniz sub/antially repeats ?is idea :5 he says3 ,p>ticul> effects mu/ be expla9$ me*anically2 b ! g5]al pr9ciples ( physics & ma!matics dep5d ^u metaphysics4 ,& aga93 ,all occurs me*anically2 b ! me*anical pr9ciple is n to be expla9$ f mat]ial & ma!matical consid]ations1 b x fl[s f a high] & a metaphysical s\rce4 ,z a man ( sci5ce1 ,leibniz might h /opp$ %ort ) ! ideas ( me*anical law1 ( ! application ( ma!matics1 & ( ! cont9uity ( developm5t4 ,z a philosoph] he c\ld n4 ,!re are "s sci5tific m5 to :om x always seems a p]v]sion ( _! pr9ciples to attempt to c>ry !m any beyond _! application to ! details ( ! subject4 ,!y look on 9 a bewild]$ & prote/+ attitude :5 !re is sugge/$ ! necessity ( any fur!r inquiry4 ,or p]haps !y dogmatically d5y ! possibility ( any su* inve/igation1 & z dogmatically assume ! suffici5cy ( _! pr9ciples = ! decision ( all possible problems4 ,b bewild]$ fe> & dogmatic ass]tion are equally impot5t to fix arbitr>y limits to human ?\ght4 ,:]ev] !re is a subject t has mean+1 !re is a field :i* appeals to m9d1 & ! m9d w n cease its endeavors till x has made out :at t mean+ is1 & has made x out 9 its entirety4 ,s ! ?ree pr9ciples already spok5 ( 7 b ! />t+-po9ts1 ! /epp+-/ones ( ,leibniz's philosophic ?\ght4 ,:ile to physical sci5ce !y are solutions1 to philosophy !y are problems2 & z su* ,leibniz recogniz$ !m4 ,:at solution did he give8 ,s f> z ! pr9ciple ( me*anical explanation is conc]n$1 ! clew is giv5 by consid]+ ! factor ^u :i* he laid mo/ emphasis1 namely1 motion4 ,desc>tes _h said t ! ess5ce ( ! physical _w is ext5sion4 ,n s1 repli$ ,leibniz2 ,x is motion4 ,^! answ]s m>k two typical ways ( reg>d+ nature4 ,accord+ to "o1 nature is some?+ ess5tially rigid & /atic2 :atev] *ange 9 x occurs1 is a *ange ( =m1 ( arrangem5t1 an ext]nal modification4 ,accord+ to ! o!r1 nature is some?+ ess5tially dynamic & active4 ,*ange accord+ to law is its v ess5ce4 ,=m1 arrangem5t are only ! results ( ?is int]nal pr9ciple4 ,& s to ,leibniz1 ext5sion & ! spatial aspects ( physical exi/5ce 7 only second>y1 !y 7 ph5om5al4 ,! prim>y1 ! real fact 0 motion4 ,! consid]ations :i* l$ him to ?is conclusion are simple en\gh4 ,x is ! fact already m5tion$1 t explanation always consi/s 9 r$uc+ ph5om5a to a law ( motion :i* connects !m4 ,desc>tes himself _h n succe$$ 9 writ+ 8 physics )\t ev]y:]e us+ ! conception ( motion4 ,b motion _c be got out ( ! idea ( ext5sion4 ,geometry w n give u activity4 ,:at is ?is1 except virtually to admit ! insuffici5cy ( purely /atical conceptions8 ,leibniz f\nd himself confirm$ 9 ?is position by ! fact t ! m logical ( ! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes _h recogniz$ t motion is a sup]flu\s intrud]1 if ext5sion be inde$ ! ess5ce ( matt]1 & !re=e _h be5 oblig$ to h rec\rse to ! imm$iate activity ( ,god z ! cause ( all *anges4 ,b ?is1 z ,leibniz said1 0 simply to give up ! v idea ( me*anical explanation1 & to fall back into ! purely g5]al explanations ( s*ola/icism4 ,?is is n ! place = a detail$ exposition ( ! ideas ( ,leibniz reg>d+ matt]1 motion1 & ext5sion4 ,we ne$ "h only recognize t he saw 9 motion ! f9al reality ( ! physical univ]se4 ,b :at ab\t motion8 ,to _m1 p]haps ! majority1 ( m9ds to-day x seems useless or absurd1 or bo?1 to ask any "q ab\t motion4 ,x is simply an ultimate fact1 to :i* all o!r facts are to be r$uc$4 ,we are s famili> ) x z a solution ( all physical problems t we are confus$1 & fail to recognize x :5 x appe>s 9 ! guise ( a problem4 ,b1 ,i repeat1 philosophy _c /op ) facts1 h[ev] ultimate4 ,x mu/ also "k some?+ ab\t ! mean+1 ! significance1 9 %ort ! ideal be>+1 ( facts4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( philosophy1 motion has a c]ta9 function 9 ! economy ( ! univ]se2 x is1 z ,ari/otle saw1 some?+ ideal4 ,! "n ( ,ari/otle sugge/s ! pr9ciples :i* guid$ ,leibniz 9 8 int]pretation ( ! fact ( motion4 ,! ?\ght ( ,ari/otle moves ab\t ! two poles ( pot5tiality & actuality4 ,pot5tiality is n m]e capacity2 x is be+ 9 an undevelop$1 imp]fect /age4 ,actuality is1 z ! ^w sugge/s1 activity4 ,any?+ is pot5tial 9 s f> z x does n manife/ itself 9 action2 x is actual s f> z x does ?us %[ =? its be+4 ,n[1 movem5t1 or *ange 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 is t by :i* ! pot5tial comes to ! realization ( its nature1 & functions z an activity4 ,motion1 !n1 is n an ultimate fact1 b is subord9ate4 ,x exi/s = an end4 ,x is t by :i* exi/5ce realizes its idea2 t is1 its prop] type ( action4 ,n[ ,leibniz does n =mally build ^u ^! di/9ctions2 & yet he is n v f> remov$ f ,ari/otle4 ,motion1 he is nev] we>y ( repeat+1 means =ce1 means en]gy1 means activity4 ,to say t ! ess5ce ( nature is motion1 is to say t ! natural _w f9ally introduces u to ! supremacy ( action4 ,reality is activity4 ,sub/ance c'e/ l'action4 ,t is ! key-note & ! battle-cry ( ! ,leibnizian philosophy4 ,motion is t by :i* be+ expresses its nature1 fulfils its purpose1 reveals its idea4 ,9 %ort1 ! specific sci5tific conception ( motion is by ,leibniz trans=m$ into ! philosophic conception ( =ce1 ( activity4 ,9 motion he sees evid5ce ( ! fact t ! univ]se is radically dynamic4 ,9 ! applicability ( ma!matics to ! int]pretation ( nature ,leibniz f9ds witness to ! cont9uity & ord] ( ! _w4 ,we h become s accu/om$ to ! fact t ma!matics may be directly employ$ = ! discussion & =mulation ( physical inve/igations t we =get :at is impli$ 9 x4 ,x involves ! huge assumption t ! _w answ]s to reason2 s t :atev] ! m9d f9ds to be ideally true may be tak5 = grant$ to be physically true also4 ,b 9 ^? days1 :5 ! correlation ( ! laws ( ! _w & ! laws ( ma!matical reason+ 0 a fre% discov]y1 ?is aspect ( ! case c\ld n be easily lo/ sight (4 ,9 fact x 0 ?is correlation :i* fill$ ! ,zeitgei/ ( ! sixte5? c5tury ) ! idea t x _h a new organ = ! p5etration ( nature1 a new s5se = le>n+ its mean+4 ,desc>tes gives ! foll[+ z ! orig9 ( 8 philosophy3 ,! long *a9s ( simple & easy reasons :i* geomet]s employ1 ev5 9 _! mo/ complex demon/rations1 made me fancy t all ?+s :i* are ! objects ( human k are simil>ly int]dep5d5t4 ,to ,leibniz also ma!matics seem$ to give a clew to ! ord]1 ! int]dep5d5ce1 ! h>moni\s relations1 ( ! _w4 ,9 ?is respect ! feel+ ( ,plato t ,god geometrizes f\nd an e*o+ response 9 ,leibniz4 ,b ! latt] w\ld h>dly h express$ x 9 ! same way4 ,he w\ld h pref]r$ to say t ,god ev]y:]e uses ! inf9itesimal calculus4 ,9 ! applicability ( ! calculus to ! discussion ( physical facts1 ,leibniz saw two tru?s reflect$1--t ev]y?+ t occurs has its reason1 its dep5d5t connection ^u some?+ else1 & t all is cont9u\s & )\t breaks4 ,:ile ! =mal pr9ciples ( 8 logic are ^? ( id5tity & contradiction1 8 real pr9ciples are ^? ( suffici5t reason & ( cont9uity4 ,nature nev] makes leaps2 ev]y?+ 9 nature has a suffici5t reason :y x is z x is3 ^! are ! philosophic g5]alizations :i* ,leibniz f9ds hidd5 9 ! applicability ( ma!matics to physical sci5ce4 ,reason f9ds itself ev]y:]e express$ 9 nature2 & ! law ( reason is unity 9 div]sity1 cont9uity4 ,let u say1 9 a ^w1 t ! correlation betwe5 ! laws ( ma!matics & ( physics is ! evid5ce ( ! rational "* ( nature4 ,nature may be r$uc$ to motions2 & motions c be und]/ood only z =ce1 activity4 ,b ! laws :i* connect motions are fundam5tally ma!matical laws1--laws ( reason4 ,h5ce =ce1 activity1 c be und]/ood only z rational1 z spiritual4 ,nature is ?us se5 to mean ,activity1 & ,activity is se5 to mean ,intellig5ce4 ,fur!rmore1 z ! fundam5tal law ( intellig5ce is ! production ( diff]5ce 9 unity1 ! prim>y law ( physical *ange mu/ be ! manife/ation ( ?is unity 9 diff]5ce1--or1 z ,leibniz int]pret$ x1 cont9uity4 ,9 nature !re are no breaks1 nei!r ( quantity nor ( quality nor ( relation%ip4 ,! full =ce ( ?is law we %all see lat]4 ,su* an idea c h>dly be di/+ui%$ f ! idea ( gr[? or developm5t2 "o passes naturally into ! o!r4 ,?us x is equally prop] to say t ! ?ird sci5tific influ5ce1 ! conception ( organism & gr[?1 is dom9ant 9 ! ,leibnizian ?\ght1 or t ?is is swall[$ up & absorb$ 9 ! gr& idea ( cont9uity4 ,! law ( animal & vegetable life & ! law ( ! univ]se are id5tifi$4 ,! sub/ance ( ! univ]se is activity2 ! law ( ! univ]se is int]dep5d5ce4 ,:at is ?is b to say t ! univ]se is an organic :ole8 ,its activity is ! manife/ation ( life1--nay1 x is life4 ,! laws ( its activity reveal t cont9uity ( developm5t1 t h>mony ( int]-relation1 :i* are ev]y:]e ! m>ks ( life4 ,! f9al & fundam5tal notion1 !re=e1 by :i* ,leibniz int]prets ! laws ( physics & ma!matics is t ( ,life4 ,?is is 8 regnant category4 ,x is t high] & metaphysical s\rce f :i* ! v exi/5ce & pr9ciples ( me*anism fl[4 ,! p]petual & ubiquit\s pres5ce ( motion reveals ! pulsations ( ,life2 ! correlation1 ! rationality1 ( ^! motions indicate ! guid+ pres5ce ( ,life4 ,?is idea is ! alpha & omega ( 8 philosophy4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,problem1 ,,& ,,its ,,solution4 ,leibniz1 l e great man1 absorb$ into himself ! v>i\s ?\ghts ( 8 "t1 & 9 absorb+ trans=m$ !m4 ,he br\ght into a focus ( brilliancy ! diffus$ lights ( tru? %9+ "h & !re4 ,he summ$ up 9 a pregnant & compreh5sive category ! scatt]$ pr9ciples ( 8 age4 ,yet we are n to suppose t ,leibniz consid]$ ^! v>i\s ideas "o by "o1 & !n pat*$ !m into an artificial unity ( ?\ght4 ,philosophies are n manufactur$ piecemeal out ( isolat$ & fragm5t>y ?\ghts2 !y gr[ f a s+le root1 absorb+ f _! environm5t :atev] ( su/5ance (f]s itself1 & matur+ 9 "o spl5did fruit ( spiritual tru?4 ,x is conv5i5t1 inde$1 to isolate v>i\s phases ( tru?1 & consid] !m z di/9ct =ces work+ to %ape "o f9al product1 & z a conv5i5t artifice x is legitimate4 ,b x answ]s to no process actually occurr+4 ,leibniz nev] surr5d]$ 8 p]sonal unity1 & out ( "s "o root-conception grew all 8 ideas4 ,! pr9ciples ( 8 times 7 n sep>ate =ces act+ ^u him1 !y 7 ! foods ( :i* he select$ & assimilat$ su* z 7 fitt$ to n\ri% 8 "o great conception4 ,b x is m ?an a p]sonal unity :i* holds toge!r ! ?9k+ ( a philosoph]4 ,!re is ! unity ( ! problem1 :i* ! philosoph] has always be=e him1 & 9 :i* all p>ticul> ideas f9d _! unity4 ,all else issues f ?is & m]ges into x4 ,! v>i\s influ5ces :i* we h se5 affect+ ,leibniz1 !re=e1 got _! effectiv5ess f ! relation :i* he saw !m be> to ! f9al problem ( all ?\ght4 ,?is is ! inquiry aft] ! unity ( exp]i5ce1 if we look at x f ! side ( ! subject2 ! unity ( reality1 if we put x f ! objective side4 ,yet ea* age /ates ?is problem 9 its own way1 because x sees x 9 ! light ( "s difficulty :i* has rec5tly aris5 9 consci\sness4 ,at "o "t1 ! "q is z to ! relation ( ! "o to ! _m2 at ano!r1 ( ! relation ( ! s5sible to ! intelligible _w2 at ano!r1 ( ! relation ( ! individual to ! univ]sal4 ,& ?is la/ seems to h be5 ! way 9 :i* x specifically pres5t$ itself to ,leibniz4 ,?is way ( /at+ x 0 develop$1 ?\gh app>5tly )\t adequate realization ( its mean+1 by ! philosophy ( s*ola/icism4 ,x /at$ ! problem z prim>ily a logical "q1--! relation ( g5]a1 ( species1 ( individuals to ea* o!r4 ,& ! s*ool-boy1 made aft] ! /amp ( lit]>y tradition1 kn[s t !re 7 two p>ties among ! ,s*oolm51--! ,reali/s1 & ! ,nom9ali/s2 "o ass]t+1 ! o!r d5y+1 ! objective reality ( univ]sals4 ,to reg>d ?is discussion z useless1 is to utt] ! condemnation ( philosophy1 & to relegate ! f\ndation ( sci5ce to ! realm ( ?+s n to be inquir$ into4 ,to say t x is an easy matt] to decide1 is to assume ! decision ) equal ease ( all ! problems t h vex$ ! ?\ght ( humanity4 ,to u x seems easy because we h bodily incorporat$ into our ?9k+ ! results ( bo? ! reali/ic & ! nom9ali/ic doctr9es1 )\t attempt+ to reconcile !m1 or ev5 be+ consci\s ( ! necessity ( reconciliation4 ,we ass]t 9 "o brea? t ! individual is alone real1 & 9 ! next ass]t t only ^? =ms ( consci\sness :i* repres5t some?+ 9 ! univ]se are to be t]m$ k4 ,at "o mom5t we say t univ]sals are creations ( ! individual m9d1 & at ! next pass on to talk ( laws ( nature1 or ev5 ( a reign ( law4 ,9 o!r words1 we h le>n$ to reg>d bo? ! individual & ! univ]sal z real1 & ?us ignor+ ! problem1 ?9k we h solv$ x4 ,b to ,leibniz ! problem pres5t$ itself nei!r z a logical "q1 nor yet z "o ^: solution might be tak5 = grant$4 ,on ! contr>y1 x 0 j ?is "q3 ,h[ %all we conceive ! individual to be relat$ to ! univ]se8 :i* seem$ to him to be ! n]ve ( ! philosophic problem1 ! "q ^: "r answ] w\ld solve ! problems ( religion1 ( morals1 ( ! basis ( sci5ce1 z well z ( ! nature ( reality4 ,! importance ( j ?is way ( putt+ ! "q _h be5 r5d]$ evid5t by ! pr$ecessors & contempor>ies ( ,leibniz1 especially by ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 & ,locke4 ,8 m specific relations to ! la/-nam$ w occupy u h]eaft]2 at pres5t we mu/ notice h[ ! "q /ood at ! h&s ( ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza4 ,desc>tes _h sep>at$ ! individual f ! univ]sal4 ,8 philosophy began & end$ ) a dualism4 ,i h j said t ! problem ( philosophy is ! unity ( exp]i5ce4 ,yet we f9d t !re h be5 ?9k]s1 & ^? ( ! fir/ rank1 :o h left ! matt] )\t discov]+ any ultimate unity1 or r :o h made x ! burd5 ( _! cont5tion t we _c expla9 ! _w )\t at lea/ two disp>ate pr9ciples4 ,b if we cont9ue to look at ! matt] 9 ?is hi/orical way1 we %all see t ?is dualism has always be5 treat$ by ! successors ( su* a philosoph]1 n z a solution1 b z a deep] /atem5t ( ! problem4 ,x is ! function ( duali/ic philosophies to re-/ate ! "q 9 a new & m significant way4 ,!re are times :5 ! accept$ unity ( ?\ght is se5 to be inadequate & sup]ficial4 ,m5 are ?ra%+ old /raw1 & pay+ !mselves ) ideas :i* h lo/ _! fre%ness & _! timel9ess4 ,!re !n arises a philosoph] :o goes deep1 beyond ! sup]ficial unity1 & :o discov]s ! unt\*$ problem4 ,8 x is to ass]t ! true mean+ ( ! "q1 :i* has be5 unse5 or evad$4 ,! attitude ( dualism is ?us always necess>y1 b nev] f9al4 ,its value is n 9 any solution1 b 9 ! g5]ality & dep? ( ! problem :i* x proposes1 & :i* incites ?\ght to ! discov]y ( a unity ( equal dep? & compreh5siv5ess4 ,except = ,desc>tes1 !n1 we %\ld n be consci\s ( ! gulf t yawns betwe5 ! individual m9d & ! univ]se 9 front ( x4 ,he pres5t$ ! opposition z betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,! ess5ce ( ! =m] is ?\ght2 ( ! latt]1 ext5sion4 ,! conceptions are disp>ate & oppos$4 ,no int]action is possible4 ,8 disciples1 m consi/5t ?an _! ma/]1 call$ 9 a deus ex ma*9a1--! miracul\s int]v5tion ( ,god1--9 ord] to acc\nt = ! appe>ance ( reciprocal action betwe5 ! univ]se ( matt] & ! ?9k+ individual4 ,?us !y 9 sub/ance admitt$ ! relation betwe5 !m to be sci5tifically inexplicable1 & _h rec\rse to ! sup]natural4 ,! individual does n act ^u ! univ]se to produce1 de/roy1 or alt] ! arrangem5t ( any?+4 ,b ^u ! occasion ( 8 volition ,god produces a correspond+ mat]ial *ange4 ,! _w does n act ^u ! s\l ( ! individual to produce ?\ghts or s5sations4 ,god1 ^u occasion ( ! ext]nal affection1 br+s !m into be+4 ,) su* ?or\ghness ,desc>tes p]=m$ 8 task ( sep>ation4 ,yet ! introduction ( ! deus ex ma*9a only complicat$ ! problem2 x introduc$ a ?ird factor :]e two 7 already too _m4 ,:at is ! relation ( ,god to ,m9d & to ,matt]8 ,is x simply a ?ird some:at1 equally di/9ct f bo?1 or does x conta9 bo? )9 itself8 ,sp9oza attempt$ to solve ! problem 9 ! latt] s5se4 ,he conceiv$ ,god to be ! "o sub/ance ( ! univ]se1 possess+ ! two kn[n attributes ( ?\ght & matt]4 ,^! attributes are "o 9 ,god2 inde$1 he is _! unity4 ,?is is ! sole legitimate outcome ( ! ,c>tesian problem /at$ z ,desc>tes w\ld h x /at$4 ,x ov]comes ! absolut5ess ( ! dualism by discov]+ a common & fundam5tal unity1 & at ! same "t takes ! subject out ( ! realm ( ! miracul\s4 ,= ! solution works bo? ways4 ,x affects ! nature ( ,god1 z well z ( ext5sion & ?\ght4 ,x pres5ts him to u1 n z a sup]natural be+1 b z ! unity ( ?\ght & ext5sion4 ,9 kn[+ ^! z !y are1 we "k ,god z he is4 ,sp9oza1 9 o!r words1 uses ! conception ( ,god 9 a diff]5t way f ! ,c>tesians4 ,! latt] _h treat$ him z ! ,god ( !ology1--a be+ sup]natural2 ,sp9oza uses ! conception z a sci5tific "o1 & speaks ( ,deus sive ,natura4 ,leibniz recogniz$ ! unphilosophic "* ( ! rec\rse to a deus ex ma*9a z cle>ly z ,sp9oza1 & yet did n accept 8 solution4 ,to f9d out :y he did n is ! problem ( ! hi/orian ( ?\ght4 ,! "o cause :i* /&s out above all o!rs is t 9 ! unity ( ,sp9oza all diff]5ce1 all di/9ction1 is lo/4 ,all p>ticul> exi/5ces1 :e!r ?+s or p]sons1 are modes ( ext5sion & ?\ght4 ,_! app>5t exi/5ce is due to ! imag9ation1 :i* is ! s\rce ( belief 9 p>ticul> ?+s4 ,:5 consid]$ z !y really are1--t is1 by ! und]/&+1--!y vani%4 ,! "o sub/ance1 ) its two un*ang+ attributes ( ?\ght & ext5sion1 alone rema9s4 ,if x is a philosophic error to give a solution :i* p]mits ( no unity1 is x n equally a philosophic error to give "o :i* d5ies diff]5ce8 ,s x seem$ to ,leibniz4 ,! problem is to reconcile diff]5ce 9 unity1 n to swall[ up diff]5ce 9 a blank on5ess1--to reconcile ! individual ) ! univ]se1 n to absorb him4 ,! unsatisfactor9ess ( ! solution appe>s if we look at x f ano!r side4 ,diff]5ce implies *ange1 :ile a unity 9 :i* all v>iety is lo/ implies quiesc5ce4 ,*ange is z mu* an illusion ( imag9ation to ,sp9oza z is v>iety4 ,! ,"o ,reality is p]man5t4 ,h[ repugnant ! conception ( a /atic univ]se 0 to ,leibniz we h already le>n$4 ,sp9oza fails to satisfy ,leibniz1 !re=e1 because he does n all[ ! conceptions ( individuality & ( activity4 ,he pres5ts a unity 9 :i* all di/9ction ( individuals is lo/1 & 9 :i* !re is no room = *ange4 ,b ,sp9oza c]ta9ly pres5t$ ! problem m cle>ly to ,leibniz1 & reveal$ m def9itely ! conditions ( its solution4 ,! se>* is h5ce=? = a unity :i* %all avoid ! irresolvable dualism ( ,desc>tes1 & yet %all all[ free play to ! pr9ciples ( individuality & ( activity4 ,!re mu/ be1 9 %ort1 a univ]se to :i* ! individual be>s a real yet indep5d5t relation4 ,:at is ?is unity8 ,! answ]1 9 ! phraseology ( ,leibniz1 is ! monad4 ,sp9oza w\ld be "r1 said ,leibniz1 7 x n = ! exi/5ce ( monads4 ,i "k !re are "s :o h done ,leibniz ! honor ( suppos+ t ?is is 8 way ( say+1 ,sp9oza is wrong because ,i am "r2 b ,i _c help ?9k+ t ! say+ has a some:at deep] mean+4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! nature ( ! monad8 ,! answ] to ?is "q takes u back to ! po9t :]e ! discussion ( ! "q 0 left at ! end ( *apt] second4 ,! nature ( ! monad is life4 ,! monad is ! spiritual activity :i* lives 9 absolute h>mony ) an inf9ite numb] ( o!r monads4 ,let u fir/ consid] ! reasons ( ,leibniz = conceiv+ ! pr9ciple ( unity z spiritual4 ,prim>ily x is because x is impossible to conceive ( a unity :i* is mat]ial4 ,9 ! s5sible _w !re is no unity4 ,!re are1 inde$1 aggregations1 collections1 :i* seem l unities2 b ! v fact t ^! are aggregations %[s t ! unity is factiti\s4 ,x is ! v nature ( matt] to be inf9itely divisible3 to say ?is is to d5y ! exi/5ce ( any true pr9ciple ( unity4 ,! _w ( nature is ! _w ( space & "t2 & :]e 9 space or "t %all we f9d a unity :]e we may re/8 ,e po9t 9 space1 e mom5t 9 "t1 po9ts beyond itself4 ,x ref]s to a totality ( :i* x is b a "p1 or1 r1 a limitation4 ,if we add resi/ance1 we are n bett] situat$4 ,we h to ?9k ( some?+ :i* resi/s2 & to ?is some?+ we mu/ attribute ext5sion1--t is to say1 diff]5ce1 plurality4 ,nor c we f9d any resi/ance :i* is absolute & f9al4 ,!re may be a body :i* is undivid$1 & :i* resi/s all en]gy n[ act+ ^u x2 b we _c frame an intelligible idea ( a body :i* is absolutely indivisible4 ,to d s is to ?9k ( a body out ( all relation to exi/+ =ces1 some?+ absolutely isolat$2 :ile ! =ces ( nature are always relative to "o ano!r4 ,t :i* resi/s does s 9 comp>ison ) "s oppos+ en]gy4 ,! absolutely indivisible1 on ! o!r h&1 w\ld be t :i* c\ld n be br\ght into comp>ison ) o!r =ces2 x w\ld n h any ( ! attributes ( =ce z we "k x4 ,9 a ^w1 :atev] exi/s 9 nature is relative 9 space1 9 "t1 & 9 qualities to all else4 ,x is made :at x is by virtue ( ! totality ( its relations to ! univ]se2 x has no ultimate pr9ciple ( self-subsi/5t unity 9 x4 ,nor d we f>e bett] if we attempt to f9d unity 9 ! _w ( nature z a :ole4 ,nature has its exi/5ce z a :ole 9 space & "t4 ,inde$1 x is only a way ( express+ ! totality ( ph5om5a ( space & "t4 ,x is a m]e aggregate1 a collection4 ,its v ess5ce is plurality1 diff]5ce4 ,x is divisible )\t limit1 & ea* ( its divisions has z good a "r to be call$ "o z ! :ole f :i* x is brok5 (f4 ,we %all consid] h]eaft] ,leibniz's idea ( inf9ity2 b x is easy to see t he mu/ d5y any true inf9ity to nature4 ,an ultimate :ole made up ( p>ts is a contradictory conception2 & ! idea ( a quantitative inf9ite is equally s4 ,quantity means numb]1 measure1 limitation4 ,we may n be able to assign numb] to ! totality ( occurr5ces 9 nature1 nor to measure h] e ev5t4 ,?is %[s t nature is indef9itely great] ?an any assignable quantity2 b x does n remove h] f ! category ( quantity4 ,z long z ! _w is conceiv$ z t exi/+ 9 space & "t1 x is conceiv$ z t :i* has to be measur$4 ,z we saw 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! he>t ( ! me*anical !ory ( ! _w is 9 ! application ( ma!matics to x4 ,s9ce quantity & ma!matics are correlative t]ms1 ! natural _w _c be conceiv$ z inf9ite or z an ultimate unity4 ,9 %ort1 ,leibniz urges & sugge/s 9 "o =m & ano!r ^? objections to ! me*anical !ory ( reality :i* lat] ,g]man philosoph]s h made u s famili> )4 ,! objections are inde$ v>i$ 9 /atem5t1 b !y all come to ! impossibility ( f9d+ any unity1 any :ol5ess1 any?+ except plurality & p>tiality 9 t :i* is ext]nally condition$1--z ev]y?+ is 9 nature4 ,b ! reasons z ?us /at$ are r negative ?an positive4 ,!y %[ :y ! ultimate unity _c be conceiv$ z mat]ial1 r ?an :y x mu/ be conceiv$ z spiritual4 ,! imm$iate evid5ce ( its spiritual nature ,leibniz f9ds 9 ! p]ception ( ! "o unity directly kn[n to u1--! me1 ! consci\s pr9ciple )91 :i* reveals itself z an active =ce1 & z truly "o1 s9ce n a spatial or temporal exi/5ce4 ,& ?is evid5ce he f9ds confirm$ by ! fact t :atev] unity mat]ial ph5om5a appe> to h comes to !m ?r\gh _! p]ception by ! s\l4 ,:atev] ! m9d grasps 9 "o act1 is manife/$ z "o4 ,b x is n 9 any imm$iate c]ta9ty ( fact t ,leibniz f9ds ! be/ or complete/ demon/ration ( ! spiritual nature ( ! ultimate unity4 ,?is is f\nd 9 ! use :i* c be made ( ! hypo!sis4 ,! true/ witness to ! spiritual "* ( reality is f\nd 9 ! capacity ( ?is pr9ciple to compreh5d & expla9 ! facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,) ?is conception ! reason ( ?+s c be asc]ta9$1 & light introduc$ into :at 7 o!rwise a confus$ obscurity4 ,&1 inde$1 ?is is ! only suffici5t pro( ( any doctr9e4 ,x is n :at comes be=e ! =mulation ( a !ory :i* proves x2 x is n ! facts :i* sugge/ x1 or ! processes :i* lead up to x3 x is :at comes aft] ! =mation ( ! !ory1--! uses t x c be put to2 ! facts :i* x w r5d] significant4 ,! :ole philosophy ( ,leibniz 9 its simplicity1 wid?1 & dep?1 is ! real evid5ce ( ! tru? ( 8 philosophical pr9ciple4 ,! monad1 !n1 is a spiritual unity2 x is individualiz$ life4 ,unity1 activity1 individuality are synonym\s t]ms 9 ! vocabul>y ( ,leibniz4 ,e unity is a true sub/ance1 conta9+ )9 itself ! s\rce & law ( its own activity4 ,x is t :i* is int]nally det]m9$ to action4 ,x is to be conceiv$ aft] ! analogy ( ! s\l4 ,x is an indivisible unity1 l t p>ticul> some?+ 9 u :i* ?9ks1 app]ceives & wills1 & di/+ui%es u 9 a way ( its own f :atev] else ?9ks & wills4 ,aga9/ ,desc>tes1 !re=e1 ,leibniz /&s = ! pr9ciple ( unity2 aga9/ ,sp9oza1 he upholds ! doctr9e ( individuality1 ( div]sity1 ( multiplicity4 ,& ! latt] pr9ciple is z important 9 8 ?\ght z ! =m]4 ,inde$1 !y are insep>able4 ,! individual is ! true unity4 ,!re is an inf9ite numb] ( ^! individuals1 ea* di/9ct f e o!r4 ,! law ( specification1 ( di/9ction1 runs ?r\gh ! univ]se4 ,two be+s _c be alike4 ,!y are n individualiz$ m]ely by _! diff]5t positions 9 space or "t2 duration & ext5sion1 on ! contr>y1 are1 z we h se51 pr9ciples ( relativity1 ( connection4 ,monads are specifi$ by an int]nal pr9ciple4 ,_! di/9ct individuality is con/itut$ by _! di/9ct law ( activity4 ,leibniz w n h a philosophy ( ab/ract unity1 repres5t+ ! univ]se z simple only1 he w h a philosophy equal to ! div]sity1 ! manifold weal? ( v>iety1 9 ! univ]se4 ,?is is only to say t he w be fai?ful to 8 fundam5tal notion1--t ( ,life4 ,life does n mean a simple unity l a ma!matical "o1 x means a unity :i* is ! h>mony ( ! int]play ( div]se organs1 ea* foll[+ its own law & hav+ its own function4 ,:5 ,leibniz says1 ,god will$ to h m monads r ?an few]1 ! expression is inde$ "o ( navet1 b ! ?\ght is "o ( unexplor$ dep?4 ,x is ! ?\ght t ,leibniz repeats :5 he says1 ,^? :o w\ld r$uce all ?+s to modifications ( "o univ]sal sub/ance d n h suffici5t reg>d to ! ord]1 ! h>mony ( reality4 ,leibniz applies "h1 z ev]y:]e1 ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity1 :i* is unity 9 & ?r\gh div]sity1 n ! pr9ciple ( b>e on5ess4 ,!re is a k+dom ( monads1 a realm truly inf9ite1 compos$ ( individual unities or activities 9 an absolute cont9uity4 ,leibniz 0 "o ( ! fir/1 if n ! fir/1 to use j ! expression uni=mity ( nature2 b ev5 "h he expla9s t x means uni=m 9 v>iety1 "o 9 pr9ciple1 b v>i$ 9 manife/ation4 ,! _w is to be z ri* z possible4 ,?is is simply to say t di/9ct individuality z well z ultimate unity is a law ( reality4 ,b has n ,leibniz fall5 into a p]il\s position8 ,9 avoid+ ! monotone ( unity :i* *>act]izes ! ?\ght ( ,sp9oza1 has he n fall5 into a lawless v>iety ( multiplicity1 inf9itely less philosophic ?an ev5 ! dualism ( ,desc>tes1 s9ce x has an inf9ity ( ultimate pr9ciples in/ead ( only two8 ,if ,sp9oza sacrific$ ! individual to ! univ]se1 has n ,leibniz1 9 8 desire to emphasize ! individual1 gone to ! o!r extreme8 ,app>5tly we are introduc$ to a univ]se t is a m]e aggregate ( an inf9ite multiplicity ( realities1 ea* indep5d5t ( e o!r4 ,su* a univ]se w\ld n be a univ]se4 ,x w\ld be a *aos ( disord] & conflict4 ,we come1 !re=e1 to a consid]ation ( ! relation betwe5 ^! individual monads & ! univ]se4 ,we h to discov] :at lifts ! monads out ( _! isolation & be/[s ^u !m t /amp ( univ]sality :i* makes x possible = !m to ent] into ! coh]5t /ructure ( reality3 9 a ^w1 :at is ! univ]sal cont5t :i* ! monad 9 its =mal individuality be>s & manife/s8 ,! way 9 :i* ! "q has j be5 /at$ sugge/s ! ,leibnizian answ]4 ,! monad1 inde$1 9 its =m is ?or\ghly individual1 hav+ its own unique mode ( activity2 b its cont5t1 t :i* ?is activity manife/s1 is n peculi> to x z an individual1 b is ! sub/ance or law ( ! univ]se4 ,x is ! v nature ( ! monad to be repres5tative4 ,its activity consi/s 9 pictur+ or reproduc+ ^? relations :i* make up ! _w ( reality4 ,9 a consci\s s\l1 ! ability ?us to repres5t ! _w is call$ p]ception1 & ?us ,leibniz attributes p]ception to all ! monads4 ,?is is n to be und]/ood z a consci\s repres5tation ( reality to itself 7= ?is ! t]m app]ception is res]v$71 b x signifies t ! v ess5ce ( ! monad is to produce /ates :i* are n its own peculi> possessions1 b :i* reflect ! facts & relations ( ! univ]se4 ,leibniz nev] we>ies 9 f9d+ new ways to express ?is purely repres5tative "* ( ! monad4 ,! monads are little s\ls2 !y are mirrors ( ! _w2 !y are conc5trations ( ! univ]se1 ea* express+ x 9 its own way2 borr[+ a t]m f s*ola/icism1 !y are sub/antial =ms4 ,!y are sub/antial1 = !y are indep5d5t unities2 !y are =ms1 because ! t]m =m expresses1 9 ,ari/otelian phraseology1 ! type or law ( "s class ( ph5om5a4 ,! monad is an individual1 b its :ole cont5t1 its objectivity or reality1 is ! summation ( ! univ]se :i* x repres5ts4 ,x is individual1 b :atev] m>ks x z actual is "s reproduction ( ! _w4 ,8 reconciliation ( ! pr9ciples ( individuality & univ]sality is conta9$ 9 ! foll[+ words3 ,ea* monad conta9s )9 itself an ord] correspond+ to t ( ! univ]se1--inde$1 ! monads repres5t ! univ]se 9 an inf9ity ( ways1 all diff]5t1 & all true1 ?us multiply+ ! univ]se z _m times z is possible1 approa*+ ! div9e z ne> z may be1 & giv+ ! _w all ! p]fection ( :i* x is capable4 ,! monad is individual1 = x repres5ts reality 9 its own way1 f its own po9t ( view4 ,x is univ]sal1 = its :ole cont5t is ! ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,new light is ?us ?r[n ^u ! =m] /atem5t t reality is activity1 t ! measure ( a be+ is ! action :i* x puts =?4 ,t /atem5t is purely =mal4 ,x leaves ! k9d ( activity & its law :olly undet]m9$4 ,b ?is relation ( repres5tativ5ess :i* we h discov]$ gives def9it5ess4 ,x is ! law ( ! monad's action to mirror1 to reflect1 ! univ]se2 its *anges foll[ ea* o!r s z to br+ ab\t ?is reflection 9 ! complete/ degree possible4 ,! monad is lit]ally ! _m 9 ! "o2 x is ! answ] to ! inquiry ( ,greek philosophy4 ,! _m are n pres5t by way ( p>ticipation 9 "s und]ly+ ess5ce1 n yet z /atically possess$ by ! "o1 z attributes are sometimes suppos$ to inh]e 9 a sub/ratum4 ,! _m is ! manife/ation ( ! activity ( ! "o4 ,! "o & ! _m are relat$ z =m & cont5t 9 an organic unity1 :i* is activity4 ,! ess5ce ( a sub/ance1 says ,leibniz1 consi/s 9 t regul> t5d5cy ( action by :i* its ph5om5a foll[ "o ano!r 9 a c]ta9 ord]2 & t ord]1 z he repeat$ly /ates1 is ! ord] 9 :i* ! univ]se itself is arrang$4 ,! activity ( a monad may be advantage\sly comp>$ to t ( a suppos$ atom1 grant+1 = ! sake ( ! illu/ration1 t !re is su* a ?+4 ,ea* is 9 a /ate ( *ange3 ! atom *anges its place1 ! monad its repres5tation1 & ea* 9 ! simple/ & mo/ uni=m way t its conditions p]mit4 ,h[1 !n1 is !re su* a simil>ity1 su* a monotony1 9 ! *ange ( an atom1 & su* v>iety & complexity 9 ! *ange ( a monad8 ,x is because ! atom has m]ely p>ts1 or ext]nal v>iety1 :ile ! monad has an int]nal v>iety4 ,multiplicity is organically wr\ght into its v be+4 ,x has an ess5tial relation to all ?+s 9 ! univ]se2 & to say t ?is relation is ess5tial1 is to say t x is "o :i* con/itutes its v cont5t1 its be+4 ,h5ce ! cause ( ! *anges ( ! monad1 ( _! v>iety & complexity1 is "o ) ! cause ( ! ri*ness1 ! pr(usion1 ! regulat$ v>iety ( *ange 9 ! univ]se itself4 ,:ile we h employ$ a comp>ison ) atoms1 ?is v comp>ison may s]ve to %[ u ! impossibility ( atoms z !y are g5]ally def9$ by ! physici/ turn$ philosoph]4 ,atoms h no int]nal & ess5tial relation to ! _w2 !y h no int]nal connection ) any "o ?+ 9 ! _w3 & :at is ?is b to say t !y d n ent] any:]e into ! /ructure ( ! _w8 ,by _! v conception !y are =ev] ali5s1 bani%$ f any %>e or lot 9 ! realm ( reality4 ,! idea :i* ,leibniz nev] lets g1 ! idea :i* he always acc5tuates1 is1 !n1 ! idea ( an individual activity :i* 9 its cont9ual *ange manife/s z its own int]nal cont5t & reality t reality & ^? laws ( connection :i* make up ! _w itself4 ,we are ?us introduc$ naturally to ! conception :i* plays s l>ge a "p 9 ! ,leibnizian philosophy1 t ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,?is t]m simply names ! fact1 :i* we see to be fundam5tal ) ,leibniz1--! fact t1 :ile ! =m ( e monad is individuality1 a unique pr9ciple ( action1 its cont5t is univ]sal1 ! v be+ & laws ( ! _w4 ,= we mu/ n[ notice m explicitly :at has be5 wrapp$ up 9 ! idea all along4 ,!re is no direct influ5ce ( monads ^u ea* o!r4 ,"o _c affect ano!r causally4 ,!re is no actual int]action ( "o ^u ano!r4 ,express$ 9 t figurative language :i* 0 ev] natural to ,leibniz1 ! monads h no w9d[s by :i* any?+ c get 9 or out4 ,?is foll[s1 ( c\rse1 f ! mutual indep5d5ce & individuality ( ! monads4 ,!y are a true democracy1 9 :i* ea* citiz5 has sov]eignty4 ,to admit ext]nal influ5ces act+ ^u !m is to surr5d] _! indep5d5ce1 to d5y _! sov]eignty4 ,b we mu/ rememb] ! o!r half4 ,?is democracy is n aft] ! ,platonic conception ( democracy1 9 :i* ea* does z x pleases1 & 9 :i* !re is nei!r ord] nor law1 b ! extreme/ ass]tion ( individuality4 ,:at ea* sov]eign citiz5 ( ! realm ( reality expresses is precisely law4 ,ea* is an embodim5t 9 its own way ( ! h>mony1 ! ord]1 ( ! :ole k+dom4 ,ea* is sov]eign because x is dynamic law1--law :i* is no long] ab/ract1 b has realiz$ itself 9 life4 ,?us ano!r way ( /at+ ! doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony is ! unity ( fre$om & necessity4 ,ea* monad is free because x is individual1 because x foll[s ! law ( its own activity unh9d]$1 unret>d$1 by o!rs2 x is self-det]m9$4 ,b x is self-det]m9$ to %[ =? ! ord]1 ! h>mony1 ( ! univ]se4 ,!re is no?+ ( caprice1 ( peculi>ity1 9 ! cont5t ( ! monad4 ,x %[s =? ord]2 x is organiz$ by law2 x reveals ! necess>y connections :i* con/itute ! univ]se4 ,! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony is ! unity ( ! individual & ! univ]se2 x is ! organic on5ess ( fre$om & necessity4 ,we see /ill fur!r :at x means :5 we le>n t x is by ?is conception t ,leibniz reconciles ! conceptions ( physical & f9al causation4 ,!re is no pr9ciple clos] to ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz ?an t ( ! equal pres5ce & effici5cy ev]y:]e ( bo? physical & f9al causes4 ,e fact :i* occurs is susceptible ( a me*anical & ( a rational explanation4 ,x is necess>ily connect$ ) prec$+ /ates1 & x has a necess>y end :i* x is fulfill+4 ,! complete mean+ ( ?is pr9ciple w meet u h]eaft]2 at pres5t we mu/ notice t x is "o =m ( ! doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,all ?+s h an end because !y =m p>ts ( "o sy/em2 ev]y?+ t occurs looks =w>d to some?+ else & prep>es ! way = x1 & yet x is itself me*anically condition$ by its antec$5ts4 ,?is is only ano!r way ( say+ t !re is complete h>mony betwe5 all be+s 9 ! univ]se2 s t ea* monad 9 fulfill+ ! law ( its own exi/5ce contributes to ! imman5t significance ( ! univ]se4 ,! monads are co-ord9at$ 9 su* a way t !y express a common idea4 ,!re is a plan common to all1 9 :i* ea* has its own place4 ,all are mak+ t[>ds "o goal1 express+ "o purpose4 ,! univ]se is an organism2 & ,leibniz w\ld h appli$ to x ! words :i* ,milne-,edw>ds appli$ to ! human organism1 z ,i f9d !m quot$ by ,lewes3 ,9 ! organism ev]y?+ seems to be calculat$ ) "o det]m9$ result 9 view2 & ! h>mony ( ! p>ts does n result f ! influ5ce :i* !y ex]t ^u "o ano!r1 b f _! co-ord9ation "u ! rule ( a common =ce1 a preconceiv$ plan1 a pre-exi/5t =ce4 ,t is to say1 ! univ]se is teleological1 bo? z a :ole & 9 its p>ts2 = !re is a common idea animat+ x & express$ by x2 x is me*anical1 = ?is idea is realiz$ & manife/$ by ! outwork+ ( =ces4 ,x ought to be evid5t ev5 f ?is imp]fect sket* t ! ,leibnizian !ory ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony is n t utt]ly artificial & grotesque doctr9e :i* x is sometimes repres5t$ to be4 ,! phrase pre-e/abli%$ h>mony is1 /rictly speak+1 tautolog\s4 ,! t]m pre-e/abli%$ is sup]flu\s4 ,x means exi/5t4 ,!re is no real h>mony :i* is n exi/5t or pre-e/abli%$4 ,an accid5tal h>mony is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,x means a *aotic cosmos1 an unord]$ ord]1 a lawless law1 or :atev] else is nons5sical4 ,h>mony1 9 %ort1 means relation1 means connection1 means subord9ation & co-ord9ation1 means adju/m5t1 means a v>iety1 :i* yet is "o4 ,! ,leibnizian doctr9e is n a factiti\s product ( 8 imag9ation1 nor is x a me*anical s*eme = reconcil+ a problem :i* has no exi/5ce outside ( ! bewild]$ bra9s ( philosoph]s4 ,x is an expression ( ! fact t ! univ]se is "o ( ord]1 ( cont9uity1 ( unity2 x is ! acc5tuat+ ( ?is doctr9e s t ! v ess5ce ( reality is f\nd 9 ?is ord]$ comb9ation2 x is ! special application ( ?is pr9ciple to ! solution ( _m ( ! problems :i* ! m9d ( man is apt to run into1--! que/ions ( ! relation ( ! individual & ! univ]sal1 ( fre$om & necessity1 ( ! physical & mat]ial1 ( ! teleological & me*anical4 ,we may n be cont5t$ ) ! doctr9e z he pres5ts x1 we may ?9k x to be r a summ>y & highly conc5trat$ /atem5t ( ! problem ?an its solution1 or we may object to details 9 ! c>ry+ out ( ! doctr9e4 ,b we _c d5y t x is a g5u9e attempt to meet a g5u9e problem1 & t x conta9s "s1 if n all1 ( ! factors requir$ = its adequate solution4 ,to ,leibniz mu/ rema9 ! glory ( be+ ! ?9k] to seize ^u ! p]fect unity & ord] ( ! univ]se z its ess5tial *>act]i/ic1 & ( arrang+ 8 ?\ghts ) a view to discov]+ & express+ x4 ,we h b to notice "o po9t m1 & our task is done s f> z x s]ves to make pla9 ! /&po9t f :i* ,leibniz criticis$ ,locke4 ,!re is1 we h se51 ! greate/ possible cont9uity & complexity 9 ! realm ( monads4 ,!re is no break1 quantitative nor qualitative4 ,x foll[s t ! human s\l has no gulf set betwe5 x & :at we call nature4 ,x is only ! highe/1 t is to say ! mo/ active & ! mo/ repres5tative1 ( all monads4 ,x /&s1 inde$1 at ! head ( ! scale1 b n outside x4 ,f ! monad :i* reveals its pres5ce 9 t /one :i* ) bl9d$ eyes we call dead1 ?r\gh t :i* acts 9 ! plant1 9 ! animal1 up to t ( man1 !re is no *asm1 no int]ruption4 ,nay1 man himself is b "o l9k 9 ! *a9 ( spiritual be+s :i* ends only 9 ,god4 ,all monads are s\ls2 ! s\l ( man is a monad :i* repres5ts ! univ]se m di/9ctly & adequately4 ,! law :i* is enfold$ 9 ! l[] monads is develop$ 9 x & =ms a "p ( its consci\s activity4 ,! univ]se1 :i* is confus$ly mirror$ by ! p]ception ( ! l[] monad1 is cle>ly br\ght out 9 ! consci\s app]ception ( man4 ,! /one is repres5tative ( ! :ole _w4 ,an all-kn[+ intellig5ce might read 9 x relations to e o!r fact ! _w1 might see exemplifi$ ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! _w1 & prefigur$ ! ev5ts to come4 ,= ! /one is n an isolat$ exi/5ce1 x is an int]-organic memb] ( a sy/em4 ,*ange ! slighte/ fact 9 ! _w1 & 9 "s way x is affect$4 ,! law ( ! univ]se is "o ( complet$ reciprocity1 & ?is law mu/ be mirror$ 9 e exi/5ce ( ! univ]se4 ,increase ! activity1 ! repres5tative p[]1 until x becomes turn$ back1 z x 71 ^u itself1 until ! monad n only is a mirror1 b kn[s itself z "o1 & y h man4 ,! s\l ( man is ! _w come to consci\sness ( itself4 ,! realm ( monads 9 :at we call ! inorganic _w & ! l[] organic realm %[s u ! monad let & h9d]$ 9 its developm5t4 ,^! realms attempt to speak =? ! law ( _! be+1 & reveal ! imman5t pres5ce ( ! univ]se2 b !y d n he> _! own voice1 _! utt]ance is only = o!rs4 ,9 man ! univ]se is manife/$1 & is manife/$ to man himself4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,locke ,,& ,,leibniz4--,,innate ,,ideas4 ,! read]1 impati5t ( :at may h seem$ an ov]-long introduction1 has p]haps be5 ask+ :5 he 0 to be br\ght to ! subject "u consid]ation1--! relations ( ,leibniz to ,locke4 ,b x has be5 impossible to come to ?is "q until we _h =m$ = ourselves an outl9e ( ! philosophical position ( ,leibniz4 ,n[h]e 9 ! ,n\veaux ,essais does ,leibniz give a connect$ & detail$ exposition ( 8 philosophy1 ei!r z to 8 /&po9t1 8 fundam5tal pr9ciples1 or 8 me?od4 ,"s prelim9>y view ( 8 position is !re=e a necessity4 ,! dem& = ?is prelim9>y exposition becomes m urg5t z we recognize t ,leibniz's rem>ks ^u ,locke are n a critique ( ,locke f ! /&po9t ( ! latt]1 b are ! application ( 8 own philosophical conclusions4 ,criticism f )91 an exam9ation ( a sy/em ( ?\ght ) relation to ! consi/5cy & coh]5cy ( its results1 ! connection betwe5 ^! results & ! me?od pr(ess$ly employ$1 inve/igation :i* dep5ds n at all ^u ! position ( ! critic1 b occupies itself ) ! int]nal relations ( ! sy/em "u discussion1--su* criticism is a product ( ! pres5t c5tury4 ,:at we f9d 9 ! ,n\veaux ,essais is a comp>ison ( ! ideas ( ,locke ) ^? ( ,leibniz himself1 a te/+ ( ! =m] by ! latt] z a /&>d1 _! acceptance :5 !y con=m1 _! rejection :5 !y are oppos$1 _! completion :5 !y are 9 p>tial h>mony4 ,! value ( ?is sort ( criticism is likely to be small & evanesc5t4 ,if ! sy/em us$ z a /&>d is meagre & n>r[1 if x is )\t compreh5siv5ess & flexibility1 x does n repay aft]-exam9ation4 ,! fact t ! ,n\veaux ,essais ( ,leibniz h escap$ ! oblivion ( ! philosophical criticism ( 8 day is pro(1 if pro( /ill be ne$$1 ( ! reason$ basis1 ! wid? ( grasp1 ! f]tility ( sugge/ion :i* *>act]ize ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz4 ,b ! fact t ! criticism is1 aft] all1 ext]nal & n int]nal has made necess>y ! =ego+ ext5d$ acc\nt ( 8 me?od & g5]al results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :at ( ,locke8 ,h[ ab\t him :o is ! recipi5t ( ! criticism8 ,i assume t no ext5d$ acc\nt ( 8 ideas is "h necess>y1 & conceive myself to be ju/ifi$ 9 ?is assumption by ! fact t we are already bett] acqua9t$ ) ,locke4 ,?is acqua9tance1 inde$1 is n conf9$ to ^? :o h expressly /udi$ ,locke4 ,8 ?\ght is an inh]itance into :i* e ,engli%-speak+ p]son at lea/ is born4 ,only he :o does n ?9k escapes ?is inh]itance4 ,locke did ! "w :i* he _h to d s ?or\ghly t e ,engli%man :o w philosophize mu/ ei!r build ^u ,locke's f\ndations1 or1 ) consci\s purpose1 cle> ! gr\nd be=e build+ = himself4 ,& x w\ld be difficult to say t ! acceptance ( ,locke's views w\ld influ5ce "o's ?\ght m ?an _! rejection4 ,?is mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 be tak5 too lit]ally4 ,x may be t "o :o is a l9eal desc5dant ( ,locke 9 ! spiritual g5]ations ( ?\ght w\ld n /ate a s+le important tru? z ,locke /at$ x1 or t ^? :o seek _! me?od & results else:]e h n repudiat$ ! ?\ght ( ,locke z expressly belong+ to him4 ,b ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( empiricism3 its conception ( intellig5ce z an individual possession2 its idea ( reality z some?+ ov] aga9/ & di/9ct f m9d2 its explanation ( k z a process ( action & reaction betwe5 ^! sep>ate ?+s2 its acc\nt ( our inability to "k ?+s z !y really are1--^! pr9ciples are cong5ital ) our ?9k+4 ,!y are s natural t we ei!r accept !m z axiomatic1 & accuse ^? :o reject !m ( metaphysical subtlety1 or1 /agg]$ p]*ance by "s ( _! results1 give !m up ) an ef=t4 ,b x is an ef=t1 & a sev]e "o2 & !re is none ( u :o c tell :5 "s remnant ( ! conception ( intellig5ce z purely p>ticul> & f9ite w cat* him tripp+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we realize mu* bett] ?an ^? :o h beh9d !m a ,leibniz & a ,kant1 r ?an a ,locke & a ,hume1 ! mean+ & ! ?or\gh-go+ necessity ( ! univ]sality ( intellig5ce4 ,idealism mu/ be 9 "s ways arbitr>y & sup]ficial to him :o has n _h a pretty complete c\rse ( empiricism4 ,leibniz seems to h be5 impress$ ) ! ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ at its fir/ appe>ance4 ,z e>ly z #afif we f9d him writ+ a few pages ( comm5t ^u ! book4 ,comp>$ ) 8 lat] critique1 ^! e>ly reflections seem colorless1 & give ! impression t ,leibniz desir$ to m9imize 8 diff]5ces f ,locke r ?an to set !m =? 9 relief4 ,comp>atively slight z 7 8 expressions ( diss5t1 !y appe> to h /ung ,locke :5 !y rea*$ him4 ,meantime ,locke's book 0 translat$ into ,fr5*1 & made its way to a wid] circle ( read]s4 ,?is seems to h sugge/$ to ,leibniz ! advisability ( pursu+ 8 comm5ts some:at fur!r2 & 9 ! summ] ( #agjc he produc$ ! "w :i* n[ occupies u4 ,a lett] :i* ,leibniz wrote at ab\t ?is "t is wor? quot+ at l>ge = ! light :i* x ?r[s ^u ! man1 z well z = sugge/+ ! *ief po9ts 9 :i* he diff]$ f ,locke4 ,leibniz writes3-- ,i h =gott5 to tell y t my comm5ts ^u ! "w ( ,locke are ne>ly done4 ,z he has spok5 9 a *apt] ( 8 second book ab\t fre$om1 he has giv5 me an opportunity to discuss t2 & ,i hope t ,i may h done x 9 su* a way z w please y4 ,above all1 ,i h laid x ^u myself to save ! immat]iality ( ! s\l1 :i* ,locke leaves d\btful4 ,i ju/ify also ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas1 & %[ t ! s\l produces _! p]ception out ( itself4 ,axioms1 too1 ,i approve1 :ile ,locke has a l[ op9ion ( !m4 ,9 contradiction to him1 ,i %[ t ! individuality ( man1 ?r\gh :i* he pres]ves 8 id5tity1 consi/s 9 ! duration ( ! simple or immat]ial sub/ance :i* animates him2 t ! s\l is nev] )\t repres5tations2 t !re is nei!r a vacuum nor atoms2 t matt]1 or ! passive pr9ciple1 _c be consci\s1 except+ z ,god unites ) x a consci\s sub/ance4 ,we disagree1 inde$1 9 num]\s o!r po9ts1 = ,i f9d t he rates too l[ ! noble philosophy ( ! ,platonic s*ool 7z ,desc>tes did 9 "p71 & sub/itutes op9ions :i* degrade u1 & :i* may become hurtful to morals1 ?\gh ,i am p]suad$ t ,locke's int5tion 0 ?or\ghly good4 ,i h made ^! comm5ts 9 leisure h\rs1 :5 ,i h be5 j\rney+ or visit+1 & c\ld n occupy myself ) inve/igations requir+ great pa9s4 ,! "w has cont9u$ to gr[ "u my h&s1 = 9 almo/ e *apt]1 & to a great] ext5t ?an ,i _h ?\ght possible1 ,i h f\nd matt] = rem>k4 ,y w be a/oni%$ :5 ,i tell y t ,i h work$ ^u ?is z ^u some?+ :i* requires no great pa9s4 ,b ! fact is1 t ,i long ago e/abli%$ ! g5]al pr9ciples ( philosophic subjects 9 my m9d 9 a demon/rative way1 or pretty ne>ly s1 & t !y d n require mu* new consid]ation f me4 ,leibniz goes on to add t he has put ^! reflections 9 ! =m ( a dialogue t !y may be m attractive2 has writt5 !m 9 ! popul> language1 r ?an 9 ,lat91 t !y may rea* z wide a circle z ! "w ( ,locke2 & t he hopes to publi% !m soon1 z ,locke is already an old man1 & he wi%es to get !m be=e ! public :ile ,locke may /ill reply4 ,b un=tunately ?is la/ hope 0 de/9$ to rema9 unrealiz$4 ,be=e ! "w ( revision 0 accompli%$1 ,locke di$4 ,leibniz1 9 a lett] writt5 9 #agad1 alludes to 8 controv]sy ) ,locke z foll[s3 ,i d n l ! ?\ght ( publi%+ refutations ( au?ors :o are dead4 ,^! %\ld appe> dur+ _! life1 & be communicat$ to !m4 ,!n1 ref]r+ to 8 e>li] comm5ts1 he says3 ,a few rem>ks escap$ me1 ,i h>dly "k h[1 & 7 tak5 to ,engl&4 ,mr4 ,locke1 hav+ se5 !m1 spoke ( !m slight+ly 9 a lett] to ,mol9eux4 ,i am n a/oni%$ at x4 ,we 7 some:at too f> ap>t 9 pr9ciple1 & t :i* ,i sugge/$ seem$ p>adoxical to him4 ,leibniz1 accord+ to 8 conviction "h express$1 nev] publi%$ 8 ,n\veaux ,essais sur l',ent5dem5t ,huma94 ,s*a>s*midt rem>ks t ano!r reason may h re/ra9$ him1 9 t he did n wi% to c>ry on too _m controv]sies at once ) ! ,engli% p4 ,he _h two on 8 h&s !n1--"o ) ! ,newtonians reg>d+ ! inf9itesimal calculus2 ! o!r ) ,bi%op ,cl>ke reg>d+ ! nature ( ,god1 ( "t & space1 ( fre$om1 & cognate subjects4 ,h[ev]1 9 #agfe1 almo/ fifty ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,leibniz1 8 critique ^u ,locke f9ally appe>$4 ,x is some:at significant t "o ^: t5d5cy 0 conciliatory1 :o 0 em95tly :at ! ,g]mans delight to call him1 a m$iator1 attempt+ to unite ! v>i$ tru?s :i* he f\nd scatt]$ 9 oppos$ sy/ems1 %\ld h _h s mu* ( 8 "w call$ =? by controv]sy4 ,aside f ! cases j m5tion$1 8 o!r *ief "w1 ! ,!odicy1 is1 9 =m1 a reply to ,bayle4 ,_m ( 8 m9or pieces are replies to criticism or are developm5ts ( 8 own ?\ght ) critical ref]5ce to ,desc>tes1 ,malebran*e1 & o!rs4 ,b ,leibniz has a some:at diff]5t attitude t[>ds 8 ,briti% & t[>ds 8 ,cont95tal oppon5ts4 ,) ! latt] he 0 always 9 sympa?y1 :ile !y 9 turn gave :atev] he utt]$ a respectful he>+4 ,_! mutual critiques beg9 & end 9 complim5ts4 ,b ! ,engli%m5 f\nd ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz p>adoxical & =c$4 ,x seem$ to !m wildly speculative1 & inde$ arbitr>y guess-"w1 )\t any special reason = its production1 & :olly unv]ifiable 9 its results4 ,su* has be5 ! fate ( mu* ( ! be/ ,g]man ?\ght s9ce t "t 9 ! l& ( ! desc5dants ( ,newton & ,locke4 ,b ,leibniz1 on ! o!r h&1 felt z if he 7 deal+1 9 philosophical matt]s at lea/1 ) foem5 h>dly wor?y ( 8 /eel4 ,locke1 he says1 _h subtlety & address1 & a sort ( sup]ficial metaphysics2 b he 0 ignorant ( ! me?od ( ma!matics1--t is to say1 f ! /&po9t ( ,leibniz1 ( ! me?od ( all sci5ce4 ,we h already se5 t he ?\ght ! exam9ation ( a "w :i* _h be5 ! result ( ! cont9u$ labor ( ,locke 0 a matt] = ! leisure h\rs ( 8 c\rtly visits4 ,inde$1 he w\ld und\bt$ly h felt ab\t x :at he actually express$ reg>d+ 8 controv]sy ) ,cl>ke1--t he engag$ 9 x ,ludus et jocus1 quia 9 philosophia ,omnia p]cepi atque animo mecum ante p]egi4 ,he reg>d$ ! ,engli% z sup]ficial & )\t grasp ( pr9ciples1 z !y ?\ght him ov]-deep & ov]-!oretical4 ,f ?is k ( ! ext]nal circum/ances ( ! "w ( ,leibniz & its relation to ,locke1 x is necess>y t we turn to its int]nal cont5t1 to ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz z relat$ to ! ideas ( ,locke4 ,! ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ is1 z ! "n implies1 an acc\nt ( ! nature ( k4 ,locke tells u t x orig9at$ 9 ! fact t (t51 :5 he _h be5 engag$ 9 discussions ) 8 fri5ds1 !y f\nd !mselves l&$ 9 insoluble difficulties4 ,?is occurr$ s frequ5tly t x seem$ probable t !y _h be5 go+ at matt]s f ! wrong side1 & t be=e !y attempt$ to come to conclusions ab\t que/ions !y ought to exam9e ! capacity ( intellig5ce1 & see :e!r x is fitt$ to deal ) su* que/ions4 ,locke1 9 a ^w1 is ano!r evid5ce ( t tru? :i* lies at ! basis ( all =ms ( philosophical ?\ght1 h[ev] oppos$ !y may be to "o ano!r1--! tru? t k & reality are s organic to ea* o!r t to come to any conclusion ab\t "o1 we mu/ "k some?+ ab\t ! o!r4 ,reality equals objects kn[n or kn[able1 & k equals reality dissolv$ 9 ideas1--reality :i* has become transluc5t ?r\gh its mean+4 ,locke's ,essay is1 !n1 an acc\nt ( ! orig91 nature1 ext5t1 & limitations ( human k4 ,su* is its subject-matt]4 ,:at is its me?od8 ,locke himself tells u t he uses ! pla9 hi/orical me?od4 ,we d n h to resort to ! =c+ ( language to le>n t ?is ^w hi/orical conta9s ! key to 8 "w4 ,e page ( ! ,essay is te/imony to ! fact t ,locke always proce$s by inquir+ into ! way & circum/ances by :i* k ( ! subject "u consid]ation came into exi/5ce & into ! conditions by :i* x 0 develop$4 ,orig9 means ) ,locke1 n logical dep5d5ce1 b temporal production2 developm5t means temporal succession4 ,9 ! language ( our day1 ,locke's ,essay is an attempt to settle ontological que/ions by a psy*ological me?od4 ,& z we h be=e notic$1 ,leibniz meets him1 n by inquiry into ! p]t95ce ( ! me?od or into ! validity ( results s rea*$1 b by ! m direct way ( impugn+ 8 psy*ology1 by sub/itut+ ano!r !ory ( ! nature ( m9d & ( ! way 9 :i* x works4 ,! que/ions ) :i* ! discussion beg9s are z to ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas1 & z to :e!r ! s\l always ?9ks1--que/ions :i* ^u _! face w lead ! exp]i5c$ read] ( to-day to heave a sigh 9 memory ( h\rs wa/$ 9 b>r5 dispute1 & :i* w create a desire to turn else:]e = matt] m solid & m nutritive4 ,b 9 ?is case1 "u ! =m :i* ! discussion takes at ! h&s ( ,leibniz1 ! "q :i* awaits answ] "u ! meagre & worn-out =mula ( innate ideas is ! function ( intellig5ce 9 exp]i5ce4 ,locke d5ies1 & d5ies ) great vigor1 ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas4 ,8 motives 9 s do+ are practical & !oretical4 ,he sees almo/ e old idea1 e h]$it>y prejudice1 e ve/$ int]e/ ( ?\ght1 def5d$ on ! gr\nd t x is an innate idea4 ,innate ideas 7 sacr$1 & ev]y?+ :i* c\ld f9d no def5ce be=e reason 0 an innate idea4 ,"u su* circum/ances he takes z mu* int]e/ 9 demoli%+ !m z ,bacon took 9 ! de/ruction ( ! eidols4 ,b ?is is b a small portion ( ! object ( ,locke4 ,he is a ?or\gh-go+ empirici/2 & ! doctr9e ( innate ideas appe>s to (f] ! greate/ ob/acle to ! acceptance ( ! tru? t all ! furni%+ ( ! intellect comes f exp]i5ce4 ,locke's metaphors = ! m9d are t x is a blank tablet1 an empty closet1 an unwritt5 book4 ,! innate idea is only a s5t5ce writt5 by exp]i5ce1 b :i*1 deifi$ by a c]ta9 s*ool ( philosoph]s1 has come to be reg>d$ z et]nally impr9t$ ^u ! s\l4 ,su*1 inde$1 is ,locke's und]/&+ ( ! nature ( innate ideas4 ,he conceives ( !m z *>act]s /amp$1 z x 71 ^u ! m9d ( man1 :i* ! s\l has receiv$ 9 its fir/ be+ & br+s into ! _w ) x2 or !y are con/ant impressions :i* ! s\ls ( m5 receive 9 _! fir/ be+s4 ,!y are tru?s impr9t$ ^u ! s\l4 ,hav+ ?is conception ( :at is meant by innate ideas1 ,locke sets himself ) great vigor1 &1 x mu/ be confess$1 ) equal success1 to _! annihilation4 ,8 argum5t is some:at diffuse & scatt]$1 b 9 sub/ance x is z foll[s3 ,:atev] is 9 ! m9d1 ! m9d mu/ be consci\s (4 ,to be 9 ! m9d & n to be p]ceiv$1 is all "o z to say t any?+ is & is n 9 ! m9d4 ,if !re be any?+ 9 ! m9d :i* is innate1 x mu/ be pres5t to ! consci\sness ( all1 &1 x w\ld seem1 ( all at all times1 savages1 infants1 & idiots includ$4 ,& z x requires little philosophical p5etration to see t savages d n pond] ^u ! pr9ciple t :atev] is1 is2 t infants d n dwell 9 _! cradle ^u ! ?\ght ( contradiction1 or idiots rum9ate ^u t ( exclud$ middle1--x ought to be evid5t t su* tru?s _c be innate4 ,inde$1 we mu/ admit1 ) ,locke1 t probably few m5 ev] come to ! explicit consci\sness ( su* ideas1 & t ^! few are su* z direct _! m9ds to ! matt] ) "s pa9s4 ,locke's argum5t may be summ$ up 9 8 words3 ,if ^! are n notions naturally impr9t$1 h[ c !y be innate8 ,& if !y are notions naturally impr9t$1 h[ c !y be unkn[n8 ,b s9ce x may be said t ^! tru?s are 9 ! m9d1 b 9 su* a way t x is only :5 !y are propos$ t m5 ass5t to !m1 ,locke goes on to cl9* 8 argum5t4 ,if ?is be true1 x %[s t ! ideas are n innate2 = ! same ?+ is true ( a l>ge numb] ( sci5tific tru?s1 ^? ( ma!matics & morals1 z well z ( purely s5sible facts1 z t r$ is n blue1 sweet is n s\r1 etc41--tru?s & facts :i* no "o calls innate4 ,or if x be said t !y are 9 ! m9d implicitly or pot5tially1 ,locke po9ts out t ?is means ei!r no?+ at all1 or else t ! m9d is capable ( kn[+ !m4 ,if ?is is :at is meant by innate ideas1 !n all ideas are innate2 = c]ta9ly x _c be d5i$ t ! m9d is capable ( kn[+ all t x ev] does "k1 or1 z ,locke +5u\sly rem>ks1 nobody ev] d5i$ t ! m9d 0 capable ( kn[+ sev]al tru?s4 ,x is evid5t t ! =ce ( ,locke's cont5tion aga9/ innate ideas re/s ^u a c]ta9 !ory reg>d+ ! nature ( innate ideas & ( ! relations ( consci\sness to intellig5ce4 ,besides ?is1 !re runs ?r\gh 8 :ole polemic ! ass]tion t1 aft] all1 innate ideas are useless1 z exp]i5ce1 9 ! s5se ( impressions receiv$ f )\t1 & ! =mal action ( intellig5ce ^u !m1 is adequate to do+ all !y are suppos$ to d4 ,x is h>dly too mu* to say t ! n]ve ( ,locke's argum5t is r 9 ?is positive ass]tion ?an 9 ! negations :i* he br+s aga9/ ?is exi/5ce4 ,leibniz takes issue ) him on ea* ( ^! ?ree po9ts4 ,he has ano!r conception ( ! v nature ( innate ideas2 he d5ies ,locke's op9ions ab\t consci\sness2 he br+s =w>d an oppos$ !ory ^u ! relation ( exp]i5ce to reason4 ,?is la/ po9t we %all take up 9 a *apt] by itself1 z its importance ext5ds f> beyond ! m]e "q z to ! exi/5ce ( ideas :i* may prop]ly be call$ innate4 ,! o!r two que/ions1 z to ! real "* ( innate ideas & ! relation ( an idea to consci\sness1 af=d mat]ial to occupy u = ! pres5t4 ,! metaphor :i* ,locke con/antly uses is ! clew to 8 conception ( innate ideas4 ,!y are *>act]s /amp$ or impr9t$ ^u ! m9d1 !y exi/ 9 ! m9d4 ,! m9d w\ld be j :at x is1 ev5 if !y _h no exi/5ce4 ,x w\ld n h q s mu* 9 x1 b its own nature w\ld n be *ang$4 ,innate ideas he conceives z be>+ a purely ext]nal relation to m9d4 ,!y are n organic to x1 nor necess>y in/rum5ts ?r\gh :i* x expresses itself2 !y are me*anically impress$ ^u x4 ,b :at ! intellectual s*ool _h meant by innate ideas 0 precisely t ! relation ( ideas to intellig5ce is n t ( passive hold+ or conta9+ on ! side ( m9d1 & ( impressions or /amps on ! side ( ! ideas4 ,locke reads ! fundam5tal category ( empiricism--me*anical relation1 or ext]nal action--into ! nature ( innate ideas1 & h5ce easily inf]s _! absurdity4 ,b ! object ( ! uphold]s ( innate ideas _h be5 precisely to d5y t ?is category 0 applicable to ! :ole ( intellig5ce4 ,by an innate idea !y meant an ass]tion ( ! dynamic relation ( intellig5ce & "s ( its ideas4 ,!y meant to ass]t t intellig5ce has a /ructure1 :i* necess>ily functions 9 c]ta9 ways4 ,:ile ,locke's highe/ conception ( an innate idea 0 t x mu/ be some?+ ready made1 dwell+ 9 ! m9d prior to exp]i5ce1 ,leibniz ev]y:]e ass]ts t x is a connection & relation :i* =ms ! logical prius & ! psy*ological basis ( exp]i5ce4 ,he f9ds no difficulty 9 admitt+ all !re is ( positive tru? 9 ,locke's doctr9e2 namely1 t we are n consci\s ( ^! innate ideas until a p]iod lat] ?an t 9 :i* we are consci\s ( s5sible facts1 or1 9 _m cases1 are n consci\s ( !m at all4 ,?is priority 9 "t ( s5sible exp]i5ce to rational k1 h[ev]1 c become a reason = d5y+ ! innate "* ( ! latt] only :5 we suppose t !y are two entirely diff]5t ord]s ( fact1 "o k due to exp]i5ce1 ! o!r k already =m$ & exi/+ 9 ! m9d prior to exp]i5ce4 ,leibniz's conception ( ! matt] is br\ght out :5 he says t x is inde$ true t we beg9 ) p>ticul> exp]i5ces r ?an ) g5]al pr9ciples1 b t ! ord] ( nature is ! rev]se1 = ! gr\nd1 ! basis ( ! p>ticul> tru?s is 9 ! g5]al2 ! =m] be+ 9 reality only in/ances ( ! latt]4 ,g5]al pr9ciples1 he says1 ent] into all our ?\ghts1 & =m _! s\l & int]connection4 ,!y are z necess>y = ?\ght z muscles & t5dons are = walk+1 al?\gh we may n be consci\s ( _! exi/5ce4 ,?is side ( ! tea*+ ( ,leibniz consi/s1 accord+ly1 9 ! ass]tion t innate k & k d]iv$ f exp]i5ce are n two k9ds ( k1 b r two ways ( consid]+ x4 ,if we consid] x z x comes to u1 piecemeal & fragm5t>y1 a succession ( p>ticul> in/ances1 to be ga!r$ up at a future "t into g5]al pr9ciples1 & /at$ 9 a rational =m1 x is se5 z empirical4 ,b1 aft] all1 ?is is only a sup]ficial & ext]nal way ( look+ at x4 ,if we exam9e into x we %all see t !re are conta9$ 9 ^! transitory & p>ticul> exp]i5ces c]ta9 tru?s m g5]al & fundam5tal1 :i* condition !m1 & at ! same "t con/itute _! mean+4 ,if we inquire into ! propriety ( call+ ^! tru?s innate1 we f9d x is because !y are native to intellig5ce1 & are n acquisitions :i* x makes4 ,inde$1 x may be said t !y are intellig5ce1 s close & organic is _! relation1 j z ! muscles1 ! t5dons1 ! skeleton1 are ! body4 ,?us x is t ,leibniz accepts ! /atem5t1 ,nihil e/ 9 intellectu quod non fu]it 9 s5su1 ) ! addition ( ! /atem5t nisi ipse intellectus4 ,! doctr9e ( ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas is ?us %[n to mean t intellig5ce exi/s ) a real cont5t :i* c\nts = some?+ 9 ! realm ( exp]i5ce4 ,if we take intellig5ce & exam9e into its /ructure & asc]ta9 its modes ( expression1 we f9d organically inh]5t 9 its activity c]ta9 conceptions l unity1 p[]1 sub/ance1 id5tity1 etc41 & ^! we call innate4 ,an idea1 9 %ort1 is no long] conceiv$ z some?+ exi/+ 9 ! m9d or 9 consci\sness2 x is an activity ( intellig5ce4 ,an innate idea is a necess>y activity ( intellig5ce2 t is1 su* an activity z ent]s into ! framework ( all exp]i5ce4 ,leibniz ?us succe$s 9 avoid+ two errors into :i* philosoph]s ^: g5]al aims are mu* l 8 h fall54 ,"o is divid+ a priori & a po/]iori tru?s f ea* o!r by a h>d & fix$ l9e1 s t we are conceiv$ to h "s k :i* comes :olly f exp]i5ce1 :ile !re is ano!r :i* comes :olly f reason4 ,accord+ to ,leibniz1 !re is no ?\ght s ab/ract t x does n h its connection ) a s5sible exp]i5ce1 or r its embodim5t 9 x4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is no exp]i5ce s ?or\ghly s5su\s t x does n be> 9 itself traces ( its orig9 9 reason4 ,all our ?\ghts come f ! dep?s ( ! s\l1 says ,leibniz2 !re are none t come to u f )\t4 ,! o!r error is ! int]pretation ( ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas or intuitions 7z ?is s*ool g5]ally calls !m7 9 a purely =mal s5se4 ,!y are ?us consid]$ z tru?s conta9$ 9 & someh[ express$ by intellig5ce1 b yet n s connect$ ) x t 9 kn[+ !m we necess>ily "k intellig5ce itself4 ,!y are consid]$ r z arbitr>y det]m9ations ( tru?s by a p[] ^: own nature is conceivably =eign to tru?1 ?an z s _m special developm5ts ( an activity :i* may indiff]5tly be call$ intellig5ce or tru?4 ,leibniz1 h[ev]1 nev] fails to /ate t an innate tru? is1 aft] all1 b "o =m or aspect ( ! activity ( ! m9d 9 kn[+4 ,9 ?is way1 by br++ to light a deep] & ri*] conception ( :at 9 reality con/itutes an innate idea1 ,leibniz answ]s ,locke4 ,8 reply is indirect2 x consi/s r 9 ?r[+ a flood ( new light ^u ! matt] discuss$1 ?an 9 a pond]\s response & c\nt]-attack4 ,b :5 ,leibniz t\*es ^u ! conception ( a tabula rasa1 ( a m9d :i* 9 itself is a m]e blank1 b has ! capacity = kn[+1 he assumes ! (f5sive4 ,! idea ( a b>e capacity1 a =mal faculty1 ( p[] :i* does n already involve "s actual cont5t )9 itself1 he repudiates z a relic ( s*ola/icism4 ,:at is ! s\l1 :i* has no?+ until x gets x f )\t8 ,! doctr9e ( a vacuum1 an empt9ess :i* is real1 is always absurd2 & x is d\bly s :5 to ?is vacuum is ascrib$ p[]s ( feel+ & ?9k+1 z ,locke does4 ,accept+ = ! mom5t ! metaphor ( a tabula rasa1 ,leibniz asks :]e we %all f9d a tablet :i* yet does n h "s quality1 & :i* is n a co-op]at+ cause1 at lea/1 9 :atev] effects are produc$ ^u x8 ,! notion ( a s\l )\t ?\ght1 an empty tablet ( ! s\l1 he says1 is "o ( a ?\s& fictions ( philosoph]s4 ,he comp>es x ) ! idea ( space empty ( matt]1 absolute uni=mity or homog5eity1 p]fect sph]es ( ! second elem5t produc$ by primordial p]fect cubes1 ab/ractions pure & simple1 to :i* our ignorance & inatt5tion give bir?1 b ( :i* reality does n admit4 ,if ,locke admits !n 7z he does7 c]ta9 capacities inh]5t 9 ! s\l1 he _c mean ! s*ola/ic fiction ( b>e capacity or m]e possibility2 he mu/ mean real possibilities1--t is1 capacities accompani$ ) "s actual t5d5cy1 an incl9ation1 a disposition1 an aptitude1 a pre=mation :i* det]m9es our s\l 9 a c]ta9 direction1 & :i* makes x necess>y t ! possibility becomes actual4 ,& ?is t5d5cy1 ?is actual incl9ation ( intellig5ce 9 "o way r ?an ano!r1 s t x is n a matt] ( indiff]5ce to intellig5ce :at x produces1 is precisely :at con/itutes an innate idea4 ,s ,leibniz feels c]ta9 t at bottom ,locke mu/ agree ) him 9 ?is matt] if ! latt] is really 9 e>ne/ 9 reject+ ! faculties ( ! s*ola/ics & 9 wi%+ = a real explanation ( k4 ,b ! argum5t ( ,locke re/s ^u yet ano!r basis4 ,he f\nds 8 d5ial ( innate ideas n only ^u a /atic conception ( _! ready made exi/5ce 9 ! s\l1 b also ^u an equally me*anical conception ( consci\sness4 ,no?+ c be 9 ! m9d :i* is n 9 consci\sness4 ,?is /atem5t appe>s axiomatic to ,locke1 & by x he w\ld settle ! :ole discussion4 ,reg>d+ x1 ,leibniz rem>ks t if ,locke has su* a prejudice z ?is1 x is n surpris+ t he rejects innate ideas4 ,b consci\sness & m5tal activity are n ?us id5tical4 ,to g no f>!r1 ! m]e empirical fact ( memory is suffici5t to %[ ! falsity ( su* an idea4 ,memory reveals t we h an indef9ite am\nt ( k ( :i* we are n always consci\s4 ,r ?an t k & consci\sness are "o1 x is true t actual consci\sness only lays hold ( an inf9itesimal fraction ( k4 ,b ,leibniz does n rely ^u ! fact ( memory alone4 ,we mu/ con/antly keep 9 m9d t to ,leibniz ! s\l is n a =m ( be+ :olly sep>ate f nature1 b is ! culm9ation ( ! sy/em ( reality4 ,! reality is ev]y:]e ! monad1 & ! s\l is ! monad ) ! p[] ( feel+1 rememb]+1 & connect+ its ideas4 ,! activities ( ! monad1 ^? repres5tative *anges :i* sum up & symbolize ! univ]se1 d n cease :5 we rea* ! s\l4 ,!y are cont9u$4 ,if ! s\l has ! p[] ( att5tion1 !y are pot5tially consci\s4 ,su* z ! s\l actually att5ds to1 ?us giv+ !m relief & mak+ !m di/9ct1 are actually consci\s4 ,b all ( !m exi/4 ,?us x is t ,leibniz n only d5ies ! equival5ce ( s\l & consci\sness1 b ass]ts t ! fundam5tal error ( ! psy*ology ( ! ,c>tesians 7& "h1 at lea/1 ,locke is a ,c>tesian7 is 9 id5tify+ !m4 ,he ass]ts t unconsci\s ideas are ( z great importance 9 psy*ology z molecules are 9 physics4 ,!y are ! l9k betwe5 unconsci\s nature & ! consci\s s\l4 ,no?+ happ5s all at once2 nature nev] makes jumps2 ^! facts /at$ 9 ! law ( cont9uity necessitate ! exi/5ce ( activities1 :i* may be call$ ideas1 s9ce !y belong to ! s\l & yet are n 9 consci\sness4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,locke asks h[ an innate idea c exi/ & ! s\l n be consci\s ( x1 ! answ] is at h&4 ,! innate idea exi/s z an activity ( ! s\l by :i* x repres5ts--t is1 expresses--"s relation ( ! univ]se1 al?\gh we h n yet become consci\s ( :at is conta9$ or envelop$ 9 ?is activity4 ,to become consci\s ( ! innate idea is to lift x f ! sph]e ( nature to ! consci\s life ( _s4 ,& ?us x is1 aga91 t ,leibniz c ass]t t all ideas :atev] proce$ f ! dep?s ( ! s\l4 ,x is because x is ! v be+ ( ! s\l z a monad to reflect f its po9t ( view ! _w4 ,9 ?is way ,leibniz br+s ! discussion reg>d+ innate ideas out ( ! plane ( exam9ation into a matt] ( psy*ological fact into a consid]ation ( ! ess5tial nature ( _s4 ,an innate idea is n[ se5 to be "o ( ! relations by :i* ! s\l reproduces "s relation :i* con/itutes ! univ]se ( reality1 & at ! same "t realizes its own individual nature4 ,x is "o reflection f t spiritual mirror1 ! s\l4 ,) ?is enl>g$ & trans=m$ conception ( an idea apt to be s meagre we may well leave ! discussion4 ,!re has be5 "o m9d at lea/ to :i* ! phrase innate ideas meant some?+ wor? cont5d+ =1 because x meant some?+ real4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,s5sation ,,& ,,exp]i5ce4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! v>i\s !ories :i* h be5 held conc]n+ s5sation w\ld be ( z mu* int]e/ & importance z an inve/igation ( any "o po9t 9 ! range ( philosophy4 ,9 ! !ory ( a philosoph] ab\t s5sation we h ! reflex ( 8 fundam5tal category & ! clew to 8 fur!r doctr9e4 ,s5sation /&s on ! bord]-l9e betwe5 ! _w ( nature & ! realm ( s\l2 & e advance 9 sci5ce1 e developm5t ( philosophy1 leaves its impress 9 a *ange 9 ! !ory ( s5sation4 ,app>5tly "o ( ! simple/ & mo/ sup]ficial ( que/ions1 9 reality x is "o ( ! mo/ difficult & f>-rea*+4 ,at fir/ sight x seems z if x 7 a suffici5t acc\nt ( s5sation to say t an object affects ! organ ( s5se1 & ?us impresses ^u ! m9d ! quality :i* x possesses4 ,b ?is simple /atem5t ar\ses a ?rong ( fur!r que/ions3 ,h[ is x possible t "o sub/ance1--matt]1--%\ld affect ano!r1--m9d8 ,h[ c a causal relation exi/ betwe5 !m8 ,is ! m9d passive or active 9 ?is impression8 ,h[ c an object convey un*ang$ to ! m9d a quality :i* x possesses8 ,or is ! s5sational quale itself a product ( ! m9d's activity8 ,if s1 :at is ! nature ( ! object :i* excites ! s5sation8 ,z kn[n1 x is only a collection ( s5su\s qualities2 if ^! are purely m5tal1 :at becomes ( ! object8 ,& if !re is no object really !re1 :at is x t excites ! s5sation8 ,su* que/ion+s might be cont9u$ almo/ indef9itely2 b ^? giv5 are en\gh to %[ t an exam9ation ( ! nature & orig9 ( s5sation introduces u to ! problems ( ! relation ( intellig5ce & ! _w2 to ! problem ( ! ultimate con/itution ( an object :i* is set ov] aga9/ a subject & :i* affects x2 & to ! problem ( ! nature ( m9d1 :i* z ?us affect$ f )\t mu/ be limit$ 9 its nature1 b :i* z be>] ( ! :ole kn[n univ]se mu/ be 9 "s s5se inf9ite4 ,if we consid]1 n ! mode ( production ( s5sation1 b its relation to k1 we f9d philosophical s*ools divid$ into two1--,s5sationali/s1 & ,rationali/s4 ,if we inquire into its functions1 we f9d t ! empirici/ sees 9 x conv9c+ evid5ce ( ! fact t all k orig9ates f a s\rce extra m5tem2 t ! intellectual ideali/ f9ds 9 x evid5ce ( ! gradual transition ( nature into _s2 t ! e?ical ideali/1 l ,kant & ,fi*te1 sees 9 x ! mat]ial ( ! ph5om5al _w1 :i* is necess>y 9 its opposition to ! rational sph]e 9 ord] t !re may occur t conflict ( pure law & s5su\s impulse :i* alone makes morality possible4 ,we ?us realize t z we look at ! v>i\s aspects ( s5sation1 we are tak5 into ! discussion ( ontology1 ( ! !ory ( k & ( e?ics4 ,locke virtually recognizes ! extreme importance ( ! doctr9e ( s5sation1 & 8 second book might almo/ be entitl$ ,conc]n+ ! ,nature & ,products ( ,s5sation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & valuable portions ( ! reply ( ,leibniz is 9 8 developm5t ( a !ory ( s5sation :i* is ?or\ghly new1 except z we seek = its g]ms 9 its ?\ghts ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,accord+ to ,locke1 k orig9ates f two s\rces1--s5sation & reflection4 ,s5sations are ! impressions made on our s5ses by outw>d objects t are extr9sic to ! m9d4 ,:5 ! m9d comes to reflect on its own op]ations ab\t ! ideas got by s5sation1 & !reby /ores itself ) a new set ( ideas1 x gets ideas ( reflection4 ,if we leave out ( acc\nt = ! pres5t ! ideas ( reflection1 we f9d t ! ideas :i* come ?r\gh s5sation h two ma9 *>act]i/ics4 ,fir/1 9 hav+ s5sations1 ! m9d is passive2 its "p is purely receptive4 ,! objects impress !mselves ^u ! m9d1 !y obtrude into consci\sness1 :e!r ! m9d w or n4 ,!re is a purely ext]nal relation exi/+ betwe5 s5sation & ! und]/&+4 ,! ideas are (f]$ to ! m9d1 & ! und]/&+ _c refuse to h !m1 _c *ange !m1 blot !m out1 nor create !m1 any m ?an a mirror c refuse1 alt]1 or oblit]ate ! images :i* objects produce 9 x4 ,s5sation1 9 %ort1 is a purely passive hav+ ( ideas4 ,secondly1 e s5sation is simple4 ,locke w\ld say ( s5sations :at ,hume said ( all ideas1--e di/9ct s5sation is a sep>ate exi/5ce4 ,e s5sation is uncomp\nd$1 conta9+ no?+ b "o uni=m appe>ance1 n be+ di/+ui%able into diff]5t ideas4 ,k is h5ce=? a process ( comp\nd+1 ( repeat+1 comp>+1 & unit+ s5sation4 ,man's und]/&+ rea*es no fur!r ?an to comp\nd & divide ! mat]ials t are made to 8 h&4 ,x h>dly ne$ be said t ,locke has great difficulty 9 keep+ up ?is ?or\ghly atomic !ory ( m9d4 ,x is a !ory :i* makes all relations ext]nal2 !y are1 z ,locke aft]w>ds says1 sup]9duc$ ^u ! facts4 ,x makes x impossible to acc\nt = any appe>ance ( unity & connection among ideas1 & ,locke quietly1 & )\t any consci\sness ( ! contradiction involv$1 introduces c]ta9 inh]5t relations into ! /ructure ( ! ideas :5 he comes to 8 con/ructive "w4 ,exi/5ce & unity are two ideas1 he says1 t are sugge/$ to ! und]/&+ by e object )\t1 & e idea )94 ,at o!r places he introduces ! idea ( quality ( a sub/ance1 effect ( a cause1 cont9u$ p]man5ce or id5tity into a s5sation1 z necess>y con/itu5ts ( x2 ?us mak+ a s5sation a unity ( complex elem5ts in/ead ( an isolat$ b>e notion4 ,h[ f> he c\ld h got on 9 8 acc\nt ( k )\t ?is surreptiti\s qualify+ ( a pr(ess$ly simple exi/5ce1 may be se5 by ask+ :at w\ld be ! nature ( a s5sation :i* did n possess exi/5ce & unity1 & :i* 0 n conceiv$ z ! quality ( a ?+ or z ! effect ( an ext]nal reality4 ,?is digression has be5 introduc$ at ?is po9t because ! next "* ( a s5sation :i* ,locke discusses is its objective "*1--its relation to ! object :i* produces x4 ,to disc\rse ( our ideas intelligibly1 he says1 x w be conv5i5t to di/+ui% !m z !y are ideas 9 our m9ds & z !y are modifications ( matt] 9 ! bodies t cause !m4 ,9 o!r words1 he gives up all ?\ght ( consid]+ ideas z simply m5tal modifications1 & f9ds x necess>y to take !m 9 _! relations to objects4 ,tak+ !m 9 ?is way1 he f9ds t !y are to be divid$ into two classes1 ( :i* "o conta9s ^? ideas t are copies & resemblances ( qualities 9 ! objects1 ideas :i* are really 9 ! object1 :e!r we take notice ( !m or no1--9 :i* case we h an idea ( ! ?+ z x is 9 itself2 :ile ! o!r class conta9s ^? :i* are 9 no way resemblances ( ! objects :i* produce !m1 hav+ no m similitude ?an ! idea ( pa9 & ( a sword4 ,! =m] are prim>y qualities1 & are solidity1 ext5sion1 figure1 motion or re/1 & numb]2 :ile ! second>y qualities are colors1 smells1 & ta/es4 ,! =m] ideas are produc$ by impulse ( ! bodies !mselves1 :i* simply effect a transf]5ce ( _! qualities ov] into ! m9d2 :ile ! second>y qualities are arbitr>ily annex$ by ! p[] ( ,god to ! objects :i* excite !m4 ,x w be notic$ t !re are two elem5ts :i* make ! s5sation ( ,locke :at x is4 ,) ref]5ce to its production1 x is ! effect :i* "o sub/ance1 matt]1 has ^u ano!r sub/ance1 m9d1 :i* is unlike x 9 nature1 & betwe5 :i* :atev] relations exi/1 are ?or\ghly incompreh5sible1 s t1 inde$1 _! connections ) ea* o!r c be und]/ood only by rec\rse to a t]tium quid1 an omnipot5t p[] :i* c arbitr>ily produce su* collocations z please x4 ,) ref]5ce to its function1 x is ! isolat$ & simple 7t is1 non-relational7 elem5t out ( :i* all actual =ms ( k are made by composition & re-arrangem5t4 ,leibniz1 )\t ent]+ into explicit criticism ( j ^! two po9ts1 develops 8 own !ory ) ref]5ce to !m4 ,to ,leibniz1 reality con/itutes a sy/em2 t is1 x is ( su* a nature t its v>i\s portions h an ess5tial & n m]ely ext]nal relation to "o ano!r4 ,s5sation is ( c\rse no exception4 ,x is n a m]e accid5t1 nor yet a sup]natural yok+ ( ?+s naturally oppos$4 ,x has a mean+ 9 t connection ( ?+s :i* con/itute ! univ]se4 ,x contributes to ! significance ( ! _w4 ,x is "o way 9 :i* ^? activities :i* make ! real express !mselves4 ,x has its place or reason 9 ! totality ( ?+s1 & ?is :e!r we consid] its orig9 or its position ) reg>d to k4 ,9 a ^w1 :ile ! *>act]i/ic ( ,locke's !ory is t he conceives s5sation z 9 ext]nal relation bo? to reality1 z me*anically produc$ by x1 & to k1 z be+ m]ely "o ( ! atomic elem5ts :i* may ent] into a comp\nd1 ,leibniz reg>ds reality z organic to s5sation1 & ?is 9 turn z organic to k4 ,we h "h simply an illu/ration ( ! /atem5t ) :i* we set out2 namely1 t ! treatm5t ( s5sation always reflects ! fundam5tal philosophical category ( ! philosoph]4 ,all reality exi/s 9 ! =m ( monads2 monads are simple sub/ances ^: nature is action2 ?is action consi/s 9 repres5t+1 accord+ to a c]ta9 law ( succession1 ! univ]se4 ,v>i\s monads h v>i\s degrees ( activity2 t is1 ( ! p[] ( reflect+ ! _w4 ,s mu* ( ,leibniz's g5]al philosophical attitude x is necess>y to recall1 to und]/& :at he means by s5sation4 ,! g5]ic "n :i* is appli$ to ?is mirror+ activity ( ! monads is p]ception1 :i*1 z ,leibniz (t5 says1 is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f app]ception1 :i* is ! repres5tation become consci\s4 ,p]ception may be def9$1 !re=e1 z ! inclusion ( ! _m or multi=m 7! _w ( objects7 9 a unity 7! simple sub/ance74 ,x 0 ! great defect ( previ\s philosophy t x consid]$ only spirits or self-consci\s be+s z s\ls1 & _h consequ5tly recogniz$ only consci\s p]ceptions4 ,x _h be5 oblig$1 !re=e1 to make an impassable gulf betwe5 m9d & matt]1 & s5sations 7 ?us r5d]$ inexplicable4 ,b ,leibniz f9ds 8 function z a philosoph] 9 %[+ t ^! problems1 :i* seem insoluble1 arise :5 we insi/ ^u erect+ into actual sep>ations or diff]5ces ( k9d :at really are only /ages ( developm5t or diff]5ces ( degree4 ,a s5sation is n an effect :i* "o sub/ance impresses ^u ano!r because ,god pleas$ t x %\ld1 or because ( an incompreh5sible incid5t 9 ! orig9al con/itution ( ?+s4 ,x is a high] developm5t ( t repres5tative p[] :i* belongs to e real be+4 ,c]ta9 monads rea* a /ate ( developm5t1 or manife/ation ( activity1 :i* is *>act]iz$ by ! possession ( di/9ct organs4 ,su* monads may be call$1 9 a pre-em95t s5se1 s\ls1 & include all ! high] animals z well z man4 ,?is possession ( diff]5tiat$ organs f9ds its analogue 9 ! int]nal condition ( ! monad4 ,:at appe>s ext]nally z an organ ( s5se appe>s ideally z a consci\s repres5tative /ate :i* we call s5sation4 ,:51 ,leibniz says1 ! monad has its organs s develop$ t !re is relief & diff]5tiation 9 ! impressions receiv$1 & consequ5tly 9 ! p]ceptions :i* repres5t !m1 we h feel+ or s5sation2 t is1 a p]ception accompani$ by memory1 to :i* at o!r times he adds att5tion4 ,life1 he says1 is a p]ceptive pr9ciple2 ! s\l is s5sitive life2 m9d is rational s\l4 ,& aga9 he says 9 sub/ance t :5 ! s\l beg9s to h int]e/s1 & to reg>d "o repres5tation z ( m value ?an o!rs1 x introduces relief into its p]ceptions1 & ^? :i* /& out are call$ s5sations4 ,?is orig9 ( s5sations z high] developm5ts ( ! repres5tative activities ( a monad conditions _! relation to fur!r processes ( k4 ,! s5sations are confus$ k2 !y are ideas 9 _! primitive & mo/ undiff]5tiat$ =m4 ,!y con/itute1 z ,leibniz some:]e says1 ! v]tigo ( ! consci\s life4 ,9 e s5ti5t organism multitudes ( s5sations are con/antly ?rong+ 9 & ov]p[]+ its di/9ct consci\sness4 ,! s\l is s flood$ ) ideas ( ev]y?+ 9 ! _w :i* has any relation to its body t x has di/9ct ideas ( no?+4 ,high] k1 !n1 does n consi/ 9 comp\nd+ ^! s5sations2 t w\ld lit]ally make confusion worse conf\nd$4 ,x consi/s 9 introduc+ di/9ctness into ! previ\sly confus$ s5sations1--9 f9d+ out :at !y mean2 t is1 9 f9d+ out _! be>+s1 :at !y po9t to1 & h[ !y are relat$4 ,k is n an ext]nal process p]=m$ ^u ! s5sations1 x is ! developm5t ( _! int]nal cont5t4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t s5sation is organic to all =ms ( k :atev]4 ,! monad1 :i* is pure activity1 t :i* culm9ates ! scale ( reality1 has no confus$ ideas1 & to x all k is et]nally rational1 hav+ no s5sible traces ab\t x4 ,b e o!r monad1 hav+ its activity limit$1 has ideas :i* come to x at fir/ 9 a confus$ way1 & :i* its activity aft]w>ds diff]5tiates4 ,?us x is t ,leibniz c agree s he>tily ) ! motto ( ! ,s5sationali/ s*ool1--t !re is no?+ 9 ! intellect :i* 0 n fir/ 9 ! s5sory4 ,b ,leibniz uses ?is phrase z ,ari/otle w\ld h done1 hav+ 9 m9d ! di/9ction betwe5 pot5tiality & actuality4 ,9 posse1 s5sation is all k2 b only 9 posse4 ,& he1 l ,ari/otle1 int]prets ! relation betwe5 pot5tiality & actuality z "o ( a diff]5ce ( activity4 ,! pot5tial is t :i* becomes real ?r\gh a dynamic process4 ,! actual is capacity plus action4 ,s5sation1 9 %ort1 is spiritual activity 9 an undevelop$ & h5ce p>tial & limit$ condition4 ,x is n1 z ,locke w\ld h x1 ! real factor 9 all k4 ,! m>ks ( s5sation :i* ,locke lays d[n1--_! passivity1 _! simplicity1 _! position z ! real elem5t 9 k1--,leibniz ei!r d5ies1 !re=e1 or accepts 9 a s5se diff]5t f t ( ,locke4 ,/rictly speak+1 s5sation is an activity ( ! m9d4 ,!re are no w9d[s ?r\gh :i* ! s\l receives impressions4 ,pure passivity ( any k9d is a my?1 a s*ola/ic fiction4 ,s5sation is develop$ f ! s\l )92 x is ! activity ( reality made manife/ to itself4 ,x is a high] k9d ( action ?an any?+ we f9d 9 m9]als or 9 plants4 ,if we look at s5sation ideally1 h[ev]1 t is1 accord+ to ! position :i* x holds 9 ! sy/em ( k1 x is prop]ly reg>d$ z passive4 ,x repres5ts ! limitation1 ! unrealiz$ 7t is1 ! non-active7 side ( spiritual life4 ,effici5t causality is a t]m :i* has its rightful & legitimate use 9 physical sci5ce4 ,simply f ! sci5tific po9t ( view we are correct 9 speak+ ( objects z affect+ ! body1 & ! body1 ?r\gh its n]v\s sy/em1 z affect+ ! s\l & produc+ s5sations4 ,b philosophy does n m]ely use categories1 x expla9s !m4 ,& ,leibniz cont5ds t to expla9 ! category ( causality 9 a me*anical s5se1 to und]/& by x physical influ5ce actually transf]r$ f "o ?+ to ano!r1 is to make ! idea inexplicable & irrational4 ,! true mean+ ( causality is ideal4 ,x signifies ! relative positions :i* ! objects conc]n$ h 9 ! h>moni\s sy/em ( reality4 ,! body t is high] 9 ! scale impresses ! o!r2 t is to say1 x dom9ates x or gives its law4 ,!re is no en]gy or quality :i* passes physically f "o to ! o!r4 ,b "o monad1 z high] 9 ! /age ( developm5t ?an ano!r1 makes an ideal dem& ^u t "o4 ,x places be=e ! o!r its own m real condition4 ,! less-develop$ monad1 s9ce its :ole activity consi/s 9 repres5t+ ! univ]se ( reality1 answ]s to ?is dem& by develop+ ! correspond+ quality 9 itself4 ,! category ( h>moni\s or co-op]ative action is ?us sub/itut$ = t ( ext]nal & me*anical influ5ce4 ,physical causality :5 giv5 a philosophic int]pretation means organic developm5t4 ,! reality ( a high] /age is ! m active3 ! m active has a great] cont5t 9 t x mirrors ! univ]se m fully2 x manife/s accord+ly m ( ! law ( ! univ]se1 & h5ce has an ideal dom9ation ov] t :i* is l[] 9 ! scale4 ,x is actually 7t is1 9 activity7 :at ! o!r is pot5tially4 ,b z ! entire exi/5ce ( ! latt] is 9 repres5t+ or sett+ =? ! relations :i* make ! _w1 its activity is ar\s$ to a correspond+ production4 ,h5ce ! =m] is call$ cause1 & ! latt] effect4 ,?is introduces u to ! relation ( s\l & body1 or1 m g5]ally /at$1 to ! relation ( m9d & matt]4 ,x is ! !ory ( co-op]ation1 ( h>moni\s activity1 :i* ,leibniz sub/itutes = ! !ory :i* ,desc>tes _h =mulat$1 accord+ to :i* !re are two oppos$ sub/ances :i* c affect ea* o!r only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a deus ex ma*9a4 ,locke1 on ! o!r h&1 took ! ,c>tesian pr9ciple = grant$1 & ?us envelop$ himself 9 all ! difficulties :i* surr\nd ! "q ( m9d & matt]4 ,locke wav]s betwe5 two positions1 "o ( :i* is t !re are two unkn[n sub/ances1--! s\l & ! object 9 itself1--:i*1 com+ 9 contact1 produce s5sations2 :ile ! o!r takes ! hypo!tical attitude t !re may be b "o sub/ance1--matt]1--& t ,god1 out ( ! pl5itude ( 8 omnipot5ce1 has giv5 matt] a capacity :i* does n naturally belong to x1--t ( produc+ s5sations4 ,9 ei!r case1 h[ev]1 ! f9al rec\rse is to ! arbitr>y p[] ( ,god4 ,!re is no natural--t is1 intr9sic & explicable--connection betwe5 ! s5sation & t :i* produces x4 ,s5sation occupi$ ! h>d position :i* ! me*anical s*ool ( to-day /ill allots x4 ,x is t inexplicable1 my/]i\s1 unacc\ntable l9k betwe5 ! doma9s ( matt] & m9d ( :i* no rational acc\nt c be giv51 b :i* is yet ! s\rce ( all t we "k ab\t matt]1 & ! basis ( all t is real 9 ! m9d6 ,leibniz1 recogniz+ t reality is an organic :ole1--n two p>ts ) a *asm betwe5 !m1--says t ,god does n arbitr>ily give sub/ances :atev] qualities may happ51 or t he may arbitr>ily det]m9e1 b only su* z are natural2 t is1 su* z are relat$ to "o ano!r 9 an explicable way z modifications ( ! sub/ance4 ,leibniz feels sure t to introduce ! idea ( ! inexplicable1 ! purely sup]natural1 into ! natural is to give up all ! advantages :i* ! mod]n me*anical !ory _h introduc$1 & to relapse into ! mean+less features ( s*ola/icism4 ,if ! sup]natural--t is1 ! ess5tially inexplicable--is introduc$ 9 ?is "o case1 :y %\ld x n be 9 o!rs2 :y %\ld we n return outright to ! fanatic philosophy :i* expla9s all facts by simply attribut+ !m to ,god imm$iately or by way ( miracle1 or to ! b>b>ian philosophy1 :i* expla9s ph5om5a by manufactur+1 ad hoc1 occult qualities or faculties1 seem+ly l little demons or spirits capable ( p]=m+1 )\t c]emony1 :atev] is requir$1--z if wat*es m>k$ "t by _! horodeictic p[]1 )\t :eels1 & mills gr\nd gra91 )\t gr9d/ones1 by _! fractive p[]8 ,9 fact1 says ,leibniz1 by introduc+ ! inexplicable into our explanations we fall into some?+ worse ?an occult qualities1--we give up philosophy & reason2 we op5 asylums = ignorance & laz9ess1 hold+ n only t !re are qualities :i* we d n und]/& 7!re are1 inde$1 too _m su*71 b qualities :i* ! greate/ intellig5ce1 if ,god gave x all ! insight possible1 c\ld n und]/&1--t is1 su* z are 9 !mselves )\t rhyme or reason4 ,& inde$ x w\ld be a ?+ )\t rhyme or reason t ,god %\ld p]=m miracles 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature4 ,& reg>d+ ! :ole matt] ( introduc+ ! inconceivable & ! inexplicable into sci5ce1 he says t :ile ! conception ( m5 is n ! measure ( ,god's p[]1 _! capacity ( conception is ! measure ( nature's p[]1 s9ce ev]y?+ occurr+ 9 ! natural ord] is capable ( be+ und]/ood by ! creat$ intellig5ce4 ,su* be+ ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz reg>d+ ! virtual attempt to introduce 9 8 day ! unkn[able into philosophy1 x is evid5t t he mu/ reject1 f ! root up1 all !ories ( s5sation :i*1 l ,locke's1 make x ! product ( ! inexplicable int]c\rse ( two sub/ances4 ,= ?is doctr9e1 !n1 ,leibniz sub/itutes t ( an inf9ite numb] ( sub/ances1 all ( ! same k9d1 all active1 all develop+ f )91 all conspir+ to ! same end1 b ( v>i\s /ages ( activity1 or be>+ v>i\s relations ( complet5ess to ! "o end4 ,inde$1 "o & ! same monad has v>i\s degrees ( activity 9 itself2 t is1 x repres5ts m or less di/9ctly ! univ]se accord+ to its po9t ( view4 ,its po9t ( view requires ( x1 ( c\rse1 prim>ily1 a repres5tation ( t :i* is ab\t x4 ,?us an inf9ity ( /ates arises1 ea* correspond+ to "s "o ( ! multitude ( objects surr\nd+ ! monad4 ,! s\l has no control1 no ma/]y1 ov] ^! /ates4 ,x has to take !m z !y come2 ) reg>d to !m1 ! s\l appe>s passive4 ,x appe>s s because x does n z yet cle>ly di/+ui% !m4 ,x does n react ^u !m & become consci\s ( _! mean+ or ?or\ghly rational "*4 ,we %all aft]w>ds see t matt] is1 ) ,leibniz1 simply ?is passive or confus$ side ( monads4 ,x is ! monad s f> z x has n br\ght to light ! rational activity :i* is imman5t 9 x4 ,at pres5t we ne$ only notice t ! body is simply ! "p ( matt] or ( passivity :i* limits ! complete activity ( any monad4 ,s ,leibniz says1 9 s f> z ! s\l has p]fection1 x has di/9ct ?\ghts1 & ,god has accommodat$ ! body to ! s\l4 ,s f> z x is imp]fect & its p]ceptions are confus$1 ,god has accommodat$ ! s\l to ! body 9 su* a way t ! s\l lets itself be incl9$ by ! passions1 :i* are born f corporeal repres5tations4 ,x is by its confus$ ?\ghts 7s5sations7 t ! s\l repres5ts ! bodies ab\t x1 j z1 we may add1 its di/9ct ?\ghts repres5t ! monads or s\ls ab\t x1 &1 9 ! degree ( _! di/9ctness1 ,god1 ! monad :i* is purus actus4 ,foll[+ ! matt] into m detail1 we may say t s9ce ,god alone is pure en]gy1 kn[+ no limitation1 ,god alone is pure _s4 ,e f9ite s\l is jo9$ to an organic body4 ,i d n admit1 says ,leibniz1 t !re are s\ls entirely sep>ate f matt]1 nor creat$ spirits deta*$ f body4 4 4 4 ,x is ?is body :i* ! monad repres5ts mo/ di/9ctly2 b s9ce ?is body expresses ! entire univ]se by ! connection ( all matt] ?r\gh\t x1 ! s\l repres5ts ! entire univ]se 9 repres5t+ ! body :i* belongs to x mo/ p>ticul>ly4 ,b accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity !re mu/ be 9 ! lea/ app>5t portion ( matt] /ill a univ]se ( creatures1 ( s\ls1 ( entele*ies4 ,!re is no?+ /]ile1 no?+ dead 9 ! univ]se4 ,x is evid5t f ^! consid]ations t e liv+ body has a dom9ant entele*y1 :i* is ! s\l 9 t body1 b t ! memb]s ( ?is liv+ body are aga9 full ( o!r liv+ be+s & s\ls1 :i*1 h[ev]1 s9ce n ( s high a grade1 t is1 n repres5t+ ! univ]se s fully1 appe> to be :olly mat]ial & subject to ! dom9ant entele*y2 namely1 to ! "o :i* gives ! law to ! o!rs by express+ m adequately ! idea at :i* !y only confus$ly aim4 ,ow+ to ! con/ant *ange ( activity1 h[ev]1 ^! p>ticles d n rema9 9 con/ant subord9ation to ! same entele*y 7t is1 d n =m p>ts ( ! same body71 b pass on to high] or l[] degrees ( evolution1 & h _! places tak5 by o!rs und]go+ simil> processes ( *ange4 ,?us all bodies are 9 a p]petual flux1 l riv]s1 ) p>ts cont9ually leav+ & ent]+ 94 ,or1 int]pret+ ?is figurative language1 ea* monad is cont9ually1 9 its process ( developm5t1 giv+ law to new & less develop$ monads1 :i* !re=e appe> z its body4 ,! nature ( matt] 9 itself1 & ( its ph5om5al manife/ation 9 ! body1 are1 h[ev]1 subjects :i* f9d no explanation "h1 & :i* w dem& explanation 9 ano!r *apt]4 ,we may sum up ,leibniz's !ory ( s5sation by say+ t x is a repres5tative /ate develop$ by ! self-activity ( ! s\l2 t 9 itself x is a confus$ or involv$ grade ( activity1 & 9 its relation to ! _w repres5ts ! confus$ or passive aspects ( exi/5ce2 t ?is limitation ( ! monad con/itutes matt]1 & 9 its necess>y connection ) ! monad con/itutes ! body :i* is always jo9$ to ! f9ite s\l2 t to ?is body are jo9$ 9 all cases an imm5se numb] ( monads1 ^: action is subord9ate to t ( ?is dom9ant monad1 & t x is ! collection ( ^! :i* con/itute ! visible animal body4 ,?us if we look at s5sation ) reg>d to ! monad :i* possesses x1 x is a product ( ! body ( ! monad2 if we look at x ) ref]5ce to o!r monads1 x repres5ts or reflects _! passive or mat]ial side4 ,?is is evid5tly "o aspect aga9 ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1--an aspect 9 :i* "s ( ! n>r[] ( ,leibniz's critics h se5 ! :ole mean+ ( ! doctr9e exhau/$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 simply "o ( ! _m =ms 9 :i* ! h>mony1 ! union ( spiritual & me*anical1 ideal & mat]ial1 meets u4 ,9 tru?1 :ile 9 o!r sy/ems ! fact ( s5sation is a fact dem&+ "s artificial mode ( reconcil+ m9d & matt]1 or is else to be accept$ z an inexplicable fact1 9 ! sy/em ( ,leibniz x is itself evid5ce t ! spiritual & ! me*anical are n two oppos$ k9ds ( exi/5ce1 b are organically unit$4 ,x is itself ! manife/ation ( ! h>mony ( ! ideal & ! mat]ial1 n some?+ :i* requires t a factiti\s !ory be inv5t$ = expla9+ _! appe>ance ( h>mony4 ,s5sation has )9 itself ! ideal elem5t1 = x is ! manife/ation1 9 its mo/ undevelop$ =m1 ( ! spiritual mean+ ( ! univ]se4 ,x has a me*anical elem5t1 = x expresses ! limitation1 ! passivity1 ( ! monad4 ,x is f ?is /&po9t t ,leibniz criticises :at ,locke says ab\t ! relation ( s5sations to ! objects :i* produce !m4 ,leibniz holds t all our s5sations h a def9ite & natural connection ) ! qualities ( objects1--! second>y z well z ! prim>y4 ,!y all repres5t c]ta9 prop]ties ( ! object4 ,ev5 ! pa9 :i* ! ?ru/ ( a ne$le gives u1 :ile x does n resemble any?+ 9 ! ne$le1 does 9 "s way repres5t or resemble motions go+ on 9 our body4 ,?is resemblance is n necess>ily "o ( exact =m1 b j z ! ellipse1 hyp]bola1 & p>abola are projections ( ! circle 9 ! s5se t !re is a natural & fix$ law ( connection betwe5 !m1 s t e po9t ( "o corresponds by a c]ta9 relation ) e po9t ( ! o!r1 s ! resemblance betwe5 ! s5sation & ! quality ( ! object is always 9 ! =m ( a fix$ law ( ord]1 :i*1 h[ev] unkn[n to u x may n[ be1 is capable ( be+ f\nd out4 ,if we are to make any di/9ction betwe5 second>y & prim>y s5sations1 x %\ld be n t "o pres5ts qualities t are 9 ! objects1 & ! o!r affections :i* exi/ only 9 u1 b t ! prim>y s5sations 7( numb]1 =m1 size1 etc47 repres5t ! qualities 9 a di/9ct way1 appeal+ to ! rational activity ( intellig5ce1 :ile ! second>y repres5t ! qualities 9 a confus$ way1 a way n go+ beyond ! effect ^u ! m9d into relations1 t is1 into di/9ct k4 ,?is br+s regul>ly be=e u ! "q ( ! relation ( s5sations to k4 ,we h se5 en\gh already to "k t ,leibniz does n believe t k beg9s ) ! simple 7t is1 unrelat$71 & !n proce$s by a process ( comp\nd+4 ,! s5sation is n simple to ,leibniz1 b ?or\ghly complex1 involv+ confus$ly )9 itself all possible relations4 ,z relations are br\ght =? into di/9ct light out ( ?is confusion1 k ends r ?an beg9s ) ! simple4 ,& aga9 x is evid5t t ,leibniz _c believe t k beg9s & ends 9 exp]i5ce1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* bo? himself & ,locke use ! ^w2 namely1 z mean+ ! comb9ation & succession ( impressions4 ,exp]i5ce1 z !y use ! t]m1 consi/s 9 s5sations & _! association1--consecution z ,leibniz calls x4 ,exp]i5ce is ! /age ( k rea*$ by animals1 & 9 :i* ! majority ( m5 rema91--& inde$ all m5 9 ! great] "p ( _! k4 ,leibniz takes j ! same position reg>d+ ! l>g] "p ( our k :i* ,hume takes reg>d+ x all4 ,x consi/s simply 9 associations ( su* a nature t :5 "o "p recurs !re is a t5d5cy to expect ! recurr5ce ( ! o!r memb]4 ,x resembles reason1 b x is bas$ on ! accid5tal exp]i5ce ( ev5ts 9 a consecutive ord]1 & n on k ( _! causal connection4 ,we all expect ! sun to rise to-morr[2 b ) all ( u1 except+ ! a/ronom]1 su* expectation is purely empirical1 be+ bas$ on ! images ( pa/ exp]i5ces :i* recur4 ,! a/ronom]1 h[ev]1 sees into ! gr\nds1 t is1 ! reasons1 ( ! expectation1 & h5ce 8 k is rational4 ,?us we h two grades ( k1--"o empirical1 consi/+ ( k ( facts2 ! o!r rational1 be+ ( ! tru?s ( reason4 ,! =m] is cont+5t & p>ticul>1 ! latt] is necess>y & univ]sal4 ,leibniz insi/s1 ) a p]t9acity :i* rem9ds u ( ,kant1 t exp]i5ce c give in/ances or examples only1 & t ! fact t any?+ has happ5$ 9 a giv5 way any numb] ( times 9 ! pa/1 c give no assurance t x w cont9ue to d s 9 ! future4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! case :i* r5d]s its exact opposite impossible4 ,b a rational tru? is necess>y1 = its opposite is impossible1 be+ irrational or mean+less4 ,?is may n always be evid5t 9 ! case ( a complex rational tru?2 b if x be analyz$ into simpl] elem5ts1 z a geometrical proposition into def9itions1 axioms1 & po/ulates1 ! absurdity ( its opposite becomes evid5t4 ,s5sation1 9 conclusion1 is ! hav+ ( confus$ ideas1--ideas correspond+ to matt]4 ,exp]i5ce is ! association ( ^! confus$ ideas1 & _! association accord+ to _! accid5tal juxtaposition 9 ! life ( ! s\l4 ,x !re=e is n only ?or\ghly s5sible1 b is also ph5om5al4 ,its cont5t is s5sations2 its =m is cont+5t & p>ticul> consecution4 ,bo? =m & cont5t1 accord+ly1 ne$ to be recon/ruct$ if !y are to be wor?y ( ! "n ( sci5ce or ( k4 ,?is is ! position :i* ,leibniz assumes z aga9/ ! empirici/1 ,locke4 ,! details ( ?is recon/ruction1 its me?od & result1 we mu/ leave till we come 9 ! c\rse ( ! argum5t aga9 to ! subject ( k4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,impulses ,,& ,,! ,,w4 ,locke1 aft] discuss+ ! subject ( innate ideas 9 _! relation to k1 goes on to discuss _! practical side1 or connection ) w4 ,we %all foll[ him 9 ?is z ,leibniz does2 b we %all consid] 9 connection ) ?is1 ,leibniz's g5]al !ory ( w1 :i* is develop$ p>tially 9 ?is *apt]1 b m completely 9 8 critical rem>ks ^u :at ,locke has to say ( ! notion ( p[]4 ,s9ce ! !ory ( morals is z closely connect$ ) w z ! !ory ( k is ) ! intellect1 we %all supplem5t ?is discussion ) :at ,leibniz says ^u ! e?ical "q1 draw+ our mat]ial some:at freely f 8 o!r writ+s4 ,! doctr9e ( w :i* ,leibniz prop\nds is 9 close/ h>mony ) 8 conception ( intellig5ce1 & ?is n m]ely 9 ! way ( empirical juxtaposition1 b z ! result ( 8 fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,if we recall :at has be5 said conc]n+ ! monad1 we %all rememb] t x is an activity1 b an activity ) a cont5t4 ,x is a =ce1 b a =ce :i* mirrors ! univ]se4 ,! cont5t1 t portion ( reality :i* is reflect$ 9 ! action1 is k1 or ! idea2 ! activity :i* br+s ?is ab\t is w1 or ! volition4 ,!y are relat$ to ea* o!r z =m & cont5t4 ,!re is1 /rictly speak+1 no /ate ( m9d2 !re is only a t5sion1 a pu%+ =w>d ( m9d4 ,!re is no idea :i* is n a volition4 ,w is ?us us$1 9 a v broad s5se1 z equival5t to action4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! activity ( ! monad is 9 no case aimless1 b has an end 9 view1 ! w is n m]e activity 9 g5]al1 x is action t[>ds "s def9ite end4 ,& s9ce ! end at :i* ! monad aims is always ! developm5t ( an idea1 ! reflection ( "s con/itu5t ( ! univ]se1 ! w is always direct$ t[>ds & det]m9$ by "s idea ( ! intellect4 ,we h se51 h[ev]1 t !re are v>i\s /ages 9 ! reflect+ p[] ( ! s\l1 or 9 ! realization ( intellect4 ,tak+ only ! broade/ division1 !re are p]ception & app]ception2 t is1 !re are ! consci\s & ! unconsci\s mirror+ ( reality4 ,we %all expect1 !n1 to f9d two correspond+ /ages ( volition4 ,leibniz calls ^! /ages appetition & volition 9 ! n>r[] s5se4 ,! con/ant t5d5cy 9 e monad to g f "o p]ception to ano!r1--t is1 ! foll[+ ( ! law ( developm5t1--con/itutes appetition4 ,if jo9$ to feel+1 x con/itutes in/9ct4 ,s9ce1 aga91 !re are two degrees ( app]ception1 "o ( empirical1 ! o!r ( rational1 consci\sness1 we %all expect to f9d two grades ( volition prop]1--"o correspond+ to action = consci\s p>ticul> ends2 ! o!r = ends :i* are propos$ by reason1 & are h5ce univ]sal4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all simply exp& & illu/rate ^! v>i\s propositions4 ,s5sations1 look$ at n z to :at !y repres5t1 b 9 !mselves1 are impulses4 ,z su* !y con/itute ! l[e/ /age ( w4 ,impulsive action !n includes all su* z occurs = an end :i* is unkn[n1 or at be/ b dimly felt4 ,su* action may be call$ bl9d1 n 9 ! s5se t x is )\t reason1 b 9 ! s5se t reason is n consci\sly pres5t4 ,we are n to ?9k ( ?is in/9ctive action1 h[ev]1 z if x 7 f\nd simply 9 ! animals4 ,mu* ( human action is also impulsive2 probably1 inde$1 an impulsive factor is conta9$ 9 our mo/ rational will+4 ,we are nev] able to take complete acc\nt ( ! ag5cies :i* are act+ ^u u4 ,along ) ! reasons ( :i* we are consci\s 9 *oos+1 !re are m+l$ fa9t memories ( pa/ exp]i5ce1 subconsci\s solicitations ( ! pres5t1 dim expectations = ! future4 ,su* elem5ts are decisive factors f> m ?an we realize4 ,inde$1 x is because ( ! ext5t to :i* su* unconsci\s influ5ces be> ^u u & move u t !re arises ! idea ( indiff]5t or unmotivat$ *oice4 ,7 bo? motive & *oice unconsci\s1 ! "q z to :e!r *oice 7 antec$5tly det]m9$ w\ld n arise2 & 7 our motives & _! results :olly 9 consci\sness1 ! solution ( ! "q w\ld be evid5t4 ,b :5 we are consci\s ( our *oice1 b are n consci\s ( our impulses & motives1 we get ! impression t our *oice is unmotiv$1 & h5ce come to believe 9 indiff]5t fre$om1--! ability to *oose z we w4 ,we %all %ortly take up 9 m detail ! !ory ( ,leibniz reg>d+ ! fre$om ( w2 & x is ne$ful "h to rem>k only t ! conception :i* makes x consi/ 9 ability to *oose )\t reason is 9 direct contradiction to 8 fundam5tal ?\ght1--namely1 t !re c be no activity :i* does n aim at "s reflection ( ! univ]se1 by :i*1 !re=e1 x is det]m9$4 ,f ! psy*ological po9t ( view1 x is int]e/+ also to notice h[ ,leibniz's !ory ( unconsci\s ideas enables him to dispose ( ! /ronge/ argum5t = indiff]5t *oice1--t drawn f ! imm$iate te/imony ( consci\sness4 ,^u ! orig9 & nature ( desires ,leibniz has mu* m to say ?an ab\t ! impulses4 ,8 acc\nt ( ! transition f impulse to desire is bas$ ^u ! conception ( unconsci\s ideas4 ,slight & imp]ceptible impulses are work+ ^u u all ! "t4 ,inde$1 !y are a necessity2 = ! actual /ate ( a s\l or monad at any "t is1 ( c\rse1 "o ( incomplet5ess4 ,our nature mu/ always "w to free itself f its h9drances & obta9 its goal ( complete developm5t4 ,b x w n d ?is unless !re is "s /imulus1 "s solicitation to induce x to ov]come its limitation4 ,!re is f\nd accord+ly 9 our e condition a feel+ ( dissatisfaction1 or1 us+ ,locke's ^w1 ( uneas9ess2 & x is ?is :i* calls =? t activity :i* br+s ab\t a ne>] approa* to ! s\l's real good4 ,b ,leibniz diff]s f ,locke 9 say+ t ?is feel+ ( uneas9ess is n a di/9ct1 or ev5 9 mo/ cases a consci\s1 "o4 ,x is n pa91 al?\gh x diff]s f pa9 only 9 degree4 ,uneas9ess & pa9 are relat$ to ea* o!r z appetite = food is to hung]1--! fir/ suffices to /imulate u to satisfaction1 b if ! want is n met1 results 9 actual pa92 if met1 ^! half pa9s become tribut>y to pleasure itself4 ,^! unconsci\s /imuli to action result 9 actions :i* meet ! want1 & ! aggregation ( ^! satisfactions results 9 pleasure4 ,9 ,leibniz's own words3-- ,if ^! elem5ts ( pa9 7 !mselves true pa9s1 we %\ld always be 9 a /ate ( mis]y1 ev5 9 pursu+ ! good4 ,b s9ce !re is always go+ on a summation ( m9ute successes 9 ov]com+ ^! /ates ( uneas9ess1 & ^! put u m & m at ease1 !re comes ab\t a decid$ pleasure1 :i* (t5 has great] value ev5 ?an ! enjoym5t ( ! good4 ,f>1 !n1 f reg>d+ ?is uneas9ess z a ?+ incompatible ) happ9ess1 ,i f9d t x is an ess5tial condition ( our happ9ess4 ,= ?is does n consi/ 9 p]fect possession1 :i* w\ld make u ins5sible & /upid1 b 9 a con/ant progress t[>ds great] results1 :i* mu/ always be accompani$1 accord+ly1 by ?is elem5t ( desire or uneas9ess4 ,& aga9 he says t we enjoy all ! advantages ( pa9 )\t any ( its inconv5i5ces4 ,if ! uneas9ess %\ld become too di/9ct1 we %\ld be mis]able 9 our await+ ! good :i* relieves x2 b z x is1 !re is a con/ant victory ov] ^! half-pa9s1 :i* we always f9d 9 desire1 & ?is gives u a quantity ( half-pleasures1 ^: cont9uance & summation 7= !y acquire =ce l a mov+ body z x falls7 result 9 a :ole & true pleasure4 ,9 %ort1 !re is inde$ an elem5t ( pa9 9 all desire :i* /imulates u to action1 & !re=e to high] developm5t4 ,b ord9>ily ?is elem5t ( pa9 is n pres5t z su* 9 consci\sness1 b is absorb$ 9 ! pleasure :i* accompanies ! realization ( ! high] good4 ,?us ,leibniz1 accept+ & emphasiz+ ! v same fact t s]v$ ,s*op5hau] z a psy*ological base ( pessimism1 uses x z a f\ndation-/one ( optimism4 ,b desire1 or ! consci\s t5d5cy t[>ds some?+ requir$ z a good1 accompani$ by ! dim feel+ ( uneas9ess at its abs5ce1 does n yet con/itute ! complete act ( volition4 ,sev]al impulses & incl9ations meet 9 =m+ ! complete volition :i* is ! result ( _! conflict4 ,9 ! concrete act ( w !re are conta9$ impulses :i* pu% u t[>ds "s end ^: nature is n kn[n2 !re is desire bo? 9 its in*oate /age1 :]e pleasure & pa9 are n 9 consci\sness1 & 9 its =m$ /ate1 :]e ! pa9 & pleasure are def9itely pres5t$4 ,mix$ ) ^! desires & impulses are images ( pa/ exp]i5ces :i* call up ! feel+s :i* 7 =m]ly atta*$ to !m1 & ?us !re are ar\s$ indirectly additional impulses & desires4 ,out ( ?is complicat$ mass ( impulses1 desires1 & feel+s1 bo? orig9al & reproduc$1 comes ! dom9ant ef=t :i* con/itutes complete w4 ,b :at gov]ns ! production ( ?is prevail+ or dom9ant ef=t1 :i* we may int]pret z ! act ( *oice8 ,! answ] is simple3 ! result ( ! conflict ( ^! v>i\s factors1 ! /rik+ ( ! balance1 is ! *oice4 ,"s desire em]ges f ! confus$ complex1 & t desire is ! f9al det]m9ation ( ! w4 ,?is desire may n 9 all cases be ! /ronge/ 9 itself1--t is1 ! "o ^: satisfaction w allay ! greate/ uneas9ess1 = ! o!rs1 tak5 toge!r1 may outweigh x2 x may1 s to speak1 h a plurality1 b n a majority1 ( volitional =ces on its side1--& 9 ?is case a fusion ( oppos+ factors may defeat x4 ,b 9 any ev5t ! result w be ! algebraic sum ( ! v>i\s desires & impulses4 ,x is n at all necess>y1 h[ev]1 t ! net outcome %all make itself app>5t z a me*anical equival5t ( ! =ces at "w4 ,! s\l1 ,leibniz says1 may use its skill 9 ! =mation ( p>ties1 s z to make ?is or t side ! victor4 ,h[ is ?is to be done1 & /ill disall[ ! possibility ( arbitr>y *oice8 ,?is problem is solv$ ?r\gh action becom+ delib]ate4 ,delib]ate action is impossible unless ! s\l has =m$ ! habit ( look+ ahead & ( arrang+ = modes ( action :i* d n pres5t !mselves z imm$iate necessities4 ,only 9 ?is way c "o look at ! matt] imp>tially & coolly2 at ! mom5t ( combat !re is no "t = discussion4 ,ev]y?+ :i* !n occurs ?r[s its full =ce on ! balance1 & contributes to an outcome made up 9 ! same way z 9 me*anics4 ,! =mation ( c]ta9 habits be=eh&1 !re=e1 is ! secret ( translat+ impulsive action into ! delib]ate sph]e4 ,( ^! habits ! simple/ consi/s 9 ?9k+ only occasionally & incid5tally ( c]ta9 ?+s4 ,imag9ation is ! "m ( desire4 ,if we d n all[ ! imag9ation to dwell ^u c]ta9 l9es ( ?\ght1 ! probability ( su* ?\ghts acquir+ suffici5t =ce to become motives ( weight is small4 ,a /ill m effective me?od ( regulat+ action is to accu/om ourselves to =m+ a tra9 ( ?\ghts ( :i* reason1 & n *ance 7t is1 association71 is ! basis4 ,we mu/ get out ( ! tumult ( pres5t impressions1 beyond our imm$iate surr\nd+s1 & ask3 ,dic cur hic8 respice f9em6 ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ cross-"q our impulses & desires1 we mu/ ask :5ce !y come1 t we may see h[ valid are ! cr$5tials :i* !y (f]4 ,we mu/ ask :i!r !y t5d1 t we may measure !m1 n by _! imm$iate int]e/1 b by _! relation to an end4 ,! desires are n to be tak5 at _! face-value1 b are to be weigh$ & comp>$4 ,su* a process w evid5tly result 9 arre/+ in/antane\s action4 ,!re w be a pause betwe5 ! pres5tation ( ! desires & ! ov]t act4 ,dur+ ?is pause x may well occur t ! exam9ation to :i* ! desires h be5 subject has awak5$ contr>y desires4 ,! ?\ght ( ! ignoble orig9 ( a desire or ( its repulsive1 ?\gh remote1 result w br+ into action desires ( an oppos$ k9d4 ,?us ! s\l regulates action1 n z if1 h[ev]1 x _h any direct influ5ce ov] desires1 b by its ability ( br++ o!r desires into ! field4 ,! w1 9 %ort1 is n oppos$ to desire1 ?\gh rational desire may be oppos$ to s5su\s desire4 ,by v>i\s artifices1 !n1 ,leibniz concludes1 we become ma/]s ( ourselves1 & c make ourselves ?9k & d t :i* we ought to w1 & :i* reason orda9s4 ,su* is ! summ>y ( ,leibniz's analysis ( ! elem5ts & me*anism ( volition4 ,!re 0 n mu* psy*ology exi/+ at ! "t :i* c\ld aid him 9 su* an acute & subtle acc\nt2 only 9 ,ari/otle c\ld he h f\nd mu* help4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 s g5]ally incorporat$ into curr5t psy*ology t we may seem to h wa/$ space 9 repeat+ truisms4 ,( moral action1 h[ev]1 we h z yet he>d no?+4 ,we h an acc\nt ( a psy*ological me*anism2 b = :at e?ical end does ?is "w1 & by :at me?od8 ,?is "q may be/ be answ]$ by turn+ 9 m detail to ! "q ( ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,fre$om 9 ! s5se ( arbitr>y *oice ,leibniz :olly rejects1 z we h se54 ,x is inconsi/5t ) at lea/ two ( 8 fundam5tal pr9ciples2 ^?1 namely1 ( suffici5t reason1 & ( cont9uity4 ,ev]y?+ t occurs mu/ h a suffici5t reason = its occurr5ce4 ,?is (t-repeat$ dictum ( ,leibniz1 ! logical way ( /at+ ! complete rationality ( exp]i5ce1 w\ld be %att]$ into fragm5ts by collision ) gr\ndless *oice4 ,x conflicts equally 7inde$ = ! same reason7 ) ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity4 ,! pres5t is pregnant ) ! future4 ,nature nev] makes leaps4 ,an absolute equilibrium is a *im]a4 ,! s\l is nev] :olly at re/4 ,^! are only v>i\s ways ( say+ t ! notion ( arbitr>y or unmotivat$ *oice re/s ^u ! assumption t !re is a complete break 9 ! life ( ! s\l1 s t x is possible = some?+ to happ5 :i* be>s no organic relation to any?+ t prec$es4 ,! notion ( a /ate ( ! s\l )\t motives1 foll[$ by ! irruption ( a c]ta9 l9e ( conduct1 ! notion ( an equilibrium brok5 by arbitr>y *oice1 is simply ! c\nt]p>t ( ! idea ( a vacuum4 ,all t makes ,leibniz reject ! latt] conception makes x impossible = him to accept ! =m]4 ,?is %\ld n be int]pret$ to mean t ,leibniz d5i$ ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,:at he d5i$ is a notion ( fre$om :i* seem$ to him at once unv]ifiable1 useless1 & irrational4 ,!re is a conception ( fre$om :i* ,leibniz n only accepts1 b insi/s ^u4 ,su* a notion ( fre$om is inde$ 8 e?ical ideal4 ,its ?ree traits are cont+5cy1 spontaneity1 & rationality ( action4 ,h[ action c be at ! same "t cont+5t & det]m9$ is p]haps difficult to und]/&2 b ,leibniz takes ! position t x is4 ,8 fir/ /ep is to di/+ui% betwe5 physical1 ma!matical1 metaphysical1 & moral necessity4 ,!re are tru?s :i* are et]nal1 tru?s :i* are absolutely necess>y1 because _! opposites involve contradiction4 ,!y _c be violat$ )\t involv+ u 9 absurdity4 ,!re are o!r tru?s :i* are positive1 t is1 orda9$ = good reason4 ,^! tru?s may be a priori1 or rational1 & n m]ely empirical2 = !y h be5 *os5 = reasons ( advantage4 ,god always *ooses & orda9s ! be/ ( a numb] ( possibilities2 b he does x1 n because ! opposite is impossible1 b because x is inf]ior4 ,tru?s ^: opposites are impossible h metaphysical & ma!matical necessity4 ,positive tru?s h moral necessity4 ,! pr9ciple ( causation mu/ be true2 ! ?ree int]ior angles ( a triangle mu/ be equal to two "r angles4 ,b t ,god %all *oose ! bett] ( two c\rses is a moral necessity only4 ,x invokes no absolute logical contradiction to conceive him *oos+ "s o!r way4 ,^u moral necessity dep5ds ! physical4 ,! p>ticul> laws ( nature are necess>y1 n because _! opposites are logically absurd1 b because ^! laws are mo/ 9 accordance ) ! g5]al pr9ciples ( good & ord]1 9 agreem5t ) :i* ,god *ooses4 ,physical & moral action is !re=e 9 all cases cont+5t4 7,cont+5cy does n ( itself1 ( c\rse1 con/itute fre$om1 b conjo9$ ) ! *>act]i/ics ( rationality & spontaneity1 does s47 ,necessity1 9 %ort1 is bas$ ^u ! pr9ciple ( logical contradiction2 cont+5cy ^u t ( suffici5t reason4 ,s9ce our actions are 9 no case necessitat$ 9 su* a way t _! opposite is self-contradictory1 or1 put positively1 s9ce our actions are always det]m9$ by ! *oice ( t :i* seems be/1 our actions are cont+5t4 ,occasionally ,leibniz puts ! matt] 9 a mu* simpl] way1 & "o :i* br+s out ! ess5tial elem5t m cle>ly ?an ! =ego+ di/9ction4 ,"s facts are det]m9$ by ! pr9ciple ( physical causation2 o!rs by t ( f9al causation4 ,"s1 9 o!r words1 are necess>y z ! me*anical outcome ( _! antec$5ts2 o!rs are necess>y z involv$ 9 ! rea*+ ( a giv5 end4 ,x is simply ! ,ari/otelian di/9ction betwe5 effici5t & teleological causation4 ,human action is det]m9$1 s9ce x always has a motive or reason2 x is cont+5t1 because x spr+s f ?is reason & n f its temporal antec$5ts4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 det]m9$1 b x is also free4 ,x does n require mu* analysis1 h[ev]1 to see t ?is di/9ction1 9 :atev] way x be put1 really has no significance1 except z x po9ts to ! o!r m>ks ( fre$om1--spontaneity & rationality4 ,z we %all see1 ,leibniz makes & c make no absolute di/9ction betwe5 tru?s ( reason & tru?s ( fact4 ,! cont+5t & ! necess>y are "o at bottom4 ,to u ) our limit$ intellig5ce x does inde$ (t5 appe> z if no contradiction 7 involv$ 9 ! =m]1--z if1 = example1 a man c\ld turn ei!r to "r or left )\t !re be+ any logical contradiction 9 ei!r case2 b ?is is because ( our defective insight4 ,an intellig5ce cognizant ( ! :ole matt] c\ld see t "o action w\ld contradict "s tru? involv$ 9 ! con/itution ( ! univ]se4 ,! s\rce ( ! cont+5t & *ang+ is 9 ! necess>y & et]nal4 ,?us x is t al?\gh ,leibniz at "o "t says t nei!r "o's self nor any o!r _s m enlight5$ c\ld demon/rate t ! opposite ( a giv5 action 7l go+ out 9 pref]5ce to /ay+ 97 involves contradiction1 at ano!r "t he says t a p]fect k ( all ! circum/ances1 int]nal & ext]nal1 w\ld enable any "o to =esee ! decision 9 a giv5 case4 ,if t be s1 any o!r action mu/ be impossible2 t is1 accord+ to ,leibniz's inv>iable logic1 imply contradiction4 ,we get ! same result if we consid] ! relation ( f9al & effici5t causes4 ,x is only :5 speak+ 9 a v g5]al way t ,leibniz opposes action z det]m9$ by prec$5t activities to t direct$ t[>ds ! atta9m5t ( an end4 ,he does n really mean t "s action is physical1 :ile o!r is teleological4 ,he _c suppose t "s action has an antec$5t cause1 :ile o!r has a purpose4 ,! v ess5ce ( 8 ?\ght is t action is bo? me*anical & teleological2 t all action foll[s 9 a law ( ord] f prec$5t action1 & t all fulfils a c]ta9 spiritual function4 ,! di/9ction is n1 ) ,leibniz1 "o betwe5 two k9ds ( action1 b betwe5 two ways ( look+ at e action4 ,! desire to g r ?an to /ay1 has its effici5t cause2 ! movem5ts by :i* ! desire is execut$1 h _! f9al cause4 ,! tru? ( ! matt] seems to be t ,leibniz 9 8 desire to gu>d aga9/ be+ ?\ght a fatali/1 or "o d5y+ all fre$om1 uses t]ms :i* are compatible only ) a fre$om ( indiff]5ce4 ,s 9 8 /atem5t t man's action is free because cont+5t1 he seems actuat$ r by a wi% to avoid ! hateful t]m necessity ?an by consid]ations /rictly 9 h>mony ) 8 own pr9ciples4 ,_h he conf9$ 8 use ( ! t]m cont+5t1 h[ev]1 simply to re-/at+ ! fact t human action is spontane\s1 no su* app>5t contradiction w\ld h pres5t$ itself4 ,human actions may be call$ cont+5t1 z physical actions are n1 because ! latt] always seem to be ext]nally det]m9$1 :ile ! =m] are int]nally direct$4 ,motions act f )\t2 motives f )94 ,! cause ( ! fall+ ( a /one lies outside x2 ! s\rce ( a desire :i* moves to action is f ! m9d itself4 ,we are ?us introduc$ to cont+5cy z a synonym ( spontaneity4 ,kuno ,fis*] calls att5tion to ! fact t ,sp9oza & ,leibniz bo? use ! same sort ( illu/ration to %[ ! non-arbitr>y "* ( human action1 b ! same illu/ration ) a diff]5ce2 & 9 ! diff]5ce he f9ds ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two philosophies4 ,sp9oza says t a /one fall+ to ! gr\nd1 if end[$ ) consci\sness1 might imag9e itself foll[+ its own w 9 fall+4 ,leibniz says t a magnetic ne$le simil>ly end[$ might imag9e t x turn$ t[>ds ! nor? simply because x wi%$4 ,bo? examples are us$ to illu/rate ! folly ( rely+ ^u ! imm$iate te/imony ( consci\sness4 ,b ! example ( ,sp9oza is t ( an object1 all ^: movem5ts are absolutely necessitat$ f )\t2 ! example ( ,leibniz is t ( an object ^: activity1 ?\gh foll[+ law1 & n caprice1 is app>5tly initiat$ f )94 ,( c\rse 9 reality ! movem5ts ( ! magnetic ne$le are j z mu* ext]nally condition$ z ^? ( ! /one2 b ! appe>ance ( self-action 9 ! latt] case may s]ve at lea/ to exemplify :at is meant by spontaneity z attribut$ to human action4 ,x mu/ be notic$ at ! outset t spontaneity belongs to e simple sub/ance4 ,we h only to recall ! doctr9e ( monads4 ,^! suff] no?+ f )\t1 all _! activity is ! expression1 is ! unfold+1 ( _! own law4 ,by nature1 ,leibniz says1 e simple sub/ance has p]ceptions1 & its individuality consi/s 9 ! p]man5t law :i* =ms ! succession ( its p]ceptions1 t are born naturally "o ( ano!r4 ,h5ce x is n necess>y = x to receive any physical influ5ce f )\t2 & !re=e ! s\l has 9 itself a p]fect spontaneity 9 su* a way t its actions dep5d only ^u ,god & itself4 ,or if we put ! matt] 9 its connection ) 8 psy*ology r ?an ) 8 metaphysics1 x is true t our actions are det]m9$ by our motives2 b motives are n =ces )\t ! s\l1 !y are =ces ( ! s\l4 ,9 act+ accord+ to motives ! s\l is simply act+ accord+ to its own laws4 ,a desire is n an impulsion f an ext]nal cause2 x is ! expression ( an inw>d t5d5cy4 ,to say t ! s\l acts f ! /ronge/ desire is simply to say1 f ?is /&po9t1 t x manife/s ! mo/ real "p ( itself1 n t x obeys a =eign =ce4 ,impulses1 desires1 motives1 are all psy*ical2 !y admit ( no description or explanation except 9 _! relation to ! s\l itself4 ,?us :5 ,leibniz comp>es1 z he (t5 does1 motives to weights act+ ^u a balance1 we are to rememb] t ! balance is n to be conceiv$ z ! s\l1 & ! weights z en]gies outside x1 b t ?is is only a way ( pictur+ :at is go+ on )9 ! s\l itself4 ,! s\l may be a me*anism1 b x is a self-direct+ & self-execut+ me*anism4 ,to say t human action is free because x is spontane\s1 is to say t x foll[s an imman5t pr9ciple1 t x is indep5d5t ( =eign influ5ces1--9 a ^w1 t x is self-det]m9$4 ,b "h aga9 x seems z if ,leibniz _h /at$ a pr9ciple altoge!r too wide to ?r[ any light ^u ! nature ( moral fre$om4 ,spontaneity is no m an attribute ( human activity ?an x is ( all real activity4 ,e monad1 ev5 ! unconsci\s1 z truly foll[s its own law )\t int]f]5ce f )\t z does man himself4 ,if ! spontaneity ( action con/itutes its morality1 we are n 9 a condition to ascribe morality to man any m ?an to any real ?+4 ,we are ?us ?r[n back aga9 ^u ! conception ( rationality z ! f9al & decisive trait ( fre$om & ( e?ical conduct4 ,j z cont+5cy gets a moral import only 9 connection ) consci\s ends ( action1 s spontaneity comes )9 ! moral realm only :5 conjo9$ to reason4 ,:y is !re ?is close connection betwe5 reason & fre$om8 ,! read] has only to recall :at 0 said ( ,leibniz's !ory ( causality to get a glimpse into _! unity4 ,causality is n a matt] ( physical influ5ce1 b ( af=d+ ! reason 9 virtue ( :i* "s fact is :at x is4 ,?is applies ( c\rse to ! relation ( ! s\l & ! body4 ,s f> z ! s\l is p]fect & has di/9ct ideas1 ,god has accommodat$ ! body to x2 s f> z ! s\l is imp]fect & its ideas are confus$1 ,god has accommodat$ ! s\l to ! body4 ,9 ! =m] case ! body always responds to ! dem&s ( ! s\l2 9 ! latt] ! s\l is mov$ by ! passions :i* are born ( ! s5su\s ideas4 ,ea* is ?\ght to act ^u ! o!r 9 ! measure ( its p]fection t is1 degree ( activity1 s9ce ,god has adju/$ "o ?+ to ano!r accord+ to its p]fection or imp]fection4 ,activity & passivity are always reciprocal 9 creat$ ?+s1 because a portion ( ! reasons :i* s]ve to expla9 :at goes on is 9 "o sub/ance1 & ano!r portion 9 ! o!r4 ,?is is :at makes u call "o active1 ! o!r passive4 ,if we translate ^! ideas out ( _! some:at s*ola/ic phraseology1 ! mean+ is t ! self-activity ( any sub/ance is accurately measur$ by ! ext5t to :i* x conta9s ! reasons = its own actions2 & conv]sely1 t x is dep5d5t or enslav$ j s f> z x has its reasons beyond itself4 ,s5sations1 s5su\s impulses1 repres5t1 z we h se5 be=e1 ! univ]se only 9 a confus$ & in>ticulate way4 ,!y are k :i* _c give an acc\nt ( itself4 ,!y repres5t1 9 %ort1 t side ( m9d :i* may be reg>d$ z affect$1 or ! limitation ( m9d1--its want ( activity4 ,s f> z ! m9d acts f ^! s5sations & ! feel+s :i* accompany !m1 x is ideally det]m9$ f )\t2 x is a captive to its own /ates2 x is 9 a condition ( passivity4 ,9 all action1 !re=e1 :i* occurs f a s5su\s basis1 ! s\l is rightly reg>d$ z unfree4 ,on ! o!r h&1 j 9 ! degree 9 :i* di/9ctness is introduc$ into ! s5sations1 s t !y are n simply exp]i5c$ z !y come1 b are relat$ to "o ano!r s t _! reason = exi/5ce1 _! spiritual mean+1 is asc]ta9$1 j 9 t degree is ! s\l ma/] ( itself4 ,9 ,leibniz's own words3 ,di/9ct k or intellig5ce has its place 9 ! true use ( reason1 :ile ! s5ses furni% confus$ ideas4 ,h5ce we c say t we are free f slav]y j 9 ! degree t we act ) di/9ct k1 b are subject to our passions 9 j ! degree t our ideas are confus$2 t is1 n really repres5tative ( ?+s z !y are4 ,intellig5ce is ! s\l ( lib]ty4 ,?is psy*ological explanation re/s1 ( c\rse1 ^u ! f\ndation pr9ciple ( ! ,leibnizian philosophy4 ,_s is ! sole reality1 & _s is activity4 ,b !re are v>i\s degrees ( activity1 & ea* grade l[] ?an ! purus actus may be rightfully reg>d$ z 9 s f> passive4 ,?is relative passivity or unreality con/itutes ! mat]ial & h5ce ! s5su\s _w4 ,"o :o has n insight into tru?1 lives & acts 9 ?is _w ( comp>ative unreality2 he is 9 bondage to x4 ,f ?is condition ( slav]y only reason1 ! und]/&+ ( ?+s z !y are1 c lift "o4 ,! rational man is free because he acts1 9 ! noble words ( ,sp9oza1 sub specie t]nitatis4 ,he acts 9 view ( ! et]nal tru? ( ?+s1--z ,god himself w\ld act4 ,god alone1 x fur!r foll[s1 is :olly free4 ,9 him alone are und]/&+ & w :olly "o4 ,9 him ! true & ! good are "o2 :ile e creat$ intellig5ce is subject 9 "s degree to s5su\s affection1 to passion4 ,9 u1 besides ! judgm5t ( ! und]/&+1 !re is always mix$ "s unreal idea ( ! s5sation :i* gives bir? to passions & impulses1 & ^! trav]se ! judgm5t ( ! practical und]/&+4 ,fre$om1 9 f9e1 is n a ready made g>m5t ) :i* all m5 are clo!d to d ) z !y w4 ,x is ! e?ical ideal2 x is some?+ to be atta9$2 x is action 9 con=mity ) reason1 or insight into ! spiritual nature ( reality & into its laws2 x is n ! />t+-po9t1 x is ! goal4 ,only ) a great price d m5 pur*ase su* fre$om4 ,x w be notic$ at once t ,leibniz comes v close to ,plato 9 8 fundam5tal e?ical ideas4 ,! unity ( virtue & reason1 ( virtue & fre$om1--^! are ?or\ghly ,platonic conceptions4 ,to bo? ,plato & ,leibniz reason is ! e?ical ideal because x is ! expression (1 nay1 r1 is ! reality ( ! univ]se2 :ile all else is1 z ,leibniz says1 imp]fect or unreal1 s9ce x is n an activity1 or1 z ,plato says1 a mixture ( ,be+ & ,non-,be+4 ,aga91 to bo? man be>s a simil> relation to ?is spiritual reality4 ,9 ,plato's words1 he p>ticipates 9 ! ,ideas2 9 ^? ( ,leibniz he reflects1 z a mirror1 ! univ]se4 ,to bo?1 9 a ^w1 ! reality1 ! true-self ( ! individual1 is ! spiritual univ]se ( :i* x is an organic memb]4 ,to bo?1 !re=e1 man obta9s fre$om or self-realization only z he realizes 8 l>g] & m compreh5sive id5tity ) ! ,reason ( ! univ]se4 ,) bo?1 k is ! good1 ignorance is ! evil4 ,no man is volunt>ily bad1 b only ?r\gh lack ( k ( ! true ,good4 ,leibniz1 h[ev]1 ) a m develop$ psy*ology1 supplem5ts ,plato 9 ! po9t :]e ! latt] _h ! mo/ difficulty1--! possibility ( ! feel+s or ( a love ( pleasure ov]com+ k ( ! good4 ,?is possibility ,plato 0 compell$ to d5y1 :ile ,leibniz1 by 8 subtle id5tify+ ( ! passions ) lack ( k1 or ) confus$ k1 c admit x4 ,x is an imp]fection ( our fre$om1 says ,leibniz1 :i* causes u to *oose evil r ?an good1--a great] evil r ?an ! less1 ! less good r ?an ! great]4 ,?is comes f ! appe>ances ( good & evil :i* deceive u2 b ,god1 :o is p]fect k1 is always l$ to ! true & to ! be/ good1 t is1 to ! true & absolute good4 ,x only rema9s briefly to apply ^! conceptions to "s specific que/ions ( moral actions4 ,locke asks :e!r !re are practical innate ideas1 & d5ies !m1 z he d5ies !oretical4 ,leibniz1 9 reply+1 recognizes two k9ds ( innate practical pr9ciples1 "o ( :i* is to be ref]r$ to ! class ( in/9cts1 ! o!r to t ( maxims4 ,prim>ily1 & probably :olly 9 almo/ all m51 moral tru?s take ! rank ( in/9cts alone4 ,all m5 aim at ! ,good2 x is impossible to ?9k ( man wilfully seek+ 8 own evil4 ,! me?ods1 ! means ( rea*+ ?is ,good1 are implant$ 9 m5 z in/9cts4 ,^! in/9cts1 :5 br\ght to ! light ( reason & exam9$1 become maxims ( action2 !y lose _! p>ticul> & impulsive "*1 & become univ]sal & delib]ate pr9ciples4 ,?us ,leibniz is enabl$ to answ] ! v>i\s objections :i* are always br\ght aga9/ any intuitive !ory ( moral actions1--! v>iability ( m5's moral beliefs & conduct 9 diff]5t c\ntries & at diff]5t times4 ,common in/9cts1 b at fir/ in/9cts only1 are pres5t 9 all m5 :5ev] & :]ev] !y live4 ,^! in/9cts may readily be resi/$ by m5's passions1 obscur$ by prejudice1 & *ang$ by cu/om4 ,! moral in/9cts are always ! basis ( moral action1 b cu/om1 tradition1 education become mix$ ) !m4 ,ev5 :5 s conf\nd$1 h[ev]1 ! in/9ct w g5]ally prevail1 & cu/om is1 ^u ! :ole1 on ! side ( "r r ?an wrong1 s t ,leibniz ?9ks !re is a s5se 9 :i* all m5 h "o common morality4 ,b ^! moral in/9cts1 ev5 :5 pure1 are n e?ical sci5ce4 ,?is is innate1 ,leibniz says1 only 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ari?metic is innate1--x dep5ds ^u demon/rations :i* reason furni%es4 ,leibniz does n1 !n1 oppose intuitive & demon/rative1 z sometimes happ5s4 ,morality is practically intuitive 9 ! s5se t all m5 t5d to aim at ! ,good1 & h an in/9ctive feel+ ( :at makes t[>ds ! ,good4 ,x is !oretically demon/rative1 s9ce x does n become a sci5ce until ,reason has an insight into ! nature ( ! ,good1 & asc]ta9s ! fix$ laws :i* are tribut>y to x4 ,moral pr9ciples are n intuitive 9 ! s5se t !y are imm$iately discov]$ z sep>ate pr9ciples by "s "o p[] ( ! s\l call$ consci5ce4 ,moral laws are intuitive1 he says1 z ! consequ5ces ( our own developm5t & our true well-be+4 ,"h we may well leave ! matt]4 ,:at is to be said 9 detail ( ,leibniz's e?ics w f9d its cong5ial home 9 :at we h to say ( 8 !ology4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,matt] ,,& ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,_s4 ,locke's acc\nt ( innate ideas & ( s5sation is only prep>atory to a discussion ( ! ideas got by s5sation4 ,8 explanation ( ! mode ( k leads up to an explanation ( ! ?+s kn[n4 ,he rema9s true to 8 fundam5tal idea t be=e we come to conclusions ab\t any matt]s we mu/ exam9e our own ability4 ,he deals fir/ ) ideas got by ! s5ses1 :e!r by "s "o or by _! conjo9t action4 ,( ^! ! ideas ( solidity1 ( ext5sion1 & ( duration are ( mo/ conc]n to u4 ,!y =m z ne> an approa* to a g5]al philosophy ( nature z may be f\nd any:]e 9 ,locke4 ,!y are1 too1 ! g]m f :i* grew ! ideas ( matt]1 ( space1 & ( "t1 :i*1 h[ev] m compreh5sive 9 scope & m amply work$ out 9 detail1 *>act]ize succe$+ ,briti% ?\ght1 & :i* are reproduc$ to-day by ,mr4 ,sp5c]4 ,! idea ( solidity we receive by our t\*4 ,! ideas we get by m ?an "o s5se are ( space or ext5sion1 figure1 re/1 & motion4 ,^! s5t5ces conta9 ! brief /atem5t ( ! *ief cont5tion ( ! s5sational s*ool4 ,locke c]ta9ly 0 n consci\s :5 he wrote !m t !y 7 ! expression ( ideas :i* %\ld resolve ! _w ( matt] & ( space into a dissolv+ s]ies ( accid5tally associat$ s5sations2 b su* 0 none ! less ! case4 ,:5 he writes1 ,if any "o asks me :at solidity is1 ,i s5d him to 8 s5ses to in=m him1 he is prep>+ ! way = ,b]keley1 & = a d5ial ( all reality beyond ! feel+s ( ! individual m9d4 ,:5 he says t we get ! idea ( space bo? by sight & t\*1 ?is /atem5t1 al?\gh appe>+ trui/ic1 is none ! less ! s\rce ( ! cont5tion ( ,hume t ev5 geometry conta9s no necess>y or univ]sal elem5ts1 b is an acc\nt ( s5sible appe>ances1 relative1 z are all matt]s ( s5sation4 ,locke's ideas may be synopsiz$ z foll[s3 ,x is a suffici5t acc\nt ( solidity to say t x is got by t\* & t x arises f ! resi/ance f\nd 9 bodies to ! entrance ( any o!r body4 ,x is t :i* h9d]s ! approa* ( two bodies :5 !y are mov$ t[>ds "o ano!r4 ,if n id5tical ) matt]1 x is at all ev5ts its mo/ ess5tial prop]ty4 ,?is ( all o!rs seems ! idea mo/ intimately connect$ ) & ess5tial to body1 s z n[h]e else to be f\nd or imag9$1 b only 9 matt]4 ,x is1 moreov]1 ! s\rce ( ! o!r prop]ties ( matt]4 ,^u ! solidity ( bodies dep5d _! mutual impulse1 resi/ance1 & protrusion4 ,solidity1 aga91 is s insep>able an idea f body t ^u t dep5ds its fill+ ( space1 its contact1 impulse1 & communication ( motion ^u impulse4 ,x is to be di/+ui%$1 !re=e1 f h>dness1 = h>dness is relative & d]iv$1 v>i\s bodies hav+ v>i\s degrees ( x2 :ile solidity consi/s 9 utt] exclusion ( o!r bodies f ! space possess$ by any "o1 s t ! h>de/ body has no m solidity ?an ! s(te/4 ,! close connection betwe5 solidity & matt] makes x n only possible1 b necess>y1 to di/+ui% betwe5 matt] & ext5sion z aga9/ ! ,c>tesians1 :o _h id5tifi$ !m4 ,9 p>ticul> ,locke notes ?ree diff]5ces betwe5 ^! notions4 ,ext5sion includes nei!r solidity nor resi/ance2 its p>ts are insep>able f "o ano!r bo? really & m5tally1 & are immovable2 :ile matt] has solidity1 its p>ts are mutually sep>able1 & may be mov$ 9 space4 ,f ?is di/9ction betwe5 space & matt] x foll[s1 accord+ to ,locke1 t !re is su* a ?+ z a vacuum1 or t space is n necess>ily a pl5um ( matt]4 ,matt] is t :i* fills space2 b x is entirely indiff]5t to space :e!r or n x is fill$4 ,space is occupi$ by matt]1 b !re is no ess5tial relation betwe5 !m4 ,solidity is ! ess5ce ( matt]2 empt9ess is ! *>act]i/ic ( space4 ,! idea ( space is z di/9ct f t ( solidity z x is f t ( sc>let color4 ,x is true1 solidity _c exi/ )\t ext5sion1 nei!r c sc>let color exi/ )\t ext5sion2 b ?is h9d]s n t !y are di/9ct ideas4 ,?us !re is fix$ = u ! idea ( space z well z ( matt]4 ,x is a di/9ct idea2 t is1 absolute or indep5d5t 9 itself1 hav+ no intr9sic connection ) ph5om5a 9 space4 ,yet x is got ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,h[ t c be a matt] ( s5sation :i* is n only n mat]ial1 b has no connection 9 itself ) matt]1 ,locke does n expla94 ,he ?9ks x suffici5t to say t we see di/ance betwe5 bodies ( diff]5t color j z pla9ly z we see ! colors4 ,space is1 !re=e1 a purely imm$iate idea1 conta9+ no m organic relation to intellig5ce ?an x has to objects4 ,we get ! notion ( "t z we d t ( space1 except+ t x is ! obs]vation ( int]nal /ates & n ( ext]nal objects :i* furni%es ! mat]ial ( ! idea4 ,"t has two elem5ts1--succession & duration4 ,obs]v+ :at passes 9 ! m9d1 h[ ( our ideas !re 9 tra9 "s con/antly vani%1 & o!rs beg9 to appe>1 we come by ! idea ( succession1 & by obs]v+ a di/ance 9 ! p>ts ( ?is succession we get ! idea ( duration4 ,:e!r1 h[ev]1 "t is some?+ ess5tially empty1 hav+ no relation to ! ev5ts :i* fill x1 z space is ess5tially empty1 )\t necess>y connection ) ! objects :i* fill x1 is a "q ,locke does n consid]4 ,9 fact1 ! gi/ ( 8 ideas ^u ?is po9t is z foll[s3 !re is actually an objective space or pure empt9ess2 employ+ our s5ses1 we get ! idea ( ?is space4 ,!re is actually an objective "t2 employ+ reflection1 we p]ceive x4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ attempt to =m a philosophy ( !m1 or to %[ _! function 9 ! con/ruction ( an intelligible _w1 except 9 ! "o po9t ( ! absolute indep5d5ce ( matt] & space4 ,x _c be said t ,leibniz criticises ! m9or po9ts ( ,locke 9 su* a way z to ?r[ mu* light ^u !m1 or t he v fully expresses 8 own ideas ab\t !m4 ,he cont5ts himself ) decl>+ t :ile ! s5ses may give in/ances ( space1 "t1 & matt]1 & may sugge/ to intellig5ce ! /imuli ^u :i* intellig5ce realizes ^! notions f itself1 !y _c be ! s\rce ( ^! notions !mselves2 f9d+ ! evid5ce ( ?is 9 ! sci5ces ( geometry1 ari?metic1 & pure physics4 ,= ^! sci5ces deal ) ! notions ( space1 "t1 & matt]1 giv+ necess>y & demon/rative ideas conc]n+ !m1 :i* ! s5ses c nev] legitimate4 ,he fur!r d5ies ! suppos$ absolut5ess or indep5d5ce ( space1 matt]1 & motion4 ,admitt+1 inde$1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ext5sion & matt]1 he d5ies t ?is di/9ction suffices to prove ! exi/5ce1 or ev5 ! possibility1 ( a vacuum1 & ends ) a g5]al ref]5ce to 8 doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 z s]v+ to expla9 ^! matt]s m fully & m accurately4 ,leibniz has1 h[ev]1 a complete philosophy ( nature4 ,9 8 o!r writ+1 he expla9s ! ideas ( matt] & =ce 9 _! dep5d5ce ^u 8 metaphysic1 or doctr9e ( spiritual entele*ies4 ,! task does n at fir/ sight appe> an easy "o4 ,! reality1 accord+ to ,leibniz1 is purely spiritual1 does n exi/ 9 space nor "t1 & is a pr9ciple ( activity foll[+ its own law1--t ( reflect+ ! univ]se ( spiritual relations4 ,h[ f ?is _w ( ideal1 unext5d$1 & non-temporal dynamic realities we are to pass ov] to a mat]ial _w ( ext5sion1 ) its /atic exi/5ce 9 space1 & transitory passage 9 "t1 is a "q *all5g+ ! :ole ,leibnizian sy/em4 ,x is a "q1 h[ev]1 = :i* ,leibniz himself has provid$ an answ]4 ,we may n reg>d x z adequate2 we may ?9k t he has n truly d]iv$ ! mat]ial _w f 8 spiritual pr9ciples3 b at all ev5ts he ask$ himself ! "q1 & gave an answ]4 ,we %all inve/igate ?is answ] by arrang+ :at ,leibniz has said "u ! heads (3 matt] z a metaphysical pr9ciple2 matt] z a physical ph5om5on2 & ! relation ( ph5om5a to absolute reality1 or ( ! physical to ! metaphysical4 ,9 connection ) ! second head1 p>ticul>ly1 we %all f9d x necess>y to discuss :at ,leibniz has said ab\t space1 "t1 & motion4 ,wolff1 :o put ! ideas ( ,leibniz into sy/ematic %ape1 did x at ! exp5se ( almo/ all _! significance4 ,he took away ! air ( p>adox1 ( remot5ess1 t *>act]iz$ ,leibniz's ?\ght1 & gave x a popul> =m4 ,b its dep? & sugge/iv5ess vani%$ 9 ! process4 ,un=tunately1 ,wolff's pres5tations ( ! philosophy ( ,leibniz h be5 foll[$ by o!rs1 to :om x seem$ a dull task to foll[ out ! intricacies ( a ?\ght n[h]e sy/ematically express$4 ,?is has be5 especially ! case z conc]ns ! ,leibnizian doctr9e ( matt]4 ,a sup]ficial int]pretation ( c]ta9 passages 9 ,leibniz has l$ to an almo/ univ]sal misund]/&+ ab\t x4 ,leibniz frequ5tly says t s9ce matt] is composite or complex1 x foll[s t !re mu/ be some?+ simple z its basis1 & ?is simple some?+ is ! monad4 ,! mis9t]pretation j spok5 ( consi/s 9 suppos+ t ,leibniz meant t matt] z composite is made up ( monads z simple2 t ! monad & matt] are facts ( ! same ord]1 ! latt] be+ only an aggregate1 or cont9u$ collection ( ! =m]4 ,x int]pret$ ! conception ( ,leibniz 9 /rict analogy ) ! atomic !ory ( ,lucretius1 except+ t x grant$ t ! =m] taught t ! ultimate atom1 ! compon5t ( all complex =ms ( matt]1 has position only1 n ext5sion1 its ess5ce consi/+ 9 its ex]cise ( =ce1 n 9 its m]e space occupancy4 ,! monad 0 ?us consid]$ to be 9 space1 or at lea/ condition$ by space relations1 z is a ma!matical po9t1 al?\gh n itself spatial 9 ! s5se ( be+ ext5d$4 ,monad & matt] 7 ?us repres5t$ z facts ( ! same k9d or g5us1 hav+ _! diff]5ce only 9 _! relative isolation or aggregation4 ,b ,leibniz repudiat$ ?is idea1 & t n only by ! _s ( 8 tea*+1 b 9 express words4 ,monads are n +r$i5ts or con/itu5ts ( matt]1 he says1 b only conditions ( x4 ,monads c no m be said to be p>ts ( bodies1 or to come 9 contact ) !m1 or to compose !m1 ?an c s\ls or ma!matical po9ts4 ,monads p] se h no situation relative to "o ano!r4 ,an increase 9 ! numb] ( creat$ monads1 he says aga91 if su* a ?+ c\ld be suppos$1 w\ld no m increase ! am\nt ( matt] 9 exi/5ce1 ?an ma!matical po9ts add$ to a l9e w\ld increase its l5g?4 ,& aga93 ,!re is no ne>ness or remot5ess among monads2 to say t !y are ga!r$ 9 a po9t or are scatt]$ 9 space1 is to employ m5tal fictions1 9 try+ to imag9e :at c only be ?\ght4 ,! italiciz$ words give ! clew to ! :ole discussion4 ,to make monads ( ! same ord] z corporeal ph5om5a1 is to make !m s5sible1 or capable ( be+ imag$1 or condition$ by space & "t1--?ree phrases :i* are /rictly correlative4 ,b ! monads c only be ?\ght1--t is1 _! qualities are ideal1 n s5sible2 !y c be realiz$ only by reason1 n project$ 9 =ms hav+ spatial outl9e & temporal habitation1 t is1 9 images4 ,monads & mat]ial ?+s1 9 o!r words1 are facts ( two di/9ct ord]s2 !y are relat$ z ! rational or spiritual & ! physical or s5sible4 ,matt] is no m compos$ ( monads ?an x is ( ?\ghts or ( logical pr9ciples4 ,z ,leibniz says ov] & ov] aga93 ,matt]1 space1 "t1 motion are only ph5om5a1 al?\gh ph5om5a b5e fundata1--ph5om5a1 t is1 hav+ _! rational basis & condition4 ,! monads1 on ! o!r h&1 are n appe>ances1 !y are realities4 ,hav+ fre$ our m9ds f ! supposition t x is 9 any way possible to =m an image or picture ( ! monad2 hav+ realiz$ t x is :olly false to suppose t monads occupy position 9 space1 & !n by _! cont9uity fill x1 & make ext5d$ matt]1--we mu/ attempt to frame a correct !ory ( ! nature ( matt] & its relation to ! monad4 ,we %all d ?is only z we realize t matt]1 s f> z x has any reality1 or s f> z x has any real fundam5tum1 mu/ be some?+ ideal1 or1 9 ,leibniz's language1 metaphysical4 ,z he says ov] & ov] aga91 ! only realities are ! sub/ances or spiritual units ( activity1 to :i* ! "n monad is giv54 ,9 ! inquiry1 !n1 aft] su* reality z matt] may h1 we mu/ betake ourselves to ?is unit ( liv+ en]gy4 ,al?\gh e monad is active1 x is n entirely active4 ,!re is1 z we h already se51 an inf9ite scale ( sub/ances2 & s9ce sub/ance is equival5t to activity1 ?is is say+ t !re is an inf9ite scale ( activities4 ,god alone is purus actus1 absolute en]gy1 unt\*$ by passivity or receptivity4 ,e o!r be+ has ! elem5t ( incomplet5ess1 ( inadequacy2 x does n completely repres5t ! univ]se4 ,9 ?is passivity consi/s its f9itude1 s t ,leibniz says t n ev5 ,god himself c\ld deprive monads ( x1 = ?is w\ld be to make !m equal to himself4 ,9 ?is passivity1 incomplet5ess1 or f9itude1 consi/s :at we call matt]4 ,leibniz says t he c und]/& :at ,plato meant :5 he call$ matt] some?+ ess5tially imp]fect & transitory4 ,e f9ite monad is a union ( two pr9ciples1--^? ( activity & ( passivity4 ,i d n admit1 says ,leibniz1 t !re are s\ls exi/+ simply by !mselves1 or t !re are creat$ spirits deta*$ f all body4 ,god alone is above all matt]1 s9ce he is its au?or2 creatures fre$ f matt] w\ld be at ! same "t deta*$ f ! univ]sal connection ( ?+s1 &1 z x 71 des]t]s f ! g5]al ord]4 ,& aga91 ,be+s h a nature :i* is bo? active & passive2 t is1 mat]ial & immat]ial4 ,& aga91 he says t e creat$ monad requires bo? an entele*y1 or pr9ciple ( activity1 & matt]4 ,matt] is ess5tial to any entele*y1 & c nev] be sep>at$ f x1 s9ce matt] completes x4 ,9 %ort1 ! t]m monad is equival5t to ! t]m entele*y only :5 appli$ to ,god4 ,9 e o!r monad1 ! entele*y1 or en]gy1 is b "o factor4 ,matt]1 or primitive passive p[]1 completes ! entele*y1 or primitive active p[]1 s t x becomes a p]fect sub/ance1 or monad4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( c\rse1 matt]1 z ! passive pr9ciple1 is a m]e pot5tiality or ab/raction1 consid]$ 9 itself4 ,x is real only 9 its union ) ! active pr9ciple4 ,matt]1 he says1 _c exi/ )\t immat]ial sub/ances4 ,to e p>ticul> portion ( matt] belongs a p>ticul> =m2 t is1 a s\l1 a _s4 ,to ?is elem5t ( matt]1 consid]$ z an ab/raction1 9 its di/9ction f s\l1 ,leibniz1 foll[+ ! s*ola/ics1 & ultimately ,ari/otle1 gives ! "n1 fir/ or b>e matt]4 ,! same influ5ce is se5 9 ! fact t he opposes ?is elem5t ( matt] to =m1 or ! active pr9ciple4 ,our />t+-po9t1 !re=e1 = ! consid]ation ( matt] is ! /atem5t t x is receptivity1 ! capacity = be+ affect$1 :i* always con/itutes matt]4 ,b :at is meant by receptivity8 ,to answ] ?is "q we mu/ return to :at 0 said ab\t ! two activities ( ! monad1--repres5tation1 or p]ception1 & appetition1--& to ! diff]5ce betwe5 confus$ & di/9ct ideas4 ,! monad has appetition s f> z x det]m9es itself f )9 to *ange1 s f> z x foll[s an int]nal pr9ciple ( en]gy4 ,x is repres5tative s f> z x is det]m9$ f )\t1 s f> z x receives impressions f ! univ]se4 ,yet we h le>n$ to "k t 9 "o s5se ev]y?+ occurs f ! spontaneity ( ! monad itself2 x receives no influ5ce or influxus f )\t2 ev]y?+ comes f its own dep?s1 or is appetition4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 all t :i* s comes =? is only a mirror+ or copy+ ( ! univ]se4 ,! :ole cont5t ( ! appetition is repres5tation4 ,al?\gh ! monad works spontane\sly1 x is none ! less det]m9$ 9 its activities to produce only reflections or images ( ! _w4 ,9 ?is way appetition & repres5tation appe> to be id5tical4 ,! monad is det]m9$ f )91 inde$1 b x is det]m9$ to exactly ! same results z if :olly det]m9$ f )\t4 ,:at light1 !n1 c be ?r[n f ?is di/9ction ^u ! nature ( matt]8 ,none1 unless we foll[ ,leibniz some:at f>!r4 ,if we d1 we %all see t ! s\l is reg>d$ z appetitive1 or self-active1 s f> z x has cle> & di/9ct ideas4 ,if ! monad rea*es di/9ct consci\sness1 x has k ( self1--t is1 ( ! nature ( pure _s1--or1 :at aga9 is equival5t to ?is1 ( ! nature ( reality z x univ]sally is4 ,su* k is k ( ,god1 ( sub/ance1 ( unity1 ( pure activity1 & ( all ! innate ideas :i* elevate ! confus$ p]ceptions ( s5se into sci5ce4 ,di/9ct consci\sness is !re=e equival5t to self-activity1 & ?is to recognition ( ,god & ! univ]sal4 ,b if k is confus$1 x is n possible to see x 9 its relations to self2 x _c be analyz$2 ! rational or ideal elem5t 9 x is conceal$ f view4 ,9 confus$ ideas1 !re=e1 ! s\l appe>s to be passive2 be+ passive1 to be det]m9$ f )\t4 ,?is det]m9ation f )\t is equival5t to t :i* is oppos$ to _s or reason1 & h5ce appe>s z matt]4 ,su* is 9 outl9e ! ,leibnizian philosophy4 ,x ?us is cle> t m]ely /at+ t matt] is passivity 9 ! monad is n ! ultimate way ( /at+ its nature4 ,= passivity means 9 reality no?+ b confus$ repres5tations1--repres5tations1 t is1 ^: significance is n p]ceiv$4 ,! true significance ( e repres5tation is f\nd 9 its relation to ! ego1 or pure self-activity1 :i*1 ?r\gh its dep5d5t relation ^u ,god1 ! absolute self-activity & ego1 produces ! repres5tation f its own ideal be+4 ,s f> z ! s\l does n h di/9ct recognition ( relation ( all repres5tations to self1 x feels !m z com+ f )\t2 z =eign to _s2 9 %ort1 z matt]4 ,leibniz ?us employs exactly ! same language ab\t confus$ ideas t he does ab\t passivity1 or matt]4 ,x is n possible t ! monad %\ld h di/9ct consci\sness ( itself z a mirror ( ! :ole univ]se1 he says1 = 9 t case e entele*y w\ld be ,god4 ,aga91 ! s\l w\ld be ,god if x c\ld ent] at once & ) di/9ctness into ev]y?+ occurr+ )9 x4 ,b x is necess>y t we %\ld h passions :i* consi/ 9 confus$ ideas1 9 :i* !re is some?+ involunt>y & unkn[n1 & :i* repres5t ! body & con/itute our imp]fection4 ,aga91 he speaks ( matt] z ! mixture 7mlange7 ( ! effects ( ! inf9ite environ+ u4 ,9 t expression is summ$ up 8 :ole !ory ( matt]4 ,x is a mixture2 x is1 t is to say1 confus$1 aggregat$1 irresolvable into simple ideas4 ,b x is a mixture ( effects ( ! inf9ite ab\t u2 t is1 x takes its rise 9 ! true1 ! real1 ! spiritual4 ,x only fails to repres5t ?is z x actually is4 ,matt]1 9 %ort1 is a ph5om5on dep5d5t ^u inability to realize ! entire spiritual "* ( reality4 ,x is _s appreh5d$ 9 a confus$1 hesitat+1 & passive mann]4 ,x is none ! less a necess>y ph5om5on1 = x is involv$ 9 ! idea ( a cont9u\s gradation ( monads1 9 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! inf9ite & ! f9ite1 or1 z ,leibniz (t5 pref]s to put x1 betwe5 ! creator & ! creat$4 ,!re is involv$ ev]y:]e 9 ! idea ( ,leibniz ! conception ( subord9ation2 ( a hi]>*y ( =ms1 ea* ( :i* receives ! law ( its action f ! next high]1 & gives ! law to ! next l[]4 ,we h previ\sly consid]$ ! elem5t ( passivity or receptivity z relat+ only to ! monad :i* manife/s x4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t :at is passive 9 "o1 implies some?+ active 9 ano!r4 ,:at "o receives1 is :at ano!r gives4 ,! reciprocal influ5ce ( monads ^u "o ano!r1 !re=e1 z h>moni\s memb]s ( "o sy/em1 requires matt]4 ,m /rictly speak+1 ?is reciprocal influ5ce is matt]4 ,to take away all receptivity1 all passivity1 f monads w\ld be to isolate !m f all relations ) o!rs2 x w\ld be to deprive !m ( all p[] ( affect+ or be+ affect$ by o!rs4 ,t is :at ,leibniz meant by ! expression already quot$1 t if monads _h n matt] z an elem5t 9 !m1 !y w\ld be1 z x 71 des]t]s f ! g5]al ord]4 ,! note ( unity1 ( organic connection1 :i* we f\nd to be ! ess5ce ( ! ,leibnizian philosophy1 absolutely requires1 !re=e1 matt]1 or passivity4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ?is reciprocal influ5ce is ideal4 ,z ,leibniz rem>ks1 ,:5 x is said t "o monad is affect$ by ano!r1 ?is is to be und]/ood conc]n+ its repres5tation ( ! o!r4 ,= ! ,au?or ( ?+s has s accommodat$ !m to "o ano!r t "o is said to suff] 7or receive f ! o!r7 :5 its relative value gives way to t ( ! o!r4 ,or aga91 ! modifications ( "o monad are ! ideal causes ( ! modifications ( ano!r monad1 s f> z !re appe> 9 "o ! reasons on acc\nt ( :i* ,god br\ght ab\t 9 ! beg9n+ c]ta9 modifications 9 ano!r4 ,& mo/ def9itely ( all3 ,a creature is call$ active s f> z x has p]fection2 passive 9 s f> z x is imp]fect4 ,"o creature is m p]fect ?an ano!r s f> z !re is f\nd 9 x t :i* s]ves to r5d] ! reason1 a priori1 = t occurr+ 9 ! o!r2 & x is 9 ?is way t x acts ^u ! o!r4 ,we are ?us introduc$1 f a new po9t ( view & 9 a m concrete way1 to ! conception ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,! activity ( "o1 ! en]gy :i* gives ! law to ! o!r & makes x subord9ate 9 ! hi]>*y ( monads1 is conceiv$ necess>ily z _s1 z s\l2 t :i* receives1 :i* is r5d]$ subord9ate by ! activity ( ! o!r1 is body4 ,! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony is ! fact t !y are s relat$ t "o c receive ! law ( its activity f ! o!r4 ,leibniz is )\t d\bt p>tially responsible = ! ord9>y misconception ( 8 views ^u ?is po9t by reason ( ! illu/ration :i* he 0 accu/om$ to use2 namely1 ( two clocks s con/ruct$ t )\t any subsequ5t regulation ea* always kept p]fect "t ) ! o!r1--z mu* s z if !re 7 "s actual physical connection betwe5 !m4 ,?is seems to put s\l & body1 _s & matt]1 z two co-ord9ate sub/ances1 on ! same level1 ) su* natural opposition betwe5 !m t "s ext]nal h>mony mu/ arrange "s unity ( action4 ,9 caus+ ?is common idea ( 8 !ory ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 ,leibniz has paid ! p5alty = attempt+ to d :at he (t5 reproves 9 o!rs1--imag9+ or pres5t+ 9 s5sible =m :at c only be ?\ght4 ,b 8 o!r explanations %[ cle>ly en\gh t ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony expresses1 n a relation betwe5 two p>allel sub/ances1 b a condition ( dep5d5ce ( l[] =ms ( activity ^u ! high] = ! law ( _! exi/5ce & activity1--9 mod]n t]ms1 x expresses ! fact t ph5om5a are condition$ ^u n\m5a2 t mat]ial facts get _! significance & %>e ( reality ?r\gh _! relation to _s4 ,we may sum up :at has be5 said ab\t matt] z an elem5t 9 ! monad1 or z a metaphysical pr9ciple1 z foll[s3 ,! exi/5ce ( matt] is n only n oppos$ to ! fundam5tal ideas ( ,leibniz1 b is a necess>y d$uction f !m4 ,x is a necessity ( ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity2 = ?is requires an inf9ity ( monads1 alike inde$ 9 ! univ]sal law ( _! be+1 b unlike1 ea* to ea*1 9 ! specific color+ or manife/ation ( ?is law4 ,! pr9ciple ( organic unity requires t !re be z _m real be+s z possible p>ticipat+ 9 & contribut+ to x4 ,x is necess>y1 aga91 9 ord] t !re may be reciprocal influ5ce or connection among ! monads4 ,7 x n = ! mat]ial elem5t 9 ! monad1 ea* w\ld be a ,god2 if ea* 7 ?us inf9ite & absolute1 !re w\ld be s _m pr9ciples :olly indep5d5t & isolat$4 ,! pr9ciple ( h>mony w\ld be violat$4 ,s mu* = ! necessity ( ! mat]ial factor4 ,z to its nature1 x is a pr9ciple ( passivity2 t is1 ( ideal receptivity1 ( con=mity to a law app>5tly n self-impos$1 b ext]nally laid d[n4 ,?is makes matt] equival5t to a ph5om5on2 t is to say1 to ! hav+ ( confus$1 imp]fect1 inadequate ideas4 ,to say t matt] is correlative to confus$ ideas is to say t !re is no recognition ( its relation to self or to _s4 ,z ,leibniz sometimes puts x1 s9ce !re is an inf9ity ( be+s 9 ! univ]se1 ea* "o ( :i* ex]cises an ideal influ5ce ^u e o!r "o ( ! s]ies1 x is impossible t ?is o!r "o %\ld realize _! full mean+2 !y appe> only z confus$ ideas1 or z matt]4 ,to use language :i* ,leibniz inde$ does n employ1 b :i* seems to convey 8 ?\ght1 ! _s1 n see+ !m z !y really are1 does n f9d itself 9 !m4 ,b matt] is ?us n only ! confus$ manife/ation or ph5om5on ( _s1 x is also its pot5tiality4 ,passivity is always relative4 ,x does n mean complete lack ( activity2 t1 z ,leibniz says1 is no?+ness1 & matt] is n a =m ( no?+ness4 ,leibniz ev5 speaks ( x z passive p[]4 ,t is to say1 !re is an undevelop$ or incomplete activity 9 :at appe>s z matt]1 & ?is may be1--if we admit an inf9ity ( "t1--mu/ be develop$4 ,:5 develop$ x manife/s itself z x really is1 z _s4 ,confus$ ideas1 z ,leibniz takes pa9s to /ate1 are n a g5us ( ideas anti!tical to di/9ct2 !y diff] only 9 degree or grade4 ,!y are on _! way to become di/9ct1 or else !y are di/9ct ideas :i* h fall5 back into an involv$ /ate ( be+4 ,matt]1 !re=e1 is n absolutely oppos$ to _s1--on ! "o h& because x is ! manife/ation1 ! ph5om5on1 ( _s2 on ! o!r1 because x is ! pot5tiality ( _s1 capable ( sometime realiz+ ! :ole activity impli$ 9 x1 b n[ lat5t4 ,?us x is t ,leibniz says t ev]y?+ is full ( s\ls or monads4 ,:at appe>s to be lifeless is 9 reality l a pond full ( fi%es1 l a drop ( wat] full ( infusoria4 ,ev]y?+ is organic d[n to ! la/ elem5t4 ,m truly1 !re is no la/ elem5t4 ,!re is a true inf9ity ( organic be+s wrapp$ up 9 ! slighte/ speck ( app>5tly lifeless matt]4 ,^! illu/rations1 l _m o!rs :i* ,leibniz uses1 are apt to sugge/ t errone\s conception ( ! relation ( monads to _s :i* we 7 oblig$1 9 ,leibniz's "n1 to correct at ! outset1--! idea1 namely1 t matt] is compos$1 9 a spatial or me*anical way1 ( monads4 ,b aft] ! =ego+ explanations we c see t :at ,leibniz means :5 he says t e portion ( matt] is full ( entele*ies or s\ls1 l a g>d5 full ( plants1 is t !re is an absolute cont9uity ( spiritual pr9ciples1 ea* hav+ its ideal relation ) e o!r4 ,!re is no po9t ( matt] :i* does n repres5t 9 a confus$ way ! entire univ]se4 ,x is !re=e z inf9ite 9 its activities z ! univ]se4 ,9 idea also x is capable ( repres5t+ 9 di/9ct consci\sness1 or z a developm5t ( its own self-activity1 ea* ( ^! inf9ite activities4 ,9 a ^w1 e creat$ or f9ite be+ may be reg>d$ z matt] or z _s1 accord+ z x is acc\nt$ = by its ext]nal relations1 z ! reasons = :at happ5 9 x are to be f\nd else:]e ?an 9 its own explicit activity1 or accord+ z x %[s cle>ly 9 itself ! reasons = its own modifications1 & also acc\nts = *anges occurr+ 9 o!r be+s4 ,! ext]nally condition$ is matt]2 ! int]nally condition$1 ! self-explanatory1 is self-active1 or _s4 ,s9ce all ext]nal relations are f9ally dep5d5t on organic2 s9ce ! ultimate s\rce ( all explanation mu/ be t :i* is its own reason2 s9ce ! ultimate s\rce ( all activity mu/ be t :i* is self-active1--! f9al reason or s\rce ( matt] is _s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,mat]ial ,,ph5om5a ,,& ,,_! ,,reality4 ,we h se5 ! necessity & nature ( matt] z d$uctions f ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,leibniz4 ,we h se5 t matt] is a ph5om5on or manife/ation ( _s 9 an imp]fect & confus$ way4 ,b :y %\ld x appe> z mov+1 z ext5d$1 z resi/+1 z hav+ cohesion1 ) all ! concrete qualities :i* always m>k x8 ,is !re any connection betwe5 ^! p>ticul> prop]ties ( matt] z physical1 & its metaphysical or ideal "*8 ,^! are ! que/ions :i* n[ occupy u4 ,/at$ m def9itely1 !y take ! foll[+ =m3 ,is !re any ess5tial connection betwe5 ! prop]ties ( matt] z a metaphysical elem5t1 & its prop]ties z a s5sible fact ( exp]i5ce8 ,leibniz holds t !re is4 ,he does n1 inde$1 explicitly take ! gr\nd t we c d$uce a priori all ! *>act]i/ics ( matt] z a fact ( actual exp]i5ce f its rational notion1 b he ?9ks we c f9d a c]ta9 analogy betwe5 ! two1 t ! s5sible qualities are images or reflexes ( ! spiritual qualities1 witness+1 s f> z possible1 to _! orig9 9 pure en]gy4 ,8 position is z foll[s3 t :i* 9 ! monad is activity or sub/antial1 is1 9 s5sible matt]1 motion4 ,t :i* 9 ! monad is lack ( a giv5 activity1 t :i* con/itutes its subord9ate position 9 ! hi]>*y ( monads1 is1 9 ! sph]e ( mat]ial ?+s1 in]tia4 ,t :i* 9 ! spiritual _w is ! individuality ( monads1 mak+ ea* =ev] ideally di/9ct f e o!r1 is1 9 ! ph5om5al realm1 resi/ance or imp5etrability4 ,! p]fect cont9uity ( monads 9 ! mundus intelligibilis has also its c\nt]p>t 9 ! mundus s5sibilis 9 ! diffusion or ext5sion ( physical ?+s4 ,in/ead ( foll[+ out ?is analogy directly1 x w r be f\nd conv5i5t to take up ,leibniz's ?\ght 9 its hi/orical connection4 ,we h already allud$ to ! fact t he began z a ,c>tesian1 & t "o ( ! fir/ ideas :i* repell$ him f t sy/em ( ?\ght 0 ! notion t ! ess5ce ( matt] is ext5sion4 ,8 e>lie/ philosophical writ+s1 z he 0 gradually com+ to ! ?\ghts :i* !reaft] dom9at$ him1 are ^u ?is po9t4 ,9 g5]al1 8 conclusions are z foll[s3 ,if matt] 7 ext5sion1 x w\ld be incapable ( passion or ( action4 ,solidity1 too1 is a notion entirely oppos$ to ! conception ( m]e ext5sion4 ,! idea ( matt] z ext5sion contradicts "s ( ! kn[n laws ( motion4 ,x requires t ! quantity ( motion rema9 un*ang$ :5ev] two bodies come 9 contact1 :ile z matt] ( fact x is ! quantity ( en]gy1 t :i* ! motion is capable ( effect+1 t rema9s un*ang$2 or1 z he m (t5 puts ! objection1 ! ,c>tesian notion ( matt] requires t matt] be :olly indiff]5t to motion1 t !re be no?+ 9 x :i* resi/s motion :5 imp>t$4 ,b1 says ,leibniz1 !re is some?+ resi/+1 t to :i* ,keppl] gave ! "n in]tia4 ,x is n f\nd to be true if "o body impacts ^u ano!r t ! second moves )\t dim9i%+ ! velocity or *ang+ ! direction ( ! fir/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 j 9 proportion to ! size ( ! second body1 x resi/s & *anges ! motion ( ! fir/1 up to ! po9t ( caus+ ! fir/ to reb\nd if small 9 comp>ison4 ,& :5 x 0 repli$ t ! ret>dation 0 due to ! fact t ! =ce mov+ ! fir/ body _h n[ to be divid$ betwe5 two1 ,leibniz answ]$ t ?is 0 simply to give up ! cont5tion1 & besides ! notion ( ext5sion to use t ( =ce4 ,if ext5sion 7 ! ess5ce ( matt]1 x %\ld be possible to d$uce all ! prop]ties ( matt]1 or at lea/ to acc\nt = !m all1 f x4 ,b s9ce1 z j se51 ?is does n enable u to acc\nt = any ( !m1 s9ce = any ( its concrete qualities we h to fall back on =ce1 x is evid5t :]e ! true ess5ce ( matt] is to be f\nd4 ,leibniz has ano!r argum5t ( a logical nature1 z ^? already ref]r$ to are ( a physical3 ,^? :o claim t ext5sion is a sub/ance1 rev]se ! ord] ( words z well z ( ?\ghts4 ,besides ext5sion !re mu/ be a subject :i* is ext5d$2 t is to say1 some?+ to :i* x belongs to be repeat$ or cont9u$4 ,= ext5sion is no?+ b a repetition or cont9u$ multiplication ( t :i* is spread out1--x is a plurality1 a cont9uity1 a co-exi/5ce ( p>ts4 ,consequ5tly1 ext5sion does n suffice to expla9 ! nature ( ! repeat$ or manifold sub/ance1 ( :i* ! notion is ant]ior to t ( its repetition4 ,ext5sion1 9 o!r words1 is no?+ sub/antial1 x is n some?+ :i* c exi/ by itself2 x is only a quality1 a prop]ty1 a mode ( be+4 ,x is always relative to some?+ :i* has ext5sion4 ,z ,leibniz says else:]e3 ,i insi/ t ext5sion is only an ab/raction1 & requires some?+ :i* is ext5d$4 ,x presupposes "s quality1 "s attribute1 "s nature 9 a subject :i* is ext5d$1 diffus$1 or cont9u$4 ,ext5sion is a diffusion ( ?is quality4 ,= example1 9 milk !re is an ext5sion or diffusion ( :it5ess2 9 ! diamond an ext5sion or diffusion ( h>dness2 9 body 9 g5]al a diffusion ( antitypia or mat]iality4 ,!re is accord+ly 9 body some?+ ant]ior to ext5sion4 ,f ! physical side1 !re=e1 we f9d x impossible to acc\nt = ! concrete prop]ties ( mat]ial ph5om5a f ext5sion2 on ! logical we f9d t ! idea ( ext5sion is always relative to t :i* is ext5d$4 ,:at is t :i* is to be consid]$ z ! be>] ( ext5sion & ! s\rce ( physical qualities8 ,we are l$ back to ! po9t at :i* we left ! matt] 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,x is =ce1 & =ce bo? passive & active4 ,leibniz uses ! t]m matt] 9 at lea/ ?ree s5ses3 x is ! metaphysical elem5t ( passive =ce 9 ! monad2 x is ! monad itself consid]$ z1 ^u ! :ole1 ext]nally condition$ or unconsci\s2 & x is ! ph5om5on result+ f ! aggregation ( ! monads 9 ! second s5se4 ,! fir/ is nak$ matt]1 & is a pure ab/raction2 ! second is ! monad z mat]ial1 z oppos$ to ! monad1 z s\l2 ! ?ird is clo!d1 or second matt]1 or1 concretely1 body1 corpus4 ,! fir/ is unreal by itself2 ! second is "o phase ( sub/ance2 ! ?ird is n sub/antial1 b is a reality1 ?\gh a ph5om5al "o4 ,x is f ! sub/antial monad t we are to expla9 ! two ?+s n[ dem&+ explanation1--t elem5t 9 bodies 7matt] 9 ?ird s5se7 :i* is ! s\rce ( _! physical prop]ties1 & t :i* is ! subject1 ! c>ri]1 s to speak1 ( ext5sion4 ,t ( :i* we are 9 se>* z ! s\rce ( ! physical qualities ( bodies is motion4 ,?is is n =ce1 b its image4 ,x is =ce1 says ,leibniz1 t is ! real elem5t 9 motion2 t is to say1 x is t elem5t :i* out ( ! pres5t /ate induces a *ange 9 ! future /ate4 ,z =ce1 9 o!r words1 is ! causal activity :i* effects ! developm5t ( "o repres5tation ( a monad out ( ano!r1 s motion1 9 ! realm ( ph5om5a1 is n only *ange1 b *ange :i* is cont9u\s & progressive1 ea* new position be+ dep5d5t ^u ! =ego+1 & foll[+ out ( x absolutely )\t break4 ,motion1 !re=e1 is ! manife/ation ( ! ideal unity ( sub/ance1--a unity n ( m]e /atic inh]5ce1 b ( a cont9u\s process ( activity4 ,x is f ?is /&po9t t ,leibniz acc\nts = ! s-call$ transf]5ce ( motion f "o body to ano!r ^u contact4 ,! ord9>y view ( ?is1 :i* looks at x z if "o body loses ! motion :i* ano!r body ga9s1 ,leibniz ridicules1 say+ t ^? :o hold ?is view seem to ?9k t motion is a k9d ( ?+1 resembl+1 p]*ance1 salt dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,! "r view1 on ! o!r h&1 does away ) all appe>ance ( my/]y 9 ! c>ry+ ov] ( motion f "o body to ano!r1 = x recognizes t cont9uity is ! v ess5ce ( motion1 & t we d n h two ?+s & a ?ird process1 b t ! two bodies are phases or elem5ts 9 "o & ! same sy/em ( movem5t4 ,/>t+ f ?is idea ( motion1 !n1 ,leibniz is to acc\nt = ! actual qualities ( matt] z f\nd 9 exp]i5ce4 ,^! are ! =m1 magnitude1 cohesion1 resi/ance1 & ! purely s5sible qualities ( objects4 ,fir/ matt]1 t is1 ab/ract matt]1 may be conceiv$1 accord+ to ,leibniz1 z p]fectly homog5e\s1 a subtle fluid1 9 8 words1 )\t any di/9ction ( p>ts or ( solidity4 ,b ?is is an ab/ract notion4 ,x is :at matt] w\ld be )\t motion4 ,motion necess>ily diff]5tiates ?is pl5um ( homog5eity1 & ?us causes di/9ctions ( figure 7t is1 b\nd>ies ( p>ts7 & v>ieties ( cohesion1 or ! v>y+ solidity & fluidity ( bodies4 ,! latt] diff]5ce is inde$ ! ultimate "o4 ,! pr9ciple ( cont9uity or gradation1 z appli$ to motion1 makes x necess>y t motions %\ld n be 9 any two places ( exactly ! same en]gy4 ,! result is t ! orig9al fluid matt] is ev]y:]e diff]5tly divid$4 ,motion1 ent]+ into ! uni=m pl5um1 introduces di/9ction2 x causes s mu* ( ! matt] z is affect$ by a giv5 movem5t to collect toge!r & =m 9 appe>ance a coh]5t body1 z oppos$ to surr\nd+ bodies :i* are affect$ by diff]5t degrees ( en]gy4 ,b ev5 ?is is only approximate2 ! same pr9ciple ( cont9uity mu/ be appli$ )9 any app>5tly coh]5t body2 its p>ts1 :ile1 9 relation to o!r bodies1 !y h ! same am\nt ( motion1 are 9 relation to "o ano!r diff]5tly affect$4 ,!re are no two hav+ exactly ! same motion2 if !y _h1 !re w\ld be no di/9ction betwe5 !m2 & ?us1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ,leibniz1 !y w\ld be ! same4 ,x foll[s at once f ?is t !re is 9 ! univ]se no body ( absolute h>dness or solidity1 nor ( entire s(tness or fluidity4 ,a p]fectly solid body w\ld be "o ^: sy/em ( motions c\ld n be affect$ by any o!r sy/em1--a body :i* by motion _h sep>at$ itself f motion1 or become absolute4 ,?is is evid5tly an idea :i* contradicts itself1 = ! v ess5ce ( motion is cont9uity or relation4 ,a body p]fectly fluid1 on ! o!r h&1 w\ld be "o 9 :i* !re 0 no resi/ance (f]$ to o!r motions1--a body1 9 o!r words1 9 :i* !re are no movem5ts t1 ent]+ into connection ) "o ano!r1 =m a relative opposition to o!r movem5ts4 ,x w\ld be a body isolat$ or out ( relation ) ! g5]al sy/em ( motions1 & h5ce an impossibility4 ,!re is no la/ t]m ei!r ( solidity or ( fluidity4 ,x equally foll[s z matt] ( c\rse t !re is no indivisible p>ticle ( matt]1--no atom4 ,! inf9ity ( degrees ( motion implies a correspond+ division ( matt]4 ,z already said1 x is only 9 contra/ ) o!r relatively con/ant sy/ems ( motion t any body is ( uni=m motion2 9 reality !re is ev]y:]e ?r\gh\t x v>iety ( movem5t1 & h5ce complete divisibility1 or r1 complete division4 ,if ,leibniz 7 to employ ! t]m atom at all1 x c\ld be only 9 ! s5se ( ! mod]n dynamical !ory 7( :i*1 inde$1 he is "o ( ! orig9ators71 accord+ to :i* ! atom is n def9$ by its spatial position & outl9es1 b1 by ! range ( its effects1 z ! c5tre ( en]gies ( inf9ite circumf]5ce4 ,correlative to ! non-exi/5ce ( ! atom is ! non-exi/5ce ( ! vacuum4 ,! two imply ea* o!r4 ,! h>d1 limit$1 isolat$ body1 hav+ no intr9sic relations ) o!r bodies1 mu/ h room to come into ext]nal relations ) !m4 ,?is empty space1 :i* is ! !atre ( su* accid5tal contacts z may happ51 is ! vacuum4 ,b if bodies are orig9ally 9 connection ) "o ano!r1 if !y are 9 reality b diff]5tiations ( v>y+ degrees ( motion )9 "o sy/em ( motion1 !n !re is no necessity = ! vacuum1--nay1 !re is no place = x4 ,! vacuum 9 ?is case c\ld mean only a break1 a *asm1 9 ! ord] ( nature4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ,leibniz1 bodies are b ! dynamic divisions ( ! "o en]gy t fills ! univ]se2 _! sep>at5ess is n an indep5d5t possession ( any "o ( !m or ( all toge!r1 b is ! result ( relations to ! entire sy/em4 ,_! app>5t isolation is only by reason ( _! actual connections4 ,to admit a vacuum any:]e1 w\ld ?us be to d5y ! relat$ness ( ! p>ts sep>at$ by x4 ,! !ory ( ! atom & ! vacuum are ! two phases ( ! metaphysical assumption ( an indef9ite plurality ( indep5d5t sep>ate realities4 ,! !ory ( ,leibniz1 re/+ z x does on ! idea ( a p]fect unity ( int]relat$ memb]s1 mu/ d5y bo? ( ^! aspects4 ,7 we mak+ an ext5d$ analysis ( ! oppos$ view1 x w\ld be necess>y to po9t out t x d5ies itself4 ,= x is only ?r\gh ! vacuum t ! atoms are isolat$ or indep5d5t1 & ! sole function ( ! vacuum is to s]ve z ! backgr\nd ( ! atoms4 ,! atoms are sep>at$ only 9 virtue ( _! connection1 & ! vacuum is :at x is--pure empt9ess--only on acc\nt ( t :i* is 9 x4 ,9 %ort1 ! !ory is only an ab/ract & incomplete way ( grasp+ ! ?\ght ( relation or m$iat$ unity4 ,we h ?us discov]$ t all motions conspire toge!r1 or =m a sy/em4 ,b 9 _! unity !y d n cease to be motions1 or v>i\sly diff]5tiat$ memb]s4 ,?r\gh ?is diff]5tiation1 or mutual reaction ( motions1 !re comes ab\t ! appe>ance ( b\nd>ies1 ( sep>ation4 ,f ^! b\nd>ies or t]m9ations arise ! =m & size ( bodies4 ,f motion also proce$s ! cohesion ( bodies1 9 ! s5se t ea* relative sy/em resi/s dissolution1 or hangs toge!r4 ,says ,leibniz1 ,! motions1 s9ce !y are conspir+1 w\ld be tr\bl$ by sep>ation2 & accord+ly ?is c be accompli%$ only by viol5ce & ) resi/ance4 ,n only =m1 size1 & /ability dep5d ^u motion1 b also ! s5sible1 ! second>y qualities4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$ t color1 pa91 s\nd1 etc41 are arbitr>y & )\t relation to _! causes4 ,x is n ,god's way to act ) s little reason & ord]4 ,!re is a k9d ( resemblance1 n entire1 b ( relation1 ( ord]4 ,we say1 = example1 ',light is 9 ! fire1' s9ce !re are motions 9 ! fire :i* are imp]ceptible 9 _! sep>ation1 b :i* are s5sible 9 _! conjunction or confusion2 & ?is is :at is made kn[n 9 ! idea ( light4 ,9 o!r words1 color1 s\nd1 etc41 ev5 pa91 are /ill ! p]ception ( motion1 b 9 a confus$ way4 ,we ?us see h[ ?or\ghly ,leibniz c>ries back all ! prop]ties ( bodies to motion4 ,to sum up1 motion is ! orig9 ( ! relative solidity1 ! divisibl5ess1 ! =m1 ! size1 ! cohesion1 or active resi/ance ( bodies1 & ( _! prop]ties z made kn[n to u 9 imm$iate s5sation4 ,9 all t has be5 said x has be5 impli$ t ext5sion is already 9 exi/5ce2 fir/ matt] is suppos$ to fill all space1 & motion to det]m9e x to take ^u itself its actual concrete prop]ties4 ,b ?is fir/ matt]1 :5 ?us spok5 (1 has a some:at my?ological s\nd1 ev5 if x be admitt$ t x is an ab/raction4 ,= h[ c an ab/raction be ext5d$ 9 space1 & h[ c x =m1 z x 71 a backgr\nd ^u :i* motion displays itself8 ,! idea ( fir/ matt] 9 its relation to ext5sion evid5tly dem&s explanation4 ,9 seek+ ?is explanation we %all also le>n ab\t t subject :i* ,leibniz said 0 necess>ily presuppos$ 9 ext5sion1 z a concrete ?+ is requir$ = a quality4 ,! clew to ! view ( ,leibniz ^u ?is po9t may be d]iv$1 ,i ?9k1 f ! foll[+ quotations3-- ,if x 7 possible to see :at makes ext5sion1 t k9d ( ext5sion :i* falls "u our eyes at pres5t w\ld vani%1 & our m9ds w\ld p]ceive no?+ else ?an simple realities exi/+ 9 mutual ext]nality to "o ano!r4 ,x w\ld be z if we c\ld di/+ui% ! m9ute p>ticles ( matt] v>i\sly dispos$ f :i* a pa9t$ image is =m$3 if we c\ld d x1 ! image1 :i* is no?+ b a ph5om5on1 w\ld vani%4 4 4 4 ,if we ?9k ( two simple realities z bo? exi/+ at ! same "t1 b di/9ct f "o ano!r1 we look at !m z if !y 7 outside ( "o ano!r1 & h5ce conceive !m z ext5d$4 ,! monads are outside ( "o ano!r1 n spatially1 b ideally2 b ?is reciprocal di/9ction f "o ano!r1 if x is to appe> 9 ph5om5al mode1 mu/ take ! =m ( an image1 & ! image is spatial4 ,b if ! monads 7 pure activity1 !y w\ld n take ph5om5al =m or appe> 9 an image4 ,!y w\ld always be ?\ght j z !y are1--unext5d$ activities realiz+ ! spiritual ess5ce ( ! univ]se4 ,b !y are n pure activity2 !y are passive z well4 ,x is 9 virtue ( ?is passive elem5t t ! ideal ext]nality takes ^u itself ph5om5al or s5sible =m1 & ?us appe>s z spatial ext]nality4 ,leibniz1 9 a passage already quot$1 ref]s to ! diffusion ( mat]iality or antitypia4 ,?is ^w1 :i* is ( frequ5t occurr5ce 9 ! discussions ( ,leibniz1 he translates g5]ally z imp5etrability1 sometimes z passive resi/ance4 ,x corresponds to ! solidity or resi/ance ( :i* ,locke spoke z =m+ ! ess5ce ( matt]4 ,antitypia is ! repres5tation by a monad ( ! passive elem5t 9 o!r monads4 ,leibniz sometimes speaks z if all creat$ monads _h 9 !mselves antitypia1 & h5ce ext5sion2 b he m accurately expresses x by say+ t !y ne$ 7exig5t7 x4 ,?is is a te*nical t]m :i* he else:]e uses to express ! relation ( ! possible to ! actual4 ,! possible ne$s ! actual1 n 9 ! s5se t x necess>ily requires exi/5ce1 b 9 ! s5se t :5 ! actual gives x exi/5ce1 x is ! logical basis ( ! actual1--! actual1 on ! o!r h&1 be+ its real complem5t4 ,! passivity ( ! monad is !re=e at once ! logical basis & ! possibility ( ! imp5etrability ( matt]4 ,x is ow+ to ! passivity ( ! monad t x does n adequately reflect 7t x is n transp>5t to1 s to speak7 ! activities ( o!r monads4 ,9 its irresponsiv5ess1 x fails to mirror !m 9 itself4 ,x may be said1 !re=e1 to be imp5etrable to !m4 ,!y 9 turn1 s f> z !y are passive1 are imp5etrable to x4 ,n[ ! imp5etrable is1 ex vi t]m9is1 t :i* excludes1 & t :i* excludes1 n 9 virtue ( its active ela/icity1 b 9 virtue ( its m]e in]tia1 its dead weight1 z x 71 ( resi/ance4 ,b mutual exclusion ( ?is passive sort con/itutes t :i* is ext5d$4 ,ext5sion is ! ab/ract quality ( ?is concrete subject4 ,su*1 9 effect1 is ! d$uction :i* ,leibniz gives ( body1 or physical matt]1 f matt] z metaphysical2 ( matt] z s5sible or ph5om5al1 f matt] z ideal or z intelligible4 ,if we put toge!r :at has be5 said1 x is cle> t mat]ial ph5om5a 7bodies1 corpora1 9 ,leibniz's phrase7 simply repeat 9 ano!r sph]e ! prop]ties ( ! spiritual monad4 ,!re is a complete p>allelism betwe5 e prop]ty1 ea* to ea*1 & ?is necess>ily2 = e prop]ty ( body is 9 logical dep5d5ce ^u1 & a ph5om5alization (1 "s spiritual or ideal quality4 ,motion is ! s\rce ( all ! dynamic qualities ( body1 & motion is ! reflection ( ,=ce1 t =ce :i* is ,life4 ,b ?is =ce 9 all f9ite =ms is condition$ by a passive1 unreceptive1 unresponsive factor2 & ?is mu/ also h its correlate 9 body4 ,?is correlate is prim>ily imp5etrability1 & second>ily ext5sion4 ,?us x is t concrete body always manife/s motion1 inde$1 b ^u a backgr\nd ( ext5sion1 & aga9/ in]tia4 ,x nev] has free play2 _h x an unre/ra9$ field ( activity1 ext5sion w\ld disappe>1 & spatial motion w\ld vani% into ideal en]gy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 7 ! ess5ce ( matt] f\nd 9 resi/ance or imp5etrability1 x w\ld be :olly in]t2 x w\ld be a monotone ( ext5sion1 )\t v>iety ( =m or cohesion4 ,z ,leibniz puts x ) ref]5ce to ,locke1 body implies motion1 or impetuosity1 resi/ance1 & cohesion4 ,motion is ! active pr9ciple1 resi/ance ! passive2 :ile cohesion1 ) its v>i\s grades ( complet5ess1 :i* produce =m1 size1 & solidity1 is ! result ( _! union4 ,leibniz1 l ,plato1 has an int]m$i>y betwe5 ! rational & ! s5sible2 & z ,plato f\nd t x 0 ma!matical relations t m$iate betwe5 ! p]man5t & unifi$ ,ideas & ! *ang+ manifold objects1 s ,leibniz f\nd t ! relations ( space & "t =m ! natural transition f ! sph]e ( monads to ! _w ( bodies4 ,z ,plato f\nd t x 0 ! possibility ( apply+ ma!matical consid]ations to ! _w ( images t %[$ ! p>ticipation ( ,ideas 9 !m1 & con/itut$ su* reality z !y _h1 s ,leibniz f\nd t space & "t =m$ ! elem5t ( ord] & regul>ity among s5se ph5om5a1 & ?us br\ght !m into k9%ip ) ! monads & made !m subjects ( sci5ce4 ,x is impli$ 9 :at is "h said t ,leibniz di/+ui%$ betwe5 space & "t on ! "o h&1 & duration & ext5sion on ! o!r4 ,?is di/9ction1 :i* ,leibniz draws repeat$ly & ) great c>e1 has be5 g5]ally ov]look$ by 8 comm5tators4 ,b x is evid5t t ?is leaves ,leibniz 9 a bad plight4 ,ma!matics1 9 its v>i\s =ms1 is ! sci5ce ( spatial & temporal relations4 ,b if ^! are id5tical ) ! =ms ( duration & ext5sion1 !y are purely ph5om5al & s5sible4 ,! sci5ce ( !m1 accord+ to ! ,leibnizian di/9ction betwe5 ! absolutely real & ! ph5om5ally real1 w\ld be !n a sci5ce ( ! confus$1 ! imp]fect1 & ! transitory2 9 fact1 no sci5ce at all4 ,b ma!matics1 on ! contr>y1 is to ,leibniz ! type ( demon/rative1 conclusive sci5ce4 ,space & "t are1 9 8 own words1 innate ideas1 & ! entire sci5ce ( !m is ! draw+ out ( ! cont5t ( ^! innate--t is1 rational1 di/9ct1 & et]nal--ideas4 ,b ext5sion & duration are s5sible exp]i5ces2 n rational1 b ph5om5al2 n di/9ct1 b confus$2 n et]nal1 b evanesc5t4 ,we may be sure t ?is contradiction w\ld n escape ,leibniz1 al?\gh x has _m ( 8 critics & hi/orians4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t he occasionally uses ! t]ms z synonym\s2 b ?is :]e ! di/9ction betwe5 !m has no be>+ on ! argum5t 9 h&1 & :]e ! context det]m9es 9 :at s5se ! t]m is us$4 ,! di/9ction :i* he actually makes1 & to :i* he keeps :5 space & "t are ! subject ( discussion1 is t ext5sion & duration are qualities or pr$icates ( objects & ev5ts1 :ile space & "t are relations1 or ord]s ( exi/5ce4 ,ext5sion & duration are1 z he says1 ! imm5sity1 ! mass1 ! cont9uation1 ! repetition1 ( "s und]ly+ subject4 ,b space & "t are ! measure ( ! mass1 ! rule or law ( ! cont9uation1 ! ord] or mode ( ! repetition4 ,?us imm$iately aft] ! passage already quot$1 9 :i* he says t ext5sion 9 body is ! diffusion ( mat]iality1 j z :it5ess is ! diffusion ( a prop]ty ( milk1 he goes on to say t ext5sion is to space z duration to "t4 ,duration & ext5sion are attributes ( ?+s2 b space & "t are to be consid]$1 z x 71 outside ( ?+s1 & z s]v+ to measure !m4 ,/ill m def9itely he says3 ,_m conf\nd ! imm5sity or ext5t ( ?+s ) ! space by means ( :i* ?is ext5t is def9$4 ,space is n ! ext5sion ( body1 any m ?an duration is its "t4 ,?+s keep _! ext5sion1 n always _! space4 ,ev]y?+ has its own ext5t & duration2 b x does n h a "t ( its own1 nor keep = its own a space4 ,or1 z he expresses ! latt] idea else:]e1 space is l numb]1 9 ! s5se t x is indiff]5t to spatial ?+s1 j z numb] is indiff]5t to res num]ata4 ,j z ! numb] five is n a quality or possession ( any object1 or gr\p ( objects1 b expresses an ord] or relation among !m1 s a giv5 space is n ! prop]ty ( a ?+1 b expresses ! ord] ( its p>ts to "o ano!r4 ,b ext5sion1 on ! o!r h&1 is a prop]ty ( ! giv5 objects4 ,:ile ext5sion1 !re=e1 mu/ always belong to "s actual ?+1 space1 z a relation1 is z applicable to possible ?+s z to actual exi/5ces2 s t ,leibniz sometimes says t "t & space express possibilities4 ,!y are t :i* makes x possible = a def9ite & coh]5t ord] ( exp]i5ces to exi/4 ,!y det]m9e exi/5ce 9 "s ( its relations1 & z su* are logically prior to any giv5 =ms ( exi/5ce2 :ile ext5t & duration are always qualities ( "s giv5 =m ( exi/5ce1 & h5ce logically d]ivative4 ,s9ce "t & space *>act]ize possibilities z well z actualities1 x foll[s z a matt] ( c\rse t !y are ( ! nature ( et]nal tru?s1 :i* relate equally to ! possible & to ! exi/+4 ,be+ an et]nal tru?1 space mu/ h its place 9 t :i* is simply ! active unity ( all et]nal tru?s1--! m9d ( ,god4 ,its tru? & reality are bas$ ^u ,god4 ,x is an ord] ^: s\rce is ,god4 ,s9ce ,god is purus actus1 he is ! imm$iate1 ! effici5t s\rce only ( t :i* p>takes 9 "s degree ( 8 own nature1 or is rational2 & "h is ano!r cle> po9t ( di/9ction betwe5 space & ext5sion1 betwe5 "t & duration4 ,b we mu/ ask m 9 detail reg>d+ _! nature4 ,admitt+ t !y are relations1 ideal & prior to p>ticul> exp]i5ces1 ! "q mu/ be ask$1 ,:at sort ( relations are !y2 h[ are !y connect$ ) ! purely spiritual on "o h&1 & ) ! ph5om5al on ! o!r8 ,leibniz's mo/ ext5d$ answ]s to ^! que/ions are giv5 9 8 controv]sy ) ,cl>ke4 ,! latt] took mu* ! same position reg>d+ ! nature ( space 7?\gh n1 inde$1 conc]n+ ! orig9 ( its idea7 z ,locke1 & ! argum5ts :i* ,leibniz uses aga9/ him he might also h us$1 = ! mo/ "p1 aga9/ ,locke4 ,locke & ,cl>ke bo? conceiv$ ( space & "t z :olly )\t intr9sic relation to objects & ev5ts4 ,x is especially aga9/ ?is position t ,leibniz argues1 hold+ t space & "t are simply ord]s or relations ( objects & ev5ts1 t space exi/s only :]e objects are exi/+1 & t x is ! ord] ( _! co-exi/5ce1 or ( _! possible co-exi/5ce2 :ile "t exi/s only z ev5ts are occurr+1 & is ! relation ( _! succession4 ,cl>ke1 on ! o!r h&1 speaks ( ! univ]se ( objects z b\nd$ by & mov+ ab\t 9 an empty space1 & says t "t exi/$ be=e ,god creat$ ! f9ite _w1 s t ! _w came into a "t already !re to receive its on-go+s1 j z x fell into a space already !re to receive its co-exi/5ces4 ,to get at ! ideas ( ,leibniz1 !re=e1 we _c d bett] ?an foll[ ! c\rse ( ?is discussion4 ,he beg9s by say+ t bo? space & "t are purely relative1 "o be+ ! ord] ( co-exi/5ces1 ! o!r ( successions4 ,space *>act]izes 9 t]ms ( possibility an ord] ( ?+s exi/+ at ! same "t1 s f> z !y exi/ 9 mutual relations 7ensemble71 )\t reg>d to _! special modes ( exi/5ce4 ,z to ! alt]nate doctr9e t space is a sub/ance1 or some?+ absolute1 x contradicts ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,7 space some?+ absolutely uni=m1 )\t ?+s plac$ 9 x1 !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 "o "p & ano!r1 & x w\ld be a matt] ( utt] indiff]5ce to ,god :y he gave bodies c]ta9 positions 9 space r ?an o!rs2 simil>ly x w\ld be a matt] ( indiff]5ce :y he creat$ ! _w :5 he did1 if "t 7 some?+ indep5d5t ( ev5ts4 ,9 o!r words1 ! suppos$ absolut5ess ( space & "t w\ld r5d] ! action ( ,god :olly )\t reason1 caprici\s1 & at haphaz>d4 ,simil>ly1 x contradicts ! pr9ciple ( indisc]nibles1 by :i* ,leibniz means ! pr9ciple ( specification1 or di/9ction4 ,accord+ to him1 to suppose two ?+s exactly alike1 is simply to imag9e ! same ?+ twice4 ,absolute uni=mity1 :olly undiff]5tiat$1 is a fiction impossible to realize 9 ?\ght4 ,space consid]$ )\t objects has no?+ 9 x to det]m9e x2 x is accord+ly no?+ actual4 ,! p>ts ( space mu/ be det]m9$ & di/+ui%$ by ! objects :i* are 9 !m4 ,f9ally1 7 space & "t absolutely real ?+s 9 !mselves1 !y w\ld be indep5d5t ( ,god1 & ev5 limitations ^u him4 ,!y w\ld be m sub/antial ?an sub/ances4 ,god w\ld n be able to *ange or de/roy !m4 ,!y w\ld be immutable & et]nal 9 e "p4 ,?us !re w\ld be an inf9ity ( et]nal ?+s 7^! p>ts7 indep5d5t ( ,god4 ,!y w\ld limit ,god because he w\ld be oblig$ to exi/ 9 !m4 ,only by exi/+ ?r\gh ?is indep5d5t "t w\ld he be et]nal2 only by ext5d+ ?r\gh ?is indep5d5t space w\ld he be omnipres5t4 ,space & "t ?us become gods !mselves4 ,:5 ,cl>ke decl>es t by ! absolut5ess ( space & "t he does n mean t !y are !mselves sub/ances1 b only prop]ties1 attributes ( sub/ance1 ,leibniz advances ! same argum5ts 9 diff]5t =m4 ,if space 7 ! prop]ty ( ! ?+s t are 9 space1 x w\ld belong n[ to "o sub/ance1 n[ to ano!r1 & :5 empty ( all mat]ial sub/ance1 ev5 to an immat]ial sub/ance1 p]haps to ,god4 ,truly a /range attribute :i* is h&$ ab\t f "o ?+ to ano!r4 ,sub/ances ?us leave _! accid5ts z if !y 7 old clo!s1 & o!r sub/ances put !m on4 ,s9ce ^! f9ite spaces are 9 inf9ite space1 & ! latt] is an attribute ( ,god1 x mu/ be t an attribute ( ,god is compos$ ( p>ts1 "s ( !m empty1 "s full1 "s r\nd1 "s squ>e4 ,s1 too1 :atev] is 9 "t w\ld help make "o ( ! attributes ( ,god4 ,truly a /range ,god1 says ,leibniz1 ?is ,deity ( p>ts 7ce ,dieu p>ties74 ,cl>ke's reply to ?is 0 t space & "t are attributes ( ,god & ( ,god alone1 n ( ?+s 9 space & "t1--t1 inde$1 /rictly speak+1 !re are no p>ts 9 space or 9 "t2 !y are absolutely "o4 ,?is 0 virtually to give up ! :ole matt]4 ,x 0 to d5y ! exi/5ce ( f9ite spaces & times1 & to resolve !m into an indef9ite attribute ( ,god4 ,su* a view1 z ,leibniz po9ts out1 n only is contr>y to exp]i5ce1 b af=ds no aid 9 det]m9+ ! actual concrete =ms & situations ( bodies1 & durations & successions ( ev5ts4 ,! absolute space & "t1 hav+ no p>ts1 are :olly out ( relations to ^! concrete exi/5ces4 ,! latt] require1 !re=e1 a space & a "t t are relations or ord]s4 ,cl>ke's hypo!sis is1 z ,leibniz says1 :olly )\t use or function1 & requires a !ory l t ( ,leibniz to acc\nt = ! actually det]m9ate =ms ( exp]i5ce4 ,9 8 la/ reply ,cl>ke %ifts 8 gr\nd aga91 & says t space & "t are effects ( ,god's exi/5ce2 !y are ! necess>y results ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,8 exi/5ce is ! cause ( space & "t4 ,! dea? ( ,leibniz prev5t$ any fur!r reply4 ,x is n h>d to imag9e1 h[ev]1 t 9 a g5]al way 8 reply w\ld h be5 to ask h[ space & "t are at once attributes ess5tial & necess>y to ,god1 z con/itut+ 8 imm5sity & et]nity1 & effects dep5d5t ^u 8 exi/5ce4 ,to take ?is latt] position1 inde$1 seems to ab&on ! position t !y are absolute1 & to admit t1 l ! re/ ( ,god's creation1 !y are relative & f9ite4 ,s mu* = ,leibniz's polemic4 ,its mean+ is t space & "t h significance only ) ref]5ce to ?+s & ev5ts1 t !y are ! intellectual1 ! ideal side ( ^! objects & occurr5ces1 be+ ! relations :i* give !m ord] & unity4 ,a space :i* is n ! space ( objects1 :i* is n space 9 & ?r\gh objects1 is an inanity2 x is n _s1 x is n matt]2 x is n a relation ( ei!r4 ,x is no?+ness magnifi$ to inf9ity1 & !n erect$ into exi/5ce4 ,& all = no?+2 = x does n enable u to acc\nt = a s+le concrete fact ( exp]i5ce4 ,= ?is we mu/ h rec\rse to relations & ord]s ( exi/5ce4 ,space is !re=e to be def9$ z ! ord] :i* makes x possible = objects to h situation2 "t z t :i* makes x possible = ev5ts to h dat+1--n z if !y 7 actually prior to !m1 & al?\gh no?+s 9 !mselves1 yet capable ( giv+ concrete det]m9ation to ?+s1 b z actually ! relations !mselves1 & z ideally necess>y = ! coh]5t exp]i5ce ( co-exi/5t objects & ( connect$ ev5ts4 ,z ,leibniz puts x epigrammatically3 ,space is ! ord] ( possible con/ants2 "t ! ord] ( incon/ant possibilities4 ,we h f9i%$ ! exposition ( ! views ( ,leibniz ab\t matt] & mat]ial facts4 ,"o "q1 h[ev]1 rema9s to be discuss$1--a "q :i* ,leibniz's contempor>y critics w\ld n all[ him to pass ov] 9 sil5ce1 ev5 _h he be5 s dispos$4 ,:at is ! reality ( matt]1 ( motion1 ( space1 & ( "t8 ,s9ce !y are1 z ,leibniz says1 only ph5om5a1 n absolute realities1 :at di/+ui%es !m f dreams1 f illusions8 ,:at di/+ui%es s5sible ph5om5a f caprici\s fantasies1 & gives !m reality8 ,leibniz beg9s 8 answ] by po9t+ out t ! m]e fact t bodies are ph5om5a does n make !m unreal4 ,to say t any?+ is ph5om5al is to say t x is s5sible2 b ! s5ses make no decl>ation reg>d+ metaphysical matt]s su* z tru? & reality4 ,! s5ses1 9 a ^w1 only in=m u t ! exp]i5ces are !re = ! s5ses1 t !y are s5sible4 ,:at is ! ultimate nature ( ! s5sible or ! ph5om5al1 :at is _! reality1 is a "q :olly outside ! prov9ce ( s5se4 ,! que/ions ( ultimate nature1 ( reality1 are que/ions ( metaphysics1 & h5ce are to be decid$ by ! reason1 n by ! s5ses4 ,& ,leibniz goes on to say t ! tru?fulness ( ! s5ses1 s9ce x conc]ns only ! s5sible1 consi/s 9 ! reciprocal agreem5t ( s5sible facts1 & 9 t we are n deceiv$ 9 reason+ f "o to ano!r4 ,an isolat$ s5se-exp]i5ce c\ld n be said to be ei!r true or false1 real or illusory4 ,x w\ld be true t x 0 exp]i5c$1 & t is all t c\ld be said ab\t x4 ,b s9ce our exp]i5ces are n ?us sep>at$1 b h a c]ta9 ord]1 !re arises :at we may call s5sible reality & illusion4 ,:5 ! ord] betwe5 two facts rema9s ! same 9 diff]5t times & places & 9 ! exp]i5ce ( diff]5t m51 we call ^! facts real4 ,if1 h[ev]1 our exp]i5ce _c be repeat$ by ourselves or by o!r m5 :5 ! same conditions 7t is1 connections7 are pres5t1 x is unreal1 or false4 ,x is ?us ! relation ( ph5om5a :i* gu>antees tru? ( fact reg>d+ s5sible objects4 ,con/ancy1 regul>ity1 ju/ify u 9 ascrib+ reality2 *aotic *ange & lack ( ord]ly connection are a sign ( unreality4 ,ev5 our dreams h a reality2 = !y h _! connections & place 9 exp]i5ce4 ,if we und]/ood _! connections we %\ld ev5 be able to expla9 _! app>5t lack ( connection ) ! re/ ( exp]i5ce4 ,leibniz ?9ks t bo? ! ,academicians & ,sceptics & _! oppon5ts err$ 9 attempt+ to f9d great] reality 9 s5sible ?+s ?an t ( regul> ph5om5a4 ,s9ce our obs]vations & judgm5ts ^u s5sible ph5om5a are ( su* a nature t we c pr$ict future ph5om5a & prep>e = !m1 we h all ! reality 9 !m t c be _h or ask$ =4 ,ev5 if x be grant$ possible 7z x mu/ be on ?is basis7 t1 metaphysically speak+1 s5se-exp]i5ce is only a connect$ dream1 x yet has a suffici5t reality2 = we are n deceiv$ 9 ! measures tak5 ) ref]5ce to ph5om5a1 provid$ t we act on ! gr\nd ( _! obs]v$ h>monies & relations4 ,?us :ile we are oblig$ to admit t our s5ses in=m u t !re are h>d1 passive1 ext5d$1 indivisible ?+s1 n p]fectly cont9u\s & n intellectual 9 _! nature1 & we "k on metaphysical gr\nds t ?is in=mation is n correct1 we _c say t our s5ses deceive u1 = s5se makes no /atem5ts reg>d+ su* matt]s4 ,x is our reason t errs if x takes ! in=mation t ! s5ses give z if x 7 a decl>ation ( reason itself4 ,s5sible ?+s h all ! reality necess>y = ?is range ( exp]i5ce1--practical1--su* regul>ity ( co-exi/5ce & sequ5ce z all[s u to act )\t be+ l$ a/ray4 ,b if we reg>d s5se-ph5om5a n m]ely 9 _! connection ) "o ano!r1 b 9 _! dep5d5ce ^u ! absolute realities1 we h /ill bett] ju/ification = _! comp>ative reality4 ,^! ph5om5a are consequ5ces ( necess>y & et]nal tru?s4 ,"o end[$ ) a p]fect k ( su* tru?s w\ld be able to d$uce1 a priori1 ! ph5om5a f !m4 ,! reality ( s5sible ph5om5a ?us consi/s n m]ely 9 _! connection ) "o ano!r1 b 9 ! fact t !y are connect$ z ! laws ( ! intelligible _w require4 ,!y foll[ n only rules ( co-exi/5ce & sequ5ce2 b ^! rules may be br\ght "u g5]al laws ( motion1 :i* 9 turn may be d$uc$ f geometrical pr9ciples4 ,^! latt]1 h[ev]1 are a priori2 !y are tru?s :i* are gr\nd$ 9 ! v intellig5ce ( ,god4 ,! s5sible has its basis 9 ! ideal4 ,to /ate ! same fact 9 ano!r way1 all s5sible ph5om5a occur 9 "t & space2 or r1 "t & space are ! ord]s1 ! relations1 ( ph5om5a occurr+ & exi/+4 ,b1 z we h j se51 "t & space are ideal4 ,a relation1 z ,leibniz po9ts out1 be+ nei!r attribute nor accid5t1 _c be 9 ! ?+s :i* x relates1 z _! possession4 ,9 8 own words1 x _c be conceiv$ z if x _h "o leg 9 "o object1 ! o!r leg 9 ! o!r4 ,a relation is n a mat]ial bond1 runn+ ?r\gh or cem5t+ objects2 x is ideal1 exi/+ 9 ! m9d4 ,& :ile x is true t space & "t are ! relations ( objects & ev5ts1 x is also true t if all objects & ev5ts 7 annihilat$1 space & "t w\ld cont9ue to h _! ideal exi/5ce 9 ! intellig5ce ( ,god z ! et]nal conditions ( ph5om5a4 ,!y ?us =m ! l9ks betwe5 absolute reality & ! reality ( s5sible exi/5ce4 ,! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason =ms ano!r l9k4 ,x may be recall$ t 9 discuss+ ,leibniz's !ory ( volition we f\nd t ! w ( ,god 9 relation to ! s5sible _w is always det]m9$ by ! *oice ( ! bett]2 t 9 ?is consi/s ! controll+ reason & regulative pr9ciple ( all t occurs & exi/s4 ,?us = e fact 9 ! s5sible _w !re is connection ) metaphysical1 or absolute1 reality1 n only ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! intellectual relations ( "t & space1 b ?r\gh ! dynamic int]m$i>y ( ! div9e w act+ 9 accordance ) ! div9e reason4 ,s5sible facts h1 !n1 a reality1 b a dep5d5t "o4 ,!re w\ld be no contradiction involv$ if !y 7 n :at !y actually are4 ,we may sum up ! matt] by say+ t ! reality ( s5sible ph5om5a consi/s 9 ! con/ancy ( ! mutual ord] 9 :i* !y exi/1 & 9 ! dep5d5ce ( ?is ord] ^u ! div9e ,intellig5ce & ,w4 ,9 ?is respect1 at lea/1 ,leibniz resembles ! "y ,iri% ideali/1 ,b]keley1 :o only sev5 ye>s aft] ,leibniz wrote ! ,new ,essays compos$ 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 urg+ t ! imm$iate reality ( s5se-ph5om5a consi/s 9 _! /ead9ess1 ord]1 & coh]5ce1 9 a con/ant uni=m work+1 & t ?is gives u a =esight :i* enables u to regulate our actions = ! b5efit ( life4 ,x 0 ,b]keley also :o wrote t _! ultimate reality consi/s 9 _! be+ ideas ( a ,div9e ,_s4 ,?is 0 six ye>s be=e ! dea? ( ,leibniz4 ,yet x does n appe> t ,b]keley knew ( ,leibniz1 & ! only allusion to ,b]keley :i* ,i h f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,leibniz %[s t ,leibniz knew only ( t c>icature ( 8 views :i* has always be5 curr5t1--t ,b]keley 0 "o :o d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( any ext]nal _w4 ,:at he writes is z foll[s3 ,z = him 9 ,irel& :o que/ions ! reality ( 'bodies1' he seems nei!r to (f] :at is rational1 nor suffici5tly to expla9 8 own ideas4 ,i suspect t he is "o ( ^? m5 :o are desir\s ( mak+ !mselves kn[n ?r\gh p>adoxes4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,"s ,,fundam5tal ,,conceptions4 ,! fundam5tal category ( ,locke1 z ( all :o take simply a me*anical view ( exp]i5ce1 is t ( sub/ance4 ,he _h good reason to be surpris$ :5 ! ,bi%op ( ,worce/] object$ t ,locke wi%$ to disc>d sub/ance out ( ! _w4 ,h[ c t be s1 ,locke asks1 :5 ,i say t our idea ( body is an ext5d$ solid sub/ance1 & our idea ( s\l is ( a sub/ance t ?9ks4 ,& he adds1 ,nay1 z long z !re is any simple idea or s5sible quality left1 accord+ to my way ( argu+1 sub/ance _c be disc>d$4 ,ev]y?+ t really exi/s1 is1 accord+ to ,locke1 sub/ance4 ,b sub/ance to ,locke1 z aga9 to all :o int]pret ! univ]se aft] s5sible categories1 is unkn[able4 ,= su* categories all[ only ( ext]nal relations2 !y admit only ( /atic exi/5ce4 ,sub/ance1 9 ?is way ( look+ at x1 mu/ be di/9ct f its qualities1 & mu/ be simply ! exi/+ sub/ratum 9 :i* !y inh]e4 ,locke's acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* we get ! idea1 & ( its nature1 is z foll[s3 ,all ! ideas ( all ! s5sible qualities ( a *]ry come into my m9d by s5sation4 ,! ideas ( ^! qualities & actions1 or p[]s1 are p]ceiv$ by ! m9d to be by !mselves inconsi/5t ) exi/5ce4 ,!y _c subsi/ ( !mselves4 ,h5ce ! m9d p]ceives _! necess>y connection ) inh]5ce1 or ) be+ support$4 ,correlative to ! idea ( be+ support$ is1 ( c\rse1 ! idea ( ! support4 ,b ?is idea is n repres5t$ to ! m9d by any cle> & di/9ct idea2 ! obscure & vague1 indi/9ct idea ( ?+ or some?+1 is all t is left4 ,or yet m simply1 ,tak+ notice t a c]ta9 numb] ( simple ideas g toge!r1 & n imag9+ h[ ^! simple ideas c subsi/ by !mselves1 we accu/om ourselves to suppose "s sub/ratum :]e9 !y d subsi/1 & f :i* !y d result4 ,h5ce ! only idea we h ( x is ( some?+ :i* und]lies kn[n qualities4 ,x is _! suppos$1 b unkn[n1 support4 ,if we translate ^! expressions into ! ideas ( to-day1 we see t !y are equival5t to ! view ( ! _w :i* is giv5 u by sci5tific categories :5 ^! categories are reg>d$ n m]ely z sci5tific1 b also z philosophic2 t is1 capable ( int]pret+ & express+ ! ultimate nature ( exp]i5ce4 ,?is mod]n view uses ! words ?+s-9-!mselves 7or absolute realities7 & ph5om5a4 ,x says t we "k no?+ ( exi/5ce z x is 9 itself1 b only ( its ph5om5a4 ,m9d1 matt]1 objects1 are all sub/ances1 all equally sub/ances1 & all h _! unkn[n ess5ce & _! ph5om5al appe>ance4 ,su* a di/9ction betwe5 ! kn[n & ! unkn[n c re/1 x is evid5t1 only ^u a sep>ation betwe5 reality & ph5om5a simil> to t :i* ,locke makes betwe5 sub/ance & qualities4 ,9 kn[+ ! latt]1 we "k no?+ ( ! =m]4 ,al?\gh ! latt] are call$ ph5om5a1 !y d n really manife/ ! sub/antial reality2 !y conceal x4 ,?is absolute di/9ction betwe5 sub/ance & quality1 betwe5 reality & ph5om5on1 re/s1 9 turn1 ^u ! hypo!sis t reality is m]e exi/5ce2 t is1 x is some?+ :i* is1 & t is all4 ,x is a sub/ratum2 x lies "u1 9 a passive way1 qualities2 x is 7lit]ally7 sub/ance2 x simply /&s1 inactively1 "u ph5om5a4 ,x may1 by possibility1 h actions2 b x has !m4 ,activities are qualities :i*1 l all qualities1 are 9 ext]nal relation to ! sub/ance4 ,be+1 9 o!r words1 is ! prim>y notion1 & be+ means some?+ ess5tially passive & m]ely endur+1 accid5tally & second>ily some?+ act+4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 ,locke is ! fa!r ( ! me*anical philosophy ( to-day4 ,we h already le>n$ h[ completely ,leibniz rev]ses ?is way ( reg>d+ reality4 ,accord+ to ,locke1 reality ess5tially is2 & 9 its be+ !re is no gr\nd ( revelation ( itself4 ,x !n acts2 b ^! actions1 p[]s1 or qualities1 s9ce n fl[+ f ! v be+ ( sub/ance1 give no glimpse into its true nature4 ,accord+ to ,leibniz1 reality acts1 & !re=e is4 ,its be+ is condition$ ^u its activity4 ,x is n fir/ !re1 & secondly acts2 b its be+ !re is its activity4 ,s9ce its v sub/ance is activity1 x is impossible t x %\ld n manife/ its true nature4 ,its e activity is a revelation ( itself4 ,x _c hide itself z a passive subsi/5ce beh9d qualities or ph5om5a4 ,x mu/ break =? into !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 s9ce ! qualities are n some?+ :i* m]ely inh]e 9 an und]ly+ support1 b are ! v>i\s =ms or modes ( ! activity :i* con/itutes reality1 !y necess>ily reveal x4 ,!y are its revelations4 ,!re is "h no ne$ to dwell fur!r on ! orig9al dynamic nature ( sub/ance2 :at 0 said 9 ! way ( g5]al exposition suffices4 ,x is only 9 its relations to ,locke's view z j laid d[n t x n[ conc]ns u4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,leibniz po9ts out t qualities are ab/ract1 :ile sub/ance is concrete4 ,! qualities1 f ! v fact t !y h no self-subsi/5ce1 are only relations1 :ile ! sub/ance1 z t ( :i* !y are qualities1 or f :i* !y are ab/ractions1 is concrete4 ,x is1 ,leibniz says1 to inv]t ! true ord] to take qualities or ab/ract t]ms z ! be/ kn[n & mo/ easily compreh5d$1 & concretes z unkn[n1 & z hav+ ! mo/ difficulty ab\t !m4 ,x is ab/ractions :i* give bir? to almo/ all our difficulties1 & ,locke's error "h is t he beg9s ) ab/ractions1 & takes !m to be mo/ op5 to intellig5ce4 ,locke's second error is sep>at+ s completely sub/ance & attribute4 ,aft] hav+ di/+ui%$1 says ,leibniz1 two ?+s 9 sub/ance1 ! attributes or pr$icates1 & ! common subject ( ^! pr$icates1 x is n to be wond]$ at t we _c conceive any?+ 9 p>ticul> 9 ! subject4 ,?is result is necess>y1 s9ce we h sep>at$ all ! attributes 9 :i* !re is any?+ def9ite to be conceiv$4 ,h5ce to dem& any?+ m ?an a m]e unkn[n some:at 9 ! subject1 is to contradict ! supposition :i* 0 made 9 mak+ ! ab/raction & 9 conceiv+ sep>ately ! subject & its qualities or accid5ts4 ,we are inde$ ignorant ( a subject f :i* ab/raction has be5 made ( all def9+ & *>act]i/ic qualities2 b ?is ignorance results f our dem&+ a sort ( k ( :i* ! object does n p]mit4 ,9 %ort1 x is a cr$it to our k1 n an asp]sion ^u x1 t we _c "k t :i* is ?or\ghly unreal1--a sub/ance depriv$ ( all attributes4 ,?is is1 inde$1 a rem>k :i* is applicable to ! suppos$ unkn[abl5ess ( pure ,be+1 or ,absolute ,be+1 :5 x is def9$ z ! abs5ce ( all relations 7z is done1 = example1 by ,mr4 ,sp5c] to-day74 ,closely connect$ ) ! notion ( sub/ance are ! categories ( id5tity & div]sity4 ,^! relations are ( c\rse to ,locke ?or\ghly ext]nal4 ,x is relation ( "t & place :i* always det]m9es id5tity4 ,t t _h "o beg9n+ is ! same ?+2 & t :i* _h a diff]5t beg9n+ 9 "t & place f t1 is n ! same1 b div]se4 ,x is !re=e easy to discov] ! pr9ciple ( individuation4 ,x is exi/5ce itself1 :i* det]m9es a be+ ( any sort to a p>ticul> "t & place1 incommunicable to two be+s ( ! same k9d4 ,he applies ?is notion to organic be+1 includ+ man1 & to ! p]sonal id5tity ( man4 ,! id5tity ( an organism1 vegetable1 brute1 or human1 is its cont9u\s organization2 x is ! p>ticipation ( ! same cont9u$ life1 by con/antly fleet+ p>ticles ( matt] 9 succession vitally unit$ to ! same organiz$ body4 ,p]sonal id5tity is con/itut$ by a simil> cont9uity ( consci\sness4 ,x be+ ! same consci\sness t makes a man be himself to himself1 p]sonal id5tity dep5ds on t only4 ,x consi/s n 9 ! id5tity ( sub/ance1 b 9 ! id5tity ( consci\sness4 ,x w be notic$ t ,locke uses ! notion ( id5tity :i* he has already e/abli%$ to expla9 organic & p]sonal unity4 ,x is ! same cont9u$ life1 id5tity ( consci\sness1 t con/itute !m4 ,we are1 h5ce1 introduc$ to no new pr9ciple4 ,id5tity is ev5 9 p]sonality a matt] ( temporal & spatial relations4 ,9 ! g5]al acc\nt ( ! sy/em ( ,leibniz x 0 po9t$ out t x is *>act]i/ic ( 8 ?\ght to reg>d id5tity & di/9ction z int]nal pr9ciples1 & z necess>ily impli$ 9 ea* o!r4 ,we ne$ n g ov] t gr\nd aga91 b simply see h[ he /ates 8 position ) ref]5ce to :at is quot$ f ,locke4 ,^! are 8 words3 ,besides ! diff]5ce ( place & "t !re is always necess>y an int]nal pr9ciple or law ( di/9ction1 s t :ile !re may be sev]al ?+s ( ! same species1 !re are no two ?+s exactly alike4 ,?us1 al?\gh "t & place 7t is1 relations to ! ext]nal7 aid u 9 di/+ui%+ ?+s1 ?+s d n cease to be di/+ui%$ 9 !mselves4 ,! ess5ce ( id5tity & div]sity does n consi/ 9 "t & place1 al?\gh x is true t div]sity ( ?+s is accompani$ ) t ( "t & place1 s9ce !y c>ry along ) !m diff]5t impressions ^u ! ?+2 t is1 !y expose ! ?+ to diff]5t surr\nd+s4 ,b 9 reality x is ?+s :i* div]sify times & places f "o ano!r1 = 9 !mselves ^! are p]fectly simil>1 n be+ sub/ances or complete realities4 ,! pr9ciple ( individuation foll[s1 ( c\rse1 f ?is4 ,if two individuals 7 p]fectly simil> & equal1 t is1 indi/+ui%able 9 !mselves1 !re w\ld be no pr9ciple ( individuation2 !re w\ld n be two individuals4 ,?us ,leibniz /ates 8 important pr9ciple ( ! id5tity ( indisc]nibles1 ! pr9ciple t :]e !re is n "s int]nal diff]5tiat+ pr9ciple :i* specifies ! exi/5ce 9 ?is or t def9ite way1 !re is no individual4 ,leibniz "h /ates1 9 effect1 ! pr9ciple ( organic unity1 ! notion t concrete unity is a unity ( diff]5ces1 n f !m4 ,x is ! pr9ciple :i* all[s him at once to accept & trans=m ! ?\ght ( ,sp9oza t all qualification or det]m9ation is negation4 ,sp9oza1 9 spite ( 8 intellectual greatness1 conceiv$ ( di/9ction or det]m9ation z ext]nal1 & h5ce z ext]nal negation4 ,b s9ce ultimate reality admits ( no ext]nal negation1 x mu/ be )\t di/9ction1 an all-inclusive "o4 ,b to ,leibniz ! negation is int]nal2 x is det]m9ation ( its own be+ into ! greate/ possible ri*es4 ,?+s t are conceiv$ z absolutely uni=m & conta9+ no v>iety are pure ab/ractions4 ,?+s indi/+ui%able 9 !mselves1 & capable ( be+ di/+ui%$ only by ext]nal *>act]i/ics )\t int]nal f\ndation1 are contr>y to ! mo/ important pr9ciples ( reason4 ,! tru? is t e be+ is capable ( *ange or diff]5tiation1 & is itself actually *ang$ 9 su* a way t 9 itself x diff]s f e o!r4 ,z to organic bodies1 s f> z !y are bodies1 or corporeal1 !y are "o & id5tical only 9 appe>ance4 ,!y are n ! same an in/ant4 4 4 4 ,bodies are 9 con/ant flux4 ,!y are l a riv] :i* is always *ang+ its wat]1 or l ! %ip ( ,!seus :i* ! ,a!nians are con/antly repair+4 ,su* unity z !y really possess is l all unity1--ideal or spiritual4 ,!y rema9 ! same individual by virtue ( t same s\l or _s :i* con/itutes ! ',ego' 9 ^? individuals :o ?9k4 ,except = ! s\l1 !re is nei!r ! same life nor any vital union4 ,z to p]sonal id5tity1 ,leibniz di/+ui%es betwe5 physical or real id5tity & moral4 ,9 nei!r case1 h[ev]1 is x a unity :i* excludes plurality1 an id5tity :i* does n compreh5d div]sity4 ,e _s has1 he says1 traces ( all ! impressions :i* x has ev] exp]i5c$1 & ev5 pres5tim5ts ( all t ev] w happ54 ,b ^! feel+s are g5]ally too m9ute to be di/+ui%$ & br\ght into consci\sness1 ?\gh !y may be sometime develop$4 ,?is cont9uity & connection ( p]ceptions makes up ! real id5tity ( ! individual1 :ile app]ceptions 7t :i* is consci\sly appreh5d$ ( pa/ exp]i5ces7 con/itute ! moral id5tity & make manife/ ! real id5tity4 ,we h _h occasion be=e to allude to ! "p play$ 9 ! ,leibnizian philosophy by m9ute p]ceptions or unconsci\s ideas4 ,( !m he says1 relative to ! pres5t po9t1 t ins5sible p]ceptions m>k & ev5 con/itute ! sam5ess ( ! individual1 :i* is *>act]iz$ by ! residua pres]v$ f its prec$+ /ates1 z !y =m its connection ) its pres5t /ate4 ,if ^! connections are app]ceiv$ or br\ght into di/9ct consci\sness1 !re is moral id5tity z well4 ,z he expresses x 9 "o place3 ,! self 7soi7 is real & physical id5tity2 ! appe>ance ( self1 accompani$ ) tru?1 is p]sonal id5tity4 ,b ! ess5tial po9t 9 ei!r case is t ! id5tity is n t ( a sub/ance und]ly+ modifications1 nor ( a consci\sness :i* m]ely accompanies all m5tal /ates1 b is ! connection1 ! active cont9uity1 or--9 ,kant's ^w--! syn!sis1 ( all p>ticul> =ms ( ! m5tal life4 ,! self is n ! mo/ ab/ract unity ( exp]i5ce1 x is ! mo/ organic4 ,:at ,leibniz says ( 8 monads g5]ally is especially true ( ! high] monads1--human s\ls4 ,!y v>y1 up to inf9ity itself1 ) ! greate/ abundance1 ord]1 & beauty imag9able4 ,n a ma!matical po9t1 b life1 is ! type ( ,leibniz's conception ( id5tity4 ,9 ! ord] 9 :i* ,locke takes up 8 topics 7& 9 :i* ,leibniz foll[s him7 we h omitt$ "o subject1 :i*1 h[ev]1 may f9d its natural place 9 ! pres5t connection1--! subject ( inf9ity4 ,9 ,locke's conception1 ! inf9ite is only a ceaseless ext5sion or multiplication ( ! f9ite4 ,he consid]s ! topic imm$iately aft] ! discussions ( space1 "t1 & numb]1 & ) good logic f 8 /&po9t2 = f9ite & inf9ite1 he says1 are look$ ^u by ! m9d z ! modes ( quantity1 & are attribut$1 9 _! fir/ designation1 only to ^? ?+s :i* h p>ts & are capable ( increase & dim9ution4 ,?is is true ev5 ( ! application ( ! t]m inf9ite to ,god1 s f> z conc]ns ! attributes ( duration & ubiquity2 & z appli$ to 8 o!r attributes ! t]m is figurative1 signify+ t !y are incompreh5sible & inexhau/ible4 ,su* be+ ! idea ( ! inf9ite1 x is atta9$ z foll[s3 ,!re is no difficulty1 says ,locke1 z to ! way 9 :i* we come by ! idea ( ! f9ite4 ,e obvi\s portion ( ext5sion & p]iod ( succession :i* affects u is b\nd$4 ,if we take "o ( ^! p]iods or portions1 we f9d t we c d\ble x1 or o!rwise multiply x1 z (t5 z we wi%1 & t !re is no reason to /op1 nor are we "o jot ne>] ! end at any po9t ( ! multiplication ?an :5 we set out4 ,by repeat+ z (t5 z we w any idea ( space1 we get ! idea ( inf9ity2 by be+ able to repeat ! idea ( any l5g? ( duration1 we come by ! idea ( et]nity4 ,!re is a diff]5ce1 !n1 betwe5 ! ideas ( ! inf9ity ( space1 "t1 & numb]1 & ( an inf9ite space1 "t1 & numb]4 ,! =m] idea we h2 x is ! idea t we c cont9ue )\t end ! process ( multiplication or progression4 ,! latt] we h n2 x w\ld be ! idea ( hav+ complet$ ! inf9ite multiplication1 x w\ld be ! result ( ! nev]-end+ progression4 ,& ?is is evid5tly a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,to sum ! matt] up1 ! t]m inf9ite always relates to ! notion ( quantity4 ,quantity is t :i* is ess5tially capable ( increase or decrease4 ,!re is !n an inf9ity ( quantity2 !re is no quantity :i* is ! absolute limit to quantity4 ,su* a quantity w\ld be incapable ( increase1 & h5ce contradictory to quantity4 ,b an actual inf9ite quantity 7:e!r ( space1 "t1 or numb]7 w\ld be "o ?an :i* !re c\ld be no great]2 & h5ce ! impossibility ( our hav+ a positive idea ( an actual or complet$ inf9ite4 ,leibniz's reply consi/s simply 9 c>ry+ out ?is same ?\ght some:at fur!r4 ,x is grant$ t ! idea ( an inf9ite quantity ( any k9d is absurd & self-contradictory4 ,b :at does ?is prove1 except t ! notions ( quantity & inf9ity are incompatible ) ea* o!r1 t !y contradict ea* o!r8 ,h5ce1 in/ead ( ! inf9ite be+ a mode ( quantity1 x mu/ be conceiv$ z ess5tially di/9ct f & ev5 oppos$ to quantity4 ,locke's argum5t is virtually a r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! notion t ! inf9ite is capable ( p>ts4 ,9 ! few pages ( comm5t :i* ,leibniz 9 #afif wrote ^u ,locke1 ?is topic ( ! inf9ite is "o ( ! few t\*$ ^u4 ,8 words ^u t occasion 7 z foll[s3 ,i agree ) ,mr4 ,locke t1 prop]ly speak+1 !re is no space1 "t1 nor numb] :i* is inf9ite2 & t x is only true t h[ev] great be a space1 a "t1 or a numb]1 !re is always ano!r :i* is /ill great]1 & ?is )\t end2 & t1 !re=e1 ! inf9ite is n to be f\nd 9 a :ole made up ( p>ts4 ,b x does n cease to exi/3 x is f\nd 9 ! absolute1 :i* is )\t p>ts1 & ( :i* comp\nd ?+s ph5om5a 9 space & "t1 or facts :i* may be numb]$ are only limitations4 ,! positive inf9ite be+ no?+ else ?an ! absolute1 x may be said t !re is1 9 ?is s5se1 a positive idea ( ! inf9ite1 & t x is ant]ior to ! idea ( ! f9ite4 ,9 o!r words1 :ile ! inf9ite is to ,locke an indef9ite ext5sion ( ! f9ite1 :i* alone is positively giv51 to ,leibniz ! inf9ite is ! positive & real1 & ! f9ite is only 9 & by x4 ,! f9ite is ! negative4 ,leibniz amplifies ?is ?\ght ^u o!r occasions1 z 9 8 pres5t m ext5d$ exam9ation4 ,!re is no inf9ite numb]1 l9e1 or quantity1 if !y are tak5 z true :oles4 ,we deceive ourselves 9 try+ to imag9e an absolute space :i* %\ld be an inf9ite :ole1 compos$ ( p>ts4 ,!re is none su*4 ,x is an idea :i* implies contradiction2 & all ^! 'inf9ites' & 'inf9itesimals' are ( use only 9 geometry1 z imag9>y roots are 9 algebra4 ,t :i* is ord9>ily call$ ! inf9ite1 t is1 ! quantitative inf9ite1 is 9 reality only ! indef9ite4 ,we involve ourselves 9 difficulty :5 we talk ab\t a s]ies ( numb]s ext5d+ to inf9ity2 we imag9e a la/ t]m1 an inf9ite numb]1 or "o inf9itely little4 ,b ^! are only fictions4 ,all numb] is f9ite & assignable1 t is1 ( a c]ta9 def9ite quantity2 e l9e is ! same4 ',inf9ites' & 'inf9itesimals' signify only quantities :i* c be tak5 z l>ge or z small z "o wi%es1 simply = ! purpose ( %[+ t !re is no error :i* c be assign$4 ,or we are to und]/& by ! inf9itely little1 ! /ate ( vani%+ or comm5c+ ( a quantum aft] ! analogy ( a quantum already =m$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! true inf9ite is n an aggregate1 nor a :ole ( p>ts2 x is n clo!d ) magnitude1 nor does x consi/ 9 numb]4 4 4 4 ,! ,absolute alone1 ! indivisible inf9ite1 has true unity1--,i mean ,god4 ,& z he sums up ! matt]3 ,! inf9ite1 consi/+ ( p>ts1 is nei!r "o nor a :ole2 x _c be br\ght "u any notion ( ! m9d except t ( quantity4 ,only ! inf9ite )\t p>ts is "o1 & ?is is n a :ole ( p>ts3 ?is inf9ite is ,god4 ,x _c be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ,locke has giv5 a correct acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( ! notion ( ! quantitative inf9ite1 or--to speak philosophically1 & n aft] ! use ( t]ms conv5i5t 9 ma!matics--! indef9ite4 ,accord+ to him1 its orig9 is ! m]e empirical repeat+ ( a s5su\s datum ( "t & space4 ,accord+ to ,leibniz1 ?is repetition1 h[ev] long cont9u$1 c give no idea beyond itself2 x c nev] g5]ate ! idea t ! process ( repetition may be cont9u$ )\t a limit4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 he objects t exp]i5ce _c gu>antee notions beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 ,locke's process ( repetition c\ld tell u t a numb] _h be5 ext5d$ up to a giv5 po9t2 n t x c\ld be ext5d$ )\t limit4 ,! s\rce ( ?is latt] idea mu/ be f\nd1 !re=e1 :]e we f9d ! orig9 ( all extra-empirical notions1--9 reason4 ,its orig9 is ! same z t ( univ]sal & necess>y tru?s4 ,x is n ! empirical process ( multiply+1 b ! fact t ! same reason = multiply+ always exi/s1 t orig9ates & gu>antees ! idea4 ,take a /raight l9e & prolong x 9 su* a way t x is d\ble ! fir/4 ,x is evid5t t ! second1 be+ p]fectly simil> to ! fir/1 c be itself d\bl$2 & we h a ?ird1 :i* 9 turn is simil> to ! prec$+4 ,! same reason always be+ pres5t1 x is n possible t ! process %\ld ev] be br\ght to a /op4 ,?us ! l9e c be prolong$ 'to inf9ity4' ,!re=e ! idea ( 'inf9ity' comes f ! consid]ation ( ! id5tity ( relation or ( reason4 ,! consid]ations :i* we h gr\p$ toge!r 9 ?is *apt] s]ve to %[ ! fundam5tal philosophical diff]5ce betwe5 ,locke & ,leibniz4 ,al?\gh1 tak5 9 detail1 !y are self-explanatory1 a few words may be p]mitt$ ^u _! unity & ultimate be>+4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,locke t he uses ! same pr9ciple ( explanation ) ref]5ce to ! conceptions ( sub/ance1 id5tity & div]sity1 & inf9ity1 & t ?is pr9ciple is t ( spatial & temporal relation4 ,inf9ity is conceiv$ z quantitative1 z ! successive addition ( times & spaces2 id5tity & div]sity are on5ess & diff]5ce ( exi/5ce z det]m9$ by space & "t2 sub/ance is ! und]ly+ /atic sub/ratum ( qualities1 &1 z su*1 is consid]$ aft] ! analogy ( ?+s exi/+ 9 space & ?r\gh "t4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ,locke believ$ z ?or\ghly z ,leibniz 9 ! sub/antial exi/5ce ( ! _w1 ( ! human s\l1 & ( ,god2 9 ! objective cont9uity ( ! _w1 & ! p]sonal id5tity ( man1 & 9 ! true inf9ity ( ,god4 ,:atev] negative or sceptical inf]5ces may h aft]w>ds be5 drawn f ,locke's premises 7 nei!r drawn nor dream$ ( by him4 ,8 purpose 0 9 ess5ce "o ) t ( ,leibniz4 ,b ! cont5tion ( ,leibniz is t :5 sub/ance1 id5tity1 & inf9ity are conceiv$ ( by me*anical categories1 or measur$ by ! s5sible /&>d ( space & "t1 !y lose _! mean+ & _! validity4 ,accord+ to him su* notions are spiritual 9 _! nature1 & to be spiritually conceiv$ (4 ,spiritual1 h[ev]1 does n mean oppos$ to ! s5sible2 x does n mean some?+ to be kn[n by a peculi> k9d ( intuition unlike our k ( any?+ else4 ,x means ! active & organic basis ( ! s5sible1 its significance & ideal purpose4 ,x is kn[n by kn[+ ! s5sible or me*anical z x really is2 t is1 z x is completely1 z a concretum1 9 ,leibniz's phrase4 ,leibniz saw cle>ly t to make ! inf9ite some?+ at "o end ( ! f9ite1 z its m]e ext]nal limit1 or some?+ miracul\sly int]calat$ into ! f9ite1 0 to deprive x ( mean+1 &1 by mak+ x unkn[able1 to op5 ! way = its d5ial4 ,to make id5tity consi/ 9 ! removal ( all div]sity 7z mu/ be done if x be ?\ght aft] ! mann] ( ext]nal relations71 is to r$uce x to no?+1--z ,hume1 inde$1 aft]w>ds %[$4 ,sub/ance1 :i* is m]ely a support beh9d qualities1 is unkn[able1 & h5ce unv]ifiable4 ,:ile1 !n1 ! aim ( bo? ,locke & ,leibniz z reg>ds ^! categories 0 ! same1 ,leibniz saw :at ,locke did n1--t to int]pret !m aft] ! mann] ( exi/5ce 9 space & "t1 to reg>d !m 79 ,leibniz's t]m9ology7 z ma!matical1 & n z metaphysical1 is to defeat t aim4 ,! sole way to ju/ify !m1 & 9 ju/ify+ !m to give relative validity to ! s5sible & ph5om5al1 is to demon/rate _! spiritual & dynamic nature1 to %[ !m z condition+ space & "t1 & n z condition$ by !m4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,ext5t ,,( ,,k4 ,! ?ird book ( ,locke's ,essay is ^u words & language2 & 9 ! ord] ( treatm5t ?is w\ld be ! next topic = discussion4 ,b mu* ( :at is said 9 ?is connection bo? by ,locke & by ,leibniz is philological1 rhetorical1 & grammatical 9 "*1 & al?\gh n )\t int]e/ 9 itself1 is yet )\t any especial be>+ ^u ! philosophical po9ts 9 controv]sy4 ,! only topics 9 ?is book dem&+ our att5tion are g5]al & p>ticul> t]ms2 b ^! fall mo/ naturally into ! discussion ( g5]al & p>ticul> k4 ,9 fact1 x is n ! t]ms :i* ,locke actually discusses1 b ! ideas = :i* ! t]ms /&4 ,we pass on accord+ly1 )\t fur!r c]emony1 to ! f\r? book1 :i* is conc]n+ k 9 g5]al4 ,locke def9es k z no?+ b ! p]ception ( ! connection & agreem5t1 or disagreem5t & repugnancy1 ( any ( our ideas4 ,^! agreem5ts or disagreem5ts may be r$uc$ to f\r sorts1--,id5tity1 or div]sity2 ,relation2 ,co-exi/5ce1 or necess>y connection2 ,real exi/5ce4 ,! /atem5t ( id5tity & div]sity is impli$ 9 all k :atsoev]4 ,by !m ! m9d cle>ly & infallibly p]ceives ea* idea to agree ) itself & be :at x is1 & all di/9ct ideas to disagree2 i4 e41 ! "o n to be ! o!r4 ,! agreem5t ( relation is su* k z ! m9d d]ives f ! comp>ison ( its ideas4 ,x includes ma!matical k4 ,! connection ( co-exi/5ce belongs p>ticul>ly to sub/ances4 ,locke's example is t gold is fix$1--by :i* we und]/& t ! idea ( fix$ness goes along ) t gr\p ( ideas :i* we call gold4 ,all /atem5ts ( fact com+ "u ! natural sci5ces w\ld fall into ?is class4 ,! f\r? sort is t ( actual & real exi/5ce agree+ to any idea4 ,leibniz's criticism ^u ^! /atem5ts ( ,locke is brief & to ! po9t4 ,he admits ,locke's def9ition ( k1 qualify+ x1 h[ev]1 by ! /atem5t t 9 mu* ( our k1 p]haps 9 all t is m]ely empirical1 we d n "k ! reason & connection ( ?+s & h5ce _c be said to p]ceive ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( ideas1 b only to feel x confus$ly4 ,8 mo/ important rem>k1 h[ev]1 is to ! effect t relation is n a special k9d ( k1 b t all ,locke's f\r k9ds are v>ieties ( relation4 ,locke's connection ( ideas :i* makes k is no?+ b relation4 ,& !re are two k9ds ( relation1--^? ( comp>ison & ( conc\rse4 ,t ( comp>ison /ates ! id5tity or di/9ction ( ideas1 ei!r 9 :ole or 9 "p4 ,t ( conc\rse conta9s ,locke's two classes ( co-exi/5ce & exi/5ce4 ,:5 we say t a ?+ really exi/s1 ?is exi/5ce is ! pr$icate1--t is to say1 a notion connect$ ) ! idea :i* is ! subject2 & !re is connection betwe5 ^! two notions4 ,! exi/5ce ( an object ( an idea may be consid]$ z ! conc\rse ( ?is object ) me4 ,h5ce comp>ison1 :i* m>ks id5tity or div]sity1 & conc\rse ( an object ) me 7or ) ! ego7 are ! only =ms ( k4 ,leibniz leaves ! matt] "h2 b he only ne$$ to develop :at is conta9$ 9 ?is /atem5t to anticipate ,b]keley & ,kant 9 "s ( ! mo/ important ( _! discov]ies4 ,! contradiction :i* lies conceal$ 9 ,locke's acc\nt is betwe5 8 def9ition ( k 9 g5]al1 & k ( real exi/5ce 9 p>ticul>4 ,"o is ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( ideas2 ! o!r is ! agreem5t ( an idea ) an object4 ,b]keley's "w1 9 its simple/ =m1 0 to remove ?is inconsi/5cy4 ,he saw cle>ly t ! object 0 an intrud] "h4 ,if k lies 9 ! connection ( ideas1 x is impossible to get outside ! ideas to f9d an object ) :i* !y agree4 ,ei!r t object is entirely unkn[n1 or x is an idea4 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 to f9d ! k ( reality 9 ! comp>ison ( an idea ) an object4 ,x mu/ be 9 "s prop]ty ( ! ideas !mselves4 ,kant develop$ m fully ! nature ( ?is prop]ty1 :i* con/itutes ! objectivity ( our ideas4 ,x is _! connection ) "o ano!r accord+ to c]ta9 necess>y =ms ( p]ception & rules ( conception4 ,9 o!r words1 ! reality ( ideas lies 9 _! be+ connect$ by ! necess>y & h5ce univ]sal relations ( syn!tic intellig5ce1 or1 z ,kant (t5 /ates x1 9 _! agreem5t ) ! conditions ( self-consci\sness4 ,x is n1 ,i believe1 unduly /ret*+ ei!r ! lett] or ! _s ( ,leibniz to f9d 9 t conc\rse ( ! object ) ! ego :i* makes its reality1 ! analogue ( ?is doctr9e ( ,kant2 x is at all ev5ts ! recognition ( ! fact t reality is n to be f\nd 9 ! relat+ ( ideas to unkn[n ?+s1 b 9 _! relation to self-consci\s intellig5ce4 ,! po9ts ( simil>ity betwe5 ,kant & ,leibniz d n end "h4 ,leibniz's two relations ( comp>ison & conc\rse are c]ta9ly ! cong5]s ( ,kant's analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts4 ,b ,leibniz1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 tru/s too ?or\ghly to ! m]ely =mal relations ( id5tity & contradiction to p]mit him su* a developm5t ( ^! two k9ds ( relation z r5d]s ,kant's treatm5t ( !m epo*-mak+4 ,! discussion !n advances to ! subject ( degrees ( k1 ( :i* ,locke recognizes ?ree1--intuitive1 demon/rative1 & s5sitive4 ,intuitive k is imm$iate k1--recognition ( lik5ess or diff]5ce )\t ! int]v5tion ( a ?ird idea2 x is ! mo/ c]ta9 & cle> ( all k4 ,9 demon/rative k ! agreem5t or disagreem5t _c be p]ceiv$ directly1 because ! ideas _c be put toge!r s z to %[ x4 ,h5ce ! m9d has rec\rse to int]m$i>ies4 ,& ?is is :at we call reason+4 ,demon/rative re/s on intuitive k1 because ea* int]m$iate idea us$ mu/ be imm$iately p]ceiv$ to be l or unlike its neighbor+ idea1 or x w\ld itself ne$ int]m$iates = its pro(4 ,besides ^! two degrees ( k !re is ano!r p]ception ( ! m9d employ$ ab\t ! p>ticul> exi/5ce ( f9ite ?+s )\t u1 :i*1 go+ beyond b>e probability1 & yet n rea*+ p]fectly to ei!r ( ! =ego+ degrees ( c]ta9ty1 passes "u ! "n ( k4 ,leibniz's comm5ts are aga9 brief4 ,! primitive tru?s :i* are kn[n by intuition are to be divid$ into two classes1--tru?s ( reason & ( fact4 ,! primitive tru?s ( reason are necess>y1 & may be call$ id5tical1 because !y seem only to repeat ! same ?+1 )\t tea*+ u any?+4 ,a is ,a4 ,a is n non-,a4 ,su* propositions are n frivol\s or useless1 because ! conclusions ( logic are demon/rat$ by means ( id5tical propositions1 & _m ( ^? ( geometry by ! pr9ciple ( contradiction4 ,all ! intuitive tru?s ( reason may be said to be made kn[n ?r\gh ! imm$iation ( ideas4 ,! intuitive tru?s ( fact1 on ! o!r h&1 are cont+5t & are made kn[n ?r\gh ! imm$iation ( feel+4 ,9 ?is latt] class come su* tru?s z ! ,c>tesian1 ,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i am4 ,nei!r class c be prov$ by any?+ m c]ta94 ,demon/ration is def9$ by ,leibniz z by ,locke4 ,! =m] recognizes1 h[ev]1 two sorts1--analytic & syn!tic4 ,syn!sis goes f ! simple to ! complex4 ,!re are _m cases1 h[ev]1 :]e ?is is n applicable2 :]e x w\ld be a task equal to dr9k+ up ! sea to attempt to make all ! necess>y comb9ations4 ,"h ! me?od ( exclusions %\ld be employ$1 cutt+ (f _m ( ! useless comb9ations4 ,if ?is _c be done1 !n x is analysis :i* gives ! clew into ! labyr9?4 ,he is also ( ! op9ion t besides demon/ration1 giv+ c]ta9ty1 !re %\ld be admitt$ an art ( calculat+ probabilities1--! lack ( :i* is1 he says1 a great defect 9 our pres5t logic1 & :i* w\ld be m useful ?an a l>ge "p ( our demon/rative sci5ces4 ,z to s5sitive k1 he agrees ) ,locke t !re is su* a ?+ z real k ( objects )\t u1 & t ?is v>iety does n h ! same metaphysical c]ta9ty z ! o!r two2 b he disagrees reg>d+ its crit]ion4 ,accord+ to ,locke1 ! crit]ion is simply ! great] degree ( vividness & =ce t s5sations h z comp>$ ) imag9ations1 & ! actual pleasures or pa9s :i* accompany !m4 ,leibniz po9ts out t ?is crit]ion1 :i* 9 reality is purely emotional1 is ( no great value1 & /ates ! pr9ciple ( ! reality ( s5sible ph5om5a :i* we h already giv51 repeat+ t x is f\nd 9 ! connection ( ph5om5a1 & t ?is connection is v]ifi$ by means ( ! tru?s ( reason1 j z ! ph5om5a ( optics are expla9$ by geometry4 ,! discussion reg>d+ primitive tru?s1 axioms1 & maxims1 z well z ! di/9ction betwe5 tru?s ( fact & ( reason1 has its mo/ important be>+ 9 ,locke's next *apt]4 ,?is *apt] has = its title ! ,ext5t ( ,human ,k1 & 9 connection ) ! six? *apt]1 ^u univ]sal propositions1 & ) ! sev5?1 ^u axioms1 really conta9s ! gi/ ( ! treatm5t ( k4 ,x is "h also t are to be consid]$ *apt]s ?ree & six ( book ?ird1 hav+ respectively z _! titles1 ,( ,g5]al ,t]ms1 & ,( ! ,names ( ,sub/ances4 ,to und]/& ,locke's views ^u ! ext5t & limitations ( our k1 x is necess>y to recur to 8 !ory ( its orig94 ,if we comp>e :at he says ab\t ! orig9 ( ideas f s5sations ) :at he says ab\t ! developm5t ( g5]al k f p>ticul>1 we %all f9d t ,locke unconsci\sly puts side by side two diff]5t1 & ev5 contradictory1 !ories ^u ?is po9t4 ,9 ! view already giv5 :5 treat+ ( s5sation1 k orig9ates f ! comb9ation1 ! addition1 ( ! simple ideas furni%$ u by our s5ses4 ,x beg9s ) ! simple1 ! unrelat$1 & advances to ! complex4 ,b accord+ to ! doctr9e :i* he prop\nds 9 treat+ ( g5]al t]ms1 k beg9s ) ! individual1 :i* is already qualifi$ by def9ite relations1 & h5ce complex1 & proce$s1 by ab/ract+ "s ( ^! qualities1 t[>ds ! simple4 ,or1 9 ,locke's own language1 ideas become g5]al by sep>at+ f !m ! circum/ances ( "t & place & any o!r ideas t may det]m9e !m to ?is & t p>ticul> exi/5ce4 ,&1 /ill m def9itely1 he says t g5]al ideas are fram$ by leav+ out ( ! complex idea ( individuals t :i* is peculi> to ea*1 & reta9+ only :at is common to !m all4 ,f ?is x foll[s t g5]al & univ]sal belong n to ! real exi/5ce ( ?+s1 b are ! inv5tions & creatures ( ! und]/&+4 ,:5 we quit p>ticul>s1 ! g5]als t re/ are only creatures ( our own mak+4 4 4 4 ,! signification !y h is no?+ b a relation t by ! m9d ( man is add$ to !m4 ,& 9 language :i* rem9ds u ( ,kant1 b ) v diff]5t be>+1 he says t relations are ! workman%ip ( ! und]/&+4 ,! ab/ract idea ( :at is common to all ! memb]s ( ! class con/itutes nom9al ess5ce4 ,?is nom9al ess5ce1 n be+ a p>ticul> exi/5ce 9 nature1 b ! workman%ip ( ! und]/&+1 is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! real ess5ce1 :i* is ! be+ ( any?+ :]eby x is :at x is4 ,?is real ess5ce is evid5tly equival5t to ! unkn[n sub/ance ( :i* we h he>d be=e4 ,x is ! real1 int]nal1 & unkn[n con/itution ( ?+s4 ,9 simple or unrelat$ ideas & 9 modes ! real & ! nom9al ess5ce is ! same2 & h5ce :atev] is demon/rat$ ( "o is demon/rat$ ( ! o!r4 ,b z to sub/ance x is diff]5t1 ! "o be+ natural1 ! o!r artificial4 ,! nom9al ess5ce always relates to sorts1 or classes1 & is a patt]n or /&>d by :i* we classify objects4 ,9 ! individual !re is no?+ ess5tial1 9 ?is s5se4 ,p>ticul> be+s1 consid]$ b>ely 9 !mselves1 w be f\nd to h all _! qualities equally ess5tial to !m1 or1 :i* is m1 no?+ at all4 ,z = ! real ess5ce :i* ?+s h1 we only suppose its be+ )\t precisely kn[+ :at x is4 ,locke "h pres5ts u ) ! confusion :i*1 9 "o =m or ano!r1 is always f\nd 9 empiricism1 & :i* inde$ is ess5tial to x4 ,locke1 l ! ord9>y empirici/1 has no d\bt ( ! exi/5ce ( real ?+s4 ,8 />t+-po9t is ! exi/5ce ( two sub/ances1 m9d & matt]2 :ile1 fur!r1 !re is a great numb] ( sub/ances ( ea* k9d4 ,ea* m9d & e sep>ate portion ( matt] is a di/9ct sub/ance4 ,?is suppos$ deliv]ance ( common s5se ,locke nev] call$ into "q4 ,work+ on ?is l9e1 all k w consi/ 9 ab/raction f ! ready-made ?+s pres5t$ to u 9 p]ception1 9 leav+ out f ! complex idea ( individuals some?+ belong+ to !m4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ,locke nev] d\bts t k beg9s ) s5sation1 & t1 !re=e1 ! process ( k is "o ( add+ simple1 unrelat$ elem5ts4 ,! two !ories are absolutely oppos$ to ea* o!r1 & yet "o & ! same philosophical inf]5ce may be drawn f ea*2 namely1 t only ! p>ticul> is real1 & t ! univ]sal 7or relations7 is an artificial product1 manufactur$ 9 "o case by ab/raction f ! real individual1 9 ! o!r by comp\nd+ ! real s5sation4 ,! result is1 t :5 he comes to a discussion ( ! ext5t ( k1 he admits k ( self1 ( ,god1 & ( ?+s1 only by a d5ial ( 8 v def9ition ( k1 :ile k ( o!r conceptions1 l ^? ( ma!matics1 is n k ( reality1 b only ( ideas :i* we ourselves frame4 ,all k1 t is to say1 is obta9$ only ei!r by contradict+ 8 own fundam5tal notion1 or by plac+ x 9 relations :i* are confess$ly artificial & sup]9duc$4 ,x is to ?is po9t t we come4 ,! proposition :i* is fundam5tal to ! discussion is t we h k only :]e we p]ceive ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( ideas4 ,locke !n takes up ea* ( 8 f\r classes ( connection1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! ext5t ( k 9 x4 ,our k ( id5tity & div]sity ext5ds z f> z our ideas1 because we intuitively p]ceive e idea to be :at x is1 & diff]5t f any o!r4 ,locke aft]w>ds /ates1 h[ev]1 t all purely id5tical propositions are trifl+1 t is1 !y conta9 no in/ruction2 !y tea* u no?+4 ,?us ! fir/ class ( relations _c be said to be ( mu* avail4 ,if we consid] ! f\r? k9d ( k1 t ( real exi/5ce1 we h an intuitive k ( self1 a demon/rative k ( ,god1 & a s5sitive k ( o!r ?+s4 ,b s5sitive k1 x mu/ be not$1 does n ext5d beyond ! objects actually pres5t to our s5ses4 ,x c h>dly be said1 !re=e1 to assure u ( ! exi/5ce ( objects at all4 ,x only tells u :at exp]i5ces are be+ at ! "t und]gone4 ,fur!rmore1 k ( all ?ree 7,god1 self1 & matt]71 s9ce ( real be+1 & n ( relations betwe5 ideas1 contradicts 8 def9ition ( k4 ,b p]haps we %all f9d k m ext5d$ 9 ! o!r classes4 ,& inde$ ,locke tells u t k ( relations is ! l>ge/ field ( our k4 ,x includes morals & ma!matics2 b x is to be notic$ t1 accord+ to ,locke1 9 bo? ( ^! bran*es our demon/rations are n reg>d+ facts1 b reg>d+ ei!r modes fram$ by ourselves1 or relations t are ! creatures ( our m9ds1--extrane\s & sup]9duc$ ^u ! facts1 z he says4 ,he ?us anticipates 9 sub/ance1 ?\gh n 9 phraseology1 ,hume's di/9ction betwe5 matt]s ( fact & connections ( ideas1 9 ! latt] ( :i* we may h k1 b n go+ beyond ! comb9ations t we ourselves make4 ,?is leaves "o class1 t ( co-exi/5ce1 to be exam9$4 ,"h1 if any:]e1 mu/ k1 wor?y ( be+ t]m$ sci5tific1 be f\nd4 ,?is class1 x w be rememb]$1 compreh5ds our k conc]n+ sub/ances4 ,b ?is ext5ds1 accord+ to ,locke1 a v little way4 ,! idea ( a sub/ance is a complex ( v>i\s simple ideas unit$ 9 "o subject & co-exi/+ toge!r4 ,:5 we w\ld "k any?+ fur!r conc]n+ a sub/ance1 we only inquire :at o!r simple ideas1 besides ^? already unit$1 co-exi/ ) !m4 ,s9ce !re is no necess>y connection1 h[ev]1 among ^! simple ideas1 s9ce ea* is1 by its v simplicity1 ess5tially di/9ct f e o!r1 or1 z we h already le>n$1 s9ce no?+ is ess5tial to an individual1 we c nev] be sure t any idea really co-exi/s ) o!rs4 ,or1 z ,locke says1 9 physical matt]s we c g no fur!r ?an p>ticul> exp]i5ce in=ms u (4 4 4 4 ,we c h no c]ta9 k ( univ]sal tru?s conc]n+ natural bodies4 ,& aga91 univ]sal propositions ( ^: tru? & falsehood we h c]ta9 k conc]n n exi/5ce2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 p>ticul> affirmations are only conc]n+ exi/5ce1 decl>+ only ! accid5tal union or sep>ation ( ideas 9 ?+s exi/+4 ,?is p>ticul> k1 x mu/ be recall$1 is1 9 turn1 only s5sitive1 & ?us ext5ds n beyond ! "t :5 ! s5sation is _h4 ,we are n surpris$ !n at le>n+ f ,locke t reg>d+ bodies we are n capable ( sci5tific k4 ,natural philosophy is n capable ( be+ made a sci5ce2 or1 z ,locke else:]e /ates x1 k reg>d+ ! nom9al ess5ce is trifl+ 7,kant's analytic judgm5t72 reg>d+ ! real ess5ce is impossible4 ,= example1 :5 we say t all gold is fusible1 ?is means ei!r simply t fusibility is "o ( ! ideas :i* we comb9e to get ! g5]al idea ( gold1 s t 9 mak+ ! giv5 judgm5t we only exp& our own notion2 or x means t ! real sub/ance gold is always fusible4 ,b ?is is a /atem5t we h no "r to make1 & = two reasons3 we d n "k :at ! real sub/ance gold is2 & ev5 if we did1 we %\ld n "k t fusibility always co-exi/s ) x4 ,! summ>y ( ! :ole matt] is t g5]al c]ta9ty is to be f\nd only 9 our ideas4 ,:5ev] we g to seek x else:]e1 9 exp]im5t or obs]vations )\t u1 our k goes n beyond p>ticul>s4 ,x has be5 necess>y to give an acc\nt ( ,locke's views at ?is l5g? because x is 9 8 discussion ( ! limitations & ext5t ( k t 8 !ory culm9ates4 ,:ile n work+ out 8 s5sationalism z consi/5tly z did ,hume1 he yet r$uces k to t ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god & ourselves 7^: natures1 h[ev]1 are unkn[n71 & to a k ( ma!matical & moral relations1 :i*1 h[ev]1 conc]ns only ! habitudes & relations ( ab/ract ideas4 ,we h n[ to see by :at means ,leibniz f9ds a wid] sph]e = c]ta9 & g5]al k by 8 !ory ( intellectualism ?an ,locke c by 8 s5sationalism4 ,leibniz's !ory ( k re/s ^u a di/9ction betwe5 tru?s ( fact1 :i* are a po/]iori & cont+5t1 & tru?s ( reason1 :i* are a priori & necess>y4 ,9 discuss+ 8 views reg>d+ exp]i5ce1 we le>n$ t1 accord+ to him1 all judgm5ts :i* are empirical are also p>ticul>1 n all[+ any inf]5ce beyond ! giv5 cases exp]i5c$4 ,exp]i5ce gives only in/ances1 n pr9ciples4 ,if we po/pone = ! pres5t ! discussions ( tru?s ( reason1 by admitt+ t !y may prop]ly be said to be at once c]ta9 & univ]sal1 ! "q arises h[ 9 matt]s ( fact !re c be any k beyond t :i* ,locke admits2 & ! answ] is1 t s f> z ! m]e exi/5ce & occurr5ce ( ^! facts is conc]n$1 !re is nei!r demon/rative nor g5]al k4 ,b ! intellig5ce ( man does n /op ) ! isolat$ fact2 x proce$s to inquire into its cause1 to asc]ta9 its conditions1 & ?us to see into1 n m]ely its actual exi/5ce1 b its possibility4 ,9 ,leibniz's language3 ,! real exi/5ce ( ?+s t are n necess>y is a po9t ( fact or hi/ory2 b ! k ( possibilities or necessities 7! necess>y be+ t ^: opposite is n possible7 con/itutes demon/rative sci5ce4 ,9 o!r words1 x is ! pr9ciple ( causality1 :i* makes u see a fact n z a m]e fact1 b z a dep5d5t consequ5ce2 :i* elevates k1 o!rwise cont+5t & p>ticul>1 into ! realm ( ! univ]sal & apodictic4 ,und]ly+ all accid5tal union is ! real syn!sis ( causation4 ,if we foll[ ! discussion z x c5tres ab\t ! t]ms nom9al & real1 x /&s z foll[s3 ,leibniz objects to ! use ( ! t]m ess5ce 9 ?is connection1 b is will+ to accept t ( def9ition2 =1 z he says1 a sub/ance c h b "o ess5ce1 :ile !re may be sev]al def9itions1 :i*1 h[ev]1 all express ! same ess5ce4 ,! ess5ce is ! possibility ( t :i* is "u consid]ation2 ! def9ition is ! /atem5t ( t :i* is suppos$ to be possible4 ,! nom9al def9ition1 h[ev]1 :ile x implies ?is possibility1 does n expressly affirm x1--t is to say1 x may always be d\bt$ :e!r ! nom9al def9ition has any possibility 7or reality7 correspond+ to x until exp]i5ce comes to our aid & makes u "k x a po/]iori4 ,a real def9ition1 on ! o!r h&1 makes u "k a priori ! reality ( ! ?+ def9$ by %[+ u ! mode ( its production1 by exhibit+ its cause or g5]ation4 ,ev5 our k ( facts ( exp]i5ce _c be said1 !re=e1 to be arbitr>y1 = we d n comb9e ideas j z we please1 b our comb9ations may be ju/ifi$ by reason :i* %[s !m to be possible1 or by exp]i5ce :i* %[s !m to be actual1 & consequ5tly also possible4 ,to take ,locke's example ab\t gold1 ! ess5ce ( gold is t :i* con/itutes x & gives x its s5sible qualities1 & ^! qualities1 s f> z !y enable u to recognize x1 con/itute its nom9al ess5ce1 :ile a real & causal def9ition w\ld enable u to expla9 ! contexture or int]nal disposition4 ,! nom9al def9ition1 h[ev]1 is also real 9 "o s5se1--n 9 itself1 inde$1 s9ce x does n enable u to "k a priori ! possibility or production ( ! body1 b empirically real4 ,x is evid5t f ^! quotations t :at ,leibniz und]/&s by possibility is ! condition or cause ( a giv5 fact2 & t1 :ile ,locke di/+ui%es betwe5 p>ticul>1 accid5tal & demon/rative1 g5]al k z two oppos$ k9ds1 conc]n$ ) two di/9ct & mutually exclusive sph]es1 ) ,leibniz !y are di/9ctions 9 ! aspect ( ! same sph]e ( fact4 ,9 reality !re is no comb9ation ( qualities accid5tal1 z ,locke ?\ght t by f> ! great] "p 72 9 e empirical fact !re is a cause or condition involv$ t is inv>iable1 & t con/itutes ! reason ( ! fact4 ,! accid5tal is only 9 ! relation ( our ideas to objects1 n 9 ! objects !mselves4 ,!re may be accid5tal m5tal associations2 !re are no accid5tal relations4 ,9 empirical1 or a po/]iori1 k1 s-call$1 ! reason is !re1 b is n kn[n4 ,a priori k1 ! real def9ition1 discov]s & explicitly /ates ?is reason4 ,cont+5t k is !re=e pot5tially rational2 demon/rative k is ! actual developm5t ( ! reasons implicitly conta9$ 9 exp]i5ce4 ,we may ) advantage connect ?is discussion ) ! fundam5tal doctr9e ( ,locke & ,leibniz reg>d+ intellig5ce & reality4 ,to ,locke1 z we h se51 k is ess5tially a matt] ( relations or connections2 b relations are sup]9duc$ & extrane\s z reg>ds ! facts4 ,e act ( k con/itutes1 !re=e1 9 "s way a dep>ture f ! reality to be kn[n4 ,k & fact are1 by _! v def9ition1 oppos$ to "o ano!r4 ,b 9 ,leibniz's view intellig5ce1 or reason1 ent]s into ! con/itution ( reality2 inde$1 x is reality4 ,! relations :i* are ! creatures ( ! und]/&+ are1 !re=e1 n =eign to ! mat]ial to be kn[n1 b are organic to x1 =m+ its cont5t4 ,! process1 !n1 9 :i* ! m9d p]ceives ! connections or relations ( ideas or objects1 is simply ! process by :i* ! m9d comes to ! consci\sness ( ! real nature ( ^! objects1 n a process ( sup]9duc+ unreal ideas ^u !m4 ,! difficulty ( ,locke is ! difficulty ( e !ory ( k t does n admit an organic unity ( ! kn[+ m9d & ! kn[n univ]se4 ,! !ory is oblig$ to admit t all k is 9 ! =m ( relations :i* h _! s\rce 9 intellig5ce4 ,b be+ ti$ to ! view t reality is di/9ct f intellig5ce1 x is oblig$ to draw ! conclusion t ^! relations are n to be f\nd 9 actual exi/5ce1 & h5ce t all k1 :atev] else x may be1 is unreal 9 ! s5se t x does n & _c con=m to actual fact4 ,b1 9 ! !ory ( ,leibniz1 ! process ( relat+ :i* is ! ess5ce ( k is only ! realization on ! "p ( ! individual m9d ( ! relations or reasons t et]nally con/itute reality4 ,s9ce reality is1 & is :at x is1 ?r\gh intellig5ce1 :atev] relations intellig5ce rightly p]ceives are n extrane\s to reality1 b are its ess5ce4 ,z ,leibniz says1 ,tru? consi/s 9 ! relations betwe5 ! objects ( our ideas4 ,?is does n dep5d ^u language1 b is common to u ) ,god1 s t :5 ,god manife/s a tru? to u1 we acquire :at is already 9 8 und]/&+4 ,= al?\gh !re is an inf9ite diff]5ce betwe5 8 ideas & ours z to _! p]fection & ext5t1 yet x is always true t z to ! same relation !y are id5tical4 ,& x is 9 ?is relation t tru? exi/s4 ,to ?is may be add$ ano!r /atem5t1 :i* ?r[s /ill fur!r light on ?is po9t3 ,ideas are et]nally 9 ,god1 & are 9 u be=e we p]ceive !m4 ,we h n[ to consid] some:at m 9 detail ! means by :i* ! trans=mation ( empirical into rational k is c>ri$ on4 ,leibniz po9ts out t ! difficulty conc]n+ sci5tific k ( s5sible facts is n lack ( data1 b1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 sup]fluity ( data4 ,x is n t we p]ceive no connections among objects1 b t we p]ceive _m :i* we _c r$uce to "o ano!r4 ,our exp]i5ces1 says ,leibniz1 are simple only 9 appe>ance1 = !y are always accompani$ by circum/ances connect$ ) !m1 al?\gh ^! relations are n und]/ood by u4 ,^! circum/ances furni% mat]ial capable ( explanation & analysis4 ,!re is ?us a sort ( pleonasm 9 our p]ceptions ( s5sible objects & qualities1 s9ce we h m ?an "o idea ( ! same object4 ,gold c be nom9ally def9$ 9 _m ways4 ,su* def9itions are only provisional4 ,?is is to say1 empirical k w become rational :5 x is possible to view any subject-matt] z a unity1 in/ead ( a multiplicity ( v>i$ aspects4 ,& on ?is same subject he says1 9 ano!r connection3 ,a great numb] ( exp]i5ces c furni% u data m ?an suffici5t = sci5tific k1 provid$ only we h ! art ( us+ ^! data4 ,! aim ( sci5ce is !re=e1 to discov] ! dynamic unity :i* makes a :ole ( :at appe>s to be a m]e mass ( accid5tally connect$ circum/ances4 ,?is unity ( relations is ! individual4 ,x is ?us evid5t t to ,leibniz ! individual is n ! beg9n+ ( k1 b its goal4 ,! individual is ! organic1 ! dynamic unity ( ! v>iety ( phases or notions pres5t$ u 9 s5se-exp]i5ce4 ,individuality is n simplicity 9 ! s5se ( ,locke2 t is1 sep>ation f all relations4 ,x is complete connection ( all relations4 ,x is impossible = u to h complete k ( individuals1 & to f9d ! means ( det]m9+ exactly ! individuality ( any?+2 = 9 individuality all circum/ances are comb9$4 ,individuality envelops ! inf9ite4 ,only s f> z we "k ! inf9ite d we "k ! individual1 on acc\nt ( ! influ5ce 7if ?is ^w be correctly und]/ood7 t all ?+s 9 ! univ]se ex]cise ^u "o ano!r4 ,leibniz1 9 %ort1 rema9s true to 8 conception ( ! monad z ! ultimate reality2 = ! monad1 ?\gh an individual1 yet has ! univ]se z its cont5t4 ,we %all be able1 !re=e1 to r5d] our s5sible exp]i5ces rational j 9 ! degree 9 :i* we c discov] ! und]ly+ relations & dep5d5cies :i* make !m memb]s ( "o individual4 ,= ! process ( trans=mation ,leibniz relies especially ^u two me?ods1--^? ( ma!matics & ( classification4 ,( ! =m] he "h says b little2 b ! entire progress ( physical sci5ce s9ce ! "t ( ,leibniz has be5 ! ju/ification ( t little4 ,9 ! passage already quot$ reg>d+ ! ne$ ( me?od = us+ our s5sible data1 he goes on to say t ! inf9itesimal analysis has giv5 u ! means ( ally+ physics & geometry1 & t dynamics has furni%$ u ) ! key to ! g5]al laws ( nature4 ,x is c]ta9ly compet5t te/imony to ! tru? ( ,leibniz's fundam5tal pr9ciples t he =esaw also ! c\rse :i* ! developm5t ( biological sci5ce w\ld take4 ,no classification bas$ ^u resemblances1 says ,leibniz 9 effect1 c be reg>d$ z :olly arbitr>y1 s9ce resemblances are f\nd 9 nature also4 ,! only "q is :e!r our classification is bas$ ^u sup]ficial or fundam5tal id5tities2 ! sup]ficial resemblances be+ su* z are ext]nal1 or ! effects ( "s common cause1 :ile ! fundam5tal resemblances are su* z are ! cause ( :atev] o!r simil>ities are f\nd4 ,x c be said t :atev] we comp>e or di/+ui% ) tru?1 nature diff]5tiates1 or makes agree1 also2 b t nature has diff]5ces & id5tities :i* are bett] ?an ours1 :i* we d n "k4 4 4 4 ,! m we discov] ! g5]ation ( species1 & ! m we foll[ 9 our classifications ! conditions t are requir$ = _! production1 ! ne>] we approa* ! natural ord]4 ,our classifications1 !n1 s f> z !y dep5d ^u :at is condition$1 are imp]fect & provisional1 al?\gh !y _c be said to be false 7s9ce :ile nature may give u ^? m complete & conv5i5t1 x w n give ! lie to ^? we h already72 :ile s f> z !y re/ ^u :at is causal & condition+1 !y are true1 g5]al1 & necess>y4 ,9 ?us insi/+ t classification %\ld be g5etic1 ,leibniz anticipat$ ! great s]vice :i* ! !ory ( evolution has done = biological sci5ce 9 enabl+ sci5ce to =m classes :i* are natural2 t is1 bas$ on id5tity ( orig94 ,leibniz culm9ates 8 discussion ( classification z a me?od ( translat+ ! empirical into ! rational1 by po9t+ out t x re/s ^u ! law ( cont9uity2 & t ?is law conta9s two factors1--"o equival5t to ! axiom ( ! ,reali/s1 t nature is n[h]e empty2 ! o!r1 to t ( ! ,nom9ali/s1 t nature does no?+ uselessly4 ,"o ( ^! pr9ciples seems to make nature a prodigal1 ! o!r a mis]2 & yet bo? are true if prop]ly und]/ood1 says ,leibniz4 ,nature is l a good manag]1 sp>+ :]e x is necess>y1 9 ord] to be magnific5t4 ,x is magnific5t 9 its effects1 & economical 9 ! causes us$ to produce !m4 ,9 o!r words1 classification becomes sci5ce :5 x pres5ts u ) bo? unity & diff]5ce4 ,! pr9ciple ( unity is t ( nature z a mis] & economical2 t ( diff]5tiation is ! pr9ciple ( nature z prodigal & magnific5t4 ,! ?or\ghly diff]5tiat$ unity is nature z self-specify+1 or z an organic1 n an ab/ract1 unity4 ,! gi/ ( ! :ole matt] is1 !n1 t exp]i5ce pres5ts u ) an inf9ity ( ideas1 :i* may appe> at fir/ sight arbitr>y & accid5tal 9 _! connections4 ,?is appe>ance1 h[ev]1 is n ! fact4 ,^! ideas are ! effects ( c]ta9 causes2 & 9 asc]ta9+ ^! conditions1 we r$uce ! app>5tly unrelat$ v>iety ( exp]i5ces to und]ly+ unities1 & ^! unities1 l all real unities or simple be+s1 are spiritual & rational 9 nature4 ,leibniz's ord9>y way ( /at+ ?is is t ! pr9ciple ( tru?s ( fact is t ( suffici5t reason4 ,?is pr9ciple ,leibniz always treats z di/+ui%$ f t ( id5tity 7& contradiction7 z ! rul+ category ( tru?s ( reason4 ,& we %all foll[ him 9 discuss+ ! two toge!r4 ,our reason+s are bas$ on two lead+ pr9ciples1--t ( contradiction1 9 virtue ( :i* we judge false all :i* conta9s contradiction1 & true t :i* is oppos$ or contradictory to t :i* is false2 & t ( suffici5t reason1 9 virtue ( :i* we judge t no fact is true or actual1 no proposition v]itable1 unless !re is a suffici5t reason :y x is z x is1 & n o!rwise1 al?\gh ^! reasons are g5]ally unkn[n to u4 ,?us !re are two sorts ( tru?s1--^? ( reason1 & ^? ( fact4 ,! tru?s ( reason are necess>y1 & _! opposites impossible2 :ile ^? ( fact are cont+5t1 & _! opposites possible4 ,:5 a tru? is necess>y1 its reason c be discov]$ by analysis1 resolv+ x into ideas & tru?s t are simpl]1 until ! primitive tru?s are arriv$ at4 ,x is ?us t ! ma!maticians proce$ 9 r$uc+ by analysis ! !orems ( speculation & ! canons ( practice into def9itions1 axioms1 & po/ulates4 ,?us !y come to simple ideas ^: def9ition _c be giv52 primitive tru?s t _c be prov$1 & :i* d n ne$ x1 s9ce !y are id5tical propositions1 ^: opposite conta9s a manife/ contradiction4 ,b 9 cont+5t tru?s--^? ( fact--! suffici5t reason mu/ be f\nd2 namely1 9 ! succession ( ?+s :i* fill ! creat$ univ]se1--= o!rwise ! analysis into p>ticul> reasons w\ld g into detail )\t limit1 by reason ( ! imm5se v>iety ( natural ?+s1 & ( ! inf9ite divisibility ( bodies4 ,!re are an inf9ity ( figures & ( pa/ & pres5t movem5ts :i* ent] into ! effici5t cause ( my pres5t writ+1 & !re are an inf9ity ( m9ute incl9ations & dispositions ( my s\l :i* ent] into its f9al cause4 ,& s9ce all ?is detail conta9s only o!r cont+5t & p>ticul> antec$5ts1 ea* ( :i* has ne$ ( a simil> analysis to acc\nt = x1 we really make no progress by ?is analysis2 & x is necess>y t ! f9al or suffici5t reason be outside ! endless succession or s]ies ( cont+5t p>ticul>s1 t x consi/ 9 a necess>y be+1 9 :i* ?is s]ies ( *anges is conta9$ only em95t]1 z 9 its s\rce4 ,?is necess>y be+ & s\rce is :at we call ,god4 ,9 o!r words1 ! trac+ ( empirical facts to _! causes & conditions does n1 aft] all1 r5d] !m :olly rational4 ,! s]ies ( causes is endless4 ,e condition is 9 turn condition$4 ,we are n s mu* solv+ ! problem ( ! reason ( a giv5 fact1 z we are /at+ ! problem 9 o!r t]ms z we g on 9 ?is s]ies4 ,e solution (f]s itself aga9 z a problem1 & ?is endlessly4 ,if ^! tru?s ( fact1 !n1 are to be r5d]$ :olly rational1 x mu/ be 9 some?+ :i* lies outside ( ! s]ies consid]$ z a s]ies2 t is1 some?+ :i* is n an antec$5t ( any "o ( ! s]ies1 b is equally relat$ to ea* & to all z _! gr\nd & s\rce4 ,?is1 consid]$ z an argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 we %all deal ) h]eaft]2 n[ we are conc]n$ only ) its be>+ ^u ! relation ( exp]i5ce to ! univ]sality & necessity ( k4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! ultimate mean+ ( facts is f\nd 9 _! relation to ! div9e intellig5ce2 = ,leibniz is emphatic 9 insi/+ t ! relation ( ,god to exp]i5ce is n "o ( b>e w to creatures produc$ by ?is w 7z ,desc>tes _h suppos$71 b ( a w gov]n$ :olly by ,intellig5ce4 ,z ,leibniz /ates x 9 ano!r connection1 n only matt]s ( fact1 b ma!matical tru?s1 h ! same f9al basis 9 ! div9e und]/&+4 ,su* tru?s1 /rictly speak+1 are only conditional1 & say t 9 case _! subject exi/$ !y w\ld be f\nd su* & su*4 ,b if x is aga9 ask$ 9 :at consi/s ?is conditional connection 9 :i* !re is necess>y reality1 ! reply is t x is 9 ! relation ( ideas4 ,& by ! fur!r "q1 ,:]e w\ld be ! ideas if no _s exi/$2 & :at w\ld !n become ( ! f\ndation ( ! c]ta9ty ( su* tru?s8--we are br\ght to ! f9al f\ndation ( tru?s2 namely1 t supreme & univ]sal _s1 :i* mu/ exi/1 & ^: und]/&+ is1 9 reality1 ! region ( ! et]nal tru?s4 ,& 9 ord] t x may n be ?\ght t x is n necess>y to h rec\rse to ?is region1 we mu/ consid] t ^! necess>y tru?s conta9 ! det]m9+ reason & regulative pr9ciple ( exi/5ce1 &1 9 a ^w1 ( ! laws ( ! univ]se4 ,?us ^! necess>y tru?s1 be+ ant]ior to ! exi/5ces ( cont+5t be+s1 mu/ 9 turn be bas$ ^u ! exi/5ce ( a necess>y sub/ance4 ,x is because facts are n m]e facts1 9 %ort1 b are ! manife/ation ( a det]m9+ reason & regulative pr9ciple :i* f9ds its home 9 univ]sal intellig5ce1 t k ( !m c become necess>y & g5]al4 ,! g5]al nature ( tru?s ( reason & ( _! rul+ pr9ciple1 id5tity & contradiction1 has already be5 giv5 9 ! quotation reg>d+ ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,x is ,leibniz's cont5tion t only 9 tru?s ^: opposite is se5 to involve self-contradiction c we h absolute c]ta9ty1 & t x is ?r\gh connection ) su* et]nal tru?s t ! c]ta9ty ( our o!r k re/s4 ,x is ?us evid5t :y ,leibniz insi/s1 z aga9/ ,locke1 ^u ! great importance ( axioms & maxims4 ,!y are important1 n m]ely 9 !mselves1 b z ! sole & indisp5sable bases ( sci5tific tru? reg>d+ all matt]s4 ,leibniz at times1 x is true1 speaks z if demon/rative & cont+5t tru?s 7 ( !mselves1 9 pr9ciple1 di/9ct1 & ev5 oppos$4 ,b he also corrects himself by %[+ t cont+5cy is r a subjective limitation ?an an objective quality4 ,we1 inde$1 d n see t ! tru? ,i exi/1 = example1 is necess>y1 because we _c see h[ its opposite involves contradiction4 ,b ,god sees h[ ! two t]ms ',i' & 'exi/' are connect$2 t is1 :y ,i exi/4 ,s f> z we c see facts1 !n1 f ! /&po9t ( ! div9e intellig5ce1 s f>1 x w\ld appe>1 our k is necess>y4 ,s9ce ^! axioms1 maxims1 or fir/ tru?s are innate1 we are 9 a condition to complete 7= ! fir/ "t7 ! discussion ( innate ideas4 ,^! ideas con/itute1 z we h le>n$1 ! ess5tial cont5t ( ! div9e intellig5ce1 & ( ours s f> z we h realiz$ our id5tity ) ,god's und]/&+4 ,! highe/ =m ( k1 !re=e1 is self-consci\sness4 ,?is be>s ! same relation to necess>y tru?s t ! latt] be> to exp]i5ce4 ,k ( necess>y & et]nal tru?s1 says ,leibniz1 di/+ui%es u f simple animals1 & makes u h reason & sci5ce1 elevat+ u to ! k ( ourselves4 ,we are ?us develop$ to self-consci\sness2 & 9 be+ consci\s ( ourselves we are consci\s ( be+1 ( sub/ance1 ( ! simple1 ( ! spiritual1 ( ,god4 ,& aga9 he says t ^? t "k necess>y tru?s are rational spirits1 capable ( self-consci\sness1 ( recogniz+ :at is t]m$ ,ego1 sub/ance1 & monad4 ,?us !y are r5d]$ capable ( demon/rative k4 ,we are innate to ourselves2 & s9ce we are be+s1 be+ is innate to u1 = k ( x is implicit 9 t :i* we h ( ourselves4 ,k1 9 f9e1 may be reg>d$ z an asc5d+ s]ies ( f\r t]ms4 ,! fir/ is con/itut$ by s5sations associat$ toge!r 9 su* a way t a relation ( antec$5ce & consequ5ce exi/s betwe5 !m4 ,?is is exp]i5ce4 ,! second /age comes into exi/5ce :5 we connect ^! exp]i5ces1 n by m]e relations ( consecution1 b by _! conditions1 by ! pr9ciple ( causality1 & especially by t ( suffici5t reason1 :i* connects !m ) ! supreme intellig5ce1 ,god4 ,?is /age is sci5ce4 ,! ?ird is k ( ! axioms & necess>y tru?s 9 & ( !mselves1 n m]ely z involv$ 9 sci5ce4 ,! f\r? is self-consci\sness1 ! k ( intellig5ce1 9 its intimate & univ]sal nature1 by :i* we "k ,god1 ! m9d1 & all real sub/ance4 ,9 ! ord] ( "t ! /age ( exp]i5ce is fir/1 & t ( self-consci\sness la/4 ,b 9 ! l[e/ /age !re are involv$ ! o!rs4 ,! progress ( k consi/s 9 ! developm5t or unfold+ ( ?is implicit cont5t1 till intellig5ce1 _s1 activity1 is cle>ly reveal$ z ! s\rce & condition ( all4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,!ology ,,( ,,leibniz4 ,"o ( ! *apt]s conc]n+ k is entitl$1 ,! ,k t we h ( ,god4 ,?is introduces u to ! !ology ( ,leibniz & indirectly to ! completion ( ^? e?ical doctr9es already outl9$ 9 ! *apt] on w4 ,leibniz employs ?ree argum5ts to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god3 t ( ,god z ! suffici5t reason ( ! _w 7sub/antially ! cosmological pro(72 ( ,god z ! s\rce ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony 7an ext5sion ( ! teleological pro(72 & ! ontological4 ,! latt] he accepts z x came f ! h&s ( ,desc>tes1 b insi/s t x requires an add$ argum5t be=e x ranks z any?+ m ?an presumptive pro(4 ,! ,anselmic-,c>tesian argum5t1 z /at$ by ,leibniz1 is z foll[s3 ,god is def9$ z ! greate/1 or mo/ p]fect1 ( be+s1 or z a be+ ( supreme gr&eur & p]fection4 ,b 9 ! notion ( a p]fect be+1 exi/5ce mu/ be includ$1 s9ce x is some?+ m to exi/ ?an n to exi/4 ,or exi/5ce is a p]fection1 & h5ce mu/ belong to ! mo/ p]fect be+2 o!rwise "s p]fection w\ld be lack+1 :i* is contr>y to ! def9ition4 ,or z ,desc>tes sometimes puts x1 9 ! notion ( any?+ l a tree1 a m\nta91 a triangle1 cont+5cy is conta9$4 ,we may conceive su* an object to exi/ or n1 z we l4 ,!re is no necessity involv$ 9 our ?\ght4 ,b we _c ?9k ( a p]fect be+ except z exi/+4 ,x does n re/ ) ! decision ( our ?9k+ :e!r or n to include exi/5ce 9 ?is notion4 ,we mu/ necess>ily ?9k exi/5ce z soon z we ?9k su* a be+4 ,leibniz takes a middle position1 he says1 betwe5 ^? :o consid] ?is a demon/rative argum5t1 & ^? :o reg>d x z a m]e p>alogism4 ,x is pre-suppos$ by ?is argum5t t ! notion ( a ,supreme ,be+ is possible1 or t x does n involve contradiction4 ,?is pre-supposition is to be prov$4 ,fir/1 x is well to simplify ! argum5t itself4 ,! ,c>tesian def9ition may be r$uc$ to ?is3 ,god is a be+ 9 :om exi/5ce & ess5ce are "o4 ,f ?is def9ition x foll[s z a coroll>y t su* a be+1 if possible1 exi/s4 ,= ! ess5ce ( a ?+ be+ j t :i* con/itutes its possibility1 x is evid5t t to exi/ by its ess5ce is ! same z to exi/ by its possibility4 ,be+ 9 itself1 !n1 or ,god1 may be mo/ simply def9$ z ! ,be+ :o mu/ exi/ if he is possible4 ,!re are two ways ( prov+ ?is la/ clause 7namely1 t he is possible7 ! direct & ! indirect4 ,! indirect is employ$ aga9/ ^? :o ass]t t f m]e notions1 ideas1 def9itions or possible ess5ces1 x is n possible to inf] actual exi/5ce4 ,su* p]sons simply d5y ! possibility ( be+ 9 itself4 ,b if be+-9-itself1 or absolute be+1 is impossible1 be+-by-ano!r1 or relative1 is also impossible2 = !re is no o!r ^u :i* x may dep5d4 ,no?+1 9 ?is case1 c\ld exi/4 ,or if necess>y be+ is n possible1 !re is no be+ possible4 ,put 9 ano!r way1 ,god is z necess>y = possibility z = actual exi/5ce4 ,if !re is possibility ( any?+1 !re is ,god4 ,?is leads up to ! direct pro(2 = x foll[s t1 if !re be a possibility ( ,god1--! ,be+ 9 :om exi/5ce & ess5ce are "o1--he exi/s4 ,god alone has su* a position t exi/5ce is necess>y1 if possible4 ,b s9ce !re c be no?+ oppos$ to ! possibility ( a be+ )\t limit1--a be+ !re=e )\t negations & )\t contradiction1--?is is suffici5t to prove a priori ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,9 %ort1 ,god be+ pure affirmation1 pure self-id5tity1 ! idea ( 8 ,be+ _c include contradiction1 & h5ce is possible1--& s9ce possible1 necess>y4 ,( ?is conception ( ,god z ! purely self-id5tical1 )\t negation1 we %all h some?+ to say 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! cosmological pro( is1 z we h already se51 t e cause 9 ! _w be+ at ! same "t an effect1 x _c be ! suffici5t reason ( any?+4 ,! :ole s]ies is cont+5t1 & requires a gr\nd n prior to1 b beyond1 ! s]ies4 ,! only suffici5t reason ( any?+ is t :i* is also ! suffici5t reason ( itself1--absolute be+4 ,! teleological argum5t ,leibniz inv>iably1 ,i believe1 pres5ts 9 connection ) ! idea ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,if ! sub/ances ( exp]i5ce1 runs ! argum5t1 _h n receiv$ _! be+1 bo? active & passive1 f "o univ]sal supreme cause1 !y w\ld be indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 & h5ce w\ld n exhibit t ord]1 h>mony1 & beauty :i* we notice 9 nature4 ,?is argum5t possesses only moral c]ta9ty :i* becomes demon/rative by ! new k9d ( h>mony :i* ,i h introduc$1--pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,s9ce ea* sub/ance expresses 9 its own way t :i* occurs beyond x1 & c h no influ5ce on o!r p>ticul> be+s1 x is necess>y t ea* sub/ance1 be=e develop+ ^! ph5om5a f ! dep? ( its own be+1 mu/ h receiv$ ?is nature 7?is int]nal gr\nd ( ext]nal ph5om5a7 f a univ]sal cause f :om all be+s dep5d1 & :i* effects t "o be p]fectly 9 accord ) & correspond+ to e o!r4 ,?is _c occur except ?r\gh a be+ ( inf9ite k & p[]4 ,hav+ det]m9$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ,leibniz /ates 8 attributes4 ,^! may be r$uc$ to ?ree4 ,he is p]fect 9 p[]1 9 wisdom1 & 9 goodness4 ,p]fection is no?+ o!r ?an ! :ole ( positive reality sep>at$ f ! limits & b\nds ( ?+s4 ,:]e !re are no limits1 z 9 ,god1 p]fection is absolutely inf9ite4 ,9 ,god exi/s p[]1 :i* is ! s\rce ( all k1--:i* compreh5ds ! realm ( ideas1 d[n to its m9ute/ detail1--& w1 :i* directs all creations & *anges accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ! be/4 ,or z he exp&s x at ano!r "t3 ,! supreme cause mu/ be intellig5t1 = ! exi/+ _w be+ cont+5t1 & an inf9ity ( o!r worlds be+ equally possible1 x is necess>y t ! cause ( ! _w take into consid]ation all ^! possible worlds 9 ord] to decide ^u "o4 ,n[ ?is relation ( a sub/ance to simple ideas mu/ be ! relation ( und]/&+ to its ideas1 :ile decid+ ^u "o is ! act ( w 9 *oos+4 ,f9ally x is ! p[] ( ?is sub/ance :i* executes ! volition4 ,p[] has its end 9 be+2 wisdom1 or und]/&+1 9 tru?2 & w 9 good4 ,?us ! cause mu/ be absolutely p]fect 9 p[]1 wisdom1 & goodness4 ,8 und]/&+ is ! s\rce ( ess5ces1 & 8 w ! orig9 ( exi/5ces4 ,?is br+s u to ! relation ( ,god to ! _w1 or to an acc\nt ( ! creat+ activity ( ,god4 ,?is may be consid]$ to be metaphysically1 logically1 or morally necess>y4 ,to say t x is metaphysically necess>y is to say t x is ! result ( ! div9e ess5ce1 t x w\ld imply a contradiction ( ! v be+ ( ,god = ! _w n to be & n to be z x is4 ,9 %ort1 ! _w becomes a m]e emanation ( p[]1 s9ce1 z we h j le>n$1 p[] & be+ are correlative4 ,b ?is leaves out ( acc\nt ! div9e und]/&+4 ,n all possible worlds emanate f ,god's be+1 b !re is recognition ( !m & ( _! relations to "o ano!r4 ,7 ! _w to proce$ f ! div9e und]/&+ alone1 h[ev]1 x w\ld be logically necess>y1--t is1 x w\ld be> ! same relation to 8 und]/&+ t necess>y tru?s d4 ,its opposite w\ld imply contradiction1 n inde$ ( ! be+ ( ,god1 b ( 8 und]/&+4 ,b ! w ( ,god plays ! all-important "p ( *oos+ among ! alt]native worlds pres5t$ by reason1 ea* ( :i* is logically possible4 ,"o ( ^! worlds1 al?\gh /&+ on ! same intellectual plane z ! o!rs1 is morally bett]1--t is1 x involves great] happ9ess & p]fection to ! creatures con/itut+ x4 ,god is guid$ !n by ! idea ( ! bett] 7& ?is is ! be/ possible7 _w4 ,8 w is n arbitr>y 9 creat+3 x does n "w by a fiat ( brute p[]4 ,b nei!r is x fatali/ic3 x does n "w by compulsory necessity4 ,x is bo? free & necess>y2 free1 = x is guid$ by naught except+ ,god's own recognition ( an end2 necess>y1 = ,god1 be+ ,god1 _c morally act o!rwise ?an by ! pr9ciple ( ! bett]1--& ?is 9 cont+5t matt]s is ! be/4 ,h5ce ! optimism ( ,leibniz1 to :i* "h no fur!r allusion c be made4 ,s9ce ! be/ is precisely ,god himself1 x is evid5t t ! creat$ _w w h1 z f> z possible1 8 p]fections4 ,x w\ld ?us be possible to d$uce f ?is conception ( ,god & 8 relation to ! _w all ^? *>act]i/ics ( ! ,leibnizian monadology :i* we =m]ly arriv$ at analytically4 ,god is individual1 b ) an inf9ite compreh5siv5ess4 ,ea* sub/ance repeats ^! prop]ties ( ! supreme sub/ance4 ,!re is an inf9ity ( su* sub/ances1 9 ord] t ! _w may z p]fectly z possible mirror ! inf9ity ( ,god4 ,ea*1 s f> z 9 x lies1 reflects ! activity ( ,god2 = activity is ! v ess5ce ( p]fection4 ,& ?us we might g ?r\gh ) ! entire li/ ( ! prop]ties ( ! monad4 ,to complete ! pres5t discussion1 h[ev]1 x is en\gh to notice t intellig5ce & w mu/ be f\nd 9 e creature1 & t ?us we acc\nt = ! appetition & ! p]ception t *>act]ize ev5 ! l[e/ monad4 ,! scale ( monads1 h[ev]1 w\ld n be z complete z possible unless !re 7 be+s 9 :om appetition became volition1 & p]ception1 self-consci\s intellig5ce4 ,su* monads w /& 9 q o!r relation to ,god ?an ! bl9d impulse-gov]n$ sub/ances4 ,spirits1 says ,leibniz1 are capable ( ent]+ into community ) ,god1 & ,god is relat$ to !m n only z an inv5tor to 8 ma*9e 7z he is to o!r creatures7 b z a pr9ce to 8 subjects1 or1 bett]1 z a fa!r to 8 *ildr54 ,?is society ( spirits con/itutes ! city ( ,god1--! mo/ p]fect /ate "u ! mo/ p]fect mon>*4 ,?is city ( ,god1 ?is truly cosmopolitan mon>*y1 is a moral _w )9 ! natural4 ,among all ! works ( ,god x is ! mo/ sublime & div9e4 ,9 x consi/s ! true glory ( ,god1 = !re w\ld be no glory ( ,god unless 8 greatness & goodness 7 kn[n & admir$ by spirits2 & 9 8 relation to ?is society1 ,god = ! fir/ "t reveals 8 goodness1 :ile he manife/s ev]y:]e 8 p[] & wisdom4 ,& z previ\sly we demon/rat$ a p]fect h>mony betwe5 ! two realms ( nature1--^? ( effici5t & f9al causes1--s mu/ we "h decl>e h>mony betwe5 ! physical realm ( nature & ! moral realm ( grace1--t is1 betwe5 ,god z ! ar*itect ( ! me*anical _w-/ructure1 & ,god z ! mon>* ( ! _w ( spirits4 ,god fulfils 8 creation1 9 o!r words1 9 a realm ( spirits1 & fulfils x because "h !re are be+s :o d n m]ely reflect him b :o ent] into relations ( companion%ip ) him1 =m+ a community4 ,?is community ( spirits ) "o ano!r & ) ,god is ! moral _w1 & we are ?us br\ght aga9 to ! e?ics ( ,leibniz4 ,x has be5 frequ5tly po9t$ out t ,leibniz 0 ! fir/ to give e?ics ! =m :i* x has s9ce kept 9 ,g]man philosophy1--! division into ,natur-re*t & ,natur-moral4 ,^! t]ms are difficult to give 9 ,engli%1 b ! latt] corresponds to :at is ord9>ily call$ moral philosophy1 :ile ! =m] is political philosophy s f> z t has an e?ical be>+4 ,or ! latt] may be said to treat ( ! moral ideal & ( ! moral motive & ( duty 9 !mselves1 :ile ! =m] deals ) ! social1 ! public1 & 9 a c]ta9 s5se ! ext]nal1 aspects ( morality4 ,puff5dorf und\bt$ly sugge/$ ?is division to ,leibniz by 8 classification ( duties z ext]nal & int]nal1--! fir/ compreh5d+ natural & civil law1 ! second moral !ology4 ,b ,puff5dorf conf9$ ! =m] to purely ext]nal acts1 exclud+ motives & int5tions1 & ! latt] to div9e revelation4 ,bo? are positive1 & 9 "s sort arbitr>y1--"o re/+ m]ely on ! fact t c]ta9 in/itutions obta91 ! o!r on ! fact t ,god has made c]ta9 decl>ations4 ,to ,leibniz1 on ! o!r h&1 ! w ( ,god is 9 no s5se ! s\rce ( moral tru?s4 ,! w ( ,god does n create tru?1 b c>ries into effect ! et]nal tru?s ( ! div9e und]/&+4 ,moral tru?s are l ^? ( ma!matics4 ,& aga91 !re is no su* ?+ z purely ext]nal morality3 x always conta9s an inn] cont5t1 ( :i* ! ext]nal act is only ! manife/ation4 ,leibniz may ?us be said to h made two discov]ies1 or r re-discov]ies3 "o1 t !re is a sci5ce ( morals1 indep5d5t ( law1 cu/om1 & positive "r2 ! o!r1 t ! basis ( bo? natural & positive morals is n ! m]e w ( ,god1 b is reason ) its cont5t ( et]nal tru?s4 ,9 morals ! end is happ9ess1 ! means wisdom4 ,happ9ess is def9$1 n z an occurr5ce1 b z a condition1 or /ate ( be+4 ,x is ! condition ( p]man5t joy4 ,?is does n mean t ! joy is actually felt e mom5t1 b t "o is 9 ! condition to enjoy :5ev] he ?9ks ( x1 & t1 9 ! int]val1 joyfulness arises f 8 activity & be+4 ,pleasure1 h[ev]1 is n a /ate1 b a feel+4 ,x is ! feel+ ( p]fection1 :e!r 9 ourselves or 9 any?+ else4 ,x does n foll[ t we p]ceive intellectually ei!r 9 :at ! p]fection ( ! pleasant ?+ consi/s or 9 :at way x develops p]fection )9 u4 ,x is en\gh t x be realiz$ 9 feel+1 s z to give u pleasure4 ,p]fection is def9$ z increase ( be+4 ,z sickness is1 z x 71 a l[]+ & a fall+ (f f heal?1 s p]fection is some?+ :i* m\nts above heal?4 ,x manife/s itself 9 p[] to act2 = all sub/ance consi/s 9 a c]ta9 p[]1 & ! great] ! p[] ! high] & fre] ! sub/ance4 ,b p[] increases 9 ! degree t ! _m manife/s itself f "o & 9 "o1 :ile ! "o rules _m f itself & trans=ms !m into self4 ,b unity 9 plurality is no?+ else ?an h>mony2 & f ?is comes ord] or proportion1 f :i* proce$s beauty1 & beauty awak5s love4 ,?us x becomes evid5t h[ happ9ess1 pleasure1 love1 p]fection1 sub/ance1 p[]1 fre$om1 h>mony1 proportion1 & beauty are b\nd up 9 "o ano!r4 ,f ?is cond5s$ sket*1 tak5 f ,leibniz himself1 ! ma9 features ( 8 e?ical doctr9e cle>ly appe>4 ,:5 we 7 /udy+ fre$om we saw t x 0 n s mu* a />t+-po9t ( ! w z its goal & ideal4 ,we saw also t true fre$om is dep5d5t ^u k1 ^u recognition ( ! et]nal & univ]sal4 ,:at we h "h is a /atem5t ( t doctr9e 9 t]ms ( feel+ & ( w in/ead ( k4 ,! end ( man is /at$ to be happ9ess1 b ! notion ( happ9ess is develop$ 9 su* a way t x is se5 to be equival5t to ! ,ari/otelian notion ( self-realization2 x is developm5t ( sub/ance1 & sub/ance is activity4 ,x is ! union ( "o & ! _m2 & ! "o1 accord+ to ! inv>iable doctr9e ( ,leibniz1 is ! spiritual elem5t1 & ! _m is ! real cont5t :i* gives mean+ to ?is rational unity4 ,happ9ess ?us means p]fection1 & p]fection a completely univ]saliz$ individual4 ,! motive t[>d ! moral life is else:]e /at$ to be love2 & love is def9$ z int]e/ 9 p]fection1 & h5ce culm9ates 9 love ( ,god1 ! only absolute p]fection4 ,x also has its s\rce 9 ,god1 z ! orig9 ( p]fection2 s t ,leibniz says1 ,:oso loves ,god1 loves all4 ,natural "r1 z di/+ui%$ f morals1 is bas$ ^u ! notion ( ju/ice1 ?is be+ ! outw>d manife/ation ( wisdom1 or k1--appreciation ( ! relation ( actions to happ9ess4 ,! def9itions giv5 by ,leibniz are z foll[s3 ,j & unju/ are :at are useful or h>mful to ! public1--t is1 to ! community ( spirits4 ,?is community includes fir/ ,god1 !n humanity1 !n ! /ate4 ,^! are s subord9at$ t1 9 cases ( collision ( duty1 ,god1 ! univ]se ( relations1 comes be=e ! pr(it ( humanity1 & ?is be=e ! /ate4 ,at ano!r "t ,leibniz def9es ju/ice z social virtue1 & says t !re are z _m k9ds ( "r z !re are k9ds ( natural communities 9 :i* happ9ess is an end ( action4 ,a natural community is def9$ z "o :i* re/s ^u desire & ! p[] ( satisfy+ x1 & includes ?ree v>ieties1--dome/ic1 civil1 & ecclesia/ic4 ,"r is def9$ z t :i* su/a9s & develops any natural community4 ,x is1 9 o!r words1 ! w = happ9ess unit$ ) insight into :at makes happ9ess4 ,correspond+ to ! ?ree =ms ( ! social organism 7z we %\ld n[ call ! natural community71 are ! ?ree k9ds ( jus1--jus /rictum1 equity1 & piety4 ,ea* ( ^! has its correspond+ prescript4 ,t ( jus /rictum is to injure no "o2 ( equity1 to r5d] to ea* 8 own2 & ( piety1 to make ! e?ical law ! law ( conduct4 ,jus /rictum includes ! "r ( w> & peace4 ,! "r ( peace exi/s betwe5 individuals till "o breaks x4 ,! "r ( w> exi/s betwe5 m5 & ?+s4 ,! victory ( p]son ov] ?+ is prop]ty4 ,?+s ?us come to possess ! "r ( ! p]son to :om !y belong z aga9/ e o!r p]son2 t is1 9 ! "r ( ! p]son to himself z aga9/ ! attacks ( ano!r 7! "r to peace7 is includ$ a "r to 8 prop]ty4 ,jus /rictum is1 ( c\rse1 9 all cases1 en=ceable by civil law & ! compulsory =ce :i* accompanies x4 ,equity1 h[ev]1 rea*es beyond ?is to obligation 9 cases :]e !re is no "r ( compulsion4 ,its law is1 ,be ( aid to all1 b to ea* accord+ to 8 m]its & 8 claims4 ,f9ally comes piety4 ,! o!r two /ages are limit$4 ,! l[e/ is negative1 x w>ds (f h>m2 ! second aims aft] happ9ess1 b only )9 ! limits ( e>?ly exi/5ce4 ,t we %\ld ourselves be> mis]y1 ev5 ! greate/1 = ! sake ( o!rs1 & %\ld subject ! :ole ( ?is exi/5ce to some?+ high]1 _c be prov$ except+ z we reg>d ! society1 or community1 ( our spirits ) ,god4 ,ju/ice ) relation to ,god compreh5ds all virtues4 ,ev]y?+ t is1 is f ,god2 & h5ce ! law ( all conduct is to use ev]y?+ accord+ to its place 9 ! idea ( ,god1 accord+ to its function 9 ! univ]sal h>mony4 ,x ?us n only complem5ts ! o!r two k9ds ( ju/ice b is ! s\rce ( _! inn] e?ical wor?4 ,/rict ju/ice may conflict ) equity4 ,b ,god effects t :at is ( use to ! public well-be+--t is1 to ! univ]se & to humanity--%all be ( use also to ! individual4 ,?us f ! /&po9t ( ,god ! moral is advantage\s1 & ! immoral hurtful4 ,kant's indebt$ness to ,leibniz w at once appe> to "o initiat$ into ! philosophy ( ! =m]4 ,leibniz nev] work$ out ei!r 8 e?ics or 8 political philosophy 9 detail2 b x is evid5t t !y bo? take _! orig9 & f9d _! scope 9 ! fact ( man's relation%ip to ,god1 t !y are bo?1 9 fact1 acc\nts ( ! me?ods ( realiz+ a univ]sal b n a m]ely =mal h>mony4 ,= h>mony is n1 ) ,leibniz1 an ext]nal arrangem5t1 b is ! v s\l ( be+4 ,p]fect h>mony1 or adaptation to ! univ]se ( relations1 is ! end ( ! individual1 & man is in=m$ ( 8 progress t[>d ?is end by an inn] s5tim5t ( pleasure4 ,x may be add$ t ,leibniz's /hetic !ory1 s f> z develop$1 re/s ^u ! same basis z 8 e?ical1--namely1 ^u memb]%ip 9 ! city ( ,god1 or community ( spiritual be+s4 ,?is is impli$1 inde$1 9 a passage already quot$1 :]e he /ates ! close connection ( beauty ) h>mony & p]fection4 ,! feel+ ( beauty is ! recognition 9 feel+ ( an ord]1 proportion1 & h>mony :i* are n yet intellectually descri$4 ,leibniz illu/rates by music1 ! dance1 & ar*itecture4 ,?is feel+ ( ! h>moni\s also becomes an impulse to produce4 ,z p]ception ( beauty may be reg>d$ z unexpla9$1 or confus$1 p]ception ( tru?1 s creation ( beauty may be consid]$ z undevelop$ w4 ,x is action on its way to p]fect fre$om1 = fre$om is simply activity ) explicit recognition ( h>mony4 ,we _c d bett] ?an quote ! conclusion ( ! matt] f ,leibniz's ,pr9ciples ( ,nature & ( ,grace1 al?\gh1 9 "p1 x repeats :at we h already le>n$4 ,!re is some?+ m 9 ! rational s\l1 or _s1 ?an !re is 9 ! monad or ev5 9 ! simple s\l4 ,_s is n only a mirror ( ! univ]se ( creatures1 b is also an image ( ! div9e be+4 ,_s n only has a p]ception ( ! works ( ,god1 b is also capable ( produc+ some?+ :i* resembles !m1 ?\gh on a small scale4 ,to say no?+ ( dreams1 9 :i* we inv5t )\t tr\ble & )\t volition ?+s ^u :i* we mu/ reflect a long "t 9 ord] to discov] 9 our wak+ /ate1--to say no?+ ( ?is1 our s\l is ar*itectonic 9 volunt>y actions2 &1 9 discov]+ ! sci5ces 9 accordance ) :i* ,god has regulat$ all ?+s 7pond]e1 m5sura1 num]o71 x imitates 9 its dep>tm5t & 9 its own _w ( activity t :i* ,god does 9 ! macrocosm4 ,?is is ! reason :y spirits1 ent]+ ?r\gh reason & et]nal tru?s into a k9d ( society ) ,god1 are memb]s ( ! city ( ,god1--t is1 ( ! mo/ p]fect /ate1 =m$ & gov]n$ by ! be/ ( mon>*s1 9 :i* !re is no crime )\t puni%m5t1 & no good action )\t rew>d1 & :]e !re is z mu* ( virtue & ( happ9ess z may possibly exi/4 ,& ?is occurs n ?r\gh a di/urbance ( nature1 z if ,god's deal+ ) s\ls 7 9 violation ( me*anical laws1 b by ! v ord] ( natural ?+s1 on acc\nt ( ! et]nal1 pre-e/abli%$ h>mony betwe5 ! k+doms ( nature & grace1 betwe5 ,god z mon>* & ,god z ar*itect1 s9ce nature leads up to grace1 & grace makes nature p]fect 9 mak+ use ( x4 ,no bett] s5t5ces c\ld be f\nd ) :i* to conclude ?is analysis ( ,leibniz4 ,!y res\nd n only ) ! gr&eur & wide scope *>act]i/ic ( 8 ?\ght1 b !y conta9 8 ess5tial idea1 8 pre-em95t note1--t ( ! h>mony ( ! natural & ! sup]natural1 ! me*anical & ! organic4 ,! me*anical is to ,leibniz :at ! ^w signifies2 x is ! in/rum5tal1 & ?is 9 ! full mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,nature is in/rum5tal 9 t x p]=ms a function1 realizes a purpose1 & in/rum5tal 9 ! s5se t )\t x _s1 ! organic1 is an empty dream4 ,! spiritual1 on ! o!r h&1 is ! mean+1 ! idea ( nature4 ,x p]fects x1 9 t x makes x in/rum5tal to itself1 & ?us r5d]s x n ! passive panorama ( m]e mat]ial =ce1 b ! manife/ation ( liv+ _s4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,criticism ,,& ,,conclusion4 ,9 ! exposition n[ complet$ we h 9 g5]al tak5 = grant$ ! tru? & coh]5cy ( ,leibniz's fundam5tal ideas1 & h cont5t$ ourselves ) an acc\nt ( ! pr9ciples & notions t fl[ f ^! ideas4 ,! "t has come = retrac+ our /eps1 & = inquir+ :e!r ! assum$ premises c be ?us unque/ion+ly adopt$4 ,?is f9al *apt]1 !re=e1 we %all devote to criticism ( ! basis ( ,leibniz's philosophy1 n attempt+ to te/ x by a comp>ison ) o!r sy/ems1 b by inquir+ into its int]nal coh]5cy1 & by a brief acc\nt ( ! ways 9 :i* 8 successors1 or at lea/ "o ( !m1 endeavor$ to make "r ! po9ts 9 :i* he appe>$ to fail4 ,! fundam5tal contradiction 9 ,leibniz is to be f\nd1 ,i believe1 betwe5 ! me?od :i* he adopt$--)\t inquiry into its validity & scope--& ! subject-matt]1 or p]haps bett] ! attitude1 to :i* he attempt$ to apply ?is me?od2 betwe51 t is to say1 ! s*ola/ic =mal logic on ! "o h& & ! idea ( int]-relation d]iv$ f ! developm5t ( sci5tific ?\ght1 on ! o!r4 ,leibniz nev] ?\ght ( inve/igat+ ! =mal logic bequea!d by s*ola/icism1 ) a view to det]m9+ its adequacy z philosophic me?od4 ,he adopt$1 z we h se51 ! pr9ciples ( id5tity & contradiction z sole pr9ciples ( ! only p]fect k4 ,! type ( k is t :i* c be r$uc$ to a s]ies ( id5tical propositions1 ^: opposite is se5 to be impossible1 because self-contradictory4 ,only k 9 ?is =m c be said to be demon/rative & necess>y4 ,z aga9/ ,locke he ju/ifi$ ! syllogi/ic me?od ( ! s*oolm5 z ! typical me?od ( all rational tru?4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,leibniz1 z we saw 9 ! e>li] *apt]s1 _h le>n$ positively f ! gr[? ( sci5ce1 negatively f ! failures ( ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza1 to look ^u ! univ]se z a unity ( int]-relat$ memb]s1--z an organic unity1 n a m]e self-id5tical on5ess4 ,fail+ to see ! cause ( ! failures ( ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza 9 precisely _! adoption ( ! logic ( id5tity & contradiction z ultimate1 he attempt$ to reconcile ?is me?od ) ! conception ( organic activity4 ,! result is con/ant conflict betwe5 ! me?od & cont5t ( 8 philosophy1 betwe5 its lett] & its _s4 ,! contradiction is a tw(old "o4 ,! unity ( ! cont5t ( 8 philosophy1 ! conception ( organism or h>mony1 is a unity :i* ess5tially involves diff]5ce4 ,! unity ( 8 me?od is a =mal id5tity :i* excludes x4 ,! unity1 ^: discov]y con/itutes ,leibniz's great glory z a philosoph]1 is a unity ( activity1 a dynamic process4 ,! unity ( =mal logic is exclusive ( any m$iation or process1 & is ess5tially rigid & lifeless4 ,! result is t ,leibniz is con/antly wav]+ 79 logical result1 n ( c\rse 9 _s7 betwe5 two oppos$ errors1 "o ( :i* is1 9 reality1 n diff]5t f ,sp9ozism1 9 t x reg>ds all di/9ction z only ph5om5al & unreal1 :ile ! o!r is ak9 to atomism1 9 t attempt+ to avoid ! doctr9e ( ! all-inclusive "o1 x does s only by suppos+ a multitude ( unrelat$ units1 t]m$ monads4 ,& ?us ! h>mony1 :i* 9 ,leibniz's int5tion is ! v cont5t ( reality1 comes to be1 9 effect1 an ext]nal arrangem5t betwe5 ! "o & ! _m1 ! unity & ! di/9ction1 9 !mselves incapable ( real relations4 ,su* 7 ! results ( ,leibniz's failure1 9 ,kantian language1 to criticise 8 categories1 9 ,hegelian language1 to develop a logic1--! results ( 8 assum+1 )\t exam9ation1 ! validity ( =mal logic z a me?od ( tru?4 ,s ?or\ghly is ,leibniz imbu$ ) ! belief 9 its validity1 t ! v conception1 t ( suffici5t reason1 :i* %\ld h be5 ! means ( sav+ him f 8 contradictions1 is us$ 9 su* a way z to plunge him deep] into !m4 ,! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason may inde$ be us$ z purely =mal & ext]nal1--z equival5t to ! notion t ev]y?+1 no matt] :at1 has "s explanation4 ,?us employ$1 x simply decl>es t ev]y?+ has a reason1 )\t 9 ! lea/ det]m9+ ! :at ( t reason1--its cont5t4 ,?is is :at we mean by call+ x =mal4 ,b ?is is n ! way 9 :i* ,leibniz conceives ( x4 ,accord+ to him1 x is n a pr9ciple ( ! ext]nal connection ( "o f9ite1 or ph5om5al1 fact ) ano!r4 ,x is a pr9ciple 9 ! light ( :i* ! :ole ph5om5al _w is to be view$1 decl>+ t its gr\nd & mean+ are to be f\nd 9 reason1 9 self-consci\s intellig5ce4 ,z we h se51 x is equival5t1 9 ,leibniz's case1 to ! notion t we h no complete nor necess>y k ( ! _w ( sci5tific fact until we h ref]r$ x to a condition+ ,supreme ,_s4 ,look$ at 9 ?is way1 we see t ! unity :i* ,leibniz is positively employ+ is an organic unity1 a unity ( intellig5ce involv+ organic ref]5ce to ! kn[n _w4 ,b su* a conception ( suffici5t reason leaves no place = ! f9al validity ( id5tity & non-contradiction2 & !re=e ,leibniz1 :5 deal+ ) 8 me?od1 & n1 z 9 ! passages ref]r$ to1 ) 8 subject-matt]1 _c leave ! matt] ?us4 ,to d s inde$ w\ld h involv$ a complete recon/ruction ( 8 philosophy1 necessitat+ a d]ivation ( all ! categories employ$ f intellig5ce itself 7t is1 f ! suffici5t or condition+ reason74 ,b ! bondage to s*ola/ic me?od is s great t ,leibniz c see no way b to measure intellig5ce by ! ready-made pr9ciple ( id5tity1 & ?us virtually 7?\gh n 9 purpose7 to expla9 away ! v pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,9 ,leibniz's words3 ,cont+5t tru?s require an inf9ite analysis :i* only ,god c c>ry out4 ,:5ce by him alone are !y kn[n a priori & demon/ratively4 ,= al?\gh ! reason c always be f\nd = "s occurr+ /ate 9 a prior /ate1 ?is reason aga9 requires a reason1 & we nev] arrive 9 ! s]ies to ! ultimate reason4 ,b ?is progressus ad inf9itum takes 79 u7 ! place ( a suffici5t reason1 :i* c be f\nd only outside ! s]ies 9 ,god1 on :om all its memb]s1 prior & po/]ior dep5d1 r ?an ^u "o ano!r4 ,:atev] tru?1 !re=e1 is incapable ( analysis1 & _c be demon/rat$ f its own reasons1 b has its ultimate reason & c]ta9ty only f ! div9e m9d1 is n necess>y4 ,ev]y?+ t we call tru?s ( fact come "u ?is head1 & ?is is ! root ( _! cont+5cy4 ,! s5t5ces be=e ! "o italiciz$ repeat :at we h le>n$ be=e1 & seem to convey ! idea t ! ph5om5al _w is t :i* does n acc\nt = itself1 because n itself a self-det]m9+ reason1 & :i* gets its ultimate explanation & gr\nd 9 a self-suffici5t reason1--,god4 ,b notice ! turn giv5 to ! ?\ght ) ! ^w !re=e4 ,!re=e all tru? incapable ( analysis1--t is1 ( r$uction to id5tical propositions1 ^: opposite is impossible because self-contradictory1--all tru? ^: mean+ dep5ds ^u n its b>e id5tity1 b ^u its relation to ! v cont5t ( all intellig5ce1 is n necess>y1 b cont+5t4 ,leibniz "h di/9ctly opposes id5tical tru?s z necess>y1 to tru? connect$ ) reason z cont+5t4 ,syn!tic ref]5ce to ! v /ructure ( intellig5ce is ?us made1 n ! gr\nd ( tru?1 b a blot ^u its complet5ess & necessity4 ,p]fect tru?1 x is impli$ 9 ! argum5t1 is self-id5tical1 kn[n by m]e analysis ( itself1 & ne$s no ref]5ce to an organism ( reason4 ,! ref]5ce1 !re=e1 to a pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason is simply a concession to ! fragm5t>y & imp]fect condition ( all k4 ,tru? 9 itself is self-id5tical2 b appe>+ to u only confus$ly1 we employ ! idea ( suffici5t reason z a make%ift1 by :i* we ref]1 9 a mass1 all t we _c ?us r$uce to id5tical propositions1 to an intellig5ce1 or to a ,deus ex ma*9a :i* c s r$uce x4 ,?is is ! lame & impot5t conclusion4 ,leibniz's fundam5tal mean+ is1 no d\bt1 a correct "o4 ,he means t cont+5cy ( fact is n real1 b app>5t2 t x exi/s only because ( our inability to p5etrate ! reason :i* w\ld enable u completely to acc\nt = ! facts "u consid]ation4 ,he means t if we c\ld und]/&1 sub specie aet]nitatis1 f ! /&po9t ( univ]sal intellig5ce1 we %\ld see e fact z necess>y1 z result+ f an intr9sic reason4 ,b s ?or\ghly is he fett]$ by ! s*ola/ic me?od--t is1 ! me?od ( =mal logic--t he c conceive ( ?is imman5t & intr9sic reason :i* makes e fact a tru?--t is1 self-evid5t 9 its necessity--only z an analytic1 self-conta9$ id5tity4 ,& h]e9 lies 8 contradiction3 8 me?od obliges him to conceive ( ultimate intellig5ce z purely =mal1 simply z t :i* does n contradict itself1 :ile ! attitude ( 8 ?\ght & its concrete subject-matt] compel him to ?9k ( intellig5ce z possess+ a cont5t1 z ! organic unity ( a sy/em ( relations4 ,f ?is contradiction fl[ ! o!r contradictions ( ,leibniz1 :i* we are n[ prep>$ to exam9e 9 m detail4 ,= 8 ideas are s mu* great] ?an 8 me?od t 9 almo/ e po9t !re seems to be contradiction4 ,8 ideas p] se mean "o ?+1 & 8 ideas z int]pret$ by 8 me?od ano!r4 ,take 8 doctr9e ( individuality1 = in/ance4 ,to "s x has appe>$ t ! great defect ( ! ,leibnizian philosophy is its individualism4 ,su* conceive him simply to h c>ri$ out 9 8 monadism ! doctr9e ( ! individual isolat$ f ! univ]se to its logical conclusions1 & !reby to h r5d]$ x absurd4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ! *>ge is true4 ,! monad1 accord+ to ! (t-repeat$ /atem5t1 has no int]c\rse ) ! re/ ( ! univ]se4 ,x really excludes all else4 ,x acts z if no?+ b itself & ,god 7 9 exi/5ce4 ,t is to say1 ! monad1 be+ ! self-id5tical1 mu/ %ut out all intr9sic or real relations ) o!r sub/ances4 ,su* relations w\ld involve a diff]5tiat+ pr9ciple = :i* ,leibniz's logic has no place4 ,ea* monad is1 !re=e1 an isolat$ univ]se4 ,b su* a result has no value = ,leibniz4 ,he endeavors to correct x by ! ?\ght t ea* monad ideally includes ! :ole univ]se by mirror+ x4 ,& !n to reconcile ! real exclusion & ! ideal inclusion1 he falls back on a ,deus ex ma*9a :o arranges a h>mony betwe5 !m1 =eign to ! intr9sic nature ( ea*4 ,leibniz's individualism1 x is claim$1 ?us makes ( 8 philosophy a syn!sis1 or r a juxtaposition1 ( mutually contradictory positions1 ea* ( :i* appe>s true only z long z we d n attempt to ?9k x toge!r ) ! o!r4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 tru? 9 ?is repres5tation4 ,b a m significant way ( /at+ ! matt] is1 ,i ?9k1 t ,leibniz's defect is n 9 8 individualism1 b 9 ! defect ( 8 conception ( ! individual4 ,8 individualism is m app>5t ?an real4 ,x is a negative pr9ciple1 & negative 9 ! s5se ( privative4 ,! individuality ( ! monad is due to its incomplet5ess1 to its imp]fections4 ,x is really matt] :i* makes monads mutually imp5etrable or exclusive2 x is matt] :i* di/+ui%es !m f ,god1 & ?us f "o ano!r4 ,)\t ! mat]ial elem5t !y w\ld be lo/ 9 an undi/+ui%$ id5tity ) ,god1 ! supreme sub/ance4 ,b matt]1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is passivity2 & s9ce activity is reality1 or sub/ance1 matt] is unsub/antial & unreal4 ,! same results f a consid]ation ( k4 ,matt] is always correlative to confus$ ideas4 ,) ! cle>+ up ( k1 ) mak+ x rational1 matt] mu/ disappe>1 s t to ,god1 :o is :olly reason1 x mu/ entirely vani%4 ,b ?is view v>ies only 9 words f t ( ,sp9oza1 to :om x is ! imag9ation1 z di/+ui%$ f ! intellect1 t is ! s\rce ( p>ticul> & f9ite objects4 ,x is p]haps 9 8 ,!odice1 9 ! treatm5t ( ! problem ( evil1 t 8 implicit ,sp9ozism1 or d5ial ( individuality1 comes out mo/ cle>ly4 ,t evil is negative1 or privative1 & consi/s 9 ! f9itude ( ! creature1 is ! result ( ! discussion4 ,:at is ?is except to ass]t ! unreality1 ! m]ely privative "*1 ( ! f9ite1 & to resolve all into ,god8 ,to take "o in/ance out ( _m3 he comp>es in]tia to ! orig9al limitation ( creatures1 & says t z in]tia is ! ob/acle to ! complete mobility ( bodies1 s privation1 or lack1 con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! imp]fection1 or evil1 ( creatures4 ,8 metaphor is ( boats 9 ! curr5t ( a riv]1 :]e ! heavi] "o goes m sl[ly1 ow+ to in]tia4 ,! =ce ( ! curr5t1 :i* is ! same to all1 & :i* is positive1 suff]+ no dim9ution1 is comp>able to ! activity ( ,god1 :i* also is p]fect & positive4 ,z ! curr5t is ! positive s\rce ( all ! movem5ts ( ! bodies1 & is 9 no way responsible = ! ret>dation ( "s boats1 s ,god is ! s\rce only ( activities1--! p]fections ( 8 creatures4 ,z ! in]tia ( ! boat is ! cause ( its sl[ness1 s ! limitations ( its receptivity are ! cause ( ! defects f\nd 9 ! action ( creatures4 ,individuality is ?us r$uc$ to m]e limitation2 & ! unlimit$1 ! real :i* includes all reality1 is ,god4 ,we are ?us plac$ 9 a d\ble difficulty4 ,?is notion ( an all-inclusive "o contradicts ! reality ( mutually exclusive monads2 & we h besides ! *>act]i/ic difficulty ( ,sp9oza1--h[1 on ! basis ( ?is unlimit$1 self-id5tical sub/ance1 to acc\nt = ev5 ! appe>ance ( f9itude1 plurality & individuality4 ,leibniz's fundam5tal defect may ?us be said to be t1 :ile he realiz$1 z no "o be=e him _h done1 ! importance ( ! conception ( ! negative1 he 0 yet unable to grasp ! significance ( ! negative1 0 l$ to int]pret x z m]ely privative or defective1 & ?us1 f9ally1 to surr5d] ! v idea4 ,_h n 8 me?od1 8 presupposition reg>d+ analytic id5tity1 b\nd him s completely 9 its toils1 8 cle> p]ception t x 0 ! negative elem5t t diff]5tiat$ ,god f ! univ]se1 intellig5ce f matt]1 might h br\ght him to a g5]al anticipation n only ( ,kant1 b ( ,hegel4 ,b in/ead ( trans=m+ 8 me?od by ?is conception ( negation1 he all[$ 8 assum$ 7i4 e41 dogmatic7 me?od to evacuate 8 conception ( its significance4 ,x 0 ,hegel :o 0 really suffici5tly 9 e>ne/ ) ! idea to read x into ! v notion ( intellig5ce z a con/itu5t organic elem5t1 n z a m]e outw>d & =mal limitation4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! say+ ( ,leibniz t ! monad acts z if no?+ exi/$ b ,god & itself4 ,! same idea is sometimes express$ by say+ t ,god alone is ! imm$iate or direct object ( ! monad4 ,bo? expressions mean t1 :ile ! monad excludes all o!r monads1 su* is n ! case 9 its relation to ,god1 b t x has an organic relation ) him4 ,we _c keep f ask+ :e!r !re is n ano!r aspect ( ! contradiction "h4 ,h[ is x possible = ! monad s to escape f its isolation t x c h communication ) ,god m ?an ) o!r sub/ances8 ,or if x c h communication ) ,god1 :y _c x equally be> real relations ( community ) o!r monads8 ,& ! answ] is f\nd 9 ,leibniz's contradictory conceptions ( ,god4 ,( ^! conceptions !re are at lea/ ?ree4 ,:5 ,leibniz is emphasiz+ 8 monadic !ory1 ) its aspects ( individuality & exclusion1 ,god is conceiv$ z ! highe/ monad1 z "o 9 ! s]ies ( monads1 diff]+ f ! o!rs only 9 ! degree ( its activity4 ,he is ! monad ( monads2 ! mo/ complete1 active1 & individualiz$ ( all4 ,b x is evid5t t 9 ?is s5se !re c be no m int]c\rse betwe5 ,god & a monad ?an !re is betwe5 "o monad & ano!r4 ,inde$1 s9ce ,god is purus actus )\t any passivity1 x may be said t !re is1 if possible1 less communication 9 ?is case ?an 9 ! o!rs4 ,he is1 z ,leibniz says1 :at a monad )\t matt] w\ld be1 a des]t] f ! g5]al ord]4 ,he is ! acme ( isolation4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! extreme developm5t ( ! individual side ( ,leibniz's doctr9e1 result+ 9 a mo/ pron\nc$ atomism4 ,leibniz seems dimly consci\s ( ?is difficulty1 & ?us by ! side ( ?is notion ( ,god he puts ano!r4 ,accord+ to x1 ,god is ! s\rce ( all monads4 ,! monads are n creat$ by a *oice ( ! be/ ( all possible worlds1 z 8 (ficial !ology tea*es1 b are ! radiations ( 8 div9ity4 ,writ+ to ,bayle1 ,leibniz expresses himself z foll[s3 ,! nature ( sub/ance consi/s 9 an active =ce ( def9ite "*1 f :i* ph5om5a proce$ 9 ord]ly succession4 ,?is =ce 0 orig9ally receiv$ by1 & is inde$ pres]v$ to1 e sub/ance by ! creator ( all ?+s1 f :om all actual =ces or p]fections emanate by a sort ( cont9ual creation4 ,& 9 8 ,monadology he says3 ,all ! creat$ or d]iv$ monads are ! productions ( ,god1 & are born1 z x 71 by ! cont9ual fulgurations ( ! div9ity f in/ant to in/ant1 b\nd$ by ! receptivity ( ! creature to :i* x is ess5tial to be limit$4 ,:at has become ( ! doctr9e ( monads 7al?\gh ! ^w is reta9$7 x w\ld be difficult to say4 ,!re is c]ta9ly no individual di/9ction n[ betwe5 ! creat$ monads & ,god1 & x is impossible to see :y !re %\ld be individual di/9ctions betwe5 ! v>i\s creat$ monads4 ,!y appe> to be all alike1 z modes ( ! "o compreh5sive sub/ance4 ,"h we h ! univ]sal1 or id5tity1 side ( ,leibniz's philosophy pu%$ to its logical outcome1--! doctr9e ( pan!ism4 ,8 ?ird doctr9e ( ,god is really a unity ( ! two previ\s4 ,x is ! doctr9e t ,god is ! h>mony ( ! monads1--nei!r "o among !m nor "o made up ( !m1 b _! organic unity4 ,?is doctr9e is n[h]e expressly /at$ 9 words 7unless x be :5 he says t ,god alone con/itutes ! relation & community ( sub/ances71 b x runs ?r\gh 8 :ole sy/em4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ,god is ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,?is conception1 l t ( h>mony1 may h ei!r a me*anical int]pretation 7accord+ to :i* ,god is ! artificial1 ext]nal po9t ( contact ( intellig5ce & reality1 9 !mselves oppos$7 or an organic mean+1 accord+ to :i* ,god is ! unity ( intellig5ce & reality4 ,on ?is int]pretation alone does ! say+ t ,god is ! only imm$iate object ( ! monads h s5se4 ,x simply /ates t ! app>5t dualism betwe5 intellig5ce & its object :i* is f\nd 9 ! _w is ov]come 9 ,god2 t ! di/9ction betwe5 !m is n ! ultimate fact1 b exi/s 9 & = ! sake ( a unity :i* transc5ds ! diff]5ce4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 ! opposition betwe5 ideal inclusion & real exclusion vani%es4 ,god is ! h>mony ( ! real & ideal1 n a m]e arrangem5t = br++ !m to an und]/&+ ) "o ano!r4 ,individuality & univ]sality are no long] oppos$ conceptions1 ne$+ a t]tium quid to relate !m1 b are organic factors ( reality1 & ?is1 at ! same "t1 is intellig5ce4 ,b admitt+ ?is conception z /at+ ! implicit int5tion ( ,leibniz1 ! relation ( monads to "o ano!r is :olly diff]5t f t :i* ,leibniz gives4 ,& to ?is po9t we n[ come4 ,if 9 ,god1 ! absolute1 ! real & ! ideal are "o1 x is impossible t 9 sub/ances1 :i* h _! be+ & significance only 9 relation to ,god1 or ?is unity1 ! real & ! ideal %\ld be s :olly sep>at$ z ,leibniz conceives4 ,leibniz's conception relative to ?is is1 z we h se51 t !re is no physical influxus1 or comm]cium1 ( monads1 b ideal cons5sus4 ,really ea* %uts out e o!r2 ideally1 or repres5tatively1 x includes e o!r4 ,8 positive ?\ght 9 ! matt] is t a complete k ( any portion ( ! univ]se w\ld involve a p]fect k ( ! :ole1 s organic is ! /ructure ( ! univ]se4 ,ea* monad sums up ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! _w1 & is big ) its future4 ,?is is ! conception ( int]-relation2 ! conception ( all 9 "o1 & "o z a memb]1 n a "p ( a :ole4 ,x is ! conception :i* ,leibniz br\ght to bir?1 ! conception ( ! ?or\gh unity ( ! _w4 ,9 ?is notion !re is no d5ial ( community ( relation2 x is r ! culm9ation ( relation4 ,!re is no isolation4 ,b accord+ to 8 presuppos$ logic1 individuality c mean only id5tity exclud+ di/9ction1--id5tity )\t intr9sic relation1 &1 z ,leibniz is b\nd at all haz>ds to save ! notion ( individuality1 he is oblig$ to ?9k ( ?is int]-relation z only ideal1 z ! result ( a pr$et]m9$ t5d5cy giv5 at its creation to ! self-id5tical monad by ,god4 ,b ( c\rse ,leibniz does n escape ! contradiction betwe5 id5tity & di/9ction1 betwe5 individuality & univ]sality1 by ?is means4 ,he only transf]s x to ano!r realm4 ,9 ! relation ( ! monad to ,god ! div]sity ( its cont5t1 ! real or univ]sal elem5t1 is h>moniz$ ) ! id5tity ( its law1 its ideal or individual factor4 ,b if ^! elem5ts d n conflict "h1 :y %\ld !y 9 ! relation ( ! monads to "o ano!r8 ,ei!r !re is already an imman5t h>mony betwe5 ! individual & univ]sal1 & no ext]nal arrangem5t is ne$$ to br+ x ab\t1 or !re is no su* h>mony1 & !re=e no relation possible betwe5 ,god & ! individual monad4 ,"o side ( ! ,leibnizian philosophy r5d]s ! o!r side impossible4 ,ano!r consequ5ce ( ,leibniz's treatm5t ( ! negative z m]ely limitative is t he c f9d no di/9ction1 except+ ( degree1 betwe5 nature & _s4 ,su* a conception is und\bt$ly 9 advance ( ! ,c>tesian dualism1 :i* reg>ds !m z oppos$ realms )\t any relation2 b x may be que/ion$ :e!r x is z adequate a view z t :i* reg>ds !m z di/9ct realms on acc\nt ( relation4 ,at all ev5ts1 x leads to confusion 9 ,leibniz's treatm5t ( bo? mat]ial objects & self-consci\s p]sonalities4 ,9 ! =m] case 8 me?od ( escape is a metaphor1--t objects app>5tly mat]ial are full ( s\ls1 or spirits4 ,?is may mean t ! mat]ial is m]ely mat]ial only :5 consid]$ 9 implicit ab/raction f ! intellig5ce :i* conditions x1 t ! mat]ial1 9 tru?1 is con/itut$ by "s ( ! relations :i* 9 _! complet5ess make up intellig5ce4 ,?is at lea/ be>s a consi/5t mean+4 ,b x is n monadism2 x is n ! doctr9e t matt] diff]s f _s only 9 degree3 x is ! doctr9e t !y diff] 9 k9d1 z ! condition$ f ! condition+4 ,at times1 h[ev]1 ,leibniz attempts to c>ry out 8 monadism lit]ally1 & ! result is t he conceives matt] z be+ itself end[$1 9 "s unexpla9$ way1 ) s\ls1 or s9ce ?is implies a dualism betwe5 matt] & s\l1 ( be+ made up1 compos$1 ( s\ls4 ,b z he is oblig$ to expla9 t ?is composition is n spatial1 or physical1 b only ideal1 ?is doctr9e t5ds to resolve itself into ! =m]4 ,& ?us we end :]e we began1--) a metaphor4 ,on ! o!r h& !re is a wav]+ treatm5t ( ! nature ( _s4 ,at times x is treat$ z precisely on a level 9 k9d ) ! monads t compose matt]1 diff]+ only 9 ! great] degree ( its activity4 ,b at o!r times x is c]ta9ly repres5t$ z /&+ on ano!r plane4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^? monads :i* express ! _w ) consci\sness & ^? :i* express x un9tellig5tly is z great z ! diff]5ce betwe5 a mirror & "o :o sees4 ,if ,leibniz means :at he seems to imply by ^! words1 x is pla9ly ass]t$ t only ! spiritual be+ is wor?y ( be+ call$ a monad1 or individual1 at all1 & t mat]ial be+ is simply a dep5d5t manife/ation ( _s4 ,aga9 he says3 ,n all entele*ies are1 l our s\l1 images ( ,god1--be+ made z memb]s ( a society or /ate ( :i* he is *ief1--b all are images ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ?is di/9ction betwe5 self-consci\s be+s z images ( ,god & unconsci\s monads z images ( ! univ]se !re is aga9 impli$ a diff]5ce ( k9d4 ,t some?+ is ! image ( ! univ]se ne$ mean only t x _c be expla9$ )\t its relations to ! univ]se4 ,to say t some?+ is ! image ( ,god1 mu/ mean t x is itself spiritual & self-consci\s4 ,god alone is reason & activity4 ,he alone has 8 reality 9 himself4 ,self-consci\s be+s1 s9ce memb]s ( a community ) him1 mu/ p>ticipate 9 ?is reality 9 a way diff]5t 9 k9d f ^? ?+s :i*1 at mo/1 are only sub/ances or objects1 n subjects4 ,nor d ! difficulties cease "h4 ,if matt] be conceiv$1 n z impli$ 9 ! relations by :i* reason is realiz$ 9 con/itut+ ! univ]se1 b z itself diff]+ f reason only 9 degree1 x is impossible to acc\nt = its exi/5ce4 ,:y %\ld a less degree ( p]fection exi/ ?an is necess>y8 ,:y %\ld n ! p]fect activity1 ,god1 complete ! univ]se 9 himself8 ,leibniz's answ] t an inf9ity ( monads multiplies 8 exi/5ce s f> z possible1 may hold inde$ ( o!r spirits1 :o mirror him & live 9 "o div9e society1 b is utt]ly inapplicable to ^? :i* fail to image him4 ,_! exi/5ce1 z mat]ial1 is m]ely privative2 x is m]ely ! abs5ce ( ! activity f\nd 9 consci\s _s4 ,h[ c ?is deprivation1 ?is limitation1 increase 9 any way ! h>mony & p]fection ( ! univ]se8 ,leibniz's !ory ( ! negative1 9 f9e1 compels him to put nature & _s on ! same level1 z diff]+ only 9 degree4 ,?is1 s f> f giv+ nature a reality1 results 9 its be+ swall[$ up 9 _s1 n z necess>ily di/9ct f x & yet "o ) x1 b z absorb$ 9 x1 s9ce ! app>5t diff]5ce is only privative4 ,nor does ! !ory insure ! reality ( _s4 ,?is1 s9ce "o 9 k9d ) matt]1 is swall[$ up along ) x 9 ! "o sub/ance1 :i* is positive & self-id5tical1--9 effect1 ! ,deus sive ,natura ( ,sp9oza4 ,we h to see t ?is contradiction on ! side ( exi/5ce has its correlate on ! side ( k1 & our exam9ation ( ?is fundam5tal defici5cy 9 ,leibniz is end$4 ,s5sation is on ! side ( intellig5ce :at matt] is on ! side ( reality4 ,x is confus$ k1 z matt] is imp]fect activity or reality4 ,k is p]fect only :5 x is se5 to be necess>y1 & by necess>y is meant t ^: opposite is impossible1 or involves contradiction4 ,9 spite1 !re=e1 ( ,leibniz's ?or\gh conviction t matt]s ( fact--! subject-matt] ( physical sci5ce--are n arbitr>y1 he is yet oblig$ f9ally to agree ) ,locke t !re is no c]ta9ty to be f\nd 9 su* k1 ei!r z a :ole or 9 any ( its details4 ,! elem5t ( s5sation1 ( confus$ k1 _c be elim9at$4 ,h5ce x mu/ always be op5 to any "o to object t x is only on acc\nt ( ?is imp]fect factor ( our k t !re appe>s to be a physical _w at all1 t ! ext]nal _w is an illusion produc$ by our s5sations4 ,& ,leibniz himself1 :ile claim+ t ! _w ( fact1 z oppos$ to ! realm ( relations1 possesses practical reality1 is oblig$ to admit t metaphysically x may be only an ord]ly dream4 ,! fact is t ,leibniz unconsci\sly moves 9 ! same circle1 ) relation to s5sation & ! mat]ial _w1 t conf9es ,sp9oza ) reg>d to imag9ation & p>ticul> multiple exi/5ces4 ,sp9oza expla9s ! latt] f t imp]fection ( our intellig5ce :i* leads u to imag9e r ?an to ?9k4 ,b he acc\nts = ! exi/5ce ( imag9ation1 :5 he comes to treat t1 z due to ! plurality ( p>ticul> ?+s4 ,s ,leibniz1 :5 an acc\nt ( ! exi/5ce ( matt] is dem&$ ( him1 ref]s to confus$ k z its s\rce1 :ile 9 turn he expla9s ! latt]1 or s5sation1 f ! mat]ial elem5t :i* sets b\nds to ! activity ( _s4 ,leibniz seems inde$1 to advance ^u ,sp9oza 9 admitt+ ! reality ( ! negative factor 9 diff]5tiat+ ! purely self-id5tical1 b he gives up :at he has ?us ga9$ by int]pret+ ! negation z passivity1 or m]e deprivation4 ,to sum up1 x may be d\bt$ :e!r we h m to le>n f ,leibniz's successes or f 8 failures4 ,leibniz's positive significance = u is 9 8 cle> recognition ( ! problems ( mod]n philosophy1 & 9 8 p]ception ( ! isolat$ elem5ts ( _! solution4 ,8 negative significance is 9 8 cl++ to a me?od :i* all[$ him only to juxtapose ^! elem5ts )\t =m+ ( !m a true syn!sis4 ,!re are a numb] ( sides f :i* we may /ate ,leibniz's realization ( ! problem4 ,p]haps t :i* di/+ui%es ,leibniz mo/ cle>ly f ,locke is _! respective treatm5ts ( ! relation ( ! physical to ! spiritual1 or1 z ! "q pres5t$ itself ma9ly to !m1 ( ! natural to ! sup]natural4 ,to ,locke ! sup]natural 0 /rictly miracul\s2 x 01 f our /&po9t1 m]e p[]1 or w4 ,x might inde$ be rational1 b ?is reason 0 incapable ( be+ appreh5d$ by u4 ,its di/9ction f ! f9ite 0 s great t x c\ld be conceiv$ only z some?+ prec$+ & succe$+ ! f9ite 9 "t1 & mean:ile z int]calat+ itself arbitr>ily "h & !re into ! f9ite2 z1 = example1 9 ! relation ( s\l & body1 9 ! production ( s5sation1 etc4 ,9 a ^w1 ,locke ?\ght t ! ends ( philosophy1 & ) x ( religion & morals1 c\ld be atta9$ only by a complete sep>ation ( ! natural & ! sup]natural4 ,leibniz1 on ! o!r h&1 conceiv$ ! aim ( philosophy to be ! demon/ration ( _! h>mony4 ,?is is evid5c$ by 8 treatm5t ( ! relations ( ! inf9ite & f9ite1 ( matt] & _s1 ( me*anical & f9al causation4 ,& he f\nd ! s\ght-= h>mony 9 ! fact t ! spiritual is ! reason1 purpose1 & function ( ! natural4 ,! (t-quot$ words ( ,lotze express ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz3 ,! me*anical is unb\nd$ 9 range1 b is subord9ate 9 value4 ,we _c f9d "s ?+s t occur physically1 & o!rs t occur sup]naturally2 ev]y?+ t occurs has its suffici5t me*anical antec$5ts1 b all t occurs has its significance1 its purpose1 9 some?+ t does n occur1 b t et]nally is--,reason4 ,! me*anical & ! spiritual are n realms :i* "h & !re come into outw>d contact4 ,!y are relat$ z ! condition$ & ! condition+4 ,t1 & n ! idea ( an artificial modus viv5di1 is ! true mean+ ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,9 o!r words1 ,leibniz's great significance = u is ! fact t1 al?\gh he accept$ 9 good fai?1 & inde$ z himself a ma/] 9 its me?ods1 ! results & pr9ciples ( physical sci5ce1 he rema9$ a teleological ideali/ ( ! type ( ,ari/otle4 ,b ,i h n us$ ! "r words4 ,x 0 n 9 spite ( 8 acceptance ( ! sci5tific view ( ! _w t he reta9$ 8 fai? 9 ! primacy ( purpose & reason4 ,on ! contr>y1 he 0 an ideali/ because ( 8 sci5ce1 because only by ! idea ( an all-condition+ spiritual activity c\ld he acc\nt = & make valid sci5tific conceptions2 he 0 a teleologi/1 because natural processes1 ) _! summ+ up 9 ! notion ( causality1 7 mean+less except z manife/+ an imman5t purpose4 ,!re are o!r m te*nical ways ( /at+ ! be>+ ( ,leibniz's "w4 ,we may say t he realiz$ t ! problem ( philosophy consi/$ 9 giv+ due value to ! notions ( individuality & univ]sality1 ( id5tity & diff]5ce1 or ( ! real & ! ideal4 ,9 develop+ ^! ideas1 h[ev]1 we %\ld only be repeat+ :at has already be5 said1 & s we may leave ! matt] "h4 ,on ! negative side we ne$ only recall :at 0 said a few pages back reg>d+ ! incompatibility ( ,leibniz's me?od--! s*ola/ic =mal logic--) ! cont5t ( 8 philosophy4 ,! attempt to f9d a =mal crit]ion ( tru? 0 hopeless2 x 0 worse ?an fruitless1 = x l$ to su* an int]pretation ( concrete tru?s z to deprive !m ( _! significance & z to l& ,leibniz 9 involv$ contradictions4 ,to write a complete acc\nt ( ! influ5ce ( ,leibniz's philosophy w\ld be too l>ge a task = ^! pages4 ,if we 7 to include "u ?is head all ! ramifications ( ?\ght to :i* ,leibniz /imulat$1 directly & indirectly1 ei!r by /at+ tru?s :i* "s "o work$ out or by /at+ errors :i* incit$ "s "o to new po9ts ( view1 we %\ld h to sket* ,g]man philosophy s9ce 8 "t1--& n only ! pr(essional philosophy1 b ^? wide aspects ( ?\ght :i* 7 reflect$ 9 ,h]d]1 ,less+1 & ,goe!4 ,x is en\gh to consid] him z ! =]unn] ( ,kant4 ,x has become s cu/om>y to repres5t ,kant z work+ :olly on ! problem :i* ,hume pres5t$1 t 8 great indebt$ness to ,leibniz is ov]look$4 ,because ,hume ar\s$ ,kant f 8 dogmatic slumb]s1 x is suppos$ t ,kant ?rew (f ! entire influ5ce ( ! ,leibnizian ?\ght z va9 dreams ( 8 sleep4 ,su* a repres5tation is "o-sid$4 ,x is tru] to /ate t ,hume *all5g$ ,kant to discov] ! me?od by :i* he c\ld ju/ify ! results ( ,leibniz4 ,9 ?is process1 ! results1 no d\bt1 took on a new =m3 results are always relative to me?od2 b ,kant nev] lo/ sight ( ! results4 ,9 ! ma91 he accept$ ! l>g] features ( ! ,leibnizian conclusions1 &1 taught by ,hume ( ! insuffici5cy ( ! me?od t ,leibniz foll[$1 se>*$ = a me?od :i* %\ld gu>antee !m4 ,?is aspect ( ,kant appe>s m fully 9 8 less] & some:at controv]sial writ+s ?an 9 8 classic works3 & ?is1 no d\bt1 is "o reason t 8 indebt$ness is s (t5 ov]look$4 ,8 close relation to ,leibniz appe>s mo/ def9itely 9 8 bro*ure entitl$ ,conc]n+ a ,discov]y :i* r5d]s ,unnecess>y all ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,a ,wolffian1 ,eb]h>d by "n1 _h made ! discov]y 7to use ,kant's words7 t ! ,leibnizian philosophy conta9$ a critique ( reason j z well z ! mod]n1 & accord+ly conta9$ ev]y?+ t is true 9 ! latt]1 & mu* else 9 addition4 ,9 8 reply to ?is writ+1 ,kant takes ! position t ^? :o claim$ to be ,leibnizians simply repeat$ ! words ( ,leibniz )\t p5etrat+ into 8 _s1 & t consequ5tly !y misrepres5t$ him on e important po9t4 ,he1 ,kant1 on ! o!r h&1 mak+ no claim to use ! t]m9ology ( ,leibniz1 0 8 true cont9uator1 s9ce he _h only *ang$ ! doctr9e ( ! latt] s z to make x con=m to ! true int5t ( ,leibniz1 by remov+ its self-contradictions4 ,he closes3 ',! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason' may be reg>d$ z ! real apology = ,leibniz1 ev5 aga9/ 8 own pr(ess$ foll[]s4 ,kant1 9 p>ticul>1 names ?ree po9ts 9 :i* he is ! true foll[] ( ,leibniz4 ,! pr(ess$ disciples ( ! latt] insi/$ t ! law ( suffici5t reason 0 an objective law1 a law ( nature4 ,b1 says ,kant1 x is s notori\s1 s self-evid5t1 t no "o c make a new discov]y ?r\gh ?is pr9ciple1 t ,leibniz c h meant x only z subjective4 ,= :at does x mean to say t ov] & above ! pr9ciple ( contradiction ano!r pr9ciple mu/ be employ$8 ,x means ?is3 t1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 only t c be kn[n :i* is already conta9$ 9 ! notion ( ! object2 if any?+ m is to be kn[n1 x mu/ be s\ght ?r\gh ! use ( a special pr9ciple1 di/9ct f t ( contradiction4 ,s9ce ?is la/ k9d ( k is t ( syn!tic pr9ciples1 ,leibniz means j ?is3 besides ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 or t ( analytic judgm5ts1 !re mu/ be ano!r1 t ( suffici5t reason1 = syn!tic judgm5ts4 ,he ?us po9t$ out1 9 a new & rem>kable mann]1 t c]ta9 inve/igations 9 metaphysics 7 /ill to be made4 ,9 o!r words1 ,kant1 by 8 di/9ction ( analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts1 ) _! respective pr9ciples & sph]es1 c>ri$ out ! idea ( ,leibniz reg>d+ ! pr9ciples ( contradiction & suffici5t reason4 ,! second po9t conc]ns ! relation ( monads to mat]ial bodies4 ,eb]h>d1 l ! o!r pr(ess$ ,leibnizians1 int]pret$ ,leibniz z say+ t corporeal bodies1 z composite1 are actually made up out ( monads1 z simple4 ,kant1 on ! o!r h&1 saw cle>ly t ,leibniz 0 n ?9k+ ( a relation ( composition1 b ( condition4 ,he did n mean ! mat]ial _w1 b ! sub/rate1 ! intellectual _w :i* lies 9 ! idea ( reason1 & 9 :i* ev]y?+ mu/ be ?\ght z consi/+ ( simple sub/ances4 ,eb]h>d's process1 he says1 is to beg9 ) s5se-ph5om5a1 to f9d a simple elem5t z a "p ( ! s5se-p]ceptions1 & !n to pres5t ?is simple elem5t z if x 7 spiritual & equival5t to ! monad ( ,leibniz4 ,kant claims to foll[ ! ?\ght ( ,leibniz 9 reg>d+ ! simple n z an elem5t 9 ! s5su\s1 b z some?+ sup]-s5su\s1 ! gr\nd ( ! s5su\s4 ,leibniz's mi/ake 0 t1 n hav+ work$ out cle>ly ! respective limits ( ! pr9ciples ( id5tity & ( suffici5t reason1 he suppos$ t we _h a direct intellectual intuition ( ?is sup]-s5su\s1 :5 9 reality x is unkn[able4 ,! ?ird gr\p ( /atem5ts conc]ns ! pr9ciple ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4 ,is x possible1 asks ,kant1 t ,leibniz meant by ?is doctr9e to ass]t ! m]e co9cid5ce ( two sub/ances :olly indep5d5t ( ea* o!r by nature1 & incapable ?r\gh _! own =ce ( be+ br\ght into community8 ,& 8 answ] is t :at ,leibniz really impli$ 0 n a h>mony betwe5 indep5d5t ?+s1 b a h>mony betwe5 modes ( kn[+1 betwe5 s5se on ! "o h& & und]/&+ on ! o!r4 ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason c>ri$ ! discussion f>!r by po9t+ out its gr\nds2 namely1 t1 )\t ! unity ( s5se & und]/&+1 no exp]i5ce w\ld be possible4 ,:y !re %\ld be ?is h>mony1 :y we %\ld h exp]i5ce1 ?is "q x is impossible to answ]1 says ,kant1--add+ t ,leibniz confess$ z mu* :5 he call$ x a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 ?us n expla9+ x1 b only ref]r+ x to a highe/ cause4 ,t ,leibniz really means a h>mony )9 intellig5ce1 n a h>mony ( ?+s by !mselves1 is made m cle>1 accord+ to ,kant1 f ! fact t x is appli$ also to ! relation betwe5 ! k+dom ( nature & ( grace1 ( f9al & ( effici5t causes4 ,"h ! h>mony is cle>ly n betwe5 two indep5d5tly exi/+ ext]nal ?+s1 b betwe5 :at fl[s f our notions ( nature 7,naturbegriffe7 & ( fre$om 7,freiheitsbegriffe72 t is1 betwe5 two di/9ct p[]s & pr9ciples )9 u1--an agreem5t :i* c be expla9$ only ?r\gh ! idea ( an intellig5t cause ( ! _w4 ,if we review ^! po9ts 9 succession1 ! influ5ce ( ,leibniz ^u ,kant becomes m m>k$4 ,z to ! fir/ "o1 x is well kn[n t ,kant's philosophy is bas$ ^u1 & revolves )91 ! di/9ction ( analytic & syn!tic judgm5ts2 & ?is di/9ction ,kant cle>ly ref]s to ! ,leibnizian di/9ction betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( contradiction & ( suffici5t reason1 or ( id5tity & diff]5tiation4 ,x is n meant t ,kant came to ?is ?\ght ?r\gh ! def9itions ( ,leibniz2 on ! contr>y1 ,kant himself ref]s x to ,hume's di/9ction betwe5 matt]s ( fact & relations ( ideas4 ,b :5 ,kant _h once g5]aliz$ ! ?\ght ( ,hume1 x fell at once1 z into ready prep>$ m\lds1 into ! categories ( ,leibniz4 ,he nev] escapes f ! ,leibnizian di/9ction4 ,9 8 work+ ( x out consi/s 8 greatness z ! f\nd] ( mod]n ?\ght2 f 8 acceptance ( x z ultimate result 8 contradictions4 ,t is to say1 ,kant did n m]ely receive ! vague idea ( suffici5t reason3 he s connect$ x ) :at he le>n$ f ,hume t he trans=m$ x into ! idea ( syn!sis1 & proce$$ to "w out ! conception ( syn!sis 9 ! v>i\s notions ( ! und]/&+1 or categories1 z applicable to ! mat]ial ( s5se4 ,:at ,leibniz bequea!d him 0 ! undef9$ idea t k ( matt]s ( fact re/s ^u ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,:at ,kant did ) ?is inh]itance 0 to id5tify ! :olly vague idea ( suffici5t reason ) ! notion t e fact ( exp]i5ce re/s ^u necess>y syn!tic connection1--t is1 connection accord+ to notions ( und]/&+ ) o!r facts1--& to det]m9e1 s f> z he c\ld1 ! v>i\s =ms ( syn!sis1 or ( suffici5t reason4 ,) ,leibniz ! pr9ciple rema9$ ess5tially inf]tile1 because x 0 ! m]e notion ( ! ultimate ref]5ce ( exp]i5ce to und]/&+4 ,9 ! h&s ( ,kant1 x became ! in/rum5t ( revolutioniz+ philosophy1 because ,kant %[$ ! articulate memb]s ( und]/&+ by :i* exp]i5ce is con/itut$1 & describ$ !m 9 ! act ( con/itut+4 ,s mu* = 8 work+ out ( ! ?\ght4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 ,kant nev] transc5d$ ! absolut5ess ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! pr9ciples ( syn!sis & analysis1 ( suffici5t reason & contradiction4 ,! result 0 t he reg>d$ ! syn!tic pr9ciple z ! pr9ciple only ( our k1 :ile p]fect k he /ill consid]$ to foll[ ! law ( id5tity1 ( m]e analysis4 ,he work$ out ! factor ( negation1 ( diff]5tiation1 conta9$ 9 ! notion ( syn!sis1 b limit$ x to syn!sis ^u mat]ial ( s5se1 presuppos+ t !re is ano!r k9d ( k1 n limit$ to s5se1 n dep5d+ ^u ! syn!tic pr9ciple1 b re/+ ^u ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 or analysis1 & t ?is k9d is ! type1 ! norm1 ( ! only p]fect k4 ,9 o!r words1 :ile admitt+ ! syn!tic pr9ciple ( diff]5tiation z a necess>y elem5t )9 our k1 he held t on acc\nt ( ?is elem5t our k is limit$ to ! ph5om5al realm4 ,leibniz's error 0 9 suppos+ t ! pure pr9ciples ( ! logical und]/&+1 re/+ on contradiction1 c\ld give u k ( ! n\m5al _w2 8 tru? 0 9 suppos+ t only by su* pr9ciples c\ld !y be kn[n4 ,?us1 9 sub/ance1 ,kant4 ,l ,leibniz1 9 %ort1 he fail$ to transc5d ! absolut5ess ( ! value ( ! s*ola/ic me?od2 b he s work$ out ano!r & syn!tic me?od1--! developm5t ( ! idea ( suffici5t reason1--t he made x necess>y = 8 successors to transc5d x4 ,! second po9t conc]ns ! relations ( ! s5su\s & ! sup]-s5su\s4 ,"h1 besides sett+ "r ! ord9>y misconception ( ,leibniz1 ,kant did no?+ b r5d] him consi/5t ) himself4 ,leibniz attempt$ to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 z we h se51 by ! pr9ciples bo? ( suffici5t reason & contradiction4 ,kant d5ies ! validity ( ! pro( by ei!r me?od4 ,god is ! suffici5t cause1 or reason1 ( ! cont+5t s5se _w4 ,b s9ce ,leibniz admits t ?is cont+5t _w may1 aft] all1 be b a dream1 h[ %all we rise f x to ! notion ( ,god8 ,x is n our dreams t demon/rate to u ! exi/5ce ( reality4 ,or1 aga91 s5se-k is confus$ k4 ,h[ %all ?is k1 by hypo!sis imp]fect1 gu>antee to u ! exi/5ce ( a p]fect be+8 ,on ! o!r h&1 s9ce ! syn!tic pr9ciple1 or t ( suffici5t reason1 is necess>y to give u k ( matt]s ( fact1 ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 :ile x may give u a consi/5t & ev5 necess>y notion ( a supreme be+1 _c give ?is notion reality4 ,leibniz1 :ile admitt+1 ) reg>d to all o!r matt]s ( fact1 t ! pr9ciples ( =mal logic c give no unconditional k1 yet supposes t1 ) reg>d to ! "o unconditional reality1 !y are amply suffici5t4 ,kant b r5d]s him self-consi/5t on ?is po9t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ) reg>d to ! doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony t ,kant's l>ge measure ( indebt$ness to ,leibniz is mo/ apt to be ov]look$4 ,kant's claim t ,leibniz himself meant ! doctr9e 9 a subjective s5se 7t is1 ( a h>mony betwe5 p[]s 9 our own intellig5ce7 r ?an objective 7or betwe5 ?+s out ( relation to intellig5ce7 seems1 at fir/ sight1 to g f> beyond ! m>k4 ,h[ev]1 :5 we recall t to ,leibniz ! s5se _w is only ! confus$ side ( rational ?\ght1 !re is m tru? 9 ,kant's say+ ?an appe>s at ?is fir/ sight4 ,! h>mony is betwe5 s5se & reason4 ,b x may at lea/ be said )\t qualification t ,kant only translat$ into subjective t]ms1 t]ms ( intellig5ce1 :at appe>s 9 ,leibniz z objective4 ,?is is n ! place to g into ! details ( ,kant's conception ( ! relation ( ! mat]ial to ! psy*ical1 ( ! body & ! s\l4 ,we may /ate1 h[ev]1 9 8 own words1 t ! "q is no long] z to ! possibility ( ! association ( ! s\l ) o!r kn[n & =eign sub/ances outside x1 b z to ! connection ( ! pres5tations ( inn] s5se ) ! modifications ( our ext]nal s5sibility4 ,x is a "q1 9 %ort1 ( ! h>mony ( two modes ( our own pres5tation1 n ( ! h>mony ( two indep5d5t ?+s4 ,& ,kant n only ?us deals ) ! fact ( h>mony1 b he admits1 z its possible s\rce1 j :at ,leibniz claims to be its actual s\rce2 namely1 "s "o und]ly+ reality1 :i* ,leibniz calls ! monad1 b to :i* ,kant gives no "n4 ,i c well suppose1 says ,kant1 t ! sub/ance to :i* ?r\gh ext]nal s5se ext5sion is attribut$1 is also ! subject ( ! pres5tations giv5 to u by its inn] s5se3 ?us t :i* 9 "o respect is call$ mat]ial be+ w\ld be 9 ano!r respect ?9k+ be+4 ,kant treats simil>ly ! problem ( ! relations ( physical & f9al causes1 ( necessity & fre$om4 ,"h1 z 9 ! case j m5tion$1 8 ma9 problem is to discov] _! h>mony4 ,8 solution1 aga91 is 9 ! union1 9 our intellig5ce1 ( ! und]/&+--z ! s\rce ( ! notions :i* make nature--) ! ideas ( t reason :i* gives a categorical imp]ative4 ,! cause ( ! possibility ( ?is h>mony betwe5 nature & fre$om1 betwe5 ! s5se _w & ! rational1 he f9ds 9 a be+1 ,god1 ^: sole function 9 ! ,kantian philosophy may be said to be to pre-e/abli% x4 ,i _c believe t ,kant1 9 po/ulat+ ! problems ( philosophy z ! h>mony ( s5se & und]/&+1 ( nature & fre$om1 & 9 f9d+ ?is h>mony :]e he did1 0 n pr(\ndly influ5c$1 consci\sly z well z unconsci\sly1 by ,leibniz4 ,9 fact1 ,i d n ?9k t we c und]/& ! nature ei!r ( ,kant's imm5se contributions to mod]n ?\ght or ( 8 inconsi/5cies1 until we h trac$ !m to _! s\rce 9 ! ,leibnizian philosophy1--admitt+1 on ! o!r h&1 t we _c und]/& :y ,kant %\ld h f\nd necess>y a new way ( approa* to ! results ( ,leibniz1 until we recognize to ! full 8 indebt$ness to ,hume4 ,x 01 inde$1 ,hume t awoke him to 8 endeavors1 b x 0 ,leibniz :o set be=e him ! goal ( ^! endeavors4 ,t ! goal %\ld appe> some:at trans=m$1 :5 approa*$ f a new po9t ( view1 0 to be expect$4 ,b alas6 ! *all5ge f ,hume did n :olly awak5 ,kant4 ,he /ill accept$ )\t "q ! validity ( ! s*ola/ic me?od1--! analytic pr9ciple ( id5tity z ! type ( p]fect k1--al?\gh d5y+ its suffici5cy = human intellig5ce4 ,leibniz sugge/$1 & sugge/$ ri*ly1 ! syn!tic1 ! negative aspect ( ?\ght2 ,kant work$ x out z a necess>y law ( our k2 x 0 left to 8 successors to "w x out z a factor 9 ! law ( all k4 ,x w\ld be a griev\s blund] to suppose t ?is f9al *apt] annihilates ! e>li] ones2 t ! failure ( ,leibniz z to me?od1 ?\gh a failure 9 a fundam5tal po9t1 cancell$ 8 spl5did a*ievem5ts4 ,su* ?\ghts z t sub/ance is activity2 t its process is measur$ by its end1 its idea2 t ! univ]se is an int]-relat$ unit2 ! ?\ghts ( organism1 ( cont9uity1 ( uni=mity ( law1--introduc$ & treat$ z ,leibniz treat$ !m1--are imp]i%able4 ,!y are memb]s ( ! gr[+ consci\sness1 on ! "p ( intellig5ce1 ( its own nature4 ,!re are b ?ree or f\r names 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght :i* c be plac$ by ! side ( ,leibniz's 9 respect to ! op5 l>g5ess1 ! unexhau/$ f]tility1 ( su* ?\ghts4 ,b x is n en\gh = intellig5ce to h great ?\ghts nor ev5 true ?\ghts4 ,x is te/imony to ! s9c]ity & e>ne/ness ( intellig5ce t x _c take ev5 su* ?\ghts z ^? ( ,leibniz on tru/4 ,x mu/ "k !m2 x mu/ h a me?od adequate to _! demon/ration4 ,& 9 a broad s5se1 ! "w ( ,kant & ( 8 successors 0 ! discov]y ( a me?od :i* %\ld ju/ify ! objective idealism ( ,leibniz1 & :i* 9 its hi/ory has m ?an fulfill$ ?is task4 ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( corrections made to ! orig9al4 ,! fir/ l9e is ! orig9al l9e1 ! second ! correct$ "o4 ,by ,s4 ,c ,griggs & ,company4 ,by ,s4 ,c4 ,griggs & ,company4 passivity ( any k9d is a my?1 z s*ola/ic fiction4 ,s5sation is passivity ( any k9d is a my?1 a s*ola/ic fiction4 ,s5sation is ! vacuum is to s]ve z ! backgr\nd ( ! atoms4 ,! atoms1 are ! vacuum is to s]ve z ! backgr\nd ( ! atoms4 ,! atoms are