,transcriber's notes3 7#a7 ,numbers following letters 7without space7 like ,c#b were originally printed in subscript4 ,letter subscripts are preceded by an underscore1 like ,cn4 7#b7 ,characters following a carat 77 were printed in superscript4 7#c7 ,side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective paragraphs4 7#d7 ,macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not inserted4 7#e7 root stands for the root symbol2 alpha1 beta1 etc4 for greek letters4 7#f7 ,the following typographical errors have been corrected3 ,,article ,,jones1 ,,inigo3 444 and in the capacity of designer of the masques he came into collision with ,ben ,jonson1 who frequently made him the butt of his satire4 'collision' amended from 'collison'4 ,,article ,,joplin3 ,joplin is the trade centre of a rich agricultural and fruit-growing district1 but its growth has been chiefly due to its situation in one of the most productive zinc and lead regions in the country1 for which it is the commercial centre4 'most' amended from 'must'4 ,,article ,,jordanes3 444 and their differentiation into ,visigoths and ,ostrogoths1 are next described4 ,chs4 v4-xiii4 contain an account of the intrusive ,geto-,scythian element before alluded to4 'next' amended from 'nest'4 ,,article ,,jurassic3 444 similarly at the top of the system there is a passage from the ,jurassic to the ,cretaceous rocks 7,alps74 'system' amended from 'sytsem'4 ,,article ,,jury3 444 'copied from this or that kindred institution to be found in this or that ,german or ,scandinavian land1' or brought over ready made by ,hengist or by ,william4 'or' amended from 'of'4 ,,encyclopaedia ,,britannica ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,arts1 ,,sciences1 ,,literature ,,and ,,general ,,information ,,eleventh ,,edition ,,volume ,,xv1 ,,slice ,v ,joints to ,justinian ,i4 ,,articles ,,in ,,this ,,slice3 ,,joints 7anatomy7 ,,jubilees1 ,,book ,,of ,,joints 7engineering7 ,,jubilee ,,year ,,joints 7geology7 ,j,,car ,,jointure ,,jud1 ,,leo ,,joinville ,,judaea ,,joinville1 ,,fran,,ois ,,louis ,,marie ,,judah ,,joinville1 ,,jean ,,judas ,,iscariot ,,joist ,,judas-,,tree ,j,,kai1 ,,maurus ,,judd1 ,,sylvester ,,jokjakarta ,,jude1 ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of ,,joliet ,,judge ,,jolly ,,judge-,,advocate-,,general ,,joly ,,de ,,lotbini,,re1 ,,gustave ,,judges1 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,jomini1 ,,antoine ,,henri ,,judgment ,,jommelli1 ,,niccola ,,judgment ,,debtor ,,jonah 7prophet7 ,,judgment ,,summons ,,jonah1 ,,rabbi ,,judicature ,,acts ,,jonas1 ,,justus ,,judith1 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,jonathan ,,judson1 ,,adoniram ,,jonci,,res1 ,,victorin ,,juel1 ,,jens ,,jones1 ,,alfred ,,gilpin ,,juel1 ,,niels ,,jones1 ,,sir ,,alfred ,,lewis ,,jug ,,jones1 ,,ebenezer ,,juge1 ,,boffille ,,de ,,jones1 ,,ernest ,,charles ,,juggernaut ,,jones1 ,,henry ,,juggler ,,jones1 ,,henry ,,arthur ,,jugurtha ,,jones1 ,,inigo ,,juju ,,jones1 ,,john ,,jujube ,,jones1 ,,john ,,paul ,,ju-,,jutsu or ,,jiu-,,jitsu ,,jones1 ,,michael ,,jujuy ,,jones1 ,,owen 7,welsh antiquary7 ,,jukes1 ,,joseph ,,beete ,,jones1 ,,owen 7,british architect7 ,,julian ,,jones1 ,,richard ,j,,lich ,,jones1 ,,thomas ,,rupert ,,julien1 ,,stanislas ,,jones1 ,,william ,,julius ,,jones1 ,,sir ,,william ,,jullien1 ,,louis ,,antoine ,j,,nk,,ping ,,jullundur ,,jonson1 ,,ben ,,july ,,joplin ,,jumala ,,joppa ,,jumi,,ges ,,jordaens1 ,,jacob ,,jumilla ,,jordan1 ,,camille ,,jumna ,,jordan1 ,,dorothea ,,jumping ,,jordan1 ,,thomas ,,jumping-,,hare ,,jordan1 ,,wilhelm ,,jumping-,,mouse ,,jordan 7river7 ,,jumping-,,shrew ,,jordanes ,,junagarh ,,jordanus ,,juncaceae ,,joris1 ,,david ,,junction ,,city ,,jortin1 ,,john ,,june ,,joseph 7,old ,testament7 ,,juneau ,,joseph 7,new ,testament7 ,,jung1 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,joseph ,,of ,,arimathaea ,,jung ,,bahadur1 ,,sir ,,joseph ,i4 ,,jung-,,bunzlau ,,joseph ,,ii4 ,,jungfrau ,,joseph1 ,,father ,,jungle ,,josephine ,,junin ,,josephus1 ,,flavius ,,juniper ,,joshekan ,,junius ,,joshua1 ,,book ,,of ,,junius1 ,,franz ,,joshua ,,the ,,stylite ,,junk ,,josiah ,,junker1 ,,wilhelm ,j,,sika1 ,,miklos ,,nicholas ,,junket ,,josippon ,,juno ,,joss ,,junot1 ,,andoche ,,jost1 ,,isaak ,,markus ,,junot1 ,,laure ,,jotunheim ,,junta ,,joubert1 ,,barth,,lemy ,,catherine ,,jupiter 7,roman deity7 ,,joubert1 ,,joseph ,,jupiter 7planet7 ,,joubert1 ,,petrus ,,jacobus ,,jur ,,jouffroy1 ,,jean ,,jura 7department of ,france7 ,,jouffroy1 ,,th,,odore ,,simon ,,jura 7island7 ,,jougs ,,jura 7mountains7 ,,joule1 ,,james ,,prescott ,,jurassic ,,jourdan1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,jurat ,,journal ,,jurien ,,de ,,la ,,gravi,,re1 ,,jean ,,edmond ,,journey ,,jurieu1 ,,pierre ,,jouvenet1 ,,jean ,,juris ,,jouy1 ,,victor ,,joseph ,,tienne ,,de ,,jurisdiction ,,jovellanos1 ,,gaspar ,,melchor ,,de ,,jurisprudence ,,jovellar ,y ,,soler1 ,,joaquin ,,jurisprudence1 ,,comparative ,,jovian ,,jurjani ,,jovinianus ,,jury ,,jovius1 ,,paulus ,,jus ,,primae ,,noctis ,,jowett1 ,,benjamin ,,jus ,,relictae ,,joyeuse ,,jusserand1 ,,jean ,,adrien ,,antoine ,,jules ,,joyeuse ,,entr,e ,,jussieu1 ,,de ,,juan ,,fernandez ,,islands ,,justice ,,juangs ,,justice ,,of ,,the ,,peace ,,juan ,,manuel1 ,,don ,,justiciar ,,juarez1 ,,benito ,,pablo ,,justiciary1 ,,high ,,court ,,of ,,juba 7kings of ,numidia7 ,,justification ,,juba 7,african river7 ,,justin ,i4 ,,jubbulpore ,,justin ,,ii4 ,,jub ,,justin 7,roman historian7 ,,jubilee 7or ,jubile71 ,,year ,,of ,,justinian ,i4 ,,joints1 in anatomy4 ,the study of joints1 or articulations1 is known as ,arthrology 7,gr4 ,greek3 arthron71 and naturally begins with the definition of a joint4 ,anatomically the term is used for any connexion between two or more adjacent parts of the skeleton1 whether they be bone or cartilage4 ,joints may be immovable1 like those of the skull1 or movable1 like the knee4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,vertical section through a synchondrosis4 b1 b1 the two bones2 ,sc1 the interposed cartilage2 l1 the fibrous membrane which plays the part of a ligament4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,vertical section through a cranial suture1 b1 b1 the two bones2 s1 opposite the suture2 l1 the fibrous membrane1 or periosteum1 passing between the two bones1 which plays the part of a ligament1 and which is continuous with the interposed fibrous membrane4 ,immovable joints1 or synarthroses1 are usually adaptations to growth rather than mobility1 and are always between bones4 ,when growth ceases the bones often unite1 and the joint is then obliterated by a process known as synostosis1 though whether the union of the bones is the cause or the effect of the stoppage of growth is obscure4 ,immovable joints never have a cavity between the two bones2 there is simply a layer of the substance in which the bone has been laid down1 and this remains unaltered4 ,if the bone is being deposited in cartilage a layer of cartilage intervenes1 and the joint is called synchondrosis 7fig4 #a71 but if in membrane a thin layer of fibrous tissue persists1 and the joint is then known as a suture 7fig4 #b74 ,good examples of synchondroses are the epiphysial lines which separate the epiphyses from the shafts of developing long bones1 or the occipito-sphenoid synchondrosis in the base of the skull4 ,examples of sutures are plentiful in the vault of the skull1 and are given special names1 such as sutura dentata1 s4 serrata1 s4 squamosa1 according to the plan of their outline4 ,there are two kinds of fibrous synarthroses1 which differ from sutures in that they do not synostose4 ,one of these is a schindylesis1 in which a thin plate of one bone is received into a slot in another1 as in the joint between the sphenoid and vomer4 ,the other is a peg and socket joint1 or gomphosis1 found where the fangs of the teeth fit into the alveoli or tooth sockets in the jaws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,vertical section through an amphiarthrodial joint4 b1 b1 the two bones2 c1 c1 the plate of cartilage on the articular surface of each bone2 ,fc1 the intermediate fibro-cartilage2 l1 l1 the external ligaments4 ,movable joints1 or diarthroses1 are divided into those in which there is much and little movement4 ,when there is little movement the term half-joint or amphiarthrosis is used4 ,the simplest kind of amphiarthrosis is that in which two bones are connected by bundles of fibrous tissue which pass at right angles from the one to the other2 such a joint only differs from a suture in the fact that the intervening fibrous tissue is more plentiful and is organized into definite bundles1 to which the name of interosseous ligaments is given1 and also that it does not synostose when growth stops4 ,a joint of this kind is called a syndesmosis1 though probably the distinction is a very arbitrary one1 and depends upon the amount of movement which is brought about by the muscles on the two bones4 ,as an instance of this the inferior tibio-fibular joint of mammals may be cited4 ,in man this is an excellent example of a syndesmosis1 and there is only a slight play between the two bones4 ,in the mouse there is no movement1 and the two bones form a synchondrosis between them which speedily becomes a synostosis1 while in many ,marsupials there is free mobility between the tibia and fibula1 and a definite synovial cavity is established4 ,the other variety of amphiarthrosis or half-joint is the symphysis1 which differs from the syndesmosis in having both bony surfaces lined with cartilage and between the two cartilages a layer of fibro-cartilage1 the centre of which often softens and forms a small synovial cavity4 ,examples of this are the symphysis pubis1 the mesosternal joint1 and the joints between the bodies of the vertebrae 7fig4 #c74 ,the true diarthroses are joints in which there is either fairly free or very free movement4 ,the opposing surfaces of the bones are lined with articular cartilage1 which is the unossified remnant of the cartilaginous model in which they are formed and is called the cartilage of encrustment 7fig4 #d1 c74 ,between the two cartilages is the joint cavity1 while surrounding the joint is the capsule 7fig4 #d1 l71 which is formed chiefly by the superficial layers of the original periosteum or perichondrium1 but it may be strengthened externally by surrounding fibrous structures1 such as the tendons of muscles1 which become modified and acquire fresh attachments for the purpose4 ,it may be said generally that the greater the intermittent strain on any part of the capsule the more it responds by increasing in thickness4 ,lining the interior of the capsule1 and all other parts of the joint cavity except where the articular cartilage is present1 is the synovial membrane 7fig4 #d1 dotted line72 this is a layer of endothelial cells which secrete the synovial fluid to lubricate the interior of the joint by means of a small percentage of mucin1 albumin and fatty matter which it contains4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,vertical section through a diarthrodial joint4 b1 b1 the two bones2 c1 c1 the plate of cartilage on the articular surface of each bone2 l1 l1 the investing ligament1 the dotted line within which represents the synovial membrane4 ,the letter s is placed in the cavity of the joint4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,vertical section through a diarthrodial joint1 in which the cavity is subdivided into two by an interposed fibro-cartilage or meniscus1 ,fc4 ,the other letters as in fig4 #d4 ,a compound diarthrodial joint is one in which the joint cavity is divided partly or wholly into two by a meniscus or interarticular fibro-cartilage 7fig4 #e1 ,fc74 ,the shape of the joint cavity varies greatly1 and the different divisions of movable joints depend upon it4 ,it is often assumed that the structure of a joint determines its movement1 but there is something to be said for the view that the movements to which a joint is subject determine its shape4 ,as an example of this it has been found that the mobility of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint of the thumb in a large number of working men is less than it is in a large number of women who use needles and thread1 or in a large number of medical students who use pens and scalpels1 and that the slightly movable thumb has quite a differently shaped articular surface from the freely movable one 7see ,j4 ,anat4 and ,phys4 xxix4 #ddf74 ,r4 ,fick1 too1 has demonstrated that the concavity or convexity of the joint surface depends on the position of the chief muscles which move the joint1 and has enunciated the law that when the chief muscle or muscles are attached close to the articular end of the skeletal element that end becomes concave1 while1 when they are attached far off or are not attached at all1 as in the case of the phalanges1 the articular end is convex4 ,his mechanical explanation is ingenious and to the present writer convincing 7see ,handbuch der ,gelenke1 by ,r4 ,fick1 ,jena1 #aijd74 ,bernays1 however1 pointed out that the articular ends were moulded before the muscular tissue was differentiated 7,morph4 ,jahrb4 iv4 #djc71 but to this ,fick replies by pointing out that muscular movements begin before the muscle fibres are formed1 and may be seen in the chick as early as the second day of incubation4 ,the freely movable joints 7true diarthrosis7 are classified as follows3-- 7#a7 ,gliding joints 7,arthrodia71 in which the articular surfaces are flat1 as in the carpal and tarsal bones4 7#b7 ,hinge joints 7,ginglymus71 such as the elbow and interphalangeal joints4 7#c7 ,condyloid joints 7,condylarthrosis71 allowing flexion and extension as well as lateral movement1 but no rotation4 ,the metacarpo-phalangeal and wrist joints are examples of this4 7#d7 ,saddle-shaped joints 7,articulus sellaris71 allowing the same movements as the last with greater strength4 ,the carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb is an example4 7#e7 ,ball and socket joints 7,enarthrosis71 allowing free movement in any direction1 as in the shoulder and hip4 7#f7 ,pivot-joint 7,trochoides71 allowing only rotation round a longitudinal axis1 as in the radio-ulnar joints4 ,embryology4 ,joints are developed in the mesenchyme1 or that part of the mesoderm which is not concerned in the formation of the serous cavities4 ,the synarthroses may be looked upon merely as a delay in development1 because1 as the embryonic tissue of the mesenchyme passes from a fibrous to a bony state1 the fibrous tissue may remain along a certain line and so form a suture1 or1 when chondrification has preceded ossification1 the cartilage may remain at a certain place and so form a synchondrosis4 ,the diarthroses represent an arrest of development at an earlier stage1 for a part of the original embryonic tissue remains as a plate of round cells1 while the neighbouring two rods chondrify and ossify4 ,this plate may become converted into fibro-cartilage1 in which case an amphiarthrodial joint results1 or it may become absorbed in the centre to form a joint cavity1 or1 if this absorption occurs in two places1 two joint cavities with an intervening meniscus may result4 ,although1 ontogenetically1 there is little doubt that menisci arise in the way just mentioned1 the teaching of comparative anatomy suggests that1 phylogenetically1 they originate as an ingrowth from the capsule pushing the synovial membrane in front of them4 ,the subject will be returned to when the comparative anatomy of the individual joints is reviewed4 ,in the human foetus the joint cavities are all formed by the tenth week of intra-uterine life4 ,,anatomy ,joints of the ,axial ,skeleton4 ,the bodies of the vertebrae except those of the sacrum and coccyx are separated1 and at the same time connected1 by the intervertebral disks4 ,these are formed of alternating concentric rings of fibrous tissue and fibro-cartilage1 with an elastic mass in the centre known as the nucleus pulposus4 ,the bodies are also bound together by anterior and posterior common ligaments4 ,the odontoid process of the axis fits into a pivot joint formed by the anterior arch of the atlas in front and the transverse ligament behind2 it is attached to the basioccipital bone by two strong lateral check ligaments1 and1 in the mid line1 by a feebler middle check ligament which is regarded morphologically as containing the remains of the notochord4 ,this atlanto-axial joint is the one which allows the head to be shaken from side to side4 ,nodding the head occurs at the occipito-atlantal joint1 which consists of the two occipital condyles received into the cup-shaped articular facets on the atlas and surrounded by capsular ligaments4 ,the neural arches of the vertebrae articulate one with another by the articular facets1 each of which has a capsular ligament4 ,in addition to these the laminae are connected by the very elastic ligamenta subflava4 ,the spinous processes are joined by interspinous ligaments1 and their tips by a supraspinous ligament1 which in the neck is continued from the spine of the seventh cervical vertebra to the external occipital crest and protuberance as the ligamentum nuchae1 a thin1 fibrous1 median septum between the muscles of the back of the neck4 ,the combined effect of all these joints and ligaments is to allow the spinal column to be bent in any direction or to be rotated1 though only a small amount of movement occurs between any two vertebrae4 ,the heads of the ribs articulate with the bodies of two contiguous thoracic vertebrae and the disk between4 ,the ligaments which connect them are called costo-central1 and are two in number4 ,the anterior of these is the stellate ligament1 which has three bands radiating from the head of the rib to the two vertebrae and the intervening disk4 ,the other one is the interarticular ligament1 which connects the ridge1 dividing the two articular cavities on the head of the rib1 to the disk2 it is absent in the first and three lowest ribs4 ,the costo-transverse ligaments bind the ribs to the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae4 ,the superior costo-transverse ligament binds the neck of the rib to the transverse process of the vertebra above2 the middle or interosseous connects the back of the neck to the front of its own transverse process2 while the posterior runs from the tip of the transverse process to the outer part of the tubercle of the rib4 ,the inner and lower part of each tubercle forms a diarthrodial joint with the upper and fore part of its own transverse process1 except in the eleventh and twelfth ribs4 ,at the junction of the ribs with their cartilages no diarthrodial joint is formed2 the periosteum simply becomes perichondrium and binds the two structures together4 ,where the cartilages1 however1 join the sternum1 or where they join one another1 diarthrodial joints with synovial cavities are established4 ,in the case of the second rib this is double1 and in that of the first usually wanting4 ,the mesosternal joint1 between the pre- and mesosternum1 has already been given as an example of a symphysis4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,for the convexity or concavity of the vertebral centra in different classes of vertebrates1 see ,,skeleton3 axial4 ,the intervertebral disks first appear in the ,crocodilia1 the highest existing order of reptilia4 ,in many ,mammals the middle fasciculus of the stellate ligament is continued right across the ventral surface of the disk into the ligament of the opposite side1 and is probably serially homologous with the ventral arch of the atlas4 ,a similar ligament joins the heads of the ribs dorsal to the disk4 ,to these bands the names of anterior 7ventral7 and posterior 7dorsal7 conjugal ligaments have been given1 and they may be demonstrated in a seven months' human foetus 7see ,b4 ,sutton1 ,ligaments1 ,london1 #aijb74 ,the ligamentum nuchae is a strong elastic band in the ,ungulata which supports the weight of the head4 ,in the ,carnivora it only reaches as far forward as the spine of the axis4 ,the ,,jaw ,,joint1 or temporo-mandibular articulation1 occurs between the sigmoid cavity of the temporal bone and the condyle of the jaw4 ,between the two there is an interarticular fibro-cartilage or meniscus1 and the joint is surrounded by a capsule of which the outer part is the thickest4 ,on first opening the mouth1 the joint acts as a hinge1 but very soon the condyle begins to glide forward on to the eminentia articularis 7see ,,skull7 and takes the meniscus with it4 ,this gliding movement between the meniscus and temporal bone may be separately brought about by protruding the lower teeth in front of the upper1 or1 on one side only1 by moving the jaw across to the opposite side4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,the joint between the temporal and mandibular bones is only found in ,mammals2 in the lower vertebrates the jaw opens between the quadrate and articular bones4 ,in the ,carnivora it is a perfect hinge2 in many ,rodents only the antero-posterior gliding movement is present2 while in the ,ruminants the lateralizing movement is the chief one4 ,sometimes1 as in the ,ornithorhynchus1 the meniscus is absent4 ,joints of the ,upper ,extremity4 ,the sterno-clavicular articulation1 between the presternum and clavicle1 is a gliding joint1 and allows slight upward and downward and forward and backward movements4 ,the two bony surfaces are separated by a meniscus1 the vertical movements taking place outside and the antero-posterior inside this4 ,there is a well-marked capsule1 of which the anterior part is strongest4 ,the two clavicles are joined across the top of the presternum by an interclavicular ligament4 ,the acromio-clavicular articulation is also a gliding joint1 but allows a swinging or pendulum movement of the scapula on the clavicle4 ,the upper part of the capsule is strongest1 and from it hangs down a partial meniscus into the cavity4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,bland ,sutton regards the interclavicular ligament as a vestige of the interclavicle of ,reptiles and ,monotremes4 ,the menisci are only found in the ,primates1 but it must be borne in mind that many ,mammals have no clavicle1 or a very rudimentary one4 ,by some the meniscus of the sterno-clavicular joint is regarded as the homologue of the lateral part of the interclavicle1 but the fact that it only occurs in the ,primates where movements in different planes are fairly free is suggestive of a physiological rather than a morphological origin for it4 ,the ,,shoulder ,,joint is a good example of the ball and socket or enarthrodial variety4 ,its most striking characteristic is mobility at the expense of strength4 ,the small size of the glenoid cavity in comparison with the head of the humerus1 and the great laxity of the capsule1 favour this1 although the glenoid cavity is slightly deepened by a fibrous lip1 called the glenoid ligament1 round its margin4 ,the presence of the coracoid and acromial processes of the scapula1 with the coraco-acromial ligament between them1 serves as an overhanging protection to the joint1 while the biceps tendon runs over the head of the humerus1 inside the capsule1 though surrounded by a sheath of synovial membrane4 ,were it not for these two extra safeguards the shoulder would be even more liable to dislocation than it is4 ,the upper part of the capsule1 which is attached to the base of the coracoid process1 is thickened1 and known as the coracohumeral ligament1 while inside the front of the capsule are three folds of synovial membrane1 called gleno-humeral folds4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,in the lower ,vertebrates the shoulder is adapted to support rather than prehension and is not so freely movable as in the ,primates4 ,the tendon of the biceps has evidently sunk through the capsule into the joint1 and even when it is intra-capsular there is usually a double fold connecting its sheath of synovial membrane with that lining the capsule4 ,in ,man this has been broken through1 but remains of it persist in the superior gleno-humeral fold4 ,the middle gleno-humeral fold is the vestige of a strong ligament which steadies and limits the range of movement of the joint in many lower ,mammals4 ,the ,,elbow ,,joint is an excellent example of the ginglymus or hinge1 though its transverse axis of movement is not quite at right angles to the central axis of the limb1 but is lower internally than externally4 ,this tends to bring the forearm towards the body when the elbow is bent4 ,the elbow is a great contrast to the shoulder1 as the trochlea and capitellum of the humerus are closely adapted to the sigmoid cavity of the ulna and head of the radius 7see ,,skeleton3 appendicular72 consequently movement in one plane only is allowed1 and the joint is a strong one4 ,the capsule is divided into anterior1 posterior1 and two lateral ligaments1 though these are all really continuous4 ,the joint cavity communicates freely with that of the superior radio-ulnar articulation4 ,the radio-ulnar joints are three3 the upper one is an example of a pivot joint1 and in it the disk-shaped head of the radius rotates in a circle formed by the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna internally and the orbicular ligament in the other three quarters4 ,the middle radio-ulnar articulation is simply an interosseous membrane1 the fibres of which run downward and inward from the radius to the ulna4 ,the inferior radio-ulnar joint is formed by the disk-shaped lower end of the ulna fitting into the slightly concave sigmoid cavity of the radius4 ,below1 the cavity of this joint is shut off from that of the wrist by a triangular fibro-cartilage4 ,the movements allowed at these three articulations are called pronation and supination of the radius4 ,the head of that bone twists1 in the orbicular ligament1 round its central vertical axis for about half a circle4 ,below1 however1 the whole lower end of the radius circles round the lower end of the ulna1 the centre of rotation being close to the styloid process of the ulna4 ,the radius1 therefore1 in its pronation1 describes half a cone1 the base of which is below1 and the hand follows the radius4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,in pronograde ,mammals the forearm is usually permanently pronated1 and the head of the radius1 instead of being circular and at the side of the upper end of the ulna1 is transversely oval and in front of that bone1 occupying the same place that the coronoid process of the ulna does in ,man4 ,this type of elbow1 which is adapted simply to support and progression1 is best seen in the ,ungulata2 in them both lateral ligaments are attached to the head of the radius1 and there is no orbicular ligament1 since the shape of the head of the radius does not allow of any supination4 ,the olecranon process of the ulna forms merely a posterior guide or guard to the joint1 but transmits no weight4 ,no better example of the maximum changes which the uses of support and prehension bring about can be found than in contrasting the elbow of the ,sheep or other ,ungulate with that of ,man4 ,towards one or other of these types the elbows of all ,mammals tend4 ,it may be roughly stated that1 when pronation and supination to the extent of a quarter of a circle are possible1 an orbicular ligament appears4 ,the ,,wrist ,,joint1 or radio-carpal articulation1 lies between the radius and triangular fibro-cartilage above1 and the scaphoid1 semilunar1 and cuneiform bones below4 ,it is a condyloid joint allowing flexion and extension round one axis1 and slight lateral movement 7abduction and adduction7 round the other4 ,there is a well-marked capsule1 divided into anterior1 posterior1 and lateral ligaments4 ,the joint cavity is shut off from the inferior radio-ulnar joint above1 and the intercarpal joints below4 ,the intercarpal joints are gliding articulations1 the various bones being connected by palmar1 dorsal1 and a few interosseous ligaments1 but only those connecting the first row of bones are complete1 and so isolate one joint cavity from another4 ,that part of the intercarpal joints which lies between the first and second rows of carpal bones is called the transverse carpal joint1 and at this a good deal of the movement which seems to take place at the wrist really occurs4 ,the carpo-metacarpal articulations are1 with the exception of that of the thumb1 gliding joints1 and continuous with the great intercarpal joint cavity4 ,the carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb is the best example of a saddle-shaped joint in ,man4 ,it allows forward and backward and lateral movement1 and is very strong4 ,the metacarpo-phalangeal joints are condyloid joints like the wrist1 and are remarkable for the great thickness of the palmar ligaments of their capsules4 ,in the four inner fingers these glenoid ligaments1 as they are called1 are joined together by the transverse metacarpal ligament4 ,the interphalangeal articulations are simple hinges surrounded by a capsule1 of which the dorsal part is very thin4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,the wrist joint of the lower ,mammals allows less lateral movement than does that of ,man1 while the lower end of the ulna is better developed and is received into a cup-shaped socket formed by the cuneiform and pisiform bones4 ,at the same time1 unless there is pretty free pronation and supination1 the triangular fibro-cartilage is only represented by an interosseous ligament1 which may be continuous above with the interosseous membrane between the radius and ulna1 and suggests the possibility that the fibro-cartilage is largely a derivative of this membrane4 ,in most ,mammals the wrist is divided into two lateral parts1 as it is in the human foetus1 but free pronation and supination seem to cause the disappearance of the septum4 ,joints of the ,lower ,extremity4 ,the sacro-innominate articulation consists of the sacro-iliac joint and the sacro-sciatic ligaments4 ,the former is one of the amphiarthroses or half-joints by which the sacrum is bound to the ilium4 ,the mechanism of the human sacrum is that of a suspension bridge slung between the two pillars or ilia by the very strong posterior sacro-iliac ligaments which represent the chains4 ,the axis of the joint passes through the second sacral vertebra1 but the sacrum is so nearly horizontal that the weight of the body1 which is transmitted to the first sacral vertebra1 tends to tilt that part down4 ,this tendency is corrected by the great and small sacro-sciatic ligaments1 which fasten the lower part of the sacrum to the tuberosity and spine of the ischium respectively1 so that1 although the sacrum is a suspension bridge when looked at from behind1 it is a lever of the first kind when seen from the side or in sagittal section4 ,the pubic symphysis is the union between the two pubic bones4 ,it has all the characteristics of a symphysis1 already described1 and may have a small median cavity4 ,illustration3 7,from ,david ,hepburn1 ,cunningham's ,text-book of ,anatomy47 ,,fig4 #f4--;,dissection of the ,hip ,joint from the front4 ,the ,,hip ,,joint1 like the shoulder1 is a ball and socket1 but does not allow such free movement2 this is due to the fact that the socket or acetabulum is deeper than the glenoid cavity and that the capsule is not so lax4 ,at the same time the loss of mobility is made up for by increased strength4 ,the capsule has three thickened bands1 of which the most important is the ilio-femoral or ,y-shaped ligament of ,bigelow4 ,the stalk of the ,y is attached to the anterior inferior spine of the ilium1 while the two limbs are fastened to the upper and lower parts of the spiral line of the femur4 ,the ligament is so strong that it hardly ever ruptures in a dislocation of the hip4 ,as a plumb-line1 dropped from the centre of gravity of the body1 passes behind the centre of the hip joint1 this ligament1 lying as it does in front of the joint1 takes the strain in ,man's erect position4 ,the other two thickened parts of the capsule are known as pubo-femoral and ischio-femoral1 from their attachments4 ,inside the capsule1 and deepening the margin of the acetabulum1 is a fibrous rim known as the cotyloid ligament1 which grips the spherical head of the femur and is continued across the cotyloid notch as the transverse ligament4 ,the floor of the acetabulum has a horseshoe-shaped surface of articular cartilage1 concave downward1 and1 occupying the frog of the horse's hoof1 is a mass of fat called the ,haversian pad4 ,attached to the inner margin of the horseshoe1 and to the transverse ligament where that is deficient1 is a reflexion of synovial membrane which forms a covering for the pad and is continued as a tube to the depression on the head of the femur called the fossa capitis4 ,this reflexion carries blood-vessels and nerves to the femur1 and also contains fibrous tissue from outside the joint4 ,it is known as the ligamentum teres4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,bland ,sutton regards the ilio-femoral ligament as an altered muscle1 the scansorius1 though against this is the fact that1 in those cases in which a scansorius is present in ,man1 the ligament is as strong as usual1 and indeed1 if it were not there in these cases1 the erect position would be difficult to maintain4 ,he also looks upon the ligamentum teres as the divorced tendon of the pectineus muscle4 ,the subject requires much more investigation1 but there is every reason to believe that it is a tendon which has sunk into the joint1 though whether that of the pectineus is doubtful1 since the intra-capsular tendon comes from the ischium in ,reptiles4 ,in many ,mammals1 and among them the ,orang1 there is no ligamentum teres4 ,in others1 such as the ,armadillo1 the structure has not sunk right into the joint1 but is connected with the pubo-femoral part of the capsule4 ,the ,,knee ,,joint is a hinge formed by the condyles and trochlea of the femur1 the patella1 and the head of the tibia4 ,the capsule is formed in front by the ligamentum patellae1 and on each side special bands form the lateral ligaments4 ,on the outer side there are two of these3 the anterior or long external lateral ligament is a round cord running from the external condyle to the head of the fibula1 while the posterior is slighter and passes from the same place to the styloid process of the fibula4 ,the internal lateral ligament is a flat band which runs from the inner condyle of the femur to the internal surface of the tibia some two inches below the level of the knee joint4 ,the posterior part of the capsule is strengthened by an oblique bundle of fibres running upward and outward from the semimembranosus tendon1 and called the posterior ligament of ,winslow4 ,the intra-articular structures are numerous and interesting4 ,passing from the head of the tibia1 in front and behind the spine1 are the anterior and posterior crucial ligaments2 the former is attached to the outer side of the intercondylar notch above1 and the latter to the inner side4 ,these two ligaments cross like an ,x4 ,the semilunar fibro-cartilages--external and internal--are partial menisci1 each of which has an anterior and a posterior cornu by which they are attached to the head of the tibia in front and behind the spine4 ,they are also attached round the margin of the tibial head by a coronary ligament1 but the external one is more movable than the internal1 and this perhaps accounts for its coronary ligament being less often ruptured and the cartilage displaced than the inner one is4 ,in addition to these the external cartilage has a fibrous band1 called the ligament of ,wrisberg1 which runs up to the femur just behind the posterior crucial ligament4 ,the external cartilage is broader1 and forms more of a circle than the internal4 ,the synovial cavity of the knee runs up1 deep to the extensor muscles of the thigh1 for about two inches above the top of the patella1 forming the bursa suprapatellaris4 ,at the lower part of the patella it covers a pad of fat1 which lies between the ligamentum patellae and the front of the head of the tibia1 and is carried up as a narrow tube to the lower margin of the trochlear surface of the femur4 ,this prolongation is known as the ligamentum mucosum1 and from the sides of its base spring two lateral folds called the ligamenta alaria4 ,the tendon of the popliteus muscle is an intra-capsular structure1 and is therefore covered with a synovial sheath4 ,there are a large number of bursae near the knee joint1 one of which1 common to the inner head of the gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus1 often communicates with the joint4 ,the hinge movement of the knee is accompanied by a small amount of external rotation at the end of extension1 and a compensatory internal rotation during flexion4 ,this slight twist is enough to tighten up almost all the ligaments so that they may take a share in resisting over-extension1 because1 in the erect position1 a vertical line from the centre of gravity of the body passes in front of the knee4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,in some ,mammals1 e4g4 ,bradypus and ,ornithorhynchus1 the knee is divided into three parts1 two condylo-tibial and one trochleo-patellar1 by synovial folds which in ,man are represented by the ligamentum mucosum4 ,in a typical ,mammal the external semilunar cartilage is attached by its posterior horn to the internal condyle of the femur only1 and this explains the ligament of ,wrisberg already mentioned4 ,in the ,monkeys and anthropoid ,apes this cartilage is circular4 ,the semilunar cartilages first appear in the ,amphibia1 and1 according to ,b4 ,sutton1 are derived from muscles which are drawn into the joint4 ,when only one kind of movement 7hinge7 is allowed1 as in the fruit bat1 the cartilages are not found4 ,in most ,mammals the superior tibio-fibular joint communicates with the knee4 ,the tibio-fibular articulations resemble the radio-ulnar in position but are much less movable4 ,the superior in ,man is usually cut off i from the knee and is a gliding joint2 the middle is the interosseous membrane1 while the lower has been already used as an example of a syndesmosis or fibrous half joint4 ,the ,,ankle ,,joint is a hinge1 the astragalus being received into a lateral arch formed by the lower ends of the tibia and fibula4 ,backward dislocation is prevented by the articular surface of the astragalus being broader in front than behind4 ,the anterior and posterior parts of the capsule are feeble1 but the lateral ligaments are very strong1 the external consisting of three separate fasciculi which bind the fibula to the astragalus and calcaneum4 ,to avoid confusion it is best to speak of the movements of the ankle as dorsal and plantar flexion4 ,illustration3 7,from ,d4 ,hepburn1 ,cunningham's ,text-book of ,anatomy47 ,,fig4 #g4--;,dissection of the ,knee-joint from the front3 ,patella thrown down4 ,the tarsal joints resemble the carpal in being gliding articulations4 ,there are two between the astragalus and calcaneum1 and at these inversion and eversion of the foot largely occur4 ,the inner arch of the foot is maintained by a very important ligament called the calcaneo-navicular or spring ligament2 it connects the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneum with the navicular1 and upon it the head of the astragalus rests4 ,when it becomes stretched1 flat-foot results4 ,the tarsal bones are connected by dorsal1 plantar and interosseous ligaments4 ,the long and short calcaneocuboid are plantar ligaments of special importance1 and maintain the outer arch of the foot4 ,the tarso-metatarsal1 metatarso-phalangeal and interphalangeal joints closely resemble those of the hand1 except that the tarso-metatarsal joint of the great toe is not saddle-shaped4 ,comparative ,anatomy4--,the anterior fasciculus of the external lateral ligament of the ankle is only found in ,man1 and is probably an adaptation to the erect position4 ,in animals with a long foot1 such as the ,ungulates and the ,kangaroo1 the lateral ligaments of the ankle are in the form of an ,x1 to give greater protection against lateral movement4 ,in certain marsupials a fibro-cartilage is developed between the external malleolus and the astragalus1 and its origin from the deeper fibres of the external lateral ligament of the ankle can be traced4 ,these animals have a rotatory movement of the fibula on its long axis1 in addition to the hinge movement of the ankle4 ,for further details of joints see ,r4 ,fick1 ,handbuch der ,gelenke 7,jena1 #aijd72 ,h4 ,morris1 ,anatomy of the ,joints 7,london1 #ahgi72 ,quain's1 ,gray's and ,cunningham's ,text-books of ,anatomy2 ,j4 ,bland ,sutton1 ,ligaments1 their ,nature and ,morphology 7,london1 #aijb72 ,f4 ,g4 ,parsons1 ,hunterian ,lectures on the ,joints of ,mammals1 ,journ4 ,anat4 ,phys41 xxxiv4 #da and #cja4 7,f4 ,g4 ,p47 ,,diseases ,,and ,,injuries ,,of ,,joints ,the affection of the joints of the human body by specific diseases is dealt with under various headings 7,,rheumatism1 c472 in the present article the more direct forms of ailment are discussed4 ,in most joint-diseases the trouble starts either in the synovial lining or in the bone--rarely in the articular cartilage or ligaments4 ,as a rule1 the disease begins after an injury4 ,there are three principal types of injury3 7#a7 sprain or strain1 in which the ligamentous and tendinous structures are stretched or lacerated2 7#b7 contusion1 in which the opposing bones are driven forcibly together2 7#c7 dislocation1 in which the articular surfaces are separated from one another4 ,a sprain or strain of a joint means that as the result of violence the ligaments holding the bones together have been suddenly stretched or even torn4 ,on the inner aspect the ligaments are lined by a synovial membrane1 so when the ligaments are stretched the synovial membrane is necessarily damaged4 ,small blood-vessels are also torn1 and bleeding occurs into the joint1 which may become full and distended4 ,if1 however1 bleeding does not take place1 the swelling is not immediate1 but synovitis having been set up1 serous effusion comes on sooner or later4 ,there is often a good deal of heat of the surrounding skin and of pain accompanying the synovitis4 ,in the case of a healthy individual the effects of a sprain may quickly pass off1 but in a rheumatic or gouty person chronic synovitis may obstinately remain4 ,in a person with a tuberculous history1 or of tuberculous descent1 a sprain is apt to be the beginning of serious disease of the joint1 and it should1 therefore1 be treated with continuous rest and prolonged supervision4 ,in a person of health and vigour1 a sprained joint should be at once bandaged4 ,this may be the only treatment needed4 ,it gives support and comfort1 and the even pressure around the joint checks effusion into it4 ,wide pieces of adhesive strapping1 layer on layer1 form a still more useful support1 and with the joint so treated the person may be able at once to use the limb4 ,if strapping is not employed1 the bandage may be taken off from time to time in order that the limb and the joint may be massaged4 ,if the sprain is followed by much synovitis a plaster of ,paris or leather splint may be applied1 complete rest being secured for the limb4 ,later on1 blistering or even firing may be found advisable4 ,synovitis4--,when a joint has been injured1 inflammation occurs in the damaged tissue2 that is inevitable4 ,but sometimes the attack of inflammation is so slight and transitory as to be scarcely noticeable4 ,this is specially likely to occur if the joint-tissues were in a state of perfect nutrition at the time of the hurt4 ,but if the individual or the joint were at that time in a state of imperfect nutrition1 the effects are likely to be more serious4 ,as a rule1 it is the synovial membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which first and chiefly suffers2 the condition is termed synovitis4 ,synovitis may1 however1 be due to other causes than mechanical injury1 as when the interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms of pymia 7blood-poisoning71 typhoid fever1 pneumonia1 rheumatism1 gonorrhoea or syphilis4 ,under judicious treatment the synovitis generally clears up1 but it may linger on and cause the formation of adhesions which may temporarily stiffen the joint2 or it may1 especially in tuberculous1 septic or pymic infections1 involve the cartilages1 ligaments and bones in such serious changes as to destroy the joint1 and possibly call for resection or amputation4 ,the symptoms of synovitis include stiffness and tenderness in the joint4 ,the patient notices that movements cause pain4 ,effusion of fluid takes place1 and there is marked fullness in the neighbourhood4 ,if the inflammation is advancing1 the skin over the joint may be flushed1 and if the hand is placed on the skin it feels hot4 ,especially is this the case if the joint is near the surface1 as at the knee1 wrist or ankle4 ,the treatment of an inflamed joint demands rest4 ,this may be conveniently obtained by the use of a light wooden splint1 padding and bandages4 ,slight compression of the joint by a bandage is useful in promoting absorption of the fluid4 ,if the inflamed joint is in the lower extremity1 the patient had best remain in bed1 or on the sofa2 if in the upper extremity1 he should wear his arm in a sling4 ,the muscles acting on the joint must be kept in complete control4 ,if the inflammation is extremely acute a few leeches1 followed by a fomentation1 will give relief2 or an icebag or an evaporating lotion may1 by causing constriction of the blood-vessels1 lessen the congestion of the part and the associated pain4 ,as the inflammation is passing off1 massage of the limb and of the joint will prove useful4 ,if the inflammation is long continued1 the limb must still be kept at rest4 ,by this time it may be found that some other material for the retentive apparatus is more convenient and comfortable1 as1 for instance1 undressed leather which has been moulded on wet and allowed to dry and harden2 poro-plastic felt1 which has been softened by heat and applied limp1 or house-flannel which has been dipped in a creamy mixture of plaster-of-,paris and water1 and secured by a bandage4 ,chronic ,disease of a ,joint may be the tailing off of an acute affection1 and under the influence of alternate douchings of hot and cold water1 of counter-irritation by blistering or firing1 and of massage1 it may eventually clear up1 especially if the general health of the individual is looked after4 ,but if chronic disease lingers in the joint of a child or young person1 the probability of its being under the influence of tuberculous infection must be considered4 ,in such a case prolonged and absolute rest is the one thing necessary4 ,if the disease be in the hip1 knee1 ankle or foot1 the patient may be fitted with an appropriate ,thomas's splint and allowed to walk about1 for it is highly important to have these patients out in the fresh air4 ,if the disease be in the shoulder1 elbow1 wrist or hand1 a leather or poro-plastic splint should be moulded on1 and the arm worn in a sling4 ,there must be no hurry2 convalescence will needs be slow4 ,and if the child can be sent to a bracing sea-side place it will be much in his favour4 ,as the disease clears up1 the surface heat1 the pains and the tenderness having disappeared1 and the joint having so diminished in size as to be scarcely larger than its fellow--though the wasting of the muscles of the limb may cause it still to appear considerably enlarged--the splint may be gradually left off4 ,this remission may be for an hour or two every other day2 then every other night2 then every other day1 and so on1 the freedom being gained little by little1 and the surgeon watching the case carefully4 ,on the slightest indication of return of trouble1 the former restrictive measures must be again resorted to4 ,massage and gentle exercises may be given day by day1 but there must be no thought of breaking down the stiffness4 ,many a joint has in such circumstances been wrecked by the manipulations of a bone-setter4 ,permanent ,stiffness4--,during the treatment of a case of chronic disease of a joint1 the question naturally arises as to whether the joint will be left permanently stiff4 ,people have the idea that if an inflamed joint is kept long on a splint1 it may eventually be found permanently stiff4 ,and this is quite correct4 ,but it should be clearly understood that it is not the rest of the inflamed joint which causes the stiffness4 ,the matter should be put thus3 in tuberculous and other forms of chronic disease stiffness may ensue in spite of long-continued rest4 ,it is the destructive disease1 not the enforced rest which causes it2 for inflammation of a joint rest is absolutely necessary4 ,the ,causes of permanent ,stiffness are the destructive changes wrought by the inflammation4 ,in one case it may be that the synovial membrane is so far destroyed by the tuberculous or septic invasion that its future usefulness is lost1 and the joint ever afterwards creaks at its work and easily becomes tired and painful4 ,thus the joint is crippled but not destroyed4 ,in another case the ligaments and the cartilages are implicated as well as the synovial membrane1 and when the disease clears up1 the bones are more or less locked1 only a small range of motion being left1 which forcible flexion and other methods of vigorous treatment are unable materially to improve4 ,in another set of cases the inflammatory germs quickly destroy the soft tissues of the joint1 and then invade the bones1 and1 the disease having at last come to an end1 the softened ends of the bones solidly join together like the broken fragments in simple fracture4 ,as a result1 osseous solidification of the joint 7synostosis7 ensues without1 of course1 the possibility of any movement4 ,and1 inasmuch as the surgeon cannot tell in any case whether the disease may not advance in this direction1 he is careful to place the limb in that position in which it will be most useful if the bony union should occur4 ,thus1 the leg is kept straight1 and the elbow bent4 ,in the course of a tuberculous or other chronic disease of a joint1 the germs of septic disease may find access to the inflamed area1 through a wound or ulceration into the joint1 or by the germs being carried thither by the blood-stream4 ,a joint-abscess results1 which has to be treated by incision and fomentations4 ,if chronic suppuration continues1 it may become necessary to scrape out or to excise the joint1 or even to amputate the limb4 ,and if tuberculous disease of the joint is steadily progressing in spite of treatment1 vigorous measures may be needed to prevent the fluid from quietly ulcerating its way out and thus inviting the entrance of septic germs4 ,the fluid may need to be drawn off by aspiration1 and direct treatment of the diseased synovial membrane may be undertaken by injections of chloride of zinc or some other reagent4 ,or the joint may need scraping out with a sharp spoon with the view of getting rid of the tuberculous material4 ,later1 excision may be deemed necessary1 or in extreme cases1 amputation4 ,but before these measures are considered1 ,a4 ,c4 ,g4 ,bier's method of treatment by passive congestion1 and the treatment by serum injection1 will probably have been tried4 ,if a joint is left permanently stiff in an awkward and useless position1 the limb may be greatly improved by excision of the joint4 ,thus1 if the knee is left bent and the joint is excised a useful1 straight limb may be obtained1 somewhat shortened1 and1 of course1 permanently stiff4 ,if after disease of the hip-joint the thigh remains fixed in a faulty position1 it may be brought down straight by dividing the bone near the upper end4 ,a stiff shoulder or elbow may be converted into a useful1 movable joint by excision of the articular ends of the bones4 ,a stiff joint may remain as the result of long continued inflammation2 the unused muscles are wasted and the joint in consequence looks large4 ,careful measurement1 however1 may show that it is not materially larger than its fellow4 ,and though all tenderness may have passed away1 and though the neighbouring skin is no longer hot1 still the joint remains stiff and useless4 ,no progress being made under the influence of massage1 or of gentle exercises1 the surgeon may advise that the lingering adhesion be broken down under an anaesthetic1 after which the function of the joint may quickly return4 ,there are the cases over which the bone-setter secures his greatest triumphs4 ,a qualified practitioner may have been for months judiciously treating an inflamed joint by rest1 and then feels a hesitation with regard to suddenly flexing the stiffened limb4 ,the bone-setter1 however1 has no such qualms1 and when the case passes out of the hands of the perhaps over-careful surgeon1 the unqualified practitioner 7because he1 from a scientific point of view1 knows nothing7 fears nothing1 and1 breaking down inflammatory adhesions1 sets the joint free4 ,and his manipulations prove triumphantly successful4 ,but1 knowing nothing and fearing nothing1 he is apt to do grievous harm in carrying out his rough treatment in other cases4 ,malignant disease at the end of a bone 7sarcoma71 tuberculosis of a joint1 and a joint stiffened by old inflammation are to him the same thing4 ,a small bone is out of place1 or1 ,the bone is out of its socket2 it has never been put in1 and a breaking down of everything that resists his force is the result of the case being taken to him4 ,for the bone-setter has only one line of treatment4 ,of the improvement which he often effects as if by magic the public are told much4 ,of the cases over which the doctor has been too long devoting skill and care1 and which are set free by the bone-setter1 everybody hears--and sometimes to the discomfiture of the medical man4 ,but of the cases in which irreparable damage follows his vigorous manipulation nothing is said--of his rough usage of a tuberculous hip1 or of a sarcomatous shoulder-joint1 and of the inevitable disaster and disappointment1 those most concerned are least inclined to talk6 ,a practical surgeon with common-sense has nothing to learn from the bone-setter4 ,rheumatoid ,arthritis1 or chronic ,osteo-arthritis1 is generally found in persons beyond middle age2 but it is not rare in young people1 though with them it need not be the progressive disease which it too often is in their elders4 ,it is an obscure affection of the cartilage covering the joint surfaces of the bones1 and it eventually involves the bones and the ligaments4 ,a favourite joint for it is the knee or hip1 and when one large joint is thus affected the other joints may escape4 ,but when the hands or feet are implicated pretty nearly all the small joints are apt to suffer4 ,whether the joint is large or small1 the cartilages wear away and new bone is developed about the ends of the bones1 so that the joint is large and mis-shapen1 the fingers being knotted and the hands deformed4 ,when the spine is affected it becomes bowed and stiff4 ,this is the disease which has crippled the old people in the workhouses and almshouses1 and with them it is steadily progressive4 ,its early signs are stiffness and creaking or cracking in the joints1 with discomfort and pain after exercise1 and with a little effusion into the capsule of the joint4 ,as regards treatment1 medicines are of no great value4 ,wet1 cold and damp being bad for the patient1 he should be1 if possible1 got into a dry1 bright1 sunny place1 and he should dress warmly4 ,perhaps there is no better place for him in the winter than ,assuan4 ,cairo is not so suitable as it used to be before the dam was made1 when its climate was drier4 ,for the spring and summer certain ,british and ,continental watering-places serve well4 ,but if this luxury cannot be afforded1 the patient must make himself as happy as he can with such hot douchings and massage as he can obtain1 keeping himself warm1 and his joints covered by flannel bandages and rubbed with stimulating liniments4 ,in people advanced or advancing in years1 the disease1 as a rule1 gets slowly worse1 sometimes very slowly1 but sometimes rapidly1 especially when its makes its appearance in the hip1 shoulder or knee as the result of an injury4 ,in young people1 however1 its course may be cut short by attention being given to the principles stated above4 ,charcot's ,disease resembles osteo-arthritis in that it causes destruction of a joint and greatly deforms it4 ,the deformity1 however1 comes on rapidly and without pain or tenderness4 ,it is usually associated with the symptoms of locomotor ataxy1 and depends upon disease of the nerves which preside over the nutrition of the joints4 ,it is incurable4 ,a ,loose ,cartilage1 or a ,displaced ,cartilage in the ,knee ,joint is apt to become caught in the hinge between the thigh bone and the leg bone1 and by causing a sudden stretching of the ligaments of the joint to give rise to intense pain4 ,when this happens the individual is apt to be thrown down as he walks1 for it comes on with great suddenness4 ,and thus he feels himself to be in a condition of perpetual insecurity4 ,after the joint has thus gone wrong1 bleeding and serous effusion take place into it1 and it becomes greatly swollen4 ,and if the cartilage still remains in the grip of the bones he is unable to straighten or bend his knee4 ,but the surgeon by suddenly flexing and twisting the leg may manage to unhitch the cartilage and restore comfort and usefulness to the limb4 ,as a rule1 the slipping of a cartilage first occurs as the result of a serious fall or of a sudden and violent action--often it happens when the man is dodging at football1 the foot being firmly fixed on the ground and the body being violently twisted at the knee4 ,after the slipping has occurred many times1 the amount of swelling1 distress and lameness may diminish with each subsequent slipping1 and the individual may become somewhat reconciled to his condition4 ,as regards treatment1 a tightly fitting steel cage-like splint1 which1 gripping the thigh and leg1 limits the movements of the knee to flexion and extension1 may prove useful4 ,but for a muscular1 athletic individual the wearing of this apparatus may prove vexatious and disappointing4 ,the only alternative is to open the joint and remove the loose cartilage4 ,the cartilage may be found on operation to be split1 torn or crumpled1 and lying right across between the joint-surfaces of the bones1 from which nothing but an operation could possibly have removed it4 ,the operation is almost sure to give complete and permanent relief to the condition1 the individual being able to resume his old exercises and amusements without fear of the knee playing him false4 ,it is1 however1 one that should not be undertaken without due consideration and circumspection1 and the details of the operation should be carried out with the utmost care and cleanliness4 ,an accidental wound of a joint1 as from the blade of a knife1 or a spike1 entering the knee is a very serious affair1 because of the risk of septic germs entering the synovial cavity either at the time of the injury or later4 ,if the joint becomes thus infected there is great swelling of the part1 with redness of the skin1 and with the escape of blood-stained or purulent synovia4 ,absorption takes place of the poisonous substances produced by the action of the germs1 and1 as a result1 great constitutional disturbance arises4 ,blood-poisoning may thus threaten life1 and in many cases life is saved only by amputation4 ,the best treatment is freely to open the joint1 to wash it out with a strong antiseptic fluid1 and to make arrangement for thorough drainage1 the limb being fixed on a splint4 ,help may also be obtained by increasing the patient's power of resistance to the effect of the poisoning by injections of a serum prepared by cultivation of the septic germs in question4 ,if the limb is saved1 there is a great chance of the knee being permanently stiff4 ,dislocation4--,the ease with which the joint-end of a bone is dislocated varies with its form and structure1 and with the position in which it happens to be placed when the violence is applied4 ,the relative frequency of fracture of the bone and dislocation of the joint depends on the strength of the bones above and below the joint relatively to the strength of the joint itself4 ,the strength of the various joints in the body is dependent upon either ligament or muscle1 or upon the shape of the bones4 ,in the hip1 for instance1 all three sources of strength are present2 therefore1 considering the great leverage of the long thigh bone1 the hip is rarely dislocated4 ,the shoulder1 in order to allow of extensive movement1 has no osseus or ligamentous strength2 it is1 therefore1 frequently dislocated4 ,the wrist and ankle are rarely dislocated2 as the result of violence at the wrist the radius gives way1 at the ankle the fibula1 these bones being relatively weaker than the respective joints4 ,the wrist owes its strength to ligaments1 the elbow and the ankle to the shape of the bones4 ,the symptoms of a dislocation are distortion and limited movement1 with absence of the grating sensation felt in fracture when the broken ends of the bone are rubbed together4 ,the treatment consists in reducing the dislocation1 and the sooner this replacement is effected the better--the longer the delay the more difficult it becomes to put things right4 ,after a variable period1 depending on the nature of the joint and the age of the person1 it may be impossible to replace the bones4 ,the result will be a more or less useless joint4 ,the administration of an anaesthetic1 by relaxing the muscles1 greatly assists the operation of reduction4 ,the length of time that a joint has to be kept quiet after it has been restored to its normal shape depends on its form1 but1 as a rule1 early movement is advisable4 ,but when by the formation of the bones a joint is weak1 as at the outer end of the collar-bone1 and at the elbow-end of the radius1 prolonged rest for the joint is necessary or dislocation may recur4 ,congenital ,dislocation at the ,hip4--,possibly as a result of faulty position of the subject during intra-uterine life1 the head of the thigh-bone leaves1 or fails throughout to occupy1 its normal situation on the haunch-bone4 ,the defect1 which is a very serious one1 is probably not discovered until the child begins to walk1 when its peculiar rolling gait attracts attention4 ,the want of fixation at the joint permits of the surgeon thrusting up the thigh-bone1 or drawing it down in a painless1 characteristic manner4 ,the first thing to be done is to find out by means of the ,x-rays whether a socket exists into which1 under an anaesthetic1 the surgeon may fortunately be enabled to lodge the end of the thigh-bone4 ,if this offers no prospect of success1 there are three courses open3 ,first1 to try under an anaesthetic to manipulate the limb until the head of the thigh-bone rests as nearly as possible in its normal position1 and then to endeavour to fix it there by splints1 weights and bandaging until a new joint is formed2 second1 to cut down upon the site of the joint1 to scoop out a new socket in the haunch-bone1 and thrust the end of the thigh-bone into it1 keeping it fixed there as just described2 and third1 to allow the child to run about as it pleases1 merely raising the sole of the foot of the short leg by a thick boot1 so as to keep the lower part of the trunk fairly level1 lest secondary curvature of the spine ensue4 ,the first and second methods demand many months of careful treatment in bed4 ,the ultimate result of the second is so often disappointing that the surgeon now rarely advises its adoption4 ,but1 if under an anaesthetic1 as the result of skilful manipulation the head of the thigh-bone can be made to enter a more or less rudimentary socket1 the case is worth all the time1 care and attention bestowed upon it4 ,sometimes the results of prolonged treatment are so good that the child eventually is able to walk with scarce a limp4 ,but a vigorous attempt at placing the head of the bone in its proper position should be made in every case4 7,e4 ,o4997 ,,joints1 in engineering1 may be classed either 7a7 according to their material1 as in stone or brick1 wood or metal2 or 7b7 according to their object1 to prevent leakage of air1 steam or water1 or to transmit force1 which may be thrust1 pull or shear2 or 7c7 according as they are stationary or moving 7working in technical language74 ,many joints1 like those of ship-plates and boiler-plates1 have simultaneously to fulfil both objects mentioned under 7b74 ,all stone joints of any consequence are stationary4 ,it being uneconomical to dress the surfaces of the stones resting on each other smoothly and so as to be accurately flat1 a layer of mortar or other cementing material is laid between them4 ,this hardens and serves to transmit the pressure from stone to stone without its being concentrated at the high places4 ,if the ingredients of the cement are chosen so that when hard the cement has about the same coefficient of compressibility as the stone or brick1 the pressure will be nearly uniformly distributed4 ,the cement also adheres to the surfaces of the stone or brick1 and allows a certain amount of tension to be borne by the joint4 ,it likewise prevents the stones from slipping one on the other1 i4e4 it gives the joint very considerable shearing strength4 ,the composition of the cement is chosen according as it has to set in air or water4 ,the joints are made impervious to air or water by pointing their outer edges with a superior quality of cement4 ,wood joints are also nearly all stationary4 ,they are made partially fluid-tight by grooving and tenoning1 and by caulking with oakum or similar material4 ,if the wood is saturated with water1 it swells1 the edges of the joints press closer together1 and the joints become tighter the greater the water-pressure is which tends to produce leakage4 ,relatively to its weaker general strength1 wood is a better material than iron so far as regards the transmission of a thrust past a joint4 ,so soon as a heavy pressure comes on the joint all the small irregularities of the surfaces in contact are crushed up1 and there results an approximately uniform distribution of the pressure over the whole area 7i4e4 if there be no bending forces71 so that no part of the material is unduly stressed4 ,to attain this result the abutting surfaces should be well fitted together1 and the bolts binding the pieces together should be arranged so as to ensure that they will not interfere with the timber surfaces coming into this close contact4 ,owing to its weak shearing strength on sections parallel to the fibre1 timber is peculiarly unfitted for tension joints4 ,if the pieces exerting the pull are simply bolted together with wooden or iron bolts1 the joint cannot be trusted to transmit any considerable force with safety4 ,the stresses become intensely localized in the immediate neighborhood of the bolts4 ,a tolerably strong timber tension-joint can1 however1 be made by making the two pieces abut1 and connecting them by means of iron plates covering the joint and bolted to the sides of the timbers by bolts passing through the wood4 ,these plates should have their surfaces which lie against the wood ribbed in a direction transverse to the pull4 ,the bolts should fit their holes slackly1 and should be well tightened up so as to make the ribs sink into the surface of the timber4 ,there will then be very little localized shearing stress brought upon the interior portions of the wood4 ,iron and the other commonly used metals possess in variously high degrees the qualities desirable in substances out of which joints are to be made4 ,the joint ends of metal pieces can easily be fashioned to any advantageous form and size without waste of material4 ,also these metals offer peculiar facilities for the cutting of their surfaces at a comparatively small cost so smoothly and evenly as to ensure the close contact over their whole areas of surfaces placed against each other4 ,this is of the highest importance1 especially in joints designed to transmit force4 ,wrought iron and mild steel are above all other metals suitable for tension joints where there is not continuous rapid motion4 ,where such motion occurs1 a layer1 or1 as it is technically termed1 a bush1 of brass is inserted underneath the iron4 ,the joint then possesses the high strength of a wrought-iron one and at the same time the good frictional qualities of a brass surface4 ,leakage past moving metal joints can be prevented by cutting the surfaces very accurately to fit each other4 ,steam-engine slide-valves and their seats1 and piston packing-rings and the cylinders they work to and fro in1 may be cited as examples4 ,a subsidiary compressible packing is in other situations employed1 an instance of which may be seen in the stuffing boxes which prevent the escape of steam from steam-engine cylinders through the piston-rod hole in the cylinder cover4 ,fixed metal joints are made fluid tight--7a7 by caulking a riveted joint1 i4e4 by hammering in the edge of the metal with a square-edged chisel 7the tighter the joint requires to be against leakage the closer must be the spacing of the rivets--compare the rivet-spacing in bridge1 ship and boiler-plate joints72 7b7 by the insertion between the surfaces of a layer of one or other of various kinds of cement1 the layer being thick or thin according to circumstances2 7c7 by the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance called packing or insertion4 ,apart from cemented and glued joints1 most joints are formed by cutting one or more holes in the ends of the pieces to be joined1 and inserting in these holes a corresponding number of pins4 ,the word pin is technically restricted to mean a cylindrical pin in a movable joint4 ,the word bolt is used when the cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a nut so as to be immovable4 ,when the pin is not screwed1 but is fastened by being beaten down on either end1 it is called a rivet4 ,the pin is sometimes rectangular in section1 and tapered or parallel lengthwise4 ,gibs and cottars are examples of the latter4 ,it is very rarely the case that fixed joints have their pins subject to simple compression in the direction of their length1 though they are frequently subject to simple tension in that direction4 ,a good example is the joint between a steam cylinder and its cover1 where the bolts have to resist the whole thrust of the steam1 and at the same time to keep the joint steam-tight4 ,,joints1 in geology4 ,all rocks are traversed more or less completely by vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed joints4 ,soft rocks1 indeed1 such as loose sand and uncompacted clay1 do not show these planes2 but even a soft loam after standing for some time1 consolidated by its own weight1 will usually be found to have acquired them4 ,joints vary in sharpness of definition1 in the regularity of their perpendicular or horizontal course1 in their lateral persistence1 in number and in the directions of their intersections4 ,as a rule1 they are most sharply defined in proportion to the fineness of grain of the rock4 ,they are often quite invisible1 being merely planes of potential weakness1 until revealed by the slow disintegrating effects of the weather1 which induces fracture along their planes in preference to other directions in the rock2 it is along the same planes that a rock breaks most readily under the blow of a hammer4 ,in coarse-textured rocks1 on the other hand1 joints are apt to show themselves as irregular rents along which the rock has been shattered1 so that they present an uneven sinuous course1 branching off in different directions4 ,in many rocks they descend vertically at not very unequal distances1 so that the spaces between them are marked off into so many wall-like masses4 ,but this symmetry often gives place to a more or less tortuous course with lateral joints in various apparently random directions1 more especially where in stratified rocks the beds have diverse lithological characters4 ,a single joint may be traced sometimes for many yards or even for several miles1 more particularly when the rock is fine-grained and fairly rigid1 as in limestone4 ,where the texture is coarse and unequal1 the joints1 though abundant1 run into each other in such a way that no one in particular can be identified for so great a distance4 ,the number of joints in a mass of rock varies within wide limits4 ,among rocks which have undergone little disturbance the joints may be separated from each other by intervals of several yards4 ,in other cases where the terrestrial movement appears to have been considerable1 the rocks are so jointed as to have acquired therefrom a fissile character that has almost obliterated their tendency to split along the lines of bedding4 ,the ,cause of ,jointing in ,rocks4--,the continual state of movement in the crust of the earth is the primary cause of the majority of joints4 ,it is to the outermost layers of the lithosphere that joints are confined2 in what van ,hise has described as the zone of fracture1 which he estimates may extend to a depth of #ab1jjj metres in the case of rigid rocks4 ,below the zone of fracture1 joints cannot be formed1 for there the rocks tend to flow rather than break4 ,the rocky crust1 as it slowly accommodates itself to the shrinking interior of the earth1 is subjected unceasingly to stresses which induce jointing by tension1 compression and torsion4 ,thus joints are produced during the slow cyclical movements of elevation and depression as well as by the more vigorous movements of earthquakes4 ,tension-joints are the most widely spread2 they are naturally most numerous over areas of upheaval4 ,compression-joints are generally associated with the more intense movements which have involved shearing1 minor-faulting and slaty cleavage4 ,a minor cause of tension-jointing is shrinkage1 due either to cooling or to desiccation4 ,the most striking type of jointing is that produced by the cooling of igneous rocks1 whereby a regularly columnar structure is developed1 often called basaltic structure1 such as is found at the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,this structure is described in connexion with modern volcanic rocks1 but it is met with in igneous rocks of all ages4 ,it is as well displayed among the felsites of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and the basalts of ,carboniferous ,limestone age as among the ,tertiary lavas of ,auvergne and ,vivarais4 ,this type of jointing may cause the rock to split up into roughly hexagonal prisms no thicker than a lead pencil2 on the other hand1 in many dolerites and diorites the prisms are much coarser1 having a diameter of #c ft4 or more1 and they are more irregular in form2 they may be so long as to extend up the face of a cliff for #cjj or #djj ft4 ,a columnar jointing has often been superinduced upon stratified rocks by contact with intrusive igneous masses4 ,sandstones1 shales and coal may be observed in this condition4 ,the columns diverge perpendicularly from the surface of the injected altering substance1 so that when the latter is vertical1 the columns are horizontal2 or when it undulates the columns follow its curvatures4 ,beautiful examples of this character occur among the coal-seams of ,ayrshire4 ,occasionally a prismatic form of jointing may be observed in unaltered strata2 in this case it is usually among those which have been chemically formed1 as in gypsum1 where1 as noticed by ,jukes in the ,paris ,basin1 some beds are divided from top to bottom by vertical hexagonal prisms4 ,desiccation1 as shown by the cracks formed in mud when it dries1 has probably been instrumental in causing jointing in a limited number of cases among stratified rocks4 ,movement along ,joint ,planes4--,in some conglomerates the joints may be seen traversing the enclosed pebbles as well as the surrounding matrix2 large blocks of hard quartz are cut through by them as sharply as if they had been sliced by a lapidary's machine4 ,a similar phenomenon may be observed in flints as they lie embedded in the chalk1 and the same joints may be traced continuously through many yards of rock4 ,such facts show that the agency to which the jointing of rocks was due must have operated with considerable force4 ,further indication of movement is supplied by the rubbed and striated surfaces of some joints4 ,these surfaces1 termed slickensides1 have evidently been ground against each other4 ,influence of ,joints on ,water-flow and ,scenery4--,joints form natural paths for the passage downward and upward of subterranean water and have an important bearing upon water supply4 ,water obtained directly from highly jointed rock is more liable to become contaminated by surface impurities than that from a more compact rock through which it has had to soak its way2 for this reason many limestones are objected to as sources of potable water4 ,on exposed surfaces joints have great influence in determining the rate and type of weathering4 ,they furnish an effective lodgment for surface water1 which1 frozen by lowering of temperature1 expands into ice and wedges off blocks of the rock2 and the more numerous the joints the more rapidly does the action proceed4 ,as they serve1 in conjunction with bedding1 to divide stratified rocks into large quadrangular blocks1 their effect on cliffs and other exposed places is seen in the splintered and dislocated aspect so familiar in mountain scenery4 ,not infrequently1 by directing the initial activity of weathering agents1 joints have been responsible for the course taken by large streams as well as for the type of scenery on their banks4 ,in limestones1 which succumb readily to the solvent action of water1 the joints are liable to be gradually enlarged along the course of the underground waterflow until caves are formed of great size and intricacy4 ,infilled ,joints4--,joints which have been so enlarged by solution are sometimes filled again completely or partially by minerals brought thither in solution by the water traversing the rock2 calcite1 barytes and ores of lead and copper may be so deposited4 ,in this way many valuable mineral veins have been formed4 ,widened joints may also be filled in by detritus from the surface1 or1 in deep-seated portions of the crust1 by heated igneous rock1 forced from below along the planes of least resistance4 ,occasionally even sedimentary rocks may be forced up joints from below1 as in the case of the so-called sandstone dykes4 ,illustration3 ,joints in ,limestone ,quarry near ,mallow1 co4 ,cork4 7,g4 ,v4 ,du ,noyer47 ,practical ,utility of ,joints4--,an important feature in the joints of stratified rocks is the direction in which they intersect each other4 ,as the result of observations we learn that they possess two dominant trends1 one coincident in a general way with the direction in which the strata are inclined to the horizon1 the other running transversely approximately at right angles4 ,the former set is known as dip-joints1 because they run with the dip or inclination of the rocks1 the latter is termed strike-joints1 inasmuch as they conform to the general strike or mean outcrop4 ,it is owing to the existence of this double series of joints that ordinary quarrying operations can be carried on4 ,large quadrangular blocks can be wedged off that would be shattered if exposed to the risk of blasting4 ,a quarry is usually worked on the dip of the rock1 hence strike-joints form clean-cut faces in front of the workmen as they advance4 ,these are known as backs1 and the dip-joints which traverse them as cutters4 ,the way in which this double set of joints occurs in a quarry may be seen in the figure1 where the parallel lines which traverse the shaded and unshaded faces mark the successive strata4 ,the broad white spaces running along the length of the quarry behind the seated figure are strike-joints or backs1 traversed by some highly inclined lines which mark the position of the dip-joints or cutters4 ,the shaded ends looking towards the spectator are cutters from which the rock has been quarried away on one side4 ,in crystalline 7igneous7 rocks1 bedding is absent and very often there is no horizontal jointing to take its place2 the joint planes break up the mass more irregularly than in stratified rocks4 ,granite1 for example1 is usually traversed by two sets of chief or master-joints cutting each other somewhat obliquely4 ,their effect is to divide the rock into long quadrangular1 rhomboidal1 or even polygonal columns4 ,but a third set may often be noticed cutting across the columns1 though less continuous and dominant than the others4 ,when these transverse joints are few in number1 columns many feet in length can be quarried out entire4 ,such monoliths have been from early times employed in the construction of obelisks and pillars4 7,j4 ,a4 ,h47 ,,jointure1 in law1 a provision for a wife after the death of her husband4 ,as defined by ,sir ,e4 ,coke1 it is a competent livelihood of freehold for the wife1 of lands or tenements1 to take effect presently in possession or profit after the death of her husband1 for the life of the wife at least1 if she herself be not the cause of determination or forfeiture of it 7,co4 ,litt4 #cf;b74 ,a jointure is of two kinds1 legal and equitable4 ,a legal jointure was first authorized by the ,statute of ,uses4 ,before this statute a husband had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in another to his use1 but merely an equitable estate4 ,consequently it was usual to make settlements on marriage1 the most general form being the settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the husband and wife for their lives in joint tenancy 7or jointure71 so that the whole would go to the survivor4 ,although1 strictly speaking1 a jointure is a joint estate limited to both husband and wife1 in common acceptation the word extends also to a sole estate limited to the wife only4 ,the requisites of a legal jointure are3 7#a7 the jointure must take effect immediately after the husband's death2 7#b7 it must be for the wife's life or for a greater estate1 or be determinable by her own act2 7#c7 it must be made before marriage--if after1 it is voidable at the wife's election1 on the death of the husband2 7#d7 it must be expressed to be in satisfaction of dower and not of part of it4 ,in equity1 any provision made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her 7not being an infant7 in lieu of dower was a bar to such4 ,if the provision was made after marriage1 the wife was not barred by such provision1 though expressly stated to be in lieu of dower2 she was put to her election between jointure and dower 7see ,,dower74 ,,joinville1 the name of a ,french noble family of ,champagne1 which traced its descent from tienne de ,vaux1 who lived at the beginning of the #aath century4 ,geoffroi ,,iii4 7d4 #aahd71 sire de ,joinville1 who accompanied ,henry the ,liberal1 count of ,champagne1 to the ,holy ,land in #aadg1 received from him the office of seneschal1 and this office became hereditary in the house of ,joinville4 ,in #abjc ,geoffroi ,v41 sire de ,joinville1 died while on a crusade1 leaving no children4 ,he was succeeded by his brother ,simon1 who married ,beatrice of ,burgundy1 daughter of the count of ,auxonne1 and had as his son ,jean 7q4v471 the historian and friend of ,st ,louis4 ,henri 7d4 #acgd71 sire de ,joinville1 the grandson of ,jean1 became count of ,vaudmont1 through his mother1 ,marguerite de ,vaudmont4 ,his daughter1 ,marguerite de ,joinville1 married in #acic ,ferry of ,lorraine 7d4 #adae71 to whom she brought the lands of ,joinville4 ,in #aeeb1 ,joinville was made into a principality for the house of ,lorraine4 ,mlle de ,montpensier1 the heiress of ,mlle de ,guise1 bequeathed the principality of ,joinville to ,philip1 duke of ,orleans 7#afic74 ,the castle1 which overhung the ,marne1 was sold in #agia to be demolished4 ,the title of prince de ,joinville 7q4v47 was given later to the third son of ,king ,louis ,philippe4 ,two branches of the house of ,joinville have settled in other countries3 one in ,england1 descended from ,geoffroi de ,joinville1 sire de ,vaucouleurs1 and brother of the historian1 who served under ,henry ,,iii4 and ,edward ,i42 the other1 descended from ,geoffroi de ,joinville1 sire de ,briquenay1 and son of ,jean1 settled in the kingdom of ,naples4 ,see ,j4 ,simonnet1 ,essai sur l'histoire et la gnalogie des seigneurs de ,joinville 7#ahge72 ,h4 ,f4 ,delaborde1 ,jean de ,joinville et les seigneurs de ,joinville 7#ahid74 7,m4 ,p4997 ,,joinville1 ,,fran,,ois ,,ferdinand ,,philippe ,,louis ,,marie1 ,,prince ,,de 7#ahah-aijj71 third son of ,louis ,phllippe1 duc d',orlans1 afterwards king of the ,french1 was born at ,neuilly on the #adth of ,august #ahah4 ,he was educated for the navy1 and became lieutenant in #ahcf4 ,his first conspicuous service was at the bombardment of ,san ,juan de ,ulloa1 in ,november #ahch1 when he headed a landing party and took the ,mexican general ,arista prisoner with his own hand at ,vera ,cruz4 ,he was promoted captain1 and in #ahdj was entrusted with the charge of bringing the remains of ,napoleon from ,st ,helena to ,france4 ,in #ahdd he conducted naval operations on the coast of ,morocco1 bombarding ,tangier and occupying ,mogador1 and was recompensed with the grade of vice-admiral4 ,in the following year he published in the ,revue des deux mondes an article on the deficiencies of the ,french navy which attracted considerable attention1 and by his hostility to the ,guizot ministry1 as well as by an affectation of ill-will towards ,great ,britain1 he gained considerable popularity4 ,the revolution of #ahdh nevertheless swept him away with the other ,orleans princes4 ,he hastened to quit ,algeria1 where he was then serving1 and took refuge at ,claremont1 in ,surrey1 with the rest of his family4 ,in #ahfa1 upon the breaking out of the ,american ,civil ,war1 he proceeded to ,washington1 and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the disposal of the ,united ,states government4 ,otherwise1 he was little heard of until the overthrow of the ,empire in #ahgj1 when he re-entered ,france1 only to be promptly expelled by the government of national defence4 ,returning incognito1 he joined the army of ,general d',aurelle de ,paladines1 under the assumed name of ,colonel ,lutherod1 fought bravely before ,orleans1 and afterwards1 divulging his identity1 formally sought permission to serve4 ,gambretta1 however1 arrested him and sent him back to ,england4 ,in the ,national ,assembly1 elected in ,february #ahga1 the prince was returned by two departments and elected to sit for the ,haute ,marne1 but1 by an arrangement with ,thiers1 did not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the provincial republic4 ,his deafness prevented him from making any figure in the assembly1 and he resigned his seat in #ahgf4 ,in #ahhf the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral1 but he continued to live in ,france1 and died in ,paris on the #afth of ,june #aijj4 ,he had married in #ahdc the princess ,francisca1 sister of ,pedro ,,ii41 emperor of ,brazil1 and had a son1 the duc de ,penthivre 7born in #ahde71 also brought up to the navy1 and a daughter ,franoise 7#ahdd- 7 who married the duc de ,chartres in #ahfc4 ,the prince de ,joinville was the author of several essays and pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest1 which were originally published for the most part either unsigned or pseudonymously1 and subsequently republished under his own name after the fall of the ,empire4 ,they include ,essais sur la marine franaise 7#ahec72 tudes sur la marine 7#ahei and #ahgj72 ,la ,guerre d',amrique1 campagne du ,potomac 7#ahfb and #ahgb72 ,encore un mot sur ,sadowa 7,brussels1 #ahfh72 and ,vieux souvenirs 7#ahid74 ,,joinville1 ,,jean1 ,,sire ,,de 7#abbd-acai71 was the second great writer of history in ,old ,french1 and in a manner occupies the interval between ,villehardouin and ,froissart4 ,numerous minor chroniclers fill up the gaps1 but no one of them has the idiosyncrasy which distinguishes these three writers1 who illustrate the three periods of the middle ages--adolescence1 complete manhood1 and decadence4 ,joinville was the head of a noble family of the province of ,champagne 7see ,,joinville1 above74 ,the provincial court of the counts of ,champagne had long been a distinguished one1 and the action of ,thibaut the poet1 together with the proximity of the district to ,paris1 made the province less rebellious than most of the great feudal divisions of ,france to the royal authority4 ,joinville's first appearance at the king's court was in #abda1 on the occasion of the knighting of ,louis ,,ix4's younger brother ,alphonse4 ,seven years afterwards he took the cross1 thereby giving ,st ,louis a valuable follower1 and supplying himself with the occasion of an eternal memory4 ,the crusade1 in which he distinguished himself equally by wisdom and prowess1 taught his practical spirit several lessons4 ,he returned with the king in #abed4 ,but1 though his reverence for the personal character of his prince seems to have known no bounds1 he had probably gauged the strategic faculties of the saintly king1 and he certainly had imbibed the spirit of the dictum that a man's first duties are those to his own house4 ,he was in the intervals of residence on his own fief a constant attendant on the court1 but he declined to accompany the king on his last and fatal expedition4 ,in #abhb he was one of the witnesses whose testimony was formally given at ,st ,denis in the matter of the canonization of ,louis1 and in #abih he was present at the exhumation of the saint's body4 ,it was not till even later that he began his literary work1 the occasion being a request from ,jeanne of ,navarre1 the wife of ,philippe le ,bel and the mother of ,louis le ,hutin4 ,the great interval between his experiences and the period of the composition of his history is important for the due comprehension of the latter4 ,some years passed before the task was completed1 on its own showing1 in ,october #acji4 ,jeanne was by this time dead1 and ,joinville presented his book to her son ,louis the ,quarreller4 ,this original manuscript is now lost1 whereby hangs a tale4 ,great as was his age1 ,joinville had not ceased to be actively loyal1 and in #acae he complied with the royal summons to bear arms against the ,flemings4 ,he was at ,joinville again in #acag1 and on the #aath of ,july #acai he died at the age of ninety-five1 leaving his possessions and his position as seneschal of ,champagne to his second son ,anselm4 ,he was buried in the neighbouring church of ,st ,laurent1 where during the ,revolution his bones underwent profanation4 ,besides his ,histoire de ,saint ,louis and his ,credo or ,confession of ,faith written much earlier1 a considerable number1 relatively speaking1 of letters and business documents concerning the fief of ,joinville and so forth are extant4 ,these have an importance which we shall consider further on2 but ,joinville owes his place in general estimation only to his history of his crusading experiences and of the subsequent fate of ,st ,louis4 ,of the famous ,french history books of the middle ages ,joinville's bears the most vivid impress of the personal characteristics of its composer4 ,it does not1 like ,villehardouin1 give us a picture of the temper and habits of a whole order or cast of men during a heroic period of human history2 it falls far short of ,froissart in vivid portraying of the picturesque and external aspects of social life2 but it is a more personal book than either4 ,the age and circumstances of the writer must not be forgotten in reading it4 ,he is a very old man telling of circumstances which occurred in his youth4 ,he evidently thinks that the times have not changed for the better--what with the frequency with which the devil is invoked in modern ,france1 and the sinful expenditure common in the matter of embroidered silk coats4 ,but this laudation of times past concentrates itself almost wholly on the person of the sainted king whom1 while with feudal independence he had declined to swear fealty to him1 because ,i was not his man1 he evidently regarded with an unlimited reverence4 ,his age1 too1 while garrulous to a degree1 seems to have been free from the slightest taint of boasting4 ,no one perhaps ever took less trouble to make himself out a hero than ,joinville4 ,he is constantly admitting that on such and such an occasion he was terribly afraid2 he confesses without the least shame that1 when one of his followers suggested defiance of the ,saracens and voluntary death1 he 7,joinville7 paid not the least attention to him2 nor does he attempt to gloss in any way his refusal to accompany ,st ,louis on his unlucky second crusade1 or his invincible conviction that it was better to be in mortal sin than to have the leprosy1 or his decided preference for wine as little watered as might be1 or any other weakness4 ,yet he was a sincerely religious man1 as the curious ,credo1 written at ,acre and forming a kind of anticipatory appendix to the history1 sufficiently shows4 ,he presents himself as an altogether human person1 brave enough in the field1 and1 at least when young1 capable of extravagant devotion to an ideal1 provided the ideal was fashionable1 but having at bottom a sufficient respect for his own skin and a full consciousness of the side on which his bread is buttered4 ,nor can he be said to be in all respects an intelligent traveller4 ,there were in him what may be called glimmerings of deliberate literature1 but they were hardly more than glimmerings4 ,his famous description of ,greek fire has a most provoking mixture of circumstantial detail with absence of verifying particulars4 ,it is as matter-of-fact and comparative as ,dante1 without a touch of ,dante's genius4 ,the fashion of ,greek fire was such that it came to us as great as a tun of verjuice1 and the fiery tail of it was as big as a mighty lance2 it made such noise in the coming that it seemed like the thunder from heaven1 and looked like a dragon flying through the air2 so great a light did it throw that throughout the host men saw as though it were day for the light it threw4 ,certainly the excellent seneschal has not stinted himself of comparisons here1 yet they can hardly be said to be luminous4 ,that the thing made a great flame1 a great noise1 and struck terror into the beholder is about the sum of it all4 ,every now and then indeed a striking circumstance1 strikingly told1 occurs in ,joinville1 such as the famous incident of the woman who carried in one hand a chafing dish of fire1 in the other a phial of water1 that she might burn heaven and quench hell1 lest in future any man should serve ,god merely for hope of the one or fear of the other4 ,but in these cases the author only repeats what he has heard from others4 ,on his own account he is much more interested in small personal details than in greater things4 ,how the ,saracens1 when they took him prisoner1 he being half dead with a complication of diseases1 kindly left him un mien couverture d'carlate which his mother had given him1 and which he put over him1 having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord2 how when he came to ,acre in a pitiable condition an old servant of his house presented himself1 and brought me clean white hoods and combed my hair most comfortably1 how he bought a hundred tuns of wine and served it--the best first1 according to high authority--well-watered to his private soldiers1 somewhat less watered to the squires1 and to the knights neat1 but with a suggestive phial of the weaker liquid to mix si comme ils vouloient--these are the details in which he seems to take greatest pleasure1 and for readers six hundred years after date perhaps they are not the least interesting details4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake to imagine that ,joinville's book is exclusively or even mainly a chronicle of small beer4 ,if he is not a ,villehardouin or a ,carlyle1 his battlepieces are vivid and truthful1 and he has occasional passages of no small episodic importance1 such as that dealing with the ,old ,man of the ,mountain4 ,but1 above all1 the central figure of his book redeems it from the possibility of the charge of being commonplace or ignoble4 ,to ,st ,louis ,joinville is a nobler ,boswell2 and hero-worshipper1 hero1 and heroic ideal all have something of the sublime about them4 ,the very pettiness of the details in which the good seneschal indulges as to his own weakness only serves to enhance the sublime unworldliness of the king4 ,joinville is a better warrior than ,louis1 but1 while the former frankly prays for his own safety1 the latter only thinks of his army's when they have escaped from the hands of the aliens4 ,one of the king's knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been forconts 7counted short7 to the ,saracens2 and it is with the utmost trouble that ,joinville and the rest can persuade the king that this is a joke1 and that the ,saracens are much more likely to have got the advantage4 ,he warns ,joinville against wine-bibbing1 against bad language1 against all manner of foibles small and great2 and the pupil acknowledges that this physician at any rate had healed himself in these respects4 ,it is true that he is severe towards infidels2 and his approval of the knight who1 finding a ,jew likely to get the better of a theological argument1 resorted to the baculine variety of logic1 does not meet the views of the #bjth century4 ,but ,louis was not of the #bjth century but of the #acth1 and after his kind he certainly deserved ,joinville's admiration4 ,side by side with his indignation at the idea of cheating his ,saracen enemies may be mentioned his answer to those who after ,taillebourg complained that he had let off ,henry ,,iii4 too easily4 ,he is my man now1 and he was not before1 said the king1 a most unpractical person certainly1 and in some ways a sore saint for ,france4 ,but it is easy to understand the half-despairing adoration with which a shrewd and somewhat prosaic person like ,joinville must have regarded this flower of chivalry born out of due time4 ,he has had his reward1 for assuredly the portrait of ,st ,louis1 from the early collection of anecdotes to the last hearsay sketch of the woeful end at ,tunis1 with the famous enseignement which is still the best summary of the theoretical duties of a ,christian king in medieval times1 is such as to take away all charge of vulgarity or mere commrage from ,joinville1 a charge to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed4 ,the arrangement of the book is1 considering its circumstances and the date of its composition1 sufficiently methodical4 ,according to its own account it is divided into three parts--the first dealing generally with the character and conduct of the hero2 the second with his acts and deeds in ,egypt1 ,palestine1 c41 as ,joinville knew them2 the third with his subsequent life and death4 ,of these the last is very brief1 the first not long2 the middle constitutes the bulk of the work4 ,the contents of the first part are1 as might be expected1 miscellaneous enough1 and consist chiefly of stories chosen to show the valour of ,louis1 his piety1 his justice1 his personal temperance1 and so forth4 ,the second part enters upon the history of the crusade itself1 and tells how ,joinville pledged all his land save so much as would bring in a thousand livres a year1 and started with a brave retinue of nine knights 7two of whom besides himself wore bannerets71 and shared a ship with the sire d',aspremont1 leaving ,joinville without raising his eyes1 pour ce que le cuer ne me attendrisist du biau chastel que je lessoie et de mes deux enfans2 how they could not get out of sight of a high mountainous island 7,lampedusa or ,pantellaria7 till they had made a procession round the masts in honour of the ,virgin2 how they reached first ,cyprus and then ,egypt2 how they took ,damietta1 and then entangled themselves in the ,delta4 ,bad generalship1 which is sufficiently obvious1 unwholesome food--it was ,lent1 and they ate the ,nile fish which had been feasting on the carcases of the slain--and ,greek fire did the rest1 and personal valour was of little avail1 not merely against superior numbers and better generals1 but against dysentery and a certain mal de l'ost which attacked the mouth and the legs1 a curious human version of a well-known bestial malady4 ,after ransom ,acre was the chief scene of ,louis's stay in the ,east1 and here ,joinville lived in some state1 and saw not a few interesting things1 hearing besides much gossip as to the inferior affairs of ,asia from ambassadors1 merchants and others4 ,at last they journeyed back again to ,france1 not without considerable experiences of the perils of the deep1 which ,joinville tells with a good deal of spirit4 ,the remainder of the book is very brief4 ,some anecdotes of the king's justice1 his favourite and distinguishing attribute during the sixteen years which intervened between the two crusades1 are given2 then comes the story of ,joinville's own refusal to join the second expedition1 a refusal which bluntly alleged the harm done by the king's men who stayed at home to the vassals of those who went abroad as the reason of ,joinville's resolution to remain behind4 ,the death of the king at ,tunis1 his enseignement to his son1 and the story of his canonization complete the work4 ,the book in which this interesting story is told has had a literary history which less affects its matter than the vicissitudes to which ,froissart has been subjected1 but which is hardly less curious in its way4 ,there is no reason for supposing that ,joinville indulged in various editions1 such as those which have given ,kervyn de ,lettenhove and ,simon ,luce so much trouble1 and which make so vast a difference between the first and the last redaction of the chronicler of the ,hundred ,years' ,war4 ,indeed the great age of the seneschal of ,champagne1 and his intimate first-hand acquaintance with his subject1 made such variations extremely improbable4 ,but1 whereas there is no great difficulty 7though much labour7 in ascertaining the original and all subsequent texts of ,froissart1 the original text of ,joinville was until recently unknown1 and even now may be said to be in the state of a conjectural restoration4 ,it has been said that the book was presented to ,louis le ,hutin4 ,now we have a catalogue of ,louis le ,hutin's library1 and1 strange to say1 ,joinville does not figure in it4 ,his book seems to have undergone very much the same fate as that which befell the originals of the first two volumes of the ,paston ,letters which ,sir ,john ,fenn presented to ,george the ,third4 ,several royal library catalogues of the #adth century are known1 but in none of these does the ,histoire de ,st ,louis appear4 ,it does appear in that of ,charles ,v4 7#adaa71 but apparently no copy even of this survives4 ,as everybody knows1 however1 books could be and were multiplied by the process of copying tolerably freely1 and a copy at first or second hand which belonged to the fiddler king ,ren of ,provence in the #aeth century was used for the first printed edition in #aedg4 ,other editions were printed from other versions1 all evidently posterior to the original4 ,but in #agda the well-known medievalist ,la ,curne de ,st ,palaye found at ,lucca a manuscript of the #afth century1 evidently representing an older text than any yet printed4 ,three years later a #adth-century copy was found at ,brussels1 and this is the standard manuscript authority for the text of ,joinville4 ,those who prefer to rest on ,,ms4 authority will probably hold to this text1 which appears in the well-known collection of ,michaud and ,poujoulat as well as that of ,buchon1 and in a careful and useful separate edition by ,francisque ,michel4 ,the modern science of critical editing1 however1 which applies to medieval texts the principles long recognized in editing the classics1 has discovered in the #afth-century manuscript1 and still more in the original miscellaneous works of ,joinville1 the letters1 deeds1 c41 already alluded to1 the materials for what we have already called a conjectural restoration1 which is not without its interest1 though perhaps it is possible for that interest to be exaggerated4 ,for merely general readers ,buchon's or ,michaud's editions of ,joinville will amply suffice4 ,both include translations into modern ,french1 which1 however1 are hardly necessary1 for the language is very easy4 ,natalis de ,wailly's editions of #ahfh and particularly #ahgd are critical editions1 embodying the modern research connected with the text1 the value of which is considerable1 but contestable4 ,they are accompanied by ample annotations and appendices1 with illustrations of great merit and value4 ,much valuable information appeared for the first time in the edition of ,f4 ,michel 7#ahei74 ,to these may be added ,a4 ,f4 ,didot's tudes sur ,joinville 7#ahgj7 and ,h4 ,f4 ,delaborde's ,jean de ,joinville 7#ahid74 ,a good sketch of the whole subject will be found in ,aubertin's ,histoire de la langue et de la littrature franaises au moyen ge1 ii4 #aif-baa2 see also ,gaston ,paris1 ,litt4 franaise au moyen ge 7#ahic71 and ,a4 ,debidour1 ,les ,chroniqueurs 7#ahhh74 ,there are ,english translations by ,t4 ,johnes 7#ahjg71 ,j4 ,hutton 7#ahfh71 ,ethel ,wedgwood 7#aijf71 and 7more literally7 ,sir ,f4 ,t4 ,marzials 7,everyman's ,library1 #aijh74 7,g4 ,sa47 ,,joist1 in building1 one of a row or tier of beams set edgewise from one wall or partition to another and carrying the flooring boards on the upper edge and the laths of the ceiling on the lower4 ,in double flooring there are three series of joists1 binding1 bridging1 and ceiling joists4 ,the binding joists are the real support of the floor1 running from wall to wall1 and carrying the bridging joists above and the ceiling joists below 7see ,,carpentry71 ,the ,mid4 ,eng4 form of the word was giste or gyste1 and was adapted from ,o4 ,fr4 giste1 modern gte1 a beam supporting the platform of a gun4 ,by origin the word meant that on which anything lies or rests 7gsir1 to lie2 ,lat4 jacere74 ,the ,english word gist1 in such phrases as the gist of the matter1 the main or central point in an argument1 is a doublet of joist4 ,according to ,skeat1 the origin of this meaning is an ,o4 ,fr4 proverbial expression1 ,je say bien o gist le livre1 ,i know well where the hare lies1 i4e4 ,i know the real point of the matter4 ,j,,kai1 ,,maurus 7#ahbe-aijd71 ,hungarian novelist1 was born at ,rv-,komrom on the #aith of ,february #ahbe4 ,his father1 ,joseph1 was a member of the ,asva branch of the ancient ,jkay family2 his mother was a scion of the noble ,pulays4 ,the lad was timid and delicate1 and therefore educated at home till his tenth year1 when he was sent to ,pressburg1 subsequently completing his education at the ,calvinist college at ,pp1 where he first met ,petfi1 ,alexander ,kozma1 and several other brilliant young men who subsequently became famous4 ,his family had meant him to follow the law1 his father's profession1 and accordingly the youth1 always singularly assiduous1 plodded conscientiously through the usual curriculum at ,kecskemet and ,pest1 and as a full-blown advocate actually succeeded in winning his first case4 ,but the drudgery of a lawyer's office was uncongenial to the ardently poetical youth1 and1 encouraged by the encomiums pronounced by the ,hungarian ,academy upon his first play1 ,zsid fiu 7,the ,jew ,boy71 he flitted1 when barely twenty1 to ,pest in #ahde with a ,,ms4 romance in his pocket2 he was introduced by ,petfi to the literary notabilities of the ,hungarian capital1 and the same year his first notable romance ,htkznapok 7,working ,days71 appeared1 first in the columns of the ,pesti ,dievatlap1 and subsequently1 in #ahdf1 in book form4 ,htkznapok1 despite its manifest crudities and extravagances1 was instantly recognized by all the leading critics as a work of original genius1 and in the following year ,jkai was appointed the editor of letkpek1 the leading ,hungarian literary journal1 and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country4 ,on the outbreak of the revolution of #ahdh the young editor enthusiastically adopted the national cause1 and served it with both pen and sword4 ,now1 as ever1 he was a moderate ,liberal1 setting his face steadily against all excesses2 but1 carried away by the ,hungarian triumphs of ,april and ,may #ahdi1 he supported ,kossuth's fatal blunder of deposing the ,hapsburg dynasty1 and though1 after the war was over1 his life was saved by an ingenious stratagem of his wife1 the great tragic actress1 ,roza ,benke ,laborfalvi1 whom he had married on the #bith of ,august #ahdh1 he lived for the next fourteen years the life of a political suspect4 ,yet this was perhaps the most glorious period of his existence1 for during it he devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the proscribed and humiliated ,magyar language1 composing in it no fewer than thirty great romances1 besides innumerable volumes of tales1 essays1 criticisms and faceti4 ,this was the period of such masterpieces as ,erdly ,arany ,kord 7,the ,golden ,age of ,transylvania71 with its sequel ,trkvilg ,magyarorszgon 7,the ,turks in ,hungary71 ,egy ,magyar ,nbob 7,a ,hungarian ,nabob71 ,karpthy ,zoltn1 ,janicsrok vgnapjai 7,the ,last ,days of the ,janissaries71 ,szomor napok 7,sad ,days74 ,on the re-establishment of the ,hungarian constitution by the ,composition of #ahfg1 ,jkai took an active part in politics4 ,as a constant supporter of the ,tisza administration1 not only in parliament1 where he sat continuously for more than twenty years1 but also as the editor of the government organ1 ,hon1 founded by him in #ahfc1 he became a power in the state1 and1 though he never took office himself1 frequently extricated the government from difficult places4 ,in #ahig the emperor appointed him a member of the upper house4 ,as a suave1 practical and witty debater he was particularly successful4 ,yet it was to literature that he continued to devote most of his time1 and his productiveness after #ahgj was stupendous1 amounting to some hundreds of volumes4 ,stranger still1 none of this work is slipshod1 and the best of it deserves to endure4 ,amongst the finest of his later works may be mentioned the unique and incomparable ,az arany ember 7,a ,man of ,gold7--translated into ,english under the title of ,timar's ,two ,worlds--and ,a tngerzem hlgy 7,eyes like the ,sea71 the latter of which won the ,academy's prize in #ahij4 ,he died at ,budapest on the #eth of ,may #aijd2 his wife having predeceased him in #ahhf4 ,jkai was an arch-romantic1 with a perfervid ,oriental imagination1 and humour of the purest1 rarest description4 ,if one can imagine a combination1 in almost equal parts1 of ,walter ,scott1 ,william ,beckford1 ,dumas pre1 and ,charles ,dickens1 together with the native originality of an ardent ,magyar1 one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great ,hungarian romancer's indisputable genius4 ,see ,nvy ,lszl1 ,jkai ,mr2 ,hegedsis ,sndor1 ,jkai ,mrrl2 ,h4 ,w4 ,temperley1 ,maurus ,jokai and the ,historical ,novel1 ,contemporary ,review 7,july #aijd74 ,,jokjakarta1 or ,,jokjokarta 7more correctly ,,jokyakarta2 ,du4 ,djokjakarta71 a residency of the island of ,java1 ,dutch ,east ,indies1 bounded ,n4 by ,kedu and ,surakarta1 ,e4 by ,surakarta1 ,s4 by the ,indian ,ocean1 ,w4 by ,bagelen4 ,pop4 7#ahig71 #heh1cib4 ,the country is mountainous with the exception of a wedge-like strip in the middle between the rivers ,progo and ,upak4 ,in the north-west are the southern slopes of the volcano ,merapi1 and in the east the ,kidul hills and the plateau of ,sewu4 ,the last-named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range1 with numerous small summits1 whence it is also known as the ,thousand ,hills4 ,the remainder of the residency is well-watered and fertile1 important irrigation works having been carried out4 ,sugar1 rice and indigo are cultivated2 salt-making is practised on the coast4 ,the minerals include coal-beds in the ,kidul hills and near ,nangulan1 marble and gold in the neighbourhood of ,kalasan4 ,the natives are poor1 owing chiefly to maladministration1 the use of opium and the usury practised by foreigners 7,chinese1 ,arabs1 c474 ,the principality is divided between the sultan 7vassal of the ,dutch government7 and the so-called independent prince ,paku ,alam2 ,ngawen and ,imogiri are enclaves of ,surakarta4 ,there are good roads1 and railways connect the chief town with ,batavia1 ,samarang1 ,surakarta1 c4 ,the town of ,jokjakarta 7see ,,java7 the seat of the resident1 the sultan and the ,paku ,alam princes2 its most remarkable section is the kraton or citadel of the sultan4 ,imogiri1 ,s4,w4 of the capital1 the burial-place of the princes of ,surakarta and ,jokjakarta1 is guarded by priests and officials4 ,sentolo1 ,nangulan1 ,brosot1 ,kalasan1 ,tempel1 ,wonosari are considerable villages4 ,there are numerous remains of ,hindu temples1 particularly in the neighbourhood of ,kalasan near the border of ,surakarta and ,prambanan1 which is just across it4 ,remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the coast1 namely1 the so-called ,nyabi ,kidul and ,rongkob1 and at ,selarong1 south-east of ,jokjakarta4 ,,joliet1 a city and the county-seat of ,will county1 ,illinois1 ,u4,s4,a41 in the township of ,joliet1 in the ,n4,e4 part of the state1 on the ,des ,plaines river1 #dj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,chicago4 ,pop4 7#ahij71 #bc1bfd2 7#aijj71 #bi1cec1 of whom #hecf were foreign-born1 #ahhi being ,german1 #aegi ,austrian1 #abjf ,irish and #iea ,swedish2 7#aiaj census7 #cd1fgj4 ,in addition there is a large population in the immediate suburbs3 that of the township including the city was #bg1dch in #ahij1 and #ej1fdj in #aiaj4 ,joliet is served by the ,atchison1 ,topeka ,santa ,f1 the ,chicago ,alton1 the ,chicago1 ,rock ,island ,pacific1 the ,michigan ,central1 the ,illinois1 ,iowa ,minnesota1 and the ,elgin1 ,joliet ,eastern railways1 by interurban electric lines1 and is on the ,illinois ,michigan canal and the ,chicago ,sanitary 7ship7 canal4 ,the city is situated in a narrow valley1 on both sides of the river4 ,it is the seat of the northern ,illinois penitentiary1 and has a public library 7in front of which is a statue1 by ,s4 ,asbjornsen1 of ,louis ,joliet71 the township high school1 two hospitals1 two ,catholic academies and a club-house1 erected by the ,illinois ,steel ,company for the use of its employees4 ,there are two municipal parks1 ,west ,park and ,highland ,park2 ,dellwood ,park is an amusement resort1 owned by the ,chicago ,joliet ,electric ,railway ,company4 ,in the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building stone1 cement and fireclay1 and there are coal mines #bj m4 distant4 ,mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the development of manufactures4 ,the factory product in #aije was valued at #cc1ghh1gjj 7#bj4c more than in #aijj71 a large part of which was represented by iron and steel goods4 ,there are large industrial establishments just outside the city limits4 ,the first settlement on the site of ,joliet 7#ahcc7 was called ,juliet1 in honour of the daughter of ,james ,b4 ,campbell1 one of the settlers4 ,the present name was adopted in #ahde1 in memory of ,louis ,joliet 7#afde-agjj71 the ,french ,canadian explorer of the ,mississippi1 and in #aheb a city charter was secured4 ,,jolly 7from ,o4 ,fr4 jolif2 ,fr4 joli1 the ,french word is obscure in origin2 it may be from late ,lat4 gaudivus1 from gaudere1 to rejoice1 the change of d to l being paralleled by cigada and cigale1 or from ,o4 ,norse jol1 ,eng4 yule1 the northern festival of midwinter71 and adjective meaning gay1 cheerful1 jovial1 high-spirited4 ,the colloquial use of the term as an intensive adverb1 meaning extremely1 very1 was in early usage quite literary2 thus ,john ,trapp 7#afja-affi71 ,commentaries on the ,new ,testament1 ,matthew 7#afdg71 writes1 ,all was jolly quiet at ,ephesus before ,st ,paul came hither4 ,in the royal navy jolly used as a substantive1 is the slang name for a marine4 ,to jolly is a slang synonym for chaff4 ,the word jolly-boat1 the name of a ship's small broad boat1 usually clinker-built1 is of doubtful etymology4 ,it occurs in ,english in the #ahth century1 and is usually connected with ,dan4 or ,swed4 jolle1 ,dutch jol1 a small ship's boat2 these words are properly represented in ,english by yawl originally a ship's small boat1 now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels1 with a cutter-rigged foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aft1 with a spanker sail 7see ,,rigging74 ,a connexion has been suggested with a word of much earlier appearance in ,english1 jolywat1 or gellywatte4 ,this occurs at the end of the #aeth century and is used of a smaller type of ship's boat4 ,this is supposed to be a corruption of the ,french galiote or ,dutch galjoot1 galliot 7see ,,galley74 ,the galliot was1 however1 a large vessel4 ,,joly ,,de ,,lotbini,,re1 ,,sir ,,henri ,,gustave 7#ahbi-aijh71 ,canadian politician1 was born at ,epernay in ,france on the #eth of ,december #ahbi4 ,his father1 ,gaspard ,pierre ,gustave ,joly1 the owner of famous vineyards at ,epernay1 was of ,huguenot descent1 and married ,julie ,christine1 grand-daughter of ,eustache ,gaspard ,michel ,chartier de ,lotbinire1 marquis de ,lotbinire 7one of ,montcalm's engineers at ,quebec72 he thus became seigneur de ,lotbinire4 ,henri ,gustave adopted the name of de ,lotbinire in #ahhh1 under a statute of the province of ,quebec4 ,he was educated in ,paris1 and called to the bar of lower ,canada in #aheh4 ,on the #fth of ,may #ahef he married ,margaretta ,josepha 7d4 #aijd71 daughter of ,hammond ,gowen1 of ,quebec4 ,at the general election of #ahfa he was elected to the house of assembly of the province of ,canada as ,liberal member for the county of ,lotbinire1 and from #ahfg to #ahgd he represented the same county in the ,house of ,commons1 ,ottawa1 and in the legislative assembly1 ,quebec4 ,joly was opposed to confederation and supported ,dorion in the stand which he took on this question4 ,in #ahgh he was called by ,luc ,letellier de ,st ,just1 lieutenant-governor of ,quebec1 to form an administration1 which was defeated in #ahgi1 and until #ahhc he was leader of the opposition4 ,during his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrenchment1 and endeavoured to abolish the legislative council4 ,in #ahhe1 as a protest against the attitude of his party towards ,louis ,riel1 who was tried and executed for high treason1 he retired from public life4 ,early in the year #ahie he was induced again to take an active part in the campaign of his party1 and at the general election of #ahif he was returned as member for the county of ,portneuf4 ,he had already in #ahie been created ,k4,c4,m4,g4 ,on the formation of ,sir ,wilfrid ,laurier's administration he accepted the office of controller of inland revenue1 and a year later he became a privy councillor1 as minister of inland revenue4 ,from #aijj to #aijf he was lieutenant-governor of the province of ,british ,columbia4 ,he twice declined a seat in the senate1 but rendered eminent service to ,canada by promoting the interest of agriculture1 horticulture and of forestry4 ,he died on the #agth of ,november #aijh4 7,a4 ,g4 ,d47 ,,jomini1 ,,antoine ,,henri1 ,,baron 7#aggi-ahfi71 general in the ,french and afterwards in the ,russian service1 and one of the most celebrated writers on the art of war1 was born on the #fth of ,march #aggi at ,payerne in the canton of ,vaud1 ,switzerland1 where his father was syndic4 ,his youthful preference for a military life was disappointed by the dissolution of the ,swiss regiments of ,france at the ,revolution4 ,for some time he was a clerk in a ,paris banking-house1 until the outbreak of the ,swiss revolution4 ,at the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post on the ,swiss headquarters staff1 and when scarcely twenty-one to the command of a battalion4 ,at the peace of ,lunville in #ahja he returned to business life in ,paris1 but devoted himself chiefly to preparing the celebrated ,trait des grandes oprations militaires1 which was published in #ahjd-ahje4 ,introduced to ,marshal ,ney1 he served in the campaign of ,austerlitz as a volunteer aide-de-camp on ,ney's personal staff4 ,in ,december #ahje ,napoleon1 being much impressed by a chapter in ,jomini's treatise1 made him a colonel in the ,french service4 ,ney thereupon made him his principal aide-de-camp4 ,in #ahjf ,jomini published his views as to the conduct of the impending war with ,prussia1 and this1 along with his knowledge of ,frederick the ,great's campaigns1 which he had described in the ,trait1 led ,napoleon to attach him to his own headquarters4 ,he was present with ,napoleon at the battle of ,jena1 and at ,eylau won the cross of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,after the peace of ,tilsit he was made chief of the staff to ,ney1 and created a baron4 ,in the ,spanish campaign of #ahjh his advice was often of the highest value to the marshal1 but ,jomini quarrelled with his chief1 and was left almost at the mercy of his numerous enemies1 especially ,berthier1 the emperor's chief of staff4 ,overtures had been made to him1 as early as #ahjg1 to enter the ,russian service1 but ,napoleon1 hearing of his intention to leave the ,french army1 compelled him to remain in the service with the rank of general of brigade4 ,for some years thereafter ,jomini held both a ,french and a ,russian commission1 with the consent of both sovereigns4 ,but when war between ,france and ,russia broke out1 he was in a difficult position1 which he ended by taking a command on the line of communication4 ,he was thus engaged when the retreat from ,moscow and the uprising of ,prussia transferred the seat of war to central ,germany4 ,he promptly rejoined ,ney1 took part in the battle of ,ltzen and1 as chief of the staff of ,ney's group of corps1 rendered distinguished services before and at the battle of ,bautzen1 and was recommended for the rank of general of division4 ,berthier1 however1 not only erased ,jomini's name from the list1 but put him under arrest and censured him in army orders for failing to supply certain returns that had been called for4 ,how far ,jomini was held responsible for certain misunderstandings which prevented the attainment of all the results hoped for from ,ney's attack 7see ,,bautzen7 there is no means of knowing4 ,but the pretext for censure was trivial and baseless1 and during the armistice ,jomini did as he had intended to do in #ahji-aj1 and went into the ,russian service4 ,as things then were1 this was tantamount to deserting to the enemy1 and so it was regarded by ,napoleon and by the ,french army1 and by not a few of his new comrades4 ,it must be observed1 in ,jomini's defence1 that he had for years held a dormant commission in the ,russian army1 that he had declined to take part in the invasion of ,russia in #ahab1 and that he was a ,swiss and not a ,frenchman4 ,his patriotism was indeed unquestioned1 and he withdrew from the ,allied ,army in #ahad when he found that he could not prevent the violation of ,swiss neutrality4 ,apart from love of his own country1 the desire to study1 to teach and to practise the art of war was his ruling motive4 ,at the critical moment of the battle of ,eylau he exclaimed1 ,if ,i were the ,russian commander for two hours6 ,on joining the allies he received the rank of lieutenant-general and the appointment of aide-de-camp from the tsar1 and rendered important assistance during the ,german campaign1 though the charge that he betrayed the numbers1 positions and intentions of the ,french to the enemy was later acknowledged by ,napoleon to be without foundation4 ,he declined as a ,swiss patriot and as a ,french officer to take part in the passage of the ,rhine at ,basel and the subsequent invasion of ,france4 ,in #ahae he was with the emperor ,alexander in ,paris1 and attempted in vain to save the life of his old commander ,ney4 ,this almost cost him his position in the ,russian service1 but he succeeded in making head against his enemies1 and took part in the congress of ,vienna4 ,resuming1 after a period of several years of retirement and literary work1 his post in the ,russian army1 he was about #ahbc made a full general1 and thenceforward until his retirement in #ahbi he was principally employed in the military education of the tsarevich ,nicholas 7afterwards emperor7 and in the organization of the ,russian staff college1 which was opened in #ahcb and still bears its original name of the ,nicholas academy4 ,in #ahbh he was employed in the field in the ,russo-,turkish ,war1 and at the siege of ,varna he was given the grand cordon of the ,alexander order4 ,this was his last active service4 ,in #ahbi he settled at ,brussels where he chiefly lived for the next thirty years4 ,in #ahec1 after trying without success to bring about a political understanding between ,france and ,russia1 ,jomini was called to ,st ,petersburg to act as a military adviser to the tsar during the ,crimean ,war4 ,he returned to ,brussels on the conclusion of peace in #ahef and some years afterwards settled at ,passy near ,paris4 ,he was busily employed up to the end of his life in writing treatises1 pamphlets and open letters on subjects of military art and history1 and in #ahei he was asked by ,napoleon ,,iii4 to furnish a plan of campaign in the ,italian ,war4 ,one of his last essays dealt with the war of #ahff and the influence of the breech-loading rifle1 and he died at ,passy on the #bdth of ,march #ahfi only a year before the ,franco-,german ,war4 ,thus one of the earliest of the great military theorists lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day4 ,amongst his numerous works the principal1 besides the ,trait1 are3 ,histoire critique et militaire des campagnes de la ,rvolution 7#ahjf2 new ed4 #ahai-ahbd72 ,vie politique et militaire de ,napolon raconte par lui-mme 7#ahbg7 and1 perhaps the best known of all his publications1 the theoretical ,prcis de l'art de la guerre 7#ahcf74 ,see ,ferdinand ,lecomte1 ,le ,gnral ,jomini1 sa vie et ses crits 7#ahfa2 new ed4 #ahhh72 ,c4 ,a4 ,saint-,beuve1 ,le ,gnral ,jomini 7#ahfi72 ,a4 ,pascal1 ,observations historiques sur la vie1 c41 du gnral ,jomini 7#ahdb74 ,,jommelli1 ,,niccola 7#agad-aggd71 ,italian composer1 was born at ,aversa near ,naples on the #ajth of ,september #agad4 ,he received his musical education at two of the famous music schools of that capital1 being a pupil of the ,conservatorio de' poveri di ,ges ,cristo under ,feo1 and also of the ,conservatorio della piet dei ,turchini under ,prota1 ,mancini and ,leo4 ,his first opera1 ,l',errore amoroso1 was successfully produced at ,naples 7under a pseudonym7 when ,jommelli was only twenty-three4 ,three years afterwards he went to ,rome to bring out two new operas1 and thence to ,bologna1 where he profited by the advice of ,padre ,martini1 the greatest contrapuntist of his age4 ,in the meantime ,jommelli's fame began to spread beyond the limits of his country1 and in #agdh he went for the first time to ,vienna1 where one of his finest operas1 ,didone1 was produced4 ,three years later he returned to ,italy1 and in #agec he obtained the post of chapel-master to the duke of ,wrttemberg at ,stuttgart1 which city he made his home for a number of years4 ,in the same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely courts4 ,in ,stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be produced1 and he modified his style in accordance with ,german taste1 so much that1 when after an absence of fifteen years he returned to ,naples1 his countrymen hissed two of his operas off the stage4 ,he retired in consequence to his native village1 and only occasionally emerged from his solitude to take part in the musical life of the capital4 ,his death took place on the #beth of ,august #aggd1 his last composition being the celebrated ,miserere1 a setting for two female voices of ,saverio ,mattei's ,italian paraphrase of ,psalm li4 ,jommelli is the most representative composer of the generation following ,leo and ,durante4 ,he approaches very closely to ,mozart in his style1 and is important as one of the composers who1 by welding together ,german and ,italian characteristics1 helped to form the musical language of the great composers of the classical period of ,vienna4 ,,jonah1 in the ,bible1 a prophet born at ,gath-hepher in ,zebulun1 perhaps under ,jeroboam 7#b7 7#gha-gda ,b4,c4871 who foretold the deliverance of ,israel from the ,aramaeans 7#b ,kings xiv4 #be74 ,this prophet may also be the hero of the much later book of ,jonah1 but how different a man is he6 ,it is1 however1 the later ,jonah who chiefly interests us4 ,new problems have arisen out of the book which relates to him1 but here we can only attempt to consider what1 in a certain sense1 may be called the surface meaning of the text4 ,this1 then is what we appear to be told4 ,the prophet ,jonah is summoned to go to ,nineveh1 a great and wicked city 7cf4 #d ,esdras ii4 #h1 #i71 and prophesy against it4 ,jonah1 however1 is afraid 7iv4 #b7 that the ,ninevites may repent1 so1 instead of going to ,nineveh1 he proceeds to ,joppa1 and takes his passage in a ship bound for ,tarshish4 ,but soon a storm arises1 and1 supplication to the gods failing1 the sailors cast lots to discover the guilty man who has brought this great trouble4 ,the lot falls on ,jonah1 who has been roughly awakened by the captain1 and when questioned frankly owns that he is a ,hebrew and a worshipper of the divine creator ,yahweh1 from whom he has sought to flee 7as if ,he were only the god of ,canaan74 ,jonah advises the sailors to throw him into the sea4 ,this1 after praying to ,yahweh1 they actually do2 at once the sea becomes calm and they sacrifice to ,yahweh4 ,meantime ,god has appointed a great fish which swallows up ,jonah4 ,three days and three nights he is in the fish's belly1 till1 at a word from ,yahweh1 it vomits ,jonah on to the dry ground4 ,again ,jonah receives the divine call4 ,this time he obeys4 ,after delivering his message to ,nineveh he makes himself a booth outside the walls and waits in vain for the destruction of the city 7probably iv4 #e is misplaced and should stand after iii4 #d74 ,thereupon ,jonah beseeches ,yahweh to take away his worthless life4 ,as an answer ,yahweh appoints a small quickly-growing tree with large leaves 7the castor-oil plant7 to come up over the angry prophet and shelter him from the sun4 ,but the next day the beneficent tree perishes by ,god's appointment from a worm-bite4 ,once more ,god appoints something2 it is the east wind1 which1 together with the fierce heat1 brings ,jonah again to desperation4 ,the close is fine1 and reminds us of ,job4 ,god himself gives short-sighted man a lesson4 ,jonah has pitied the tree1 and should not ,god have pity on so great a city8 ,two results of criticism are widely accepted4 ,one relates to the psalm in ch4 ii41 which has been transferred from some other place2 it is in fact an anticipatory thanksgiving for the deliverance of ,israel1 mostly composed of phrases from other psalms4 ,the other is that the narrative before us is not historical but an imaginative story 7such as was called a ,midrash7 based upon ,biblical data and tending to edification4 ,it is1 however1 a story of high type4 ,the narrator considered that ,israel had to be a prophet to the nations at large1 that ,israel had1 like ,jonah1 neglected its duty and for its punishment was swallowed up in foreign lands4 ,god had watched over ,his people and prepared its choicer members to fulfil ,his purpose4 ,this company of faithful but not always sufficiently charitable men represented their people1 so that it might be said that ,israel itself 7the second ,isaiah's ,servant of ,yahweh--see ,,isaiah7 had taken up its duty1 but in an ungenial spirit which grieved the ,all-merciful ,one4 ,the book1 which is post-exilic1 may therefore be grouped with another ,midrash1 the ,book of ,ruth1 which also appears to represent a current of thought opposed to the exclusive spirit of ,jewish legalism4 ,some critics1 however1 think that the key of symbolism needs to be supplemented by that of mythology4 ,the great fish especially has a very mythological appearance4 ,the ,babylonian dragon myth 7see ,,cosmogony7 is often alluded to in the ,old ,testament1 e4g4 in ,jer4 li4 #dd1 which1 as the present writer long since pointed out1 may supply the missing link between ,jonah i4 #ag and the original myth4 ,for the great fish is ultimately ,tiamat1 the dragon of chaos1 represented historically by ,nebuchadrezzar1 by whom for a time ,god permitted or appointed ,israel to be swallowed up4 ,for further details see ,t4 ,k4 ,cheyne1 ,ency4 ,bib41 ,jonah2 and his article ,jonah1 a ,study in ,jewish ,folklore and ,religion1 ,theological ,review 7#ahgg71 pp4 #baa-bai4 ,knig1 ,hastings's ,dict4 ,bible1 ,jonah1 is full but not lucid2 ,c4 ,h4 ,h4 ,wright1 ,biblical ,studies 7#ahhf7 argues ably for the symbolic theory4 ,against ,cheyne1 see ,marti's work on the ,minor ,prophets 7#ahid72 the great fish and the three days and three nights remain unexplained by this writer4 ,on these points see ,zimmern1 ,k4,a4,t4 7#c71 pp4 #cff1 #chi1 #ejh4 ,the difficulties of the mission of a ,hebrew prophet to ,asshur are diminished by ,cheyne's later theory1 ,critica ,biblica 7#aijd71 pp4 #aej-aeb4 7,t4 ,k4 ,c47 ,,jonah1 ,,rabbi 7,,abulwalid ,,merwan ,,ibn ,,janah1 also ,r4 ,,marinus7 7c4 #iij-;c4 #ajej71 the greatest ,hebrew grammarian and lexicographer of the middle ages4 ,he was born before the year #iij1 in ,cordova1 studied in ,lucena1 left his native city in #ajab1 and1 after somewhat protracted wanderings1 settled in ,saragossa1 where he died before #ajej4 ,he was a physician1 and ,ibn ,abi ,usaibia1 in his treatise on ,arabian doctors1 mentions him as the author of a medical work4 ,but ,rabbi ,jonah saw the true vocation of his life in the scientific investigation of the ,hebrew language and in a rational biblical exegesis based upon sound linguistic knowledge4 ,it is true1 he wrote no actual commentary on the ,bible1 but his philological works exercised the greatest influence on ,judaic exegesis4 ,his first work--composed1 like all the rest1 in ,arabic--bears the title ,almustalha1 and forms1 as is indicated by the word1 a criticism and at the same time a supplement to the two works of ,yehuda ',hayyuj on the verbs with weak-sounding and double-sounding roots4 ,these two tractates1 with which ',hayyuj had laid the foundations of scientific ,hebrew grammar1 were recognized by ,abulwalid as the basis of his own grammatical investigations1 and ,abraham ,ibn ,daud1 when enumerating the great ,spanish ,jews in his history1 sums up the significance of ,r4 ,jonah in the words3 ,he completed what ',hayyuj had begun4 ,the principal work of ,r4 ,jonah is the ,kitab al ,tankih 7,book of ,exact ,investigation71 which consists of two parts1 regarded as two distinct books--the ,kitab al-,luma 7,book of ,many-coloured ,flower-beds7 and the ,kitab al-usul 7,book of ,roots74 ,the former 7ed4 ,j4 ,derenbourg1 ,paris1 #ahhf7 contains the grammar1 the latter 7ed4 ,ad4 ,neubauer1 ,oxford1 #ahge7 the lexicon of the ,hebrew language4 ,both works are also published in the ,hebrew translation of ,yehuda ,ibn ,tibbon 7,sefer ,ha-,rikmah1 ed4 ,b4 ,goldberg1 ,frankfurt am ,main1 #ahee2 ,sefer ,ha-,schoraschim1 ed4 ,w4 ,bacher1 ,berlin1 #ahig74 ,the other writings of ,rabbi ,jonah1 so far as extant1 have appeared in an edition of the ,arabic original accompanied by a ,french translation 7,opuscules et traits d',abou'l ,walid1 ed4 ,joseph and ,hartwig ,derenbourg1 ,paris #ahhj74 ,a few fragments and numerous quotations in his principal book form our only knowledge of the ,kitab al-,tashwir 7,book of ,refutation7 a controversial work in four parts1 in which ,rabbi ,jonah successfully repelled the attacks of the opponents of his first treatise4 ,at the head of this opposition stood the famous ,samuel ,ibn ,nagdela 7,s4 ,ha-,nagid7 a disciple of ',hayyuj4 ,the grammatical work of ,rabbi ,jonah extended1 moreover1 to the domain of rhetoric and biblical hermeneutics1 and his lexicon contains many exegetical excursuses4 ,this lexicon is of especial importance by reason of its ample contribution to the comparative philology of the ,semitic languages--,hebrew and ,arabic1 in particular4 ,abulwalid's works mark the culminating point of ,hebrew scholarship during the middle ages1 and he attained a level which was not surpassed till the modern development of philological science in the #aith century4 ,see ,s4 ,munk1 ,notice sur ,abou'l ,walid 7,paris1 #ahea72 ,w4 ,bacher1 ,leben und ,werke des ,abulwalid und die ,quellen seiner ,schrifterklrung 7,leipzig1 #ahhe72 id41 ,aus der ,schrifterklrung des ,abulwalid 7,leipzig1 #ahhi72 id41 ,die hebr4-arabische ,sprachvergleichung des ,abulwalid 7,vienna1 #ahhd72 id41 ,die hebrisch-neuhebrische und hebr4-aramische ,sprachvergleichung des ,abulwalid 7,vienna1 #ahhe74 7,w4 ,ba47 ,,jonas1 ,,justus 7#adic-aeee71 ,german ,protestant reformer1 was born at ,nordhausen in ,thuringia1 on the #eth of ,june #adic4 ,his real name was ,jodokus 7,jobst7 ,koch1 which he changed according to the common custom of ,german scholars in the #afth century1 when at the university of ,erfurt4 ,he entered that university in #aejf1 studied law and the humanities1 and became ,master of ,arts in #aeaj4 ,in #aeaa he went to ,wittenberg1 where he took his bachelor's degree in law4 ,he returned to ,erfurt in #aead or #aeae1 was ordained priest1 and in #aeah was promoted doctor in both faculties and appointed to a well-endowed canonry in the church of ,st ,severus1 to which a professorship of law was attached4 ,his great admiration for ,erasmus first led him to ,greek and biblical studies1 and his election in ,may #aeai as rector of the university was regarded as a triumph for the partisans of the ,new ,learning4 ,it was not1 however1 until after the ,leipzig disputation with ,eck that ,luther won his allegiance4 ,he accompanied ,luther to ,worms in #aeba1 and there was appointed by the elector of ,saxony professor of canon law at ,wittenberg4 ,during ,luther's stay in the ,wartburg ,jonas was one of the most active of the ,wittenberg reformers4 ,giving himself up to preaching and polemics1 he aided the ,reformation by his gift as a translator1 turning ,luther's and ,melanchthon's works into ,german or ,latin as the case might be1 thus becoming a sort of double of both4 ,he was busied in conferences and visitations during the next twenty years1 and in diplomatic work with the princes4 ,in #aeda he began a successful preaching crusade in ,halle2 he became superintendent of its churches in #aedb4 ,in #aedf he was present at ,luther's deathbed at ,eisleben1 and preached the funeral sermon2 but in the same year was banished from the duchy by ,maurice1 duke 7later elector7 of ,saxony4 ,from that time until his death1 ,jonas was unable to secure a satisfactory living4 ,he wandered from place to place preaching1 and finally went to ,eisfeld 7#aeec71 where he died4 ,he had been married three times4 ,see ,briefswechsel des ,justus ,jonas1 gesammelt und bearbeitet von ,g4 ,kawerau 7#b vols41 ,halle1 #ahhd-ahhe72 ,kawerau's article in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopdie1 ed4 #c1 with bibliography4 ,,jonathan 7,heb4 ,yah weh gives74 ,of the many ,jewish bearers of this name1 three are well known3 7#a7 the grandson of ,moses1 who was priest at ,dan 7,judg4 xviii4 #cj74 ,the reading ,manasseh 7see ,r4,v4 mg42 obtained by inserting n above the consonantal text in the ,hebrew7 is apparently intended to suggest that he was the son of that idolatrous king4 7#b7 ,the eldest son of ,saul1 who1 together with his father1 freed ,israel from the crushing oppression of the ,philistines 7#a ,sam4 xiii4 seq474 ,both are lauded in an elegy quoted from the ,book of ,jashar 7#b ,sam4 i47 for their warm mutual love1 their heroism1 and their labours on behalf of the people4 ,jonathan's name is most familiar for the firm friendship which subsisted between him and ,david 7#a ,sam4 xviii4 #a-d2 xix4 #a-g2 xx41 xxii4 #h2 xxiii4 #af-ah71 and when he fell at the battle of ,gilboa and left behind him a young child 7#a ,sam4 xxxi42 #b ,sam4 iv4 #d71 ,david took charge of the youth and gave him a place at his court 7#b ,sam4 ix474 ,see further ,,david1 ,,saul4 7#c7 ,the ,maccabee 7see ,,jews2 ,,maccabees74 ,,jonci,,res1 ,,victorin 7#ahci-aijc71 ,french composer1 was born in ,paris on the #abth of ,april #ahci4 ,he first devoted his attention to painting1 but afterwards took up the serious study of music4 ,he entered the ,paris ,conservatoire1 but did not remain there long1 because he had espoused too warmly the cause of ,wagner against his professor4 ,he composed the following operas3 ,sardanapale 7#ahfg71 ,le ,dernier jour de ,pompi 7#ahfi71 ,dimitri 7#ahgf71 ,la ,reine ,berthe 7#ahgh71 ,le ,chevalier ,jean 7#ahhe71 ,lancelot 7#aijj74 ,he also wrote incidental music to ,hamlet1 a symphony1 and other works4 ,joncires' admiration for ,wagner asserted itself rather in a musical than a dramatic sense4 ,the influence of the ,german master's earlier style can be traced in his operas4 ,joncires1 however1 adhered to the recognized forms of the ,french opera and did not model his works according to the later developments of the ,wagnerian music drama4 ,he may indeed be said to have been at least as much influenced by ,gounod as by ,wagner4 ,from #ahga he was musical critic for ,la ,libert4 ,he died on the #bfth of ,october #aijc4 ,,jones1 ,,alfred ,,gilpin 7#ahbd-aijf71 ,canadian politician1 was born at ,weymouth1 ,nova ,scotia1 in ,september #ahbd1 the son of ,guy ,c4 ,jones of ,yarmouth1 and grandson of a ,united ,empire ,loyalist4 ,in #ahfe he opposed the federation of the ,british ,american provinces1 and1 in his anger at the refusal of the ,british government to repeal such portions of the ,british ,north ,america ,act as referred to ,nova ,scotia1 made a speech which won for him the name of ,haul-down-the-flag ,jones4 ,he was for many years a member of the ,federal ,parliament1 and for a few months in #ahgh was minister of militia under the ,liberal government4 ,largely owing to his influence the ,liberal party refused in #ahgh to abandon its ,free ,trade policy1 an obstinacy which led to its defeat in that year4 ,in #aijj he was appointed lieutenant-governor of his native province1 and held this position till his death on the #aeth of ,march #aijf4 ,,jones1 ,,sir ,,alfred ,,lewis 7#ahde-aiji71 ,british shipowner1 was born in ,carmarthenshire1 in #ahde4 ,at the age of twelve he was apprenticed to the managers of the ,african ,steamship ,company at ,liverpool1 making several voyages to the west coast of ,africa4 ,by the time he was twenty-six he had risen to be manager of the business4 ,not finding sufficient scope in this post1 he borrowed money to purchase two or three small sailing vessels1 and started in the shipping business on his own account4 ,the venture succeeded1 and he made additions to his fleet1 but after a few years' successful trading1 realizing that sailing ships were about to be superseded by steamers1 he sold his vessels4 ,about this time 7#ahia7 ,messrs4 ,elder1 ,dempster ,co41 who purchased the business of the old ,african ,steamship ,company1 offered him a managerial post4 ,this offer he accepted1 subject to ,messrs4 ,elder1 ,dempster selling him a number of their shares1 and he thus acquired an interest in the business1 and subsequently1 by further share purchases1 its control4 ,see further ,,steamship ,,lines4 ,in #aija he was knighted4 ,sir ,alfred ,jones took a keen interest in imperial affairs1 and was instrumental in founding the ,liverpool school of tropical medicine4 ,he acquired considerable territorial interests in ,west ,africa1 and financial interests in many of the companies engaged in opening up and developing that part of the world4 ,he also took the leading part in opening up a new line of communication with the ,west ,indies1 and stimulating the ,jamaica fruit trade and tourist traffic4 ,he died on the #acth of ,december #aiji1 leaving large charitable bequests4 ,,jones1 ,,ebenezer 7#ahbj-ahfj71 ,british poet1 was born in ,islington1 ,london1 on the #bjth of ,january #ahbj4 ,his father1 who was of ,welsh extraction1 was a strict ,calvinist1 and ,ebenezer was educated at a dull1 middle-class school4 ,the death of his father obliged him to become a clerk in the office of a tea merchant4 ,shelley and ,carlyle were his spiritual masters1 and he spent all his spare time in reading and writing2 but he developed an exaggerated style of thought and expression1 due partly to a defective education4 ,the unkind reception of his ,studies of ,sensation and ,event 7#ahdc7 seemed to be the last drop in his bitter cup of life4 ,baffled and disheartened1 he destroyed his manuscripts4 ,he earned his living as an accountant and by literary hack work1 and it was not until he was rapidly dying of consumption that he wrote his three remarkable poems1 ,winter ,hymn to the ,snow1 ,when the ,world is ,burning and ,to ,death4 ,the fame that these and some of the pieces in the early volume brought to their author came too late4 ,he died on the #adth of ,september #ahfj4 ,it was not till #ahgj that ,dante ,gabriel ,rossetti praised his work in ,notes and ,queries4 ,rossetti's example was followed by ,w4 ,b4 ,scott1 ,theodore ,watts-,dunton1 who contributed some papers on the subject to the ,athenaeum 7,september and ,october #ahgh71 and ,r4 ,h4 ,sheppard1 who edited ,studies of ,sensation and ,event in #ahgi4 ,,jones1 ,,ernest ,,charles 7#ahai-ahfi71 ,english ,chartist1 was born at ,berlin on the #beth of ,january #ahai1 and educated in ,germany4 ,his father1 an officer in the ,british army1 was then equerry to the duke of ,cumberland--afterwards king of ,hanover4 ,in #ahch ,jones came to ,england1 and in #ahda published anonymously ,the ,wood ,spirit1 a romantic novel4 ,this was followed by some songs and poems4 ,in #ahdd he was called to the bar at the ,middle ,temple4 ,in #ahde he joined the ,chartist agitation1 quickly becoming its most prominent figure1 and vigorously carrying on the party's campaign on the platform and in the press4 ,his speeches1 in which he openly advocated physical force1 led to his prosecution1 and he was sentenced in #ahdh to two years' imprisonment for sedition4 ,while in prison he wrote1 it is said in his own blood on leaves torn from a prayer-book1 ,the ,revolt of ,hindostan1 an epic poem4 ,on his release he again became the leader of what remained of the ,chartist party and editor of its organ4 ,but he was almost its only public speaker2 he was out of sympathy with the other leading ,chartists1 and soon joined the advanced ,radical party4 ,thenceforward he devoted himself to law and literature1 writing novels1 tales and political songs4 ,he made several unsuccessful attempts to enter parliament1 and was about to contest ,manchester1 with the certainty of being returned1 when he died there on the #bfth of ,january #ahfi4 ,he is believed to have sacrificed a considerable fortune rather than abandon his ,chartist principles4 ,his wife was ,jane ,atherley2 and his son1 ,llewellyn ,atherley-,jones1 ,k4,c4 7b4 #ahea71 became a well-known barrister and ,liberal member of parliament4 ,,jones1 ,,henry 7#ahca-ahii71 ,english author1 well known as a writer on whist under his nom de guerre ,cavendish1 was born in ,london on the #bnd of ,november #ahca1 being the eldest son of ,henry ,d4 ,jones1 a medical practitioner4 ,he adopted his father's profession1 established himself in #aheb and continued for sixteen years in practice in ,london4 ,the father was a keen devotee of whist1 and under his eye the son became early in life a good player4 ,he was a member of several whist clubs1 among them the ,cavendish1 and in #ahfb appeared his ,principles of ,whist1 stated and explained by ,cavendish1 which was destined to become the leading authority as to the practice of the game4 ,this work was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and cart4 ,cavendish also wrote on billiards1 lawn tennis and croquet1 and contributed articles on whist and other games to the ninth edition of the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica4 ',cavendish' was not a law-maker1 but he codified and commented upon the laws which had been made during many generations of card-playing4 ,one of the most noteworthy points in his character was the manner in which he kept himself abreast of improvements in his favourite game4 ,he died on the #ajth of ,february #ahii4 ,,jones1 ,,henry ,,arthur 7#ahea- 71 ,english dramatist1 was born at ,grandborough1 ,buckinghamshire1 on the #bhth of ,september #ahea the son of ,silvanus ,jones1 a farmer4 ,he began to earn his living early1 his spare time being given to literary pursuits4 ,he was twenty-seven before his first piece1 ,only ,round the ,corner1 was produced at the ,exeter ,theatre1 but within four years of his dbut as a dramatist he scored a great success by ,the ,silver ,king 7,november #ahhb71 written with ,henry ,herman1 a melodrama produced by ,wilson ,barrett at the ,princess's ,theatre4 ,its financial success enabled the author to write a play to please himself4 ,saints and ,sinners 7#ahhd71 which ran for two hundred nights1 placed on the stage a picture of middle-class life and religion in a country town1 and the introduction of the religious element raised considerable outcry4 ,the author defended himself in an article published in the ,nineteenth ,century 7,january #ahhe71 taking for his starting-point a quotation from the preface to ,molire's ,tartuffe4 ,his next serious piece was ,the ,middleman 7#ahhi71 followed by ,judah 7#ahij71 both powerful plays1 which established his reputation4 ,later plays were ,the ,dancing ,girl 7#ahia71 ,the ,crusaders 7#ahia71 ,the ,bauble ,shop 7#ahic71 ,the ,tempter 7#ahic71 ,the ,masqueraders 7#ahid71 ,the ,case of ,rebellious ,susan 7#ahid71 ,the ,triumph of the ,philistines 7#ahie71 ,michael and his ,lost ,angel 7#ahif71 ,the ,rogue's ,comedy 7#ahif71 ,the ,physician 7#ahig71 ,the ,liars 7#ahig71 ,carnac ,sahib 7#ahii71 ,the ,manoeuvres of ,jane 7#ahii71 ,the ,lackeys' ,carnival 7#aijj71 ,mrs ,dane's ,defence 7#aijj71 ,the ,princess's ,nose 7#aijb71 ,chance the ,idol 7#aijb71 ,whitewashing ,julia 7#aijc71 ,joseph ,entangled 7#aijd71 ,the ,chevalier 7#aijd71 c4 ,a uniform edition of his plays began to be issued in #ahia2 and his own views of dramatic art have been expressed from time to time in lectures and essays1 collected in #ahie as ,the ,renascence of the ,english ,drama4 ,,jones1 ,,inigo 7#aegc-afea71 ,english architect1 sometimes called the ,english ,palladio1 the son of a cloth-worker1 was born in ,london on the #aeth of ,july #aegc4 ,it is stated that he was apprenticed to a joiner1 but at any rate his talent for drawing attracted the attention of ,thomas ,howard1 earl of ,arundel 7some say ,william1 #crd earl of ,pembroke71 through whose help he went to study landscape-painting in ,italy4 ,his preference soon transferred itself to architecture1 and1 following chiefly the style of ,palladio1 he acquired at ,venice such a reputation that in #afjd he was invited by ,christian ,,iv4 to ,denmark1 where he is said to have designed the two great royal palaces of ,rosenborg and ,frederiksborg4 ,in the following year he accompanied ,anne of ,denmark to the court of ,james ,i4 of ,england1 where1 besides being appointed architect to the queen and ,prince ,henry1 he was employed in supplying the designs and decorations of the court masques4 ,after a second visit to ,italy in #afab1 ,jones was appointed surveyor-general of royal buildings by ,james ,i41 and was engaged to prepare designs for a new palace at ,whitehall4 ,in #afbj he was employed by the king to investigate the origin of ,stonehenge1 when he came to the absurd conclusion that it had been a ,roman temple4 ,shortly afterwards he was appointed one of the commissioners for the repair of ,st ,paul's1 but the work was not begun till #afcc4 ,under ,charles ,i4 he enjoyed the same offices as under his predecessor1 and in the capacity of designer of the masques he came into collision with ,ben ,jonson1 who frequently made him the butt of his satire4 ,after the ,civil ,war ,jones was forced to pay heavy fines as a courtier and malignant4 ,he died in poverty on the #eth of ,july #afea4 ,a list of the principal buildings designed by ,jones is given in ,dallaway's edition of ,walpole's ,anecdotes of ,painting1 and for an estimate of him as an architect see ,fergusson's ,history of ,modern ,architecture4 ,the ,architecture of ,palladio1 in #d books1 by ,inigo ,jones1 appeared in #agae2 ,the ,most ,notable ,antiquity of ,great ,britain1 called ,stonehenge1 restored by ,inigo ,jones1 in #afee 7ed4 with memoir1 #agbe72 the ,designs of ,inigo ,jones1 by ,w4 ,kent1 in #agbg2 and ,the ,designs of ,inigo ,jones1 by ,j4 ,ware1 in #ageg4 ,see also ,g4 ,h4 ,birch1 ,london ,churches of the ,x,v,i,ith and ,x,v,i,i,ith ,centuries 7#ahif72 ,w4 ,j4 ,loftie1 ,inigo ,jones and ,wren1 or the ,rise and ,decline of ,modern ,architecture in ,england 7#ahic74 ,,jones1 ,,john 7c4 #ahjj-ahhb71 ,english art collector1 was born about #ahjj in or near ,london4 ,he was apprenticed to a tailor1 and about #ahbe opened a shop of his own in the west-end of ,london4 ,in #ahej he was able to retire from active management with a large fortune4 ,when quite a young man he had begun to collect articles of vertu4 ,the rooms over his shop in which he at first lived were soon crowded1 and even the bedrooms of his new house in ,piccadilly were filled with art treasures4 ,his collection was valued at approximately #bej1jjj4 ,jones died in ,london on the #gth of ,january #ahhb1 leaving his pictures1 furniture and objects of art to the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,a ,catalogue of the ,jones ,bequest was published by the ,museum in #ahhb1 and a ,handbook1 with memoir1 in #ahhc4 ,,jones1 ,,john ,,paul 7#agdg-agib71 ,american naval officer1 was born on the #fth of ,july #agdg1 on the estate of ,arbigland1 in the parish of ,kirkbean and the stewartry of ,kirkcudbright1 ,scotland4 ,his father1 ,john ,paul1 was gardener to ,robert ,craik1 a member of parliament2 and his mother1 ,jean ,macduff1 was the daughter of a ,highlander4 ,young ,john ,paul1 at the age of twelve1 became shipmaster's apprentice to a merchant of ,whitehaven1 named ,younger4 ,at seventeen he shipped as second mate and in the next year as first mate in one of his master's vessels2 on being released from his indentures1 he acquired an interest in a ship1 and as first mate made two voyages between ,jamaica and the ,guinea coast1 trading in slaves4 ,becoming dissatisfied with this kind of employment1 he sold his share in the ship and embarked for ,england4 ,during the voyage both the captain and the mate died of fever1 and ,john ,paul took command and brought the ship safely to port4 ,the owners gave him and the crew #aj of the cargo2 after #agfh1 as captain of one of their merchantmen1 ,john ,paul made several voyages to ,america2 but for unknown reasons he suddenly gave up his command to live in ,america in poverty and obscurity until #agge4 ,during this period he assumed the name of ,jones1 apparently out of regard for ,willie ,jones1 a wealthy planter and prominent political leader of ,north ,carolina1 who had befriended ,john ,paul in his days of poverty4 ,when war broke out between ,england and her ,american colonies1 ,john ,paul ,jones was commissioned as a first lieutenant by the ,continental ,congress1 on the #bbnd of ,december #agge4 ,in #aggf he participated in the unsuccessful attack on the island of ,new ,providence1 and as commander first of the ,providence and then of the ,alfred he cruised between ,bermuda and ,nova ,scotia1 inflicting much damage on ,british shipping and fisheries4 ,on the #ajth of ,october #aggf he was promoted captain4 ,on the #ast of ,november #aggg he sailed in the sloop-of-war ,ranger for ,france with despatches for the ,american commissioners1 announcing the surrender of ,burgoyne and asking that ,jones should be supplied with a swift frigate for harassing the coasts of ,england4 ,failing to secure a frigate1 ,jones sailed from ,brest in the ,ranger on the #ajth of ,april #aggh4 ,a few days later he surprised the garrisons of the two forts commanding the harbour of ,whitehaven1 a port with which he was familiar from boyhood1 spiked the guns and made an unsuccessful attempt to fire the shipping4 ,four days thereafter he encountered the ,british sloop-of-war ,drake1 a vessel slightly superior to his in fighting capacity1 and after an hour's engagement the ,british ship struck her colours and was taken to ,brest4 ,by this exploit ,jones became a great hero in the eyes of the ,french1 just beginning a war with ,great ,britain4 ,with the rank of commodore he was now put at the head of a squadron of five ships4 ,his flagship1 the ,duras1 a re-fitted ,east ,indiaman1 was re-named by him the ,bonhomme ,richard1 as a compliment to ,benjamin ,franklin1 whose ,poor ,richard's ,almanac was then popular in ,france4 ,on the #adth of ,august the five ships sailed from ,l',orient1 accompanied by two ,french privateers4 ,several of the ,french commanders under ,jones proved insubordinate1 and the privateers and three of the men-of-war soon deserted him4 ,with the others1 however1 he continued to take prizes1 and even planned to attack the port of ,leith1 but was prevented by unfavourable winds4 ,on the evening of the #bcrd of ,september the three men-of-war sighted two ,british men-of-war1 the ,serapis and the ,countess of ,scarbrough1 off ,flamborough ,head4 ,the ,alliance1 commanded by ,captain ,landais1 made off1 leaving the ,bonhomme ,richard and the ,pallas to engage the ,englishmen4 ,jones engaged the greatly superior ,serapis1 and after a desperate battle of three and a half hours compelled the ,english ship to surrender4 ,the ,countess of ,scarbrough had meanwhile struck to the more formidable ,pallas4 ,jones transferred his men and supplies to the ,serapis1 and the next day the ,bonhomme ,richard sank4 ,during the following year ,jones spent much of his time in ,paris4 ,louis ,,xvi4 gave him a gold-hilted sword and the royal order of military merit1 and made him chevalier of ,france4 ,early in #agha ,jones returned to ,america to secure a new command4 ,congress offered him the command of the ,america1 a frigate then building1 but the vessel was shortly afterwards given to ,france4 ,in ,november #aghc he was sent to ,paris as agent for the prizes captured in ,european waters under his own command1 and although he gave much attention to social affairs and engaged in several private business enterprises1 he was very successful in collecting the prize money4 ,early in #aghg he returned to ,america and received a gold medal from ,congress in recognition of his services4 ,in #aghh ,jones entered the service of the empress ,catherine of ,russia1 avowing his intention1 however1 to preserve the condition of an ,american citizen and officer4 ,as a rear-admiral he took part in the naval campaign in the ,liman 7an arm of the ,black ,sea1 into which flow the ,bug and ,dnieper rivers7 against the ,turks1 but the jealous intrigues of ,russian officers caused him to be recalled to ,st ,petersburg for the pretended purpose of being transferred to a command in the ,north ,sea4 ,here he was compelled to remain in idleness1 while rival officers plotted against him and even maliciously assailed his private character4 ,in ,august #aghi he left ,st ,petersburg a bitterly disappointed man4 ,in ,may #agij he arrived in ,paris1 where he remained in retirement during the rest of his life1 although he made several efforts to re-enter the ,russian service4 ,undue exertion and exposure had wasted his strength before he reached the prime of life1 and after an illness1 in which he was attended by the queen's physician1 he died on the #ahth of ,july #agib4 ,his body was interred in the ,st ,louis cemetery for foreign ,protestants1 the funeral expenses being paid from the private purse of ,pierrot ,franois ,simmoneau1 the king's commissary4 ,in the confusion during the following years the burial place of ,paul ,jones was forgotten2 but in ,june #ahii ,general ,horace ,porter1 ,american ambassador to ,france1 began a systematic search for the body1 and after excavations on the site of the old ,protestant cemetery1 now covered with houses1 a leaden coffin was discovered1 which contained the body in a remarkable state of preservation4 ,in ,july #aije a fleet of ,american war-ships carried the body to ,annapolis1 where it now rests in one of the buildings of the naval academy4 ,jones was a seaman of great bravery and technical ability1 but over-jealous of his reputation and inclined to be querulous and boastful4 ,the charges by the ,english that he was a pirate were particularly galling to him4 ,although of unprepossessing appearance1 #e ft4 #g in4 in height and slightly round-shouldered1 he was noted for his pleasant manners and was welcomed into the most brilliant courts of ,europe4 ,romance has played with the memory of ,paul ,jones to such an extent that few accounts of his life are correct4 ,of the early biographies the best are ,sherburne's 7,london1 #ahbe71 chiefly a collection of ,jones's correspondence2 the ,janette-,taylor ,collection 7,new ,york1 #ahcj71 containing numerous extracts from his letters and journals2 and the life by ,a4 ,s4 ,mac,kenzie 7#b vols41 ,new ,york1 #ahdf74 ,in recent years a number of new biographies have appeared1 including ,a4 ,c4 ,buell's 7#b vols41 #aijj71 the trustworthiness of which has been discredited1 and ,hutchins ,hapgood's in the ,riverside ,biographical ,series 7#aija74 ,the life by ,cyrus ,townsend ,brady in the ,great ,commanders ,series 7#aijj7 is perhaps the best4 ,,jones1 ,,michael 7d4 #afdi71 ,british soldier4 ,his father was bishop of ,killaloe in ,ireland4 ,at the outbreak of the ,english ,civil ,war he was studying law1 but he soon took service in the army of the king in ,ireland4 ,he was present with ,ormonde's army in many of the expeditions and combats of the devastating ,irish ,war1 but upon the conclusion of the ,irish ,cessation 7see ,,ormonde1 ,,james ,,butler1 ,,duke ,,of7 he resolved to leave the king's service for that of the parliament1 in which he soon distinguished himself by his activity and skill4 ,in the ,welsh ,war1 and especially at the last great victory at ,rowton ,heath1 ,jones's cavalry was always far superior to that of the ,royalists1 and in reward for his services he was made governor of ,chester when that city fell into the hands of the parliament4 ,soon afterwards ,jones was sent again to the ,irish ,war1 in the capacity of commander-in-chief4 ,he began his work by reorganizing the army in the neighbourhood of ,dublin1 and for some time he carried on a desultory war of posts1 necessarily more concerned for his supplies than for a victory4 ,but at ,dungan ,hill he obtained a complete success over the army of ,general ,preston1 and though the war was by no means ended1 ,jones was able to hold a large tract of country for the parliament4 ,but on the execution of ,charles ,i41 the war entered upon a new phase1 and garrison after garrison fell to ,ormonde's ,royalists4 ,soon ,jones was shut up in ,dublin1 and then followed a siege which was regarded both in ,england and ,ireland with the most intense interest4 ,on the #bnd of ,august #afdi the ,dublin garrison relieved itself by the brilliant action of ,rathmines1 in which the royal army was practically destroyed4 ,a fortnight later ,cromwell landed with heavy reinforcements from ,england4 ,jones1 his lieutenant-general1 took the field2 but on the #aith of ,december #afdi he died1 worn out by the fatigues of the campaign4 ,,jones1 ,,owen 7#agda-ahad71 ,welsh antiquary1 was born on the #crd of ,september #agda at ,llanvihangel ,glyn y ,myvyr in ,denbighshire4 ,in #agfj he entered the service of a ,london firm of furriers1 to whose business he ultimately succeeded4 ,he had from boyhood studied ,welsh literature1 and later devoted time and money to its collection4 ,assisted by ,edward ,william of ,glamorgan 7,iolo ,morganwg7 and ,dr4 ,owen ,pughe1 he published1 at a cost of more than #ajjj1 the well-known ,myvyrian ,archaiology of ,wales 7#ahja-ahjg71 a collection of pieces dating from the #fth to the #adth century4 ,the manuscripts which he had brought together are deposited in the ,british ,museum2 the material not utilized in the ,myvyrian ,archaiology amounts to #ajj volumes1 containing #af1jjj pages of verse and #ae1cjj pages of prose4 ,jones was the founder of the ,gwyneddigion ,society 7#aggb7 in ,london for the encouragement of ,welsh studies and literature2 and he began in #ahje a miscellany--the ,greal--of which only one volume appeared4 ,an edition of the poems of ,davydd ab ,gwilym was also issued at his expense4 ,he died on the #bfth of ,december #ahad at his business premises in ,upper ,thames ,street1 ,london4 ,,jones1 ,,owen 7#ahji-ahgd71 ,british architect and art decorator1 son of ,owen ,jones1 a ,welsh antiquary1 was born in ,london4 ,after an apprenticeship of six years in an architect's office1 he travelled for four years in ,italy1 ,greece1 ,turkey1 ,egypt and ,spain1 making a special study of the ,alhambra4 ,on his return to ,england in #ahcf he busied himself in his professional work4 ,his forte was interior decoration1 for which his formula was3 ,form without colour is like a body without a soul4 ,he was one of the superintendents of works for the ,exhibition of #ahea and was responsible for the general decoration of the ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham4 ,along with ,digby ,wyatt1 ,jones collected the casts of works of art with which the palace was filled4 ,he died in ,london on the #aith of ,april #ahgd4 ,owen ,jones was described in the ,builder for #ahgd as the most potent apostle of colour that architectural ,england has had in these days4 ,his range of activity is to be traced in his works3 ,plans1 ,elevations and ,details of the ,alhambra 7#ahce-ahde71 in which he was assisted by ,,mm4 ,goury and ,gayangos2 ,designs for ,mosaic and ,tesselated ,pavements 7#ahdb72 ,polychromatic ,ornament of ,italy 7#ahde72 ,an ,attempt to ,define the ,principles which regulate the ,employment of ,colour in ,decorative ,arts 7#aheb72 ,handbook to the ,alhambra ,court 7#ahed72 ,grammar of ,ornament 7#ahef71 a very important work2 ,one ,thousand and ,one ,initial ,letters 7#ahfd72 ,seven ,hundred and ,two ,monograms 7#ahfd72 and ,examples of ,chinese ,ornament 7#ahfg74 ,,jones1 ,,richard 7#agij-ahee71 ,english economist1 was born at ,tunbridge ,wells4 ,the son of a solicitor1 he was intended for the legal profession1 and was educated at ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,owing to ill-health1 he abandoned the idea of the law and took orders soon after leaving ,cambridge4 ,for several years he held curacies in ,sussex and ,kent4 ,in #ahcc he was appointed professor of political economy at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 resigning this post in #ahce to succeed ,t4 ,r4 ,malthus in the chair of political economy and history at the ,east ,india ,college at ,haileybury4 ,he took an active part in the commutation of tithes in #ahcf and showed great ability as a tithe commissioner1 an office which he filled till #ahea4 ,he was for some time1 also1 a charity commissioner4 ,he died at ,haileybury1 shortly after he had resigned his professorship1 on the #bfth of ,january #ahee4 ,in #ahca ,jones published his ,essay on the ,distribution of ,wealth and on the ,sources of ,taxation1 his most important work4 ,in it he showed himself a thorough-going critic of the ,ricardian system4 ,jones's method is inductive2 his conclusions are founded on a wide observation of contemporary facts1 aided by the study of history4 ,the world he professed to study was not an imaginary world1 inhabited by abstract economic men1 but the real world with the different forms which the ownership and cultivation of land1 and1 in general1 the conditions of production and distribution1 assume at different times and places4 ,his recognition of such different systems of life in communities occupying different stages in the progress of civilization led to his proposal of what he called a political economy of nations4 ,this was a protest against the practice of taking the exceptional state of facts which exists1 and is indeed only partially realized1 in a small corner of our planet as representing the uniform type of human societies1 and ignoring the effects of the early history and special development of each community as influencing its economic phenomena4 ,jones is remarkable for his freedom from exaggeration and one-sided statement2 thus1 whilst holding ,malthus in1 perhaps1 undue esteem1 he declines to accept the proposition that an increase of the means of subsistence is necessarily followed by an increase of population2 and he maintains what is undoubtedly true1 that with the growth of population1 in all well-governed and prosperous states1 the command over food1 instead of diminishing1 increases4 ,a collected edition of ,jones's works1 with a preface by ,w4 ,whewell1 was published in #ahei4 ,,jones1 ,,thomas ,,rupert 7#ahai- 71 ,english geologist and palaeontologist1 was born in ,london on the #ast of ,october #ahai4 ,while at a private school at ,ilminster1 his attention was attracted to geology by the fossils that are so abundant in the ,lias quarries4 ,in #ahce he was apprenticed to a surgeon at ,taunton1 and he completed his apprenticeship in #ahdb at ,newbury in ,berkshire4 ,he was then engaged in practice mainly in ,london1 till in #ahdi he was appointed assistant secretary to the ,geological ,society of ,london4 ,in #ahfb he was made professor of geology at the ,royal ,military ,college1 ,sandhurst4 ,having devoted his especial attention to fossil microzoa1 he now became the highest authority in ,england on the ,foraminifera and ,entomostraca4 ,he edited the #bnd edition of ,mantell's ,medals of ,creation 7#ahed71 the #crd edition of ,mantell's ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight 7#ahed71 and the #gth edition of ,mantell's ,wonders of ,geology 7#aheg72 he also edited the #bnd edition of ,dixon's ,geology of ,sussex 7#ahgh74 ,he was elected ,f4,r4,s4 in #ahgb and was awarded the ,lyell medal by the ,geological ,society in #ahij4 ,for many years he was specially interested in the geology of ,south ,africa4 ,his publications include ,a ,monograph of the ,entomostraca of the ,cretaceous ,formation of ,england 7,palaeontograph4 ,soc41 #ahdi72 ,a ,monograph of the ,tertiary ,entomostraca of ,england 7ibid4 #aheg72 ,a ,monograph of the ,fossil ,estheriae 7ibid4 #ahfb72 ,a ,monograph of the ,foraminifera of the ,crag 7ibid4 #ahff1 c41 with ,h4 ,b4 ,brady72 and numerous articles in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 the ,geological ,magazine1 the ,proceedings of the ,geologists' ,association1 and other journals4 ,,jones1 ,,william 7#agbf-ahjj71 ,english divine1 was born at ,lowick1 in ,northamptonshire on the #cjth of ,july #agbf4 ,he was descended from an old ,welsh family and one of his progenitors was ,colonel ,john ,jones1 brother-in-law of ,cromwell4 ,he was educated at ,charterhouse ,school1 and at ,university ,college1 ,oxford4 ,there a kindred taste for music1 as well as a similarity in regard to other points of character1 led to his close intimacy with ,george ,horne 7q4v471 afterwards bishop of ,norwich1 whom he induced to study ,hutchinsonian doctrines4 ,after obtaining his bachelor's degree in #agdi1 ,jones held various preferments4 ,in #aggg he obtained the perpetual curacy of ,nayland1 ,suffolk1 and on ,horne's appointment to ,norwich became his chaplain1 afterwards writing his life4 ,his vicarage became the centre of a ,high ,church coterie1 and ,jones himself was a link between the non-jurors and the ,oxford movement4 ,he could write intelligibly on abstruse topics4 ,he died on the #fth of ,january #ahjj4 ,in #agef ,jones published his tractate ,on the ,catholic ,doctrine of the ,trinity1 a statement of the doctrine from the ,hutchinsonian point of view1 with a succinct and able summary of biblical proofs4 ,this was followed in #agfb by an ,essay on the ,first ,principles of ,natural ,philosophy1 in which he maintained the theories of ,hutchinson in opposition to those of ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 and in #agha he dealt with the same subject in ,physiological ,disquisitions4 ,jones was also the originator of the ,british ,critic 7,may #agic74 ,his collected works1 with a life by ,william ,stevens1 appeared in #ahja1 in #ab vols41 and were condensed into #f vols4 in #ahaj4 ,a life of ,jones1 forming pt4 #e of the ,biography of ,english ,divines1 was published in #ahdi4 ,,jones1 ,,sir ,,william 7#agdf-agid71 ,british ,orientalist and jurist1 was born in ,london on the #bhth of ,september #agdf4 ,he distinguished himself at ,harrow1 and during his last three years there applied himself to the study of ,oriental languages1 teaching himself the rudiments of ,arabic1 and reading ,hebrew with tolerable ease4 ,in his vacations he improved his acquaintance with ,french and ,italian4 ,in #agfd ,jones entered ,university ,college1 ,oxford1 where he continued to study ,oriental literature1 and perfected himself in ,persian and ,arabic by the aid of a ,syrian ,mirza1 whom he had discovered and brought from ,london4 ,he added to his knowledge of ,hebrew and made considerable progress in ,italian1 ,spanish and ,portuguese4 ,he began the study of ,chinese1 and made himself master of the radical characters of that language4 ,during five years he partly supported himself by acting as tutor to ,lord ,althorpe1 afterwards the second ,earl ,spencer1 and in #agff he obtained a fellowship4 ,though but twenty-two years of age1 he was already becoming famous as an ,orientalist1 and when ,christian ,,vii4 of ,denmark visited ,england in #agfh1 bringing with him a life of ,nadir ,shah in ,persian1 ,jones was requested to translate the ,,ms4 into ,french4 ,the translation appeared in #aggj1 with an introduction containing a description of ,asia and a short history of ,persia4 ,this was followed in the same year by a ,trait sur la posie orientale1 and by a ,french metrical translation of the odes of ,hafiz4 ,in #agga he published a ,dissertation sur la littrature orientale1 defending ,oxford scholars against the criticisms made by ,anquetil ,du ,perron in the introduction to his translation of the ,zend-,avesta4 ,in the same year appeared his ,grammar of the ,persian ,language4 ,in #aggb ,jones published a volume of ,poems1 ,chiefly ,translations from ,asiatick ,languages1 together with ,two ,essays on the ,poetry of ,eastern ,nations and on the ,arts commonly called ,imitative1 and in #aggd a treatise entitled ,poeseos ,asiaticae commentatorium libri sex1 which definitely confirmed his authority as an ,oriental scholar4 ,finding that some more financially profitable occupation was necessary1 ,jones devoted himself with his customary energy to the study of the law1 and was called to the bar at the ,middle ,temple in #aggd4 ,he studied not merely the technicalities1 but the philosophy1 of law1 and within two years had acquired so considerable a reputation that he was in #aggf appointed commissioner in bankruptcy4 ,besides writing an ,essay on the ,law of ,bailments1 which enjoyed a high reputation both in ,england and ,america1 ,jones translated1 in #aggh1 the speeches of ,isaeus on the ,athenian right of inheritance4 ,in #aghj he was a parliamentary candidate for the university of ,oxford1 but withdrew from the contest before the day of election1 as he found he had no chance of success owing to his ,liberal opinions1 especially on the questions of the ,american ,war and of the slave trade4 ,in #aghc was published his translation of the seven ancient ,arabic poems called ,moallakt4 ,in the same year he was appointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at ,calcutta1 then ,fort ,william1 and was knighted4 ,shortly after his arrival in ,india he founded1 in ,january #aghd1 the ,bengal ,asiatic ,society1 of which he remained president till his death4 ,convinced as he was of the great importance of consulting the ,hindu legal authorities in the original1 he at once began the study of ,sanskrit1 and undertook1 in #aghh1 the colossal task of compiling a digest of ,hindu and ,mahommedan law4 ,this he did not live to complete1 but he published the admirable beginnings of it in his ,institutes of ,hindu ,law1 or the ,ordinances of ,manu 7#agid72 his ,mohammedan ,law of ,succession to ,property of ,intestates2 and his ,mohammedan ,law of ,inheritance 7#agib74 ,in #aghi ,jones had completed his translation of ,kalidasa's most famous drama1 ,sakuntala4 ,he also translated the collection of fables entitled the ,hitopadesa1 the ,gitagovinda1 and considerable portions of the ,vedas1 besides editing the text of ,kalidasa's poem ,ritusamhara4 ,he was a large contributor also to his society's volumes of ,asiatic ,researches4 ,his unremitting literary labours1 together with his heavy judicial work1 told on his health after a ten years' residence in ,bengal2 and he died at ,calcutta on the #bgth of ,april #agid4 ,an extraordinary linguist1 knowing thirteen languages well1 and having a moderate acquaintance with twenty-eight others1 his range of knowledge was enormous4 ,as a pioneer in ,sanskrit learning and as founder of the ,asiatic ,society he rendered the language and literature of the ancient ,hindus accessible to ,european scholars1 and thus became the indirect cause of later achievements in the field of ,sanskrit and comparative philology4 ,a monument to his memory was erected by the ,east ,india ,company in ,st ,paul's1 ,london1 and a statue in ,calcutta4 ,see the ,memoir 7#ahjd7 by ,lord ,teignmouth1 published in the collected edition of ,sir ,w4 ,jones's works4 ,j,,nk,,ping1 a town of ,sweden1 capital of the district 7ln7 of ,jnkping1 #bcj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,stockholm by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #bc1adc4 ,it occupies a beautiful but somewhat unhealthy position between the southern end of ,lake ,vetter and two small lakes1 ,roksj and ,munksj4 ,two quarters of the town1 ,svenska ,mad and ,tyska ,mad1 recall the time when the site was a marsh 7mad71 and buildings were constructed on piles4 ,the residential suburbs among the hills1 especially ,dunkehallar1 are attractive and healthier than the town4 ,the church of ,st ,kristine 7c4 #afej71 the court-houses1 town-hall1 government buildings1 and high school1 are noteworthy4 ,the town is one of the leading industrial centres in ,sweden4 ,the match manufacture1 for which it is principally famous1 was founded by ,johan ,edvard ,lundstrm in #ahdd4 ,the well-known brand of skerhets-tndstickor 7safety-matches7 was introduced later4 ,there are also textile manufactures1 paper-factories 7on ,munksj71 and mechanical works4 ,there is a large fire-arms factory at ,huskvarna1 #e m4 ,e4 ,water-power is supplied here by a fine series of falls4 ,the hill ,taberg1 #h m4 ,s41 is a mass of magnetic iron ore1 rising #daj ft4 above the surrounding country1 #biej ft4 long and #adge ft4 broad1 but the percentage of iron is low as compared with the rich ores of other parts1 and the deposit is little worked4 ,jnkping is the seat of one of the three courts of appeal in ,sweden4 ,jnkping received the earliest extant ,swedish charter in #abhd from ,magnus ,i4 ,the castle is mentioned in #abfc1 when ,waldemar ,birgersson married the ,danish princess ,sophia4 ,jnkping was afterwards the scene of many events of moment in ,scandinavian history--of parliaments in #aceg1 #adci1 and #aeii2 of the meeting of the ,danish and ,swedish plenipotentiaries in #addh2 and of the death of ,sten ,sture1 the elder1 in #aejc4 ,in #afab ,gustavus ,adolphus caused the inhabitants to destroy their town lest it should fall into the hands of the ,danes2 but it was rebuilt soon after1 and in #afbj received special privileges from the king4 ,at this period a textile industry was started here1 the first of any importance in ,sweden4 ,it was from the ,dutch and ,german workmen1 introduced at this time1 that the quarter ,tyska ,mad received its name4 ,on the #ajth of ,december #ahji the plenipotentiaries of ,sweden and ,denmark concluded peace in the town4 ,,jonson1 ,,ben#a 7#aegc-afcg71 ,english dramatist1 was born1 probably in ,westminster1 in the beginning of the year #aegc 7or possibly1 if he reckoned by the unadopted modern calendar1 #aegb2 see ,castelain1 p4 #d1 note #a74 ,by the poet's account his grandfather had been a gentleman who came from ,carlisle1 and originally1 the grandson thought1 from ,annandale4 ,his arms1 three spindles or rhombi1 are the family device of the ,johnstones of ,annandale1 a fact which confirms his assertion of ,border descent4 ,ben ,jonson further related that he was born a month after the death of his father1 who1 after suffering in estate and person under ,queen ,mary1 had in the end turned minister4 ,two years after the birth of her son the widow married again2 she may be supposed to have loved him in a passionate way peculiar to herself1 since on one occasion we find her revealing an almost ferocious determination to save his honour at the cost of both his life and her own4 ,jonson's stepfather was a master bricklayer1 living in ,hartshorn ,lane1 near ,charing ,cross1 who provided his stepson with the foundations of a good education4 ,after attending a private school in ,st ,martin's ,lane1 the boy was sent to ,westminster ,school at the expense1 it is said1 of ,william ,camden4 ,jonson's gratitude for an education to which in truth he owed an almost inestimable debt concentrated itself upon the most reverend head of his benefactor1 then second and afterwards head master of the famous school1 and the firm friend of his pupil in later life4 ,after reaching the highest form at ,westminster1 ,jonson is stated1 but on unsatisfactory evidence1 to have proceeded to ,cambridge--according to ,fuller1 to ,st ,john's ,college4 7,for reasons in support of the tradition that he was a member of ,st ,john's ,college1 see ,j4 ,b4 ,mullinger1 the ,eagle1 ,no4 xxv47 ,he says1 however1 himself that he studied at neither university1 but was put to a trade immediately on leaving school4 ,he soon had enough of the trade1 which was no doubt his father's bricklaying1 for ,henslowe in writing to ,edward ,alleyne of his affair with ,gabriel ,spenser calls him bergemen sic ,jonson1 bricklayer4 ,either before or after his marriage--more probably before1 as ,sir ,francis ,vere's three ,english regiments were not removed from the ,low ,countries till #aeib--;he spent some time in that country soldiering1 much to his own subsequent satisfaction when the days of self-conscious retrospect arrived1 but to no further purpose beyond that of seeing something of the world4 ,ben ,jonson married not later than #aeib4 ,the registers of ,st ,martin's ,church state that his eldest daughter ,maria died in ,november #aeic when she was1 ,jonson tells us 7epigram #bb71 only six months old4 ,his eldest son ,benjamin died of the plague ten years later 7epigram #de74 7,a younger ,benjamin died in #afce47 ,his wife ,jonson characterized to ,drummond as a shrew1 but honest2 and for a period 7undated7 of five years he preferred to live without her1 enjoying the hospitality of ,lord ,aubigny 7afterwards duke of ,lennox74 ,long burnings of oil among his books1 and long spells of recreation at the tavern1 such as ,jonson loved1 are not the most favoured accompaniments of family life4 ,but ,jonson was no stranger to the tenderest of affections3 two at least of the several children whom his wife bore to him he commemorated in touching little tributes of verse2 nor in speaking of his lost eldest daughter did he forget her mother's tears4 ,by the middle of #aeig we come across further documentary evidence of him at home in ,london in the shape of an entry in ,philip ,henslowe's diary 7,july #bh7 of #cs4 #f;d4 received of ,bengemenes ,johnsones share4 ,he was therefore by this time--when ,shakespeare1 his senior by nearly nine years1 was already in prosperous circumstances and good esteem--at least a regular member of the acting profession1 with a fixed engagement in the lord admiral's company1 then performing under ,henslowe's management at the ,rose4 ,perhaps he had previously acted at the ,curtain 7a former house of the lord admiral's men71 and taken mad ,jeronimo's part on a play-wagon in the highway4 ,this latter appearance1 if it ever took place1 would1 as was pointed out by ,gifford1 probably have been in ,thomas ,kyd's ,spanish ,tragedy1 since in ,the ,first ,part of ,jeronimo ,jonson would have had1 most inappropriately1 to dwell on the smallness of his bulk4 ,he was at a subsequent date 7#afja7 employed by ,henslowe to write up ,the ,spanish ,tragedy1 and this fact may have given rise to ,wood's story of his performance as a stroller 7see1 however1 ,fleay1 ,the ,english ,drama1 ii4 #bi1 #cj74 ,jonson's additions1 which were not the first changes made in the play1 are usually supposed to be those printed with ,the ,spanish ,tragedy in the edition of #afjb2 ,charles ,lamb's doubts on the subject1 which were shared by ,coleridge1 seem an instance of that subjective kind of criticism which it is unsafe to follow when the external evidence to the contrary is so strong4 ,according to ,aubrey1 whose statement must be taken for what it is worth1 ,jonson was never a good actor1 but an excellent instructor4 ,his physique was certainly not well adapted to the histrionic conditions of his--perhaps of any--day2 but1 in any case1 it was not long before he found his place in the organism of his company4 ,in #aeig1 as we know from ,henslowe1 ,jonson undertook to write a play for the lord admiral's men2 and in the following year he was mentioned by ,mers in his ,palladis ,tamia as one of the best for tragedy1 without any reference to a connexion on his part with the other branch of the drama4 ,whether this was a criticism based on material evidence or an unconscious slip1 ,ben ,jonson in the same year #aeih produced one of the most famous of ,english comedies1 ,every ,man in his ,humour1 which was first acted--probably in the earlier part of ,september--by the lord chamberlain's company at the ,curtain4 ,shakespeare was one of the actors in ,jonson's comedy1 and it is in the character of ,old ,knowell in this very play that1 according to a bold but ingenious guess1 he is represented in the half-length portrait of him in the folio of #afbc1 beneath which were printed ,jonson's lines concerning the picture4 ,every ,man in his ,humour was published in #afja2 the critical prologue first appears in the folio of #afaf1 and there are other divergences 7see ,castelain1 appendix ,a74 ,after the ,restoration the play was revived in #agea by ,garrick 7who acted ,kitely7 with alterations1 and long continued to be known on the stage4 ,it was followed in the same year by ,the ,case is ,altered1 acted by the children of the queen's revels1 which contains a satirical attack upon the pageant poet1 ,anthony ,munday4 ,this comedy1 which was not included in the folio editions1 is one of intrigue rather than of character2 it contains obvious reminiscences of ,shylock and his daughter4 ,the earlier of these two comedies was indisputably successful4 ,before the year #aeih was out1 however1 ,jonson found himself in prison and in danger of the gallows4 ,in a duel1 fought on the #bbnd of ,september in ,hogsden ,fields1 he had killed an actor of ,henslowe's company named ,gabriel ,spenser4 ,the quarrel with ,henslowe consequent on this event may account for the production of ,every ,man in his ,humour by the rival company4 ,in prison ,jonson was visited by a ,roman ,catholic priest1 and the result 7certainly strange1 if ,jonson's parentage is considered7 was his conversion to the ,church of ,rome1 to which he adhered for twelve years4 ,jonson was afterwards a diligent student of divinity2 but1 though his mind was religious1 it is not probable that its natural bias much inclined it to dwell upon creeds and their controversies4 ,he pleaded guilty to the charge brought against him1 as the rolls of ,middlesex sessions show2 but1 after a short imprisonment1 he was released by benefit of clergy1 forfeiting his goods and chattels1 and being branded on his left thumb4 ,the affair does not seem to have affected his reputation2 in #aeii he is found back again at work for ,henslowe1 receiving together with ,dekker1 ,chettle and another gentleman1 earnest-money for a tragedy 7undiscovered7 called ,robert ,,ii41 ,king of ,scots4 ,in the same year he brought out through the lord chamberlain's company 7possibly already at the ,globe1 then newly built or building7 the elaborate comedy of ,every ,man out of his ,humour 7quarto #afjj2 fol4 #afaf7--;a play subsequently presented before ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,the sunshine of court favour1 rarely diffused during her reign in rays otherwise than figuratively golden1 was not to bring any material comfort to the most learned of her dramatists1 before there was laid upon her the inevitable hand of which his courtly epilogue had besought death to forget the use4 ,indeed1 of his ,cynthia's ,revels1 performed by the chapel children in #afjj and printed with the first title of ,the ,fountain of ,self-,love in #afja1 though it was no doubt primarily designed as a compliment to the queen1 the most marked result had been to offend two playwrights of note--,dekker1 with whom he had formerly worked in company1 and who had a healthy if rough grip of his own2 and ,marston1 who was perhaps less dangerous by his strength than by his versatility4 ,according to ,jonson1 his quarrel with ,marston had begun by the latter attacking his morals1 and in the course of it they came to blows1 and might have come to worse4 ,in ,cynthia's ,revels1 ,dekker is generally held to be satirized as ,hedon1 and ,marston as ,anaides 7,fleay1 however1 thinks ,anaides is ,dekker1 and ,hedon ,daniel71 while the character of ,crites most assuredly has some features of ,jonson himself4 ,learning the intention of the two writers whom he had satirized1 or at all events of ,dekker1 to wreak literary vengeance upon him1 he anticipated them in ,the ,poetaster 7#afja71 again played by the children of the queen's chapel at the ,blackfriars and printed in #afjb2 ,marston and ,dekker are here ridiculed respectively as the aristocratic ,crispinus and the vulgar ,demetrius4 ,the play was completed fifteen weeks after its plot was first conceived4 ,it is not certain to what the proceedings against author and play before the lord chief justice1 referred to in the dedication of the edition of #afaf1 had reference1 or when they were instituted4 ,fleay's supposition that the purge1 said in the ,returne from ,parnassus 7,pt4 ,,ii4 act iv4 sc4 iii47 to have been administered by ,shakespeare to ,jonson in return for ,horace's pill to the poets in this piece1 consisted of ,troilus and ,cressida is supremely ingenious1 but cannot be examined here4 ,as for ,dekker1 he retaliated on ,the ,poetaster by the ,satiromastix1 or ,the ,untrussing of the ,humorous ,poet 7#afjb74 ,some more last words were indeed attempted on ,jonson's part1 but in the ,apologetic ,dialogue added to ,the ,poetaster in the edition of #afaf1 though excluded from that of #afjb1 he says he intends to turn his attention to tragedy4 ,this intention he apparently carried out immediately1 for in #afjb he received #aj from ,henslowe for a play1 entitled ,richard ,crookbacke1 now lost--unfortunately so1 for purposes of comparison in particular1 even if it was only1 as ,fleay conjectures1 an alteration of ,marlowe's play4 ,according to a statement by ,overbury1 early in #afjc1 ,ben ,johnson1 the poet1 now lives upon one ,townesend1 supposed to have been the poet and masque-writer ,aurelian ,townshend1 at one time steward to the #ast earl of ,salisbury1 and scornes the world4 ,to his other early patron1 ,lord ,aubigny1 ,jonson dedicated the first of his two extant tragedies1 ,sejanus1 produced by the king's servants at the ,globe late in #afjc1 ,shakespeare once more taking a part in the performance4 ,either on its performance or on its appearing in print in #afje1 ,jonson was called before the privy council by the ,earl of ,northampton4 ,but it is open to question whether this was the occasion on which1 according to ,jonson's statement to ,drummond1 ,northampton accused him both of popery and treason 7see ,castelain1 ,appendix ,c74 ,though1 for one reason or another1 unsuccessful at first1 the endurance of its reputation is attested by its performance1 in a ,german version by an ,englishman1 ,john ,michael ,girish1 at the court of the grandson of ,james ,i4 at ,heidelberg4 ,when the reign of ,james ,i4 opened in ,england and an adulatory loyalty seemed intent on showing that it had not exhausted itself at the feet of ,gloriana1 ,jonson's well-stored brain and ready pen had their share in devising and executing ingenious variations on the theme ,welcome--since we cannot do without thee6 ,with extraordinary promptitude his genius1 which1 far from being ponderous in its operations1 was singularly swift and flexible in adapting itself to the demands made upon it1 met the new taste for masques and entertainments--new of course in degree rather than in kind--introduced with the new reign and fostered by both the king and his consort4 ,the pageant which on the #gth of ,may #afjc bade the king welcome to a capital dissolved in joy was partly of ,jonson's1 partly of ,dekker's1 devising2 and he was able to deepen and diversify the impression by the composition of masques presented to ,james ,i4 when entertained at houses of the nobility4 ,the ,satyr 7#afjc7 was produced on one of these occasions1 ,queen ,anne's sojourn at ,althorpe1 the seat of ,sir ,robert ,spencer1 afterwards ,lord ,althorpe1 who seems to have previously bestowed some patronage upon him4 ,the ,penates followed on ,may-day #afjd at the house of ,sir ,william ,cornwallis at ,highgate1 and the queen herself with her ladies played his ,masque of ,blackness at ,whitehall in #afje4 ,he was soon occasionally employed by the court itself--already in #afjf in conjunction with ,inigo ,jones1 as responsible for the painting and carpentry--and thus speedily showed himself master in a species of composition for which1 more than any other ,english poet before ,milton1 he secured an enduring place in the national poetic literature4 ,personally1 no doubt1 he derived considerable material benefit from the new fashion--more especially if his statement to ,drummond was anything like correct1 that out of his plays 7which may be presumed to mean his original plays7 he had never gained a couple of hundred pounds4 ,good humour seems to have come back with good fortune4 ,joint employment in ,the ,king's ,entertainment 7#afjd7 had reconciled him with ,dekker2 and with ,marston also1 who in #afjd dedicated to him his ,malcontent1 he was again on pleasant terms4 ,when1 therefore1 in #afjd ,marston and ,chapman 7who1 ,jonson told ,drummond1 was loved of him1 and whom he had probably honoured as ,virgil in ,the ,poetaster1 and who has1 though on doubtful grounds1 been supposed to have collaborated in the original ,sejanus7 produced the excellent comedy of ,eastward ,ho1 it appears to have contained some contributions by ,jonson4 ,at all events1 when the authors were arrested on account of one or more passages in the play which were deemed insulting to the ,scots1 he voluntarily imprisoned himself with them4 ,they were soon released1 and a banquet at his expense1 attended by ,camden and ,selden1 terminated the incident4 ,if ,jonson is to be believed1 there had been a report that the prisoners were to have their ears and noses cut1 and1 with reference apparently to this peril1 at the midst of the feast his old mother drank to him1 and showed him a paper which she had intended 7if the sentence had taken execution7 to have mixed in the prison among his drink1 which was full of lusty strong poison2 and that she was no churl1 she told him1 she minded first to have drunk of it herself4 ,strange to say1 in #afje ,jonson and ,chapman1 though the former1 as he averred1 had so attempered his style as to have given no cause to any good man of grief1 were again in prison on account of a play2 but they appear to have been once more speedily set free1 in consequence of a very manly and dignified letter addressed by ,jonson to the ,earl of ,salisbury4 ,as to the relations between ,chapman and ,jonson1 illustrated by newly discovered letters1 see ,bertram ,dobell in the ,athenaeum ,no4 #chca 7,march #cj1 #aija71 and the comments of ,castelain4 ,he thinks that the play in question1 in which both ,chapman and ,jonson took part1 was ,sir ,gyles ,goosecappe1 and that the last imprisonment of the two poets was shortly after the discovery of the ,gunpowder ,plot4 ,in the mysterious history of the ,gunpowder ,plot ,jonson certainly had some obscure part4 ,on the #gth of ,november1 very soon after the discovery of the conspiracy1 the council appears to have sent for him and to have asked him1 as a loyal ,roman ,catholic1 to use his good offices in inducing the priests to do something required by the council--one hardly likes to conjecture it to have been some tampering with the secrets of confession4 ,in any case1 the negotiations fell through1 because the priests declined to come forth out of their hiding-places to be negotiated with--greatly to the wrath of ,ben ,jonson1 who declares in a letter to ,lord ,salisbury that they are all so enweaved in it that it will make #ejj gentlemen less of the religion within this week1 if they carry their understanding about them4 ,jonson himself1 however1 did not declare his separation from the ,church of ,rome for five years longer1 however much it might have been to his advantage to do so4 ,his powers as a dramatist were at their height during the earlier half of the reign of ,james ,i42 and by the year #afaf he had produced nearly all the plays which are worthy of his genius4 ,they include the tragedy of ,catiline 7acted and printed #afaa71 which achieved only a doubtful success1 and the comedies of ,volpone1 or the ,fox 7acted #afje and printed in #afjg with a dedication from my house in the ,blackfriars71 ,epicoene1 or the ,silent ,woman 7#afji2 entered in the ,stationers' ,register #afaj71 the ,alchemist 7#afaj2 printed in #afaj71 ,bartholomew ,fair and ,the ,devil is an ,ass 7acted respectively in #afad and #afaf74 ,during the same period he produced several masques1 usually in connexion with ,inigo ,jones1 with whom1 however1 he seems to have quarrelled already in this reign1 though it is very doubtful whether the architect is really intended to be ridiculed in ,bartholomew ,fair under the character of ,lanthorn ,leatherhead4 ,littlewit1 according to ,fleay1 is ,daniel4 ,among the most attractive of his masques may be mentioned the ,masque of ,blackness 7#afjf71 the ,masque of ,beauty 7#afjh71 and the ,masque of ,queens 7#afji71 described by ,swinburne as the most splendid of all masques and as one of the typically splendid monuments or trophies of ,english literature4 ,in #afaf a modest pension of #ajj marks a year was conferred upon him2 and possibly this sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to the publication of the first volume of the folio collected edition of his works 7#afaf71 though there are indications that he had contemplated its production1 an exceptional task for a playwright of his times to take in hand1 as early as #afab4 ,he had other patrons more bountiful than the ,crown1 and for a brief space of time 7in #afac7 had travelled to ,france as governor 7without apparently much moral authority7 to the eldest son of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 then a state prisoner in the ,tower1 for whose society ,jonson may have gained a liking at the ,mermaid ,tavern in ,cheapside1 but for whose personal character he1 like so many of his contemporaries1 seems to have had but small esteem4 ,by the year #afaf ,jonson seems to have made up his mind to cease writing for the stage1 where neither his success nor his profits had equalled his merits and expectations4 ,he continued to produce masques and entertainments when called upon2 but he was attracted by many other literary pursuits1 and had already accomplished enough to furnish plentiful materials for retrospective discourse over pipe or cup4 ,he was already entitled to lord it at the ,mermaid1 where his quick antagonist in earlier wit-combats 7if ,fuller's famous description be authentic7 no longer appeared even on a visit from his comfortable retreat at ,stratford4 ,that on the other hand ,ben carried his wicked town habits into ,warwickshire1 and there1 together with ,drayton1 made ,shakespeare drink so hard with them as to bring upon himself the fatal fever which ended his days1 is a scandal with which we may fairly refuse to load ,jonson's memory4 ,that he had a share in the preparing for the press of the first folio of ,shakespeare1 or in the composition of its preface1 is of course a mere conjecture4 ,it was in the year #afah that1 like ,dr ,samuel ,johnson a century and a half afterwards1 ,ben resolved to have a real holiday for once1 and about midsummer started for his ancestral country1 ,scotland4 ,he had 7very heroically for a man of his habits7 determined to make the journey on foot2 and he was speedily followed by ,john ,taylor1 the water-poet1 who still further handicapped himself by the condition that he would accomplish the pilgrimage without a penny in his pocket4 ,jonson1 who put money in his good friend's purse when he came up with him at ,leith1 spent more than a year and a half in the hospitable ,lowlands1 being solemnly elected a burgess of ,edinburgh1 and on another occasion entertained at a public banquet there4 ,but the best-remembered hospitality which he enjoyed was that of the learned ,scottish poet1 ,william ,drummond of ,hawthornden1 to which we owe the so-called ,conversations4 ,in these famous jottings1 the work of no extenuating hand1 ,jonson lives for us to this day1 delivering his censures1 terse as they are1 in an expansive mood whether of praise or of blame2 nor is he at all generously described in the postscript added by his fatigued and at times irritated host as a great lover and praiser of himself1 a contemner and scorner of others4 ,a poetical account of this journey1 with all the adventures1 was burnt with ,jonson's library4 ,after his return to ,england ,jonson appears to have resumed his former course of life4 ,among his noble patrons and patronesses were the countess of ,rutland 7,sidney's daughter7 and her cousin ,lady ,wroth2 and in #afai his visits to the country seats of the nobility were varied by a sojourn at ,oxford with ,richard ,corbet1 the poet1 at ,christ ,church1 on which occasion he took up the master's degree granted to him by the university2 whether he actually proceeded to the same degree granted to him at ,cambridge seems unknown4 ,he confessed about this time that he was or seemed growing restive1 i4e4 lazy1 though it was not long before he returned to the occasional composition of masques4 ,the extremely spirited ,gipsies ,metamorphosed 7#afba7 was thrice presented before the king1 who was so pleased with it as to grant to the poet the reversion of the office of master of the revels1 besides proposing to confer upon him the honour of knighthood4 ,this honour ,jonson 7hardly in deference to the memory of ,sir ,petronel ,flash7 declined2 but there was no reason why he should not gratefully accept the increase of his pension in the same year 7#afba7 to #bjj--;a temporary increase only1 inasmuch as it still stood at #ajj marks when afterwards augmented by ,charles ,i4 ,the close of ,king ,james ,i4's reign found the foremost of its poets in anything but a prosperous condition4 ,it would be unjust to hold the ,sun1 the ,dog1 the ,triple ,tun1 or the ,old ,devil with its ,apollo club-room1 where ,ben's supremacy must by this time have become established1 responsible for this result2 taverns were the clubs of that day1 and a man of letters is not considered lost in our own because he haunts a smoking-room in ,pall ,mall4 ,disease had weakened the poet's strength1 and the burning of his library1 as his ,execration upon ,vulcan sufficiently shows1 must have been no mere transitory trouble to a poor poet and scholar4 ,moreover he cannot but have felt1 from the time of the accession of ,charles ,i4 early in #afbe onwards1 that the royal patronage would no longer be due in part to anything like intellectual sympathy4 ,he thus thought it best to recur to the surer way of writing for the stage1 and in #afbe produced1 with no faint heart1 but with a very clear anticipation of the comments which would be made upon the reappearance of the huge1 overgrown play-maker1 ,the ,staple of ,news1 a comedy excellent in some respects1 but little calculated to become popular4 ,it was not printed till #afca4 ,jonson1 whose habit of body was not more conducive than were his ways of life to a healthy old age1 had a paralytic stroke in #afbf1 and a second in #afbh4 ,in the latter year1 on the death of ,middleton1 the appointment of city chronologer1 with a salary of #ajj nobles a year1 was bestowed upon him4 ,he appears to have considered the duties of this office as purely ornamental2 but in #afca his salary was suspended until he should have presented some fruits of his labours in his place1 or--as he more succinctly phrased it--yesterday the barbarous court of aldermen have withdrawn their chandlerly pension for verjuice and mustard1 #cc1 #fs4 #h;d4 ,after being in #afbh arrested by mistake on the utterly false charge of having written certain verses in approval of the assassination of ,buckingham1 he was soon allowed to return to ,westminster1 where it would appear from a letter of his son and contiguous neighbour1 ,james ,howell1 he was living in #afbi1 and about this time narrowly escaped another conflagration4 ,in the same year 7#afbi7 he once more essayed the stage with the comedy of ,the ,new ,inn1 which was actually1 and on its own merits not unjustly1 damned on the first performance4 ,it was printed in #afca1 as it was never acted but most negligently played2 and ,jonson defended himself against his critics in his spirited ,ode to ,himself4 ,the epilogue to ,the ,new ,inn having dwelt not without dignity upon the neglect which the poet had experienced at the hands of king and queen1 ,king ,charles immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of #ajj1 and in response to a further appeal increased his standing salary to the same sum1 with the addition of an annual tierce of canary--the poet-laureate's customary royal gift1 though this designation of an office1 of which ,jonson discharged some of what became the ordinary functions1 is not mentioned in the warrant dated the #bfth of ,march #afcj4 ,in #afcd1 by the king's desire1 ,jonson's salary as chronologer to the city was again paid4 ,to his later years belong the comedies1 ,the ,magnetic ,lady 7#afcb7 and ,the ,tale of a ,tub 7#afcc71 both printed in #afdj1 and some masques1 none of which met with great success4 ,the patronage of liberal-minded men1 such as the earl1 afterwards duke1 of ,newcastle--by whom he must have been commissioned to write his last two masques ,love's ,welcome at ,welbeck 7#afcc7 and ,love's ,welcome at ,bolsover 7#afcd7--;and ,viscount ,falkland1 was not wanting1 and his was hardly an instance in which the fickleness of time and taste could have allowed a literary veteran to end his career in neglect4 ,he was the acknowledged chief of the ,english world of letters1 both at the festive meetings where he ruled the roast among the younger authors whose pride it was to be sealed of the tribe of ,ben1 and by the avowal of grave writers1 old or young1 not one of whom would have ventured to dispute his titular pre-eminence4 ,nor was he to the last unconscious of the claims upon him which his position brought with it4 ,when1 nearly two years after he had lost his surviving son1 death came upon the sick old man on the #fth of ,august #afcg1 he left behind him an unfinished work of great beauty1 the pastoral drama of ,the ,sad ,shepherd 7printed in #afda74 ,for forty years1 he said in the prologue1 he had feasted the public2 at first he could scarce hit its taste1 but patience had at last enabled it to identify itself with the working of his pen4 ,we are so accustomed to think of ,ben ,jonson presiding1 attentive to his own applause1 over a circle of younger followers and admirers that we are apt to forget the hard struggle which he had passed through before gaining the crown now universally acknowledged to be his4 ,howell records1 in the year before ,ben's death1 that a solemn supper at the poet's own house1 where the host had almost spoiled the relish of the feast by vilifying others and magnifying himself1 ,t4 ,ca4 7,thomas ,carew7 buzzed in the writer's ear that1 though ,ben had barrelled up a great deal of knowledge1 yet it seemed he had not read the ,ethics1 which1 among other precepts of morality1 forbid self-commendation4 ,self-reliance is but too frequently coupled with self-consciousness1 and for good and for evil self-confidence was no doubt the most prominent feature in the character of ,ben ,jonson4 ,hence the combativeness which involved him in so many quarrels in his earlier days1 and which jarred so harshly upon the less militant and in some respects more pedantic nature of ,drummond4 ,but his quarrels do not appear to have entered deeply into his soul1 or indeed usually to have lasted long4#b ,he was too exuberant in his vituperations to be bitter1 and too outspoken to be malicious4 ,he loved of all things to be called honest1 and there is every reason to suppose that he deserved the epithet4 ,the old superstition that ,jonson was filled with malignant envy of the greatest of his fellow-dramatists1 and lost no opportunity of giving expression to it1 hardly needs notice4 ,those who consider that ,shakespeare was beyond criticism may find blasphemy in the saying of ,jonson that ,shakespeare wanted art4 ,occasional jesting allusions to particular plays of ,shakespeare may be found in ,jonson1 among which should hardly be included the sneer at mouldy ,pericles in his ,ode to ,himself4 ,but these amount to nothing collectively1 and to very little individually2 and against them have to be set1 not only the many pleasant traditions concerning the long intimacy between the pair1 but also the lines1 prefixed to the first ,shakespeare folio1 as noble as they are judicious1 dedicated by the survivor to the star of poets1 and the adaptation1 clearly sympathetic notwithstanding all its buts1 de ,shakespeare nostrat4 in the ,discoveries4 ,but if ,gifford had rendered no other service to ,jonson's fame he must be allowed to have once for all vindicated it from the cruellest aspersion which has ever been cast upon it4 ,that in general ,ben ,jonson was a man of strong likes and dislikes1 and was wont to manifest the latter as vehemently as the former1 it would be idle to deny4 ,he was at least impartial in his censures1 dealing them out freely to ,puritan poets like ,wither and 7supposing him not to have exaggerated his free-spokenness7 to princes of his church like ,cardinal du ,perron4 ,and1 if sensitive to attack1 he seems to have been impervious to flattery--to judge from the candour with which he condemned the foibles even of so enthusiastic an admirer as ,beaumont4 ,the personage that he disliked the most1 and openly abused in the roundest terms1 was unfortunately one with many heads and a tongue to hiss in each--no other than that general public which it was the fundamental mistake of his life to fancy he could rail into approbation before he had effectively secured its goodwill4 ,and upon the whole it may be said that the admiration of the few1 rather than the favour of the many1 has kept green the fame of the most independent among all the masters of an art which1 in more senses than one1 must please to live4 ,jonson's learning and industry1 which were alike exceptional1 by no means exhausted themselves in furnishing and elaborating the materials of his dramatic works4 ,his enemies sneered at him as a translator--a title which the preceding generation was inclined to esteem the most honourable in literature4 ,but his classical scholarship shows itself in other directions besides his translations from the ,latin poets 7the ,ars poetica in particular71 in addition to which he appears to have written a version of ,barclay's ,argenis2 it was likewise the basis of his ,english ,grammar1 of which nothing but the rough draft remains 7the ,,ms4 itself having perished in the fire in his library71 and in connexion with the subject of which he appears to have pursued other linguistic studies 7,howell in #afbi was trying to procure him a ,welsh grammar74 ,and its effects are very visible in some of the most pleasing of his non-dramatic poems1 which often display that combination of polish and simplicity hardly to be reached--or even to be appreciated--without some measure of classical training4 ,exclusively of the few lyrics in ,jonson's dramas 7which1 with the exception of the stately choruses in ,catiline1 charm1 and perhaps may surprise1 by their lightness of touch71 his non-dramatic works are comprised in the following collections4 ,the book of ,epigrams 7published in the first folio of #afaf7 contained1 in the poet's own words1 the ripest of his studies4 ,his notion of an epigram was the ancient1 not the restricted modern one--still less that of the critic 7,r4 ,c41 the author of ,the ,times' ,whistle7 in whose language1 according to ,jonson1 witty was obscene4 ,on the whole1 these epigrams excel more in encomiastic than in satiric touches1 while the pathos of one or two epitaphs in the collection is of the truest kind4 ,in the lyrics and epistles contained in the ,forest 7also in the first folio71 ,jonson shows greater variety in the poetic styles adopted by him2 but the subject of love1 which ,dryden considered conspicuous by its absence in the author's dramas1 is similarly eschewed here4 ,the ,underwoods 7not published collectively till the second and surreptitious folio7 are a miscellaneous series1 comprising1 together with a few religious and a few amatory poems1 a large number of epigrams1 epitaphs1 elegies and odes1 including both the tributes to ,shakespeare and several to royal and other patrons and friends1 besides the ,execration upon ,vulcan1 and the characteristic ode addressed by the poet to himself4 ,to these pieces in verse should be added the ,discoveries--,timber1 or ,discoveries made upon ,men and ,matters1 avowedly a commonplace book of aphorisms noted by the poet in his dally readings--thoughts adopted and adapted in more tranquil and perhaps more sober moods than those which gave rise to the outpourings of the ,conversations at ,hawthornden4 ,as to the critical value of these ,conversations it is far from being only negative2 he knew how to admire as well as how to disdain4 ,for these thoughts1 though abounding with biographical as well as general interest1 ,jonson was almost entirely indebted to ancient writers1 or 7as has been shown by ,professor ,spingarn and by ,percy ,simpson7 indebted to the humanists of the ,renaissance 7see ,modern ,language ,review1 ii4 #c1 ,april #aijg74 ,the extant dramatic works of ,ben ,jonson fall into three or1 if his fragmentary pastoral drama be considered to stand by itself1 into four distinct divisions4 ,the tragedies are only two in number--,sejanus his ,fall and ,catiline his ,conspiracy4#c ,of these the earlier1 as is worth noting1 was produced at ,shakespeare's theatre1 in all probability before the first of ,shakespeare's ,roman dramas1 and still contains a considerable admixture of rhyme in the dialogue4 ,though perhaps less carefully elaborated in diction than its successor1 ,sejanus is at least equally impressive as a highly wrought dramatic treatment of a complex historic theme4 ,the character of ,tiberius adds an element of curious psychological interest on which speculation has never quite exhausted itself and which1 in ,jonson's day at least1 was wanting to the figures of ,catiline and his associates4 ,but in both plays the action is powerfully conducted1 and the care bestowed by the dramatist upon the great variety of characters introduced cannot1 as in some of his comedies1 be said to distract the interest of the reader4 ,both these tragedies are noble works1 though the relative popularity of the subject 7for conspiracies are in the long run more interesting than camarillas7 has perhaps secured the preference to ,catiline4 ,yet this play and its predecessor were alike too manifestly intended by their author to court the goodwill of what he calls the extraordinary reader4 ,it is difficult to imagine that 7with the aid of judicious shortenings7 either could altogether miss its effect on the stage2 but1 while ,shakespeare causes us to forget1 ,jonson seems to wish us to remember1 his authorities4 ,the half is often greater than the whole2 and ,jonson1 like all dramatists and1 it might be added1 all novelists in similar cases1 has had to pay the penalty incurred by too obvious a desire to underline the learning of the author4 ,perversity--or would-be originality--alone could declare ,jonson's tragedy preferable to his comedy4 ,even if the revolution which he created in the comic branch of the drama had been mistaken in its principles or unsatisfactory in its results1 it would be clear that the strength of his dramatic genius lay in the power of depicting a great variety of characters1 and that in comedy alone he succeeded in finding a wide field for the exercise of this power4 ,there may have been no very original or very profound discovery in the idea which he illustrated in ,every ,man in his ,humour1 and1 as it were1 technically elaborated in ,every ,man out of his ,humour--that in many men one quality is observable which so possesses them as to draw the whole of their individualities one way1 and that this phenomenon may be truly said to be a humour4 ,the idea of the master quality or tendency was1 as has been well observed1 a very considerable one for dramatist or novelist4 ,nor did ,jonson 7happily7 attempt to work out this idea with any excessive scientific consistency as a comic dramatist4 ,but1 by refusing to apply the term humour 7q4v47 to a mere peculiarity or affectation of manners1 and restricting its use to actual or implied differences or distinctions of character1 he broadened the whole basis of ,english comedy after his fashion1 as ,molire at a later date1 keeping in closer touch with the common experience of human life1 with a lighter hand broadened the basis of ,french and of modern ,western comedy at large4 ,it does not of course follow that ,jonson's disciples1 the ,bromes and the ,cartwrights1 always adequately reproduced the master's conception of humorous comedy4 ,jonson's wide and various reading helped him to diversify the application of his theory1 while perhaps at times it led him into too remote illustrations of it4 ,still1 ,captain ,bobadil and ,captain ,tucca1 ,macilente and ,fungoso1 ,volpone and ,mosca1 and a goodly number of other characters impress themselves permanently upon the memory of those whose attention they have as a matter of course commanded4 ,it is a very futile criticism to condemn ,jonson's characters as a mere series of types of general ideas2 on the other hand1 it is a very sound criticism to object1 with ,barry ,cornwall1 to the multitude of characters who throw no light upon the story1 and lend no interest to it1 occupying space that had better have been bestowed upon the principal agents of the plot4 ,in the construction of plots1 as in most other respects1 ,jonson's at once conscientious and vigorous mind led him in the direction of originality2 he depended to a far less degree than the greater part of his contemporaries 7,shakespeare with the rest7 upon borrowed plots4 ,but either his inventive character was occasionally at fault in this respect1 or his devotion to his characters often diverted his attention from a brisk conduct of his plot4 ,barry ,cornwall has directed attention to the essential likeness in the plot of two of ,jonson's best comedies1 ,volpone and ,the ,alchemist2 and another critic1 ,w4 ,bodham ,donne1 has dwelt on the difficulty which1 in ,the ,poetaster and elsewhere1 ,ben ,jonson seems to experience in sustaining the promise of his actions4 ,the ,poetaster is1 however1 a play sui generis1 in which the real business can hardly be said to begin till the last act4 ,dryden1 when criticizing ,ben ,jonson's comedies1 thought fit1 while allowing the old master humour and incontestable pleasantness1 to deny him wit and those ornaments thereof which ,quintilian reckons up under the terms urbana1 salsa1 faceta and so forth4 ,such wit as ,dryden has in view is the mere outward fashion or style of the day1 the euphuism or sheerwit or chic which is the creed of ,fastidious ,brisks and of their astute purveyors at any given moment4 ,in this ,ben ,jonson was no doubt defective2 but it would be an error to suppose him1 as a comic dramatist1 to have maintained towards the world around him the attitude of a philosopher1 careless of mere transient externalisms4 ,it is said that the scene of his ,every ,man in his ,humour was originally laid near ,florence2 and his ,volpone1 which is perhaps the darkest social picture ever drawn by him1 plays at ,venice4 ,neither locality was ill-chosen1 but the real atmosphere of his comedies is that of the native surroundings amidst which they were produced2 and ,ben ,jonson's times live for us in his men and women1 his country gulls and town gulls1 his alchemists and exorcists1 his skeldring captains and whining ,puritans1 and the whole ragamuffin rout of his ,bartholomew ,fair1 the comedy par excellence of ,elizabethan low life4 ,after he had described the pastimes1 fashionable and unfashionable1 of his age1 its feeble superstitions and its flaunting naughtinesses1 its vapouring affectations and its lying effronteries1 with an odour as of divine tabacco pervading the whole1 little might seem to be left to describe for his sons and successors4 ,enough1 however1 remained2 only that his followers speedily again threw manners and humours into an undistinguishable medley4 ,the gift which both in his art and in his life ,jonson lacked was that of exercising the influence or creating the effects which he wished to exercise or create without the appearance of consciousness4 ,concealment never crept over his efforts1 and he scorned insinuation4 ,instead of this1 influenced no doubt by the example of the free relations between author and public permitted by ,attic comedy1 he resorted again and again1 from ,every ,man out of his ,humour to ,the ,magnetic ,lady1 to inductions and commentatory intermezzos and appendices1 which1 though occasionally effective by the excellence of their execution1 are to be regretted as introducing into his dramas an exotic and often vexatious element4 ,a man of letters to the very core1 he never quite understood that there is and ought to be a wide difference of methods between the world of letters and the world of the theatre4 ,the richness and versatility of ,jonson's genius will never be fully appreciated by those who fail to acquaint themselves with what is preserved to us of his masques and cognate entertainments4 ,he was conscious enough of his success in this direction--next himself1 he said1 only ,fletcher and ,chapman could write a masque4 ,he introduced1 or at least established1 the ingenious innovation of the anti-masque1 which ,schlegel has described1 as a species of parody added by the poet to his device1 and usually prefixed to the serious entry1 and which accordingly supplies a grotesque antidote to the often extravagantly imaginative main conception4 ,jonson's learning1 creative power and humorous ingenuity--combined1 it should not be forgotten1 with a genuine lyrical gift--all found abundant opportunities for displaying themselves in these productions4 ,though a growth of foreign origin1 the masque was by him thoroughly domesticated in the high places of ,english literature4 ,he lived long enough to see the species produce its poetic masterpiece in ,comus4 ,the ,sad ,shepherd1 of which ,jonson left behind him three acts and a prologue1 is distinguished among ,english pastoral dramas by its freshness of tone2 it breathes something of the spirit of the greenwood1 and is not unnatural even in its supernatural element4 ,while this piece1 with its charming love-scenes between ,robin ,hood and ,maid ,marion1 remains a fragment1 another pastoral by ,jonson1 the ,may ,lord 7which ,f4 ,g4 ,fleay and ,j4 ,a4 ,symonds sought to identify with ,the ,sad ,shepherd2 see1 however1 ,w4 ,w4 ,greg in introduction to the ,louvain reprint71 has been lost1 and a third1 of which ,loch ,lomond was intended to be the scene1 probably remained unwritten4 ,though ,ben ,jonson never altogether recognized the truth of the maxim that the dramatic art has properly speaking no didactic purpose1 his long and laborious life was not wasted upon a barren endeavour4 ,in tragedy he added two works of uncommon merit to our dramatic literature4 ,in comedy his aim was higher1 his effort more sustained1 and his success more solid than were those of any of his fellows4 ,in the subsidiary and hybrid species of the masque1 he helped to open a new and attractive though undoubtedly devious path in the field of dramatic literature4 ,his intellectual endowments surpassed those of most of the great ,english dramatists in richness and breadth2 and in energy of application he probably left them all behind4 ,inferior to more than one of his fellow-dramatists in the power of imaginative sympathy1 he was first among the ,elizabethans in the power of observation2 and there is point in ,barrett ,wendell's paradox1 that as a dramatist he was not really a poet but a painter4 ,yet it is less by these gifts1 or even by his unexcelled capacity for hard work1 than by the true ring of manliness that he will always remain distinguished among his peers4 ,jonson was buried on the north side of the nave in ,westminster ,abbey1 and the inscription1 ,o ,rare ,ben ,jonson1 was cut in the slab over his grave4 ,in the beginning of the #ahth century a portrait bust was put up to his memory in the ,poets' ,corner by ,harley1 earl of ,oxford4 ,of ,honthorst's portrait of ,jonson at ,knole ,park there is a copy in the ,national ,portrait ,gallery2 another was engraved by ,w4 ,marshall for the #afdj edition of his ,poems4 ,,bibliography4--,the date of the first folio volume of ,jonson's ,works 7of which title his novel but characteristic use in applying it to plays was at the time much ridiculed7 has already been mentioned as #afaf2 the second1 professedly published in #afdj1 is described by ,gifford as a wretched continuation of the first1 printed from ,,mss4 surreptitiously obtained during his life1 or ignorantly hurried through the press after his death1 and bearing a variety of dates from #afca to #afda inclusive4 ,the works were reprinted in a single folio volume in #afib1 in which ,the ,new ,inn and ,the ,case is ,altered were included for the first time1 and again in #f vols4 #hvo in #agae4 ,peter ,whalley's edition in #g vols41 with a life1 appeared in #agef1 but was superseded in #ahaf by ,william ,gifford's1 in #i vols4 7of which the first includes a biographical memoir1 and the famous essay on the ,proofs of ,ben ,jonson's ,malignity1 from the ,commentators on ,shakespeare74 ,a new edition of ,gifford's was published in #i vols4 in #ahge by ,colonel ,f4 ,cunningham1 as well as a cheap reprint in #c vols4 in #ahgj4 ,both contain the ,conversations with ,drummond1 which were first printed in full by ,david ,laing in the ,shakespeare ,society's ,publications 7#ahdb7 and the ,jonsonus ,virbius1 a collection 7unparalleled in number and variety of authors7 of poetical tributes1 published about six months after ,jonson's death by his friends and admirers4 ,there is also a single-volume edition1 with a very readable memoir1 by ,barry ,cornwall 7#ahch74 ,an edition of ,ben ,jonson's works from the original texts was recently undertaken by ,c4 ,h4 ,herford and ,percy ,simpson4 ,a selection from his plays1 edited for the ,mermaid series in #ahic-ahie by ,b4 ,nicholson1 with an introduction by ,c4 ,h4 ,herford1 was reissued in #aijd4 ,w4 ,w4 ,bang in his ,materialien zur ,kunde des alten englischen ,dramas has reprinted from the folio of #afaf those of ,ben ,jonson's plays which are contained in it 7,louvain1 #aije-aijf74 ,every ,man in his ,humour and ,every ,man out of his ,humour have been edited for the same series 7#af and #ag1 #aije and #aijg7 by ,w4 ,w4 ,bang and ,w4 ,w4 ,greg4 ,every ,man in his ,humour has also been edited1 with a brief biographical as well as special introduction1 to which the present sketch owes some details1 by ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley 7#ahgg74 ,some valuable editions of plays by ,ben ,jonson have been recently published by ,american scholars in the ,yale ,studies in ,english1 edited by ,a4 ,s4 ,cook--,the ,poetaster1 ed4 ,h4 ,s4 ,mallory 7#aije72 ,the ,alchemist1 ed4 ,c4 ,m4 ,hathaway 7#aijc72 ,the ,devil is an ,ass1 ed4 ,w4 ,s4 ,johnson 7#aije72 ,the ,staple of ,news1 ed4 ,de ,winter 7#aije72 ,the ,new ,inn1 ed4 by ,g4 ,bremner 7#aijh72 ,the ,sad ,shepherd 7with ,waldron's continuation7 has been edited by ,w4 ,w4 ,greg for ,bang's ,materialien zur ,kunde des alten englischen ,dramas 7,louvain1 #aije74 ,the criticisms of ,ben ,jonson are too numerous for cataloguing here2 among those by eminent ,englishmen should be specially mentioned ,john ,dryden's1 particularly those in his ,essay on ,dramatic ,posy 7#affg-affh2 revised #afhd71 and in the preface to ,an ,evening's ,love1 or the ,mock ,astrologer 7#affh71 and ,a4 ,c4 ,swinburne's ,study of ,ben ,jonson 7#ahhi71 in which1 however1 the significance of the ,discoveries is misapprehended4 ,see also ,f4 ,g4 ,fleay1 ,biographical ,chronicle of the ,english ,drama 7#ahia71 i4 #caa-chg1 ii4 #a-ah2 ,c4 ,h4 ,herford1 ,ben ,jonson 7art4 in ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 vol4 xxx41 #ahjb72 ,a4 ,w4 ,ward1 ,history of ,english ,dramatic ,literature1 #bnd ed4 7#ahii71 ii4 #bif-djg2 and for a list of early impressions1 ,w4 ,w4 ,greg1 ,list of ,english ,plays written before #afdc and printed before #agjj 7,bibliographical ,society1 #aijj71 pp4 #ee-eh and supplement #aa-ae4 ,an important ,french work on ,ben ,jonson1 both biographical and critical1 and containing1 besides many translations of scenes and passages1 some valuable appendices1 to more than one of which reference has been made above1 is ,maurice ,castelain's ,ben ,jonson1 l'homme et l'oeuvre 7#aijg74 ,among treatises or essays on particular aspects of his literary work may be mentioned ,emil ,koeppel's ,quellenstudien zu den ,dramen ,ben ,jonson's1 c4 7#ahie72 the same writer's ,ben ,jonson's ,wirkung auf zeitgenssische ,dramatiker1 c41 in ,anglicistische ,forschungen1 #bj 7#aijf72 ,f4 ,e4 ,schelling's ,ben ,jonson and the ,classical ,school 7#ahih72 and as to his masques1 ,a4 ,soergel1 ,die englischen ,maskenspiele 7#ahhb7 and ,j4 ,schmidt1 ber ,ben ,jonson's ,maskenspiele1 in ,herrig's ,archiv1 c41 xxvii4 #ea-ia4 ,see also ,h4 ,reinsch1 ,ben ,jonson's ,poetik und seine ,beziehungen zu ,horaz1 in ,mnchener ,beitrge1 #af 7#ahii74 7,a4 ,w4 ,w47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,his ,christian name of ,benjamin was usually abbreviated by himself and his contemporaries2 and thus1 in accordance with his famous epitaph1 it will always continue to be abbreviated4 #b ,with ,inigo ,jones1 however1 in quarrelling with whom1 as ,howell reminds ,jonson1 the poet was virtually quarrelling with his bread and butter1 he seems to have found it impossible to live permanently at peace2 his satirical ,expostulation against the architect was published as late as #afce4 ,chapman's satire against his old associate1 perhaps due to this quarrel1 was left unfinished and unpublished4 #c ,of ,the ,fall of ,mortimer ,jonson left only a few lines behind him2 but1 as he also left the argument of the play1 factious ingenuity contrived to furbish up the relic into a libel against ,queen ,caroline and ,sir ,robert ,walpole in #agca1 and to revive the contrivance by way of an insult to the princess dowager of ,wales and ,lord ,bute in #agfb4 ,,joplin1 a city of ,jasper county1 ,missouri1 ,u4,s4,a41 on ,joplin creek1 about #adj m4 ,s4 of ,kansas ,city4 ,pop4 7#ahij71 #iidc2 7#aijj71 #bf1jbc1 of whom #hic were foreign-born and #ggc were negroes2 7#aiaj census7 #cb1jgc4 ,it is served by the ,missouri ,pacific1 the ,st ,louis ,san ,francisco1 the ,missouri1 ,kansas ,texas1 and the ,kansas ,city ,southern railways1 and by interurban electric lines4 ,the city has a fine court-house1 a ,united ,states government building1 a ,carnegie library and a large auditorium4 ,joplin is the trade centre of a rich agricultural and fruit-growing district1 but its growth has been chiefly due to its situation in one of the most productive zinc and lead regions in the country1 for which it is the commercial centre4 ,in #aijf the value of zinc-ore shipments from this ,missouri-,kansas 7or ,joplin7 district was #ab1jgd1aje1 and of shipments of lead ore1 #c1jdh1eeh4 ,the value of ,joplin's factory product in #aije was #c1jjf1bjc1 an increase of #bi4c since #aijj4 ,natural gas1 piped from the ,kansas fields1 is used for light and power1 and electricity for commercial lighting and power is derived from plants on ,spring ,river1 near ,vark1 ,kansas1 and on ,shoal creek4 ,the municipality owns its electric-lighting plant2 the water-works are under private ownership4 ,the first settlement in the neighbourhood was made in #ahch4 ,in #ahga ,joplin was laid out and incorporated as a town2 in #ahgb it and a rival town on the other side of ,joplin creek were united under the name ,union ,city2 in #ahgc ,union ,city was chartered as a city under the name ,joplin2 and in #ahhh ,joplin was chartered as a city of the third class4 ,the city derives its name from the creek1 which was named in honour of the ,rev4 ,harris ,g4 ,joplin 7c4 #ahaj-ahdg71 a native of ,tennessee4 ,,joppa1 less correctly ,,jaffa 7,arab4 ,yafa71 a seaport on the coast of ,palestine4 ,it is of great antiquity1 being mentioned in the tribute lists of ,tethmosis 7,thothmes7 ,,iii42 but as it never was in the territory of the pre-exilic ,israelites it was to them a place of no importance4 ,its ascription to the tribe of ,dan 7,josh4 xix4 #df7 is purely theoretical4 ,according to the authors of ,chronicles 7#b ,chron4 ii4 #af71 ,ezra 7iii4 #g7 and ,jonah 7i4 #c7 it was a seaport for importation of the ,lebanon timber floated down the coasts or for ships plying even to distant ,tarshish4 ,about #adh ,b4,c4 it was captured from the ,syrians by ,jonathan ,maccabaeus 7#a ,macc4 x4 #ge7 and later it was retaken and garrisoned by ,simon his brother 7xii4 #cc1 xiii4 #aa74 ,it was restored to the ,syrians by ,pompey 7,jos41 ,ant4 xiv4 #d1 #d7 but again given back to the ,jews 7ib4 xiv4 #aj1 #f7 with an exemption from tax4 ,st ,peter for a while lodged at ,joppa1 where he restored the benevolent widow ,tabitha to life1 and had the vision which taught him the universality of the plan of ,christianity4 ,according to ,strabo 7xvi4 ii471 who makes the strange mistake of saying that ,jerusalem is visible from ,joppa1 the place was a resort of pirates4 ,it was destroyed by ,vespasian in the ,jewish ,war 7#fh74 ,tradition connects the story of ,andromeda and the sea-monster with the sea-coast of ,joppa1 and in early times her chains were shown as well as the skeleton of the monster itself 7,jos4 ,wars1 iii4 #i1 #c74 ,the site seems to have been shown even to some medieval pilgrims1 and curious traces of it have been detected in modern ,moslem legends4 ,in the #eth and #aath centuries we hear from time to time of bishops of ,joppa1 under the metropolitan of ,jerusalem4 ,in #aabf the district was captured by the knights of ,st ,john1 but lost to ,saladin in #aahg4 ,richard ,coeur de ,lion retook it in #aaia1 but it was finally retaken by ,malek el ',adil in #aaif4 ,it languished for a time2 in the #afth century it was an almost uninhabited ruin2 but towards the end of the #agth century it began anew to develop as a seaport4 ,in #agii it was stormed by ,napoleon2 the fortifications were repaired and strengthened by the ,british4 ,the modern town of ,joppa derives its importance1 first1 as a seaport for ,jerusalem and the whole of southern ,palestine1 and secondly as a centre of the fruit-growing industry4 ,during the latter part of the #aith century it greatly increased in size4 ,the old city walls have been entirely removed4 ,its population is about #ce1jjj 7,moslems #bc1jjj1 ,christians #ejjj1 ,jews #gjjj2 with the ,christians are included the ,templars1 a semi-religious1 semi-agricultural ,german colony of about #cbj souls74 ,the town1 which rises over a rounded hillock on the coast1 about #ajj ft4 high1 has a very picturesque appearance from the sea4 ,the harbour 7so-called7 is one of the worst existing1 being simply a natural breakwater formed by a ledge of reefs1 safe enough for small ,oriental craft1 but very dangerous for large vessels1 which can only make use of the seaport in calm weather2 these never come nearer than about a mile from the shore4 ,a railway and a bad carriage-road connect ,joppa with ,jerusalem4 ,the water of the town is derived from wells1 many of which have a brackish taste4 ,the export trade of the town consists of soap of olive oil1 sesame1 barley1 water melons1 wine and especially oranges 7commonly known as ,jaffa oranges71 grown in the famous and ever-increasing gardens that lie north and east of the town4 ,the chief imports are timber1 cotton and other textile goods1 tiles1 iron1 rice1 coffee1 sugar and petroleum4 ,the value of the exports in #aijj was estimated at #bfd1iej1 the imports #chb1dje4 ,over #aj1jjj pilgrims1 chiefly ,russians1 and some three or four thousand tourists land annually at ,joppa4 ,the town is the seat of a kaimakam or lieutenant-governor1 subordinate to the governor of ,jerusalem1 and contains vice-consulates of ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,america and other powers4 ,there are ,latin1 ,greek1 ,armenian and ,coptic monasteries2 and hospitals and schools under ,british1 ,french and ,german auspices4 7,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,m47 ,,jordaens1 ,,jacob 7#aeic-afgh71 ,flemish painter1 was born and died at ,antwerp4 ,he studied1 like ,rubens1 under ,adam van ,noort1 and his marriage with his master's daughter in #afaf1 the year after his admission to the gild of painters1 prevented him from visiting ,rome4 ,he was forced to content himself with studying such examples of the ,italian masters as he found at home2 but a far more potent influence was exerted upon his style by ,rubens1 who employed him sometimes to reproduce small sketches in large4 ,jordaens is second to ,rubens alone in their special department of the ,flemish school4 ,in both there is the same warmth of colour1 truth to nature1 mastery of chiaroscuro and energy of expression2 but ,jordaens is wanting in dignity of conception1 and is inferior in choice of forms1 in the character of his heads1 and in correctness of drawing4 ,not seldom he sins against good taste1 and in some of his humorous pieces the coarseness is only atoned for by the animation4 ,of these last he seems in some cases to have painted several replicas4 ,he employed his pencil also in biblical1 mythological1 historical and allegorical subjects1 and is well-known as a portrait painter4 ,he also etched some plates4 ,see the elaborate work on the painter1 by ,max ,rooses 7#aijh74 ,,jordan1 ,,camille 7#agga-ahba71 ,french politician1 was born in ,lyons on the #aath of ,january #agga of a well-to-do mercantile family4 ,he was educated in ,lyons1 and from an early age was imbued with royalist principles4 ,he actively supported by voice1 pen and musket his native town in its resistance to the ,convention2 and when ,lyons fell1 in ,october #agic1 ,jordan fled4 ,from ,switzerland he passed in six months to ,england1 where he formed acquaintances with other ,french exiles and with prominent ,british statesmen1 and imbibed a lasting admiration for the ,english ,constitution4 ,in #agif he returned to ,france1 and next year he was sent by ,lyons as a deputy to the ,council of ,five ,hundred4 ,there his eloquence won him consideration4 ,he earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom1 especially in matters of religious worship1 though the energetic appeal on behalf of church bells in his ,rapport sur la libert des cultes procured him the sobriquet of ,jordan-,cloche4 ,proscribed at the coup d'tat of the #ahth ,fructidor 7#dth of ,september #agig7 he escaped to ,basel4 ,thence he went to ,germany1 where he met ,goethe4 ,back again in ,france by #ahjj1 he boldly published in #ahjb his ,vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat vie1 in which he exposed the ambitious schemes of ,bonaparte4 ,he was unmolested1 however1 and during the ,first ,empire lived in literary retirement at ,lyons with his wife and family1 producing for the ,lyons academy occasional papers on the ,influence rciproque de l'loquence sur la ,rvolution et de la ,rvolution sur l'loquence2 tudes sur ,klopstock1 c4 ,at the restoration in #ahad he again emerged into public life4 ,by ,louis ,,xviii4 he was ennobled and named a councillor of state2 and from #ahaf he sat in the chamber of deputies as representative of ,ain4 ,at first he supported the ministry1 but when they began to show signs of reaction he separated from them1 and gradually came to be at the head of the constitutional opposition4 ,his speeches in the chamber were always eloquent and powerful4 ,though warned by failing health to resign1 ,camille ,jordan remained at his post till his death at ,paris1 on the #aith of ,may #ahba4 ,to his pen we owe ,lettre ,m4 ,lamourette 7#agia72 ,histoire de la conversion d'une dame ,parisienne 7#agib72 ,la ,loi et la religion venges 7#agib72 ,adresse ses commettants sur la rvolution du #d ,septembre #agig 7#agig72 ,sur les troubles de ,lyon 7#ahah72 ,la ,session de #ahag 7#ahah74 ,his ,discours were collected in #ahah4 ,the ,fragments choisis1 and translations from the ,german1 were published in ,l',abeille franaise4 ,besides the various histories of the time1 see further details vol4 x4 of the ,revue encyclopdique2 a paper on ,jordan and ,madame de ,stal1 by ,c4 ,a4 ,sainte-,beuve1 in the ,revue des deux mondes for ,march #ahfh and ,r4 ,boube1 ,camille ,jordan ,weimar1 in the ,correspondant 7#aija71 ccv4 #gah-gch and #idh-igj4 ,,jordan1 ,,dorothea 7#agfb-ahaf71 ,irish actress1 was born near ,waterford1 ,ireland1 in #agfb4 ,her mother1 ,grace ,phillips1 at one time known as ,mrs ,frances1 was a ,dublin actress4 ,her father1 whose name was ,bland1 was according to one account an army captain1 but more probably a stage hand4 ,dorothy ,jordan made her first appearance on the stage in #aggg in ,dublin as ,phoebe in ,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,after acting elsewhere in ,ireland she appeared in #aghb at ,leeds1 and subsequently at other ,yorkshire towns1 in a variety of parts1 including ,lady ,teazle4 ,it was at this time that she began calling herself ,mrs ,jordan4 ,in #aghe she made her first ,london appearance at ,drury ,lane as ,peggy in ,a ,country ,girl4 ,before the end of her first season she had become an established public favourite1 her acting in comedy being declared second only to that of ,kitty ,clive4 ,her engagement at ,drury ,lane lasted till #ahji1 and she played a large variety of parts4 ,but gradually it came to be recognized that her special talent lay in comedy1 her ,lady ,teazle1 ,rosalind and ,imogen being specially liked1 and such breeches parts as ,william in ,rosina4 ,during the rebuilding of ,drury ,lane she played at the ,haymarket2 she transferred her services in #ahaa to ,covent ,garden4 ,here1 in #ahad1 she made her last appearance on the ,london stage1 and the following year1 at ,margate1 retired altogether4 ,mrs ,jordan's private life was one of the scandals of the period4 ,she had a daughter by her first manager1 in ,ireland1 and four children by ,sir ,richard ,ford1 whose name she bore for some years4 ,in #agij she became the mistress of the duke of ,clarence 7afterwards ,william ,,iv471 and bore him ten children1 who were ennobled under the name of ,fitz ,clarence1 the eldest being created earl of ,munster4 ,in #ahaa they separated by mutual consent1 ,mrs ,jordan being granted a liberal allowance4 ,in #ahae she went abroad4 ,according to one story she was in danger of imprisonment for debt4 ,if so1 the debt must have been incurred on behalf of others--probably her relations1 who appear to have been continually borrowing from her--for her own personal debts were very much more than covered by her savings4 ,she is generally understood to have died at ,st ,cloud1 near ,paris1 on the #crd of ,july #ahaf1 but the story that under an assumed name she lived for seven years after that date in ,england finds some credence4 ,see ,james ,boaden1 ,life of ,mrs ,jordan 7#ahca72 ,the ,great ,illegitimates 7#ahcj72 ,john ,genest1 ,account of the ,stage2 ,tate ,wilkinson1 ,the ,wandering ,patentee2 ,memoirs and ,amorous ,adventures by ,sea and ,land of ,king ,william ,,iv4 7#ahcj72 ,the ,georgian ,era 7#ahch74 ,,jordan1 ,,thomas 7#afab8-afhe71 ,english poet and pamphleteer1 was born in ,london and started life as an actor at the ,red ,bull theatre in ,clerkenwell4 ,he published in #afcg his first volume of poems1 entitled ,poeticall ,varieties1 and in the same year appeared ,a ,pill to ,purge ,melancholy4 ,in #afci he recited one of his poems before ,king ,charles ,i41 and from this time forward ,jordan's output in verse and prose was continuous and prolific4 ,he freely borrowed from other authors1 and frequently re-issued his own writings under new names4 ,during the troubles between the king and the parliament he wrote a number of ,royalist pamphlets1 the first of which1 ,a ,medicine for the ,times1 or an ,antidote against ,faction1 appeared in #afda4 ,dedications1 occasional verses1 prologues and epilogues to plays poured from his pen4 ,many volumes of his poems bear no date1 and they were probably written during the ,commonwealth4 ,at the ,restoration he eulogized ,monk1 produced a masque at the entertainment of the general in the city of ,london and wrote pamphlets in his support4 ,he then for some years devoted his chief attention to writing plays1 in at least one of which1 ,money is an ,ass1 he himself played a part when it was produced in #affh4 ,in #afga he was appointed laureate to the city of ,london2 from this date till his death in #afhe he annually composed a panegyric on the lord mayor1 and arranged the pageantry of the lord mayor's shows1 which he celebrated in verse under such titles as ,london ,triumphant1 or the ,city in ,jollity and ,splendour 7#afgb71 or ,london in ,luster1 ,projecting many ,bright ,beams of ,triumph 7#afgi74 ,many volumes of these curious productions are preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,in addition to his numerous printed works1 of which perhaps ,a ,royal ,arbour of ,loyall ,poesie 7#affd7 and ,a ,nursery of ,novelties in ,variety of ,poetry are most deserving of mention1 several volumes of his poems exist in manuscript4 ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt and other #aith-century critics found more merit in ,jordan's writings than was allowed by his contemporaries1 who for the most part scornfully referred to his voluminous productions as commonplace and dull4 ,see ,gerard ,langbaine1 ,account of the ,english ,dramatic ,poets 7#afia72 ,david ,erskine ,baker1 ,biographia ,dramatica 7#d vols41 #ahab72 ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt1 ,handbook to the ,popular1 ,poetical and ,dramatic ,literature of ,great ,britain 7#ahfg72 ,f4 ,w4 ,fairholt1 ,lord ,mayors ,pageants 7,percy ,society1 #ahdc71 containing a memoir of ,thomas ,jordan2 ,john ,gough ,nichols1 ,london ,pageants 7#ahca74 ,,jordan1 ,,wilhelm 7#ahai-aijd71 ,german poet and novelist1 was born at ,insterburg in ,east ,prussia on the #hth of ,february #ahai4 ,he studied1 first theology and then philosophy and natural science1 at the universities of ,konigsberg and ,berlin4 ,he settled in ,leipzig as a journalist2 but the democratic views expressed in some essays and the volumes of poems ,glocke und ,kanone 7#adha7 and ,irdische ,phantasien 7#ahdb7 led to his expulsion from ,saxony in #ahdf4 ,he next engaged in literary and tutorial work in ,bremen1 and on the outbreak of the revolution1 in ,february #ahdh1 was sent to ,paris1 as correspondent of the ,bremer ,zeitung4 ,he almost immediately1 however1 returned to ,germany and1 throwing himself into the political fray in ,berlin1 was elected member for ,freienwalde1 in the first ,german parliament at ,frankfort-on-,main4 ,for a short while he sided with the ,left1 but soon joined the party of von ,gagern4 ,on a vote having been passed for the establishment of a ,german navy1 he was appointed secretary of the committee to deal with the whole question1 and was subsequently made ministerial councillor 7,ministerialrat7 in the naval department of the government4 ,the naval project was abandoned1 ,jordan was pensioned and afterwards resided at ,frankfort-on-,main until his death on the #beth of ,june #aijd1 devoting himself to literary work1 acting as his own publisher1 and producing numerous poems1 novels1 dramas and translations4 ,among his best known works are3 ,demiurgos 7#c vols41 #aheb-ahed71 a ,mysterium1 in which he attempted to deal with the problems of human existence1 but the work found little favour2 ,nibelunge1 an epic poem in alliterative verse1 in two parts1 7#a7 ,sigfnedsage 7#ahfg-ahfh2 #acth ed4 #ahhi7 and 7#b7 ,hildebrants ,heimkehr 7#ahgd2 #ajth ed4 #ahib7--;in the first part he is regarded as having been remarkably successful2 a tragedy1 ,die ,wittwe des ,agis 7#aheh72 the comedies1 ,die ,liebesleugner 7#ahee7 and ,durchs ,ohr 7#ahgj2 #fth ed4 #ahhe72 and the novels ,die ,sebalds 7#ahhe7 and ,zwei ,wiegen 7#ahhg74 ,jordan also published numerous translations1 notably ,homers ,odyssee 7#ahgf2 #bnd ed4 #ahhi7 and ,homers ,ilias 7#ahha2 #bnd ed4 #ahid72 ,die ,edda 7#ahhi74 ,he was also distinguished as a reciter1 and on a visit to the ,united ,states in #ahga read extracts from his works before large audiences4 ,,jordan 7the down-comer2 ,arab4 esh-,sheri'a1 the watering-place71 the only river of ,palestine and one of the most remarkable in the world4 ,it flows from north to south in a deep trough-like valley1 the ,aulon of the ,greeks and ,ghor of the ,arabs1 which is usually believed to follow the line of a fault or fracture of the earth's crust4 ,most geologists hold that the valley is part of an old sea-bed1 traces of which remain in numerous shingle-banks and beach-levels4 ,this1 they say1 once extended to the ,red ,sea and even over ,n4,e4 ,africa4 ,shrinkage caused the pelagic limestone bottom to be upheaved in two ridges1 between which occurred a long fracture1 which can now be traced from ,coelesyria down the ,wadi ,araba to the ,gulf of ,akaba4 ,the ,jordan valley in its lower part keeps about the old level of the sea-bottom and is therefore a remnant of the ,miocene world4 ,this theory1 however1 is not universally accepted1 some authorities preferring to assume a succession of more strictly local elevations and depressions1 connected with the recent volcanic activity of the ,jaulan and ,lija districts on the east bank1 which brought the contours finally to their actual form4 ,in any case the number of distinct sea-beaches seems to imply a succession of convulsive changes1 more recent than the great ,miocene upheaval1 which are responsible for the shrinkage of the water into the three isolated pans now found4 ,for more than two-thirds of its course the ,jordan lies below the level of the sea4 ,it has never been navigable1 no important town has ever been built on its banks1 and it runs into an inland sea which has no port and is destitute of aquatic life4 ,throughout history it has exerted a separatist influence1 roughly dividing the settled from the nomadic populations2 and the crossing of ,jordan1 one way or the other1 was always an event in the history of ,israel4 ,in ,hebrew times its valley was regarded as a wilderness and1 except in the ,roman era1 seems always to have been as sparsely inhabited as now4 ,from its sources to the ,dead ,sea it rushes down a continuous inclined plane1 broken here and there by rapids and small falls2 between the ,sea of ,galilee and the ,dead ,sea its sinuosity is so great that in a direct distance of #fe m4 it traverses at least #bjj m4 ,the mean fall is about #i ft4 in the mile4 ,the ,jordan has two great sources1 one in ,tell el-,kadi 7,dan7 whence springs the ,nahr ,leddan1 a stream #ab ft4 broad at its birth2 the other at ,banias 7anc4 ,paneas1 ,caesarea-,philippi71 some #d m4 ,n41 where the ,nahr ,banias issues from a cave1 about #cj ft4 broad4 ,but two longer streams with less water contest their claim1 the ,nahr ,barrighit from ,coelesyria1 which rises near the springs of the ,litany1 and the ,nahr ,hasbany from ,hermon4 ,the four streams unite below the fortress of ,banias1 which once held the gate of the valley1 and flow into a marshy tract now called ,huleh 7,semechonitis1 and perhaps ,merom of ,joshua74 ,there the ,jordan begins to fall below sea-level1 rushing down #fhj ft4 in #i m4 to a delta1 which opens into the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,thereafter it follows a valley which is usually not above #d m4 broad1 but opens out twice into the small plains of ,bethshan and ,jericho4 ,the river actually flows in a depression1 the ,zor1 from a quarter to #b m4 wide1 which it has hollowed out for itself in the bed of the ,ghor4 ,during the rainy season 7,january and ,february71 when the ,jordan overflows its banks1 the ,zor is flooded1 but when the water falls it produces rich crops4 ,the floor of the ,ghor falls gently to the ,zor1 and is intersected by deep channels1 which have been cut by the small streams and winter torrents that traverse it on their way to the ,jordan4 ,as far south as ,kurn ,surtabeh most of the valley is fertile1 and even between that point and the ,dead ,sea there are several well-watered oases4 ,in summer the heat in the ,ghor is intense1 #aaj ,f4 in the shade1 but in winter the temperature falls to #dj1 and sometimes to #cb at night4 ,during the seasons of rain and melting snow the river is very full1 and liable to freshets4 ,after twelve hours' rain it has been known to rise from #d to #e ft41 and to fall as rapidly4 ,in #abeg the ,jordan was dammed up for several hours by a landslip1 probably due to heavy rain4 ,on leaving the ,sea of ,galilee the water is quite clear1 but it soon assumes a tawny colour from the soft marl which it washes away from its banks and deposits in the ,dead ,sea4 ,on the whole it is an unpleasant foul stream running between poisonous banks1 and as such it seems to have been regarded by the ,jews and other ,syrians4 ,the ,hebrew poets did not sing its praises1 and others compared it unfavourably with the clear rivers of ,damascus4 ,the clay of the valley was used for brickmaking1 and ,solomon established brass foundries there4 ,from crusading times to this day it has grown sugar-cane4 ,in ,roman times it had extensive palm-groves and some small towns 7e4g4 ,livias or ,julias opposite ,jericho7 and villages4 ,the ,jordan is crossed by two stone bridges--one north of ,lake ,huleh1 the other between that lake and the ,sea of ,galilee--and by a wooden bridge on the road from ,jerusalem to ,gilead and ,moab4 ,during the ,roman period1 and almost to the end of the ,arab supremacy1 there were bridges on all the great lines of communication between eastern and western ,palestine1 and ferries at other places4 ,the depth of water varies greatly with the season4 ,when not in flood the river is often fordable1 and between the ,sea of ,galilee and the ,dead ,sea there are then more than fifty fords--some of them of historic interest4 ,the only difficulty is occasioned by the erratic zigzag current4 ,the natural products of the ,jordan valley--a tropical oasis sunk in the temperate zone1 and overhung by ,alpine ,hermon--are unique4 ,papyrus grows in ,lake ,huleh1 and rice and cereals thrive on its shores1 whilst below the ,sea of ,galilee the vegetation is almost tropical4 ,the flora and fauna present a large infusion of ,ethiopian types2 and the fish1 with which the river is abundantly stocked1 have a great affinity with those of the rivers and lakes of east ,africa4 ,ere the ,jordan enters the ,dead ,sea1 its valley has become very barren and forbidding4 ,it reaches the lake at a minus level of #abij ft41 the depression continuing downwards to twice that depth in the bed of the ,dead ,sea4 ,it receives two affluents1 with perennial waters1 on the left1 the ,yarmuk 7,hieromax7 which flows in from the volcanic ,jaulan a little south of the ,sea of ,galilee1 and the ,zerka 7,jabbok7 which comes from the ,belka district to a point more than half-way down the lower course4 ,on the right the ,jalud descends from the plain of ,esdraelon to near ,beisan1 and the ,far'a from near ,nablus4 ,various salt springs rise in the lower valley4 ,the rest of the tributaries are wadis1 dry except after rains4 ,such human life as may be found in the valley now is mainly migratory4 ,the ,samaritan villagers use it in winter as pasture-ground1 and1 with the ,circassians and ,arabs of the east bank1 cultivate plots here and there4 ,they retire on the approach of summer4 ,jericho is the only considerable settlement in the lower valley1 and it lies some distance west of the stream on the lower slopes of the ,judaean heights4 ,see ,w4 ,f4 ,lynch1 ,narrative of the ,u4,s4 ,expedition1 c4 7#ahdi72 ,h4 ,b4 ,tristram1 ,land of ,israel 7#ahfe72 ,j4 ,macgregor1 ,rob ,roy on the ,jordan 7#ahgj72 ,a4 ,neubauer1 ,la ,gographie du ,talmud 7#ahfh72 ,e4 ,robinson1 ,physical ,geography of the ,holy ,land 7#ahfe72 ,e4 ,hull1 ,mount ,seir1 c4 7#ahhe71 and ,memoir on the ,geology of ,arabia ,petraea1 c4 7#ahhf72 ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,hist4 ,geography of the ,holy ,land 7#ahid72 ,w4 ,libbey and ,f4 ,e4 ,hoskins1 ,the ,jordan ,valley1 c4 7#aije74 ,see also ,,palestine4 7,c4 ,w4 ,w42 ,d4 ,g4 ,h47 ,,jordanes1#a the historian of the ,gothic nation1 flourished about the middle of the #fth century4 ,all that we certainly know about his life is contained in three sentences of his history of the ,goths 7cap4 #ej71 from which1 among other particulars as to the history of his family1 we learn that his grandfather ,paria was notary to ,candac1 the chief of a confederation of ,alans and other tribes settled during the latter half of the #eth century on the south of the ,danube in the provinces which are now ,bulgaria and the ,dobrudscha4 ,jordanes himself was the notary of ,candac's nephew1 the ,gothic chief ,gunthigis1 until he took the vows of a monk4 ,this1 according to the manner of speaking of that day1 is the meaning of his words ante conversionem meam1 though it is quite possible that he may at the same time have renounced the ,arian creed of his forefathers1 which it is clear that he no longer held when he wrote his ,gothic history4 ,the ,getica of ,jordanes shows ,gothic sympathies2 but these are probably due to an imitation of the tone of ,cassiodorus1 from whom he draws practically all his material4 ,he was not himself a ,goth1 belonging to a confederation of ,germanic tribes1 embracing ,alans and ,scyrians1 which had come under the influence of the ,ostrogoths settled on the lower ,danube2 and his own sympathies are those of a member of this confederation4 ,he is accordingly friendly to the ,goths1 even apart from the influence of ,cassiodorus2 but he is also prepossessed in favour of the eastern emperors in whose territories this confederation lived and whose subject he himself was4 ,this makes him an impartial authority on the last days of the ,ostrogoths4 ,at the same time1 living in ,moesia1 he is restricted in his outlook to ,danubian affairs4 ,he has little to say of the inner history and policy of the kingdom of ,theodoric3 his interests lie1 as ,mommsen says1 within a triangle of which the three points are ,sirmium1 ,larissa and ,constantinople4 ,finally1 connected as he was with the ,alans1 he shows himself friendly to them1 whenever they enter into his narrative4 ,we pass from the extremely shadowy personality of ,jordanes to the more interesting question of his works4 #a4 ,the ,romana1 or1 as he himself calls it1 ,de summa temporum vel origine actibusque gentis ,romanorum1 was composed in #eea4 ,it was begun before1 but published after1 the ,getica4 ,it is a sketch of the history of the world from the creation1 based on ,jerome1 the epitome of ,florus1 ,orosius and the ecclesiastical history of ,socrates4 ,there is a curious reference to ,iamblichus1 apparently the neo-platonist philosopher1 whose name ,jordanes1 being1 as he says himself1 agrammatus1 inserts by way of a flourish4 ,the work is only of any value for the century #dej-eej1 when ,jordanes is dealing with recent history4 ,it is merely a hasty compilation intended to stand side by side with the ,getica4#b #b4 ,the other work of ,jordanes commonly called ,de rebus ,geticis or ,getica1 was styled by himself ,de origine actibusque ,getarum1 and was also written in #eea4 ,he informs us that while he was engaged upon the ,romana a friend named ,castalius invited him to compress into one small treatise the twelve books--now lost--of the senator ,cassiodorus1 on ,the ,origin and ,actions of the ,goths4 ,jordanes professes to have had the work of ,cassiodorus in his hands for but three days1 and to reproduce the sense not the words2 but his book1 short as it is1 evidently contains long verbatim extracts from the earlier author1 and it may be suspected that the story of the triduana lectio and the apology quamvis verba non recolo1 possibly even the friendly invitation of ,castalius1 are mere blinds to cover his own entire want of originality4 ,this suspicion is strengthened by the fact 7discovered by von ,sybel7 that even the very preface to his book is taken almost word for word from ,rufinus's translation of ,origen's commentary on the epistle to the ,romans4 ,there is no doubt1 even on ,jordanes' own statements1 that his work is based upon that of ,cassiodorus1 and that any historical worth which it possesses is due to that fact4 ,cassiodorus was one of the very few men who1 ,roman by birth and sympathies1 could yet appreciate the greatness of the barbarians by whom the empire was overthrown4 ,the chief adviser of ,theodoric1 the ,east ,gothic king in ,italy1 he accepted with ardour that monarch's great scheme1 if indeed1 he did not himself originally suggest it1 of welding ,roman and ,goth together into one harmonious state which should preserve the social refinement and the intellectual culture of the ,latin-speaking races without losing the hardy virtues of their ,teutonic conquerors4 ,to this aim everything in the political life of ,cassiodorus was subservient1 and this aim he evidently kept before him in his ,gothic history4 ,but in writing that history ,cassiodorus was himself indebted to the work of a certain ,ablabius4 ,it was ,ablabius1 apparently1 who had first used the ,gothic sagas 7prisca carmina72 it was he who had constructed the stem of the ,amals4 ,whether he was a ,greek1 a ,roman or a ,goth we do not know2 nor can we say when he wrote1 though his work may be dated conjecturally in the early part of the reign of ,theodoric the ,great4 ,we can only say that he wrote on the origin and history of the ,goths1 using both ,gothic saga and ,greek sources2 and that if ,jordanes used ,cassiodorus1 ,cassiodorus used1 if to a less extent1 the work of ,ablabius4 ,cassiodorus began his work1 at the request of ,theodoric1 and therefore before #ebf3 it was finished by #ecc4 ,at the root of the work lies a theory1 whencesoever derived1 which identified the ,goths with the ,scythians1 whose country ,darius ,hystaspes invaded1 and with the ,getae of ,dacia1 whom ,trajan conquered4 ,this double identification enabled ,cassiodorus to bring the favoured race into line with the peoples of classical antiquity1 to interweave with their history stories about ,hercules and the ,amazons1 to make them invade ,egypt1 to claim for them a share in the wisdom of the semi-mythical ,scythian philosopher ,zamolxis4 ,he was thus able with some show of plausibility to represent the ,goths as wiser than all the other barbarians and almost like the ,greeks 7,jord41 ,de reb4 ,get41 cap4 v471 and to send a son of the ,gothic king ,telephus to fight at the siege of ,troy1 with the ancestors of the ,romans4 ,all this we can now perceive to have no relation to history1 but at the time it may have made the subjugation of the ,roman less bitter to feel that he was not after all bowing down before a race of barbarian upstarts1 but that his ,amal sovereign was as firmly rooted in classical antiquity as any ,julius or ,claudius who ever wore the purple4 ,in the eighteen years which elapsed between #ecc and the composition of the ,getica of ,jordanes1 great events1 most disastrous for the ,romano-,gothic monarchy of ,theodoric1 had taken place4 ,it was no longer possible to write as if the whole civilization of the ,western world would sit down contentedly under the shadow of ,east ,gothic dominion and ,amal sovereignty4 ,and1 moreover1 the instincts of ,jordanes1 as a subject of the ,eastern ,empire1 predisposed him to flatter the sacred majesty of ,justinian1 by whose victorious arms the overthrow of the barbarian kingdom in ,italy had been effected4 ,hence we perceive two currents of tendency in the ,getica4 ,on the one hand1 as a transcriber of the philo-,goth ,cassiodorus1 he magnifies the race of ,alaric and ,theodoric1 and claims for them their full share1 perhaps more than their full share1 of glory in the past4 ,on the other hand he speaks of the great anti-,teuton emperor ,justinian1 and of his reversal of the ,german conquests of the #eth century1 in language which would certainly have grated on the ears of ,totila and his heroes4 ,when ,ravenna is taken1 and ,vitigis carried into captivity1 ,jordanes almost exults in the fact that the nobility of the ,amals and the illustrious offspring of so many mighty men have surrendered to a yet more illustrious prince and a yet mightier general1 whose fame shall not grow dim through all the centuries4 7,getica1 lx4 #cae74 ,this laudation1 both of the ,goths and of their ,byzantine conquerors1 may perhaps help us to understand the motive with which the ,getica was written4 ,in the year #eea ,germanus1 nephew of ,justinian1 accompanied by his bride1 ,matasuntha1 grand-daughter of ,theodoric1 set forth to reconquer ,italy for the empire4 ,his early death prevented any schemes for a revived ,romano-,gothic kingdom which may have been based on his personality4 ,his widow1 however1 bore a posthumous child1 also named ,germanus1 of whom ,jordanes speaks 7cap4 #fj7 as blending the blood of the ,anicii and the ,amals1 and furnishing a hope under the divine blessing of one day uniting their glories4 ,this younger ,germanus did nothing in after life to realize these anticipations2 but the somewhat pointed way in which his name and his mother's name are mentioned by ,jordanes lends some probability to the view that he hoped for the child's succession to the ,eastern ,empire1 and the final reconciliation of the ,goths and ,romans in the person of a ,gotho-,roman emperor4 ,the ,de rebus ,geticis falls naturally into four parts4 ,the first 7chs4 i4-xiii47 commences with a geographical description of the three quarters of the world1 and in more detail of ,britain and ,scanzia 7,sweden71 from which the ,goths under their king ,berig migrated to the southern coast of the ,baltic4 ,their migration across what has since been called ,lithuania to the shores of the ,euxine1 and their differentiation into ,visigoths and ,ostrogoths1 are next described4 ,chs4 v4-xiii4 contain an account of the intrusive ,geto-,scythian element before alluded to4 ,the second section 7chs4 xiv4-xxiv47 returns to the true history of the ,gothic nation1 sets forth the genealogy of the ,amal kings1 and describes the inroads of the ,goths into the ,roman ,empire in the #crd century1 with the foundation and the overthrow of the great but somewhat shadowy kingdom of ,hermanric4 ,the third section 7chs4 xxv4-xlvii47 traces the history of the ,west ,goths from the ,hunnish invasion to the downfall of the ,gothic kingdom in ,gaul under ,alaric ,,ii4 7#cgf-ejg74 ,the best part of this section1 and indeed of the whole book1 is the seven chapters devoted to ,attila's invasion of ,gaul and the battle of the ,mauriac plains4 ,here we have in all probability a verbatim extract from ,cassiodorus1 who 7possibly resting on ,ablabius7 interwove with his narrative large portions of the ,gothic sagas4 ,the celebrated expression certaminis gaudia assuredly came at first neither from the suave minister ,cassiodorus nor from the small-souled notary ,jordanes1 but is the translation of some thought which first found utterance through the lips of a ,gothic minstrel4 ,the fourth section 7chs4 xlviii4-lx47 traces the history of the ,east ,goths from the same ,hunnish invasion to the first overthrow of the ,gothic monarchy in ,italy 7#cgf-eci74 ,in this fourth section are inserted1 somewhat out of their proper place1 some valuable details as to the ,gothi ,minores1 an immense people dwelling in the region of ,nicopolis1 with their high priest and primate ,vulfilas1 who is said also to have taught them letters4 ,the book closes with the allusion to ,germanus and the panegyric on ,justinian as the conqueror of the ,goths referred to above4 ,jordanes refers in the ,getica to a number of authors besides ,cassiodorus2 but he owes his knowledge of them to ,cassiodorus4 ,it is perhaps only when he is using ,orosius that we can hold ,jordanes to have borrowed directly4 ,otherwise1 as ,mommsen says1 the ,getica is a mera epitome1 laxata ea et perversa1 historiae ,gothicae ,cassiodorianae4 ,as to the style and literary character of ,jordanes1 every author who has used him speaks in terms of severe censure4 ,when he is left to himself and not merely transcribing1 he is sometimes scarcely grammatical4 ,there are awkward gaps in his narrative and statements inconsistent with each other4 ,he quotes1 as if he were familiarly acquainted with their writings1 a number of ,greek and ,roman writers1 of whom it is almost certain that he had not read more than one or two4 ,at the same time he does not quote the chronicler ,marcellinus1 from whom he has copied verbatim the history of the deposition of ,augustulus4 ,all these faults make him a peculiarly unsatisfactory authority where we cannot check his statements by those of other authors4 ,it may1 however1 be pleaded in extenuation that he is professedly a transcriber1 and1 if his story be correct1 a transcriber in peculiarly unfavourable circumstances4 ,he has also himself suffered much from the inaccuracy of copyists4 ,but nothing has really been more unfortunate for the reputation of ,jordanes as a writer than the extreme preciousness of the information which he has preserved to us4 ,the ,teutonic tribes whose dim origins he records have in the course of centuries attained to world-wide dominion4 ,the battle in the ,mauriac plains of which he is really the sole historian1 is now seen to have had important bearings on the destinies of the world4 ,and thus the hasty pamphlet of a half-educated ,gothic monk has been forced into prominence1 almost into rivalry with the finished productions of the great writers of classical antiquity4 ,no wonder that it stands the comparison badly2 but with all its faults the ,getica of ,jordanes will probably ever retain its place side by side with the ,de moribus ,germanorum of ,tacitus as a chief source of information respecting the history1 institutions and modes of thought of our ,teutonic forefathers4 ,,editions4--,the classical edition is that of ,mommsen 7in ,mon4 ,germ4 hist4 auct4 antiq41 v41 ii471 which supersedes the older editions1 such as that in the first volume of ,muratori's ,scriptt4 rer4 ,ital4 ,the best ,,ms4 is the ,heidelberg ,,ms41 written in ,germany1 probably in the #hth century2 but this perished in the fire at ,mommsen's house4 ,the next of the ,,mss4 in value are the ,vaticanus ,palatinus of the #ajth century1 and the ,valenciennes ,,ms4 of the #ith4 ,,authorities4--,von ,sybel's essay1 ,de fontibus ,jordanis 7#ahch72 ,schirren's ,de ratione quae inter ,jordanem et ,cassiodorum intercedat ,commentatio 7,dorpat1 #aheh72 ,kopke's ,die ,anfnge des ,knigthums beiden ,gothen 7,berlin1 #ahei72 ,dahn's ,die ,knige der ,germanen1 vol4 ii4 7,munich1 #ahfa72 ,ebert's ,geschichte der ,christlich-,lateinischen ,literatur 7,leipsic1 #ahgd72 ,wattenbach's ,deutschlands ,geschichtsquellen im ,mittelalter 7,berlin1 #ahgg72 and the introduction of ,mommsen to his edition4 7,t4 ,h42 ,e4 ,br47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the evidence of ,,mss4 is overwhelming against the form ,jornandes4 ,the ,,mss4 exhibit ,jordanis or ,jordannis2 but these are only ,vulgar-,latin spellings of ,jordanes4 #b ,the terms of the dedication of this book to a certain ,vigilius make it impossible that the pope 7#ech-eee7 of that name is meant4 ,,jordanus 7,,jordan ,,catalani7 7fl4 #acba-accj71 ,french ,dominican missionary and explorer in ,asia1 was perhaps born at ,sverac in ,aveyron1 north-east of ,toulouse4 ,in #acjb he may have accompanied the famous ,thomas of ,tolentino1 via ,negropont1 to the ,east2 but it is only in #acba that we definitely discover him in western ,india1 in the company of the same ,thomas and certain other ,franciscan missionaries on their way to ,china4 ,ill-luck detained them at ,tana in ,salsette island1 near ,bombay2 and here ,jordanus' companions 7the four martyrs of ,tana7 fell victims to ,moslem fanaticism 7,april #g1 #acba74 ,jordanus1 escaping1 worked some time at ,baruch in ,gujarat1 near the ,nerbudda estuary1 and at ,suali 787 near ,surat2 to his fellow-,dominicans in north ,persia he wrote two letters--the first from ,gogo in ,gujarat 7,october #ab1 #acba71 the second from ,tana 7,january #bd1 #acbc_/d7--;describing the progress of this new mission4 ,from these letters we learn that ,roman attention had already been directed1 not only to the ,bombay region1 but also to the extreme south of the ,indian peninsula1 especially to ,columbum1 ,quilon1 or ,kulam in ,travancore2 ,jordanus' words may imply that he had already started a mission there before ,october #acba4 ,from ,catholic traders he had learnt that ,ethiopia 7i4e4 ,abyssinia and ,nubia7 was accessible to ,western ,europeans2 at this very time1 as we know from other sources1 the earliest ,latin missionaries penetrated thither4 ,finally1 the ,epistles of ,jordanus1 like the contemporary ,secreta of ,marino ,sanuto 7#acjf-acba71 urge the pope to establish a ,christian fleet upon the ,indian seas4 ,jordanus1 between #acbd and #acbh 7if not earlier71 probably visited ,kulam and selected it as the best centre for his future work2 it would also appear that he revisited ,europe about #acbh1 passing through ,persia1 and perhaps touching at the great ,crimean port of ,soldaia or ,sudak4 ,he was appointed a bishop in #acbh and nominated by ,pope ,john ,,xxii4 to the see of ,columbum in #accj4 ,together with the new bishop of ,samarkand1 ,thomas of ,mancasola1 ,jordanus was commissioned to take the pall to ,john de ,cora1 archbishop of ,sultaniyah in ,persia1 within whose province ,kulam was reckoned2 he was also commended to the ,christians of south ,india1 both east and west of ,cape ,comorin1 by ,pope ,john4 ,either before going out to ,malabar as bishop1 or during a later visit to the west1 ,jordanus probably wrote his ,mirabilia1 which from internal evidence can only be fixed within the period #acbi-acch2 in this work he furnished the best account of ,indian regions1 products1 climate1 manners1 customs1 fauna and flora given by any ,european in the ,middle ,ages--superior even to ,marco ,polo's4 ,in his triple division of the ,indies1 ,india ,major comprises the shorelands from ,malabar to ,cochin ,china2 while ,india ,minor stretches from ,sind 7or perhaps from ,baluchistan7 to ,malabar2 and ,india ,tertia 7evidently dominated by ,african conceptions in his mind7 includes a vast undefined coast-region west of ,baluchistan1 reaching into the neighbourhood of1 but not including1 ,ethiopia and ,prester ,john's domain4 ,jordanus' ,mirabilia contains the earliest clear ,african identification of ,prester ,john1 and what is perhaps the first notice of the ,black ,sea under that name2 it refers to the author's residence in ,india ,major and especially at ,kulam1 as well as to his travels in ,armenia1 north-west ,persia1 the ,lake ,van region1 and ,chaldaea2 and it supplies excellent descriptions of ,parsee doctrines and burial customs1 of ,hindu ox-worship1 idol-ritual1 and suttee1 and of ,indian fruits1 birds1 animals and insects4 ,after the #hth of ,april #accj we have no more knowledge of ,bishop ,jordanus4 ,of ,jordanus' ,epistles there is only one ,,ms41 viz4 ,paris1 ,national ,library1 #ejjf ,lat41 fol4 #ahb1 r4 and v42 of the ,mirabilia also one ,,ms4 only1 viz4 ,london1 ,british ,museum1 ,additional ,,mss41 #ai1eac1 fols4 #c1 r4-#ab r4 ,the text of the ,epistles is in ,qutif and ,echard1 ,scriptores ordinis praedicatorum1 i4 #edi-eej 7,epistle ,i472 and in ,wadding1 ,annales minorum1 vi4 #cei-cfa 7,epistle ,,ii472 the text of the ,mirabilia in the ,paris ,geog4 ,soc4's ,recueil de voyages1 iv4 #a-fh 7#ahci74 ,the ,papal letters referring to ,jordanus are in ,raynaldus1 ,annales ecclesiastici1 #accj1 lv4 and lvii4 7,april #h2 ,feb4 #ad74 ,see also ,sir ,h4 ,yule's ,jordanus1 a version of the ,mirabilia with a commentary 7,hakluyt ,soc41 #ahfc7 and the same editor's ,cathay1 giving a version of the ,epistles1 with a commentary1 c4 7,hak4 ,soc41 #ahff7 pp4 #ahd-ahe1 #aib-aif1 #bbe-bcj2 ,f4 ,kunstmann1 ,die ,mission in ,meliapor und ,tana and ,die ,mission in ,columbo in the ,historisch-politische ,bltter of ,phillips and ,grres1 xxxvii4 #be-ch1 #ace-aeb 7,munich1 #ahef71 c42 ,c4 ,r4 ,beazley1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography1 iii4 #bae-bce4 7,c4 ,r4 ,b47 ,,joris1 ,,david1 the common name of ,,jan ,,jorisz or ,,joriszoon 7c4 #aeja-aeef71 ,anabaptist heresiarch who called himself later ,,jan ,,van ,,brugge2 was born in #aeja or #aejb1 probably in ,flanders1 at ,ghent or ,bruges4 ,his father1 ,georgius ,joris de ,koman1 otherwise ,joris van ,amersfoordt1 probably a native of ,bruges1 was a shopkeeper and amateur actor at ,delft2 from the circumstance that he played the part of ,king ,david1 his son received the name of ,david1 but probably not in baptism4 ,his mother was ,marytje1 daughter of ,jan de ,gorter1 of a good family in ,delft4 ,as a child he was clever and delicate4 ,he seems then or later to have acquired some tincture of learning4 ,his first known occupation was that of a glass-painter2 in #aebb he painted windows for the church at ,enkhuizen1 ,north ,holland 7the birthplace of ,paul ,potter74 ,in pursuit of his art he travelled1 and is said to have reached ,england2 ill-health drove him homewards in #aebd1 in which year he married ,dirckgen ,willems at ,delft4 ,in the same year the ,lutheran reformation took hold of him1 and he began to issue appeals in prose and verse against the ,mass and against the pope as antichrist4 ,on ,ascension ,day #aebh he committed an outrage on the sacrament carried in procession2 he was placed in the pillory1 had his tongue bored1 and was banished from ,delft for three years4 ,he turned to the ,anabaptists1 was rebaptized in #aecc1 and for some years led a wandering life4 ,he came into relations with ,john ,lasco1 and with ,menno ,simons4 ,much influenced by ,melchior ,hofman1 he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the ,mnster faction4 ,at the ,buckholdt conference in ,august #aecf he played a mediating part4 ,his mother1 in #aecg1 suffered martyrdom as an ,anabaptist4 ,soon after he took up a rle of his own1 having visions and a gift of prophecy4 ,he adapted in his own interest the theory 7constantly recurrent among mystics and innovators1 from the time of ,abbot ,joachim to the present day7 of three dispensations1 the old1 with its revelation of the ,father1 the newer with its revelation of the ,son1 and the final or era of the ,spirit4 ,of this newest revelation ,christus ,david was the mouthpiece1 supervening on ,christus ,jesus4 ,from the #ast of ,april #aedd1 bringing with him some of his followers1 he took up his abode in ,basel1 which was to be the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,here he styled himself ,jan van ,brugge4 ,his identity was unknown to the authorities of ,basel1 who had no suspicion of his heresies4 ,by his writings he maintained his hold on his numerous followers in ,holland and ,friesland4 ,these monotonous writings1 all in ,dutch1 flowed in a continual stream from #aebd 7though none is extant before #aebi7 and amounted to over #bjj in number4 ,his magnum opus was ',t ,wonder ,boeck 7n4d4 #aedb1 divided into two parts2 #aeea1 handsomely reprinted1 divided into four parts2 both editions anonymous74 ,its chief claim to recognition is its use1 in the latter part1 of the phrase ,restitutio ,christi1 which apparently suggested to ,servetus his title ,christianismi ,restitutio 7#aeec74 ,in the #ast edition is a figure of the new man1 signed with the author's monogram1 and probably drawn as a likeness of himself2 it fairly corresponds with the alleged portrait1 engraved in #afjg1 reproduced in the appendix to ,a4 ,ross's ,pansebeia 7#afee71 and idealized by ,p4 ,burckhardt in #aijj4 ,another work1 ,verklaringe der ,scheppenissen 7#aeec7 treats mystically the book of ,genesis1 a favourite theme with ,boehme1 ,swedenborg and others4 ,his remaining writings exhibit all that easy dribble of triumphant muddiness which disciples take as depth4 ,his wife died on the #bbnd of ,august1 and his own death followed on the #beth of ,august #aeef4 ,he was buried1 with all religious honours1 in the church of ,st ,leonard1 ,basel4 ,three years later1 ,nicolas ,blesdijk1 who had married his eldest daughter ,jannecke 7,susanna71 but had lost confidence in ,jorisz some time before his death1 denounced the dead man to the authorities of ,basel4 ,an investigation was begun in ,march #aeei1 and as the result of a conviction for heresy the exhumed body of ,jorisz was burned1 together with his portrait1 on the #acth of ,may #aeei4 ,blesdijk's ,historia 7not printed till #afdb7 accuses ,jorisz of having plures uxores4 ,of this there is no confirmation4 ,theoretically ,jorisz regarded polygamy as lawful2 there is no proof that his theory affected his own practice4 ,the first attempt at a true account of ,jorisz was by ,gottfried ,arnold1 in his anonymous ,historia 7#agac71 pursued with much fuller material in his ,kirchen und ,ketzer ,historie 7best ed4 #agdj-agdb74 ,see also ,f4 ,nippold1 in ,zeitschrift fr die historische ,theologie 7#ahfc1 #ahfd1 #ahfh72 ,a4 van der ,linde1 in ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie 7#ahha72 ,p4 ,burckhardt1 ,basler ,biographien 7#aijj72 ,hegler1 in ,hauck's ,realencyklopdie 7#aija71 and the bibliography by ,a4 van der ,linde1 #ahfg1 supplemented by ,e4 ,weller1 #ahfi4 7,a4 ,go4997 ,,jortin1 ,,john 7#afih-aggj71 ,english theologian1 the son of a ,protestant refugee from ,brittany1 was born in ,london on the #bcrd of ,october #afih4 ,he went to ,charterhouse ,school1 and in #agae became a pensioner of ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 where his reputation as a ,greek scholar led to his being selected to translate certain passages from ,eustathius for the notes to ,pope's ,homer4 ,in #agbb he published a small volume of ,latin verse entitled ,lusus poetici4 ,having taken orders in #agbd1 he was in #agbf presented by his college to the vicarage of ,swavesey in ,cambridgeshire1 which he resigned in #agcj to become preacher at a chapel-of-ease in ,new ,street1 ,london4 ,in #agca1 along with some friends1 he began a publication entitled ,miscellaneous ,observations on ,authors ,ancient and ,modern1 which appeared at intervals during two years4 ,he was ,boyle lecturer in #agdi4 ,shortly after becoming chaplain to the bishop of ,london in #agfb he was appointed to a prebendal stall of ,st ,paul's and to the vicarage of ,kensington1 and in #agfd he was made archdeacon of ,london4 ,he died at ,kensington on the #eth of ,september #aggj4 ,the principal works of ,jortin are3 ,discussions ,concerning the ,truth of the ,christian ,religion 7#agdf72 ,remarks on ,ecclesiastical ,history 7#c vols4 #agea-b-d72 ,life of ,erasmus 7#b vols4 #agej1 #agfj7 founded on the ,life by ,jean ,le ,clerc2 and ,tracts ,philological ,critical and ,miscellaneous 7#agij74 ,a collection of his ,various ,works appeared in #ahje-ahaj4 ,all his writings display wide learning and acuteness4 ,he writes on theological subjects with the detachment of a thoughtful layman1 and is witty without being flippant4 ,see ,john ,disney's ,life of ,jortin 7#agib74 ,,joseph1 in the ,old ,testament1 the son of the patriarch ,jacob by ,rachel2 the name of a tribe of ,israel4 ,two explanations of the name are given by the ,biblical narrator 7,gen4 xxx4 #bc ,e1 #bd ,j72 a third1 ,he 7,god7 increases1 seems preferable4 ,unlike the other sons of ,jacob1 ,joseph is usually reckoned as two tribes 7viz4 his sons ,ephraim and ,manasseh71 and closely associated with it is the small tribe of ,benjamin 7q4v471 which lay immediately to the south4 ,these three constituted the sons of ,rachel 7the ewe71 and with the sons of ,leah 7the antelope87 are thus on a higher level than the sons of ,jacob's concubines4 ,the house of ,joseph and its offshoots occupied the centre of ,palestine from the plain of ,esdraelon to the mountain country of ,benjamin1 with dependencies in ,bashan and northern ,gilead 7see ,,manasseh74 ,practically it comprised the northern kingdom1 and the name is used in this sense in #b ,sam4 xix4 #bj2 ,amos v4 #f2 vi4 #f 7note the prominence of ,joseph in the blessings of ,jacob and ,moses1 ,gen4 xlix41 ,deut4 xxxiii474 ,originally1 however1 ,joseph was more restricted1 possibly to the immediate neighbourhood of ,shechem1 its later extension being parallel to the development of the name ,jacob4 ,the dramatic story of the tribal ancestor is recounted in ,gen4 xxxvii4-l4 7see ,,genesis74 ,joseph1 the younger and envied son1 is seized by his brothers at ,dothan north of ,shechem1 and is sold to a party of ,ishmaelites or ,midianites1 who carry him down to ,egypt4 ,after various vicissitudes he gains the favour of the king of ,egypt by the interpretation of a dream1 and obtains a high place in the kingdom4#a ,forced by a famine his brothers come to buy food1 and in the incidents that follow ,joseph shows his preference for his young brother ,benjamin 7cf4 the tribal data above74 ,his father ,jacob is invited to come to ,goshen1 where a settlement is provided for the family and their flocks4 ,this is followed many years later by the exodus1 the conquest of ,palestine1 and the burial of ,joseph's body in the grave at ,shechem which his father had bought4 ,the history of ,joseph in ,egypt displays some familiarity with the circumstances and usages of that country2 see ,driver 7,hastings's ,d4,b47 and ,cheyne 7,ency4 ,bib41 col4 #behi seq472 although ,abrech 7xli4 #dc71 possibly the ,egyptian ib rk 7,crum1 in ,hastings's ,d4,b41 i4 #ffe71 has been otherwise connected with the ,assyrian abarakku 7a high officer74 ,an interesting parallel to the story of ,joseph in ,gen4 xxxix4 is found in the ,egyptian tale of ,the ,two ,brothers 7,petrie1 ,eg4 ,tales1 #bnd series1 p4 #cf seq41 #ahie71 which dates from about #aejj ,b4,c41 but the differences are not inconsiderable compared with the points of resemblance1 and the tale has features which are almost universal 7,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 #bnd ed41 vol4 iii4 #cea seq474 ,on the theory that the historical elements of ,joseph's history refer to an official 7,yanhamu7 of the time of ,amenophis ,,iii4 and ,,iv41 see ,cheyne1 op4 cit41 and ,hibbert ,journal1 ,october #aijc4 ,that the present form of the narrative has been influenced by current mythological lore is not improbable2 on this question see 7with caution7 ,winckler1 ,gesch4 ,israels1 ii4 #fg-gg 7#aijj72 ,a4 ,jeremias1 ,alte ,test41 pp4 #chc sqq4 7#aijf74 ,it may be added that the ,egyptian names in the story of ,joseph are characteristic of the ,,xxii4 and subsequent dynasties4 ,see1 also ,meyer and ,luther1 ,die ,israeliten 7#aijf71 ,index1 s4v4 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnote3 #a ,joseph's marriage with the daughter of the priest of ,on might show that the tribes of ,ephraim and ,manasseh were believed to be half-,egyptian by descent1 but it is notoriously difficult to determine how much is of ethnological value and how much belongs to romance 7viz4 that of the individual ,joseph74 ,,joseph1 in the ,new ,testament1 the husband of ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus4 ,he is represented as a descendant of the house of ,david1 and his genealogy appears in two divergent forms in ,matt4 i4 #a-ag and ,luke iii4 #bc-ch4 ,the latter is probably much more complete and accurate in details4 ,the former1 obviously artificial in structure 7notice #c #ad generations71 traces the ,davidic descent through kings1 and is governed by an apologetic purpose4 ,of ,joseph's personal history practically nothing is recorded in the ,bible4 ,the facts concerning him common to the two birth-narratives 7,matt4 i4-ii42 ,luke i4-ii47 are3 7a7 that he was a descendant of ,david1 7b7 that ,mary was already betrothed to him when she was found with child of the ,holy ,ghost1 and 7c7 that he lived at ,nazareth after the birth of ,christ2 but these facts are handled differently in each case4 ,it is noticeable that1 in ,matthew1 ,joseph is prominent 7e4g4 he receives an annunciation from an angel71 while in ,luke's narrative he is completely subordinated4 ,bp ,gore 7,the ,incarnation1 ,bampton lecture for #ahia1 p4 #gh7 points out that ,matthew narrates everything from ,joseph's side1 ,luke from ,mary's1 and infers that the narrative of the former may ultimately be based on ,joseph's account1 that of the latter on ,mary's4 ,the narratives seem to have been current 7in a poetical form7 among the early ,jewish-,christian community of ,palestine4 ,at ,nazareth ,joseph followed the trade of a carpenter 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee74 ,it is probable that he had died before the public ministry of ,christ2 for no mention is made of him in passages relating to this period where the mother and brethren of ,jesus are introduced2 and from ,john xix4 #bf it is clear that he was not alive at the time of the ,crucifixion4 ,joseph was the father of several children 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee71 but according to ecclesiastical tradition by a former marriage4 ,the reading of ,matt4 i4 #af1 in the ,sinaitic ,palimpsest 7,joseph 444 begat ,jesus1 who is called the ,christ7 also makes him the natural father of ,jesus1 and this was the view of certain early heretical sects1 but it seems never to have been held in orthodox ,christian circles4 ,according to various apocryphal gospels 7conveniently collected in ,b4 ,h4 ,cowper's ,the ,apocryphal ,gospels1 #ahha71 when married to ,mary he was a widower already #hj years of age1 and the father of four sons and two daughters2 his first wife's name was ,salome and she was a connexion of the family of ,john the ,baptist4 ,in the ,roman ,catholic ,church the #aith of ,march has since #afdb been a feast in ,joseph's honour4 ,two other festivals in his honour have also been established 7the ,patronage of ,st ,joseph1 #crd ,sunday after ,easter1 and the ,betrothal of ,mary and ,joseph1 #bcrd of ,january74 ,in ,december #ahgj ,st ,joseph was proclaimed ,patron of the whole ,church4 7,g4 ,h4 ,bo47 ,,joseph ,,of ,,arimathaea1#a in the ,new ,testament1 a wealthy ,jew who had been converted by ,jesus ,christ4 ,he is mentioned by the ,four ,evangelists1 who are in substantial agreement concerning him3 after the ,crucifixion he went to ,pilate and asked for the body of ,jesus1 subsequently prepared it for burial and laid it in a tomb4 ,there are1 however1 minor differences in the accounts1 which have given rise to controversy4 ,matthew 7xxvii4 #fj7 says that the tomb was ,joseph's own2 ,mark 7xv4 #dc seq471 ,luke 7xxiii4 #ej seq47 say nothing of this1 while ,john 7xix4 #da7 simply says that the body was laid in a sepulchre nigh at hand4 ,both ,mark and ,luke say that ,joseph was a councillor 7,greek3 euschmn bouleuts1 ,mark xv4 #dc71 and the ,gospel of ,peter describes him as a friend of ,pilate and of the ,lord4 ,this last statement is probably a late invention1 and there is considerable difficulty as to councillor4 ,that ,joseph was a member of the ,sanhedrin is improbable4 ,luke indeed1 regarding him as such1 says that he had not consented to their counsel and deed1 but ,mark 7xiv4 #fd7 says that all the ,sanhedrin condemned him to be worthy of death4 ,perhaps the phrase noble councillor is intended to imply merely a man of wealth and position4 ,again ,matthew says that ,joseph was a disciple1 while ,mark implies that he was not yet among the definite adherents of ,christ1 and ,john describes him as an adherent secretly for fear of the ,jews4 ,most likely he was a disciple1 but belonged only to the wider circle of adherents4 ,the account given in the ,fourth ,gospel suggests that the writer1 faced with these various difficulties1 assumed a double tradition3 7#a7 that ,joseph of ,arimathaea1 a wealthy disciple1 buried the body of ,christ2 7#b7 that the person in question was ,joseph of ,arimathaea a councillor1 and solved the problem by substituting ,nicodemus as the councillor2 hence he describes both ,joseph and ,nicodemus 7xix4 #ci7 as co-operating in the burial4 ,some critics 7e4g4 ,strauss1 ,new ,life of ,jesus1 ch4 #if7 have thrown doubt upon the story1 regarding some of the details as invented to suit the prophecy in ,isa4 liii4 #i1 they made his grave with the wicked1 and with the rich in his death 7for various translations1 see ,hastings's ,dict4 ,bible1 ii4 #ggh74 ,but in the absence of any reference to this prophecy in the ,gospels1 this view is unconvincing1 though the correspondence is remarkable4 ,the striking character of this single appearance of ,joseph of ,arimathaea led to the rise of numerous legends4 ,thus ,william of ,malmesbury says that he was sent to ,britain by ,st ,philip1 and1 having received a small island in ,somersetshire1 there constructed with twisted twigs the first ,christian church in ,britain--afterwards to become the ,abbey of ,glastonbury4 ,the legend says that his staff1 planted in the ground1 became a thorn flowering twice a year 7see ,,glastonbury74 ,this tradition--which is given only as such by ,malmesbury himself--is not confirmed1 and there is no mention of it in either ,gildas or ,bede4 ,joseph also plays a large part in the various versions of the ,legend of the ,holy ,grail 7see ,,grail1 ,,the ,,holy74 ,,footnote3 #a ,generally identified with ,ramathaim-,zophim1 the city of ,elkanah in the hilly district of ,ephraim 7#a ,sam4 i4 #a71 near ,diospolis 7,lydda74 ,see ,euseb41 ,onomasticon1 #bbe4 #ab4 ,,joseph ,i4 7#afgh-agaa71 ,roman emperor1 was the elder son of the emperor ,leopold ,i4 and his third wife1 ,eleanora1 countess palatine1 daughter of ,philip ,william of ,neuburg4 ,born in ,vienna on the #bfth of ,july #afgh1 he was educated strictly by ,prince ,dietrich ,otto von ,salm1 and became a good linguist4 ,in #afhg he received the crown of ,hungary1 and he was elected king of the ,romans in #afij4 ,in #afii he married ,wilhelmina ,amalia1 daughter of ,duke ,frederick of ,brunswick-,lneburg1 by whom he had two daughters4 ,in #agjb1 on the outbreak of the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 he saw his only military service4 ,he joined the imperial general ,louis of ,baden in the siege of ,landau4 ,it is said that when he was advised not to go into a place of danger he replied that those who were afraid might retire4 ,he succeeded his father as emperor in #agje1 and it was his good fortune to govern the ,austrian dominions1 and to be head of the ,empire during the years in which his trusted general ,prince ,eugne1 either acting alone in ,italy or with the duke of ,marlborough in ,germany and ,flanders1 was beating the armies of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,during the whole of his reign ,hungary was disturbed by the conflict with ,francis ,rckczy ,,ii41 who eventually took refuge in ,france4 ,the emperor did not himself take the field against the rebels1 but he is entitled to a large share of the credit for the restoration of his authority4 ,he reversed many of the pedantically authoritative measures of his father1 thus placating all opponents who could be pacified1 and he fought stoutly for what he believed to be his rights4 ,joseph showed himself very independent towards the pope1 and hostile to the ,jesuits1 by whom his father had been much influenced4 ,he had the tastes for art and music which were almost hereditary in his family1 and was an active hunter4 ,he began the attempts to settle the question of the ,austrian inheritance by a pragmatic sanction1 which were continued by his brother ,charles ,,vi4 ,joseph died in ,vienna on the #agth of ,april #agaa1 of small-pox4 ,see ,f4 ,krones von ,marchland1 ,grundriss der ,oesterreichischen ,geschichte 7#ahhb72 ,f4 ,wagner1 ,historia ,josephi ,caesaris 7#agdf72 ,j4 ,c4 ,herchenhahn1 ,geschichte der ,regierung ,kaiser ,josephs ,i4 7#aghf-aghi72 ,c4 van ,noorden1 ,europische ,geschichte im #ah4 ,jahrhundert 7#ahgj-ahhb74 ,,joseph ,,ii4 7#agda-agij71 ,roman emperor1 eldest son of the empress ,maria ,theresa and her husband ,francis ,i41 was born on the #acth of ,march #agda1 in the first stress of the ,war of the ,austrian ,succession4 ,maria ,theresa gave orders that he was only to be taught as if he were amusing himself2 the result was that he acquired a habit of crude and superficial study4 ,his real education was given him by the writings of ,voltaire and the encyclopaedists1 and by the example of ,frederick the ,great4 ,his useful training was conferred by government officials1 who were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the administration of the numerous states composing the ,austrian dominions and the ,empire4 ,in #agfa he was made a member of the newly constituted council of state 7,staatsrath7 and began to draw up minutes1 to which he gave the name of reveries1 for his mother to read4 ,these papers contain the germs of his later policy1 and of all the disasters which finally overtook him4 ,he was a friend to religious toleration1 anxious to reduce the power of the church1 to relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens1 and to remove restrictions on trade and on knowledge4 ,so far he did not differ from ,frederick1 ,catherine of ,russia or his own brother and successor ,leopold ,,ii41 all enlightened rulers of the #ahth-century stamp4 ,where ,joseph differed from great contemporary rulers1 and where he was very close akin to the ,jacobins1 was in the fanatical intensity of his belief in the power of the state when directed by reason1 of his right to speak for the state uncontrolled by laws1 and of the reasonableness of his own reasons4 ,also he had inherited from his mother all the belief of the house of ,austria in its august quality1 and its claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or its profit4 ,he was unable to understand that his philosophical plans for the moulding of mankind could meet with pardonable opposition4 ,the overweening character of the man was obvious to ,frederick1 who1 after their first interview in #agfi1 described him as ambitious1 and as capable of setting the world on fire4 ,the ,french minister ,vergennes1 who met ,joseph when he was travelling incognito in #aggg1 judged him to be ambitious and despotic4 ,until the death of his mother in #aghj ,joseph was never quite free to follow his own instincts4 ,after the death of his father in #agfe he became emperor and was made co-regent by his mother in the ,austrian dominions4 ,as emperor he had no real power1 and his mother was resolved that neither husband nor son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary dominions4 ,joseph1 by threatening to resign his place as co-regent1 could induce his mother to abate her dislike to religious toleration4 ,he could1 and he did1 place a great strain on her patience and temper1 as in the case of the first partition of ,poland and the ,bavarian ,war of #aggh1 but in the last resort the empress spoke the final word4 ,during these wars ,joseph travelled much4 ,he met ,frederick the ,great privately at ,neisse in #agfi1 and again at ,mhrisch-,neustadt in #aggj4 ,on the second occasion he was accompanied by ,prince ,kaunitz1 whose conversation with ,frederick may be said to mark the starting-point of the first partition of ,poland4 ,to this and to every other measure which promised to extend the dominions of his house ,joseph gave hearty approval4 ,thus he was eager to enforce its claim on ,bavaria upon the death of the elector ,maximilian ,joseph in #aggg4 ,in ,april of that year he paid a visit to his sister the queen of ,france 7see ,,marie ,,antoinette71 travelling under the name of ,count ,falkenstein4 ,he was well received1 and much flattered by the encyclopaedists1 but his observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of the ,french monarchy1 and he was not impressed favourably by the army or navy4 ,in #aggh he commanded the troops collected to oppose ,frederick1 who supported the rival claimant to ,bavaria4 ,real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of ,frederick to embark on a new war and by ,maria ,theresa's determination to maintain peace4 ,in ,april #aghj he paid a visit to ,catherine of ,russia1 against the wish of his mother4 ,the death of ,maria ,theresa on the #bgth of ,november #aghj left ,joseph free4 ,he immediately directed his government on a new course1 full speed ahead4 ,he proceeded to attempt to realize his ideal of a wise despotism acting on a definite system for the good of all4 ,the measures of emancipation of the peasantry which his mother had begun were carried on by him with feverish activity4 ,the spread of education1 the secularization of church lands1 the reduction of the religious orders and the clergy in general to complete submission to the lay state1 the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the ,german language1 everything which from the point of view of #ahth-century philosophy appeared reasonable was undertaken at once4 ,he strove for administrative unity with characteristic haste to reach results without preparation4 ,his anti-clerical innovations induced ,pope ,pius ,,vi4 to pay him a visit in ,july #aghb4 ,joseph received the pope politely1 and showed himself a good ,catholic1 but refused to be influenced4 ,so many interferences with old customs began to produce unrest in all parts of his dominions4 ,meanwhile he threw himself into a succession of foreign policies all aimed at aggrandisement1 and all equally calculated to offend his neighbours--all taken up with zeal1 and dropped in discouragement4 ,he endeavoured to get rid of the ,barrier ,treaty1 which debarred his ,flemish subjects from the navigation of the ,scheldt2 when he was opposed by ,france he turned to other schemes of alliance with ,russia for the partition of ,turkey and ,venice4 ,they also had to be given up in the face of the opposition of neighbours1 and in particular of ,france4 ,then he resumed his attempts to obtain ,bavaria--this time by exchanging it for ,belgium--and only provoked the formation of the ,frstenbund organized by the king of ,prussia4 ,finally he joined ,russia in an attempt to pillage ,turkey4 ,it began on his part by an unsuccessful and discreditable attempt to surprise ,belgrade in time of peace1 and was followed by the ill-managed campaign of #aghh4 ,he accompanied his army1 but showed no capacity for war4 ,in ,november he returned to ,vienna with ruined health1 and during #aghi was a dying man4 ,the concentration of his troops in the east gave the malcontents of ,belgium an opportunity to revolt4 ,in ,hungary the nobles were all but in open rebellion1 and in his other states there were peasant risings1 and a revival of particularist sentiments4 ,joseph was left entirely alone4 ,his minister ,kaunitz refused to visit his sick-room1 and did not see him for two years4 ,his brother ,leopold remained at ,florence4 ,at last ,joseph1 worn out and broken-hearted1 recognized that his servants could not1 or would not1 carry out his plans4 ,on the #cjth of ,january #agij he formally withdrew all his reforms1 and he died on the #bjth of ,february4 ,joseph ,,ii4 was twice married1 first to ,isabella1 daughter of ,philip1 duke of ,parma1 to whom he was attached4 ,after her death on the #bgth of ,november #agfc1 a political marriage was arranged with ,josepha 7d4 #agfg71 daughter of ,charles ,albert1 elector of ,bavaria 7the emperor ,charles ,,vii474 ,it proved extremely unhappy4 ,joseph left no children1 and was succeeded by his brother ,leopold ,,ii4 ,many volumes of the emperor's correspondence have been published4 ,among them are ,maria ,theresia und ,joseph ,,ii4 ,ihre ,korrespondenz samt ,briefen ,josephs an seinen ,bruder ,leopold 7#ahfg-ahfh72 ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,leopold von ,toskana4 ,ihr ,briefwechsel #agha-agij 7#ahgb72 ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,katharina von ,russland4 ,ihr ,briefwechsel 7#ahfi72 and ,maria ,antoinette1 ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,leopold ,,ii4 ,ihr ,briefwechsel 7#ahff72 all edited by ,a4 ,ritter von ,arneth4 ,other collections are3 ,joseph ,,ii41 ,leopold ,,ii4 und ,kaunitz4 ,ihr ,briefwechsel1 edited by ,a4 ,beer 7#ahgc72 ,correspondances intimes de l'empereur ,joseph ,,ii4 avec son ami1 le comte de ,cobenzl et son premier ministre1 le prince de ,kaunitz1 edited by ,s4 ,brunner 7#ahga72 ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,graf ,ludwig ,cobenzl4 ,ihr ,briefwechsel1 edited by ,a4 ,beer and ,j4 von ,fiedler 7#aija72 and the ,geheime ,korrespondenz ,josephs ,,ii4 mit seinem ,minister in den ,oesterreichischen ,niederlanden1 ,ferdinand ,graf ,trauttmannsdorff #aghg-aghi1 edited by ,h4 ,schlitter 7#aijb74 ,among the lives of ,joseph may be mentioned3 ,a4 ,j4 ,gross-,hoffinger1 ,geschichte ,josephs ,,ii4 7#ahdg72 ,c4 ,paganel1 ,histoire de ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahdc2 ,german translation by ,f4 ,khler1 #ahdd72 ,h4 ,meynert1 ,kaiser ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahfb72 ,a4 ,beer1 ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahhb72 ,a4 ,jger1 ,kaiser ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,leopold ,,ii4 7#ahfg72 ,a4 ,fournier1 ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahhe72 and ,j4 ,wendrinski1 ,kaiser ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahhj74 ,there is a useful small volume on the emperor by ,j4 ,franck ,bright 7#ahig74 ,other books which may be consulted are3 ,g4 ,wolf1 ,das ,unterrichtswesen in ,oesterreich unter ,joseph ,,ii4 7#ahhj71 and ,oesterreich und ,preussen #aghj-agij 7#ahhj71 ,a4 ,wolf and ,h4 von ,zwiedeneck-,sdenhorst1 ,oesterreich unter ,maria ,theresia1 ,joseph ,,ii4 und ,leopold ,,ii4 7#ahhb-ahhd72 ,h4 ,schlitter1 ,die ,regierung ,josephs ,,ii4 in den ,oesterreichischen ,niederlanden 7#aijj72 and ,pius ,,vi4 und ,joseph ,,ii4 #aghb-aghd 7#ahid72 ,o4 ,lorenz1 ,joseph ,,ii4 und die ,belgische ,revolution 7#ahfb72 and ,l4 ,delplace1 ,joseph ,,ii4 et la rvolution brabanonne 7#ahij74 ,,joseph1 ,,father 7,,fran,,ois ,,leclerc ,,du ,,tremblay7 7#aegg-afch71 ,french ,capuchin monk1 the confidant of ,richelieu1 was the eldest son of ,jean ,leclerc du ,tremblay1 president of the chamber of requests of the parlement of ,paris1 and of ,marie ,motier de ,lafayette4 ,as a boy he received a careful classical training1 and in #aeie made an extended journey through ,italy1 returning to take up the career of arms4 ,he served at the siege of ,amiens in #aeig1 and then accompanied a special embassy to ,london4 ,in #aeii ,baron de ,mafflier1 by which name he was known at court1 renounced the world and entered the ,capuchin monastery of ,orleans4 ,he embraced the religious life with great ardour1 and became a notable preacher and reformer4 ,in #afjf he aided ,antoinette d',orlans1 a nun of ,fontevrault1 to found the reformed order of the ,filles du ,calvaire1 and wrote a manual of devotion for the nuns4 ,his proselytizing zeal led him to send missionaries throughout the ,huguenot centres--he had become provincial of ,touraine in #afac4 ,he entered politics at the conferences of ,loudun1 when1 as the confidant of the queen and the papal envoy1 he opposed the ,gallican claims advanced by the parlement1 which the princes were upholding1 and succeeded in convincing them of the schismatic tendency of ,gallicanism4 ,in #afab he began those personal relations with ,richelieu which have indissolubly joined in history and legend the cardinal and the ,eminence grise1 relations which research has not altogether made clear4 ,in #afbg the monk assisted at the siege of ,la ,rochelle4 ,a purely religious reason also made him ,richelieu's ally against the ,habsburgs4 ,he had a dream of arousing ,europe to another crusade against the ,turks1 and believed that the house of ,austria was the obstacle to that universal ,european peace which would make this possible4 ,as ,richelieu's agent1 therefore1 this modern ,peter the ,hermit manoeuvred at the diet of ,regensburg 7#afcj7 to thwart the aggression of the emperor1 and then advised the intervention of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 reconciling himself to the use of ,protestant armies by the theory that one poison would counteract another4 ,thus the monk became a war minister1 and1 though maintaining a personal austerity of life1 gave himself up to diplomacy and politics4 ,he died in #afch1 just as the cardinalate was to be conferred upon him4 ,the story that ,richelieu visited him when on his deathbed and roused the dying man by the words1 ,courage1 ,father ,joseph1 we have won ,breisach1 is apocryphal4 ,see ,fagniez1 ,le ,pre ,joseph et ,richelieu 7#ahid71 a work based largely on original and unpublished sources4 ,father ,joseph1 according to this biography1 would seem not to have lectured ,richelieu in the fashion of the legends1 whatever his moral influence may have been in strengthening ,richelieu's hands4 ,,josephine 7,,marie ,,rose ,,josephine ,,tascher ,,de ,,la ,,pagerie7 7#agfc-ahad71 empress of the ,french1 was born in the island of ,martinique on the #bcrd of ,june #agfc1 being the eldest of three daughters of ,joseph ,tascher de la ,pagerie1 lieutenant of artillery4 ,her beauty and grace1 though of a languid ,creole style1 won the affections of the young officer the vicomte de ,beauharnais1 and1 after some family complications1 she was married to him4 ,their married life was not wholly happy1 the frivolity of ,josephine occasioning her husband anxiety and jealousy4 ,two children1 ,eugne and ,hortense1 were the fruit of the union4 ,during ,josephine's second residence in ,martinique1 whither she proceeded to tend her mother1 occurred the first troubles with the slaves1 which resulted from the precipitate action of the constituent assembly in emancipating them4 ,she returned to her husband1 who at that time entered into political life at ,paris4 ,her beauty and vivacity won her many admirers in the salons of the capital4 ,as the ,revolution ran its course her husband1 as an ex-noble1 incurred the suspicion and hostility of the ,jacobins2 and his ill-success at the head of a ,french army on the ,rhine led to his arrest and execution4 ,thereafter ,josephine was in a position of much perplexity and some hardship1 but the friendship of ,barras and of ,madame ,tallien1 to both of whom she was then much attached1 brought her into notice1 and she was one of the queens of ,parisian society in the year #agie1 when ,napoleon ,bonaparte's services to the ,french convention in scattering the malcontents of the capital 7#ac ,vendmiaire1 or ,october #e1 #agie7 brought him to the front4 ,there is a story that she became known to ,napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son ,eugne in order to beg his help in procuring the restoration of his father's sword1 but it rests on slender foundations4 ,in any case1 it is certain that ,bonaparte1 however he came to know her1 was speedily captivated by her charms4 ,she1 on her side1 felt very little affection for the thin1 impecunious and irrepressible suitor2 but by degrees she came to acquiesce in the thought of marriage1 her hesitations1 it is said1 being removed by the influence of ,barras and by the nomination of ,bonaparte to the command of the army of ,italy4 ,the civil marriage took place on the #ith of ,march #agif1 two days before the bridegroom set out for his command4 ,he failed to induce her to go with him to ,nice and ,italy4 ,bonaparte's letters to ,josephine during the campaign reveal the ardour of his love1 while she rarely answered them4 ,as he came to realize her shallowness and frivolity his passion cooled2 but at the time when he resided at ,montebello 7near ,milan7 in #agig he still showed great regard for her4 ,during his absence in ,egypt in #agih-agii1 her relations to an officer1 ,m4 ,charles1 were most compromising2 and ,bonaparte on his return thought of divorcing her4 ,her tears and the entreaties of ,eugne and ,hortense availed to bring about a reconciliation2 and during the period of the consulate 7#agii-ahjd7 their relations were on the whole happy1 though ,napoleon's conduct now gave his consort grave cause for concern4 ,his brothers and sisters more than once begged him to divorce ,josephine1 and it is known that1 from the time when he became first consul for life 7,august #ahjb7 with large powers over the choice of a successor1 he kept open the alternative of a divorce4 ,josephine's anxieties increased on the proclamation of the ,empire 7,may #ah1 #ahjd72 and on the #ast of ,december #ahjd1 the eve of the coronation at ,notre ,dame1 she gained her wish that she should be married anew to ,napoleon with religious rites4 ,despite her care1 the emperor procured the omission of one formality1 the presence of the parish priest2 but at the coronation scene ,josephine appeared radiant with triumph over her envious relatives4 ,the august marriages contracted by her children ,eugne and ,hortense seemed to establish her position2 but her ceaseless extravagance and1 above all1 the impossibility that she should bear a son strained the relations between ,napoleon and ,josephine4 ,she complained of his infidelities and growing callousness4 ,the end came in sight after the campaign of #ahji1 when ,napoleon caused the announcement to be made to her that reasons of state compelled him to divorce her4 ,despite all her pleadings he held to his resolve4 ,the most was made of the slight technical irregularity at the marriage ceremony of the #ast of ,december #ahjd2 and the marriage was declared null and void4 ,at her private retreat1 ,la ,malmaison1 near ,paris1 which she had beautified with curios and rare plants and flowers1 ,josephine closed her life in dignified retirement4 ,napoleon more than once came to consult her upon matters in which he valued her tact and good sense4 ,her health declined early in #ahad1 and after his first abdication 7,april #aa1 #ahad7 it was clear that her end was not far off4 ,the emperor ,alexander of ,russia and ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 of ,prussia1 then in ,paris1 requested an interview with her4 ,she died on the #bdth of ,may #ahad4 ,her friends1 ,mme de ,rmusat and others1 pointed out that ,napoleon's good fortune deserted him after the divorce2 and it is certain that the ,austrian marriage clogged him in several ways4 ,josephine's influence was used on behalf of peace and moderation both in internal and in foreign affairs4 ,thus she begged ,napoleon not to execute the duc d',enghien and not to embroil himself in ,spanish affairs in #ahjh4 ,see ,m4 ,a4 ,le ,normand1 ,mmoires historiques et secrets de ,josphine 7#b vols41 #ahbj72 ,lettres de ,napolon ,josphine 7#ahcc72 ,j4 ,a4 ,aubenas1 ,hist4 de l'impratrice ,josphine 7#b vols41 #aheh-ahei72 ,j4 ,turquan1 ,l',impratrice ,josphine 7#b vols41 #ahie-ahif72 ,f4 ,masson1 ,josphine 7#c vols41 #ahii-aijb72 ,napoleon's ,letters to ,josephine 7#agif-ahab71 translated and edited by ,h4 ,f4 ,hall 7#aijc74 ,also the ,memoirs of ,mme4 de ,rmusat and of ,bausset1 and ,p4 ,w4 ,sergeant1 ,the ,empress ,josephine 7#aijh74 7,j4 ,hl4 ,r47 ,,josephus1 ,,flavius 7c4 #cg-;c4 #ie871 ,jewish historian and military commander1 was born in the first year of ,caligula 7#cg-ch74 ,his father belonged to one of the noblest priestly families1 and through his mother he claimed descent from the ,asmonaean high priest ,jonathan4 ,a precocious student of the ,law1 he made trial of the three sects of ,judaism--,pharisees1 ,sadducees and ,essenes--before he reached the age of nineteen4 ,then1 having spent three years in the desert with the hermit ,banus1 who was presumably an ,essene1 he became a ,pharisee4 ,in #fd he went to ,rome to intercede on behalf of some priests1 his friends1 whom the procurator ,felix had sent to render account to ,caesar for some insignificant offence4 ,making friends with ,alityrus1 a ,jewish actor1 who was a favourite of ,nero1 ,josephus obtained an introduction to the empress ,poppaea and effected his purpose by her help4 ,his visit to ,rome enabled him to speak from personal experience of the power of the ,empire1 when he expostulated with the revolutionary ,jews on his return to ,palestine4 ,but they refused to listen2 and he1 with all the ,jews who did not fly the country1 was dragged into the great rebellion of #ff4 ,in company with two other priests1 ,josephus was sent to ,galilee under orders 7he says7 to persuade the ill-affected to lay down their arms and return to the ,roman allegiance1 which the ,jewish aristocracy had not yet renounced4 ,having sent his two companions back to ,jerusalem1 he organized the forces at his disposal1 and made arrangements for the government of his province4 ,his obvious desire to preserve law and order excited the hostility of ,john of ,giscala1 who endeavoured vainly to remove him as a traitor to the national cause by inciting the ,galileans to kill him and by persuading the ,sanhedrin at ,jerusalem to recall him4 ,in the spring of #fg the ,jewish troops1 whom ,josephus had drilled so sedulously1 fled before the ,roman forces of ,vespasian and ,titus4 ,he sent to ,jerusalem for reinforcements1 but none came4 ,with the stragglers who remained1 he held a stronghold against the ,romans by dint of his native cunning1 and finally1 when the place was taken1 persuaded forty men1 who shared his hiding-place1 to kill one another in turn rather than commit suicide4 ,they agreed to cast lots1 on the understanding that the second should kill the first and so on4 ,josephus providentially drew the last lot and prevailed upon his destined victim to live4 ,their companions were all dead in accordance with the compact2 but ,josephus at any rate survived and surrendered4 ,being led before ,vespasian1 he was inspired to prophesy that ,vespasian would become emperor4 ,in consequence of the prophecy his life was spared1 but he was kept close prisoner for two years4 ,when his prophecy was fulfilled he was liberated1 assumed the name of ,flavius1 the family name of ,vespasian1 and accompanied his patron to ,alexandria4 ,there he took another wife1 as the ,jewess allotted him by ,vespasian after the fall of ,caesarea had forsaken him1 and returned to attend ,titus and to act as intermediary between him and the ,jews who still held ,jerusalem4 ,his efforts in this capacity failed2 but when the city was stormed 7#gj7 ,titus granted him whatever boon he might ask4 ,so he secured the lives of some free men who had been taken and 7by the gift of ,titus7 certain sacred books4 ,after this he repaired to ,rome and received one of the pensions1 which ,vespasian 7according to ,suetonius7 was the first to bestow upon ,latin and ,greek writers4 ,he was also made a ,roman citizen and received an estate in ,judaea4 ,thenceforward he devoted himself to literary work under the patronage of ,vespasian1 ,titus and ,domitian4 ,as he mentions the death of ,agrippa ,,ii4 it is probable that he lived into the #bnd century2 but the date of ,agrippa's death has been challenged and1 if his patron ,epaphroditus may be identified with ,nero's freedman1 it is possible that ,josephus may have been involved in his fall and perished under ,domitian in #ie4 ,,works4--#a4 ,the ,jewish ,war 7,greek3 ,peri tou ,ioudakou polemou71 the oldest of ,josephus' extant writings1 was written towards the end of ,vespasian's reign 7#fi-gi74 ,the ,aramaic original has not been preserved2 but the ,greek version was prepared by ,josephus himself in conjunction with competent ,greek scholars4 ,its purpose in all probability was1 in the first instance1 to exhibit to the ,babylonian ,jews the overwhelming power of ,rome and so to deter them from repeating the futile revolt of the ,jews of ,palestine4 ,of its seven books1 the first two survey the history of the ,jews from the capture of ,jerusalem by ,antiochus ,epiphanes to the outbreak of war in #fg1 and here ,josephus relies upon some such general history as that of ,nicolaus of ,damascus4 ,the rest deals with the events of the war 7#fg-gc7 which fell more or less within his own knowledge4 ,vespasian1 ,titus and ,agrippa ,,ii4 testified 7he tells us7 to his accuracy4 ,representatives of the ,zealots would probably have protested against his pro-,roman prejudices4 #b4 ,the ,jewish ,antiquities 7,greek3 ,ioudak ,archaiologia7 covers in twenty books the history of the ,jews from the creation of the world to the outbreak of the war with ,rome4 ,it was finished in the thirteenth year of ,domitian 7#ic74 ,its purpose was to glorify the ,jewish nation in the eyes of the ,roman world4 ,in the part covered by the books of the ,bible ,josephus follows them1 and that mainly1 if not entirely as they are translated into ,greek by the ,seventy 7the ,septuagint version74 ,being a ,pharisee1 he sometimes introduces traditions of the ,elders1 which are either inferences from1 or embroideries of1 the biblical narrative4 ,sometimes1 also1 he gives proof of some knowledge of ,hebrew and supplements his scriptural authorities1 which include #a ,esdras1 from general ,greek histories4 ,for the later period he uses the ,greek ,esther1 with its additions1 #a ,maccabees1 ,polybius1 ,strabo and ,nicolaus of ,damascus4 ,but towards the end he confesses that he has grown weary of his task1 and his history becomes meagre4 ,the work contains accounts of ,john the ,baptist and ,jesus1 which may account for the fact that ,josephus' writings were rescued from oblivion by the ,christians4 ,but the description of ,jesus as a wise man1 if indeed one should call him a man1 can hardly be genuine1 and the assertion this was the ,christ is equally doubtful1 unless it be assumed that the ,greek word ,christos had become technical in the sense of false-,christ or false-prophet among non-,christian ,jews4 #c4 ,josephus wrote a narrative of his own ,life in order to defend himself against the accusation brought by his enemy ,justus of ,tiberias to the effect that he had really been the cause of the ,jewish rebellion4 ,in his defence ,josephus departs from the facts as narrated in the ,jewish ,war and represents himself as a partisan of ,rome and1 therefore1 as a traitor to his own people from the beginning4 #d4 ,the two books ,against ,apion are a defence or apology directed against current misrepresentations of the ,jews4 ,earlier titles are ,concerning the ,antiquity of the ,jews or ,against the ,greeks4 ,apion was the leader of the ,alexandrine embassy which opposed ,philo and his companions when they appeared in behalf of the ,alexandrine ,jews before ,caligula4 ,the defence which ,josephus puts forward has a permanent value and shows him at his best4 ,the ,greek text of ,josephus' works has been edited with full collection of different readings by ,b4 ,niese 7,berlin1 #ahhg-ahie74 ,the ,teubner text by ,naber is based on this4 ,the translation into ,english of ,w4 ,whiston has been 7superficially7 revised by ,a4 ,r4 ,shilleto 7#ahhi-ahij74 ,schrer 7,history of the ,jewish ,people7 gives a full bibliography4 7,j4 ,h4 ,a4 ,h47 ,,joshekan1 a small province of ,persia covering about #ajjj sq4 m4 ,pop4 about #ejjj4 ,it has a yearly revenue of about #abjj1 and is held in fief by the family of ,bahram ,mirza1 ,muizz ed ,dowleh 7d4 #ahhb74 ,its chief town and the residence of the governor used to be ,joshekan-,kali1 a large village with fine gardens1 formerly famous for its carpets 7kali71 but now the chief place is ,maimeh1 a little city with a population of #bejj1 situated at an elevation of #ffgj ft41 about #fc m4 from ,isfahan in a north-westerly direction and #ac m4 south-west of ,joshekan-,kali4 ,,joshua1 ,,book ,,of1 the sixth book of the ,old ,testament1 and the first of the group known as the ,former ,prophets4 ,it takes its name from ,joshua#a the son of ,nun1 an ,ephraimite who1 on the death of ,moses1 assumed the leadership to which he had previously been designated by his chief 7,deut4 xxxi4 #ad seq41 #bc71 and proceeded to the conquest of the land of ,canaan4 ,the book differs from the ,pentateuch or ,torah in the absence of legal matter1 and in its intimate connexion with the narrative in the books which follow4 ,it is1 however1 the proper sequel to the origins of the people as related in ,genesis1 to the exodus of the ,israelite tribes from ,egypt1 and their journeyings in the wilderness4 ,on these and also on literary grounds it is often convenient to class the first six books of the ,bible as a unit under the term ,hexateuch4 ,for an exhaustive detailed study has revealed many signs of diversity of authorship which combine to show that the book is due to the incorporation of older material in two main redactions2 one deeply imbued with the language and thought of ,deuteronomy itself 7,d71 the other of the post-exilic priestly circle 7,p7 which gave the ,pentateuch its present form4 ,that the older sources 7which often prove to be composite7 are actually identical with the ,yahwist or ,judaean 7,j7 and the ,elohist or ,ephraimite 7,e7 narratives 7on which see ,,genesis7 is not improbable1 though1 especially as regards the former1 still very uncertain4 ,in general the literary problems are exceedingly intricate1 and no attempt can be made here to deal with them as fully as they deserve4 ,the ,invasion4--,the book falls naturally into two main parts1 of which the first1 the crossing of the ,jordan and the conquest of ,palestine 7i4-xii47 is mainly due to ,deuteronomic compilers4 ,it opens with the preparations for the crossing of the ,jordan and the capture of the powerful city ,jericho4 ,ai1 near ,bethel1 is taken after a temporary repulse1 and ,joshua proceeds to erect an altar upon ,mt ,ebal 7north of ,shechem74 ,for the fullness with which the events are recorded the writers were probably indebted to local stories4 ,the ,israelites are at ,abel-,shittim 7already reached in ,num4 xxv4 #a74 ,moses is dead1 and ,joshua enters upon his task with the help of the ,transjordanic tribes who have already received their territory 7i74 ,the narrative is of the later prophetic stamp 7,d2 cf4 ,deut4 iii4 #ah-bb1 xi4 #bd1 where ,moses is the speaker2 xxxi4 #a-h71 but may be based upon an earlier and shorter record 7,e2 vv4 #a seq41 #aj1 #aa;a74 ,of the mission of the spies to ,jericho1 two versions were current 7duplicates ii4 #c1 #ab1 #ah2 v4 #ae seq4 breaks the connexion between vv4 #ac and #ah1 but is resumed in vv4 #bb-bd72 ,d's addition is to be recognized in ii4 #i;b-#aa4 ,the incident occupies at least four days1 but the main narrative reckons three days between i4 #aa and iii4 #b4 ,next follow the passage of the ,jordan 7commemorated by the erection of twelve stones71 the encampment at ,gilgal1 and the observance of the rite of circumcision and of the passover 7iii4-v474 ,the complicated narrative in iii4-iv4 is of composite origin 7contrast iii4 #ag with iv4 #aj seq41 #ai2 iv4 #c1 #h with vv4 #i1 #bj2 and cf4 iii4 #ab with the superfluous iv4 #b1 c474 ,as in ii41 ,d has amplified 7iii4 #d;b1 #g1 #aj;b1 iv4 #i-aj;a1 #ab1 #ad2 more prominently in iv4 #ba-v4 #a1 v4 #d-h71 and subsequently ,p 7or a hand akin to ,p7 has worked over the whole 7iii4 #d1 note the number and the prohibition1 cf4 ,num4 i4 #ea2 iii4 #h1 #ae seq42 iv4 #ac1 #ai2 v4 #aj-ab74 ,circumcision1 already familiar from ,exod4 iv4 #bf1 ,deut4 x4 #af1 is here regarded as a new rite 7v4 #b1 #i1 supplemented by vv4 #a1 #d-h71 but the conflicting views have been harmonized by the words the second time 7v4 #b74 ,gilgal is thus named from the rolling away of the reproach of ,egypt 7v4 #i71 but iv4 #bj suggests a different origin1 viz4 the sacred stone-circle 7cf4 ,judges iii4 #ai1 ,r4,v4 marg474 ,an older account of the divine commission to ,joshua appears in the archaic passage v4 #ac-ae 7cf4 ,moses in ,exod4 iii474 ,fusion of sources is obvious in the story of the fall of ,jericho 7contrast vi4 #e and v4 #aj1 vv4 #ba and #bd1 vv4 #bb and #be72 according to one 7,e87 the people march seven times round the city on one day1 the ark and the priests occupying a prominent position 7vi4 #d-f1 #g;b-#i1 #ab seq41 #af;a1 #bj part1 #bb-bd72 but in the other they march every day for seven days4 ,both here and in the preceding chapters the ,septuagint has several variations and omissions1 due either to an 7unsuccessful7 attempt to simplify the present difficulties1 or to the use of another recension4 ,the curse pronounced by ,joshua upon the destroyed city of ,jericho 7vi4 #bf7 should be associated with an incident in the reign of ,ahab which is acquainted with the story 7#a ,kings xvi4 #cd72 the city1 however1 reappears in ,joshua xviii4 #ba2 #b ,sam4 x4 #e4 ,achan's sacrilege1 the cause of the repulse at ,ai and of the naming of the valley of ,achor 7vii471 is introduced by vi4 #ah seq41 #bd;b1 and1 as its spirit shows1 is of relatively later date4 ,it contains some probable traces of ,d 7in vii4 #e1 #g1 #aa seq41 #ae1 #be7 and ,p 7in vv4 #a1 #ah1 #bd seq474 ,the capture of ,ai has marks of the same dual origin as the preceding chapters 7cf4 viii4 #c;a with #aj1 and contrast viii4 #c-i with v4 #ab2 vv4 #e-g with #ah1 #bf2 v4 #ai with #bh74 ,the general resemblance between chs4 vii4-viii4 and the war with ,benjamin 7,judges xx47 should be noticed4 ,conquests in ,palestine4--,the erection of the altar1 not at the scene of battle 7cf4 #a ,sam4 xiv4 #ce7 but on ,mt ,ebal 7viii4 #cj-ce1 ,d71 presupposes the conquest of central ,palestine and the removal of the ark from ,gilgal4 ,these1 however1 are not narrated1 and1 unless some account of them has been replaced by the present passage1 this portion of the conquest was ignored4 ,possibly the passage is not in its original position3 in the ,septuagint it appears after ix4 #b1 while ,josephus 7,ant4 v4 #a1 #ai7 and the ,samaritan book of ,joshua read it before ch4 xiii42 ,dillmann1 however1 would place it after xi4 #bc4 ,the capture of ,jericho and ,ai is followed by the successful stratagem of the ,gibeonites to make peace with ,israel 7ix474 ,this involves them in a war with the southern ,canaanites2 ,joshua intervenes and obtains a crowning victory 7x474 ,the camp is still at ,gilgal4 ,a similar conquest of the northern ,canaanites follows 7xi471 and the first part of the book concludes with a summary of the results of the ,israelite invasion 7xii474 ,no satisfactory explanation of viii4 #cj-ce has been found1 yet ix4 #a seq4 seems to show that it was the prelude to the ,canaanite wars4 ,in contrast to the absence of any reference to the occupation of central ,palestine1 the conquest of the south was current in several divergent traditions4 ,two records are blended in ix42 one narrates the covenant with the ,gibeonites1 the other that with the ,hivites 7properly ,hivvites72 and in the latter ,joshua has no place 7vv4 #d seq41 #f;b1 #g1 #aa-ad1 c474 ,the former has additions by ,d 7vv4 #i;b1 #aj1 #bd seq47 and by ,p 7v4 #ae last clause1 #ag-ba72 the latter1 in accordance with the legislation of its day 7posterior to ,ezek4 xliv4 #f sqq471 does not allow the ,gibeonites to minister to the temple or altar1 but merely to the congregation1 a characteristic post-exilic term 7contrast vv4 #ba and #bc2 and on #bg see ,sept4 and commentaries74 ,the story of the covenant conflicts with the notice that ,gibeon was still an independent ,canaanite city in ,david's time 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 #b74 ,the defeat of the southern coalition is based1 as the doublets show1 upon two sources2 the war arises from two causes 7vengeance upon the ,gibeonites1 and the attempt to overthrow ,israel71 and concludes with a twofold victory3 in x4 #af-bd the kings are pursued to ,makkedah and slain1 in v4 #aa they are smitten by a great hailstorm in their flight to ,azekah 7cf4 #a ,sam4 vii4 #aj1 xiv4 #ae1 in the same district74 ,redactional links have been added1 apparently by ,d1 to whom is possibly due the stanza quoted from the book of ,jashar 7v4 #ab seq471 a poetical address to the sun and moon1 of the nature of a prayer or spell for their aid 7cf4 ,judges v4 #bj1 and see ,ecclus4 xlvi4 #d74 ,the literal interpretation of this picturesque quotation has been influenced by the prosaic comments at the end of v4 #ac and beginning of v4 #ad4 ,verse #ae1 which closes the account1 anticipates v4 #dc2 the ,septuagint omits both4 ,the generalizing narrative 7x4 #bh-dc71 which is due to ,d in its present form1 is partly based upon old matter 7e4g4 the capture of ,makkedah71 but is inconsistent with what precedes 7v4 #cg1 see v4 #bc sqq47 and follows 7capture of ,debir1 v4 #ch seq41 see xv4 #ae2 ,judges i4 #aa74 ,the description of the conquest of the northern ,canaanites is very similar to that of the south4 ,the main part is from an older source 7xi4 #a1 #d-i2 see ,,deborah71 the amplifications 7v4 #b seq47 are due to ,d1 as also are the summary 7vv4 #aj-bc1 cf4 style of x4 #bh-dc71 and the enumeration of the total results of the invasion 7xii471 which includes names not previously mentioned4 ,division of the ,land4--,the result of the events narrated in the first part of the book is to ascribe the entire subjugation of ,canaan to ,joshua1 whose centre was at ,gilgal 7x4 #ae1 #dc74 ,he is now old and advanced in years1 and although much outlying land remained to be possessed1 he is instructed to divide the conquered districts among the western tribes 7xiii4 #a sqq474 ,this is detailed at length in the second part of the book4 ,with the completion of the division his mission is accomplished4 ,the main body of this part 7xiii4 #ae-xiv4 #e2 xv4-xvii42 xviii4 #aa-xxi4 #db2 xxii4 #g-cd7 is in its present form almost entirely due to ,p4 ,in regard to details1 xiii4 #b-f 7now ,d7 expresses the view that the conquest was incomplete1 and numbers districts chiefly in the south-west and in the ,lebanon4 ,two sources deal with the inheritance of the east ,jordan tribes in terms which are--7a7 general 7xiii4 #h-ab1 ,d71 and 7b7 precise 7vv4 #ae-cb1 ,p74 ,the latter stands between the duplicate passages xiii4 #ad and #cb seq4 7see the ,sept474 ,with the interest taken in these tribes1 cf4 for 7a7 i4 #ab-ah2 ,deut4 iii4 #ab-bb1 and the sequel in ,joshua xxii4 #a-f2 and for 7b7 xxii4 #i seq42 ,num4 xxxii4 ,p's account of the division opens with an introductory notice of the manner in which ,eleazar the priest and ,joshua 7note the order7 prepare to complete the work which ,moses had begun 7xiv4 #a-e74 ,it opens with ,judah1 its borders 7xv4 #a-ab7 and cities 7vv4 #bj-fb71 and continues with the two ,joseph tribes1 ,ephraim 7xvi4 #d-i1 contrast details in vv4 #a-c7 and ,manasseh 7xvii4 #a-aj1 cf4 ,num4 xxvi4 #cj-cb1 xxvii4 #a-aa2 ,p74 ,there is now a break in the narrative 7xviii4 #b-aj1 source uncertain72 seven tribes have not yet received an inheritance1 and ,joshua 7alone7 encourages them to send three men from each tribe to walk through the land--excluding the territory of ,judah and ,joseph--and to bring a description of it to him1 after which he divides it among them by lot4 ,p#b now resumes with an account of the borders and cities of ,benjamin 7xviii4 #aa-bh71 ,simeon1 ,zebulun1 ,issachar1 ,asher1 ,naphtali and ,dan 7xix42 on v4 #dg1 see below72 and1 after the subscription 7xix4 #ea71 concludes with the institution of the cities of refuge 7xx41 cf4 ,num4 xxxv471 and of the ,levitical cities 7xxi41 contrast the earlier brief notice1 xiii4 #ad1 #cc74 ,chapter xx41 belonging to the ,predaction1 has certain points of contact with ,deut4 xix4 which1 it is very important to observe1 are wanting in the ,septuagint2 and xxi4 #dc-de closes ,d's account of the division1 and in the ,septuagint contains matter most of which is now given by ,p in xix4 #di seq4 ,two narratives describe the dismissal of the trans-,jordanic tribes after their co-operation in the conquest1 viz4 xxii4 #a-f 7,d71 and xxii4 #i seq4 7,p72 cf4 above1 on xiii4 #h seq4 ,p1 with the description of the erection of the altar 7v4 #cd1 ,gilead82 cf4 ,gen4 xxxi4 #dg seq471 is apparently a late re-writing of some now obscure incident to emphasize the unity of worship4 ,p's account of the distribution of land among the nine and a half tribes by ,eleazar and ,joshua 7from xiv4 #a-e to xix4 #ea7 appears to have been on the lines laid down in ,num4 xxxiv4 7,p74 ,the scene1 according to xviii4 #a1 is ,shiloh1 and this verse1 which does not belong to the context1 should apparently precede ,p's narrative in xiv4 #a4 ,but of the occupation of ,shiloh1 the famous ,ephraimite sanctuary and the seat of the ark1 we have no information4 ,the older source1 however1 presupposes that ,judah and the two ,joseph tribes have acquired their territory2 the remaining seven are blamed for their indifference 7xviii4 #b-aj1 see above71 and receive their lot conjointly at the camp at ,shiloh4 ,but if the location is an attempt to harmonize with xviii4 #a1 ,gilgal should probably be restored4 ,the section xviii4 #b-aj is followed by xxi4 #dc seq4 7above71 and may have been preceded originally by xiii4 #a1 #g 7where read3 inheritance for the seven tribes72 in its present form it appears to be due to ,d4 ,another account of the exploits of ,judah and ,joseph can be traced here and there2 e4g4 in xiv4 #f-ae 7where ,caleb receives ,hebron as his inheritance and the land had rest from war71 and xvii4 #ad-ah 7where ,joseph receives an additional lot72 but where these traditions have not been worked into later narratives1 they exist only in fragmentary form and are chiefly recognizable by their standpoint4 ,they are characterized by the view that the conquest was only a partial one1 and one which was neither the work of a single man nor at his instigation1 but due entirely to individual or tribal achievements4 ,this view can be traced in xiii4 #ac1 xv4 #fc 7cf4 the parallel ,judges i4 #ba in contrast to v4 #h71 xvi4 #aj 7,judges i4 #bi71 xvii4 #aa-ac 7,judges i4 #bg seq471 and in the references to separate tribal or family exploits3 xv4 #ac-ai1 xix4 #dg 7cf4 ,judges i4 #cd seq41 xviii474 ,two closing addresses are ascribed to ,joshua1 one an exhortation similar to the homilies in secondary portions of ,deuteronomy 7xxiii42 cf4 ,moses in ,deut4 xxviii4 seq41 and ,samuel's last address in #a ,sam4 xii471 which virtually excludes the other 7xxiv471 where ,joshua assembles the tribes at ,shechem 7,shiloh1 in the ,septuagint7 and passes under review the history of ,israel from the days of heathenism 7before ,abraham was brought into ,canaan7 down through the oppression in ,egypt1 the exodus1 the conquest in ,east ,jordan and the occupation of ,canaan4 ,a few otherwise unknown details are to be found 7xxiv4 #b1 #aa seq4 #ad74 ,the address 7which is extremely important for its representation of the religious conditions7 is made the occasion for a solemn covenant whereby the people agree to cleave to ,yahweh alone4 ,this is commemorated by the erection of a stone under the oak by the sanctuary of ,yahweh 7for the tree with its sacred pillar1 see ,gen4 xxxv4 #d2 ,judges ix4 #f74 ,the people are then dismissed1 and the book closes in ordinary narrative style with the death of ,joshua and his burial in his inheritance at ,timnath-serah in ,mt ,ephraim 7cf4 xix4 #di seq472 the burial of ,joseph in ,shechem2 and the death and burial of ,eleazar the son of ,aaron in the hill of ,phinehas4 ,chapter xxiv4 presupposes the complete subjection of the ,canaanites and is of a late prophetic stamp4 ,some signs of amplification 7e4g4 vv4 #aa;b1 #ac1 #ca7 suggest that it was inserted by a ,deuteronomic hand1 evidently distinct from the author of xxiii4 ,but elsewhere there are traces of secondary ,deuteronomic expansion and of internal incongruities in ,deuteronomic narratives2 contrast xiv4 #f-ae with ,joshua's extermination of the ,anakim in xi4 #ba seq42 the use of this name with the ,philistines of xiii4 #b 7see ,,philistines71 or the conquests in xi4 #af-bb with the names in x4 #cf-dc4 ,all these passages are now due to ,d2 but not only is ,deuteronomy itself composite1 a twofold redaction can be traced in ,judges1 ,samuel and ,kings1 thus involving the deeper literary problems of ,joshua with the historical books generally4#c ,both ,joshua xxiii4 and xxiv4 are closely connected with the very complicated introduction to the era of the judges in ,judges ii4 #f sqq41 and ii4 #f-i actually resume ,joshua xxiv4 #bh sqq41 while the ,septuagint appends to the close of ,joshua the beginning of the story of ,ehud 7,judges iii4 #ab seq474 ,both ,judges i4-ii4 #e and chap4 xvii4-xxi4 are of post-,deuteronomic insertion1 and they represent conditions analogous to the older notices imbedded in the later work of ,p 7,judges i4 #ba1 xix4 #aj-ab1 cf4 ,joshua xv4 #fc2 see ,,judges ad fin474 ,moreover1 ,p in its turn shows elsewhere definite indications of different periods and standpoints1 and the fluid state of the book at a late age is shown by the presence of ,deuteronomic elements in ,joshua xx41 not found in the ,septuagint1 and by the numerous and often striking readings which the latter recension presents4 ,value of the ,book4--,the value of the book of ,joshua is primarily religious2 its fervency1 its conviction of the destiny of ,israel and its inculcation of the unity and greatness of the ,god of ,israel give expression to the philosophy of ,israelite historians4 ,as an historical record its value must depend upon a careful criticism of its contents in the light of biblical history and external information4 ,its description of the conquest of ,canaan comes from an age when the event was a shadow of the past4 ,it is an ideal view of the manner in which a divinely appointed leader guided a united people into the promised land of their ancestors1 and1 after a few brief wars of extermination 7x4-xii471 died leaving the people in quiet possession of their new inheritance 7xi4 #bc2 xxi4 #dd seq42 xxiii4 #a74d ,on the other hand1 the earlier inhabitants were not finally subjugated until ,solomon's reign 7#a ,kings ix4 #bj72 ,jerusalem was taken by ,david from the ,jebusites 7#b ,sam4 v472 and several sites in its neighbourhood1 together with important fortresses like ,gezer1 ,megiddo and ,taanach1 were not held by ,israel at the first4 ,there are traces of other conflicting traditions representing independent tribal efforts which were not successful1 and the ,israelites are even said to live in the midst of ,canaanites1 intermarrying with them and adopting their cult 7,judges i4-iii4 #f74 ,from a careful consideration of all the evidence1 both internal and external1 biblical scholars are now almost unanimous that the more finished picture of the ,israelite invasion and settlement cannot be accepted as a historical record for the age4 ,it accords with this that the elaborate tribal-lists and boundaries prove to be of greater value for the geography than for the history of ,palestine1 and the attempts to use them as evidence for the early history of ,israel have involved numerous additional difficulties and confusion4#e ,the book of ,joshua has ascribed to one man conquests which are not confirmed by subsequent history4 ,the capture of ,bethel1 implied rather than described in ,joshua viii41 is elsewhere the work of the ,joseph tribes 7,judges i4 #bb sqq41 cf4 features in the conquest of ,jericho1 ,joshua vi4 #be74 ,joshua's victory in north ,palestine has its parallel in ,judges iv4 at another period 7see ,,deborah71 and ,adoni-zedek of ,jerusalem 7,joshua x47 can scarcely be severed from the ,adoni-bezek taken by the tribes of ,judah and ,simeon 7,judges i4 #e-g74 ,the prominence of ,joshua as military and religious leader1 and especially his connexion with ,shechem and ,shiloh1 have suggested that he was a hero of the ,joseph tribes of central ,palestine 7viz4 ,ephraim and ,manasseh74 ,moreover1 the traditions in ,joshua viii4 #cj-;ix4 #b1 and ,deut4 xxvii4 #a-h seem to place the arrival at ,mt ,ebal immediately after the crossing of the ,jordan4 ,this implies that ,israel 7like ,jacob in ,gen4 xxxii47 crossed by the ,jabbok1 and in fact the ,wadi ,fari'a provides an easy road to ,shechem1 to the south-east of which lies ,juleijil2 and while this is the ,gilgal of ,deut4 xi4 #cj1 the battles at ,jericho and ,ai 7,joshua ii4 seq47 occur naturally after the encampment at the southern ,gilgal 7near ,jericho74 ,the alternative view 7see especially ,stade1 ,gesch4 ,isr4 #a4 #acc sqq47 connects itself partly with the ancestor of all the tribes 7,jacob1 i4e4 ,israel71 and partly with the eponym of the ,joseph tribes whose early days were spent around ,shechem1 the removal of whose bones from ,egypt must have found a prominent place in the traditions of the tribes concerned 7,gen4 l4 #be2 ,exod4 xiii4 #ai2 ,joshua xxiv4 #cb74 ,according to one view 7,stade1 ,wellhausen1 ,guthe1 c47 only the ,joseph tribes were in ,egypt1 and separate tribal movements 7see ,,judah7 have been incorporated in the growth of the tradition2 the probability that the specific traditions of the ,joseph tribes have been excised or subordinated finds support in the manner in which the ,judaean ,p has abridged and confused the tribal lists of ,ephraim and ,manasseh4 ,the serious character of the problems of early ,israelite history can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an adequate outline of the course of events2 for a criticism of the most prominent hypotheses see ,cheyne1 ,ency4 ,bib4 art4 ,tribes 7col4 #ebji seq472 a new theory has been more recently advanced by ,e4 ,meyer 7,die ,israeliten u4 ihre ,nachbarstmme1 #aijf74 ,but ,joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in the surviving traditions4 ,he has no place in the oldest surviving narratives of the exodus 7,wellhausen1 ,steuernagel72 and only later sources add him to ,caleb 7,num4 xiv4 #cj2 the reference in ,deut4 i4 #ch is part of an insertion71 or regard him as the leader of all the tribes 7,deut4 iii4 #ba1 #bh74 ,as an attendant of ,moses at the tent of meeting he appears in quite secondary passages 7,exod4 xxxiii4 #g-aa2 ,num4 xi4 #bh74 ,his defeat of the ,amalekites is in a narrative 7,exod4 xvii4 #h-af7 which belongs more naturally to the wilderness of ,shur1 and it associates him with traditions of a movement direct into south ,palestine which finds its counterpart when the clan ,caleb 7q4v47 is artificially treated as possessing its seats with ,joshua's permission4 ,but points of resemblance between ,joshua the invader and ,saul the founder of the 7north7 ,israelite monarchy gain in weight when the traditions of both recognize the inclusion or possession of ,judah1 and thus stand upon quite another plane as compared with those of ,david the founder of the ,judaean dynasty4 ,instead of rejecting the older stories of ,joshua's conquests it may be preferable to infer that there were radical divergences in the historical views of the past4 ,consequently1 the parallels between ,joshua and ,jacob 7see ,steuernagel's ,commentary1 p4 #aej7 are more significant when the occupation of central ,palestine1 already implied in the book of ,joshua1 is viewed in the light of ,gen4 xlviii4 #bb1 where ,jacob as conqueror 7cf4 the very late form of the tradition in ,jubilees xxxiv47 agrees with features in the patriarchal narratives which1 in implying a settlement in ,palestine1 are entirely distinct from those which belong to the descent into ,egypt 7see especially1 ,meyer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg seq41 #dad seq41 #dcc2 ,luther1 ib4 #ajh seq474 ,the elaborate account of the exodus gives the prevailing views which supersede other traditions of the origin both of the ,israelites and of the worship of ,yahweh 7,gen4 iv4 #bf74 ,several motives have influenced its growth1#f and the kernel--the revelation of ,yahweh to ,moses--has been developed until all the tribes of ,israel are included and their history as a people now begins4 ,the old traditions of conquest in central ,palestine have similarly been extended1 and have been adapted to the now familiar view of ,israelite origins4 ,it is this subordination of earlier tradition to other and more predominating representations which probably explains the intricacy of a book whose present text may not have been finally fixed until1 as ,dillmann held1 as late as about #bjj ,b4,c4 ,,bibliography4--,see the commentaries of ,dillmann1 ,steuernagel ,holzinger 7,german71 or the concise edition by ,h4 ,w4 ,robinson in the ,century ,bible2 also articles on ,joshua by ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,hastings's ,d4 ,b41 and ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 ,ency4 ,bib42 ,kittel in ,hist4 of the ,hebrews1 i4 #bfb sqq42 ,w4 ,h4 ,bennett1 in ,haupt's ,sacred ,books of the ,old ,testament2 ,carpenter and ,harford-,battersby1 ,comp4 of ,hexateuch1 ch4 xvii2 ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,lit4 of the ,o4 ,t4 7#hth ed41 #aiji74 ,these give further bibliographical information1 for which see also the articles on the books of the ,pentateuch4 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,heb4 ,jehoshua2 later ,jeshua2 ,gr4 ,greek3 ,isous1 whence ,jesus in the ,a4,v4 of ,heb4 iv4 #h2 another form of the name is ,hoshea 7,num4 xiii4 #h1 #af74 ,the name may mean ,yah7weh7 is wealth1 or is 7our7 war-cry1 or saves4 ,the only extra-biblical notice of ,joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given by ,procopius 7,vand4 ii4 #bj71 and mentioned also by ,moses of ,chorene 7,hist4 ,arm4 i4 #ah74 ,it is said to have stood at ,tingis in ,mauretania1 and to have borne that those who erected it had fled before ,greek3 ,isous ho lsts4 ,for the medieval ,samaritan ,book of ,joshua1 see ,t4 ,juynboll1 ,chronicum ,samaritanum 7#ahdf72 ,j4 ,a4 ,montgomery1 ,the ,samaritans 7#aijg71 pp4 #cja sqq4 #b ,traces of composite material may be recognized--7a7 where1 in place of boundaries1 ,p has given lists of cities which appear to be taken from other sources 7cf4 the instructions in xviii4 #i71 and 7b7 in the double headings 7see ,addis1 ,the ,hexateuch1 i4 #bcj1 note #a1 and the commentaries74 #c ,the close relation between what may be called the ,deuteronomic history 7,joshua-,kings7 and its introduction 7the legal book of ,deuteronomy7 independently show the difficulty of supporting the traditional date ascribed to the latter4 #d ,g4 ,f4 ,moore 7,ency4 ,bib41 col4 #bfjh1 note #b7 draws attention to the instructive parallel furnished by the ,greek legends of the ,dorian invasion of the ,peloponnesus 7the return of the ,heracleidae1 the partition of the land by lot1 c474 #e ,the historical problems are noticed in all biblical histories1 and in the commentaries on ,joshua and ,judges4 ,against the ordinary critical view1 see ,j4 ,orr1 ,problem of the ,o4,t4 7#aije7 pp4 #bdj seq4 ,this writer 7on whom see ,a4 ,s4 ,peake1 ,the ,interpreter1 #aijh1 pp4 #beb seq47 takes the book as a whole1 allowance being made for the generalizing tendency peculiar to all summaries4 ,his argument that the circumstantiality1 local knowledge and evidently full recollection of the narratives 7in ,joshua7 give confidence in the truth of their statements is one which historical criticism in no field would regard as conclusive1 and his contention that a redactor would hardly incorporate conflicting traditions in his narrative if he believed they contradicted it begs the question and ignores ,oriental literature4 #f ,e4g4 the vicissitudes of ,levitical families1 other migrations into ,palestine1 c4 ,the story of ,joseph has probably been used as a link 7see ,luther1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adb seq474 ,,joshua ,,the ,,stylite1 the reputed author of a chronicle which narrates the history of the war between the ,greeks and ,persians in #ejb-ejf1 and which is one of the earliest and best historical documents preserved to us in ,syriac4 ,the work owes its preservation to having been incorporated in the third part of the history of pseudo-,dionysius of ,tell-,mahre1 and may probably have had a place in the second part of the ,ecclesiastical ,history of ,john of ,asia1 from whom 7as ,nau has shown7 pseudo-,dionysius copied all or most of the matter contained in his third part4 ,the chronicle in question is anonymous1 and ,nau has shown that the note of a copyist1 which was thought to assign it to the monk ,joshua of ,zuknin near ,amid1 more probably refers to the compiler of the whole work in which it was incorporated4 ,anyhow the author was an eye-witness of many of the events which he describes1 and must have been living at ,edessa during the years when it suffered so severely from the ,persian ,war4 ,his view of events is everywhere characterized by his belief in overruling ,providence2 and as he eulogizes ,flavian ,,ii41 the ,chalcedonian patriarch of ,antioch1 in warmer terms than those in which he praises his great ,monophysite contemporaries1 ,jacob of ,serugh and ,philoxenus of ,mabbog1 he was probably an orthodox ,catholic4 ,the chronicle was first made known by ,assemani's abridged ,latin version 7,b4 ,o4 i4 #bfj-bhc7 and was edited in #ahgf by the abb ,martin and 7with an ,english translation7 by ,w4 ,wright in #ahhb4 ,after an elaborate dedication to a friend--the priest and abbot ,sergius--a brief recapitulation of events from the death of ,julian in #cfc and a fuller account of the reigns of the ,persian kings ,peroz 7#deg-dhd7 and ,balash 7#dhd-dhh71 the writer enters upon his main theme--the history of the disturbed relations between the ,persian and ,greek ,empires from the beginning of the reign of ,kawad ,i4 7#dhi-eca71 which culminated in the great war of #ejb-ejf4 ,from ,october #did to the conclusion of peace near the end of #ejf1 the author gives an annalistic account1 with careful specification of dates1 of the main events in ,mesopotamia1 the theatre of conflict--such as the siege and capture of ,amid by the ,persians 7#ejb-ejc71 their unsuccessful siege of ,edessa 7#ejc71 and the abortive attempt of the ,greeks to recover ,amid 7#ejd-eje74 ,the work was probably written a few years after the conclusion of the war4 ,the style is graphic and straightforward1 and the author was evidently a man of good education and of a simple1 honest mind4 7,n4 ,m47 ,,josiah 7,heb4 yo' shiyyahu1 perhaps ,yahweh supports71 in the ,bible1 the grandson of ,manasseh1 and king of ,judah4 ,he came to the throne at the age of eight1 after the murder of his predecessor ,amon4 ,the circumstances of his minority are not recorded1 nor is anything related of the ,scythian inroads which occurred in the latter half of the #gth century ,b4,c41 although some passages in the books of ,jeremiah and ,zephaniah are supposed to refer to the events4 ,the storm which shook the external states was favourable to the peace of ,judah2 the ,assyrian power was practically broken1 and that of the ,chaldeans had scarcely developed into an aggressive form4 ,samaria thus lay within the grasp of ,josiah1 who may have entertained hopes of forming an independent power of his own4 ,otherwise1 it is not clear why we find him opposing himself to the ,egyptian king ,necho1 since the assumption that he fought as an ,assyrian vassal scarcely agrees with the profound reforming policy ascribed to him4 ,at all events1 at the battle of ,megiddo#a he lost both his kingdom and his life 7#fjh ,b4,c471 and for a few years ,judah was in the hands of ,egypt 7#b ,kings xxiii4 #bi seq474 ,the chronicler gives a rather different account of the battle1 and his allusion to the dirge uttered by ,jeremiah over his death 7#b ,chron4 xxxv4 #bj-be2 #a ,esd4 i4 #cb7 represents the tradition which makes this prophet the author of the book of ,lamentations4 ,the reign of ,josiah is important for the biblical account of the great religious reforms which began in his eighteenth year1 when he manifested interest in the repair of the ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,in the course of this work the high priest ,hilkiah discovered a law-book which gave rise to the liveliest concern4 ,the reasons for believing that this roll was substantially identical with the book of ,deuteronomy were already appreciated by ,jerome1 ,chrysostom1 ,theodoret and others1#b and a careful examination shows that the character of the reformation which followed agrees in all its essential features with the prescriptions and exhortations of that book4 7,see ,,deuteronomy47 ,but the detailed records in #b ,kings xxii4 seq4 are evidently written under the influence of the reforms themselves1 and are not contemporary 7see ,,kings1 ,,book ,,of74 ,they are further expanded1 to agree with still later ideals1 in #b ,chron4 xxxiv4 seq4 ,the original roll was short enough to be read at least twice in a day 7xxii4 #h1 #aj71 and hence only some portions of ,deuteronomy 7or of an allied production7 may be intended4 ,although the character of the reforms throws remarkable light upon the condition of religion in ,judah in the time of ,josiah1 it is to be observed that the writings of the contemporary prophets 7,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel7 make it very questionable whether the narratives are thoroughly trustworthy for the history of the king's measures4 7,see further ,,jews1 #af47 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,or ,magdolos 7,herod1 ii4 #aei71 i4e4 some ,migdal 7tower7 of ,judaea1 not the ,migdol of ,exod4 xiv4 #b2 ,jer4 xliv4 #a4 #b ,see ,zeit4 f4 ,alttest4 ,wissenschaft 7#aijb71 pp4 #agj seq41 #cab seq42 ,journ ,bib4 ,lit4 7#aijc71 p4 #ej4 ,j,,sika1 ,,miklos ,,nicholas1 ,,baron 7#agid-ahfe71 ,hungarian novelist1 was born on the #bhth of ,april #agid at ,torda in ,transylvania1 of aristocratic and wealthy parents4 ,after finishing the usual course of legal studies at ,kolozsvr 7,klausenburg71 he in #ahaa entered the army1 joining a cavalry regiment1 with which he subsequently took part in the ,italian campaign4 ,on the battlefield of ,mincio 7,february #h1 #ahad7 he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant4 ,he served in the campaign against ,napoleon1 and was present at the entry of the ,allied ,troops into ,paris 7,march #ca1 #ahad74 ,in #ahah ,jsika resigned his commission1 returned to ,hungary1 and married his first wife ,elizabeth ,kallai4 ,the union proving an unhappy one1 ,jsika parted from his wife1 settled on his estate at ,szurdok in ,transylvania1 and devoted himself to agricultural and literary pursuits4 ,drawn into the sphere of politics1 he took part in the memorable ,transylvanian diet of #ahcd4 ,about this time ,jsika first began to attract attention as a writer of fiction4 ,in #ahcf his ,abafi laid the foundation of his literary reputation4 ,this novel gives a vivid picture of ,transylvania in the time of ,sigismund ,btori4 ,jsika was soon afterwards elected member of the ,hungarian ,academy of ,sciences and of the ,kisfaludy ,society2 of the latter he became1 in #ahda1 director1 and in #ahdb vice-president4 ,in #ahdg he appeared at the ,transylvanian diet as second deputy for the county of ,szolnok1 and zealously supported the movement for the union of ,transylvania with ,hungary proper4 ,in the same year he was converted to ,protestantism1 was formally divorced from his wife1 and married ,baroness ,julia ,podmaniczky1 herself a writer of considerable merit1 with whom he lived happily until his death4 ,so great was ,jsika's literary activity that by the time of the revolution 7#ahdh7 he had already produced about sixty volumes of romances and novels1 besides numerous contributions to periodicals4 ,both as magnate of the upper house of the ,hungarian diet and by his writings ,jsika aided the revolutionary movement1 with which he was soon personally identified1 being chosen one of the members of the committee of national defence4 ,consequently1 after the capitulation at ,vilgos 7,aug4 #ac1 #ahdi7 he found it necessary to flee the country1 and settled first at ,dresden and then1 in #ahej1 at ,brussels1 where he resumed his literary pursuits anonymously4 ,in #ahfd he removed to ,dresden1 in which city he died on the #bgth of ,february #ahfe4 ,the romances of ,jsika1 written somewhat after the style of ,sir ,walter ,scott1 are chiefly of an historical and social-political character1 his materials being drawn almost entirely from the annals of his own country4 ,among his more important works may be specially mentioned1 besides ,abafi--,the ,poet ,zrinyi 7#ahdc72 ,the ,last of the ,btoris 7#ahcg72 ,the ,bohemians in ,hungary 7#ahci72 ,esther 7#ahec72 ,francis ,rkczy ,,ii4 7#ahfa72 and ,a ,vgvriak1 a tale of the time of the ,transylvanian prince ,bethlen ,gbor1 #ahfd4 ,many of ,jsika's novels have been translated into ,german4 ,see ,k4 ,moenich and ,s4 ,vutkovich1 ,magyar ,irk ,nvtra 7#ahgf72 ,m4 ,jkai1 ,jsika ,mikls ,emlkezete1 ,a ,kisfaludy-,trsasg ,evlapjai1 j folyam1 vol4 iii4 7#ahfi72 ,g4 ,w4 ,steinacker1 ,ungarische ,lyriker 7#ahgd74 ,cf4 also ,jsika's autobiography--,emlkirat1 vol4 iv4 7#ahfe74 ,,josippon1 the name usually given to a popular chronicle of ,jewish history from ,adam to the age of ,titus1 attributed to an author ,josippon or ,joseph ben ,gorion4#a ,the name1 though at one time identified with that of the historian ,josephus1 is perhaps a corruption of ,hegesippus1 from whom 7according to ,trieber7 the author derived much of his material4 ,the chronicle was probably compiled in ,hebrew early in the #ajth century1 by a ,jewish native of south ,italy4 ,the first edition was printed in ,mantua in #adgf4 ,josippon subsequently appeared in many forms1 one of the most popular being in ,yiddish 7,judaeo-,german71 with quaint illustrations4 ,though the chronicle is more legendary than historical1 it is not unlikely that some good and even ancient sources were used by the first compiler1 the ,josippon known to us having passed through the hands of many interpolators4 ,the book enjoyed much vogue in ,england4 ,peter ,morvyn in #aeeh translated an abbreviated version into ,english1 and edition after edition was called for4 ,lucien ,wolf has shown that the ,english translations of the ,bible aroused so much interest in the ,jews that there was a widespread desire to know more about them4 ,this led to the circulation of many editions of ,josippon1 which thus formed a link in the chain of events which culminated in the readmission of the ,jews to ,england by ,cromwell4 7,i4 ,a47 ,,footnote3 #a ,a prefect of ,jerusalem of this name is mentioned by ,josephus1 ,bell4 ,jud4 ii4 #bj4 ,,joss1 in the pidgin-,english of the ,chinese seaports1 the name given to idols and deities4 ,it is used adjectivally in regard to many things connected with religious rites1 such as joss-house1 a temple2 joss-stick1 a stick which when burned gives forth a fragrant odour and is used as incense2 joss-paper1 paper cut to resemble money 7and sometimes with prayers written upon it7 burned in funeral and other ceremonies4 ,joss is not a ,chinese word1 and is probably a corruption of ,port4 deos1 god1 applied by ,portuguese navigators in the #afth century to the idols worshipped in the ,east ,indies4 ,the ,dutch form is joosge 7diminutive of joos71 whence the ,javanese dejos1 and the ,english yos1 later joss4 ,the word seems to have been carried to ,china by ,english seamen from ,batavia4 ,,jost1 ,,isaak ,,markus 7#agic-ahfj71 ,jewish historical writer1 was born on the #bbnd of ,february #agic at ,bernburg1 and studied at the universities of ,gttingen and ,berlin4 ,in ,berlin he began to teach1 and in #ahce received the appointment of upper master in the ,jewish commercial school 7called the ,philanthropin7 at ,frankfort-on-the-,main4 ,here he remained until his death1 on the #bbnd of ,november #ahfj4 ,the work by which he is chiefly known is ,geschichte der ,israeliten seit der ,zeit der ,maccaber1 in #i vols4 7#ahbj-ahbi71 which was afterwards supplemented by ,neuere ,geschichte der ,israeliten von #ahae-ahde 7#ahdf-ahdg71 and ,geschichte des ,judenthums und seiner ,sekten 7#aheg-ahei74 ,he also published an abridgment under the title ,allgemeine ,geschichte des israelitischen ,volkes 7#ahca-ahcb71 and an edition of the ,mishna with a ,german translation and notes 7#f vols41 #ahcb-ahcd74 ,the ,israelitische ,annalen were edited by him from #ahci to #ahda1 and he contributed extensively to periodicals4 ,see ,zirndorf1 ,isaak ,markus ,jost und seine ,freunde 7,cincinnati1 #ahhf74 ,,jotunheim1 or ,,jotun ,,fjelde1 a mountainous region of southern ,norway1 lying between ,gudbrandsdal on the east and ,jostedalsbrae and the head of the ,sogne fjord on the west4 ,within an area of about #iej sq4 m4 it contains the highest mountain in the ,scandinavian ,peninsula--,galdhpiggen 7#hcii ft47--and several others but little inferior4 ,such are ,glittertind or ,glitretind 7#hchj71 and ,memurutind 7#giff71 which face ,galdhpiggen across the northward-sloping ,visdal2 ,knutshulstind 7#ghab7 and several other peaks exceeding #gjjj ft41 to the south1 between lakes ,gjende and ,bygdin1 and ,skagastlstind 7#ggbc7 in the west of the region1 above the ,utladal1 the chief summit of the magnificent ,horunger4 ,the upper parts of the main valleys are of characteristic form1 not ending in lofty mountain-walls but comparatively low and level1 and bearing lakes4 ,the name ,jotunheim 7giants' home7 is a modern memorial of the mountain-dwelling giants of ,norse fable2 the alternative name ,jotun ,fjelde was the first bestowed on the region1 when it was explored in #ahbj by the geologist ,balthasar ,matthias ,keilhau 7#agig-aheh74 ,in modern times the region has attracted mountaineers and many visitors accustomed to rough lodging and difficult travelling4 ,,joubert1 ,,barth,,lemy ,,catherine 7#agfi-agii71 ,french general1 the son of an advocate1 was born at ,pont de ,vaux 7,ain7 on the #adth of ,april #agfi4 ,in #aghd he ran away from school to enlist in the artillery1 but was brought back and sent to study law at ,lyons and ,dijon4 ,in #agia he joined the volunteers of the ,ain1 and was elected by his comrades successively corporal and sergeant4 ,in ,january #agib he became sub-lieutenant1 and in ,november lieutenant1 having in the meantime made his first campaign with the army of ,italy4 ,in #agic he distinguished himself by the brilliant defence of a redoubt at the ,col di ,tenda1 with only thirty men against a battalion of the enemy4 ,wounded and made prisoner in this affair1 ,joubert was released on parole by the ,austrian commander-in-chief1 ,devins1 soon afterwards4 ,in #agid he was again actively engaged1 and in #agie he rendered such conspicuous service as to be made general of brigade4 ,in the campaign of #agif the young general commanded a brigade under ,augereau1 and soon attracted the special attention of ,bonaparte1 who caused him to be made a general of division in ,december1 and repeatedly selected him for the command of important detachments4 ,thus he was in charge of the retaining force at the battle of ,rivoli1 and in the campaign of #agii 7invasion of ,austria7 he commanded the detached left wing of ,bonaparte's army in ,tirol1 and fought his way through the mountains to rejoin his chief in ,styria4 ,he subsequently held various commands in ,holland1 on the ,rhine and in ,italy1 where up to ,january #agii he commanded in chief4 ,resigning the post in consequence of a dispute with the civil authorities1 ,joubert returned to ,france and married 7,june7 ,mlle de ,montholon4 ,but he was almost immediately summoned to the field again4 ,he took over the command in ,italy from ,moreau about the middle of ,july1 but he persuaded his predecessor to remain at the front and was largely guided by his advice4 ,the odds against the ,french troops in the disastrous campaign of #agii 7see ,,french ,,revolutionary ,,wars7 were too heavy4 ,joubert and ,moreau were quickly compelled to give battle by their great antagonist ,suvorov4 ,the battle of ,novi was disastrous to the ,french arms1 not merely because it was a defeat1 but above all because ,joubert himself was amongst the first to fall 7,aug4 #ae1 #agii74 ,joubert died before it could be shown whether his genius was of the first rank1 but he was at any rate marked out as a future great captain by the greatest captain of all ages1 and his countrymen intuitively associated him with ,hoche and ,marceau as a great leader whose early death disappointed their highest hopes4 ,after the battle his remains were brought to ,toulon and buried in ,fort ,la ,malgue1 and the revolutionary government paid tribute to his memory by a ceremony of public mourning 7,sept4 #af74 ,a monument to ,joubert at ,bourg was razed by order of ,louis ,,xviii41 but another memorial was afterwards erected at ,pont de ,vaux4 ,see ,guilbert1 ,notice sur la vie de ,b4 ,c4 ,joubert2 ,chevrier1 ,le ,gnral ,joubert d'aprs sa correspondance 7#bnd ed4 #ahhd74 ,,joubert1 ,,joseph 7#aged-ahbd71 ,french moralist1 was born at ,montignac 7,corrze7 on the #fth of ,may #aged4 ,after completing his studies at ,toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher4 ,his delicate health proved unequal to the task1 and after two years spent at home in study ,joubert went to ,paris at the beginning of #aggh4 ,he allied himself with the chiefs of the philosophic party1 especially with ,diderot1 of whom he was in some sort a disciple1 but his closest friendship was with the abb de ,fontanes4 ,in #agij he was recalled to his native place to act as juge de paix1 and carried out the duties of his office with great fidelity4 ,he had made the acquaintance of ,mme de ,beaumont in a ,burgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the ,terror1 and it was under her inspiration that ,joubert's genius was at its best4 ,the atmosphere of serenity and affection with which she surrounded him seemed necessary to the development of what ,sainte-,beuve calls his esprit ail1 ami du ciel et des hauteurs4 ,her death in #ahjc was a great blow to him1 and his literary activity1 never great1 declined from that time4 ,in #ahji1 at the solicitation of ,joseph de ,bonald1 he was made an inspector-general of education1 and his professional duties practically absorbed his interests during the rest of his life4 ,he died on the #crd of ,may #ahbd4 ,his manuscripts were entrusted by his widow to ,chateaubriand1 who published a selection of ,penses from them in #ahch for private circulation4 ,a more complete edition was published by ,joubert's nephew1 ,paul de ,raynal1 under the title ,penses1 essais1 maximes et correspondance 7#b vols4 #ahdb74 ,a selection of letters addressed to ,joubert was published in #ahhc4 ,joubert constantly strove after perfection1 and the small quantity of his work was partly due to his desire to find adequate and luminous expression for his discriminating criticism of literature and morals4 ,if ,joubert's readers in ,england are not numerous1 he is well known at second hand through the sympathetic essay devoted to him in ,matthew ,arnold's ,essays in ,criticism 7#ast series74 ,see ,sainte-,beuve1 ,causeries du lundi1 vol4 i42 ,portraits littraires1 vol4 ii42 and a notice by ,paul de ,raynal1 prefixed to the edition of #ahdb4 ,,joubert1 ,,petrus ,,jacobus 7#ahcd-aijj71 commandant-general of the ,south ,african ,republic from #ahhj to #aijj1 was born at ,cango1 in the district of ,oudtshoorn1 ,cape ,colony1 on the #bjth of ,january #ahcd1 a descendant of a ,french ,huguenot who fled to ,south ,africa soon after the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes by ,louis ,,xiv4 ,left an orphan at an early age1 ,joubert migrated to the ,transvaal1 where he settled in the ,wakkerstroom district near ,laing's ,nek and the north-east angle of ,natal4 ,there he not only farmed with great success1 but turned his attention to the study of the law4 ,the esteem in which his shrewdness in both farming and legal affairs was held led to his election to the ,volksraad as member for ,wakkerstroom early in the sixties1 ,marthinus ,pretorius being then in his second term of office as president4 ,in #ahgj ,joubert was again elected1 and the use to which he put his slender stock of legal knowledge secured him the appointment of attorney-general of the republic1 while in #ahge he acted as president during the absence of ,t4 ,f4 ,burgers in ,europe4 ,during the first ,british annexation of the ,transvaal1 ,joubert earned for himself the reputation of a consistent irreconcilable by refusing to hold office under the government1 as ,paul ,kruger and other prominent ,boers were doing4 ,instead of accepting the lucrative post offered him1 he took a leading part in creating and directing the agitation which led to the war of #ahhj-ahha1 eventually becoming1 as commandant-general of the ,boer forces1 a member of the triumvirate that administered the provisional ,boer government set up in ,december #ahhj at ,heidelberg4 ,he was in command of the ,boer forces at ,laing's ,nek1 ,ingogo1 and ,majuba ,hill1 subsequently conducting the earlier peace negotiations that led to the conclusion of the ,pretoria ,convention4 ,in #ahhc he was a candidate for the presidency of the ,transvaal1 but received only #aaga votes as against #cdca cast for ,kruger4 ,in #ahic he again opposed ,kruger in the contest for the presidency1 standing as the representative of the comparatively progressive section of the ,boers1 who wished in some measure to redress the grievances of the ,uitlander population which had grown up on the ,rand4 ,the poll 7though there is good reason for believing that the voting lists had been manipulated by ,kruger's agents7 was declared to have resulted in #giaa votes being cast for ,kruger and #gbdf for ,joubert4 ,after a protest ,joubert acquiesced in ,kruger's continued presidency4 ,he stood again in #ahih1 but the ,jameson raid had occurred meantime and the voting was #ab1heh for ,kruger and #bjja for ,joubert4 ,joubert's position had then become much weakened by accusations of treachery and of sympathy with the ,uitlander agitation4 ,he took little part in the negotiations that culminated in the ultimatum sent to ,great ,britain by ,kruger in #ahii1 and though he immediately assumed nominal command of the operations on the outbreak of hostilities1 he gave up to others the chief share in the direction of the war1 through his inability or neglect to impose upon them his own will4 ,his cautious nature1 which had in early life gained him the sobriquet of ,slim ,piet1 joined to a lack of determination and assertiveness that characterized his whole career1 led him to act mainly on the defensive2 and the strategically offensive movements of the ,boer forces1 such as ,elandslaagte and ,willow ,grange1 appear to have been neither planned nor executed by him4 ,as the war went on1 physical weakness led to ,joubert's virtual retirement1 and1 though two days earlier he was still reported as being in supreme command1 he died at ,pretoria from peritonitis on the #bhth of ,march #aijj4 ,sir ,george ,white1 the defender of ,ladysmith1 summed up ,joubert's character when he called him a soldier and a gentleman1 and a brave and honourable opponent4 ,,jouffroy1 ,,jean 7c4 #adab-adgc71 ,french prelate and diplomatist1 was born at ,luxeuil 7,haute-,sane74 ,after entering the ,benedictine order and teaching at the university of ,paris from #adce to #adch1 he became almoner to ,philip the ,good1 duke of ,burgundy1 who entrusted him with diplomatic missions in ,france1 ,italy1 ,portugal and ,castile4 ,jouffroy was appointed abbot of ,luxeuil 7#adea87 bishop of ,arras 7#adec71 and papal legate 7#adei74 ,at the ,french court his diplomatic duties brought him to the notice of the dauphin 7afterwards ,louis ,,xi474 ,jouffroy entered ,louis's service1 and obtained a cardinal's hat 7#adfa71 the bishopric of ,albi 7#adfb71 and the abbacy of ,st ,denis 7#adfd74 ,on several occasions he was sent to ,rome to negotiate the abolition of the ,pragmatic ,sanction and to defend the interests of the ,angevins at ,naples4 ,attached by ,king ,louis to the sieur de ,beaujeu in the expedition against ,john ,v41 count of ,armagnac1 ,jouffroy was accused of taking the town of ,lectoure by treachery1 and of being a party to the murder of the count of ,armagnac 7#adgc74 ,he died at ,reuilly the same year4 ,see ,c4 ,fierrille1 ,le ,cardinal ,jean ,jouffroy et son temps 7#adab-adgc7 7,coutances1 ,paris1 #ahgd74 ,,jouffroy1 ,,th,,odore ,,simon 7#agjf-ahdb71 ,french philosopher1 was born at ,pontets1 near ,mouthe1 department of ,doubs4 ,in his tenth year1 his father1 a tax-gatherer1 sent him to an uncle at ,pontarlier1 under whom he commenced his classical studies4 ,at ,dijon his compositions attracted the attention of an inspector1 who had him placed 7#ahad7 in the normal school1 ,paris4 ,he there came under the influence of ,victor ,cousin1 and in #ahag he was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the normal and ,bourbon schools4 ,three years later1 being thrown upon his own resources1 he began a course of lectures in his own house1 and formed literary connexions with ,le ,courrier franais1 ,le ,globe1 ,l',encyclopdie moderne1 and ,la ,revue europenne4 ,the variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole field of ancient and modern literature4 ,but he was chiefly attracted to the philosophical system represented by ,reid and ,stewart4 ,the application of common sense to the problem of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic for him than the scepticism of ,hume which reached him through a study of ,kant4 ,he thus threw in his lot with the ,scottish philosophy1 and his first dissertations are1 in their leading position1 adaptations from ,reid's ,inquiry4 ,in #ahbf he wrote a preface to a translation of the ,moral ,philosophy of ,stewart1 demonstrating the possibility of a scientific statement of the laws of consciousness2 in #ahbh he began a translation of the works of ,reid1 and in his preface estimated the influence of ,scottish criticism upon philosophy1 giving a biographical account of the movement from ,hutcheson onwards4 ,next year he was returned to parlement by the arrondissement of ,pontarlier2 but the work of legislation was ill-suited to him4 ,yet he attended to his duties conscientiously1 and ultimately broke his health in their discharge4 ,in #ahcc he was appointed professor of ,greek and ,roman philosophy at the college of ,france and a member of the ,academy of ,sciences2 he then published the ,mlanges philosophiques 7#dth ed4 #ahff2 ,eng4 trans4 ,g4 ,ripley1 ,boston1 #ahce and #ahch71 a collection of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history4 ,in them is foreshadowed all that he afterwards worked out in metaphysics1 psychology1 ethics and aesthetics4 ,he had already demonstrated in his prefaces the possibility of a psychology apart from physiology1 of the science of the phenomena of consciousness distinct from the perceptions of sense4 ,he now classified the mental faculties1 premising that they must not be confounded with capacities or properties of mind4 ,they were1 according to his analysis1 personal will1 primitive instincts1 voluntary movement1 natural and artificial signs1 sensibility and the faculties of intellect2 on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe4 ,in #ahce he published a ,cours de droit naturel 7#dth ed4 #ahff71 which1 for precision of statement and logical coherence1 is the most important of his works4 ,from the conception of a universal order in the universe he reasons to a ,supreme ,being1 who has created it and who has conferred upon every man in harmony with it the aim of his existence1 leading to his highest good4 ,good1 he says1 is the fulfilment of man's destiny1 evil the thwarting of it4 ,every man being organized in a particular way has1 of necessity1 an aim1 the fulfilment of which is good2 and he has faculties for accomplishing it1 directed by reason4 ,the aim is good1 however1 only when reason guides it for the benefit of the majority1 but that is not absolute good4 ,when reason rises to the conception of universal order1 when actions are submitted1 by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively to the idea of the universal order1 the good has been reached1 the true good1 good in itself1 absolute good4 ,but he does not follow his idea into the details of human duty1 though he passes in review fatalism1 mysticism1 pantheism1 scepticism1 egotism1 sentimentalism and rationalism4 ,in #ahce ,jouffroy's health failed and he went to ,italy1 where he continued to translate the ,scottish philosophers4 ,on his return he became librarian to the university1 and took the chair of recent philosophy at the faculty of letters4 ,he died in ,paris on the #dth of ,february #ahdb4 ,after his death were published ,nouveaux mlanges philosophiques 7#crd ed4 #ahgb7 and ,cours d'esthtique 7#crd ed4 #ahge74 ,the former contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology4 ,the latter formulated his theory of beauty4 ,jouffroy's claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an expositor of other men's ideas4 ,he founded no system2 he contributed nothing of importance to philosophical science2 he initiated nothing which has survived him4 ,but his enthusiasm for mental science1 and his command over the language of popular exposition1 made him a great international medium for the transfusion of ideas4 ,he stood between ,scotland and ,france and ,germany and ,france2 and1 though his expositions are vitiated by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted1 he did serviceable1 even memorable work4 ,see ,l4 ,lvy ,bruhl1 ,history of ,modern ,philos4 in ,france 7#ahii71 pp4 #cdi-ceg2 ,c4 ,j4 ,tissot1 ,th4 ,jouffroy3 sa vie et ses crits 7#ahgf72 ,j4 ,p4 ,damiron1 ,essai sur l'histoire de la philos4 en ,france au xixe sicle 7#ahdf74 ,,jougs1 ,,juggs1 or ,,joggs 7,o4 ,fr4 joug1 from ,lat4 jugum1 a yoke71 an instrument of punishment formerly in use in ,scotland1 ,holland and possibly other countries4 ,it was an iron collar fastened by a short chain to a wall1 often of the parish church1 or to a tree4 ,the collar was placed round the offender's neck and fastened by a padlock4 ,the jougs was practically a pillory4 ,it was used for ecclesiastical as well as civil offences4 ,examples may still be seen in ,scotland4 ,,joule1 ,,james ,,prescott 7#ahah-ahhi71 ,english physicist1 was born on the #bdth of ,december #ahah1 at ,salford1 near ,manchester4 ,although he received some instruction from ,john ,dalton in chemistry1 most of his scientific knowledge was self-taught1 and this was especially the case with regard to electricity and electro-magnetism1 the subjects in which his earliest researches were carried out4 ,from the first he appreciated the importance of accurate measurement1 and all through his life the attainment of exact quantitative data was one of his chief considerations4 ,at the age of nineteen he invented an electro-magnetic engine1 and in the course of examining its performance dissatisfaction with vague and arbitrary methods of specifying electrical quantities caused him to adopt a convenient and scientific unit1 which he took to be the amount of electricity required to decompose nine grains of water in one hour4 ,in #ahdj he was thus enabled to give a quantitative statement of the law according to which heat is produced in a conductor by the passage of an electric current1 and in succeeding years he published a series of valuable researches on the agency of electricity in transformations of energy4 ,one of these contained the first intimation of the achievement with which his name is most widely associated1 for it was in a paper read before the ,british ,association at ,cork in #ahdc1 and entitled ,the ,calorific ,effects of ,magneto-electricity and the ,mechanical ,value of ,heat1 that he expressed the conviction that whenever mechanical force is expended an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained4 ,by rotating a small electro-magnet in water1 between the poles of another magnet1 and then measuring the heat developed in the water and other parts of the machine1 the current induced in the coils1 and the energy required to maintain rotation1 he calculated that the quantity of heat capable of warming one pound of water one degree ,f4 was equivalent to the mechanical force which could raise #hch lb4 through the distance of one foot4 ,at the same time he brought forward another determination based on the heating effects observable when water is forced through capillary tubes2 the number obtained in this way was #ggj4 ,a third method1 depending on the observation of the heat evolved by the mechanical compression of air1 was employed a year or two later1 and yielded the number #gih2 and a fourth--the well-known frictional one of stirring water with a sort of paddle-wheel--yielded the result #hij 7see ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahde71 though #gha4e was obtained by subsequent repetitions of the experiment4 ,in #ahdi he presented to the ,royal ,society a memoir which1 together with a history of the subject1 contained details of a long series of determinations1 the result of which was #ggb4 ,a good many years later he was entrusted by the committee of the ,british ,association on standards of electric resistance with the task of deducing the mechanical equivalent of heat from the thermal effects of electric currents4 ,this inquiry yielded 7in #ahfg7 the result #ghc1 and this ,joule himself was inclined to regard as more accurate than his old determination by the frictional method2 the latter1 however1 was repeated with every precaution1 and again indicated #ggb4ee foot-pounds as the quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the latitude of ,greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one pound of water1 weighed in vacuo1 from #fj to #fa ,f4 ,ultimately the discrepancy was traced to an error which1 not by ,joule's fault1 vitiated the determination by the electrical method1 for it was found that the standard ohm1 as actually defined by the ,british ,association committee and as used by him1 was slightly smaller than was intended2 when the necessary corrections were made the results of the two methods were almost precisely congruent1 and thus the figure #ggb4ee was vindicated4 ,in addition1 numerous other researches stand to ,joule's credit--the work done in compressing gases and the thermal changes they undergo when forced under pressure through small apertures 7with ,lord ,kelvin71 the change of volume on solution1 the change of temperature produced by the longitudinal extension and compression of solids1 c4 ,it was during the experiments involved by the first of these inquiries that ,joule was incidentally led to appreciate the value of surface condensation in increasing the efficiency of the steam engine4 ,a new form of condenser was tested on the small engine employed1 and the results it yielded formed the starting-point of a series of investigations which were aided by a special grant from the ,royal ,society1 and were described in an elaborate memoir presented to it on the #acth of ,december #ahfj4 ,his results1 according to ,kelvin1 led directly and speedily to the present practical method of surface-condensation1 one of the most important improvements of the steam engine1 especially for marine use1 since the days of ,james ,watt4 ,joule died at ,sale on the #aath of ,october #ahhi4 ,his scientific papers were collected and published by the ,physical ,society of ,london3 the first volume1 which appeared in #ahhd1 contained the researches for which he was alone responsible1 and the second1 dated #ahhg1 those which he carried out in association with other workers4 ,,jourdan1 ,,jean ,,baptiste1 ,,count 7#agfb-ahcc71 marshal of ,france1 was born at ,limoges on the #bith of ,april #agfb1 and in his boyhood was apprenticed to a silk merchant of ,lyons4 ,in #aggf he enlisted in a ,french regiment to serve in the ,american ,war of ,independence1 and after being invalided in #aghd he married and set up in business at ,limoges4 ,at the outbreak of the revolutionary wars he volunteered1 and as a subaltern took part in the first campaigns in the north of ,france4 ,his rise was even more rapid than that of ,hoche and ,marceau4 ,by #agic he had become a general of division1 and was selected by ,carnot to succeed ,houchard as commander-in-chief of the ,army of the ,north2 and on the #aeth-#afth of ,october #agic he won the brilliant and important victory of ,wattignies 7see ,,french ,,revolutionary ,,wars74 ,soon afterwards he became a suspect1 the moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the truculent and enthusiastic ,committee of ,public ,safety4 ,warned in time by his friend ,carnot and by ,barre1 he avoided arrest and resumed his business as a silk-mercer in ,limoges4 ,he was soon reinstated1 and early in #agid was appointed commander-in-chief of the ,army of ,sambre-et-,meuse4 ,after repeated attempts to force the passage of the ,sambre had failed and several severe general actions had been fought without result1 ,jourdan and his army were discouraged1 but ,carnot and the civil commissioners urged the general1 even with threats1 to a last effort1 and this time he was successful not only in crossing the ,sambre but in winning a brilliant victory at ,fleurus 7,june #bf1 #agid71 the consequence of which was the extension of the ,french sphere of influence to the ,rhine1 on which river he waged an indecisive campaign in #agie4 ,in #agif his army formed the left wing of the advance into ,bavaria4 ,the whole of the ,french forces were ordered to advance on ,vienna1 ,jourdan on the extreme left and ,moreau in the centre by the ,danube valley1 ,bonaparte on the right by ,italy and ,styria4 ,the campaign began brilliantly1 the ,austrians under the ,archduke ,charles being driven back by ,moreau and ,jourdan almost to the ,austrian frontier4 ,but the archduke1 slipping away from ,moreau1 threw his whole weight on ,jourdan1 who was defeated at ,amberg and ,wrzburg1 and forced over the ,rhine after a severe rearguard action1 which cost the life of ,marceau4 ,moreau had to fall back in turn1 and1 apart from ,bonaparte's marvellous campaign in ,italy1 the operations of the year were disastrous4 ,the chief cause of failure was the vicious plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by their government4 ,jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat of the government's mistakes and was not employed for two years4 ,in those years he became prominent as a politician and above all as the framer of the famous conscription law of #agih4 ,when the war was renewed in #agii ,jourdan was placed at the head of the army on the ,rhine1 but again underwent defeat at the hands of the archduke ,charles at ,stockach 7,march #be71 and1 disappointed and broken in health1 handed over the command to ,massna4 ,he at once resumed his political duties1 and was a prominent opponent of the coup d'tat of #ah ,brumaire1 after which he was expelled from the ,council of the ,five ,hundred4 ,soon1 however1 he became formally reconciled to the new rgime1 and accepted from ,napoleon fresh military and civil employment4 ,in #ahjj he became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and representative of ,french interests in the ,cisalpine ,republic1 and in #ahjd he was made a marshal of ,france4 ,he remained in the new kingdom of ,italy until #ahjf1 when ,joseph ,bonaparte1 whom his brother made king of ,naples in that year1 selected ,jourdan as his military adviser4 ,he followed ,joseph into ,spain in the same capacity in #ahjh4 ,but ,joseph's throne had to be maintained by the ,french army1 and throughout the ,peninsular ,war the other marshals1 who depended directly upon ,napoleon1 paid little heed either to ,joseph or to ,jourdan4 ,after the battle of ,vitoria he held no important command up to the fall of the ,empire4 ,jourdan gave in his adhesion to the restoration government of #ahad1 and though he rejoined ,napoleon in the ,hundred ,days and commanded a minor army1 he submitted to the ,bourbons again after ,waterloo4 ,he refused1 however1 to be a member of the court which tried ,marshal ,ney4 ,he was made a count1 a peer of ,france 7#ahai71 and governor of ,grenoble 7#ahaf74 ,in politics he was a prominent opponent of the royalist reactionaries and supported the revolution of #ahcj4 ,after this event he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days1 and then became governor of the ,invalides1 where his last years were spent4 ,marshal ,jourdan died on the #bcrd of ,november #ahcc1 and was buried in the ,invalides4 ,he wrote ,oprations de l'arme du ,danube 7#agii72 ,mmoires pour servir l'histoire sur la campagne de #agif 7#ahai72 and unpublished personal memoirs4 ,,journal 7through ,fr4 from late ,lat4 diurnalis1 daily71 a daily record of events or business4 ,a private journal is usually an elaborated diary4 ,when applied to a newspaper or other periodical the word is strictly used of one published each day2 but any publication issued at stated intervals1 such as a magazine or the record of the transactions of a learned society1 is commonly called a journal4 ,the word journalist for one whose business is writing for the public press 7see ,,newspapers7 seems to be as old as the end of the #agth century4 ,journal is particularly applied to the record1 day by day1 of the business and proceedings of a public body4 ,the journals of the ,british houses of parliament contain an official record of the business transacted day by day in either house4 ,the record does not take note of speeches1 though some of the earlier volumes contain references to them4 ,the journals are a lengthened account written from the votes and proceedings 7in the ,house of ,lords called minutes of the proceedings71 made day by day by the assistant clerks1 and printed on the responsibility of the clerk to the house1 after submission to the subcommittee on the journals4 ,in the ,commons the journal is passed by the ,speaker before publication4 ,the journals of the ,house of ,commons begin in the first year of the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 7#aedg71 and are complete1 except for a short interval under ,elizabeth4 ,those of the ,house of ,lords date from the first year of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aeji74 ,before that date the proceedings in parliament were entered in the rolls of parliament1 which extend from #abgh to #aejc4 ,the journals of the ,lords are records in the judicial sense1 those of the ,commons are not 7see ,erskine ,may1 ,parliamentary ,practice1 #aijf1 pp4 #bja-bjb74 ,the term journal is used1 in business1 for a book in which an account of transactions is kept previous to a transfer to the ledger 7see ,,book-,,keeping71 and also as an equivalent to a ship's log1 as a record of the daily run1 observations1 weather changes1 c4 ,in mining1 a journal is a record describing the various strata passed through in sinking a shaft4 ,a particular use of the word is that1 in machinery1 for the parts of a shaft which are in contact with the bearings2 the origin of this meaning1 which is firmly established1 has not been explained4 ,,journey 7through ,o4 ,fr4 jornee or journee1 mod4 ,fr4 journe1 from med4 ,lat4 diurnata1 ,lat4 diurnus1 of or belonging to dies1 day71 properly that which occupies a day in its performance1 and so a day's work1 particularly a day's travel1 and the distance covered by such1 usually reckoned in the middle ages as twenty miles4 ,the word is now used of travel covering a certain amount of distance or lasting a certain amount of time1 frequently defined by qualifying words4 ,journey is usually applied to travel by land1 as opposed to voyage1 travel by sea4 ,the early use of journey for a day's work1 or the amount produced by a day's work1 is still found in glassmaking1 and also at the ,british ,mint1 where a journey is taken as equivalent to the coinage of #ae lb4 of standard gold1 #gja sovereigns1 and of #fj lb4 of silver4 ,the term journeyman also preserves the original significance of the word4 ,it distinguishes a qualified workman or mechanic from an apprentice on the one hand and a master on the other1 and is applied to one who is employed by another person to work at his trade or occupation at a day's wage4 ,,jouvenet1 ,,jean 7#afdg-agag71 ,french painter1 born at ,rouen1 came of a family of artists1 one of whom had taught ,poussin4 ,he early showed remarkable aptitude for his profession1 and1 on arriving in ,paris1 attracted the attention of ,le ,brun1 by whom he was employed at ,versailles1 and under whose auspices1 in #afge1 he became a member of the ,acadmie ,royale1 of which he was elected professor in #afha1 and one of the four perpetual rectors in #agjg4 ,the great mass of works that he executed1 chiefly in ,paris1 many of which1 including his celebrated ,miraculous ,draught of ,fishes 7engraved by ,audran2 also ,landon1 ,annales1 i4 #db71 are now in the ,louvre1 show his fertility in invention and execution1 and also that he possessed in a high degree that general dignity of arrangement and style which distinguished the school of ,le ,brun4 ,jouvenet died on the #eth of ,april #agag1 having been forced by paralysis during the last four years of his life to work with his left hand4 ,see ,mm4 ind4 acad4 roy4 de p4 et de sc41 #ahed1 and ,d',argenville1 ,vies des peintres4 ,,jouy1 ,,victor ,,joseph ,,tienne ,,de 7#agfd-ahdf71 ,french dramatist1 was born at ,jouy1 near ,versailles1 on the #abth of ,september #agfd4 ,at the age of eighteen he received a commission in the army1 and sailed for ,south ,america in the company of the governor of ,guiana4 ,he returned almost immediately to ,france to complete his studies1 and re-entered the service two years later4 ,he was sent to ,india1 where he met with many romantic adventures which were afterwards turned to literary account4 ,on the outbreak of the ,revolution he returned to ,france and served with distinction in the early campaigns1 attaining the rank of adjutant-general4 ,he drew suspicion on himself1 however1 by refusing to honour the toast of ,marat1 and had to fly for his life4 ,at the fall of the ,terror he resumed his commission but again fell under suspicion1 being accused of treasonable correspondence with the ,english envoy1 ,james ,harris1 #ast earl of ,malmesbury who had been sent to ,france to negotiate terms of peace4 ,he was acquitted of this charge1 but1 weary of repeated attacks1 resigned his position on the pretext of his numerous wounds4 ,jouy now turned his attention to literature1 and produced in #ahjg with immense success his opera ,la vestale 7music by ,spontini74 ,the piece ran for a hundred nights1 and was characterized by the ,institute of ,france as the best lyric drama of the day4 ,other operas followed1 but none obtained so great a success4 ,he published in the ,gazette de ,france a series of satirical sketches of ,parisian life1 collected under the title of ,l',ermite de la ,chausse d',antin1 ou observations sur les moeurs et les usages franais au commencement du xixe sicle 7#ahab-ahad1 #e vols471 which was warmly received4 ,in #ahba his tragedy of ,sylla gained a triumph due in part to the genius of ,talma1 who had studied the title-rle from ,napoleon4 ,under the ,restoration ,jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom1 and if his work was overrated by his contemporaries1 they were probably influenced by their respect for the author himself4 ,he died in rooms set apart for his use in the palace of ,st ,germain-en-,laye on the #dth of ,september #ahdf4 ,out of the long list of his operas1 tragedies and miscellaneous writings may be mentioned1 ,fernand ,cortez 7#ahji71 opera1 in collaboration with ,j4 ,e4 ,esmnard1 music by ,spontini2 ,tippo ,sab1 tragedy 7#ahac72 ,blisaire1 tragedy 7#ahah72 ,les ,hermites en prison 7#ahbc71 written in collaboration with ,antoine ,jay1 like himself a political prisoner2 ,guillaume ,tell 7#ahbi71 with ,hippolyte ,bis1 for the music of ,rossini4 ,jouy was also one of the founders of the ,biographie nouvelle des contemporains4 ,,jovellanos 7or ,,jove ,,llanos71 ,,gaspar ,,melchor ,,de 7#agdd-ahaa71 ,spanish statesman and author1 was born at ,gijon in ,asturias1 ,spain1 on the #eth of ,january #agdd4 ,selecting law as his profession1 he studied at ,oviedo1 ,avila1 and ,alcal1 and in #agfg became criminal judge at ,seville4 ,his integrity and ability were rewarded in #aggh by a judgeship in ,madrid1 and in #aghj by appointment to the council of military orders4 ,in the capital ,jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific societies2 for the society of friends of the country he wrote in #aghg his most valuable work1 ,informe sobre un proyecto de ley agraria4 ,involved in the disgrace of his friend1 ,franois ,cabarrus1 ,jovellanos spent the years #agij to #agig in a sort of banishment at ,gijon1 engaged in literary work and in founding the ,asturian institution for agricultural1 industrial1 social and educational reform throughout his native province4 ,this institution continued his darling project up to the latest hours of his life4 ,summoned again to public life in #agig1 ,jovellanos refused the post of ambassador to ,russia1 but accepted that of minister of grace and justice1 under the prince of the peace1 whose attention had been directed to him by ,cabarrus1 then a favourite of ,godoy4 ,displeased with ,godoy's policy and conduct ,jovellanos combined with his colleague ,saavedra to procure his dismissal4 ,godoy returned to power in #agih2 ,jovellanos was again sent to ,gijon1 but in #ahja was thrown into prison in ,majorca4 ,the revolution of #ahjh1 and the advance of the ,french into ,spain1 set him once more at liberty4 ,joseph ,bonaparte1 on mounting the ,spanish throne1 made ,jovellanos the most brilliant offers2 but the latter1 sternly refusing them all1 joined the patriotic party1 became a member of the central junta1 and contributed to reorganize the cortes4 ,this accomplished1 the junta at once fell under suspicion1 and ,jovellanos was involved in its fall4 ,to expose the conduct of the cortes1 and to defend the junta and himself were the last labours of his pen4 ,in #ahaa he was enthusiastically welcomed to ,gijon2 but the approach of the ,french drove him forth again4 ,the vessel in which he sailed was compelled by stress of weather to put in at ,vega in ,asturias1 and there he died on the #bgth of ,november #ahaa4 ,the poetical works of ,jovellanos comprise a tragedy ,el pelayo1 the comedy ,el delincuente honrado1 satires1 and miscellaneous pieces1 including a translation of the first book of ,paradise ,lost4 ,his prose works1 especially those on political and legislative economy1 constitute his real title to literary fame4 ,in them depth of thought and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain ,ciceronian elegance and classical purity of style4 ,besides the ,ley agraria he wrote ,elogios2 various political and other essays2 and ,memorias politicas 7#ahja71 suppressed in ,spain1 and translated into ,french1 #ahbe4 ,an edition of his complete works was published at ,madrid 7#ahca-ahcb7 in #g vols41 and another at ,barcelona 7#ahci74 ,see ,noticias historicas de ,don ,g4 ,m4 de ,jovellanos 7#ahab71 and ,memorias para la vida del ,seor 444 ,jovellanos1 by ,j4 ,a4 ,c4 ,bermudez 7#ahad74 ,,jovellar ,y ,,soler1 ,,joaquin 7#ahai-ahib71 captain-general of ,spain1 was born at ,palma de ,mallorca1 on the #bhth of ,december #ahai4 ,at the close of his studies at the military academy he was appointed sub-lieutenant1 went to ,cuba as captain in #ahdb1 returned to the ,war ,office in #ahea1 was promoted major in #ahec1 and went to ,morocco as private secretary to ,marshal ,o',donnell1 who made him colonel in #ahfj after ,jovellar had been wounded at the battle of ,wad el ,ras4 ,in #ahfc ,jovellar became a brigadier-general1 in #ahfd under-secretary for war2 he was severely wounded in fighting the insurgents in the streets of ,madrid1 and rose to the rank of general of division in #ahff4 ,jovellar adhered to the revolution1 and ,king ,amadeus made him a lieutenant-general in #ahgb4 ,he absented himself from ,spain when the federal republic was proclaimed1 and returned in the autumn of #ahgc1 when ,castelr sent him to ,cuba as governor-general4 ,in #ahgd ,jovellar came back to the ,peninsula1 and was in command of the ,army of the ,centre against the ,carlists when ,marshal ,campos went to ,sagunto to proclaim ,alfonso ,,xii4 ,general ,jovellar became war minister in the first cabinet of the restoration under ,canovas1 who sent him to ,cuba again as governor-general1 where he remained until the #ahth of ,june #ahgh1 when the ten years' insurrection closed with the peace of ,zaujon4 ,alfonso ,,xii4 made him a captain-general1 president of the council1 life-senator1 and governor-general of the ,philippines4 ,jovellar died in ,madrid on the #agth of ,april #ahib4 ,,jovian 7,,flavius ,,jovianus7 7c4 #ccb-cfd71 ,roman emperor from ,june #cfc to ,february #cfd1 was born at ,singidunum in ,moesia about #ccb4 ,as captain of the imperial bodyguard he accompanied ,julian in his ,persian expedition2 and on the day after that emperor's death1 when the aged ,sallust1 prefect of the ,east1 declined the purple1 the choice of the army fell upon ,jovian4 ,his election caused considerable surprise1 and it is suggested by ,ammianus ,marcellinus that he was wrongly identified with another ,jovian1 chief notary1 whose name also had been put forward1 or that1 during the acclamations1 the soldiers mistook the name ,jovianus for ,julianus1 and imagined that the latter had recovered from his illness4 ,jovian at once continued the retreat begun by ,julian1 and1 continually harassed by the ,persians1 succeeded in reaching the banks of the ,tigris1 where a humiliating treaty was concluded with the ,persian king1 ,shapur ,,ii4 7q4v474 ,five provinces which had been conquered by ,galerius in #bih were surrendered1 together with ,nisibis and other cities4 ,the ,romans also gave up all their interests in the kingdom of ,armenia1 and abandoned its ,christian prince ,arsaces to the ,persians4 ,during his return to ,constantinople ,jovian was found dead in his bed at ,dadastana1 halfway between ,ancyra and ,nicaea4 ,a surfeit of mushrooms or the fumes of a charcoal fire have been assigned as the cause of death4 ,under ,jovian1 ,christianity was established as the state religion1 and the ,labarum of ,constantine again became the standard of the army4 ,the statement that he issued an edict of toleration1 to the effect that1 while the exercise of magical rites would be severely punished1 his subjects should enjoy full liberty of conscience1 rests on insufficient evidence4 ,jovian entertained a great regard for ,athanasius1 whom he reinstated on the archiepiscopal throne1 desiring him to draw up a statement of the ,catholic faith4 ,in ,syriac literature ,jovian became the hero of a ,christian romance 7,g4 ,hoffmann1 ,julianus der ,abtrnnige1 #ahhj74 ,see ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxv4 #e-aj2 ,j4 ,p4 de la ,blterie1 ,histoire de ,jovien 7#agdj72 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall1 chs4 xxiv41 xxv42 ,j4 ,wordsworth in ,smith and ,wace's ,dictionary of ,christian ,biography2 ,h4 ,schiller1 ,geschichte der rmischen ,kaiserzeit1 vol4 ii4 7#ahhg72 ,a4 de ,broglie1 ,l'glise et l'empire romain au ive sicle 7#dth ed4 #ahhb74 ,for the relations of ,rome and ,persia see ,,persia3 ,ancient ,history4 ,,jovinianus1 or ,,jovianus1 a ,roman monk of heterodox views1 who flourished during the latter half of the #dth century4 ,all our knowledge of him is derived from a passionately hostile polemic of ,jerome 7,adv4 ,jovinianum1 ,libri ,,ii471 written at ,bethlehem in #cic1 and without any personal acquaintance with the man assailed4 ,according to this authority ,jovinian in #chh was living at ,rome the celibate life of an ascetic monk1 possessed a good acquaintance with the ,bible1 and was the author of several minor works1 but1 undergoing an heretical change of view1 afterwards became a self-indulgent ,epicurean and unrefined sensualist4 ,the views which excited this denunciation were mainly these3 7#a7 ,jovinian held that in point of merit1 so far as their domestic state was concerned1 virgins1 widows and married persons who had been baptized into ,christ were on a precisely equal footing2 7#b7 those who with full faith have been regenerated in baptism cannot be overthrown 7or1 according to another reading1 tempted7 of the devil2 7#c7 to abstain from meats is not more praiseworthy than thankfully to enjoy them2 7#d7 all who have preserved their baptismal grace shall receive the same reward in the kingdom of heaven4#a ,jovinian thus indicates a natural and vigorous reaction against the exaggerated asceticism of the #dth century1 a protest shared by ,helvidius and ,vigilantius4 ,he was condemned by a ,roman synod under ,bishop ,siricius in #cij1 and afterwards excommunicated by another at ,milan under the presidency of ,ambrose4 ,the year of his death is unknown1 but he is referred to as no longer alive in ,jerome's ,contra ,vigilantium 7#djf74 ,,footnote3 #a ,see1 more fully1 ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 v4 #eg4 ,,jovius1 ,,paulus1 or ,,paolo ,,giovio 7#adhc-aeeb71 ,italian historian and biographer1 was born of an ancient and noble family at ,como on the #aith of ,april #adhc4 ,his father died when he was a child1 and ,giovio owed his education to his brother ,benedetto4 ,after studying the humanities1 he applied himself to medicine and philosophy at his brother's request4 ,he was ,pomponazzi's pupil at ,padua2 and afterwards he took a medical degree in the university of ,pavia4 ,he exercised the medical profession in ,rome1 but the attraction of literature proved irresistible for ,giovio1 and he was bent upon becoming the historian of his age4 ,he presented a portion of his history to ,leo ,x41 who read the ,,ms41 and pronounced it superior in elegance to anything since ,livy4 ,thus encouraged1 ,giovio took up his residence in ,rome1 and attached himself to ,cardinal ,giulio de' ,medici1 the pope's nephew4 ,the next pope1 ,adrian ,,vi41 gave him a canonry in ,como1 on the condition1 it is said1 that ,giovio should mention him with honour in his history4 ,this patronage from a pontiff who was averse from the current tone of ,italian humanism proves that ,giovio at this period passed for a man of sound learning and sober manners4 ,after ,adrian's death1 ,giulio de' ,medici became pope as ,clement ,,vii4 and assigned him chambers in the ,vatican1 with maintenance for servants befitting a courtier of rank4 ,in addition to other benefices1 he finally1 in #aebh1 bestowed on him the bishopric of ,nocera4 ,giovio had now become in a special sense dependent on the ,medici4 ,he was employed by that family on several missions--as when he accompanied ,ippolito to ,bologna on the occasion of ,charles ,v4's coronation1 and ,caterina to ,marseilles before her marriage to the duke of ,orleans4 ,during the siege of ,rome in #aebg he attended ,clement in his flight from the ,vatican4 ,while crossing the bridge which connected the palace with the castle of ,s4 ,angelo1 ,giovio threw his mantle over the pope's shoulders in order to disguise his master4 ,in the sack he suffered a serious pecuniary and literary loss1 if we may credit his own statement4 ,the story runs that he deposited the ,,ms4 of his history1 together with some silver1 in a box at ,s4 ,maria ,sopra ,minerva for safety4 ,this box was discovered by two ,spaniards1 one of whom secured the silver1 while the other1 named ,herrera1 knowing who ,giovio was1 preferred to hold the ,,mss4 for ransom4 ,herrera was so careless1 however1 as to throw away the sheets he found in paper1 reserving only that portion of the work which was transcribed on parchment4 ,this he subsequently sold to ,giovo in exchange for a benifice at ,cordova1 which ,clement ,,vii4 conceded to the ,spaniard4 ,six books of the history were lost in this transaction4 ,giovo contented himself with indicating their substance in a summary4 ,perhaps he was not unwilling that his work should resemble that of ,livy1 even in its imperfection4 ,but doubt rests upon the whole of this story4 ,apostolo ,zeno affirms that in the middle of the last century three of the missing books turned up among family papers in the possession of ,count ,giov4 ,batt4 ,giovio1 who wrote a panegyric on his ancestor4 ,it is therefore not improbable that ,giovio possessed his history intact1 but preferred to withhold from publication those portions which might have involved him in difficulties with living persons of importance4 ,the omissions were afterwards made good by ,curtio ,marinello in the ,italian edition1 published at ,venice in #aeha4 ,but whether ,marinello was the author of these additions is not known4 ,after ,clement's death ,giovio found himself out of favour with the next pope1 ,paul ,,iii4 ,the failure of his career is usually ascribed to the irregularity of the life he led in the literary society of ,rome4 ,we may also remember that ,paul had special causes for animosity against the ,medici1 whose servant ,giovio had been4 ,despairing of a cardinal's hat1 ,giovio retired to his villa on the lake of ,como1 where he spent the wealth he had acquired from donations and benefices in adorning his villa with curiosities1 antiquities and pictures1 including a very important collection of portraits of famous soldiers and men of letters1 now almost entirely dispersed4 ,he died upon a visit to ,florence in #aeeb4 ,giovio's principal work was the ,history of ,his ,own ,times1 from the invasion of ,charles ,,viii4 to the year #aedg4 ,it was divided into two parts1 containing altogether forty-five books4 ,of these1 books v4-xi4 of part i4 were said by him to have been lost in the sack of ,rome1 while books xix4-xxiv4 of part ii41 which should have embraced the period from the death of ,leo to the sack1 were never written4 ,giovio supplied the want of the latter six books by his lives of ,leo1 ,adrian1 ,alphonso ,i4 of ,ferrara1 and several other personages of importance4 ,but he alleged that the history of that period was too painful to be written in full4 ,his first published work1 printed in #aebd at ,rome1 was a treatise ,de piscibus romanis4 ,after his retirement to ,como he produced a valuable series of biographies1 entitled ,elogia virorum illustrium4 ,they commemorate men distinguished for letters and arms1 selected from all periods1 and are said to have been written in illustration of portraits collected by him for the museum of his villa at ,como4 ,besides these books1 we may mention a biographical history of the ,visconti1 lords of ,milan2 an essay on mottoes and badges2 a dissertation on the state of ,turkey2 a large collection of familiar epistles2 together with descriptions of ,britain1 ,muscovy1 the ,lake of ,como and ,giovio's own villa4 ,the titles of these miscellanies will be found in the bibliographical note appended to this article4 ,giovio preferred ,latin in the composition of his more important works4 ,though contemporary with ,machiavelli1 ,guicciardini and ,varchi1 he adhered to humanistic usages1 and cared more for the ,latinity than for the matter of his histories4 ,his style is fluent and sonorous rather than pointed or grave4 ,partly owing to the rhetorical defects inherent in this choice of ,latin1 when ,italian had gained the day1 but more to his own untrustworthy and shallow character1 ,giovio takes a lower rank as historian than the bulk and prestige of his writings would seem to warrant4 ,he professed himself a flatterer and a lampooner1 writing fulsome eulogies on the princes who paid him well1 while he ignored or criticized those who proved less generous4 ,the old story that he said he kept a golden and an iron pen1 to use according as people paid him1 condenses the truth in epigram4 ,his private morals were of a dubious character1 and as a writer he had the faults of the elder humanists1 in combination with that literary cynicism which reached its height in ,aretino2 and therefore his histories and biographical essays are not to be used as authorities1 without corroboration4 ,yet ,giovio's works1 taken in their entirety and with proper reservation1 have real value4 ,to the student of ,italy they yield a lively picture of the manners and the feeling of the times in which he lived1 and in which he played no obscure part4 ,they abound in vivid sketches1 telling anecdotes1 fugitive comments1 which unite a certain charm of autobiographical romance with the worldly wisdom of an experienced courtier4 ,a flavour of personality makes them not unpleasant reading4 ,while we learn to despise and mistrust the man in ,giovio1 we appreciate the author4 ,it would not be too far-fetched to describe him as a sort of #afth-century ,horace ,walpole4 ,,bibliography4--,the sources of ,giovio's biography are3 his own works2 ,tiraboschi's ,history of ,italian ,literature2 ,litta's ,genealogy of ,illustrious ,italian ,families2 and ,giov4 ,batt4 ,giovio's ,uomini illustri della diocesi ,comasca1 ,modena 7#aghd74 ,cicogna1 in his ,delle inscrizioni ,veneziane raccolta 7,venice1 #ahcj71 gives a list of ,giovio's works1 from which the following notices are extracted3 #a4 ,works in ,latin3 7#a7 ,pauli ,jovii historiarum sui temporis1 ab anno #adid ad an4 #aedg 7,florence #aeej-aeeb71 the same translated into ,italian by ,l4 ,domenichi1 and first published at ,florence 7#aeea71 afterwards at ,venice2 7#b7 ,leonis ,x41 ,hadriani ,,vi41 ,pompeii ,columnae ,card41 vitae 7,florence1 #aedh71 translated by ,domenichi 7,florence1 #aedi72 7#c7 ,vitae ,,xii4 vicecomitum ,mediolani principum 7,paris1 #aedi71 translated by ,domenichi 7,venice1 #aedi72 7#d7 ,vita ,sfortiae clariss4 ducis 7,rome1 #aedi71 translated by ,domenichi 7,florence1 #aedi72 7#e7 ,vita ,fr4 ,ferd4 ,davali 7,florence1 #aedi71 translated by ,domenichi 7ibid4 #aeea72 7#f7 ,vita magni ,consalvi 7ibid4 #aedi71 translated by ,domenichi 7ibid4 #aeej72 7#g7 ,alfonsi ,atestensi1 c4 7ibid4 #aeej71 ,italian translation by ,giov4 ,batt4 ,gelli 7,florence1 #aeec72 7#h7 ,elogia virorum bellica virtute illustrium 7ibid4 #aeea71 translated by ,domenichi 7ibid4 #aeed72 7#i7 ,elogia clarorum virorum1 c4 7,venice1 #aedf7 7these are biographies of men of letters71 translated by ,hippolito ,orio of ,ferrara 7,florence1 #aeeb72 7#aj7 ,libellus de legatione ,basilii ,magni principis ,moscoviae 7,rome1 #aebe72 7#aa7 ,descriptio ,larii ,lacus 7,venice1 #aeei72 7#ab7 ,descriptio ,britanniae1 c4 7,venice1 #aedh72 7#ac7 ,de piscibus romanis 7,rome1 #aebd72 7#ad7 ,descriptiones quotquot extant regionum atque locorum 7,basel1 #aega74 #b4 ,works in ,italian3 7#a7 ,dialogo delle imprese militari et amorose 7,rome1 #aeee72 7#b7 ,commentar delle cose dei ,turchi 7,venice1 #aeda72 7#c7 ,lettere volgari 7,venice1 #aefj74 ,some minor works and numerous reprints of those cited have been omitted from this list2 and it should also be mentioned that some of the lives with additional matter1 are included in the ,vitae illustrium virorum 7,basel1 #aegf74 7,j4 ,a4 ,s47 ,the best and most complete edition of ,giovio's works is that of ,basel 7#afgh74 ,for his life see ,giuseppe ,sanesi1 ,alcuni osservazioni e notizie intorno a tre storici minori del cinquecento--,giovio2 ,nerli1 ,segni 7in ,archivio ,storico ,italiano1 #eth series1 vol4 xxiii472 ,eug4 ,mntz1 ,sul museo di ritratti composto da ,paolo ,giovio 7ibid41 vol4 xix474 ,,jowett1 ,,benjamin 7#ahag-ahic71 ,english scholar and theologian1 master of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford1 was born in ,camberwell on the #aeth of ,april #ahag4 ,his father was one of a ,yorkshire family who1 for three generations1 had been supporters of the ,evangelical movement in the ,church of ,england4 ,his mother was a ,langhorne1 in some way related to the poet and translator of ,plutarch4 ,at twelve the boy was placed on the foundation of ,st ,paul's ,school 7then in ,st ,paul's ,churchyard71 and in his nineteenth year he obtained an open scholarship at ,balliol4 ,in #ahch he gained a fellowship1 and graduated with first-class honours in #ahci4 ,brought up amongst pious ,evangelicals1 he came to ,oxford at the height of the ,tractarian movement1 and through the friendship of ,w4 ,g4 ,ward was drawn for a time in the direction of ,high ,anglicanism2 but a stronger and more lasting influence was that of the ,arnold school1 represented by ,a4 ,p4 ,stanley4 ,jowett was thus led to concentrate his attention on theology1 and in the summers of #ahde and #ahdf1 spent in ,germany with ,stanley1 he became an eager student of ,german criticism and speculation4 ,amongst the writings of that period he was most impressed by those of ,f4 ,c4 ,baur4 ,but he never ceased to exercise an independent judgment1 and his work on ,st ,paul1 which appeared in #ahee1 was the result of much original reflection and inquiry4 ,he was appointed to the ,greek professorship in the autumn of that year4 ,he had been a tutor of ,balliol and a clergyman since #ahdb1 and had devoted himself to the work of tuition with unexampled zeal4 ,his pupils became his friends for life4 ,he discerned their capabilities1 studied their characters1 and sought to remedy their defects by frank and searching criticism4 ,like another ,socrates1 he taught them to know themselves1 repressing vanity1 encouraging the despondent1 and attaching all alike by his unobtrusive sympathy4 ,this work gradually made a strong impression1 and those who cared for ,oxford began to speak of him as the great tutor4 ,as early as #ahci ,stanley had joined with ,tait1 the future archbishop1 in advocating certain university reforms4 ,from #ahdf onwards ,jowett threw himself into this movement1 which in #ahdh became general amongst the younger and more thoughtful fellows1 until it took effect in the commission of #ahej and the act of #ahed4 ,another educational reform1 the opening of the ,indian civil service to competition1 took place at the same time1 and ,jowett was one of the commission4 ,he had two brothers who served and died in ,india1 and he never ceased to take a deep and practical interest in ,indian affairs4 ,a great disappointment1 his repulse for the mastership of ,balliol1 also in #ahed1 appears to have roused him into the completion of his book on ,the ,epistles of ,st ,paul4 ,this work1 described by one of his friends as a miracle of boldness1 is full of originality and suggestiveness1 but its publication awakened against him a storm of theological prejudice1 which followed him more or less through life4 ,instead of yielding to this1 he joined with ,henry ,bristowe ,wilson and ,rowland ,williams1 who had been similarly attacked1 in the production of the volume known as ,essays and ,reviews4 ,this appeared in #ahfj and gave rise to a strange outbreak of fanaticism4 ,jowett's loyalty to those who were prosecuted on this account was no less characteristic than his persistent silence while the augmentation of his salary as ,greek professor was withheld4 ,this petty persecution was continued until #ahfe1 when ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman and ,charles ,elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred1 and ,christ ,church raised the endowment from #dj a year to #ejj4 ,meanwhile ,jowett's influence at ,oxford had steadily increased4 ,it culminated in #ahfd1 when the country clergy1 provoked by the final acquittal of the essayists1 had voted in convocation against the endowment of the ,greek chair4 ,jowett's pupils1 who were now drawn from the university at large1 supported him with the enthusiasm which young men feel for the victim of injustice4 ,in the midst of other labours ,jowett had been quietly exerting his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal opinion1 and bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological test1 which was still required for the ,m4,a4 and other degrees1 and for university and college offices4 ,he spoke at an important meeting upon this question in ,london on the #ajth of ,june #ahfd1 which laid the ground for the ,university ,tests ,act of #ahga4 ,in connexion with the ,greek professorship ,jowett had undertaken a work on ,plato which grew into a complete translation of the ,dialogues1 with introductory essays4 ,at this he laboured in vacation time for at least ten years4 ,but his interest in theology had not abated1 and his thoughts found an outlet in occasional preaching4 ,the university pulpit1 indeed1 was closed to him1 but several congregations in ,london delighted in his sermons1 and from #ahff until the year of his death he preached annually in ,westminster ,abbey1 where ,stanley had become dean in #ahfc4 ,three volumes of selected sermons have been published since his death4 ,the years #ahfe-ahgj were occupied with assiduous labour4 ,amongst his pupils at ,balliol were men destined to high positions in the state1 whose parents had thus shown their confidence in the supposed heretic1 and gratitude on this account was added to other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition4 ,in #ahgj1 by an arrangement which he attributed to his friend ,robert ,lowe1 afterwards ,lord ,sherbrooke 7at that time a member of ,gladstone's ministry71 ,scott was promoted to the deanery of ,rochester and ,jowett was elected to the vacant mastership by the fellows of ,balliol4 ,from the vantage-ground of this long-coveted position the ,plato was published in #ahga4 ,it had a great and well-deserved success4 ,while scholars criticized particular renderings 7and there were many small errors to be removed in subsequent editions71 it was generally agreed that he had succeeded in making ,plato an ,english classic4 ,if ever there was a beneficent despotism1 it was ,jowett's rule as master4 ,since #ahff his authority in ,balliol had been really paramount1 and various reforms in college had been due to his initiative4 ,the opposing minority were now powerless1 and the younger fellows who had been his pupils were more inclined to follow him than others would have been4 ,there was no obstacle to the continued exercise of his firm and reasonable will4 ,he still knew the undergraduates individually1 and watched their progress with a vigilant eye4 ,his influence in the university was less assured4 ,the pulpit of ,st ,mary's was no longer closed to him1 but the success of ,balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy in other colleges1 and old prejudices did not suddenly give way2 while a new movement in favour of the endowment of research ran counter to his immediate purposes4 ,meanwhile1 the tutorships in other colleges1 and some of the headships also1 were being filled with ,balliol men1 and ,jowett's former pupils were prominent in both houses of parliament and at the bar4 ,he continued the practice1 which he had commenced in #ahdh1 of taking with him a small party of undergraduates in vacation time1 and working with them in one of his favourite haunts1 at ,askrigg in ,wensleydale1 or ,tummel ,bridge1 or later at ,west ,malvern4 ,the new hall 7#ahgf71 the organ there1 entirely his gift 7#ahhe71 and the cricket ground 7#ahhi71 remain as external monuments of the master's activity4 ,neither business nor the many claims of friendship interrupted literary work4 ,the six or seven weeks of the long vacation1 during which he had pupils with him1 were mainly employed in writing4 ,the translation of ,aristotle's ,politics1 the revision of ,plato1 and1 above all1 the translation of ,thucydides many times revised1 occupied several years4 ,the edition of the ,republic1 undertaken in #ahef1 remained unfinished1 but was continued with the help of ,professor ,lewis ,campbell4 ,other literary schemes of larger scope and deeper interest were long in contemplation1 but were not destined to take effect--an ,essay on the ,religions of the ,world1 a ,commentary on the ,gospels1 a ,life of ,christ1 a volume on ,moral ,ideas4 ,such plans were frustrated1 not only by his practical avocations1 but by his determination to finish what he had begun1 and the fastidious self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy4 ,the book on ,morals might1 however1 have been written but for the heavy burden of the vice-chancellorship1 which he was induced to accept in #ahhb1 by the hope1 only partially fulfilled1 of securing many improvements for the university4 ,the vice-chancellor was ex officio a delegate of the press1 where he hoped to effect much2 and a plan for draining the ,thames ,valley1 which he had now the power of initiating1 was one on which his mind had dwelt for many years4 ,the exhausting labours of the vice-chancellorship were followed by an illness 7#ahhg72 and after this he relinquished the hope of producing any great original writing4 ,his literary industry was thenceforth confined to his commentary on the ,republic of ,plato1 and some essays on ,aristotle which were to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the ,politics4 ,the essays which should have accompanied the translation of ,thucydides were never written4 ,jowett1 who never married1 died on the #ast of ,october #ahic4 ,the funeral was one of the most impressive ever seen in ,oxford4 ,the pall-bearers were seven heads of colleges and the provost of ,eton1 all old pupils4 ,theologian1 tutor1 university reformer1 a great master of a college1 ,jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding generations was his greatness as a moral teacher4 ,many of the most prominent ,englishmen of the day were his pupils and owed much of what they were to his precept and example1 his penetrative sympathy1 his insistent criticism1 and his unwearying friendship4 ,seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued with so clear a recognition of practical limitations4 ,jowett's theological work was transitional1 and yet has an element of permanence4 ,as has been said of another thinker1 he was one of those deeply religious men who1 when crude theological notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new life into theology by wider and more humane ideas4 ,in earlier life he had been a zealous student of ,kant and ,hegel1 and to the end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit2 but he had little confidence in metaphysical systems1 and sought rather to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life4 ,as a classical scholar1 his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the neglect of minutiae1 but he had the higher merit of interpreting ideas4 ,his place in literature rests really on the essays in his ,plato4 ,when their merits are fully recognized1 it will be found that his worth1 as a teacher of his countrymen1 extends far beyond his own generation4 ,see ,the ,life and ,letters of ,benjamin ,jowett1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,abbott and ,lewis ,campbell 7#ahig72 ,benjamin ,jowett1 by ,lionel ,tollemache 7#ahie74 7,l4 ,c47 ,,joyeuse1 a small town in the department of ,ardche1 ,france1 situated on the ,baume1 a tributary of the ,ardche1 is historically important as having been the seat of a noble ,french family which derived its name from it4 ,the lordship of ,joyeuse came1 in the #acth century1 into the possession of the house of ,chteauneuf-,randon1 and was made into a viscountship in #adcb4 ,guillaume1 viscount of ,joyeuse1 was bishop of ,alet1 but afterwards left the church1 and became a marshal of ,france2 he died in #aeib4 ,his eldest son ,anne de ,joyeuse 7#aefa-aehg71 was one of the favourites of ,henry ,,iii4 of ,france1 who created him duke and peer 7#aeha71 admiral of ,france 7#aehb71 and governor of ,normandy 7#aehf71 and married him to ,marguerite de ,lorraine-,vaudmont1 younger sister of the queen4 ,he gained several successes against the ,huguenots1 but was recalled by court intrigues at an inopportune moment1 and when he marched a second time against ,henry of ,navarre he was defeated and killed at ,coutras4 ,guillaume had three other sons3 ,franois de ,joyeuse 7d4 #afae71 cardinal and archbishop of ,narbonne1 ,toulouse and ,rouen1 who brought about the reconciliation of ,henry ,,iv4 with the pope2 ,henri1 count of ,bouchage1 and later duke of ,joyeuse1 who first entered the army1 then became a ,capuchin under the name of ,pre ,ange1 left the church and became a marshal of ,france1 and finally re-entered the church1 dying in #afjh2 ,antoine ,scipion1 grand prior of ,toulouse in the order of the knights of ,malta1 who was one of the leaders in the ,league1 and died in the retreat of ,villemur 7#aeib74 ,henriette ,catherine de ,joyeuse1 daughter of ,henri1 married in #afaa ,charles of ,lorraine1 duke of ,guise1 to whom she brought the duchy of ,joyeuse4 ,on the death of her great-grandson1 ,franois ,joseph de ,lorraine1 duke of ,guise1 in #afge1 without issue1 the duchy of ,joyeuse was declared extinct1 but it was revived in #agad1 in favour of ,louis de ,melun1 prince of pinoy4 7,m4 ,p4997 ,,joyeuse ,,entr,e1 a famous charter of liberty granted to ,brabant by ,duke ,john ,,iii4 in #aced4 ,john summoned the representatives of the cities of the duchy to ,louvain to announce to them the marriage of his daughter and heiress ,jeanne of ,brabant to ,wenceslaus duke of ,luxemburg1 and he offered them liberal concessions in order to secure their assent to the change of dynasty4 ,john ,,iii4 died in #acee1 and ,wenceslaus and ,jeanne on the occasion of their state entry into ,brussels solemnly swore to observe all the provisions of the charter1 which had been drawn up4 ,from the occasion on which it was first proclaimed this charter has since been known in history as ,la ,joyeuse ,entre4 ,by this document the dukes of ,brabant undertook to maintain the integrity of the duchy1 and not to wage war1 make treaties1 or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects1 as represented by the municipalities4 ,all members of the duke's council were to be native-born ,brabanters4 ,this charter became the model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the ,netherlands4 ,its provisions were modified from time to time1 but remained practically unchanged from the reign of ,charles ,v4 onwards4 ,the ill-advised attempt of the emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 in his reforming zeal to abrogate the ,joyeuse ,entre caused a revolt in ,brabant1 before which he had to yield4 ,see ,e4 ,poullet1 ,la ,joyeuse entre1 ou constitution ,brabanonne 7#ahfb74 ,,juan ,,fernandez ,,islands1 a small group in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean1 between #cc and #cd ,s41 #hj ,w41 belonging to ,chile and included in the province of ,valparaiso4 ,the main island is called ,mas-a-,tierra 7,span4 more to land7 to distinguish it from a smaller island1 ,mas-a-,fuera 7more to sea71 #ajj m4 farther west4 ,off the ,s4,w4 of ,mas-a-,tierra lies the islet of ,santa ,clara4 ,the aspect of ,mas-a-,tierra is beautiful2 only #ac m4 in length by #d in width1 it consists of a series of precipitous rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles1 and strongly contrasting with a rich vegetation4 ,the highest of these1 #cbbe ft41 is called1 from its massive form1 ,el ,yunque 7the anvil74 ,the rocks are volcanic4 ,cumberland ,bay on the north side is the only fair anchorage1 and even there1 from the great depth of water1 there is some risk4 ,a wide valley collecting streams from several of the ravines on the north side of the island opens into ,cumberland ,bay1 and is partially enclosed and cultivated4 ,the inhabitants number only some twenty4 ,the flora and fauna of ,juan ,fernandez are in most respects ,chilean4 ,there are few trees on the island1 for most of the valuable indigenous trees have been practically exterminated1 such as the sandalwood1 which the earlier navigators found one of the most valuable products of the island4 ,ferns are prominent among the flora1 about one-third of which consists of endemic species4 ,there are no indigenous land mammals4 ,pigs and goats1 however1 with cattle1 horses1 asses and dogs1 have been introduced1 have multiplied1 and in considerable numbers run wild4 ,sea-elephants and fur-seals were formerly plentiful4 ,of birds1 a tyrant and a humming-bird 7,eustephanus fernandensis7 are peculiar to the group1 while another humming bird 7,e4 galerites71 a thrush1 and some birds of prey also occur in ,chile4 ,e4 fernandensis has the peculiarity that the male is of a bright cinnamon colour1 while the female is green4 ,both sexes are green in ,e4 galerites4 ,juan ,fernandez was discovered by a ,spanish pilot of that name in #aefc4 ,fernandez obtained from the ,spanish government a grant of the islands1 where he resided for some time1 stocking them with goats and pigs4 ,he soon1 however1 appears to have abandoned his possessions1 which were afterwards for many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from the coasts of ,chile and ,peru4 ,in #afaf ,jacob le ,maire and ,willem ,cornelis ,schouten called at ,juan ,fernandez for water and fresh provisions4 ,pigs and goats were then abundant on the islands4 ,in ,february #agjj ,dampier called at ,juan ,fernandez and while there ,captain ,straddling of the ,cinque ,porte galley quarrelled with his men1 forty-two of whom deserted but were afterwards taken on board by ,dampier2 five seamen1 however1 remained on shore4 ,other parties had previously colonized the islands but none had remained permanently4 ,in ,october #agjd the ,cinque ,porte returned and found two of these men1 the others having been apparently captured by the ,french4 ,on this occasion ,straddling quarrelled with ,alexander ,selkirk 7q4v471 who1 at his own request1 became the island's most famous colonist1 for his adventures are commonly believed to have inspired ,daniel ,defoe's ,robinson ,crusoe4 ,among later visits1 that of ,commodore ,anson1 in the ,centurion 7,june #agda7 led1 on his return home1 to a proposal to form an ,english settlement on ,juan ,fernandez2 but the ,spaniards1 hearing that the matter had been mooted in ,england1 gave orders to occupy the island1 and it was garrisoned accordingly in #agej4 ,philip ,carteret first observed this settlement in ,may #agfg1 and on account of the hostility of the ,spaniards preferred to put in at ,masa-,fuera4 ,after the establishment of the independence of ,chile at the beginning of the #aith century1 ,juan ,fernandez passed into the possession of that country4 ,on more than one occasion before #ahdj ,mas-a-,tierra was used as a state prison by the ,chilean government4 ,,juangs 7,patuas1 literally leaf-wearers71 a jungle tribe of ,orissa1 ,india4 ,they are found in only two of the tributary states1 ,dhenkanal and ,keonjhar1 most of them in the latter4 ,they are estimated to amount in all to about #aj1jjj4 ,their language belongs to the ,munda family4 ,they have no traditions which connect them with any other race1 and they repudiate all connexion with the ,hos or the ,santals1 declaring themselves the aborigines4 ,they say the headquarters of the tribe is the ,gonasika4 ,in manners they are among the most primitive people of the world1 representing the ,stone age in our own day4 ,they do not till the land1 but live on the game they kill or on snakes and vermin4 ,their huts measure about #f ft4 by #h ft41 with very low doorways4 ,the interior is divided into two compartments4 ,in the first of these the father and all the females of a family huddle together2 the second is used as a store-room4 ,the boys have a separate hut at the entrance to the village1 which serves as a guest-house and general assembly place where the musical instruments of the village are kept4 ,physically they are small and weak-looking1 of a reddish-brown colour1 with flat faces1 broad noses with wide nostrils1 large mouths and thick lips1 the hair coarse and frizzly4 ,the women until recently wore nothing but girdles of leaves1 the men1 a diminutive bandage of cloth4 ,the ,juangs declare that the river goddess1 emerging for the first time from the ,gonasika rock1 surprised a party of naked ,juangs dancing1 and ordered them to wear leaves1 with the threat that they should die if they ever gave up the custom4 ,the ,juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive sling made entirely of cord4 ,their religion is a vague belief in forest spirits4 ,they offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and to the earth for a bountiful harvest4 ,polygamy is rare4 ,they burn their dead and throw the ashes into any running stream4 ,the most sacred oaths a ,juang can take are those on an ant-hill or a tiger-skin4 ,see ,e4 ,w4 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,bengal 7#ahgb74 ,,juan ,,manuel1 ,,don 7#abhb-acdi71 infante of ,castile1 son of the infante ,don ,manuel and ,beatrix of ,savoy1 and grandson of ,st ,ferdinand1 was born at ,escalona on the #eth of ,may #abhb4 ,his father died in #abhd1 and the young prince was educated at the court of his cousin1 ,sancho ,,iv41 with whom his precocious ability made him a favourite4 ,in #abid he was appointed adelantado of ,murcia and in his fourteenth year served against the ,moors at ,granada4 ,in #acjd he was entrusted by the queen-mother1 ,doa ,maria de ,molina1 to conduct political negotiations with ,james ,,ii4 of ,aragon on behalf of her son1 ,ferdinand ,,iv41 then under age4 ,his diplomacy was successful and his marriage to ,james ,,ii4's daughter1 ,constantina1 added to his prestige4 ,on the death of ,ferdinand ,,iv4 and of the regents who governed in the name of ,alphonso ,,xi41 ,don ,juan ,manuel acted as guardian of the king who was proclaimed of age in #acbe4 ,his ambitious design of continuing to exercise the royal power was defeated by ,alphonso ,,xi41 who married the ex-regent's daughter ,constanza1 and removed his father-in-law from the scene by nominating him adelantado mayor de la frontera4 ,alphonso ,,xi4's repudiation of ,constanza1 whom he imprisoned at ,toro1 drove ,don ,juan ,manuel into opposition1 and a long period of civil war followed4 ,on the death of his wife ,constantina in #acbg1 ,don ,juan ,manuel strengthened his position by marrying ,doa ,blanca de la ,cerda2 he secured the support of ,juan ,nuez1 alfrez of ,castile1 by arranging a marriage between him and ,maria1 daughter of ,don ,juan el ,tuerto2 he won over ,portugal by promising the hand of his daughter1 the ex-queen ,constanza1 to the infante of that kingdom1 and he entered into alliance with ,mahomet ,,iii4 of ,granada4 ,this formidable coalition compelled ,alphonso ,,xi4 to sue for terms1 which he accepted in #acbh without any serious intention of complying with them2 but he was compelled to release ,doa ,constanza4 ,war speedily broke out anew1 and lasted till #acca when ,alphonso ,,xi4 invited ,juan ,manuel and ,juan ,nuez to a banquet at ,villahumbrales with the intention1 it was believed1 of assassinating them2 the plot failed1 and ,don ,juan ,manuel joined forces with ,peter ,,iv4 of ,aragon4 ,he was besieged by ,alphonso ,,xi4 at ,garci-,nuez1 whence he escaped on the #cjth of ,july #accf1 fled into exile1 and kept the rebellion alive till #acch1 when he made his peace with the king4 ,he proved his loyalty by serving in further expeditions against the ,moors of ,granada and ,africa1 and died a tranquil death in the first half of #acdi4 ,distinguished as an astute politician1 ,don ,juan ,manuel is an author of the highest eminence1 and1 considering the circumstances of his stormy life1 his voluminousness is remarkable4 ,the ,libro de los sabios1 a treatise called ,engeos de ,guerra and the ,libro de cantares1 a collection of verses1 were composed between #acbj and #acbg2 but they have disappeared together with the ,libro de la caballera 7written during the winter of #acbf71 and the ,reglas como se debe trovar1 a metrical treatise assigned to #acbh-accd4 ,of his surviving writings1 ,juan ,manuel's ,crnica abreviada was compiled between #acai and #acbe1 while the ,libro de la caza must have been written between #acbj and #acbi2 and during this period of nine years the ,crnica de ,espaa1 the ,crnica complida1 and the ,tratado sobre las armas were produced4 ,the ,libro del caballero et del escudero was finished before the end of #acbf2 the first book of the ,libro de los estados was finished on the #bbnd of ,may #accj1 while the second was begun five days later2 the first book of ,el ,conde ,lucanor was written in #acbh1 the second in #accj1 and the fourth is dated #abth of ,june #acce4 ,we are unable to assign to any precise date the devout ,tractado on the ,virgin1 dedicated to the prior of the monastery at ,peafiel1 to which ,don ,juan ,manuel bequeathed his manuscripts2 but it seems probable that the ,libro de los frailes predicadores is slightly later than the ,libro de los estados2 that the ,libro de los castigos 7left unfinished1 and therefore known by the alternative title of ,libro infinido7 was written not later than #accc1 and that the treatise ,de las maneras de amor was composed between #accd and #accg4 ,the historical summaries1 pious dissertations and miscellaneous writings are of secondary interest4 ,the ,libro del caballero et del escudero is on another plane2 it is no doubt suggested by ,lull's ,libre del orde de cavalleria1 but the points of resemblance have been exaggerated2 the morbid mysticism of ,lull is rejected1 and the carefully finished style justifies the special pride which the author took in this performance4 ,the influence of ,lull's ,blanquerna is likewise visible in the ,libro de los estados2 but there are marked divergences of substance which go to prove ,don ,juan ,manuel's acquaintance with some version 7not yet identified7 of the ,barlaam and ,josaphat legend4 ,nothing is more striking than the curious and varied erudition of the turbulent prince who weaves his personal experiences with historical or legendary incidents1 with reminiscences of ,aesop and ,phaedrus1 with the ,disciplina clericalis1 with ,kalilah and ,dimnah1 with countless ,oriental traditions1 and with all the material of anecdotic literature which he embodies in the ,libro de patronio1 best known by the title of ,el ,conde ,lucanor 7the name ,lucanor being taken from the prose ,tristan74 ,this work 7also entitled the ,libro de enxemplos7 was first printed by ,gonzalo ,argote de ,molina at ,seville in #aege1 and it revealed ,don ,juan ,manuel as a master in the art of prose composition1 and as the predecessor of ,boccaccio in the province of romantic narrative4 ,the ,cento novelle antiche are earlier in date1 but these anonymous tales1 derived from popular stories diffused throughout the world1 lack the personal character which ,don ,juan lends to all he touches4 ,they are simple1 unadorned variants of folk-lore items2 ,el ,conde ,lucanor is essentially the production of a conscious artist1 deliberative and selective in his methods4 ,don ,juan ,manuel has not ,boccaccio's festive fancy nor his constructive skill2 he is too persistently didactic and concerned to point a moral2 but he excels in knowledge of human nature1 in the faculty of ironical presentation1 in tolerant wisdom and in luminous conciseness4 ,he naturalizes the ,eastern apologue in ,spain1 and by the laconic picturesqueness of his expression imports a new quality into ,spanish prose which attains its full development in the hands of ,juan de ,valds and ,cervantes4 ,some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by ,lope de ,vega in ,la ,pobreza estimada1 by ,ruiz de ,alarcn in ,la ,prueba de las promesas1 by ,caldern in ,la ,vida es sueo1 and by ,caizares in ,don ,juan de ,espina en ,miln3 there is an evident1 though remote1 relation between the tale of the mancebo que cas con una mujer muy fuerte y muy brava and ,the ,taming of the ,shrew2 and a more direct connexion exists between some of ,don ,juan ,manuel's enxemplos and some of ,anderson's fairy tales4 ,,bibliography4--,obras1 edited by ,p4 de ,gayangos in the ,biblioteca de autores ,espaoles1 vol4 li42 ,el ,conde ,lucanor 7,leipzig1 #aijj71 edited by ,h4 ,knust and ,a4 ,hirschfeld2 ,libro de la caza 7,halle1 #ahhj71 edited by ,g4 ,baist2 ,el ,libro del caballero et del escudero1 edited by ,s4 ,grfenberg in ,romanische ,forschungen1 vol4 vi42 ,la crnica complida1 edited by ,g4 ,baist in ,romanische ,forschungen1 vol4 vi42 ,g4 ,baist1 ,alter und ,textueberlieferung der ,schriften ,don ,juan ,manuels 7,halle1 #ahhj72 ,f4 ,hanssen1 ,notas la versificacin de ,d4 ,juan ,manuel 7,santiago de ,chile1 #aijb74 ,the ,conde ,lucanor has been translated by ,j4 ,eichendorff into ,german 7#ahdj71 by ,a4 ,puibusque into ,french 7#ahed7 and by ,j4 ,york into ,english 7#ahfh74 7,j4 ,f4 ,k47 ,,juarez1 ,,benito ,,pablo 7#ahjf-ahgb71 president of ,mexico1 was born near ,ixtlan1 in the state of ,oajaca1 ,mexico1 on the #bast of ,march #ahjf1 of full ,indian blood4 ,early left in poverty by the death of his father1 he received from a charitable friar a good general education1 and afterwards the means of studying law4 ,beginning to practise in #ahcd1 ,juarez speedily rose to professional distinction1 and in the stormy political life of his time took a prominent part as an exponent of liberal views4 ,in #ahcb he sat in the state legislature2 in #ahdf he was one of a legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to the republican congress1 and from #ahdg to #aheb he was governor of ,oajaca4 ,banished in #ahec by ,santa ,anna1 he returned to ,mexico in #ahee1 and joined ,alvarez1 who1 after ,santa ,anna's defeat1 made him minister of justice4 ,under ,comonfort1 who then succeeded ,alvarez1 ,juarez was governor of ,oajaca 7#ahee-eg71 and in #aheg chief justice and secretary of the interior2 and1 when ,comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by ,zuloaga in #aheh1 the chief justice1 in virtue of his office1 claimed to be legal president of the republic4 ,it was not1 however1 till the beginning of #ahfa that he succeeded in finally defeating the unconstitutional party and in being duly elected president by congress4 ,his decree of ,july #ahfa1 suspending for two years all payments on public debts of every kind1 led to the landing in ,mexico of ,english1 ,spanish and ,french troops4 ,the first two powers were soon induced to withdraw their forces2 but the ,french remained1 declared war in #ahfb1 placed ,maximilian upon the throne as emperor1 and drove ,juarez and his adherents to the northern limits of the republic4 ,juarez maintained an obstinate resistance1 which resulted in final success4 ,in #ahfg ,maximilian was taken at ,quertaro1 and shot2 and in ,august ,juarez was once more elected president4 ,his term of office was far from tranquil2 discontented generals stirred up ceaseless revolts and insurrections2 and1 though he was re-elected in #ahga1 his popularity seemed to be on the wane4 ,he died of apoplexy in the city of ,mexico on the #ahth of ,july #ahgb4 ,he was a statesman of integrity1 ability and determination1 whose good qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his connexion with the unhappy fate of ,maximilian4 ,,juba1 the name of two kings of ,numidia4 ,,juba ,i4 7#ast century ,b4,c471 son and successor of ,hiempsal1 king of ,numidia4 ,during the civil wars at ,rome he sided with ,pompey1 partly from gratitude because he had reinstated his father on his throne 7,appian1 ,b4,c41 i4 #hj71 and partly from enmity to ,caesar1 who had insulted him at ,rome by pulling his beard 7,suet41 ,caesar1 #ga74 ,further1 ,c4 ,scribonius ,curio1 ,caesar's general in ,africa1 had openly proposed1 #ej ,b4,c41 when tribune of the plebs1 that ,numidia should be sold to colonists1 and the king reduced to a private station4 ,in #di ,juba inflicted on the ,caesarean army a crushing defeat1 in which ,curio was slain 7,vell4 ,pat4 ii4 #ed2 ,caesar1 ,b4,c4 ii4 #dj74 ,juba's attention was distracted by a counter invasion of his territories by ,bocchus the younger and ,sittius2 but1 finding that his lieutenant ,sabura was able to defend his interests1 he rejoined the ,pompeians with a large force1 and shared the defeat at ,thapsus4 ,fleeing from the field with the ,roman general ,m4 ,petreius1 he wandered about as a fugitive4 ,at length1 in despair1 ,juba killed ,petreius1 and sought the aid of a slave in despatching himself 7#df74 ,juba was a thorough savage2 brave1 treacherous1 insolent and cruel4 7,see ,,numidia47 ,,juba ,,ii41 son of the above4 ,on the death of his father in #df ,b4,c4 he was carried to ,rome to grace ,caesar's triumph4 ,he seems to have received a good education under the care of ,augustus who1 in #bi1 after ,mark ,antony's death1 gave him the hand of ,cleopatra ,selene1 daughter of ,antony and ,cleopatra1 and placed him on his father's throne4 ,in #be1 however1 he transferred him from ,numidia to ,mauretania1 to which was added a part of ,gaetulia 7see ,,numidia74 ,juba seems to have reigned in considerable prosperity1 though in ,a4,d4 #f the ,gaetulians rose in a revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname ,gaetulicus to ,cornelius ,lentulus ,cossus1 the ,roman general who helped to suppress it4 ,the date of ,juba's death is by no means certain2 it has been put between ,a4,d4 #ai and #bd 7,strabo1 xvii4 #hbh2 ,dio ,cassius1 li4 #ae2 liii4 #bf2 ,plutarch1 ,ant4 #hg2 ,caesar1 #ee74 ,juba1 according to ,pliny1 who constantly refers to him1 is mainly memorable for his writings4 ,he has been called the ,african ,varro4 ,he wrote many historical and geographical works1 of which some seem to have been voluminous and of considerable value on account of the sources to which their author had access3 7#a7 ,greek3 ,rhmaik historia2 7#b7 ,greek3 ,assyriaka2 7#c7 ,greek3 ,libyka2 7#d7 ,de ,arabia sive ,de expeditione arabica2 7#e7 ,physiologa2 7#f7 ,de ,euphorbia herba2 7#g7 ,greek3 ,peri opou2 7#h7 ,greek3 ,peri graphiks 7,greek3 ,peri zgraphn72 7#i7 ,greek3 ,theatrik historia2 7#aj7 ,greek3 ,homoiottes2 7#aa7 ,greek3 ,peri phthoras lexes2 7#ab7 ,greek3 ,epigramma4 ,fragments and life in ,mller1 ,frag4 ,hist4 ,graec41 vol4 iii42 see also ,sevin1 ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscriptions1 vol4 iv42 ,hullemann1 ,de vita et scriptis ,jubae 7#ahdf74 ,for the denarii of ,juba ,,ii4 found in #aijh at ,el ,ksar on the coast of ,morocco see ,dieudonn in ,revue ,numism4 7#aijh71 pp4 #cej seq4 ,they are interesting mainly as throwing light on the chronology of the reign4 ,,juba1 or ,,jub1 a river of ,east ,africa1 exceeding #ajjj m4 in length1 rising on the ,s4,e4 border of the ,abyssinian highlands and flowing ,s4 across the ,galla and ,somali countries to the sea4 ,it is formed by the junction of three streams1 all having their source in the mountain range ,n4,e4 of ,lake ,rudolf which is the water-parting between the ,nile basin and the rivers flowing to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,of the three headstreams1 the ,web1 the ,ganale and the ,daua1 the ,ganale 7or ,ganana7 is the central river and the true upper course of the ,juba4 ,it has two chief branches1 the ,black and the ,great ,ganale4 ,the last-named1 the most remote source of the river1 rises in #g #cj ,n41 #ch ,e4 at an altitude of about #gejj ft41 the crest of the mountains reaching another #bejj ft4 ,in its upper course it flows over a rocky bed with a swift current and many rapids4 ,the banks are clothed with dense jungle and the hills beyond with thorn-bush4 ,lower down the river has formed a narrow valley1 #aejj to #bjjj ft4 below the general level of the country4 ,leaving the higher mountains in about #e #ae ,n41 #dj ,e41 the ,ganale enters a large slightly undulating grass plain which extends south of the valley of the ,daua and occupies all the country eastward to the junction of the two rivers4 ,in this plain the ,ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before resuming its general ,s4-,e4 course4 ,east of #db ,e4 in #d #ab ,n4 it is joined by the ,web on the left or eastern bank1 and about #aj m4 lower down the ,daua enters on the right bank4 ,the ,web rises in the mountain chain a little ,s4 and ,e4 of the sources of the ,ganale1 and some #dj m4 from its source passes1 first1 through a caon #ejj ft4 deep1 and then through a series of remarkable underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and1 with their arches and white columns1 presenting the appearance of a pillared temple4 ,the ,daua 7or ,dawa7 is formed by the mountain torrents which have their rise ,s4 and ,w4 of the ,ganale and is of similar character to that river4 ,it has few feeders and none of any size4 ,the descent to the open country is somewhat abrupt4 ,in its middle course the ,daua has cut a deep narrow valley through the plain2 lower down it bends ,n4,e4 to its junction with the ,ganale4 ,the river is not deep and can be forded in many places2 the banks are fringed with thick bush and dom-palms4 ,at the junction of the ,ganale and the ,web the river is swift-flowing and #he yards across2 just below the ,daua confluence it is #bjj yds4 wide1 the altitude here--#cjj m4 in a direct line from the source of the ,ganale--being only #eij ft4 ,below the ,daua the river1 now known as the ,juba1 receives no tributary of importance4 ,it first flows in a valley bounded1 especially towards the west1 by the escarpments of a high plateau1 and containing the towns of ,lugh 7in #c #ej ,n41 the centre of active trade71 ,bardera1 #chg m4 above the mouth1 and ,saranli--the last two on opposite sides of the stream1 in #b #bj ,n41 a crossing-place for caravans4 ,beyond #a #de ,n4 the country becomes more level and the course of the river very tortuous4 ,on the west a series of small lakes and backwaters receives water from the ,juba during the rains4 ,just south of the equator channels from the long1 branching ,lake ,deshekwama or ,hardinge1 fed by the ,lakdera river1 enter from the west1 and in #j #ae ,s4 the ,juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar1 which has only one fathom of water at high tide4 ,from its mouth to #bj m4 above ,bardera1 where at #b #ce ,n4 rapids occur1 the ,juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers1 having a general depth of from #d to #ab ft41 though shallower in places4 ,just above its mouth it is a fine stream #bej yds4 wide1 with a current of #b knots4 ,below the mountainous region of the headstreams the ,juba and its tributaries flow through a country generally arid away from the banks of the streams4 ,the soil is sandy1 covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass1 which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of cattle1 sheep and camels owned by the ,boran ,gallas and the ,somali who inhabit the district4 ,but by the banks of the lower river the character of the country changes4 ,in this district1 known as ,gosha1 are considerable tracts of forest1 and the level of flood water is higher than much of the surrounding land4 ,this low-lying fertile belt stretches along the river for about #cjj m41 but is not more than a mile or two wide4 ,in the river valley maize1 rice1 cotton and other crops are cultivated4 ,from ,gobwen1 a trading settlement about #c m4 above the mouth of the ,juba1 a road runs ,s4,w4 to the seaport of ,kismayu1 #aj m4 distant4 ,the lower ,juba was ascended in #ahfe in a steamer by ,baron ,karl von der ,decken1 who was murdered by ,somali at ,bardera1 but the river system remained otherwise almost unknown until after #ahij4 ,in #ahia a survey of its lower course was executed by ,captain ,f4 ,g4 ,dundas of the ,british navy1 while in #ahib-ahic its headstreams were explored by the ,italian officers1 ,captains ,vittorio1 ,bottego and ,grixoni1 the former of whom disproved the supposed connexion of the ,omo 7see ,,rudolf1 ,,lake7 with the ,juba system4 ,it has since been further explored by ,prince ,eugenio ,ruspoli1 by ,bottego's second expedition 7#ahie71 by ,donaldson ,smith1 ,a4 ,e4 ,butter1 ,captain ,p4 ,maud of the ,british army1 and others4 ,the river1 from its mouth to the confluence of the ,daua and ,ganale1 forms the frontier between the ,british ,east ,africa protectorate and ,italian ,somaliland2 and from that point to about #d #bj ,n4 the ,daua is the boundary between ,british and ,abyssinian territory4 ,,jubbulpore1 or ,,jabalpur1 a city1 district1 and division of ,british ,india in the ,central ,provinces4 ,the city is #faf m4 ,n4,e4 of ,bombay by rail1 and #bbj m4 ,s4,w4 of ,allahabad4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #ij1caf4 ,the numerous gorges in the neighbouring rocks have been taken advantage of to surround the city with a series of lakes1 which1 shaded by fine trees and bordered by fantastic crags1 add much beauty to the suburbs4 ,the city itself is modern1 and is laid out in wide and regular streets4 ,a streamlet separates the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter2 but1 though the climate is mild1 a swampy hollow beneath renders the site unhealthy for ,europeans4 ,formerly the capital of the ,saugor and ,nerbudda territories1 ,jubbulpore is now the headquarters of a brigade in the #eth division of the southern army4 ,it is also one of the most important railway centres in ,india1 being the junction of the ,great ,indian ,peninsula and the ,east ,indian systems4 ,it has a steam cotton-mill4 ,the government college educates for the science course of the ,allahabad ,university1 and also contains law and engineering classes2 there are three aided high schools1 a law class1 an engineering class and normal schools for male and female teachers4 ,a native association1 established in #ahfi1 supports an orphanage1 with help from government4 ,a zenana mission manages #ac schools for girls4 ,waterworks were constructed in #ahhb4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,jubbulpore lies on the watershed between the ,nerbudda and the ,son1 but mostly within the valley of the former river1 which here runs through the famous gorge known as the ,marble rocks1 and falls #cj ft4 over a rocky ledge 7the ,dhuan dhar1 or misty shoot74 ,area1 #ciab sq4 m4 ,it consists of a long narrow plain running north-east and south-west1 and shut in on all sides by highlands4 ,this plain1 which forms an offshoot from the great valley of the ,nerbudda1 is covered in its western and southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black cotton-soil4 ,at ,jubbulpore city the soil is sandy1 and water plentiful near the surface4 ,the north and east belong to the ,ganges and ,jumna basins1 the south and west to the ,nerbudda basin4 ,in #aija the population was #fhj1ehe1 showing a decrease of #i since #ahia1 due to the results of famine4 ,the principal crops are wheat1 rice1 pulse and oil-seeds4 ,a good deal of iron-smelting with charcoal is carried on in the forests1 manganese ore is found1 and limestone is extensively quarried4 ,the district is traversed by the main railway from ,bombay to ,calcutta1 and by new branches of two other lines which meet at ,katni junction4 ,jubbulpore suffered severely in the famine of #ahif-ahig1 the distress being aggravated by immigration from the adjoining native states4 ,fortunately the famine of #aijj was less severely felt4 ,the early history of ,jubbulpore is unknown2 but inscriptions record the existence during the #aath and #abth centuries of a local line of princes of that ,haihai race which is closely connected with the history of ,gondwana4 ,in the #afth century the ,gond raja of ,garha ,mandla extended his power over fifty-two districts1 including the present ,jubbulpore4 ,during the minority of his grandson1 ,asaf ,khan1 the viceroy of ,kara ,manikpur1 conquered the ,garha principality and held it at first as an independent chief4 ,eventually he submitted to the emperor ,akbar4 ,the ,delhi power1 however1 enjoyed little more than a nominal supremacy2 and the princes of ,garha ,mandla maintained a practical independence until their subjugation by the ,mahratta governors of ,saugor in #agha4 ,in #agih the peshwa granted the ,nerbudda valley to the ,bhonsla princes of ,nagpur1 who continued to hold the district until the ,british occupied it in #ahah4 ,the ,,division ,,of ,,jubbulpore lies mainly among the ,vindhyan and ,satpura hill systems4 ,it comprises the five following districts3 ,jubbulpore1 ,saugor1 ,damoh1 ,seoni and ,mandla4 ,area1 #ah1iej sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #b1jha1dii4 ,,jub1 the ,french architectural term 7taken from the imperative of ,lat4 jubere1 to order7 for the chancel or choir screen1 which in ,england is known as the rood-screen 7see ,,rood74 ,above the screen was a gallery or loft1 from which the words ,jube ,domine benedicere were spoken by the deacon before the reading of the ,gospel1 and hence probably the name4 ,one of the finest jubs in ,france is that of the church of the ,madeleine at ,troyes1 in rich flamboyant ,gothic4 ,a later example1 of the ,renaissance period1 c4 #afjj1 is in the church of ,st tienne du ,mont1 ,paris4 ,in the ,low ,countries there are many fine examples in marble1 of which one of the most perfect from ,bois-le-,duc is now in the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum4 ,,jubilee 7or ,,jubile71 ,,year ,,of1 in the ,bible1 the name applied in the ,holiness section of the ,priestly ,code of the ,hexateuch 7,lev4 xxv47 to the observance of every #ejth year1 determined by the lapse of seven seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest1 when there was to be no sowing1 nor even gathering of the natural products of the field and the vine4 ,at the beginning of the jubilee-year the liberation of all ,israelitish slaves and the restoration of ancestral possessions was to be proclaimed4 ,as regards the meaning of the name jubilee 7,heb4 yobel7 modern scholars are agreed that it signifies ram or ram's horn4 ,year of jubilee would then mean the year that is inaugurated by the blowing of the ram's horn 7,lev4 xxv4 #i74 ,according to ,lev4 xxv4 #h-ab1 at the completion of seven sabbaths of years 7i4e4 #g #g #di years7 the trumpet of the jubilee is to be sounded throughout the land on the #ajth day of the seventh month 7,tisri #aj71 the great ,day of ,atonement4 ,the #ejth year thus announced is to be hallowed1 i4e4 liberty#a is to be proclaimed everywhere to everyone1 and the people are to return every man unto his possession and unto his family4 ,as in the sabbatical year1 there is to be no sowing1 nor reaping that which grows of itself1 nor gathering of grapes4 ,as regards real property 7,lev4 xxv4 #ac-cd7 the law is that if any ,hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his property he is to get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the number of harvests to be reaped between the date of alienation and the first jubilee-year3 should he or any relation desire to redeem the property before the jubilee this can always be done be repaying the value of the harvests between the redemption and the jubilee4 ,this legal enactment1 though it is not found 7nor anything like it7 in the earlier collections of laws1 is evidently based on 7or modified from7 an ancient custom which conferred on a near kinsman the right of pre-emption as well as of buying back 7cf4 ,jer4 xxxii4 #f sqq474 ,the tendency to impose checks upon the alienation of landed property was exceptionally strong in ,israel4 ,the fundamental principle is that the land is a sacred possession belonging to ,yahweh4 ,as such it is not to be alienated from ,yahweh's people1 to whom it was originally assigned4 ,in ,ezekiel's restoration programme crown lands presented by the 'prince' to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of liberty 78 jubilee year72 only to his sons may any portion of his inheritance be alienated in perpetuity 7,ezek4 xlvi4 #af-ah2 cf4 ,code of ,hammurabi1 #ch seq474 ,the same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages2 the case is different1 however1 as regards dwelling-houses in walled cities4 ,these may be redeemed within a year after transfer1 but if not redeemed within that period they continue permanently in possession of the purchaser1 and this may well be an echo of ancient practice4 ,an exception to this last rule is made for the houses of the ,levites in the ,levitical cities4 ,as regards property in slaves 7,lev4 xxv4 #ce-ee7 the ,hebrew whom necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of his brother ,hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and sojourner1 and to be released absolutely at the jubilee2 non-,hebrew bondmen1 on the other hand1 are to be bondmen for ever4 ,but the ,hebrew who has sold himself to a stranger or sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee1 and further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred--the redemption price being regulated by the number of years to run between the redemption and the jubilee1 according to the ordinary wage of hired servants4 ,such were the enactments of the ,priestly ,code--which1 of course1 represents the latest legislation of the ,pentateuch 7post-exilic74 ,these enactments1 in order to be understood rightly1 must be viewed in relation to the earlier similar provisions in connexion with the sabbatical 7seventh7 year4 ,the foundations of ,lev4 xxv4 are laid in the ancient provisions of the ,book of the ,covenant 7,exod4 xxi4 #b seq42 xxiii4 #aj seq47 and in ,deuteronomy 7xv474 ,the ,book of the ,covenant enjoined that the land should lie fallow and ,hebrew slaves be liberated in the seventh year2 ,deuteronomy required in addition the remission of debts 7,benzinger74 ,deuteronomy1 it will be noticed1 in accordance with its humanitarian tendency1 not only liberates the slave but remits the debt4 ,it is evident that these enactments proved impracticable in real life 7cf4 ,jer4 xxxiv4 #h seq471 and so it became necessary in the later legislation of ,p1 represented in the present form of ,lev4 xxv41 to relegate them to the #ejth year1 the year of jubilee4 ,the latter1 however1 was a purely theoretic development of the ,sabbath idea1 which could never have been reduced to practice 7its actual observance would have necessitated that for two consecutive years--the #dith and #ejth--absolutely nothing could be reaped1 while in the #east only summer fruits could be obtained1 sowing being prohibited in the #ejth year74 ,that in practice the enactments for the jubilee-year were disregarded is evidenced by the fact that1 according to the unanimous testimony of the ,talmudists and ,rabbins1 although the jubilee-years were reckoned they were not observed4 ,the conjecture of ,kuenen1 supported by ,wellhausen1 that originally ,lev4 xxv4 #h seq4 had reference to the seventh year is a highly probable one4 ,this may be the case also with ,ezek4 xlvi4 #af-ah 7cf4 ,jer4 xxxiv4 #ad74 ,a later ,rabbinical device for evading the provisions of the law was the prosbul 7ascribed to ,hillel7--i4e4 a condition made in the presence of the judge securing to the creditor the right of demanding repayment at any time1 irrespective of the year of remission4 ,further enactments regarding the jubilee are found in ,lev4 xxvii4 #ag-be and ,num4 xxxvi4 #d4 7,w4 ,r4 ,s42 ,g4 ,h4 ,bo47 ,,footnote3 #a ,heb4 deror4 ,the same word 7duraru7 is used in the ,code of ,hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife1 son or daughter sold into slavery for debt are to be restored to liberty in the fourth year 7 #aag74 ,,jubilees1 ,,book ,,of1 an apocryphal work of the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,book of ,jubilees is the most advanced pre-,christian representative of the ,midrashic tendency1 which had already been at work in the ,old ,testament ,chronicles4 ,as the chronicler had rewritten the history of ,israel and ,judah from the standpoint of the ,priests' ,code1 so our author re-edited from the ,pharisaic standpoint of his time the history of the world from the creation to the publication of the ,law on ,sinai4 ,his work constitutes the oldest commentary in the world on ,genesis and part of ,exodus1 an enlarged ,targum on these books1 in which difficulties in the biblical narration are solved1 gaps supplied1 dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit of later ,judaism infused into the primitive history of the world4 ,titles of the ,book4--,the book is variously entitled4 ,first1 it is known as ,greek3 ta ,iblaia1 hoi ,iblaioi1 ,heb4 ,hebrew3 haiuvalim4 ,this name is admirably adapted to our book1 as it divides into jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world from the creation to the legislation on ,sinai4 ,secondly1 it is frequently designated ,the ,little ,genesis1 ,greek3 h lept ,genesis or ,greek3 h ,mikrogenesis1 ,heb4 ,hebrew3 bereshit zutta4 ,this title may have arisen from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the biblical work4 ,for the other names by which it is referred to1 such as ,the ,apocalypse of ,moses1 ,the ,testament of ,moses1 ,the ,book of ,adam's ,daughters and the ,life of ,adam1 the reader may consult ,charles's ,the ,book of ,jubilees1 pp4 xvii4-xx4 ,object4--,the object of our author was the defence and exposition of ,judaism from the ,pharisaic standpoint of the #bnd century ,b4,c4 against the disintegrating effects of ,hellenism4 ,in his elaborate defence of ,judaism our author glorifies circumcision and the sabbath1 the bulwarks of ,judaism1 as heavenly ordinances1 the sphere of which was so far extended as to embrace ,israel on earth4 ,the ,law1 as a whole1 was to our author the realization in time of what was in a sense timeless and eternal4 ,though revealed in time it was superior to time4 ,before it had been made known in sundry portions to the fathers1 it had been kept in heaven by the angels1 and to its observance there was no limit in time or in eternity4 ,our author next defends ,judaism by his glorification of ,israel4 ,whereas the various nations of the ,gentiles were subject to angels1 ,israel was subject to ,god alone4 ,israel was ,god's son1 and not only did the nation stand in this relation to ,god1 but also its individual members4 ,israel received circumcision as a sign that they were the ,lord's1 and this privilege of circumcision they enjoyed in common with the two highest orders of angels4 ,hence ,israel was to unite with ,god and these two orders in the observance of the sabbath4 ,finally the destinies of the world were bound up with ,israel4 ,the world was renewed in the creation of the true man ,jacob1 and its final renewal was to synchronize with the setting-up of ,god's sanctuary in ,zion and the establishment of the ,messianic kingdom4 ,in this kingdom the ,gentiles had neither part nor lot4 ,versions3 ,greek1 ,syriac1 ,ethiopic and ,latin4--,numerous fragments of the ,greek ,version have come down to us in ,justin ,martyr1 ,origen1 ,diodorus of ,antioch1 ,isidore of ,alexandria1 ,epiphanius1 ,john of ,malala1 ,syncellus and others4 ,this version was the parent of the ,ethiopic and ,latin4 ,the ,ethiopic ,version is most accurate and trustworthy1 and indeed1 as a rule1 slavishly literal4 ,it has naturally suffered from the corruptions incident to transmission through ,,mss4 ,thus dittographies are frequent and lacunae of occasional occurrence1 but the version is singularly free from the glosses and corrections of unscrupulous scribes4 ,the ,latin ,version1 of which about one-fourth has been preserved1 is where it exists of almost equal value with the ,ethiopic4 ,it has1 however1 suffered more at the hands of correctors4 ,notwithstanding1 it attests a long array of passages in which it preserves the true text over against corruptions or omissions in the ,ethiopic ,version4 ,finally1 as regards the ,syriac ,version1 the evidence for its existence is not conclusive4 ,it is based on the fact that a ,british ,museum ,,ms4 contains a ,syriac fragment entitled ,names of the wives of the ,patriarchs according to the ,hebrew ,book of ,jubilees4 ,the ,ethiopic and ,latin ,versions3 ,translations from the ,greek4--,the ,ethiopic ,version is translated from the ,greek1 for ,greek words such as ,greek3 drys1 balanos1 lips1 c41 are transliterated in the ,greek4 ,secondly1 many passages must be retranslated into ,greek before we can discover the source of the various corruptions4 ,and finally1 proper names are transliterated as they appear in ,greek and not in ,hebrew4 ,that the ,latin is also a translation from the ,greek is no less obvious4 ,thus in xxxix4 #ab timoris ,greek3 deilias1 corrupt for ,greek3 douleias2 in xxxviii4 #ac honorem ,greek3 timn1 but ,greek3 timn should here have been rendered by tributum1 as the ,ethiopic and the context require2 in xxxii4 #bf1 celavit ,greek3 ekrypse1 corrupt for ,greek3 egrapse 7so ,ethiopic74 ,the ,greek a ,translation from the ,hebrew4--,the early date of our book--the #bnd century ,b4,c4--and its place of composition speak for a ,semitic original1 and the evidence bearing on this subject is conclusive4 ,but the question at once arises1 was the original ,aramaic or ,hebrew8 ,certain proper names in the ,latin ,version ending in -in seem to bespeak an ,aramaic original1 as ,cettin1 ,filistin1 c4 ,but since in all these cases the ,ethiopic transliterations end in -m and not in -n1 it is not improbable that the ,aramaism in the ,latin ,version is due to the translator1 who1 it has been concluded on other grounds1 was a ,palestinian ,jew4#a ,the grounds1 on the other hand1 for a ,hebrew original are weighty and numerous4 7#a7 ,a work which claims to be from the hand of ,moses would naturally be in ,hebrew1 for ,hebrew according to our author was the sacred and national language4 7#b7 ,the revival of the national spirit of a nation is universally1 so far as we know1 accompanied by a revival of the national language4 7#c7 ,the text must be retranslated into ,hebrew in order to explain unintelligible expressions and restore the true text4 ,one instance will sufficiently illustrate this statement4 ,in xliii4 #aa a certain ,ethiopic expression ,greek3 en emoi1 which is a mistranslation of ,hebrew3 bi2 for ,hebrew3 bi in this context1 as we know from the parallel passage in ,gen4 xliv4 #ah1 which our text reproduces almost verbally1 ,greek3 deomai4 ,we might observe here that our text attests the presence of dittographies already existing in the ,hebrew text4 7#d7 ,hebraisms survive in the ,ethiopic and ,latin ,versions4 ,in the former nha in iv4 #d1 is a corrupt transliteration of ,hebrew3 na4 ,in the ,latin eligere in te in xxii4 #aj is a reproduction of ,hebrew3 behar be and in qua 444 in ipsa in xix4 #h ,hebrew3 ba 444 asher4 ,this idiom could1 of course1 be explained on the hypothesis of an ,aramaic original4 7#e7 ,many paronomasiae discover themselves on retranslation into ,hebrew4 ,textual ,affinities4--,a minute study of the text shows that it attests an independent form of the ,hebrew text of the ,pentateuch4 ,thus it agrees at times with the ,samaritan1 or ,septuagint1 or ,syriac1 or ,vulgate1 or even with ,onkelos against all the rest4 ,to be more exact1 our book represents some form of the ,hebrew text of the ,pentateuch midway between the forms presupposed by the ,septuagint and the ,syriac2 for it agrees more frequently with the ,septuagint1 or with combinations into which the ,septuagint enters1 than with any other single authority1 or with any combination excluding the ,septuagint4 ,next to the ,septuagint it agrees most often with the ,syriac or with combinations into which the ,syriac enters4 ,on the other hand1 its independence of the ,septuagint is shown in a large number of passages1 where it has the support of the ,samaritan and ,massoretic1 or of these with various combinations of the ,syriac ,vulgate and ,onkelos4 ,from these and other considerations we may conclude that the textual evidence points to the composition of our book at some period between #bej ,b4,c4 and ,a4,d4 #ajj1 and at a time nearer the earlier date than the later4 ,date4--,the book was written between #ace ,b4,c4 and the year of ,hyrcanus's breach with the ,pharisees4 ,this conclusion is drawn from the following facts3--7#a7 ,the book was written during the pontificate of the ,maccabean family1 and not earlier than #ace ,b4,c4 ,for in xxxii4 #a ,levi is called a priest of the ,most ,high ,god4 ,now the only high priests who bore this title were the ,maccabean1 who appear to have assumed it as reviving the order of ,melchizedek when they displaced the ,zadokite order of ,aaron4 ,jewish tradition ascribes the assumption of this title to ,john ,hyrcanus4 ,it was retained by his successors down to ,hyrcanus ,,ii4 7#b7 ,it was written before #if ,b4,c4 or some years earlier in the reign of ,john ,hyrcanus2 for since our author is of the strictest sect a ,pharisee and at the same time an upholder of the ,maccabean pontificate1 ,jubilees cannot have been written after #if when the ,pharisees and ,alexander ,jannaeus came to open strife4 ,nay more1 it cannot have been written after the open breach between ,hyrcanus and the ,pharisees1 when the former joined the ,sadducean party4 ,the above conclusions are confirmed by a large mass of other evidence postulating the same date4 ,we may1 however1 observe that our book points to the period already past--of stress and persecution that preceded the recovery of national independence under the ,maccabees1 and presupposes as its historical background the most flourishing period of the ,maccabean hegemony4 ,author4--,our author was a ,pharisee of the straitest sect4 ,he maintained the everlasting validity of the law1 he held the strictest views on circumcision1 the sabbath1 and the duty of shunning all intercourse with the ,gentiles2 he believed in angels and in a blessed immortality4 ,in the next place he was an upholder of the ,maccabean pontificate4 ,he glorifies ,levi's successors as high-priests and civil rulers1 and applies to them the title assumed by the ,maccabean princes1 though he does not1 like the author of the ,testaments of the ,twelve ,patriarchs1 expect the ,messiah to come forth from among them4 ,he may have been a priest4 ,the ,views of the ,author on the ,messianic ,kingdom and the ,future ,life4--,according to our author the ,messianic kingdom was to be brought about gradually by the progressive spiritual development of man and a corresponding transformation of nature4 ,its members were to reach the limit of #ajjj years in happiness and peace4 ,during its continuance the powers of evil were to be restrained1 and the last judgment was apparently to take place at its close4 ,as regards the doctrine of a future life1 our author adopts a position novel for a ,palestinian writer4 ,he abandons the hope of a resurrection of the body4 ,the souls of the righteous are to enjoy a blessed immortality after death4 ,this is the earliest attested instance of this expectation in the last two centuries ,b4,c4 ,,literature4--,ethiopic ,text and ,translations3 ,this text was first edited by ,dillmann from two ,,mss4 in #ahei1 and in #ahie by ,r4 ,h4 ,charles from four 7,the ,ethiopic ,version of the ,hebrew ,book of ,jubilees 444 with the ,hebrew1 ,syriac1 ,greek and ,latin fragments74 ,in the latter edition1 the ,greek and ,latin fragments are printed together with the ,ethiopic4 ,the book was translated into ,german by ,dillmann from one ,,ms4 in ,ewald's ,jahrbcher1 vols4 ii4 and iii4 7#ahej1 #ahea71 and by ,littmann 7in ,kautzsch's ,apok4 und ,pseud4 ii4 #ci-aai7 from ,charles's ,ethiopic text2 into ,english by ,schodde 7,bibl4 ,sacr4 #ahhe7 from ,dillmann's text1 and by ,charles 7,jewish ,quarterly ,review1 vols4 v41 vi41 vii4 7#ahic-ahie7 from the text afterwards published in #ahie1 and finally in his commentary1 ,the ,book of ,jubilees 7#aijb74 ,critical ,inquiries3 ,dillmann1 ,das ,buch der ,jubilen 7,ewald's ,jahrbcher d4 bibl4 ,wissensch4 7#ahea71 iii4 #gb-if72 ,pseudepig4 des ,alten ,testaments1 ,herzog's ,realencyk4#b xii4 #cfd-cfe2 ,beitrge aus dem ,buche der ,jubilen zur ,kritik des ,pentateuch ,textes 7,sitzungsberichte der ,kgl4 ,preussischen ,akad41 #ahhc72 ,beer1 ,das ,buch der ,jubilen 7#ahef72 ,rnsch1 ,das ,buch der ,jubilen 7#ahgd72 ,singer1 ,das ,buch der ,jubilen 7#ahih72 ,bohn1 ,die ,bedeutung des ,buches der ,jubilen 7,theol4 ,stud4 und ,kritiken 7#aijj71 pp4 #afg-ahd74 ,a full bibliography will be found in ,schrer or in ,r4 ,h4 ,charles's commentary1 ,the ,book of ,jubilees or the ,little ,genesis 7#aijb71 which deals exhaustively with all the questions treated in this article4 7,r4 ,h4 ,c47 ,,footnote3 #a ,in the ,ethiopic ,version in xxi4 #ab it should be observed that in the list of the twelve trees suitable for burning on the altar several are transliterated ,aramaic names of trees4 ,but in a late ,hebrew work 7#bnd century ,b4,c47 the popular names of such objects would naturally be used4 ,in certain cases the ,hebrew may have been forgotten1 or1 where the tree was of late introduction1 been non-existent4 ,,jubilee ,,year1 an institution in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 observed every twenty-fifth year1 from ,christmas to ,christmas4 ,during its continuance plenary indulgence is obtainable by all the faithful1 on condition of their penitently confessing their sins and visiting certain churches a stated number of times1 or doing an equivalent amount of meritorious work4 ,the institution dates from the time of ,boniface ,,viii41 whose bull ,antiquorum habet fidem is dated the #bbnd of ,february #acjj4 ,the circumstances in which it was promulgated are related by a contemporary authority1 ,jacobus ,cajetanus1 according to whose account 7,relatio de centesimo s4 jubilaeo anno in the ,bibliotheca ,patrum7 a rumour spread through ,rome at the close of #abii that every one visiting ,st ,peter's on the #ast of ,january #acjj would receive full absolution4 ,the result was an enormous influx of pilgrims to ,rome1 which stirred the pope's attention4 ,nothing was found in the archives1 but an old peasant #ajg years of age avowed that his father had been similarly benefited a century previously4 ,the bull was then issued1 and the pilgrims became even more numerous1 to the profit of both clergy and citizens4 ,originally the churches of ,st ,peter and ,st ,paul in ,rome were the only jubilee churches1 but the privilege was afterwards extended to the ,lateran ,church and that of ,sta ,maria ,maggiore1 and it is now shared also for the year immediately following that of the ,roman jubilee by a number of specified provincial churches4 ,at the request of the ,roman people1 which was supported by ,st ,bridget of ,sweden and by ,petrarch1 ,clement ,,vi4 in #acdc appointed1 by the bull ,unigenitus ,dei filius1 that the jubilee should recur every fifty years instead of every hundred years as had been originally contemplated in the constitution of ,boniface2 ,urban ,,vi41 who was badly in need of money1 by the bull ,salvator noster in #achi reduced the interval still further to thirty-three years 7the supposed duration of the earthly life of ,christ72 and ,paul ,,ii4 by the bull ,ineffabilis 7,april #ai1 #adgj7 finally fixed it at twenty-five years4 ,paul ,,ii4 also permitted foreigners to substitute for the pilgrimage to ,rome a visit to some specified church in their own country and a contribution towards the expenses of the ,holy ,wars4 ,according to the special ritual prepared by ,alexander ,,vi4 in #aejj1 the pope on the ,christmas ,eve with which the jubilee begins goes in solemn procession to a particular walled-up door 7,porta aurea7 of ,st ,peter's and knocks three times1 using at the same time the words of ,ps4 cxviii4 #ai 7,aperite mihi portas justitiae74 ,the doors are then opened and sprinkled with holy water1 and the pope passes through4 ,a similar ceremony is conducted by cardinals at the other jubilee churches of the city4 ,at the close of the jubilee1 the special doorway is again built up with appropriate solemnities4 ,the last ordinary jubilee was observed in #aijj4 ,extraordinary jubilees are sometimes appointed on special occasions1 e4g4 the accession of a new pope1 or that proclaimed by ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 for the #abth of ,march #ahha1 in order to obtain from the mercy of ,almighty ,god help and succour in the weighty necessities of the ,church1 and comfort and strength in the battle against her numerous and mighty foes4 ,these are not so much jubilees in the ordinary sense as special grants of plenary indulgences for particular purposes 7,indulgentiae plenariae in forma jubilaei74 ,j,,car1 a river of eastern ,spain4 ,it rises in the north of the province of ,cuenca1 at the foot of the ,cerro de ,san ,felipe 7#eijf ft471 and flows south past ,cuenca to the borders of ,albacete2 here it bends towards the east1 and maintains this direction for the greater part of its remaining course4 ,on the right it is connected with the city of ,albacete by the ,maria ,cristina canal4 ,after entering ,valencia1 it receives on the left its chief tributary the ,cabriel1 which also rises near the ,cerro de ,san ,felipe1 in the ,montes ,universales4 ,near ,alcira the ,jcar turns south-eastward1 and then sharply north1 curving again to the south-east before it enters the ,mediterranean ,sea at ,cullera1 after a total course of #cad m4 ,its estuary forms the harbour of ,cullera1 and its lower waters are freely utilized for purposes of irrigation4 ,,jud1 ,,leo 7#adhb-aedb71 known to his contemporaries as ,meister ,leu1 ,swiss reformer1 was born in ,alsace and educated at ,basel1 where after a course in medicine he turned to the study of theology4 ,this change was due to the influence of ,zwingli whose colleague at ,zrich ,jud became after serving for four years 7#aeah-aebb7 as pastor of ,einsiedeln4 ,his chief activity was as a translator2 he was the leading spirit in the translation of the ,zrich ,bible and also made a ,latin version of the ,old ,testament4 ,he died at ,zrich on the #aith of ,june #aedb4 ,see ,life by ,c4 ,pestalozzi 7#ahfj72 art4 in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopdie1 vol4 ix4 7#aija74 ,,judaea1 the name given to the southern part of ,palestine as occupied by the ,jewish community in post-exilic days under ,persian1 ,greek and ,roman overlordship4 ,in ,luke and ,acts the term is sometimes used loosely to denote the whole of western ,palestine4 ,the limits of ,judaea were never very precisely defined and--especially on the northern frontier--varied from time to time4 ,after the death of ,herod1 ,archelaus became ethnarch of ,samaria1 ,idumea and ,judaea1 and when he was deposed ,judaea was merged in ,syria1 being governed by a procurator whose headquarters were in ,caesarea4 ,for a description of the natural features of the country see ,,palestine2 for its history see ,,jews and ,,judah4 ,cf4 ,t4 ,mommsen1 ,the ,provinces of the ,roman ,empire1 ch4 xi4 ,,judah1 a district of ancient ,palestine1 to the south of the kingdom of ,israel1 between the ,dead ,sea and the ,philistine plain4 ,it falls physically into three parts3 the hill-country from ,hebron northwards through ,jerusalem2 the lowland 7,heb4 ,shephelah7 on the west2 and the steppes or dry land 7,heb4 ,negeb7 on the south4 ,the district is one of striking contrasts1 with a lofty and stony table-land in the centre 7which reaches a height of #ccjj ft4 just north of ,hebron71 with a strategically important valley dividing the central mountains from the lowland1 and with the most desolate of tracts to the east 7by the ,dead ,sea7 and south4 ,some parts1 especially around ,hebron1 are extremely fertile1 but the land as a whole has the characteristics of the southern wilderness--the so-called desert is not a sterile ,sahara--and was more fitted for pastoral occupations2 see further ,g4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,hist4 ,geog4 ,holy ,land1 chs4 x4-xv4 ,life in ancient ,judah is frequently depicted in the ,bible1 but much of the ,judaean history is obscure4 ,in the days of the old ,hebrew monarchy there were periods of conflict and rivalry between ,judah and ,israel--even times when the latter incorporated1 or at least claimed supremacy over1 the former4 ,later1 from the #eth century ,b4,c4 there was a breach between the ,jews 7the name is derived from ,judah7 and the ,samaritans 7q4v474 ,the intervening years after the fall of ,samaria 7#gbb ,b4,c471 and after the destruction of ,jerusalem 7#ehf ,b4,c471 were probably marked by closer intercourse1 similar to the period of union in the popular traditions relating to the pre-monarchical age4 ,the course of ,judaean history was conditioned1 also1 by the proximity of the ,philistines in the west1 ,moab in the east1 and by ,edom and other southern peoples extending from ,north ,arabia to the delta of the ,nile4 ,judah's stormy history1 continued under ,greek and ,roman domination1 reached its climax in the birth of ,christianity1 and ended with the fall of ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #gj 7see ,,jews1 ,,palestine74 ,in conformity with ancient methods of genealogy 7q4v471 ,judah is traced back to a son of ,jacob or ,israel by ,leah and along with other tribes 7,dan1 ,levi1 ,simeon1 c47 is included under the collective term ,israel4 ,thus it shares the general traditions of the ,israelites1 although ,judah appears as an individual in the story of his brother ,joseph 7on ch4 xxxvii4 seq41 see ,,genesis74 ,its boundaries in ,joshua xv4 are manifestly artificial or imaginary2 they include the ,philistines and number places which are elsewhere ascribed to ,simeon or ,dan4 ,the origin of the name 7,yehudah7 is quite uncertain2 the interpretation praised is suggested in ,gen4 xxix4 #ce 7cf2 xlix4 #h seq471 but some connexion with allied names1 as ,yehud 7,yahudiya1 ,e4 of ,jaffa71 or ,ehud 7a ,benjamite clan7 seems more probable4 ,that ,judah1 whatever its original connotation1 underwent development through the incorporation of other clans appears from #a ,chron4 ii41 iv41 where it is found to contain a large element of non-,israelite population whose names find analogies or parallels in ,simeonite1 ,edomite and other southern lists4#a ,indeed1 underlying the account of the ,israelite exodus 7q4v47 there are traces of a separate movement of certain clans--apart from the ,israelite invasion of ,palestine--who are ultimately found in the south of ,judah2 and the traditions in ,chronicles themselves allow the view that the incorporation of these elements began under ,david1 when ,judah first occupies a prominent position in biblical history 7cf4 ,cheyne1 ,ency4 ,bib41 col4 #bfah seq41 and see ,,caleb1 ,,jerahmeel1 ,,kenites74 ,but such movements were not necessarily limited to one single period1 and the evidence connecting 7a7 the non-,israelite clans of ,judah with ,levites1 and 7b7 both with the south1 is found in narratives referring to several different ages and might point to an unceasing relationship with the south4 ,on the other hand1 clans1 which in the traditions of ,david's time were in the south of ,judah1 about five hundred years later 7in the exile7 are found near ,jerusalem 7e4g4 ,caleb71 so that either these survived the strenuous vicissitudes of half a millennium or all perspective of their early history has been lost4 ,in ,gen4 xxxviii4 a curious narrative points to the separation of ,judah from his brethren and his marriage with ,shua the ,canaanite2 two sons ,er and ,onan perish and the third ,shelah survives4 ,from ,judah and ,er's widow ,tamar are derived ,perez and ,zerah1 and these with ,shelah appear in post-exilic times as the three representative families of ,judah 7,neh4 xi4 #d-f2 #a ,chron4 ix4 #d-f74 ,this story1 amid a number of other motives1 appears to reflect the growth of the tribe of ,judah and its fluctuations1 but that the reference is to any very early period is unlikely1 partly because the interest of the story is in post-exilic families1 and partly because the scenes 7,adullam1 ,chezib and ,timnah7 overlap with ,david's own fights between ,hebron and ,jerusalem 7#b ,sam4 xxi4 xxiii42 see ,,david1 ad fin474#b ,even ,david's conquest of ,jerusalem 7#b ,sam4 v47 conflicts both with the statement of its capture by ,judah many years previously 7,judges i4 #h71 and with the traditions of the ,israelite heroes ,joshua and ,saul4 ,consequently1 the few surviving data are too uncertain for any decisive conclusions regarding the origin of the tribe of ,judah4 ,judah as a kingdom may have taken its name from a limited district1 in which case its growth finds a parallel in the extension of the name ,samaria from the city to the province4 ,the location of ,yehud and ,ehud in the light of #a ,kings iv4 #h-ai 7perhaps the subdivisions of the ,israelite kingdom1 see ,,solomon71 would necessitate the assumption of a violent separation from the north2 this1 however1 is quite conceivable 7see ,,jews1 #aa-ac74 ,on the bearing of ,south ,judah upon the historical criticism of the ,old ,testament1 see especially ,n4 ,schmidt1 ,hibbert ,journal 7#aijh71 pp4 #cbb-cdb1 ,the ,jerahmeel ,theory and the ,historic ,importance of the ,negeb1 with some account of personal exploration of the country2 also ,,jews1 #bj4 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see especially ,wellhausen1 ,de gentibus et familiis ,judaeorum 7,gttingen1 #ahfi71 the articles on the relative proper names in the ,ency4 ,bib41 and ,e4 ,meyer1 ,die ,israeliten u4 ihre ,nachbarstmme1 pp4 #bii-dga 7much valuable matter74 #b ,for the principle of the ,levirate illustrated in ,gen4 xxxviii41 see ,,ruth4 ,lagarde 7,orientalia1 ii47 ingeniously conjectured that the chapter typified the suppression of ,phoenician 7viz4 ,tamar1 the date-palm7 and the old ,canaanite elements 7,zerah indigena7 by the younger ,israelite invaders 7,perez branch74 ,for other discussions1 apart from commentaries on ,genesis1 see ,b4 ,luther in ,meyer1 op4 cit41 pp4 #bjj sqq4 ,,judas ,,iscariot 7,greek3 ,ioudas ,iskarits or ,greek3 ,iskarith71 in the ,bible1 the son of ,simon ,iscariot 7,john vi4 #ga1 xiii4 #bf71 and one of the twelve apostles4 ,he is always enumerated last with the special mention of the fact that he was the betrayer of ,jesus4 ,if the generally accepted explanation of his surname 7man of ,kerioth2 see ,josh4 xv4 #be7 be correct1 he was the only original member of the apostolic band who was not a ,galilean4 ,the circumstances which led to his admission into the apostolic circle are not stated2 while the motives by which he was actuated in enabling the ,jewish authorities to arrest ,jesus without tumult have been variously analysed by scholars4 ,according to some 7as ,de ,quincey in his famous ,essay7 the sole object of ,judas was to place ,jesus in a position in which ,he should be compelled to make what had seemed to ,his followers the too tardy display of ,his ,messianic power3 according to others 7and this view seems more in harmony with the ,gospel narratives7 ,judas was an avaricious and dishonest man1 who had already abused the confidence placed in him 7,john xii4 #f71 and who was now concerned only with furthering his own ends4 ,as regards the effects of his subsequent remorse and the use to which his ill-gotten gains were put1 the strikingly apparent discrepancies between the narratives of ,matt4 xxvii4 #c1 #aj and ,acts i4 #ah1 #ai have attracted the attention of biblical scholars1 ever since ,papias1 in his fourth book1 of which a fragment has been preserved1 discussed the subject4 ,the simplest explanation is that they represent different traditions1 the ,gospel narrative being composed with more special reference to prophetic fulfilments1 and being probably nearer the truth than the short explanatory note inserted by the author of the ,acts 7see ,bernard1 ,expositor1 ,june #aijd1 p4 #dbb seq474 ,in ecclesiastical legend and in sacred art ,judas ,iscariot is generally treated as the very incarnation of treachery1 ingratitude and impiety4 ,the ,middle ,ages1 after their fashion1 supplied the lacunae in what they deemed his too meagre biography4 ,according to the common form of their story1 he belonged to the tribe of ,reuben4#a ,before he was born his mother ,cyborea had a dream that he was destined to murder his father1 commit incest with his mother1 and sell his ,god4 ,the attempts made by her and her husband to avert this curse simply led to its accomplishment4 ,at his birth ,judas was enclosed in a chest and flung into the sea2 picked up on a foreign shore1 he was educated at the court until a murder committed in a moment of passion compelled his flight4 ,coming to ,judaea1 he entered the service of ,pontius ,pilate as page1 and during this period committed the first two of the crimes which had been expressly foretold4 ,learning the secret of his birth1 he1 full of remorse1 sought the prophet who1 he had heard1 had power on earth to forgive sins4 ,he was accepted as a disciple and promoted to a position of trust1 where avarice1 the only vice in which he had hitherto been unpractised1 gradually took possession of his soul1 and led to the complete fulfilment of his evil destiny4 ,this ,judas legend1 as given by ,jacobus de ,voragine1 obtained no small popularity2 and it is to be found in various shapes in every important literature of ,europe4 ,for the history of its genesis and its diffusion the reader may consult ,d',ancona1 ,la leggenda di ,vergogna e la leggenda di ,giuda 7#ahfi71 and papers by ,w4 ,creizenach in ,paul and ,braune's ,beitr4 zur ,gesch4 der deutschen ,sprache und ,litteratur1 vol4 ii4 7#ahge71 and ,victor ,diederich in ,russiche ,revue 7#ahhj74 ,cholevius1 in his ,geschichte der deutschen ,poesie nach ihren antiken ,elementen 7#ahed71 pointed out the connexion of the legend with the ,oedipus story4 ,according to ,daub 7,judas ,ischariot1 oder ,betrachtungen ber das ,bse im ,verhltniss zum ,guten1 #ahaf1 #ahah7 ,judas was an incarnation of the devil1 to whom mercy and blessedness are alike impossible4 ,the popular hatred of ,judas has found strange symbolical expression in various parts of ,christendom4 ,in ,corfu1 for instance1 the people at a given signal on ,easter ,eve throw vast quantities of crockery from their windows and roofs into the streets1 and thus execute an imaginary stoning of ,judas 7see ,kirkwall1 ,ionian ,islands1 ii4 #dg74 ,at one time 7according to ,mustoxidi1 ,delle cose corciresi7 the tradition prevailed that the traitor's house and country villa existed in the island1 and that his descendants were to be found among the local ,jews4 ,details in regard to some ,judas legends and superstitions are given in ,notes and ,queries1 #bnd series1 v41 vi4 and vii42 #crd series1 vii42 #dth series1 i42 #eth series1 vi4 ,see also a paper by ,professor ,rendel ,harris entitled ,did ,judas really commit suicide8 in the ,american ,journal of ,philology 7,july #aijj74 ,matthew ,arnold's poem ,st ,brandan gives fine expression to the old story that1 on account of an act of charity done to a leper at ,joppa1 ,judas was allowed an hour's respite from hell once a year4 7,g4 ,mi47 ,,footnote3 #a ,other forms make him a ,danite1 and consider the passage in ,genesis 7xlix4 #ag7 a prophecy of the traitor4 ,,judas-,,tree1 the ,cercis siliquastrum of botanists1 belonging to the section ,caesalpineae of the natural order ,leguminosae4 ,it is a native of the south of ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 and forms a handsome low tree with a flat spreading head4 ,in ,spring it is covered with a profusion of purplish-pink flowers1 which appear before the leaves4 ,the flowers have an agreeable acid taste1 and are eaten mixed with salad or made into fritters4 ,the tree was frequently figured by the older herbalists4 ,one woodcut by ,castor ,durante has the figure of ,judas ,iscariot suspended from one of the branches1 illustrating the popular tradition regarding this tree4 ,a second species1 ,c4 canadensis1 is common in ,north ,america from ,canada to ,alabama and eastern ,texas1 and differs from the ,european species in its smaller size and pointed leaves4 ,the flowers are also used in salads and for making pickles1 while the branches are used to dye wool a nankeen colour4 ,,judd1 ,,sylvester 7#ahac-ahec7 ,american ,unitarian clergyman and author1 was born in ,westhampton1 ,massachusetts1 on the #bcrd of ,july #ahac4 ,he bore the same name as his father and grandfather2 the former 7#aghi-ahfj7 made an especial study of local history of the towns of the ,connecticut valley1 and wrote a ,history of ,hadley 7#ahfc74 ,the son lived in ,northampton after his tenth year1 was converted in a revival there in #ahbf1 graduated from ,yale in #ahcf1 and taught in #ahcf at ,templeton1 ,mass41 where he first met ,unitarians and soon found the solution of his theological difficulties in their views4 ,he entered the ,harvard divinity school1 from which he graduated in #ahdj4 ,in the same year he was ordained pastor of the ,unitarian church of ,augusta1 ,maine1 where he died on the #bfth of ,january #ahec4 ,his widest reputation was as the author of ,margaret1 a ,tale of the ,real and the ,ideal1 including ,sketches of a place not before described1 called ,mons ,christi 7#ahde2 revised #ahea71 written to exhibit the errors of ,calvinistic and all trinitarian theology1 and the evils of war1 intemperance1 capital punishment1 the prison system of the time1 and the national treatment of the ,indians4 ,this story1 published anonymously1 attracted much attention by its true descriptions of ,new ,england life and scenery as well as by its author's earnest purpose4 ,richard ,edney and the ,governor's ,family 7#ahej7 is in much the same vein as ,margaret4 ,a poem entitled ,philo1 an ,evangeliad 7#ahej7 is a versified defence of ,unitarianism4 ,he published1 besides1 ,the ,church1 in a ,series of ,discourses 7#ahed74 ,as a preacher and pastor he urged the desirability of infant baptism4 ,he lectured frequently on international peace and opposed slavery4 ,see ,arethusa ,hall1 ,life and ,character of the ,rev4 ,sylvester ,judd 7,boston1 #aheg7 published anonymously4 ,,jude1 ,,the ,,general ,,epistle ,,of1 a book of the ,new ,testament4 ,as with the epistle of ,james1 the problems of the writing centre upon the superscription1 which addresses in ,pauline phraseology 7#a ,thess4 i4 #d2 #b ,thess4 ii4 #ac2 ,rom4 i4 #g2 #a ,cor4 #a4 #b7 the ,christian world in general in the name of ,jude1 the brother of ,james 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee2 ,mark vi4 #c74 ,the historical situation depicted must then fall within the lifetime of this ,judas1 whose two grandchildren ,zoker and ,james 7,hegesippus ap4 ,phil4 ,sidetes7 by their testimony before the authorities brought to an end the 7,palestinian7 persecution of ,domitian 7,hegesippus ap4 ,eus4 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #bj1 #g74 ,these two grandsons of ,judas thereafter lived until the time of ,trajan1 ruling the churches because they had 7thus7 been witnesses 7martyrs7 and were also relatives of the ,lord4 ,but in that case we must either reject the testimony of the same ,hegesippus that up to their death1 and that of ,symeon son of ,clopas1 successor in the ,jerusalem see of ,james the ,lord's brother1 who suffered martyrdom at the age of one hundred and twenty years while ,trajan was emperor and ,atticus governor1 the church 7universal7 had remained a pure and uncorrupted virgin free from the folly of heretical teachers2 or else we must reject the superscription1 which presents the grandfather in vehement conflict with the very heresies in question4 ,for the testimony of ,hegesippus is explicit that at the time of the arrest of ,zoker and ,james they were all who survived of the kindred of the ,lord4 ,true1 there is confusion in the narrative of ,hegesippus1 and even a probability that the martyrdom of ,symeon dated under ,trajan really took place in the persecution of ,domitian1 before the arrest of the grandsons of ,jude1 for apart from the alleged age of ,symeon 7the traditional ,jewish limit of human life1 ,gen4 vi4 #c1 ,deut4 xxxiv4 #g71 the cause of his apprehension on the ground that he was a descendant of ,david and a ,christian 7,hegesippus ap4 ,eus4 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #cb1 #c7 is inconsistent with both the previous statements regarding the martyrdom of ,zoker and ,james1 that they were cited as the only surviving ,christian ,davididae1 and that the persecution on this ground collapsed through the manifest absurdity of the accusation4 ,but even if we date the rise of heresies in the reign of ,domitian instead of ,trajan1#a the attributing of this epistle against corrupting heresy to ,jude the brother of ,james will still be incompatible with the statements of ,hegesippus1 our only informant regarding his later history4 ,the ,greek of ,jude is also such as to exclude the idea of authorship in ,palestine by an unschooled ,galilean1 at an early date in church history4 ,as ,f4 ,h4 ,chase has pointed out3 7#a7 the terms ,greek3 kltoi1 stria1 pistis1 have attained their later technical sense2 7#b7 the writer is steeped in the language of the ,,lxx41 employing its phraseology independently of other ,n4,t4 writers1 and not that of the canonical books alone1 but of the broader non-,palestinian canon2 7#c7 he has at his command a large stock of stately1 sonorous1 sometimes poetical words1 proving him a man of some culture1 and1 as it would seem1 not without acquaintance with ,greek writers4 ,if the superscription be not from the hand of the actual brother of ,jesus1 the question may well be asked why some apostolic name was not chosen which might convey greater authority8 ,the answer is to be found in the direction toward which the principal defenders of orthodoxy in #ajj-aej turned for the deposit of the faith 7,jude #c7 in its purity4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles point to the pattern of sound words1 even the sayings of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 7#a ,tim4 vi4 #c1 c471 as the arsenal of orthodoxy against the same foe 7with #a ,tim4 vi4 #c-aj2 cf4 ,jude #d1 #aa1 #af1 #ah seq474 ,ignatius's motto is to be inseparable from ,jesus ,christ and from your bishop 7ad ,trall4 vii471 ,polycarp's1 to turn unto the word delivered unto us from the beginning 7cf4 ,jude #c2 #a ,john ii4 #g1 iii4 #bc1 iv4 #ba71 the oracles of the ,lord1 which the false teachers pervert to their own lusts4 ,papias1 his ,greek3 hetairos 7,irenaeus71 turns in fact from the vain talk of the many1 and from the alien commandments to such as were delivered by the ,lord to the faith1 offering to the ,christian world his ,interpretation of the ,lord's ,oracles based upon personal inquiry from those who came his way1 who could testify as to apostolic tradition4 ,hegesippus1 after a journey to all the principal seats of ,christian tradition1 testifies that all are holding to the true doctrine as transmitted at the original seat1 where it was witnessed first by the apostles and afterwards by the kindred of the ,lord and witnesses of the first generation4 ,all these writers in one form or other revert to the historic tradition against the licence of innovators4 ,hegesippus indicates plainly the seat of its authority4 ,for the period before the adoption of a written standard the resort was not so much to apostles as to disciples and witnesses4 ,the appeal was to those who from the beginning had been eyewitnesses and ministers of the word 7,luke i4 #b72 and these were to be found primarily 7until the complete destruction of that church during the revolt of ,barcochebas and its suppression by ,hadrian7 in the mother community in ,jerusalem 7cf4 ,acts xv4 #b74 ,its life is the measure of the period of oral tradition1 whose requiem is sung by ,papias4 ,hegesippus 7ap4 ,eus4 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #cb1 #g seq47 looks back to it as the safe guardian of the deposit of the faith against all the depredations of heresy which when the sacred college of apostles had suffered death in various forms1 and the generation of those that had been deemed worthy to hear the inspired wisdom with their own ears had passed away 444 attempted thenceforth with a bold face1 to proclaim1 in opposition to the preaching of the truth1 'the knowledge which is falsely so-called 7,greek3 pseudnymos gnsis74' ,for an appeal like that of our epistle to the authority of the past against the moral laxity and antinomian teaching of degenerate ,pauline churches in the ,greek world1 the natural resort after ,paul himself 7,pastoral ,epp47 would be the kindred of the ,lord who were the leaders and witnesses in every church in ,palestine4 ,doubtless the framer of ,jude #a would have preferred the aegis of ,james the ,lord's brother1 if this1 like that of ,paul1 had not been already appropriated4 ,failing this1 the next most imposing was ,judas1 the brother of ,james4 ,the superscription in the case of ,jude1 unlike that of ,james1 takes hold of the substance of the book4 ,verse #c and the farewell 7v4 #bd seq47 show that ,jude was composed from the start as an epistle4 ,if this appearance be not fallacious1 the obvious relation between the two superscriptions will be best explained by the supposition that the author of ,jude gave currency to the existing homily 7,james7 before composing under the pseudonym of ,jude4 ,on the interconnexion of the two see ,sieffert1 s4v4 ,judasbrief in ,hauck1 ,realencykl4 vol4 ix4 ,judas is conceived as cherishing the intention of discussing for the benefit of the ,christian world 7for no mere local church is addressed7 the subject of our common salvation 7the much desiderated authoritative definition of the orthodox faith71 but diverted from this purpose by the growth of heresy4 ,few writings of this compass afford more copious evidence of date in their literary affinities4 ,the references to ,enoch 7principally ver4 #ad seq4 ,eth4 ,en4 i4 #i1 but cf4 ,f4 ,h4 ,chase1 s4v4 ,jude in ,hastings's ,dict4 ,bible7 and the ,assumption of ,moses 7v4 #i7 have more a geographical than a chronological bearing1 the stricter canon of ,palestine excluding these apocryphal books of #ij ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #dj2 but the ,pauline writings are freely employed1 especially #a ,cor4 x4 #a-ac1 ,rom4 xvi4 #be seq41 and probably ,eph4 and ,col4 ,moreover1 the author explicitly refers to the apostolic age as already past1 and to the fulfilment of the ,pauline prediction 7#a ,tim4 iv4 #a sqq47 of the advent of heresy 7v4 #ag seq474 ,the ,pauline doctrine of grace has been perverted to lasciviousness1 as by the heretics whom ,polycarp opposes 7,ep4 ,polyc4 vii471 and this doctrine is taught for hire 7vv4 #aa1 #ab1 #af2 cf4 #a ,tim4 vi4 #e74 ,the unworthy shepherds 7v4 #ab2 cf4 ,ezek4 xxxiv4 #h2 ,john x4 #ab seq47 live at the expense of their flocks1 polluting the love-feasts1 corrupting the true disciples4 ,according to ,clement of ,alexandria this was written prophetically to apply to the ,carpocratians1 an antinomian ,gnostic sect of c4 #aej2 but hyper-,paulinists had given occasion to similar complaints already in ,rev4 ii4 #ad1 #bj 7#ie74 ,thus ,paulinism and its perversion alike are in the past4 ,as regards the undeniable contact of ,didache ii4 #g with ,jude #bb seq4 7cf4 ,didache1 iv4 #a1 ,jude #h7 priority cannot be determined2 and the use of #a ,john iii4 #ab in ,jude #aa is doubtful4 ,on the other hand1 practically the whole of ,jude is taken up into #b ,pet41 the author merely avoiding1 so far as he discovers them1 the quotations from apocryphal writings1 and prefixing and affixing sections of his own to refute the heretical eschatology4 ,on the priority of ,jude see especially against ,spitta ,zur ,gesch4 u4 ,litt4 d4 ,urchristenthums1 ii4 #dji-daa1 ,f4 ,h4 ,chase1 loc4 cit4 p4 #hjc4 7,on #b ,pet4 see ,,peter ,,epistles ,,of47 ,unfortunately1 the date of #b ,pet4 cannot be determined as earlier than late in the second century1 so that we are thrown back upon internal evidence for the inferior limit4 ,the treatment of the heresy as the anti-,christ who precedes the last hour 7v4 #ah71 reminds us of #a ,john ii4 #ah1 but it is indicative of conditions somewhat less advanced that the heretics have not yet gone out from the church4 ,the treatment of the apostolic age as past1 and the deposit of the faith as a regula fidei 7cf4 ,ign4 ad ,trall4 ix471 the presence of antinomian ,gnosticism1 denying the doctrine of lordship and glories 7v4 #h71 with discriminations between psychic and pneumatic 7v4 #ai71 strongly oppose a date earlier than #ajj4 ,sieffert1 on account of the superscription1 would date as early as #gj-hj1 but acknowledges the hyper-,pauline affinity of the heresy1 its propagation as a doctrine1 and close relation to the ,nicolaitan of ,rev4 ii4 #ad4 ,to these phenomena he gives accordingly a correspondingly early date4 ,the nature of the heresy1 opposed1 however1 and the resort to the authority of ,jude the brother of ,james against it1 favour rather the period of ,polycarp and ,papias 7#aag-aej74 ,the history of the reception of the epistle into church canons is similar to that of ,james1 beginning with a quotation of it as the work of ,jude by ,clement of ,alexandria 7,paed4 iii4 #h71 a reference by ,tertullian 7,de cult4 fem4 i4 #c71 and a more or less hesitant endorsement by ,origen 7if one might adduce the epistle of ,jude1 ,in ,matt4 tom4 xvii4 #cj7 and by the ,muratorianum 7c4 #bjj71 which excepts ,jude and #b and #c ,john from its condemnation of apocryphal literature1 placing it on a par with the ,wisdom of ,solomon which was written by friends of his in his honour4 ,the use of apocryphal literature in ,jude itself may account for much of the critical disposition toward it of many subsequent writers4 ,eusebius classed it among the disputed books1 declaring that as with ,james not many of the ancients have mentioned it 7,h4 ,e4 ii4 #bc1 #be74 ,the ,introd4 to the ,new ,test4 by ,holtzmann1 ,jlicher1 ,weiss1 ,zahn1 ,davidson1 ,salmon1 ,bacon and the standard ,commentaries of ,meyer and ,holtzmann1 the ,international 7,bigg7 and other series1 contain discussions of authorship and date4 ,the articles s4v4 in ,hastings's ,dict4 ,bible 7,chase7 and the ,ency4 ,bib4 7,cone7 are full and scholarly4 ,in addition the ,histories of the ,apostolic ,age1 by ,hausrath1 ,weizscker1 ,mc,giffert1 ,bartlet1 ,ropes and others1 and the kindred works of ,baur1 ,schwegler and ,pfleiderer should be consulted4 ,moffat's ,historical ,new ,testament1 #bnd ed41 p4 #ehi1 contains a convenient summary of the evidence with copious bibliography4 ,one of the most thorough of conservative treatments is the ,commentary on ,jude and ,second ,peter by ,j4 ,b4 ,mayor 7#aijg74 7,b4 ,w4 ,b47 ,,footnote3 #a ,on this point 7date of the outbreak of heresy7 there is some inconsistency in the reported fragments of ,hegesippus4 ,in that quoted below from ,eus4 ,h4 ,e4 iii4 #cb4 #g seq41 it is expressly dated after the martyrdom of ,symeon and death of the grandsons of ,jude under ,trajan4 ,in iii4 #ai the ancient tradition attributing the denunciation of these to some of the heretics is perhaps not from ,hegesippus2 but in iv4 #bb the beginning of heresy is traced to a certain ,thebuthis1 a candidate for the bishopric after the death of ,james1 as rival to ,symeon4 ,the same figure of the church as a pure virgin is also used as in iii4 #cb4 ,but as it is only the envious feeling of ,thebuthis which is traced to this early date1 ,hegesippus doubtless means to place the outbreak later4 ,,judge 7,lat4 judex1 ,fr4 juge71 in the widest legal sense an officer appointed by the sovereign power in a state to administer the law2 in ,english practice1 however1 justices of the peace and magistrates are not usually regarded as judges in the titular sense4 ,the duties of the judge1 whether in a civil or a criminal matter1 are to hear the statements on both sides in open court1 to arrive at a conclusion as to the truth of the facts submitted to him or1 when a jury is engaged1 to direct the jury to find such a conclusion1 to apply to the facts so found the appropriate rules of law1 and to certify by his judgment the relief to which the parties are entitled or the obligations or penalties which they have incurred4 ,with the judgment the office of the judge is at an end1 but the judgment sets in motion the executive forces of the state1 whose duty it is to carry it into execution4 ,such is the type of a judicial officer recognized by mature systems of law1 but it is not to be accepted as the universal type1 and the following qualifying circumstances should be noticed3 7#a7 in primitive systems of law the judicial is not separated from the legislative and other governing functions2 7#b7 although the judge is assumed to take the law from the legislative authority1 yet1 as the existing law never at any time contains provision for all cases1 the judge may be obliged to invent or create principles applicable to the case--this is called by ,bentham and the ,english jurists judge-made and judiciary law2 7#c7 the separation of the function of judge and jury1 and the exclusive charge of questions of law given to the judge1 are more particularly characteristic of the ,english judicial system4 ,during a considerable period in the history of ,roman law an entirely different distribution of parts was observed4 ,the adjudication of a case was divided between the magistratus and the judex1 neither of whom corresponds to the ,english judge4 ,the former was a public officer charged with the execution of the law2 the latter was an arbitrator whom the magistrates commissioned to hear and report upon a particular case4 ,the following are points more specially characteristic of the ,english system and its kindred judicial systems3 7#a7 ,judges are absolutely protected from action for anything that they may do in the discharge of their judicial duties4 ,this is true in the fullest sense of judges of the supreme courts4 ,it is a principle of ,english law that no action will lie against a judge of one of the superior courts for a judicial act1 though it be alleged to have been done maliciously and corruptly4 ,other judicial officers are also protected1 though not to the same extent1 against actions4 7#b7 ,the highest class of judges are irremovable except by what is in effect a special act of parliament1 viz4 a resolution passed by both houses and assented to by the sovereign4 ,the inferior judges and magistrates are removable for misconduct by the lord chancellor4 7#c7 ,the judiciary in ,england is not a separate profession4 ,the judges are chosen from the class of advocates1 and almost entirely according to their eminence at the bar4 7#d7 ,judges are in ,england appointed for the most part by the crown4 ,in a few cases municipal corporations may appoint their own judicial officer4 ,see also ,,lord ,,high ,,chancellor2 ,,lord ,,chief ,,justice2 ,,master ,,of ,,the ,,rolls1 c41 c41 and the accounts of judicial systems under country headings4 ,,judge-,,advocate-,,general1 an officer appointed in ,england to assist the ,crown with advice in matters relating to military law1 and more particularly as to courts-martial4 ,in the army the administration of justice as pertaining to discipline is carried out in accordance with the provisions of military law1 and it is the function of the judge-advocate-general to ensure that these disciplinary powers are exercised in strict conformity with that law4 ,down to #agic the judge-advocate-general acted as secretary and legal adviser to the board of general officers1 but on the reconstitution of the office of commander-in-chief in that year he ceased to perform secretarial duties1 but remained chief legal adviser4 ,he retained his seat in parliament and in #ahjf he was made a member of the government and a privy councillor4 ,the office ceased to be political in #ahib1 on the recommendation of the select committee of #ahhh on army estimates1 and was conferred on ,sir ,f4 ,jeune 7afterwards ,lord ,st ,helier74 ,there was no salary attached to the office when held by ,lord ,st ,helier1 and the duties were for the most part performed by deputy4 ,on his death in #aije1 ,thomas ,milvain1 ,k4,c41 was appointed1 and the terms and conditions of the post were rearranged as follows3 7#a7 ,a salary of #bjjj a year2 7#b7 the holder to devote his whole time to the duties of the post2 7#c7 the retention of the post until the age of seventy1 subject to continued efficiency--but with claim to gratuity or pension on retirement4 ,the holder was to be subordinate to the secretary of state for war1 without direct access to the sovereign4 ,the appointment is conferred by letters-patent1 which define the exact functions attaching to the office1 which practically are the reviewing of the proceedings of all field-general1 general and district courts-martial held in the ,united ,kingdom1 and advising the sovereign as to the confirmation of the finding and sentence4 ,the deputy judge-advocate is a salaried official in the department of the judge-advocate-general and acts under his letters-patent4 ,a separate judge-advocate-general's department is maintained in ,india1 where at one time deputy judge-advocates were attached to every important command4 ,all general courts-martial held in the ,united ,kingdom are sent to the judge-advocate-general1 to be by him submitted to the sovereign for confirmation2 and all district courts-martial1 after having been confirmed and promulgated1 are sent to his office for examination and custody4 ,the judge-advocate-general and his deputy1 being judges in the last resort of the validity of the proceedings of courts-martial1 take no part in their conduct2 but the deputy judge-advocates frame and revise charges and attend at courts-martial1 swear the court1 advise both sides on law1 look after the interests of the prisoner and record the proceedings4 ,in the ,english navy there is an official whose functions are somewhat similar to those of the judge-advocate-general4 ,he is called counsel and judge-advocate of the fleet4 ,in the ,united ,states there is also a judge-advocate-general's department4 ,in addition to being a bureau of military justice1 and keeping the records of courts-martial1 courts of inquiry and military commissions1 it has the custody of all papers relating to the title of lands under the control of the war department4 ,the officers of the department1 in addition to acting as prosecutors in all military trials1 sometimes represent the government when cases affecting the army come up in civil courts4 ,see further ,,military ,,law1 and consult ,c4 ,m4 ,clode1 ,administration of ,justice under ,military and ,martial ,law 7#ahgb72 ,military ,forces of the ,crown 7#b vols41 #ahfi74 ,,judges1 ,,the ,,book ,,of1 in the ,bible4 ,this book of the ,old ,testament1 which1 as we now read it1 constitutes a sequel to the book of ,joshua1 covering the period of history between the death of this conqueror and the birth of ,samuel1 is so called because it contains the history of the ,israelites before the establishment of the monarchy1 when the government was in the hands of certain leaders who appear to have formed a continuous succession1 although the office was not hereditary4 ,the only other biblical source ascribed to this period is ,ruth1 whose present position as an appendix to ,judges is not original 7see ,,bible and ,,ruth74 ,structure4--,it is now generally agreed that the present adjustment of the older historical books of the ,old ,testament to form a continuous record of events from the creation to the ,babylonian exile is due to an editor1 or rather to successive redactors1 who pieced together and reduced to a certain unity older memoirs of very different dates2 and closer examination shows that the continuity of many parts of the narrative is more apparent than real4 ,this is very clearly the case in the book of ,judges4 ,it consists of three main portions3 7#a7 an introduction1 presenting one view of the occupation of ,palestine by the ,israelites 7i4 #a-;ii4 #e72 7#b7 the history of the several judges 7ii4 #f-xvi472 and 7#c7 an appendix containing two narratives of the period4 #a4 ,the first section relates events which are said to have taken place after the death of ,joshua1 but in reality it covers the same ground with the book of ,joshua1 giving a brief account of the occupation of ,canaan1 which in some particulars repeats the statements of the previous book1 while in others it is quite independent 7see ,,joshua74 ,it is impossible to regard the warlike expeditions described in this section as supplementary campaigns undertaken after ,joshua's death2 they are plainly represented as the first efforts of the ,israelites to gain a firm footing in the land 7at ,hebron1 ,debir1 ,bethel71 in the very cities which ,joshua is related to have subdued 7,josh4 x4 #ci74a ,here then we have an account of the settlement of ,israel west of the ,jordan which is parallel to the book of ,joshua1 but makes no mention of ,joshua himself1 and places the tribe of ,judah in the front4 ,the author of the chapter cannot have had ,joshua or his history in his eye at all1 and the words and it came to pass after the death of ,joshua in ,judg4 i4 #a are from the hand of the last editor1 who desired to make the whole book of ,judges1 including ch4 i41 read continuously with that which now precedes it in the canon of the earlier prophets4#b #b4 ,the second and main section 7ii4 #f-xvi47 stands on quite another footing4 ,according to ,josh4 xxiv4 #ca the people served ,yahweh during the lifetime of the great conqueror and his contemporaries4 ,in ,judg4 ii4 #g this statement is repeated1 and the writer proceeds to explain that subsequent generations fell away from the faith1 and served the gods of the nations among which they dwelt 7ii4 #f-;iii4 #f74 ,the worship of other gods is represented1 not as something which went on side by side with ,yahweh-worship 7cf4 x4 #f71 but as a revolt against ,yahweh1 periodically repeated and regularly chastised by foreign invasion4 ,the history1 therefore1 falls into recurring cycles1 each of which begins with religious corruption1 followed by chastisement1 which continues until ,yahweh1 in answer to the groans of his oppressed people1 raises up a judge to deliver ,israel1 and recall them to the true faith4 ,on the death of the judge1 if not sooner1 the corruption spreads anew and the same vicissitudes follow4 ,this religious explanation of the course of the history1 formally expounded at the outset and repeated in more or less detail from chapter to chapter 7especially vi4 #a-aj1 x4 #f-ah71 determines the form of the whole narrative4 ,it is in general agreement with the spirit as also with the language of ,deuteronomy1 and on this account this section may be conveniently called the ,deuteronomic ,book of ,judges4 ,but the main religious ideas are not so late and are rather akin to those of ,josh4 xxiv2 in particular the worship of the high places is not condemned1 nor is it excused as in #a ,kings iii4 #b4 ,the sources of the narrative are obviously older than the theological exposition of its lessons1 and herein lies the value and interest of ,judges4 ,the importance of such documents for the scientific historian lies not so much in the events they record as in the unconscious witness they bear to the state of society in which the narrator or poet lived4 ,from this point of view the parts of the book are by no means all of equal value2 critical analysis shows that often parallel or distinct narratives have been fused together1 and that1 whilst the older stories gave more prominence to ordinary human motives and combinations1 the later are coloured by religious reflection and show the characteristic tendency of the ,old ,testament to re-tell the fortunes of ,israel in a form that lays ever-increasing weight on the work of ,yahweh for his people4 ,that the pre-,deuteronomic sources are to be identified with the ,judaean 7,j1 or ,yahwist7 and ,ephraimite 7,e1 or ,elohist7 strands of the ,hexateuch is1 however1 not certain4 ,to the unity of religious pragmatism in the main stock of the book of ,judges corresponds a unity of chronological scheme4 ,the judges1 in spite of the fact that most of them had clearly no more than a local influence1 are all represented as successive rulers in ,israel1 and the history is dated by the years of each judgeship and those of the intervening periods of oppression4 ,but it is impossible to reconcile the numbers with the statement elsewhere that the fourth year of ,solomon was the #dhjth from the exodus 7#a ,kings vi4 #a74 ,see ,,bible3 ,chronology4 ,the general introduction 7ii4 #f-;iii4 #f7 is a blend of ,deuteronomic and other sources4 ,the intimate relation between it and the separate narratives 7,josh4 xxiv4 #a-bg1 a late ,ephraimite record inserted by a second ,deuteronomic hand1 and xxiii41 ,d7 appears both from their contents and from the fact that ,judg4 ii4 #f-aj is almost identical with the narrative appended to ,joshua's address 7,joshua xxiv4 #bh-ca74 ,judg4 i4-ii4 #e1 however1 is not touched by ,d1 and hence was probably inserted in its present position at a later date4 ,according to the highly intricate introduction the ,hebrews were oppressed3 7a7 to familiarize them with warfare--it is assumed that they had intermarried with the ,canaanites and worshipped their gods 7iii4 #b1 #f72 7b7 to test their loyalty to ,yahweh 7ii4 #bb2 iii4 #a72 or 7c7 to punish them for their marriage with the heathen and their apostasy 7,d in ii4 #ab2 cf4 ,josh4 xxiii41 and ibid4 v4 #ab74 ,to this succeeds a noteworthy example of the ,deuteronomic treatment of tradition in the achievement of ,othniel 7q4v47 the only ,judaean judge4 ,the bareness of detail1 not to speak of the improbability of the situation1 renders its genuineness doubtful1 and the passage is one of the indications of a secondary ,deuteronomic redaction4 ,the case1 however1 is exceptional2 the stories of the other great judges were not rewritten or to any great extent revised by the ,deuteronomic redactor1 and his hand appears chiefly in the framework4#c ,thus1 in the story of ,ehud and the defeat of ,moab only iii4 #ab-ae1 #bi-cj are ,deuteronomic4 ,but the rest is not homogeneous1 vv4 #ai and #bj appear to be variants1 and the mention of ,israel 7v4 #bg;b7 is characteristic of the tendency to treat local troubles as national oppressions1 whereas other records represent little national unity at this period 7i41 v474 ,see further ,,ehud4 ,according to the ,septuagint addition to ,josh4 xxiv4 #cc1 ,moab was the first of ,israel's oppressors4 ,the brief notice of ,shamgar1 who delivered ,israel from the ,philistines 7iii4 #ca71 is one of the later insertions1 and in some ,,mss4 of the ,,lxx4 it stands after xvi4 #ca4 ,the story of the defeat of ,sisera appears in two distinct forms1 an earlier1 in poetical form 7v471 and a later1 in prose 7iv474 ,d's framework is to be recognized in iv4 #a-d1 #bc seq41 v4 #a 7probably71 #ca 7last clause72 see further ,,deborah4 ,the ,midianite oppression 7vi4-viii47 is contained in the usual frame 7vi4 #a-f2 viii4 #bg seq471 but is not homogeneous1 since viii4 #d1 the pursuit of the kings1 cannot be the sequel of viii4 #c 7where they have been slain71 and viii4 #cc-ce ignores ix4 ,the structure of vi4 #a-viii4 #c is particularly intricate3 vi4 #be-cb does not continue vi4 #aa-bd 7there are two accounts of ,gideon's introduction and divergent representations of ,yahweh-worship72 vi4 #cd forms the sequel of the latter1 and vi4 #cf-dj 7with ,god7 is strange after the description of the miracle in vv4 #ba seq4 7with ,yahweh74 ,further1 there are difficulties in vi4 #cd1 vii4 #bc seq41 viii4 #a1 when compared with vii4 #b-h1 and in vii4 #af-bb two stratagems are combined4 ,there are two sequels3 vii4 #bc seq4 and viii4 #d2 with the former contrast vi4 #ce2 with viii4 #a-c cf4 xii4 #a-f1 and see below4 ,chapter viii4 #bb seq4 comes unexpectedly1 and the refusal of the offer of the kingship reflects later ideas 7cf4 #a ,sam4 viii4 #g2 x4 #ai2 xii4 #ab1 #ag74 ,the conclusion1 however1 shows that ,jerubbaal had only a local reputation4 ,finally1 the condemnation of the ephod as part of the worship of ,yahweh 7viii4 #bg7 agrees with the thought in vi4 #be-cb as against that in vi4 #aa-bd4 7,see ,,ephod2 ,,gideon47 ,chapter ix4 7see ,,abimelech7 appears to have been wanting in the ,deuteronomic book of ,judges1 but inserted later perhaps by means of the introduction1 viii4 #cj-cb 7post-exilic74 ,it has two accounts of the attack upon ,shechem 7lx4 #bf-da and #db-di74 ,after a brief notice of two minor judges 7see below71 follows the story of ,jephthah4 ,it concludes with the usual ,deuteronomic formula 7xii4 #g71 but is prefaced by a detailed introduction to the oppression of ,israel 7x4 #f sqq474 ,by the inclusion of the ,philistines among the oppressors1 and of ,judah1 ,benjamin and ,ephraim among the oppressed 7x4 #g1 #i71 it appears to have in view not merely the story of ,samson1 a hero of local interest1 but the early chapters in #a ,samuel4 ,this introduction is of composite origin 7as also ii4 #f-ba2 ,josh4 xxiii4-xxiv4 #be71 but a satisfactory analysis seems impossible4 ,as it stands1 it has literary connexions with the late narrative in #a ,sam4 7vii4 seq41 xii471 and appears to form the preface to that period of history which ended with ,samuel's great victory and the institution of the monarchy4 ,but this belongs to a later scheme 7see ,,samuel71 and the introduction in its earlier form must have been the prelude to earlier narratives4#d ,the story of ,jephthah's fight with ,ammon is linked to the preceding introduction by x4 #ag seq42 for the framework see x4 #f 7above71 xii4 #g4 ,chapter xi4 #ab-bh 7cf4 ,num4 xx4 seq47 is applicable only to ,moab1 vv4 #bi and #cb are variants1 and ,jephthah's home is placed variously in ,tob4 7xi4 #c7 and ,mizpeh 7v4 #cd74 ,in xi4 #a-aj the outlaw stipulates that he shall be chief of ,gilead if successful1 but in vv4 #ab-bh a ruler speaks on behalf of ,israel4 ,both ,moab and ,ammon had good reason to be hostile to ,gilead 7,num4 xxi471 but the scene of the victory points rather to the former 7v4 #cc1 possibly conflate74 ,there is a general resemblance between the victories of ,gideon and ,jephthah1 which is emphasized by the close relation between viii4 #a-c and xii4 #a-f1 the explanation of which in its present context is difficult4 ,see further ,,jephthah4 ,the old stories of ,samson the ,danite have been scarcely touched by the redaction 7xiii4 #a2 xv4 #bj2 xvi4 #ca;b1 where he is a judge72 only xiii4 appears to be rather later 7v4 #e represents him as a forerunner of ,samuel and ,saul71 and gives a rather different impression of the hero of the folk-tales4 ,the cycle illustrates some interesting customs and is in every way valuable as a specimen of popular narrative4 ,see ,,samson4 ,grouped among these narratives are the five so-called minor judges 7x4 #a-e2 xii4 #h-ae74 ,by the addition of ,shamgar 7iii4 #ca7 the number is made to agree with the six more important names4 ,they are not represented as having any immediate religious importance2 they really lie outside of the chronological scheme1 and their history is plainly not related from such lively and detailed reminiscence as gives charm to the longer episodes of the book4 ,the notices are drawn up in set phraseology1 and some of the names1 in harmony with a characteristic feature of early ,hebrew history1 are those of personified families of communities rather than of families4#e #c4 ,the third and last section of the book embraces chapters xvii4-xxi41 and consists of two narratives independent of one another and of the main stock of the book1 with which they are not brought into any chronological connexion4 ,they appear to owe their position to the latest redactor 7akin to the latest stratum in the ,hexateuch7 who has heavily worked over xix-xxi41 and put the book into its present form by the addition of i4-ii4 #e1 ix4 and possibly of v4#f ,the first narrative1 that of ,micah and the ,danites1 is of the highest interest both as a record of the state of religion and for the picture it gives of the way in which one clan passed from the condition of an invading band into settled possession of land and city4 ,its interest 7xvii4 seq47 lies in the foundation of the ,ephraimite sanctuary by ,micah as also in that of ,dan4 ,there are some repetitions in the account1 but there is not enough evidence to restore two complete stories4 ,the history of the ,levite and the ,benjamites is of quite another character1 and presupposes a degree of unity of feeling and action among the tribes of ,israel which it is not easy to reconcile with the rest of the book4 ,in its present form this episode appears to be not very ancient2 it resembles ,ruth in giving a good deal of curious archaeological detail 7the feast at ,shiloh7 in a form which suggests that the usages referred to were already obsolete when the narrative was composed4 ,it appears to consist of an old story which has been heavily revised to form an edifying piece of exposition4 ,the older parts are preserved in xix43 the account of the ,levite of ,mt ,ephraim whose concubine from ,bethlehem in ,judah was outraged1 not by the non-,israelite ,jebusites of ,jerusalem1 but by the ,benjamites of ,gibeah2 there are traces of another source in vv4 #f-h1 #aj1 #ac1 #ae4 ,the older portions of xx4 seq4 include3 the vengeance taken by ,israel 7e4g4 xx4 #c-h1 #ad1 #ai1 #bi1 #cf-da1 #dg71 and the reconstruction of the tribe by intermarriage with the women of ,shiloh 7xxi4 #a1 #ae1 #ag-ai1 #ba-bc74 ,the post-exilic expansions 7found chiefly in xx41 xxi4 #b-ad1 #af1 #bd seq47 describe the punishment of ,benjamin by the religious assembly and the massacre of ,jabesh-,gilead for its refusal to join ,israel1 four hundred virgins of the ,gileadites being saved for ,benjamin4 ,how much old tradition underlies these stories is questionable4 ,it is very doubtful whether ,hosea's allusion to the depravity of ,gibeah 7ix4 #i2 x4 #i7 is to be referred hither1 but it is noteworthy that whilst ,gibeah and ,jabesh-,gilead1 which appear here in a bad light1 are known to be associated with ,saul1 the sufferer is a ,levite of ,bethlehem1 the traditional home of ,david4 ,the account of the great fight in xx4 is reminiscent of ,joshua's battle at ,ai 7,josh4 vii4-viii474 ,historical ,value4--,the book of ,judges consists of a number of narratives collected by ,deuteronomic editors2 to the same circles are due accounts of the invasions of ,palestine and settlement in ,joshua1 and of the foundation of the monarchy in #a ,samuel4 ,the connexion has been broken by the later insertion of matter 7not necessarily of late date itself71 and the whole was finally formed into a distinct book by a post-exilic hand4 ,the dates of the older stories preserved in ii4 #f-xvi4 #f are quite unknown4 ,if they are trustworthy for the period to which they are relegated 7approximately #adth-#abth cent4 ,b4,c47 they are presumably of very great antiquity1 but if they belong to the sources ,j and ,e of the ,hexateuch 7at least some four or five centuries later7 their value is seriously weakened4 ,on the other hand1 the belief that the monarchy had been preceded by national judges may have led to the formation of the collection4 ,it is evident that there was more than one period in ,israelite history in which one or other of these stories of local heroes would be equally suitable4 ,they reflect tribal rivalry and jealousy 7cf4 ,isa4 ix4 #ba1 and the successors of ,jeroboam #b71 attacks by nomads and wars with ,ammon and ,moab2 conflicts between newly settled ,israelites and indigenous ,canaanites have been suspected in the story of ,abimelech1 and it is not impossible that the post-,deuteronomic writer who inserted ch4 ix4 so understood the record4 ,a striking exception to the lack of unity among the tribes is afforded by the account of the defeat of ,sisera1 and here the old poem represents a combined effort to throw off the yoke of a foreign oppressor1 while the later prose version approximates the standpoint of ,josh4 xi4 #a-ae1 with its defeat of the ,canaanites4 ,the general standpoint of the stories 7esp4 ,judg4 v47 is that of central ,palestine2 the exceptions are ,othniel and ,samson--the latter interrupting the introduction in x41 and its sequel1 the former now entirely due to the ,deuteronomic editor4 ,of the narratives which precede and follow1 ch4 i4 represents central ,palestine separated by ,canaanite cities from tribes to the south and north2 it is the situation recognized in ,judg4 xix4 #aj-ab1 as well as in passages imbedded in the latest portions of the book of ,joshua1 though it is in contradiction to the older traditions of ,joshua himself4 ,chapters xvii4 seq4 7like the preceding story of ,samson7 deal with ,danites1 but the migration can hardly be earlier than ,david's time2 and xix4-xxi41 by describing the extermination of ,benjamin1 form a link between the presence of the tribe in the late narratives of the exodus and its new prominence in the traditions of ,saul 7q4v474 ,as an historical source1 therefore1 the value of ,judges will depend largely upon the question whether the ,deuteronomic editor 7about #fjj ,b4,c4 at the earliest7 would have access to trustworthy documents relating to a period some six or seven centuries previously4 ,see further ,,jews1 #f1 #h2 and ,,samuel1 ,,books ,,of4 ,,literature4--,biblical scholars are in agreement regarding the preliminary literary questions of the book1 but there is divergence of opinion on points of detail1 and on the precise growth of the book 7e4g4 the twofold ,deuteronomic redaction74 ,see further ,w4 ,r4 ,smith1 ,ency4 ,brit4 #ith ed4 7upon which the present article is based72 ,g4 ,f4 ,moore1 ,international ,critical ,comm4 7#ahie72 ,ency4 ,bib41 art4 ,judges2 ,k4 ,budde1 ,kurzer ,handcommentar 7#ahig72 ,lagrange1 ,livres des juges 7#aijc72 ,g4 ,w4 ,thatcher 7,century ,bible72 also ,s4 ,r4 ,driver1 ,lit4 of ,old ,testament 7#aiji72 ,moore1 in the ,sacred ,books of ,old ,testament 7#ahih72 ,c4 ,f4 ,kent1 ,the ,student's ,old ,testament1 vol4 i4 7#aijd74 7,s4 ,a4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is confirmed by the circumstance that in ,judg4 ii4 #a the angel of ,yahweh1 who1 according to ,exod4 xiv4 #bd1 xxiii4 #bj1 xxxii4 #cd1 xxxiii4 #b1 #g seq41 must be viewed as having his local manifestation at the headquarters of the host of ,israel1 is still found at ,gilgal and not at ,shiloh4 #b ,the chapter was written after ,israel had become strong enough to make the ,canaanite cities tributary 7v4 #bh71 that is1 after the establishment of the monarchy 7see #a ,kings ix4 #bj-ba74 #c ,hence1 it is to be inferred that the reviser had older written records before him4 ,had these been in the oral stage he would scarcely incorporate traditions which did not agree with his views2 at all events they would hardly have been written down by him in the form in which they have survived4 ,the narratives of the monarchy which are preserved only in ,chronicles1 on the other hand1 illustrate the manner in which tradition was reshaped and rewritten under the influence of a later religious standpoint4 #d ,it may be conjectured that the introduction originally formed the prelude to the rise of ,saul3 the intervening narratives1 though not necessarily of late origin themselves1 having been subsequently inserted4 ,see ,s4 ,a4 ,cook1 ,crit4 ,notes ,o4 ,t4 ,hist41 p4 #abg seq4 #e ,tola and ,puah 7x4 #a7 are clans of ,issachar 7,gen4 xlvi4 #ac71 for ,jair 7v4 #c71 see ,num4 xxxii4 #da1 and for ,elon 7xii4 #aa71 see ,gen4 xlvi4 #ad4 ,see ,,genealogy3 ,biblical4 #f ,to the same post-exilic hand may also be ascribed the introduction of the minor judges 7so several critics71 and smaller additions here and there 7ch4 i4 #a opening words1 vv4 #d1 #h seq4 contrast #ba #ah2 viii4 #cj-cb3 xi4 #b1 c474 ,,judgment1 in law1 a term used to describe 7#a7 the adjudication by a court of justice upon a controversy submitted to it inter partes 7post litem contestatam7 and determining the rights of the parties and the relief to be awarded by the court as between them2 7#b7 the formal document issuing from the court in which that adjudication is expressed2 7#c7 the opinions of the judges expressed in a review of the facts and law applicable to the controversy leading up to the adjudication expressed in the formal document4 ,when the judgment has been passed and entered and recorded it binds the parties3 the controversy comes to an end 7transit in rem judicatam71 and the person in whose favour the judgment is entered is entitled to enforce it by the appropriate method of execution4 ,there has been much controversy among lawyers as to the meaning of the expressions final and interlocutory as applied to judgments1 and as to the distinction between a judgment1 a decree1 and an order4 ,these disputes arise upon the wording of statutes or rules of court and with reference to the appropriate times or modes of appeal or of execution4 ,the judgments of one country are not as a rule directly enforceable in another country4 ,in ,europe1 by treaty or arrangement1 foreign judgments are in certain cases and on compliance with certain formalities made executory in various states4 ,a similar provision is made as between ,england1 ,scotland and ,ireland1 for the registry and execution in each country of certain classes of judgments given in the others4 ,but as regards the rest of the king's dominions and foreign states1 a foreign judgment is in ,england recognized only as constituting a cause of action which may be sued upon in ,england4 ,if given by a court of competent jurisdiction it is treated as creating a legal obligation to pay the sum adjudged to be due4 ,summary judgment may be entered in an ,english action based on a foreign judgment unless the defendant can show that the foreign court had not jurisdiction over the parties or the subject matter of the action1 or that there was fraud on the part of the foreign court or the successful party1 or that the foreign proceedings were contrary to natural justice1 e4g4 concluded without due notice to the parties affected4 ,english courts will not enforce foreign judgments as to foreign criminal or penal or revenue laws4 ,,judgment ,,debtor1 in ,english law1 a person against whom a judgment ordering him to pay a sum of money has been obtained and remains unsatisfied4 ,such a person may be examined as to whether any and what debts are owing to him1 and if the judgment debt is of the necessary amount he may be made bankrupt if he fails to comply with a bankruptcy notice served on him by the judgment creditors1 or he may be committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him in a judgment summons under the ,debtors ,act #ahfi4 ,,judgment ,,summons1 in ,english law1 a summons issued under the ,debtors ,act #ahfi1 on the application of a creditor who has obtained a judgment for the payment of a sum of money by instalments or otherwise1 where the order for payment has not been complied with4 ,the judgment summons cites the defendant to appear personally in court1 and be examined on oath as to the means he has1 or has had1 since the date of the order or judgment made against him1 to pay the same1 and to show cause why he should not be committed to prison for his default4 ,an order of commitment obtained in a judgment summons remains in force for a year only1 and the extreme term of imprisonment is six weeks1 dating from the time of lodging in prison4 ,when a debtor has once been imprisoned1 although for a period of less than six weeks1 no second order of commitment can be made against him in respect of the same debt4 ,but if the judgment be for payment by instalments a power of committal arises on default of payment for each instalment4 ,if an order of commitment has never been executed1 or becomes inoperative through lapse of time1 a fresh commitment may be made4 ,imprisonment does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment of a debt1 or deprive a person of a right of execution against the land or goods of the person imprisoned in the same manner as if there had been no imprisonment4 ,,judicature ,,acts1 an important series of ,english statutes having for their object the simplification of the system of judicature in its higher branches4 ,they are the ,supreme ,court of ,judicature ,act #ahgc 7#cf #cg ,vict4 c4 #ff7 and the ,supreme ,court of ,judicature ,act #ahge 7#ch #ci ,vict4 c4 #gg71 with various amending acts1 the twelfth of these being in #ahii4 ,by the act of #ahgc the court of chancery1 the court of queen's 7king's7 bench1 the court of common pleas1 the court of exchequer1 the high court of admiralty1 the court of probate and the court of divorce and matrimonial causes were consolidated into one ,supreme#a ,court of ,judicature 7sec4 #c71 divided into two permanent divisions1 called the high court1 with 7speaking broadly7 original jurisdiction1 and the court of appeal 7sec4 #d74 ,the objects of the act were threefold--first1 to reduce the historically independent courts of common law and equity into one supreme court2 secondly1 to establish for all divisions of the court a uniform system of pleading and procedure2 and thirdly1 to provide for the enforcement of the same rule of law in those cases where chancery and common law recognized different rules4 ,it can be seen at once how bold and revolutionary was this new enactment4 ,by one section the august king's bench1 the common pleas1 in which serjeants only had formerly the right of audience1 and the exchequer1 which had its origin in the reign of ,henry ,i41 and all their jurisdiction1 criminal1 legal and equitable1 were vested in the new court4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that law and equity were not fused in the sense in which that phrase has generally been employed4 ,the chancery division still remains distinct from the common law division1 having a certain range of legal questions under its exclusive control1 and possessing to a certain extent a peculiar machinery of its own for carrying its decrees into execution4 ,but all actions may now be brought in the high court of justice1 and1 subject to such special assignments of business as that alluded to1 may be tried in any division thereof4 ,there were originally three common law divisions of the ,high ,court corresponding with the three former courts of common law4 ,but after the death of ,lord ,chief ,baron ,kelly on the #agth of ,september #ahhj1 and of ,lord ,chief ,justice ,cockburn on the #bjth of ,november #ahhj1 the common pleas and exchequer divisions were 7by order in council1 #ajth ,december #ahhj7 consolidated with the king's bench division into one division under the presidency of the lord chief justice of ,england1 to whom1 by the #beth section of the ,judicature ,act #ahha1 all the statutory jurisdiction of the chief baron and the chief justice of the common pleas was transferred4 ,the high court1 therefore1 now consists of the chancery division1 the common law division1 under the name of the king's bench division2 and the probate1 divorce and admiralty division4 ,to the king's bench division is also attached1 by order of the lord chancellor 7,jan4 #a1 #ahhd71 the business of the ,london court of bankruptcy4 ,for a more detailed account of the composition of the various courts1 see ,,chancery2 ,,king',s ,,bench2 and ,,probate1 ,,divorce ,,and ,,admiralty ,,court4 ,the keystone of the structure created by the ,judicature ,acts was a strong court of appeal4 ,the ,house of ,lords remained the last court of appeal1 as before the acts1 but its judicial functions were virtually transferred to an appeal committee1 consisting of the lord chancellor and other peers who have held high judicial office1 and certain lords of appeal in ordinary created by the act of #ahgc 7see ,,appeal74 ,the practice and procedure of the ,supreme ,court are regulated by rules made by a committee of judges1 to which have been added the president of the incorporated law society and a practising barrister and one other person nominated by the lord chancellor4 ,the rules now in force are those of #ahhc1 with some subsequent amendments4 ,with the appendices they fill a moderate-sized volume4 ,complaints are made that they go into too much detail1 and place a burden on the time and temper of the busy practitioner which he can ill afford to bear4 ,it is possible that the authors of the rules attempted too much1 and it might have been better to provide a simpler and more elastic code of procedure4 ,rules have sometimes been made to meet individual cases of hardship1 and rules of procedure have been piled up from time to time1 sometimes embodying a new experiment1 and not always consistent with former rules4 ,the most important matter dealt with by the rules is the mode of pleading4 ,the authors of the ,judicature ,act had before them two systems of pleading1 both of which were open to criticism4 ,the common law pleadings 7it was said7 did not state the facts on which the pleader relied1 but only the legal aspect of the facts or the inferences from them1 while the chancery pleadings were lengthy1 tedious and to a large extent irrelevant and useless4 ,there was some exaggeration in both statements4 ,in pursuing the fusion of law and equity which was the dominant legal idea of law reformers of that period1 the framers of the first set of rules devised a system which they thought would meet the defects of both systems1 and be appropriate for both the common-law and the chancery divisions4 ,in a normal case1 the plaintiff delivered his statement of claim1 in which he was to set forth concisely the facts on which he relied1 and the relief which he asked4 ,the defendant then delivered his statement of defence1 in which he was to say whether he admitted or denied the plaintiff's facts 7every averment not traversed being taken to be admitted71 and any additional facts and legal defences on which he relied4 ,the plaintiff might then reply1 and the defendant rejoin1 and so on until the pleaders had exhausted themselves4 ,this system of pleading was not a bad one if accompanied by the right of either party to demur to his opponent's pleading1 i4e4 to say1 admitting all your averments of fact to be true1 you still have no cause of action1 or defence 7as the case may be74 ,it may be1 however1 that the authors of the new system were too intent on uniformity when they abolished the common-law pleading1 which1 shorn of its abuses 7as it had been by the ,common ,law ,procedure ,acts71 was an admirable instrument for defining the issue between the parties though unsuited for the more complicated cases which are tried in chancery1 and it might possibly have been better to try the new system in the first instance in the chancery division only4 ,it should be added that the rules contain provisions for actions being tried without pleadings if the defendant does not require a statement of claim1 and for the plaintiff in an action of debt obtaining immediate judgment unless the defendant gets leave to defend4 ,in the chancery division there are of course no pleadings in those matters which by the rules can be disposed of by summons in chambers instead of by ordinary suit as formerly4 ,the judges seem to have been dissatisfied with the effect of their former rules1 for in #ahhc they issued a fresh set of consolidated rules1 which1 with subsequent amendments1 are those now in force4 ,by these rules a further attempt was made to prune the exuberance of pleading4 ,concise forms of statement of claim and defence were given in the appendix for adoption by the pleader4 ,it is true that these forms do not display a high standard of excellence in draftsmanship1 and it was said that many of them were undoubtedly demurrable1 but that was not of much importance4 ,demurrers were abolished1 and instead thereof it was provided that any point of law raised by the pleadings should be disposed of at or after the trial1 provided that by consent or order of the court the same might be set down and disposed of before the trial 7,order xxv4 rules #a1 #b74 ,this1 in the opinion of ,lord ,davey in #aijb 7,ency4 ,brit41 #ajth ed41 xxx4 #adf71 was a disastrous change4 ,the right of either party to challenge his opponent in limine1 either where the question between them was purely one of law1 or where even the view of the facts taken and alleged by his opponent did not constitute a cause of action or defence1 was a most valuable one1 and tended to the curtailment of both the delay and the expense of litigation4 ,any possibility of abuse by frivolous or technical demurrers 7as undoubtedly was formerly the case7 had been met by powers of amendment and the infliction of costs4 ,many of the most important questions of law had been decided on demurrer both in common law and chancery4 ,lord ,davey considered that demurrer was a useful and satisfactory mode of trying questions in chancery 7on bill and demurrer71 and it was frequently adopted in preference to a special case1 which requires the statement of facts to be agreed to by both parties and was consequently more difficult and expensive4 ,it is obvious that a rule which makes the normal time for decision of questions at law the trial or subsequently1 and a preliminary decision the exception1 and such exception dependent on the consent of both parties or an order of the court1 is a poor substitute for a demurrer as of right1 and it has proved so in practice4 ,the editors of the ,yearly ,practice for #aija 7,muir ,mackenzie1 ,lushington and ,fox7 said 7p4 #bgb73 ,points of law raised by the pleadings are usually disposed of at the trial or on further consideration after the trial of the issues of fact1 that is to say1 after the delay1 worry and expense of a trial of disputed questions of fact which after all may turn out to be unnecessary4 ,the abolition of demurrers has also 7it is believed7 had a prejudicial effect on the standard of legal accuracy and knowledge required in practitioners4 ,formerly the pleader had the fear of a demurrer before him4 ,nowadays he need not stop to think whether his cause of action or defence will hold water or not1 and anything which is not obviously frivolous or vexatious will do by way of pleading for the purpose of the trial and for getting the opposite party into the box4 ,another change was made by the rules of #ahhc1 which was regarded by some common law lawyers as revolutionary4 ,formerly every issue of fact in a common law action1 including the amount of damage1 had to be decided by the verdict of a jury4 ,the effect of the rules of #ahhc1 said ,lord ,lindley1 who was a member of the rule committee1 was to make trial without a jury the normal mode of trial1 except where trial with a jury is ordered under rules #f or #g;a1 or may be had without an order under rule #b 7,timson v4 ,wilson1 #ch ,ch4 ,d4 #gb1 at p4 #gf74 ,the effect of the rules may be thus summarized3 7#a7 ,in the chancery division no trial by jury unless ordered by the judge4 7#b7 ,generally the judge may order trial without a jury of any cause or issue1 which before the ,judicature ,act might have been so tried without consent of parties1 or which involves prolonged investigation of documents or accounts1 or scientific or local investigation4 7#c7 ,either party has a right to a jury in actions of slander1 libel1 false imprisonment1 malicious prosecution1 seduction or breach of promise of marriage1 upon notice without order2 7#d7 or in any other action1 by order4 7#e7 ,subject as above1 actions are to be tried without a jury unless the judge1 of his own motion1 otherwise orders4 ,further steps have been taken with a view to simplification of procedure4 ,by ,order xxx4 rule #a 7as amended in #ahig71 a summons1 called a summons for directions1 has to be taken out by a plaintiff immediately after the appearance of the defendant1 and upon such summons an order is to be made respecting pleadings1 and a number of interlocutory proceedings4 ,to make such an order at that early stage would seem to demand a prescience and intelligent anticipation of future events which can hardly be expected of a master1 or even a judge in chambers1 except in simple cases1 involving a single issue of law or fact which the parties are agreed in presenting to the court4 ,the effect of the rule is that the plaintiff cannot deliver his statement of claim1 or take any step in the action without the leave of the judge4 ,in chancery cases the order usually made is that the plaintiff deliver his statement of claim1 and the rest of the summons stand over1 and the practical effect is merely to add a few pounds to the costs4 ,it may be doubted whether1 as applied to the majority of actions1 the rule does not proceed on wrong lines1 and whether it would not be better to leave the parties1 who know the exigencies of their case better even than a judge in chambers1 to proceed in their own way1 subject to stringent provisions for immediate payment of the costs occasioned by unnecessary1 vexatious1 or dilatory proceedings4 ,the order does not apply to admiralty cases or to proceedings under the order next mentioned4 ,the ,supreme ,court of ,judicature ,act 7,ireland7 #ahgg follows the same lines as the ,english acts4 ,the pre-existing courts were consolidated into a supreme court of judicature1 consisting of a high court of justice and a court of appeal4 ,the judicature acts did not affect ,scottish judicature1 but the ,appellate ,jurisdiction ,act included the court of session among the courts from which an appeal lies to the ,house of ,lords4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the comte de ,franqueville in his interesting work1 ,le ,systme judiciaire de la ,grande ,bretagne1 criticizes the use of the word supreme as a designation of this court1 inasmuch as its judgments are subject to appeal to the ,house of ,lords1 but in the act of #ahgc the appeal to the ,house of ,lords was abolished4 ,he is also severe on the illogical use of the words division and court in many different senses 7i4 #ahj-aha74 ,,judith1 ,,the ,,book ,,of1 one of the apocryphal books of the ,old ,testament4 ,it takes its name from the heroine ,judith 7,greek3 ,ioudith1 ,ioudth1 i4e4 ,hebrew3 yehudit1 ,jewess71 to whom the last nine of its sixteen chapters relate4 ,in the ,septuagint and ,vulgate it immediately precedes ,esther1 and along with ,tobit comes after ,nehemiah2 in the ,english ,apocrypha it is placed between ,tobit and the apocryphal additions to ,esther4 ,argument4--,in the twelfth year of his reign ,nebuchadrezzar1 who is described as king of ,assyria1 having his capital in ,nineveh1 makes war against ,arphaxad1 king of ,media1 and overcomes him in his seventeenth year4 ,he then despatches his chief general ,holofernes to take vengeance on the nations of the west who had withheld their assistance4 ,this expedition has already succeeded in its main objects when ,holofernes proceeds to attack ,judaea4 ,the children of ,israel1 who are described as having newly returned from captivity1 are apprehensive of a desecration of their sanctuary1 and resolve on resistance to the uttermost4 ,the inhabitants of ,bethulia 7,betylua7 and ,betomestham in particular 7neither place can be identified71 directed by ,joachim the high priest1 guard the mountain passes near ,dothaim1 and place themselves under ,god's protection4 ,holofernes now inquires of the chiefs who are with him about the ,israelites1 and is answered by ,achior the leader of the ,ammonites1 who enters upon a long historical narrative showing the ,israelites to be invincible except when they have offended ,god4 ,for this ,achior is punished by being handed over to the ,israelites1 who lead him to the governor of ,bethulia4 ,next day the siege begins1 and after forty days the famished inhabitants urge the governor ,ozias to surrender1 which he consents to do unless relieved in five days4 ,judith1 a beautiful and pious widow of the tribe of ,simeon1 now appears on the scene with a plan of deliverance4 ,wearing her rich attire1 and accompanied by her maid1 who carries a bag of provisions1 she goes over to the hostile camp1 where she is at once conducted to the general1 whose suspicions are disarmed by the tales she invents4 ,after four days ,holofernes1 smitten with her charms1 at the close of a sumptuous entertainment invites her to remain within his tent over night4 ,no sooner is he overcome with sleep than ,judith1 seizing his sword1 strikes off his head and gives it to her maid2 both now leave the camp 7as they had previously been accustomed to do1 ostensibly for prayer7 and return to ,bethulia1 where the trophy is displayed amid great rejoicings and thanksgivings4 ,achior now publicly professes ,judaism1 and at the instance of ,judith the ,israelites make a sudden victorious onslaught on the enemy4 ,judith now sings a song of praise1 and all go up to ,jerusalem to worship with sacrifice and rejoicing4 ,the book concludes with a brief notice of the closing years of the heroine4 ,versions4--,judith was written originally in ,hebrew4 ,this is shown not only by the numerous ,hebraisms1 but also by mistranslations of the ,greek translation1 as in ii4 #b1 iii4 #i1 and other passages 7see ,fritzsche and ,ball in loc471 despite the statement of ,origen 7,ep4 ad ,afric4 #ac7 that the book was not received by the ,jews among their apocryphal writings4 ,in his preface to ,judith1 ,jerome says that he based his ,latin version on the ,chaldee1 which the ,jews reckoned among their ,hagiographa4 ,ball 7,speaker's ,apocrypha1 i4 #bdc7 holds that the ,chaldee text used by ,jerome was a free translation or adaptation of the ,hebrew4 ,the book exists in two forms3 the shorter1 which is preserved only in ,hebrew 7see under ,hebrew ,midrashim below71 is1 according to ,scholz1 ,lipsius1 ,ball and ,gaster1 the older2 the longer form is that contained in the versions4 ,greek ,version4--,this is found in three recensions3 7#a7 in ,a ,b1 ,hebrew3 a2 7#b7 in codices #ai1 #ajh 7,lucian's text72 7#c7 in codex #eh1 the source of the old ,latin and ,syriac4 ,syriac and ,latin ,versions4--,two ,syriac versions were made from the ,greek--the first1 that of the ,peshito2 and the second1 that of ,paul of ,tella1 the so-called ,hexaplaric4 ,the ,old ,latin was derived from the ,greek1 as we have remarked above1 and ,jerome's from the ,old ,latin1 under the control of a ,chaldee version4 ,later ,hebrew ,midrashim4--,these are printed in ,jellinek's ,bet ha-,midrasch1 i4 #acj-aca2 ii4 #ab-bb2 and by ,gaster in ,proceedings of the ,society of ,biblical ,archology 7#ahid71 pp4 #aef-afc4 ,date4--,the book in its fuller form was most probably written in the #bnd century ,b4,c4 ,the writer places his romance two centuries earlier1 in the time of ,ochus1 as we may reasonably infer from the attack made by ,holofernes and ,bagoas on ,judaea2 for ,artaxerxes ,ochus made an expedition against ,phoenicia and ,egypt in #cej ,b4,c41 in which his chief generals were ,holofernes and ,bagoas4 ,,recent ,,literature4--,ball1 ,speaker's ,apocrypha 7#ahhh71 an excellent piece of work2 ,scholz1 ,das ,buch ,judith 7#ahif72 ,lhr1 ,apok4 und ,pseud4 7#aijj71 ii4 #adg-afd2 ,porter in ,hastings's ,dict4 ,bible1 ii4 #hbb-hbd2 ,gaster1 ,ency4 ,bib41 ii4 #bfdb-bfdf4 ,see ,ball1 pp4 #bfj-bfa1 and ,schrer in loc41 for a full bibliography4 7,r4 ,h4 ,c47 ,,judson1 ,,adoniram 7#aghh-ahej71 ,american missionary1 was born at ,malden1 ,massachusetts1 on the #ith of ,august #aghh1 the son of a ,congregational minister4 ,he graduated at ,brown ,university in #ahjg1 was successively a school teacher and an actor1 completed a course at the ,andover ,theological ,seminary in ,september #ahaj1 and was at once licensed to preach as a ,congregational clergyman4 ,in the summer of #ahaj he with several of his fellows students at ,andover had petitioned the general association of ministers to be sent to ,asiatic missionary fields4 ,this application resulted in the establishment of the ,american board of commissioners for foreign missions1 which sent ,judson to ,england to secure1 if possible1 the co-operation of the ,london ,missionary ,society4 ,his ship fell into the hands of a ,french privateer and he was for some time a prisoner in ,france1 but finally proceeded to ,london1 where his proposal was considered without anything being decided4 ,he then returned to ,america1 where he found the board ready to act independently4 ,his appointment to ,burma followed1 and in #ahab1 accompanied by his wife1 ,ann ,hasseltine ,judson 7#aghi-ahbf71 he went to ,calcutta4 ,on the voyage both became advocates of baptism by immersion1 and being thus cut off from ,congregationalism1 they began independent work4 ,in #ahad they began to receive support from the ,american ,baptist missionary union1 which had been founded with the primary object of keeping them in the field4 ,after a few months at ,madras1 they settled at ,rangoon4 ,there ,judson mastered ,burmese1 into which he translated part of the ,gospels with his wife's help4 ,in #ahbd he removed to ,ava1 where during the war between the ,east ,india ,company and ,burma he was imprisoned for almost two years4 ,after peace had been brought about 7largely1 it is said1 through his exertions7 ,mrs ,judson died4 ,in #ahbg ,judson removed his headquarters to ,maulmain1 where school buildings and a church were erected1 and where in #ahcd he married ,sarah ,hall ,boardman 7#ahjc-ahde74 ,in #ahcc he completed his translation of the ,bible2 in succeeding years he compiled a ,burmese grammar1 a ,burmese dictionary1 and a ,pali dictionary4 ,in #ahde his wife's failing health decided ,judson to return to ,america1 but she died during the voyage1 and was buried at ,st ,helena4 ,in the ,united ,states ,judson married ,emily ,chubbuck 7#ahag-ahed71 well-known as a poet and novelist under the name of ,fanny ,forrester1 who was one of the earliest advocates in ,america of the higher education of women4 ,she returned with him in #ahdf to ,burma1 where the rest of his life was devoted largely to the rewriting of his ,burmese dictionary4 ,he died at sea on the #abth of ,april #ahej1 while on his way to ,martinique1 in search of health4 ,judson was perhaps the greatest1 as he was practically the first1 of the many missionaries sent from the ,united ,states into foreign fields2 his fervour1 his devotion to duty1 and his fortitude in the face of danger mark him as the prototype of the ,american missionary4 ,the ,judson ,memorial1 an institutional church1 was erected on ,washington ,square ,south1 ,new ,york ,city1 largely through the exertions of his son1 ,rev4 ,edward ,judson 7b4 #ahdd71 who became its pastor and director1 and who prepared a life of ,dr ,judson 7#ahhc2 new ed4 #ahih74 ,another biography is by ,francis ,wayland 7#b vols41 #ahed74 ,see also ,robert ,t4 ,middleditch's ,life of ,adoniram ,judson1 ,burmah's ,great ,missionary 7,new ,york1 #ahei74 ,for the three ,mrs4 ,judsons1 see ,knowles1 ,life of ,ann ,hasseltine ,judson 7#ahbi72 ,emily ,c4 ,judson1 ,life of ,sarah ,hall ,boardman ,judson 7#ahdi72 ,asahel ,c4 ,kendrick1 ,life and ,letters of ,emily ,chubbuck ,judson 7#ahfa74 ,,juel1 ,,jens 7#afca-agjj71 ,danish statesman1 born on the #aeth of ,july #afca1 began his diplomatic career in the suite of ,count ,christian ,rantzau1 whom he accompanied to ,vienna and ,regensburg in #afeb4 ,in ,august #afeg ,juel was accredited to the court of ,poland1 and though he failed to prevent ,king ,john ,casimir from negotiating separately with ,sweden he was made a privy councillor on his return home4 ,but it was the reconciliation of ,juel's uncle ,hannibal ,sehested with ,king ,frederick ,,iii4 which secured ,juel's future4 ,as ,sehested's representative1 he concluded the peace of ,copenhagen with ,charles ,x41 and after the ,danish revolution of #affj was appointed ,danish minister at ,stockholm1 where he remained for eight years4 ,subsequently the chancellor ,griffenfeldt1 who had become warmly attached to him1 sent him in #afgb1 and again in #afgd1 as ambassador extraordinary to ,sweden1 ostensibly to bring about a closer union between the two northern kingdoms1 but really to give time to consolidate ,griffenfeldt's far-reaching system of alliances4 ,juel completely sympathized with ,griffenfeldt's ,scandinavian policy1 which aimed at weakening ,sweden sufficiently to re-establish something like an equilibrium between the two states4 ,like ,griffenfeldt1 ,juel also feared1 above all things1 a ,swedo-,danish war4 ,after the unlucky ,seaman ,war of #afge-gi1 ,juel was one of the ,danish plenipotentiaries who negotiated the peace of ,lund4 ,even then he was for an alliance with ,sweden till we can do better4 ,this policy he consistently followed1 and was largely instrumental in bringing about the marriage of ,charles ,,xi4 with ,christian ,v4's daughter ,ulrica ,leonora4 ,but for the death of the like-minded ,swedish statesman ,johan ,gyllenstjerna in ,june #afhj1 ,juel's ,scandinavian policy might have succeeded1 to the infinite advantage of both kingdoms4 ,he represented ,denmark at the coronation of ,charles ,,xii4 7,december #afig71 when he concluded a new treaty of alliance with ,sweden4 ,he died in #agjj4 ,juel1 a man of very few words and a sworn enemy of phrase-making1 was perhaps the shrewdest and most cynical diplomatist of his day4 ,his motto was3 ,we should wish for what we can get4 ,throughout life he regarded the political situation of ,denmark with absolute pessimism4 ,she was1 he often said1 the cat's-paw of the ,great ,powers4 ,while ,griffenfeldt would have obviated this danger by an elastic political system1 adaptable to all circumstances1 ,juel preferred seizing whatever he could get in favourable conjunctures4 ,in domestic affairs ,juel was an adherent of the mercantile system1 and laboured vigorously for the industrial development of ,denmark and ,norway4 ,for an aristocrat of the old school he was liberally inclined1 but only favoured petty reforms1 especially in agriculture1 while he regarded emancipation of the serfs as quite impracticable4 ,juel made no secret of his preference for absolutism1 and was one of the few patricians who accepted the title of baron4 ,he saw some military service during the ,scanian ,war1 distinguishing himself at the siege of ,venersborg1 and by his swift decision at the critical moment materially contributing to his brother ,niels's naval victory in the ,bay of ,kjge4 ,to his great honour he remained faithful to ,griffenfeldt after his fall1 enabled his daughter to marry handsomely1 and did his utmost1 though in vain1 to obtain the ex-chancellor's release from his dungeon4 ,see ,carl ,frederik ,bricka1 ,dansk biografisk lex41 art4 ,juel 7#ahhg1 c472 ,adolf ,ditlev ,jrgensen1 ,p4 ,schumacher ,griffenfeldt 7#ahic-ahid74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,juel1 ,,niels 7#afbi-afig71 ,danish admiral1 brother of the preceding1 was born on the #hth of ,may #afbi1 at ,christiania4 ,he served his naval apprenticeship under ,van ,tromp and ,de ,ruyter1 taking part in all the chief engagements of the war of #afeb-ed between ,england and ,holland4 ,during a long indisposition at ,amsterdam in #afee-afef he acquired a thorough knowledge of ship-building1 and returned to ,denmark in #afef a thoroughly equipped seaman4 ,he served with distinction during the ,swedo-,danish wars of #afeh-fj and took a prominent part in the defence of ,copenhagen against ,charles ,x4 ,during fifteen years of peace1 ,juel1 as admiral of the fleet1 laboured assiduously to develop and improve the ,danish navy1 though he bitterly resented the setting over his head in #affc of ,cort ,adelaar on his return from the ,turkish wars4 ,in #affa ,juel married ,margrethe ,ulfeldt4 ,on the outbreak of the ,scanian ,war he served at first under ,adelaar1 but on the death of the latter in ,november #afge he was appointed to the supreme command4 ,he then won a ,european reputation1 and raised ,danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence1 by the system of naval tactics1 afterwards perfected by ,nelson1 which consists in cutting off a part of the enemy's force and concentrating the whole attack on it4 ,he first employed this manoeuvre at the battle of ,jasmund off ,rgen 7,may #be1 #afgf7 when he broke through the enemy's line in close column and cut off five of their ships1 which1 however1 nightfall prevented him from pursuing4 ,juel's operations were considerably hampered at this period by the overbearing conduct of his ,dutch auxiliary1 ,philip ,almonde1 who falsely accused the ,danish admiral of cowardice4 ,a few days after the battle of ,jasmund1 ,cornelius ,van ,tromp the younger1 with #ag fresh ,danish and ,dutch ships of the line1 superseded ,juel in the supreme command4 ,juel took a leading part in ,van ,tromp's great victory off land 7,june #a1 #afgf71 which enabled the ,danes to invade ,scania unopposed4 ,on the #ast of ,june #afgg ,juel defeated the ,swedish admiral ,sjblad off ,men2 on the #cjth of ,june #afgg he won his greatest victory1 in the ,bay of ,kjge1 where1 with #be ships of the line and #abfg guns1 he routed the ,swedish admiral ,evert ,horn with #cf ships of the line and #ahjj guns4 ,for this great triumph1 the just reward of superior seamanship and strategy--at an early stage of the engagement ,juel's experienced eye told him that the wind in the course of the day would shift from ,s4,w4 to ,w4 and he took extraordinary risks accordingly--he was made lieutenant admiral general and a privy councillor4 ,this victory1 besides permanently crippling the ,swedish navy1 gave the ,danes a self-confidence which enabled them to keep their ,dutch allies in their proper place4 ,in the following year ,van ,tromp1 whose high-handedness had become unbearable1 was discharged by ,christian ,v41 who gave the supreme command to ,juel4 ,in the spring of #afgh ,juel put to sea with #hd ships carrying #bdjj cannon1 but as the ,swedes were no longer strong enough to encounter such a formidable armament on the open sea1 his operations were limited to blockading the ,swedish ports and transporting troops to ,rgen4 ,after the peace of ,lund ,juel showed himself an administrator and reformer of the first order1 and under his energetic supervision the ,danish navy ultimately reached imposing dimensions1 especially after ,juel became chief of the admiralty in #afhc4 ,personally ,juel was the noblest and most amiable of men1 equally beloved and respected by his sailors1 simple1 straightforward and unpretentious in all his ways4 ,during his latter years he was popularly known in ,copenhagen as the good old knight4 ,he died on the #hth of ,april #afig4 ,see ,garde1 ,niels ,juel 7#ahdb71 and ,den dansk4 norske ,smagts ,historie1 #aece-agjj 7#ahfa74 7,r4 ,n4 ,b47 ,,jug1 a vessel for holding liquid1 usually with one handle and a lip1 made of earthenware1 glass or metal4 ,the origin of the word in this sense is uncertain1 but it is probably identical with a shortened form of the feminine name ,joan or ,joanna2 cf4 the similar use of ,jack and ,jill or ,gill for a drinking-vessel or a liquor measure4 ,it has also been used as a common expression for a homely woman1 a servant-girl1 a sweetheart1 sometimes in a sense of disparagement4 ,in slang1 jug or stone-jug is used to denote a prison2 this may possibly be an adaptation of ,fr4 joug1 yoke1 ,lat4 jugum4 ,the word jug is probably onomatopoeic when used to represent a particular note of the nightingale's song1 or applied locally to various small birds1 as the hedge-jug1 c4 ,the ,british ,museum contains a remarkable bronze jug which was found at ,kumasi during the ,ashanti ,expedition of #ahif4 ,it dates from the reign of ,richard ,,ii41 and is decorated in relief with the arms of ,england and the badge of the king4 ,it has a lid1 spout and handle1 which ends in a quatrefoil4 ,an inscription1 on three raised bands round the body of the vessel1 modernized runs3--,he that will not spare when he may shall not spend when he would4 ,deem the best in every doubt till the truth be tried out4 ,the ,british ,museum ,guide to the ,medieval ,room contains an illustration of this vessel4 ,a particular form of jug is the ewer1 the precursor of the ordinary bedroom jug 7an adaptation of ,o4 ,fr4 ewaire1 med4 ,lat4 aquaria1 water-pitcher1 from aqua1 water74 ,the ewer was a jug with a wide spout1 and was principally used at table for pouring water over the hands after eating1 a matter of some necessity before the introduction of forks4 ,early ewers are sometimes mounted on three feet1 and bear inscriptions such as ,venez laver4 ,a basin of similar material and design accompanied the ewer4 ,in the #acth and #adth centuries a special type of metal ewer takes the form of animals1 men on horseback1 c42 these are generally known as aquamaniles1 from med4 ,lat4 aqua manile or aqua manale 7aqua1 water1 and manare1 to trickle1 pour1 drip74 ,the ,british ,museum contains several examples4 ,in the #ahth and early #aith centuries were made the drinking-vessels of pottery known as ,toby jugs1 properly ,toby ,fillpots or ,philpots4 ,these take the form of a stout old man1 sometimes seated1 with a three-cornered hat1 the corners of which act as spouts4 ,similar drinking-vessels were also made representing characters popular at the time1 such as ,nelson jugs1 c4 ,,juge1 ,,boffille ,,de 7d4 #aejb71 ,french-,italian adventurer and statesman1 belonged to the family of del ,giudice1 which came from ,amalfi1 and followed the fortunes of the ,angevin dynasty4 ,when ,john of ,anjou1 duke of ,calabria1 was conquered in ,italy 7#adfa7 and fled to ,provence1 ,boffille followed him4 ,he was given by ,duke ,john and his father1 ,king ,ren1 the charge of upholding by force of arms their claims on ,catalonia4 ,louis ,,xi41 who had joined his troops to those of the princes of ,anjou1 attached ,boffille to his own person1 made him his chamberlain and conferred on him the vice-royalty of ,roussillon and ,cerdagne 7#adga71 together with certain important lordships1 among others the countship of ,castres1 confiscated from ,james of ,armagnac1 duke of ,nemours 7#adgf71 and the temporalities of the bishopric of ,castres1 confiscated from ,john of ,armagnac4 ,he also entrusted him with diplomatic negotiations with ,flanders and ,england4 ,in #adhj ,boffille married ,marie d',albret1 sister of ,alain the ,great1 thus confirming the feudal position which the king had given him in the south4 ,he was appointed as one of the judges in the trial of ,ren of ,alenon1 and showed such zeal in the discharge of his functions that ,louis ,,xi4 rewarded him by fresh gifts4 ,however1 the bishop of ,castres recovered his diocese 7#adhc71 and the heirs of the duke of ,nemours took legal proceedings for the recovery of the countship of ,castres4 ,boffille1 with the object of escaping from his enemies1 applied for the command of the armies of the republic of ,venice4 ,his application was refused1 and he further lost the vice-royalty of ,roussillon 7#adia74 ,his daughter ,louise married against his will a gentleman of no rank1 and this led to terrible family dissensions4 ,in order to disinherit his own family1 ,boffille de ,juge gave up the countship of ,castres to his brother-in-law1 ,alain d',albret 7#adid74 ,he died in #aejb4 ,see ,p4 ,m4 ,perret1 ,boffille de ,juge1 comte de ,castres1 et la rpublique de ,venise 7#ahia72 ,f4 ,pasquier1 ,inventaire des documents concernant ,boffille de ,juge 7#aije74 7,m4 ,p4997 ,,juggernaut1 a corruption of ,sans4 ,,jagannatha1 ,lord of the ,world1 the name under which the ,hindu god ,vishnu is worshipped at ,puri in ,orissa4 ,the legend runs that the sacred blue-stone image of ,jagannatha was worshipped in the solitude of the jungle by an outcast1 a ,savara mountaineer1 called ,basu4 ,the king of ,malwa1 ,indradyumna1 had despatched ,brahmans to all quarters of the peninsula1 and at last discovered ,basu4 ,thereafter the image was taken to ,puri1 and a temple1 begun in #aagd1 was completed fourteen years later at a cost of upwards of half a million sterling4 ,the site had been associated for centuries before and after the ,christian era with ,buddhism1 and the famous ,car festival is probably based on the ,tooth festival of the ,buddhists1 of which the ,chinese pilgrim ,fa-,hien gives an account4 ,the present temple is a pyramidal building1 #aib ft4 high1 crowned with the mystic wheel and flag of ,vishnu4 ,its inner enclosure1 nearly #djj ft4 by #cjj ft41 contains a number of small temples and shrines4 ,the main temple has four main rooms--the hall of offerings1 the dancing hall1 the audience chamber1 and the shrine itself--the two latter being each #hj ft4 square4 ,the three principal images are those of ,vishnu1 his brother and his sister1 grotesque wooden figures roughly hewn4 ,elaborate services are daily celebrated all the year round1 the images are dressed and redressed1 and four meals a day are served to them4 ,the attendants on the god are divided into #cf orders and #ig classes4 ,special servants are assigned the tasks of putting the god to bed1 of dressing and bathing him4 ,the annual rent-roll of the temple was put at #fh1jjj by ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter2 but the pilgrims' offerings1 which form the bulk of the income1 are quite unknown and have been said to reach as much as #ajj1jjj in one year4 ,ranjit ,singh bequeathed the ,koh-i-nor to ,jagannath4 ,there are four chief festivals1 of which the famous ,car festival is the most important4 ,the terrible stories of pilgrims crushed to death in the god's honour have made the phrase ,car of ,juggernaut synonymous with the merciless sacrifice of human lives1 but these have been shown to be baseless calumnies4 ,the worship of ,vishnu is innocent of all bloody rites1 and a drop of blood even accidentally spilt in the god's presence is held to pollute the officiating priests1 the people1 and the consecrated food4 ,the ,car festival takes place in ,june or ,july1 and the feature of its celebration is the drawing of the god from the temple to his country-house1 a distance of less than a mile4 ,the car is #de ft4 in height and #ce ft4 square1 and is supported on #af wheels of #g ft4 in diameter4 ,vishnu's brother and sister have separate cars1 slightly smaller4 ,to these cars ropes are attached1 and thousands of eager pilgrims vie with each other to have the honour of dragging the god4 ,though the distance is so short the journey lasts several days1 owing to the deep sand in which the wheels sink4 ,during the festival serious accidents have often happened4 ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter in the ,gazetteer of ,india writes3 ,in a closely packed1 eager throng of a hundred thousand men and women under the blazing tropical sun1 deaths must occasionally occur4 ,there have doubtless been instances of pilgrims throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious excitement1 but such instances have always been rare1 and are now unknown4 ,the few suicides that did occur were1 for the most part1 cases of diseased and miserable objects who took this means to put themselves out of pain4 ,the official returns now place this beyond doubt4 ,nothing could be more opposed to the spirit of ,vishnu-worship than self-immolation4 ,accidental death within the temple renders the whole place unclean4 ,according to ,chaitanya1 the apostle of ,jagannath1 the destruction of the least of ,god's creatures is a sin against the ,creator4 ,see also ,sir ,w4 ,w4 ,hunter's ,orissa 7#ahgb72 and ,district ,gazetteer of ,puri 7#aijh74 ,,juggler 7,lat4 joculator1 jester71 in the modern sense a performer of sleight-of-hand tricks and dexterous feats of skill in tossing balls1 plates1 knives1 c4 ,the term is practically synonymous with conjurer 7see ,,conjuring74 ,the joculatores were the mimes of the middle ages 7see ,,drama72 the ,french use of the word jongleurs 7an erroneous form of jougleur7 included the singers known as trouvres2 and the humbler ,english minstrels of the same type gradually passed into the strolling jugglers1 from whose exhibitions the term came to cover loosely any acrobatic1 pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances4 ,in ancient ,rome various names were given to what we call jugglers1 e4g4 ventilatores 7knife-throwers71 and pilarii 7ball-players74 ,,jugurtha 7,gr4 ,greek3 ,iogorthas71 king of ,numidia1 an illegitimate son of ,mastanabal1 and grandson of ,massinissa4 ,after his father's death he was brought up by his uncle ,micipsa together with his cousins ,adherbal and ,hiempsal4 ,jugurtha grew up strong1 handsome and intelligent1 a skilful rider1 and an adept in warlike exercises4 ,he inherited much of ,massinissa's political ability4 ,micipsa1 naturally afraid of him1 sent him to ,spain 7#acd ,b4,c47 in command of a ,numidian force1 to serve under ,p4 ,cornelius ,scipio ,africanus ,minor4 ,he became a favourite with ,scipio and the ,roman nobles1 some of whom put into his head the idea of making himself sole king of ,numidia1 with the help of ,roman money4 ,in #aah ,b4,c4 ,micipsa died4 ,by his will1 ,jugurtha was associated with ,adherbal and ,hiempsal in the government of ,numidia4 ,scipio had written to ,micipsa a strong letter of recommendation in favour of ,jugurtha2 and to ,scipio1 accordingly1 ,micipsa entrusted the execution of his will4 ,none the less1 his testamentary arrangements utterly failed4 ,the princes soon quarrelled1 and ,jugurtha claimed the entire kingdom4 ,hiempsal he contrived to have assassinated2 ,adherbal he quickly drove out of ,numidia4 ,he then sent envoys to ,rome to defend his usurpation on the ground that he was the injured party4 ,the senate decided that ,numidia was to be divided1 and gave the western1 the richer and more populous half1 to ,jugurtha1 while the sands and deserts of the eastern half were left to ,adherbal4 ,jugurtha's envoys appear to have found several of the ,roman nobles and senators accessible to bribery4 ,having secured the best of the bargain1 ,jugurtha at once began to provoke ,adherbal to a war of self-defence4 ,he completely defeated him near the modern ,philippeville1 and ,adherbal sought safety in the fortress of ,cirta 7,constantine74 ,here he was besieged by ,jugurtha1 who1 notwithstanding the interposition of a ,roman embassy1 forced the place to capitulate1 and treacherously massacred all the inhabitants1 among them his cousin ,adherbal and a number of ,italian merchants resident in the town4 ,there was great wrath at ,rome and throughout ,italy2 and the senate1 a majority of which still clung to ,jugurtha1 were persuaded in the same year 7#aaa7 to declare war4 ,an army was despatched to ,africa under the consul ,l4 ,calpurnius ,bestia1 several of the ,numidian towns voluntarily surrendered1 and ,bocchus1 the king of ,mauretania1 and ,jugurtha's father-in-law1 offered the ,romans his alliance4 ,jugurtha was alarmed1 but having at his command the accumulated treasures of ,massinissa1 he was successful in arranging with the ,roman general a peace which left him in possession of the whole of ,numidia4 ,when the facts were known at ,rome1 the tribune ,memmius insisted that ,jugurtha should appear in person and be questioned as to the negotiations4 ,jugurtha appeared under a safe conduct1 but he had partisans1 such as the tribune ,c4 ,baebius1 who took care that his mouth should be closed4 ,soon afterwards he caused his cousin ,massiva1 then resident at ,rome and a claimant to the throne of ,numidia1 to be assassinated4 ,the treaty was thereupon set aside1 and ,jugurtha was ordered to quit ,rome4 ,on this occasion he uttered the well-known words1 ,a city for sale1 and doomed to perish as soon as it finds a purchaser6 7,livy1 ,epit4 #fd74 ,the war was renewed1 and the consul ,spurius ,albinus entrusted with the command4 ,the ,roman army in ,africa was thoroughly demoralized4 ,an unsuccessful attempt was made on a fortified town1 ,suthul1 in which the royal treasures were deposited4 ,the army was surprised by the enemy in a night attack1 and the camp was taken and plundered4 ,every ,roman was driven out of ,numidia1 and a disgraceful peace was concluded 7#aji74 ,by this time the feeling at ,rome and in ,italy against the corruption and incapacity of the nobles had become so strong that a number of senators were prosecuted and ,bestia and ,albinus sentenced to exile4 ,the war was now entrusted to ,quintus ,metellus1 an able soldier and stern disciplinarian1 and from the year #aji to its close in #ajf the contest was carried on with credit to the ,roman arms4 ,jugurtha was defeated on the river ,muthul1 after an obstinate and skilful resistance4 ,once again1 however1 he succeeded in surprising the ,roman camp and forcing ,metellus into winter quarters4 ,there were fresh negotiations1 but ,metellus insisted on the surrender of the king's person1 and this ,jugurtha refused4 ,numidia on the whole seemed disposed to assert its independence1 and ,rome had before her the prospect of a troublesome guerrilla war4 ,negotiations1 reflecting little credit on the ,romans1 were set on foot with ,bocchus 7q4v47 who for a time played fast and loose with both parties4 ,in #ajf1 ,marius was called on by the vote of the ,roman people to supersede ,metellus1 but it was through the perfidy of ,bocchus and the diplomacy of ,l4 ,cornelius ,sulla1 ,marius's quaestor1 that the war was ended4 ,jugurtha fell into an ambush1 and was conveyed a prisoner to ,rome4 ,two years afterwards1 in #ajd1 he figured with his two sons in ,marius's triumph1 and in the subterranean prison beneath the ,capitol--the bath of ice1 as he called it--he was either strangled or starved to death4 ,though doubtless for a time regarded by his countrymen as their deliverer from the yoke of ,rome1 ,jugurtha mainly owes his historical importance to the full and minute account of him which we have from the hand of ,sallust1 himself afterwards governor of ,numidia4 ,see ,a4 ,h4 ,j4 ,greenidge1 ,hist4 of ,rome 7#aijd72 ,t4 ,mommsen1 ,hist4 of ,rome1 book iv4 ch4 v42 the chief ancient authorities 7besides ,sallust7 are ,livy1 ,epit41 lxii4-lxvii42 ,plutarch1 ,marius and ,sulla2 ,velleius ,paterculus1 ii42 ,diod4 ,sic41 ,excerpta1 xxxiv42 ,florus1 iii4 #a4 ,see also ,,marius1 ,,sulla1 ,,numidia4 ,,juju1 a ,west ,african word held by some authorities to be a corruption of ,mandingo gru-gru1 a charm4 ,it is more generally believed to have been adapted by the ,mandingos directly from ,fr4 joujou1 a toy or plaything4 ,the word1 as used by ,europeans on the ,guinea coast1 was originally applied to the objects which it was supposed the negroes worshipped1 and was transferred from the objects themselves to the spirits or gods who dwelt in them1 and finally to the whole religious beliefs of the ,west ,africans4 ,it is currently used in each of these senses1 and more loosely to indicate all the manners and customs of the negroes of the ,guinea coast1 particularly the power of interdiction exercised in the name of spirits 7see ,,fetishism and ,,taboo74 ,,jujube4 ,under this name the fruits of at least two species of ,zizyphus are usually described1 namely1 ,z4 vulgaris and ,z4 ,jujuba4#a ,the genus is a member of the natural order ,anacardiaceae4 ,the species are small trees or shrubs1 armed with sharp1 straight1 or hooked spines1 having alternate leaves1 and fruits which are in most of the species edible1 and have an agreeable acid taste2 this is especially the case with those of the two species mentioned above4 ,z4 vulgaris is a tree about #bj feet high1 extensively cultivated in many parts of ,southern ,europe1 also in ,western ,asia1 ,china and ,japan4 ,in ,india it extends from the ,punjab to the north-western frontier1 ascending in the ,punjab ,himalaya to a height of #fejj feet1 and is found both in the wild and cultivated state4 ,the plant is grown almost exclusively for the sake of its fruit1 which both in size and shape resembles a moderate-sized plum2 at first the fruits are green1 but as they ripen they become of a reddish-brown colour on the outside and yellow within4 ,they ripen in ,september1 when they are gathered and preserved by storing in a dry place2 after a time the pulp becomes much softer and sweeter than when fresh4 ,jujube fruits when carefully dried will keep for a long time1 and retain their refreshing acid flavour1 on account of which they are much valued in the countries of the ,mediterranean region as a winter dessert fruit2 and1 besides1 they are nutritive and demulcent4 ,at one time a decoction was prepared from them and recommended in pectoral complaints4 ,a kind of thick paste1 known as jujube paste1 was also made of a composition of gum arabic and sugar dissolved in a decoction of jujube fruit evaporated to the proper consistency4 ,z4 ,jujuba is a tree averaging from #cj to #ej ft4 high1 found both wild and cultivated in ,china1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,ceylon1 ,india1 tropical ,africa and ,australia4 ,many varieties are cultivated by the ,chinese1 who distinguish them by the shape and size of their fruits1 which are not only much valued as dessert fruit in ,china1 but are also occasionally exported to ,england4 ,as seen in commerce jujube fruits are about the size of a small filbert1 having a reddish-brown1 shining1 somewhat wrinkled exterior1 and a yellow or gingerbread coloured pulp enclosing a hard elongated stone4 ,the fruits of ,zizyphus do not enter into the composition of the lozenges now known as jujubes which are usually made of gum-arabic1 gelatin1 c41 and variously flavoured4 ,,footnote3 #a ,the med4 ,lat4 jujuba is a much altered form of the ,gr4 ,greek3 zizuphon ,,ju-,,jutsu or ,,jiu-,,jitsu 7a ,chino-,japanese term1 meaning muscle-science71 the ,japanese method of offence and defence without weapons in personal encounter1 upon which is founded the system of physical culture universal in ,japan4 ,some historians assert that it was founded by a ,japanese physician who learned its rudiments while studying in ,china1 but most writers maintain that ju-jutsu was in common use in ,japan centuries earlier1 and that it was known in the #gth century ,b4,c4 ,originally it was an art practised solely by the nobility1 and particularly by the samurai who1 possessing the right1 denied to commoners1 of carrying swords1 were thus enabled to show their superiority over common people even when without weapons4 ,it was a secret art1 jealously guarded from those not privileged to use it1 until the feudal system was abandoned in ,japan1 and now ju-jutsu is taught in the schools1 as well as in public and private gymnasia4 ,in the army1 navy and police it receives particular attention4 ,about the beginning of the #bjth century1 masters of the art began to attract attention in ,europe and ,america1 and schools were established in ,great ,britain and the ,united ,states1 as well as on the continent of ,europe4 ,ju-jutsu may be briefly defined as an application of anatomical knowledge to the purpose of offence and defence4 ,it differs from wrestling in that it does not depend upon muscular strength4 ,it differs from the other forms of attack in that it uses no weapon4 ,its feat consists in clutching or striking such part of an enemy's body as will make him numb and incapable of resistance4 ,its object is not to kill1 but to incapacitate one for action for the time being 7,inazo ,nitobe1 ,bushido3 the ,soul of ,japan74 ,many writers translate the term ju-jutsu to conquer by yielding 7,jap4 ju1 pliant71 and this phrase well expresses a salient characteristic of the art1 since the weight and strength of the opponent are employed to his own undoing4 ,when1 for example1 a big man rushes at a smaller opponent1 the smaller man1 instead of seeking to oppose strength to strength1 falls backwards or sidewise1 pulling his heavy adversary after him and taking advantage of his loss of balance to gain some lock or hold known to the science4 ,this element of yielding in order to conquer is thus referred to in ,lafcadio ,hearn's ,out of the ,east3 ,in jiu-jitsu there is a sort of counter for every twist1 wrench1 pull1 push or bend3 only the jiu-jitsu expert does not oppose such movements4 ,no2 he yields to them4 ,but he does much more than that4 ,he aids them with a wicked sleight that causes the assailant to put out his own shoulder1 to fracture his own arm1 or1 in a desperate case1 even to break his own neck or back4 ,the knowledge of anatomy mentioned by ,nitobe is acquired in order that the combatant may know the weak parts of his adversary's body and attack them4 ,several of these sensitive places1 for instance the partially exposed nerve in the elbow popularly known as the funny-bone and the complex of nerves over the stomach called the solar plexus1 are familiar to the ,european1 but the ju-jutsu expert is acquainted with many others which1 when compressed1 struck1 or pinched1 cause temporary paralysis of a more or less complete nature4 ,such places are the arm-pit1 the ankle and wrist bones1 the tendon running downward from the ear1 the ,adam's apple1 and the nerves of the upper arm4 ,in serious fighting almost any hold or attack is resorted to1 and a broken or badly sprained limb is the least that can befall the victim2 but in the practice of the art as a means of physical culture the knowledge of the different grips is assumed on both sides1 as well as the danger of resisting too long4 ,for this reason the combatant1 when he feels himself on the point of being disabled1 is instructed to signal his acknowledgment of defeat by striking the floor with hand or foot4 ,the bout then ends and both combatants rise and begin afresh4 ,it will be seen that a victory in ju-jutsu does not mean that the opponent shall be placed in some particular position1 as in wrestling1 but in any position in which his judgment or knowledge tells him that1 unless he yields1 he will suffer a disabling injury4 ,this difference existed between the wrestling and the pancratium of the ,olympic games4 ,in the pancratium the fight went on until one combatant acknowledged defeat1 but1 although many a man allowed himself to be beaten into insensibility rather than suffer this humiliation1 it was nevertheless held to be a disgrace to kill an opponent4 ,a modern bout at ju-jutsu usually begins by the combatants taking hold with both hands upon the collars of each other's jackets or kimonos1 after which1 upon the word to start being given1 the manoeuvring for an advantageous grip begins by pushes1 pulls1 jerks1 falls1 grips or other movements4 ,once the wrist1 ankle1 neck1 arm or leg of an assailant is firmly grasped so that added force will dislocate it1 there is nothing for the seized man to do1 in case he is still on his feet1 but go to the floor1 often being thrown clean over his opponent's head4 ,a fall of this kind does not necessarily mean defeat1 for the struggle proceeds upon the floor1 where indeed most of the combat takes place1 and the ju-jutsu expert receives a long training in the art of falling without injury4 ,blows are delivered1 not with the fist1 but with the open hand1 the exterior edge of which is hardened by exercises4 ,the physical training necessary to produce expertness is the most valuable feature of ju-jutsu4 ,the system includes a light and nourishing diet1 plenty of sleep1 deep-breathing exercises1 an abundance of fresh air and general moderation in habits1 in addition to the actual gymnastic exercises for the purpose of muscle-building and the cultivation of agility of eye and mind as well as of body4 ,it is practised by both sexes in ,japan4 ,many attempts have been made in ,england and ,america to match ju-jutsu experts against wrestlers1 mostly of the catch-as-catch can school1 but these trials have1 almost without exception1 proved unsatisfactory1 since many of the most efficacious tricks of ju-jutsu1 such as the strangle holds and twists of wrists and ankles1 are accounted foul in wrestling4 ,nevertheless the ,japanese athletes1 even when obliged to forgo these1 have usually proved more than a match for ,european wrestlers of their own weight4 ,see ,h4 ,irving ,hancock's ,japanese ,physical ,training 7#aijd72 ,physical ,training for ,women by ,japanese ,methods 7#aijd72 ,the ,complete ,kano ,jiu-jitsu 7,jiudo7 7#aije72 ,m4 ,ohashi1 ,japanese ,physical ,culture 7#aijd72 ,k4 ,saito1 ,jiu-jitsu ,tricks 7#aije74 ,,jujuy1 a northern province of the ,argentine ,republic1 bounded ,n4 and ,n4,w4 by ,bolivia1 ,n4,e41 ,e41 ,s4 and ,s4,w4 by ,salta1 and ,w4 by the ,los ,andes territory4 ,pop4 7#ahie71 #di1gac2 7#aije1 estimate71 #ee1dej1 including many mestizos4 ,area1 #ah1igg sq4 m41 the greater part being mountainous4 ,the province is traversed from ,n4 to ,s4 by three distinct ranges belonging to the great central ,andean plateau3 the ,sierra de ,santa ,catalina1 the ,sierra de ,humahuaca1 and the ,sierras de ,zenta and ,santa ,victoria4 ,in the ,s4,e4 angle of the province are the low1 isolated ranges of ,alumbre and ,santa ,barbara4 ,between the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of surpassing fertility1 watered by the ,rio ,grande de ,jujuy1 a large tributary of the ,bermejo4 ,the western part1 however1 is a high plateau 7parts of which are #aa1ejj ft4 above sea-level71 whose general characteristics are those of the puna regions farther west4 ,the surface of this high plateau is broken1 semi-arid and desolate1 having a very scanty population and no important industry beyond the breeding of a few goats and the fur-bearing chinchilla4 ,there are two large saline lagoons3 ,toro1 or ,pozuelos1 in the ,n41 and ,casabindo1 or ,guayatayoc1 in the ,s4 ,the climate is cool1 dry and healthy1 with violent tempests in the summer season4 7,for a vivid description of this interesting region1 see ,f4 ,o',driscoll1 ,a ,journey to the ,north of the ,argentine ,republic1 ,geogr4 ,jour4 xxiv4 #aijd47 ,the agricultural productions of ,jujuy include sugar cane1 wheat1 ,indian corn1 alfalfa and grapes4 ,the breeding of cattle and mules for the ,bolivian and ,chilean markets is an old industry4 ,coffee has been grown in the department of ,ledesma1 but only to a limited extent4 ,there are also valuable forest areas and undeveloped mineral deposits4 ,large borax deposits are worked in the northern part of the province1 the output in #aija having been #hjjj tons4 ,the province is traversed from ,s4 to ,n4 by the ,central ,northern railway1 a national government line1 which has been extended to the ,bolivian frontier4 ,it passes through the capital and up the picturesque ,humahuaca valley1 and promises1 under capable management1 to be an important international line1 affording an outlet for southern ,bolivia4 ,the climate of the lower agricultural districts is tropical1 and irrigation is employed in some places in the long dry season4 ,the capital1 ,jujuy 7estimated pop4 #aije1 #ejjj71 is situated on the ,rio ,grande at the lower end of the ,humahuaca valley1 #idb m4 from ,buenos ,aires by rail4 ,it was founded in #aeic and is #djce ft4 above sea-level4 ,it has a mild1 temperate climate and picturesque natural surroundings1 and is situated on the old route between ,bolivia and ,tucuman1 but its growth has been slow4 ,,jukes1 ,,joseph ,,beete 7#ahaa-ahfi71 ,english geologist1 was born at ,summer ,hill1 near ,birmingham1 on the #ajth of ,october #ahaa4 ,he took his degree at ,cambridge in #ahcf4 ,he began the study of geology under ,sedgwick1 and in #ahci was appointed geological surveyor of ,newfoundland4 ,he returned to ,england at the end of #ahdj1 and in #ahdb sailed as naturalist on board ,h4,m4,s4 ,fly1 despatched to survey ,torres ,strait1 ,new ,guinea1 and the east coast of ,australia4 ,jukes landed in ,england again in ,june #ahdf1 and in ,august received an appointment on the geological survey of ,great ,britain4 ,the district to which he was first sent was ,north ,wales4 ,in #ahdg he commenced the survey of the ,south ,staffordshire coal-field and continued this work during successive years after the close of field-work in ,wales4 ,the results were published in his ,geology of the ,south ,staffordshire ,coal-field 7#ahec2 #bnd ed4 #ahei71 a work remarkable for its accuracy and philosophic treatment4 ,in #ahej he accepted the post of local director of the geological survey of ,ireland4 ,the exhausting nature of this work slowly but surely wore out even his robust constitution and on the #bith of ,july #ahfi he died4 ,for many years he lectured as professor of geology1 first at the ,royal ,dublin ,society's ,museum of ,irish ,industry1 and afterwards at the ,royal ,college of ,science in ,dublin4 ,he was an admirable teacher1 and his ,student's ,manual was the favoured textbook of ,british students for many years4 ,during his residence in ,ireland he wrote an article ,on the ,mode of ,formation of some of the ,river-valleys in the ,south of ,ireland 7,quarterly ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahfb71 and in this now classic essay he first clearly sketched the origin and development of rivers4 ,in later years he devoted much attention to the relations between the ,devonian system and the ,carboniferous rocks and ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,jukes wrote many papers that were printed in the ,london and ,dublin geological journals and other periodicals4 ,he edited1 and in great measure wrote1 forty-two memoirs explanatory of the maps of the south1 east and west of ,ireland1 and prepared a geological map of ,ireland on a scale of #h m4 to an inch4 ,he was also the author of ,excursions in and about ,newfoundland 7#b vols41 #ahdb72 ,narrative of the ,surveying ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,fly 7#b vols41 #ahdg72 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical ,structure of ,australia 7#ahej72 ,popular ,physical ,geology 7#ahec72 ,student's ,manual of ,geology 7#aheg2 #bnd ed4 #ahfb2 a later edition was revised by ,a4 ,geikie1 #ahgb72 the article ,geology in the ,ency4 ,brit4 #hth ed4 7#aheh7 and ,school ,manual of ,geology 7#ahfc74 ,see ,letters1 c41 of ,j4 ,beete ,jukes1 edited1 with ,connecting ,memorial ,notes1 by his ,sister 7,c4 ,a4 ,browne7 7#ahga71 to which is added a chronological list of ,jukes's writings4 ,,julian 7,,flavius ,,claudius ,,julianus7 7#cca-cfc71 commonly called ,,julian ,,the ,,apostate1 ,roman emperor1 was born in ,constantinople in #cca1a the son of ,julius ,constantius and his wife ,basilina1 and nephew of ,constantine the ,great4 ,he was thus a member of the dynasty under whose auspices ,christianity became the established religion of ,rome4 ,the name ,flavius he inherited from his paternal grandfather ,constantius ,chlorus2 ,julianus came from his maternal grandfather2 ,claudius had been assumed by ,constantine's family in order to assert a connexion with ,claudius ,gothicus4 ,julian lost his mother not many months after he was born4 ,he was only six when his imperial uncle died2 and one of his earliest memories must have been the fearful massacre of his father and kinsfolk1 in the interest and more or less at the instigation of the sons of ,constantine4 ,only ,julian and his elder half-brother ,gallus were spared1 ,gallus being too ill and ,julian too young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty of the murderers4 ,gallus was banished1 but ,julian was allowed to remain in ,constantinople1 where he was carefully educated under the supervision of the family eunuch ,mardonius1 and of ,eusebius1 bishop of ,nicomedia4 ,about #cdd ,gallus was recalled1 and the two brothers were removed to ,macellum1 a remote and lonely castle in ,cappadocia4 ,julian was trained to the profession of the ,christian religion2 but he became early attracted to the old faith1 or rather to the idealized amalgam of paganism and philosophy which was current among his teachers1 the rhetoricians4 ,cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible fate of his family1 and with no prospect of a public career1 he turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to the literary and philosophic studies of the time4 ,the old ,hellenic world had an irresistible attraction for him4 ,love for its culture was in ,julian's mind intimately associated with loyalty to its religion4 ,in the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat of the ,roman ,empire his cousin ,constantius1 who1 feeling himself unequal to the enormous task1 called ,julian's brother ,gallus to a share of power1 and in ,march #cea appointed him ,caesar4 ,at the same time ,julian was permitted to return to ,constantinople1 where he studied grammar under ,nicocles and rhetoric under the ,christian sophist ,hecebolius4 ,after a short stay in the capital ,julian was ordered to remove to ,nicomedia1 where he made the acquaintance of some of the most eminent rhetoricians of the time1 and became confirmed in his secret devotion to the pagan faith4 ,he promised not to attend the lectures of ,libanius1 but bought and read them4 ,but his definite conversion to paganism was attributed to the neo-platonist ,maximus of ,ephesus1 who may have visited him at ,nicomedia4 ,the downfall of ,gallus 7#ced71 who had been appointed governor of the ,east1 again exposed ,julian to the greatest danger4 ,by his rash and headstrong conduct ,gallus had incurred the enmity of ,constantius and the eunuchs1 his confidential ministers1 and was put to death4 ,julian fell under a like suspicion1 and narrowly escaped the same fate4 ,for some months he was confined at ,milan 7,mediolanum7 till at the intercession of the empress ,eusebia1 who always felt kindly towards him1 permission was given him to retire to a small property in ,bithynia4 ,while he was on his way1 ,constantius recalled him1 but allowed--or rather ordered--him to take up his residence at ,athens4 ,the few months he spent there 7,july-,october #cee7 were probably the happiest of his life4 ,the emperor ,constantius and ,julian were now the sole surviving male members of the family of ,constantine2 and1 as the emperor again felt himself oppressed by the cares of government1 there was no alternative but to call ,julian to his assistance4 ,at the instance of the empress he was summoned to ,milan1 where ,constantius bestowed upon him the hand of his sister ,helena1 together with the title of ,caesar and the government of ,gaul4 ,a task of extreme difficulty awaited him beyond the ,alps4 ,during recent troubles the ,alamanni and other ,german tribes had crossed the ,rhine2 they had burned many flourishing cities1 and extended their ravages far into the interior of ,gaul4 ,the internal government of the province had also fallen into great confusion4 ,in spite of his inexperience1 ,julian quickly brought affairs into order4 ,he completely overthrew the ,alamanni in the great battle of ,strassburg 7,august #ceg74 ,the ,frankish tribes which had settled on the western bank of the lower ,rhine were reduced to submission4 ,in ,gaul he rebuilt the cities which had been laid waste1 re-established the administration on a just and secure footing1 and as far as possible lightened the taxes1 which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials4 ,paris was the usual residence of ,julian during his government of ,gaul1 and his name has become inseparably associated with the early history of the city4 ,julian's reputation was now established4 ,he was general of a victorious army enthusiastically attached to him and governor of a province which he had saved from ruin2 but he had also become an object of fear and jealousy at the imperial court4 ,constantius accordingly resolved to weaken his power4 ,a threatened invasion of the ,persians was made an excuse for withdrawing some of the best legions from the ,gallic army4 ,julian recognized the covert purpose of this1 yet proceeded to fulfil the commands of the emperor4 ,a sudden movement of the legions themselves decided otherwise4 ,at ,paris1 on the night of the parting banquet1 they forced their way into ,julian's tent1 and1 proclaiming him emperor1 offered him the alternative either of accepting the lofty title or of an instant death4 ,julian accepted the empire1 and sent an embassy with a deferential message to ,constantius4 ,the message being contemptuously disregarded1 both sides prepared for a decisive struggle4 ,after a march of unexampled rapidity through the ,black ,forest and down the ,danube1 ,julian reached ,sirmium1 and was on the way to ,constantinople1 when he received news of the death of ,constantius1 who had set out from ,syria to meet him1 at ,mopsucrene in ,cilicia 7,nov4 #c1 #cfa74 ,without further trouble ,julian found himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of the ,roman ,empire2 it is even asserted that ,constantius himself on his death-bed had designated him his successor4 ,julian entered ,constantinople on the #aath of ,december #cfa4 ,julian had already made a public avowal of paganism1 of which he had been a secret adherent from the age of twenty4 ,it was no ordinary profession1 but the expression of a strong and even enthusiastic conviction2 the restoration of the pagan worship was to be the great aim and controlling principle of his government4 ,his reign was too short to show what precise form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken1 how far his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with the ,christian faith1 whether persecution1 violence and civil war might not have taken the place of the moral suasion which was the method he originally affected4 ,he issued an edict of universal toleration2 but in many respects he used his imperial influence unfairly to advance the work of restoration4 ,in order to deprive the ,christians of the advantages of culture1 and discredit them as an ignorant sect1 he forbade them to teach rhetoric4 ,the symbols of paganism and of the imperial dignity were so artfully interwoven on the standards of the legions that they could not pay the usual homage to the emperor without seeming to offer worship to the gods2 and1 when the soldiers came forward to receive the customary donative1 they were required to throw a handful of incense on the altar4 ,without directly excluding ,christians from the high offices of state1 he held that the worshippers of the gods ought to have the preference4 ,in short1 though there was no direct persecution1 he exerted much more than a moral pressure to restore the power and prestige of the old faith4 ,having spent the winter of #cfa-cfb at ,constantinople1 ,julian proceeded to ,antioch to prepare for his great expedition against ,persia4 ,his stay there was a curious episode in his life4 ,it is doubtful whether his pagan convictions or his ascetic life1 after the fashion of an antique philosopher1 gave most offence to the so-called ,christians of the dissolute city4 ,they soon grew heartily tired of each other1 and ,julian took up his winter quarters at ,tarsus1 from which in early spring he marched against ,persia4 ,at the head of a powerful and well-appointed army he advanced through ,mesopotamia and ,assyria as far as ,ctesiphon1 near which he crossed the ,tigris1 in face of a ,persian army which he defeated4 ,misled by the treacherous advice of a ,persian nobleman1 he desisted from the siege1 and set out to seek the main army of the enemy under ,shapur ,,ii4 7q4v474 ,after a long1 useless march he was forced to retreat1 and found himself enveloped by the whole ,persian army1 in a waterless and desolate country1 at the hottest season of the year4 ,the ,romans repulsed the enemy in many an obstinate battle1 but on the #bfth of ,june #cfc ,julian1 who was ever in the front1 was mortally wounded4 ,the same night he died in his tent4 ,in the most authentic historian of his reign1 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 we find a noble speech1 which he is said to have addressed to his afflicted officers4 ,soon after his death the rumour spread that the fatal wound had been inflicted by a ,christian in the ,roman army4 ,the well-known statement1 first found in ,theodoret 7fl4 #eth century71 that ,julian threw his blood towards heaven1 exclaiming1 ,thou hast conquered1 ,o ,galilean6 is probably a development of the account of his death in the poems of ,ephraem ,syrus4 ,from ,julian's unique position as the last champion of a dying polytheism1 his character has always excited interest4 ,authors such as ,gregory of ,nazianzus have heaped the fiercest anathemas upon him2 but a just and sympathetic criticism finds many noble qualities in his character4 ,in childhood and youth he had learned to regard ,christianity as a persecuting force4 ,the only sympathetic friends he met were among the pagan rhetoricians and philosophers2 and he found a suitable outlet for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of ancient ,greece4 ,in this way he was attracted to the old paganism2 but it was a paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time4 ,in other respects ,julian was no unworthy successor of the ,antonines4 ,though brought up in a studious and pedantic solitude1 he was no sooner called to the government of ,gaul than he displayed all the energy1 the hardihood and the practical sagacity of an old ,roman4 ,in temperance1 self-control and zeal for the public good1 as he understood it1 he was unsurpassed4 ,to these ,roman qualities he added the culture1 literary instincts and speculative curiosity of a ,greek4 ,one of the most remarkable features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery with which he associated the cares of war and statesmanship with the assiduous cultivation of literature and philosophy4 ,yet even his devotion to culture was not free from pedantry and dilettantism4 ,his contemporaries observed in him a want of naturalness4 ,he had not the moral health or the composed and reticent manhood of a ,roman1 or the spontaneity of a ,greek4 ,he was never at rest2 in the rapid torrent of his conversation he was apt to run himself out of breath2 his manner was jerky and spasmodic4 ,he showed quite a deferential regard for the sophists and rhetoricians of the time1 and advanced them to high offices of state2 there was real cause for fear that he would introduce the government of pedants in the ,roman empire4 ,last of all1 his love for the old philosophy was sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old superstitions4 ,he was greatly given to divination2 he was noted for the number of his sacrificial victims4 ,wits applied to him the joke that had been passed on ,marcus ,aurelius3 ,the white cattle to ,marcus ,caesar1 greeting4 ,if you conquer1 there is an end of us4 ,,bibliography4--,the works of ,julian1 of which there are complete editions by ,e4 ,spanheim 7,leipzig1 #afif7 and ,f4 ,c4 ,hertlein 7,teubner series1 #ahge-ahgf71 consist of the following3 7#a7 ,letters1 of which more than eighty have been preserved under his name1 although the genuineness of several has been disputed4 ,for his views on religious toleration and his attitude towards ,christians and ,jews the most important are #be-bg1 #ea1 #eb1 and the fragment in ,hertlein1 i4 #cga4 ,the letter of ,gallus to ,julian1 warning him against reverting to heathenism1 is probably a ,christian forgery4 ,six new letters were discovered in #ahhd by ,a4 ,papadopulos ,kerameus in a monastery on the island of ,chalcis near ,constantinople 7see ,rheinisches ,museum1 xlii41 #ahhg74 ,separate edition of the letters by ,l4 ,h4 ,heyler 7#ahbh72 see also ,j4 ,bidez and ,f4 ,cumont1 ,recherches sur la tradition ,,ms4 des lettres de l'empereur ,julian in ,mmoires couronns 444 publis par l',acad4 royale de ,belgique1 lvii4 7#ahih7 and ,f4 ,cumont1 ,sur l'authenticit de quelques lettres de ,julien 7#ahhi74 7#b7 ,orations1 eight in number--two panegyrics on ,constantius1 one on the empress ,eusebia1 two theosophical declamations on ,king ,helios and the ,mother of the ,gods1 two essays on true and false cynicism1 and a consolatory address to himself on the departure of his friend ,salustius to the ,east4 7#c7 ,caesares or ,symposium1 a satirical composition after the manner of ,seneca's ,apocolocyntosis1 in which the deified ,caesars appear in succession at a banquet given in ,olympus1 to be censured for their vices and crimes by old ,silenus4 7#d7 ,misopogon 7the beard-hater71 written at ,antioch1 a satire on the licentiousness of its inhabitants2 while at the same time his own person and manner of life are treated in a whimsical spirit4 ,it also contains a charming description of ,lutetia 7,paris74 ,it owes its name to the ridicule heaped upon his beard by the ,antiocheans1 who were in the habit of shaving4 7#e7 ,five epigrams1 two of which 7,anth4 ,pal41 ix4 #cfe1 #cfh7 are of some interest4 7#f7 ,greek3 ,kar ,christiann 7,adversus ,christianos7 in three books1 an attack on ,christianity written during the ,persian campaign1 is lost4 ,theodosius ,,ii4 ordered all copies of it to be destroyed1 and our knowledge of its contents is derived almost entirely from the ,contra ,julianum of ,cyril1 bishop of ,alexandria1 written sixty years later 7see ,juliani librorum contra ,christianos quae supersunt1 ed4 ,c4 ,j4 ,neumann #ahhj74 ,english ,translations3 ,select works by ,j4 ,duncombe 7#aghd7 containing all except the first seven orations 7viii4 and the fable from vii4 are included73 the theosophical addresses to ,king ,helios and the ,mother of the ,gods by ,thomas ,taylor 7#agic7 and ,c4 ,w4 ,king in ,bohn's ,classical ,library 7#ahhh72 the public letters1 by ,e4 ,j4 ,chinnock 7#aija74 ,,authorities4--#a4 ,ancient3 7a7 ,pagan writers4 ,of these the most trustworthy and impartial is the historian ,ammianus ,marcellinus 7xv4 #h-xxv471 a contemporary and in part an eye-witness of the events he describes 7other historians are ,zosimus and ,eutropius72 the sophist ,libanius1 who in speaking of his imperial friend shows himself creditably free from exaggeration and servility2 ,eunapius 7in his lives of ,maximus1 ,oribasius1 the physician and friend of ,julian1 and ,prohaeresius7 and ,claudius ,mamertinus1 the panegyrist1 are less trustworthy4 7b7 ,christian writers4 ,gregory of ,nazianzus1 the author of two violent invectives against ,julian2 ,rufinus2 ,socrates2 ,sozomen2 ,theodoret2 ,philostorgius2 the poems of ,ephraem ,syrus written in #cfc2 ,zonaras2 ,cedrenus2 and later ,byzantine chronographers4 ,the impression which ,julian produced on the ,christians of the ,east is reflected in two ,syriac romances published by ,j4 ,g4 ,e4 ,hoffmann1 ,julianos der ,abtrnnige 7#ahhj2 see also ,th4 ,nldeke in ,zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft #ahgd1 xxviii4 #bfc74 #b4 ,modern4 ,for works before #ahgh see ,r4 ,engelmann1 ,scriptores ,graeci 7#hth ed41 by ,e4 ,preuss1 #ahhj74 ,of later works the most important are ,g4 ,h4 ,rendall1 ,the ,emperor ,julian1 ,paganism and ,christianity 7#ahgi72 ,alice ,gardner1 ,julian1 ,philosopher and ,emperor 7#ahie72 ,g4 ,negri1 ,julian the ,apostate 7,eng4 trans41 #aije72 ,e4 ,mller1 ,kaiser ,flavius ,claudius ,julianus 7#aija72 ,p4 ,allard1 ,julien l'apostat 7#aijj-aijc72 ,g4 ,mau1 ,die ,religionsphilosophie ,kaiser ,julians in seinen ,reden auf ,knig ,helios und die ,gttermutter 7#aijg72 ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys1 ,hist4 of ,classical ,scholarship 7#aijf71 p4 #cef2 ,w4 ,christ1 ,geschichte der griechischen ,litteratur 7#ahih71 #fjc2 ,j4 ,geffcken1 ,kaiser ,julianus und die ,streitschriften seiner ,gegner1 in ,neue ,jahrb4 f4 das klassische ,altertum 7#aijh71 pp4 #afa-aie4 ,the sketch by ,gibbon 7,decline and ,fall1 chs4 xix41 xxii4-xxiv47 and the articles by ,j4 ,wordsworth in ,smith's ,dictionary of ,christian ,biography and ,a4 ,harnack in ,herzog-,hauck's ,realencyklopdie fr protestantische ,theologie ix4 7#aija7 are valuable1 the last especially for the bibliography4 7,t4 ,k42 ,j4 ,h4 ,f47 ,,footnote3 #a ,for the date of ,julian's birth see ,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall 7ed4 ,bury71 ii4 #bdg1 note #aa4 ,the choice seems to lie between ,may #cca and ,may #ccb4 ,if the former be adopted1 ,julian must have died in the thirty-third1 not the thirty-second1 year of his age 7as stated in ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 xxv4 #c1 #bc74 ,j,,lich 7,fr4 ,juliers71 a town of ,germany1 in the ,prussian ,rhine province1 on the right bank of the ,roer1 #af m4 ,n4,e4 of ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #edei4 ,it contains an ,evangelical and two ,roman ,catholic churches1 a gymnasium1 a school for non-commissioned officers1 which occupies the former ducal palace1 and a museum of local antiquities4 ,its manufactures include sugar1 leather and paper4 ,jlich 7formerly also ,glch1 ,guliche7 the capital of the former duchy of that name1 is the ,juliacum of the ,antonini ,itinerarium2 some have attributed its origin to ,julius ,caesar4 ,it became a fortress in the #agth century1 and was captured by the archduke ,leopold in #afji1 by the ,dutch under ,maurice of ,orange in #afaj1 and by the ,spaniards in #afbb4 ,in #agid it was taken by the ,french1 who held it until the peace of ,paris in #ahad4 ,till #ahfj1 when its works were demolished1 ,jlich ranked as a fortress of the second class4 ,j,,lich1 or ,,juliers1 ,,duchy ,,of4 ,in the #ith century a certain ,matfried was count of ,jlich 7pagus ,juliacensis71 and towards the end of the #aath century one ,gerhard held this dignity4 ,this ,gerhard founded a family of hereditary counts1 who held ,jlich as immediate vassals of the emperor1 and in #acef the county was raised to the rank of a duchy4 ,the older and reigning branch of the family died in #adbc1 when ,jlich passed to ,adolph1 duke of ,berg 7d4 #adcg71 who belonged to a younger branch1 and who had obtained ,berg by virtue of the marriage of one of his ancestors4 ,nearly a century later ,mary 7d4 #aedc7 the heiress of these two duchies1 married ,john1 the heir of the duchy of ,cleves1 and in #aeba the three duchies1 ,jlich1 ,berg and ,cleves1 together with the counties of ,ravensberg and ,la ,marck1 were united under ,john's sway4 ,john died in #aeci and was succeeded by his son ,william who reigned until #aeib4 ,at the beginning of the #agth century the duchies became very prominent in ,european politics4 ,the reigning duke1 ,john ,william1 was childless and insane1 and several princes were only waiting for his demise in order to seize his lands4 ,the most prominent of these princes were two ,protestant princes1 ,philip ,louis1 count palatine of ,neuburg1 who was married to the duke's sister ,anna1 and ,john ,sigismund1 elector of ,brandenburg1 whose wife was the daughter of another sister4 ,two other sisters were married to princes of minor importance4 ,moreover1 by virtue of an imperial promise made in #adhe and renewed in #adie1 the elector of ,saxony claimed the duchies of ,jlich and ,berg1 while the proximity of the coveted lands to the ,netherlands made their fate a matter of great moment to the ,dutch4 ,when it is remembered that at this time there was a great deal of tension between the ,roman ,catholics and the ,protestants1 who were fairly evenly matched in the duchies1 and that the rivalry between ,france and the ,empire was very keen1 it will be seen that the situation lacked no element of discord4 ,in ,march #afji ,duke ,john ,william died4 ,having assured themselves of the support of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france and of the ,evangelical ,union1 ,brandenburg and ,neuburg at once occupied the duchies4 ,to counter this stroke and to support the ,saxon claim1 the emperor ,rudolph ,,ii4 ordered some imperialist and ,spanish troops to seize the disputed lands1 and it was probably only the murder of ,henry ,,iv4 in ,may #afaj and the death of the head of the ,evangelical ,union1 the elector palatine1 ,frederick ,,iv41 in the following ,september1 which prevented1 or rather delayed1 a great ,european war4 ,about this time the emperor adjudged the duchies to ,saxony1 while the ,dutch captured the fortress of ,jlich2 but for all practical purposes victory remained with the possessing princes1 as ,brandenburg and ,neuburg were called1 who continued to occupy and to administer the lands4 ,these two princes had made a compact at ,dortmund in #afji to act together in defence of their rights1 but proposals for a marriage alliance between the two houses broke down and differences soon arose between them4 ,the next important step was the timely conversion of the count palatine's heir1 ,wolfgang ,william of ,neuburg1 to ,roman ,catholicism1 and his marriage with a daughter of the powerful ,roman ,catholic prince1 ,duke ,maximilian of ,bavaria4 ,the rupture between the possessing princes was now complete4 ,each invited foreign aid4 ,dutch troops marched to assist the elector of ,brandenburg and ,spanish ones came to aid the count palatine1 but through the intervention of ,england and ,france peace was made and the treaty of ,xanten was signed in ,november #afad4 ,by this arrangement ,brandenburg obtained ,jlich and ,berg1 the rest of the lands falling to the count palatine4 ,in #afff the great elector1 ,frederick ,william of ,brandenburg1 made with ,william1 count palatine of ,neuburg1 a treaty of mutual succession to the duchies1 providing that in case the male line of either house became extinct the other should inherit its lands4 ,the succession to the duchy of ,jlich was again a matter of interest in the earlier part of the #ahth century4 ,the family of the counts palatine of ,neuburg was threatened with extinction and the emperor ,charles ,,vi4 promised the succession to ,jlich to the ,prussian king1 ,frederick ,william ,i41 in return for a guarantee of the pragmatic sanction4 ,a little later1 however1 he promised the same duchy to the count palatine of ,sulzbach1 a kinsman of the count palatine of ,neuburg4 ,then ,frederick the ,great1 having secured ,silesia1 abandoned his claim to ,jlich1 which thus passed to ,sulzbach when1 in #agdb1 the family of ,neuburg became extinct4 ,from ,sulzbach the duchy came to the electors palatine of the ,rhine1 and1 when this family died out in #agii1 to the elector of ,bavaria1 the head of the other branch of the house of ,wittelsbach4 ,in #ahja ,jlich was seized by ,france1 and by the settlement of #ahae it came into the hands of ,prussia4 ,its area was just over #afjj sq4 m4 and its population about #djj1jjj4 ,see ,kuhl1 ,geschichte der ,stadt ,jlich2 ,m4 ,ritter1 ,sachsen und der ,jlicher ,erbfolgestreit 7#ahgc71 and ,der ,jlicher ,erbfolgekrieg1 #afaj und #afaa 7#ahgg72 ,a4 ,mller1 ,der ,jlich-,klevesche ,erbfolgestreit im ,jahre #afad 7#aijj7 and ,h4 ,h4 ,koch1 ,die ,reformation im ,herzogtum ,jlich 7#ahhc-ahhh74 ,,julien1 ,,stanislas 7#agig8-ahgc71 ,french orientalist1 was born at ,orleans1 probably on the #acth of ,april #agig4 ,stanislas ,julien1 a mechanic of ,orleans1 had two sons1 ,nol1 born on the #acth of ,april #agig1 and ,stanislas1 born on the #bjth of ,september #agii4 ,it appears that the younger son died in ,america1 and that ,nol then adopted his brother's name4 ,he studied classics at the collge de ,france1 and in #ahba was appointed assistant professor of ,greek4 ,in the same year he published an edition of the ,greek3 ,helens harpag of ,coluthus1 with versions in ,french1 ,latin1 ,english1 ,german1 ,italian and ,spanish4 ,he attended the lectures of ,abel ,rmusat on ,chinese1 and his progress was as rapid as it had been in other languages4 ,from the first1 as if by intuition1 he mastered the genius of the language2 and in #ahbd he published a ,latin translation of a part of the works of ,mencius 7,mang-tse71 one of the nine classical books of the ,chinese4 ,soon afterwards he translated the modern ,greek odes of ,kalvos under the title of ,la ,lyre patriotique de la ,grce4 ,but such works were not profitable in a commercial sense1 and1 being without any patrimony1 ,julien was glad to accept the assistance of ,sir ,william ,drummond and others1 until in #ahbg he was appointed sublibrarian to the ,french institute4 ,in #ahcb he succeeded ,rmusat as professor of ,chinese at the collge de ,france4 ,in #ahcc he was elected a member of the ,acadmie des ,inscriptions in the place of the orientalist1 ,antoine ,jean ,saint-,martin4 ,for some years his studies had been directed towards the dramatic and lighter literature of the ,chinese1 and in rapid succession he now brought out translations of the ,hoei-lan-ki 7,l',histoire du cercle de craie71 a drama in which occurs a scene curiously analogous to the judgment of ,solomon2 the ,pih shay tsing ki2 and the ,tchao-chi kou eul1 upon which ,voltaire had founded his ,orphelin de la ,chine 7#agee74 ,with the versatility which belonged to his genius1 he next turned1 apparently without difficulty1 to the very different style common to ,taoist writings1 and translated in #ahce ,le ,livre des rcompenses et des peines of ,lao-tsze4 ,about this time the cultivation of silkworms was beginning to attract attention in ,france1 and by order of the minister of agriculture ,julien compiled1 in #ahcg1 a ,rsum des principaux traits chinois sur la culture des mriers1 et l'ducation des vers--soie1 which was speedily translated into ,english1 ,german1 ,italian and ,russian4 ,nothing was more characteristic of his method of studying ,chinese than his habit of collecting every peculiarity of idiom and expression which he met with in his reading2 and1 in order that others might reap the benefit of his experiences1 he published in #ahda ,discussions grammaticales sur certaines rgles de position qui1 en chinois1 jouent le mme rle que les inflexions dans les autres langues1 which he followed in #ahdb by ,exercices pratiques d'analyse1 de syntaxe1 et de lexigraphie chinoise4 ,meanwhile in #ahci1 he had been appointed joint keeper of the ,bibliothque royale1 with the especial superintendence of the ,chinese books1 and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the collge de ,france4 ,the facility with which he had learned ,chinese1 and the success which his proficiency commanded1 naturally inclined less gifted scholars to resent the impatience with which he regarded their mistakes1 and at different times bitter controversies arose between ,julien and his fellow sinologues on the one subject which they had in common4 ,in #ahdb appeared from his busy pen a translation of the ,tao te ,king1 the celebrated work in which ,lao-tsze attempted to explain his idea of the relation existing between the universe and something which he called ,tao1 and on which the religion of ,taoism is based4 ,from ,taoism to ,buddhism was a natural transition1 and about this time ,julien turned his attention to the ,buddhist literature of ,china1 and more especially to the travels of ,buddhist pilgrims to ,india4 ,in order that he might better understand the references to ,indian institutions1 and the transcriptions in ,chinese of ,sanskrit words and proper names1 he began the study of ,sanskrit1 and in #ahec brought out his ,voyages du plrin ,hiouen-tsang1 which is regarded by some critics as his most valuable work4 ,six years later he published ,les ,avadnas1 contes et apologues ,indiens inconnus jusqu' ce jour1 suivis de posies et de nouvelles chinoises4 ,for the benefit of future students he disclosed his system of deciphering ,sanskrit words occurring in ,chinese books in his ,mthode pour dchiffrer et transcrire les noms sanscrits qui se rencontrent dans les livres chinois 7#ahfa74 ,this work1 which contains much of interest and importance1 falls short of the value which its author was accustomed to attach to it4 ,it had escaped his observation that1 since the translations of ,sanskrit works into ,chinese were undertaken in different parts of the empire1 the same ,sanskrit words were of necessity differently represented in ,chinese characters in accordance with the dialectical variations4 ,no hard and fast rule can therefore possibly be laid down for the decipherment of ,chinese transcriptions of ,sanskrit words1 and the effect of this impossibility was felt though not recognized by ,julien1 who in order to make good his rule was occasionally obliged to suppose that wrong characters had by mistake been introduced into the texts4 ,his ,indian studies led to a controversy with ,joseph ,toussaint ,reinaud1 which was certainly not free from the gall of bitterness4 ,among the many subjects to which he turned his attention were the native industries of ,china1 and his work on the ,histoire et fabrication de la porcelaine chinoise is likely to remain a standard work on the subject4 ,in another volume he also published an account of the ,industries anciennes et modernes de l'empire chinois 7#ahfi71 translated from native authorities4 ,in the intervals of more serious undertakings he translated the ,san tseu ,king 7,le ,livre des trois mots72 ,thsien tseu wen 7,le ,livre de mille mots72 ,les ,deux cousines2 ,nouvelles chinoises2 the ,ping chan ling yen 7,les ,deux jeunes filles lettres72 and the ,dialoghi ,cinesi1 ,ji-tch'ang k' eou-t' eou-koa4 ,his last work of importance was ,syntaxe nouvelle de la langue chinoise 7#ahfi71 in which he gave the result of his study of the language1 and collected a vast array of facts and of idiomatic expressions4 ,a more scientific arrangement and treatment of his subject would have added much to the value of this work1 which1 however1 contains a mine of material which amply repays exploration4 ,one great secret by which ,julien acquired his grasp of ,chinese1 was1 as we have said1 his methodical collection of phrases and idiomatic expressions4 ,whenever in the course of his reading he met with a new phrase or expression1 he entered it on a card which took its place in regular order in a long series of boxes4 ,at his death1 which took place on the #adth of ,february #ahgc1 he left1 it is said1 #bej1jjj of such cards1 about the fate of which1 however1 little seems to be known4 ,in politics ,julien was imperialist1 and in #ahfc he was made a commander of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he had rendered to literature during the second empire4 ,see notice and bibliography by ,wallon1 ,mm4 de l',acad4 des ,inscr4 7#ahhd71 xxxi4 #dji-deh4 7,r4 ,k4 ,d47 ,,julius1 the name of three popes4 ,,julius ,i41 pope from #ccg to #ceb1 was chosen as successor of ,marcus after the ,roman see had been vacant four months4 ,he is chiefly known by the part which he took in the ,arian controversy4 ,after the ,eusebians had1 at a synod held in ,antioch1 renewed their deposition of ,athanasius they resolved to send delegates to ,constans1 emperor of the ,west1 and also to ,julius1 setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded4 ,the latter1 after expressing an opinion favourable to ,athanasius1 adroitly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be presided over by himself4 ,this proposal1 however1 the ,eastern bishops declined to accept4 ,on his second banishment from ,alexandria1 ,athanasius came to ,rome1 and was recognized as a regular bishop by the synod held in #cdj4 ,it was through the influence of ,julius that1 at a later date1 the council of ,sardica in ,illyria was held1 which was attended only by seventy-six ,eastern bishops1 who speedily withdrew to ,philippopolis and deposed ,julius1 along with ,athanasius and others4 ,the ,western bishops who remained confirmed the previous decisions of the ,roman synod2 and by its #crd1 #dth and #eth decrees relating to the rights of revision1 the council of ,sardica endeavoured to settle the procedure of ecclesiastical appeals4 ,julius on his death in ,april #ceb was succeeded by ,liberius4 7,l4 ,d4997 ,,julius ,,ii4 7,giuliano della ,rovere71 pope from the #ast of ,november #aejc to the #bast of ,february #aeac1 was born at ,savona in #addc4 ,he was at first intended for a commercial career1 but later was sent by his uncle1 subsequently ,sixtus ,,iv41 to be educated among the ,franciscans1 although he does not appear to have joined that order4 ,he was loaded with favours during his uncle's pontificate1 being made bishop of ,carpentras1 bishop of ,bologna1 bishop of ,vercelli1 archbishop of ,avignon1 cardinal-priest of ,s4 ,pietro in ,vincoli and of ,sti ,dodici ,apostoli1 and cardinal-bishop of ,sabina1 of ,frascati1 and finally of ,ostia and ,velletri4 ,in #adhj he was made legate to ,france1 mainly to settle the question of the ,burgundian inheritance1 and acquitted himself with such ability during his two years' stay that he acquired an influence in the college of cardinals which became paramount during the pontificate of ,innocent ,,viii4 ,a rivalry1 however1 growing up between him and ,roderigo ,borgia1 he took refuge at ,ostia after the latter's election as ,alexander ,,vi41 and in #adid went to ,france1 where he incited ,charles ,,viii4 to undertake the conquest of ,naples4 ,he accompanied the young king on his campaign1 and sought to convoke a council to inquire into the conduct of the pope with a view to his deposition1 but was defeated in this through ,alexander's machinations4 ,during the remainder of that pontificate ,della ,rovere remained in ,france1 nominally in support of the pope1 for whom he negotiated the treaty of #adih with ,louis ,,xii41 but in reality bitterly hostile to him4 ,on the death of ,alexander 7#aejc7 he returned to ,italy and supported the election of ,pius ,,iii41 who was then suffering from an incurable malady1 of which he died shortly afterwards4 ,della ,rovere then won the support of ,cesare ,borgia and was unanimously elected pope4 ,julius ,,ii4 from the beginning repudiated the system of nepotism which had flourished under ,sixtus ,,iv41 ,innocent ,,viii4 and ,alexander ,,vi41 and set himself with courage and determination to restore1 consolidate and extend the temporal possessions of the ,church4 ,by dexterous diplomacy he first succeeded 7#aejd7 in rendering it impossible for ,cesare ,borgia to remain in ,italy4 ,he then pacified ,rome and the surrounding country by reconciling the powerful houses of ,orsini and ,colonna and by winning the other nobles to his own cause4 ,in #aejd he arbitrated on the differences between ,france and ,germany1 and concluded an alliance with them in order to oust the ,venetians from ,faenza1 ,rimini and other towns which they occupied4 ,the alliance at first resulted only in compelling the surrender of a few unimportant fortresses in the ,romagna2 but ,julius freed ,perugia and ,bologna in the brilliant campaign of #aejf4 ,in #aejh he concluded against ,venice the famous league of ,cambray with the emperor ,maximilian1 ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france and ,ferdinand of ,aragon1 and in the following year placed the city of ,venice under an interdict4 ,by the single battle of ,agnadello the ,italian dominion of ,venice was practically lost2 but as the allies were not satisfied with merely effecting his purposes1 the pope entered into a combination with the ,venetians against those who immediately before had been engaged in his behalf4 ,he absolved the ,venetians in the beginning of #aeaj1 and shortly afterwards placed the ban on ,france4 ,at a synod convened by ,louis ,,xii4 at ,tours in ,september1 the ,french bishops announced their withdrawal from the papal obedience and resolved1 with ,maximilian's co-operation1 to seek the deposition of ,julius4 ,in ,november #aeaa a council actually met at ,pisa for this object1 but its efforts were fruitless4 ,julius forthwith formed the ,holy league with ,ferdinand of ,aragon and with ,venice against ,france1 in which both ,henry ,,viii4 and the emperor ultimately joined4 ,the ,french were driven out of ,italy in #aeab and papal authority was once more securely established in the states immediately around ,rome4 ,julius had already issued1 on the #ahth of ,july #aeaa1 the summons for a general council to deal with ,france1 with the reform of the ,church1 and with a war against the ,turks4 ,this council1 which is known as the ,fifth ,lateran1 assembled on the #crd of ,may #aeab1 condemned the celebrated pragmatic sanction of the ,french church1 and was still in session when ,julius died4 ,in the midst of his combats1 ,julius never neglected his ecclesiastical duties4 ,his bull of the #adth of ,january #aeje against simony in papal elections was re-enacted by the ,lateran council 7,february #af1 #aeac74 ,he condemned duelling by bull of the #bdth of ,february #aeji4 ,he effected some reforms in the monastic orders2 urged the conversion of the sectaries in ,bohemia2 and sent missionaries to ,america1 ,india1 ,abyssinia and the ,congo4 ,his government of the ,papal ,states was excellent4 ,julius is deserving of particular honour for his patronage of art and literature4 ,he did much to improve and beautify ,rome2 he laid the foundation-stone of ,st ,peter's 7,april #ah1 #aejf72 he founded the ,vatican museum2 and he was a friend and patron of ,bramante1 ,raphael and ,michelangelo4 ,while moderate in personal expenditure1 ,julius resorted to objectionable means of replenishing the papal treasury1 which had been exhausted by ,alexander ,,vi41 and of providing funds for his numerous enterprises2 simony and traffic in indulgences were increasingly prevalent4 ,julius was undoubtedly in energy and genius one of the greatest popes since ,innocent ,,iii41 and it is a misfortune of the ,church that his temporal policy eclipsed his spiritual office4 ,though not despising the ,machiavellian arts of statecraft so universally practised in his day1 he was nevertheless by nature plain-spoken and sincere1 and in his last years grew violent and crabbed4 ,he died of a fever on the #bast of ,february #aeac1 and was succeeded by ,leo ,x4 ,see ,l4 ,pastor1 ,history of the ,popes1 vol4 vi41 trans4 by ,f4 ,i4 ,antrobus 7#ahih72 ,m4 ,creighton1 ,history of the ,papacy1 vol4 v4 7#aija72 ,f4 ,gregorovius1 ,rome in the ,middle ,ages1 vol4 viii41 trans4 by ,mrs ,g4 ,w4 ,hamilton 7#aijj-aijb72 ,hefele-,hergenrther1 ,conciliengeschichte1 vol4 viii41 #bnd ed42 ,j4 ,klaczko1 ,rome et la renaissance 444 ,jules ,,ii4 7#ahih71 trans4 into ,english by ,j4 ,dennie 7,new ,york1 #aijc72 ,m4 ,brosch1 ,papst ,julius ,,ii4 u4 die ,grndung des ,kirchenstaates 7#ahgh72 ,a4 ,j4 ,dumesnil1 ,histoire de ,jules ,,ii4 7#ahgc72 ,j4 ,j4 ,i4 von ,dllinger1 ,beitrge zur polit41 kirchl41 u4 ,cultur-,geschichte der sechs letzten ,jahrhunderte1 vol4 iii4 7#ahhb72 ,a4 ,schulte1 ,die ,fugger in ,rom #adie-aebc1 mit ,studien zur ,gesch4 des kirchlichen ,finanzwesens jener ,zeit 7#aijd74 7,c4 ,h4 ,ha47 ,,julius ,,iii4 7,giovanni ,maria del ,monte71 pope from #aeej to #aeee1 was born on the #ajth of ,september #adhg4 ,he was created cardinal by ,paul ,,iii4 in #aecf1 filled several important legations1 and was elected pope on the #gth of ,february #aeej1 despite the opposition of ,charles ,v41 whose enmity he had incurred as president of the council of ,trent4 ,love of ease and desire for peace moved him1 however1 to adopt a conciliatory attitude1 and to yield to the emperor's desire for the reassembling of the council 7,september #aeea71 suspended since #aedi4 ,but deeming ,charles's further demands inconvenient1 he soon found occasion in the renewal of hostilities to suspend the council once more 7,april #aeeb74 ,as an adherent of the emperor he suffered in consequence of imperial reverses1 and was forced to confirm ,parma to ,ottavio ,farnese1 the ally of ,france 7#aeeb74 ,weary of politics1 and obeying a natural inclination to pleasure1 ,julius then virtually abdicated the management of affairs1 and gave himself up to enjoyment1 amusing himself with the adornment of his villa1 near the ,porta del ,popolo1 and often so far forgetting the proprieties of his office as to participate in entertainments of a questionable character4 ,his nepotism was of a less ambitious order than that of ,paul ,,iii42 but he provided for his family out of the offices and revenues of the ,church1 and advanced unworthy favourites to the cardinalate4 ,what progress reform made during his pontificate was due to its acquired momentum1 rather than to the zeal of the pope4 ,yet under ,julius steps were taken to abolish plurality of benefices and to restore monastic discipline2 the ,collegium ,germanicum1 for the conversion of ,germans1 was established in ,rome1 #aeeb2 and ,england was absolved by the cardinal-legate ,pole1 and received again into the ,roman communion 7#aeed74 ,julius died on the #bcrd of ,march #aeee1 and was succeeded by ,marcellus ,,ii4 ,see ,panvinio1 continuator of ,platina1 ,de ,vitis ,pontiff4 ,rom42 ,ciaconius1 ,vitae et res gestae summorum ,pontiff4 ,rom4 7,rome1 #afja-afjb7 7both contemporaries of ,julius ,,iii472 ,ranke1 ,popes 7,eng4 trans41 ,austin71 i4 #bgf seq42 v4 ,reumont1 ,gesch4 der ,stadt ,rom41 iii4 #b1 #ejc seq42 ,brosch1 ,gesch4 des ,kirchenstaates 7#ahhj71 i4 #ahi seq42 and extended bibliography in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopdie1 s4v4 ,julius ,,iii4 7,t4 ,f4 ,c47 ,,jullien1 ,,louis ,,antoine 7#ahab-ahfj71 musical conductor1 was born at ,sisteron1 ,basses ,alpes1 ,france1 on the #bcrd of ,april #ahab1 and studied at the ,paris conservatoire4 ,his fondness for the lightest forms of music cost him his position in the school1 and after conducting the band of the ,jardin ,turc he was compelled to leave ,paris to escape his creditors1 and came to ,london1 where he formed a good orchestra and established promenade concerts4 ,subsequently he travelled to ,scotland1 ,ireland and ,america with his orchestra4 ,for many years he was a familiar figure in the world of popular music in ,england1 and his portly form with its gorgeous waistcoats occurs very often in the early volumes of ,punch4 ,he brought out an opera1 ,pietro il ,grande1 at ,covent ,garden 7#aheb7 on a scale of magnificence that ruined him1 for the piece was a complete failure4 ,he was in ,america until #ahed1 when he returned to ,london for a short time2 ultimately he went back to ,paris1 where1 in #ahei1 he was arrested for debt and put into prison4 ,he lost his reason soon afterwards1 and died on the #adth of ,march #ahfj4 ,,jullundur1 or ,,jalandhar1 a city of ,british ,india1 giving its name to a district and a division in the ,punjab4 ,the city is #bfj m4 by rail ,n4,w4 of ,delhi4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #fg1gce4 ,it is the headquarters of a brigade in the #crd division of the northern army4 ,there are an ,american ,presbyterian mission1 a government normal school1 and high schools supported by ,hindu bodies4 ,the ,,district ,,of ,,jullundur occupies the lower part of the tract known as the ,jullundur ,doab1 between the rivers ,sutlej and ,beas1 except that it is separated from the ,beas by the state of ,kapurthala4 ,area1 #adca sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #iag1ehg1 showing an increase of #a in the decade2 the average density is #fda persons per square mile1 being the highest in the province4 ,cotton-weaving and sugar manufacture are the principal industries for export trade1 and silk goods and wheat are also exported4 ,the district is crossed by the main line of the ,north-,western railway from ,phillaur towards ,amritsar4 ,the ,jullundur ,doab in early times formed the ,hindu kingdom of ,katoch1 ruled by a family of ,rajputs whose descendants still exist in the petty princes of the ,kangra hills4 ,under ,mahommedan rule the ,doab was generally attached to the province of ,lahore1 in which it is included as a circar or governorship in the great revenue survey of ,akbar4 ,its governors seem to have held an autonomous position1 subject to the payment of a fixed tribute into the imperial treasury4 ,the ,sikh revival extended to ,jullundur at an early period1 and a number of petty chieftains made themselves independent throughout the ,doab4 ,in #agff the town of ,jullundur fell into the hands of the ,sikh confederacy of ,faiz-ulla-puria1 then presided over by ,khushal ,singh4 ,his son and successor built a masonry fort in the town1 while several other leaders similarly fortified themselves in the suburbs4 ,meanwhile1 ,ranjit ,singh was consolidating his power in the south1 and in #ahaa he annexed the ,faiz-ulla-puria dominions4 ,thenceforth ,jullundur became the capital of the ,lahore possessions in the ,doab until the ,british annexation at the close of the first ,sikh war 7#ahdf74 ,the ,,division ,,of ,,jullundur comprises the five districts of ,kangra1 ,hoshiarpur1 ,jullundur1 ,ludhiana and ,ferozepore1 all lying along the river ,sutlej4 ,area1 #ai1daj sq4 m4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #d1cjf1ffb4 ,see ,jullundur ,district ,gazetteer 7,lahore1 #aijh74 ,,july1 the seventh month in the ,christian calendar1 consisting of thirty-one days4 ,it was originally the fifth month of the year1 and as such was called by the ,romans ,quintilis4 ,the later name of ,julius was given in honour of ,julius ,caesar 7who was born in the month72 it came into use in the year of his death4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons called ,july ,hegmnath1 hay-month1 or ,maed-mnath1 mead-month1 the meadows being then in bloom4 ,another name was aftera la1 the latter mild month1 in contradistinction to ,june1 which was named the former mild month4 ,chief dates of the month3 #crd ,july1 ,dog ,days begin2 #aeth ,july1 ,st ,swithin2 #beth ,july1 ,st ,james4 ,,jumala1 the supreme god of the ancient ,finns and ,lapps4 ,among some tribes he is called ,num or ,jilibeambaertje1 as protector of the flocks4 ,jumala indicates rather godhead than a divine being4 ,in the runes ,ukko1 the grandfather1 the sender of the thunder1 takes the place of ,jumala4 ,,jumi,,ges1 a village of north-western ,france1 in the department of ,seine-,infrieure1 #ag m4 ,w4 of ,rouen by road1 on a peninsula formed by a bend of the ,seine4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 #bdd4 ,jumiges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey1 one of the great establishments of the ,benedictine order4 ,the principal remains are those of the abbey-church1 built from #ajdj to #ajfg2 these comprise the faade with two towers1 the walls of the nave1 a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and dbris of the choir 7restored in the #acth century74 ,among the minor relics1 preserved in a small museum in a building of the #adth century1 are the stone which once covered the grave of ,agnes ,sorel1 and two recumbent figures of the #acth century1 commonly known as the nervs1 and representing1 according to one legend1 two sons of ,clovis ,,ii41 who1 as a punishment for revolt against their father1 had the tendons of their arms and legs cut1 and were set adrift in a boat on the ,seine4 ,another tradition states that the statues represent ,thassilo1 duke of ,bavaria1 and ,theodo his son1 relegated to ,jumiges by ,charlemagne4 ,the church of ,st ,pierre1 which adjoins the south side of the abbey-church1 was built in the #adth century as a continuation of a previous church of the time of ,charlemagne1 of which a fragment still survives4 ,among the other ruins1 those of the chapter-house 7#acth century7 and refectory 7#abth and #aeth centuries7 also survive4 ,the abbey of ,jumiges was founded about the middle of the #gth century by ,st ,philibert1 whose name is still to be read on gold and silver coins obtained from the site4 ,the abbey was destroyed by the ,normans1 but was rebuilt in #ibh by ,william ,longsword1 duke of ,normandy1 and continued to exist till #agij4 ,charles ,,vii4 often resided there with ,agnes ,sorel1 who had a manor at ,mesnil-sous-,jumiges in the neighbourhood1 and died in the monastery in #adej4 ,,jumilla1 a town of eastern ,spain1 in the province of ,murcia1 #dj m4 ,n4 by ,w4 of ,murcia by road1 on the right bank of the ,arroyo del ,jua1 a left-bank tributary of the ,segura4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #af1ddf4 ,jumilla occupies part of a narrow valley1 enclosed by mountains4 ,an ancient citadel1 several churches1 a ,franciscan convent1 and a hospital are the principal buildings4 ,the church of ,santiago is noteworthy for its fine paintings and frescoes1 some of which have been attributed1 though on doubtful authority1 to ,peter ,paul ,rubens and other illustrious artists4 ,the local trade is chiefly in coarse cloth1 esparto fabrics1 wine and farm produce4 ,,jumna1 or ,,jamuna1 a river of northern ,india4 ,rising in the ,himalayas in ,tehri state1 about #e m4 ,n4 of the ,jamnotri hot springs1 in #ca #c ,n4 and #gh #cj ,e41 the stream first flows ,s4 for #g m41 then ,s4,w4 for #cb m41 and afterwards due ,s4 for #bf m41 receiving several small tributaries in its course4 ,it afterwards turns sharply to the ,w4 for #ad m41 when it is joined by the large river ,tons from the north4 ,the ,jumna here emerges from the ,himalayas into the valley of the ,dun1 and flows in a ,s4,w4 direction for #bb m41 dividing the ,kiarda ,dun on the ,w4 from the ,dehra ,dun on the ,e4 ,it then1 at the #ieth mile of its course1 forces its way through the ,siwalik hills1 and debouches upon the plains of ,india at ,fyzabad in ,saharanpur district4 ,by this time a large river1 it gives off1 near ,fyzabad1 the eastern and western ,jumna canals4 ,from ,fyzabad the river flows for #fe m4 in a ,s4,s4,w4 direction1 receiving the ,maskarra stream from the east4 ,near ,bidhauli1 in ,muzaffarnagar district1 it turns due ,s4 for #hj m4 to ,delhi city1 thence ,s4,e4 for #bg m4 to near ,dankaur1 receiving the waters of the ,hindan river on the east4 ,from ,dankaur it resumes its southerly course for #ajj m4 to ,mahaban near ,muttra1 where it turns ,e4 for nearly #bjj m41 passing the towns of ,agra1 ,ferozabad and ,etawah1 receiving on its left bank the ,karwan-nadi1 and on its right the ,banganga 7,utanghan74 ,from ,etawah it flows #adj m4 ,s4,e4 to ,hamirpur1 being joined by the ,sengar on its north bank1 and on the south by the great river ,chambal from the west1 and by the ,sind4 ,from ,hamirpur1 the ,jumna flows nearly due ,e41 until it enters ,allahabad district and passes ,allahabad city1 below which it falls into the ,ganges in #be #be ,n4 and #ha #ee ,e4 ,in this last part of its course it receives the waters of the ,betwa and the ,ken4 ,where the ,jumna and the ,ganges unite is the prayag1 or place of pilgrimage1 where devout ,hindus resort in thousands to wash and be sanctified4 ,the ,jumna1 after issuing from the hills1 has a longer course through the ,united ,provinces than the ,ganges1 but is not so large nor so important a river2 and above ,agra in the hot season it dwindles to a small stream4 ,this is no doubt partly caused by the eastern and western ,jumna canals1 of which the former1 constructed in #ahbc-ahcj1 irrigates #cjj1jjj acres in the districts of ,saharanpur1 ,muzaffarnagar and ,meerut1 in the ,united ,provinces2 while the latter1 consisting of the reopened channels of two canals dating from about #acej and #afbh respectively1 extends through the districts of ,umballa1 ,karnal1 ,hissar1 ,rohtak and ,delhi1 and the native states of ,patiala and ,jind in the ,punjab1 irrigating #fjj1jjj acres4 ,the headworks of the two canals are situated near the point where the river issues from the ,siwaliks4 ,the traffic on the ,jumna is not very considerable2 in its upper portion timber1 and in the lower stone1 grain and cotton are the chief articles of commerce1 carried in the clumsy barges which navigate its stream4 ,its waters are clear and blue1 while those of the ,ganges are yellow and muddy2 the difference between the streams can be discerned for some distance below the point at which they unite4 ,its banks are high and rugged1 often attaining the proportions of cliffs1 and the ravines which run into it are deeper and larger than those of the ,ganges4 ,it traverses the extreme edge of the alluvial plain of ,hindustan1 and in the latter part of its course it almost touches the ,bundelkhand offshoots of the ,vindhya range of mountains4 ,its passage is therefore more tortuous1 and the scenery along its banks more varied and pleasing1 than is the case with the ,ganges4 ,the ,jumna at its source near ,jamnotri is #aj1hdi ft4 above the sea-level2 at ,kotnur1 #af m4 lower1 it is only #ejcf ft42 so that1 between these two places1 it falls at the rate of #cad ft4 in a mile4 ,at its junction with the ,tons it is #afhf ft4 above the sea2 at its junction with the ,asan1 #adgj ft42 and at the point where it issues from the ,siwalik hills into the plains1 #abgf ft4 ,the catchment area of the river is #aah1jjj sq4 m42 its flood discharge at ,allahabad is estimated at #a1ccc1jjj cub4 ft4 per second4 ,the ,jumna is crossed by railway bridges at ,delhi1 ,muttra1 ,agra and ,allahabad1 while bridges of boats are stationed at many places4 ,,jumping1#a a branch of athletics which has been cultivated from the earliest times 7see ,,athletic ,,sports74 ,leaping competitions formed a part of the pentathlon1 or quintuple games1 of the ,olympian festivals1 and ,greek chronicles record that the athlete ,phayllus jumped a distance of #ee ,olympian1 or more than #cj ,english1 feet4 ,such a leap could not have been made without weights carried in the hands and thrown backwards at the moment of springing4 ,these were in fact employed by ,greek jumpers and were called halteres4 ,they were masses of stone or metal1 nearly semicircular1 according to ,pausanias1 and the fingers grasped them like the handles of a shield4 ,halteres were also used for general exercise1 like modern dumb-bells4 ,the ,olympian jumping took place to the music of lutes4 ,jumping has always been popular with ,british athletes1 and tradition has handed down the record of certain leaps that border on the incredible4 ,two forms of jumping are included in modern athletic contests1 the running long jump and the running high jump2 but the same jumps1 made from a standing position1 are also common forms of competition1 as well as the hop step and jump1 two hops and jump1 two jumps1 three jumps1 five jumps and ten jumps1 either with a run or from a standing position4 ,these events are again divided into two categories by the use of weights1 which are not allowed in championship contests4 ,in the running long jump anything over #ah ft4 was once considered good1 while ,peter ,o',connor's world's record 7#aija7 is #bd ft4 #aa in4 ,the jump is made1 after a short fast run on a cinder path1 from a joist sunk into the ground flush with the path1 the jumper landing in a pit filled with loose earth1 its level a few inches below that of the path4 ,the joist1 called the take-off1 is painted white1 and all jumps are measured from its edge to the nearest mark made by any part of the jumper's person in landing4 ,in the standing long jump1 well spiked shoes should be worn1 for it is in reality nothing but a push against the ground1 and a perfect purchase is of the greatest importance4 ,weights held in the hands of course greatly aid the jumper4 ,without weights ,j4 ,darby 7professional7 jumped #ab ft4 #a in4 and ,r4 ,c4 ,ewry 7,american amateur7 #aa ft4 #d7g_/h7 in4 ,with weights ,j4 ,darby covered #ad ft4 #i in4 at ,liverpool in #ahij1 while the amateur record is #ab ft4 #i in41 made by ,j4 ,chandler and ,g4 ,l4 ,hellwig 7,u4,s4,a474 ,the standing two1 three1 five and ten jumps are merely repetitions of the single jump1 care being taken to land with the proper balance to begin the next leap4 ,the record for two jumps without weights is #bb ft4 #b in41 made by ,h4 ,m4 ,johnson 7,u4,s4,a472 for three jumps without weights1 ,r4 ,c4 ,ewry1 #ce ft4 #g in42 with weights ,j4 ,darby1 #da ft4 #g in4 ,the hop step and jump is popular in ,ireland and often included in the programmes of minor meetings1 and so is the two hops and a jump4 ,the record for the first1 made by ,w4 ,mc,manus1 is #di ft4 #b in4 with a run and without weights2 for the latter1 also with a run and without weights1 #di ft4 in41 made by ,j4 ,b4 ,conolly4 ,in the running high jump also the standard has improved4 ,in #ahfd a jump of #e ft4 #f in4 was considered excellent4 ,the ,scotch professional ,donald ,dinnie1 on hearing that ,m4 ,j4 ,brooks of ,oxford had jumped #f ft4 #b in4 in #ahgf1 wrote to the newspapers to show that upon a priori grounds such an achievement was impossible4 ,since then many jumpers who can clear over #f ft4 have appeared4 ,in #ahie ,m4 ,f4 ,sweeney of ,new ,york accomplished a jump of #f ft4 #e7e_/h7 in4 ,ireland has produced many first-class high jumpers1 nearly all tall men1 ,p4 ,leahy winning the ,british amateur record in ,dublin in #ahih with a jump of #f ft4 #d in4 ,the ,american ,a4 ,bird ,page1 however1 although only #e ft4 #f in4 in height1 jumped #f ft4 #d in4 ,high jumping is done over a light staff or lath resting upon pins fixed in two uprights upon which a scale is marked4 ,the take-off1 or ground immediately in front of the uprights from which the spring is made1 is usually grass in ,great ,britain and cinders in ,america4 ,some jumpers run straight at the bar and clear it with body facing forward1 the knees being drawn up almost to the chin as the body clears the bar2 others run and spring sideways1 the feet being thrown upwards and over the bar first1 to act as a kind of lever in getting the body over4 ,there should be a shallow pit of loose earth or a mattress to break the fall4 ,the standing high jump is rarely seen in regular athletic meetings4 ,the jumper stands sideways to the bar with his arms extended upwards4 ,he then swings his arms down slowly1 bending his knees at the same time1 and1 giving his arms a violent upward swing1 springs from the ground4 ,as the body rises the arms are brought down1 one leg is thrown over the bar1 and the other pulled1 almost jerked1 after it4 ,the record for the standing high jump without weights is #f ft41 by ,j4 ,darby in #ahib4 ,by the use of a spring-board many extraordinary jumps have been made1 but this kind of leaping is done only by circus gymnasts and is not recognized by athletic authorities4 ,for pole-jumping see ,,pole-,,vaulting4 ,see ,encyclopaedia of ,sport2 ,m4 ,w4 ,ford1 ,running ,high ,jump1 ,outing1 vol4 xviii42 ,running ,broad ,jump1 ,outing1 vol4 xix42 ,standing ,jumping1 ,outing1 vol4 xix42 ,miscellaneous ,jumping1 ,outing1 vol4 xx4 ,also ,sporting and ,athletic ,register 7annual74 ,,footnote3 #a ,the verb to jump only dates from the beginning of the #afth century4 ,the ,new ,english ,dictionary takes it to be of onomatopoeic origin and does not consider a connexion with ,dan4 gumpe1 ,icel4 goppa1 c41 possible4 ,the earlier ,english word is leap 7,o4,e4 hlapan1 to run1 jump1 cf4 ,ger4 laufen74 ,,jumping-,,hare1 the ,english equivalent of springhaas1 the ,boer name of a large leaping south and east ,african rodent mammal1 ,pedetes caffer1 typifying a family by itself1 the ,pedetidae4 ,originally classed with the jerboas1 to which it has no affinity1 this remarkable rodent approximates in the structure of its skull to the porcupine-group1 near which it is placed by some naturalists1 although others consider that its true position is with the ,african scaly-tailed flying squirrels 7,anomaluridae74 ,the colour of the creature is bright rufous fawn2 the eyes are large2 and the bristles round the muzzle very long1 the former having a fringe of long hairs4 ,the front limbs are short1 and the hind ones very long2 and although the fore-feet have five toes1 those of the hind-feet are reduced to four4 ,the bones of the lower part of the hind leg 7tibia and fibula7 are united for a great part of their length4 ,there are four pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw1 which do not develop roots4 ,the jumping-hare is found in open or mountainous districts1 and has habits very like a jerboa4 ,it is nocturnal1 and dwells in composite burrows excavated and tenanted by several families4 ,when feeding it progresses on all four legs1 but if frightened takes gigantic leaps on the hind-pair alone2 the length of such leaps frequently reaches twenty feet1 or even more4 ,the young are generally three or four in number1 and are born in the summer4 ,a second smaller species has been named4 7,see ,,rodentia47 ,,jumping-,,mouse1 the name of a ,north ,american mouse-like rodent1 ,zapus hudsonius1 belonging to the family ,jaculidae 7,dipodidae71 and the other members of the same genus4 ,although mouse-like in general appearance1 these rodents are distinguished by their elongated hind limbs1 and1 typically1 by the presence of four pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw4 ,there are five toes to all the feet1 but the first in the fore-feet is rudimentary1 and furnished with a flat nail4 ,the cheeks are provided with pouches4 ,jumping-mice were long supposed to be confined to ,north ,america1 but a species is now known from ,n4,w4 ,china4 ,it is noteworthy that whereas ,e4 ,coues in #ahgg recognized but a single representative of this genus1 ranging over a large area in ,north ,america1 ,a4 ,preble distinguishes no fewer than twenty ,north ,american species and sub-species1 in addition to the one from ,szechuen4 ,among these1 it may be noted that ,z4 insignis differs from the typical ,z4 hudsonius by the loss of the premolar1 and has accordingly been referred to a sub-genus apart4 ,moreover1 the ,szechuen jumping-mouse differs from the typical ,zapus by the closer enamel-folds of the molars1 the shorter ears1 and the white tail-tip1 and is therefore made the type of another sub-genus4 ,in ,america these rodents inhabit forest1 pasture1 cultivated fields or swamps1 but are nowhere numerous4 ,when disturbed1 they start off with enormous bounds of eight or ten feet in length1 which soon diminish to three or four2 and in leaping the feet scarcely seem to touch the ground4 ,the nest is placed in clefts of rocks1 among timber or in hollow trees1 and there are generally three litters in a season4 7,see ,,rodentia47 ,,jumping-,,shrew1 a popular name for any of the terrestrial insectivora of the ,african family ,macroscelididae1 of which there are a number of species ranging over the ,african continent1 representing the tree-shrews of ,asia4 ,they are small long-snouted gerbil-like animals1 mainly nocturnal1 feeding on insects1 and characterized by the great length of the metatarsal bones1 which have been modified in accordance with their leaping mode of progression4 ,in some 7constituting the genus ,rhyncocyon7 the muzzle is so much prolonged as to resemble a proboscis1 whence the name elephant-shrews is sometimes applied to the members of the family4 ,,junagarh1 or ,,junagadh1 a native state of ,india1 within the ,gujarat division of ,bombay1 extending inland from the southern coast of the peninsula of ,kathiawar4 ,area1 #cbhd sq4 m42 pop4 7#aija71 #cie1dbh1 showing a decrease of #ai in the decade1 owing to famine2 estimated gross revenue1 #agd1jjj2 tribute to the ,british government and the gaekwar of ,baroda1 #dbjj2 a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor states in ,kathiawar4 ,the state is traversed by a railway from ,rajkot1 to the seaport of ,verawal4 ,it includes the sacred mountain of ,girnar and the ruined temple of ,somnath1 and also the forest of ,gir1 the only place in ,india where the lion survives4 ,junagarh ranks as a first-class state among the many chiefships of ,kathiawar1 and its ruler first entered into engagements with the ,british in #ahjg4 ,nawab ,sir ,rasul ,khanji1 ,k4,c4,s4,i41 was born in #aheh and succeeded his brother in #ahib4 ,the modern town of ,,junagarh 7#cd1bea71 #fj m4 by rail ,s4 of ,rajkot1 is handsomely built and laid out4 ,in ,november #ahig the foundation-stones of a hospital1 library and museum were laid1 and an arts college has recently been opened4 ,,juncaceae 7rush family71 in botany1 a natural order of flowering plants belonging to the series ,liliiflorae of the class ,monocotyledons1 containing about two hundred species in seven genera1 widely distributed in temperate and cold regions4 ,it is well represented in ,britain by the two genera which comprise nearly the whole order--,juncus1 rush1 and ,luzula1 woodrush4 ,they are generally perennial herbs with a creeping underground stem and erect1 unbranched1 aerial stems1 bearing slender leaves which are grass-like or cylindrical or reduced to membranous sheaths4 ,the small inconspicuous flowers are generally more or less crowded in terminal or lateral clusters1 the form of the inflorescence varying widely according to the manner of branching and the length of the pedicels4 ,the flowers are hermaphrodite and regular1 with the same number and arrangement of parts as in the order ,liliaceae1 from which they differ in the inconspicuous membranous character of the perianth1 the absence of honey or smell1 and the brushlike stigmas with long papillae-adaptations to wind-pollination as contrasted with the methods of pollination by insect agency1 which characterize the ,liliaceae4 ,juncaceae are1 in fact1 a less elaborated group of the same series as ,liliaceae1 but adapted to a simpler and more uniform environment than that larger and much more highly developed family4 ,illustration3 ,juncus effusus1 common rush4 #a4 ,plant4 #b4 ,inflorescence4 #c4 ,end of branch of inflorescence1 slightly enlarged4 #d4 ,flower1 enlarged4 #e4 ,fruit1 enlarged4 #f4 ,seed4 #g4 ,seed1 much enlarged4 ,,junction ,,city1 a city and the county-seat of ,geary county1 ,kansas1 ,u4,s4,a41 between ,smoky ,hill and ,republican rivers1 about #c m4 above their confluence to form the ,kansas1 and #gb m4 by rail ,w4 of ,topeka4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #dfie1 of whom #ede were foreign-born and #bib were negroes2 7#aije71 #edid2 7#aiaj71 #eeih4 ,junction ,city is served by the ,union ,pacific and the ,missouri1 ,kansas ,texas railways4 ,it is the commercial centre of a region in whose fertile valleys great quantities of wheat1 ,indian corn1 oats and hay are grown and live stock is raised1 and whose uplands contain extensive beds of limestone1 which is quarried for building purposes4 ,excellent water-power is available and is partly utilized by flour mills4 ,the municipality owns and operates the water-works4 ,at the confluence of ,smoky ,hill and ,republican rivers and connected with the city by an electric railway is ,fort ,riley1 a ,u4,s4 military post1 which was established in #ahec as ,camp ,centre but was renamed in the same year in honour of ,general ,bennett ,riley 7#aghg-ahec72 in #ahhg the mounted service school of the ,u4,s4 army was established here4 ,northward from the post is a rugged country over which extends a military reservation of about #ai1jjj acres4 ,adjoining the reservation and about #e m4 ,n4,e4 of ,junction ,city is the site of the short-lived settlement of ,pawnee1 where from the #bnd to the #fth of ,july #ahee the first ,kansas legislature met1 in a building the ruins of which still remain2 the establishment of ,pawnee 7in ,december #ahed7 was a speculative pro-slavery enterprise conducted by the commandant of ,fort ,riley1 other army officers and certain territorial officials1 and when a government survey showed that the site lay within the ,fort ,riley reservation1 the settlers were ordered 7,august #ahee7 to leave1 and the commandant of ,fort ,riley was dismissed from the army2 one of the charges brought against ,governor ,a4 ,h4 ,reeder was that he had favoured the enterprise4 ,junction ,city was founded in #aheg and was chartered as a city in #ahei4 ,,june1 the sixth month in the ,christian calendar1 consisting of thirty days4 ,ovid 7,fasti1 vi4 #be7 makes ,juno assert that the name was expressly given in her honour4 ,elsewhere 7,fasti1 vi4 #hg7 he gives the derivation a junioribus1 as ,may had been derived from majores1 which may be explained as in allusion either to the two months being dedicated respectively to youth and age in general1 or to the seniors and juniors of the government of ,rome1 the senate and the comitia curiata in particular4 ,others connect the term with the gentile name ,junius1 or with the consulate of ,junius ,brutus4 ,probably1 however1 it originally denoted the month in which crops grow to ripeness4 ,in the old ,latin calendar ,june was the fourth month1 and in the so-called year of ,romulus it is said to have had thirty days2 but at the time of the ,julian reform of the calendar its days were only twenty-nine4 ,to these ,caesar added the thirtieth4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons called ,june the dry month1 midsummer month1 and1 in contradistinction to ,july1 the earlier mild month4 ,the summer solstice occurs in ,june4 ,principal festival days in this month3 #aath ,june1 ,st ,barnabas2 #bdth ,june1 ,midsummer ,day 7,nativity of ,st ,john the ,baptist72 #bith ,june1 ,st ,peter4 ,,juneau1 formerly ,,harrisburg1 a mining and trading town picturesquely situated at the mouth of ,gold ,creek on the continental shore of ,gastineau channel1 south-east ,alaska1 and the capital of ,alaska4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #ahfd 7#dej ,indians72 7#aiaj71 #afdd4 ,it has a ,united ,states custom-house and court-house4 ,the city has fishing1 manufacturing and trading interests1 but its prosperity is chiefly due to the gold mines in the adjacent ,silver ,bow basin1 the source of ,gold ,creek1 and the site of the great ,perseverance mine1 and to those on the ,treadwell lode on ,douglas ,island1 #b m4 from ,juneau4 ,placer gold was found at the mouth of the creek in #ahgi1 and the city was settled in #ahhj by two prospectors named ,joseph ,juneau and ,richard ,harris4 ,the district was called ,juneau and the camp ,harrisburg by the first settlers2 exploring naval officers named the camp ,rockwell1 in honour of ,commander ,charles ,henry ,rockwell1 ,u4,s4,n4 7b4 #ahdj74 ,a town meeting then adopted the name of ,juneau4 ,the town was incorporated in #aijj4 ,in ,october #aijf the seat of government of ,alaska was removed from ,sitka to ,juneau4 ,,jung1 ,,johann ,,heinrich 7#agdj-ahag71 best known by his assumed name of ,,heinrich ,,stilling1 ,german author1 was born in the vlllage of ,grund near ,hilchenbach in ,westphalia on the #abth of ,september #agdj4 ,his father1 ,wilhelm ,jung1 schoolmaster and tailor1 was the son of ,eberhard ,jung1 charcoal-burner1 and his mother was ,dortchen ,moritz1 daughter of a poor clergyman4 ,jung became1 by his father's desire1 schoolmaster and tailor1 but found both pursuits equally wearisome4 ,after various teaching appointments he went in #agfh with half a ,french dollar to study medicine at the university of ,strassburg4 ,there he met ,goethe1 who introduced him to ,herder4 ,the acquaintance with ,goethe ripened into friendship2 and it was by his influence that ,jung's first and best work1 ,heinrich ,stillings ,jugend was written4 ,in #aggb he settled at ,elberfeld as physician and oculist1 and soon became celebrated for operations in cases of cataract4 ,surgery1 however1 was not much more to his taste than tailoring or teaching2 and in #aggh he was glad to accept the appointment of lecturer on agriculture1 technology1 commerce and the veterinary art in the newly established ,kameralschule at ,kaiserslautern1 a post which he continued to hold when the school was absorbed in the university of ,heidelberg4 ,in #aghg he was appointed professor of economical1 financial and statistical science in the university of ,marburg4 ,in #ahjc he resigned his professorship and returned to ,heidelberg1 where he remained until #ahjf1 when he received a pension from the grand-duke ,charles ,frederick of ,baden1 and removed to ,karlsruhe1 where he remained until his death on the #bnd of ,april #ahag4 ,he was married three times1 and left a numerous family4 ,of his works his autobiography ,heinrich ,stillings ,leben1 from which he came to be known as ,stilling1 is the only one now of any interest1 and is the chief authority for his life4 ,his early novels reflect the piety of his early surroundings4 ,a complete edition of his numerous works1 in #ad vols4 #hvo1 was published at ,stuttgart in #ahce-ahch4 ,there are ,english translations by ,sam4 ,jackson of the ,leben 7#ahce7 and of the ,theorie der ,geisterkunde 7,london1 #ahcd1 and ,new ,york1 #ahea72 and of ,theobald1 or the ,fanatic1 a religious romance1 by the ,rev4 ,sam4 ,schaeffer 7#ahdf74 ,see biographies by ,f4 ,w4 ,bodemann 7#ahfh71 ,j4 v4 ,ewald 7#ahag71 ,peterson 7#ahij74 ,,jung ,,bahadur1 ,,sir1 ,,maharajah 7#ahaf-ahgg71 prime minister of ,nepal1 was a grand-nephew of ,bhim sena ,thapa 7,bhim sen ,thappa71 the famous military minister of ,nepal1 who from #ahjd to #ahci was de facto ruler of the state under the rani ,tripuri and her successor4 ,bhimsena's supremacy was threatened by the ,kala ,pandry1 and many of his relations1 including ,jung ,bahadur1 went into exile in #ahch1 thus escaping the cruel fate which overtook ,bhimsena in the following year4 ,the ,pandry leaders1 who then reverted to power1 were in turn assassinated in #ahdc1 and ,matabar ,singh1 uncle of ,jung ,bahadur1 was created prime minister4 ,he appointed his nephew general and chief judge1 but shortly afterwards he was himself put to death4 ,fateh ,jung thereon formed a ministry1 of which ,jung ,bahadur was made military member4 ,in the following year1 #ahdf1 a quarrel was fomented1 in which ,fateh ,jung and thirty-two other chiefs were assassinated1 and the rani appointed ,jung ,bahadur sole minister4 ,the rani quickly changed her mind1 and planned the death of her new minister1 who at once appealed to the maharaja4 ,but the plot failed4 ,the raja and the rani wisely sought safety in ,india1 and ,jung ,bahadur firmly established his own position by the removal of all dangerous rivals4 ,he succeeded so well that in ,january #ahej he was able to leave for a visit to ,england1 from which he did not return to ,nepal until the #fth of ,february #ahea4 ,on his return1 and frequently on subsequent dates1 he frustrated conspiracies for his assassination4 ,the reform of the penal code1 and a desultory war with ,tibet1 occupied his attention until news of the ,indian ,mutiny reached ,nepal4 ,jung ,bahadur resisted all overtures from the rebels1 and sent a column to ,gorakpur in ,july #aheg4 ,in ,december he furnished a force of #hjjj ,gurkhas1 which reached ,lucknow on the #aath of ,march #aheh1 and took part in the siege4 ,the moral support of the ,nepalese was more valuable even than the military services rendered by them4 ,jung ,bahadur was made a ,g4,c4,b41 and a tract of country annexed in #ahae was restored to ,nepal4 ,various frontier disputes were settled1 and in #ahge ,sir ,jung ,bahadur was on his way to ,england when he had a fall from his horse in ,bombay and returned home4 ,he received a visit from the ,prince of ,wales in #ahgf4 ,on the #beth of ,february #ahgg he died1 having reached the age of sixty-one4 ,three of his widows immolated themselves on his funeral pyre4 7,w4 ,l4-,w47 ,,jung-,,bunzlau 7,czech1 ,mlad ,boleslav71 a town of ,bohemia1 #dd m4 ,n4,n4,e4 of ,prague by rail4 ,pop4 7#aijj71 #ac1dgi1 mostly ,czech4 ,the town contains several old buildings of historical interest1 notably the castle1 built towards the end of the #ajth century1 and now used as barracks4 ,there are several old churches4 ,in that of ,st ,maria the celebrated bishop of the ,bohemian brethren1 ,johann ,august1 was buried in #aeie2 but his tomb was destroyed in #afba4 ,the church of ,st ,bonaventura with the convent1 originally belonging to the friars minor and later to the ,bohemian brethren1 is now a ,piaristic college4 ,the church of ,st ,wenceslaus1 once a convent of the brotherhood1 is now used for military stores4 ,jung-,bunzlau was built in #iie1 under ,boleslaus ,,ii41 as the seat of a gaugraf or royal count4 ,early in the #acth century it was given the privileges of a town and pledged to the lords of ,michalovic4 ,in the ,hussite wars ,jung-,bunzlau adhered to the ,taborites and became later the metropolis of the ,bohemian ,brethren4 ,in #aeie ,bohuslav of ,lobkovic sold his rights as over-lord to the town1 which was made a royal city by ,rudolf ,,ii4 ,during the ,thirty ,years' ,war it was twice burned1 in #afca by the imperialists1 and in #afdj by the ,swedes4 ,,jungfrau1 a well-known ,swiss mountain 7#ac1ffi ft471 admirably seen from ,interlaken4 ,it rises on the frontier between the cantons of ,bern and of the ,valais1 and is reckoned among the peaks of the ,bernese ,oberland1 two of which 7the ,finsteraarhorn1 #ad1jbf ft41 and the ,aletschhorn1 #ac1gba ft47 surpass it in height4 ,it was first ascended in #ahaa by the brothers ,meyer1 and again in #ahab by ,gottlieb ,meyer 7son of ,j4 ,r4 ,meyer71 in both cases by the eastern or ,valais side1 the foot of which 7the final ascent being made by the #ahaa-ahab route7 was reached in #ahbh over the ,mnchjoch by six peasants from ,grindelwald4 ,in #ahda ,principal ,j4 ,d4 ,forbes1 with ,agassiz1 ,desor and ,du ,chtelier1 made the fourth ascent by the #ahab route4 ,it was not till #ahfe that ,sir ,george ,young and the ,rev4 ,h4 ,b4 ,george succeeded in making the first ascent from the west or ,interlaken side4 ,this is a far more difficult route than that from the east1 the latter being now frequently taken in the course of the summer4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,jungle 7,sans4 jangala71 an ,anglo-,indian term for a forest1 a thicket1 a tangled wilderness4 ,the ,hindustani word means strictly waste1 uncultivated ground2 then such ground covered with trees or long grass2 and thence again the ,anglo-,indian application is to forest or other wild growth1 rather than to the fact that it is not cultivated4 ,,junin1 an interior department of central ,peru1 bounded ,n4 by ,huanuco1 ,e4 by ,loreto and ,cuzco1 ,s4 by ,huancavelica1 and ,w4 by ,lima and ,ancachs4 ,pop4 7#aijf estimate71 #cje1gjj4 ,it lies wholly within the ,andean zone and has an area of #bc1cec sq4 m4 ,it is rich in minerals1 including silver1 copper1 mercury1 bismuth1 molybdenum1 lead and coal4 ,the ,huallaga and ,mantaro rivers have their sources in this department1 the latter in ,lake ,junin1 or ,chanchaycocha1 #ac1bcj ft4 above sea-level4 ,the capital of ,junin is ,cerro de ,pasco1 and its two principal towns are ,jauja and ,tarma 7pop41 #aijf1 about #ab1jjj and #ejjj respectively74 ,,juniper4 ,the junipers1 of which there are twenty-five or more species1 are evergreen bushy shrubs or low columnar trees1 with a more or less aromatic odour1 inhabiting the whole of the cold and temperate northern hemisphere1 but attaining their maximum development in the ,mediterranean region1 the ,north ,atlantic islands1 and the eastern ,united ,states4 ,the leaves are usually articulated at the base1 spreading1 sharp-pointed and needle-like in form1 destitute of oil-glands1 and arranged in alternating whorls of three2 but in some the leaves are minute and scale-like1 closely adhering to the branches1 the apex only being free1 and furnished with an oil-gland on the back4 ,sometimes the same plant produces both kinds of leaves on different branches1 or the young plants produce acicular leaves1 while those of the older plants are squamiform4 ,the male and female flowers are usually produced on separate plants4 ,the male flowers are developed at the ends of short lateral branches1 are rounded or oblong in form1 and consist of several antheriferous scales in two or three rows1 each scale bearing three or six almost spherical pollen-sacs on its under side4 ,the female flower is a small bud-like cone situated at the apex of a small branch1 and consists of two or three whorls of two or three scales4 ,the scales of the upper or middle series each bear one or two erect ovules4 ,the mature cone is fleshy1 with the succulent scales fused together and forming the fruit-like structure known to the older botanists as the galbulus1 or berry of the juniper4 ,the berries are red or purple in colour1 varying in size from that of a pea to a nut4 ,they thus differ considerably from the cones of other members of the order ,coniferae1 of ,gymnosperms 7q4v471 to which the junipers belong4 ,the seeds are usually three in number1 sometimes fewer 7#a71 rarely more 7#h71 and have the surface near the middle or base marked with large glands containing oil4 ,the genus occurs in a fossil state1 four species having been described from rocks of ,tertiary age4 ,the genus is divided into three sections1 ,sabina1 ,oxycedrus and ,caryocedrus4 ,juniperus ,sabina is the savin1 abundant on the mountains of central ,europe1 an irregularly spreading much-branched shrub with scale-like glandular leaves1 and emitting a disagreeable odour when bruised4 ,the plant is poisonous1 acting as a powerful local and general stimulant1 diaphoretic1 emmenagogue and anthelmintic2 it was formerly employed both internally and externally4 ,the oil of savin is now occasionally used criminally as an abortifacient4 ,j4 bermudiana1 a tree about #dj or #ej ft4 in height1 yields a fragrant red wood1 which was used for the manufacture of cedar pencils4 ,the tree is now very scarce in ,bermuda1 and the red cedar1 ,j4 virginiana1 of ,north ,america is employed instead for pencils and cigar-boxes4 ,the red cedar is abundant in some parts of the ,united ,states and in ,virginia is a tree #ej ft4 in height4 ,it is very widely distributed from the ,great ,lakes to ,florida and round the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and extends as far west as the ,rocky ,mountains and beyond to ,vancouver ,island4 ,the wood is applied to many uses in the ,united ,states4 ,the fine red fragrant heart-wood takes a high polish1 and is much used in cabinet-work and inlaying1 but the small size of the planks prevents its more extended use4 ,the galls produced at the ends of the branches have been used in medicine1 and the wood yields cedar-camphor and oil of cedar-wood4 ,j4 thurifera is the incense juniper of ,spain and ,portugal1 and ,j4 phoenicea 7,j4 lycia7 from the ,mediterranean district is stated by ,loudon to be burned as incense4 ,j4 communis1 the common juniper 7see fig471 and several other species1 belong to the section ,oxycedrus4 ,the common juniper is a very widely distributed plant1 occurring in the whole of northern ,europe1 central and northern ,asia to ,kamchatka1 and east and west ,north ,america4 ,it grows at considerable elevations in southern ,europe1 in the ,alps1 ,apennines1 ,pyrenees and ,sierra ,nevada 7#djjj to #hjjj ft474 ,it also grows in ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 and at great elevations on the ,himalayas4 ,in ,great ,britain it is usually a shrub with spreading branches1 less frequently a low tree4 ,in former times the juniper seems to have been a very well-known plant1 the name occurring almost unaltered in many languages4 ,the ,lat4 juniperus1 probably formed from juni--crude form of juvenis1 fresh1 young1 and parere1 to produce1 is represented by ,fr4 genivre1 ,sp4 enebro1 ,ital4 ginepito1 c4 ,the dialectical names1 chiefly in ,european languages1 were collected by ,prince ,l4 ,l4 ,bonaparte1 and published in the ,academy 7,july #ag1 #ahhj1 ,no4 #dbh1 p4 #de74 ,the common juniper is official in the ,british pharmacopoeia and in that of the ,united ,states1 yielding the oil of juniper1 a powerful diuretic1 distilled from the unripe fruits4 ,this oil is closely allied in composition to oil of turpentine and is given in doses of a half to three minims4 ,the ,spiritus juniperi of the ,british pharmacopoeia is given in doses up to one drachm4 ,much safer and more powerful diuretics are now in use4 ,the wood is very aromatic and is used for ornamental purposes4 ,in ,lapland the bark is made into ropes4 ,the fruits are used for flavouring gin 7a name derived from juniper1 through ,fr4 genivre72 and in some parts of ,france a kind of beer called genvrette was made from them by the peasants4 ,j4 ,oxycedrus1 from the ,mediterranean district and ,madeira1 yields cedar-oil which is official in most of the ,european pharmacopoeias1 but not in that of ,britain4 ,this oil is largely used by microscopists in what is known as the oil-immersion lens4 ,the third section1 ,caryocedrus1 consists of a single species1 ,j4 drupacea of ,asia ,minor4 ,the fruits are large and edible3 they are known in the ,east by the name habhel4 ,illustration3 7,from ,bentley and ,trimen's ,medicinal ,plants1 by permission of ,j4 ,a4 ,churchill47 ,juniper 7,juniperus communis74 #a4 ,vertical section of fruit4 #b4 ,male catkin4 ,,junius1 the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of letters to the ,london ,public ,advertiser1 from the #bast of ,january #agfi to the #bast of ,january #aggb4 ,the signature had been already used by him in a letter of the #bast of ,november #agfh1 which he did not include in his collection of the ,letters of ,junius published in #aggb4 ,the name was chosen in all probability because he had already signed ,lucius and ,brutus1 and wished to exhaust the name of ,lucius ,junius ,brutus the ,roman patriot4 ,whoever the writer was1 he wrote under other pseudonyms before1 during and after the period between ,january #agfi and ,january #aggb4 ,he acknowledged that he had written as ,philo-,junius1 and there is evidence that he was identical with ,veteran1 ,nemesis and other anonymous correspondents of the ,public ,advertiser4 ,there is a marked distinction between the letters of ,junius and his so-called miscellaneous letters4 ,the second deal with a variety of subjects1 some of a purely personal character1 as for instance the alleged injustice of ,viscount ,barrington the secretary at war to the officials of his department4 ,but the letters of ,junius had a definite object--to discredit the ministry of the duke of ,grafton4 ,this administration had been formed in ,october #agfh1 when the earl of ,chatham was compelled by ill health to retire from office1 and was a reconstruction of his cabinet of ,july #agff4 ,junius fought for the return to power of ,chatham1 who had recovered and was not on good terms with his successors4 ,he communicated with ,chatham1 with ,george ,grenville1 with ,wilkes1 all enemies of the duke of ,grafton1 and also with ,henry ,sampson ,woodfall1 printer and part owner of the ,public ,advertiser4 ,this private correspondence has been preserved4 ,it is written in the disguised hand used by ,junius4 ,the letters are of interest on three grounds--their political significance1 their style1 and the mystery which long surrounded their authorship4 ,as political writings they possess no intrinsic value4 ,junius was wholly destitute of insight1 and of the power to disentangle1 define and advocate principles4 ,the matter of his letters is always invective4 ,he began by a general attack on the ministry for their personal immorality or meanness4 ,an ill-judged defence of one of the body--the marquess of ,granby1 commander-in-chief--volunteered by ,sir ,william ,draper1 gave him an easy victory over a vulnerable opponent4 ,he then went on to pour acrimonious abuse on ,grafton1 on the duke of ,bedford1 on ,king ,george ,,iii4 himself in the letter of the #aith of ,december #agfi1 and ended with a most malignant and ignorant assault on ,lord ,chief ,justice ,mansfield4 ,several of his accusations were shown to be unfounded4 ,the practical effect of the letters was insignificant4 ,they were noticed and talked about4 ,they provoked anger and retorts4 ,but the letter to the king aroused indignation1 and though ,grafton's administration fell in ,january #aggj1 it was succeeded by the long-lived cabinet of ,lord ,north4 ,junius confessed himself beaten1 in his private letter to ,woodfall of the #aith of ,january #aggc4 ,he had materially contributed to his own defeat by his brutal violence4 ,he sinned indeed in a large company4 ,the employment of personal abuse had been habitual in ,english political controversy for generations1 and in the #ahth century there was a strong taste for satire4 ,latin literature1 which was not only studied but imitated1 supplied the inspiration and the models1 in the satires of ,juvenal1 and the speeches of ,cicero against ,verres and ,catiline4 ,if1 however1 ,junius was doing what others did1 he did it better than anybody else--a fact which sufficiently explains his rapid popularity4 ,his superiority lay in his style4 ,here also he was by no means original1 and he was unequal4 ,there are passages in his writings which can be best described in the words which ,burke applied to another writer3 ,a mere mixture of vinegar and water1 at once vapid and sour4 ,but at his best ,junius attains to a high degree of artificial elegance and vigour4 ,he shows the influence of ,bolingbroke1 of ,swift1 and above all of ,tacitus1 who appears to have been his favourite author4 ,the imitation is never slavish4 ,junius adapts1 and does not only repeat4 ,the white heat of his malignity animates the whole4 ,no single sentence will show the quality of a style which produces its effect by persistence and repetition1 but such a typical passage as follows displays at once the method and the spirit4 ,it is taken from ,letter ,,xlix4 to the duke of ,grafton1 ,june #bb1 #agga3-- ,the profound respect ,i bear to the gracious prince who governs this country with no less honour to himself than satisfaction to his subjects1 and who restores you to your rank under his standard1 will save you from a multitude of reproaches4 ,the attention ,i should have paid to your failings is involuntarily attracted to the hand which rewards them2 and though ,i am not so partial to the royal judgment as to affirm that the favour of a king can remove mountains of infamy1 it serves to lessen at least1 for undoubtedly it divides1 the burden4 ,while ,i remember how much is due to his sacred character1 ,i cannot1 with any decent appearance of propriety1 call you the meanest and the basest fellow in the kingdom4 ,i protest1 my ,lord1 ,i do not think you so4 ,you will have a dangerous rival in that kind of fame to which you have hitherto so happily directed your ambition1 as long as there is one man living who thinks you worthy of his confidence1 and fit to be trusted with any share in his government4444 ,with any other prince1 the shameful desertion of him in the midst of that distress1 which you alone had created1 in the very crisis of danger1 when he fancied he saw the throne already surrounded by men of virtue and abilities1 would have outweighed the memory of your former services4 ,but his majesty is full of justice1 and understands the doctrine of compensations2 he remembers with gratitude how soon you had accommodated your morals to the necessities of his service1 how cheerfully you had abandoned the engagements of private friendship1 and renounced the most solemn professions to the public4 ,the sacrifice of ,lord ,chatham was not lost on him4 ,even the cowardice and perfidy of deserting him may have done you no disservice in his esteem4 ,the instance was painful1 but the principle might please4 ,what is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the would-be classic taste of the #ahth century1 and does not now conceal the fact that the laboriously arranged words1 and artfully counterbalanced clauses1 convey a venomous hate and scorn4 ,the pre-established harmony between ,junius and his readers accounts for the rapidity of his success1 and for the importance attributed to him by ,burke and ,johnson1 far better writers than himself4 ,before #aggb there appeared at least twelve unauthorized republications of his letters1 made by speculative printers4 ,in that year he revised the collection named ,junius3 ,stat nominis umbra1 with a dedication to the ,english people and a preface4 ,other independent editions followed in quick succession4 ,in #ahja one was published with annotations by ,robert ,heron4 ,in #ahjf another appeared with notes by ,john ,almon4 ,the first new edition of real importance was issued by the ,woodfall family in #ahab4 ,it contained the correspondence of ,junius with ,h4 ,s4 ,woodfall1 a selection of the miscellaneous letters attributed to ,junius1 facsimiles of his handwriting1 and notes by ,dr ,mason ,good4 ,curiosity as to the mystery of the authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the writings4 ,junius himself had been early aware of the advantage he secured by concealment4 ,the mystery of ,junius increases his importance is his confession in a letter to ,wilkes dated the #ahth of ,september #agga4 ,the calculation was a sound one4 ,for two generations after the appearance of the letter of the #bast of ,january #agfi1 speculations as to the authorship of ,junius were rife1 and discussion had hardly ceased in #aiaj4 ,joseph ,parkes1 author with ,herman ,merivale of the ,memoirs of ,sir ,philip ,francis 7#ahfg71 gives a list of more than forty persons who had been supposed to be ,junius4 ,they are3 ,edmund ,burke1 ,lord ,george ,sackville1 ,lord ,chatham1 ,colonel ,barr1 ,hugh ,macaulay ,boyd1 ,dr ,butler1 ,john ,wilkes1 ,lord ,chesterfield1 ,henry ,flood1 ,william ,burke1 ,gibbon1 ,w4 ,e4 ,hamilton1 ,charles ,lloyd1 ,charles ,lee 7general in the ,american ,war of ,independence71 ,john ,roberts1 ,george ,grenville1 ,james ,grenville1 ,lord ,temple1 ,duke of ,portland1 ,william ,greatrakes1 ,richard ,glover1 ,sir ,william ,jones1 ,james ,hollis1 ,laughlin ,maclean1 ,philip ,rosenhagen1 ,horne ,tooke1 ,john ,kent1 ,henry ,grattan1 ,daniel ,wray1 ,horace ,walpole1 ,alexander ,wedderburn 7,lord ,loughborough71 ,dunning 7,lord ,ashburton71 ,lieut4-,general ,sir ,r4 ,rich1 ,dr ,philip ,francis1 a junto or committee of writers who used a common name1 ,de ,lolme1 ,mrs ,catherine ,macaulay 7#agcc-ia71 ,sir ,philip ,francis1 ,lord ,littleton1 ,wolfram ,cornwall and ,gov4 ,thomas ,pownall4 ,in the great majority of cases the attribution is based on nothing more than a vague guess4 ,edmund ,burke denied that he could have written the letters of ,junius if he would1 or would have written them if he could4 ,grattan pointed out that he was young when they appeared4 ,more plausible claims1 such as those made for ,lord ,temple and ,lord ,george ,sackville1 could not stand the test of examination4 ,indeed after #ahaf the question was not so much ,who wrote ,junius8 as ,was ,junius ,sir ,philip ,francis1 or some undiscoverable man8 ,in that year ,john ,taylor was led by a careful study of ,woodfall's edition of #ahab to publish ,the identity of ,junius with a distinguished living character established1 in which he claimed the letters for ,sir ,philip ,francis4 ,he had at first been inclined to attribute them to ,sir ,philip's father1 ,dr ,francis1 the author of translations of ,horace and ,demosthenes4 ,taylor applied to ,sir ,philip1 who did not die till #ahah1 for leave to publish1 and received from him answers which to an unwary person might appear to constitute denials of the authorship1 but were in fact evasions4 ,the reasons for believing that ,sir ,philip ,francis 7q4v47 was ,junius are very strong4 ,his evasions were only to be expected4 ,several of the men he attacked lived nearly as long as himself1 the sons of others were conspicuous in society1 and ,king ,george ,,iii4 survived him4 ,sir ,philip1 who had held office1 who had been decorated1 and who in his later years was ambitious to obtain the governor-generalship of ,india1 dared not confess that he was ,junius4 ,the similarity of his handwriting to the disguised hand used by the writer of the letters is very close4 ,if ,sir ,philip ,francis did1 as his family maintain1 address a copy of verses to a ,miss ,giles in the handwriting of ,junius 7and the evidence that he did is weighty7 there can be no further question as to the identity of the two4 ,the similarity of ,junius and ,francis in regard to their opinions1 their likes and dislikes1 their knowledge and their known movements1 amount1 apart from the handwriting1 almost to proof4 ,it is certain that many felons have been condemned on circumstantial evidence less complete4 ,the opposition to his claim is based on such assertions as that his known handwriting was inferior to the feigned hand of ,junius1 and that no man can make a disguised hand better than his own4 ,but the first assertion is unfounded1 and the second is a mere expression of opinion4 ,it is also said that ,francis must have been guilty of baseness if he wrote ,junius1 but if that explains why he did not avow the authorship it can be shown to constitute a moral impossibility only by an examination of his life4 ,,authorities4--,the best edition of the ,letters of ,junius1 properly so called1 with the ,miscellaneous ,letters1 is that of ,j4 ,ward 7#ahed74 ,the most valuable contributions to the controversy as to the authorship are3 ,the ,handwriting of ,junius investigated by ,charles ,chabot1 expert1 with preface and collateral evidence by the ,hon4 ,e4 ,twisleton 7#ahga72 ,memoirs of ,sir ,philip ,francis1 ,k4,c4,b41 by ,parkes and ,merivale 7#ahfg72 ,junius ,revealed by his ,surviving ,grandson1 by ,h4 ,r4 ,francis 7#ahid72 ,the ,francis ,letters1 edited by ,beata ,francis and ,eliza ,keary1 with a note on the ,junius controversy by ,c4 ,f4 ,keary 7#aija72 and ,francis1 ,sir ,philip1 by ,sir ,leslie ,stephen1 in ,dict4 of ,nat4 ,biog4 ,the case for those who decline to accept the claim of ,sir ,philip ,francis is stated by ,c4 ,w4 ,dilke1 ,papers of a ,critic 7#ahge71 and ,abraham ,hayward1 ,more about ,junius1 ,franciscan ,theory ,unsound 7#ahfh74 7,d4 ,h47 ,,junius1 ,,franz 7in ,french1 ,franois du ,jon71 the name of two ,huguenot scholars4 7#a7 ,,franz ,,junius 7#aede-afjb7 was born at ,bourges in ,france on the #ast of ,may #aede4 ,he had studied law for two years under ,hugo ,donellus 7#aebg-aeia7 when he was given a place in the retinue of the ,french ambassador to ,constantinople1 but before he reached ,lyons the ambassador had departed4 ,junius found ample consolation in the opportunities for study at the gymnasium at ,lyons4 ,a religious tumult warned him back to ,bourges1 where he was cured of certain rationalistic principles that he had imbibed at ,lyons1 and he determined to enter the reformed church4 ,he went in #aefb to study at ,geneva1 where he was reduced to the direst poverty by the failure of remittances from home1 owing to civil war in ,france4 ,he would accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend who had himself been a protg of ,junius's family at ,bourges1 and his health was permanently injured4 ,the long-expected remittance from home was closely followed by the news of the brutal murder of his father by a ,catholic fanatic at ,issoudun2 and ,junius resolved to remain at ,geneva1 where his reputation enabled him to live by teaching4 ,in #aefe1 however1 he was appointed minister of the ,walloon church at ,antwerp4 ,his foreign birth excluded him from the privileges of the native reformed pastors1 and exposed him to persecution4 ,several times he barely escaped arrest1 and finally1 after spending six months in preaching at ,limburg1 he was forced to retire to ,heidelberg in #aefg4 ,there he was welcomed by the elector ,frederick ,,ii41 and temporarily settled in charge of the ,walloon church at ,schnau2 but in #aefh his patron sent him as chaplain with ,prince ,william of ,orange in his unfortunate expedition to the ,netherlands4 ,junius escaped as soon as he could from that post1 and returning to his church remained there till #aegc4 ,from #aegc till #aegh he was at ,heidelberg1 assisting ,emmanuel ,tremellius 7#aeaj-aehj71 whose daughter he married1 in his ,latin version of the ,old ,testament 7,frankfort1 #aegi72 in #aeha he was appointed to the chair of divinity at ,heidelberg4 ,thence he was taken to ,france by the duke of ,bouillon1 and after an interview with ,henry ,,iv4 was sent again to ,germany on a mission4 ,as he was returning to ,france he was named professor of theology at ,leiden1 where he died on the #acth of ,october #afjb4 ,he was a voluminous writer on theological subjects1 and translated and composed many exegetical works4 ,he is best known from his own edition of the ,latin ,old ,testament1 slightly altered from the former joint edition1 and with a version of the ,new ,testament added 7,geneva1 #aeij2 ,hanover1 #afbd74 ,the ,opera ,theologica ,francisci ,junii ,biturigis were published at ,geneva 7#b vols41 #afac71 to which is prefixed his autobiography1 written about #aeib 7new ed41 edited by ,abraham ,kuypers1 #ahhb seq474 ,the autobiography had been published at ,leiden 7#aeie71 and is reprinted in the ,miscellanea ,groningana1 vol4 i41 along with a list of the author's other writings4 7#b7 ,,franz ,,junius 7#aehi-afgg71 son of the above1 was born at ,heidelberg1 and brought up at ,leiden4 ,his attention was diverted from military to theological studies by the peace of #afji between ,spain and the ,netherlands4 ,in #afag he became pastor at ,hillegondsberg1 but in #afbj went to ,england1 where he became librarian to ,thomas ,howard1 earl of ,arundel1 and tutor to his son4 ,he remained in ,england thirty years1 devoting himself to the study of ,anglo-,saxon1 and afterwards of the cognate old ,teutonic languages4 ,his work1 intrinsically valuable1 is important as having aroused interest in a frequently neglected subject4 ,in #afea he returned to ,holland2 and for two years lived in ,friesland in order to study the old dialect4 ,in #afge he returned to ,england1 and during the next year resided in ,oxford2 in #afgg he went to live at ,windsor with his nephew1 ,isaac ,vossius1 in whose house he died on the #aith of ,november #afgg4 ,he was buried at ,windsor in ,st ,george's ,chapel4 ,he was pre-eminently a student4 ,he published ,de pictura veterum 7#afcg7 7in ,english by the author1 #afch2 enlarged and improved edition1 edited by ,j4 ,g4 ,graevius1 who prefixed a life of ,junius1 with a catalogue of architects1 painters1 c41 and their works1 ,rotterdam1 #afid72 ,observationes in ,willerami ,abbatis francicam paraphrasin cantici canticorum 7,amsterdam1 #afee72 ,annotationes in harmoniam latino-francicam quatuor evangelistarum1 latine a ,tatiano confectam 7,amsterdam1 #afee72 ,caedmonis monachi paraphrasis poetica geneseos 7,amsterdam1 #afee7 7see criticism under ,,caedmon72 ,quatuor ,d4,n4,i4,c4 evangeliorum versiones perantiquae duae1 gothica scilicet et anglo-saxonica 7,dort1 #b vols41 #affe7 7the ,gothic version in this book ,junius transcribed from the ,silver ,codex of ,ulfilas2 the ,anglo-,saxon version is from an edition by ,thomas ,marshall1 whose notes to both versions are given1 and a ,gothic glossary by ,junius72 ,etymologicum anglicanum1 edited by ,edward ,lye1 and preceded by a life of ,junius and ,george ,hickes's ,anglo-,saxon grammar 7,oxford1 #agdc7 7its results require careful verification in the light of modern research74 ,his rich collection of ancient ,,mss41 edited and annotated by him1 ,junius bequeathed to the university of ,oxford4 ,graevius gives a list of them2 the most important are a version of the ,ormulum1 the version of ,caedmon1 and #i volumes containing ,glossarium v4 linguarum septentrionalium4 ,,junk4 7#a7 7,through ,port4 junco1 adapted from ,javanese djong1 or ,malayan adjong1 ship71 the name of the native sailing vessel1 common to the far eastern seas1 and especially used by the ,chinese and ,javanese4 ,it is a flat-bottomed1 high-sterned vessel with square bows and masts carrying lug-sails1 often made of matting4 7#b7 ,a nautical term for small pieces of disused rope or cable1 cut up to make fenders1 oakum1 c41 hence applied colloquially by sailors to the salt beef and pork used on board ship4 ,the word is of doubtful origin1 but may be connected with junk 7,lat4 juncus71 a reed1 or rush4 ,this word is now obsolete except as applied to a form of surgical appliance1 used as a support in cases of fracture where immediate setting is impossible1 and consisting of a shaped pillow or cushion stuffed with straw or horsehair1 formerly with rushes or reeds4 ,,junker1 ,,wilhelm 7#ahdj-ahib71 ,german explorer of ,africa1 was born at ,moscow on the #fth of ,april #ahdj4 ,he studied medicine at ,dorpat1 ,gttingen1 ,berlin and ,prague1 but did not practise for long4 ,after a series of short journeys to ,iceland1 ,tunis and ,lower ,egypt1 he remained almost continuously in eastern ,equatorial ,africa from #ahge to #ahhf1 making first ,khartum and afterwards ,lado the base of his expeditions1 ,junker was a leisurely traveller and a careful observer2 his main object was to study the peoples with whom he came into contact1 and to collect specimens of plants and animals1 and the result of his investigations in these particulars is given in his ,reisen in ,afrika 7#c vols41 ,vienna1 #ahhi-ahia71 a work of high merit4 ,an ,english translation by ,a4 ,h4 ,keane was published in #ahij-ahib4 ,perhaps the greatest service he rendered to geographical science was his investigation of the ,nile-,congo watershed1 when he successfully combated ,georg ,schweinfurth's hydrographical theories and established the identity of the ,welle and ,ubangi4 ,the ,mahdist rising prevented his return to ,europe through the ,sudan1 as he had planned to do1 in #ahhd1 and an expedition1 fitted out in #ahhe by his brother in ,st ,petersburg1 failed to reach him4 ,junker then determined to go south4 ,leaving ,wadelai on the #bnd of ,january #ahhf he travelled by way of ,uganda and ,tabora and reached ,zanzibar in ,december #ahhf4 ,in #ahhg he received the gold medal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,as an explorer ,junker is entitled to high rank1 his ethnographical observations in the ,niam-,niam 7,azandeh7 country being especially valuable4 ,he died at ,st ,petersburg on the #acth of ,february #ahib4 ,see the biographical notice by ,e4 ,g4 ,ravenstein in ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geographical ,society 7#ahib71 pp4 #ahe-ahg4 ,,junket1 a dish of milk curdled by rennet1 served with clotted cream and flavoured with nutmeg1 which is particularly associated in ,england with ,devonshire and ,cornwall4 ,the word is of somewhat obscure history4 ,it appears to come through ,o4 ,fr4 jonquette1 a rush-basket1 from ,lat4 juncus1 rush4 ,in ,norman dialect this word is used of a cream cheese4 ,the commonly accepted origin is that it refers to the rush-basket on which such cream cheeses or curds were served4 ,juncade appears in ,rabelais1 and is explained by ,cotgrave as spoon-meat1 rose-water and sugar4 ,nicholas ,udall 7in his translation of ,erasmus's ,apophthegms1 #aedb7 speaks of marchepaines or wafers with other like junkerie4 ,the word junket is also used for a festivity or picnic4 ,,juno1 the chief ,roman and ,latin goddess1 and the special object of worship by women at all the critical moments of life4 ,the etymology of the name is not certain1 but it is usually taken as a shortened form of ,jovino1 answering to ,jovis1 from a root div1 shining4 ,under ,greek influence ,juno was early identified with the ,greek ,hera1 with whose cult and characteristics she has much in common2 thus the ,juno with whom we are familiar in ,latin literature is not the true ,roman deity4 ,in the ,aeneid1 for example1 her policy is antagonistic to the plans of ,jupiter for the conquest of ,latium and the future greatness of ,rome2 though in the fourth ,eclogue1 as ,lucina1 she appears in her proper rle as assisting at childbirth4 ,it was under ,greek influence again that she became the wife of ,jupiter1 the mother of ,mars2 the true ,roman had no such personal interest in his deities as to invent family relations for them4 ,that ,juno was especially a deity of women1 and represents in a sense the female principle of life1 is seen in the fact that as every man had his genius1 so every woman had her ,juno2 and the goddess herself may have been a development of this conception4 ,the various forms of her cult all show her in close connexion with women4 ,as ,juno ,lucina she was invoked in childbirth1 and on the #ast of ,march1 the old ,roman ,new ,year's day1 the matrons met and made offerings at her temple in a grove on the ,esquiline2 hence the day was known as the ,matronalia4 ,as ,caprotina she was especially worshipped by female slaves on the #gth of ,july 7,nonae ,caprotinae72 as ,sospita she was invoked all over ,latium as the saviour of women in their perils1 and later as the saviour of the state2 and under a number of other titles1 ,cinxia1 ,unxia1 ,pronuba1 c41 we find her taking a leading part in the ritual of marriage4 ,her real or supposed connexion with the moon is explained by the alleged influence of the moon on the lives of women2 thus she became the deity of the ,kalends1 or day of the new moon1 when the regina sacrorum offered a lamb to her in the regia1 and her husband the rex made known to the people the day on which the ,nones would fall4 ,thus she is brought into close relation with ,janus1 who also was worshipped on the ,kalends by the rex sacrorum1 and it may be that in the oldest ,roman religion these two were more closely connected than ,juno and ,jupiter4 ,but in historical times she was associated with ,jupiter in the great temple on the ,capitoline hill as ,juno ,regina1 the queen of all ,junones or queen of heaven1 as ,jupiter there was ,optimus ,maximus 7see ,,jupiter71 and under the same title she was enticed from ,veii after its capture in #cib ,b4,c41 and settled in a temple on the ,aventine4 ,thus exalted above all other female deities1 she was prepared for that identification with ,hera which was alluded to above4 ,that she was in some sense a deity of light seems certain2 as ,lucina1 e4g41 she introduced new-born infants in luminis oras4 ,see ,roscher's article ,juno in his ,lexicon of ,mythology1 and his earlier treatise on ,juno and ,hera2 ,wissowa1 ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer1 #aac foll42 also a fresh discussion by ,walter ,otto in ,philologus for #aije 7p4 #afa foll474 7,w4 ,w4 ,f4997 ,,junot1 ,,andoche1 ,,duke ,,of ,,abrabantes 7#agga-ahac71 ,french general1 was born at ,bussy-le-,grand 7,cte d',or71 on the #bcrd of ,october #agga4 ,he went to school at ,chatillon1 and was known among his comrades as a blustering but lovable creature1 with a pugnacious disposition4 ,he was studying law in ,paris at the outbreak of the ,revolution and joined a volunteer battalion4 ,he distinguished himself by his valour in the first year of the ,revolutionary wars1 and came under the special notice of ,napoleon ,bonaparte during the siege of ,toulon1 while serving as his secretary4 ,it is related that as he was taking down a despatch1 a shell burst hard by and covered the paper with sand1 whereupon he exclaimed1 ,bien6 nous n'avions pas de sable pour scher l'encre6 en voici6 ,he remained the faithful companion of his chief during the latter's temporary disgrace1 and went with him to ,italy as aide-de-camp4 ,he distinguished himself so much at the battle of ,millesimo that he was selected to carry back the captured colours to ,paris2 returning to ,italy he went through the campaign with honour1 but was badly wounded in the head at ,lonato4 ,many rash incidents in his career may be traced to this wound1 from which he never completely recovered4 ,during the expedition to ,egypt he became a general of brigade4 ,his devotion to ,bonaparte involved him in a duel with ,general ,lanusse1 in which he was again wounded4 ,he had to be left in ,egypt to recover1 and in crossing to ,france was captured by ,english cruisers4 ,on his return to ,france he was made commandant of ,paris1 and afterwards promoted general of division4 ,it was at this time that he married ,laure ,permon 7see ,,junot1 ,,laure74 ,he next served at ,arras in command of the grenadiers of the army destined for the invasion of ,england1 and made some alterations in the equipment of the troops which received the praise of the emperor4 ,it was1 however1 a bitter mortification that he was not appointed a marshal of ,france when he received the grand cross of the legion of honour4 ,he was made colonel-general of hussars instead and sent as ambassador to ,lisbon1 his entry into which city resembled a royal progress4 ,but he was so restless and dissatisfied in the ,portuguese capital that he set out1 without leave1 for the army of ,napoleon1 with which he took part in the battle of ,austerlitz1 behaving with his usual courage and zeal4 ,but he soon gave fresh offence4 ,although his early devotion was never forgotten by the emperor1 his uncertain temper and want of self-control made it dangerous to employ him at court or headquarters1 and he was sent to ,parma to put down an insurrection and to be out of the way4 ,in #ahjf he was recalled and became governor of ,paris4 ,his extravagance and prodigality shocked the government1 and some rumours of an intrigue with a lady of the imperial family--it is said ,pauline ,bonaparte--made it desirable again to send him away4 ,he was therefore appointed to lead an invading force into ,portugal4 ,for the first time ,junot had a great task to perform1 and only his own resources to fall back upon for its achievement4 ,early in ,november #ahjg he set out from ,salamanca1 crossed the mountains of ,beira1 rallied his wearied forces at ,abrantes1 and1 with #aejj men1 dashed upon ,lisbon1 in order1 if possible1 to seize the ,portuguese fleet1 which had1 however1 just sailed away with the regent and court to ,brazil4 ,the whole movement only took a month2 it was undoubtedly bold and well-conducted1 and ,junot was made duke of ,abrantes and invested with the governorship of ,portugal4 ,but administration was his weak point4 ,he was not a civil governor1 but a sabreur1 brave1 truculent1 and also dissipated and rapacious1 though in the last respect he was far from being the worst offender amongst the ,french generals in ,spain4 ,his hold on ,portugal was never supported by a really adequate force1 and his own conduct1 which resembled that of an eastern monarch1 did nothing to consolidate his conquest4 ,after ,wellesley encountered him at ,vimiera 7see ,peninsular ,war7 he was obliged to conclude the so-called convention of ,cintra1 and to withdraw from ,portugal with all his forces4 ,napoleon was furious1 but1 as he said1 was spared the necessity of sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that the ,english put their own generals on their trial4 ,junot was sent back to ,spain1 where1 in #ahaj-ahaa1 acting under ,massna1 he was once more seriously wounded4 ,his last campaign was made in ,russia1 and he received more than a just share of discredit for it4 ,napoleon next appointed him to govern ,illyria4 ,but ,junot's mind had become deranged under the weight of his misfortunes1 and on the #bith of ,july #ahac1 at ,montbard1 he threw himself from a window in a fit of insanity4 ,,junot1 ,,laure1 ,,duchess ,,of ,,abrantes 7#aghc-ahcd71 wife of the preceding1 was born at ,montpellier4 ,she was the daughter of ,mme4 ,permon1 to whom during her widowhood the young ,bonaparte made an offer of marriage--such at least is the version presented by the daughter in her celebrated ,memoirs4 ,the ,permon family1 after various vicissitudes1 settled at ,paris1 and ,bonaparte certainly frequented their house a good deal after the downfall of the ,jacobin party in ,thermidor #agid4 ,mlle4 ,permon was married to ,junot early in the consulate1 and at once entered eagerly into all the gaieties of ,paris1 and became noted for her beauty1 her caustic wit1 and her extravagance4 ,the first consul nicknamed her petite peste1 but treated her and ,junot with the utmost generosity1 a fact which did not restrain her sarcasms and slanders in her portrayal of him in her ,memoirs4 ,during ,junot's diplomatic mission to ,lisbon1 his wife displayed her prodigality so that on his return to ,paris in #ahjf he was burdened with debts1 which his own intrigues did not lessen4 ,she joined him again at ,lisbon after he had entered that city as conqueror at the close of #ahjg2 but even the presents and spoils won at ,lisbon did not satisfy her demands2 she accompanied ,junot through part of the ,peninsular ,war4 ,on her return to ,france she displeased the emperor by her vivacious remarks and by receiving guests whom he disliked4 ,the mental malady of ,junot thereafter threatened her with ruin2 this perhaps explains why she took some part in the intrigues for bringing back the ,bourbons in #ahad4 ,she did not side with ,napoleon during the ,hundred ,days4 ,after #ahae she spent most of her time at ,rome amidst artistic society1 which she enlivened with her sprightly converse4 ,she also compiled her spirited but somewhat spiteful ,memoirs1 which were published at ,paris in #ahca-ahcd in #ah volumes4 ,many editions have since appeared4 ,of her other books the most noteworthy are ,histoires contemporaines 7#b vols41 #ahce72 ,scnes de la vie espagnole 7#b vols41 #ahcf72 ,histoire des salons de ,paris 7#f vols41 #ahcg-ahch72 ,souvenirs d'une ambassade et d'un sjour en ,espagne et en ,portugal1 de #ahjh #ahaa 7#b vols41 #ahcg74 7,j4 ,hl4 ,r47 ,,junta 7from juntar1 to join71 a ,spanish word meaning 7#a7 any meeting for a common purpose2 7#b7 a committee2 7#c7 an administrative council or board4 ,the original meaning is now rather lost in the two derivative significations4 ,the ,spaniards have even begun to make use of the barbarism mtin1 corrupted from the ,english meeting4 ,the word junta has always been and still is used in the other senses4 ,some of the boards by which the ,spanish administration was conducted under the ,habsburg and the earlier ,bourbon kings were styled juntas4 ,the superior governing body of the ,inquisition was the junta suprema4 ,the provincial committees formed to organize resistance to ,napoleon's invasion in #ahjh were so called1 and so was the general committee chosen from among them to represent the nation4 ,in the ,war of ,independence 7#ahjh-ahad71 and in all subsequent civil wars or revolutionary disturbances in ,spain or ,spanish ,america1 the local executive bodies1 elected1 or in some cases self-chosen1 to appoint officers1 raise money and soldiers1 look after the wounded1 and discharge the functions of an administration1 have been known as juntas4 ,the form ,junto1 a corruption due to other ,spanish words ending in -o1 came into use in ,english in the #agth century1 often in a disparaging sense1 of a party united for a political purpose1 a faction or cabal2 it was particularly applied to the advisers of ,charles ,i41 to the ,rump under ,cromwell1 and to the leading members of the great ,whig houses who controlled the government in the reigns of ,william ,,iii4 and ,anne4 ,,jupiter1 the chief deity of the ,roman state4 ,the great and constantly growing influence exerted from a very early period on ,rome by the superior civilization of ,greece not only caused a modification of the ,roman god on the analogy of ,zeus1 the supreme deity of the ,greeks1 but led the ,latin writers to identify the one with the other1 and to attribute to ,jupiter myths and family relations which were purely ,greek and never belonged to the real ,roman religion4 ,the ,jupiter of actual worship was a ,roman god2 the ,jupiter of ,latin literature was more than half ,greek4 ,this identification was facilitated by the community of character which really belonged to ,jupiter and ,zeus as the ,roman and ,greek developments of a common original conception of the god of the light and the heaven4 ,that this was the original idea of ,jupiter1 not only in ,rome1 but among all ,italian peoples1 admits of no doubt4 ,the earliest form of his name was ,diovis pater1 or ,diespiter1 and his special priest was the flamen dialis2 all these words point to a root div1 shining1 and the connexion with dies1 day1 is obvious 7cf4 ,,juno74 ,one of his most ancient epithets is ,lucetius1 the light-bringer2 and later literature has preserved the same idea in such phrases as sub ,jove1 under the open sky4 ,all days of the full moon 7idus7 were sacred to him2 all emanations from the sky were due to him and in the oldest form of religious thought were probably believed to be manifestations of the god himself4 ,as ,jupiter ,elicius he was propitiated1 with a peculiar ritual1 to send rain in time of drought2 as ,jupiter ,fulgur he had an altar in the ,campus ,martius1 and all places struck by lightning were made his property and guarded from the profane by a circular wall4 ,the vintage1 which needs especially the light and heat of the sun1 was under his particular care1 and in the festivals connected with it 7,vinalia urbana7 and ,meditrinalia1 he was the deity invoked1 and his flamen the priest employed4 ,throughout ,italy we find him worshipped on the summits of hills1 where nothing intervened between earth and heaven1 and where all the phenomena of the sky could be conveniently observed4 ,thus on the ,alban hill south of ,rome was an ancient seat of his worship as ,jupiter ,latiaris1 which was the centre of the league of thirty ,latin cities of which ,rome was originally an ordinary member4 ,at ,rome itself it is on the ,capitoline hill that we find his oldest temple1 described by ,livy 7i4 #aj72 here we have a tradition of his sacred tree1 the oak1 common to the worship both of ,zeus and ,jupiter1 and here too was kept the lapis silex1 perhaps a celt1 believed to have been a thunderbolt1 which was used symbolically by the fetiales when officially declaring war and making treaties on behalf of the ,roman state4 ,hence the curious form of oath1 ,jovem lapident jurare1 used both in public and private life at ,rome4 ,in this oldest ,jupiter of the ,latins and ,romans1 the god of the light and the heaven1 and the god invoked in taking the most solemn oaths1 we may undoubtedly see not only the great protecting deity of the race1 but one1 and perhaps the only one1 whose worship embodies a distinct moral conception4 ,he is specially concerned with oaths1 treaties and leagues1 and it was in the presence of his priest that the most ancient and sacred form of marriage1 confarreatio1 took place4 ,the lesser deities1 ,dius ,fidius and ,fides1 were probably originally identical with him1 and only gained a separate existence in course of time by a process familiar to students of ancient religion4 ,this connexion with the conscience1 with the sense of obligation and right dealing1 was never quite lost throughout ,roman history4 ,in ,virgil's great poem1 though ,jupiter is in many ways as much ,greek as ,roman1 he is still the great protecting deity who keeps the hero in the path of duty 7pietas7 towards gods1 state and family4 ,but this aspect of ,jupiter gained a new force and meaning at the close of the monarchy with the building of the famous temple on the ,capitol1 of which the foundations are still to be seen4 ,it was dedicated to ,jupiter ,optimus ,maximus1 i4e4 the best and greatest of all the ,jupiters1 and with him were associated ,juno and ,minerva1 in a fashion which clearly indicates a ,graeco-,etruscan origin2 for the combination of three deities in one temple was foreign to the ancient ,roman religion1 while it is found both in ,greece and ,etruria4 ,this temple was built on a scale of magnificence quite unknown to primitive ,rome1 and was beyond doubt the work of ,etruscan architects employed1 we may presume1 by the ,tarquinii4 ,its three cellae contained the statues of the three deities1 with ,jupiter in the middle holding his thunderbolt4 ,henceforward it was the centre of the religious life of the state1 and symbolized its unity and strength4 ,its dedication festival fell on the #acth of ,september1 on which day the consuls originally succeeded to office2 accompanied by the senate and other magistrates and priests1 and in fulfilment of a vow made by their predecessors1 they offered to the great god a white heifer1 his favourite sacrifice1 and after rendering thanks for the preservation of the state during the past year1 made the same vow as that by which they themselves had been bound4 ,then followed the epulum ,jovis or feast of ,jupiter1 in which the three deities seem to have been visibly present in the form of their statues1 ,jupiter having a couch and each goddess a sella1 and shared the meal with senate and magistrates4 ,in later times this day became the central point of the great ,roman games 7ludi ,romani71 originally games vowed in honour of the god if he brought a war to a successful issue4 ,when a victorious army returned home1 it was to this temple that the triumphal procession passed1 and the triumph of which we hear so often in ,roman history may be taken as a religious ceremonial in honour of ,jupiter4 ,the general was dressed and painted to resemble the statue of ,jupiter himself1 and was drawn on a gilded chariot by four white horses through the ,porta ,triumphalis to the ,capitol1 where he offered a solemn sacrifice to the god1 and laid on his knees the victor's laurels 7see ,,triumph74 ,throughout the period of the ,republic the great god of the ,capitol in his temple looking down on the ,forum continued to overshadow all other worships as the one in which the whole state was concerned1 in all its length and breadth1 rather than any one gens or family4 ,under ,augustus and the new monarchy it is sometimes said that the ,capitoline worship suffered to some extent an eclipse 7,j4 ,b4 ,carter1 ,the ,religion of ,numa1 p4 #afj seq472 and it is true that as it was the policy of ,augustus to identify the state with the interests of his own family1 he did what was feasible to direct the attention of the people to the worships in which he and his family were specially concerned2 thus his temple of ,apollo on the ,palatine1 and that of ,mars ,ultor in the ,forum ,augusti1 took over a few of the prerogatives of the cult on the ,capitol4 ,but ,augustus was far too shrewd to attempt to oust ,jupiter ,optimus ,maximus from his paramount position2 and he became the protecting deity of the reigning emperor as representing the state1 as he had been the protecting deity of the free republic4 ,his worship spread over the whole empire2 it is probable that every city had its temple to the three deities of the ,roman ,capitol1 and the fact that the ,romans chose the name of ,jupiter in almost every case1 by which to indicate the chief deity of the subject peoples1 proves that they continued to regard him1 so long as his worship existed at all1 as the god whom they themselves looked upon as greatest4 ,see ,,zeus1 ,,roman ,,religion4 ,excellent accounts of ,jupiter may be found in ,roscher's ,mythological ,lexicon1 and in ,wissowa's ,religion und ,kultus der ,rmer 7p4 #ajj seq474 7,w4 ,m4 ,ra42 ,w4 ,w4 ,f4997 ,,jupiter1 in astronomy1 the largest planet of the solar system2 his size is so great that it exceeds the collective mass of all the others in the proportion of #e to #b4 ,he travels in his orbit at a mean distance from the sun exceeding that of the earth #e4b times1 or #dhc1jjj1jjj miles4 ,the eccentricity of this orbit is considerable1 amounting to #j4jdh1 so that his maximum and minimum distances are #ejd1jjj1jjj and #dfb1jjj1jjj miles respectively4 ,when in opposition and at his mean distance1 he is situated #cij1jjj1jjj miles from the earth4 ,his orbit is inclined about #a #ah #dj to the ecliptic4 ,his sidereal revolution is completed in #dccb4ehe days or #aa years #cad4i days1 and his synodical period1 or the mean interval separating his returns to opposition1 amounts to #cih4hg days4 ,his real polar and equatorial diameters measure #hd1egj and #ij1aij miles respectively1 so that the mean is #hg1chj miles4 ,his apparent diameter 7equatorial7 as seen from the earth varies from about #cb1 when in conjunction with the sun1 to #ej in opposition to that luminary4 ,the oblateness1 or compression1 of his globe amounts to about #a_/af2 his volume exceeds that of the earth #acij times1 while his mass is about #cjj times greater4 ,these values are believed to be as accurate as the best modern determinations allow1 but there are some differences amongst various observers and absolute exactness cannot be obtained4 ,the discovery of telescopic construction early in the #agth century and the practical use of the telescope by ,galileo and others greatly enriched our knowledge of ,jupiter and his system4 ,four of the satellites were detected in #afaj1 but the dark bands or belts on the globe of the planet do not appear to have been noticed until twenty years later4 ,though ,galileo first sighted the satellites and perseveringly studied the ,jovian orb1 he failed to distinguish the belts1 and we have to conclude either that these features were unusually faint at the period of his observations1 or that his telescopes were insufficiently powerful to render them visible4 ,the belts were first recognized by ,nicolas ,zucchi and ,daniel ,bartoli on the #agth of ,may #afcj4 ,they were seen also by ,francesco ,fontana in the same and immediately succeeding years1 and by other observers of about the same period1 including ,zuppi1 ,giovanni ,battista ,riccioli and ,francesco ,maria ,grimaldi4 ,improvements in telescopes were quickly introduced1 and between #afee and #afff ,c4 ,huygens1 ,r4 ,hooke and ,j4 ,d4 ,cassini made more effective observations4 ,hooke discovered a large dark spot in the planet's southern hemisphere on the #aith of ,may #affd1 and from this object ,cassini determined the rotation period1 in #affe and later years1 as #i hours #ef minutes4 ,the belts1 spots and irregular markings on ,jupiter have now been assiduously studied during nearly three centuries4 ,these markings are extremely variable in their tones1 tints and relative velocities1 and there is little reason to doubt that they are atmospheric formations floating above the surface of the planet in a series of different currents4 ,certain of the markings appear to be fairly durable1 though their rates of motion exhibit considerable anomalies and prove that they must be quite detached from the actual sphere of ,jupiter4 ,at various times determinations of the rotation period were made as follows3-- ,date4 ,observer4 ,period4 ,place of ,spot4 #afgb ,j4 ,d4 ,cassini #i h4 #ee m4 #ej s4 ,lat4 #af ,s4 #afib #i h4 #ej m4 ,equator4 #agjh ,j4 ,p4 ,maraldi #i h4 #ee m4 #dh s4 ,s4 tropical zone #aggc ,j4 ,sylvabelle #i h4 #ef m4 #aghh ,j4 ,h4 ,schrter #i h4 #ee m4 #cc4f s4 ,lat4 #ab ,n4 #aghh #i h4 #ee m4 #ag4f s4 ,lat4 #bj ,s4 #ahce ,j4 ,h4 ,mdler #i h4 #ee m4 #bf4e s4 ,lat4 #e ,n4 #ahce ,g4 ,b4 ,airy #i h4 #ee m4 #ba4c s4 ,n4 tropical zone4 ,a great number of ,jovian features have been traced in more recent years and their rotation periods ascertained4 ,according to the researches of ,stanley ,williams the rates of motion for different latitudes of the planet are approximately as under3-- ,latitude4 ,rotation ,period4 #he to #bh #i h4 #ee m4 #cg4e s4 #bh to #bd #i h4 #ed m4 to #i h4 #ef m4 #bd to #bj #i h4 #dh m4 to #i h4 #di m4 #bj to #aj #i h4 #ee m4 #cc4i s4 #aj to -#ab #i h4 #ej m4 #bj s4 -#ab to -#ah #i h4 #ee m4 #dj s4 -#ah to -#cg #i h4 #ee m4 #ah4a s4 -#cg to -#ee #i h4 #ee m4 #e s4 ,w4 ,f4 ,denning gives the following relative periods for the years #ahih to #aije3-- ,latitude4 ,rotation ,period4 ,n4,n4 temperate #i h4 #ee m4 #da4e s4 ,n4 temperate #i h4 #ee m4 #ec4h s4 ,n4 tropical #i h4 #ee m4 #cj s4 ,equatorial #i h4 #ej m4 #bg s4 ,s4 temperate #i h4 #ee m4 #ai4e s4 ,s4,s4 temperate #i h4 #ee m4 #g s4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,inverted disk of ,jupiter1 showing the different currents and their rates of rotation4 ,the above are the mean periods derived from a large number of markings4 ,the bay or hollow in the great southern equatorial belt north of the red spot has perhaps been observed for a longer period than any other feature on ,jupiter except the red spot itself4 ,h4 ,schwabe saw the hollow in the belt on the #eth of ,september #ahca and on many subsequent dates4 ,the rotation period of this object during the seventy years to the #eth of ,september #aija was #i h4 #ee m4 #cf s4 from #fa1hac rotations4 ,since #aija the mean period has been #i h4 #ee m4 #dj s41 but it has fluctuated between #i h4 #ee m4 #ch s4 and #i h4 #ee m4 #db s4 ,the motion of the various features is not therefore dependent upon their latitude1 though at the equator the rate seems swifter as a rule than in other zones4 ,but exceptions occur1 for in #ahhj some spots appeared in about #bc ,n4 which rotated in #i h4 #dh m4 though in the region immediately ,n4 of this the spot motion is ordinarily the slowest of all and averages #i h4 #ee m4 #ec4h s4 7from twenty determinations74 ,these differences of speed remind us of the sun-spots and their proper motions4 ,the solar envelope1 however1 appears to show a pretty regular retardation towards the poles1 for according to ,gustav ,sprer's formula1 while the equatorial period is #be d4 #b h4 #ae m4 the latitudes #df ,n4 and ,s4 give a period of #bh d4 #ae h4 #j m4 ,the ,jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as though mainly influenced by the swift rotatory movement of the globe1 and exhibit little sign of deviation either to ,n4 or ,s4 ,these currents do not blend and pass gradually into each other1 but seem to be definitely bounded and controlled by separate1 phenomena well capable of preserving their individuality4 ,occasionally1 it is true1 there have been slanting belts on ,jupiter 7a prominent example occurred in the spring of #ahfa71 as though the materials were evolved with some force in a polar direction1 but these oblique formations have usually spread out in longitude and ultimately formed bands parallel with the equator4 ,the longitudinal currents do not individually present us with an equable rate of motion4 ,in fact they display some curious irregularities1 the spots carried along in them apparently oscillating to and fro without any reference to fixed periods or cyclical variations4 ,thus the equatorial current in #ahhj moved at the rate of #i h4 #ej m4 #f s4 whereas in #aije it was #i h4 #ej m4 #cc s4 ,the red spot in the ,s4 tropical zone gave #i h4 #ee m4 #cd s4 in #ahgi-ahhj1 whereas during #aijj-aijh it has varied a little on either side of #i h4 #ee m4 #dj4f s4 ,clearly therefore no fixed period of rotation can be applied for any spot since it is subject to drifts ,e4 or ,w4 and these drifts sometimes come into operation suddenly1 and may be either temporary or durable4 ,between #ahgh and #aijj the red spot in the planet's ,s4 hemisphere showed a continuous retardation of speed4 ,it must be remembered that in speaking of the rotation of these markings1 we are simply alluding to the irregularities in the vaporous envelope of ,jupiter4 ,the rotation of the planet itself is another matter and its value is not yet exactly known1 though it is probably little different from that of the markings1 and especially from those of the most durable character1 which indicate a period of about #i h4 #ef m4 ,we never discern the actual landscape of ,jupiter or any of the individual forms really diversifying it4 ,possibly the red spot which became so striking an object in #ahgh1 and which still remains faintly visible on the planet1 is the same feature as that discovered by ,r4 ,hooke in #affd and watched by ,cassini in following years4 ,it was situated in approximately the same latitude of the planet and appears to have been hidden temporarily during several periods up to #agac4 ,but the lack of fairly continuous observations of this particular marking makes its identity with the present spot extremely doubtful4 ,the latter was seen by ,w4 ,r4 ,dawes in #aheg1 by ,sir ,w4 ,huggins in #aheh1 by ,j4 ,baxendell in #ahei1 by ,lord ,rosse and ,r4 ,copeland in #ahgc1 by ,h4 ,c4 ,russell in #ahgf-ahgg1 and in later years it has formed an object of general observation4 ,in fact it may safely be said that no planetary marking has ever aroused such widespread interest and attracted such frequent observation as the great red spot on ,jupiter4 ,the slight inclination of the equator of this planet to the plane of his orbit suggests that he experiences few seasonal changes4 ,from the conditions we are1 in fact1 led to expect a prevailing calm in his atmosphere1 the more so from the circumstance that the amount of the sun's heat poured upon each square mile of it is 7on the average7 less than the #bgth part of that received by each square mile of the earth's surface4 ,moreover1 the seasons of ,jupiter have nearly twelve times the duration of ours1 so that it would be naturally expected that changes in his atmosphere produced by solar action take place with extreme slowness4 ,but this is very far from being the case4 ,telescopes reveal the indications of rapid changes and extensive disturbances in the aspect and material forming the belts4 ,new spots covering large areas frequently appear and as frequently decay and vanish1 implying an agitated condition of the ,jovian atmosphere1 and leading us to admit the operation of causes much more active than the heating influence of the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,jupiter1 #aijc1 ,july #aj1 #b4ej a4m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,jupiter1 #aijf1 ,april #ae1 #e4ej p4m4 ,when we institute a comparison between ,jupiter and the earth on the basis that the atmosphere of the former planet bears the same relation to his mass as the atmosphere of the earth bears to her mass1 we find that a state of things must prevail on ,jupiter very dissimilar to that affecting our own globe4 ,the density of the ,jovian atmosphere we should expect to be fully six times as great as the density of our air at sea-level1 while it would be comparatively shallow4 ,but the telescopic aspect of ,jupiter apparently negatives the latter supposition4 ,the belts and spots grow faint as they approach the limb1 and disappear as they near the edge of the disk1 thus indicating a dense and deep atmosphere4 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor considered that the observed features suggested inherent heat1 and adopted this conclusion as best explaining the surface phenomena of the planet4 ,he regarded ,jupiter as belonging1 on account of his immense size1 to a different class of bodies from the earth1 and was led to believe that there existed greater analogy between ,jupiter and the sun than between ,jupiter and the earth4 ,thus the density of the sun1 like that of ,jupiter1 is small compared with the earth's2 in fact1 the mean density of the sun is almost identical with that of ,jupiter1 and the belts of the latter planet may be much more aptly compared with the spot zones of the sun than with the trade zones of the earth4 ,in support of the theory of inherent heat on ,jupiter it has been said that his albedo 7or light reflected from his surface7 is much greater than the amount would be were his surface similar to that of the moon1 ,mercury or ,mars1 and the reasoning has been applied to the large outer planets1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 as well as to ,jupiter4 ,the average reflecting capacity of the moon and five outer planets would seem to be 7on the assumption that they possess no inherent light7 as follows3-- ,moon #j4agcf ,jupiter #j4fbch ,uranus #j4fdjj ,mars #j4bfgb ,saturn #j4diha ,neptune #j4dhdh ,these values were considered to support the view that the four larger and more distant orbs shine partly by inherent lustre1 and the more so as spectroscopic analysis indicates that they are each involved in a deep vapour-laden atmosphere4 ,but certain observations furnish a contradiction to ,proctor's views4 ,the absolute extinction of the satellites1 even in the most powerful telescopes1 while in the shadow of ,jupiter1 shows that they cannot receive sufficient light from their primary to render them visible1 and the darkness of the shadows of the satellites when projected on the planet's disk proves that the latter cannot be self-luminous except in an insensible degree4 ,it is also to be remarked that1 were it only moderately self-luminous1 the colour of the light which it sends to us would be red1 such light being at first emitted from a heated body when its temperature is raised4 ,possibly1 however1 the great red spot1 when the colouring was intense in #ahgh and several following years1 may have represented an opening in the ,jovian atmosphere1 and the ruddy belts may be extensive rifts in the same envelope4 ,if ,jupiter's actual globe emitted a good deal of heat and light we should probably distinguish little of it1 owing to the obscuring vapours floating above the surface4 ,venus reflects relatively more light than ,jupiter1 and there is little doubt that the albedo of a planet is dependent upon atmospheric characteristics1 and is in no case a direct indication of inherent light and heat4 ,the colouring of the belts appears to be due to seasonal variations1 for ,stanley ,williams has shown that their changes have a cycle of twelve years1 and correspond as nearly as possible with a sidereal revolution of ,jupiter4 ,the variations are of such character that the two great equatorial belts are alternately affected2 when the ,s4 equatorial belt displays maximum redness the ,n4 equatorial is at a minimum and vice versa4 ,the most plausible hypothesis with regard to the red spot is that it is of the nature of an island floating upon a liquid surface1 though its great duration does not favour this idea4 ,but it is an open question whether the belts of ,jupiter indicate a liquid or gaseous condition of the visible surface4 ,the difficulty in the way of the liquid hypothesis is the great difference in the times of rotation between the equatorial portions of the planet and the spots in temperate latitudes4 ,the latter usually rotate in periods between #i h4 #ee m4 and #i h4 #ef m41 while the equatorial markings make a revolution in about five minutes less1 #i h4 #ej m4 to #i h4 #ea m4 ,the difference amounts to #g4e in a terrestrial day and proves that an equatorial spot will circulate right round the enormous sphere of ,jupiter 7circumference #bhc1jjj m47 in #dh days4 ,the motion is equivalent to about #fjjj m4 per day and #bej m4 per hour4 7,w4 ,f4 ,d47 ,satellites of ,jupiter4 ,jupiter is attended by eight known satellites1 resolvable as regards their visibility into two widely different classes4 ,four satellites were discovered by ,galileo and were the only ones known until #ahib4 ,in ,september of that year ,e4 ,e4 ,barnard1 at the ,lick ,observatory1 discovered a fifth extremely faint satellite1 performing a revolution in somewhat less than twelve hours4 ,in #aijd two yet fainter satellites1 far outside the other five1 were photographically discovered by ,c4 ,d4 ,perrine at the ,lick ,observatory4 ,the eighth satellite was discovered by ,p4 ,j4 ,melotte of ,greenwich on the #bhth of ,february #aijh4 ,it is of the #agth magnitude and appears to be very distant from ,jupiter2 a re-observation on the #afth of ,january #aiji proved it to be retrograde1 and to have a very eccentric orbit4 ,these bodies are usually numbered in the order of their discovery1 the nearest to the sun being ,v4 ,in apparent brightness each of the four ,galilean satellites may be roughly classed as of the sixth magnitude2 they would therefore be visible to a keen eye if the brilliancy of the planet did not obscure them4 ,some observers profess to have seen one or more of these bodies with the naked eye notwithstanding this drawback1 but the evidence can scarcely be regarded as conclusive4 ,it does not however seem unlikely that the third1 which is the brightest1 might be visible when in conjunction with one of the others4 ,under good conditions and sufficient telescopic power the satellites are visible as disks1 and not mere points of light4 ,measures of the apparent diameter of objects so faint are1 however1 difficult and uncertain4 ,the results for the ,galilean satellites range between #j4i and #a4e1 corresponding to diameters of between #cjjj and #ejjj kilometres4 ,the smallest is therefore about the size of our moon4 ,satellite ,i4 has been found to exhibit marked variations in its brightness and aspect1 but the law governing them has not been satisfactorily worked out4 ,it seems probable that one hemisphere of this satellite is brighter than the other1 or that there is a large dark region upon it4 ,a revolution on its axis corresponding with that of the orbital revolution around the planet has also been suspected1 but is not yet established4 ,variations of light somewhat similar1 but less in amount1 have been noticed in the second and third satellites4 ,the most interesting and easily observed phenomena of these bodies are their eclipses and their transits across the disk of ,jupiter4 ,the four inner satellites pass through the shadow of ,jupiter at every superior conjunction1 and across his disk at every inferior conjunction4 ,the outer ,galilean satellite does the same when the conjunctions are not too near the line of nodes of the satellites' orbit4 ,when most distant from the nodes1 the satellites pass above or below the shadow and below or above the disk4 ,these phenomena for the four ,galilean satellites are predicted in the nautical almanacs4 ,when one of the four ,galilean satellites is in transit across the disk of ,jupiter it can generally be seen projected on the face of the planet4 ,it is commonly brighter than ,jupiter when it first enters upon the limb but sometimes darker near the centre of the disk4 ,this is owing to the fact that the planet is much darker at the limb4 ,during these transits the shadow of the satellites can also be seen projected on the planet as a dark point4 ,the theories of the motion of these bodies form one of the more interesting problems of celestial mechanics4 ,owing to the great ellipticity of ,jupiter1 growing out of his rapid rotation1 the influence of this ellipticity upon the motions of the five inner satellites is much greater than that of the sun1 or of the satellites on each other4 ,the inclination of the orbits to the equator of ,jupiter is quite small and almost constant1 and the motion of each node is nearly uniform around the plane of the planet's equator4 ,the most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between the mean longitudes of ,satellites ,i41 ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 ,the mean longitude of ,i4 plus twice that of ,,iii4 minus three times that of ,,ii4 is constantly near to #ahj4 ,it follows that the same relations subsist among the mean motions4 ,the cause of this was pointed out by ,laplace4 ,if we put ,l#a ,l#b and ,l#c for the mean longitudes1 and define an angle ,u as follows3-- ,u ,l#a - #c ,l#b #b ,l#c4 it was shown mathematically by ,laplace that if the longitudes and mean motions were such that the angle ,u differed a little from #ahj1 there was a minute residual force arising from the mutual actions of the several bodies tending to bring this angle towards the value #ahj4 ,consequently1 if the mean motions were such that this angle increased only with great slowness1 it would after a certain period tend back toward the value #ahj1 and then beyond it1 exactly as a pendulum drawn out of the perpendicular oscillates towards and beyond it4 ,thus an oscillation would be engendered in virtue of which the angle would oscillate very slowly on each side of the central value4 ,computation of the mean longitude from observations has indicated that the angle does differ from #ahj1 but it is not certain whether this deviation is greater than the possible result of the errors of observation4 ,however this may be1 the existence of the libration1 and its period if it does exist1 are still unknown4 ,the following are the principal elements of the orbits of the five inner satellites1 arranged in the order of distance from ,jupiter4 ,the mean longitudes are for #ahia1 #bjth of ,october1 ,g4,m4,t41 and are referred to the equinox of the epoch1 #ahia1 #bnd of ,october3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,satellite ,v4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,mean ,long4 #bfd4bi #cac4gaic #ci4aahg #aga4bddh #fb4bjjj ,synodic ,period #aa h4 #eh m4#a d4 #ah h4 4#dh #c;d4 #ac;h4 4#cjg;d4 #c;h4 4#iiaf;d4 #ahm4 4#ji ,mean ,distance #ajf1djj m4 #bfj1jjj m4 #dad1jjj m4 #ffa1jjj m4 #a1afb1jjj m4 ,mass ,mass of ,jup4 787 4#jjjjbhca 4#jjjjbcbd 4#jjjjhabe 4#jjjjbadi ,stellar ,mag4 #ac #f4j #f4a #e4f #f4f ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,the following numbers relating to the planet itself have been supplied mostly by ,professor ,hermann ,struve4 ,filar ,mic4 ,heliom4 ,equatorial diameter of ,jupiter 7,dist4 #e4bjbh7 #ch4ej #cg4ej ,polar diameter of ,jupiter #cf4jb #ce4bc ,ellipticity #a #ae4e #a #af4e ,theoretical ellipticity from motion of #ijj in the pericentreof ,sat4 ,v #a #ae4c ,centrifugal force gravity at equator #j4jijj ,mass of ,jupiter ,mass of ,sun1 now used in tables #a #ajdg4cd ,inclination of planet's equator to ecliptic #b #i4jg #j4jjft orbit #c #d4hj ,long4 of ,node of equator on ecliptic #ccf #ba4dg #j4gfbt orbit #acebe4ha #j4gbit ,the longitudes are referred to the mean terrestrial equinox1 and t is the time in years from #aijj4j4 ,for the elements of ,jupiter's orbit1 see ,,solar ,,system2 and for physical constants1 see ,,planet4 7,s4 ,n47 ,,jur 7,,diur71 the ,dinka name for a tribe of negroes of the upper ,nile valley1 whose real name is ,luoh1 or ,lwo4 ,they appear to be immigrants1 and tradition places their home in the south2 they now occupy a district of the ,bahr-el-,ghazal between the ,bongo and ,dinka tribes4 ,of a reddish black colour1 fairer than the ,dinka1 they are well proportioned1 with the hair short4 ,tattooing is not common1 but when found is similar to that of the ,dinka2 they pierce the ears and nose1 and in addition to the ornaments found among the ,dinka 7q4v47 wear a series of iron rings on the forearm covering it from wrist to elbow4 ,they are mainly agricultural1 but hunt and fish to a considerable extent2 they are also skilful smiths1 smelting their own iron1 of which they supply quantities to the ,dinka4 ,they are a prosperous tribe and in consequence spinsters are unknown among them4 ,their chief currency is spears and hoe-blades1 and cowrie shells are used in the purchase of wives4 ,their chief weapons are spears and bows4 ,see ,g4 ,schweinfurth1 ,the ,heart of ,africa3 ,travels #ahfh-ahga1 trans4 ,g4 ,e4 ,e4 ,frewer 7#bnd ed41 #ahgd72 ,w4 ,junker1 ,travels in ,africa 7,eng4 ed41 #ahij-ahib74 ,,jura1 a department of ,france1 on the eastern frontier1 formed from the southern portion of the old province of ,franche-,comt4 ,it is bounded ,n by the department of ,haute-,sane1 ,n4,e4 by ,doubs1 ,e4 by ,switzerland1 ,s4 by ,ain1 and ,w4 by ,sane-et-,loire and ,cte d',or4 ,pop4 7#aijf71 #beg1gbe4 ,area1 #aiea sq4 m4 ,jura comprises four distinct zones with a general direction from north to south4 ,in the ,s4,e4 lie high eastern chains of the central ,jura1 containing the ,crt ,pela 7#diae ft471 the highest point in the department4 ,more to the west there is a chain of forest-clad plateaus bordered on the ,e4 by the river ,ain4 ,westward of these runs a range of hills1 the slopes of which are covered with vineyards4 ,the north-west region of the department is occupied by a plain which includes the fertile ,finage1 the northern portion of the ,bresse1 and is traversed by the ,doubs and its left affluent the ,loue1 between which lies the fine forest of ,chaux1 #gf sq4 m4 in area4 ,jura falls almost wholly within the basin of the ,rhone4 ,besides those mentioned1 the chief rivers are the ,valouze and the ,bienne1 which water the south of the department4 ,there are several lakes1 the largest of which is that of ,chalin1 about #ab m4 ,e4 of ,lons-le-,saunier4 ,the climate is1 on the whole1 cold2 the temperature is subject to sudden and violent changes1 and among the mountains winter sometimes lingers for eight months4 ,the rainfall is much above the average of ,france4 ,jura is an agricultural department3 wheat1 oats1 maize and barley are the chief cereals1 the culture of potatoes and rape being also of importance4 ,vines are grown mainly in the cantons of ,arbois1 ,poligny1 ,salins and ,voiteur4 ,woodlands occupy about a fifth of the area3 the oak1 hornbeam and beech1 and1 in the mountains1 the spruce and fir1 are the principal varieties4 ,natural pasture is abundant on the mountains4 ,forests1 gorges1 torrents and cascades are characteristic features of the scenery4 ,its minerals include iron and salt and there are stone-quarries4 ,peat is also worked4 ,lons-le-,saunier and ,salins have mineral springs4 ,industries include the manufacture of ,gruyre1 ,septmoncel and other cheeses 7made in co-operative cheese factories or fruitires71 metal founding and forging1 saw-milling1 flour-milling1 the cutting of precious stones 7at ,septmoncel and elsewhere71 the manufacture of nails1 tools and other iron goods1 paper1 leather1 brier-pipes1 toys and fancy wooden-ware and basket-work4 ,the making of clocks1 watches1 spectacles and measures1 which are largely exported1 employs much labour in and around ,morez4 ,imports consist of grain1 cattle1 wine1 leaf-copper1 horn1 ivory1 fancy-wood2 exports of manufactured articles1 wine1 cheese1 stone1 timber and salt4 ,the department is served chiefly by the ,paris-,lyon-,mditerrane railway1 the main line from ,paris to ,neuchtel traversing its northern region4 ,the canal from the ,rhone to the ,rhine1 which utilizes the channel of the ,doubs over portions of its course1 traverses it for #be m4 ,lons-le-,saunier is the chief town of ,jura1 which embraces four arrondissements named after the towns of ,lons-le-,saunier1 ,dle1 ,poligny and ,st ,claude1 with #cb cantons and #ehd communes4 ,the department forms the diocese of ,st ,claude and part of the ecclesiastical province of ,besanon2 it comes within the region of the ,v,i,ith army corps and the educational circumscription 7acadmie7 of ,besanon1 where is its court of appeal4 ,lons-le-,saunier1 ,dle1 ,arbois1 ,poligny1 ,st ,claude and ,salins1 the more noteworthy towns1 receive separate notices4 ,at ,baume-les-,messieurs1 #h m4 ,n4,e4 of ,lons-le-,saunier1 there is an ancient abbey with a fine church of the #abth century4 ,,jura 7deer island71 an island of the inner ,hebrides1 the fourth largest of the group1 on the west coast of ,argyllshire1 ,scotland4 ,pop4 7#aija71 #efj4 ,on the ,n4 it is separated from the island of ,scarba by the whirlpool of ,corrievreckan1 caused by the rush of the tides1 often running over #ac m4 an hour1 and sometimes accelerated by gales1 on the ,e4 from the mainland by the sound of ,jura1 and on the ,s4 and ,s4,w4 from ,islay by the sound of ,islay4 ,at ,kinuachdrach there is a ferry to ,aird in ,lorne1 in ,argyllshire1 and at ,faolin there is a ferry to ,port ,askaig in ,islay4 ,its area is about #afj sq4 m41 the greatest length is about #bg m41 and the breadth varies from #b m4 to #h m4 ,the surface is mountainous and the island is the most rugged of the ,hebrides4 ,a chain of hills culminating in the ,paps of ,jura--,beinn-an-,oir 7#bega ft47 and ,beinn ,chaolais 7#bdjg ft47--runs the whole length of the island1 interrupted only by ,tarbert loch1 an arm of the sea1 which forms an indentation nearly #f m4 deep and almost cuts the island in two4 ,jura derived its name from the red deer which once abounded on it4 ,cattle and sheep are raised2 oats1 barley and potatoes are cultivated along the eastern shore1 and there is some fishing4 ,granite is quarried and silicious sand1 employed in glass-making is found4 ,the parish of ,jura comprises the islands of ,balnahua1 ,fladda1 ,garvelloch1 ,jura1 ,lunga1 ,scarba and ,skervuile4 ,,jura1 a range which may be roughly described as the block of mountains rising between the ,rhine and the ,rhone1 and forming the frontier between ,france and ,switzerland4 ,the gorges by which these two rivers force their way to the plains cut off the ,jura from the ,swabian and ,franconian ranges to the north and those of ,dauphin to the south4 ,but in very early days1 before these gorges had been carved out1 there were no openings in the ,jura at all1 and even now its three chief rivers--the ,doubs1 the ,loue and the ,ain--flow down the western slope1 which is both much longer and but half as steep as the eastern4 ,some geographers extend the name ,jura to the ,swabian and ,franconian ranges between the ,danube and the ,neckar and the ,main2 but1 though these are similar in point of composition and direction to the range to the south1 it is most convenient to limit the name to the mountain ridges lying between ,france and ,switzerland1 and this narrower sense will be adopted here4 ,the ,jura has been aptly described as a huge plateau about #aef m4 long and #ch m4 broad1 hewn into an oblong shape1 and raised by internal forces to an average height of from #aiej to #bfjj ft4 above the surrounding plains4 ,the shock by which it was raised and the vibration caused by the elevation of the great chain of the ,alps1 produced many transverse gorges or cluses1 while on the plateaus between these subaerial agencies have exercised their ordinary influence4 ,geologically the ,jura ,mountains belong to the ,alpine system2 and the same forces which crumpled and tore the strata of the one produced the folds and faults in the other4 ,both chains owe their origin to the mass of crystalline and unyielding rock which forms the central plateau of ,france1 the ,vosges and the ,black ,forest1 and which1 between the ,vosges and the central plateau1 lies at no great depth beneath the surface4 ,against this mass the more yielding strata which lay to the south and west were crushed and folded1 and the ,alps and the ,jura were carved from the ridges which were raised4 ,but the folding decreases in intensity towards the north2 the folding in the ,alps is much more violent than the folding in the ,jura1 and in the ,jura itself the folding is most marked along its southern flanks4 ,the ,jura is composed chiefly of ,jurassic rocks--it is from this chain that the ,jurassic system derives its name--but ,triassic1 ,cretaceous and ,tertiary beds take part in its formation4 ,it may be divided into three zones which run parallel to the length of the chain and differ from one another in their structure4 ,the innermost zone1 which rises directly from the plain of ,switzerland1 is the folded ,jura 7,jura pliss1 ,kettenjura71 formed of narrow parallel undulations which diminish in intensity towards the ,french border4 ,this is followed by the ,jura plateau 7,jura tabulaire1 ,tafeljura71 in which the beds are approximately horizontal but are broken up into blocks by fractures or faults4 ,finally1 along its western face there is a zone of numerous dislocations1 and the range descends abruptly to the plain of the ,sane4 ,this is the ,rgion du vignoble and is well shown at ,arbois4 ,owing to the convergence of the faults which bound it1 the plateau zone decreases in width towards the south1 while towards the north it forms a large proportion of the chain4 ,the folded zone is more constant4 ,along its inner margin the folds are frequently overthrown1 leaning towards ,france1 but elsewhere they are simple anticlinals and synclinals1 parallel to the length of the chain1 and as a rule there is a remarkable freedom from dislocations of any importance1 except towards ,neuchtel and ,bienne4 ,the countless blocks of gneiss1 granite and other crystalline formations which are found in such numbers on the slopes of the ,jura1 and go by the name of erratic blocks 7of which the best known instance--the ,pierre ,bot--is #dj ft4 in diameter1 and rests on the side of a hill #hjj ft4 above the ,lake of ,neuchtel71 have been transported thither from the ,alps by ancient glaciers1 which have left their mark on the ,jura range itself in the shape of striations and moraines4 ,the general direction of the chain is from north-east to south-west1 but a careful study reveals the fact that there were in reality two main lines of upheaval1 viz4 north to south and east to west1 the former best seen in the southern part of the range and the latter in the northern2 and it was by the union of these two forces that the lines north-east to south-west 7seen in the greater part of the chain71 and north-west to south-east 7seen in the ,villebois range at the south-west extremity of the chain71 were produced4 ,this is best realized if we take ,besanon as a centre2 to the north the ridges run east and west1 to the south1 north and south1 while to the east the direction is north-east to south-west4 ,before considering the topography of the interior of the ,jura1 it may be convenient to take a brief survey of its outer slopes4 #a4 ,the northern face dominates on one side the famous ,troue 7or ,trench7 of ,belfort1 one of the great geographical centres of ,europe1 whence routes run north down the ,rhine to the ,north ,sea1 south-east to the ,danube basin and ,black ,sea1 and south-west into ,france1 and so to the ,mediterranean basin4 ,it is now so strongly fortified that it becomes a question of great strategical importance to prevent its being turned by means of the great central plateau of the ,jura1 which1 as we shall see1 is a network of roads and railways4 ,on the other side it overhangs the ,troue of the ,black ,forest towns on the ,rhine 7,rheinfelden1 ,sckingen1 ,laufenburg and ,waldshut71 through which the central plain of ,switzerland is easily gained4 ,on this north slope two openings offer routes into the interior of the chain--the valley of the ,doubs belonging to ,france1 and the valley of the ,birse belonging to ,switzerland4 ,belfort is the military1 ,mlhausen the industrial1 and ,basel the commercial centre of this slope4 #b4 ,the eastern and western faces offer many striking parallels4 ,the plains through which flow the ,aar and the ,sane have each been the bed of an ancient lake1 traces of which remain in the lakes of ,neuchtel1 ,bienne and ,morat4 ,the west face runs mainly north and south like its great river1 and for a similar reason the east face runs north-east to south-west4 ,again1 both slopes are pierced by many transverse gorges or cluses 7due to fracture and not to erosion71 by which access is gained to the great central plateau of ,pontarlier1 though these are seen more plainly on the east face than on the west2 thus the gorges at the exit from which ,lons-le-,saunier1 ,poligny1 ,arbois and ,salins are built balance those of the ,suze1 of the ,val de ,ruz1 of the ,val de ,travers1 and of the ,val d',orbe1 though on the east face there is but one city which commands all these important routes--,neuchtel4 ,this town is thus marked out by nature as a great military and industrial centre1 just as is ,besanon on the west1 which has besides to defend the route from ,belfort down the ,doubs4 ,these easy means of communicating with the ,free ,county of ,burgundy or ,franche-,comt account for the fact that the dialect of ,neuchtel is ,burgundian1 and that it was held generally by ,burgundian nobles1 though most of the country near it was in the hands of the house of ,savoy until gradually annexed by ,bern4 ,the ,chasseron 7#ebhf ft47 is the central point of the eastern face1 commanding the two great railways which join ,neuchtel and ,pontarlier4 ,this ridge is in a certain sense parallel to the valley of the ,loue on the west face1 which flows into the ,doubs a little to the south of ,dle1 the only important town of the central portion of the ,sane basin4 ,the ,chasseron is wholly ,swiss1 as are the lower summits of the ,chasseral 7#ebgi ft471 the ,mont ,suchet 7#ebbj ft471 the ,aiguille de ,baulmes 7#eabh ft471 the ,dent de ,vaulion 7#dhgi ft471 the ,weissenstein 7#dbbc ft471 and the ,chaumont 7#chde ft471 the two last-named points being probably the best-known points in the ,jura1 as they are accessible by carriage road from ,soleure and ,neuchtel respectively4 ,south of the ,orbe valley the east face becomes a rocky wall which is crowned by all the highest summits 7the first and second ,swiss1 the rest ,french7 of the chain--the ,mont ,tendre 7#eeab ft471 the ,dle 7#eeje ft471 the ,reculet 7#efdc ft471 the ,crt de la ,neige 7#efec ft47 and the ,grand ,crdo 7#ecbh ft471 the uniformity of level being as striking as on the west edge of the ,jura1 though there the absolute height is far less4 ,the position of the ,dle is similar to that of the ,chasseron1 as along the sides of it run the great roads of the ,col de ,st ,cergues 7#cigc ft47 and the ,col de la ,faucille 7#dcda ft471 the latter leading through the ,valle des ,dappes1 which was divided in #ahfb between ,france and ,switzerland1 after many negotiations4 ,the height of these roads shows that they are passages across the chain1 rather than through natural depressions4 #c4 ,the southern face is supported by two great pillars--on the east by the ,grand ,crdo and on the west by the ridge of ,revermont 7#bebi ft47 above ,bourg en ,bresse2 between these a huge bastion 7the district of ,bugey7 stretches away to the south1 forcing the ,rhone to make a long dtour4 ,on the two sides of this bastion the plains in which ,ambrieu and ,culoz stand balance one another1 and are the meeting points of the routes which cut through the bastion by means of deep gorges4 ,on the eastern side this great wedge is steep and rugged1 ending in the ,grand ,colombier 7#ejcc ft47 above ,culoz1 and it sinks on the western side to the valley of the ,ain1 the district of ,bresse1 and the plateau of ,dombes4 ,the junction of the ,ain and the ,surand at ,pont d',ain on the west balances that of the ,valserine and the ,rhone at ,bellegarde on the east4 ,the ,jura thus dominates on the north one of the great highways of ,europe1 on the east and west divides the valleys of the ,sane and the ,aar1 and stretches out to the south so as nearly to join hands with the great mass of the ,dauphin ,alps4 ,it therefore commands the routes from ,france into ,germany1 ,switzerland and ,italy1 and hence its enormous historical importance4 ,let us now examine the topography of the interior of the range4 ,this naturally falls into three divisions1 each traversed by one of the three great rivers of the ,jura--the ,doubs1 the ,loue and the ,ain4 #a4 ,in the northern division it is the east and west line which prevails--the ,lomont1 the ,mont ,terrible1 the defile of the ,doubs from ,st ,ursanne to ,st ,hippolyte1 and the ,troue of the ,black ,forest towns4 ,it thus bars access to the central plateau from the north1 and this natural wall does away with the necessity of artificial fortifications4 ,this division falls again into two distinct portions4 7a7 ,the first is the part east of the deep gorge of the ,doubs after it turns south at ,st ,hippolyte2 it is thus quite cut off on this side1 and is naturally ,swiss territory4 ,it includes the basin of the river ,birse1 and the great plateau between the ,doubs and the ,aar1 on which1 at an average height of #bfjj ft41 are situated a number of towns1 one of the most striking features of the ,jura4 ,these include ,le ,locle 7q4v47 and ,la ,chaux de ,fonds 7q4v471 and are mainly occupied with watch-making1 an industry which does not require bulky machinery1 and is therefore well fitted for a mountain district4 7b7 ,the part west of the cluse of the ,doubs3 of this1 the district east of the river ,dessoubre1 isolated in the interior of the range 7unlike the ,le ,locle plateau71 is called the ,haute ,montagne1 and is given up to cheese-making1 curing of hams1 saw-mills1 c4 ,but little watch-making is carried on there1 ,besanon being the chief ,french centre of this industry1 and being connected with ,geneva by a chain of places similarly occupied1 which fringe the west plateau of the ,jura4 ,the part west of the ,dessoubre1 or the ,moyenne ,montagne1 a huge plateau north of the ,loue1 is more especially devoted to agriculture1 while along its north edge metal-working and manufacture of hardware are carried on1 particularly at ,besanon and ,audincourt4 #b4 ,the central division is remarkable for being without the deep gorges which are found so frequently in other parts of the range4 ,it consists of the basin of which ,pontarlier is the centre1 through notches in the rim of which routes converge from every direction2 this is the great characteristic of the middle region of the ,jura4 ,hence its immense strategical and commercial importance4 ,on the north-east roads run to ,morteau and ,le ,locle1 on the north-west to ,besanon1 on the west to ,salins1 on the south-west to ,dle and ,lons-le-,saunier1 on the east to the ,swiss plain4 ,the ,pontarlier plateau is nearly horizontal1 the slight indentations in it being due to erosion1 e4g4 by the river ,drugeon4 ,the keys to this important plateau are to the east the ,fort de ,joux1 under the walls of which meet the two lines of railway from ,neuchtel1 and to the west ,salins1 the meeting place of the routes from the ,col de la ,faucille1 from ,besanon1 and from the ,french plain4 ,the ,ain rises on the south edge of this plateau1 and on a lower shelf or step1 which it waters1 are situated two points of great military importance--,nozeroy and ,champagnole4 ,the latter is specially important1 since the road leading thence to ,geneva traverses one after another1 not far from their head1 the chief valleys which run down into the ,south ,jura1 and thus commands the southern routes as well as those by ,st ,cergues and the ,col de la ,faucille from the ,geneva region1 and a branch route along the ,orbe river from ,jougne4 ,the fort of ,les ,rousses1 near the foot of the ,dle1 serves as an advanced post to ,champagnole1 just as the ,fort de ,joux does to ,pontarlier4 ,the above sketch will serve to show the character of the central ,jura as the meeting place of routes from all sides1 and the importance to ,france of its being strongly fortified1 lest an enemy approaching from the north-east should try to turn the fortresses of the ,troue de ,belfort4 ,it is in the western part of the central ,jura that the north and south lines first appear strongly marked4 ,there are said to be in this district no less than fifteen ridges running parallel to each other1 and it is these which force the ,loue to the north1 and thereby occasion its very eccentric course4 ,the cultivation of wormwood wherewith to make the tonic absinthe has its headquarters at ,pontarlier4 #c4 ,the southern division is by far the most complicated and entangled part of the ,jura4 ,the lofty ridge which bounds it to the east forces all its drainage to the west1 and the result is a number of valleys of erosion 7of which that of the ,ain is the chief instance71 quite distinct from the natural cluses or fissures of those of the ,doubs and of the ,loue4 ,another point of interest is the number of roads which intersect it1 despite its extreme irregularity4 ,this is due to the great cluses of ,nantua and ,virieu1 which traverse it from east to west4 ,the north and south line is very clearly seen in the eastern part of this division2 the north-east and south-west is entirely wanting1 but in the ,villebois range south of ,ambrieu we have the principal example of the north-west to south-east line4 ,the plateaus west of the ,ain are cut through by the valleys of the ,valouse and of the ,surand1 and like all the lowest terraces on the west slope do not possess any considerable towns4 ,the ,ain receives three tributaries from the east3-- 7a7 ,the ,bienne1 which flows from the fort of ,les ,rousses by ,st ,claude1 the industrial centre of the south ,jura1 famous for the manufacture of wooden toys1 owing to the large quantity of boxwood in the neighbourhood4 ,septmoncel is busied with cutting of gems1 and ,morez with watch and spectacle making4 ,cut off to the east by the great chain1 the industrial prosperity of this valley is of recent origin4 7b7 ,the ,oignin1 which flows from south to north4 ,it receives the drainage of the lake of ,nantua1 a town noted for combs and silk weaving1 and which communicates by the cluse of the ,lac de ,silan with the ,valserine valley1 and so with the ,rhone at ,bellegarde1 and again with the various routes which meet under the walls of the fort of ,les ,rousses1 while by the ,val ,romey and the ,sran ,culoz is easily gained4 7c7 ,the ,albarine1 connected with ,culoz by the cluse of ,virieu1 and by the ,furan flowing south with ,belley1 the capital of the district of ,bugey 7the old name for the ,south ,jura74 ,the cluses of ,nantua and ,virieu are now both traversed by important railways2 and it is even truer than of old that the keys of the south ,jura are ,lyons and ,geneva4 ,but of course the strategic importance of these gorges is less than appears at first sight1 because they can be turned by following the ,rhone in its great bend to the south4 ,the range is mentioned by ,caesar 7,bell4 ,gall4 i4 #b-c1 #f 7#a71 and #h 7#a771 ,strabo 7iv4 #c1 #d1 and #f1 #aa71 ,pliny 7iii4 #ca2 iv4 #aje2 xvi4 #aig7 and ,ptolemy 7ii4 ix4 #e71 its name being a word which appears under many forms 7e4g4 ,joux1 ,jorat1 ,jorasse1 ,juriens71 and is a synonym for a wood or forest4 ,the ,german name is ,leberberg1 ,leber being a provincial word for a hill4 ,politically the ,jura is ,french 7departments of the ,doubs1 ,jura and ,ain7 and ,swiss 7parts of the cantons of ,geneva1 ,vaud1 ,neuchtel1 ,bern1 ,soleure and ,basel72 but at its north extremity it takes in a small bit of ,alsace 7,pfirt or ,ferrette74 ,in the middle ages the southern1 western and northern sides were parcelled out into a number of districts1 all of which were gradually absorbed by the ,french crown1 viz41 ,gex1 ,val ,romey1 ,bresse and ,bugey 7exchanged in #afja by ,savoy for the marquisate of ,saluzzo71 ,franche-,comt1 or the ,free ,county of ,burgundy1 an imperial fief till annexed in #afgd1 the county of ,montbliard 7,mmpelgard7 acquired in #agic1 and the county of ,ferrette 7,french #afdh-ahga74 ,the northern part of the eastern side was held till #agib 7part till #agig7 by the bishop of ,basel as a fief of the empire1 and then belonged to ,france till #ahad1 but was given to ,bern in #ahae 7as a recompense for its loss of ,vaud71 and now forms the ,bernese ,jura1 a ,french-speaking district4 ,the centre of the eastern slope formed the principality of ,neuchtel 7q4v47 and the county of ,valangin1 which were generally held by ,burgundian nobles1 came by succession to the kings of ,prussia in #agjg1 and were formed into a ,swiss canton in #ahae1 though they did not become free from formal ,prussian claims until #aheg4 ,the southern part of the eastern slope originally belonged to the house of ,savoy1 but was conquered bit by bit by ,bern1 which was forced in #ahae to accept its subject district ,vaud as a colleague and equal in the ,swiss ,confederation4 ,it was ,charles the ,bold's defeats at ,grandson and ,morat which led to the annexation by the confederates of these portions of ,savoyard territory4 ,,authorities4--,e4 ,f4 ,berlioux1 ,le ,jura 7,paris1 #ahhj72 ,f4 ,machacek1 ,der ,schweizer ,jura 7,gotha1 #aije72 ,a4 ,magnin1 ,les lacs du ,jura 7,paris1 #ahie72 ,j4 ,zimmerli1 ,die ,sprachgrenze im ,jura 7vol4 i4 of his ,die ,deutsch-franzsische ,sprachgrenze in der ,schweiz 7,basel1 #ahia74 ,for the ,french slope see ,joanne's large ,itinraire to the ,jura1 and the smaller volumes relating to the departments of the ,ain1 ,doubs and ,jura1 in his ,gographies dpartementales4 ,for the ,swiss slope see #c vols4 in the series of the ,guides ,monod 7,geneva72 ,a4 ,monnier1 ,la ,chaux de ,fonds et le ,haut-,jura ,neuchtelois2 ,j4 ,monod1 ,le ,jura ,bernois2 and ,e4 ,j4 ,p4 de la ,harpe1 ,le ,jura ,vaudois4 7,w4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,jurassic1 in geology1 the middle period of the ,mesozoic era1 that is to say1 succeeding the ,triassic and preceding the ,cretaceous periods4 ,the name ,jurassic 7,french jurassique2 ,german ,juraformation or ,jura7 was first employed by ,a4 ,brongniart and ,a4 von ,humboldt for the rocks of this age in the western ,jura mountains of ,switzerland1 where they are well developed4 ,it was in ,england1 however1 that they were first studied by ,william ,smith1 in whose hands they were made to lay the foundations of stratigraphical geology4 ,the names adopted by him for the subdivisions he traced across the country have passed into universal use1 and though some of them are uncouth ,english provincial names1 they are as familiar to the geologists of ,france1 ,switzerland and ,germany as to those of ,england4 ,during the following three decades ,smith's work was elaborated by ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare and ,w4 ,phillips4 ,the ,jurassic rocks of fossils of the ,european continent were described by d',orbigny1 #ahdj-ahdf2 by ,l4 von ,buch1 #ahci2 by ,f4 ,a4 ,quenstedt1 #ahdc-ahhh2 by ,a4 ,oppel1 #ahef-aheh2 and since then by many other workers3 ,e4 ,benecke1 ,e4 ,hbert1 ,w4 ,waagen1 and others4 ,the study of ,jurassic rocks has continued to attract the attention of geologists1 partly because the bedding is so well defined and regular--the strata are little disturbed anywhere outside the ,swiss ,jura and the ,alps--and partly because the fossils are numerous and usually well-preserved4 ,the result has been that no other system of rocks has been so carefully examined throughout its entire thickness2 many zones have been established by means of the fossils--principally by ammonites--and these zones are not restricted to limited districts1 but many of them hold good over wide areas4 ,oppel distinguished no fewer than thirty-three zonal horizons1 and since then many more sub-zonal divisions have been noted locally4 ,the existence of faunal regions in ,jurassic times was first pointed out by ,j4 ,marcou2 later ,m4 ,neumayr greatly extended observations in this direction4 ,according to ,neumayr1 three distinct geographical regions of deposit can be made out among the ,jurassic rocks of ,europe3 7#a7 ,the ,mediterranean province1 embracing the ,pyrenees1 ,alps and ,carpathians1 with all the tracts lying to the south4 ,one of the biological characters of this area was the great abundance of ammonites belonging to the groups of ,heterophylli 7,phylloceras7 and ,fimbriati 7,lytoceras74 7#b7 ,the central ,european province1 comprising the tracts lying to the north of the ,alpine ridge1 and marked by the comparative rarity of the ammonites just mentioned1 which are replaced by others of the groups ,inflati 7,aspidoceras7 and ,oppelia1 and by abundant reefs and masses of coral4 7#c7 ,the boreal or ,russian province1 comprising the middle and north of ,russia1 ,spitzbergen and ,greenland4 ,the life in this area was much less varied than in the others1 showing that in ,jurassic times there was a perceptible diminution of temperature towards the north4 ,the ammonites of the more southern tracts here disappear1 together with the corals4 ,illustration3 ,map of the probable distribution of ,land ,sea in the ,jurassic ,period4 ,the cause of these faunal regions ,neumayr attributed to climatic belts--such as exist to-day--and in part1 at least1 he was probably correct4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that although ,neumayr was able to trace a broad1 warm belt1 some #fj in width1 right round the earth1 with a narrower mild belt to the north and an arctic or boreal belt beyond1 and certain indications of a repetition of the climatic zones on the southern side of the thermal equator1 more recent discoveries of fossils seem to show that other influences must have been at work in determining their distribution2 in short1 the identity of the ,neumayrian climatic boundaries becomes increasingly obscured by the advance of our knowledge4 ,the ,jurassic period was marked by a great extension of the sea1 which commenced after the close of the ,trias and reached its maximum during the ,callovian and ,oxfordian stages2 consequently1 the ,middle ,jurassic rocks are much more widely spread than the ,lias4 ,in ,europe and elsewhere ,triassic beds pass gradually up into the ,jurassic1 so that there is difficulty sometimes in agreement as to the best line for the base of the latter2 similarly at the top of the system there is a passage from the ,jurassic to the ,cretaceous rocks 7,alps74 ,towards the close of the period elevation began in certain regions2 thus1 in ,america1 the ,sierras1 ,cascade ,mountains1 ,klamath ,mountains1 and ,humboldt ,range probably began to emerge4 ,in ,england the estuarine ,portlandian resulted partly from elevation1 but in the ,alps marine conditions steadily persisted 7in the ,tithonian stage74 ,there appears to have been very little crustal disturbance or volcanic activity2 tuffs are known in ,argentina and ,california2 volcanic rocks of this age occur also in ,skye and ,mull4 ,the rocks of the ,jurassic system present great petrological diversity4 ,in ,england the name ,oolites was given to the middle and higher members of the system on account of the prevalence of oolitic structure in the limestones and ironstones2 the same character is a common feature in the rocks of northern ,europe and elsewhere1 but it must not be overlooked that clays and sandstones together bulk more largely in the aggregate than the oolites4 ,the thickness of ,jurassic rocks in ,england is #djjj to #ejjj ft41 and in ,germany #bjjj to #cjjj ft4 ,most of the rocks represent the deposits of shallow seas1 but estuarine conditions and land deposits occur as in the ,purbeck beds of ,dorset and the coals of ,yorkshire4 ,coal is a very important feature among ,jurassic rocks1 particularly in the ,liassic division2 it is found in ,hungary1 where there are twenty-five workable beds2 in ,persia1 ,turkestan1 ,caucasus1 south ,siberia1 ,china1 ,japan1 ,further ,india1 ,new ,zealand and in many of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,being shallow water formations1 petrological changes come in rapidly as many of the beds are traced out2 sandstones pass laterally into clays1 and the latter into limestones1 and so on1 but a reliable guide to the classification and correlation is found in the fossil contents of the rocks4 ,in the accompanying table a list is given of some of the zonal fossils which regularly occur in the order indicated2 other forms are known that are equally useful4 ,it will be noticed that while there is general agreement as to the order in which the zonal forms occur1 the line of division between one formation and another is liable to vary according to factors in the personal equation of the authors4 ,the ,jurassic formations stretch across ,england in a varying band from the mouth of the ,tees to the coast of ,dorsetshire4 ,they consist of harder sandstones and limestones interstratified with softer clays and shales4 ,hence they give rise to a characteristic type of scenery--the more durable beds standing out as long ridges1 sometimes even with low cliffs1 while the clays underlie the level spaces between4 ,jurassic rocks cover a vast area in ,central ,europe4 ,they rise from under the ,cretaceous formations in the north-east of ,france1 whence they range southwards down the valleys of the ,sane and ,rhone to the ,mediterranean4 ,they appear as a broken border round the old crystalline nucleus of ,auvergne4 ,eastwards they range through the ,jura ,mountains up to the high grounds of ,bohemia4 ,they appear in the outer chains of the ,alps on both sides1 and on the south they rise along the centre of the ,apennines1 and here and there over the ,spanish ,peninsula4 ,covered by more recent formations they underlie the great plain of northern ,germany1 whence they range eastwards and occupy large tracts in central and eastern ,russia4 ,lower ,jurassic rocks are absent from much of northern ,russia1 the stages represented being the ,callovian1 ,oxfordian and ,volgian 7of ,professor ,s4 ,nikitin72 the fauna differs considerably from that of western ,europe1 and the marine equivalents of the ,purbeck beds are found in this region4 ,in south ,russia1 the ,crimea and ,caucasus1 ,lias and ,lower ,jurassic rocks are present4 ,in the ,alps1 the ,lower ,jurassic rocks are intimately associated with the underlying ,triassic formations1 and resemble them in consisting largely of reddish limestones and marbles2 the ammonites in this region differ in certain respects from those of western and central ,europe4 ,the ,oxfordian1 ,callovian1 ,corallian and ,astartian stages are also present4 ,the ,upper ,jurassic is mainly represented by a uniform series of limestones1 with a peculiar and characteristic fauna1 to which ,oppel gave the name ,tithonian4 ,this includes most of the horizons from ,kimeridgian to ,cretaceous2 it is developed on the southern flanks of the ,alps1 ,carpathians1 ,apennines1 as well as in south ,france and other parts of the ,mediterranean basin4 ,a characteristic formation on this horizon is the ,diphya limestone1 so-called from the fossil ,terebratula diphya 7,pygope janitor7 seen in the well-known escarpments 7,hochgebirge ,kalk74 ,above the ,diphya limestone comes the ,stramberg limestone 7,stramberg in ,moravia71 with ,aptychus beds and coral reefs4 ,the rocks of the ,mediterranean basin are on the whole more calcareous than those of corresponding age in north-west ,europe2 thus the ,lias is represented by #aejj ft4 of white crystalline limestone in ,calabria and a similar rock occurs in ,sicily1 ,bosnia1 ,epirus1 ,corfu2 in ,spain the ,liassic strata are frequently dolomitic2 in the ,apennines they are variegated limestones and marls4 ,the ,higher ,jurassic beds of ,portugal show traces of the proximity of land in the abundant plant remains that are found in them4 ,in ,scania the ,lias succeeds the ,rhaetic beds in a regular manner1 and ,jurassic rocks have been traced northward well within the polar circle2 they are known in the ,lofoten ,isles1 ,spitzbergen1 east ,greenland1 ,king ,charles's ,island1 ,cape ,stewart in ,scoresby ,sound1 ,grinnell ,land1 ,prince ,patrick ,land1 ,bathurst and ,exmouth ,island2 in many cases the fossils denote a climate considerably milder than now obtains in these latitudes4 ,in the ,american continent ,jurassic rocks are not well developed4 ,marine ,lower and ,middle ,jurassic beds occur on the ,pacific coast 7,california and ,oregon71 and in ,wyoming1 the ,dakotas1 ,colorado1 east ,mexico and ,texas4 ,above the marine beds in the interior are brackish and fresh-water deposits1 the ,morrison and ,como beds 7,atlantosaurus and ,baptanodon beds of ,marsh74 ,later ,jurassic rocks are found in northern ,british ,columbia and perhaps in ,alaska1 ,wyoming1 ,utah1 ,montana1 ,colorado1 the ,dakotas1 c4 ,in ,california some of the gold-bearing1 metamorphic slates are of this age4 ,marine ,jurassic rocks have not been clearly identified on the ,atlantic side of ,america4 ,the ,patuxent and ,arundel formations 7non-marine7 are doubtfully referred to this period4 ,lower and ,middle ,jurassic formations occur in ,argentina and ,bolivia4 ,jurassic rocks have been recognized in ,asia1 including ,india1 ,afghanistan1 ,persia1 ,kurdistan1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,caspian region1 ,japan and ,borneo4 ,the best marine development is in ,cutch1 where the following groups are distinguished from above downwards3 the ,umia series ,portlandian and ,tithonian of south ,europe1 passing upwards into the ,neocomian2 the ,katrol series ,oxfordian 7part7 and ,kimeridgian2 the ,chari series ,callovian and part of the ,oxfordian2 the ,patcham series ,bathonian4 ,in the western half of the ,salt ,range and the ,himalayas1 ,spiti shales are the equivalents of the ,european ,callovian and ,kimeridgian4 ,the upper part of the ,gondwana series is not improbably ,jurassic4 ,on the ,african continent1 ,liassic strata are found in ,algeria1 and ,bathonian formations occur in ,abyssinia1 ,somaliland1 ,cape ,colony and western ,madagascar4 ,in ,australia the ,permo-,carboniferous formations are succeeded in ,queensland and ,western ,australia by what may be termed the ,jura-,trias1 which include the coal-bearing ,ipswich and ,burrum formations of ,queensland4 ,in ,new ,zealand there is a thick series of marine beds with terrestrial plants1 the ,mataura series in the upper part of ,hutton's ,hokanui system4 ,sir ,j4 ,hector included also the ,putakaka series 7as ,middle ,jurassic7 and the ,flag series with the ,catlin's ,river and ,bastion series below4 ,jurassic rocks have been recorded from ,new ,guinea and ,new ,caledonia4 ,,jurassic ,,system ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,o ,sub- p stages ,von ,a4 de ,lapparent1 ,stages#a ,ammonite ,zones p of ,buch ,trait1 #eth ed4 ,alpine e ,quen- l stedt ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,u ,perisphinctes ,purbeckien p ,purbeckian transitorius ,u or p p ,aquilonien e ------------- p ------------ ,port- r ,perisphinctes e landien ,n ,portlandian giganteus zeta r ,bononien ,diphya-,kalke ,o ,olcostephanus o o gigas o j ,ammonitico l ------------- r ---------------------- u rosso of ,acanthicus i ,reineckia epsilon ,virgulien r ,tithonien1 ,beds t ,kimeridgian eudoxus delta ,w ,kimerid- a southern e ,oppelia gamma h ------------ gien s ,alps s tenuilobata ,m i ,pteroceran s ---------------- a t ---------------------- i ,m ,corallian ,peltoceras l beta e ,astartien ,sequa- q i bimammatum m ,rauracien nien u d ------------- ,j ---------------------- e d ,peltoceras u ,argovien l ,oxfordian transversarium alpha r ------------ ,oxfor- _/ ,aptychen- ,o e ,aspidoceras a ,neuvizien dien ,kalke and ,o perarmatum ,radiolariengesteine ,l ,o ------------- ---------------------------- ,i o ,peltoceras ,t l athleta zeta ,upper ,e i ,callovian ,cosmoceras ,divesien ,callovien ,s t ,jason ,m ,lower e ,macrocephalites i ,divesien s macrocephalus d ---------------- --- d ---------------------- ,posidonien ,beds ,oppelia epsilon l 7,s4 ,alps7 ,l ,bathonian aspidoides e ,bathonien ,klauss ,beds o ,parkinsonia 7,n4 ,alps7 w ferruginea o _/ e ------------- r ------------ r ,parkinsonia ,m ,parkinsoni ,d ,b ,o ,coeloceras o r s ,sauzei-,kalke o ,bajocian ,humphresianus g o o l 7,inferior ,sphroceras g w ,bajocien j i ,oolite7 ,sauzei e n u t ,sonninia r delta r e ,sowerbyi gamma ,j a s ,harpoceras beta u s ,murchisonae r s ,oolite of ,san ----------------------------------- a ------------ i ,vigilio ,harpoceras alpha q 7passage beds7 7,lioceras7 u opalinum e ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,lytoceras zeta ,upper ,lias jurense ,posidonia epsilon ,toarcien ,bronni ----------------- ------------ ,amaltheus beta spinatus ,amaltheus ,l margaritatus o ,middle ,lias ,dactylioceras w ,charmou- ,davoi e thien ,adne- ,phylloceras gamma r ter ibex ,l ,kalke ,aegoceras i o o ,jamesoni a r j ,brachio- ,algu ,l ----------------- s ------------ u pod or ,beds ,i ,arietites beta ,b ,s r ,hierlatz ,a raricostatus l y a _/ facies ,s ,oxynoticeras a s s ,flec- oxynotum c t s _/ ken- ,arietites k i mergel ,lower ,lias obtusus m q ,arietites ,j e u ,bucklandi u e ,gres- ,schlotheimia r ,l tener angulata a ,sine- i ,beds ,psiloceras alpha mourien a 7,coal7 _/ planorbis ,hettangien s ---------------------------------------- ----- 7part7 s _/ ,hettangien i 7part7 q ,rhtien u ,infra- e ,lias _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,life in the ,jurassic ,period4--,the expansion of the sea during this period1 with the formation of broad sheets of shallow and probably warmish water1 appears to have been favourable to many forms of marine life4 ,under these conditions several groups of organisms developed rapidly along new directions1 so that the ,jurassic period as a whole came to have a fauna differing clearly and distinctly from the preceding ,palaeozoic or succeeding ,tertiary faunas4 ,in the seas1 all the main groups were represented as they are to-day4 ,corals were abundant1 and in later portions of the period covered large areas in ,europe2 the modern type of coral became dominant2 besides reef-building forms such as ,thamnastrea1 ,isastrea1 ,thecosmilia1 there were numerous single forms like ,montivaltia4 ,crinoids existed in great numbers in some of the shallow seas2 compared with ,palaeozoic forms there is a marked reduction in the size of the calyx with a great extension in the number of arms and pinnules2 ,pentacrinus1 ,eugeniacrinus1 ,apiocrinus are all well known2 ,antedon was a stalkless genus4 ,echinoids 7urchins7 were gradually developing the so-called irregular type1 ,echinobrissus1 ,holectypus1 ,collyrites1 ,clypeus1 but the regular forms prevailed1 ,cidaris1 ,hemicidaris1 ,acrosalenia4 ,sponges were important rock-builders in ,upper ,jurassic times 7,spongiten ,kalk72 they include lithistids such as ,cnemediastrum1 ,hyalotragus1 ,peronidella2 hexactinellids1 ,tremadictyon1 ,craticularia2 and horny sponges have been found in the ,lias and ,middle ,jurassic4 ,polyzoa are found abundantly in some of the beds1 ,stomatopora1 ,berenicia1 c4 ,brachiopods were represented principally by terebratulids 7,terebratula1 ,waldheimia1 ,megerlea71 and by rhynchonellids2 ,thecae1 ,lingula and ,crania were also present4 ,the ,palaeozoic spirifirids and athyrids still lingered into the ,lias4 ,more important than the brachiopods were the pelecypods2 ,ostrea1 ,exogyra1 ,gryphaea were very abundant 7,gryphite limestone1 ,gryphite grit72 the genus ,trigonia1 now restricted to ,australian waters1 was present in great variety2 ,aucella1 ,lima1 ,pecten1 ,pseudomonotis ,gervillia1 ,astarte1 ,diceras1 ,isocardia1 ,pleuromya may be mentioned out of many others4 ,amongst the gasteropods the ,pleurotomariidae and ,turbinidae reached their maximum development2 the ,palaeozoic ,conularia lived to see the beginning of this period 7,pleurotomaria1 ,nerinea1 ,pteroceras1 ,cerithium1 ,turritella74 ,cephalopods flourished everywhere2 first in importance were the ammonites2 the ,triassic genera ,phylloceras and ,lytoceras were still found in the ,jurassic waters1 but all the other numerous genera were new1 and their shells are found with every variation of size and ornamentation4 ,some are characteristic of the older ,jurassic rocks1 ,arietites1 ,aegoceras1 ,amaltheus1 ,harpoceras1 ,oxynoticeras1 ,stepheoceras1 and the two genera mentioned above2 in the middle stages are found ,cosmoceras1 ,perisphinctes1 ,cardioceras1 ,kepplerites ,aspidoceras2 in the upper stages ,olcostephanus1 ,perisphinctes1 ,reineckia1 ,oppelia4 ,so regularly do certain forms characterize definite horizons in the rocks that some thirty zones have been distinguished in ,europe1 and many of them can be traced even as far as ,india4 ,another cephalopod group1 the belemnites1 that had been dimly outlined in the preceding ,trias1 now advanced rapidly in numbers and in variety of form1 and they1 like the ammonites1 have proved of great value as zone-indicators4 ,the ,sepioids or cuttlefish made their first appearance in this period 7,beloteuthis1 ,geoteuthis17 and their ink-bags can still be traced in examples from the ,lias and lithographic limestone4 ,nautiloids existed but they were somewhat rare4 ,a great change had come over the crustaceans2 in place of the ,palaeozoic trilobites we find long-tailed lobster-like forms1 ,penaeus1 ,eryon1 ,magila1 and the broad crab-like type first appeared in ,prosopon4 ,isopods were represented by ,archaeoniscus and others4 ,insects have left fairly abundant remains in the ,lias of ,england1 ,schambelen 7,switzerland7 and ,dobbertin 7,mecklenburg71 and also in the ,english ,purbeck4 ,neuropterous forms predominate1 but hemiptera occur from the ,lias upwards2 the earliest known flies 7,diptera7 and ants 7,hymenoptera7 appeared2 orthoptera1 cockroaches1 crickets1 beetles1 c41 are found in the ,lias1 ,stonesfield slate and ,purbeck beds4 ,fishes were approaching the modern forms during this period1 heterocercal ganoids becoming scarce 7the ,coelacanthidae reached their maximum development71 while the homocercal forms were abundant 7,gyrodus1 ,microdon1 ,lepidosteus1 ,lepidotus1 ,dapedius74 ,the ,chimaeridae1 sea-cats1 made their appearance 7,squaloraja74 ,the ancestors of the modern sturgeons1 garpikes and selachians1 ,hybodus1 ,acrodus were numerous4 ,bony-fish were represented by the small ,leptolepis4 ,so important a place was occupied by reptiles during this period that it has been well described as the age of reptiles4 ,in the seas the fish-shaped ,ichthyosaurs and long-necked ,plesiosaurs dwelt in great numbers and reached their maximum development2 the latter ranged in size from #f to #dj ft4 in length4 ,the ,pterosaurs1 with bat-like wings and pneumatic bones and keeled breast-bone1 flew over the land2 ,pterodactyl with short tail and ,rhamphorhyncus with long tail are the best known4 ,curiously modified crocodilians appeared late in the period 7,mystriosaurus1 ,geosaurus1 ,steneosaurus1 ,teleosaurus74 ,but even more striking than any of the above were the ,dinosaurs2 these ranged in size from a creature no larger than a rabbit up to the gigantic ,atlantosaurus1 #ajj ft4 long1 in the ,jurassic of ,wyoming4 ,both herbivorous and carnivorous forms were present2 ,brontosaurus1 ,megalosaurus1 ,stegosaurus1 ,cetiosaurus1 ,diplodocus1 ,ceratosaurus and ,campsognathus are a few of the genera4 ,by comparison with the ,dinosaurs the mammals took a very subordinate position in ,jurassic times2 only a few jaws have been found1 belonging to quite small creatures2 they appear to have been marsupials and were probably insectivorous 7,plagiaulax ,bolodon1 ,triconodon1 ,phascolotherium1 ,stylacodon74 ,of great interest are the remains of the earliest known bird 7,archaeopteryx7 from the ,solenhofen slates of ,bavaria4 ,although this was a great advance beyond the ,pterodactyls in avian characters1 yet many reptilian features were retained4 ,comparatively little change took place in the vegetation in the time that elapsed between the close of the ,triassic and the middle of the ,jurassic periods4 ,cycads1 ,zamites1 ,podozamites1 c41 appeared to reach their maximum2 ,equisetums were still found growing to a great size and ,ginkgos occupied a prominent place2 ferns were common2 so too were pines1 yews1 cypresses and other conifers1 which while they outwardly resembled their modern representatives1 were quite distinct in species4 ,no flowering plants had yet appeared1 although a primitive form of angiosperm has been reported from the ,upper ,jurassic of ,portugal4 ,the economic products of the ,jurassic system are of considerable importance2 the valuable coals have already been noticed2 the well-known iron ores of the ,cleveland district in ,yorkshire and those of the ,northampton sands occur respectively in the ,lias and ,inferior ,oolites4 ,oil shales are found in ,germany1 and several of the ,jurassic formations in ,england contain some petroleum4 ,building stones of great value are obtained from the ,great ,oolite1 the ,portlandian and the ,inferior ,oolite2 large quantities of hydraulic cement and lime have been made from the ,lias4 ,the celebrated lithographic stone of ,solenhofen in ,bavaria belongs to the upper portion of this system4 ,see ,d',orbigny1 ,palontologie franaise1 ,terrain ,jurassique 7#ahdj1 #ahdf72 ,l4 von ,buch1 ber den ,jura in ,deutschland 7,abhand4 d4 ,berlin ,akad41 #ahci72 ,f4 ,a4 ,quenstedt1 ,fltzgebirge ,wrttembergs 7#ahdc7 and other papers1 also ,der ,jura 7#ahhc-ahhh72 ,a4 ,oppel1 ,die ,juraformation ,englands1 ,frankreichs und s4w4 ,deutschlands 7#ahef-aheh74 ,for a good general account of the formations with many references to original papers1 see ,a4 de ,lapparent1 ,trait de gologie1 vol4 ii4 #eth ed4 7#aijf74 ,the standard work for ,great ,britain is the series of ,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey entitled ,the ,jurassic ,rocks of ,britain1 i and ii4 ,yorkshire 7#ahib72 iii4 ,the ,lias of ,england and ,wales 7#ahic72 iv4 ,the ,lower ,oolite ,rocks of ,england 7,yorkshire excepted7 7#ahid72 v4 ,the ,middle and ,upper ,oolitic ,rocks of ,england 7,yorkshire excepted7 7#ahie74 ,the map is after that of ,m4 ,neumayr1 ,die geographische ,verbreitung der ,juraformation1 ,denkschr4 d4 k4 ,akad4 d4 ,wiss41 ,wien1 ,math4 u4 ,naturwiss41 cl4 ,l41 ,abth4 i1 ,karte #a4 7#ahhe74 7,j4 ,a4 ,h47 ,,footnote3 #a ,purbeckian from the ,isle of ,purbeck4 ,aquilonien from ,aquilo 7,nord74 ,bononien from ,bononia 7,boulogne74 ,virgulien from ,exogyra virgula4 ,pteroceran from ,pteroceras oceani4 ,astartien from ,astarte supracorollina4 ,rauracien from ,rauracia 7,jura74 ,argovien from ,argovie 7,switzerland74 ,neuvizien from ,neuvizy 7,ardennes74 ,divesien from ,dives 7,calvados74 ,bathonien from ,bath 7,england74 ,bajocien from ,bayeux 7,calvados74 ,toarcien from ,toarcium 7,tours74 ,charmouthien from ,charmouth 7,england74 ,sinemourien from ,sinemurum1 ,semur 7,cte d',or74 ,hettangien from ,hettange 7,lorraine74 ,,jurat 7through ,fr4 from med4 ,lat4 juratus1 one sworn1 ,lat4 jurare1 to swear71 a name given to the sworn holders of certain offices4 ,under the ancien rgime in ,france1 in several towns1 of the south-west1 such as ,rochelle and ,bordeaux1 the jurats were members of the municipal body4 ,the title was also borne by officials1 corresponding to aldermen1 in the ,cinque ,ports1 but is now chiefly used as a title of office in the ,channel ,islands4 ,there are two bodies1 consisting each of twelve jurats1 for ,jersey and the bailiwick of ,guernsey respectively4 ,they are elected for life1 in ,jersey by the ratepayers1 in ,guernsey by the elective states4 ,they form1 with the bailiff as presiding judge1 the royal court of justice1 and are a constituent part of the legislative bodies4 ,in ,english law1 the word jurat 7juratum7 is applied to that part of an affidavit which contains the names of the parties swearing the affidavit and the person before whom it was sworn1 the date1 place and other necessary particulars4 ,,jurien ,,de ,,la ,,gravi,,re1 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,edmond 7#ahab-ahib71 ,french admiral1 son of ,admiral ,jurien1 who served through the ,revolutionary and ,napoleonic wars and was a peer of ,france under ,louis ,philippe1 was born on the #aith of ,november #ahab4 ,he entered the navy in #ahbh1 was made a commander in #ahda1 and captain in #ahej4 ,during the ,russian ,war he commanded a ship in the ,black ,sea4 ,he was promoted to be rear-admiral on the #ast of ,december #ahee1 and appointed to the command of a squadron in the ,adriatic in #ahei1 when he absolutely sealed the ,austrian ports with a close blockade4 ,in ,october #ahfa he was appointed to command the squadron in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and two months later the expedition against ,mexico4 ,on the #aeth of ,january #ahfb he was promoted to be vice-admiral4 ,during the ,franco-,german ,war of #ahgj he had command of the ,french ,mediterranean fleet1 and in #ahga he was appointed director of charts4 ,as having commanded in chief before the enemy1 the age-limit was waived in his favour1 and he was continued on the active list4 ,jurien died on the #dth of ,march #ahib4 ,he was a voluminous author of works on naval history and biography1 most of which first appeared in the ,revue des deux mondes4 ,among the most noteworthy of these are ,guerres maritimes sous la rpublique et l'empire1 which was translated by ,lord ,dunsany under the title of ,sketches of the ,last ,naval ,war 7#ahdh72 ,souvenirs d'un amiral 7#ahfj71 that is1 of his father1 ,admiral ,jurien2 ,la ,marine d'autrefois 7#ahfe71 largely autobiographical2 and ,la ,marine d'aujourd'hui 7#ahgb74 ,in #ahff he was elected a member of the ,academy4 ,,jurieu1 ,,pierre 7#afcg-agac71 ,french ,protestant divine1 was born at ,mer1 in ,orlanais1 where his father was a ,protestant pastor4 ,he studied at ,saumur and ,sedan under his grandfather1 ,pierre ,dumoulin1 and under ,leblanc de ,beaulieu4 ,after completing his studies in ,holland and ,england1 ,jurieu received ,anglican ordination2 returning to ,france he was ordained again and succeeded his father as pastor of the church at ,mer4 ,soon after this he published his first work1 ,examen de livre de la runion du ,christianisme 7#afga74 ,in #afgd his ,trait de la dvotion led to his appointment as professor of theology and ,hebrew at ,sedan1 where he soon became also pastor4 ,a year later he published his ,apologie pour la morale des ,rforms4 ,he obtained a high reputation1 but his work was impaired by his controversial temper1 which frequently developed into an irritated fanaticism1 though he was always entirely sincere4 ,he was called by his adversaries the ,goliath of the ,protestants4 ,on the suppression of the academy of ,sedan in #afha1 ,jurieu received an invitation to a church at ,rouen1 but1 afraid to remain in ,france on account of his forthcoming work1 ,la ,politique du clerg de ,france1 he went to ,holland and was pastor of the ,walloon church of ,rotterdam till his death on the #aath of ,january #agac4 ,he was also professor at the cole illustre4 ,jurieu did much to help those who suffered by the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes 7#afhe74 ,he himself turned for consolation to the ,apocalypse1 and succeeded in persuading himself 7,accomplissement des prophties1 #afhf7 that the overthrow of ,antichrist 7i4e4 the papal church7 would take place in #afhi4 ,h4 ,m4 ,baird says that this persuasion1 however fanciful the grounds on which it was based1 exercised no small influence in forwarding the success of the designs of ,william of ,orange in the invasion of ,england4 ,jurieu defended the doctrines of ,protestantism with great ability against the attacks of ,antoine ,arnauld1 ,pierre ,nicole and ,bossuet1 but was equally ready to enter into dispute with his fellow ,protestant divines 7with ,louis ,du ,moulin and ,claude ,payon1 for instance7 when their opinions differed from his own even on minor matters4 ,the bitterness and persistency of his attacks on his colleague ,pierre ,bayle led to the latter being deprived of his chair in #afic4 ,one of ,jurieu's chief works is ,lettres pastorales adresses aux fidles de ,france 7#c vols41 ,rotterdam1 #afhf-afhg2 ,eng4 trans41 #afhi71 which1 notwithstanding the vigilance of the police1 found its way into ,france and produced a deep impression on the ,protestant population4 ,his last important work was the ,histoire critique des dogmes et des cultes 7#agjd2 ,eng4 trans41 #agae74 ,he wrote a great number of controversial works4 ,see the article in ,herzog-,hauck1 ,realencyklopdie2 also ,h4 ,m4 ,baird1 ,the ,huguenots and the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes 7#ahie74 ,,juris1 a tribe of ,south ,american ,indians1 formerly occupying the country between the rivers ,ia 7lower ,putumayo7 and ,japura1 north-western ,brazil4 ,in ancient days they were the most powerful tribe of the district1 but in #ahbj their numbers did not exceed #bjjj4 ,owing to inter-marrying1 the ,juris are believed to have been extinct for half a century4 ,they were closely related to the ,passes1 and were like them a fair-skinned1 finely built people with quite ,european features4 ,,jurisdiction1 in general1 the exercise of lawful authority1 especially by a court or a judge2 and so the extent or limits within which such authority is exercisable4 ,thus each court has its appropriate jurisdiction2 in the ,high ,court of ,justice in ,england administration actions are brought in the chancery division1 salvage actions in the admiralty1 c4 ,the jurisdiction of a particular court is often limited by statute1 as that of a county court1 which is local and is also limited in amount4 ,in international law jurisdiction has a wider meaning1 namely1 the rights exercisable by a state within the bounds of a given space4 ,this is frequently referred to as the territorial theory of jurisdiction4 7,see ,,international ,,law2 ,,international ,,law1 ,,private47 ,,jurisprudence 7,lat4 jurisprudentia1 knowledge of law1 from jus1 right1 and prudentia1 from providere1 to foresee71 the general term for the formal science of positive law 7,t4 ,e4 ,holland72 see ,,law4 ,the essential principles involved are discussed below and in ,,jurisprudence1 ,,comparative2 the details of particular laws or sorts of law 7,,contract1 c47 and of individual national systems of law 7,,english ,,law1 c47 being dealt with in separate articles4 ,the human race may be conceived as parcelled out into a number of distinct groups or societies1 differing greatly in size and circumstances1 in physical and moral characteristics of all kinds4 ,but they all resemble each other in that they reveal on examination certain rules of conduct in accordance with which the relations of the members inter se are governed4 ,each society has its own system of laws1 and all the systems1 so far as they are known1 constitute the appropriate subject matter of jurisprudence4 ,the jurist may deal with it in the following ways4 ,he may first of all examine the leading conceptions common to all the systems1 or in other words define the leading terms common to them all4 ,such are the terms law itself1 right1 duty1 property1 crime1 and so forth1 which1 or their equivalents1 may1 notwithstanding delicate differences of connotation1 be regarded as common terms in all systems4 ,that kind of inquiry is known in ,england as analytical jurisprudence4 ,it regards the conceptions with which it deals as fixed or stationary1 and aims at expressing them distinctly and exhibiting their logical relations with each other4 ,what is really meant by a right and by a duty1 and what is the true connexion between a right and a duty1 are types of the questions proper to this inquiry4 ,shifting our point of view1 but still regarding systems of law in the mass1 we may consider them1 not as stationary1 but as changeable and changing1 we may ask what general features are exhibited by the record of the change4 ,this1 somewhat crudely put1 may serve to indicate the field of historical or comparative jurisprudence4 ,in its ideal condition it would require an accurate record of the history of all legal systems as its material4 ,but whether the material be abundant or scanty the method is the same4 ,it seeks the explanation of institutions and legal principles in the facts of history4 ,its aim is to show how a given rule came to be what it is4 ,the legislative source--the emanation of the rule from a sovereign authority--is of no importance here2 what is important is the moral source--the connexion of the rule with the ideas prevalent during contemporary periods4 ,this method1 it is evident1 involves not only a comparison of successive stages in the history of the same system1 but a comparison of different systems1 of the ,roman with the ,english1 of the ,hindu with the ,irish1 and so on4 ,the historical method as applied to law may be regarded as a special example of the method of comparison4 ,the comparative method is really employed in all generalizations about law2 for1 although the analysis of legal terms might be conducted with exclusive reference to one system1 the advantage of testing the result by reference to other systems is obvious4 ,but1 besides the use of comparison for purposes of analysis and in tracing the phenomena of the growth of laws1 it is evident that for the purposes of practical legislation the comparison of different systems may yield important results4 ,laws are contrivances for bringing about certain definite ends1 the larger of which are identical in all systems4 ,the comparison of these contrivances not only serves to bring their real object1 often obscured as it is in details1 into clearer view1 but enables legislators to see where the contrivances are deficient1 and how they may be improved4 ,the science of law1 as the expression is generally used1 means the examination of laws in general in one or other of the ways just indicated4 ,it means an investigation of laws which exist or have existed in some given society in fact--in other words1 positive laws2 and it means an examination not limited to the exposition of particular systems4 ,analytical jurisprudence is in ,england associated chiefly with the name of ,john ,austin 7q4v471 whose ,province of ,jurisprudence ,determined systematized and completed the work begun in ,england by ,hobbes1 and continued at a later date and from a different point of view by ,bentham4 ,austin's first position is to distinguish between laws properly so called and laws improperly so called4 ,in any of the older writers on law1 we find the various senses in which the word is used grouped together as variations of one common meaning4 ,thus ,blackstone advances to his proper subject1 municipal laws1 through 7#a7 the laws of inanimate matter1 7#b7 the laws of animal nutrition1 digestion1 c41 7#c7 the laws of nature1 which are rules imposed by ,god on men and discoverable by reason alone1 and 7#d7 the revealed or divine law which is part of the law of nature directly expounded by ,god4 ,all of these are connected by this common element that they are rules of action dictated by some superior being4 ,and some such generalization as this is to be found at the basis of most treatises on jurisprudence which have not been composed under the influence of the analytical school4 ,austin disposes of it by the distinction that some of those laws are commands1 while others are not commands4 ,the so-called laws of nature are not commands2 they are uniformities which resemble commands only in so far as they may be supposed to have been ordered by some intelligent being4 ,but they are not commands in the only proper sense of that word--they are not addressed to reasonable beings1 who may or may not will obedience to them4 ,laws of nature are not addressed to anybody1 and there is no possible question of obedience or disobedience to them4 ,austin accordingly pronounces them laws improperly so called1 and confines his attention to laws properly so called1 which are commands addressed by a human superior to a human inferior4 ,this distinction seems so simple and obvious that the energy and even bitterness with which ,austin insists upon it now seem superfluous4 ,but the indiscriminate identification of everything to which common speech gives the name of a law was1 and still is1 a fruitful source of confusion4 ,blackstone's statement that when ,god put matter into motion ,he established certain laws of motion1 to which all movable matter must conform1 and that in those creatures that have neither the power to think nor to will such laws must be invariably obeyed1 so long as the creature itself subsists1 for its existence depends on that obedience1 imputes to the law of gravitation in respect of both its origin and its execution the qualities of an act of parliament4 ,on the other hand the qualities of the law of gravitation are imputed to certain legal principles which1 under the name of the law of nature1 are asserted to be binding all over the globe1 so that no human laws are of any validity if contrary to this4 ,austin never fails to stigmatize the use of natural laws in the sense of scientific facts as improper1 or as metaphorical4 ,having eliminated metaphorical or figurative laws1 we restrict ourselves to those laws which are commands4 ,this word is the key to the analysis of law1 and accordingly a large portion of ,austin's work is occupied with the determination of its meaning4 ,a command is an order issued by a superior to an inferior4 ,it is a signification of desire distinguished by this peculiarity that the party to whom it is directed is liable to evil from the other1 in case he comply not with the desire4 ,if you are able and willing to harm me in case ,i comply not with your wish1 the expression of your wish amounts to a command4 ,being liable to evil in case ,i comply not with the wish which you signify1 ,i am bound or obliged by it1 or ,i lie under a duty to obey it4 ,the evil is called a sanction1 and the command or duty is said to be sanctioned by the chance of incurring the evil4 ,the three terms command1 duty and sanction are thus inseparably connected4 ,as ,austin expresses it in the language of formal logic1 each of the three terms signifies the same notion1 but each denotes a different part of that notion and connotes the residue4 ,all commands1 however1 are not laws4 ,that term is reserved for those commands which oblige generally to the performance of acts of a class4 ,a command to your servant to rise at such an hour on such a morning is a particular command1 but not a law or rule2 a command to rise always at that hour is a law or rule4 ,of this distinction it is sufficient to say in the meantime that it involves1 when we come to deal with positive laws1 the rejection of particular enactments to which by inveterate usage the term law would certainly be applied4 ,on the other hand it is not1 according to ,austin1 necessary that a true law should bind persons as a class4 ,obligations imposed on the grantee of an office specially created by parliament would imply a law2 a general order to go into mourning addressed to the whole nation for a particular occasion would not be a law4 ,so far we have arrived at a definition of laws properly so called4 ,austin holds superiority and inferiority to be necessarily implied in command1 and such statements as that laws emanate from superiors to be the merest tautology and trifling4 ,elsewhere he sums up the characteristics of true laws as ascertained by the analysis thus3 7#a7 laws1 being commands1 emanate from a determinate source2 7#b7 every sanction is an evil annexed to a command2 and 7#c7 every duty implies a command1 and chiefly means obnoxiousness to the evils annexed to commands4 ,of true laws1 those only are the subject of jurisprudence which are laws strictly so called1 or positive laws4 ,austin accordingly proceeds to distinguish positive from other true laws1 which are either laws set by ,god to men or laws set by men to men1 not1 however1 as political superiors nor in pursuance of a legal right4 ,the discussion of the first of these true but not positive laws leads ,austin to his celebrated discussion of the utilitarian theory4 ,the laws set by ,god are either revealed or unrevealed1 i4e4 either expressed in direct command1 or made known to men in one or other of the ways denoted by such phrases as the light of nature1 natural reason1 dictates of nature1 and so forth4 ,austin maintains that the principle of general utility1 based ultimately on the assumed benevolence of ,god1 is the true index to such of ,his commands as ,he has not chosen to reveal4 ,austin's exposition of the meaning of the principle is a most valuable contribution to moral science1 though he rests its claims ultimately on a basis which many of its supporters would disavow4 ,and the whole discussion is now generally condemned as lying outside the proper scope of the treatise1 although the reason for so condemning it is not always correctly stated4 ,it is found in such assumptions of fact as that there is a ,god1 that ,he has issued commands to men in what ,austin calls the truths of revelation1 that ,he designs the happiness of all ,his creatures1 that there is a predominance of good in the order of the world--which do not now command universal assent4 ,it is impossible to place these propositions on the same scientific footing as the assumptions of fact with reference to human society on which jurisprudence rests4 ,if the divine laws were facts like acts of parliament1 it is conceived that the discussion of their characteristics would not be out of place in a scheme of jurisprudence4 ,the second set of laws properly so called1 which are not positive laws1 consists of three classes3 7#a7 those which are set by men living in a state of nature2 7#b7 those which are set by sovereigns but not as political superiors1 e4g4 when one sovereign commands another to act according to a principle of international law2 and 7#c7 those set by subjects but not in pursuance of legal rights4 ,this group1 to which ,austin gives the name of positive morality1 helps to explain his conception of positive law4 ,men are living in a state of nature1 or a state of anarchy1 when they are not living in a state of government or as members of a political society4 ,political society thus becomes the central fact of the theory1 and some of the objections that have been urged against it arise from its being applied to conditions of life in which ,austin would not have admitted the existence of a political society4 ,again1 the third set in the group is intimately connected with positive laws on the one hand and rules of positive morality which are not even laws properly so called on the other4 ,thus laws set by subjects in consequence of a legal right are clothed with legal sanctions1 and are laws positive4 ,a law set by guardian to ward1 in pursuance of a right which the guardian is bound to exercise1 is a positive law pure and simple2 a law set by master to slave1 in pursuance of a legal right1 which he is not bound to exercise1 is1 in ,austin's phraseology1 to be regarded both as a positive moral rule and as a positive law4#a ,on the other hand the rules set by a club or society1 and enforced upon its members by exclusion from the society1 but not in pursuance of any legal right1 are laws1 but not positive laws4 ,they are imperative and proceed from a determinate source1 but they have no legal or political sanction4 ,closely connected with this positive morality1 consisting of true but not positive laws1 is the positive morality whose rules are not laws properly so called at all1 though they are generally denominated laws4 ,such are the laws of honour1 the laws of fashion1 and1 most important of all1 international law4 ,nowhere does ,austin's phraseology come more bluntly into conflict with common usage than in pronouncing the law of nations 7which in substance is a compact body of well-defined rules resembling nothing so much as the ordinary rules of law7 to be not laws at all1 even in the wider sense of the term4 ,that the rules of a private club should be law properly so called1 while the whole mass of international jurisprudence is mere opinion1 shocks our sense of the proprieties of expression4 ,yet no man was more careful than ,austin to observe these properties4 ,he recognizes fully the futility of definitions which involve a painful struggle with the current of ordinary speech4 ,but in the present instance the apparent paralogism cannot be avoided if we accept the limitation of laws properly so called to commands proceeding from a determinate source4 ,and that limitation is so generally present in our conception of law that to ignore it would be a worse anomaly than this4 ,no one finds fault with the statement that the so-called code of honour or the dictates of fashion are not1 properly speaking1 laws4 ,we repel the same statement applied to the law of nature1 because it resembles in so many of its most striking features--in the certainty of a large portion of it1 in its terminology1 in its substantial principles--the most universal elements of actual systems of law1 and because1 moreover1 the assumption that brought it into existence was nothing else than this1 that it consisted of those abiding portions of legal systems which prevail everywhere by their own authority4 ,but1 though positive morality may not be the best phrase to describe such a code of rules1 the distinction insisted on by ,austin is unimpeachable4 ,the elimination of those laws properly and improperly so called which are not positive laws brings us to the definition of positive law1 which is the keystone of the system4 ,every positive law is set by a sovereign person1 or sovereign body of persons1 to a member or members of the independent political society wherein that person or body is sovereign or superior4 ,though possibly sprung directly from another source1 it is a positive law1 by the institution of that present sovereign in the character of a political superior4 ,the question is not as to the historical origin of the principle1 but as to its present authority4 ,the legislator is he1 not by whose authority the law was first made1 but by whose authority it continues to be law4 ,this definition involves the analysis of the connected expressions sovereignty1 subjection and independent political society1 and of determinate body--which last analysis ,austin performs in connexion with that of commands4 ,these are all excellent examples of the logical method of which he was so great a master4 ,the broad results alone need be noticed here4 ,in order that a given society may form a society political and independent1 the generality or bulk of its members must be in a habit of obedience to a certain and common superior2 whilst that certain person or body of persons must not be habitually obedient to a certain person or body4 ,all the italicized words point to circumstances in which it might be difficult to say whether a given society is political and independent or not4 ,several of these ,austin has discussed--e4g4 the state of things in which a political society yields obedience which may or may not be called habitual to some external power1 and the state of things in which a political society is divided between contending claimants for sovereign power1 and it is uncertain which shall prevail1 and over how much of the society4 ,so long as that uncertainty remains we have a state of anarchy4 ,further1 an independent society to be political must not fall below a number which can only be called considerable4 ,neither then in a state of anarchy1 nor in inconsiderable communities1 nor among men living in a state of nature1 have we the proper phenomena of a political society4 ,the last limitation goes some way to meet the most serious criticism to which ,austin's system has been exposed1 and it ought to be stated in his own words4 ,he supposes a society which may be styled independent1 which is considerable in numbers1 and which is in a savage or extremely barbarous condition4 ,in such a society1 the bulk of its members is not in the habit of obedience to one and the same superior4 ,for the purpose of attacking an external enemy1 or for the purpose of repelling an attack1 the bulk of its members who are capable of bearing arms submits to one leader or one body of leaders4 ,but as soon as that emergency passes the transient submission ceases1 and the society reverts to the state which may be deemed its ordinary state4 ,the bulk of each of the families which compose the given society renders habitual obedience to its own peculiar chief1 but those domestic societies are themselves independent societies1 or are not united and compacted into one political society by habitual and general obedience to one common superior1 and there is no law 7simply or strictly so styled7 which can be called the law of that society4 ,the so-called laws which are common to the bulk of the community are purely and properly customary laws--that is to say1 laws which are set or imposed by the general opinion of the community1 but are not enforced by legal or political sanctions4 ,such1 he says1 are the savage societies of hunters and fishers in ,north ,america1 and such were the ,germans as described by ,tacitus4 ,he takes no account of societies in an intermediate stage between this and the condition which constitutes political society4 ,we need not follow the analysis in detail4 ,much ingenuity is displayed in grouping the various kinds of government1 in detecting the sovereign authority under the disguises which it wears in the complicated state system of the ,united ,states or under the fictions of ,english law1 in elucidating the precise meaning of abstract political terms4 ,incidentally the source of many celebrated fallacies in political thought is laid bare4 ,that the question who is sovereign in a given state is a question of fact and not of law or morals or religion1 that the sovereign is incapable of legal limitation1 that law is such by the sovereign's command1 that no real or assumed compact can limit his action--are positions which ,austin has been accused of enforcing with needless iteration4 ,he cleared them1 however1 from the air of paradox with which they had been previously encumbered1 and his influence was in no direction more widely felt than in making them the commonplaces of educated opinion in this generation4 ,passing from these1 we may now consider what has been said against the theory1 which may be summed up in the following terms4 ,laws1 no matter in what form they be expressed1 are in the last resort reducible to commands set by the person or body of persons who are in fact sovereigns in any independent political society4 ,the sovereign is the person or persons whose commands are habitually obeyed by the great bulk of the community2 and by an independent society we mean that such sovereign head is not himself habitually obedient to any other determinate body of persons4 ,the society must be sufficiently numerous to be considerable before we can speak of it as a political society4 ,from command1 with its inseparable incident of sanction1 come the duties and rights in terms of which laws are for the most part expressed4 ,duty means that the person of whom it is predicated is liable to the sanction in case he fails to obey the command4 ,right means that the person of whom it is predicated may set the sanction in operation in case the command be disobeyed4 ,we may here interpolate a doubt whether the condition of independence on the part of the head of a community is essential to the legal analysis4 ,it seems to us that we have all the elements of a true law present when we point to a community habitually obedient to the authority of a person or determinate body of persons1 no matter what the relations of that superior may be to any external or superior power4 ,provided that in fact the commands of the lawgiver are those beyond which the community never looks1 it seems immaterial to inquire whether this lawgiver in turn takes his orders from somebody else or is habitually obedient to such orders when given4 ,one may imagine a community governed by a dependent legislatorial body or person1 while the supreme sovereign whose representative and nominee such body or person may be never directly addresses the community at all4 ,we do not see that in such a case anything is gained in clearness by representing the law of the community as set by the suzerain1 rather than the dependent legislator4 ,nor is the ascertainment of the ultimate seat of power necessary to define political societies4 ,that we get when we suppose a community to be in the habit of obedience to a single person or to a determinate combination of persons4 ,the use of the word command is not unlikely to lead to a misconception of ,austin's meaning4 ,when we say that a law is a command of the sovereign1 we are apt to think of the sovereign as enunciating the rule in question for the first time4 ,many laws are not traceable to the sovereign at all in this sense4 ,some are based upon immemorial practices1 some can be traced to the influence of private citizens1 whether practising lawyers or writers on law1 and in most countries a vast body of law owes its existence as such to the fact that it has been observed as law in some other society4 ,the great bulk of modern law owes its existence and its shape ultimately to the labours of the ,roman lawyers of the empire4 ,austin's definition has nothing to do with this1 the historical origin of laws4 ,most books dealing with law in the abstract generalize the modes in which laws may be originated under the name of the sources of law1 and one of these is legislation1 or the direct command of the sovereign body4 ,the connexion of laws with each other as principles is properly the subject matter of historical jurisprudence1 the ideal perfection of which would be the establishment of the general laws governing the evolution of law in the technical sense4 ,austin's definition looks1 not to the authorship of the law as a principle1 not to its inventor or originator1 but to the person or persons who in the last resort cause it to be obeyed4 ,if a given rule is enforced by the sovereign it is a law4 ,it may be convenient to notice here what is usually said about the sources of law1 as the expression sometimes proves a stumbling-block to the appreciation of ,austin's system4 ,in the corpus juris of any given country only a portion of the laws is traceable to the direct expression of his commands by the sovereign4 ,legislation is one1 but only one1 of the sources of law4 ,other portions of the law may be traceable to other sources1 which may vary in effect in different systems4 ,the list given in the ,institutes of ,justinian of the ways in which law may be made--lex1 plebiscitum1 principis placita1 edicta magistratuum1 and so on--is a list of sources4 ,among the sources of law other than legislation which are most commonly exemplified are the laws made by judges in the course of judicial decisions1 and law originating as custom4 ,the source of the law in the one case is the judicial decision1 in the other the custom4 ,in consequence of the decisions and in consequence of the custom the rule has prevailed4 ,english law is largely made up of principles derived in each of those ways1 while it is deficient in principles derived from the writings of independent teachers1 such as have in other systems exercised a powerful influence on the development of law4 ,the responsa prudentum1 the opinions of learned men1 published as such1 did undoubtedly originate an immense portion of ,roman law4 ,no such influence has affected ,english law to any appreciable extent--a result owing to the activity of the courts of the legislature4 ,this difference has profoundly affected the form of ,english law as compared with that of systems which have been developed by the play of free discussion4 ,these are the most definite of the influences to which the beginning of laws may be traced4 ,the law once established1 no matter how1 is nevertheless law in the sense of ,austin's definition4 ,it is enforced by the sovereign authority4 ,it was originated by something very different4 ,but when we speak of it as a command we think only of the way in which it is to-day presented to the subject4 ,the newest order of an act of parliament is not more positively presented to the people as a command to be obeyed than are the elementary rules of the common law for which no legislative origin can be traced4 ,it is not even necessary to resort to the figure of speech by which alone1 according to ,sir ,henry ,maine 7,early ,history of ,institutions1 p4 #cad71 the common law can be regarded as the commands of the government4 ,the common law1 he says1 consists of their commands because they can repeal or alter or restate it at pleasure4 ,they command because1 being by the assumption possessed of uncontrollable force1 they could innovate without limit at any moment4 ,on the contrary1 it may be said that they command because they do as a matter of fact enforce the rules laid down in the common law4 ,it is not because they could innovate if they pleased in the common law that they are said to command it1 but because it is known that they will enforce it as it stands4 ,the criticism of ,austin's analysis resolved itself into two different sets of objections4 ,one relates to the theory of sovereignty which underlies it2 the other to its alleged failure to include rules which in common parlance are laws1 and which it is felt ought to be included in any satisfactory definition of law4 ,as the latter is to some extent anticipated and admitted by ,austin himself1 we may deal with it first4 ,frederic ,harrison 7,fortnightly ,review1 vols4 xxx41 xxxi47 was at great pains to collect a number of laws or rules of law which do not square with the ,austinian definition of law as a command creating rights and duties4 ,take the rule that every will must be in writing4 ,it is a very circuitous way of looking at things1 according to ,harrison1 to say that such a rule creates a specific right in any determinate person of a definite description4 ,so1 again1 the rule that a legacy to the witness of a will is void4 ,such a rule is not designed to give any one any rights1 but simply to protect the public against wills made under undue influence4 ,again1 the technical rule in ,shelley's case that a gift to ,a for life1 followed by a gift to the heirs of ,a1 is a gift to ,a in fee simple1 is pronounced to be inconsistent with the definition4 ,it is an idle waste of ingenuity to force any of these rules into a form in which they might be said to create rights4 ,this would be a perfectly correct description of any attempt to take any of these rules separately and analyse it into a complete command creating specific rights and duties4 ,but there is no occasion for doing anything of the kind4 ,it is not contended that every grammatically complete sentence in a textbook or a statute is per se a command creating rights and duties4 ,a law1 like any other command1 must be expressed in words1 and will require the use of the usual aids to expression4 ,the gist of it may be expressed in a sentence which1 standing by itself1 is not intelligible2 other sentences locally separate from the principal one may contain the exceptions and the modifications and the interpretations to which that is subject4 ,in no one of these taken by itself1 but in the substance of them all taken together1 is the true law1 in ,austin's sense1 to be found4 ,thus the rule that every will must be in writing is a mere fragment--only the limb of a law4 ,it belongs to the rule which fixes the rights of devisees or legatees under a will4 ,that rule in whatever form it may be expressed is1 without any straining of language1 a command of the legislator4 ,that every person named by a testator in his last will and testament shall be entitled to the property thereby given him is surely a command creating rights and duties4 ,after testament add expressed in writing2 it is still a command4 ,add further1 provided he be not one of the witnesses to the will1 and the command1 with its product of rights and duties1 is still there4 ,each of the additions limits the operation of the command stated imperatively in the first sentence4 ,so with the rule in ,shelley's case4 ,it is resolvable into the rule that every person to whom an estate is given by a conveyance expressed in such and such a way shall take such and such rights4 ,to take another example from later legislation4 ,an ,english statute passed in #ahha enacts nothing more than this1 that an act of a previous session shall be construed as if that meant this4 ,it would be futile indeed to force this into conformity with ,austin's definition by treating it as a command addressed to the judges1 and as indirectly creating rights to have such a construction respected4 ,as it happens1 the section of the previous act referred to 7the ,burials ,act #ahhj7 was an undeniable command addressed to the clergy1 and imposed upon them a specific duty4 ,the true command--the law--is to be found in the two sections taken together4 ,all this confusion arises from the fact that laws are not habitually expressed in imperative terms4 ,even in a mature system like that of ,england the great bulk of legal rules is hidden under forms which disguise their imperative quality4 ,they appear as principles1 maxims1 propositions of fact1 generalizations1 points of pleading and procedure1 and so forth4 ,even in the statutes the imperative form is not uniformly observed4 ,it might be said that the more mature a legal system is the less do its individual rules take the form of commands4 ,the greater portion of ,roman law is expressed in terms which would not misbecome scientific or speculative treatises4 ,the institutional works abound in propositions which have no legal significance at all1 but which are not distinguished from the true law in which they are embedded by any difference in the forms of expression4 ,assertions about matters of history1 dubious speculations in philology1 and reflections on human conduct are mixed up in the same narrative with genuine rules of law4 ,words of description are used1 not words of command1 and rules of law assimilate themselves in form to the extraneous matter with which they are mixed up4 ,it has been said that ,austin himself admitted to some extent the force of these objections4 ,he includes among laws which are not imperative declaratory laws1 or laws explaining the import of existing positive law1 and laws abrogating or repealing existing positive law4 ,he thus associates them with rules of positive morality and with laws which are only metaphorically so called4 ,this collocation is unfortunate and out of keeping with ,austin's method4 ,declaratory and repealing laws are as completely unlike positive morality and metaphorical laws as are the laws which he describes as properly so called4 ,and if we avoid the error of treating each separate proposition enunciated by the lawgiver as a law1 the cases in question need give us no trouble4 ,read the declaratory and the repealing statutes along with the principal laws which they affect1 and the result is perfectly consistent with the proposition that all law is to be resolved into a species of command4 ,in the one case we have in the principal taken together with the interpretative statute a law1 and whether it differs or not from the law as it existed before the interpretative statute was passed makes no difference to the true character of the latter4 ,it contributes along with the former to the expression of a command which is a true law4 ,in the same way repealing statutes are to be taken together with the laws which they repeal--the result being that there is no law1 no command1 at all4 ,it is wholly unnecessary to class them as laws which are not truly imperative1 or as exceptions to the rule that laws are a species of commands4 ,the combination of the two sentences in which the lawgiver has expressed himself1 yields the result of silence--absence of law--which is in no way incompatible with the assertion that a law1 when it exists1 is a kind of command4 ,austin's theory does not logically require us to treat every act of parliament as being a complete law in itself1 and therefore to set aside a certain number of acts of parliament as being exceptions to the great generalization which is the basis of the whole system4 ,rules of procedure again have been alleged to constitute another exception4 ,they cannot1 it is said1 be regarded as commands involving punishment if they be disobeyed4 ,nor is anything gained by considering them as commands addressed to the judge and other ministers of the law4 ,there may be no doubt in the law of procedure a great deal that is resolvable into law in this sense1 but the great bulk of it is to be regarded like the rules of interpretation as entering into the substantive commands which are laws4 ,they are descriptions of the sanction and its mode of working4 ,the bare prohibition of murder without any penalty to enforce it would not be a law4 ,to prohibit it under penalty of death implies a reference to the whole machinery of criminal justice by which the penalty is enforced4 ,taken by themselves the rules of procedure are not1 any more than canons of interpretation1 complete laws in ,austin's sense of the term4 ,but they form part of the complete expression of true laws4 ,they imply a command1 and they describe the sanction and the mode in which it operates4 ,a more formidable criticism of ,austin's position is that which attacks the definition of sovereignty4 ,there are countries1 it is said1 where the sovereign authority cannot by any stretch of language be said to command the laws1 and yet where law manifestly exists4 ,the ablest and the most moderate statement of this view is given by ,sir ,henry ,maine in ,early ,history of ,institutions1 p4 #chj3-- ,it is from no special love of ,indian examples that ,i take one from ,india1 but because it happens to be the most modern precedent in point4 ,my instance is the ,indian province called the ,punjaub1 the country of the ,five ,rivers1 in the state in which it was for about a quarter of a century before its annexation to the ,british ,indian ,empire4 ,after passing through every conceivable phase of anarchy and dormant anarchy1 it fell under the tolerably consolidated dominion of a half-military half-religious oligarchy known as the ,sikhs4 ,the ,sikhs themselves were afterwards reduced to subjection by a single chieftain belonging to their order1 ,runjeet ,singh4 ,at first sight there could be no more perfect embodiment than ,runjeet ,singh of sovereignty as conceived by ,austin4 ,he was absolutely despotic4 ,except occasionally on his wild frontier he kept the most perfect order4 ,he could have commanded anything2 the smallest disobedience to his commands would have been followed by death or mutilation2 and this was perfectly well known to the enormous majority of his subjects4 ,yet ,i doubt whether once in all his life he issued a command which ,austin would call a law4 ,he took as his revenue a prodigious share of the produce of the soil4 ,he harried villages which recalcitrated at his exactions1 and he executed great numbers of men4 ,he levied great armies2 he had all material of power1 and he exercised it in various ways4 ,but he never made a law4 ,the rules which regulated the lives of his subjects were derived from their immemorial usages1 and those rules were administered by domestic tribunals in families or village communities--that is1 in groups no larger or little larger than those to which the application of ,austin's principles cannot be effected on his own admission without absurdity4 ,so far as the mere size of the community is concerned1 there is no difficulty in applying the ,austinian theory4 ,in postulating a considerably numerous community ,austin was thinking evidently of small isolated groups which could not without provoking a sense of the ridiculous be termed nations4 ,two or three families1 let us suppose1 occupying a small island1 totally disconnected with any great power1 would not claim to be and would not be treated as an independent political community4 ,but it does not follow that ,austin would have regarded the village communities spoken of by ,maine in the same light4 ,here we have a great community1 consisting of a vast number of small communities1 each independent of the other1 and disconnected with all the others1 so far as the administration of anything like law is concerned4 ,suppose in each case that the headman or council takes his orders from ,runjeet ,singh1 and enforces them1 each in his own sphere1 relying as the last resort on the force at the disposal of the suzerain4 ,the mere size of the separate communities would make no sort of difference to ,austin's theory4 ,he would probably regard the empire of ,runjeet ,singh as divided into small districts--an assumption which inverts no doubt the true historical order1 the smaller group being generally more ancient than the larger4 ,but provided that the other conditions prevail1 the mere fact that the law is administered by local tribunals for minute areas should make no difference to the theory4 ,the case described by ,maine is that of the undoubted possession of supreme power by a sovereign1 coupled with the total absence of any attempt on his part to originate a law4 ,that no doubt is1 as we are told by the same authority1 the type of all ,oriental communities in their native state during their rare intervals of peace and order4 ,the empire was in the main in each case a tax-gathering empire4 ,the unalterable law of the ,medes and ,persians was not a law at all but an occasional command4 ,so again ,maine puts his position clearly in the following sentences3 ,the ,athenian assembly made true laws for residents on ,attic territory1 but the dominion of ,athens over her subject cities and islands was clearly a tax-taking as distinguished from a legislating empire4 ,maine1 it will be observed1 does not say that the sovereign assembly did not command the laws in the subject islands--only that it did not legislate4 ,in the same category may be placed without much substantial difference all the societies that have ever existed on the face of the earth previous to the point at which legislation becomes active4 ,maine is undoubtedly right in connecting the theories of ,bentham and ,austin with the overwhelming activity of legislatures in modern times4 ,and formal legislation1 as he elsewhere shows1 comes late in the history of most legal systems4 ,law is generated in other ways1 which seem irreconcilable with anything like legislation4 ,not only the tax-gathering emperors of the ,east1 indifferent to the condition of their subjects1 but even actively benevolent governments have up to a certain point left the law to grow by other means than formal enactments4 ,what is ex facie more opposed to the idea of a sovereign's commands than the conception of schools of law8 ,does it not sting us with a sense of the ridiculous to hear principles which are the outcome of long debates between ,proculians and ,sabinians described as commands of the emperor8 ,how is sectarianism in law possible if the sovereign's command is really all that is meant by a law8 ,no mental attitude is more common than that which regards law as a natural product--discoverable by a diligent investigator1 much in the same way as the facts of science or the principles of mathematics4 ,the introductory portions of ,justinian's ,institutes are certainly written from this point of view1 which may also be described without much unfairness as the point of view of ,german jurisprudence4 ,and yet the ,english jurist who accepts ,austin's postulate as true for the ,english system of our own day would have no difficulty in applying it to ,german or ,roman law generated under the influence of such ideas as these4 ,again1 referring to the instance of ,runjeet ,singh1 ,sir ,h4 ,maine says no doubt rightly that he never did or could have dreamed of changing the civil rules under which his subjects lived4 ,probably he was as strong a believer in the independent obligatory force of such rules as the elders themselves who applied them4 ,that too might be said with truth of states to which the application of ,austin's system would be far from difficult4 ,the sovereign body or person enforcing the rules by all the ordinary methods of justice might conceivably believe that the rules which he enforced had an obligatory authority of their own1 just as most lawyers at one time1 and possibly some lawyers now1 believe in the natural obligatoriness1 independently of courts or parliaments1 of portions of the law of ,england4 ,but nevertheless1 whatever ideas the sovereign or his delegates might entertain as to the independent obligatory force of the rules which they enforce1 the fact that they do enforce them distinguishes them from all other rules4 ,austin seizes upon this peculiarity and fixes it as the determining characteristic of positive law4 ,when the rule is enforced by a sovereign authority as he defines it1 it is his command1 even if he should never so regard it himself1 or should suppose himself to be unable to alter it in a single particular4 ,it may be instructive to add to these examples of dubious cases one taken from what is called ecclesiastical law4 ,in so far as this has not been adopted and enforced by the state1 it would1 on ,austin's theory1 be1 not positive law1 but either positive morality or possibly a portion of the ,divine law4 ,no jurist would deny that there is an essential difference between so much of ecclesiastical law as is adopted by the state and all the rest of it1 and that for scientific purposes this distinction ought to be recognized4 ,how near this kind of law approaches to the positive or political law may be seen from the sanctions on which it depended4 ,the theory of penitential discipline was this3 that the church was an organized body with an outward and visible form of government2 that all who were outside her boundaries were outside the means of divine grace2 that she had a command laid upon her1 and authority given to her1 to gather men into her fellowship by the ceremony of baptism1 but1 as some of those who were admitted proved unworthy of their calling1 she also had the right by the power of the keys to deprive them temporarily or absolutely of the privilege of communion with her1 and on their amendment to restore them once more to church membership4 ,on this power of exclusion and restoration was founded the system of ecclesiastical discipline4 ,it was a purely spiritual jurisdiction4 ,it obtained its hold over the minds of men from the belief1 universal in the ,catholic church of the early ages1 that he who was expelled from her pale was expelled also from the way of salvation1 and that the sentence which was pronounced by ,god's church on earth was ratified by ,him in heaven4 7,smith's ,dictionary of ,christian ,antiquities1 art4 ,penitence1 p4 #aehg47 ,these laws are not the laws of the jurists1 though they resemble them closely in many points--indeed in all points except that of the sanction by which they are enforced4 ,it is a spiritual not a political sanction4 ,the force which lies behind them is not that of the sovereign or the state4 ,when physical force is used to compel obedience to the laws of the church they become positive laws4 ,but so long as the belief in future punishments or the fear of the purely spiritual punishments of the church is sufficient to procure obedience to them1 they are to be regarded as commands1 not by the state1 but by the church4 ,that difference ,austin makes essential4 ,in rejecting spiritual laws from the field of positive law his example would be followed by jurists who would nevertheless include other laws1 not ecclesiastical in purpose1 but enforced by very similar methods4 ,austin's theory in the end comes to this1 that true laws are in all cases obeyed in consequence of the application of regulated physical force by some portion of the community4 ,that is a fair paraphrase of the position that laws are the commands of the sovereign1 and is perhaps less objectionable inasmuch as it does not imply or suggest anything about the forms in which laws are enunciated4 ,all rules1 customs1 practices and laws--or by whatever name these uniformities of human conduct may be called--have either this kind of force at their back or they have not4 ,is it worth while to make this difference the basis of a scientific system or not8 ,apparently it is4 ,if it were a question of distinguishing between the law of the law courts and the laws of fashion no one would hesitate4 ,why should laws or rules having no support from any political authority be termed laws positive merely because there are no other rules in the society having such support8 ,the question may perhaps be summed up as follows4 ,austin's definitions are in strict accordance with the facts of government in civilized states2 and1 as it is put by ,maine1 certain assumptions or postulates having been made1 the great majority of ,austin's positions follow as of course or by ordinary logical process4 ,but at the other extreme end of the scale of civilization are societies to which ,austin himself refuses to apply his system1 and where1 it would be conceded on all sides1 there is neither political community nor sovereign nor law--none of the facts which jurisprudence assumes to exist4 ,there is an intermediate stage of society in which1 while the rules of conduct might and generally would be spoken of as laws1 it is difficult to trace the connexion between them and the sovereign authority whose existence is necessary to ,austin's system4 ,are such societies to be thrown out of account in analytical jurisprudence1 or is ,austin's system to be regarded as only a partial explanation of the field of true law1 and his definitions good only for the laws of a portion of the world8 ,the true answer to this question appears to be that when the rules in any given case are habitually enforced by physical penalties1 administered by a determinate person or portion of the community1 they should be regarded as positive laws and the appropriate subject matter of jurisprudence4 ,rules which are not so enforced1 but are enforced in any other way1 whether by what is called public opinion1 or spiritual apprehensions1 or natural instinct1 are rightly excluded from that subject matter4 ,in all stages of society1 savage or civilized1 a large body of rules of conduct1 habitually obeyed1 are nevertheless not enforced by any state sanction of any kind4 ,austin's method assimilates such rules in primitive society1 where they subserve the same purpose as positive laws in an advanced society1 not to the positive laws which they resemble in purpose but to the moral or other rules which they resemble in operation4 ,if we refuse to accept this position we must abandon the attempt to frame a general definition of law and its dependent terms1 or we must content ourselves with saying that law is one thing in one state of society and another thing in another4 ,on the ground of clearness and convenience ,austin's method is1 we believe1 substantially right1 but none the less should the student of jurisprudence be on his guard against such assumptions as that legislation is a universal phenomenon1 or that the relation of sovereign and subject is discernible in all states of human society4 ,and a careful examination of ,maine's criticism will show that it is devoted not so much to a rectification of ,austin's position as to correction of the misconceptions into which some of his disciples may have fallen4 ,it is a misconception of the analysis to suppose that it involves a difference in juridical character between custom not yet recognized by any judicial decision and custom after such recognition4 ,there is no such difference except in the case of what is properly called judicial legislation--wherein an absolutely new rule is added for the first time to the law4 ,the recognition of a custom or law is not necessarily the beginning of the custom or law4 ,where a custom possesses the marks by which its legality is determined according to well understood principles1 the courts pronounce it to have been law at the time of the happening of the facts as to which their jurisdiction is invoked4 ,the fact that no previous instance of its recognition by a court of justice can be produced is not material4 ,a lawyer before any such decision was given would nevertheless pronounce the custom to be law--with more or less hesitation according as the marks of a legal custom were obvious or not4 ,the character of the custom is not changed when it is for the first time enforced by a court of justice1 and hence the language used by ,maine must be understood in a very limited sense4 ,until customs are enforced by courts of justice--so he puts the position of ,austin--they are merely positive morality1 rules enforced by opinion2 but as soon as courts of justice enforce them they become commands of the sovereign1 conveyed through the judges who are his delegates or deputies4 ,this proposition1 on ,austin's theory1 would only be true of customs as to which these marks were absent4 ,it is of course true that when a rule enforced only by opinion becomes for the first time enforceable by a court of justice--which is the same thing as the first time of its being actually enforced--its juridical character is changed4 ,it was positive morality2 it is now law4 ,so it is when that which was before the opinion of the judge only becomes by his decision a rule enforceable by courts of justice4 ,it was not even positive morality but the opinion of an individual2 it is now law4 ,the most difficult of the common terms of law to define is right2 and1 as right rather than duty is the basis of classification1 it is a point of some importance4 ,assuming the truth of the analysis above discussed1 we may go on to say that in the notion of law is involved an obligation on the part of some one1 or on the part of every one1 to do or forbear from doing4 ,that obligation is duty2 what is right8 ,dropping the negative of forbearance1 and taking duty to mean an obligation to do something1 with the alternative of punishment in default1 we find that duties are of two kinds4 ,the thing to be done may have exclusive reference to a determinate person or class of persons1 on whose motion or complaint the sovereign power will execute the punishment or sanction on delinquents2 or it may have no such reference1 the thing being commanded1 and the punishment following on disobedience1 without reference to the wish or complaint of individuals4 ,the last are absolute duties1 and the omission to do1 or forbear from doing1 the thing specified in the command is in general what is meant by a crime4 ,the others are relative duties1 each of them implying and relating to a right in some one else4 ,a person has a right who may in this way set in operation the sanction provided by the state4 ,in common thought and speech1 however1 right appears as something a good deal more positive and definite than this--as a power or faculty residing in individuals1 and suggesting not so much the relative obligation as the advantage or enjoyment secured thereby to the person having the right4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 in a valuable criticism of ,austin1 suggests that the definition should be so modified as to introduce the element of advantage to the person exercising the right4 ,but it is exceedingly difficult to frame a positive definition of right which shall not introduce some term at least as ambiguous as the word to be defined4 ,t4 ,e4 ,holland defines right in general as a man's capacity of influencing the acts of another by means1 not of his own strength1 but of the opinion or the force of society4 ,direct influence exercised by virtue of one's own strength1 physical or otherwise1 over another's acts1 is might as distinguished from right4 ,when the indirect influence is the opinion of society1 we have a moral right4 ,when it is the force exercised by the sovereign1 we have a legal right4 ,it would be more easy1 no doubt1 to pick holes in this definition than to frame a better one4#b ,the distinction between rights available against determinate persons and rights available against all the world1 jura in personam and jura in rem1 is of fundamental importance4 ,the phrases are borrowed from the classical jurists1 who used them originally to distinguish actions according as they were brought to enforce a personal obligation or to vindicate rights of property4 ,the owner of property has a right to the exclusive enjoyment thereof1 which avails against all and sundry1 but not against one person more than another4 ,the parties to a contract have rights available against each other1 and against no other persons4 ,the jus in rem is the badge of property2 the jus in personam is a mere personal claim4 ,that distinction in rights which appears in the division of law into the law of persons and the law of things is thus stated by ,austin4 ,there are certain rights and duties1 with certain capacities and incapacities1 by which persons are determined to various classes4 ,the rights1 duties1 c41 are the condition or status of the person2 and one person may be invested with many status or conditions4 ,the law of persons consists of the rights1 duties1 c41 constituting conditions or status2 the rest of the law is the law of things4 ,the separation is a mere matter of convenience1 but of convenience so great that the distinction is universal4 ,thus any given right may be exercised by persons belonging to innumerable classes4 ,the person who has the right may be under twenty-one years of age1 may have been born in a foreign state1 may have been convicted of crime1 may be a native of a particular county1 or a member of a particular profession or trade1 c42 and it might very well happen1 with reference to any given right1 that1 while persons in general1 under the circumstances of the case1 would enjoy it in the same way1 a person belonging to any one of these classes would not4 ,if belonging to any one of those classes makes a difference not to one right merely but to many1 the class may conveniently be abstracted1 and the variations in rights and duties dependent thereon may be separately treated under the law of persons4 ,the personality recognized in the law of persons is such as modifies indefinitely the legal relations into which the individual clothed with the personality may enter4 ,t4 ,e4 ,holland disapproves of the prominence given by ,austin to this distinction1 instead of that between public and private law4 ,this1 according to ,holland1 is based on the public or private character of the persons with whom the right is connected1 public persons being the state or its delegates4 ,austin1 holding that the state cannot be said to have legal rights or duties1 recognizes no such distinction4 ,the term public law he confines strictly to that portion of the law which is concerned with political conditions1 and which ought not to be opposed to the rest of the law1 but ought to be inserted in the law of persons as one of the limbs or members of that supplemental department4 ,lastly1 following ,austin1 the main division of the law of things is into 7#a7 primary rights with primary relative duties1 7#b7 sanctioning rights with sanctioning duties 7relative or absolute74 ,the former exist1 as it has been put1 for their own sake1 the latter for the sake of the former4 ,rights and duties arise from facts and events2 and facts or events which are violations of rights and duties are delicts or injuries4 ,rights and duties which arise from delicts are remedial or sanctioning1 their object being to prevent the violation of rights which do not arise from delicts4 ,there is much to be said for ,frederic ,harrison's view 7first expressed in the ,fortnightly ,review1 vol4 xxxi471 that the rearrangement of ,english law on the basis of a scientific classification1 whether ,austin's or any other1 would not result in advantages at all compensating for its difficulties4 ,if anything like a real code were to be attempted1 the scientific classification would be the best2 but in the absence of that1 and indeed in the absence of any habit on the part of ,english lawyers of studying the system as a whole1 the arrangement of facts does not very much matter4 ,it is essential1 however1 to the abstract study of the principles of law4 ,scientific arrangement might also be observed with advantage in treatises affecting to give a view of the whole law1 especially those which are meant for educational rather than professional uses4 ,as an example of the practical application of a scientific system of classification to a complete body of law1 we may point to ,w4 ,a4 ,hunter's elaborate ,exposition of ,roman ,law 7#ahgf74 ,it is impossible to present the conclusions of historical jurisprudence in anything like the same shape as those which we have been discussing4 ,under the heading ,,jurisprudence1 ,,comparative1 an account will be found of the method and results of what is practically a new science4 ,the inquiry is in that stage which is indicated in one way by describing it as a philosophy4 ,it resembles1 and is indeed only part of1 the study which is described as the philosophy of history4 ,its chief interest has been in the light which it has thrown upon rules of law and legal institutions which had been and are generally contemplated as positive facts merely1 without reference to their history1 or have been associated historically with principles and institutions not really connected with them4 ,the historical treatment of law displaces some very remarkable misconceptions4 ,peculiarities and anomalies abound in every legal system2 and1 as soon as laws become the special study of a professional class1 some mode of explaining or reconciling them will be resorted to4 ,one of the prehistorical ways of philosophizing about law was to account for what wanted explanation by some theory about the origin of technical words4 ,this implied some previous study of words and their history1 and is an instance of the deep-seated and persistent tendency of the human mind to identify names with the things they represent4 ,the ,institutes of ,justinian abound in explanations1 founded on a supposed derivation of some leading term4 ,testamentum1 we are told1 ex eo appellatur quod testatio mentis est4 ,a testament was no doubt1 in effect1 a declaration of intention on the part of the testator when this was written4 ,but the -mentum is a mere termination1 and has nothing to do with mens at all4 ,the history of testaments1 which1 it may be noted incidentally1 has been developed with conspicuous success1 gives a totally different meaning to the institution from that which was expressed by this fanciful derivation4 ,so the perplexing subject of possessio was supposed in some way to be explained by the derivation from pono and sedeo--quasi sedibus positio4 ,posthumi was supposed to be a compound of post and humus4 ,these examples belong to the class of rationalizing derivations with which students of philosophy are familiar4 ,their characteristic is that they are suggested by some prominent feature of the thing as it then appeared to observers--which feature thereupon becomes identified with the essence of the thing at all times and places4 ,another prehistorical mode of explaining law may be described as metaphysical4 ,it conceives of a rule or principle of law as existing by virtue of some more general rule or principle in the nature of things4 ,thus1 in the ,english law of inheritance1 until the passing of the ,inheritance ,act #ahcc1 an estate belonging to a deceased intestate would pass to his uncle or aunt1 to the exclusion of his father or other lineal ancestor4 ,this anomaly from an early time excited the curiosity of lawyers1 and the explanation accepted in the time of ,bracton was that it was an example of the general law of nature3 ,descendit itaque jus quasi ponderosum quid cadens deorsum recta linea vel transversali1 et nunquam reascendit ea via qua descendit4 ,it has been suggested that the rule really results from the associations involved in the word descent4 ,it seems more likely1 however1 that these associations explained rather than that they suggested the rule--that the omission of the lineal ancestor existed in custom before it was discovered to be in harmony with the law of nature4 ,it would imply more influence than the reasoning of lawyers is likely to have exercised over the development of law at that time to believe that a purely artificial inference of this kind should have established so very remarkable a rule4 ,however that may be1 the explanation is typical of a way of looking at law which was common enough before the dawn of the historical method4 ,minds capable of reasoning in this way were1 if possible1 farther removed from the conceptions implied in the reasoning of the analytical jurists than they were from the historical method itself4 ,in this connexion it may be noticed that the great work of ,blackstone marks an era in the development of legal ideas in ,england4 ,it was not merely the first1 as it still remains the only1 adequate attempt to expound the leading principles of the whole body of law1 but it was distinctly inspired by a rationalizing method4 ,blackstone tried not merely to express but to illustrate legal rules1 and he had a keen sense of the value of historical illustrations4 ,he worked of course with the materials at his command4 ,his manner and his work are obnoxious alike to the modern jurist and to the modern historian4 ,he is accused by the one of perverting history1 and by the other of confusing the law4 ,but his scheme is a great advance on anything that had been attempted before2 and1 if his work has been prolific in popular fallacies1 at all events it enriched ,english literature by a conspectus of the law1 in which the logical connexion of its principles inter se1 and its relations to historical facts1 were distinctly if erroneously recognized4 ,while the historical method has superseded the verbal and metaphysical explanation of legal principles1 it had apparently1 in some cases1 come into conflict with the conclusions of the analytical school4 ,the difference between the two systems comes out most conspicuously in relation to customs4 ,there is an unavoidable break in the analytical method between societies in which rules are backed by regulated physical force and those in which no such force exists4 ,at what point in its development a given society passes into the condition of an independent political society it may not be easy to determine1 for the evidence is obscure and conflicting4 ,to the historical jurist there is no such breach4 ,the rule which in one stage of society is a law1 in another merely a rule of positive morality1 is the same thing to him throughout4 ,by the ,irish ,land ,act #ahha the ,ulster custom of tenant-right and other analogous customs were legalized4 ,for the purposes of analytical jurisprudence there is no need to go beyond the act of parliament4 ,the laws known as the ,ulster custom are laws solely in virtue of the sovereign government4 ,between the law as it now is and the custom as it existed before the act there is all the difference in the world4 ,to the historical jurist no such separation is possible4 ,his account of the law would not only be incomplete without embracing the precedent custom1 but the act which made the custom law is only one of the facts1 and by no means the most significant or important1 in the history of its development4 ,an exactly parallel case is the legalization in ,england of that customary tenant-right known as copyhold4 ,it is to the historical jurist exactly the same thing as the legalization of the ,ulster tenant right4 ,in the one case a practice was made law by formal legislation1 and in the other without formal legislation4 ,and there can be very little doubt that in an earlier stage of society1 when formal legislation had not become the rule1 the custom would have been legalized relatively much sooner than it actually was4 ,customs then are the same thing as laws to the historical jurist1 and his business is to trace the influences under which they have grown up1 flourished and decayed1 their dependence on the intellectual and moral conditions of society at different times1 and their reaction upon them4 ,the recognized science--and such it may now be considered to be--with which historical1 or more properly comparative1 jurisprudence has most analogy is the science of language4 ,laws and customs are to the one what words are to the other1 and each separate municipal system has its analogue in a language4 ,legal systems are related together like languages and dialects1 and the investigation in both cases brings us back at last to the meagre and obscure records of savage custom and speech4 ,a great master of the science of language 7,max ,mller7 has indeed distinguished it from jurisprudence1 as belonging to a totally different class of sciences4 ,it is perfectly true1 he says1 that if language be the work of man in the same sense in which a statue1 or a temple1 or a poem1 or a law are properly called the works of man1 the science of language would have to be classed as an historical science4 ,we should have a history of language as we have a history of art1 of poetry and of jurisprudence2 but we could not claim for it a place side by side with the various branches of natural history4 ,whatever be the proper position of either philology or jurisprudence in relation to the natural sciences1 it would not be difficult to show that laws and customs on the whole are equally independent of the efforts of individual human wills--which appears to be what is meant by language not being the work of man4 ,the most complete acceptance of ,austin's theory that law everywhere and always is the command of the sovereign does not involve any withdrawal of laws from the domain of natural science1 does not in the least interfere with the scientific study of their affinities and relationships4 ,max ,mller elsewhere illustrates his conception of the different relations of words and laws to the individual will by the story of the emperor ,tiberius1 who was reproved for a grammatical mistake by ,marcellus1 whereupon ,capito1 another grammarian1 observed that1 if what the emperor said was not good ,latin1 it would soon be so4 ,capito1 said ,marcellus1 is a liar2 for1 ,caesar1 thou canst give the ,roman citizenship to men1 but not to words4 ,the mere impulse of a single mind1 even that of a ,roman emperor1 however1 probably counts for little more in law than it does in language4 ,even in language one powerful intellect or one influential academy may1 by its own decree1 give a bent to modes of speech which they would not otherwise have taken4 ,but whether law or language be conventional or natural is really an obsolete question1 and the difference between historical and natural sciences in the last result is one of names4 ,the application of the historical method to law has not resulted in anything like the discoveries which have made comparative philology a science4 ,there is no ,grimm's law for jurisprudence2 but something has been done in that direction by the discovery of the analogous processes and principles which underlie legal systems having no external resemblance to each other4 ,but the historical method has been applied with special success to a single system--the ,roman law4 ,the ,roman law presents itself to the historical student in two different aspects4 ,it is1 regarded as the law of the ,roman ,republic and ,empire1 a system whose history can be traced throughout a great part of its duration with certainty1 and in parts with great detail4 ,it is1 moreover1 a body of rationalized legal principles which may be considered apart from the state system in which they were developed1 and which have1 in fact1 entered into the jurisprudence of the whole of modern ,europe on the strength of their own abstract authority--so much so that the continued existence of the civil law1 after the fall of the ,empire1 is entitled to be considered one of the first discoveries of the historical method4 ,alike1 therefore1 in its original history1 as the law of the ,roman state1 and as the source from which the fundamental principles of modern laws have been taken1 the ,roman law presented the most obvious and attractive subject of historical study4 ,an immense impulse was given to the history of ,roman law by the discovery of the ,institutes of ,gaius in #ahaf4 ,a complete view of ,roman law1 as it existed three centuries and a half before ,justinian1 was then obtained1 and as the later ,institutes were1 in point of form1 a recension of those of ,gaius1 the comparison of the two stages in legal history was at once easy and fruitful4 ,moreover1 ,gaius dealt with antiquities of the law which had become obsolete in the time of ,justinian1 and were passed over by him without notice4 ,nowhere did ,roman law in its modern aspect give a stronger impulse to the study of legal history than in ,germany4 ,the historical school of ,german jurists led the reaction of national sentiment against the proposals for a general code made by ,thibaut4 ,they were accused by their opponents of setting up the law of past times as intrinsically entitled to be observed1 and they were no doubt strongly inspired by reverence for customs and traditions4 ,through the examination of their own customary laws1 and through the elimination and separate study of the ,roman element therein1 they were led to form general views of the history of legal principles4 ,in the hands of ,savigny1 the greatest master of the school1 the historical theory was developed into a universal philosophy of law1 covering the ground which we should assign separately to jurisprudence1 analytical and historical1 and to theories of legislation4 ,there is not in ,savigny's system the faintest approach to the ,austinian analysis4 ,the range of it is not the analysis of law as a command1 but that of a ,rechtsverhltniss or legal relation4 ,far from regarding law as the creation of the will of individuals1 he maintains it to be the natural outcome of the consciousness of the people1 like their social habits or their language4 ,and he assimilates changes in law to changes in language4 ,as in the life of individual men no moment of complete stillness is experienced1 but a constant organic development1 such also is the case in the life of nations1 and in every individual element in which this collective life consists2 so we find in language a constant formation and development1 and in the same way in law4 ,german jurisprudence is darkened by metaphysical thought1 and weakened1 as we believe1 by defective analysis of positive law4 ,but its conception of laws is exceedingly favourable to the growth of a historical philosophy1 the results of which have a value of their own1 apart altogether from the character of the first principles4 ,such1 for instance1 is ,savigny's famous examination of the law of possession4 ,there is only one other system of law which is worthy of being placed by the side of ,roman law1 and that is the law of ,england4 ,no other ,european system can be compared with that which is the origin and substratum of them all2 but ,england1 as it happens1 is isolated in jurisprudence4 ,she has solved her legal problems for herself4 ,whatever element of ,roman law may exist in the ,english system has come in1 whether by conscious adaptation or otherwise1 ab extra2 it is not of the essence of the system1 nor does it form a large portion of the system4 ,and1 while ,english law is thus historically independent of ,roman law1 it is in all respects worthy of being associated with it on its own merits4 ,its originality1 or1 if the phrase be preferred1 its peculiarity1 is not more remarkable than the intellectual qualities which have gone to its formation--the ingenuity1 the rigid logic1 the reasonableness1 of the generations of lawyers and judges who have built it up4 ,this may seem extravagant praise for a legal system1 the faults of which are and always have been matter of daily complaint1 but it would be endorsed by all unprejudiced students4 ,what men complain of is the practical hardship and inconvenience of some rule or process of law4 ,they know1 for example1 that the law of real property is exceedingly complicated1 and that1 among other things1 it makes the conveyance of land expensive4 ,but the technical law of real property1 which rests to this day on ideas that have been buried for centuries1 has nevertheless the qualities we have named4 ,so too with the law of procedure as it existed under the science of special pleading4 ,the greatest practical law reformer1 and the severest critic of existing systems that has ever appeared in any age or country1 ,jeremy ,bentham1 has admitted this3 ,confused1 indeterminate1 inadequate1 ill-adapted1 and inconsistent as to a vast extent the provision or no provision would be found to be that has been made by it for the various cases that have happened to present themselves for decision1 yet in the character of a repository of such cases it affords1 for the manufactory of real law1 a stock of materials which is beyond all price4 ,traverse the whole continent of ,europe1 ransack all the libraries belonging to all the jurisprudential systems of the several political states1 add the contents together1 you would not be able to compose a collection of cases equal in variety1 in amplitude1 in clearness of statement--in a word1 all points taken together1 in constructiveness--to that which may be seen to be afforded by the collection of ,english reports of adjudged cases 7,bentham's ,works1 iv4 #dfj74 ,on the other hand1 the fortunes of ,english jurisprudence are not unworthy of comparison even with the catholic position of ,roman law4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america1 in ,india1 and in the vast ,colonial ,empire1 the common law of ,england constitutes most of the legal system in actual use1 or is gradually being superimposed upon it4 ,it would hardly be too much to say that ,english law of indigenous growth1 and ,roman law1 between them govern the legal relations of the whole civilized world4 ,nor has the influence of the former on the intellectual habits and the ideas of men been much if at all inferior4 ,those who set any store by the analytical jurisprudence of the school of ,austin will be glad to acknowledge that it is pure outcome of ,english law4 ,sir ,henry ,maine associated its rise with the activity of modern legislatures1 which is of course a characteristic of the societies in which ,english laws prevail4 ,and it would not be difficult to show that the germs of ,austin's principles are to be found in legal writers who never dreamed of analysing a law4 ,it is certainly remarkable1 at all events1 that the acceptance of ,austin's system is as yet confined strictly to the domain of ,english law4 ,maine found no trace of its being even known to the jurists of the ,continent1 and it would appear that it has been equally without influence in ,scotland1 which1 like the continent of ,europe1 is essentially ,roman in the fundamental elements of its jurisprudence4 ,the substance of the above article is repeated from ,professor ,e4 ,robertson's 7,lord ,lochee's7 article ,law1 in the #ith ed4 of this work4 ,among numerous ,english textbooks1 those specially worth mention are3 ,t4 ,e4 ,holland1 ,the ,elements of ,jurisprudence 7#ahhj2 #ajth ed41 #aijf72 ,j4 ,austin1 ,lectures on ,jurisprudence 7#dth ed41 #ahgc72 ,w4 ,jethro ,brown1 ,the ,austinian ,theory of ,law 7#aijf72 ,sir ,f4 ,pollock1 ,a ,first ,book on ,jurisprudence 7#ahif2 #bnd ed41 #aijd74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this appears to be an unnecessary complication4 ,the sovereign has authorized the master to set the law1 although not compelling him to do so1 and enforces the law when set4 ,there seems no good reason why the law should be called a rule of positive morality at all4 #b ,in ,english speech another ambiguity is happily wanting which in many languages besets the phrase expressing a right4 ,the ,latin jus1 the ,german ,recht1 the ,italian diritto1 and the ,french droit express1 not only a right1 but also law in the abstract4 ,to indicate the distinction between law and a right the ,germans are therefore obliged to resort to such phrases as objectives and subjectives ,recht1 meaning by the former law in the abstract1 and by the latter a concrete right4 ,and ,blackstone1 paraphrasing the distinction drawn by ,roman law between the jus quod ad res and the jus quod ad personas attinet1 devotes the first two volumes of his ,commentaries to the ,rights of ,persons and the ,rights of ,things4 ,see ,holland's ,elements of ,jurisprudence1 #ajth ed41 #gh seq4 ,,jurisprudence1 ,,comparative4 ,the object of this article is to give a general survey of the study of the evolution of law4 ,it is not concerned with analytical jurisprudence as a theory of legal thought1 or an encyclopaedic introduction to legal teaching4 ,jurisprudence in such a philosophic or pedagogical sense has certainly to reckon with the methods and results of a comparative study of law1 but its aims are distinct from those of the latter3 it deals with more general problems4 ,on the other hand1 the comparative study of law may itself be treated in two different ways3 it may be directed to a comparison of existing systems of legislation and law1 with a view to tracing analogies and contrasts in the treatment of practical problems and taking note of expedients and of possible solutions4 ,or else it may aim at discovering the principles regulating the development of legal systems1 with a view to explain the origin of institutions and to study the conditions of their life4 ,in the first sense1 comparative jurisprudence resolves itself into a study of home and foreign law 7cf4 ,hofmann in the ,zeitschrift fr das private und ffentliche ,recht der ,gegenwart1 #ahgh74 ,in the second sense1 comparative jurisprudence is one of the aspects of so-called sociology1 being the study of social evolution in the special domain of law4 ,from this point of view it is1 in substance1 immaterial whether the legal phenomena subjected to investigation are ancient or modern1 are drawn from civilized or from primitive communities4 ,the fact that they are being observed and explained as features of social evolution characterizes the inquiry and forms the distinctive attribute separating these studies from kindred subjects4 ,it is only natural1 however1 that early periods and primitive conditions have attracted investigators in this field more than recent developments4 ,the interest of students seems to have stood in inverse ratio to the chronological vicinity of the facts under consideration--the farther from the observer1 the more suggestive and worthy of attention the facts were found to be4 ,this peculiarity is easily explained if we take into account the tendency of all evolutionary investigations to obtain a view of origins in order to follow up the threads of development from their initial starting-point4 ,besides1 it has been urged over and over again that the simpler phenomena of ancient and primitive society afford more convenient material for generalizations as to legal evolution than the extremely complex legal institutions of civilized nations4 ,but there is no determined line of division between ancient and modern comparative jurisprudence in so far as both are aiming at the study of legal development4 ,the law of ,islam or1 for that matter1 the ,german civil code1 may be taken up as a subject of study quite as much as the code of ,hammurabi or the marriage customs of ,australian tribes4 ,the fact that the comparative study of legal evolution is chiefly represented by investigations of early institutions is therefore a characteristic1 but not a necessary feature in the treatment of the subject4 ,but it is essential to this treatment that it should be historical and comparative4 ,historical1 because it is only as history1 i4e4 a sequence of stages and events1 that development can be thought of4 ,comparative1 because it is not the casual notices about one or the other chain of historical facts that can supply the basis for any scientific induction4 ,comparisons of kindred processes have to be made in order to arrive at any conception of their general meaning and scientific regularity4 ,as linguistic science differs from philology in so far as it treats of the general evolution of language and not of particular languages1 even so comparative jurisprudence differs from the history of law as a study of general legal evolution distinct from the development of one or the other national branch of legal enactment4 ,needless to say that there are intermediate shades between these groups1 but it is not to these shades we have to attend1 but to the main distinctions and divisions4 #a4 ,the idea that the legal enactments and customs of different countries should be compared for the purpose of deducing general principles from them is as old as political science itself4 ,it was realized with especial vividness in epochs when a considerable material of observations was gathered from different sources and in various forms4 ,the wealth of varieties and the recurrence of certain leading views in them led to comparison and to generalizations based on comparison4 ,aristotle1 who lived at the close of a period marked by the growth of free ,greek cities1 summarized1 as it were1 their political experience in his ,constitutions and ,politics2 students of these know that the ,greek philosopher had to deal with not only public law and political institutions1 but also to some extent private1 criminal law1 equity1 the relations between law and morals1 c4 ,another great attempt at comparative observation was made at the close of the pre-revolutionary period of modern ,europe4 ,montesquieu took stock of the analogies and contrasts of law in the commonwealths of his time and tried to show to what extent particular enactments and rules were dependent on certain general currents in the life of societies--on forms of government1 on moral conditions corresponding to these1 and ultimately on the geographical facts with which various nationalities and states have to reckon in their development4 ,these were1 however1 only slight beginnings1 general forecasts of a coming line of thought1 and ,montesquieu's remarks on laws and legal customs read now almost as if they were meant to serve as materials for social ,utopias1 although they were by no means conceived in this sense4 ,at this distance of time we cannot help perceiving how fragmentary1 incomplete and uncritical his notions of the facts of legal history were1 and how strongly his thought was biased by didactic considerations1 by the wish to teach his contemporaries what politics and law should be4 ,it was reserved for the #aith century to come forward with connected and far-reaching investigations in this field as in many others4 ,we are not deceived by proximity and self-consciousness when we affirm that comparative jurisprudence1 as understood in these introductory remarks1 dates from the #aith century and especially from its second half4 ,there were many reasons for such a new departure3 two of these reasons have been especially manifest and decisive4 ,the #aith century was an eminently historical and an eminently scientific age4 ,in the domain of history it may be said that it opened an entirely new vista4 ,while1 speaking roughly1 before that time history was conceived as a narrative of memorable events1 more or less skilful1 more or less sensational1 but appealing primarily to the literary sense of the reader1 it became in the course of the #aith century an encyclopaedia of reasoned knowledge1 a means of understanding social life by observing its phenomena in the past4 ,the immense growth of historical scholarship in that sense1 and the transformation of its aims1 can hardly be denied4 ,apart from the personal efforts of eminent writers1 a great and general movement has to be taken into account in order to explain this remarkable stage of human thought4 ,the historic bent of mind of #aith-century thinkers was to a great extent the result of heightened political and cultural self-consciousness4 ,it was the reflection in the world of letters of the tremendous upheaval in the states of ,europe and ,america which took place from the close of the #ahth century onwards4 ,as one of the greatest leaders of the movement1 ,niebuhr1 pointed out1 the fact of being a witness of such struggles and catastrophes as the ,american ,revolution1 the ,french ,revolution1 the ,napoleonic ,empire and the national reaction against it1 taught every one to think historically1 to appreciate the importance of historical factors1 to measure the force not only of logical argument and moral impulse1 but also of instinctive habits and traditional customs4 ,it is not a matter of chance that the historical school of jurisprudence1 ,savigny's doctrine of the organic growth of law1 was formed and matured while ,europe collected its forces after the most violent revolutionary crisis it had ever experienced1 and in most intimate connexion with the romantic movement1 a movement animated by enthusiastic belief in the historical1 traditional life of social groups as opposed to the intellectual conceptions of individualistic radicalism4 ,on the other hand1 the #aith century was a scientific age and especially an age of biological science4 ,former periods--the #afth and #agth centuries especially--had bequeathed to it high standards of scientific investigation1 an ever-increasing weight of authority in the direction of an exact study of natural phenomena and a conception of the world as ruled by laws and not by capricious interference4 ,but these scientific views had been chiefly applied in the domain of mathematics1 astronomy and physics2 although great discoveries had already been made in physiology and other branches of biology1 yet the achievements of #aith-century students in this respect far surpassed those of the preceding period4 ,and the doctrine of transformation which came to occupy the central place in scientific thought was eminently fitted to co-ordinate and suggest investigations of social facts4 ,as ,f4 ,york ,powell put it1 ,darwin is the greatest historian of modern times1 and certainly an historian not in the sense of a reader of annals1 but in that of a guide in the understanding of organic evolution4 ,though much is expressed in the one name of ,darwin1 it is perhaps even more momentous as a symbol of the tendency of a great age than as a mark of personal work4 ,to this tendency we are indebted for the rise of anthropology and of sociology1 of the scientific study of man and of the scientific study of society4 ,of course it ought not to be disregarded that the application of scientific principles and methods to human and social facts was made possible by the growth of knowledge in regard to savage and half-civilized nations called forth by the increased activity of ,european and ,american business men1 administrators and explorers4 ,ethnography and ethnology have brought some order into the wealth of materials accumulated by generations of workers in this direction1 and it is with their help that the far-reaching generalizations of modern inquirers as to man and society have been achieved4 #b4 ,it is not difficult to see that the comparative study of legal evolution finds its definite place in a scientific scheme elaborated from such points of view4 ,let us see how1 as a matter of fact1 the study in question arose and what its progress has been4 ,the immediate incitement for the formation of comparative jurisprudence was given by the great discoveries of comparative philology4 ,when the labours of ,franz ,bopp1 ,august ,schleicher1 ,max ,mller1 ,w4 ,d4 ,whitney and others revealed the profound connexion between the different branches of the ,indo-,european race in regard to their languages1 and showed that the development of these languages proceeded on lines which might be studied in a strictly scientific manner1 on the basis of comparative observation and with the object of tracing the uniformities of the process1 it was natural that students of religion1 of folk-lore and of legal institutions took up the same method and tried to win similar results 7,sir ,h4 ,maine1 ,rede lecture in ,village ,communities1 #crd ed474 ,it is interesting to note that one of the leading scholars of the ,germanistic revival in the beginning of the #aith century1 ,jacob ,grimm1 a compeer of ,savigny in his own line1 took up with fervent zeal and remarkable results not only the scientific study of the ,german language1 but also that of ,germanic mythology and popular law4 ,his ,rechtsalterthmer are still unrivalled as a collection of data as to the legal lore of ,teutonic tribes4 ,their basis is undoubtedly a narrow one3 they treat of the varieties of legal custom among the continental ,germans1 the ,scandinavians and the ,germanic tribes of ,great ,britain1 but the method of treatment is already a comparative one4 ,grimm takes up the different subjects--property1 contract1 procedure1 succession1 crime1 c4--and examines them in the light of national1 provincial and local customs1 sometimes noticing expressly affinities with ,roman and ,greek law 7e4g4 the subject of imprisonment for debt1 ,rechtsalterthmer1 #dth ed41 vol4 ii41 p4 #afe74 ,a broader basis was taken up by a linguist who tried to trace the primitive institutions and customs of the early ,aryans before their separation into divers branches4 ,adolphe ,pictet 7,les ,origines indo-europennes1 i4 #ahei2 ii4 #ahfc7 had to touch constantly on questions of family law1 marriage1 property1 public authority1 in his attempt to reconstruct the common civilization of the ,aryan race1 and he did so on the strength of a comparative study of terms used in the different ,indo-,european languages4 ,he showed1 for instance1 how the idea of protection was the predominant element in the position of the father in the ,aryan household4 ,the names ptar1 pater1 ,greek3 patr1 father1 which recur in most branches of the ,aryan race1 go back to a root pa-1 pointing to guardianship or protection4 ,thus we are led to consider the patria potestas1 so stringently formulated in ,roman law1 as an expression of a common ,aryan notion1 which was already in existence before the ,aryan tribes parted company and went their different ways4 ,descriptions of ,aryan early culture have been given several times since in connexion with linguistic observations4 ,an example is ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn's ,aryan ,household 7#ahgi74 ,fustel de ,coulanges' famous volume on the ancient city and ,rudolf von ,jhering's studies of primitive ,indo-,european institutions 7,vorgeschichte der ,indoeuroper7 start from similar observations1 although the first of these scholars is chiefly interested in tracing the influence of religion on the material arrangements of life1 while the latter draws largely on principles of public and private law1 studied more especially in ,roman antiquity4 #c4 ,the chief work in that direction has been achieved in one sense by a ,german scholar1 ,b4 ,w4 ,leist4 ,his ,graeco-,roman legal history1 his ,jus ,gentium of ,primitive ,aryans1 and his ,jus ,civile of ,primitive ,aryans1 form the most complete and learned attempt not only to reconstitute the fundamental rules of common ,aryan law before the separation of tongues and nations1 but also to trace the influence of this original stock of juridical ideas in the later development of different branches of the ,aryan race4 ,these three books present three stages of comparison1 marked by a successive widening of the horizon4 ,he began his legal history by putting together the data as to ,roman and ,greek legal origins2 in the ,alt-arisches ,jus ,gentium the material of ,hindu law is not only drawn into the range of observation1 but becomes its very centre2 in the ,alt-arisches ,jus ,civile the legal customs of the ,zend branch1 of ,celts1 ,germans and ,slavs1 are taken into account1 although the most important part of the inquiry is still directed to the combination of ,hindu1 ,greek and ,roman law4 ,in this way ,leist builds up his theories by the comparative method1 but he restricts its use consciously and consistently to a definite range4 ,he does not want to plunge into haphazard analogies1 but seeks common ground before all things in order to be able to watch for the appearance of ramifications and to explain them4 ,according to his view comparison is of use only between coherent lines of facts4 ,common origin1 not similarity of features1 appears to him as the fundamental basis for fruitful comparison4 ,it may be said that ,leist's work is characterized by the attempt to draw up a continuous history of a supposed archaic common law of the ,aryan race rather than to put different solutions of kindred legal problems by the side of each other4 ,for him ,aryan tribal organization with its double-sided relationship--cognatic and agnatic--through men and through women--is one1 and although he does not draw its picture as ,fustel de ,coulanges does by the help of traits taken indiscriminately from ,hindu1 ,roman and ,greek material1 although he notices divisions1 degrees and variations1 at bottom he writes the history of one set of principles exemplified and modulated1 as it were1 in the six or seven main varieties of the race4 ,even so the nine rules of conduct prescribed by ,hindu sacral law are1 according to his view1 the directing rules of ,roman1 ,greek1 ,germanic1 ,celtic1 ,slavonic legal custom--the duties in regard to gods1 parents and fatherland1 guests1 personal purity1 the prohibitions against homicide1 adultery and theft--are variations of one and the same religious1 moral and legal system1 and their original unity is reflected and proved by the unity of legal terminology itself4 ,the same leading idea is embodied in the books of ,otto ,schrder--,urgeschichte und ,sprachvergleichung 7#ast ed41 #ahhc2 #bnd ed41 #ahij7 and ,reallexikon der indogermanischen ,altertumskunde 7#aija74 ,in this case we have to do not with a jurist but with a linguist and a student of cultural history4 ,his training made him especially fit to trace the national affinities in the data of language1 and the sense of the intimate connexion between the growth of institutions on one side1 of words and linguistic forms on the other1 underlies all his investigations4 ,but ,schrader testifies also to another powerful influence--to that of ,victor ,hehn1 the author of a remarkable book on early civilization1 ,kulturpflanzen und ,hausthiere in ihrem bergang aus ,asien in ,europa 7#ast ed41 #ahgj2 #gth ed41 #aijb71 dealing with the migrations of tribes and their modes of acquiring material civilization4 ,although the linguistic and archaeological sides naturally predominate in ,schrader's works1 he has constantly to consider legal subjects1 and he strives conscientiously to obtain a clear and common-sense view of the early legal notions of the ,aryans4 ,speaking of the ordeals1 the waging of ,god's law1 for example1 he traces the customs of purification by fire1 water1 iron1 c41 to the practice of oaths 7,sans4 am2 ,gr4 ,greek3 omnymi2 ,o4 ,ital4 omr first group2 ,o4 ,ger4 ais1 ,ir4 eth second group2 ,o4 ,norse rota1 ,arm4 erdnum ,i swear third group74 ,the central idea of the ordeal is thus shown to be the imprecation--,let him be cursed whose assertion is false4 ,the comparative study of the ,aryan group assumed another aspect in the works of ,sir ,henry ,maine4 ,he did not rely on linguistic affinities1 but made great use of another element of investigation which plays hardly any part in the books of the writers mentioned hitherto4 ,his best personal preparation for the task was that he had not only taught law in ,england1 but had come into contact with living legal customs in ,india4 ,for him the comparison between the legal lore of ,rome and that of ,india did not depend on linguistic roots or on the philological study of the laws of ,manu1 but was the result of recognizing again and again1 in actual modern custom1 the views1 rules and institutions of which he had read in ,gaius or in the fragments of the ,twelve ,tables4 ,the sense of historical analogy and evolution which had shown itself already in the lectures on ,ancient ,law1 which1 after all1 were mainly a presentment of ,roman legal history mapped out by a man of the world1 averse from pedantic disquisitions4 ,but what appears as the expression of ,maine's personal aptitude and intelligent reading in ,ancient ,law gets to be the interpretation of popular legal principles by modern as well as by ancient instances of their application in ,village ,communities1 ,the ,early ,history of ,institutions1 ,early ,law and ,custom4 ,the evolution of property in land out of archaic collectivism1 ancient forms of contract and compulsion1 rudimentary forms of feudalism and the like1 were treated in a new light in consequence of systematic comparisons with the conditions not only of ,india but of southern ,slavonic nations1 medieval celts and ,teutons4 ,this breadth of view seemed startling when the lectures appeared1 and the original treatment of the subject was hailed on all sides as a most welcome new departure in the study of legal customs and institutions4 ,and yet ,maine set very definite boundaries to his comparative surveys4 ,he renounced the chronological limitation confining such inquiries to the domain of antiquaries1 but he upheld the ethnographical limitation confining them to laws of the same race4 ,in his case it was the ,aryan race1 and in his ,law and ,custom he opposed in a determined manner the attempts of more daring students to extend to the ,aryans generalizations drawn from the life of savage tribes unconnected with the ,aryans by blood4 ,thus1 notwithstanding all diversities in the treatment of particular problems1 one leading methodical principle runs through the works of all the above-mentioned exponents of comparative study4 ,it was to proceed on the basis of common origin and on the assumption of a certain common stock of language1 religion1 material culture1 and law to start with4 ,what ,pictet1 ,leist1 ,schrader1 and ,maine were doing for the ,aryans1 ,f4 ,hommel1 ,robertson ,smith and others did in a lesser degree for the ,semitic race4 #d4 ,the literary group which started from the discoveries of comparative philology and history was met on the way by what may be called the ethnological school of inquirers4 ,the original impetus was given1 in this case1 by jurists and historians who took up the study in the field of ancient history1 but treated it from the beginning in such a way as to break up the subdivisions of historic races and to direct the inquiry to a state of culture best illustrated by savage customs4 ,the first impulse may be said to have come from ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen 7,mutterrecht1 #ahfa2 ,antiquarische ,briefe1 #ahhj2 ,die ,sage von ,tanaquil74 ,all the representatives of ,aryan antiquities are at one in laying stress on the patriarchal and agnatic system of the kindreds in the different ,aryan nations2 even ,leist1 although dwelling on the importance of cognatic ties1 looks to agnatic relationship for the explanation of military organization and political authority4 ,and undoubtedly1 if we argue from the predominant facts and from the linguistic evidence of parallel terms1 we are led to assume that already before their separation the ,aryans lived in a patriarchal state of society4 ,now1 ,bachofen discovered in the very tradition of classical antiquity traces of a fundamentally different state of things1 the central conception of which was not patriarchal power1 but maternity1 relationship being traced through mothers1 the wife presenting the constant and directing element of the household1 while the husband 7and perhaps several husbands7 joined her from time to time in more or less inconstant unions4 ,such a state of society is definitely described by ,herodotus in the case of the ,lycians1 it is clearly noticeable even in later historical times in ,sparta2 the passage from this matriarchal conception to the recognition of the claims of the father is reflected in poetical fiction in the famous ,orestes myth1 based on the struggle between the moral incitement which prompted the son to avenge his father and the absolute reverence for the mother required by ancient law4 ,although chiefly drawing his materials from classical literature1 ,bachofen included in his ,antiquarian ,letters an interesting study of the marriage custom and systems of relationship of the ,malabar ,coast in ,india2 they attracted his attention by the contrasts between different layers of legal tradition--the ,brahmans living in patriarchal order1 while the class next to them1 the ,nayirs 7,nairs71 follow rules of matriarchy4 ,similar ideas were put forward in a more comprehensive form by ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan4 ,his early volume 7,studies in ,ancient ,history1 #ahgf7 contains several essays published some time before that date4 ,he starts from the wide occurrence of marriage by capture in primitive societies1 and groups the tribes of which we have definite knowledge into endogamous and exogamous societies according as they take their wives from among the kindred or outside it4 ,marriage by capture and by purchase are signs of exogamy1 connected with the custom in many tribes of killing female offspring4 ,the development of marriage by capture and purchase is a powerful agent in bringing about patriarchal rule1 agnatic relationship1 and the formation of clans or gentes1 but the more primitive forms of relationship appear as variations of systems based on mother-right4 ,these views are supported by ethnological observations and used as a clue to the history of relationship and family law in ancient ,greece4 ,in further contributions published after ,mc,lennan's death these researches are supplemented and developed in many ways4 ,the peculiarities of exogamous societies1 for instance1 are traced back to the even more primitive practice of ,totemism1 the grouping of men according to their conceptions of animal worship and to their symbols4 ,mc,lennan's line of inquiry was taken up in a very effective manner not only by anthropologists like ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor or ,a4 ,lang1 but also in a more special manner by students of primitive family law4 ,one of the most brilliant monographs in this direction is ,robertson ,smith's study of ,kinship and ,marriage in ,arabia4 ,but perhaps the most decisive influence was exercised on the development of the ethnological study of law by the discoveries of an ,american1 ,lewis ,h4 ,morgan4 ,in his epoch-making works on ,systems of ,consanguinity 7#ahfi7 and on ,ancient ,society 7#ahgg7 he drew attention to the remarkable fact that in the case of a number of tribes--the ,red ,indians of ,america1 the ,australian black tribes1 some of the polar races1 and several ,asiatic tribes1 mostly of ,turanian race--degrees of relationship are reckoned and distinguished by names1 not as ties between individuals1 but as ties between entire groups1 classes or generations4 ,instead of a mother and a father a man speaks of fathers and mothers2 all the individuals of a certain group are deemed husbands or wives of corresponding individuals of another group2 sisters and brothers have to be sought in entire generations1 and not among the descendants of a definite and common parent1 and so forth4 ,there are variations and types in these forms of organization1 and intermediate links may be traced between unions of consanguine people--brothers and sisters of the same blood--on the one hand1 and the monogamic marriage prevailing nowadays1 on the other2 but the central and most striking fact seems to be that in early civilizations1 in conditions which we should attribute to savage and barbarian life1 marriage appears as a tie1 not between single pairs1 but between classes1 all the men of a class being regarded as potential or actual husbands of the women of a corresponding class4 ,facts of this kind produce very peculiar and elaborate systems of relationship1 which have been copiously illustrated by ,morgan in his tables4 ,in his ,ancient ,society he attempted to reduce all the known forms and facts of marriage and kinship arrangements to a comprehensive view of evolution leading up to the ,aryan1 ,semitic and ,uralian family1 as exhibiting the most modern type of relationship4 ,these observations1 in conjunction with ,bachofen's and ,mc,lennan's teaching on mother-right1 brought about a complete change of perspective in the comparative study of man and society4 ,the rights of ethnologists to have their say in regard to legal1 political and social development was forcibly illustrated from both ends1 as it were4 ,on the one hand1 classical antiquity itself proved to be a rather thin layer of human civilization hardly sufficient to conceal the long periods of barbarism and primitive evolution which had gone to its making4 ,on the other hand1 unexpected combinations in regard to family1 property1 social order1 were discovered in every corner of the inhabited world1 and our trite notions as to the character of laws and institutions were reduced to the rank of variations on themes which recur over and over again1 but may be and have been treated in very different ways4 ,there is no need to speak of the use made of ethnological material in the wider range of anthropological and sociological studies--the works of ,tylor1 ,lubbock1 ,lippert1 ,spencer are in everybody's hands--but attention must be called to the further influence of the ethnological point of view in comparative jurisprudence4 ,an interesting example of the passage from one line of investigation to another1 from the historical to the anthropological line1 if the expression may be used for the sake of brevity1 is presented in the works of one of the founders of the ,zeitschrift fr vgl4 ,rechtswissenschaft--,franz ,bernhft4 ,he appears in his earlier books as an exponent of the comparative study of ,greek and ,roman antiquities1 more or less in the style of ,leist4 ,like the latter he was gradually incited to draw ,india into the range of his observations1 but unlike ,leist1 he ended by fully recognizing the importance of ethnological evidence1 and although he did not do much original research in that direction himself1 the influence of ,bachofen and of the ethnologists made itself felt in ,bernhft's treatment of classical antiquity itself3 in his ,state and ,law in ,rome at the ,time of the ,kings he starts from the view that patricians and plebeians represent two ethnological layers of society--a patriarchal ,aryan and a matriarchal pre-,aryan one4 ,but1 of course1 the utmost use was made of ethnological evidence by writers who cut themselves entirely free from the special study of classical or ,european antiquities4 ,the enthusiasm of the explorers of new territory led them naturally to disregard the peculiar claims of ,european development in the history of higher civilization4 ,they wanted material for a study of the genus homo in all its varieties1 and they had no time to look after the minute questions of philological and antiquarian research which had so long constituted the daily bread of inquirers into the history of laws4 ,the most characteristic representative of the new methods of extensive comparison was undoubtedly ,a4 ,h4 ,post 7#ahci-ahie7--the author of many works1 in which he ranges over the whole domain of mankind--,hovas1 ,zulus1 ,maoris1 ,tunguses1 alternating in a kaleidoscopic fashion with ,hindus1 ,teutons1 ,jews1 ,egyptians4 ,the order of his compositions is systematic1 not chronological or even ethnographical in the sense of grouping kindred races together4 ,he takes up the different subdivisions of law and traces them through all the various tribes which present any data in regard to them4 ,his method is not only not bound by history1 it is opposed to it4 ,he writes3-- ,the method of comparative ethnology is different from the historical method1 inasmuch as it collects the given material from an entirely distinct point of view4 ,historical investigation tries to get at the causes of the facts of rational life by observing the development of these facts from such as preceded them within the range of separate kindreds1 tribes and peoples4 ,the investigation of comparative ethnology inquires after the causes of facts in national life by collecting identical or similar ethnological data wherever they may be found in the world1 and by drawing inferences from these materials to identical or similar causes4 ,this method is therefore quite unhistorical4 ,it severs things that have been hitherto regarded as closely joined and arranges these shreds into new combinations 7,grundriss1 i4 #ad74 ,this is not a mere paradox1 but the necessary outcome of the situation in respect of the material used4 ,what is being sought is not common origin or a common stock of ideas1 but recourse to similar expedients in similar situations1 and it is one of the most striking results of ethnology that it can show how peoples entirely cut off from each other and even placed in very different planes of development can resort to analogous solutions in analogous emergencies4 ,is not the custom of the so-called ,couvade--the pretended confinement of the husband when a child is born to his wife--a most quaint and seemingly recondite ceremony8 ,yet we find it practised in the same way by ,basques1 ,californian ,indians1 and some ,siberian tribes4 ,they have surely not borrowed from each other1 nor have they kept the ceremony as a remnant of the time when they formed one race3 in each case1 evidently the passage from a matriarchal state to a patriarchal has suggested it1 and a very appropriate method it seems to establish the fact of fatherhood in a solemn and graphic though artificial manner4 ,again1 an inscription from the ,cretan town of ,gortyn1 published in the ,american ,journal of ,archaeology 7#bnd series1 vol4 i41 #ahig7 by ,halbherr1 tells us that the weapons of a warrior1 the wool of a woman1 the plough of a peasant1 could not be taken from them as pledges4 ,we find a similar idea in the prohibition to take from a knight his weapons1 from a villein his plough1 in payment of fines1 which obtained in medieval ,england and was actually inserted in ,magna ,carta4 ,here also the similarity extends to details1 and is certainly not derived from direct borrowing or common origin but from analogies of situations translating themselves into analogies of legal thought4 ,it may be said in a sense that for the ethnological school the less relationship there is between the compared groups the more instructive the comparison turns out to be4 ,the collection of ethnological parallels for the use of sociology and comparative jurisprudence has proceeded in a most fruitful manner4 ,by the side of special monographs about single tribes or geographical groups of tribes1 such as ,kamilaroi and ,kurnai1 by ,l4 ,fison ,a4 ,w4 ,howitt 7#ahhj71 and ,the ,native ,tribes of ,australia1 by ,baldwin ,spencer ,f4 ,g4 ,gillen 7#ahii71 the whole range of ethnological jurisprudence was gone through by ,wilken in regard to the inhabitants of the ,dutch possessions in ,asia1 by ,m4 ,m4 ,kovalevsky in regard to ,caucasians1 c4 ,as a rule the special monographs turned out to be more successful than the general surveys1 but the interest of the special monographs themselves depended partly on the fact that people's eyes had been opened to the recurrence of certain widespread phenomena and types of development4 #e4 ,ethnologists of ,post's school have not had it entirely their own way1 however4 ,not only did their natural opponents1 the philologists1 historians and jurists1 reproach them with lack of critical discrimination1 with a tendency to disregard fundamental distinctions1 to wipe out characteristic features1 to throw the most disparate elements into the same pot4 ,in their own ranks a number of conscientious and scientifically trained investigators protested against the haphazard manner in which the most intricate problems were treated1 and sought to evolve more definite methodical rules4 ,p4 and ,f4 ,sarrasin in their description of the ,ceylon ,veddahs showed a most primitive race scattered in small clusters1 monogamous and patriarchal in their marriage customs and systems of relationship4 ,e4 ,a4 ,westermarck challenged the sweeping generalizations indulged in by many ethnologists about primitive promiscuity in sexual relations and the necessary passage of all human tribes through the stages of matriarchy and group marriage4 ,a very interesting departure was attempted by ,dargun in his studies on the origin and development of property and his treatise on mother-right and marriage by capture4 ,his lead was followed by ,r4 ,hildebrand in the monograph on law and custom4 ,the principal idea of these inquirers may be stated as follows4 ,we must utilize ethnological as well as historical materials from the whole world1 but it is no use doing this indiscriminately4 ,fruitful comparisons may be instituted mainly in the case of tribes on the same level in their general culture and especially their economic pursuits4 ,hunting tribes must be primarily compared with other hunters1 fishers with fishers1 pastoral nations with pastoral nations1 agriculturists with agriculturists2 nations in transitional stages from one type of culture to the other have to be grouped and examined by themselves4 ,the result would be to establish certain parallel lines in the development of institutions and customs4 ,from this point of view both ,dargun and ,hildebrand attacked the prevailing theory of primitive communism and insisted on the atomistic individualism of the rudimentary civilization of hunting tribes4 ,collectivism in the treatment of ownership1 common field husbandry1 practices of joint holdings1 co-aration1 common stores1 c41 make their appearance according to ,dargun in consequence of the drawing together of scattered groups and smaller independent settlements4 ,an evolution of the same kind leading from loose unions around mothers through marriage by capture to patriarchal kindreds was traced in the history of relationship4 ,grosse 7,die ,formen der ,familie und der ,wirtschaft1 #ahif7 followed in a similar strain4 ,another line of criticism was opened up from the side of exact sociological study4 ,its best exponent is ,steinmetz1 who represents with ,wilken the ,dutch group of investigators of social phenomena4 ,he takes up a standpoint which severs him entirely from the linguistic and historic school4 ,in a discourse on the ,meaning of ,sociology 7p4 #aj7 he expresses himself in the following words3 ,one who judges of the social state of the ,hindus by the book of ,manu takes the ideal notions of one portion of the people for the actual conditions of all its parts4 ,in regard to jurisprudence he distinguishes carefully between art and science4 ,jurisprudence in the wider sense is an art1 the art of framing rules for social intercourse in so far as these rules can be put into execution by the state and its organs1 as well as the art of interpreting and applying these rules4 ,in another sense it is pure science1 the investigation of all consciously formulated and actually practised rules1 and of their conditions and foundations1 in fact of the entire social life of existing and bygone nations1 without a knowledge and understanding of which a knowledge and understanding of law as its outcome is1 of course1 impossible4 ,in this sense jurisprudence is a part of ethnology and of the comparative history of culture4 ,but in order to grapple with such a tremendous task comparative jurisprudence has not only to call to help the study of scattered ethnological facts4 ,this is not sufficient to widen the frame of observation and to realize the relative character of the principles with which practical lawyers operate1 without ever putting in question their general acceptance or logical derivations4 ,ethnological studies themselves have to look for guidance to psychology1 especially to the psychology of emotional life and of character4 ,although these branches of psychological science have been much less investigated than the study of intellectual processes1 they still afford material help to the ethnologist and the comparative jurist2 and ,steinmetz himself made a remarkable attempt to utilize a psychological analysis of the feelings of revenge in his ,origins of ,punishment4 #f4 ,the necessity of employing more stringent standards of criticisms and more exact methods is now recognized1 and it is characteristic that the foremost contemporary representative of comparative jurisprudence1 ,joseph ,kohler of ,berlin1 principal editor of the ,zeitschrift fr vgl4 ,rechtswissenschaft1 often gives expression to this view4 ,beginning with studies of procedure and private law in the provinces of ,germany where the ,french law of the ,code ,napolon was still applied1 he has thrown his whole energy into monographic surveys and investigations in all the departments of historical and ethnological jurisprudence4 ,the code of ,khammurabi and the ,babylonian contracts1 the ancient ,hindu codes and juridical commentaries on them1 the legal customs of the different tribes and provinces of ,india1 the collection and sifting of the legal customs of aborigines in the ,german colonies in ,africa1 the materials supplied by investigators of ,australian and ,american tribes1 the history of legal customs of the ,mahommedans1 and numberless other points of ethnological research1 have been treated by him in articles in his ,zeitschrift and in other publications4 ,comprehensive attempts have also been made by him at a synthetic treatment of certain sides of the law--like the law of debt in his ,shakespeare vor dem ,forum der ,jurisprudenz 7#ahhc7 or his ,primitive ,history of ,marriage4 ,undoubtedly we have not to deal in this case with mere accumulation of material or with remarks on casual analogies4 ,and yet the importance of these works consists mainly in their extensive range of observation4 ,the critical side is still on the second plane1 although not conspicuously absent as in the case of ,post and some of his followers4 ,we may sympathize cordially with ,kohler's exhortation to work for a universal history of law without yet perceiving clearly what the stages of this universal history are going to be4 ,we may acknowledge the enormous importance of ,morgan's and ,bachofen's discoveries without feeling bound to recognize that all tribes and nations of the earth have gone substantially through the same forms of development in respect of marriage custom1 and without admitting that the evidence for a universal spread of group-marriage has been produced4 ,altogether the reproach seems not entirely unfounded that investigations of this kind are carried on too much under the sway of a preconceived notion that some highly peculiar arrangement entirely different from what we are practising nowadays--say sexual promiscuity or communism in the treatment of property--must be made out as a universal clue to earlier stages of development4 ,kohler's occasional remarks on matters of method 7e4g4 ,zeitschift fr vgl4 ,rechtswissenschaft1 xii4 #aic seq47 seem hardly adequate to dispel this impression4 ,but in his own work and in that of some of his compeers and followers1 ,j4 ,e4 ,hitzig1 ,hellwig1 ,max ,huber1 ,r4 ,dareste1 more exact forms and means of inquiry are gradually put into practice1 and the results testify to a distinct heightening of the scientific standard in this group of studies on comparative jurisprudence4 ,especially conspicuous in this respect are three tendencies3 7a7 the growing disinclination to accept superficial analysis between phenomena belonging to widely different spheres of culture as necessarily produced by identical causes 7e4g4 ,darinsky's review of ,kovalevsky's assumptions as to group marriage among the ,caucasian tribes1 ,z4 fr vgl4 ,rw41 xiv4 #aea seq472 7b7 the selection of definite historical or ethnological territories for monographic inquiries1 in the course of which arrangements observed elsewhere are treated as suggestive material for supplying gaps and starting possible explanations3 ,kohler's own contributions have been mainly of this kind2 7c7 the treatment of selected subjects by an intensive legal analysis1 bringing out the principles underlying one or the other rule1 its possible differentiation1 the means of its application in practice1 c43 ,hellwig's monograph on the right of sanctuary in savage communities 7,das ,asylrecht der ,naturvlker7 may be named in illustration of this analytical tendency4 ,altogether1 there can be no doubt that the stage has been reached by comparative jurisprudence when1 after a hasty1 one might almost say a voracious consumption of materials1 investigators begin to strive towards careful sifting of evidence and a conscious examination of methods and critical rules which have to be followed in order to make the investigations undertaken in this line worthy of their scientific aims4 ,until the latter has been done many students1 whose trend of thought would seem to lead them naturally into this domain1 may be repelled by the uncritical indistinctness with which mere analogies are treated as elusive proofs by some of the representatives of the comparative school4 ,f4 ,w4 ,maitland1 for instance1 was always kept back by such considerations4 #g4 ,it is desirable1 in conclusion1 to review the entire domain of comparative jurisprudence1 and to formulate the chief principles of method which have to be taken into consideration in the course of this study4 ,it is evident1 to begin with1 that a scientific comparison of facts must be directed towards two aims--towards establishing and explaining similarity1 and towards enumerating and explaining differences4 ,as a matter of fact the same material may be studied from both points of view1 though logically these are two distinct processes4 7a7 ,now at this initial stage we have already to meet a difficulty and to guard against a misconception3 we have namely to reckon with the plurality of causes1 and are therefore debarred from assuming that wherever similar phenomena are forthcoming they are always produced by identical causes4 ,death may be produced by various agents--by sickness1 by poison1 by a blow4 ,the habit of wearing mourning upon the death of a relation is a widespread habit1 and yet it is not always to be ascribed to real or supposed grief and the wish to express it in one's outward get-up4 ,savage people are known to go into mourning in order to conceal themselves from the terrible spirit of the dead which would recognize them in their everyday costume 7,jhering1 ,der ,zweck im ,recht1 #bnd ed41 #ahhd-ahhf74 ,this is certainly a momentous difficulty at the start1 but it can be greatly reduced and guarded against in actual investigation4 ,in the example taken we are led to suppose different origin because we are informed as to the motives of the external ceremony1 and thus we are taught to look not only to bare facts1 but to the psychological environment in which they appear4 ,and it is evident that the greater the complexity of observed phenomena1 the more they are made up of different elements welded into one sum1 the less probability there is that we have to do with consequences derived from different causes4 ,the recurrence of group-marriage in ,australia and among the ,red ,indians of ,north ,america can in no way be explained by the working of entirely different agencies4 ,and it may be added that in most cases of an analysis of social institutions the limits of human probability and reasonable assumption do not coincide with mathematical possibility in any sense4 ,when we register our facts and causes in algebraic forms1 marking the first with a1 b1 c1 and the latter with x1 y1 z1 we are apt to demand a degree of precision which is hardly ever to be met with in dealing with social facts and causes4 ,let us rest content with reasonable inferences and probable explanations4 7b7 ,the easiest way of explaining a given similarity is by attributing it to a direct loan4 ,the process of reception1 of the borrowing of one people from the other1 plays a most notable part in the history of institutions and ideas4 ,the ,japanese have in our days engrafted many ,european institutions on their perfectly distinct civilization2 the ,germans have used for centuries what was termed euphemistically the ,roman law of the present time 7heutiges rmisches ,recht72 the ,romans absorbed an enormous amount of ,greek and ,oriental law in their famous jurisprudence4 ,a check upon explanation by direct loan will1 of course1 lie in the fact that two societies are entirely disconnected1 so that it comes to be very improbable that one drew its laws from the other4 ,although migrations of words1 legends1 beliefs1 charms1 have been shown by ,theodor ,benfey and his school to range over much wider areas than might be supposed on the face of it1 still1 in the case of law1 in so far as it has to regulate material conditions1 the limits have perhaps to be drawn rather narrowly4 ,in any case we shall not look to ,india in order to explain the burning of widows among the negroes of ,africa2 the suttee may be the example of this custom which happens to be most familiar to us1 but it is certainly not the only root of it on the surface of the earth4 ,it is much more difficult to make out the share of direct borrowing in the case of peoples who might conceivably have influenced one another4 ,a hard and fast rule cannot be laid down in such cases1 and everything depends on the weighing of evidence and sometimes on almost instinctive estimates4 ,the use of a wager for the benefit of the tribunal in the early procedure of the ,romans and ,greeks1 the sacramentum and the ,greek3 prutaneia1 with a similar growth of the sum laid down by the parties in proportion to the interests at stake1 has been explained by a direct borrowing by the ,romans from the ,greeks at the time of the ,twelve ,tables legislation 7,hofmann1 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte des griechischen und rmischen ,rechts74 ,no direct proof is available for this hypothesis1 and the question in dispute might have lain for ever between this explanation and that based on the analogous development in the two closely related branches of law4 ,the further study of the legal antiquities of other branches of the ,aryan race leads one to suppose1 however1 that we have actually to do with the latter and not with the former eventuality4 ,why should the popular custom of the ,vzdn in ,bohemia 7,kapras1 ,das ,pfandrecht in altbhmischen ,landrecht1 ,z4 fr vgl4 ,r4-wissenschaft1 xvii4 #dbd seq471 regulating the wager of litigation in the case of two parties submitting their dispute to the decision of a public tribunal1 turn out to be so similar to the ,greek and the ,roman process8 ,and the ,teutonic ,wedde would further countenance the view that we have to do in this case with analogous expediency or1 possibly1 common origin1 not loans4 ,but while dwelling on considerations which may disprove the assumption of direct loans1 we must not omit to mention circumstances that may render such an assumption the best available explanation for certain points of similarity4 ,we mean especially the recurrence of special secondary traits not deducible from the nature of the relations compared4 ,terminological parallels are especially convincing in such cases4 ,an example of most careful linguistic investigation attended by important results is presented by ,w4 ,thomsen's treatment of the affinities between the languages and cultures of the peoples of northern and eastern ,europe4 ,taking the indications in regard to the influence of ,germanic tribes on ,finns and ,lapps1 we find1 for instance1 that the ,finnish race has stood for some #aejj or #bjjj years under the influence of several ,germanic languages--partly of a more ancient form of ,gothic than that represented by ,ulfilas1 partly of a northern 7,scandinavian7 tongue and even possibly of a common ,gothic-northern one4 ,the importance of these linguistic investigations for our subject becomes apparent when we find that a series of most important legal and political terms has been imported from ,teutonic into ,finnish4 ,for example1 the ,finnish ,kuningas1 king1 comes from a ,germanic root illustrated by ,o4 ,norse konung1 ,o4 ,h4 ,ger4 chuning1 ,a4-,s4 cyning1 ,goth4 thiudans4 ,the ,finnish valta1 power1 authority1 is of ,germanic origin1 as shown by ,o4 ,n4 vald1 ,goth4 valdan4 ,the ,finnish kihla1 a compact secured by solemn promise1 is akin with ,o4 ,n4 gisl1 ,a4-,s4 gisel1 ,o4 ,h4 ,ger4 gisal1 hostage4 ,the explanation for ,finnish vuokra1 interest1 usury1 is to be found in ,gothic vokrs1 ,o4 ,n4 okr1 ,ger4 ,wucher1 c4 7,w4 ,thomsen1 ber den ,einfluss der germanischen ,sprachen auf die ,finnisch-lappischen1 trans4 ,e4 ,sievers1 #ahgj1 p4 #aff seq42 cf4 ,w4 ,thomsen1 ,the ,relations between ,ancient ,russia and ,scandinavia and the ,origin of the ,russian ,state1 p4 #abg seq42 ,miklosich1 ,die ,fremdwrter in den slavischen ,sprachen1 ,denkschriften der ,wiener ,akademie1 ,ph4 hist4 ,klasse1 ,,xv474 7c7 ,the next group of analogies is formed by cases which may be reduced to common origin4 ,in addition to what has already been said on the subject in connexion with the literature of the historical school1 we must point out that in the case of kindred peoples this form of derivation has1 of course1 to be primarily considered4 ,this is especially the case when we have to deal with the original stock of cultural notions of a race1 and when analogies in the framing and working of institutions and legal rules are supported by linguistic affinities4 ,the testimony of the ,aryan languages in regard to terms denoting family organization and relationship can in no way be disregarded1 whatever our view may be about the most primitive stages of development in this respect4 ,the fact that the common stock of ,aryan languages and of ,aryan legal customs points to a patriarchal organization of the family may be regarded as established1 and it is certainly an important fact drawn from a very ancient stage of human history1 although there are indications that still more primitive formations may be discovered4 ,inferences in the direction of common origin become more doubtful when we argue1 not that certain facts proceed from a common stock of notions embodied in the early culture of a race before it was broken up into several branches1 but that they have to be accounted for as instances of a similar treatment of legal problems by different peoples of the same ethnic family4 ,the only thing that can be said in such a case is that1 methodically1 the customs of kindred nations have the first claim to comparison4 ,it is evident that in dealing with blood feud1 composition for homicide1 and the like1 among the ,germans or ,slavs1 the evidence of other ,aryan tribes has to be primarily studied4 ,but it is by no means useless for the investigator of these problems to inform himself about the aspect of such customs in the life of nations of other descent1 and especially of savage tribes4 ,the motives underlying legal rules in this respect are to a large extent suggested by feelings and considerations which are not in any way peculiarly ,aryan1 and may be fully illustrated from other sources1 as has been done e4g4 in ,steinmetz's ,origins of ,punishment4 7d7 ,this leads to the consideration of what maybe called disconnected analogies4 ,they are instructive in so far as they go back1 not to any continuous development1 but to the fundamental1 psychological and logical unity of human nature4 ,in similar circumstances human beings are likely to solve the same problems in the same way4 ,take a rather late and special case4 ,in the ,anglo-,saxon laws of ,ine1 a king who lived in the #gth century1 it is enacted that no landowner should be allowed to claim personal labour service from his tenants unless he provides them not merely with land1 but with their homesteads4 ,now an exactly similar rule is found in the statement of rural by-laws to be enforced on great domains in ,africa1 which had been taken over by the imperial fiscus--the ,lex ,manciana 7cf4 ,schulten1 ,lex manciana74 ,there is absolutely no reason for assuming a direct transference of the rule from one place to the other3 it reflects considerations of natural equity which in both cases were directed against similar encroachments of powerful landowners on a dependent peasant population4 ,in both instances government interfered to draw the line between the payment of rent and the performance of labour1 and fastened on the same feature to fix the limit1 namely1 on the difference between peasants living in their own homes and those who had been settled by the landowner on his farms4 ,of such analogies1 the study of savage life presents a great number1 e4g4 the widely spread practices of purification by ordeal 7,h4 ,c4 ,lea1 ,superstition and ,force74 7e7 ,organizing thought always seeks to substitute order for chaotic variety4 ,observations as to disconnected analogies lead to attempts to systematize them from some comprehensive point of view4 ,these attempts may take the shape of a theory of consecutive stages of development4 ,similar facts appear over and over again in ethnological and antiquarian evidence1 because all peoples and tribes1 no matter what their race and geographical position1 go through the same series of social arrangements4 ,this is the fundamental idea which directed the researches of ,maine1 ,mc,lennan1 ,morgan1 ,post1 ,kohler1 although each of these scholars formulated his sequence of stages in a peculiar way4 ,mc,lennan1 for instance1 puts the idea referred to in the following words3-- ,in short1 it is suggested to us1 that the history of human society is that of a development following very slowly one general law1 and that the variety of forms of life--of domestic and civil institution--is ascribable mainly to the unequal development of the different sections of mankind4444 ,the first thing to be done is to inform ourselves of the facts relating to the least developed races4 ,to begin with them is to begin with history at the farthest-back point of time to which1 except by argument and inference1 we can reach4 ,their condition1 as it may to-day be observed1 is truly the most ancient condition of man 7,studies in ,ancient ,history1 #bnd series1 #i1 #ae74 ,on this basis we might draw up tables of consecutive stages1 of which the simplest may be taken from ,post3-- ,four types of organization3 the tribal1 the territorial1 the seignorial1 and the social4 ,the first has as its basis marriage and relationship by blood2 the second1 neighbouring occupation of a district2 the third1 patronage relations between lord and dependants2 the fourth1 social intercourse and contractual relations between individual personalities 7,post1 ,grundriss1 i4 #ad74 ,this may be supplemented from ,friedrichs in regard to initial stages of family organization4 ,he reckons four stages of this kind3 promiscuity1 loose relations1 matriarchal family1 patriarchal family1 modern1 bilateral family 7,z4 f4 vgl4 ,r4 wissenschaft74 ,this mode of grouping similar phenomena as a sequence of stages leads to a conception of universal history of a peculiar kind4 ,and as such it has been realized and advocated by ,kohler 7see e4g4 his article in ,helmolt's ,world's ,history1 ,eng4 trans4 i474 ,prompted by this conception several representatives of comparative jurisprudence have found no difficulty to insert such a peculiar institution as group-marriage into the general and obligatory course of legal evolution4 ,it is to be noticed1 however1 that ,kohler himself has entered a distinct protest against ,mc,lennan's and ,post's view that the more rudimentary a people's culture is1 the more archaic it is1 and the earlier it has to be placed in the natural sequence of evolution4 ,this would create difficulties in the case of tribes of exceedingly low culture1 like the ,ceylon ,veddahs1 who live in monogamous and patriarchal groups4 ,according to ,kohler's view1 neither the mere fact of a low standard of culture1 nor the fact that a certain legal custom precedes another in some cases in point of time1 settles the natural sequence of development4 ,the process of development must be studied in cases when it is sufficiently clear1 gaps in other cases have to be supplied accordingly1 and the working together of distinct institutions1 especially in cases when there is no ethnic connexion has to be especially noticed4 ,these are counsels of perfection1 but ,kohler's own example shows sufficiently that it is not easy to follow them to the letter4 ,one thing is1 however1 clearly indicated by these and similar criticisms2 it is1 at the least1 premature to sketch anything like a course of universal development for legal history4 ,we have grave doubts whether the time will ever come for laying down any single course of that kind4 ,the attempts made hitherto have generally led to overstating the value of certain parts of the evidence and to squeezing special traits into a supposed general course of evolution4 7f7 ,another group of thinkers is therefore content to systematize and explain the material from the point of view1 not of universal history1 but of correspondence to economic stages and types4 ,this is1 as we have seen1 the leading idea in ,dargun's or ,hildebrand's investigations4 ,it is needless to go into the question of the right or wrong of particular suggestions made by these writers4 ,the place assigned to individualism and collectivism may be adequate or not2 how far can be settled only by special inquiries4 ,but the general trend of study initiated in this direction is certainly a promising one1 if only one consideration of method is well kept in view4 ,investigators ought to be very chary of laying down certain combinations as the necessary outcome of certain economic situations4 ,such combinations or consequences certainly exist2 pastoral husbandry1 the life of scattered hunting groups1 the conditions of agriculturists under feudal rule1 certainly contain elements which will recur in divers ethnical surroundings4 ,but we must not forget a feature which is constantly before our eyes in real life3 namely1 that different minds and characters will draw different and perhaps opposite conclusions in exactly similar outward conditions4 ,this may happen in identical or similar geographical environment2 let us only think of ancient ,greeks and ,turks on the ,balkan peninsula1 or of ancient ,greeks and modern ,greeks for that matter4 ,but even the same historical medium leaves1 as a rule1 scope for treatment of legal problems on divers lines4 ,take systems of succession4 ,they exercise the most potent influence on the structure and life of society4 ,undivided succession1 whether in the form of primogeniture or in that of junior right1 sacrifices equity and natural affection to the economic efficiency of estates4 ,equal-partition rules1 like gavelkind or parage1 lead in an exactly opposite direction4 ,and yet both sets of rules coexisted among the agriculturists of feudal ,england2 communities placed in nearly identical historical positions followed one or the other of these rules4 ,the same may be said of types of dwelling and forms of settlement4 ,in other words1 it is not enough to start from a given economic condition as if it were bound to regulate with fatalistic precision all the incidents of legal custom and social intercourse4 ,we have to start from actual facts as complex results of many causes1 and to try to reduce as much as we can of this material to the action of economic forces in a particular stage or type of development4 7g7 ,the psychological diversities of mankind in dealing with the same or similar problems of food and property1 of procreation and marriage1 of common defence and relationship1 of intercourse and contrast1 c41 open another possibility for the grouping of facts and the explanation of their evolution4 ,it may be difficult or impossible to trace the reasons and causes of synthetic combinations in the history of society4 ,that is1 we can hardly go beyond noting that certain disconnected features of social life appear together and react on each other4 ,but it is easier and more promising to approach the mass of our material from the analytical side1 taking hold of certain principles1 or rules1 or institutions1 and tracing them to their natural consequences either through a direct systematization of recorded facts or1 when these fail1 through logical inferences4 ,some of the most brilliant and useful work in the historical study of law has been effected on these lines4 ,mommsen's theory of ,roman magistracy1 ,jhering's theory of the struggle for right1 ,kohler's view of the evolution of contract1 c41 have been evolved by such a process of legal analysis2 and1 even when such generalizations have to be curtailed or complicated later on1 they serve their turn as a powerful means of organizing evidence and suggesting reasonable explanations4 ,the attribute of reasonableness has to be reckoned with largely in such cases4 ,analytical explanations are attractive to students because they substitute logical clearness for irrational accumulation of traits and facts4 ,they do so to a large extent through appeals to the logic and to the reason common to us and to the people we are studying4 ,this deductive element has to be closely watched and tested from the side of a concrete study of the evidence1 but it seems destined to play a very prominent part in the comparative history of law1 because legal analysis and construction have at all times striven to embody logic and equity in the domain of actual interests and forces4 ,and1 as we have seen in our survey of the literature of the subject1 recent comparative studies tend to make the share of juridical analysis in given relative surroundings larger and larger4 ,what is so difficult of attainment to single workers--a harmonious appreciation of the combined influences of common origin1 reception of foreign custom1 recurring psychological combinations1 the driving forces of economic culture and of the dialectical process of legal thought1 will be achieved1 it may be hoped1 by the enthusiastic and brotherly exertions of all the workers in the field4 ,,bibliography4--,of the principal works of reference may be mentioned3 ,zeitschrift fr vergleichende ,rechtswissenschaft1 edited by ,bernhft1 ,cohn and ,kohler 7#ahgh- 72 ,nouvelle revue historique de droit franais et tranger1 edited by ,dareste1 ,esmein1 ,appert1 ,fournier1 ,tardiff and ,prou 7#ahgg- 72 ,a4 ,pictet1 ,les ,origines indo-europennes 7i4 #ahei1 ii4 #ahfc72 ,fustel de ,coulanges1 ,la ,cit antique 7#ahij72 ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn1 ,the ,aryan ,household 7#ahgi72 ,r4 v4 ,jhering1 ,vorgeschichte der ,indoeuroper 7#ahid72 ,b4 ,w4 ,leist1 ,graekoitalische ,rechtsgeschichte 7#ahhd71 ,alt-arisches ,jus ,gentium 7#ahhi71 ,alt-arisches ,jus ,civile 7#ahib-ahif72 ,hruza1 ,geschichte des griechischen und rmischen ,familienrechtes 7#ahic72 ,o4 ,schrader1 ,urgeschichte und ,sprachvergleichung 7#ahij71 ,reallexikon des indo-germanischen ,altertumskunde 7#aija72 ,b4 ,delbrck1 ,die indo-germanischen ,verwandtschaftsnamen 7#ahhi71 ,das ,mutterrecht bei den ,indogermanen2 ,sir ,h4 ,s4 ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 with notes by ,sir ,f4 ,pollock 7#aijf71 ,village ,communities 7#ahga71 ,early ,history of ,institutions 7#ahge71 ,early ,law and ,custom 7#ahhc72 ,m4 ,h4 d',arbois de ,jubainville1 tudes de droit celtique 7#ahie71 ,la ,famille celtique 7#aije72 ,j4 ,j4 ,bachofen1 ,das ,mutterrecht 7#ahfa71 ,antiquarische ,briefe 7#ahhj72 ,j4 ,f4 ,mc,lennan1 ,studies in ,ancient ,history 7#ahgf71 ,patriarchal ,theory 7#ahhe71 ,studies in ,ancient ,history 7#bnd series1 #ahif72 ,giraud ,teulon1 ,origines de la famille et du mariage 7#ahhd72 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,systems of ,consanguinity in the publications of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 vol4 xvii4 7#ahfi72 ,ancient ,society 7#ahgg72 ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture 7#ahga72 ,lord ,avebury 7,sir ,j4 ,lubbock71 ,origin of ,civilization 7#ahgj72 ,j4 ,lippert1 ,kulturgeschichte der ,menschheit 7#ahhg72 ,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,arabia 7#ahhe72 ,f4 ,bernhft1 ,staat und ,recht der rmischen ,knigszeit im ,verhltniss zu verwandten ,rechten 7#ahhb72 ,a4 ,h4 ,post1 ,aufgaben einer allgemeinen ,rechtswissenschaft 7#ahia71 ,die ,anfnge des ,staatsund ,rechtslebens 7#ahgh71 ,bausteine einer allgemeinen ,rechtsgeschichte auf vergleichend-ethnologischer ,basis 7#ahha71 ,einleitung in das ,studium der ethnologischen ,jurisprudenz 7#ahhf71 ,grundlagen des ,rechts und ,grundzge seiner ,entwickelungsgeschichte 7#ahhb71 ,studien zur ,entwicklungsgeschichte des ,familienrechts 7#ahhi71 ,afrikanische ,jurisprudenz 7#ahhg71 ,grundriss der ethnologischen ,jurisprudenz 7#ahid72 ,wilken1 ,das ,matriarchat im alten ,arabien 7#ahhd72 ,m4 ,m4 ,kovalevsky1 ,coutume contemporaine et loi ancienne 7#ahic71 ,gesetz und ,gewohnheit im ,kaukasus 7#ahij71 ,tableau du dveloppement de la famille et de la proprit 7#ahhi72 ,dargun1 ,mutterrecht und ,raubehe1 in ,otto ,gierke's ,untersuchungen zur deutschen ,staats- und ,rechtsgeschichte 7#ahhc72 ,r4 ,hildebrand1 ,das ,problem einer allgemeinen ,entwicklungsgeschichte des ,rechts und der ,sitte 7#ahid71 ,recht und ,sitte auf den verschiedenen wirtschaftlichen ,kulturstufen 7#ahif72 ,e4 ,grosse1 ,die ,formen der ,familie und der ,wirtschaft 7#ahif72 ,e4 ,a4 ,westermarck1 ,history of ,human ,marriage 7#ahid71 ,the ,origin and ,development of the ,moral ,ideas 7#aijf72 ,c4 ,n4 ,starcke1 ,die primitive ,familie 7#ahhh72 ,g4 ,tarde1 ,les ,transformations du droit 7#bnd ed41 #ahid72 ,steinmetz1 ,ethnologische ,studien zur ersten ,entwicklung der ,strafe 7#ahid72 ,j4 ,kohler1 ,das ,recht als ,kulturerscheinung3 ,einleitung in die vergleichende ,rechtswissenschaft 7#ahhe71 ,shakespeare vor dem ,forum der ,jurisprudenz 7#ahhd71 ,das chinesische ,strafrecht1 ,beitrag zur ,universalgeschichte des ,strafrechts 7#ahhf71 ,rechtsvergleichende ,studien ber islamitisches ,recht1 ,recht der ,berbern1 chinesisches ,recht und ,recht auf ,ceylon 7#ahhi71 ,altindisches ,prozessrecht 7#ahib71 ,zur ,urgeschichte der ,ehe 7#ahig71 ,kulturrechte des ,alten ,amerikas1 das ,recht der ,azteken 7#ahib71 ,das ,negerrecht 7#ahie72 ,kohler and ,peisker1 ,aus dem babylonischen ,rechtsleben 7#ahij71 ,hammurubi's ,gesetz 7#aijd72 ,a4 ,lang1 ,the ,secret of the ,totem 7#aije72 ,p4 ,j4 ,h4 ,grierson1 ,the ,silent ,trade 7#aijc72 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 ,lectures on the ,early ,history of the ,kingship 7#aije72 ,r4 ,dareste1 tudes d'histoire de droit 7#ahhi71 ,nouvelles tudes d'histoire de droit 7#ahif72 ,lambert1 ,la ,fonction du droit civil compar 7#aijc72 ,fritz ,hommel1 ,semitische ,alterthumskunde 7,eng4 trans41 ,the ,ancient ,hebrew ,tradition as illustrated by the ,monuments1 #ahig72 ,h4 ,c4 ,lea1 ,superstition and ,force 7#ahff72 ,a4 ,hellwig1 ,das ,asylrecht der ,naturvlker 7,berliner juristische ,beitrge1 #ahic72 ,f4 ,seebohm1 ,tribal ,custom in ,anglo-,saxon ,law 7#aijb74 7,p4 ,vi47 ,,jurjani1 the name of two ,arabic scholars4 #a4 ,,abu ,,bakr ',,abdu-,l-,,qahir ,,ibn ',,abdur-,,rahman ,,ul-,,jurjani 7d4 #ajgh17 ,arabian grammarian1 belonged to the ,persian school and wrote a famous grammar1 the ,kitab ul-',awamil ul-,mi'a or ,kitab ,mi'at ',amil1 which was edited by ,erpenius 7,leiden1 #afag71 by ,baillie 7,calcutta1 #ahjc71 and by ,a4 ,lockett 7,calcutta1 #ahad74 ,ten ,arabic commentaries on this work exist in ,,ms41 also two ,turkish4 ,it has been versified five times and translated into ,persian4 ,another of his grammatical works on which several commentaries have been written is the ,kitab ,jumal fin-,nahw4 ,for other works see ,c4 ,brockelmann's ,gesch4 der ,arabischen ,litteratur 7#ahih71 i4 #bhh4 #b4 ',,ali ,,ibn ,,mahommed ,,ul-,,jurjani 7#acci-adad71 ,arabian encyclopaedic writer1 was born near ,astarabad and became professor in ,shiraz4 ,when this city was plundered by ,timur 7#achg7 he removed to ,samarkand1 but returned to ,shiraz in #adje1 and remained there until his death4 ,of his thirty-one extant works1 many being commentaries on other works1 one of the best known is the ,ta'rifat 7,definitions71 which was edited by ,g4 ,flgel 7,leipzig1 #ahde71 published also in ,constantinople 7#ahcg71 ,cairo 7#ahff1 c471 and ,st ,petersburg 7#ahig74 7,g4 ,w4 ,t47 ,,jury1 in ,english law1 a body of laymen summoned and sworn 7jurati7 to ascertain1 under the guidance of a judge1 the truth as to questions of fact raised in legal proceedings whether civil or criminal4 ,the development of the system of trial by jury has been regarded as one of the greatest achievements of ,english jurisprudence2 it has even been said that the ultimate aim of the ,english constitution is to get twelve good men into a box4#a ,in modern times the ,english system of trial by jury has been adopted in many countries in which jury trial was not native or had been strangled or imperfectly developed under local conditions4 ,the origin of the system in ,england has been much investigated by lawyers and historians4 ,the result of these investigations is a fairly general agreement that the germ of jury trial is to be found in the ,frankish inquest 7recognitio or inquisitio7 transplanted into ,england by the ,norman kings4 ,the essence of this inquest was the summoning of a body of neighbours by a public officer to give answer upon oath 7recognoscere veritatem7 on some question of fact or law 7jus71 or of mixed fact and law4 ,at the outset the object of the inquiry was usually to obtain information for the king1 e4g4 to ascertain facts needed for assessing taxation4 ,indeed ,domesday ,book appears to be made up by recording the answers of inquests4 ,the origin of juries is very fully discussed in ,w4 ,forsyth's ,history of ,trial by ,jury 7#aheb71 and the various theories advanced are more concisely stated in ,w4 ,stubbs's ,constitutional ,history 7vol4 i47 and in ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman's ,norman ,conquest 7vol4 v474 ,until the modern examination of historical documents proved the contrary1 the jury system1 like all other institutions1 was popularly regarded as the work of a single legislator1 and in ,england it has been usually assigned to ,alfred the ,great4 ,this supposition is without historical foundation1 nor is it correct to regard the jury as copied from this or that kindred institution to be found in this or that ,german or ,scandinavian land1 or brought over ready made by ,hengist or by ,william4#b ,many writers of authority1 says ,stubbs1 have maintained that the entire jury system is indigenous in ,england1 some deriving it from ,celtic tradition based on the principles of ,roman law1 and adopted by the ,anglo-,saxons and ,normans from the people they had conquered4 ,others have regarded it as a product of that legal genius of the ,anglo-,saxons of which ,alfred is the mythical impersonation1 or as derived by that nation from the customs of primitive ,germany or from their intercourse with the ,danes4 ,nor even when it is admitted that the system of 'recognition' was introduced from ,normandy have legal writers agreed as to the source from which the ,normans themselves derived it4 ,one scholar maintains that it was brought by the ,norsemen from ,scandinavia2 another that it was derived from the processes of the canon law2 another that it was developed on ,gallic soil from ,roman principles2 another that it came from ,asia through the crusades1 or was borrowed by the ,angles and ,saxons from their ,slavonic neighbours in northern ,europe4 ,the true answer is that forms of trial resembling the jury system in various particulars are to be found in the primitive institutions of all nations4 ,that which comes nearest in time and character to trial by jury is the system of recognition by sworn inquest1 introduced into ,england by the ,normans4 ,that inquest1 says ,stubbs1 is directly derived from the ,frank capitularies1 into which it may have been adopted from the fiscal regulations of the ,theodosian code1 and thus own some distant relationship with the ,roman jurisprudence4 ,however that may be1 the system of recognition consisted in questions of fact1 relating to fiscal or judicial business1 being submitted by the officers of the crown to sworn witnesses in the local courts4 ,freeman points out that the ,norman rulers of ,england were obliged1 more than native rulers would have been1 to rely on this system for accurate information4 ,they needed to have a clear and truthful account of disputed points set before them1 and such an account was sought for in the oaths of the recognitors4#c ,the ,norman conquest1 therefore1 fostered the growth of those native germs common to ,england with other countries out of which the institution of juries grew4 ,recognition1 as introduced by the ,normans1 is only1 in this point of view1 another form of the same principle which shows itself in the compurgators1 in the frith-borh 7frank-pledge71 in every detail of the action of the popular courts before the conquest4 ,admitting with ,stubbs that the ,norman recognition was the instrument which the lawyers in ,england ultimately shaped into trial by jury1 ,freeman maintains none the less that the latter is distinctively ,english4 ,forsyth comes to substantially the same conclusion4 ,noting the jury germs of the ,anglo-,saxon period1 he shows how out of those elements1 which continued in full force under the ,anglo-,normans1 was produced at last the institution of the jury4 ,as yet it was only implied in the requirement that disputed questions should be determined by the voice of sworn witnesses taken from the neighbourhood1 and deposing to the truth of what they had seen or heard4 ,the conclusions of ,sir ,f4 ,pollock and ,f4,w4 ,maitland1 expressed in their ,history of ,english ,law1 and based on a closer study1 are to the same effect4 ,this inquest then was a royal institution and not a survival from ,anglo-,saxon law or popular custom1 under which compurgation and the ordeal were the accepted modes of trying issues of fact4 ,the inquest by recognition1 formerly an inquest of office1 i4e4 to ascertain facts in the interests of the crown or the exchequer1 was gradually allowed between subjects as a mode of settling disputes of fact4 ,this extension began with the assize of novel disseisin1 whereby the king protected by royal writ and inquest of neighbours every seisin of a freehold4 ,this was followed by the grand assize1 applicable to questions affecting freehold or status4 ,a defendant in such an action was enabled by an enactment of ,henry ,,ii4 to decline trial by combat and choose trial by assize1 which was conducted as follows4 ,the sheriff summoned four knights of the neighbourhood1 who being sworn chose the twelve lawful knights most cognisant of the facts1 to determine on their oaths which had the better right to the land4 ,if they all knew the facts and were agreed as to their verdict1 well and good2 if some or all were ignorant1 the fact was certified in court1 and new knights were named1 until twelve were found to be agreed4 ,the same course was followed when the twelve were not unanimous4 ,new knights were added until the twelve were agreed4 ,this was called afforcing the assize4 ,at this time the knowledge on which the jurors acted was their own personal knowledge1 acquired independently of the trial4 ,so entirely1 says ,forsyth1 did they proceed upon their own previously formed view of the facts in dispute that they seem to have considered themselves at liberty to pay no attention to evidence offered in court1 however clearly it might disprove the case which they were prepared to support4 ,the use of recognition is prescribed by the constitutions of ,clarendon 7#aaff7 for cases of dispute as to lay or clerical tenure4 ,see ,forsyth1 p4 #aca2 ,stubbs1 i4 #fag4 ,this procedure by the assize was confined to real actions1 and while it preceded1 it is not identical with the modern jury trial in civil cases1 which was gradually introduced by consent of the parties and on pressure from the judges4 ,jury trial proper differs from the grand and petty assizes in that the assizes were summoned at the same time as the defendant to answer a question formulated in the writ2 whereas in the ordinary jury trial no order for a jury could be made till the parties by their pleadings had come to an issue of fact and had put themselves on the country1 posuerunt se super patriam 7,pollock and ,maitland1 i4 #aai-abh2 ii4 #fja1 #fae1 #fba74 ,the ,grand ,jury4--,in ,anglo-,saxon times there was an institution analogous to the grand jury in criminal cases1 viz4 the twelve senior thegns1 who1 according to an ordinance of thelred ,,ii41 were sworn in the county court that they would accuse no innocent man and acquit no guilty one4 ,the twelve thegns were a jury of presentment or accusation1 like the grand jury of later times1 and the absolute guilt or innocence of those accused by them had to be determined by subsequent proceedings--by compurgation or ordeal4 ,whether this is the actual origin of the grand jury or not1 the assizes of ,clarendon 7#aaff7 and ,northampton 7#aagf7 establish the criminal jury on a definite basis4 ,in the laws of ,edward the ,confessor and the earlier ,anglo-,saxon kings are found many traces of a public duty to bring offenders to justice1 by hue and cry1 or by action of the frith-borh1 township1 tithing or hundred4 ,by the assize of ,clarendon it is directed that inquiry be made in each county and in each hundred by twelve lawful 7legaliores7 men of the hundred1 and by four lawful men from each of the four vills nearest to the scene of the alleged crime1 on oath to tell the truth if in the hundred or vill there is any man accused 7rettatus aut publicatus7 as a robber or murderer or thief1 or receiver of such4 ,the assize of ,northampton added forgery of coin or charters 7falsonaria7 and arson4 ,the inquiry is to be held by the justices in eyre1 and by the sheriffs in their county courts4 ,on a finding on the oath aforesaid1 the accused was to be taken and to go to the ordeal4 ,by the articles of visitation of #aaid1 four knights are to be chosen from the county who by their oath shall choose two lawful knights of each hundred or wapentake1 or1 if knights be wanting1 free and legal men1 so that the twelve may answer for all matters within the hundred1 including1 says ,stubbs1 all the pleas of the crown1 the trial of malefactors and their receivers1 as well as a vast amount of civil business4 ,the process thus described is now regarded as an employment of the ,frankish inquest for the collection of fama publica4 ,it was alternative to the rights of a private accuser by appeal1 and the inquest were not exactly either accusers or witnesses1 but gave voice to public repute as to the criminality of the persons whom they presented4 ,from this form of inquest has developed the grand jury of presentment or accusation1 and the coroner's inquest1 which works partly as a grand jury as to homicide cases1 and partly as an inquest of office as to treasure trove1 c4 ,the number of the grand jury is fixed by usage at not less than twelve nor more than twenty-three jurors4 ,unanimity is not required1 but twelve must concur in the presentment or indictment4#d ,this jury retains so much of its ancient character that it may present of its own knowledge or information1 and is not tied down by rules of evidence4 ,after a general charge by the judge as to the bills of indictment on the file of the court1 the grand jury considers the bills in private and hears upon oath in the grand jury chamber some or all the witnesses called in support of an indictment whose names are endorsed upon the bill4 ,it does not as a rule hear counsel or solicitors for the prosecution1 nor does it see or hear the accused or his witnesses1 and it is not concerned with the nature of the defence1 its functions being to ascertain whether there is a prima facie case against the accused justifying his trial4 ,if it thinks that there is such a case1 the indictment is returned into court as a true bill2 if it thinks that there is not1 the bill is ignored and returned into court torn up or marked no bill1 or ignoramus4 ,inasmuch as no man can be put on trial for treason or felony1 and few are tried for misdemeanour1 without the intervention of the grand jury1 the latter has a kind of veto with respect to criminal prosecutions4 ,the grand jurors are described in the indictment as the jurors for our lord the king4 ,as such prosecutions in respect of indictable offences are now in almost all cases begun by a full preliminary inquiry before justices1 and inasmuch as cases rarely come before a grand jury until after committal of the accused for trial1 the present utility of the grand jury depends very much on the character of the justices' courts4 ,as a review of the discretion of stipendiary magistrates in committing cases for trial1 the intervention of the grand jury is in most cases superfluous2 and even when the committing justices are not lawyers1 it is now a common opinion that their views as to the existence of a case to be submitted to a jury for trial should not be over-ridden by a lay tribunal sitting in private1 and in this opinion many grand jurors concur4 ,but the abolition of the grand jury would involve great changes in criminal procedure for which parliament seems to have no appetite4 ,forsyth thinks that the grand jury will often baffle the attempts of malevolence by ignoring a malicious and unfounded prosecution2 but it may also defeat the ends of justice by shielding a criminal with whom it has strong political or social sympathies4 ,the qualification of the grand jurymen is that they should be freeholders of the county--to what amount appears to be uncertain--and they are summoned by the sheriff1 or failing him by the coroner4 ,the coroner's jury must by statute 7#ahhg7 consist of not more than twenty-three nor less than twelve jurors4 ,it is summoned by the coroner to hold an inquest super visum corporis in cases of sudden or violent death1 and of death in prisons or lunatic asylums1 and to deal with treasure trove4 ,the qualification of the coroner's jurors does not depend on the ,juries ,acts #ahbe and #ahgj1 and in practice they are drawn from householders in the immediate vicinity of the place where the inquest is held4 ,unanimity is not required of a coroner's jury2 but twelve must concur in the verdict4 ,if it charges anyone with murder or manslaughter1 it is duly recorded and transmitted to a court of assize1 and has the same effect as an indictment by a grand jury1 i4e4 it is accusatory only and is not conclusive1 and is traversable1 and the issue of guilt or innocence is tried by a petty jury4 ,the ,petty ,jury4--,the ordeal by water or fire was used as the final test of guilt or innocence until its abolition by decree of the ,lateran council 7#abai74 ,on its abolition it became necessary to devise a new mode of determining guilt as distinguished from ill fame as charged by the grand jury4 ,so early as #abba accused persons had begun to put themselves on the country1 or to pay to have a verdict for good or ill2 and the trial seems to have been by calling for the opinions of the twelve men and the four townships1 who may have been regarded as a second body of witnesses who could traverse the opinion of the hundred jury4 7,see ,pollock and ,maitland1 ii4 #fdf47 ,the reference to judicium parium in ,magna ,carta is usually taken to refer to the jury1 but it is clear that what is now known as the petty jury was not then developed in its present form4 ,the history of that institution is still in manuscript1 says ,maitland4 ,it is not at all clear that at the outset the trial by the country 7in pais2 in patria7 was before another and different jury4 ,the earliest instances look as if the twelve men and the four vills were the patria and had to agree4 ,but by the time of ,edward ,i4 the accused seems to have been allowed to call in a second jury4 ,a person accused by the inquest of the hundred was allowed to have the truth of the charge tried by another and different jury4#e ,there is1 says ,forsyth1 no possibility of assigning a date to this alteration4 ,in the time of ,bracton 7middle of the #acth century7 the usual mode of determining innocence or guilt was by combat or appeal4 ,but in most cases the appellant had the option of either fighting with his adversary or putting himself on his country for trial--the exceptions being murder by secret poisoning1 and certain circumstances presumed by the law to be conclusive of guilt4#f ,but the separation must have been complete by #aceb1 in which year it was enacted that no indictor shall be put in inquests upon deliverance of the indictees of felonies or trespass if he be challenged for that same cause by the indictee4 ,the jurors1 whatever their origin1 differed from the ,saxon doomsmen and the jurats of the ,channel ,islands in that they adjudged nothing2 and from compurgators or oath-helpers in that they were not witnesses called by a litigant to support his case 7,pollock and ,maitland1 i4 #aah74 ,once established1 the jury of trial whether of actions or indictments developed on the same lines4 ,but at the outset this jury differed in one material respect from the modern trial jury4 ,the ancient trial jury certify to the truth from their knowledge of the facts1 however acquired4 ,in other words1 they resemble witnesses or collectors of local evidence or gossip rather than jurors4 ,the complete withdrawal of the witness character from the jury is connected by ,forsyth with the ancient rules of law as to proof of written instruments1 and a peculiar mode of trial per sectam4 ,when a deed is attested by witnesses1 you have a difference between the testimony of the witness1 who deposes to the execution of the deed1 and the verdict of the jury as to the fact of execution4 ,it has been contended with much plausibility that in such cases the attesting witnesses formed part of the jury4 ,forsyth doubts that conclusion1 although he admits that1 as the jurors themselves were originally mere witnesses1 there was no distinction in principle between them and the attesting witnesses1 and that the attesting witnesses might be associated with the jury in the discharge of the function of giving a verdict4 ,however that may be1 in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 although the witnesses are spoken of as joined to the assize1 they are distinguished from the jurors4 ,the trial per sectam was used as an alternative to the assize or jury1 and resembled in principle the system of compurgation4 ,the claimant proved his case by vouching a certain number of witnesses 7secta71 who had seen the transaction in question1 and the defendant rebutted the presumption thus created by vouching a larger number of witnesses on his own side4 ,in cases in which this was allowed1 the jury did not interpose at all1 but in course of time the practice arose of the witnesses of the secta telling their story to the jury4 ,in these two instances we have the jury as judges of the facts sharply contrasted with the witnesses who testify to the facts2 and1 with the increasing use of juries and the development of rules of evidence1 this was gradually established as the true principle of the system4 ,in the reign of ,henry ,,iv4 we find the judges declaring that the jury after they have been sworn should not see or take with them any other evidence than that which has been offered in open court4 ,but the personal knowledge of the jurors was not as yet regarded as outside the evidence on which they might found a verdict1 and the stress laid upon the selection of jurymen from the neighbourhood of the cause of the action shows that this element was counted on1 and1 in fact1 deemed essential to a just consideration of the case4 ,other examples of the same theory of the duties of the jury may be found in the language used by legal writers4 ,thus it has been said that the jury may return a verdict although no evidence at all be offered1 and again1 that the evidence given in court is not binding on the jury1 because they are assumed from their local connexion to be sufficiently informed of the facts to give a verdict without or in opposition to the oral evidence4 ,a recorder of ,london1 temp4 ,edward ,,vi41 says that1 if the witnesses at a trial do not agree with the jurors1 the verdict of the twelve shall be taken and the witnesses shall be rejected4 ,forsyth suggests as a reason for the continuance of this theory that it allowed the jury an escape from the attaint1 by which penalties might be imposed on them for delivering a false verdict in a civil case4 ,they could suggest that the verdict was according to the fact1 though not according to the evidence4 ,in ,england the trial jury 7also called petty jury or traverse jury7 consists of twelve jurors1 except in the county court1 where the number is eight4 ,in civil but not in criminal cases the trial may by consent be by fewer than twelve jurors1 and the verdict may by consent be that of the majority4 ,the rule requiring a unanimous verdict has been variously explained4 ,forsyth regards the rule as intimately connected with the original character of the jury as a body of witnesses1 and with the conception common in primitive society that safety is to be found in the number of witnesses1 rather than the character of their testimony4 ,the old notion seems to have been that to justify an accusation1 or to find a fact1 twelve sworn men must be agreed4 ,the afforcing of the jury1 already described1 marks an intermediate stage in the development4 ,where the juries were not unanimous new jurors were added until twelve were found to be of the same opinion4 ,from the unanimous twelve selected out of a large number to the unanimous twelve constituting the whole jury was a natural step1 which1 however1 was not taken without hesitation4 ,in some old cases the verdict of eleven jurors out of twelve was accepted1 but it was decided in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 that the verdict must be the unanimous opinion of the whole jury4 ,diversity of opinion was taken to imply perversity of judgment1 and the law sanctioned the application of the harshest methods to produce unanimity4 ,the jurors while considering their verdict were not allowed a fire nor any refreshment1 and it is said in some of the old books that1 if they failed to agree1 they could be put in a cart and drawn after the justices to the border of the county1 and then upset into a ditch4 ,these rude modes of enforcing unanimity has been softened in later practice1 but in criminal cases the rule of unanimity is still absolutely fixed4 ,in civil cases and in trials for misdemeanour1 the jurors are allowed to separate during adjournments and to return to their homes2 in trials for treason1 treason-felony and murder1 the jurors1 once sworn1 must not separate until discharged4 ,but by an act of #ahig jurors on trials for other felonies may be allowed by the court to separate in the same way as on trials for misdemeanour4 ,these rules do not apply to a jury which has retired to consider its verdict4 ,during the period of retirement it is under the keeping of an officer of the court4 ,at common law aliens were entitled to be tried by a jury de medietate linguae--half ,englishmen1 half foreigners1 not necessarily compatriots of the accused4 ,this privilege was abolished by the ,naturalization ,act #ahgj2 but by the ,juries ,act #ahgj aliens who have been domiciled in ,england or ,wales for ten years or upwards1 if in other respects duly qualified1 are liable to jury service as if they were natural-born subjects 7s4 #h74 ,a jury of matrons is occasionally summoned1 viz4 on a writ de ventre inspiciendo1 or where a female condemned to death pleads pregnancy in stay of execution4 ,the jurors are selected from the inhabitants of the county1 borough or other area for which the court to which they are summoned is commissioned to act4 ,in criminal cases1 owing to the rules as to venue and that crime is to be tried in the neighbourhood where it is committed1 the mode of selection involves a certain amount of independent local knowledge on the part of the jurors4 ,where local prejudice has been aroused for or against the accused1 which is likely to affect the chance of a fair trial1 the proceedings may be removed to another jurisdiction1 and there are a good many offences in which by legislation the accused may be tried where he is caught1 irrespective of the place where he is alleged to have broken the law4 ,as regards civil cases1 a distinction was at an early date drawn between local actions which must be tried in the district in which they originated1 and transitory actions which could be tried in any county4 ,these distinctions are now of no importance1 as the place of trial of a civil action is decided as a matter of procedure and convenience1 and regard is not necessarily paid to the place at which a wrong was done or a contract broken4 ,the qualifications for1 and exemptions from1 service as a petty juror are in the main contained in the ,juries ,acts #ahbe and #ahgj1 though a number of further exemptions are added by scattered enactments4 ,the exemptions include members of the legislature and judges1 ministers of various denominations1 and practising barristers and solicitors1 registered medical practitioners and dentists1 and officers and soldiers of the regular army4 ,persons over sixty are exempt but not disqualified4 ,lists of the jurors are prepared by the overseers in rural parishes and by the town clerks in boroughs1 and are submitted to justices for revision4 ,when jurors are required for a civil or criminal trial they are summoned by the sheriff or1 if he cannot act1 by the coroner4 ,special and ,common ,juries4--,for the purpose of civil trials in the superior courts there are two lists of jurors1 special and common4 ,the practice of selecting special jurors to try important civil cases appears to have sprung up1 without legislative enactment1 in the procedure of the courts4 ,forsyth says that the first statutory recognition of it is so late as #c ,geo4 ,,ii4 c4 #be1 and that in the oldest book of practice in existence 7,powell's ,attourney's ,academy1 #afbc7 there is no allusion to two classes of jurymen4 ,the acts1 however1 which regulate the practice allude to it as well established4 ,the ,juries ,act #ahgj 7#cc #cd ,vict4 c4 #gg7 defines the class of persons entitled and liable to serve on special juries thus3 ,every man whose name shall be on the jurors' book for any county1 c41 and who shall be legally entitled to be called an esquire1 or shall be a person of higher degree1 or a banker or merchant1 or who shall occupy a house of a certain rateable value 7e4g4 #ajj in a town of #bj1jjj inhabitants1 #ej elsewhere71 or a farm of #cjj or other premises at #ajj4 ,a special juryman receives a fee of a guinea for each cause4 ,either party may obtain an order for a special jury1 but must pay the additional expenses created thereby unless the judge certifies that it was a proper case to be so tried4 ,for the common jury any man is qualified and liable to serve who has #aj by the year in land or tenements of freehold1 copyhold or customary tenure2 or #bj on lands or tenement held by lease for twenty-one years or longer1 or who being a householder is rated at #cj in the counties of ,london and ,middlesex1 or #bj in any other county4 ,a special jury cannot be ordered in cases of treason or felony1 and may be ordered in cases of misdemeanour only when the trial is in the king's bench division of the ,high ,court1 or the civil side at assizes4 ,challenge4--,it has always been permissible for the parties to challenge the jurors summoned to consider indictments or to try cases4 ,both in civil and criminal cases a challenge for cause is allowed2 in criminal cases a peremptory challenge is also allowed4 ,challenge for cause may be either to the array1 i4e4 to the whole number of jurors returned1 or to the polls1 i4e4 to the jurors individually4 ,a challenge to the array is either a principal challenge 7on the ground that the sheriff is a party to the cause1 or related to one of the parties71 or a challenge for favour 7on the ground of circumstances implying at least a probability of bias or favour in the sheriff74 ,a challenge to the polls is an exception to one or more jurymen on either of the following grounds3 7#a7 propter honoris respectum1 as when a lord of parliament is summoned2 7#b7 propter defectum1 for want of qualification2 7#c7 propter affectum1 on suspicion of bias or partiality2 and 7#d7 propter delictum1 when the juror has been convicted of an infamous offence4 ,the challenge propter affectum is1 like the challenge to the array1 either principal challenge or to the favour4 ,in ,england as a general rule the juror may be interrogated to show want of qualification2 but in other cases the person making the challenge must prove it without questioning the juror1 and the courts do not allow the protracted examination on the voir dire which precedes every cause clbre in the ,united ,states4 ,on indictments for treason the accused has a right peremptorily to challenge thirty-five of the jurors on the panel2 in cases of felony the number is limited to twenty1 and in cases of misdemeanour there is no right of peremptory challenge4 ,the ,crown has not now the right of peremptory challenge and may challenge only for cause certain 7,juries ,act #ahbe1 s4 #bi74 ,in the case of felony1 on the first call of the list jurors objected to by the ,crown are asked to stand by1 and the cause of challenge need not be assigned by the ,crown until the whole list has been perused or gone through1 or unless there remain no longer twelve jurors left to try the case1 exclusive of those challenged4 ,this arrangement practically amounts to giving the ,crown the benefit of a peremptory challenge4 ,function of ,jury4--,the jurors were originally the mouthpiece of local opinion on the questions submitted to them1 or witnesses to fact as to such questions4 ,they have now become the judges of fact upon the evidence laid before them4 ,their province is strictly limited to questions of fact1 and within that province they are still further restricted to matters proved by evidence in the course of the trial and in theory must not act upon their own personal knowledge and observation except so far as it proceeds from what is called a view of the subject matter of the litigation4 ,indeed it is now well established that if a juror is acquainted with facts material to the case1 he should inform the court so that he may be dismissed from the jury and called as a witness2 and ,lord ,ellenborough ruled that a judge would misdirect the jury if he told them that they might reject the evidence and go by their own knowledge4 ,the old decantatum assigns to judge and jury their own independent functions3 ,ad quaestionem legis respondent judices3 ad quaestionem facti juratores 7,plowden1 #aad74 ,but the independence of the jurors as to matters of fact was from an early time not absolute4 ,in certain civil cases a litigant dissatisfied by the verdict could adopt the procedure by attaint1 and if the attaint jury of twenty-four found that the first jury had given a false verdict1 they were fined and suffered the villainous judgment4 ,attaints fell into disuse on the introduction about #affe of the practice of granting new trials when the jury found against the weight of the evidence1 or upon a wrong direction as to the law of the case4 ,in criminal cases the courts attempted to control the verdicts by fining the jurors for returning a verdict contra plenam et manifestam evidentiam4 ,but this practice was declared illegal in ,bushell's case 7#afgj72 and so far as criminal cases are concerned the independence of the jury as sole judges of fact is almost absolute4 ,if they acquit1 their action cannot be reviewed nor punished1 except on proof of wilful and corrupt consent to embracery 7,juries ,act #ahbe1 s4 #fa74 ,if they convict no new trial can be ordered except in the rare instances of misdemeanours tried as civil cases in the ,high ,court4 ,in trials for various forms of libel during the #ahth century1 the judges restricted the powers of juries by ruling that their function was limited to finding whether the libel had in fact been published1 and that it was for the court to decide whether the words published constituted an offence4#g ,by ,fox's ,libel ,act #agib the jurors in such cases were expressly empowered to bring in a general verdict of libel or no libel1 i4e4 to deal with the whole question of the meaning and extent of the incriminated publication4 ,in other words1 they were given the same independence in cases of libel as in other criminal cases4 ,this independence has in times of public excitement operated as a kind of local option against the existing law and as an aid to procuring its amendment4 ,juries in ,ireland in agrarian cases often acquit in the teeth of the evidence4 ,in ,england the independence of the jury in criminal trials is to some extent menaced by the provisions of the ,criminal ,appeal ,act #aijg4 ,while the jury is in legal theory absolute as to matters of fact1 it is in practice largely controlled by the judges4 ,not only does the judge at the trial decide as to the relevancy of the evidence tendered to the issues to be proved1 and as to the admissibility of questions put to a witness1 but he also advises the jury as to the logical bearing of the evidence admitted upon the matters to be found by the jury4 ,the rules as to admissibility of evidence1 largely based upon scholastic logic1 sometimes difficult to apply1 and almost unknown in continental jurisprudence1 coupled with the right of an ,english judge to sum up the evidence 7denied to ,french judges7 and to express his own opinion as to its value 7denied to ,american judges71 fetter to some extent the independence or limit the chances of error of the jury4 ,the whole theory of the jurisdiction of the courts to interfere with the verdict of the constitutional tribunal is that the court is satisfied that the jury have not acted reasonably upon the evidence but have been misled by prejudice or passion 7,watt v4 ,watt 7#aije71 ,app4 ,cas4 #aah1 per ,lord ,halsbury74 ,in civil cases the verdict may be challenged on the ground that it is against the evidence or against the weight of the evidence1 or unsupported by any evidence4 ,it is said to be against the evidence when the jury have completely misapprehended the facts proved and have drawn an inference so wrong as to be in substance perverse4 ,the dissatisfaction of the trial judge with the verdict is a potent but not conclusive element in determining as to the perversity of a verdict1 because of his special opportunity of appreciating the evidence and the demeanour of the witnesses4 ,but his opinion is less regarded now that new trials are granted by the court of appeal than under the old system when the new trial was sought in the court of which he was a member4 ,the appellate court will not upset a verdict when there is substantial and conflicting evidence before the jury4 ,in such cases it is for the jury to say which side is to be believed1 and the court will not interfere with the verdict4 ,to upset a verdict on the ground that there is no evidence to go to the jury implies that the judge at the trial ought to have withdrawn the case from the jury4 ,under modern procedure1 in order to avoid the risk of a new trial1 it is not uncommon to take the verdict of a jury on the hypothesis that there was evidence for their consideration1 and to leave the unsuccessful party to apply for judgment notwithstanding the verdict4 ,the question whether there was any evidence proper to be submitted to the jury arises oftenest in cases involving an imputation of negligence--e4g4 in an action of damages against a railway company for injuries sustained in a collision4 ,juries are somewhat ready to infer negligence1 and the court has to say whether1 on the facts proved1 there was any evidence of negligence by the defendant4 ,this is by no means the same thing as saying whether1 in the opinion of the court1 there was negligence4 ,the court may be of opinion that on the facts there was none1 yet the facts themselves may be of such a nature as to be evidence of negligence to go before a jury4 ,when the facts proved are such that a reasonable man might have come to the conclusion that there was negligence1 then1 although the court would not have come to the same conclusion1 it must admit that there is evidence to go before the jury4 ,this statement indicates existing practice but scarcely determines what relation between the facts proved and the conclusion to be established is necessary to make the facts evidence from which a jury may infer the conclusion4 ,the true explanation is to be found in the principle of relevancy4 ,any fact which is relevant to the issue constitutes evidence to go before the jury1 and any fact1 roughly speaking1 is relevant between which and the fact to be proved there may be a connexion as cause and effect 7see ,,evidence74 ,as regards damages the court has always had wide powers1 as damages are often a question of law4 ,but when the amount of the damages awarded by a jury is challenged as excessive or inadequate1 the appellate court1 if it considers the amount unreasonably large or unreasonably small1 must order a new trial unless both parties consent to a reduction or increase of the damages to a figure fixed by the court2 see ,watt v4 ,watt 7#aije71 ,app4 ,cas4 #aae4 ,value of ,jury ,system4--,the value of the jury in past history as a bulwark against aggression by the ,crown or executive cannot be over-rated1 but the working of the institution has not escaped criticism4 ,its use protracts civil trials4 ,the jurors are usually unwilling and are insufficiently remunerated2 and jury trials in civil cases often drag out much longer and at greater expense than trials by a judge alone1 and the proceedings are occasionally rendered ineffective by the failure of the jurors to agree4 ,there is much force in the arguments of ,bentham and others against the need of unanimity--the application of pressure to force conviction on the minds of jurors1 the indifference to veracity which the concurrence of unconvinced minds must produce in the public mind1 the probability that jurors will disagree and trials be rendered abortive1 and the absence of any reasonable security in the unanimous verdict that would not exist in the verdict of a majority4 ,all this is undeniably true1 but disagreements are happily not frequent1 and whatever may happen in the jury room no compulsion is now used by the court to induce agreement4 ,but1 apart from any incidental defects1 it may be doubted whether1 as an instrument for the investigation of truth1 the jury system deserves all the encomiums which have been passed upon it4 ,in criminal cases1 especially of the graver kind1 it is perhaps the best tribunal that could be devised4 ,there the element of moral doubt enters largely into the consideration of the case1 and that can best be measured by a popular tribunal4 ,opinion in ,england has hitherto been against subjecting a man to serious punishment as a result of conviction before a judge sitting without a jury1 and the judges themselves would be the first to deprecate so great a responsibility1 and the ,criminal ,appeal ,act #aijg1 which constituted the court of criminal appeal1 recognized the responsibility by requiring a quorum of three judges in order to constitute a court4 ,the same act1 by permitting an appeal to persons convicted on indictment both on questions of fact and of law1 removed to a great extent any possibility of error by a jury4 ,but in civil causes1 where the issue must be determined one way or the other on the balance of probabilities1 a single judge would probably be a better tribunal than the present combination of judge and jury4 ,even if it be assumed that he would on the whole come to the same conclusion as a jury deliberating under his directions1 he would come to it more quickly4 ,time would be saved in taking evidence1 summing up would be unnecessary1 and the addresses of counsel would inevitably be shortened and concentrated on the real points at issue4 ,modern legislation and practice in ,england have very much reduced the use of the jury both in civil and criminal cases4 ,in the county courts trial by jury is the exception and not the rule4 ,in the court of chancery and the admiralty court it was never used4 ,under the ,judicature ,acts many cases which in the courts of common law would have been tried with a jury are now tried before a judge alone1 or 7rarely7 with assessors1 or before an official referee4 ,indeed cynics say that a jury is insisted on chiefly in cases when a jury1 from prejudice or other causes1 is likely to be more favourable than a judge alone4 ,in criminal cases1 by reason of the enormous number of offences punishable on summary conviction and of the provisions made for trying certain indictable offences summarily if the offender is young or elects for summary trial1 juries are less called on in proportion to the number of offences committed than was the practice in former years4 ,scotland4--,according to the ,regiam ,majestatem1 which is identical with the treatise of ,glanvill on the law of ,england 7but whether the original or only a copy of that work is disputed71 trial by jury existed in ,scotland for civil and criminal cases from as early a date as in ,england1 and there is reason to believe that at all events the system became established at a very early date4 ,its history was very different from that of the ,english jury system4 ,there was no grand jury under ,scots law1 but it was introduced in #agjh for the purpose of high treason 7#g ,anne c4 #ba74 ,for the trial of criminal cases the petty jury is represented by the criminal assize4 ,this jury has always consisted of fifteen persons and the jurors are chosen by ballot by the clerk of the court from the list containing the names of the special and common jurors1 five from the special1 ten from the common4 ,prosecutor and accused each have five peremptory challenges1 of which two only may be directed against the special jurors2 but there is no limit to challenges for cause4 ,the jury is not secluded during the trial except in capital cases or on special order of the court made proprio motu or on the application of prosecutor or accused4 ,the verdict need not be unanimous1 nor is enclosure a necessary preliminary to a majority verdict4 ,it is returned viva voce by the chancellor or foreman1 and entered on the record by the clerk of the court1 and the entry read to the jury4 ,besides the verdicts of guilty and not guilty1 a ,scots jury may return a verdict of not proven1 which has legally the same effect as not guilty in releasing the accused from further proceedings on the particular charge1 but inflicts on him the stigma of moral guilt4 ,jury trial in civil cases was at one time in general if not prevailing use1 but was gradually superseded for most purposes on the institution of the ,court of ,session 7#a ,mackay1 ,ct4 ,sess4 ,pr4 #cc74 ,in this1 as in many other matters1 ,scots law and procedure tend to follow continental rather than insular models4 ,the civil jury was reintroduced in #ahae 7#ee ,geo4 ,,iii4 c4 #db71 mainly on account of the difficulties experienced by the ,house of ,lords in dealing with questions of fact raised on ,scottish appeals4 ,at the outset a special court was instituted in the nature of a judicial commission to ascertain by means of a jury facts deemed relevant to the issues in a cause and sent for such determination at the discretion of the court in which the cause was pending4 ,the process was analogous to the sending of an issue out of chancery for trial in a superior court of common law1 or in a court of assize4 ,in #ahcj the jury court ceased to exist as a separate tribunal and was merged in the ,court of ,session4 ,by legislation of #ahai and #ahbc certain classes of cases were indicated as appropriate to be tried by a jury2 but in #ahej the cases so to be tried were limited to actions for defamation and nuisance1 or properly and in substance actions for damages1 and under an act of #ahff even in these cases the jury may be dispensed with by consent of parties4 ,the civil jury consists as in ,england of twelve jurors chosen by ballot from the names on the list of those summoned4 ,there is a right of peremptory challenge limited to four1 and also a right to challenge for cause4 ,unanimity was at first but is not now required4 ,the jury if unanimous may return a verdict immediately on the close of the case4 ,if they are not unanimous they are enclosed and may at any time not less than three hours after being enclosed return a verdict by a bare majority4 ,if after six hours they do not agree by the requisite majority1 i4e4 are equally divided1 they must be discharged4 ,it was stated by ,commissioner ,adam1 under whom the ,scots civil jury was originated1 that in twenty years he knew of only one case in which the jury disagreed4 ,jury trial in civil cases in ,scotland has not flourished or given general satisfaction1 and is resorted to only in a small proportion of cases4 ,this is partly due to its being transplanted from ,england4 ,ireland4--,the jury laws of ,ireland do not differ in substance from those of ,england4 ,the qualifications of jurors are regulated by ,o',hagan's ,acts #ahga and #ahgb1 and the ,juries ,acts #ahgh and #ahid4 ,in criminal cases much freer use is made than in ,england of the rights of the accused to challenge1 and of the ,crown to order jurors to stand by1 and what is called jury-packing seems to be the object of both sides when some political or agrarian issue is involved in the trial4 ,until the passing of the ,irish ,local ,government ,act #ahih1 the grand jury1 besides its functions as a jury of accusation1 had large duties with respect to local government which are now transferred to the county councils and other elective bodies4 ,british ,empire4--,in most parts of the ,british ,empire the jury system is in force as part of the original law of the colonists or under the colonial charters of justice or by local legislation4 ,the grand jury is not in use in ,india2 was introduced but later abolished in the ,cape ,colony2 and in ,australia has been for most purposes superseded by the public prosecutor4 ,the ordinary trial jury for criminal cases is twelve1 but in ,india may be nine1 seven1 five or three1 according to certain provisions of the ,criminal ,procedure ,code #ahih4 ,in countries where the ,british ,crown has foreign jurisdiction the jury for criminal trials has in some cases been fixed at a less number than twelve and the right of the ,crown to fix the number is established2 see ex p4 ,carew1 #ahig1 ,a4,c4 #gai4 ,in civil cases the number of the jury is reduced in some colonies1 e4g4 to seven in ,tasmania and ,trinidad4 ,european ,countries4--,in ,france there is no civil jury4 ,in criminal cases the place of the grand jury is taken by the chambre des mises en accusation1 and the more serious crimes are tried before a jury of twelve which finds its verdict by a majority1 the exact number of which may not be disclosed4 ,in ,belgium1 ,spain1 ,italy and ,germany1 certain classes of crime are tried with the aid of a jury4 ,united ,states4--,the ,english jury system was part of the law of the ,american colonies before the declaration of independence2 and grand jury1 coroner's jury and petty jury continue in full use in the ,united ,states4 ,under the ,federal ,constitution 7,article iii47 there is a right to trial by jury in all criminal cases 7except on impeachment7 and in all civil actions at common law in which the subject matter exceeds #bj in value 7amendments vi4 and vii474 ,the trial jury must be of twelve and its verdict must be unanimous2 see ,cooley1 ,constitutional ,limitations 7#fth ed471 #chi4 ,the respective provinces of judge and jury have been much discussed and there has been a disposition to declare the jury supreme as to law as well as fact4 ,the whole subject is fully treated by reference to ,english and ,american authorities1 and the conflicting views are stated in ,sparf v4 ,united ,states1 #ahie1 #aef ,u4,s4 #fa4 ,the view of the majority of the court in that case was that it is the duty of the jury in a criminal case to receive the law from the court and to apply it as laid down by the court1 subject to the condition that in giving a general verdict the jury may incidentally determine both law and fact as compounded in the issues submitted to them in the particular case4 ,the power to give a general verdict renders the duty one of imperfect obligation and enables the jury to take its own view of the terms and merits of the law involved4 ,the extent to which the jury system is in force in the states of the union depends on the constitution and legislation of each state4 ,in some the use of juries in civil and even in criminal cases is reduced or made subject to the election of the accused4 ,in others unanimous verdicts are not required1 while the constitutions of others require the unanimous verdict of the common law dozen4 7,w4 ,f4 ,c47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,i4e4 the jury-box1 or enclosed space in which the jurors sit in court4 #b ,freeman1 ,norman ,conquest1 v4 #dea4 #c ,this fact would account for the remarkable development of the system on ,english ground1 as contrasted with its decay and extinction in ,france4 #d ,blackstone puts the principle as being that no man shall be convicted except by the unanimous voice of twenty-four of his equals or neighbours--twelve on the grand1 and twelve on the petty jury4 #e ,the distinction between the functions of the grand jury1 which presents or accuses criminals1 and the petty jury1 which tries them1 has suggested the theory that the system of compurgation is the origin of the jury system--the first jury representing the compurgators of the accuser1 the second the compurgators of the accused4 #f ,forsyth1 #bjf4 ,the number of the jury 7twelve7 is responsible for some unfounded theories of the origin of the system4 ,this use of twelve is not confined to ,england1 nor in ,england or elsewhere to judicial institutions4 ,its general prevalence1 says ,hallam 7,middle ,ages1 ch4 viii471 shows that in searching for the origin of trial by jury we cannot rely for a moment upon any analogy which the mere number affords4 ,in a ,guide to ,english ,juries 7#afhb71 by a person of quality 7attributed to ,lord ,somers71 the following passage occurs3 ,in analogy of late the jury is reduced to the number of twelve1 like as the prophets were twelve to foretell the truth2 the apostles twelve to preach the truth2 the discoverers twelve1 sent into ,canaan to seek and report the truth2 and the stones twelve that the heavenly ,hierusalem is built on4 ,lord ,coke indulged in similar speculations4 #g ,see ,r4 v4 ,dean of ,st4 ,asaph 7#aghi71 #c ,t4,r4 #dah4 ,,jus ,,primae ,,noctis1 or ,,droit ,,du ,,seigneur1 a custom alleged to have existed in medieval ,europe1 giving the overlord a right to the virginity of his vassals' daughters on their wedding night4 ,for the existence of the custom in a legalized form there is no trustworthy evidence4 ,that some such abuse of power may have been occasionally exercised by brutal nobles in the lawless days of the early middle ages is only too likely1 but the jus1 it seems1 is a myth1 invented no earlier than the #afth or #agth century4 ,there appears to have been an entirely religious custom established by the council of ,carthage in #cih1 whereby the ,church required from the faithful continence on the wedding-night1 and this may have been1 and there is evidence that it was1 known as ,droit du ,seigneur1 or ,god's right4 ,later the clerical admonition was extended to the first three days of marriage4 ,this religious abstention1 added to the undoubted fact that the feudal lord extorted fines on the marriages of his vassals and their children1 doubtless gave rise to the belief that the jus was once an established custom4 ,the whole subject has been exhaustively treated by ,louis ,veuillot in ,le ,droit du seigneur au moyen ge 7#ahed74 ,,jus ,,relictae1 in ,scots law1 the widow's right in the movable property of her deceased husband4 ,the deceased must have been domiciled in ,scotland1 but the right accrues from movable property1 wherever situated4 ,the widow's provision amounts to one-third where there are children surviving1 and to one-half where there are no surviving children4 ,the widow's right vests by survivance1 and is independent of the husband's testamentary provisions2 it may however be renounced by contract1 or be discharged by satisfaction4 ,it is subject to alienation of the husband's movable estate during his lifetime or by its conversion into heritage4 ,see also ,,will4 ,,jusserand1 ,,jean ,,adrien ,,antoine ,,jules 7#ahee- 71 ,french author and diplomatist1 was born at ,lyons on the #ahth of ,february #ahee4 ,entering the diplomatic service in #ahgf1 he became in #ahgh consul in ,london4 ,after an interval spent in ,tunis he returned to ,london in #ahhg as a member of the ,french ,embassy4 ,in #ahij he became ,french minister at ,copenhagen1 and in #aijb was transferred to ,washington4 ,a close student of ,english literature1 he produced some very lucid and vivacious monographs on comparatively little-known subjects3 ,le ,thtre en ,angleterre depuis la conqute jusqu' aux prdcesseurs immdiats de ,shakespeare 7#ahgh72 ,le ,roman au temps de ,shakespeare 7#ahhg2 ,eng4 trans4 by ,miss ,e4 ,lee1 #ahij72 ,les ,anglais au moyen ge3 la vie nomade et les routes d',angleterre au ,,xive sicle 7#ahhd2 ,eng4 trans41 ,english ,wayfaring ,life in the ,middle ,ages1 by ,l4 ,t4 ,smith1 #ahhi72 and ,l'pope de ,langland 7#ahic2 ,eng4 trans41 ,piers ,plowman1 by ,m4 ,c4 ,r41 #ahid74 ,his ,histoire littraire du peuple anglais1 the first volume of which was published in #ahie1 was completed in three volumes in #aiji4 ,in ,english he wrote ,a ,french ,ambassador at the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 7#ahib71 from the unpublished papers of the count de ,cominges4 ,,jussieu1 ,,de1 the name of a ,french family which came into prominent notice towards the close of the #afth century1 and for a century and a half was distinguished for the botanists it produced4 ,the following are its more eminent members3-- #a4 ,,antoine ,,de ,,jussieu 7#afhf-ageh71 born at ,lyons on the #fth of ,july #afhf1 was the son of ,christophe de ,jussieu 7or ,dejussieu71 an apothecary of some repute1 who published a ,nouveau trait de la thriaque 7#agjh74 ,antoine studied at the university of ,montpellier1 and travelled with his brother ,bernard through ,spain1 ,portugal and southern ,france4 ,he went to ,paris in #agjh1 ,j4 ,p4 de ,tournefort1 whom he succeeded at the ,jardin des ,plantes1 dying in that year4 ,his own original publications are not of marked importance1 but he edited an edition of ,tournefort's ,institutiones rei herbariae 7#c vols41 #agai71 and also a posthumous work of ,jacques ,barrelier1 ,plantae per ,galliam1 ,hispaniam1 et ,italiam observatae1 c4 7#agad74 ,he practised medicine1 chiefly devoting himself to the very poor4 ,he died at ,paris on the #bbnd of ,april #ageh4 #b4 ,,bernard ,,de ,,jussieu 7#afii-aggg71 a younger brother of the above1 was born at ,lyons on the #agth of ,august #afii4 ,he took a medical degree at ,montpellier and began practice in #agbj1 but finding the work uncongenial he gladly accepted his brother's invitation to ,paris in #agbb1 when he succeeded ,sbastien ,vaillant as sub-demonstrator of plants in the ,jardin du ,roi4 ,in #agbe he brought out a new edition of ,tournefort's ,histoire des plantes qui naissent aux environs de ,paris1 #b vols41 which was afterwards translated into ,english by ,john ,martyn1 the original work being incomplete4 ,in the same year he was admitted into the acadmie des sciences1 and communicated several papers to that body4 ,long before ,abraham ,trembley 7#agjj-aghd7 published his ,histoire des polypes d'eau douce1 ,jussieu maintained the doctrine that these organisms were animals1 and not the flowers of marine plants1 then the current notion2 and to confirm his views he made three journeys to the coast of ,normandy4 ,singularly modest and retiring1 he published very little1 but in #agei he arranged the plants in the royal garden of the ,trianon at ,versailles1 according to his own scheme of classification4 ,this arrangement is printed in his nephew's ,genera1 pp4 lxiii4-lxx41 and formed the basis of that work4 ,he cared little for the credit of enunciating new discoveries1 so long as the facts were made public4 ,on the death of his brother ,antoine1 he could not be induced to succeed him in his office1 but prevailed upon ,l4 ,g4 ,lemonnier to assume the higher position4 ,he died at ,paris on the #fth of ,november #aggg4 #c4 ,,joseph ,,de ,,jussieu 7#agjd-aggi71 brother of ,antoine and ,bernard1 was born at ,lyons on the #crd of ,september #agjd4 ,educated like the rest of the family for the medical profession1 he accompanied ,c4 ,m4 de la ,condamine to ,peru1 in the expedition for measuring an arc of meridian1 and remained in ,south ,america for thirty-six years1 returning to ,france in #agga4 ,amongst the seeds he sent to his brother ,bernard were those of ,heliotropium peruvianum1 ,linn41 then first introduced into ,europe4 ,he died at ,paris on the #aath of ,april #aggi4 #d4 ,,antoine ,,laurent ,,de ,,jussieu 7#agdh-ahcf71 nephew of the three preceding1 was born at ,lyons on the #abth of ,april #agdh4 ,called to ,paris by his uncle ,bernard1 and carefully trained by him for the pursuits of medicine and botany1 he largely profited by the opportunities afforded him4 ,gifted with a tenacious memory1 and the power of quickly grasping the salient points of subjects under observation1 he steadily worked at the improvement of that system of plant arrangement which had been sketched out by his uncle4 ,in #aghi was issued his ,genera plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita1 juxta methodum in horto regio ,parisiensi exaratam1 anno ,,mdcclxxiv4 ,this volume formed the basis of modern classification2 more than this1 it is certain that ,cuvier derived much help in his zoological classification from its perusal4 ,hardly had the last sheet passed through the press1 when the ,french ,revolution broke out1 and the author was installed in charge of the hospitals of ,paris4 ,the musum d'histoire naturelle was organized on its present footing mainly by him in #agic1 and he selected for its library everything relating to natural history from the vast materials obtained from the convents then broken up4 ,he continued as professor of botany there from #aggj to #ahbf1 when his son ,adrien succeeded him4 ,besides the ,genera1 he produced nearly sixty memoirs on botanical topics4 ,he died at ,paris on the #agth of ,september #ahcf4 #e4 ,,adrien ,,laurent ,,henri ,,de ,,jussieu 7#agig-ahec71 son of ,antoine ,laurent1 was born at ,paris on the #bcrd of ,december #agig4 ,he displayed the qualities of his family in his thesis for the degree of ,m4,d41 ,de ,euphorbiacearum generibus medicisque earundem viribus tentamen1 ,paris1 #ahbd4 ,he was also the author of valuable contributions to botanical literature on the ,rutaceae1 ,meliaceae and ,malpighiaceae respectively1 of ,taxonomie in the ,dictionnaire universelle d'histoire naturelle1 and of an introductory work styled simply ,botanique1 which reached nine editions1 and was translated into the principal languages of ,europe4 ,he also edited his father's ,introductio in historiam plantarum1 issued at ,paris1 without imprint or date1 it being a fragment of the intended second edition of the ,genera1 which ,antoine ,laurent did not live to complete4 ,he died at ,paris on the #bith of ,june #ahec1 leaving two daughters1 but no son1 so that with him closed the brilliant botanical dynasty4 #f4 ,,laurent ,,pierre ,,de ,,jussieu 7#agib-ahff71 miscellaneous writer1 nephew of ,antoine ,laurent1 was born at ,villeurbanne on the #gth of ,february #agib4 ,his ,simon de ,nantua1 ou le marchand forain 7#ahah71 reached fifteen editions1 and was translated into seven languages4 ,he also wrote ,simples notions de physique et d'histoire naturelle 7#aheg71 and a few geological papers4 ,he died at ,passy on the #bcrd of ,february #ahff4 ,,justice 7,lat4 justitia71 a term used both in the abstract1 for the quality of being or doing what is just1 i4e4 right in law and equity1 and in the concrete for an officer deputed by the sovereign to administer justice1 and do right by way of judgment4 ,it has long been the official title of the judges of two of the ,english superior courts of common law1 and it is now extended to all the judges in the supreme court of judicature--a judge in the ,high ,court of ,justice being styled ,mr ,justice1 and in the court of appeal ,lord ,justice4 ,the president of the king's bench division of the ,high ,court is styled ,lord ,chief ,justice 7q4v474 ,the word is also applied1 and perhaps more usually1 to certain subordinate magistrates who administer justice in minor matters1 and who are usually called justices of the peace 7q4v474 ,,justice ,,of ,,the ,,peace1 an inferior magistrate appointed in ,england by special commission under the great seal to keep the peace within the jurisdiction for which he is appointed4 ,the title is commonly abbreviated to ,j4,p4 and is used after the name4 ,the whole ,christian world1 said ,coke1 hath not the like office as justice of the peace if duly executed4 ,lord ,cowper1 on the other hand1 described them as men sometimes illiterate and frequently bigoted and prejudiced4 ,the truth is that the justices of the peace perform without any other reward than the consequence they acquire from their office a large amount of work indispensable to the administration of the law1 and 7though usually not professional lawyers1 and therefore apt to be ill-informed in some of their decisions7 for the most part they discharge their duties with becoming good sense and impartiality4 ,for centuries they have necessarily been chosen mainly from the landed class of country gentlemen1 usually ,conservative in politics2 and in recent years the attempt has been made by the ,liberal party to reduce the balance by appointing others than those belonging to the landed gentry1 such as tradesmen1 ,nonconformist ministers1 and working-men4 ,but it has been recognized that the appointment of justices according to their political views is undesirable1 and in #aiji a royal commission was appointed to consider and report whether any and what steps should be taken to facilitate the selection of the most suitable persons to be justices of the peace irrespective of creed and political opinion4 ,in great centres of population1 when the judicial business of justices is heavy1 it has been found necessary to appoint paid justices or stipendiary magistrates#a to do the work1 and an extension of the system to the country districts has been often advocated4 ,the commission of the peace assigns to justices the duty of keeping and causing to be kept all ordinances and statutes for the good of the peace and for preservation of the same1 and for the quiet rule and government of the people1 and further assigns to you and every two or more of you 7of whom any one of the aforesaid ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c41 we will1 shall be one7 to inquire the truth more fully by the oath of good and lawful men of the county of all and all manner of felonies1 poisonings1 enchantments1 sorceries1 arts1 magic1 trespasses1 forestallings1 regratings1 engrossings1 and extortions whatever4 ,this part of the commission is the authority for the jurisdiction of the justices in sessions4 ,justices named specially in the parenthetical clause are said to be on the quorum4 ,justices for counties are appointed by the ,crown on the advice of the lord chancellor1 and usually with the recommendation of the lord lieutenant of the county4 ,justices for boroughs having municipal corporations and separate commissions of the peace are appointed by the crown1 the lord chancellor either adopting the recommendation of the town council or acting independently4 ,justices cannot act as such until they have taken the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath4 ,a justice for a borough while acting as such must reside in or within seven miles of the borough or occupy a house1 warehouse or other property in the borough1 but he need not be a burgess4 ,the mayor of a borough is ex officio a justice during his year of office and the succeeding year4 ,he takes precedence over all borough justices1 but not over justices acting in and for the county in which the borough or any part thereof is situated1 unless when acting in relation to the business of the borough4 ,the chairman of a county council is ex officio a justice of the peace for the county1 and the chairman of an urban or rural district council for the county in which the district is situated4 ,justices cannot act beyond the limits of the jurisdiction for which they are appointed1 and the warrant of a justice cannot be executed out of his jurisdiction unless it be backed1 that is1 endorsed by a justice of the jurisdiction in which it is to be carried into execution4 ,a justice improperly refusing to act on his office1 or acting partially and corruptly1 may be proceeded against by a criminal information1 and a justice refusing to act may be compelled to do so by the ,high ,court of ,justice4 ,an action will lie against a justice for any act done by him in excess of his jurisdiction1 and for any act within his jurisdiction which has been done wrongfully and with malice1 and without reasonable or probable cause4 ,but no action can be brought against a justice for a wrongful conviction until it has been quashed4 ,by the ,justices' ,qualification ,act #agdd1 every justice for a county was required to have an estate of freehold1 copyhold1 or customary tenure in fee1 for life or a given term1 of the yearly value of #ajj4 ,by an act of #ahge the occupation of a house rated at #ajj was made a qualification4 ,no such qualifications were ever required for a borough justice1 and it was not until #aijf that county justices were put on the same footing in this respect4 ,the ,justices of the ,peace ,act #aijf did away with all qualification by estate4 ,it also removed the necessity for residence within the county1 permitting the same residential qualification as for borough justices1 within seven miles thereof4 ,the same act removed the disqualification of solicitors to be county justices and assimilated to the existing power to remove other justices from the commission of the peace the power to exclude ex officio justices4 ,the justices for every petty sessional division of a county or for a borough having a separate commission of the peace must appoint a fit person to be their salaried clerk4 ,he must be either a barrister of not less than fourteen years' standing1 or a solicitor of the supreme court1 or have served for not less than seven years as a clerk to a police or stipendiary magistrate or to a metropolitan police court4 ,an alderman or councillor of a borough must not be appointed as clerk1 nor can a clerk of the peace for the borough or for the county in which the borough is situated be appointed4 ,a borough clerk is not allowed to prosecute4 ,the salary of a justice's clerk comes1 in ,london1 out of the police fund2 in counties out of the county fund2 in county boroughs out of the borough fund1 and in other boroughs out of the county fund4 ,the vast and multifarious duties of the justices cover some portion of every important head of the criminal law1 and extend to a considerable number of matters relating to the civil law4 ,in the ,united ,states these officers are sometimes appointed by the executive1 sometimes elected4 ,in some states1 justices of the peace have jurisdiction in civil cases given to them by local regulations4 ,,footnote3 #a ,where a borough council desire the appointment of a stipendiary magistrate they may present a petition for the same to the secretary of state and it is thereupon lawful for the king to appoint to that office a barrister of seven years' standing4 ,he is by virtue of his office a justice for the borough1 and receives a yearly salary1 payable in four equal quarterly instalments4 ,on a vacancy1 application must again be made as for a first appointment4 ,there may be more than one stipendiary magistrate for a borough4 ,,justiciar 7med4 ,lat4 justiciarius or justitiarius1 a judge71 in ,english history1 the title of the chief minister of the ,norman and earlier ,angevin kings4 ,the history of the title in this connotation is somewhat obscure4 ,justiciarius meant simply judge1 and was originally applied1 as ,stubbs points out 7,const4 ,hist4 i4 #chi1 note71 to any officer of the king's court1 to the chief justice1 or in a very general way to all and sundry who possessed courts of their own or were qualified to act as judices in the shire-courts1 even the style capitalis justiciarius being used of judges of the royal court other than the chief4 ,it was not till the reign of ,henry ,,ii4 that the title summus or capitalis justiciarius1 or justiciarius totius ,angliae was exclusively applied to the king's chief minister4 ,the office1 however1 existed before the style of its holder was fixed2 and1 whatever their contemporary title 7e4g4 ,custos ,angliae71 later writers refer to them as justiciarii1 with or without the prefix summus or capitalis 7ibid4 p4 #cdf74 ,thus ,ranulf ,flambard1 the minister of ,william ,,ii41 who was probably the first to exercise the powers of a justiciar1 is called justiciarius by ,ordericus ,vitalis4 ,the origin of the justiciarship is thus given by ,stubbs 7ibid4 p4 #bgf74 ,the sheriff was the king's representative in all matters judicial1 military and financial in the shire4 ,from him1 or from the courts of which he was the presiding officer1 appeal lay to the king alone2 but the king was often absent from ,england and did not understand the language of his subjects4 ,in his absence the administration was entrusted to a justiciar1 a regent or lieutenant of the kingdom2 and the convenience being once ascertained of having a minister who could in the whole kingdom represent the king1 as the sheriff did in the shire1 the justiciar became a permanent functionary4 ,the fact that the kings were often absent from ,england1 and that the justiciarship was held by great nobles or churchmen1 made this office of an importance which at times threatened to overshadow that of the ,crown4 ,it was this latter circumstance which ultimately led to its abolition4 ,hubert de ,burgh 7q4v47 was the last of the great justiciars2 after his fall 7#abca7 the justiciarship was not again committed to a great baron1 and the chancellor soon took the position formerly occupied by the justiciar as second to the king in dignity1 as well as in power and influence4 ,finally1 under ,edward ,i4 and his successor1 in place of the justiciar--who had presided over all causes vice regis--separate heads were established in the three branches into which the curia regis as a judicial body had been divided3 justices of common pleas1 justices of the king's bench and barons of the exchequer4 ,outside ,england the title justiciar was given under ,henry ,,ii4 to the seneschal of ,normandy4 ,in ,scotland the title of justiciar was borne1 under the earlier kings1 by two high officials1 one having his jurisdiction to the north1 the other to the south of the ,forth4 ,they were the king's lieutenants for judicial and administrative purposes and were established in the #abth century1 either by ,alexander ,i4 or by his successor ,david ,i4 ,in the #abth century a magister justitiarius also appears in the ,norman kingdom of ,sicily1 title and office being probably borrowed from ,england2 he presided over the royal court 7,magna curia7 and was1 with his assistants1 empowered to decide1 inter alia1 all cases reserved to the ,crown 7see ,du ,cange1 s4v4 ,magister ,justitiarius74 ,see ,w4 ,stubbs1 ,const4 ,hist4 of ,england2 ,du ,cange1 ,glossarium 7,niort1 #ahhe7 s4v4 ,justitiarius4 ,,justiciary1 ,,high ,,court ,,of1 in ,scotland1 the supreme criminal court1 consisting of five of the lords of session together with the lord justice-general and the lord justice-clerk as president and vice-president respectively4 ,the constitution of the court is settled by the ,act #afgb c4 #af4 ,the lords of justiciary hold circuits regularly twice a year according to the ancient practice1 which1 however1 had been allowed to fall into disuse until revived in #agdh4 ,for circuit purposes ,scotland is divided into northern1 southern and western districts 7see ,,circuit74 ,two judges generally go on a circuit1 and in ,glasgow they are by special statute authorized to sit in separate courts4 ,by the ,criminal ,procedure 7,scotland7 ,act #ahhg all the senators of the college of justice are lords commissioners of justiciary4 ,the high court1 sitting in ,edinburgh1 has1 in addition to its general jurisdiction1 an exclusive jurisdiction for districts not within the jurisdiction of the circuits--the three ,lothians1 and ,orkney and ,shetland4 ,the high court also takes up points of difficulty arising before the special courts1 like the court for crown cases reserved in ,england4 ,the court of justiciary has authority to try all crimes1 unless when its jurisdiction has been excluded by special enactment of the legislature4 ,it is also stated to have an inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts1 even if they have never before been treated as crimes4 ,its judgments are believed to be not subject to any appeal or review1 but it may be doubted whether an appeal on a point of law would not lie to the house of lords4 ,the following crimes must be prosecuted in the court of justiciary3 treason1 murder1 robbery1 rape1 fire-raising1 deforcement of messengers1 breach of duty by magistrates1 and all offences for which a statutory punishment higher than imprisonment is imposed4 ,,justification1 in law1 the showing by a defendant in a suit of sufficient reason why he did what he was called upon to answer1 ,for example1 in an action for assault and battery1 the defendant may prove in justification that the prosecutor assaulted or beat him first1 and that he acted merely in self-defence4 ,the word is employed particularly in actions for defamation1 and has in this connexion a somewhat special meaning4 ,when a libel consists of a specific charge a plea of justification is a plea that the words are true in substance and in fact 7see ,,libel ,,and ,,slander74 ,,justin ,i4 7#dej-ebg71 ,east ,roman emperor 7#eah-ebg71 was born in #dej as a peasant in ,asia1 but enlisting under ,leo ,i4 he rose to be commander of the imperial guards of ,anastasius4 ,on the latter's death in #eah ,justin used for his own election to the throne money that he had received for the support of another candidate4 ,being ignorant even of the rudiments of letters1 ,justin entrusted the administration of state to his wise and faithful quaestor ,proclus and to his nephew ,justinian1 though his own experience dictated several improvements in military affairs4 ,an orthodox churchman himself1 he effected in #eai a reconciliation of the ,eastern and ,western ,churches1 after a schism of thirty-five years 7see ,,hormisdas74 ,in #ebb he entered upon a desultory war with ,persia1 in which he co-operated with the ,arabs4 ,in #ebb also ,justin ceded to ,theodoric1 the ,gothic king of ,italy1 the right of naming the consuls4 ,on the #ast of ,april #ebg ,justin1 enfeebled by an incurable wound1 yielded to the request of the senate and assumed ,justinian at his colleague2 on the #ast of ,august he died4 ,justin bestowed much care on the repairing of public buildings throughout his empire1 and contributed large sums to repair the damage caused by a destructive earthquake at ,antioch4 ,see ,e4 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire 7ed4 ,bury1 #ahif71 iv4 #bjf-bji4 ,,justin ,,ii4 7d4 #egh71 ,east ,roman emperor 7#efe-egh71 was the nephew and successor of ,justinian ,i4 ,he availed himself of his influence as master of the palace1 and as husband of ,sophia1 the niece of the late empress ,theodora1 to secure a peaceful election4 ,the first few days of his reign--when he paid his uncle's debts1 administered justice in person1 and proclaimed universal religious toleration--gave bright promise1 but in the face of the lawless aristocracy and defiant governors of provinces he effected few subsequent reforms4 ,the most important event of his reign was the invasion of ,italy by the ,lombards 7q4v471 who1 entering in #efh1 under ,alboin1 in a few years made themselves masters of nearly the entire country4 ,justin's attention was distracted from ,italy towards the ,n4 and ,e4 frontiers4 ,after refusing to pay the ,avars tribute1 he fought several unsuccessful campaigns against them4 ,in #egb his overtures to the ,turks led to a war with ,persia4 ,after two disastrous campaigns1 in which his enemies overran ,syria1 ,justin bought a precarious peace by payment of a yearly tribute4 ,the temporary fits of insanity into which he fell warned him to name a colleague4 ,passing over his own relatives1 he raised1 on the advice of ,sophia1 the general ,tiberius 7q4v47 to be ,caesar in ,december #egd and withdrew for his remaining years into retirement4 ,see ,e4 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire 7ed4 ,bury1 #ahif71 v4 #b-ag2 ,g4 ,finlay1 ,history of ,greece 7ed4 #ahgg71 i4 #bia-big2 ,j4 ,bury1 ,the ,later ,roman ,empire 7#ahhi71 ii4 #fg-gi4 7,m4 ,o4 ,b4 ,c47 ,,justin 7,,junianus ,,justinus71 ,roman historian1 probably lived during the age of the ,antonines4 ,of his personal history nothing is known4 ,he is the author of ,historiarum ,philippicarum libri ,,xliv41 a work described by himself in his preface as a collection of the most important and interesting passages from the voluminous ,historiae philippicae et totius mundi origines et terrae situs1 written in the time of ,augustus by ,pompeius ,trogus 7q4v474 ,the work of ,trogus is lost2 but the prologi or arguments of the text are preserved by ,pliny and other writers4 ,although the main theme of ,trogus was the rise and history of the ,macedonian monarchy1 ,justin yet permitted himself considerable freedom of digression1 and thus produced a capricious anthology instead of a regular epitome of the work4 ,as it stands1 however1 the history contains much valuable information4 ,the style1 though far from perfect1 is clear and occasionally elegant4 ,the book was much used in the middle ages1 when the author was sometimes confounded with ,justin ,martyr4 ,ed4 princeps 7#adgj72 ,j4 ,g4 ,graevius 7#affh72 ,j4 ,f4 ,gronovius 7#agai72 ,c4 ,h4 ,frotscher 7#ahbg-ahcj72 ,j4 ,jeep 7#ahei72 ,f4 ,rhl 7#ahhf1 with prologues72 see also ,j4 ,f4 ,fischer1 ,de elocutione ,justini 7#ahfh72 ,f4 ,rhl1 ,die ,verbreitung des ,j4 im ,mittelalter 7#ahga72 ,o4 ,eichert1 ,wrterbuch zu ,j4 7#ahha72 ,khler and ,rhl in ,neue ,jahrbcher fr ,philologie1 xci41 ci41 cxxxiii4 ,there are translations in the chief ,european languages2 in ,english by ,a4 ,goldyng 7#aefd72 ,r4 ,codrington 7#afhb72 ,brown-,dykes 7#agab72 ,g4 ,turnbull 7#agdf72 ,j4 ,clarke 7#agij72 ,j4 ,s4 ,watson 7#ahec74 ,,justinian ,i4 7#dhc-efe74 ,flavius ,anicius ,justinianus1 surnamed the ,great1 the most famous of all the emperors of the ,eastern ,roman ,empire1 was by birth a barbarian1 native of a place called ,tauresium in the district of ,dardania1 a region of ,illyricum1#a and was born1 most probably1 on the #aath of ,may #dhc4 ,his family has been variously conjectured1 on the strength of the proper names which its members are stated to have borne1 to have been ,teutonic or ,slavonic4 ,the latter seems the more probable view4 ,his own name was originally ,uprauda4#b ,justinianus was a ,roman name which he took from his uncle ,justin ,i41 who adopted him1 and to whom his advancement in life was due4 ,of his early life we know nothing except that he went to ,constantinople while still a young man1 and received there an excellent education4 ,doubtless he knew ,latin before ,greek2 it is alleged that he always spoke ,greek with a barbarian accent4 ,when ,justin ascended the throne in #eah1 ,justinian became at once a person of the first consequence1 guiding1 especially in church matters1 the policy of his aged1 childless and ignorant uncle1 receiving high rank and office at his hands1 and soon coming to be regarded as his destined successor4 ,on ,justin's death in #ebg1 having been a few months earlier associated with him as co-emperor1 ,justinian succeeded without opposition to the throne4 ,about #ebc he had married the famous ,theodora 7q4v471 who1 as empress regnant1 was closely associated in all his actions till her death in #edg4 ,justinian's reign was filled with great events1 both at home and abroad1 both in peace and in war4 ,they may be classed under four heads3 7#a7 his legal reforms2 7#b7 his administration of the empire2 7#c7 his ecclesiastical policy2 and 7#d7 his wars and foreign policy generally4 #a4 ,it is as a legislator and codifier of the law that ,justinian's name is most familiar to the modern world2 and it is therefore this department of his action that requires to be most fully dealt with here4 ,he found the law of the ,roman empire in a state of great confusion4 ,it consisted of two masses1 which were usually distinguished as old law 7jus vetus7 and new law 7jus novum74 ,the first of these comprised3 7i47 all such of the statutes 7leges7 passed under the republic and early empire as had not become obsolete2 7ii47 the decrees of the senate 7senatus consulta7 passed at the end of the republic and during the first two centuries of the empire2 7iii47 the writings of the jurists of the later republic and of the empire1 and more particularly of those jurists to whom the right of declaring the law with authority 7jus respondendi7 had been committed by the emperors4 ,as these jurists had in their commentaries upon the leges1 senatus consulta and edicts of the magistrates practically incorporated all that was of importance in those documents1 the books of the jurists may substantially be taken as including 7i47 and 7ii474 ,these writings were of course very numerous1 and formed a vast mass of literature4 ,many of them had become exceedingly scarce--many had been altogether lost4 ,some were of doubtful authenticity4 ,they were so costly that no person of moderate means could hope to possess any large number2 even the public libraries had nothing approaching to a complete collection4 ,moreover1 as they proceeded from a large number of independent authors1 who wrote expressing their own opinions1 they contained many discrepancies and contradictions1 the dicta of one writer being controverted by another1 while yet both writers might enjoy the same formal authority4 ,a remedy had been attempted to be applied to this evil by a law of the emperors ,theodosius ,,ii4 and ,valentinian ,,iii41 which gave special weight to the writings of five eminent jurists 7,papinian1 ,paulus1 ,ulpian1 ,modestinus1 ,gaius72 but it was very far from removing it4 ,as regards the jus vetus1 therefore1 the judges and practitioners of ,justinian's time had two terrible difficulties to contend with--first1 the bulk of the law1 which made it impossible for any one to be sure that he possessed anything like the whole of the authorities bearing on the point in question1 so that he was always liable to find his opponent quoting against him some authority for which he could not be prepared2 and1 secondly1 the uncertainty of the law1 there being a great many important points on which differing opinions of equal legal validity might be cited1 so that the practising counsel could not advise1 nor the judge decide1 with any confidence that he was right1 or that a superior court would uphold his view4 ,the new law 7jus novum71 which consisted of the ordinances of the emperors promulgated during the middle and later empires 7edicta1 rescripta1 mandata1 decreta1 usually called by the general name of constitutiones71 was in a condition not much better4 ,these ordinances or constitutions were extremely numerous4 ,no complete collection of them existed1 for although two collections 7,codex gregorianus and ,codex hermogenianus7 had been made by two jurists in the #dth century1 and a large supplementary collection published by the emperor ,theodosius ,,ii4 in #dch 7,codex theodosianus71 these collections did not include all the constitutions2 there were others which it was necessary to obtain separately1 but many whereof it must have been impossible for a private person to procure4 ,in this branch too of the law there existed some1 though a less formidable1 uncertainty2 for there were constitutions which practically1 if not formally1 repealed or superseded others without expressly mentioning them1 so that a man who relied on one constitution might find that it had been varied or abrogated by another he had never heard of or on whose sense he had not put such a construction4 ,it was therefore clearly necessary with regard to both the older and the newer law to take some steps to collect into one or more bodies or masses so much of the law as was to be regarded as binding1 reducing it within a reasonable compass1 and purging away the contradictions or inconsistencies which it contained4 ,the evil had been long felt1 and reforms apparently often proposed1 but nothing 7except by the compilation of the ,codex theodosianus7 had been done till ,justinian's time4 ,immediately after his accession1 in #ebh1 he appointed a commission to deal with the imperial constitutions 7jus novum71 this being the easier part of the problem4 ,the commissioners1 ten in number1 were directed to go through all the constitutions of which copies existed1 to select such as were of practical value1 to cut these down by retrenching all unnecessary matter1 and gather them1 arranged in order of date1 into one volume1 getting rid of any contradictions by omitting one or other of the conflicting passages4#c ,these statute law commissioners1 as one may call them1 set to work forthwith1 and completed their task in fourteen months1 distributing the constitutions which they placed in the new collection into ten books1 in general conformity with the order of the ,perpetual ,edict as settled by ,salvius ,julianus and enacted by ,hadrian4 ,by this means the bulk of the statute law was immensely reduced1 its obscurities and internal discrepancies in great measure removed1 its provisions adapted1 by the abrogation of what was obsolete1 to the circumstances of ,justinian's own time4 ,this ,codex constitutionum was formally promulgated and enacted as one great consolidating statute in #ebi1 all imperial ordinances not included in it being repealed at one stroke4 ,the success of this first experiment encouraged the emperor to attempt the more difficult enterprise of simplifying and digesting the older law contained in the treatises of the jurists4 ,before entering on this1 however1 he wisely took the preliminary step of settling the more important of the legal questions as to which the older jurists had been divided in opinion1 and which had therefore remained sources of difficulty1 a difficulty aggravated by the general decline1 during the last two centuries1 of the level of forensic and judicial learning4 ,this was accomplished by a series of constitutions known as the ,fifty ,decisions 7,quinquaginta decisiones71 along with which there were published other ordinances amending the law in a variety of points1 in which old and now inconvenient rules had been suffered to subsist4 ,then in ,december #ecj a new commission was appointed1 consisting of sixteen eminent lawyers1 of whom the president1 the famous ,tribonian 7who had already served on the previous commission71 was an exalted official 7quaestor71 four were professors of law1 and the remaining eleven practising advocates4 ,the instructions given to them by the emperor were as follows3--they were to procure and peruse all the writings of all the authorized jurists 7those who had enjoyed the jus respondendi72 were to extract from these writings whatever was of most permanent and substantial value1 with power to change the expressions of the author wherever conciseness or clearness would be thereby promoted1 or wherever such a change was needed in order to adapt his language to the condition of the law as it stood in ,justinian's time2 were to avoid repetitions and contradictions by giving only one statement of the law upon each point2 were to insert nothing at variance with any provision contained in the ,codex constitutionum2 and were to distribute the results of their labours into fifty books1 subdividing each book into titles1 and following generally the order of the ,perpetual ,edict4#d ,these directions were carried out with a speed which is surprising when we remember not only that the work was interrupted by the terrible insurrection which broke out in ,constantinople in ,january #ecb1 and which led to the temporary retirement from office of ,tribonian1 but also that the mass of literature which had to be read through consisted of no less than two thousand treatises1 comprising three millions of sentences4 ,the commissioners1 who had for greater despatch divided themselves into several committees1 presented their selection of extracts to the emperor in #ecc1 and he published it as an imperial statute on ,december #afth of that year1 with two prefatory constitutions 7those known as ,omnem reipublicae and ,dedit nobis74 ,it is the ,latin volume which we now call the ,digest 7,digesta7 or ,pandects 7,greek3 ,pandektai7 and which is by far the most precious monument of the legal genius of the ,romans1 and indeed1 whether one regards the intrinsic merits of its substance or the prodigious influence it has exerted and still exerts1 the most remarkable law-book that the world has seen4 ,the extracts comprised in it are #iabc in number1 taken from thirty-nine authors1 and are of greatly varying length1 mostly only a few lines long4 ,about one-third 7in quantity7 come from ,ulpian1 a very copious writer2 ,paulus stands next4 ,to each extract there is prefixed the name of the author1 and of the treatise whence it is taken4#e ,the worst thing about the ,digest is its highly unscientific arrangement4 ,the order of the ,perpetual ,edict1 which appears to have been taken as a sort of model for the general scheme of books and titles1 was doubtless convenient to the ,roman lawyers from their familiarity with it1 but was in itself rather accidental and historical than logical4 ,the disposition of the extracts inside each title was still less rational2 it has been shown by a modern jurist to have been the result of the way in which the committees of the commissioners worked through the books they had to peruse4#f ,in enacting the ,digest as a law book1 ,justinian repealed all the other law contained in the treatises of the jurists 7that jus vetus which has been already mentioned71 and directed that those treatises should never be cited in future even by way of illustration2 and he of course at the same time abrogated all the older statutes1 from the ,twelve ,tables downwards1 which had formed a part of the jus vetus4 ,this was a necessary incident of his scheme of reform4 ,but he went too far1 and indeed attempted what was impossible1 when he forbade all commentaries upon the ,digest4 ,he was obliged to allow a ,greek translation to be made of it1 but directed this translation to be exactly literal4 ,these two great enterprises had substantially despatched ,justinian's work2 however1 he1 or rather ,tribonian1 who seems to have acted both as his adviser and as his chief executive officer in all legal affairs1 conceived that a third book was needed1 viz4 an elementary manual for beginners which should present an outline of the law in a clear and simple form4 ,the little work of ,gaius1 most of which we now possess under the title of ,commentarii institutionum1 had served this purpose for nearly four centuries2 but much of it had1 owing to changes in the law1 become inapplicable1 so that a new manual seemed to be required4 ,justinian accordingly directed ,tribonian1 with two coadjutors1 ,theophilus1 professor of law in the university of ,constantinople1 and ,dorotheus1 professor in the great law school at ,beyrout1 to prepare an elementary textbook on the lines of ,gaius4 ,this they did while the ,digest was in progress1 and produced the useful little treatise which has ever since been the book with which students commonly begin their studies of ,roman law1 the ,institutes of ,justinian4 ,it was published as a statute with full legal validity shortly before the ,digest4 ,such merits as it possesses--simplicity of arrangement1 clearness and conciseness of expression--belong less to ,tribonian than to ,gaius1 who was closely followed wherever the alterations in the law had not made him obsolete4 ,however1 the spirit of that great legal classic seems to have in a measure dwelt with and inspired the inferior men who were recasting his work2 the ,institutes is better both in ,latinity and in substance than we should have expected from the condition of ,latin letters at that epoch1 better than the other laws which emanate from ,justinian4 ,in the four years and a half which elapsed between the publication of the ,codex and that of the ,digest1 many important changes had been made in the law1 notably by the publication of the ,fifty ,decisions1 which settled many questions that had exercised the legal mind and given occasion to intricate statutory provisions4 ,it was therefore natural that the idea should present itself of revising the ,codex1 so as to introduce these changes into it1 for by so doing1 not only would it be simplified1 but the one volume would again be made to contain the whole statute law1 whereas now it was necessary to read along with it the ordinances issued since its publication4 ,accordingly another commission was appointed1 consisting of ,tribonian with four other coadjutors1 full power being given them not only to incorporate the new constitutions with the ,codex and make in it the requisite changes1 but also to revise the ,codex generally1 cutting down or filling in wherever they thought it necessary to do so4 ,this work was completed in a few months2 and in ,november #ecd the revised ,codex 7,codex repetitae praelectionis7 was promulgated with the force of law1 prefaced by a constitution 7,cordi nobis7 which sets forth its history1 and declares it to be alone authoritative1 the former ,codex being abrogated4 ,it is this revised ,codex which has come down to the modern world1 all copies of the earlier edition having disappeared4 ,the constitutions contained in it number #dfeb1 the earliest dating from ,hadrian1 the latest being of course ,justinian's own4 ,a few thus belong to the period to which the greater part of the ,digest belongs1 i4e4 the so-called classical period of ,roman law down to the time of ,alexander ,severus 7#bdd72 but the great majority are later1 and belong to one or other of the four great eras of imperial legislation1 the eras of ,diocletian1 of ,constantine1 of ,theodosius ,,ii41 and of ,justinian himself4 ,although this ,codex is said to have the same general order as that of the ,digest1 viz4 the order of the ,perpetual ,edict1 there are considerable differences of arrangement between the two4 ,it is divided into twelve books4 ,its contents1 although of course of the utmost practical importance to the lawyers of that time1 and of much value still1 historical as well as legal1 are far less interesting and scientifically admirable than the extracts preserved in the ,digest4 ,the difference is even greater than that between the ,english reports of cases decided since the days of ,lord ,holt and the ,english acts of parliament for the same two centuries4 ,the emperor's scheme was now complete4 ,all the ,roman law had been gathered into two volumes of not excessive size1 and a satisfactory manual for beginners added4 ,but ,justinian and ,tribonian had grown so fond of legislating that they found it hard to leave off4 ,moreover1 the very simplifications that had been so far effected brought into view with more clearness such anomalies or pieces of injustice as still continued to deform the law4 ,thus no sooner had the work been rounded off than fresh excrescences began to be created by the publication of new laws4 ,between #ecd and #efe ,justinian issued a great number of ordinances1 dealing with all sorts of subjects and seriously altering the law on many points--the majority appearing before the death of ,tribonian1 which happened in #ede4 ,these ordinances are called1 by way of distinction1 new constitutions1 ,novellae constitutiones post codicem 7,greek3 nearai diataxeis71 ,novels4 ,although the emperor had stated in publishing the ,codex that all further statutes 7if any7 would be officially collected1 this promise does not seem to have been redeemed4 ,the three collections of the ,novels which we possess are apparently private collections1 nor do we even know how many such constitutions were promulgated4 ,one of the three contains #afh 7together with #ac ,edicts71 but some of these are by the emperors ,justin ,,ii4 and ,tiberius ,,ii4 ,another1 the so-called ,epitome of ,julian1 contains #abe ,novels in ,latin2 and the third1 the ,liber authenticarum or vulgata versio1 has #acd1 also in ,latin4 ,this last was the collection first known and chiefly used in the ,west during the middle ages2 and of its #acd only #ig have been written on by the glossatores or medieval commentators2 these therefore alone have been received as binding in those countries which recognize and obey the ,roman law1--according to the maxim ,quicquid non agnoscit glossa1 nec agnoscit curia4 ,and1 whereas ,justinian's constitutions contained in the ,codex were all issued in ,latin1 the rest of the book being in that tongue1 these ,novels were nearly all published in ,greek1 ,latin translations being of course made for the use of the western provinces4 ,they are very bulky1 and with the exception of a few1 particularly the #aafth and #aahth1 which introduce the most sweeping and laudable reforms into the law of intestate succession1 are much more interesting1 as supplying materials for the history of the time1 social1 economical and ecclesiastical1 than in respect of any purely legal merits4 ,they may be found printed in any edition of the ,corpus juris civilis4 ,this ,corpus juris1 which bears and immortalizes ,justinian's name1 consists of the four books described above3 7#a7 ,the authorized collection of imperial ordinances 7,codex constitutionum72 7#b7 the authorized collection of extracts from the great jurists 7,digesta or ,pandectae72 7#c7 the elementary handbook 7,institutiones72 7#d7 the unauthorized collection of constitutions subsequent to the ,codex 7,novellae74 ,from what has been already stated1 the reader will perceive that ,justinian did not1 according to a strict use of terms1 codify the ,roman law4 ,by a codification we understand the reduction of the whole pre-existing body of law to a new form1 the re-stating it in a series of propositions1 scientifically ordered1 which may or may not contain some new substance1 but are at any rate new in form4 ,if he had1 so to speak1 thrown into one furnace all the law contained in the treatises of the jurists and in the imperial ordinances1 fused them down1 the gold of the one and the silver of the other1 and run them out into new moulds1 this would have been codification4 ,what he did do was something quite different4 ,it was not codification but consolidation1 not remoulding but abridging4 ,he made extracts from the existing law1 preserving the old words1 and merely cutting out repetitions1 removing contradictions1 retrenching superfluities1 so as immensely to reduce the bulk of the whole4 ,and he made not one set of such extracts but two1 one for the jurist law1 the other for the statute law4 ,he gave to posterity not one code but two digests or collections of extracts1 which are new only to this extent that they are arranged in a new order1 having been previously altogether unconnected with one another1 and that here and there their words have been modified in order to bring one extract into harmony with some other4 ,except for this1 the matter is old in expression as well as in substance4 ,thus regarded1 even without remarking that the ,novels1 never having been officially collected1 much less incorporated with the ,codex1 mar the symmetry of the structure1 ,justinian's work may appear to entitle him and ,tribonian to much less credit than they have usually received for it4 ,but let it be observed1 first1 that to reduce the huge and confused mass of pre-existing law into the compass of these two collections was an immense practical benefit to the empire2 secondly1 that1 whereas the work which he undertook was accomplished in seven years1 the infinitely more difficult task of codification might probably have been left unfinished at ,tribonian's death1 or even at ,justinian's own1 and been abandoned by his successor2 thirdly1 that in the extracts preserved in the ,digest we have the opinions of the greatest legal luminaries given in their own admirably lucid1 philosophical and concise language1 while in the extracts of which the ,codex is composed we find valuable historical evidence bearing on the administration and social condition of the later ,pagan and earlier ,christian empire2 fourthly1 that ,justinian's age1 that is to say1 the intellect of the men whose services he commanded1 was quite unequal to so vast an undertaking as the fusing upon scientific principles into one new organic whole of the entire law of the empire4 ,with sufficient time and labour the work might no doubt have been done2 but what we possess of ,justinian's own legislation1 and still more what we know of the general condition of literary and legal capacity in his time1 makes it certain that it would not have been well done1 and that the result would have been not more valuable to the ,romans of that age1 and much less valuable to the modern world1 than are the results1 preserved in the ,digest and the ,codex1 of what he and ,tribonian actually did4 ,to the merits of the work as actually performed some reference has already been made4 ,the chief defect of the ,digest is in point of scientific arrangement1 a matter about which the ,roman lawyers1 perhaps one may say the ancients generally1 cared very little4 ,there are some repetitions and some inconsistencies1 but not more than may fairly be allowed for in a compilation of such magnitude executed so rapidly4 ,tribonian has been blamed for the insertions the compilers made in the sentences of the old jurists 7the so-called ,emblemata ,triboniani72 but it was a part of ,justinian's plan that such insertions should be made1 so as to adapt those sentences to the law as settled in the emperor's time4 ,on ,justinian's own laws1 contained in the ,codex and in his ,novels1 a somewhat less favourable judgment must be pronounced4 ,they1 and especially the latter1 are diffuse and often lax in expression1 needlessly prolix1 and pompously rhetorical4 ,the policy of many1 particularly of those which deal with ecclesiastical matters1 may also be condemned2 yet some gratitude is due to the legislator who put the law of intestate succession on that plain and rational footing whereon it has ever since continued to stand4 ,it is somewhat remarkable that1 although ,justinian is so much more familiar to us by his legislation than by anything else1 this sphere of his imperial labour is hardly referred to by any of the contemporary historians1 and then only with censure4 ,procopius complains that he and ,tribonian were always repealing old laws and enacting new ones1 and accuses them of venal motives for doing so4 ,the ,corpus ,juris of ,justinian continued to be1 with naturally a few additions in the ordinances of succeeding emperors1 the chief law-book of the ,roman world till the time of the ,macedonian dynasty when1 towards the end of the #ith century1 a new system was prepared and issued by those sovereigns1 which we know as the ,basilica4 ,it is of course written in ,greek1 and consists of parts of the substance of the ,codex and the ,digest1 thrown together and often altered in expression1 together with some matter from the ,novels and imperial ordinances posterior to ,justinian4 ,in the western provinces1 which had been wholly severed from the empire before the publication of the ,basilica1 the law as settled by ,justinian held its ground2 but copies of the ,corpus ,juris were extremely rare1 nor did the study of it revive until the end of the #aath century4 ,the best edition of the ,digest is that of ,mommsen 7,berlin #ahfh-ahgj71 and of the ,codex that of ,krger 7,berlin #ahge-ahgg74 #b4 ,in his financial administration of the empire1 ,justinian is represented to us as being at once rapacious and extravagant4 ,his unwearied activity and inordinate vanity led him to undertake a great many costly public works1 many of them1 such as the erection of palaces and churches1 unremunerative4 ,the money needed for these1 for his wars1 and for buying off the barbarians who threatened the frontiers1 had to be obtained by increasing the burdens of the people4 ,they suffered1 not only from the regular taxes1 which were seldom remitted even after bad seasons1 but also from monopolies2 and ,procopius goes so far as to allege that the emperor made a practice of further recruiting his treasury by confiscating on slight or fictitious pretexts the property of persons who had displeased ,theodora or himself4 ,fiscal severities were no doubt one cause of the insurrections which now and then broke out1 and in the gravest of which1 7#ecb7 thirty thousand persons are said to have perished in the capital4 ,it is not always easy to discover1 putting together the trustworthy evidence of ,justinian's own laws and the angry complaints of ,procopius1 what was the nature and justification of the changes made in the civil administration4 ,but the general conclusion seems to be that these changes were always in the direction of further centralization1 increasing the power of the chief ministers and their offices1 bringing all more directly under the control of the ,crown1 and in some cases limiting the powers and appropriating the funds of local municipalities4 ,financial necessities compelled retrenchment1 so that a certain number of offices were suppressed altogether1 much to the disgust of the office-holding class1 which was numerous and wealthy1 and had almost come to look on the civil service as its hereditary possession4 ,the most remarkable instance of this policy was the discontinuance of the consulship4 ,this great office had remained a dignity centuries after it had ceased to be a power2 but it was a very costly dignity1 the holder being expected to spend large sums in public displays4 ,as these sums were provided by the state1 ,justinian saved something considerable by stopping the payment4 ,he named no consul after ,basilius1 who was the name-giving consul of #eda4 ,in a bureaucratic despotism the greatest merit of a sovereign is to choose capable and honest ministers4 ,justinian's selections were usually capable1 but not so often honest2 probably it was hard to find thoroughly upright officials2 possibly they would not have been most serviceable in carrying out the imperial will1 and especially in replenishing the imperial treasury4 ,even the great ,tribonian labours under the reproach of corruption1 while the fact that ,justinian maintained ,john of ,cappadocia in power long after his greed1 his unscrupulousness1 and the excesses of his private life had excited the anger of the whole empire1 reflects little credit on his own principles of government and sense of duty to his subjects4 ,the department of administration in which he seems to have felt most personal interest was that of public works4 ,he spent immense sums on buildings of all sorts1 on quays and harbours1 on fortifications1 repairing the walls of cities and erecting castles in ,thrace to check the inroads of the barbarians1 on aqueducts1 on monasteries1 above all1 upon churches4 ,of these works only two remain perfect1 ,st ,sophia in ,constantinople1 now a mosque1 and one of the architectural wonders of the world1 and the church of ,,ss ,sergius and ,bacchus1 now commonly called ,little ,st ,sophia1 which stands about half a mile from the great church1 and is in its way a very delicate and beautiful piece of work4 ,the church of ,s4 ,vitale at ,ravenna1 though built in ,justinian's reign1 and containing mosaic pictures of him and ,theodora1 does not appear to have owed anything to his mind or purse4 #c4 ,justinian's ecclesiastical policy was so complex and varying that it is impossible within the limits of this article to do more than indicate its bare outlines4 ,for many years before the accession of his uncle ,justin1 the ,eastern world had been vexed by the struggles of the ,monophysite party1 who recognized only one nature in ,christ1 against the view which then and ever since has maintained itself as orthodox1 that the divine and human natures coexisted in ,him4 ,the latter doctrine had triumphed at the council of ,chalcedon1 and was held by the whole ,western ,church1 but ,egypt1 great part of ,syria and ,asia ,minor1 and a considerable minority even in ,constantinople clung to ,monophysitism4 ,the emperors ,zeno and ,anastasius had been strongly suspected of it1 and the ,roman bishops had refused to communicate with the patriarchs of ,constantinople since #dhd1 when they had condemned ,acacius for accepting the formula of conciliation issued by ,zeno4 ,one of ,justinian's first public acts was to put an end to this schism by inducing ,justin to make the then patriarch renounce this formula and declare his full adhesion to the creed of ,chalcedon4 ,when he himself came to the throne he endeavoured to persuade the ,monophysites to come in by summoning some of their leaders to a conference4 ,this failing1 he ejected suspected prelates1 and occasionally persecuted them1 though with far less severity than that applied to the heretics of a deeper dye1 such as ,montanists or even ,arians4 ,not long afterwards1 his attention having been called to the spread of ,origenistic opinions in ,syria1 he issued an edict condemning fourteen propositions drawn from the writings of the great ,alexandrian1 and caused a synod to be held under the presidency of ,mennas 7whom he had named patriarch of ,constantinople71 which renewed the condemnation of the impugned doctrines and anathematized ,origen himself4 ,still later1 he was induced by the machinations of some of the prelates who haunted his court1 and by the influence of ,theodora1 herself much interested in theological questions1 and more than suspected of ,monophysitism1 to raise a needless1 mischievous1 and protracted controversy4 ,the ,monophysites sometimes alleged that they could not accept the decrees of the council of ,chalcedon because that council had not condemned1 but 7as they argued7 virtually approved1 three writers tainted with ,nestorian principles1 ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 ,theodoret1 and ,ibas1 bishop of ,edessa4 ,it was represented to the emperor1 who was still pursued by the desire to bring back the schismatics1 that a great step would have been taken towards reconciliation if a condemnation of these teachers1 or rather of such of their books as were complained of1 could be brought about1 since then the ,chalcedonian party would be purged from any appearance of sympathy with the errors of ,nestorius4 ,not stopping to reflect that in the angry and suspicious state of men's minds he was sure to lose as much in one direction as he would gain in the other1 ,justinian entered into the idea1 and put forth an edict exposing and denouncing the errors contained in the writings of ,theodore generally1 in the treatise of ,theodoret against ,cyril of ,alexandria1 and in a letter of ,bishop ,ibas 7a letter whose authenticity was doubted1 but which passed under his name7 to the ,persian bishop ,maris4 ,this edict was circulated through the ,christian world to be subscribed by the bishops4 ,the four ,eastern patriarchs1 and the great majority of the ,eastern prelates generally1 subscribed1 though reluctantly1 for it was felt that a dangerous precedent was being set when dead authors were anathematized1 and that this new movement could hardly fail to weaken the authority of the council of ,chalcedon4 ,among the ,western bishops1 who were less disposed both to ,monophysitism and to subservience1 and especially by those of ,africa1 the edict was earnestly resisted4 ,when it was found that ,pope ,vigilius did not forthwith comply1 he was summoned to ,constantinople4 ,even there he resisted1 not so much1 it would seem1 from any scruples of his own1 for he was not a high-minded man1 as because he knew that he dared not return to ,italy if he gave way4 ,long disputes and negotiations followed1 the end of which was that ,justinian summoned a general council of the church1 that which we reckon the ,fifth1 which condemned the impugned writings1 and anathematized several other heretical authors4 ,its decrees were received in the ,east but long contested in the ,western ,church1 where a schism arose that lasted for seventy years4 ,this is the controversy known as that of the ,three ,chapters 7,tria capitula1 ,greek3 tria kephalaia71 apparently from the three propositions or condemnations contained in ,justinian's original edict1 one relating to ,theodore's writings and person1 the second to the incriminated treatise of ,theodoret 7whose person was not attacked71 the third to the letter 7if genuine7 of ,ibas 7see ,hefele1 ,conciliengeschichte1 ii4 #ggg74 ,at the very end of his long career of theological discussion1 ,justinian himself lapsed into heresy1 by accepting the doctrine that the earthly body of ,christ was incorruptible1 insensible to the weaknesses of the flesh1 a doctrine which had been advanced by ,julian1 bishop of ,halicarnassus1 and went by the name of ,aphthartodocetism4 ,according to his usual practice1 he issued an edict enforcing this view1 and requiring all patriarchs1 metropolitans1 and bishops to subscribe to it4 ,some1 who not unnaturally held that it was rank ,monophysitism1 refused at once1 and were deprived of their sees1 among them ,eutychius the eminent patriarch of ,constantinople4 ,others submitted or temporized2 but before there had been time enough for the matter to be carried through1 the emperor died1 having tarnished if not utterly forfeited by this last error the reputation won by a life devoted to the service of ,orthodoxy4 ,as no preceding sovereign had been so much interested in church affairs1 so none seems to have shown so much activity as a persecutor both of pagans and of heretics4 ,he renewed with additional stringency the laws against both these classes4 ,the former embraced a large part of the rural population in certain secluded districts1 such as parts of ,asia ,minor and ,peloponnesus2 and we are told that the efforts directed against them resulted in the forcible baptism of #gj1jjj persons in ,asia ,minor alone4 ,paganism1 however1 survived2 we find it in ,laconia in the end of the #ith century1 and in northern ,syria it has lasted till our own times4 ,there were also a good many crypto-pagans among the educated population of the capital4 ,procopius1 for instance1 if he was not actually a ,pagan1 was certainly very little of a ,christian4 ,inquiries made in the third year of ,justinian's reign drove nearly all of these persons into an outward conformity1 and their offspring seem to have become ordinary ,christians4 ,at ,athens1 the philosophers who taught in the schools hallowed by memories of ,plato still openly professed what passed for ,paganism1 though it was really a body of moral doctrine1 strongly tinged with mysticism1 in which there was far more of ,christianity and of the speculative metaphysics of the ,east than of the old ,olympian religion4 ,justinian1 partly from religious motives1 partly because he discountenanced all rivals to the imperial university of ,constantinople1 closed these ,athenian schools 7#ebi74 ,the professors sought refuge at the court of ,chosroes1 king of ,persia1 but were soon so much disgusted by the ideas and practices of the fire-worshippers that they returned to the empire1 ,chosroes having magnanimously obtained from ,justinian a promise that they should be suffered to pass the rest of their days unmolested4 ,heresy proved more obstinate4 ,the severities directed against the ,montanists of ,phrygia led to a furious war1 in which most of the sectaries perished1 while the doctrine was not extinguished4 ,harsh laws provoked the ,samaritans to a revolt1 from whose effects ,palestine had not recovered when conquered by the ,arabs in the following century4 ,the ,nestorians and the ,eutychian ,monophysites were not threatened with such severe civil penalties1 although their worship was interdicted1 and their bishops were sometimes banished2 but this vexatious treatment was quite enough to keep them disaffected1 and the rapidity of the ,mahommedan conquests may be partly traced to that alienation of the bulk of the ,egyptian and a large part of the ,syrian population which dates from ,justinian's persecutions4 #d4 ,justinian was engaged in three great foreign wars1 two of them of his own seeking1 the third a legacy which nearly every emperor had come into for three centuries1 the secular strife of ,rome and ,persia4 ,the ,sassanid kings of ,persia ruled a dominion which extended from the confines of ,syria to those of ,india1 and from the straits of ,oman to the ,caucasus4 ,the martial character of their population made them formidable enemies to the ,romans1 whose troops were at this epoch mainly barbarians1 the settled and civilized subjects of the empire being as a rule averse from war4 ,when ,justinian came to the throne1 his troops were maintaining an unequal struggle on the ,euphrates against the armies of ,kavadh ,i4 7q4v474 ,after some campaigns1 in which the skill of ,belisarius obtained considerable successes1 a peace was concluded in #ecc with ,chosroes ,i4 7q4v474 ,this lasted till #eci1 when ,chosroes declared war1 alleging that ,justinian had been secretly intriguing against him with the ,hephthalite ,huns1 and doubtless moved by alarm and envy at the victories which the ,romans had been gaining in ,italy4 ,the emperor was too much occupied in the ,west to be able adequately to defend his eastern frontier4 ,chosroes advanced into ,syria with little resistance1 and in #edj captured ,antioch1 then the greatest city in ,asia1 carrying off its inhabitants into captivity4 ,the war continued with varying fortunes for four years more in this quarter2 while in the meantime an even fiercer struggle had begun in the mountainous region inhabited by the ,lazi at the south-eastern corner of the ,black ,sea 7see ,,colchis74 ,when after two-and-twenty years of fighting no substantial advantage had been gained by either party1 ,chosroes agreed in #efb to a peace which left ,lazica to the ,romans1 but under the dishonourable condition of their paying #cj1jjj pieces of gold annually to the ,persian king4 ,thus no result of permanent importance flowed from these ,persian wars1 except that they greatly weakened the ,roman ,empire1 increased ,justinian's financial embarrassments1 and prevented him from prosecuting with sufficient vigour his enterprises in the ,west4 7,see further ,,persia3 ,ancient ,history1 ,the ,sassanid ,dynasty47 ,these enterprises had begun in #ecc with an attack on the ,vandals1 who were then reigning in ,africa4 ,belisarius1 despatched from ,constantinople with a large fleet and army1 landed without opposition1 and destroyed the barbarian power in two engagements4 ,north ,africa from beyond the straits of ,gibraltar to the ,syrtes became again a ,roman province1 although the ,moorish tribes of the interior maintained a species of independence2 and part of southern ,spain was also recovered for the empire4 ,the ease with which so important a conquest had been effected encouraged ,justinian to attack the ,ostrogoths of ,italy1 whose kingdom1 though vast in extent1 for it included part of south-eastern ,gaul1 ,raetia1 ,dalmatia and part of ,pannonia1 as well as ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,sardinia and ,corsica1 had been grievously weakened by the death first of the great ,theodoric1 and some years later of his grandson ,athalaric1 so that the ,gothic nation was practically without a head4 ,justinian began the war in #ece1 taking as his pretext the murder of ,queen ,amalasuntha1 daughter of ,theodoric1 who had placed herself under his protection1 and alleging that the ,ostrogothic kingdom had always owned a species of allegiance to the emperor at ,constantinople4 ,there was some foundation for this claim1 although of course it could not have been made effective against ,theodoric1 who was more powerful than his supposed suzerain4 ,belisarius1 who had been made commander of the ,italian expedition1 overran ,sicily1 reduced southern ,italy1 and in #ecf occupied ,rome4 ,here he was attacked in the following year by ,vitiges1 who had been chosen king by the ,goths1 with a greatly superior force4 ,after a siege of over a year1 the energy1 skill1 and courage of ,belisarius1 and the sickness which was preying on the ,gothic troops1 obliged ,vitiges to retire4 ,belisarius pursued his diminished army northwards1 shut him up in ,ravenna1 and ultimately received the surrender of that impregnable city4 ,vitiges was sent prisoner to ,constantinople1 where ,justinian treated him1 as he had previously treated the captive ,vandal king1 with clemency4 ,the imperial administration was established through ,italy1 but its rapacity soon began to excite discontent1 and the kernel of the ,gothic nation had not submitted4 ,after two short and unfortunate reigns1 the crown had been bestowed on ,totila or ,baduila1 a warrior of distinguished abilities1 who by degrees drove the imperial generals and governors out of ,italy4 ,belisarius was sent against him1 but with forces too small for the gravity of the situation4 ,he moved from place to place during several years1 but saw city after city captured by or open its gates to ,totila1 till only ,ravenna1 ,otranto and ,ancona remained4 ,justinian was occupied by the ecclesiastical controversy of the ,three ,chapters1 and had not the money to fit out a proper army and fleet2 indeed1 it may be doubted whether he would ever have roused himself to the necessary exertions but for the presence at ,constantinople of a knot of ,roman exiles1 who kept urging him to reconquer ,italy1 representing that with their help and the sympathy of the people it would not be a difficult enterprise4 ,the emperor at last complied1 and in #eeb a powerful army was despatched under ,narses1 an ,armenian eunuch now advanced in life1 but reputed the most skilful general of the age1 as ,belisarius was the hottest soldier4 ,he marched along the coast of the ,gulf of ,venice1 and encountered the army of ,totila at ,taginae not far from ,cesena4 ,totila was slain1 and the ,gothic cause irretrievably lost4 ,the valiant remains of the nation made another stand under ,teias on the ,lactarian ,hill in ,campania2 after that they disappear from history4 ,italy was recovered for the empire1 but it was an ,italy terribly impoverished and depopulated1 whose possession carried little strength with it4 ,justinian's policy both in the ,vandalic and in the ,gothic ,war stands condemned by the result4 ,the resources of the state1 which might better have been spent in defending the northern frontier against ,slavs and ,huns and the eastern frontier against ,persians1 were consumed in the conquest of two countries which had suffered too much to be of any substantial value1 and which1 separated by language as well as by intervening seas1 could not be permanently retained4 ,however1 ,justinian must have been almost preternaturally wise to have foreseen this3 his conduct was in the circumstances only what might have been expected from an ambitious prince who perceived an opportunity of recovering territories that had formerly belonged to the empire1 and over which its rights were conceived to be only suspended4 ,besides these three great foreign wars1 ,justinian's reign was troubled by a constant succession of border inroads1 especially on the northern frontier1 where the various ,slavonic and ,hunnish tribes who were established along the lower ,danube and on the north coast of the ,black ,sea made frequent marauding expeditions into ,thrace and ,macedonia1 sometimes penetrating as far as the walls of ,constantinople in one direction and the ,isthmus of ,corinth in another4 ,immense damage was inflicted by these marauders on the subjects of the empire1 who seem to have been mostly too peaceable to defend themselves1 and whom the emperor could not spare troops enough to protect4 ,fields were laid waste1 villages burnt1 large numbers of people carried into captivity2 and on one occasion the capital was itself in danger4 #e4 ,it only remains to say something regarding ,justinian's personal character and capacities1 with regard to which a great diversity of opinion has existed among historians4 ,the civilians1 looking on him as a patriarch of their science1 have as a rule extolled his wisdom and virtues2 while ecclesiastics of the ,roman ,church1 from ,cardinal ,baronius downwards1 have been offended by his arbitrary conduct towards the popes1 and by his last lapse into heresy1 and have therefore been disposed to accept the stories which ascribe to him perfidy1 cruelty1 rapacity and extravagance4 ,the difficulty of arriving at a fair conclusion is increased by the fact that ,procopius1 who is our chief authority for the events of his reign1 speaks with a very different voice in his secret memoirs 7the ,anecdota7 from that which he has used in his published history1 and that some of the accusations contained in the former work are so rancorous and improbable that a certain measure of discredit attaches to everything which it contains4 ,the truth seems to be that ,justinian was not a great ruler in the higher sense of the word1 that is to say1 a man of large views1 deep insight1 a capacity for forming just such plans as the circumstances needed1 and carrying them out by a skilful adaptation of means to ends4 ,but he was a man of considerable abilities1 wonderful activity of mind1 and admirable industry4 ,he was interested in many things1 and threw himself with ardour into whatever he took up2 he contrived schemes quickly1 and pushed them on with an energy which usually made them succeed when no long time was needed1 for1 if a project was delayed1 there was a risk of his tiring of it and dropping it4 ,although vain and full of self-confidence1 he was easily led by those who knew how to get at him1 and particularly by his wife4 ,she exercised over him that influence which a stronger character always exercises over a weaker1 whatever their respective positions2 and unfortunately it was seldom a good influence1 for ,theodora 7q4v47 seems to have been a woman who1 with all her brilliant gifts of intelligence and manner1 had no principles and no pity4 ,justinian was rather quick than strong or profound2 his policy does not strike one as the result of deliberate and well-considered views1 but dictated by the hopes and fancies of the moment4 ,his activity was in so far a misfortune as it led him to attempt too many things at once1 and engage in undertakings so costly that oppression became necessary to provide the funds for them4 ,even his devotion to work1 which excites our admiration1 in the centre of a luxurious court1 was to a great extent unprofitable1 for it was mainly given to theological controversies which neither he nor any one else could settle4 ,still1 after making all deductions1 it is plain that the man who accomplished so much1 and kept the whole world so occupied1 as ,justinian did during the thirty-eight years of his reign1 must have possessed no common abilities4 ,he was affable and easy of approach to all his subjects1 with a pleasant address2 nor does he seem to have been1 like his wife1 either cruel or revengeful4 ,we hear several times of his sparing those who had conspired against him4 ,but he was not scrupulous in the means he employed1 and he was willing to maintain in power detestable ministers if only they served him efficiently and filled his coffers4 ,his chief passion1 after that for his own fame and glory1 seems to have been for theology and religion2 it was in this field that his literary powers exerted themselves 7for he wrote controversial treatises and hymns71 and his taste also1 for among his numerous buildings the churches are those on which he spent most thought and money4 ,considering that his legal reforms are those by which his name is mainly known to posterity1 it is curious that we should have hardly any information as to his legal knowledge1 or the share which he took in those reforms4 ,in person he was somewhat above the middle height1 well-shaped1 with plenty of fresh colour in his cheeks1 and an extraordinary power of doing without food and sleep4 ,he spent most of the night in reading or writing1 and would sometimes go for a day with no food but a few green herbs4 ,two mosaic figures of him exist at ,ravenna1 one in the apse of the church of ,s4 ,vitale1 the other in the church of ,s4 ,apollinare in ,urbe2 but of course one cannot be sure how far in such a material the portrait fairly represents the original4 ,he had no children by his marriage with ,theodora1 and did not marry after her decease4 ,on his death1 which took place on the #adth of ,november #efe1 the crown passed to his nephew ,justin ,,ii4 ,,authorities4--,for the life of ,justinian the chief authorities are ,procopius 7,historiae1 ,de aedificiis1 ,anecdota7 and 7from #eeb ,a4,d47 the ,history of ,agathias2 the ,chronicle of ,johannes ,malalas is also of value4 ,occasional reference must be made to the writings of ,jordanes and ,marcellinus1 and even to the late compilations of ,cedrenus and ,zonaras4 ,the ,vita ,justiniani of ,ludewig or ,ludwig 7,halle1 #agca71 a work of patient research1 is frequently referred to by ,gibbon in his important chapters relating to the reign of ,justinian1 in the ,decline and ,fall 7see ,bury's edition1 #aijj74 ,there is a ,vie de ,justinien by ,isambert 7#b vols41 ,paris1 #ahef74 ,see also ,hutton's ,church of the ,sixth ,century 7#ahig72 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury's ,later ,roman ,empire 7#ahhi72 ,hodgkin's ,italy and her ,invaders 7#ahhj74 7,j4 ,br47 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is commonly identified with the modern ,kstendil1 but ,uskb 7the ancient ,skupi7 has also been suggested4 ,see ,tozer1 ,highlands of ,european ,turkey1 ii4 #cgj4 #b ,the name ,uprauda is said to be derived from the word prauda1 which in ,old ,slavic means jus1 justitia1 the prefix being simply a breathing frequently attached to ,slavonic names4 #c ,see1 for an account of the instructions given to the commission1 the constitution ,haec quae1 prefixed to the revised ,codex in the ,corpus juris civilis4 #d ,see the constitution ,deo auctore 7,cod4 i4 #ag1 #a74 #e ,in the middle ages people used to cite passages by the initial words2 and the ,germans do so still1 giving1 however1 the number of the paragraph in the extract 7if there are more paragraphs than one71 and appending the number of the book and title4 ,we in ,britain and ,america usually cite by the numbers of the book1 the title and the paragraph1 without referring to the initial words4 #f ,see ,bluhme1 ,die ,ordnung der ,fragmente in den ,pandektentiteln1 in ,savigny's ,zeitschr4 f4 gesch4 ,rechtswissenschaft1 vol4 iv4