,from ,ritual to ,romance by ,jessie ,l4 ,weston 8,animus ad amplitudinem ,mysteriorum pro modulo suo dilatetur1 non ,mysteria ad angustias animi constringantur40 7,bacon47 8,many literary critics seem to think that an hypothesis about obscure and remote questions of history can be refuted by a simple demand for the production of more evidence than in fact exists4--,but the true test of an hypothesis1 if it cannot be shewn to conflict with known truths1 is the number of facts that it correlaates1 and explains40 7,cornford1 ,origins of ,attic ,comedy47 ,preface ,in the introductory ,chapter the reader will find the aim and object of these studies set forth at length4 ,in view of the importance and complexity of the problems involved it seemed better to incorporate such a statement in the book itself1 rather than relegate it to a ,preface which all might not trouble to read4 ,yet ,i feel that such a general statement does not adequately express my full debt of obligation4 ,among the many whose labour has been laid under contribution in the following pages there are certain scholars whose published work1 or personal advice1 has been specially illuminating1 and to whom specific acknowledgment is therefore due4 ,like many others ,i owe to ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer the initial inspiration which set me1 as ,i may truly say1 on the road to the ,grail ,castle4 ,without the guidance of ,the ,golden ,bough ,i should probably1 as the late ,m4 ,gaston ,paris happily expressed it1 still be wandering in the forest of ,broceliande6 ,during the ,bayreuth ,festival of #aiaa ,i had frequent opportunities of meeting1 and discussion with1 ,professor von ,schroeder4 ,i owe to him not only the introduction to his own work1 which ,i found most helpful1 but references which have been of the greatest assistance2 e4g4 my knowledge of ,cumont's ,les ,religions ,orientales1 and ,scheftelowitz's valuable study on ,fish ,symbolism1 both of which have furnished important links in the chain of evidence1 is due to ,professor von ,schroeder4 ,the perusal of ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison's ,themis opened my eyes to the extended importance of these ,vegetation rites4 ,in view of the evidence there adduced ,i asked myself whether beliefs which had found expression not only in social institution1 and popular custom1 but1 as set forth in ,sir ,g4 ,murray's study on ,greek ,dramatic ,origins1 attached to the work1 also in ,drama and ,literature1 might not reasonably--even inevitably--be expected to have left their mark on ,romance8 ,the one seemed to me a necessary corollary of the other1 and ,i felt that ,i had gained1 as the result of ,miss ,harrison's work1 a wider1 and more assured basis for my own researches4 ,i was no longer engaged merely in enquiring into the sources of a fascinating legend1 but on the identification of another field of activity for forces whose potency as agents of evolution we were only now beginning rightly to appreciate4 ,finally1 a casual reference1 in ,anrich's work on the ,mysteries1 to the ,naassene ,document1 caused me to apply to ,mr ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 of whose knowledge of the mysterious border-land between ,christianity and ,paganism1 and willingness to place that knowledge at the disposal of others1 ,i had1 for some years past1 had pleasant experience4 ,mr ,mead referred me to his own translation and analysis of the text in question1 and there1 to my satisfaction1 ,i found1 not only the final link that completed the chain of evolution from ,pagan ,mystery to ,christian ,ceremonial1 but also proof of that wider significance ,i was beginning to apprehend4 ,the problem involved was not one of ,folk-lore1 not even one of ,literature1 but of ,comparative ,religion in its widest sense4 ,thus1 while ,i trust that my co-workers in the field of ,arthurian research will accept these studies as a permanent contribution to the elucidation of the ,grail problem1 ,i would fain hope that those scholars who labour in a wider field1 and to whose works ,i owe so much1 may find in the results here set forth elements that may prove of real value in the study of the evolution of religious belief4 ,j4 ,l4 ,w4 ,paris1 ,october1 #aiai4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,introductory ,nature of the ,grail problem4 ,unsatisfactory character of results achieved4 ,objections to ,christian ,legendary origin2 to ,folk-lore origin4 ,elements in both theories sound4 ,solution to be sought in a direction which will do justice to both4 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's ,golden ,bough indicates possible line of research4 ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway's criticism of ,vegetation theory examined4 ,dramas and ,dramatic ,dances4 ,the ,living and not the ,dead ,king the factor of importance4 ,impossibility of proving human origin for ,vegetation ,deities4 ,not ,death but ,resurrection the essential centre of ,ritual4 ,muharram too late in date and lacks ,resurrection feature4 ,relation between defunct heroes and special localities4 ,sanctity possibly antecedent to connection4 ,mana not necessarily a case of relics4 ,self-acting weapons frequent in ,medieval ,romance4 ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's theory holds good4 ,remarks on method and design of present ,studies4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,task of the ,hero ,essential to determine the original nature of the task imposed upon the hero4 ,versions examined4 ,the ,gawain forms--,bleheris1 ,di ,crne4 ,perceval versions--,gerbert1 prose ,perceval1 ,chrtien de ,troyes1 ,perlesvaus1 ,manessier1 ,peredur1 ,parzival4 ,galahad--,queste4 ,result1 primary task healing of ,fisher ,king and removal of curse of ,waste ,land4 ,the two inter-dependent4 ,illness of ,king entails misfortune on ,land4 ,enquiry into nature of ,king's disability4 ,sone de ,nansai4 ,for elucidation of problem necessary to bear in mind close connection between ,land and ,ruler4 ,importance of ,waste ,land motif for criticism4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,freeing of the ,waters ,enquiry may commence with early ,aryan tradition4 ,the ,rig-,veda4 ,extreme importance assigned to ,indra's feat of 8,freeing the ,waters40 ,this also specific achievement of ,grail heroes4 ,extracts from ,rig-,veda4 ,dramatic poems and monologues4 ,professor von ,schroeder's theory4 ,mysterium und ,mimus4 ishyaiga drama4 ,parallels with ,perceval story4 ,result1 the specific task of the ,grail hero not a literary invention but an inheritance of ,aryan tradition4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,tammuz and ,adonis ,general objects to be attained by these ,nature ,cults4 ,stimulation of ,fertility1 ,animal and ,vegetable4 ,principle of ,life ultimately conceived of in anthropomorphic form4 ,this process already advanced in ,rig-,veda4 ,greek ,mythology preserves intermediate stage4 ,the ,eniautos ,daimon4 ,tammuz--earliest known representative of ,dying ,god4 ,character of the worship4 ,origin of the name4 ,lament for ,tammuz4 ,his death affects not only ,vegetable but ,animal life4 ,lack of artistic representation of ,mysteries4 ,mr ,langdon's suggestion4 ,ritual possibly dramatic4 ,summary of evidence4 ,adonis--,phoenician-,greek equivalent of ,tammuz4 ,probably most popular and best known form of ,nature ,cult4 ,mythological tale of ,adonis4 ,enquiry into nature of injury4 ,importance of recognizing true nature of these cults and of the ritual observed4 ,varying dates of celebration4 ,adonis probably originally ,eniautos ,daimon4 ,principle of ,life in general1 hence lack of fixity in date4 ,details of the ritual4 ,parallels with the ,grail legend examined4 ,dead ,knight or ,disabled ,king4 ,consequent misfortunes of ,land4 ,the ,weeping ,women4 ,the ,hairless ,maiden4 ,position of ,castle4 ,summing up4 ,can incidents of such remote antiquity be used as criticism for a ,medieval text8 ,,chapter ,v ,medieval and ,modern ,forms of ,nature ,ritual ,is it possible to establish chain of descent connecting early ,aryan and ,babylonian ,ritual with ,classic1 ,medieval and ,modern forms of ,nature worship8 ,survival of ,adonis cult established4 ,evidence of ,mannhardt and ,frazer4 ,existing ,continental customs recognized as survivals of ancient beliefs4 ,instances4 #8,directly related' to ,attis-,adonis cult4 ,von ,schroeder establishes parallel between existing ,fertility procession and ,rig-,veda poem4 ,identification of ,life ,principle with ,king4 ,prosperity of land dependent on king as representative of god4 ,celts4 ,greeks4 ,modern instances1 the ,shilluk ,kings4 ,parallel between ,shilluk ,king1 ,grail ,king and ,vegetation ,deity4 ,sone de ,nansai and the ,lament for ,tammuz4 ,identity of situation4 ,plea for unprejudiced criticism4 ,impossibility of such parallels being fortuitous2 the result of deliberate intention1 not an accident of literary invention4 ,if identity of central character be admitted his relation to ,waste ,land becomes fundamental factor in criticizing versions4 ,another ,african survival4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the ,symbols ,summary of results of previous enquiry4 ,the ,medieval ,stage4 ,grail romances probably contain record of secret ritual of a ,fertility cult4 ,the ,symbols of the cult--,cup1 ,lance1 ,sword1 ,stone1 or ,dish4 ,plea for treating ,symbols as a related group not as isolated units4 ,failure to do so probably cause of unsatisfactory result of long research4 ,essential to recognize ,grail story as an original whole and to treat it in its ensemble aspect4 ,we must differentiate between origin and accretion4 ,instances4 ,the ,legend of ,longinus4 ,lance and ,cup not associated in ,christian ,art4 ,evidence4 ,the ,spear of ,eastern ,liturgies only a ,knife4 ,the ,bleeding ,lance4 ,treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann4 ,correspond as a group with ,grail ,symbols4 ,difficulty of equating ,cauldron-,grail4 ,probably belong to a different line of tradition4 ,instances given4 ,real significance of ,lance and ,cup4 ,well known as ,life ,symbols4 ,the ,samurai4 ,four ,symbols also preserved as ,suits of the ,tarot4 ,origin of ,tarot discussed4 ,probably reached ,europe from the ,east4 ,use of the ,symbols in ,magic4 ,probable explanation of these various appearances to be found in fact that associated group were at one time symbols of a ,fertility cult4 ,further evidence to be examined4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,the ,sword ,dance ,relation of ,sword ,dance1 ,morris ,dance1 and ,mumming ,play4 ,their ,ceremonial origin now admitted by scholars4 ,connected with seasonal ,festivals and ,fertility ,ritual4 ,earliest ,sword ,dancers1 the ,maruts4 ,von ,schroeder1 ,mysterium und ,mimus4 ,discussion of their nature and functions4 ,the ,kouretes4 ,character of their dance4 ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison1 ,themis4 ,the ,korybantes4 ,dance probably sacrificial in origin4 ,the ,salii4 ,dramatic element in their dance4 ,mars1 as ,fertility god4 ,mamurius ,veturius4 ,anna ,perenna4 ,character of dance seasonal4 ,modern ,british survivals4 ,the ,sword ,dance4 ,mostly preserved in ,north4 ,variants4 ,mr ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 ,the ,medieval ,stage4 ,the ,mumming ,plays4 ,description4 ,characters4 ,recognized as representing ,death and ,revival of ,vegetation ,deity4 ,dr ,jevons1 ,masks and the ,origin of the ,greek ,drama4 ,morris ,dances4 ,no dramatic element4 ,costume of character significant4 ,possible survival of theriomorphic origin4 ,elaborate character of figures in each group4 ,symbols employed4 ,the ,pentangle4 ,the ,chalice4 ,present form shows dislocation4 ,probability that three groups were once a combined whole and ,symbols united4 ,evidence strengthens view advanced in last ,chapter4 ,symbols originally a group connected with lost form of ,fertility ,ritual4 ,possible origin of ,grail ,knights to be found in ,sword ,dancers4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,the ,medicine ,man ,the rle of the ,medicine ,man1 or ,doctor in ,fertility ,ritual4 ,its importance and antiquity4 ,the ,rig-,veda poem4 ,classical evidence1 ,mr ,f4 ,cornford4 ,traces of ,medicine ,man in the ,grail romances4 ,gawain as ,healer4 ,persistent tradition4 ,possible survival from pre-literary form4 ,evidence of the ,triads4 ,peredur as ,healer4 ,evolution of theme4 ,le ,dist de l',erberie4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,the ,fisher ,king ,summary of evidence presented4 ,need of a #8test' element4 ,to be found in central figure4 ,mystery of his title4 ,analysis of variants4 ,gawain version4 ,perceval version4 ,borron alone attempts explanation of title4 ,parzival4 ,perlesvaus4 ,queste4 ,grand ,saint ,graal4 ,comparison with surviving ritual variants4 ,original form ,king dead1 and restored to life4 ,old ,age and ,wounding themes4 ,legitimate variants4 ,doubling of character a literary device4 ,title4 ,why ,fisher ,king8 ,examination of ,fish ,symbolism4 ,fish a ,life symbol4 ,examples4 ,indian--,manu1 ,vishnu1 ,buddha4 ,fish in ,buddhism4 ,evidence from ,china4 ,orpheus4 ,babylonian evidence4 ,tammuz ,lord of the ,net4 ,jewish ,symbolism4 ,the ,messianic ,fish-meal4 ,adopted by ,christianity4 ,evidence of the catacombs4 ,source of ,borron's ,fish-meals4 ,mystery tradition not ,celtic ,folk-tale4 ,comparison of version with ,finn story4 ,with ,messianic tradition4 ,epitaph of ,bishop ,aberkios4 ,voyage of ,saint ,brandan4 ,connection of ,fish with goddess ,astarte4 ,cumont4 ,connection of ,fish and ,dove4 ,fish as ,fertility ,symbol4 ,its use in ,marriage ceremonies4 ,summing up of evidence4 ,fisher ,king inexplicable from ,christian point of view4 ,folk-lore solution unsatisfactory4 ,as a ,ritual survival completely in place4 ,centre of action1 and proof of soundness of theory4 ,,chapter ,x ,the ,secret of the ,grail 7#a7 ,the ,mysteries ,the ,grail regarded as an object of awe4 ,danger of speaking of ,grail or revealing ,its secrets4 ,passages in illustration4 ,why1 if survival of ,nature cults1 popular1 and openly performed8 ,a two-fold element in these cults1 ,exoteric1 ,esoteric4 ,the ,mysteries4 ,their influence on ,christianity to be sought in the ,hellenized rather than the ,hellenic cults4 ,cumont4 ,rohde4 ,radical difference between ,greek and ,oriental conceptions4 ,lack of evidence as regards ,mysteries on the whole4 ,best attested form that connected with ,nature cults4 ,attis-,adonis4 ,popularity of the ,phrygian cult in ,rome4 ,evidence as to ,attis ,mysteries4 ,utilized by ,neo-,platonists as vehicle for teaching4 ,close connection with ,mithraism4 ,the ,taurobolium4 ,details of ,attis ,mysteries4 ,parallels with the ,grail romances4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,the ,secret of the ,grail 7#b7 ,the ,naassene ,document ,relations between early ,christianity1 and pre-,christian cults4 ,early ,heresies4 ,hippolytus1 and ,the ,refutation of all ,heresies4 ,character of the work4 ,the ,naassene ,document4 ,mr ,mead's analysis of text4 ,a synthesis of ,mysteries4 ,identification of ,life ,principle with the ,logos4 ,connection between ,drama and ,mysteries of ,attis4 ,importance of the ,phrygian ,mysteries4 ,naassene claim to be sole ,christians4 ,significance of evidence4 ,vegetation cults as vehicle of high spiritual teaching4 ,exoteric and ,esoteric parallels with the ,grail tradition4 ,process of evolution sketched4 ,bleheris4 ,perlesvaus4 ,borron and the ,mystery tradition4 ,christian ,legendary1 and ,folk-tale1 secondary1 not primary1 features4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,mithra and ,attis ,problem of close connection of cults4 ,their apparent divergence4 ,nature of deities examined4 ,attis4 ,mithra4 ,the ,messianic ,feast4 ,dieterich1 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie4 ,difference between the two initiations4 ,link between ,phrygian1 ,mithraic1 and ,christian1 ,mysteries to be found in their higher1 esoteric1 teaching4 ,women not admitted to ,mithraic initiation4 ,possible survival in ,grail text4 ,joint diffusion through the ,roman ,empire4 ,cumont's evidence4 ,traces of cult in ,british ,isles4 ,possible explanation of unorthodox character of ,grail legend4 ,evidence of survival of cult in fifth century4 ,the ,elucidation a possible record of historic facts4 ,reason for connecting ,grail with ,arthurian tradition4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the ,perilous ,chapel ,the adventure of the ,perilous ,chapel in ,grail romances4 ,gawain form4 ,perceval versions4 ,queste4 ,perlesvaus4 ,lancelot4 ,chevalier ,deux ,espes4 ,perilous ,cemetery4 ,earliest reference in ,chastel ,orguellous4 tre ,perilleus4 ,prose ,lancelot4 ,adventure part of #8,secret of the ,grail4' ,the ,chapel of ,saint ,austin4 ,histoire de ,fulk ,fitz-,warin4 ,genuine record of an initiation4 ,probable locality ,north ,britain4 ,site of remains of ,mithra-,attis cults4 ,traces of ,mystery tradition in ,medieval romance4 ,owain ,miles4 ,bousset1 ,himmelfahrt der ,seele4 ,parallels with romance4 ,appeal to ,celtic scholars4 ,otherworld journeys a possible survival of ,mystery tradition4 ,the ,templars1 were they ,naassenes8 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,the ,author ,provenance and authorship of ,grail romantic tradition4 ,evidence points to ,wales1 probably ,pembrokeshire4 ,earliest form contained in group of ,gawain poems assigned to ,bleheris4 ,of ,welsh origin4 ,master ,blihis1 ,blihos1 ,bliheris1 ,brri1 ,bledhericus4 ,probably all references to same person4 ,conditions of identity4 ,mr ,e4 ,owen1 and ,bledri ap ,cadivor4 ,evidence not complete but fulfils conditions of problem ,professor ,singer and possible character of ,bleheris' text4 ,mr ,alfred ,nutt4 ,irish and ,welsh parallels4 ,recapitulation of evolutionary process4 ,summary and conclusion4 ,,chapter ,i ,introductory ,in view of the extensive literature to which the ,grail legend has already given birth it may seem that the addition of another volume to the already existing corpus calls for some words of apology and explanation4 ,when the student of the subject contemplates the countless essays and brochures1 the volumes of studies and criticism1 which have been devoted to this fascinating subject1 the conflicting character of their aims1 their hopelessly contradictory results1 he1 or she1 may well hesitate before adding another element to such a veritable witches' cauldron of apparently profitless study4 ,and indeed1 were ,i not convinced that the theory advocated in the following pages contains in itself the element that will resolve these conflicting ingredients into one harmonious compound ,i should hardly feel justified in offering a further contribution to the subject4 ,but it is precisely because upwards of thirty years' steady and persevering study of the ,grail texts has brought me gradually and inevitably to certain very definite conclusions1 has placed me in possession of evidence hitherto ignored1 or unsuspected1 that ,i venture to offer the result in these studies1 trusting that they may be accepted as1 what ,i believe them to be1 a genuine ,elucidation of the ,grail problem4 ,my fellow-workers in this field know all too well the essential elements of that problem2 ,i do not need here to go over already well-trodden ground2 it will be sufficient to point out certain salient features of the position4 ,the main difficulty of our research lies in the fact that the ,grail legend consists of a congeries of widely differing elements--elements which at first sight appear hopelessly incongruous1 if not completely contradictory1 yet at the same time are present to an extent1 and in a form1 which no honest critic can afford to ignore4 ,thus it has been perfectly possible for one group of scholars1 relying upon the undeniably ,christian-,legendary elements1 preponderant in certain versions1 to maintain the thesis that the ,grail legend is ab initio a ,christian1 and ecclesiastical1 legend1 and to analyse the literature on that basis alone4 ,another group1 with equal reason1 have pointed to the strongly marked ,folk-lore features preserved in the tale1 to its kinship with other themes1 mainly of ,celtic provenance1 and have argued that1 while the later versions of the cycle have been worked over by ecclesiastical writers in the interests of edification1 the story itself is non-,christian1 and ,folk-lore in origin4 ,both groups have a basis of truth for their arguments3 the features upon which they rely are1 in each case1 undeniably present1 yet at the same time each line of argument is faced with certain insuperable difficulties1 fatal to the claims advanced4 ,thus1 the theory of ,christian origin breaks down when faced with the awkward fact that there is no ,christian legend concerning ,joseph of ,arimathea and the ,grail4 ,neither in ,legendary1 nor in ,art1 is there any trace of the story2 it has no existence outside the ,grail literature1 it is the creation of romance1 and no genuine tradition4 ,on this very ground it was severely criticized by the ,dutch writer ,jacob van ,maerlant1 in #abfj4 ,in his ,merlin he denounces the whole ,grail history as lies1 asserting that the ,church knows nothing of it--which is true4 ,in the same way the advocate of a ,folk-lore origin is met with the objection that the section of the cycle for which such a source can be definitely proved1 i4e41 the ,perceval story1 has originally nothing whatever to do with the ,grail2 and that1 while parallels can be found for this or that feature of the legend1 such parallels are isolated in character and involve the breaking up of the tale into a composite of mutually independent themes4 ,a prototype1 containing the main features of the ,grail story--the ,waste ,land1 the ,fisher ,king1 the ,hidden ,castle with its solemn ,feast1 and mysterious ,feeding ,vessel1 the ,bleeding ,lance and ,cup--does not1 so far as we know1 exist4 ,none of the great collections of ,folk-tales1 due to the industry of a ,cosquin1 a ,hartland1 or a ,campbell1 has preserved specimens of such a type2 it is not such a story as1 e4g41 ,the ,three ,days ,tournament1 examples of which are found all over the world4 ,yet neither the advocate of a ,christian origin1 nor the ,folk-lorist1 can afford to ignore the arguments1 and evidence of the opposing school1 and while the result of half a century of patient investigation has been to show that the origin of the ,grail story must be sought elsewhere than in ecclesiastical legend1 or popular tale1 ,i hold that the result has equally been to demonstrate that neither of these solutions should be ignored1 but that the ultimate source must be sought for in a direction which shall do justice to what is sound in the claims of both4 ,some years ago1 when fresh from the study of ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's epoch-making work1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 ,i was struck by the resemblance existing between certain features of the ,grail story1 and characteristic details of the ,nature ,cults described4 ,the more closely ,i analysed the tale1 the more striking became the resemblance1 and ,i finally asked myself whether it were not possible that in this mysterious legend--mysterious alike in its character1 its sudden appearance1 the importance apparently assigned to it1 followed by as sudden and complete a disappearance--we might not have the confused record of a ritual1 once popular1 later surviving under conditions of strict secrecy8 ,this would fully account for the atmosphere of awe and reverence which even under distinctly non-,christian conditions never fails to surround the ,grail1 ,it may act simply as a feeding vessel1 ,it is none the less toute sainte cose2 and also for the presence in the tale of distinctly popular1 and ,folk-lore1 elements4 ,such an interpretation would also explain features irreconcilable with orthodox ,christianity1 which had caused some scholars to postulate a heterodox origin for the legend1 and thus explain its curiously complete disappearance as a literary theme4 ,in the first volume of my ,perceval studies1 published in #aijf1 ,i hinted at this possible solution of the problem1 a solution worked out more fully in a paper read before the ,folk-lore ,society in ,december of the same year1 and published in ,volume ,,xviii4 of the ,journal of the ,society4 ,by the time my second volume of studies was ready for publication in #aiji1 further evidence had come into my hands2 ,i was then certain that ,i was upon the right path1 and ,i felt justified in laying before the public the outlines of a theory of evolution1 alike of the legend1 and of the literature1 to the main principles of which ,i adhere to-day4 ,but certain links were missing in the chain of evidence1 and the work was not complete4 ,no inconsiderable part of the information at my disposal depended upon personal testimony1 the testimony of those who knew of the continued existence of such a ritual1 and had actually been initiated into its mysteries--and for such evidence the student of the letter has little respect4 ,he worships the written word2 for the oral1 living1 tradition from which the word derives force and vitality he has little use4 ,therefore the written word had to be found4 ,it has taken me some nine or ten years longer to complete the evidence1 but the chain is at last linked up1 and we can now prove by printed texts the parallels existing between each and every feature of the ,grail story and the recorded symbolism of the ,mystery cults4 ,further1 we can show that between these ,mystery cults and ,christianity there existed at one time a close and intimate union1 such a union as of itself involved the practical assimilation of the central rite1 in each case a #8,eucharisticc' ,feast1 in which the worshippers partook of the ,food of ,life from the sacred vessels4 ,in face of the proofs which will be found in these pages ,i do not think any fair-minded critic will be inclined to dispute any longer the origin of the #8,holy' ,grail2 after all it is as august and ancient an origin as the most tenacious upholder of ,its ,christian character could desire4 ,but ,i should wish it clearly to be understood that the aim of these studies is1 as indicated in the title1 to determine the origin of the ,grail1 not to discuss the provenance and interrelation of the different versions4 ,i do not believe this latter task can be satisfactorily achieved unless and until we are of one accord as to the character of the subject matter4 ,when we have made up our minds as to what the ,grail really was1 and what it stood for1 we shall be able to analyse the romances2 to decide which of them contains more1 which less1 of the original matter1 and to group them accordingly4 ,on this point ,i believe that the table of descent1 printed in ,volume ,,ii4 of my ,perceval studies is in the main correct1 but there is still much analytical work to be done1 in particular the establishment of the original form of the ,perlesvaus is highly desirable4 ,but apart from the primary object of these studies1 and the results therein obtained1 ,i would draw attention to the manner in which the evidence set forth in the chapters on the ,mystery cults1 and especially that on ,the ,naassene ,document1 a text of extraordinary value from more than one point of view1 supports and complements the researches of ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer4 ,i am1 of course1 familiar with the attacks directed against the #8,vegetation' theory1 the sarcasms of which it has been the object1 and the criticisms of what is held in some quarters to be the exaggerated importance attached to these ,nature cults4 ,but in view of the use made of these cults as the medium of imparting high spiritual teaching1 a use which1 in face of the document above referred to1 can no longer be ignored or evaded1 are we not rather justified in asking if the true importance of the rites has as yet been recognized8 ,can we possibly exaggerate their value as a factor in the evolution of religious consciousness8 ,such a development of his researches naturally lay outside the range of ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's work1 but posterity will probably decide that1 like many another patient and honest worker1 he #8builded better than he knew4' ,i have carefully read ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway's attack on the school in his ,dramas and ,dramatic ,dances1 and while the above remarks explain my position with regard to the question as a whole1 ,i would here take the opportunity of stating specifically my grounds for dissenting from certain of the conclusions at which the learned author arrives4 ,i do not wish it to be said3 8,this is all very well1 but ,miss ,weston ignores the arguments on the other side40 ,i do not ignore1 but ,i do not admit their validity4 ,it is perfectly obvious that ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway's theory1 reduced to abstract terms1 would result in the conclusion that all religion is based upon the cult of the ,dead1 and that men originally knew no gods but their grandfathers1 a theory from which as a student of religion ,i absolutely and entirely dissent4 ,i can understand that such ,dead ,ancestors can be looked upon as ,protectors1 or as ,benefactors1 but ,i see no ground for supposing that they have ever been regarded as ,creators1 yet it is precisely as vehicle for the most lofty teaching as to the ,cosmic relations existing between ,god and ,man1 that these ,vegetation cults were employed4 ,the more closely one studies pre-,christian ,theology1 the more strongly one is impressed with the deeply1 and daringly1 spiritual character of its speculations1 and the more doubtful it appears that such teaching can depend upon the unaided processes of human thought1 or can have been evolved from such germs as we find among the supposedly #8primitive' peoples1 such as e4g4 the ,australian tribes4 ,are they really primitive8 ,or are we dealing1 not with the primary elements of religion1 but with the disjecta membra of a vanished civilization8 ,certain it is that so far as historical evidence goes our earliest records point to the recognition of a spiritual1 not of a material1 origin of the human race2 the ,sumerian and ,babylonian ,psalms were not composed by men who believed themselves the descendants of #8witchetty grubs4' ,the ,folk practices and ceremonies studied in these pages1 the ,dances1 the rough ,dramas1 the local and seasonal celebrations1 do not represent the material out of which the ,attis-,adonis cult was formed1 but surviving fragments of a worship from which the higher significance has vanished4 ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway is confident that ,osiris1 ,attis1 ,adonis1 were all at one time human beings1 whose tragic fate gripped hold of popular imagination1 and led to their ultimate deification4 ,the first-named cult stands on a somewhat different basis from the others1 the beneficent activities of ,osiris being more widely diffused1 more universal in their operation4 ,i should be inclined to regard the ,egyptian deity primarily as a ,culture ,hero1 rather than a ,vegetation ,god4 ,with regard to ,attis and ,adonis1 whatever their original character 7and it seems to me highly improbable that there should have been two youths each beloved by a goddess1 each victim of a similar untimely fate71 long before we have any trace of them both have become so intimately identified with the processes of ,nature that they have ceased to be men and become gods1 and as such alone can we deal with them4 ,it is also permissible to point out that in the case of ,tammuz1 ,esmun1 and ,adonis1 the title is not a proper name1 but a vague appellative1 denoting an abstract rather than a concrete origin4 ,proof of this will be found later4 ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway overlooks the fact that it is not the tragic death of ,attis-,adonis which is of importance for these cults1 but their subsequent restoration to life1 a feature which cannot be postulated of any ordinary mortal4 ,and how are we to regard ,tammuz1 the prototype of all these deities8 ,is there any possible ground for maintaining that he was ever a man8 ,prove it we cannot1 as the records of his cult go back thousands of years before our era4 ,here1 again1 we have the same dominant feature2 it is not merely the untimely death which is lamented1 but the restoration to life which is celebrated4 ,throughout the whole study the author fails to discriminate between the activities of the living1 and the dead1 king4 ,the ,dead king may1 as ,i have said above1 be regarded as the ,benefactor1 as the ,protector1 of his people1 but it is the ,living king upon whom their actual and continued prosperity depends4 ,the detail that the ruling sovereign is sometimes regarded as the re-incarnation of the original founder of the race strengthens this point--the king never dies--,le ,roi est mort1 ,vive le ,roi is very emphatically the motto of this ,faith4 ,it is the insistence on ,life1 ,life continuous1 and ever-renewing1 which is the abiding characteristic of these cults1 a characteristic which differentiates them utterly and entirely from the ancestral worship with which ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway would fain connect them4 ,nor are the arguments based upon the memorial rites of definitely historical heroes1 of comparatively late date1 such as ,hussein and ,hossein1 of any value here4 ,it is precisely the death1 and not the resurrection1 of the martyr which is of the essence of the ,muharram4 ,no one contends that ,hussein rose from the dead1 but it is precisely this point which is of primary importance in the ,nature cults2 and ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway must surely be aware that ,folk-lorists find in this very ,muharram distinct traces of borrowing from the earlier ,vegetation rites4 ,the author triumphantly asserts that the fact that certain ,burmese heroes and heroines are after death reverenced as tree spirits #8sets at rest for ever' the belief in abstract deities4 ,but how can he be sure that the process was not the reverse of that which he postulates1 i4e41 that certain natural objects1 trees1 rivers1 etc41 were not regarded as sacred before the ,nats became connected with them8 ,that the deified human beings were not after death assigned to places already held in reverence8 ,such a possibility is obvious to any ,folk-lore student1 and local traditions should in each case be carefully examined before the contrary is definitely asserted4 ,so far as the origins of ,drama are concerned the ,ode quoted later from the ,naassene ,document is absolute and definite proof of the close connection existing between the ,attis ,mystery ritual1 and dramatic performances1 i4e41 ,attis regarded in his deified1 ,creative1 #8,logos1' aspect1 not ,attis1 the dead youth4 ,nor do ,i think that the idea of #8,mana' can be lightly dismissed as #8an ordinary case of relics4' ,the influence may well be something entirely apart from the continued existence of the ancestor1 an independent force1 assisting him in life1 and transferring itself after death to his successor4 ,a #8,magic' ,sword or ,staff is not necessarily a relic2 ,medieval romance supplies numerous instances of self-acting weapons whose virtue in no wise depends upon their previous owner1 as e4g4 the ,sword in ,le ,chevalier l'pe1 or the ,flaming ,lance of the ,chevalier de la ,charrette4 ,doubtless the cult of ,ancestors plays a large rle in the beliefs of certain peoples1 but it is not a sufficiently solid foundation to bear the weight of the super-structure ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway would fain rear upon it1 while it differs too radically from the cults he attacks to be used as an argument against them2 the one is based upon ,death1 the other on ,life4 ,wherefore1 in spite of all the learning and ingenuity brought to bear against it1 ,i avow myself an impenitent believer in ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's main theory1 and as ,i have said above1 ,i hold that theory to be of greater and more far-reaching importance than has been hitherto suspected4 ,i would add a few words as to the form of these studies--they may be found disconnected4 ,they have been written at intervals of time extending over several years1 and my aim has been to prove the essentially archaic character of all the elements composing the ,grail story rather than to analyse the story as a connected whole4 ,with this aim in view ,i have devoted chapters to features which have now either dropped out of the existing versions1 or only survive in a subordinate form1 e4g4 the chapters on ,the ,medicine ,man1 and ,the ,freeing of the ,waters4 ,the studies will1 ,i hope1 and believe1 be accepted as offering a definite contribution towards establishing the fundamental character of our material2 as stated above1 when we are all at one as to what the ,holy ,grail really was1 and is1 we can then proceed with some hope of success to criticize the manner in which different writers have handled the inspiring theme1 but such success seems to be hopeless so long as we all start from different1 and often utterly irreconcilable1 standpoints and proceed along widely diverging roads4 ,one or another may1 indeed1 arrive at the goal1 but such unanimity of opinion as will lend to our criticism authoritative weight is1 on such lines1 impossible of achievement4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,task of the ,hero ,as a first step towards the successful prosecution of an investigation into the true nature and character of the mysterious object we know as the ,grail it will be well to ask ourselves whether any light may be thrown upon the subject by examining more closely the details of the ,quest in its varying forms2 i4e41 what was the precise character of the task undertaken by1 or imposed upon1 the ,grail hero1 whether that hero were ,gawain1 ,perceval1 or ,galahad1 and what the results to be expected from a successful achievement of the task4 ,we shall find at once a uniformity which assures us of the essential identity of the tradition underlying the varying forms1 and a diversity indicating that the tradition has undergone a gradual1 but radical1 modification in the process of literary evolution4 ,taken in their relative order the versions give the following result4 ,,gawain 7,bleheris74 ,here the hero sets out on his journey with no clear idea of the task before him4 ,he is taking the place of a knight mysteriously slain in his company1 but whither he rides1 and why1 he does not know1 only that the business is important and pressing4 ,from the records of his partial success we gather that he ought to have enquired concerning the nature of the ,grail1 and that this enquiry would have resulted in the restoration to fruitfulness of a ,waste ,land1 the desolation of which is1 in some manner1 not clearly explained1 connected with the death of a knight whose name and identity are never disclosed4 8,great is the loss that ye lie thus1 'tis even the destruction of kingdoms1 ,god grant that ye be avenged1 so that the folk be once more joyful and the land repeopled which by ye and this sword are wasted and made void40#a ,the fact that ,gawain does ask concerning the ,lance assures the partial restoration of the land2 ,i would draw attention to the special terms in which this is described3 8for so soon as ,sir ,gawain asked of the ,lance444the waters flowed again thro' their channel1 and all the woods were turned to verdure40#b ,di ,crne4 ,here the question is more general in character2 it affects the marvels beheld1 not the ,grail alone2 but now the ,quester is prepared1 and knows what is expected of him4 ,the result is to break the spell which retains the ,grail ,king in a semblance of life1 and we learn1 by implication1 that the land is restored to fruitfulness3 8yet had the land been waste1 but by his coming had folk and land alike been delivered40#c ,thus in the earliest preserved1 the ,,gawain form1 the effect upon the land appears to be the primary result of the ,quest4 ,,perceval4 ,the ,perceval versions1 which form the bulk of the existing ,grail texts1 differ considerably the one from the other1 alike in the task to be achieved1 and the effects resulting from the hero's success1 or failure4 ,the distinctive feature of the ,perceval version is the insistence upon the sickness1 and disability of the ruler of the land1 the ,fisher ,king4 ,regarded first as the direct cause of the wasting of the land1 it gradually assumes overwhelming importance1 the task of the ,quester becomes that of healing the ,king1 the restoration of the land not only falls into the background but the operating cause of its desolation is changed1 and finally it disappears from the story altogether4 ,one version1 alone1 the source of which is1 at present1 undetermined1 links the ,,perceval with the ,,gawain form2 this is the version preserved in the ,gerbert continuation of the ,perceval of ,chrtien de ,troyes4 ,here the hero having1 like ,gawain1 partially achieved the task1 but again like ,gawain1 having failed satisfactorily to resolder the broken sword1 wakes1 like the earlier hero1 to find that the ,grail ,castle has disappeared1 and he is alone in a flowery meadow4 ,he pursues his way through a land fertile1 and well-peopled and marvels much1 for the day before it had been a waste desert4 ,coming to a castle he is received by a solemn procession1 with great rejoicing2 through him the folk have regained the land and goods which they had lost4 ,the mistress of the castle is more explicit4 ,perceval had asked concerning the ,grail3 8par coi amend ,somes1 en si faite manire ,qu'en ceste regne n'avoit rivire ,qui ne fust gaste1 ne fontaine4 ,e la terre gaste et soutaine40 ,like ,gawain he has #8freed the waters' and thus restored the land4#d ,in the prose ,perceval the motif of the ,waste ,land has disappeared1 the task of the hero consists in asking concerning the ,grail1 and by so doing1 to restore the ,fisher ,king1 who is suffering from extreme old age1 to health1 and youth4#e 8,se tu eusses demand quel'en on faisoit1 que li rois ton aiol fust gariz de l'enfermetez qu'il a1 et fust revenu en sa juvent40 ,when the question has been asked3 8,le rois pschor estoit gariz et tot muez de sa nature40 8,li rois peschire estoit mus de se nature et estoit garis de se maladie1 et estoit sains comme pissons40#f ,here we have the introduction of a new element1 the restoration to youth of the sick ,king4 ,in the ,perceval of ,chrtien de ,troyes we find ourselves in presence of certain definite changes1 neither slight1 nor unimportant1 upon which it seems to me insufficient stress has hitherto been laid4 ,the question is changed2 the hero no longer asks what the ,grail is1 but 7as in the prose ,perceval7 whom it serves8 a departure from an essential and primitive simplicity--the motive for which is apparent in ,chrtien1 but not in the prose form1 where there is no enigmatic personality to be served apart4 ,a far more important change is that1 while the malady of the ,fisher ,king is antecedent to the hero's visit1 and capable of cure if the question be asked1 the failure to fulfil the prescribed conditions of itself entails disaster upon the land4 ,thus the sickness of the ,king1 and the desolation of the land1 are not necessarily connected as cause and effect1 but1 a point which seems hitherto unaccountably to have been overlooked1 the latter is directly attributable to the ,quester himself4#g 8,car se tu demand l'eusses ,li rice roi qui moult s'esmaie ,fust or tost garis de sa plaie ,et si tenist sa tire en pais ,dont il n'en tenra point jamais10 but by ,perceval's failure to ask the question he has entailed dire misfortune upon the land3 8,dames en perdront lor maris1 ,tires en seront essilis1 ,et pucielles desconsellis ,orfenes1 veves1 en remanront ,et maint chevalier en morront40#h ,this idea1 that the misfortunes of the land are not antecedent to1 but dependent upon1 the hero's abortive visit to the ,grail ,castle1 is carried still further by the compiler of the ,perlesvaus1 where the failure of the predestined hero to ask concerning the office of the ,grail is alone responsible for the illness of the ,king and the misfortunes of the country4 8,une grans dolors est avenue an terre novelement par un jeune chevalier qui fu herbergiez an l'ostel au riche roi ,peschor1 si aparut lui li saintimes ,graaus1 et la lance de quoi li fiers seigne par la poignte2 ne demanda de quoi ce servoit1 ou dont ce venoit1 et por ce qu'il ne demanda sont toutes les terres commues an guerre1 ne chevalier n'ancontre autre au forest qu'il ne li core sus1 et ocie s'il peut40#i 8,li ,roi ,pecheors de qui est grant dolors1 quar il est chez en une douleureuse langour--ceste langour li est venue par celui qui se heberga an son ostel1 qui li seintimes ,graaus s'aparut1 por ce que cil ne vost demander de qu'il an servoit1 toutes les terres an furent commues en gerre40#aj 8,je suis chez an langour ds cele oure que li chevaliers se herberga oianz dont vous avez o parler2 par un soule parole que il dloia a dire me vint ceste langour40#aa ,from this cause the ,fisher ,king dies before the hero has achieved the task1 and can take his place4 8,li bons ,rois ,peschires est morz40#ab ,there is here no cure of the ,king or restoration of the land1 the specific task of the ,grail hero is never accomplished1 he comes into his kingdom as the result of a number of knightly adventures1 neither more nor less significant than those found in non-,grail romances4 ,the ,perlesvaus1 in its present form1 appears to be a later1 and more fully developed1 treatment of the motif noted in ,chrtien1 i4e41 that the misfortunes of ,king and country are directly due to the ,quester himself1 and had no antecedent existence2 this1 ,i would submit1 alters the whole character of the story1 and we are at a loss to know what1 had the hero put the question on the occasion of his first visit1 could possibly have been the result achieved4 ,it would not have been the cure of the ,king3 he was1 apparently1 in perfect health2 it would not have been the restoration to verdure of the ,land3 the ,land was not ,waste2 where1 as in the case of ,gawain1 there is a ,dead ,knight1 whose death is to be avenged1 something might have been achieved1 in the case of the overwhelming majority of the ,perceval versions1 which do not contain this feature1 the dependence of the ,curse upon the ,quester reduces the story to incoherence4 ,in one ,perceval version alone do we find a motif analogous to the earlier ,gawain ,bleheris form4 ,in ,manessier the hero's task is not restricted to the simple asking of a question1 but he must also slay the enemy whose treachery has caused the death of the ,fisher ,king's brother2 thereby healing the wound of the ,king himself1 and removing the woes of the land4 ,what these may be we are not told1 but1 apparently1 the country is not #8,waste4'#ac ,in ,peredur we have a version closely agreeing with that of ,chrtien2 the hero fails to enquire the meaning of what he sees in the ,castle of ,wonders1 and is told in consequence3 8,hadst thou done so the ,king would have been restored to health1 and his dominions to peace1 whereas from henceforth he will have to endure battles and conflicts1 and his knights will perish1 and wives will be widowed1 and maidens will be left portionless1 and all this because of thee40#ad ,this certainly seems to imply that1 while the illness of the ,fisher ,king may be antecedent to1 and independent of1 the visit and failure of the hero1 the misfortunes which fall on the land have been directly caused thereby4 ,the conclusion which states that the ,bleeding ,head seen by the hero 8was thy cousin's1 and he was killed by the ,sorceresses of ,gloucester1 who also lamed thine uncle--and there is a prediction that thou art to avenge these things--0 would seem to indicate the presence in the original of a #8,vengeance' theme1 such as that referred to above4#ae ,in ,parzival the stress is laid entirely on the sufferings of the ,king2 the question has been modified in the interests of this theme1 and here assumes the form 8,what aileth thee1 mine uncle80 ,the blame bestowed upon the hero is solely on account of the prolonged sorrow his silence has inflicted on ,king and people2 of a ,land laid ,waste1 either through drought1 or war1 there is no mention4 8,iuch solt' iur wirt erbarmet hn1 ,an dem ,got wunder ht getn1 ,und het gevrget sner nt1 ,ir lebet1 und st an saelden tt40#af 8,d der trrege vischaere ,saz ne frude und ne trst ,war umb' iren niht siufzens ht erlst40#ag ,the punishment falls on the hero who has failed to put the question1 rather than on the land1 which1 indeed1 appears to be in no way affected1 either by the wound of the ,king1 or the silence of the hero4 ,the divergence from ,chrtien's version is here very marked1 and1 so far1 seems to have been neglected by critics4 ,the point is also of importance in view of the curious parallels which are otherwise to be found between this version and ,perlesvaus2 here the two are in marked contradiction with one another4 ,the question finally asked1 the result is1 as indicated in the prose version1 the restoration of the ,king not merely to health1 but also to youth-- 8,swaz der ,frnzoys heizet fl'r' ,der glast kom sinem velle b1 ,parzival's schoen' was nu ein wint2 ,und ,absaln ,dvdes kint1 ,von ,askaln ,vergulaht ,und al den schoene was geslaht1 ,und des man ,gahmurete jach ,d man'n in zogen sach ,ze ,kanvoleis s wnneclch1 ,ir dechines schoen' was der gelch1 ,die ,anfortas z siecheit truoc4 ,got noch knste kan genuoc40#ah ,,galahad4 ,in the final form assumed by the story1 that preserved in the ,queste1 the achievement of the task is not preceded by any failure on the part of the hero1 and the advantages derived therefrom are personal and spiritual1 though we are incidentally told that he heals the ,fisher ,king's father1 and also the old ,king1 ,mordrains1 whose life has been preternaturally prolonged4 ,in the case of this latter it is to be noted that the mere fact of ,galahad's being the predestined winner suffices1 and the healing takes place before the ,quest is definitely achieved4 ,there is no ,waste ,land1 and the wounding of the two ,kings is entirely unconnected with ,galahad4 ,we find hints1 in the story of ,lambar1 of a knowledge of the earlier form1 but for all practical purposes it has disappeared from the story4#ai ,analysing the above statements we find that the results may be grouped under certain definite headings3 7a7 ,there is a general consensus of evidence to the effect that the main object of the ,quest is the restoration to health and vigour of a ,king suffering from infirmity caused by wounds1 sickness1 or old age2 7b7 and whose infirmity1 for some mysterious and unexplained reason1 reacts disastrously upon his kingdom1 either depriving it of vegetation1 or exposing it to the ravages of war4 7c7 ,in two cases it is definitely stated that the ,king will be restored to youthful vigour and beauty4 7d7 ,in both cases where we find ,gawain as the hero of the story1 and in one connected with ,perceval1 the misfortune which has fallen upon the country is that of a prolonged drought1 which has destroyed vegetation1 and left the land ,waste2 the effect of the hero's question is to restore the waters to their channel1 and render the land once more fertile4 7e7 ,in three cases the misfortunes and wasting of the land are the result of war1 and directly caused by the hero's failure to ask the question2 we are not dealing with an antecedent condition4 ,this1 in my opinion1 constitutes a marked difference between the two groups1 which has not hitherto received the attention it deserves4 ,one aim of our present investigation will be to determine which of these two forms should be considered the elder4 ,but this much seems certain1 the aim of the ,grail ,quest is two-fold2 it is to benefit 7a7 the ,king1 7b7 the land4 ,the first of these two is the more important1 as it is the infirmity of the ,king which entails misfortune on his land1 the condition of the one reacts1 for good or ill1 upon the other2 how1 or why1 we are left to discover for ourselves4 ,before proceeding further in our investigation it may be well to determine the precise nature of the ,king's illness1 and see whether any light upon the problem can be thus obtained4 ,in both the ,gawain forms the person upon whom the fertility of the land depends is dead1 though1 in the version of ,di ,crne he is1 to all appearance1 still in life4 ,it should be noted that in the ,bleheris form the king of the castle1 who is not referred to as the ,fisher ,king1 is himself hale and sound2 the wasting of the land was brought about by the blow which slew the knight whose body ,gawain sees on the bier4 ,in both the ,perlesvaus1 and the prose ,perceval the ,king has simply #8fallen into languishment1' in the first instance1 as noted above1 on account of the failure of the ,quester1 in the second as the result of extreme old age4 ,in ,chrtien1 ,manessier1 ,peredur1 and the ,parzival1 the ,king is suffering from a wound the nature of which1 euphemistically disguised in the ,french texts1 is quite clearly explained in the ,german4#bj ,but the whole position is made absolutely clear by a passage preserved in ,sone de ,nansai and obviously taken over from an earlier poem4 ,this romance contains a lengthy section dealing with the history of ,joseph #8d',abarimathie1' who is represented as the patron ,saint of the kingdom of ,norway2 his bones1 with the sacred relics of which he had the charge1 the ,grail and the ,lance1 are preserved in a monastery on an island in the interior of that country4 ,in this version ,joseph himself is the ,fisher ,king2 ensnared by the beauty of the daughter of the ,pagan ,king of ,norway1 whom he has slain1 he baptizes her1 though she is still an unbeliever at heart1 and makes her his wife1 thus drawing the wrath of ,heaven upon himself4 ,god punishes him for his sin3 8,es rains et desous l'afola ,de coi grant dolor endura40#ba ,then1 in a remarkable passage1 we are told of the direful result entailed by this punishment upon his land3 8,sa tierre ert a ce jour nomme ,lorgres1 ch'est verits prouve1 ,lorgres est uns nons de dolour ,nomms en larmes et en plours1 ,bien doit iestre en dolour nomms ,car on n'i seme pois ne bls ,ne enfes d'omme n'i nasqui ,ne puchielle n'i ot mari1 ,ne arbres fueille n'i porta ,ne nus prs n'i raverda1 ,ne nus oysiaus n'i ot naon ,ne se n'i ot beste faon1 ,tant que li rois fu mehaignis ,et qu'il fu fors de ses pechis1 ,car ,jesu-,crist fourment pesa ,qu' la mescrant habita40#bb ,now there can be no possible doubt here1 the condition of the ,king is sympathetically reflected on the land1 the loss of virility in the one brings about a suspension of the reproductive processes of ,nature on the other4 ,the same effect would naturally be the result of the death of the sovereign upon whose vitality these processes depended4 ,to sum up the result of the analysis1 ,i hold that we have solid grounds for the belief that the story postulates a close connection between the vitality of a certain ,king1 and the prosperity of his kingdom2 the forces of the ruler being weakened or destroyed1 by wound1 sickness1 old age1 or death1 the land becomes ,waste1 and the task of the hero is that of restoration4#bc ,it seems to me1 then1 that1 if we desire to elucidate the perplexing mystery of the ,grail romances1 and to place the criticism of this important and singularly fascinating body of literature upon an assured basis1 we shall do so most effectually by pursuing a line of investigation which will concentrate upon the persistent elements of the story1 the character and significance of the achievement proposed1 rather than upon the varying details1 such as ,grail and ,lance1 however important may be their rle4 ,if we can ascertain1 accurately1 and unmistakably1 the meaning of the whole1 we shall1 ,i think1 find less difficulty in determining the character and office of the parts1 in fact1 the question solvitur ambulando1 the #8complex' of the problem being solved1 the constituent elements will reveal their significance4 ,as a first step ,i propose to ask whether this #8,quest of the ,grail' represents an isolated1 and unique achievement1 or whether the task allotted to the hero1 ,gawain1 ,perceval1 or ,galahad1 is one that has been undertaken1 and carried out by heroes of other ages1 and other lands4 ,in the process of our investigation we must retrace our steps and turn back to the early traditions of our ,aryan forefathers1 and see whether we cannot1 even in that remote antiquity1 lay our hand upon a clue1 which1 like the fabled thread of ,ariadne1 shall serve as guide through the mazes of a varying1 yet curiously persistent1 tradition4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,the ,freeing of the ,waters #8,to begin at the beginning1' was the old story-telling formula1 and it was a very sound one1 if #8the beginning' could only be definitely ascertained6 ,as our nearest possible approach to it ,i would draw attention to certain curious parallels in the earliest literary monuments of our race4 ,i would at the same time beg those scholars who may think it #8a far cry' from the romances of the twelfth century of our era to some #ajjj years ,b4,c4 to suspend their judgment till they have fairly examined the evidence for a tradition common to the ,aryan race in general1 and persisting with extraordinary vitality1 and a marked correspondence of characteristic detail1 through all migrations and modifications of that race1 down to the present day4 ,turning back to the earliest existing literary evidence1 the ,rig-,veda1 we become aware that1 in this vast collection of over #ajjj poems 7it is commonly known as ,the ,thousand and ,one ,hymns but the poems contained in it are more than that in number7 are certain parallels with our ,grail stories which1 if taken by themselves1 are perhaps interesting and suggestive rather than in any way conclusive1 yet which1 when they are considered in relation to the entire body of evidence1 assume a curious significance and importance4 ,we must first note that a very considerable number of the ,rig-,veda hymns depend for their initial inspiration on the actual bodily needs and requirements of a mainly agricultural population1 i4e41 of a people that depend upon the fruits of the earth for their subsistence1 and to whom the regular and ordered sequence of the processes of ,nature was a vital necessity4 ,their hymns and prayers1 and1 as we have strong reason to suppose1 their dramatic ritual1 were devised for the main purpose of obtaining from the gods of their worship that which was essential to ensure their well-being and the fertility of their land--warmth1 sunshine1 above all1 sufficient water4 ,that this last should1 in an ,eastern land1 under a tropical sun1 become a point of supreme importance1 is easily to be understood4 ,there is consequently small cause for surprise when we find1 throughout the collection1 the god who bestows upon them this much desired boon to be the one to whom by far the greater proportion of the hymns are addressed4 ,it is not necessary here to enter into a discussion as to the original conception of ,indra1 and the place occupied by him in the early ,aryan ,pantheon1 whether he was originally regarded as a god of war1 or a god of weather2 what is important for our purpose is the fact that it is ,indra to whom a disproportionate number of the hymns of the ,rig-,veda are addressed1 that it is from him the much desired boon of rain and abundant water is besought1 and that the feat which above all others redounded to his praise1 and is ceaselessly glorified both by the god himself1 and his grateful worshippers1 is precisely the feat by which the ,grail heroes1 ,gawain and ,perceval1 rejoiced the hearts of a suffering folk1 i4e41 the restoration of the rivers to their channels1 the #8,freeing of the ,waters4' ,tradition relates that the seven great rivers of ,india had been imprisoned by the evil giant1 ,vritra1 or ,ahi1 whom ,indra slew1 thereby releasing the streams from their captivity4 ,the ,rig-,veda hymns abound in references to this feat2 it will only be necessary to cite a few from among the numerous passages ,i have noted4 #8,thou hast set loose the seven rivers to flow4' #8,thou causest water to flow on every side4' #8,indra set free the waters4' #8,thou1 ,indra1 hast slain ,vritra by thy vigour1 thou hast set free the rivers4' #8,thou hast slain the slumbering ,ahi for the release of the waters1 and hast marked out the channels of the all-delighting rivers4' #8,indra has filled the rivers1 he has inundated the dry land4' #8,indra has released the imprisoned waters to flow upon the earth4'#a ,it would be easy to fill pages with similar quotations1 but these are sufficient for our purpose4 ,among the ,rig-,veda hymns are certain poems in ,dialogue form1 which from their curious and elliptic character have been the subject of much discussion among scholars4 ,professor ,oldenberg1 in drawing attention to their peculiarities1 had expressed his opinion that these poems were the remains of a distinct type of early ,indian literature1 where verses forming the central1 and illuminating1 point of a formal ceremonial recital had been #8farced' with illustrative and explanatory prose passages2 the form of the verses being fixed1 that of the prose being varied at the will of the reciter4#b ,this theory1 which is technically known as the #8khyna' theory 7as it derived its starting point from the discussion of the ,suparnkhyna text71 won considerable support1 but was contested by ,m4 ,sylvain ,lvi1 who asserted that1 in these hymns1 we had the remains of the earliest1 and oldest1 ,indian dramatic creations1 the beginning of the ,indian ,drama2 and that the fragments could only be satisfactorily interpreted from the point of view that they were intended to be spoken1 not by a solitary reciter1 but by two or more dramatis personae4#c ,j4 ,hertel 7,der ,ursprung des ,indischen ,dramas und ,epos7 went still further1 and while accepting1 and demonstrating1 the justice of this interpretation of the #8,dialogue' poems1 suggested a similar origin for certain #8,monologues' found in the same collection4#d ,professor ,leopold von ,schroeder1 in his extremely interesting volume1 ,mysterium und ,mimus im ,rig-,veda1#e has given a popular and practical form to the results of these researches1 by translating and publishing1 with an explanatory study1 a selection of these early #8,culture' ,dramas1 explaining the speeches1 and placing them in the mouth of the respective actors to whom they were1 presumably1 assigned4 ,professor von ,schroeder holds the entire group to be linked together by one common intention1 viz41 the purpose of stimulating the processes of ,nature1 and of obtaining1 as a result of what may be called a ,ritual ,culture ,drama1 an abundant return of the fruits of the earth4 ,the whole book is rich in parallels drawn from ancient and modern sources1 and is of extraordinary interest to the ,folk-lore student4 ,in the light thrown by ,professor von ,schroeder's researches1 following as they do upon the illuminating studies of ,mannhardt1 and ,frazer1 we become strikingly aware of the curious vitality and persistence of certain popular customs and beliefs2 and while the two last-named writers have rendered inestimable service to the study of ,comparative ,religion by linking the practices of ,classical and ,medieval times with the ,folk-customs of to-day1 we recognize1 through von ,schroeder's work1 that the root of such belief and custom is imbedded in a deeper stratum of ,folk-tradition than we had hitherto realized1 that it is1 in fact1 a heritage from the far-off past of the ,aryan peoples4 ,for the purposes of our especial line of research ,mysterium und ,mimus offers much of value and interest4 ,as noted above1 the main object of these primitive ,dramas was that of encouraging1 we may say1 ensuring1 the fertility of the ,earth2 thus it is not surprising that more than one deals with the theme of which we are treating1 the ,freeing of the ,waters1 only that whereas1 in the quotations given above1 the worshippers praise ,indra for his beneficent action1 here ,indra himself1 in propria persona appears1 and vaunts his feat4 8,ich schlug den ,vritra mit der ,kraft des ,indra6 ,durch eignen ,grimm war ich so stark geworden6 ,ich machte fr die ,menschen frei die ,wasser0#f ,and the impersonated rivers speak for themselves4 8,indra1 den ,blitz im ,arm1 brach uns die ,bahnen1 ,er schlug den ,vritra1 die ,strme einschloss40#g ,there is no need to insist further on the point that the task of the ,grail hero is in this special respect no mere literary invention1 but a heritage from the achievements of the prehistoric heroes of the ,aryan race4 ,but the poems selected by ,professor von ,schroeder for discussion offer us a further1 and more curious1 parallel with the ,grail romances4 ,in ,section ,,viii4 of the work referred to the author discusses the story of ishyaiga1 as the ,mahbhrata names the hero2 here we find a young ,brahmin brought up by his father1 ,vibhndaka1 in a lonely forest hermitage#h absolutely ignorant of the outside world1 and even of the very existence of beings other than his father and himself4 ,he has never seen a woman1 and does not know that such a creature exists4 ,a drought falls upon a neighbouring kingdom1 and the inhabitants are reduced to great straits for lack of food4 ,the ,king1 seeking to know by what means the sufferings of his people may be relieved1 learns that so long as ishyaiga continues chaste so long will the drought endure4 ,an old woman1 who has a fair daughter of irregular life1 undertakes the seduction of the hero4 ,the ,king has a ship1 or raft 7both versions are given71 fitted out with all possible luxury1 and an apparent ,hermit's cell erected upon it4 ,the old woman1 her daughter and companions1 embark2 and the river carries them to a point not far from the young ,brahmin's hermitage4 ,taking advantage of the absence of his father1 the girl visits ishyaiga in his forest cell1 giving him to understand that she is a ,hermit1 like himself1 which the boy1 in his innocence1 believes4 ,he is so fascinated by her appearance and caresses that1 on her leaving him1 he1 deep in thought of the lovely visitor1 forgets1 for the first time1 his religious duties4 ,on his father's return he innocently relates what has happened1 and the father warns him that fiends in this fair disguise strive to tempt hermits to their undoing4 ,the next time the father is absent the temptress1 watching her opportunity1 returns1 and persuades the boy to accompany her to her #8,hermitage' which she assures him1 is far more beautiful than his own4 ,so soon as ishyaiga is safely on board the ship sails1 the lad is carried to the capital of the rainless land1 the ,king gives him his daughter as wife1 and so soon as the marriage is consummated the spell is broken1 and rain falls in abundance4 ,professor von ,schroeder points out that there is little doubt that1 in certain earlier versions of the tale1 the ,king's daughter herself played the rle of temptress4 ,there is no doubt that a ceremonial #8marriage' very frequently formed a part of the #8,fertility' ritual1 and was supposed to be specially efficacious in bringing about the effect desired4#i ,the practice subsists in ,indian ritual to this hour1 and the surviving traces in ,european ,folk-custom have been noted in full by ,mannhardt in his exhaustive work on ,wald und ,feld-,kulte2 its existence in ,classic times is well known1 and it is certainly one of the living ,folk-customs for which a well-attested chain of descent can be cited4 ,professor von ,schroeder remarks that the efficacy of the rite appears to be enhanced by the previous strict observance of the rule of chastity by the officiant4#aj ,what1 however1 is of more immediate interest for our purpose is the fact that the ishyaiga story does1 in effect1 possess certain curious points of contact with the ,grail tradition4 ,thus1 the lonely upbringing of the youth in a forest1 far from the haunts of men1 his absolute ignorance of the existence of human beings other than his parent and himself1 present a close parallel to the accounts of ,perceval's youth and woodland life1 as related in the ,grail romances4#aa ,in ,gerbert's continuation we are told that the marriage of the hero is an indispensable condition of achieving the ,quest1 a detail which must have been taken over from an earlier version1 as ,gerbert proceeds to stultify himself by describing the solemnities of the marriage1 and the ceremonial blessing of the nuptial couch1 after which hero and heroine simultaneously agree to live a life of strict chastity1 and are rewarded by the promise that the ,swan ,knight shall be their descendant--a tissue of contradictions which can only be explained by the mal--droit blending of two versions1 one of which knew the hero as wedded1 the other1 as celibate4 ,there can be no doubt that the original ,perceval story included the marriage of the hero4#ab ,the circumstances under which ishyaiga is lured from his ,hermitage are curiously paralleled by the account1 found in the ,queste and ,manessier1 of ,perceval's temptation by a fiend1 in the form of a fair maiden1 who comes to him by water in a vessel hung with black silk1 and with great riches on board4#ac ,in pointing out these parallels ,i wish to make my position perfectly clear2 ,i do not claim that either in the ,rig-,veda1 or in any other early ,aryan literary monument1 we can hope to discover the direct sources of the ,grail legend1 but what ,i would urge upon scholars is the fact that1 in adopting the hypothesis of a ,nature ,cult as a possible origin1 and examining the history of these ,cults1 their evolution1 and their variant forms1 we do1 in effect1 find at every period and stage of development undoubted points of contact1 which1 though taken separately1 might be regarded as accidental1 in their ensemble can hardly be thus considered4 ,when every parallel to our ,grail story is found within the circle of a well-defined1 and carefully studied1 sequence of belief and practice1 when each and all form part of a well-recognized body of tradition the descent of which has been abundantly demonstrated1 then ,i submit such parallels stand on a sound basis1 and it is not unreasonable to conclude that the body of tradition containing them belongs to the same family and is to be interpreted on the same principles as the closely analogous rites and ceremonies4 ,i suspend the notice and discussion of other poems contained in ,prof4 von ,schroeder's collection till we have reached a later stage of the tradition1 when their correspondence will be recognized as even more striking and suggestive4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,tammuz and ,adonis ,,part ,i4 ,,tammuz ,in the previous chapter we considered certain aspects of the attitude assumed by our ,aryan forefathers towards the great processes of ,nature in their ordered sequence of ,birth1 ,growth1 and ,decay4 ,we saw that while on one hand they1 by prayer and supplication1 threw themselves upon the mercy of the ,divinity1 who1 in their belief1 was responsible for the granting1 or withholding1 of the water1 whether of rain1 or river1 the constant supply of which was an essential condition of such ordered sequence1 they1 on the other hand1 believed that1 by their own actions1 they could stimulate and assist the ,divine activity4 ,hence the dramatic representations to which ,i have referred1 the performance1 for instance1 of such a drama as the ishyaiga1 the ceremonial #8marriages1' and other exercises of what we now call sympathetic magic4 ,to quote a well-known passage from ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer3 8,they commonly believed that the tie between the animal and vegetable world was even closer than it really is--to them the principle of life and fertility1 whether animal or vegetable1 was one and indivisible4 ,hence actions that induced fertility in the animal world were held to be equally efficacious in stimulating the reproductive energies of the vegetable40#a ,how deeply this idea was rooted in the minds of our ancestors we1 their descendants1 may learn from its survival to our own day4 ,the ultimate1 and what we may in a general sense term the classical1 form in which this sense of the community of the ,life principle found expression was that which endowed the vivifying force of ,nature with a distinct personality1 divine1 or semi-divine1 whose experiences1 in virtue of his close kinship with humanity1 might be expressed in terms of ordinary life4 ,at this stage the progress of the seasons1 the birth of vegetation in spring1 or its revival after the autumn rains1 its glorious fruition in early summer1 its decline and death under the maleficent influence either of the scorching sun1 or the bitter winter cold1 symbolically represented the corresponding stages in the life of this anthropomorphically conceived ,being1 whose annual progress from birth to death1 from death to a renewed life1 was celebrated with a solemn ritual of corresponding alternations of rejoicing and lamentation4 ,recent research has provided us with abundant material for the study of the varying forms of this ,nature ,cult1 the extraordinary importance of which as an evolutionary factor in what we may term the concrete expression of human thought and feeling is only gradually becoming realized4#b ,before turning our attention to this1 the most important1 section of our investigation1 it may be well to consider one characteristic difference between the ,nature ritual of the ,rig-,veda1 and that preserved to us in the later monuments of ,greek antiquity4 ,in the ,rig-,veda1 early as it is1 we find the process of religious evolution already far advanced2 the god has separated himself from his worshippers1 and assumed an anthropomorphic form4 ,indra1 while still retaining traces of his #8weather' origin1 is no longer1 to borrow ,miss ,harrison's descriptive phrase1 #8an automatic explosive thunder-storm1' he wields the thunderbolt certainly1 but he appears in heroic form to receive the offerings made to him1 and to celebrate his victory in a solemn ritual dance4 ,in ,greek art and literature1 on the other hand1 where we might expect to find an even more advanced conception1 we are faced with one seemingly more primitive and inchoate1 i4e41 the idea of a constantly recurring cycle of ,birth1 ,death1 and ,resurrection1 or ,re-,birth1 of all things in ,nature1 this cycle depending upon the activities of an entity at first vaguely conceived of as the #8,luck of the ,year1' the ,eniautos ,daimon4 ,this ,being1 at one stage of evolution theriomorphic--he might assume the form of a bull1 a goat1 or a snake 7the latter1 probably from the close connection of the reptile with the earth1 being the more general form7--only gradually1 and by distinctly traceable stages1 assumed an anthropomorphic shape4#c ,this gives to the study of ,greek antiquity a special and peculiar value1 since in regard to the body of religious belief and observance with which we are here immediately concerned1 neither in what we may not improperly term its ultimate 7early ,aryan71 nor in what has been generally considered its proximate 7,syro-,phoenician71 source1 have these intermediate stages been preserved2 in each case the ritual remains are illustrative of a highly developed cult1 distinctly anthropomorphic in conception4 ,i offer no opinion as to the critical significance of this fact1 but ,i would draw the attention of scholars to its existence4 ,that the process of evolution was complete at a very early date has been proved by recent researches into the ,sumerian-,babylonian civilization4 ,we know now that the cult of the god ,tammuz1 who1 if not the direct original of the ,phoenician-,greek ,adonis1 is at least representative of a common parent deity1 may be traced back to #cjjj ,b4,c41 while it persisted among the ,sabeans at ,harran into the ,middle ,ages4#d ,while much relating to the god and his precise position in the ,sumerian-,babylonian ,pantheon still remains obscure1 fragmentary cuneiform texts connected with the religious services of the period have been discovered1 and to a considerable extent deciphered1 and we are thus in a position to judge1 from the prayers and invocations addressed to the deity1 what were the powers attributed to1 and the benefits besought from1 him4 ,these texts are of a uniform character2 they are all #8,lamentations1' or #8,wailings1' having for their exciting cause the disappearance of ,tammuz from this upper earth1 and the disastrous effects produced upon animal and vegetable life by his absence4 ,the woes of the land and the folk are set forth in poignant detail1 and ,tammuz is passionately invoked to have pity upon his worshippers1 and to end their sufferings by a speedy return4 ,this return1 we find from other texts1 was effected by the action of a goddess1 the mother1 sister1 or paramour1 of ,tammuz1 who1 descending into the nether world1 induced the youthful deity to return with her to earth4 ,it is perfectly clear from the texts which have been deciphered that ,tammuz is not to be regarded merely as representing the ,spirit of ,vegetation2 his influence is operative1 not only in the vernal processes of ,nature1 as a ,spring god1 but in all its reproductive energies1 without distinction or limitation1 he may be considered as an embodiment of the ,life principle1 and his cult as a ,life ,cult4 ,mr ,stephen ,langdon inclines to believe that the original ,tammuz typified the vivifying waters2 he writes3 8,since1 in ,babylonia as in ,egypt1 the fertility of the soil depended upon irrigation1 it is but natural to expect that the youthful god who represents the birth and death of nature1 would represent the beneficent waters which flooded the valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates in the late winter1 and which ebbed away1 and nearly disappeared1 in the canals and rivers in the period of ,summer drought4 ,we find therefore that the theologians regarded this youthful divinity as belonging to the cult of ,eridu1 centre of the worship of ,ea1 lord of the nether sea40#e ,in a note to this passage ,mr ,langdon adds3 8,he appears in the great theological list as ,dami-zi1 ab-zu1 #8,tammuz of the nether sea1' i4e41 #8the faithful son of the fresh waters which come from the earth4'0#f ,this presents us with an interesting analogy to the citations given in the previous chapter from the ,rig-,veda2 the ,tammuz cult is specially valuable as providing us with evidence of the gradual evolution of the ,life ,cult from the early conception of the vivifying power of the waters1 to the wider recognition of a common principle underlying all manifestations of ,life4 ,this is very clearly brought out in the beautiful ,lament for ,tammuz1 published by ,mr ,langdon in ,tammuz and ,ishtar1 and also in ,sumerian and ,babylonian ,psalms4#g 8,in ,eanna1 high and low1 there is weeping1 ,wailing for the house of the lord they raise4 ,the wailing is for the plants2 the first lament is #8they grow not4' ,the wailing is for the barley2 the ears grow not4 ,for the habitations and flocks it is2 they produce not4 ,for the perishing wedded ones1 for perishing children it is2 the dark-headed people create not4 ,the wailing is for the great river2 it brings the flood no more4 ,the wailing is for the fields of men2 the gunu grows no more4 ,the wailing is for the fish-ponds2 the dasuhur fish spawn not4 ,the wailing is for the cane-brake2 the fallen stalks grow not4 ,the wailing is for the forests2 the tamarisks grow not4 ,the wailing is for the highlands2 the masgam trees grow not4 ,the wailing is for the garden store-house2 honey and wine are produced not4 ,the wailing is for the meadows2 the bounty of the garden1 the sihtu plants grow not4 ,the wailing is for the palace2 life unto distant days is not40 ,can anything be more expressive of the community of life animating the whole of ,nature than this poignantly worded lament8 ,a point which differentiates the worship of ,tammuz from the kindred1 and better known1 cult of ,adonis1 is the fact that we have no liturgical record of the celebration of the resurrection of the deity2 it certainly took place1 for the effects are referred to3 8,where grass was not1 there grass is eaten1 ,where water was not1 water is drunk1 ,where the cattle sheds were not1 cattle sheds are built40#h ,while this distinctly implies the revival of vegetable and animal life1 those features 7i4e41 resurrection and sacred marriage71 which made the ,adonis ritual one of rejoicing as much as of lamentation1 are absent from liturgical remains of the ,tammuz cult4#i ,a detail which has attracted the attention of scholars is the lack of any artistic representation of this ritual1 a lack which is the more striking in view of the important position which these #8,wailings for ,tammuz' occupy in the extant remains of ,babylonian liturgies4 ,on this point ,mr ,langdon makes an interesting suggestion3 8,it is probable that the service of wailing for the dying god1 the descent of the mother1 and the resurrection1 were attended by mysterious rituals4 ,the actual mysteries may have been performed in a secret chamber1 and consequently the scenes were forbidden in ,art4 ,this would account for the surprising dearth of archaeological evidence concerning a cult upon which the very life of mankind was supposed to depend40#aj ,in view of the fact that my suggestion as to the possible later development of these ,life ,cults as ,mysteries has aroused considerable opposition1 it is well to bear in mind that such development is held by those best acquainted with the earliest forms of the ritual to have been not merely possible1 but to have actually taken place1 and that at a very remote date4 ,mr ,langdon quotes a passage referring to 8,kings who in their day played the rle of ,tammuz in the mystery of this cult02 he considers that here we have to do with kings who1 by a symbolic act1 escaped the final penalty of sacrifice as representative of the ,dying ,god4#aa ,the full importance of the evidence above set forth will become more clearly apparent as we proceed with our investigation2 here ,i would simply draw attention to the fact that we now possess definite proof that1 at a period of some #cjjj years ,b4,c41 the idea of a ,being upon whose life and reproductive activities the very existence of ,nature and its corresponding energies was held to depend1 yet who was himself subject to the vicissitudes of declining powers and death1 like an ordinary mortal1 had already assumed a fixed1 and practically final1 form2 further1 that this form was specially crystallized in ritual observances4 ,in our study of the later manifestations of this cult we shall find that this central idea is always1 and unalterably1 the same1 and is1 moreover1 frequently accompanied by a remarkable correspondence of detail4 ,the chain of evidence is already strong1 and we may justly claim that the links added by further research strengthen1 while they lengthen1 that chain4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,adonis ,while it is only of comparatively recent date that information as to the exact character of the worship directed to ,tammuz has been available and the material we at present possess is but fragmentary in character1 the corresponding cult of the ,phoenician-,greek divinity we know as ,adonis has for some years been the subject of scholarly research4 ,not only have the details of the ritual been examined and discussed1 and the surviving artistic evidence described and illustrated1 but from the anthropological side attention has been forcibly directed to its importance as a factor in the elucidation of certain widespread ,folk-beliefs and practices4#ab ,we know now that the worship of ,adonis1 which enjoyed among the ,greeks a popularity extending to our own day1 was originally of ,phoenician origin1 its principal centres being the cities of ,byblos1 and ,aphaka4 ,from ,phoenicia it spread to the ,greek islands1 the earliest evidence of the worship being found in ,cyprus1 and from thence to the mainland1 where it established itself firmly4 ,the records of the cult go back to #gjj ,b4,c41 but it may quite possibly be of much earlier date4 ,mr ,langdon suggests that the worship of the divinity we know as ,adonis1 may1 under another name1 reach back to an antiquity equal with that we can now ascribe to the cult of ,tammuz4 ,in its fully evolved classical form the cult of ,adonis offers1 as it were1 a halfway house1 between the fragmentary relics of ,aryan and ,babylonian antiquity1 and the wealth of ,medieval and ,modern survivals to which the ingenuity and patience of contemporary scholars have directed our attention4 ,we all know the mythological tale popularly attached to the name of ,adonis2 that he was a fair youth1 beloved of ,aphrodite1 who1 wounded in the thigh by a wild boar1 died of his wound4 ,the goddess1 in despair at his death1 by her prayers won from ,zeus the boon that ,adonis be allowed to return to earth for a portion of each year1 and henceforward the youthful god divides his time between the goddess of ,hades1 ,persephone1 and ,aphrodite4 ,but the importance assumed by the story1 the elaborate ceremonial with which the death of ,adonis was mourned1 and his restoration to life fted1 the date and character of the celebrations1 all leave no doubt that the personage with whom we are dealing was no mere favourite of a goddess1 but one with whose life and well-being the ordinary processes of ,nature1 whether animal or vegetable1 were closely and intimately concerned4 ,in fact the central figure of these rites1 by whatever name he may be called1 is the somewhat elusive and impersonal entity1 who represents in anthropomorphic form the principle of animate ,nature1 upon whose preservation1 and unimpaired energies1 the life of man1 directly1 and indirectly1 depends4#ac ,before proceeding to examine these rites there is one point1 to which ,i have alluded earlier1 in another connection1 upon which our minds must be quite clear1 i4e41 the nature of the injury suffered4 ,writers upon the subject are of one accord in considering the usual account to be but a euphemistic veiling of the truth1 while the close relation between the stories of ,adonis and ,attis1 and the practices associated with the cult1 place beyond any shadow of a doubt the fact that the true reason for this universal mourning was the cessation1 or suspension1 by injury or death1 of the reproductive energy of the god upon whose virile activity vegetable life directly1 and human life indirectly1 depended4#ad ,what we have need to seize and to insist upon is the overpowering influence which the sense of ,life1 the need for ,life1 the essential ,sanctity of the ,life-giving faculty1 exercised upon primitive religions4 ,vellay puts this well when he says3 8,en ralit c'est sur la conception de la vie physique1 considre dans son origine1 et dans son action1 et dans le double principe qui l'anime1 que repose tout le cycle religieux des peuples ,orientaux de l',antiquit40#ae ,professor von ,schroeder says even more precisely and emphatically3 8,in der ,religion der ,arischen ,urzeit ist ,alles auf ,lebensbejahung gerichtet1 ,mann kann den ,phallus als ihr ,beherrschendes ,symbol betrachten40#af ,and in spite of the strong opposition to this cult manifested in ,indian literature1 beginning with the ,rig-,veda1 and ripening to fruition in the ,upanishads1 in spite of the rise of ,buddhism1 with its opposing dictum of renunciation1 the #8,life-,cult' asserted its essential vitality against all opposition1 and under modified forms represents the #8popular' religion of ,india to this day4 ,each and all of the ritual dramas1 reconstructed in the pages of ,mysterium und ,mimus bear1 more or less distinctly1 the stamp of their #8,fertility' origin1#ag while outside ,india the pages of ,frazer and ,mannhardt1 and numerous other writers on ,folk-lore and ,ethnology1 record the widespread1 and persistent1 survival of these rites1 and their successful defiance of the spread of civilization4 ,it is to this special group of belief and practice that the ,adonis 7and more especially its ,phrygian counterpart the ,attis7 worship belong1 and even when transplanted to the more restrained and cultured environment of the ,greek mainland1 they still retained their primitive character4 ,farnell1 in his ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 refers to the worship of ,adonis as 8a ritual that the more austere ,state religion of ,greece probably failed to purify1 the saner minds1 bred in a religious atmosphere that was1 on the whole1 genial1 and temperate1 revolted from the din of cymbals and drums1 the meaningless ecstasies of sorrow and joy1 that marked the new religion40#ah ,it is1 ,i submit1 indispensable for the purposes of our investigation that the essential character and significance of the cults with which we are dealing should not be evaded or ignored1 but faced1 frankly admitted and held in mind during the progress of our enquiry4 ,having now determined the general character of the ritual1 what were the specific details8 ,the date of the feast seems to have varied in different countries2 thus in ,greece it was celebrated in the ,spring1 the moment of the birth of ,vegetation2 according to ,saint ,jerome1 in ,palestine the celebration fell in ,june1 when plant life was in its first full luxuriance4 ,in ,cyprus1 at the autumnal equinox1 i4e41 the beginning of the year in the ,syro-,macedonian calendar1 the death of ,adonis falling on the #bcrd of ,september1 his resurrection on the #ast of ,october1 the beginning of a ,new ,year4 ,this would seem to indicate that here ,adonis was considered1 as ,vellay suggests1 less as the god of ,vegetation than as the superior and nameless ,lord of ,life 7,adonis,syriac ,adn1 ,lord71 under whose protection the year was placed4#ai ,he is the ,eniautos ,daimon4 ,in the same way as the dates varied1 so1 also1 did the order of the ritual2 generally speaking the elaborate ceremonies of mourning for the dead god1 and committing his effigy to the waves1 preceded the joyous celebration of his resurrection1 but in ,alexandria the sequence was otherwise2 the feast began with the solemn and joyous celebration of the nuptials of ,adonis and ,aphrodite1 at the conclusion of which a ,head1 of papyrus1 representing the god1 was1 with every show of mourning1 committed to the waves1 and borne within seven days by a current 7always to be counted upon at that season of the year7 to ,byblos1 where it was received and welcomed with popular rejoicing4#bj ,the duration of the feast varied from two days1 as at ,alexandria1 to seven or eight4 ,connected with the longer period of the feast were the so-called #8,gardens of ,adonis1' baskets1 or pans1 planted with quick growing seeds1 which speedily come to fruition1 and as speedily wither4 ,in the modern survivals of the cult three days form the general term for the flowering of these gardens4#ba ,the most noticeable feature of the ritual was the prominence assigned to women2 8ce sont les femmes qui le pleurent1 et qui l'accompagnent sa tombe4 ,elles sanglotent perdument pendant les nuits1--c'est leur dieu plus que tout autre1 et seules elles veulent pleurer sa mort1 et chanter sa rsurrection40#bb ,thus in the tenth century the festival received the ,arabic name of ,el-,bgat1 or #8,the ,festival of the ,weeping ,women4'#bc ,one very curious practice during these celebrations was that of cutting off the hair in honour of the god2 women who hesitated to make this sacrifice must offer themselves to strangers1 either in the temple1 or on the market-place1 the gold received as the price of their favours being offered to the goddess4 ,this obligation only lasted for one day4#bd ,it was also customary for the priests of ,adonis to mutilate themselves in imitation of the god1 a distinct proof1 if one were needed1 of the traditional cause of his death4#be ,turning from a consideration of the ,adonis ritual1 its details1 and significance1 to an examination of the ,grail romances1 we find that their mise-en-scne provides a striking series of parallels with the ,classical celebrations1 parallels1 which instead of vanishing1 as parallels have occasionally an awkward habit of doing1 before closer investigation1 rather gain in force the more closely they are studied4 ,thus the central figure is either a dead knight on a bier 7as in the ,gawain versions71 or a wounded king on a litter2 when wounded the injury corresponds with that suffered by ,adonis and ,attis4#bf ,closely connected with the wounding of the king is the destruction which has fallen on the land1 which will be removed when the king is healed4 ,the version of ,sone de ,nansai is here of extreme interest2 the position is stated with so much clearness and precision that the conclusion cannot be evaded--we are face to face with the dreaded calamity which it was the aim of the ,adonis ritual to avert1 the temporary suspension of all the reproductive energies of ,nature4#bg ,while the condition of the king is the cause of general and vociferous lamentation1 a special feature1 never satisfactorily accounted for1 is the presence of a weeping woman1 or several weeping women4 ,thus in the interpolated visit of ,gawain to the ,grail castle1 found in the ,c group of ,perceval ,,mss41 the ,grail-bearer weeps piteously1 as she does also in ,di ,crne4#bh ,in the version of the prose ,lancelot ,gawain1 during the night1 sees twelve maidens come to the door of the chamber where the ,grail is kept1 kneel down1 and weep bitterly1 in fact behave precisely as did the classical mourners for ,adonis--8,elles sanglotent perdument pendant la nuit40#bi--;behaviour for which the text1 as it now stands1 provides no shadow of explanation or excuse4 ,the ,grail is here the most revered of ,christian relics1 the dwellers in the castle of ,corbenic have all that heart can desire1 with the additional prestige of being the guardians of the ,grail2 if the feature be not a belated survival1 which has lost its meaning1 it defies any explanation whatsoever4 ,in ,di ,crne alone1 where the ,grail-bearer and her maidens are the sole living beings in an abode of the ,dead1 is any explanation of the #8,weeping ,women' attempted1 but an interpolated passage in the ,heralds' ,college ,,ms4 of the ,perceval states that when the ,quest is achieved1 the hero shall learn the cause of the maiden's grief1 and also the explanation of the ,dead ,knight upon the bier3 8del graal q'vient aprs ,e purquei plure tut ads ,la pucele qui le sustient ,de la biere qu'aprs vient ,savera la vrit adonques ,ceo que nul ne pot saveir onques ,pur nule rien qui avenist40 fo4 #ahjvo-#aha4 ,of course in the ,perceval there is neither a ,weeping ,maiden1 nor a ,bier1 and the passage must therefore be either an unintelligent addition by a scribe familiar with the ,gawain versions1 or an interpolation from a source which did contain the features in question4 ,so far as the texts at our disposal are concerned1 both features belong exclusively to the ,gawain1 and not to the ,perceval ,quest4 ,the interpolation is significant as it indicates a surviving sense of the importance of this feature4 ,in the ,perlesvaus we have the curious detail of a maiden who has lost her hair as a result of the hero's failure to ask the question1 and the consequent sickness of the ,fisher ,king4 ,the occurrence of this detail may be purely fortuitous1 but at the same time it is admissible to point out that the ,adonis cults do provide us with a parallel in the enforced loss of hair by the women taking part in these rites1 while no explanation of this curious feature has so far as ,i am aware been suggested by critics of the text4#cj ,we may also note the fact that the ,grail castle is always situated in the close vicinity of water1 either on or near the sea1 or on the banks of an important river4 ,in two cases the final home of the ,grail is in a monastery situated upon an island4 ,the presence of water1 either sea1 or river1 is an important feature in the ,adonis cult1 the effigy of the dead god being1 not buried in the earth1 but thrown into the water4#ca ,it will thus be seen that1 in suggesting a form of ,nature worship1 analogous to this well-known cult1 as the possible ultimate source from which the incidents and mise-en-scne of the ,grail stories were derived1 we are relying not upon an isolated parallel1 but upon a group of parallels1 which alike in incident and intention offer1 not merely a resemblance to1 but also an explanation of1 the perplexing problems of the ,grail literature4 ,we must now consider the question whether incidents so remote in time may fairly and justly be utilized in this manner4 ,,chapter ,v ,medieval and ,modern ,forms of ,nature ,ritual ,readers of the foregoing pages may1 not improbably1 object that1 while we have instanced certain curious and isolated parallels from early ,aryan literature and tradition1 and1 what1 from the point of view of declared intention1 appears to be a kindred group of religious belief and practice in pre-,historic and ,classical times1 the two1 so far1 show no direct signs of affiliation1 while both may be held to be far removed1 in point of date1 alike from one another1 and from the romantic literature of the twelfth century4 ,this objection is sound in itself1 but if we can show by modern parallels that the ideas which took form and shape in early ,aryan ,drama1 and ,babylonian and ,classic ,ritual1 not only survive to our day1 but are found in combination with features corresponding minutely with details recorded in early ,aryan literature1 we may hold the gulf to be bridged1 and the common origin1 and close relationship1 of the different stages to be an ascertained fact4 ,at the outset1 and before examining the evidence collected by scholars1 ,i would remind my readers that the modern ,greeks have retained1 in many instances under changed names1 no inconsiderable portion of their ancient mythological beliefs1 among them the #8,adonis' celebrations2 the #8,gardens of ,adonis' blossom and fade to-day1 as they did many centuries ago1 and ,i have myself spoken with a scholar who has seen #8women1 at the door of their houses1 weeping for ,adonis4'#a ,for evidence of the widespread character of ,medieval and ,modern survivals we have only to consult the epoch-making works of ,mannhardt1 ,wald und ,feld-,kulte1 and ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough2#b in the pages of these volumes we shall find more than sufficient for our purpose4 ,from the wealth of illustration with which these works abound ,i have selected merely such instances as seem to apply more directly to the subject of our investigation4#c ,thus1 in many places1 it is still the custom to carry a figure representing the ,vegetation ,spirit on a bier1 attended by mourning women1 and either bury the figure1 throw it into water 7as a rain charm71 or1 after a mock death1 carry the revivified ,deity1 with rejoicing1 back to the town4 ,thus in the ,lechrain a man in black women's clothes is borne on a bier1 followed by men dressed as professional women mourners making lamentation1 thrown on the village dung-heap1 drenched with water1 and buried in straw4#d ,in ,russia the ,vegetation or ,year ,spirit is known as ,yarilo1#e and is represented by a doll with phallic attributes1 which is enclosed in a coffin1 and carried through the streets to the accompaniment of lamentation by women whose emotions have been excited by drink4 ,mannhardt gives the lament as follows3 8,wessen war ,er schuldig8 ,er war so gut6 ,er wird nicht mehr aufstehen6 ,o6 ,wie sollen wir uns von ,dir trennen8 ,was ist das ,leben wenn ,du nicht mehr da bist8 ,erhebe ,dich1 wenn auch nur auf ein ,stndchen6 ,aber ,er steht nicht auf1 ,er steht nicht auf60#f ,in other forms of the ritual1 we find distinct traces of the resuscitation of the ,vegetation ,deity1 occasionally accompanied by evidence of rejuvenation4 ,thus1 in ,lausitz1 on ,laetare ,sunday 7the #dth ,sunday in ,lent71 women with mourning veils carry a straw figure1 dressed in a man's shirt1 to the bounds of the next village1 where they tear the effigy to pieces1 hang the shirt on a young and flourishing tree1 8schne ,wald-,baum10 which they proceed to cut down1 and carry home with every sign of rejoicing4 ,here evidently the young tree is regarded as a rejuvenation of the person represented in the first instance by the straw figure4#g ,in many parts of ,europe to-day the corresponding ceremonies1 very generally held at ,whitsuntide1 include the mock execution of the individual representing the ,vegetation ,spirit1 frequently known as the ,king of the ,may4 ,in ,bohemia the person playing the rle of the ,king is1 with his attendants1 dressed in bark1 and decked with garlands of flowers2 at the conclusion of the ceremonies the ,king is allowed a short start1 and is then pursued by the armed attendants4 ,if he is not overtaken he holds office for a year1 but if overtaken1 he suffers a mock decapitation1 head-dress1 or crown1 being struck off1 and the pretended corpse is then borne on a bier to the next village4#h ,mannhardt1 discussing this point1 remarks that in the mock execution we must recognize 8,ein verbreiteter und jedenfalls uralter ,gebrauch40 ,he enumerates the various modes of death1 shooting1 stabbing 7in the latter case a bladder filled with blood1 and concealed under the clothes1 is pierced72 in ,bohemia1 decapitation1 occasionally drowning 7which primarily represents a rain charm71 is the form adopted4#i ,he then goes on to remark that this ceremonial death must have been generally followed by resuscitation1 as in ,thuringia1 where the #8,wild ,man1' as the central figure is there named1 is brought to life again by the ,doctor1 while the survival1 in the more elaborate ,spring processions of this latter character1 even where he plays no special rle1 points to the fact that his part in the proceedings was originally a more important one4 ,that ,mannhardt was not mistaken is proved by the evidence of the kindred ,dances1 a subject we shall consider later2 there we shall find the ,doctor playing his old-time rle1 and restoring to life the slain representative of the ,vegetation ,spirit4#aj ,the character of the ,doctor1 or ,medicine ,man1 formed1 as ,i believe1 at one time1 no unimportant link in the chain which connects these practices with the ,grail tradition4 ,the signification of the resuscitation ceremony is obscured in cases where the same figure undergoes death and revival without any corresponding change of form4 ,this point did not escape ,mannhardt's acute critical eye2 he remarks that1 in cases where1 e4g41 in ,swabia1 the #8,king' is described as 8ein armer alter ,mann10 who has lived seven years in the woods 7the seven winter months71 a scene of rejuvenation should follow--8diese scheint meistenteils verloren gegangen2 doch vielleicht scheint es nur so40 ,he goes on to draw attention to the practice in ,reideberg1 bei ,halle1 where1 after burying a straw figure1 called the ,old ,man1 the villagers dance round the ,may-,pole1 and he suggests that the #8,old ,man' represents the defunct ,vegetation ,spirit1 the ,may ,tree1 that ,spirit resuscitated1 and refers in this connection to the 8durchaus verwandten ,asiatischen ,gebrauchen des ,attis1 und ,adonis-,kultus40#aa ,the foregoing evidence offers1 ,i think1 sufficient proof of the1 now generally admitted1 relationship between ,classical1 ,medieval1 and ,modern forms of ,nature ritual4 ,but what of the relation to early ,aryan practice8 ,can that1 also1 be proved8 ,in this connection ,i would draw attention to ,chapter #ag of ,mysterium und ,mimus1 entitled1 ,ein ,volkstmlicher ,umzug beim ,soma-,fest4 ,here ,professor von ,schroeder discusses the real meaning and significance of a very curious little poem 7,rig-,veda1 #i4 #aab72 the title by which it is generally known1 ,alles lauft nach ,geld1 does not1 at first sight1 fit the content of the verse1 and the suggestion of scholars who have seen in it a humorous enumeration of different trades and handicrafts does not explain the fact that the ,frog and the ,horse appear in it4 ,to ,professor von ,schroeder belongs the credit of having discovered that the personnel of the poem corresponds with extraordinary exactitude to the ,figures of the ,spring and ,summer #8,fertility-exciting' processions1 described with such fulness of detail by ,mannhardt4 ,especially is this the case with the ,whitsuntide procession at ,vrdegtzen1 in ,hanover1 where we find the group of phallic and fertility demons1 who1 on ,prof4 von ,schroeder's hypothesis1 figure in the song1 in concrete1 and actual form4#ab ,the ,vegetation ,spirit appears in the song as an ,old ,man1 while his female counterpart1 an ,old ,woman1 is described as #8filling the hand-mill4' ,prof4 von ,schroeder points out that in some parts of ,russia the #8,baba-jaga' as the ,corn ,mother is called1 is an ,old ,woman1 who flies through the air in a hand-mill4 ,the ,doctor1 to whom we have referred above1 is mentioned twice in the four verses composing the song2 he was evidently regarded as an important figure2 while the whole is put into the mouth of a #8,singer' evidently the ,spokesman of the party1 who proclaims their object1 8,verschiednes knnend suchen wir ,gute ,dinge10 i4e41 gifts in money and kind1 as such folk processions do to-day4 ,the whole study is of extraordinary interest for ,folk-lore students1 and so far as our especial investigation is concerned it seems to me to supply the necessary proof of the identity1 and persistence1 of ,aryan folk-custom and tradition4 ,a very important modification of the root idea1 and one which appears to have a direct bearing on the sources of the ,grail tradition1 was that by which1 among certain peoples1 the rle of the god1 his responsibility for providing the requisite rain upon which the fertility of the land1 and the life of the folk1 depended1 was combined with that of the ,king4 ,this was the case among the ,celts2 ,mc,culloch1 in ,the ,religion of the ,celts1 discussing the question of the early ,irish geasa or taboo1 explains the geasa of the ,irish kings as designed to promote the welfare of the tribe1 the making of rain and sunshine on which their prosperity depended4 8,their observance made the earth fruitful1 produced abundance and prosperity1 and kept both the king and his land from misfortune4 ,the ,kings were divinities on whom depended fruitfulness and plenty1 and who must therefore submit to obey their #8geasa4'#ac ,the same idea seems to have prevailed in early ,greece2 ,mr ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 in his studies on ,the ,european ,sky-,god1 remarks that the king in early ,greece was regarded as the representative of ,zeus3 his duties could be satisfactorily discharged only by a man who was perfect1 and without blemish1 i4e41 by a man in the prime of life1 suffering from no defect of body1 or mind2 he quotes in illustration the speech of ,odysseus 7,od4 #ai4 #aji ff474 8#8,even as a king without blemish1 who ruleth god-fearing over many mighty men1 and maintaineth justice1 while the black earth beareth wheat and barley1 and the trees are laden with fruit1 and the flocks bring forth without fail1 and the sea yieldeth fish by reason of his good rule1 and the folk prosper beneath him4' ,the king who is without blemish has a flourishing kingdom1 the king who is maimed has a kingdom diseased like himself1 thus the ,spartans were warned by an oracle to beware of a #8lame reign4'0#ad ,a most remarkable modern survival of this idea is recorded by ,dr ,frazer in the latest edition of ,the ,golden ,bough1#ae and is so complete and suggestive that ,i make no apology for transcribing it at some length4 ,the ,shilluk1 an ,african tribe1 inhabit the banks of the ,white ,nile1 their territory extending on the west bank from ,kaka in the north1 to ,lake ,no in the south1 on the east bank from ,fashoda to ,taufikia1 and some #ce miles up the ,sohat river4 ,numbering some #dj1jjj in all1 they are a pastoral people1 their wealth consisting in flocks and herds1 grain and millet4 ,the ,king resides at ,fashoda1 and is regarded with extreme reverence1 as being a re-incarnation of ,nyakang1 the semi-divine hero who settled the tribe in their present territory4 ,nyakang is the rain-giver1 on whom their life and prosperity depend2 there are several shrines in which sacred ,spears1 now kept for sacrificial purposes1 are preserved1 the originals1 which were the property of ,nyakang1 having disappeared4 ,the ,king1 though regarded with reverence1 must not be allowed to become old or feeble1 lest1 with the diminishing vigour of the ruler1 the cattle should sicken1 and fail to bear increase1 the crops should rot in the field and men die in ever growing numbers4 ,one of the signs of failing energy is the ,king's inability to fulfil the desires of his wives1 of whom he has a large number4 ,when this occurs the wives report the fact to the chiefs1 who condemn the ,king to death forthwith1 communicating the sentence to him by spreading a white cloth over his face and knees during his mid-day slumber4 ,formerly the ,king was starved to death in a hut1 in company with a young maiden but 7in consequence1 it is said1 of the great vitality and protracted suffering of one ,king7 this is no longer done2 the precise manner of death is difficult to ascertain2 ,dr ,seligmann1 who was ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer's authority1 thinks that he is now strangled in a hut1 especially erected for that purpose4 ,at one time he might be attacked and slain by a rival1 either of his own family1 or of that of one of the previous ,kings1 of whom there are many1 but this has long been superseded by the ceremonial slaying of the monarch who after his death is revered as ,nyakang4#af ,this survival is of extraordinary interest2 it presents us with a curiously close parallel to the situation which1 on the evidence of the texts1 we have postulated as forming the basic idea of the ,grail tradition--the position of a people whose prosperity1 and the fertility of their land1 are closely bound up with the life and virility of their ,king1 who is not a mere man1 but a ,divine re-incarnation4 ,if he #8falls into languishment1' as does the ,fisher ,king in ,perlesvaus1 the land and its inhabitants will suffer correspondingly2 not only will the country suffer from drought1 8,nus prs n'i raverdia10 but the men will die in numbers3 8,dames en perdront lor maris0 we may say2 the cattle will cease to bear increase3 8,ne se n'i ot beste faon10 and the people take drastic steps to bring about a rejuvenation2 the old ,king dies1 to be replaced by a young and vigorous successor1 even as ,brons was replaced by ,perceval4 ,let us now turn back to the preceding chapter1 and compare the position of the people of the ,shilluk tribe1 and the subjects of the ,grail ,king1 with that of the ancient ,babylonians1 as set forth in their ,lamentations for ,tammuz4 ,there we find that the absence of the ,life-giving deity was followed by precisely the same disastrous consequences2 ,vegetation fails-- 8,the wailing is for the plants2 the first lament is they grow not4 ,the wailing is for the barley2 the ears grow not40 ,the reproductive energies of the animal kingdom are suspended-- 8,for the habitation of flocks it is2 they produce not4 ,for the perishing wedded ones1 for perishing children it is2 the dark-headed people create not40 ,nor can we evade the full force of the parallel by objecting that we are here dealing with a god1 not with a man2 we possess the recorded names of #8kings who played the rle of ,tammuz1' thus even for that early period the commingling of the two conceptions1 god and king1 is definitely established4 ,now in face of this group of parallels1 whose close correspondence1 if we consider their separation in point of time 7#cjjj ,b4,c42 #abjj ,a4,d42 and the present day71 is nothing short of astonishing1 is it not absolutely and utterly unreasonable to admit 7as scholars no longer hesitate to do7 the relationship between the first and last1 and exclude1 as a mere literary invention1 the intermediate parallel8 ,the ground for such a denial may be mere prejudice1 a reluctance to renounce a long cherished critical prepossession1 but in the face of this new evidence does it not come perilously close to scientific dishonesty1 to a disregard for that respect for truth in research the imperative duty of which has been so finely expressed by the late ,m4 ,gaston ,paris4--8,je professe absolument et sans rserve cette doctrine1 que la science n'a d'autre objet que la vrit1 et la vrit pour elle-mme1 sans aucun souci des consquences1 bonnes ou mauvaises1 regrettables ou heureuses1 que cette vrit pourrait avoir dans la pratique40#ag ,when we further consider that behind these three main parallels1 linking them together1 there lies a continuous chain of evidence1 expressed alike in classical literature1 and surviving ,folk practice1 ,i would submit that there is no longer any shadow of a doubt that in the ,grail ,king we have a romantic literary version of that strange mysterious figure whose presence hovers in the shadowy background of the history of our ,aryan race2 the figure of a divine or semi-divine ruler1 at once god and king1 upon whose life1 and unimpaired vitality1 the existence of his land and people directly depends4 ,and if we once grant this initial fact1 and resolve that we will no longer1 in the interests of an outworn critical tradition1 deny the weight of scientific evidence in determining the real significance of the story1 does it not inevitably follow1 as a logical sequence1 that such versions as fail to connect the misfortunes of the land directly with the disability of the king1 but make them dependent upon the failure of the ,quester1 are1 by that very fact1 stamped as secondary versions4 ,that by this one detail1 of capital importance1 they approve themselves as literary treatments of a traditional theme1 the true meaning of which was unknown to the author8 ,let us for a moment consider what the opposite view would entail2 that a story which was originally the outcome of pure literary invention should in the course of re-modelling have been accidentally brought into close and detailed correspondence with a deeply rooted sequence of popular faith and practice is simply inconceivable1 the re-modelling1 if re-modelling there were1 must have been intentional1 the men whose handiwork it was were in possession of the requisite knowledge4 ,but how did they possess that knowledge1 and why should they undertake such a task8 ,surely not from the point of view of antiquarian interest1 as might be done to-day2 they were no twelfth century ,frazers and ,mannhardts2 the subject must have had for them a more living1 a more intimate1 interest4 ,and if1 in face of the evidence we now possess1 we feel bound to admit the existence of such knowledge1 is it not more reasonable to suppose that the men who first told the story were the men who knew1 and that the confusion was due to those who1 with more literary skill1 but less first-hand information1 re-modelled the original theme8 ,in view of the present facts ,i would submit that the problem posed in our first chapter may be held to be solved2 that we accept as a fait acquis the conclusion that the woes of the land are directly dependent upon the sickness1 or maiming1 of the ,king1 and in no wise caused by the failure of the ,quester4 ,the #8,wasting of the land' must be held to have been antecedent to that failure1 and the ,gawain versions in which we find this condition fulfilled are1 therefore1 prior in origin to the ,perceval1 in which the #8,wasting' is brought about by the action of the hero2 in some versions1 indeed1 has altogether disappeared from the story4 ,thus the position assigned in the versions to this feature of the ,waste ,land becomes one of capital importance as a critical factor4 ,this is a point which has hitherto escaped the attention of scholars2 the misfortunes of the land have been treated rather as an accident1 than as an essential1 of the ,grail story1 entirely subordinate in interest to the dramatis personae of the tale1 or the objects1 ,lance and ,grail1 round which the action revolves4 ,as a matter of fact ,i believe that the #8,waste ,land' is really the very heart of our problem2 a rightful appreciation of its position and significance will place us in possession of the clue which will lead us safely through the most bewildering mazes of the fully developed tale4 ,since the above pages were written ,dr ,frazer has notified the discovery of a second ,african parallel1 equally complete1 and striking4 ,in ,folk-,lore 7,vol4 ,,xxvi47 he prints1 under the title ,a ,priest-,king in ,nigeria1 a communication received from ,mr ,p4 ,a4 ,talbot1 ,district ,commissioner in ,s4 ,nigeria4 ,the writer states that the dominant ,ju-,ju of ,elele1 a town in the ,n4,w4 of the ,degema district1 is a ,priest-,king1 elected for a term of seven years4 8,the whole prosperity of the town1 especially the fruitfulness of farm1 byre1 and marriage-bed1 was linked with his life4 ,should he fall sick it entailed famine and grave disaster upon the inhabitants40 ,so soon as a successor is appointed the former holder of the dignity is reported to #8die for himself4' ,previous to the introduction of ordered government it is admitted that at any time during his seven years' term of office the ,priest might be put to death by any man sufficiently strong and resourceful1 consequently it is only on the rarest occasions 7in fact only one such is recorded7 that the ,ju-,ju ventures to leave his compound4 ,at the same time the riches derived from the offerings of the people are so considerable that there is never a lack of candidates for the office4 ,from this and the evidence cited above it would appear that the institution was widely spread in ,africa1 and at the same time it affords a striking proof in support of the essential soundness of ,dr ,frazer's interpretation of the ,priest of ,nemi1 an interpretation which has been violently attacked in certain quarters1 very largely on the ground that no one would be found willing to accept an office involving such direct danger to life4 ,the above evidence shows clearly that not only does such an office exist1 but that it is by no means an unpopular post4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,the ,symbols ,in the previous chapters we have discussed the ,grail ,legend from a general1 rather than a specific1 point of view2 i4e41 we have endeavoured to ascertain what was the real character of the task imposed upon the hero1 and what the nature and value of his achievement4 ,we have been led to the conclusion that that achievement was1 in the first instance1 of an altruistic character--it was no question of advantages1 temporal or spiritual1 which should accrue to the ,quester himself1 but rather of definite benefits to be won for others1 the freeing of a ruler and his land from the dire results of a punishment which1 falling upon the ,king1 was fraught with the most disastrous consequences for his kingdom4 ,we have found1 further1 that this close relation between the ruler and his land1 which resulted in the ill of one becoming the calamity of all1 is no mere literary invention1 proceeding from the fertile imagination of a twelfth century court poet1 but a deeply rooted popular belief1 of practically immemorial antiquity and inexhaustible vitality2 we can trace it back thousands of years before the ,christian era1 we find it fraught with decisions of life and death to-day4 ,further1 we find in that belief a tendency to express itself in certain ceremonial practices1 which retain in a greater or less degree the character of the ritual observances of which they are the survival4 ,mr ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers1 in ,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 remarks3 8,if the comparative study of ,religion proves anything it is1 that the traditional beliefs and customs of the mediaeval or modern peasant are in nine cases out of ten but the detritus of heathen mythology and heathen worship1 enduring with but little external change in the shadow of a hostile faith4 ,this is notably true of the village festivals and their ludi4 ,their full significance only appears when they are regarded as fragments of forgotten cults1 the nave cults addressed by a primitive folk to the beneficent deities of field and wood and river1 or the shadowy populace of its own dreams40#a ,we may1 ,i think1 take it that we have established at least the possibility that in the ,grail romances we possess1 in literary form1 an example of the detritus above referred to1 the fragmentary record of the secret ritual of a ,fertility cult4 ,having reached this hypothetical conclusion1 our next step must be to examine the ,symbols of this cult1 the group of mysterious objects which forms the central point of the action1 a true understanding of the nature of these objects being as essential for our success as interpreters of the story as it was for the success of the ,quester in days of old4 ,we must ask whether these objects1 the ,grail itself1 whether ,cup or ,dish2 the ,lance2 the ,sword2 the ,stone--one and all invested with a certain atmosphere of awe1 credited with strange virtues1 with sanctity itself1 will harmonize with the proposed solution1 will range themselves fitly and fairly within the framework of this hypothetical ritual4 ,that they should do so is a matter of capital importance2 were it otherwise the theory advanced might well1 as some of my critics have maintained1 #8never get beyond the region of ingenious speculation1' but it is precisely upon the fact that this theory of origin1 and so far as criticism has gone1 this theory alone1 does permit of a natural and unforced interpretation of these related symbols that ,i rely as one of the most convincing proofs of the correctness of my hypothesis4 ,before commencing the investigation there is one point which ,i would desire to emphasize1 viz41 the imperative necessity for treating the ,symbols or ,talismans1 call them what we will1 on the same principle as we have treated the incidents of the story1 i4e41 as a connected whole4 ,that they be not separated the one from the other1 and made the subject of independent treatment1 but that they be regarded in their relation the one to the other1 and that no theory of origin be held admissible which does not allow for that relation as a primitive and indispensable factor4 ,it may be the modern tendency to specialize which is apt to blind scholars to the essential importance of regarding their object of study as a whole1 that fosters in them a habit of focussing their attention upon that one point or incident of the story which lends itself to treatment in their special line of study1 and which induces them to minimize1 or ignore1 those elements which lie outside their particular range4 ,but1 whatever the cause1 it is indubitable that this method of #8criticism by isolation' has been1 and is1 one of the main factors which have operated in retarding the solution of the ,grail problem4 ,so long as critics of the story will insist on pulling it into little pieces1 selecting one detail here1 another there1 for study and elucidation1 so long will the ensemble result be chaotic and unsatisfactory4 ,we shall continue to have a number of monographs1 more or less scholarly in treatment--one dealing with the ,grail as a ,food-providing talisman1 and that alone2 another with the ,grail as a vehicle of spiritual sustenance4 ,one that treats of the ,lance as a ,pagan weapon1 and nothing more2 another that regards it as a ,christian relic1 and nothing less4 ,at one moment the object of the study will be the ,fisher ,king1 without any relation to the symbols he guards1 or the land he rules2 at the next it will be the relation of the ,quester to the ,fisher ,king1 without any explanation of the tasks assigned to him by the story4 ,the result obtained is always quite satisfactory to the writer1 often plausible1 sometimes in a measure sound1 but it would defy the skill of the most synthetic genius to co-ordinate the results thus obtained1 and combine them in one harmonious whole4 ,they are like pieces of a puzzle1 each of which has been symmetrically cut and trimmed1 till they lie side by side1 un-fitting1 and un-related4 ,and we have been pursuing this method for over fifty years1 and are still1 apparently1 content to go on1 each devoting attention to the symmetrical perfection of his own little section of the puzzle1 quite indifferent to the fact that our neighbour is in possession of an equally neatly trimmed fragment1 which entirely refuses to fit in with our own6 ,is it not time that we should frankly admit the unsatisfactory results of these years of labour1 and honestly face the fact that while we now have at our disposal an immense mass of interesting and suggestive material often of high value1 we have failed1 so far1 to formulate a conclusion which1 by embracing and satisfying the manifold conditions of the problem1 will command general acceptance8 ,and if this failure be admitted1 may not its cause be sought in the faulty method which has failed to recognize in the ,grail story an original whole1 in which the parts--the action1 the actors1 the ,symbols1 the result to be obtained1 incident1 and intention--stood from the very first in intimate relation the one to the other8 ,that while in process of utilization as a literary theme these various parts have suffered modification and accretion from this1 or that1 side1 the problem of the ultimate source remains thereby unaffected8 ,such a reversal of method as ,i suggest will1 ,i submit1 not only provide us with a critical solution capable of general acceptance1 but it will also enable us to utilize1 and appreciate at their due value1 the result of researches which at the present moment appear to be mutually destructive the one of the other4 ,thus1 while the purely ,folk-lore interpretation of the ,grail and ,lance excludes the ,christian origin1 and the theory of the exclusively ,christian origin negatives the ,folk-lore1 the pre-existence of these symbols in a popular ritual setting would admit1 indeed would invite1 later accretion alike from folk belief and ecclesiastical legend4 ,we are the gainers by any light that can possibly be thrown upon the process of development of the story1 but studies of the separate symbols while they may1 and do1 afford valuable data for determining the character and period of certain accretions1 should not be regarded as supplying proof of the origin of the related group4 ,reference to some recent studies in the ,legend will make my meaning clear4 ,a reviewer of my small ,quest of the ,holy ,grail volume remarked that ,i appeared to be ignorant of ,miss ,peebles's study ,the ,legend of ,longinus 8which materially strengthens the evidence for the ,christian origin40#b ,now this is precisely what1 in my view1 the study in question1 which ,i knew and possessed1 does not do4 ,as evidence for the fact that the ,grail legend has taken over certain features derived from the popular #8,longinus' story 7which1 incidentally1 no one disputed71 the essay is1 ,i hold1 sound1 and valuable2 as affording material for determining the source of the ,grail story1 it is1 on the other hand1 entirely without value4 ,on the principle laid down above no theory which purports to be explanatory of the source of one symbol can be held satisfactory in a case where that symbol does not stand alone4 ,we cannot accept for the ,grail story a theory of origin which concerns itself with the ,lance1 as independent of the ,grail4 ,in the study referred to the author has been at immense pains to examine the different versions of the #8,longinus' legend1 and to trace its development in literature2 in no single instance do we find ,longinus and his ,lance associated with a ,cup or ,vase1 receptacle of the ,sacred ,blood4 ,the plain fact is that in ,christian art and tradition ,lance and ,cup are not associated symbols4 ,the ,lance or ,spear1 as an instrument of the ,passion1 is found in conjunction with the ,cross1 ,nails1 ,sponge1 and ,crown of ,thorns1 7anyone familiar with the wayside ,crosses of ,catholic ,europe will recognize this71 not with the ,chalice of the ,mass4#c ,this latter is associated with the ,host1 or ,agnus ,dei4 ,still less is the ,spear to be found in connection with the ,grail in its ,food-providing form of a ,dish4 ,no doubt to this1 critics who share the views of ,golther and ,burdach will object1 8but what of the ,byzantine ,mass8 ,do we not there find a ,spear connected with the ,chalice80#d ,i very much doubt whether we do--the so-called #8,holy ,spear' of the ,byzantine1 and present ,greek1 liturgy is simply a small silver spear-shaped knife1 nor can ,i discover that it was ever anything else4 ,i have made careful enquiries of liturgical scholars1 and consulted editions of ,oriental liturgies1 but ,i can find no evidence that the knife 7the use of which is to divide the ,loaf which1 in the ,oriental rite1 corresponds to the ,wafer of the ,occidental1 in a manner symbolically corresponding to the ,wounds actually inflicted on the ,divine ,victim7 was ever other than what it is to-day4 ,it seems obvious1 from the method of employment1 that an actual ,spear could hardly have been used1 it would have been an impossibly unwieldy instrument for the purpose4 ,nor is the #8procession' in which the elements are carried from the ,chapel of the ,prothesis to the ,sanctuary of a public character comparable with that of the ,grail castle2 the actual ceremony of the ,greek ,mass takes place1 of course1 behind a veil4 ,a point of considerable interest1 however1 is1 what caused this difference in the ,byzantine liturgy8 ,what were the influences which led to the introduction of a feature unknown to the ,western rite8 ,if1 as the result of the evidence set forth in these pages1 the ultimate origin of the ,grail story be finally accepted as deriving from a prehistoric ritual possessing elements of extraordinary persistence and vitality1 then the mise-en-scne of that story is older than the ,byzantine ritual4 ,students of the subject are well aware that the tradition of ancient pre-,christian rites and ceremonies lingered on in the ,east long after they had been banished by the more practical genius of the ,west4 ,it may well prove that so far from the ,grail story being a reminiscence of the ,byzantine rite1 that rite itself has been affected by a ritual of which the ,grail legend preserves a fragmentary record4 ,in my view a ,christian origin for ,lance and ,cup1 as associated symbols1 has not been made out2 still less can it be postulated for ,lance and ,cup as members of an extended group1 including ,dish1 ,sword1 and ,stone4 ,on this point ,professor ,brown's attempt to find in ,irish tradition the origin of the ,grail symbols is distinctly more satisfactory4#e ,i cannot accept as decisive the solution proposed1 which seems to me to be open to much the same criticism as that which would find in the ,lance the ,lance of ,longinus--both are occupied with details1 rather than with ensemble2 both would find their justification as offering evidence of accretion1 rather than of origin2 neither can provide us with the required mise-en-scne4 ,but ,professor ,brown's theory is the more sound in that he is really dealing with a group of associated symbols2 in his view ,lance and ,grail alike belong to the treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann 7that legendary race of ,irish ancestors1 who were at once gods and kings71 and therefore ab initio belong together4 ,but while ,i should1 on the whole1 accept the affiliation of the two groups1 and believe that the treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann really correspond to the symbols displayed in the hall of the ,grail castle1 ,i cannot consider that the one is the origin of the other4 ,there is one very fundamental difference1 the importance of which ,i cannot ignore1 but which1 ,i believe1 has hitherto escaped ,professor ,brown's attention4 ,the object corresponding to the ,grail itself is the cauldron of the ,dagda1 8,no company ever went from it unthankful0 7or #8unsatisfied'74#f ,now this can in no sense be considered as a ,cup1 or ,vase1 nor is it the true parallel to a ,dish4 ,the connection with the ,grail is to be found solely and exclusively in the food-providing properties ascribed to both4 ,but even here the position is radically different2 the impression we derive from the ,irish text and its analogous parallels is that of size 7it is also called a #8tub'71 and inexhaustible content1 it is a cauldron of plenty4#g ,now1 neither of these qualities can be postulated of the ,grail2 whatever its form1 ,cup or ,dish1 it can easily be borne 7in uplifted hands1 entre ses mains hautement porte7 by a maiden1 which certainly could not be postulated of a cauldron6 ,nor is there any proof that the ,vessel itself contained the food with which the folk of the ,grail castle were regaled2 the texts rather point to the conclusion that the appearance of the ,grail synchronized with a mysterious supply of food of a choice and varied character4 ,there is never any hint that the folk feed from the ,grail2 the only suggestion of such feeding is in the #8,oiste1' by which the father of the ,fisher ,king 7or the ,king himself7 is nourished4 ,in certain texts the separation of the two is clearly brought out2 in ,joseph of ,arimathea1 for instance1 the ,fish caught by ,brons is to be placed at one end of the table1 the ,grail at the other4 ,in ,gawain's adventure at the ,grail castle1 in the prose ,lancelot1 as the ,grail is carried through the hall 8forthwith were the tables replenished with the choicest meats in the world10 but the table before ,gawain remains void and bare4#h ,i submit that while the ,grail is in certain phases a food-supplying talisman it is not one of the same character as the cauldrons of plenty2 also while the food supply of these latter has the marked characteristic of quantity1 that of the ,grail is remarkable rather for quality1 its choice character is always insisted upon4 ,the perusal of ,professor ,brown's subsequent study1 ,notes on ,celtic ,cauldrons of ,plenty and ,the ,land-,beneath-the-,waves1 has confirmed me in my view that these special objects belong to another line of tradition altogether2 that which deals with an inexhaustible submarine source of life1 examples of which will be found in the #8,sampo' of the ,finnish ,kalewala1 and the ever-grinding mills of popular folk-tale4#i ,the fundamental idea here seems to be that of the origin of all ,life from ,water1 a very ancient idea1 but one which1 though akin to the ,grail tradition1 is yet quite distinct therefrom4 ,the study of this special theme would1 ,i believe1 produce valuable results4#aj ,on the whole1 ,i am of the opinion that the treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann and the symbols of the ,grail castle go back to a common original1 but that they have developed on different lines2 in the process of this development one #8,life' symbol has been exchanged for another4 ,but ,lance and ,cup 7or ,vase7 were in truth connected together in a symbolic relation long ages before the institution of ,christianity1 or the birth of ,celtic tradition4 ,they are sex symbols of immemorial antiquity and world-wide diffusion1 the ,lance1 or ,spear1 representing the ,male1 the ,cup1 or ,vase1 the ,female1 reproductive energy4#ab ,found in juxtaposition1 the ,spear upright in the ,vase1 as in the ,bleheris and ,balin 7both1 be it noted1 ,gawain7 forms1 their signification is admitted by all familiar with #8,life' symbolism1 and they are absolutely in place as forming part of a ritual dealing with the processes of life and reproductive vitality4#ac ,a most remarkable and significant use of these symbols is found in the ceremonies of the ,samurai1 the noble warrior caste of ,japan4 ,the aspirant was 7,i am told still is7 admitted into the caste at the age of fourteen1 when he was given over to the care of a guardian at least fifteen years his senior1 to whom he took an oath of obedience1 which was sworn upon the ,spear4 ,he remained celibate during the period covered by the oath4 ,when the ,samurai was held to have attained the degree of responsibility which would fit him for the full duties of a citizen1 a second solemn ceremony was held1 at which he was released from his previous vows1 and presented with the ,cup2 he was henceforth free to marry1 but intercourse with women previous to this ceremony was at one time punishable with death4#ad ,that ,lance and ,cup are1 outside the ,grail story1 #8,life' symbols1 and have been such from time immemorial1 is a fact2 why1 then should they not retain that character inside the framework of that story8 ,an acceptance of this interpretation will not only be in harmony with the general mise-en-scne1 but it will also explain finally and satisfactorily1 7a7 the dominant position frequently assigned to the ,lance2 7b7 the fact that1 while the ,lance is borne in procession by a youth1 the ,grail is carried by a maiden--the sex of the bearer corresponds with the symbol borne4#ae ,but ,lance and ,cup1 though the most prominent of the ,symbols1 do not always appear alone1 but are associated with other objects1 the significance of which is not always apparent4 ,thus the ,dish1 which is sometimes the form assumed by the ,grail itself1 at other times appears as a taillor1 or carving platter of silver1 carried in the same procession as the ,grail2 or there may be two small taillors2 finally1 a ,sword appears in varying rles in the story4 ,i have already referred to the fact1 first pointed out by the late ,mr ,alfred ,nutt1#af that the four treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann correspond generally with the group of symbols found in the ,grail romances2 this correspondence becomes the more interesting in view of the fact that these mysterious ,beings are now recognized as alike ,demons of ,fertility and ,lords of ,life4 ,as ,mr ,nutt subsequently pointed out1 the #8,treasures' may well be1 ,sword and ,cauldron certainly are1 #8,life' symbols4 ,of direct connection between these ,celtic objects and the ,grail story there is no trace2 as remarked above1 we have no ,irish ,folk or ,hero tale at all corresponding to the ,legend2 the relation must1 therefore1 go back beyond the date of formation of these tales1 i4e41 it must be considered as one of origin rather than of dependence4 ,but we have further evidence that these four objects do1 in fact1 form a special group entirely independent of any appearance in ,folk-lore or ,romance4 ,they exist to-day as the four suits of the ,tarot4 ,students of the ,grail texts1 whose attention is mainly occupied with ,medieval ,literature1 may not be familiar with the word ,tarot1 or aware of its meaning4 ,it is the name given to a pack of cards1 seventy-eight in number1 of which twenty-two are designated as the #8,keys4' ,these cards are divided into four suits1 which correspond with those of the ordinary cards2 they are3 ,cup 7,chalice1 or ,goblet7--,hearts4 ,lance 7,wand1 or ,sceptre7--,diamonds4 ,sword--,spades4 ,dish 7,circles1 or ,pentangles1 the form varies7--,clubs4 ,to-day the ,tarot has fallen somewhat into disrepute1 being principally used for purposes of divination1 but its origin1 and precise relation to our present playing-cards1 are questions of considerable antiquarian interest4 ,were these cards the direct parents of our modern pack1 or are they entirely distinct therefrom8#ag ,some writers are disposed to assign a very high antiquity to the ,tarot4 ,traditionally1 it is said to have been brought from ,egypt2 there is no doubt that parallel designs and combinations are to be found in the surviving decorations of ,egyptian temples1 notably in the astronomic designs on the ceiling of one of the halls of the palace of ,medinet ,abou1 which is supported on twenty-two columns 7a number corresponding to the #8keys' of the ,tarot71 and also repeated in a calendar sculptured on the southern faade of the same building1 under a sovereign of the ,,xxiii dynasty4 ,this calendar is supposed to have been connected with the periodic rise and fall of the waters of the ,nile4#ah ,the ,tarot has also been connected with an ancient ,chinese monument1 traditionally erected in commemoration of the drying up of the waters of the ,deluge by ,yao4 ,the face of this monument is divided up into small sections corresponding in size and number with the cards of the ,tarot1 and bearing characters which have1 so far1 not been deciphered4 ,what is certain is that these cards are used to-day by the ,gipsies for purposes of divination1 and the opinion of those who have studied the subject is that there is some real ground for the popular tradition that they were introduced into ,europe by this mysterious people4 ,in a very interesting article on the subject in ,the ,journal of the ,gipsy-,lore ,society1#ai ,mr ,de la ,hoste ,ranking examines closely into the figures depicted on the various cards1 and the names attached to the suits by the ,gipsies4 ,he comes to the conclusion that many of the words are of ,sanskrit1 or ,hindustani1 origin1 and sums up the result of the internal evidence as follows3 8,the ,tarot was introduced by a race speaking an ,indian dialect4 ,the figure known as #8,the ,pope' shows the influence of the ,orthodox ,eastern ,faith2 he is bearded1 and carries the ,triple ,cross4 ,the card called #8,the ,king' represents a figure with the head-dress of a ,russian ,grand-,duke1 and a shield bearing the ,polish eagle4 ,thus the people who used the ,tarot must have been familiar with a country where the ,orthodox ,faith prevailed1 and which was ruled by princes of the status of ,grand-,dukes4 ,the general result seems to point to a genuine basis for the belief that the ,tarot was introduced into ,europe from the ,east40 ,as regards the group of symbols in general1 ,mr ,w4 ,b4 ,yeats1 whose practical acquaintance with ,medieval and ,modern ,magic is well known1 writes3 87#a7 ,cup1 ,lance1 ,dish1 ,sword1 in slightly varying forms1 have never lost their mystic significance1 and are to-day a part of magical operations4 7#b7 ,the memory kept by the four suits of the ,tarot1 ,cup1 ,lance1 ,sword1 ,pentangle 7,dish71 is an esoterical notation for fortune-telling purposes40#bj ,but if the connection with the ,egyptian and ,chinese monuments1 referred to above1 is genuine1 the original use of the #8,tarot' would seem to have been1 not to foretell the ,future in general1 but to predict the rise and fall of the waters which brought fertility to the land4 ,such use would bring the #8,suits' into line with the analogous symbols of the ,grail castle and the treasures of the ,tuatha de ,danann1 both of which we have seen to be connected with the embodiment of the reproductive forces of ,nature4 ,if it is difficult to establish a direct connection between these two latter1 it is practically impossible to argue any connection between either group and the #8,tarot'2 no one has as yet ventured to suggest the popularity of the works of ,chrtien de ,troyes among the ,gipsies6 ,yet the correspondence can hardly be fortuitous4 ,i would suggest that1 while ,lance and ,cup1 in their associated form1 are primarily symbols of ,human ,life energy1 in conjunction with others they formed a group of #8,fertility' symbols1 connected with a very ancient ritual1 of which fragmentary survivals alone have been preserved to us4 ,this view will1 ,i believe1 receive support from the evidence of the ceremonial ,dances which formed so important a part of #8,fertility' ritual1 and which survive in so many places to this day4 ,if we find these symbols reappearing as a part of these dances1 their real significance can hardly be disputed4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,the ,sword ,dance ,the subject we are now about to consider is one which of late years has attracted considerable attention1 and much acute criticism has been expended on the question of its origin and significance4 ,valuable material has been collected1 but the studies1 so far1 have been individual1 and independent1 the much needed travail d'ensemble has not yet appeared4 ,one definite result has1 however1 been obtained2 it is now generally admitted that the so-called ,sword ,dances1 with the closely related ,morris ,dances1 and ,mumming ,plays1 are not mere survivals of martial exercises1 an inherited tradition from our warrior ancestors1 but were solemn1 ceremonial 7in some cases there is reason to believe1 ,initiatory7 dances1 performed at stated seasons of the year1 and directly and intimately connected with the ritual of which we have treated in previous chapters1 a ritual designed to preserve and promote the regular and ordered sequence of the processes of ,nature4 ,and here1 again1 our enquiry must begin with the very earliest records of our race1 with the traditions of our ,aryan forefathers4 ,the earliest recorded ,sword ,dancers are undoubtedly the ,maruts1 those swift-footed youths in gleaming armour who are the faithful attendants on the great god1 ,indra4 ,professor von ,schroeder1 in ,mysterium und ,mimus1 describes them thus3#a they are a group of youths of equal age and identical parentage1 they are always depicted as attired in the same manner1 8,sie sind reich und prchtig geschmckt1 mit ,goldschmuck auf der ,brust1 mit ,spangen an den ,hnden1 ,hirschfelle tragen sie auf den ,schultern4 ,vor allem aber sind sie kriegerisch gerstet1 funkelnde ,speere tragen sie in den ,hnden1 oder auch goldene xte4 ,goldene ,harnische oder ,mntel umhllen sie1 goldene ,helme schimmern auf ihren ,huptern4 ,nie erscheinen sie ohne ,wehr und ,waffen4 ,es scheint dass diese ganz und gar zu ihren ,wesen gehren40 ,the writer goes on to remark that when such a band of armed youths1 all of the same age1 always closely associated with each other1 are represented as ,dancers1 and always as ,dancers--8dann haben wir unabweislich das ,bild eines ,waffentanzes vor unseren ,augen0--and ,professor von ,schroeder is undoubtedly right4 ,constantly throughout the ,rig-,veda the ,maruts are referred to as ,dancers1 8gold-bedecked ,dancers10 8with songs of praise they danced round the spring10 8,when ye ,maruts spear-armed dance1 they 7i4e41 the ,heavens7 stream together like waves of water40#b ,and a special moment for the dance of these glorious youths 8ever young brothers of whom none is elder1 none younger0#c is that of the ceremonial sacrifice1 8sie tanzen auf ihren himmlischen ,bahnen1 sie springen und tanzen auch bei den ,opferfesten der ,menschen40#d ,the ,maruts1 as said above1 were conceived of as the companions of ,indra1 and helpers in his fight against his monstrous adversaries2 thus they were included in the sacrifices offered in honour of that ,deity4 ,one of the most striking of the ritual ,dramas reconstructed by ,professor von ,schroeder is that which represents ,indra as indignantly rejecting the claim of the ,maruts to share in such a sacrifice2 they had failed to support him in his conflict with the dragon1 ,vritra1 when by his might he loosed the waters1 #8neither to-day1 nor to-morrow' will he accept a sacrifice of which they share the honour2 it requires all the tact of the ,offerer1 ,agastya1 and of the leader of the ,maruts to soothe the offended ,deity4#e ,here ,i would draw attention to the significant fact that the feat celebrated is that to which ,i have previously referred as the most famous of all the deeds attributed to ,indra1 the #8,freeing of the ,waters1' and here the ,maruts are associated with the god4 ,but they were also the objects of independent worship4 ,they were specially honoured at the ,cturmsya1 the feasts which heralded the commencement of the three seasons of four months each into which the ,indian year was divided1 a division corresponding respectively to the hot1 the cool1 and the wet1 season4 ,the advantages to be derived from the worship of the ,maruts may be deduced from the following extracts from the ,rig-,veda1 which devotes more than thirty hymns to their praise4 8,the adorable ,maruts1 armed with bright lances1 and cuirassed with golden breastplates1 enjoy vigorous existence2 may the cars of the quick-moving ,maruts arrive for our good40 8,bringers of rain and fertility1 shedding water1 augmenting food40 8,givers of abundant food40 8,your milchkine are never dry40 8,we invoke the food-laden chariots of the ,maruts40#f ,nothing can be clearer than this2 the ,maruts are #8daimons' of fertility1 the worship of whom will secure the necessary supply of the fruits of the earth4 ,the close association of the ,maruts with ,indra1 the great ,nature god1 has led some scholars to regard them as personifications of a special manifestation of ,nature1 as ,wind-gods4 ,professor von ,schroeder points out that their father was the god ,rudra1 later known as iva1 the god of departed souls1 and of fruitfulness1 i4e41 a ,chthonian deity1 and suggests that the ,maruts represent the 8in ,wind und ,sturm dahinjagende ,seelenschar40#g ,he points out that the belief in a troop of departed souls is an integral part of ,aryan tradition1 and classifies such belief under four main headings4 #a4 ,under the form of a spectral ,hunt1 the ,wild ,huntsman well known in ,european ,folk-lore4 ,he equates this with ,dionysus ,zagreus1 and the ,hunt of ,artemis-,hekate4 #b4 ,that of a spectral ,army1 the souls of warriors slain in fight4 ,the ,northern ,einherier belong to this class1 and the many traditions of spectral combats1 and ghostly battles1 heard1 but not seen4 #c4 ,the conception of a host of women in a condition of ecstatic exaltation bordering on madness1 who appear girdled with snakes1 or hissing like snakes1 tear living animals to pieces1 and devour the flesh4 ,the classic examples here are the ,greek ,maenads1 and the ,indian ,sens1 who accompany ,rudra4 #d4 ,the conception of a train of theriomorphic1 phallic1 demons of fertility1 with their companion group of fair women4 ,such are the ,satyrs and ,nymphs of ,greek1 the ,gandharvas and ,apsaras of ,indian1 ,mythology4 ,to these four main groups may be added the belief among ,germanic peoples1 also among the ,letts1 in a troop of ,child ,souls4 ,these four groups1 in more or less modified forms1 appear closely connected with the dominant ,spirit of ,vegetation1 by whatever name that spirit may be known4 ,according to von ,schroeder there was1 among the ,aryan peoples generally1 a tendency to regard the dead as assuming the character of daimons of fertility4 ,this view the learned ,professor considers to be at the root of the annual celebrations in honour of the ,departed1 the #8,feast of ,souls1' which characterized the commencement of the winter season1 and is retained in the ,catholic conception of ,november as the month of the ,dead4#h ,in any case we may safely conclude that the ,maruts1 represented as armed youths1 were worshipped as deities of fruitfulness2 that their dances were of a ceremonial character2 and that they were1 by nature and origin1 closely connected with spirits of fertility of a lower order1 such as the ,gandharvas4 ,it also appears probable that1 if the ,dramas of which traces have been preserved in the ,rig-,veda1 were1 as scholars are now of opinion1 once actually represented1 the mythological conception of the ,maruts must have found its embodiment in youths1 most probably of the priestly caste1 who played their rle1 and actually danced the ceremonial ,sword ,dance4 ,as von ,schroeder says1 8,kein ,zweifel dass sie dabei von menschlichen1 resp4 priesterlichen ,personen dargestellt wurden4#i ,when we turn from the early ,aryan to the classic ,greek period we find in the ,kouretes1 and in a minor degree in the ,korybantes1 a parallel so extraordinarily complete1 alike in action and significance1 that an essential identity of origin appears to be beyond doubt4 ,the ,kouretes were1 as their name indicates1 a band of armed youths1 of semi-divine origin1 8,kureten sind von ,haus aus halb-gttlich dmonische ,wesen nicht nur menschliche ,priester1 oder deren mythische ,vertreter40#aj ,again1 they are to be considered as 8elementare ,urwesen10 and as such of 8,gttliche ,abkunft40#aa ,preller regards them as 8,dmonen des ,gebirgs10#ab while a passage from ,hesiod1 quoted by ,strabo1 equates them with nymphs and satyrs1 i4e41 fertility demons4#ac ,when we remember that the ,gandharvas are the ,indian equivalent of the ,satyrs the close parallel between the ,maruts and the ,kouretes1 both alike bands of armed youths1 of elementary origin1 and connected with beings of a lower grade1 is striking4 ,the home of the ,kouretes was in ,crete1 where they were closely associated with the worship of the goddess ,rhea4 ,the traditional story held that1 in order to preserve the infant ,zeus from destruction by his father ,kronos1 they danced their famous ,sword ,dance round the babe1 overpowering his cries by the clash of their weapons4 ,their dance was by some writers identified with the ,pyrrhic dance1 first performed by ,athene1 in honour of her victory over the ,giants1 and taught by her to the ,kouretes4 ,it had however1 as we shall see1 a very distinct aim and purpose1 and one in no way connected with warlike ends4 ,in ,miss ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison's deeply interesting volume1 ,themis1#ad she gives the translation of a fragmentary ,hymn of the ,kouretes1 discovered among the ruins of a temple in ,crete1 a text which places beyond all doubt the fact that1 however mythical in origin1 the ,kouretes1 certainly1 had actual human representatives1 and that while in the case of the ,maruts there may be a question as to whether their dance actually took place1 or not1 so far as the ,kouretes are concerned there can be no such doubt4 ,the following is the text as preserved to us2 the slabs on which it is inscribed are broken1 and there are consequent lacunae4 8,io1 ,kouros most great1 ,i give thee hail1 ,kronian1 lord of all that is wet and gleaming1 thou art come at the head of thy ,daimones4 ,to ,dikte for the year1 ,oh march1 and rejoice in the dance and song1 8,that we make to thee with harps and pipes mingled together1 and sing as we come to a stand at thy well-fenced altar4 8,io1 c4 8,for here the shielded ,nurturers took thee1 a child immortal1 from ,rhea1 and with noise of beating feet hid thee away4 8,io1 c4 8,and the ,horai began to be fruitful year by year1 and ,dik to possess mankind and all wild living things were held about by wealth-loving ,peace4 8,io1 c4 8,and the ,horai began to be fruitful year by year1 and ,dik to possess mankind and all wild living things were held about by wealth-loving ,peace4 8,io1 c4 8,to us also leap for full jars1 and leap for fleecy flocks1 and leap for fields of fruit1 and for hives to bring increase4 8,io1 c4 8,leap for our cities1 and leap for our sea-borne ships1 and leap for our young citizens1 and for goodly ,themis40 ,this hymn is most extraordinarily interesting2 it places beyond all doubt what was the root intention of this ceremonial dance2 it was designed to stimulate the reproductive energies of ,nature1 to bring into being fruitful fields1 and vineyards1 plenteous increase in the flocks and herds1 and to people the cities with youthful citizens2 and the god is entreated not merely to accept the worship offered1 but himself to join in the action which shall produce such fair results1 to leap for full jars1 and fleecy flocks1 and for youthful citizens4 ,the importance of movement1 notably of what we may call group movement1 as a stimulant to natural energies1 is thoroughly recognized among primitive peoples2 with them ,dance holds a position equivalent to that which1 in more advanced communities1 is assigned to ,prayer4 ,professor von ,schroeder comments on this1 8,es ist merkwrdig genug zu sehen wie das ,tanzen nach dem ,glauben primitiver ,vlker eine hnliche ,kraft und ,bedeutung zu haben scheint wie man sie auf hheren ,kulturstufen dem inbrnstigen ,gebete zuschreibt40#ae ,he cites the case of the ,tarahumara ,indians of ,central ,america2 while the family as a whole are labouring in the fields it is the office of one man to dance uninterruptedly on the dance place of the house2 if he fails in his office the labour of the others will be unsuccessful4 ,the one sin of which a ,tarahumara ,indian is conscious is that of not having danced enough4 ,miss ,harrison1 in commenting on the dance of the ,kouretes1 remarks that among certain savage tribes when a man is too old to dance he hands on his dance to another4 ,he then ceases to exist socially2 when he dies his funeral is celebrated with scanty rites2 having #8lost his dance' he has ceased to count as a social unit4#af ,with regard to the connection of the ,kouretes with the infant ,zeus1 ,miss ,harrison makes the interesting suggestion that we have here a trace of an ,initiation ,dance1 analogous to those discussed by ,m4 ,van ,gennep in his ,rites du ,passage1 that the original form was ,titns1 #8,white-clay men1' which later became ,titns1 #8,giants1' and she draws attention to the fact that daubing the skin with white clay is a frequent practice in these primitive rituals4 ,to this ,i would add that it is a noteworthy fact that in our modern survivals of these dances the performers are1 as a rule1 dressed in white4 ,the above suggestion is of extreme significance1 as it brings out the possibility that these celebrations were not only concerned with the prosperity of the community1 as a whole1 but may also have borne a special1 and individual1 aspect1 and that the idea of ,initiation into the group is closely connected with the ceremonial exercise of group functions4 ,to sum up1 there is direct proof that the classic ,greeks1 in common with their ,aryan forefathers1 held the conception of a group of ,beings1 of mythic origin1 represented under the form of armed youths1 who were noted dancers1 and whose activities were closely connected with the processes of ,nature4 ,they recognized a relation between these beings1 and others of a less highly developed aspect1 phallic demons1 often of theriomorphic form4 ,thus the dance of the ,kouretes should be considered as a ceremonial ritual action1 rather than as a warlike exercise2 it was designed to promote the fruitfulness of the earth1 not to display the skill of the dancers in the handling of weapons4 ,when we turn to an analogous group1 that of the ,korybantes1 we find that1 while presenting a general parallel to the ,kouretes 7with whom they are often coupled in mythologies71 they also possess certain distinct characteristics1 which form a connecting link with other1 and later1 groups4 ,the ,korybantes were of ,phrygian origin1 attached to the worship of the goddess ,kybele1 and ,attis1 the well-known ,phrygian counterpart to the ,phoenician ,adonis1 and originally the most important embodiment of the ,vegetation ,spirit4 ,rscher considers them to be of identical origin with the ,kouretes1 i4e41 as elementary #8daimons1' but the ,korybantes of ,classic art and tradition are undoubtedly human beings4 ,priests of ,kybele1 they appear in surviving bas-reliefs in company with that goddess1 and with ,attis4 ,the dance of the ,korybantes is distinguished from that of the ,kouretes by its less restrained1 and more orgiastic character2 it was a wild and whirling dance resembling that of the modern ,dervishes1 accompanied by self-mutilation and an unrhythmic clashing of weapons1 designed1 some writers think1 to overpower the cries of the victims4 ,if this suggestion be correct it would seem to indicate that1 if the ,dance of the ,kouretes was originally an ,initiation ,dance1 that of the ,korybantes was ,sacrificial in character4 ,we shall see later that certain features in the surviving forms of the ,sword ,dance also point in this direction4 ,the interest of the ,korybantes for our investigation lies in the fact that here again we have the ,sword ,dance in close and intimate connection with the worship of the ,vegetation ,spirit1 and there can be no doubt that here1 as elsewhere1 it was held to possess a stimulating virtue4 ,a noticeable point in the modern survivals of these ,dances is that the ,dance proper is combined with a more or less coherent dramatic action4 ,the ,sword ,dance originally did not stand alone1 but formed part of a ,drama1 to the action of which it may be held to have given a cumulative force4 ,on this point ,i would refer the reader to ,professor von ,schroeder's book1 where this aspect of the ,dance is fully discussed4#ag ,we have already spoken of the ,maruts1 and their dramatic connection with ,indra2 the ,greek ,dancers offer us no direct parallel1 though the connection of the ,kouretes with the infant ,zeus may quite possibly indicate the existence in the original form of the ,dance1 of a more distinctly dramatic element4 ,we have1 however1 in the ,roman ,salii a connecting link which proves beyond all doubt that our modern dances1 and analogous representations1 are in fact genuine survivals of primitive ceremonies1 and in no way a mere fortuitous combination of originally independent elements4 ,the ,salii formed a college of priests1 twelve in number1 dedicated to the service of ,mars1 who1 it is important to remember1 was originally a god of growth and vegetation1 a ,spring ,deity1 who bestowed his name on the vernal month of ,march2 only by degrees did the activities of the god become specially connected with the domain of ,war4#ah ,there seem to have been two groups of ,salii1 one having their college on the ,palatine1 the other on the ,quirinal2 the first were the more important4 ,the ,quirinal group shared in the celebrations of the latter part of the month only4 ,the first of ,march was the traditional birthday of ,mars1 and from that date1 during the whole of the month1 the ,salii offered sacrifices and performed dances in his honour4 ,they wore pointed caps1 or helmets1 on their head1 were girt with swords1 and carried on the left arm shields1 copied from the #8ancilia' or traditional shield of ,mars1 fabled to have fallen from heaven4 ,in their right hand they bore a small lance4 ,dionysus of ,halicarnassus1 in a passage describing the ,salii1 says1 8they carried in their right hand a spear1 or staff1 or something of that sort40 ,miss ,harrison1 quoting this passage1 gives a reproduction of a bas-relief representing the ,salii carrying what she says 8are clearly drumsticks40 7,as a matter of fact they very closely resemble the #8,wands' which in the ,tarot cards sometimes represent the #8,lance' suit47 ,miss ,harrison suggests that the original shields were made of skins1 stretched upon a frame1 and beaten by these #8drumsticks4' ,this may quite well have been the case1 and it would bear out my contention that the original contact of weapon and shield was designed rather as a rhythmic accompaniment to the ,dance1 than as a display of skill in handling sword and lance1 i4e41 that these dances were not primarily warlike exercises4 ,at the conclusion of their songs the ,salii invoked ,mamurius ,veturius1 the smith who was fabled to have executed the copies of the original shield1 while on the #adth of ,march1 a man1 dressed in skins1 and supposed to represent the aforesaid smith1 was led through the streets1 beaten by the ,salii with rods1 and thrust out of the city4 ,the following day1 the #aeth1 was the feast of ,anna ,perenna1 fabled to be an old woman1 to whom ,mars had confided the tale of his love for ,nerio1 and who1 disguising herself as the maiden1 had gone through the ceremony of marriage with the god4 ,this feast was held outside the gates4 ,on the #bcrd the combined feast of ,mars and ,nerio was held with great rejoicing throughout the city4 ,modern scholars have unanimously recognized in ,mamurius ,veturius and ,anna ,perenna the representatives of the ,old ,year1 the ,vegetation ,spirit1 and his female counterpart1 who1 grown old1 must yield place to the young god and his correspondingly youthful bride4 ,reference to ,chapter #e1 where the medieval and modern forms of this ,nature ritual are discussed1 and instances of the carrying out of ,winter1 and ceremonial bringing in of ,spring1 are given1 will suffice to show how vital and enduring an element in ,folk-lore is this idea of driving out the ,old ,year1 while celebrating the birth of the ,new4 ,here then1 again1 we have a ritual ,sword ,dance closely associated with the practice of a ,nature cult2 there can1 ,i think1 be no doubt that ab initio the two were connected with each other4 ,but the dance of the ,salii with its dramatic ,folk-play features forms an interesting link between the classic ,dance of the ,kouretes1 and the modern ,english survivals1 in which the dramatic element is strongly marked4 ,these ,english forms may be divided into three related groups1 the ,sword ,dance1 the ,morris ,dance1 and the ,mumming ,play4 ,of these the ,morris ,dance stands somewhat apart2 of identical origin1 it has discarded the dramatic element1 and now survives simply as a ,dance1 whereas the ,sword ,dance is always dramatic in form1 and the ,mumming ,play1 acted by characters appearing also in the ,sword ,dance1 invariably contains a more or less elaborate fight4#ai ,the ,sword ,dance proper appears to have been preserved mostly in the ,north of ,england1 and in ,scotland4 ,mr ,cecil ,sharp has found four distinct varieties in ,yorkshire alone4 ,at one time there existed a special variant known as the ,giants' ,dance1 in which the leading characters were known by the names of ,wotan1 and ,frau ,frigg2 one figure of this dance consisted in making a ring of swords round the neck of a lad1 without wounding him4 ,mr ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers has commented on this as the survival of a sacrificial origin4#bj ,the remarks of this writer on the ,sword ,dance in its dramatic aspect are so much to the point that ,i quote them here4 8,the ,sword ,dance makes its appearance1 not like heroic poetry in general1 as part of the minstrel repertory1 but as a purely popular thing at the agricultural festivals4 ,to these festivals we may therefore suppose it to have originally belonged40 ,mr ,chambers goes on to remark that the dance of the ,salii discussed above1 was clearly agricultural1 8and belongs to ,mars not as ,war god1 but in his more primitive quality of a fertilization ,spirit40 ,in an ,appendix to his most valuable book the same writer gives a full description1 with text1 of the most famous surviving form of the ,sword ,dance1 that of ,papa ,stour 7old ,norwegian ,ppey in ,stra71 one of the ,shetland ,islands4 ,the dance was performed at ,christmas 7,yule-tide74 ,the dancers1 seven in number1 represented the seven champions of ,christendom2 the leader1 ,saint ,george1 after an introductory speech1 performed a solo dance1 to the music of an accompanying minstrel4 ,he then presented his comrades1 one by one1 each in turn going through the same performance4 ,finally the seven together performed an elaborate dance4 ,the complete text of the speeches is given in the ,appendix referred to4#ba ,the close connection between the ,english ,sword ,dance1 and the ,mumming ,play1 is indicated by the fact that the chief character in these plays is1 generally speaking1 ,saint ,george4 7,the title has in some cases become corrupted into ,king ,george47 ,in ,professor von ,schroeder's opinion this is due to ,saint ,george's legendary rle as ,dragon slayer1 and he sees in the importance assigned to this hero an argument in favour of his theory that the 8,slaying of the ,dragon0 was the earliest ,aryan ,folk-,drama4 ,in ,folk-,lore1 ,vol4 ,x41 a fully illustrated description of the ,mumming ,play1 as performed at ,newbold1 a village near ,rugby1 is given4#bb ,here the characters are ,father ,christmas1 ,saint ,george1 a ,turkish ,knight1 ,doctor1 ,moll ,finney 7mother of the ,knight71 ,humpty ,jack1 ,beelzebub1 and #8,big-,head-and-,little-,wit4' ,these last three have no share in the action proper1 but appear in a kind of ,epilogue1 accompanying a collection made by ,beelzebub4 ,the ,play is always performed at ,christmas time1 consequently ,father ,christmas appears as stage-manager1 and introduces the characters4 ,the action consists in a general challenge issued by ,saint ,george1 and accepted by the ,turkish ,knight4 ,a combat follows1 in which the ,turk is slain4 ,his mother rushes in1 weeps over the body1 and demands the services of a ,doctor1 who appears accordingly1 vaunts his skill in lines interspersed with unintelligible gibberish1 and restores the ,turk to life4 ,in the version which used to be played throughout ,scotland at ,hogmanay 7,new-,year-tide71 the characters are ,bol ,bendo1 the ,king of ,france1 the ,king of ,spain1 ,doctor ,beelzebub1 ,golishan1 and ,sir ,alexander4#bc ,the fight is between ,bol ,bendo 7who represents the ,saint ,george of the ,english version71 and ,golishan4 ,the latter is killed1 and1 on the demand of ,sir ,alexander 7who acts as stage-manager71 revived by the doctor1 this character1 as in the ,english version1 interlarding the recital of his feats of healing skill with unintelligible phrases4#bd ,there is a general consensus of opinion among ,folk-lore authorities that in this rough drama1 which we find played in slightly modified form all over ,europe 7in ,scandinavia it is the ,julbock1 a man dressed in skins1 who1 after a dramatic dance1 is killed and revived71#be we have a symbolic representation of the death and re-birth of the year2 a counterpart to those ceremonies of driving out ,winter1 and bringing in ,spring1 which we have already described4 ,this chapter had already been written when an important article1 by ,dr ,jevons1 entitled ,masks and the ,origin of the ,greek ,drama appeared in ,folk-,lore 7,vol4 ,,xxvii47 ,the author1 having discussed the different forms of ,greek ,drama1 and the variety of masks employed1 decides that 8,greek ,comedy originated in ,harvest ,festivals1 in some ceremony in which the ,harvesters went about in procession wearing masks40 ,this ceremony he connects directly with the ,english ,mumming ,plays1 suggesting that 8the characters represented on this occasion were the ,vegetation ,spirit1 and those who were concerned in bringing about his revivification--in fine1 ,greek ,comedy and the ,mumming ,play both sprang from the rite of revivification40 ,at a later stage of our enquiry we shall have occasion to return to this point1 and realize its great importance for our theory4 ,the ,morris ,dances differ somewhat from the ,sword1 and ,mumming ,dances4 ,the performances as a rule take place in the ,spring1 or early ,summer1 chiefly ,may1 and ,whitsuntide4 ,the dances retain little or no trace of dramatic action but are dances pure and simple4 ,the performers1 generally six in number1 are attired in white elaborately-pleated shirts1 decked with ribbons1 white mole-skin trousers1 with bells at the knee1 and beaver hats adorned with ribbons and flowers4 ,the leader carries a sword1 on the point of which is generally impaled a cake2 during the dancing slices of this cake are distributed to the lookers on1 who are supposed to make a contribution to the #8,treasury1' a money-box carried by an individual called the ,squire1 or ,clown1 dressed in motley1 and bearing in the other hand a stick with a bladder at one end1 and a cow's tail at the other4 ,in some forms of the dance there is a #8,lord' and a #8,lady1' who carry #8,maces' of office2 these maces are short staves1 with a transverse piece at the top1 and a hoop over it4 ,the whole is decorated with ribbons and flowers1 and bears a curious resemblance to the ,crux ,ansata4#bf ,in certain figures of the dance the performers carry handkerchiefs1 in others1 wands1 painted with the colours of the village to which they belong2 the dances are always more or less elaborate in form4 ,the costume of the #8,clown' 7an animal's skin1 or cap of skin with tail pendant7 and the special character assumed by the ,maytide celebrations in certain parts of ,england1 e4g41 ,cornwall and ,staffordshire1#bg would seem to indicate that1 while the ,english ,morris ,dance has dropped the dramatic action1 the dancers not being designated by name1 and playing no special rle1 it has1 on the other hand1 retained the theriomorphic features so closely associated with ,aryan ritual1 which the ,sword ,dance1 and ,mumming ,play1 on their side1 have lost4#bh ,a special note of these ,english survivals1 and one to which ,i would now draw attention1 is the very elaborate character of the figures1 and the existence of a distinct symbolic element4 ,i am informed that the ,sword dancers of to-day always1 at the conclusion of a series of elaborate sword-lacing figures1 form the ,pentangle2 as they hold up the sign they cry1 triumphantly1 8,a ,nut6 ,a ,nut60 ,the word ,nut,knot 7as in the game of #8,nuts1 i4e41 breast-knots1 nosegays1 in ,may'74 ,they do this often even when performing a later form of the ,mumming ,play4 ,i have already drawn attention to the fact that in ,gawain and the ,green ,knight the hero's badge is the ,pentangle 7or ,pentacle71 there explained as called by the ,english #8the ,endless ,knot4'#bi ,in the previous chapter ,i have noted that the ,pentangle frequently in the ,tarot suits replaces the ,dish2 in ,mr ,yeats's remarks1 cited above1 the two are held to be interchangeable1 one or the other always forms one of the group of symbols4 ,in one form of the ,morris ,dance1 that performed in ,berkshire1 the leader1 or #8,squire' of the ,morris carries a ,chalice6 ,at the same time he bears a ,sword1 and a bull's head at the end of a long pole4 ,this figure is illustrated in ,miss ,mary ,neal's ,esperance ,morris ,book4#cj ,thus our ,english survivals of these early ,vegetation ceremonies preserve1 in a more or less detached form1 the four symbols discussed in the preceding chapter1 ,grail1 ,sword1 ,lance1 and ,pentangle1 or ,dish4 ,it seems to me that1 in view of the evidence thus offered1 it is not a very hazardous1 or far-fetched hypothesis to suggest that these symbols1 the exact value of which1 as a group1 we cannot clearly determine1 but of which we know the two most prominent1 ,cup and ,lance1 to be sex symbols1 were originally #8,fertility' emblems1 and as such employed in a ritual designed to promote1 or restore1 the activity of the reproductive energies of ,nature4 ,as ,i have pointed out above an obvious dislocation has taken place in our ,english survivals4 ,sword ,dance1 ,mumming ,play1 and ,morris ,dance1 no longer form part of one ceremony1 but have become separated1 and connected1 on the one hand with the ,winter1 on the other with the early ,summer1 ,nature celebrations2 it is thus not surprising that the symbols should also have become detached4 ,the fact that the three groups manifestly form part of an original whole is an argument in favour of the view that at one moment all the symbols were used together1 and the ,grail chalice carried in a ceremony in which ,sword1 ,lance1 and ,pentangle1 were also displayed4 ,but there is another point ,i would suggest4 ,is it not possible that1 in these armed youths1 who were in some cases1 notably in that of the ,salii1 at once warriors and priests1 we have the real origin of the ,grail ,knights8 ,we know now1 absolutely1 and indubitably1 that these ,sword ,dances formed an important part of the ,vegetation ritual2 is it not easily within the bounds of possibility that1 as the general ceremonial became elevated1 first to the rank of a ,mystery ,cult1 and then used as a vehicle for symbolic ,christian teaching1 the figures of the attendant warrior-priests underwent a corresponding change8 ,from ,salii to ,templars is not after all so #8far a cry' as from the glittering golden-armed ,maruts1 and the youthful leaping ,kouretes1 to the grotesque tatterdemalion personages of the ,christmas ,mumming ,play4 ,we have learnt to acknowledge the common origin of these two latter groups2 may we not reasonably contemplate a possible relation existing between the two first named8 ,,chapter ,,viii ,the ,medicine ,man ,in previous chapters ,i have referred to the part played by the ,doctor in a large number of the surviving #8,fertility' ceremonies1 and to the fact1 noted by other writers1 that even where an active share is no longer assigned to the character1 he still appears among the dramatis personae of these ,folk-plays and processions4#a ,we will now examine more closely the rle allotted to this mysterious personage2 we shall find it to be of extreme antiquity and remarkable significance4 ,in the interesting and important work by ,professor von ,schroeder1 to which ,i have already often referred1 we find the translation of a curious poem 7,rig-,veda1 #aj4 #ig71 a monologue placed in the mouth of a ,doctor1 or ,medicine ,man1 who vaunts the virtue of his herbs1 and their power to cure human ills4#b ,from the references made to a special sick man von ,schroeder infers that this poem1 like others in the collection1 was intended to be acted1 as well as recited1 and that the personage to be healed1 evidently present on the scene1 was probably represented by a dummy1 as no speeches are allotted to the character4 ,the entire poem consists of #bc verses of four lines each1 and is divided by the translator into three distinct sections2 the first is devoted to the praise of herbs in general1 their power to cure the sick man before them1 and at the same time to bring riches to the ,healer--the opening verses run3 8,die ,kruter alt1 entsprossen einst ,drei ,alter vor den ,gttern noch1 ,die braunen will ,ich preisen jetzt6 ,hundert und sieben ,arten sinds4 8,ja1 hundert ,arten1 ,mtterlein1 ,und tausend ,zweige habt ihr auch1 ,ihr1 die ihr hundert ,krfte habt1 ,macht diesen ,menschen mir gesund4 8,ihr ,kruter hrt1 ihr ,mtterchen1 ,ihr gttlichen1 das sag ich euch3 ,ross1 ,rind und ,kleid gewnn' ich gern ,und auch dein ,leben1 lieber ,mann6 444444444444444444444444444444444 ,frwahr ihr bringt mir ,rinder ein1 ,wenn ihr ihn rettet diesen ,mann40 ,he then praises the power of all herbs3 8,vom ,himmel kam der ,kruter ,schar ,geflogen1 und da sprechen sie2 ,wen wir noch lebend treffen an ,der ,mann soll frei von ,schaden sein40 ,finally the speaker singles out one herb as superior to all others3 8,die ,kruter viel in ,soma's ,reich ,die hundertfach verstndigen1 ,von denen bist das beste du ,erfllst den ,wunsch1 und heilst das ,herz40 ,he conjures all other herbs to lend their virtue to this special remedy3 8,ihr ,kruter all' in ,soma's ,reich ,verbreitet auf der ,erde hin1 ,ihr1 von ,brihaspati erzeugt1 ,gebt diesem ,kraute eure ,kraft6 8,nicht nehme ,schaden1 der euch grbt1 ,noch der1 fr ,welchen ,ich euch grub6 ,bei uns soll ,alles1 ,mensch1 und ,vieh1 ,gesund und ohne ,schaden sein4 8,ihr1 die ihr hret dies mein ,wort1 ,ihr1 die ihr in der ,ferne seid1 ,ihr ,pflanzen all'1 vereignet euch1 ,gebt diesem ,kraute eure ,kraft60 ,and the herbs1 taking counsel together with ,soma their king1 answer3 8,fr ,wen uns ein ,brahmane braucht ,den1 ,knig1 wollen retten wir10 a line which throws a light upon the personality of the speaker2 he is obviously a ,brahmin1 and the ,medicine ,man here1 as elsewhere1 unites the functions of ,priest and ,healer4 ,professor von ,schroeder suggests that this ,dramatic ,monologue formed part of the ceremonies of a ,soma feast1 that it is the ,soma plant from which the heavenly drink is brewed which is to be understood as the first of all herbs and the curer of all ills1 and the reference to ,soma as ,king of the herbs seems to bear out this suggestion4 ,in a previous chapter#c ,i have referred to a curious little poem1 also found in the ,rig-,veda1 and translated by von ,schroeder under the title ,a ,folk-,procession at a ,soma-,feast1 the dramatis personae of the poem offering1 as ,i pointed out1 a most striking and significant parallel to certain surviving ,fertility processions1 notably that of ,vrdegtzen in ,hanover4 ,in this little song which von ,schroeder places in the mouth of the leader of the band of maskers1 the ,doctor is twice referred to2 in the opening lines we have the ,brahmin1 the ,doctor1 the ,carpenter1 the ,smith1 given as men plying different trades1 and each and all in search of gain2 in the final verse the speaker announces1 8,i am a ,poet 7or ,singer71 my father a ,doctor40 ,thus of the various trades and personages enumerated the ,doctor alone appears twice over1 an indication of the importance attached to this character4 ,unfortunately1 in view of the fragmentary condition of the survivals of early ,aryan literature1 and the lack of explanatory material at our disposal1 it is impossible to decide what was the precise rle assigned to the #8,medicine ,man'2 judging from the general character of the surviving dramatic fragments and the close parallel which exists between these fragments and the ,medieval and ,modern ,fertility ceremonies1 it seems extremely probable that his original rle was identical with that assigned to his modern counterpart1 i4e41 that of restoring to life or health the slain1 or suffering1 representative of the ,vegetation ,spirit4 ,this presumption gains additional support from the fact that it is in this character that the ,doctor appears in ,greek ,classical ,drama4 ,von ,schroeder refers to the fact that the ,doctor was a stock figure in the ,greek #8,mimus'#d and in ,mr ,cornford's interesting volume entitled ,the ,origin of ,attic ,comedy1 the author reckons the ,doctor among the stock ,masks of the early ,greek ,theatre1 and assigns to this character the precise rle which later survivals have led us to attribute to him4 ,the significance of ,mr ,cornford's work lies in the fact that1 while he accepts ,sir ,gilbert ,murray's deeply interesting and suggestive theory that the origins of ,greek ,tragedy are to be sought in 8the ,agon of the ,fertility ,spirit1 his ,pathos1 and ,theophany10 he contends that a similar origin may be postulated for ,attic ,comedy--that the stock ,masks 7characters7 agree with a theory of derivation of such ,comedy from a ritual performance celebrating the renewal of the seasons4#e 8,they were at first serious1 and even awful1 figures in a ,religious ,mystery1 the ,god who every year is born1 and dies1 and rises again2 his ,mother and his ,bride2 the ,antagonist who kills him2 the ,medicine ,man who restores him to life40#f ,i would submit that the presence of such a character in the original ritual drama of ,revival which1 on my theory1 underlies the romantic form of the ,grail legend1 may1 in view of the above evidence1 and of that brought forward in the previous chapters1 be accepted as at least a probable hypothesis4 ,but1 it may be objected1 granting that the ,doctor in these ,fertility processions and dramas represents a genuine survival of a feature of immemorial antiquity1 a survival to be traced alike in ,aryan remains1 in ,greek literature1 and in ,medieval ceremony1 what is the precise bearing upon the special subject of our investigations8 ,there is no ,doctor in the ,grail legend1 although there is certainly abundant scope for his activities6 ,there may be no ,doctor in the ,grail legend to-day1 but was there never such a character8 ,how if this be the key to explain the curious and persistent attribution of healing skill to so apparently unsuitable a personage as ,sir ,gawain8 ,i would draw the attention of my readers to a passage in the ,perceval of ,chrtien de ,troyes1 where ,gawain1 finding a wounded knight by the roadside1 proceeds to treat him3 8,et ,mesire ,gauvain savoit ,plus que nuls homs de garir plaie2 ,une herbe voit en une haie ,trop bonne pour douleur tolir ,de plaie1 et il la va cueillir40#g ,other ,,mss4 are rather fuller3 8,et ,messires ,gauvain savoit ,plus que nus hons vivant de plaies1 ,unes herbe voit les une haies ,qu'il connoissoit lonc temps avoit ,que son mestre apris li avoit ,enseigniee et bien moustree1 ,et il l'avoit bien esgardee ,si l'a molt bien reconneue40#h ,we find reference to ,gawain's possession of medical knowledge elsewhere4 ,in the poem entitled ,lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc1 ,gawain1 finding his friend desperately wounded1 carries him to a physician whom he instructs as to the proper treatment4#i 8,ende ,walewein wiesde den ,ersatere mere ,ene const1 die daertoe halp wel sere40#aj ,in the parallel adventure related in ,morien ,gawain heals ,lancelot without the aid of any physician3#aa 8,doe was ,walewein harde blide ,ende bant hem sine wonden ten tide ,met selken crude die daer dochten ,dat si niet bloden mochten40#ab ,they ride to an anchorite's cell3 8,si waren doe in dire gedochten ,mochten sie daer comen tier stont ,datten ,walewein soude maken gesont40#ac ,the ,dutch ,lancelot has numerous references to ,gawain's skill in healing4 ,of course the advocates of the originality of ,chrtien de ,troyes will object that these references1 though found in poems which have no connection with ,chrtien1 and which are translations from lost ,french originals of an undetermined date1 are one and all loans from the more famous poem4 ,this1 however1 can hardly be contended of the ,welsh ,triads2 there we find ,gwalchmai1 the ,welsh ,gawain1 cited as one of the three men 8,to whom the nature of every object was known10#ad an accomplishment exceedingly necessary for a #8,medicine ,man1' but not at first sight especially needful for the equipment of a knight4#ae ,this persistent attribution of healing skill is not1 so far as my acquaintance with medieval ,romance goes1 paralleled in the case of any other knight2 even ,tristan1 who is probably the most accomplished of heroes of romance1 the most thoroughly trained in all branches of knightly education1 is not credited with any such knowledge4 ,no other knight1 save ,gawain1 has the reputation of a ,healer1 yet ,gawain1 the ,maidens' ,knight1 the #8fair ,father of ,nurture' is1 at first sight1 hardly the personage one might expect to possess such skill4 ,why he should be so persistently connected with healing was for long a problem to me2 recently1 however1 ,i have begun to suspect that we have in this apparently motiveless attribution the survival of an early stage of tradition in which not only did ,gawain cure the ,grail ,king1 but he did so1 not by means of a question1 or by the welding of a broken sword1 but by more obvious and natural means1 the administration of a healing herb4 ,gawain's character of ,healer belongs to him in his rle of ,grail ,winner4 ,some years ago1 in the course of my reading1 ,i came across a passage in which certain knights of ,arthur's court1 riding through a forest1 come upon a herb #8which belonged to the ,grail4' ,unfortunately the reference1 at the time ,i met with it1 though it struck me as curious1 did not possess any special significance1 and either ,i omitted to make a note of it1 or entered it in a book which1 with sundry others1 went mysteriously astray in the process of moving furniture4 ,in any case1 though ,i have searched diligently ,i have failed to recover the passage1 but ,i note it here in the hope that one of my reader may be more fortunate4 ,it is perhaps not without significance that a mention of ,peredur 7,perceval7 in ,welsh poetry may also possibly contain a reference to his healing office4 ,i refer to the well-known ,song of the ,graves in the ,black ,book of ,carmarthen where the grave of ,mor1 son of ,peredur ,penwetic1 is referred to4 ,according to ,dr ,g4 ,evans the word penwedic1 or perfeddyg1 as it may also be read1 means chief ,healer4 ,peredur1 it is needless to say1 is the ,welsh equivalent of ,perceval1 ,gawain's successor and supplanter in the rle of ,grail hero4 ,i have no desire to press the point unduly1 but it is certainly significant that1 entirely apart from any such theory of the evolution of the ,grail legend as that advanced in these pages1 a ,welsh scholar should have suggested a rendering of the title of the ,grail hero which is in complete harmony with that theory2 a rendering also which places him side by side with his compatriot ,gwalchmai1 even as the completely evolved ,grail story connects him with ,gawain4 ,in any case there is food for reflection in the fact that the possibility of such an origin once admitted1 the most apparently incongruous1 and inharmonious1 elements of the story show themselves capable of a natural and unforced explanation4 ,in face of the evidence above set forth it seems impossible to deny that the ,doctor1 or ,medicine ,man1 did1 from the very earliest ages1 play an important part in ,dramatic ,fertility ,ritual1 that he still survives in the modern ,folk-play1 the rude representative of the early ritual form1 and it is at least possible that the attribution of healing skill to so romantic and chivalrous a character as ,sir ,gawain may depend upon the fact that1 at an early1 and pre-literary stage of his story1 he played the rle traditionally assigned to the ,doctor1 that of restoring to life and health the dead1 or wounded1 representative of the ,spirit of ,vegetation4 ,if ,i am right in my reading of this complicated problem the mise-en-scne of the ,grail story was originally a loan from a ritual actually performed1 and familiar to those who first told the tale4 ,this ritual1 in its earlier stages comparatively simple and objective in form1 under the process of an insistence upon the inner and spiritual significance1 took upon itself a more complex and esoteric character1 the rite became a ,mystery1 and with this change the rle of the principal actors became of heightened significance4 ,that of the ,healer could no longer be adequately fulfilled by the administration of a medicinal remedy2 the relation of ,body and ,soul became of cardinal importance for the ,drama1 the ,medicine ,man gave place to the ,redeemer2 and his task involved more than the administration of the original ,herbal remedy4 ,in fact in the final development of the story the ,pathos is shared alike by the representative of the ,vegetation ,spirit1 and the ,healer1 whose task involves a period of stern testing and probation4 ,if we wish to understand clearly the evolution of the ,grail story we must realize that the simple ,fertility ,drama from which it sprung has undergone a gradual and mysterious change1 which has invested it with elements at once #8rich and strange1' and that though ,folk-lore may be the key to unlock the outer portal of the ,grail castle it will not suffice to give us the entrance to its deeper secrets4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,viii ,while having no connection with the main subject of our study1 the ,grail legend1 ,i should like to draw the attention of students of ,medieval literature to the curious parallel between the ,rig-,veda poem of the ,medicine ,man or ,kruter-,lied as it is also called1 and ,rusteboeuf's ,dist de l',erberie4 ,both are monologues1 both presuppose the presence of an audience1 in each case the speaker is one who vaunts his skill in the use of herbs1 in each case he has in view the ultimate gain to himself4 ,here are the opening lines of the ,medieval poem3#a 8,seignor qui ci estes venu ,petit et grant1 jone et chenu1 ,il vos est trop bien avenu ,sachiez de voir2 ,je ne vos vueil pas deevoir ,bien le porroz aperevoir ,ainz que m'en voise4 ,asiez vos1 ne fetes noise ,si escotez s'il ne vos poise ,je sui uns mires40 ,he has been long with the lord of ,caire1 where he won much gold2 in ,puille1 ,calabre1 ,luserne4 8,ai herbes prises ,qui de granz vertuz sont enprises ,sus quelque mal qu'el soient mises ,le maus s'enfuit40 ,there is no reference in the poem to a cure about to be performed in the presence of the audience1 which does not however exclude the possibility of such cure being effected4 ,it would be interesting to know under what circumstances such a poem was recited1 whether it formed part of a popular representation4 ,the audience in view is of a mixed character1 young and old1 great and small1 and one has a vision of the ,quack ,doctor at some village fair1 on the platform before his booth1 declaiming the virtues of his nostrums before an audience representative of all ranks and ages4 ,it is a far cry from such a ,medieval scene to the prehistoric days of the ,rig-,veda1 but the mise-en-scne is the same2 the popular #8seasonal' feast1 the ,doctor with his healing herbs1 which he vaunts in skilful rhyme1 the hearers1 drawn from all ranks1 some credulous1 some amused4 ,there seems very little doubt that both poems are specimens1 and very good specimens1 of a genre the popularity and vitality of which are commensurate with the antiquity of its origin4#b ,,chapter ,,ix ,the ,fisher ,king ,the gradual process of our investigation has led us to the conclusion that the elements forming the existing ,grail legend--the setting of the story1 the nature of the task which awaits the hero1 the symbols and their significance--one and all1 while finding their counterpart in prehistoric record1 present remarkable parallels to the extant practice and belief of countries so widely separate as the ,british ,isles1 ,russia1 and ,central ,africa4 ,the explanation of so curious a fact1 for it is a fact1 and not a mere hypothesis1 may1 it was suggested1 most probably be found in the theory that in this fascinating literature we have the1 sometimes partially understood1 sometimes wholly misinterpreted1 record of a ritual1 originally presumed to exercise a life-giving potency1 which1 at one time of universal observance1 has1 even in its decay1 shown itself possessed of elements of the most persistent vitality4 ,that if the ritual1 which according to our theory lies at the root of the ,grail story1 be indeed the ritual of a ,life ,cult1 it should1 in and per se1 possess precisely these characteristics1 will1 ,i think1 be admitted by any fair-minded critic2 the point of course is1 can we definitely prove our theory1 i4e41 not merely point to striking parallels1 but select1 from the figures and incidents composing our story1 some one element1 which1 by showing itself capable of explanation on this theory1 and on this theory alone1 may be held to afford decisive proof of the soundness of our hypothesis8 ,it seems to me that there is one such element in the bewildering complex1 by which the theory can be thus definitely tested1 that is the personality of the central figure and the title by which he is known4 ,if we can prove that the ,fisher ,king1 qua ,fisher ,king1 is an integral part of the ritual1 and can be satisfactorily explained alike by its intention1 and inherent symbolism1 we shall1 ,i think1 have taken the final step which will establish our theory upon a sure basis4 ,on the other hand1 if the ,fisher ,king1 qua ,fisher ,king1 does not fit into our framework we shall be forced to conclude that1 while the provenance of certain elements of the ,grail literature is practically assured1 the ensemble has been complicated by the introduction of a terminology1 which1 whether the outcome of serious intention1 or of mere literary caprice1 was foreign to the original source1 and so far1 defies explanation4 ,in this latter case our theory would not necessarily be manqu1 but would certainly be seriously incomplete4 ,we have already seen that the personality of the ,king1 the nature of the disability under which he is suffering1 and the reflex effect exercised upon his folk and his land1 correspond1 in a most striking manner1 to the intimate relation at one time held to exist between the ruler and his land2 a relation mainly dependent upon the identification of the ,king with the ,divine principle of ,life and ,fertility4 ,this relation1 as we have seen above1 exists to-day among certain ,african tribes4 ,if we examine more closely into the existing variants of our romances1 we shall find that those very variants are not only thoroughly dans le cadre of our proposed solution1 but also afford a valuable1 and hitherto unsuspected1 indication of the relative priority of the versions4 ,in ,chapter ,i1 ,i discussed the task of the hero in general1 here ,i propose to focus attention upon his host1 and while in a measure traversing the same ground1 to do so with a view to determining the true character of this enigmatic personage4 ,in the ,bleheris version1#a the lord of the castle is suffering under no disability whatever2 he is described as 8tall1 and strong of limb1 of no great age1 but somewhat bald40 ,besides the ,king there is a ,dead ,knight upon a bier1 over whose body ,vespers for the ,dead are solemnly sung4 ,the wasting of the land1 partially restored by ,gawain's question concerning the ,lance1 has been caused by the #8,dolorous ,stroke1' i4e41 the stroke which brought about the death of the ,knight1 whose identity is here never revealed4 ,certain versions which interpolate the account of ,joseph of ,arimathea and the ,grail1 allude to #8,le riche ,pescheur' and his heirs as ,joseph's descendants1 and1 presumably1 for it is not directly stated1 guardians of the ,grail1#b but the ,king himself is here never called by that title4 ,from his connection with the ,waste ,land it seems more probable that it was the ,dead ,knight who filled that rle4 ,in the second version of which ,gawain is the hero1 that of ,di ,crne1#c the ,host is an old and infirm man4 ,after ,gawain has asked the question we learn that he is really dead1 and only compelled to retain the semblance of life till the task of the ,quester be achieved4 ,here1 again1 he is not called the ,fisher ,king4 ,in the ,perceval versions1 on the contrary1 we find the name invariably associated with him1 but he is not always directly connected with the misfortunes which have fallen upon his land4 ,thus1 while the ,wauchier texts are incomplete1 breaking off at the critical moment of asking the question1 ,manessier who continues1 and ostensibly completes1 ,wauchier1 introduces the ,dead ,knight1 here ,goondesert1 or ,gondefer 7which ,i suspect is the more correct form71 brother of the ,king1 whose death by treachery has plunged the land in misery1 and been the direct cause of the self-wounding of the ,king4#d ,the healing of the ,king and the restoration of the land depend upon ,perceval's slaying the murderer ,partinal4 ,these two versions show a combination of ,perceval and ,gawain themes1 such as their respective dates might lead us to expect4 ,robert de ,borron is the only writer who gives a clear1 and tolerably reasonable1 account of why the guardian of the ,grail bears the title of ,fisher ,king2 in other cases1 such as the poems of ,chrtien and ,wolfram1 the name is connected with his partiality for fishing1 an obviously post hoc addition4 ,the story in question is found in ,borron's ,joseph of ,arimathea4#e ,here we are told how1 during the wanderings of that holy man and his companions in the wilderness1 certain of the company fell into sin4 ,by the command of ,god1 ,brons1 ,joseph's brother-in-law1 caught a ,fish1 which1 with the ,grail1 provided a mystic meal of which the unworthy cannot partake2 thus the sinners were separated from the righteous4 ,henceforward ,brons was known as #8,the ,rich ,fisher4' ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that in the ,perceval romance1 ascribed to ,borron1 the title is as a rule1 ,roi ,pescheur1 not ,riche ,pescheur4#f ,in this romance the ,king is not suffering from any special malady1 but is the victim of extreme old age2 not surprising1 as he is ,brons himself1 who has survived from the dawn of ,christianity to the days of ,king ,arthur4 ,we are told that the effect of asking the question will be to restore him to youth2#g as a matter of fact it appears to bring about his death1 as he only lives three days after his restoration4#h ,when we come to ,chrtien's poem we find ourselves confronted with a striking alteration in the presentment4 ,there are1 not one1 but two1 disabled kings2 one suffering from the effects of a wound1 the other in extreme old age4 ,chrtien's poem being incomplete we do not know what he intended to be the result of the achieved ,quest1 but we may ,i think reasonably conclude that the wounded ,king at least was healed4#i ,the ,parzival of von ,eschenbach follows the same tradition1 but is happily complete4 ,here we find the wounded ,king was healed1 but what becomes of the aged man 7here the grandfather1 not as in ,chrtien the father1 of the ,fisher ,king7 we are not told4#aj ,the ,perlesvaus is1 as ,i have noted above1#ac very unsatisfactory4 ,the illness of the ,king is badly motivated1 and he dies before the achievement of the ,quest4 ,this romance1 while retaining certain interesting1 and undoubtedly primitive features1 is1 as a whole1 too late1 and remanie a redaction to be of much use in determining the question of origins4 ,the same may be said of the ,grand ,saint ,graal and ,queste versions1 both of which are too closely connected with the prose ,lancelot1 and too obviously intended to develope and complete the donnes of that romance to be relied upon as evidence for the original form of the ,grail legend4#ab ,the version of the ,queste is very confused3 there are two kings at the ,grail castle1 ,pelles1 and his father2 sometimes the one1 sometimes the other1 bears the title of ,roi ,pescheur4#ac ,there is besides1 an extremely old1 and desperately wounded1 king1 ,mordrains1 a contemporary of ,joseph1 who practically belongs1 not to the ,grail tradition1 but to a ,conversion legend embodied in the ,grand ,saint ,graal4#ad ,finally1 in the latest cyclic texts1 we have three ,kings1 all of whom are wounded4#ae ,the above will show that the presentment of this central figure is much confused2 generally termed ,le ,roi ,pescheur1 he is sometimes described as in middle life1 and in full possession of his bodily powers4 ,sometimes while still comparatively young he is incapacitated by the effects of a wound1 and is known also by the title of ,roi ,mehaign1 or ,maimed ,king4 ,sometimes he is in extreme old age1 and in certain closely connected versions the two ideas are combined1 and we have a wounded ,fisher ,king1 and an aged father1 or grandfather4 ,but ,i would draw attention to the significant fact that in no case is the ,fisher ,king a youthful character2 that distinction is reserved for his ,healer1 and successor4 ,now is it possible to arrive at any conclusion as to the relative value and probable order of these conflicting variants8 ,i think that if we admit that they do1 in all probability1 represent a more or less coherent survival of the ,nature ritual previously discussed1 we may1 by help of what we know as to the varying forms of that ritual1 be enabled to bring some order out of this confusion4 ,if we turn back to ,chapters #d1 #e1 and #g1 and consult the evidence there given as to the ,adonis cults1 the ,spring ,festivals of ,european ,folk1 the ,mumming ,plays of the ,british ,isles1 the main fact that emerges is that in the great majority of these cases the representative of the ,spirit of ,vegetation is considered as dead1 and the object of these ceremonies is to restore him to life4 ,this ,i hold to be the primary form4 ,this section had already been written when ,i came across the important article by ,dr ,jevons1 referred to in a previous chapter4#af ,certain of his remarks are here so much to the point that ,i cannot refrain from quoting them4 ,speaking of the ,mumming ,plays1 the writer says3 8,the one point in which there is no variation is that--the character is killed and brought to life again4 ,the play is a ceremonial performance1 or rather it is the development in dramatic form of what was originally a religious or magical rite1 representing or realizing the revivification of the character slain4 ,this revivification is the one essential and invariable feature of all the ,mummer's plays in ,england40#ag ,in certain cases1 e4g41 the famous ,roman ,spring festival of ,mamurius ,veturius and the ,swabian ceremony referred to above1#ah the central figure is an old man4 ,in no case do ,i find that the representative of ,vegetation is merely wounded1 although the nature of the ritual would obviously admit of such a variant4 ,thus1 taking the extant and recognized forms of the ritual into consideration1 we might expect to find that in the earliest1 and least contaminated1 version of the ,grail story the central figure would be dead1 and the task of the ,quester that of restoring him to life4 ,viewed from this standpoint the ,gawain versions 7the priority of which is maintainable upon strictly literary grounds1 ,gawain being the original ,arthurian romantic hero7 are of extraordinary interest4 ,in the one form we find a ,dead ,knight1 whose fate is distinctly stated to have involved his land in desolation1 in the other1 an aged man who1 while preserving the semblance of life1 is in reality dead4 ,this last version appears to me1 in view of our present knowledge1 to be of extreme critical value4 ,there can1 ,i think1 be little doubt that in the primary form underlying our extant versions the ,king was dead1 and restored to life2 at first1 ,i strongly suspect1 by the agency of some mysterious herb1 or herbs1 a feature retained in certain forms of the ,mumming play4 ,in the next stage1 that represented by ,borron1 he is suffering from extreme old age1 and the task of the ,quester is to restore him to youth4 ,this version is again supported by extant parallels4 ,in each of these cases it seems most probable that the original ritual 7,i should wish it to be clearly understood that ,i hold the ,grail story to have been primarily dramatic1 and actually performed7 involved an act of substitution4 ,the ,dead ,king in the first case being probably represented by a mere effigy1 in the second being an old man1 his place was1 at a given moment of the ritual1 taken by the youth who played the rle of the ,quester4 ,it is noteworthy that1 while both ,perceval and ,galahad are represented as mere lads1 ,gawain1 whatever his age at the moment of the ,grail quest1 was1 as we learn from ,di ,crne1 dowered by his fairy ,mistress with the gift of eternal youth4#ai ,the versions of ,chrtien and ,wolfram1 which present us with a wounded ,fisher ,king1 and a father1 or grandfather1#bj in extreme old age1 are due in my opinion to a literary device1 intended to combine two existing variants4 ,that the subject matter was well understood by the original redactor of the common source is proved by the nature of the injury1#ba but ,i hold that in these versions we have passed from the domain of ritual to that of literature4 ,still1 we have a curious indication that the ,wounding variant may have had its place in the former4 ,the suggestion made above as to the probable existence in the primitive ritual of a substitution ceremony1 seems to me to provide a possible explanation of the feature found alike in ,wolfram1 and in the closely allied ,grail section of ,sone de ,nansai2 i4e41 that the wound of the ,king was a punishment for sin1 he had conceived a passion for a ,pagan princess4#bb ,now there would be no incongruity in representing the ,dead ,king as reborn in youthful form1 the aged ,king as revenu dans sa juvence1 but when the central figure was a man in the prime of life some reason had to be found1 his strength and vitality being restored1 for his supersession by the appointed ,healer4 ,this supersession was adequately motivated by the supposed transgression of a fundamental ,christian law1 entailing as consequence the forfeiture of his crown4 ,i would thus separate the doubling theme1 as found in ,chrtien and ,wolfram1 from the wounded theme1 equally common to these poets4 ,this latter might possibly be accounted for on the ground of a ritual variant2 the first is purely literary1 explicable neither on the exoteric1 nor the esoteric1 aspect of the ceremony4 ,from the exoteric point of view there are not1 and there cannot be1 two ,kings suffering from parallel disability2 the ritual knows one ,principle of ,life1 and one alone4 ,equally from the esoteric standpoint ,fisher ,king1 and ,maimed ,king1 representing two different aspects of the same personality1 may1 and probably were1 represented as two individuals1 but one alone is disabled4 ,further1 as the two are1 in very truth1 one1 they should be equals in age1 not of different generations4 ,thus the ,bleheris version which gives us a ,dead ,knight1 presumably1 from his having been slain in battle1 still in vigorous manhood1 and a hale ,king is1 ritually1 the more correct4 ,the original of ,manessier's version must have been similar1 but the fact that by the time it was compiled the ,fisher ,king was generally accepted as being also the ,maimed ,king led to the introduction of the very awkward1 and poorly motivated1 self-wounding incident4 ,it will be noted that in this case the ,king is not healed either at the moment of the slaying of his brother's murderer 7which would be the logical result of the donnes of the tale71 nor at the moment of contact with the successful ,quester1 but at the mere announcement of his approach4#bc ,thus1 if we consider the ,king1 apart from his title1 we find that alike from his position in the story1 his close connection with the fortunes of his land and people1 and the varying forms of the disability of which he is the victim1 he corresponds with remarkable exactitude to the central figure of a well-recognized ,nature ritual1 and may therefore justly be claimed to belong ab origine to such a hypothetical source4 ,but what about his title1 why should he be called the ,fisher ,king8 ,here we strike what ,i hold to be the main crux of the problem1 a feature upon which scholars have expended much thought and ingenuity1 a feature which the authors of the romances themselves either did not always understand1 or were at pains to obscure by the introduction of the obviously post hoc 8motif0 above referred to1 i4e41 that he was called the ,fisher ,king because of his devotion to the pastime of fishing3 -propos of which ,heinzel sensibly remarks1 that the story of the ,fisher ,king 8presupposes a legend of this personage only vaguely known and remembered by ,chrtien40#bd ,practically the interpretations already attempted fall into two main groups1 which we may designate as the ,christian-,legendary1 and the ,celtic-,folk-lore interpretations4 ,for those who hold that the ,grail story is essentially1 and fundamentally1 ,christian1 finding its root in ,eucharistic symbolism1 the title is naturally connected with the use of the ,fish symbol in early ,christianity3 the ,icthys anagram1 as applied to ,christ1 the title #8,fishers of ,men1' bestowed upon the ,apostles1 the ,papal ring of the ,fisherman--though it must be noted that no manipulation of the ,christian symbolism avails satisfactorily to account for the lamentable condition into which the bearer of the title has fallen4#be ,the advocates of the ,folk-lore theory1 on the other hand1 practically evade this main difficulty1 by basing their interpretation upon ,borron's story of the catching of the ,fish by ,brons1 equating this character with the ,bran of ,welsh tradition1 and pointing to the existence1 in ,irish and ,welsh legend1 of a ,salmon of ,wisdom1 the tasting of whose flesh confers all knowledge4 ,hertz acutely remarks that the incident1 as related by ,borron1 is not of such importance as to justify the stress laid upon the name1 ,rich ,fisher1 by later writers4#bf ,we may also note in this connection that the ,grail romances never employ the form #8,wise ,fisher1' which1 if the origin of the name were that proposed above1 we might reasonably expect to find4 ,it is obvious that a satisfactory solution of the problem must be sought elsewhere4 ,in my opinion the key to the puzzle is to be found in the rightful understanding of the ,fish-,fisher symbolism4 ,students of the ,grail literature have been too prone to treat the question on the ,christian basis alone1 oblivious of the fact that ,christianity did no more than take over1 and adapt to its own use1 a symbolism already endowed with a deeply rooted prestige and importance4 ,so far the subject cannot be said to have received adequate treatment2 certain of its aspects have been more or less fully discussed in monographs and isolated articles1 but we still await a comprehensive study on this most important question4#bg ,so far as the present state of our knowledge goes we can affirm with certainty that the ,fish is a ,life symbol of immemorial antiquity1 and that the title of ,fisher has1 from the earliest ages1 been associated with ,deities who were held to be specially connected with the origin and preservation of ,life4 ,in ,indian cosmogony ,manu finds a little fish in the water in which he would wash his hands2 it asks1 and receives1 his protection1 asserting that when grown to full size it will save ,manu from the universal deluge4 ,this is ,jhasa1 the greatest of all fish4#bh ,the first ,avatar of ,vishnu the ,creator is a ,fish4 ,at the great feast in honour of this god1 held on the twelfth day of the first month of the ,indian year1 ,vishnu is represented under the form of a golden ,fish1 and addressed in the following terms3 8,wie ,du1 ,o ,gott1 in ,gestalt eines ,fisches die in der ,unterwelt befindlichen ,veden gerettet hast1 so rette auch mich40#bi ,the ,fish ,avatar was afterwards transferred to ,buddha4 ,in ,buddhist religion the symbols of the ,fish and ,fisher are freely employed4 ,thus in ,buddhist monasteries we find drums and gongs in the shape of a fish1 but the true meaning of the symbol1 while still regarded as sacred1 has been lost1 and the explanations1 like the explanations of the ,grail romances1 are often fantastic afterthoughts4 ,in the ,mhyana scriptures ,buddha is referred to as the ,fisherman who draws fish from the ocean of ,samsara to the light of ,salvation4 ,there are figures and pictures which represent ,buddha in the act of fishing1 an attitude which1 unless interpreted in a symbolic sense1 would be utterly at variance with the tenets of the ,buddhist religion4#cj ,this also holds good for ,chinese ,buddhism4 ,the goddess ,kwanyin 7,avalokitesvara71 the female ,deity of ,mercy and ,salvation1 is depicted either on1 or holding1 a ,fish4 ,in the ,han palace of ,kun-,ming-,ch'ih there was a ,fish carved in jade to which in time of drought sacrifices were offered1 the prayers being always answered4 ,both in ,india and ,china the ,fish is employed in funeral rites4 ,in ,india a crystal bowl with ,fish handles was found in a reputed tomb of ,buddha4 ,in ,china the symbol is found on stone slabs enclosing the coffin1 on bronze urns1 vases1 etc4 ,even as the ,babylonians had the ,fish1 or ,fisher1 god1 ,oannes who revealed to them the arts of ,writing1 ,agriculture1 etc41 and was1 as ,eisler puts it1 #8teacher and lord of all wisdom1' so the ,chinese ,fu-,hi1 who is pictured with the mystic tablets containing the mysteries of ,heaven and ,earth1 is1 with his consort and retinue1 represented as having a fish's tail4#ca ,the writer of the article in ,the ,open ,court asserts that 8the ,fish was sacred to those deities who were supposed to lead men back from the shadows of death to life40#cb ,if this be really the case we can understand the connection of the symbol first with ,orpheus1 later with ,christ1 as ,eisler remarks3 8,orpheus is connected with nearly all the mystery1 and a great many of the ordinary chthonic1 cults in ,greece and ,italy4 ,christianity took its first tentative steps into the reluctant world of ,graeco-,roman ,paganism under the benevolent patronage of ,orpheus40#cc ,there is thus little reason to doubt that1 if we regard the ,fish as a ,divine ,life symbol1 of immemorial antiquity1 we shall not go very far astray4 ,we may note here that there was a fish known to the ,semites by the name of ,adonis1 although as the title signifies #8,lord1' and is generic rather than specific1 too much stress cannot be laid upon it4 ,it is more interesting to know that in ,babylonian cosmology ,adapa the ,wise1 the son of ,ea1 is represented as a ,fisher4#cd ,in the ancient ,sumerian laments for ,tammuz1 previously referred to1 that god is frequently addressed as ,divine ,lamgar1 ,lord of the ,net1 the nearest equivalent ,i have so far found to our #8,fisher ,king4'#ce ,whether the phrase is here used in an actual or a symbolic sense the connection of idea is sufficiently striking4 ,in the opinion of the most recent writers on the subject the ,christian ,fish symbolism derives directly from the ,jewish1 the ,jews1 on their side having borrowed freely from ,syrian belief and practice4#cf ,what may be regarded as the central point of ,jewish ,fish symbolism is the tradition that1 at the end of the world1 ,messias will catch the great ,fish ,leviathan1 and divide its flesh as food among the faithful4 ,as a foreshadowing of this ,messianic ,feast the ,jews were in the habit of eating fish upon the ,sabbath4 ,during the ,captivity1 under the influence of the worship of the goddess ,atargatis1 they transferred the ceremony to the ,friday1 the eve of the ,sabbath1 a position which it has retained to the present day4 ,eisler remarks that 8in ,galicia one can see ,israelite families in spite of their being reduced to the extremest misery1 procuring on ,fridays a single gudgeon1 to eat1 divided into fragments1 at night-fall4 ,in the #afth century ,rabbi ,solomon ,luria protested strongly against this practice4 ,fish1 he declared1 should be eaten on the ,sabbath itself1 not on the ,eve40#cg ,this ,jewish custom appears to have been adopted by the primitive ,church1 and early ,christians1 on their side1 celebrated a ,sacramental ,fish-meal4 ,the ,catacombs supply us with numerous illustrations1 fully described by the two writers referred to4 ,the elements of this mystic meal were ,fish1 ,bread1 and ,wine1 the last being represented in the ,messianic tradition3 8,at the end of the meal ,god will give to the most worthy1 i4e41 to ,king ,david1 the ,cup of ,blessing--one of fabulous dimensions40#ch ,fish play an important part in ,mystery ,cults1 as being the #8holy' food4 ,upon a tablet dedicated to the ,phrygian ,mater ,magna we find ,fish and ,cup2 and ,dlger1 speaking of a votive tablet discovered in the ,balkans1 says1 8,hier ist der ,fisch immer und immer wieder allzu deutlich als die heilige ,speise eines ,mysterien-,kultes hervorgehoben40#ci ,now ,i would submit that here1 and not in ,celtic ,folk-lore1 is to be found the source of ,borron's ,fish-meal4 ,let us consider the circumstances4 ,joseph and his followers1 in the course of their wanderings1 find themselves in danger of famine4 ,the position is somewhat curious1 as apparently the leaders have no idea of the condition of their followers till the latter appeal to ,brons4#dj ,brons informs ,joseph1 who prays for aid and counsel from the ,grail4 ,a ,voice from ,heaven bids him send his brother-in-law1 ,brons1 to catch a fish4 ,meanwhile he1 ,joseph1 is to prepare a table1 set the ,grail1 covered with a cloth1 in the centre opposite his own seat1 and the fish which ,brons shall catch1 on the other side4 ,he does this1 and the seats are filled--8,si s'i asieent une grant partie et plus i ot de cels qui n'i sistrent mie1 que de cels qui sistrent40 ,those who are seated at the table are conscious of a great 8douceur10 and 8l'accomplissement de lor cuers10 the rest feel nothing4 ,now compare this with the ,irish story of the ,salmon of ,wisdom4#da ,finn ,mac ,cumhail enters the service of his namesake1 ,finn ,eger1 who for seven years had remained by the ,boyne watching the ,salmon of ,lynn ,feic1 which it had been foretold ,finn should catch4 ,the younger lad1 who conceals his name1 catches the fish4 ,he is set to watch it while it roasts but is warned not to eat it4 ,touching it with his thumb he is burned1 and puts his thumb in his mouth to cool it4 ,immediately he becomes possessed of all knowledge1 and thereafter has only to chew his thumb to obtain wisdom4 ,mr ,nutt remarks3 8,the incident in ,borron's poem has been recast in the mould of mediaeval ,christian ,symbolism1 but ,i think the older myth can still be clearly discerned1 and is wholly responsible for the incident as found in the ,conte du ,graal40 ,but when these words were written we were in ignorance of the ,sacramental ,fish-meal1 common alike to ,jewish1 ,christian1 and ,mystery ,cults1 a meal which offers a far closer parallel to ,borron's romance than does the ,finn story1 in which1 beyond the catching of a fish1 there is absolutely no point of contact with our romance1 neither ,joseph nor ,brons derives wisdom from the eating thereof2 it is not they who detect the sinners1 the severance between the good and the evil is brought about automatically4 ,the ,finn story has no common meal1 and no idea of spiritual blessings such as are connected therewith4 ,in the case of the ,messianic ,fish-meal1 on the other hand1 the parallel is striking2 in both cases it is a communal meal1 in both cases the privilege of sharing it is the reward of the faithful1 in both cases it is a foretaste of the bliss of ,paradise4 ,furthermore1 as remarked above1 the practice was at one time of very widespread prevalence4 ,now whence did ,borron derive his knowledge1 from ,jewish1 ,christian or ,mystery sources8 ,this is a question not very easy to decide4 ,in view of the pronounced ,christian tone of ,borron's romance ,i should feel inclined to exclude the first1 also the ,jewish ,fish-meal seems to have been of a more open1 general and less symbolic character than the ,christian2 it was frankly an anticipation of a promised future bliss1 obtainable by all4 ,orthodox ,christianity1 on the other hand1 knows nothing of the ,sacred ,fish-meal1 so far as ,i am aware it forms no part of any ,apocalyptic expectation1 and where this special symbolism does occur it is often under conditions which place its interpretation outside the recognized category of ,christian belief4 ,a noted instance in point is the famous epitaph of ,bishop ,aberkios1 over the correct interpretation of which scholars have spent much time and ingenuity4#db ,in this curious text ,aberkios1 after mentioning his journeys1 says3 8,paul ,i had as my guide1 ,faith however always went ahead and set before me as food a ,fish from a ,fountain1 a huge one1 a clean one1 ,which a ,holy ,virgin has caught4 ,this she gave to the friends ever to eat as food1 ,having good ,wine1 and offering it watered together with ,bread4 ,aberkios had this engraved when #gb years of age in truth4 ,whoever can understand this let him pray for ,aberkios40 ,eisler 7,i am here quoting from the ,quest article7 remarks1 8,as the last line of our quotation gives us quite plainly to understand1 a number of words which we have italicized are obviously used in an unusual1 metaphorical1 sense1 that is to say as terms of the ,christian ,mystery language40 ,while ,harnack1 admitting that the ,christian character of the text is indisputable1 adds significantly3 8aber das ,christentum der ,grosskirche ist es nicht40 ,thus it is possible that1 to the various points of doubtful orthodoxy which scholars have noted as characteristic of the ,grail romances1 ,borron's ,fish-meal should also be added4 ,should it be objected that the dependence of a medieval romance upon a ,jewish tradition of such antiquity is scarcely probable1 ,i would draw attention to the ,voyage of ,saint ,brandan1 where the monks1 during their prolonged wanderings1 annually #8kept their ,resurrection1' i4e41 celebrate their ,easter ,mass1 on the back of a great ,fish4#dc ,on their first meeting with this monster ,saint ,brandan tells them it is the greatest of all fishes1 and is named ,jastoni1 a name which bears a curious resemblance to the ,jhasa of the ,indian tradition cited above4#dd ,in this last instance the connection of the ,fish with life1 renewed and sustained1 is undeniable4 ,the original source of such a symbol is most probably to be found in the belief1 referred to in a previous chapter1#de that all life comes from the water1 but that a more sensual and less abstract idea was also operative appears from the close connection of the ,fish with the goddess ,astarte or ,atargatis1 a connection here shared by the ,dove4 ,cumont1 in his ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain1 says3 8,two animals were held in general reverence1 namely1 ,dove and ,fish4 ,countless flocks of ,doves greeted the traveller when he stepped on shore at ,askalon1 and in the outer courts of all the temples of ,astarte one might see the flutter of their white wings4 ,the ,fish were preserved in ponds near to the ,temple1 and superstitious dread forbade their capture1 for the goddess punished such sacrilege1 smiting the offender with ulcers and tumours40#df ,but at certain mystic banquets priests and initiates partook of this otherwise forbidden food1 in the belief that they thus partook of the flesh of the goddess4 ,eisler and other scholars are of the opinion that it was the familiarity with this ritual gained by the ,jews during the ,captivity that led to the adoption of the ,friday ,fish-meal1 already referred to1 ,friday being the day dedicated to the goddess and1 later1 to her equivalent1 ,venus4 ,from the ,jews the custom spread to the ,christian ,church1 where it still flourishes1 its true origin1 it is needless to say1 being wholly unsuspected4#dg ,dove and ,fish also appear together in ancient iconography4 ,in ,comte ,goblet d',alviella's work ,the ,migration of ,symbols there is an illustration of a coin of ,cyzicus1 on which is represented an ,omphalus1 flanked by two ,doves1 with a ,fish beneath2#dh and a whole section is devoted to the discussion of the representations of two ,doves on either side of a ,temple entrance1 or of an ,omphalus4 ,in the author's opinion the origin of the symbol may be found in the sacred dove-cotes of ,phoenicia1 referred to by ,cumont4 ,scheftelowitz instances the combination of ,fish-meal and ,dove1 found on a ,jewish tomb of the first century at ,syracuse1 and remarks that the two are frequently found in combination on ,christian tombstones4#di ,students of the ,grail romances will not need to be reminded that the ,dove makes its appearance in certain of our texts4 ,in the ,parzival it plays a somewhat important rle2 every ,good ,friday a ,dove brings from ,heaven a ,host1 which it lays upon the ,grail2 and the ,dove is the badge of the ,grail ,knights4#ej ,in the prose ,lancelot the coming of the ,grail procession is heralded by the entrance through the window of a ,dove1 bearing a censer in its beak4#ea ,is it not possible that it was the already existing connection in ,nature ritual of these two1 ,dove and ,fish1 which led to the introduction of the former into our romances1 where its rle is never really adequately motivated8 ,it is further to be noted that besides ,dove and ,fish the ,syrians reverenced ,stones1 more especially meteoric ,stones1 which they held to be endowed with life potency1 another point of contact with our romances4#eb ,that the ,fish was considered a potent factor in ensuring fruitfulness is proved by certain prehistoric tablets described by ,scheftelowitz1 where ,fish1 ,horse1 and ,swastika1 or in another instance ,fish and ,reindeer1 are found in a combination which unmistakeably denotes that the object of the votive tablet was to ensure the fruitfulness of flocks and herds4#ec ,with this intention its influence was also invoked in marriage ceremonies4 ,the same writer points out that the ,jews in ,poland were accustomed to hold a ,fish feast immediately on the conclusion of the marriage ceremony and that a similar practice can be prove for the ancient ,greeks4#ed ,at the present day the ,jews of ,tunis exhibit a ,fish's tail on a cushion at their weddings4#ee ,in some parts of ,india the newly-wedded pair waded knee-deep into the water1 and caught fish in a new garment4 ,during the ceremony a ,brahmin student1 from the shore1 asked solemnly1 8,what seest thou80 to which the answer was returned1 8,sons and ,cattle40#ef ,in all these cases there can be no doubt that it was the prolific nature of the ,fish1 a feature which it shares in common with the ,dove1 which inspired practice and intention4 ,surely the effect of this cumulative body of evidence is to justify us in the belief that ,fish and ,fisher1 being1 as they undoubtedly are1 ,life symbols of immemorial antiquity1 are1 by virtue of their origin1 entirely in their place in a sequence of incidents which there is solid ground for believing derive ultimately from a ,cult of this nature4 ,that ,borron's ,fish-meal1 that the title of ,fisher ,king1 are not accidents of literary invention but genuine and integral parts of the common body of tradition which has furnished the incidents and mise-en-scne of the ,grail drama4 ,can it be denied that1 while from the standpoint of a ,christian interpretation the character of the ,fisher ,king is simply incomprehensible1 from the standpoint of ,folk-tale inadequately explained1 from that of a ,ritual survival it assumes a profound meaning and significance8 ,he is not merely a deeply symbolic figure1 but the essential centre of the whole cult1 a being semi-divine1 semi-human1 standing between his people and land1 and the unseen forces which control their destiny4 ,if the ,grail story be based upon a ,life ritual the character of the ,fisher ,king is of the very essence of the tale1 and his title1 so far from being meaningless1 expresses1 for those who are at pains to seek1 the intention and object of the perplexing whole4 ,the ,fisher ,king is1 as ,i suggested above1 the very heart and centre of the whole mystery1 and ,i contend that with an adequate interpretation of this enigmatic character the soundness of the theory providing such an interpretation may be held to be definitely proved4 ,,chapter ,x ,the ,secret of the ,grail 7#a7 ,the ,mysteries ,students of the ,grail literature cannot fail to have been impressed by a certain atmosphere of awe and mystery which surrounds that enigmatic ,vessel4 ,there is a secret connected with it1 the revelation of which will entail dire misfortune on the betrayer4 ,if spoken of at all it must be with scrupulous accuracy4 ,it is so secret a thing that no woman1 be she wife or maid1 may venture to speak of it4 ,a priest1 or a man of holy life might indeed tell the marvel of the ,grail1 but none can hearken to the recital without shuddering1 trembling1 and changing colour for very fear4 8,c'est del ,graal dont nus ne doit ,le secret dire ne conter2 ,car tel chose poroit monter ,li contes ains qu'il fust tos dis ,que teus hom en seroit maris ,qui ne l'aroit mie fourfait4 444444444444444444444444444444 ,car1 se ,maistre ,blihis ne ment ,nus ne doit dire le secr40#a 8,mais la mervelle qu'il trova ,dont maintes fois s'espoenta ,ne doit nus hom conter ne dire ,cil ki le dist en a grant ire ,car c'est li signes del ,graal 7other texts secrs7 ,s'en puet avoir et paine et mal 7,li fet grant pechi et grant mal7 ,cil qui s'entremet del conter ,fors ensi com it doit aler40#b ,the above refers to ,gawain's adventure at the ,black ,chapel1 en route for the ,grail ,castle4 ,the following is the answer given to ,perceval by the maiden of the ,white ,mule1 after he has been overtaken by a storm in the forest4 ,she tells him the mysterious light he beheld proceeded from the ,grail1 but on his enquiry as to what the ,grail may be1 refuses to give him any information4 8,li dist #8,sire1 ce ne puet estre ,que je plus vos en doie dire ,si vous 4c4 fois esties me sire ,n'en oseroie plus conter1 ,ne de mon labor plus parler 7other texts1 ma bouche7 ,car ce est chose trop secre ,si ne doit estre raconte ,par dame ne par damoisele1 ,par mescine ne par puciele1 ,ne par nul home qui soit ns ,si prouvoires n'est ordens1 ,u home qui maine sainte vie1 4444444444444444444444444444 ,cil poroit de,i ,graal parler1 ,et la mervelle raconter1 ,que nus hom nel poroit or ,que il ne l'estuece fremir ,trambler et remuer color1 ,et empalir de la paour4'0#c ,from this evidence there is no doubt that to the romance writers the ,grail was something secret1 mysterious and awful1 the exact knowledge of which was reserved to a select few1 and which was only to be spoken of with bated breath1 and a careful regard to strict accuracy4 ,but how does this agree with the evidence set forth in our preceding chapters8 ,there we have been led rather to emphasize the close parallels existing between the characters and incidents of the ,grail story1 and a certain well-marked group of popular beliefs and observances1 now very generally recognized as fragments of a once widespread ,nature ,cult4 ,these beliefs and observances1 while dating from remotest antiquity1 have1 in their modern survivals1 of recent years1 attracted the attention of scholars by their persistent and pervasive character1 and their enduring vitality4 ,yet1 so far as we have hitherto dealt with them1 these practices were1 and are1 popular in character1 openly performed1 and devoid of the special element of mystery which is so characteristic a feature of the ,grail4 ,nor1 in these public ,folk-ceremonies1 these ,spring festivals1 ,dances1 and ,plays1 is there anything which1 on the face of it1 appears to bring them into touch with the central mystery of the ,christian ,faith4 ,yet the men who wrote these romances saw no incongruity in identifying the mysterious ,food-providing ,vessel of the ,bleheris-,gawain version with the ,chalice of the ,eucharist1 and in ascribing the power of bestowing ,spiritual ,life to that which certain modern scholars have identified as a ,wunsch-,ding1 a ,folk-tale ,vessel of ,plenty4 ,if there be a mystery of the ,grail surely the mystery lies here1 in the possibility of identifying two objects which1 apparently1 lie at the very opposite poles of intellectual conception4 ,what brought them together8 ,where shall we seek a connecting link8 ,by what road did the romancers reach so strangely unexpected a goal8 ,it is1 of course1 very generally recognized that in the case of most of the pre-,christian religions1 upon the nature and character of whose rites we possess reliable information1 such rites possessed a two-fold character--exoteric2 in celebrations openly and publicly performed1 in which all adherents of that particular cult could join freely1 the object of such public rites being to obtain some external and material benefit1 whether for the individual worshipper1 or for the community as a whole--esoteric2 rites open only to a favoured few1 the initiates1 the object of which appears1 as a rule1 to have been individual rather than social1 and non-material4 ,in some cases1 certainly1 the object aimed at was the attainment of a conscious1 ecstatic1 union with the god1 and the definite assurance of a future life4 ,in other words there was the public worship1 and there were the ,mysteries4 ,of late years there has been a growing tendency among scholars to seek in the ,mysteries the clue which shall enable us to read aright the baffling riddle of the ,grail1 and there can be little doubt that1 in so doing1 we are on the right path4 ,at the same time ,i am convinced that to seek that clue in those ,mysteries which are at once the most famous1 and the most familiar to the classical scholar1 i4e41 the ,eleusinian1 is a fatal mistake4 ,there are1 as we shall see1 certain essential1 and radical1 differences between the ,greek and the ,christian religious conceptions which1 affecting as they do the root conceptions of the two groups1 render it quite impossible that any form of the ,eleusinian ,mystery cult could have given such results as we find in the ,grail legend4#d ,cumont in his ,les ,religions ,orientales dans le ,paganisme ,romain1 speaking of the influence of the ,mysteries upon ,christianity1 remarks acutely1 8,or1 lorsqu'on parle de mystres on doit songer ,i',asie hellnise1 bien plus qu' la ,grce propre1 malgr tout le prestige qui entourait ,eleusis1 car d'abord les premires communauts ,chrtiennes se font fondes1 formes1 dveloppes1 au milieu de populations ,orientales1 ,smites1 ,phrygiens1 ,egyptiens40#e ,this is perfectly true1 but it was not only the influence of milieu1 not only the fact that the #8hellenized' faiths were1 as ,cumont points out1 more advanced1 richer in ideas and sentiments1 more pregnant1 more poignant1 than the more strictly #8classic' faiths1 but they possessed1 in common with ,christianity1 certain distinctive features lacking in these latter4 ,if we were asked to define the special characteristic of the central ,christian rite1 should we not state it as being a ,sacred meal of ,communion in which the worshipper1 not merely symbolically1 but actually1 partakes of1 and becomes one with1 his ,god1 receiving thereby the assurance of eternal life8 7,the ,body of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life47 ,but it is precisely this conception which is lacking in the ,greek ,mysteries1 and that inevitably1 as ,rohde points out3 8,the ,eleusinian ,mysteries in common with all ,greek religion1 differentiated clearly between gods and men1 eins ist der ,menschen1 ein andres der ,gtter-,geschlecht-- 40 ,the attainment of union with the god1 by way of ecstasy1 as in other ,mystery cults1 is foreign to the ,eleusinian idea4 ,as ,cumont puts it 8,the ,greco-,roman deities rejoice in the perpetual calm and youth of ,olympus1 the ,eastern deities die to live again40#f ,in other words ,greek religion lacks the ,sacramental idea4 ,thus even if we set aside the absence of a parallel between the ritual of the ,greek ,mysteries and the mise-en-scne of the ,grail stories1 ,eleusis would be unable to offer us those essential elements which would have rendered possible a translation of the incidents of those stories into terms of high ,christian symbolism4 ,yet we cannot refrain from the conclusion that there was something in the legend that not merely rendered possible1 but actually invited1 such a translation4 ,if we thus dismiss1 as fruitless for our investigation1 the most famous representative of the ,hellenic ,mysteries proper1 how does the question stand with regard to those faiths to which ,cumont is referring1 the hellenized cults of ,asia ,minor8 ,here the evidence1 not merely of the existence of ,mysteries1 but of their widespread popularity1 and permeating influence1 is overwhelming2 the difficulty is not so much to prove our case1 as to select and co-ordinate the evidence germane to our enquiry4 ,regarding the question as a whole it is undoubtedly true that1 as ,anrich remarks1 8the extent of the literature devoted to the ,mysteries stands in no relation whatever 7gar keinem ,verhltniss7 to the importance in reality attached to them40#g ,later in the same connection1 after quoting ,clement of ,alexandria's dictum 8,geheime ,dinge wie die ,gottheit1 werden der ,rede anvertraut1 nicht der ,schrift10 he adds1 8,schriftliche ,fixierung ist schon beinahe ,entweihung40#h ,a just remark which it would be well if certain critics who make a virtue of refusing to accept as evidence anything short of a direct and positive literary statement would bear in mind4 ,there are certain lines of research in which1 as ,bishop ,butler long since emphasized1 probability must be our guide4 ,fortunately1 however1 so far as our present research is concerned1 we have more than probability to rely upon2 not only did these ,nature ,cults with which we are dealing express themselves in ,mystery terms1 but as regards these special ,mysteries we possess clear and definite information1 and we know1 moreover1 that in the ,western world they were1 of all the ,mystery faiths1 the most widely spread1 and the most influential4 ,as ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer has before now pointed out1 there are parallel and over-lapping forms of this cult1 the name of the god1 and certain details of the ritual1 may differ in different countries1 but whether he hails from ,babylon1 ,phrygia1 or ,phoenicia1 whether he be called ,tammuz1 ,attis1 or ,adonis1 the main lines of the story are fixed1 and invariable4 ,always he is young and beautiful1 always the beloved of a great goddess2 always he is the victim of a tragic and untimely death1 a death which entails bitter loss and misfortune upon a mourning world1 and which1 for the salvation of that world1 is followed by a resurrection4 ,death and ,resurrection1 mourning and rejoicing1 present themselves in sharp antithesis in each and all of the forms4 ,we know the god best as ,adonis1 for it was under that name that1 though not originally ,greek1 he became known to the ,greek world1 was adopted by them with ardour1 carried by them to ,alexandria1 where his feast assumed the character of a ,state solemnity2 under that name his story has been enshrined in ,art1 and as ,adonis he is loved and lamented to this day4 ,the ,adonis ritual may be held to be the classic form of the cult4 ,but in ,rome1 the centre of ,western civilization1 it was otherwise3 there it was the ,phrygian god who was in possession2 the dominating position held by the cult of ,attis and the ,magna ,mater1 and the profound influence exercised by that cult over better known1 but subsequently introduced1 forms of worship1 have not1 so far1 been sufficiently realized4 ,the first of the ,oriental cults to gain a footing in the ,imperial city1 the worship of the ,magna ,mater of ,pessinonte was1 for a time1 rigidly confined within the limits of her sanctuary4 ,the orgiastic ritual of the priests of ,kybele made at first little appeal to the more disciplined temperament of the ,roman population4 ,by degrees1 however1 it won its way1 and by the reign of ,claudius had become so popular that the emperor instituted public feasts in honour of ,kybele and ,attis1 feasts which were celebrated at the ,spring solstice1 ,march #aeth-#bgth4#i ,as the public feast increased in popularity1 so did the ,mystery feast1 of which the initiated alone were privileged to partake1 acquire a symbolic significance3 the foods partaken of became 8un aliment de vie spirituelle1 et doivent soutenir dans les preuves de la vie l'initi40 ,philosophers boldly utilized the framework of the ,attis cult as the vehicle for imparting their own doctrines1 8,lorsque le ,noplatonisme triomphera la fable ,phrygienne deviendra le moule traditionnel dans lequel des exgtes subtils verseront hardiment leurs spculations philosophiques sur les forces cratrices fcondantes1 principes de toutes les formes matrielles1 et sur la dlivrance de l'me divine plonge dans la corruption de ce monde terrestre40#aj ,certain of the ,gnostic sects1 both pre- and post-,christian1 appear to have been enthusiastic participants in the ,attis mysteries2#aa ,hepding1 in his ,attis study1 goes so far as to refer to ,bishop ,aberkios1 to whose enigmatic epitaph our attention was directed in the last chapter1 as 8der ,attis-,priester40#ab ,another element aided in the diffusion of the ritual4 ,of all the ,oriental cults which journeyed ,westward under the aegis of ,rome none was so deeply rooted or so widely spread as the originally ,persian cult of ,mithra--the popular religion of the ,roman legionary4 ,but between the cults of ,mithra and of ,attis there was a close and intimate alliance4 ,in parts of ,asia ,minor the ,persian god had early taken over features of the ,phrygian deity4 8,aussitt que nous pouvons constater la prsence du culte ,persique en ,italie nous le trouvons troitement uni celui de la ,grande ,mre de ,pessinonte40#ac ,the union between ,mithra and the goddess ,anhita was held to be the equivalent of that subsisting between the two great ,phrygian deities ,attis-,kybele4 ,the most ancient ,mithreum known1 that at ,ostia1 was attached to the ,metroon1 the temple of ,kybele4 ,at ,saalburg the ruins of the two temples are but a few steps apart4 8,l'on a tout lieu de croire que le culte du dieu ,iranien et celui de la desse ,phrygienne vcurent en communion intime sur toute l'tendue de l',empire40#ad ,a proof of the close union of the two cults is afforded by the mystic rite of the ,taurobolium1 which was practised by both1 and which1 in the ,west1 at least1 seems to have passed from the temples of the ,mithra to those of the ,magna ,mater4 ,at the same time ,cumont remarks that the actual rite seems to have been practised in ,asia from a great antiquity1 before ,mithraism had attributed to it a spiritual significance4 ,it is thus possible that the rite had earlier formed a part of the ,attis initiation1 and had been temporarily disused4#ae ,we shall see that the union of the ,mithra-,attis cults becomes of distinct importance when we examine1 7a7 the spiritual significance of these rituals1 and their elements of affinity with ,christianity1 7b7 their possible diffusion in the ,british ,isles4 ,but now what do we know of the actual details of the ,attis mysteries8 ,the first and most important point was a ,mystic ,meal1 at which the food partaken of was served in the sacred vessels1 the tympanum1 and the cymbals4 ,the formula of an ,attis initiate was 8,i have eaten from the tympanum1 ,i have drunk from the cymbals40 ,as ,i have remarked above1 the food thus partaken of was a ,food of ,life--8,die ,attis-,diener in der ,tat eine magische ,speise des ,lebens aus ihren ,kult-,gerten zu essen meinten40#af ,dieterich in his interesting study entitled ,eine ,mithrasliturgie refers to this meal as the centre of the whole religious action4 ,further1 in some mysterious manner1 the fate of the initiate was connected with1 and dependent upon1 the death and resurrection of the god4 ,the ,christian writer ,firmicius ,maternus1 at one time himself an initiate1 has left an account of the ceremony1 without1 however1 specifying whether the deity in question was ,attis or ,adonis--as ,dieterich remarks 8,was er erzhlt kann sich auf ,attis-gemeinden1 und auf ,adonis-gemeinden beziehen40 ,this is what he says3 8,nocte quadam simulacrum in lectica supinum ponitur1 et per numeros digestis fletibus plangitur3 deinde cum se ficta lamentatione satiaverint lumen infertur3 tunc a sacerdote omnium qui flebant fauces unguentur1 quibus perunctis sacerdos hoc lento murmure susurrit3 #8,have courage1 ,o initiates of the saviour-god1 ,for there will be salvation for us from our toils--' on which ,dieterich remarks3 8,das ,heil der ,mysten hngt an der ,rettung des ,gottes40#ag 999999 ,note3 ,the above has an ,english translation of ,weston's ,greek 999999 ,hepding holds that in some cases there was an actual burial1 and awakening with the god to a new life4#ah ,in any case it is clear that the successful issue of the test of initiation was dependent upon the resurrection and revival of the god4 ,now is it not clear that we have here a close parallel with the ,grail romances8 ,in each case we have a common1 and mystic1 meal1 in which the food partaken of stands in close connection with the holy vessels4 ,in the ,attis feast the initiates actually ate and drank from these vessels2 in the romances the ,grail community never actually eat from the ,grail itself1 but the food is1 in some mysterious and unexplained manner1 supplied by it4 ,in both cases it is a ,lebens-,speise1 a ,food of ,life4 ,this point is especially insisted upon in the ,parzival1 where the ,grail community never become any older than they were on the day they first beheld the ,talisman4#ai ,in the ,attis initiation the proof that the candidate has successfully passed the test is afforded by the revival of the god--in the ,grail romances the proof lies in the healing of the ,fisher ,king4 ,thus1 while deferring for a moment any insistence on the obvious points of parallelism with the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist1 and the possibilities of ,spiritual teaching inherent in the ceremonies1 necessary links in our chain of argument1 we are1 ,i think1 entitled to hold that1 even when we pass beyond the outward mise-en-scne of the story--the march of incident1 the character of the ,king1 his title1 his disability1 and relation to his land and folk--to the inner and deeper significance of the tale1 the ,nature ,cults still remain reliable guides2 it is their inner1 their esoteric1 ritual which will enable us to bridge the gulf between what appears at first sight the wholly irreconcilable elements of ,folk-tale and high ,spiritual mystery4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,the ,secret of the ,grail 7#b7 ,the ,naassene ,document ,we have now seen that the ,ritual which1 as we have postulated1 lies1 in a fragmentary and distorted condition1 at the root of our existing ,grail romances1 possessed elements capable of assimilation with a religious system which the great bulk of its modern adherents would unhesitatingly declare to be its very antithesis4 ,that ,christianity might have borrowed from previously existing cults certain outward signs and symbols1 might have accommodated itself to already existing ,fasts and ,feasts1 may be1 perforce has had to be1 more or less grudgingly admitted2 that such a rapprochement should have gone further1 that it should even have been inherent in the very nature of the ,faith1 that1 to some of the deepest thinkers of old1 ,christianity should have been held for no new thing but a fulfilment of the promise enshrined in the ,mysteries from the beginning of the world1 will to many be a strange and startling thought4 ,yet so it was1 and ,i firmly believe that it is only in the recognition of this one-time claim of essential kinship between ,christianity and the ,pagan ,mysteries that we shall find the key to the ,secret of the ,grail4 ,and here at the outset ,i would ask those readers who are inclined to turn with feelings of contemptuous impatience from what they deem an unprofitable discussion of idle speculations which have little or nothing to do with a problem they hold to be one of purely literary interest1 to be solved by literary comparison and criticism1 and by no other method1 to withhold their verdict till they have carefully examined the evidence ,i am about to bring forward1 evidence which has never so far been examined in this connection1 but which if ,i am not greatly mistaken provides us with clear and unmistakable proof of the actual existence of a ritual in all points analogous to that indicated by the ,grail romances4 ,in the previous chapter we have seen that there is evidence1 and abundant evidence1 not merely of the existence of ,mysteries connected with the worship of ,adonis-,attis1 but of the high importance assigned to such ,mysteries2 at the time of the birth of ,christianity they were undoubtedly the most popular and the most influential of the foreign cults adopted by ,imperial ,rome4 ,in support of this statement ,i quoted certain passages from ,cumont's ,religions ,orientales1 in which he touches on the subject3 here are two other quotations which may well serve as introduction to the evidence we are about to examine4 8,researches on the doctrines and practices common to ,christianity and the ,oriental ,mysteries almost invariably go back1 beyond the limits of the ,roman ,empire1 to the ,hellenized ,east4 ,it is there we must seek the key of enigmas still unsolved--,the essential fact to remember is that the ,eastern religions had diffused1 first anterior to1 then parallel with1 ,christianity1 doctrines which acquired with this latter a universal authority in the decline of the ancient world4 ,the preaching of ,asiatic priests prepared in their own despite the triumph of the ,church40#a ,but the triumph of the new ,faith once assured the organizing1 dominating1 influence of ,imperial ,rome speedily came into play4 ,christianity1 originally an ,eastern1 became a ,western1 religion1 the #8,mystery' elements were frowned upon1 kinship with pre-,christian faiths ignored1 or denied2 where the resemblances between the cults proved too striking for either of these methods such resemblances were boldly attributed to the invention of the ,father of ,lies himself1 a cunning snare whereby to deceive unwary souls4 ,christianity was carefully trimmed1 shaped1 and forced into an ,orthodox mould1 and anything that refused to adapt itself to this drastic process became by that very refusal anathema to the righteous4 ,small wonder that1 under such conditions1 the early ages of the ,church were marked by a fruitful crop of ,heresies1 and heresy-hunting became an intellectual pastime in high favour among the strictly orthodox4 ,among the writers of this period whose works have been preserved ,hippolytus1 ,bishop of ,portus in the early years of the third century1 was one of the most industrious4 ,he compiled a voluminous treatise1 entitled ,philosophumena1 or ,the ,refutation of all ,heresies1 of which only one ,,ms4 and that of the fourteenth century1 has descended to us4 ,the work was already partially known by quotations1 the first ,book had been attributed to ,origen1 and published in the editio princeps of his works4 ,the text originally consisted of ten ,books1 but of these the first three1 and part of the fourth1 are missing from the ,,ms4 ,the ,origen text supplies part of the lacuna1 but two entire ,books1 and part of a third are missing4 ,now these special ,books1 we learn from the ,introduction1 dealt with the doctrines and ,mysteries of the ,egyptians and ,chaldaeans1 whose most sacred secrets ,hippolytus boasts that he has divulged4 ,curiously enough1 not only are these ,books lacking but in the ,epitome at the beginning of ,book ,x4 the summary of their contents is also missing1 a significant detail1 which1 as has been suggested by critics1 looks like a deliberate attempt on the part of some copyist to suppress the information contained in the ,books in question4 ,incidentally this would seem to suggest that the worthy bishop was not making an empty boast when he claimed to be a revealer of secrets4 ,but what is of special interest to us is the treatment meted out to the ,christian ,mystics1 whom ,hippolytus stigmatizes as heretics1 and whose teaching he deliberately asserts to be simply that of the ,pagan ,mysteries4 ,he had come into possession of a secret document belonging to one of these sects1 whom he calls the ,naassenes2 this document he gives in full1 and it certainly throws a most extraordinary light upon the relation which this early ,christian sect held to exist between the ,new1 and the ,old1 ,faith4 ,mr ,g4 ,r4 ,s4 ,mead1 in his translation of the ,hermetic writings entitled ,thrice-,greatest ,hermes1 has given a careful translation and detailed analysis of this most important text1 and it is from his work that ,i shall quote4 ,so far as the structure of the document is concerned ,mr ,mead distinguishes three stages4 7a7 ,an original ,pagan source1 possibly dating from the last half of the first century ,b4,c41 but containing material of earlier date4 7b7 ,the working over of this source by a ,jewish ,mystic whom the critic holds to have been a contemporary of ,philo4 7c7 ,a subsequent working over1 with additions1 by a ,christian ,gnostic 7,naassene71 in the middle of the second century ,a4 ,d4 ,finally the text was edited by ,hippolytus1 in the ,refutation1 about #bbb ,a4 ,d4 ,thus the ground covered is roughly from #ej ,b4 ,c4 to #bbj ,a4 ,d4#b ,in the translation given by ,mr ,mead these successive layers are distinguished by initial letters and difference of type1 but these distinctions are not of importance for us2 what we desire to know is what was really held and taught by these mystics of the ,early ,church4 ,mr ,mead1 in his introductory remarks1 summarizes the evidence as follows3 8,the claim of these ,gnostics was practically that ,christianity1 or rather the ,good ,news of ,the ,christ1 was precisely the consummation of the inner doctrine of the ,mystery-institutions of all the nations3 the end of them all was the revelation of the ,mystery of ,man40#c ,in other words the teaching of these ,naassenes was practically a synthesis of all the ,mystery-religions1 and although ,hippolytus regards them as nothing more than devotees of the cult of the ,magna ,mater1 we shall see that1 while their doctrine and teaching were undoubtedly based mainly upon the doctrine and practices of the ,phrygian ,mysteries1 they practically identified the deity therein worshipped1 i4e41 ,attis1 with the presiding deity of all the other ,mysteries4 ,mr ,mead draws attention to the fact that ,hippolytus places these ,naassenes in the fore-front of his ,refutation2 they are the first group of ,heretics with whom he deals1 and we may therefore conclude that he considered them1 if not the most important1 at least the oldest1 of such sectaries4#d ,with these prefatory remarks it will be well to let the document speak for itself4 ,it is of considerable length1 and1 as we have seen1 of intricate construction4 ,i shall therefore quote only those sections which bear directly upon the subject of our investigation2 any reader desirous of fuller information can refer to ,mr ,mead's work1 or to the original text published by ,reitzenstein4#e ,at the outset it will be well to understand that the central doctrine of all these ,mysteries is what ,reitzenstein sums up as 8the doctrine of the ,man1 the ,heavenly ,man1 the ,son of ,god1 who descends and becomes a slave of the ,fate ,sphere3 the ,man who1 though originally endowed with all power1 descends into weakness and bondage1 and has to win his own freedom1 and regain his original state4 ,this doctrine is not ,egyptian1 but seems to have been in its origin part and parcel of the ,chaldean ,mystery-tradition and was widely spread in ,hellenistic circles40#f ,thus1 in the introductory remarks prefixed by ,hippolytus to the document he is quoting he asserts that the ,naassenes honour as the ,logos of all universals ,man1 and ,son of ,man--8and they divide him into three1 for they say he has a mental1 psychic1 and choc aspect2 and they think that the ,gnosis of this ,man is the beginning of the possibility of knowing ,god1 saying1 #8,the beginning of ,perfection is the ,gnosis of ,man1 but the ,gnosis of ,god is perfected ,perfection4' ,all these1 mental1 psychic1 and earthy1 descended together into one ,man1 ,jesus1 the ,son of ,mary40#g ,thus the ,myth of ,man1 the ,mystery of ,generation1 is the subject matter of the document in question1 and this myth is set forth with reference to all the ,mysteries1 beginning with the ,assyrian4 ,paragraph #e runs3 8,now the ,assyrians call this ,mystery ,adonis1 and whenever it is called ,adonis it is ,aphrodite who is in love with and desires ,soul so-called1 and ,aphrodite is ,genesis according to them40#h ,but in the next section the writer jumps from the ,assyrian to the ,phrygian ,mysteries1 saying1 8,but if the ,mother of the ,gods emasculates ,attis1 she too regarding him as the object of her love1 it is the ,blessed ,nature above of the super-,cosmic1 and ,aeonian spaces which calls back the masculine power of ,soul to herself40#i ,in a note to this ,mr ,mead quotes from ,the ,life of ,isidorus3 8,i fell asleep and in a vision ,attis seemed to appear to me1 and on behalf of the ,mother of gods to initiate me into the feast called ,hilario1 a mystery which discloses the way of our salvation from ,hades40 ,throughout the document reference is continually made to the ,phrygians and their doctrine of ,man4 ,the ,eleusinian ,mysteries are then treated of as subsequent to the ,phrygian1 8after the ,phrygians1 the ,athenians10 but the teaching is represented as being essentially identical4 ,we have then a passage of great interest for our investigation1 in which the ,mysteries are sharply divided into two classes1 and their separate content clearly defined4 ,there are--8the little ,mysteries1 those of the ,fleshly ,generation1 and after men have been initiated into them they should cease for a while and become initiated in the ,great1 ,heavenly1 ,mysteries--for this is the ,gate of ,heaven1 and this is the ,house of ,god1 where the ,good ,god dwells alone1 into which ,house no impure man shall come40#aj ,hippolytus remarks that 8these ,naassenes say that the performers in theatres1 they too1 neither say nor do anything without design--for example1 when the people assemble in the theatre1 and a man comes on the stage clad in a robe different from all others1 with lute in hand on which he plays1 and thus chants the ,great ,mysteries1 not knowing what he says3 #8,whether blest ,child of ,kronos1 or of ,zeus1 or of ,great ,rhea1 ,hail ,attis1 thou mournful song of ,rhea6 ,assyrians call thee thrice-longed-for ,adonis2v ,all ,egypt calls thee ,osiris2 ,the ,wisdom of ,hellas names thee ,men's ,heavenly ,horn2 ,the ,samothracians call thee august ,adama2v ,the ,haemonians1 ,korybas2 ,the ,phrygians name thee ,papa sometimes2 ,at times again ,dead1 or ,god1 or ,unfruitful1 or ,aipolos2 ,or ,green ,reaped ,wheat-ear2 ,or the ,fruitful that ,amygdalas brought forth1 ,man1 ,piper--,attis6' ,this is the ,attis of many forms1 of whom they sing as follows3 #8,of ,attis will ,i sing1 of ,rhea's ,beloved1 ,not with the booming of bells1 ,nor with the deep-toned pipe of ,idaean ,kuretes2 ,but ,i will blend my song with ,phoebus' music of the lyre2 ,evoi1 ,evan1--for thou art ,pan1 thou ,bacchus art1 and ,shepherd of bright stars6'0#aa ,on this ,hippolytus comments3 8,for these and suchlike reasons these ,naassenes frequent what are called the ,mysteries of the ,great ,mother1 believing that they obtain the clearest view of the universal ,mystery from the things done in them40 ,and after all this evidence of elaborate syncretism1 this practical identification of all the ,mystery-gods with the ,vegetation deity ,adonis-,attis1 we are confronted in the concluding paragraph1 after stating that 8the ,true ,gate is ,jesus the ,blessed10 with this astounding claim1 from the pen of the latest redactor1 8,and of all men we alone are ,christians1 accomplishing the ,mystery at the ,third ,gate40#ab ,now what conclusions are to be drawn from this document which1 in its entirety1 ,mr ,mead regards as 8the most important source we have for the higher side 7regeneration7 of the ,hellenistic ,mysteries08 ,first of all1 does it not provide a complete and overwhelming justification of those scholars who have insisted upon the importance of these ,vegetation cults--a justification of which1 from the very nature of their studies1 they could not have been aware8 ,sir ,james ,frazer1 and those who followed him1 have dealt with the public side of the cult1 with its importance as a recognized vehicle for obtaining material advantages2 it was the social1 rather than the individual1 aspect which appealed to them4 ,now we find that in the immediate pre- and post-,christian era these cults were considered not only most potent factors for assuring the material prosperity of land and folk1 but were also held to be the most appropriate vehicle for imparting the highest religious teaching4 ,the ,vegetation deities1 ,adonis-,attis1 and more especially the ,phrygian god1 were the chosen guides to the knowledge of1 and union with1 the supreme ,spiritual ,source of ,life1 of which they were the communicating medium4 ,we must remember that though the document before us is1 in its actual form1 the expression of faith of a discredited #8,christian-,gnostic' sect1 the essential groundwork upon which it is elaborated belongs to a period anterior to ,christianity1 and that the ,ode in honour of ,attis quoted above not only forms part of the original source1 but is1 in the opinion of competent critics1 earlier than the source itself4 ,i would also recall to the memory of the reader the passage previously quoted from ,cumont1 in which he refers to the use made by the ,neo-,platonist philosophers of the ,attis legend1 as the mould into which they poured their special theories of the universe1 and of generation4#ac ,can the importance of a cult capable of such far-reaching developments be easily exaggerated8 ,secondly1 and of more immediate importance for our investigation1 is it not evident that we have here all the elements necessary for a mystical development of the ,grail tradition8 ,the ,exoteric side of the cult gives us the ,human1 the ,folk-lore1 elements--the ,suffering ,king2 the ,waste ,land2 the effect upon the ,folk2 the task that lies before the hero2 the group of ,grail symbols4 ,the ,esoteric side provides us with the ,mystic ,meal1 the ,food of ,life1 connected in some mysterious way with a ,vessel which is the centre of the cult2 the combination of that vessel with a ,weapon1 a combination bearing a well-known #8generative' significance2 a double initiation into the source of the lower and higher spheres of ,life2 the ultimate proof of the successful issue of the final test in the restoration of the ,king4 ,i would ask any honest-minded critic whether any of the numerous theories previously advanced has shown itself capable of furnishing so comprehensive a solution of the ensemble problem8 ,at the same time it should be pointed out that the acceptance of this theory of the origin of the story in no way excludes the possibility of the introduction of other elements during the period of romantic evolution4 ,as ,i have previously insisted1#ad not all of those who handled the theme knew the real character of the material with which they were dealing1 while even among those who did know there were some who allowed themselves considerable latitude in their methods of composition2 who did not scruple to introduce elements foreign to the original ,stoff1 but which would make an appeal to the public of the day4 ,thus while ,bleheris who1 ,i believe1 really held a tradition of the original cult1 contented himself with a practically simple recital of the initiations1 later redactors1 under the influence of the ,crusades1 and the ,longinus legend--possibly also actuated by a desire to substitute a more edifying explanation than that originally offered--added a directly ,christian interpretation of the ,lance4 ,as it is concerning the ,lance alone that ,gawain asks1 the first modification must have been at this point2 the bringing into line of the twin symbol1 the ,vase1 would come later4 ,the fellowship1 it may even be1 the rivalry1 between the two great ,benedictine houses of ,fescamp and ,glastonbury1 led to the redaction1 in the interests of the latter1 of a ,saint-,sang legend1 parallel to that which was the genuine possession of the ,french house4#ae ,for we must emphasize the fact that the original ,joseph-,glastonbury story is a ,saint-,sang1 and not a ,grail legend4 ,a phial containing the ,blood of ,our ,lord was said to have been buried in the tomb of ,joseph--surely a curious fate for so precious a relic--and the ,abbey never laid claim to the possession of the ,vessel of the ,last ,supper4#af ,had it done so it would certainly have become a noted centre of pilgrimage--as ,dr ,brugger acutely remarks such relics are besucht1 not gesucht4 ,but there is reason to believe that the kindred ,abbey of ,fescamp had developed its genuine ,saint-,sang legend into a ,grail romance1 and there is critical evidence to lead us to suppose that the text we know as ,perlesvaus was1 in its original form1 now it is to be feared practically impossible to reconstruct1 connected with that ,abbey4 ,as we have it1 this alone1 of all the ,grail romances1 connects the hero alike with ,nicodemus1 and with ,joseph of ,arimathea1 the respective protagonists of the ,saint-,sang legends2 while its assertion that the original ,latin text was found in a holy house situated in marshes1 the burial place of ,arthur and ,guenevere1 unmistakably points to ,glastonbury4 ,in any case1 when ,robert de ,borron proposed to himself the task of composing a trilogy on the subject the ,joseph legend was already in a developed form1 and a fresh element1 the combination of the ,grail legend with the story of a highly popular ,folk-tale hero1 known in this connection as ,perceval 7though he has had many names71 was established4 ,borron was certainly aware of the real character of his material2 he knew the ,grail cult as ,christianized ,mystery1 and1 while following the romance development1 handled the theme on distinctively religious lines1 preserving the ,mystery element in its three-fold development1 and equating the ,vessel of the ,mystic ,feast with the ,christian ,eucharist4 ,from what we now know of the material it seems certain that the equation was already established1 and that ,borron was simply stating in terms of romance what was already known to him in terms of ,mystery4 ,in face of the evidence above set forth there can no longer be any doubt that the ,mystic ,feast of the ,nature cults really had1 and that at a very early date1 been brought into touch with the ,sacrament of the ,eucharist4 ,but to ,chrtien de ,troyes the story was romance1 pure and simple4 ,there was still a certain element of awe connected with ,grail1 and ,grail ,feast1 but of the real meaning and origin of the incidents he had1 ,i am convinced1 no idea whatever4 ,probably many modifications were already in his source1 but the result so far as his poem is concerned is that he duplicated the character of the ,fisher ,king2 he separated both1 ,father and ,son1 from the ,wasted ,land1 transferring the responsibility for the woes of ,land and ,folk to the ,quester1 who1 although his failure might be responsible for their continuance1 never had anything to do with their origin4 ,he bestowed the wound of the ,grail ,king1 deeply significant in its original conception and connection1 upon ,perceval's father1 a shadowy character1 entirely apart from the ,grail tradition4 ,there is no trace of the ,initiation elements in his poem1 no ,perilous ,chapel1 no welding of the ,sword4 ,we have here passed completely and entirely into the land of romance1 the doors of the ,temple are closed behind us4 ,it is the story of ,perceval li ,gallois1 not the ,ritual of the ,grail1 which fills the stage1 and with the story of ,perceval there comes upon the scene a crowd of ,folk-tale themes1 absolutely foreign to the ,grail itself4 ,thus we have not only the central theme of the lad reared in woodland solitude1 making his entrance into a world of whose ordinary relations he is absolutely and ludicrously ignorant1 and the traditional illustrations of the results of that ignorance1 such as the story of the ,lady of the ,tent and the stolen ring2 but we have also the sinister figure of the ,red ,knight with his ,witch ,mother2 the three drops of blood upon the snow1 and the ensuing love trance2 pure ,folk-tale themes1 mingled with the more chivalric elements of the rescue of a distressed maiden1 and the vanquishing in single combat of doughty antagonists1 ,giant1 or ,saracen4 ,one and all of them elements offering widespread popular parallels1 and inviting the unwary critic into paths which lead him far astray from the goal of his quest1 the ,grail ,castle4 ,i dispute in no way the possible presence of ,celtic elements in this complex4 ,the ,lance may well have borrowed at one time features from early ,irish tradition1 at another details obviously closely related to the ,longinus legend4 ,it is even possible that1 as ,burdach insists1 features of the ,byzantine ,liturgy may have coloured the representation of the ,grail procession1 although1 for my own part1 ,i consider such a theory highly improbable in view of the facts that 7a7 ,chrtien's poem otherwise shows no traces of ,oriental influence2 7b7 the #8,spear' in the ,eastern rite is simply a small spear-shaped knife2 7c7 the presence of the lights is accounted for by the author of ,sone de ,nansai on the ground of a ,nativity legend1 the authenticity of which was pointed out by the late ,m4 ,gaston ,paris2 7d7 it is only in the later prose form that we find any suggestion of a ,grail ,chapel1 whereas were the source of the story really to be found in the ,mass1 such a feature would certainly have had its place in the earliest versions4 ,but in each and all these cases the solution proposed has no relation to other features of the story2 it is consequently of value in1 and per se1 only1 and cannot be regarded as valid evidence for the source of the legend as a whole4 ,in the process of transmutation from ,ritual to ,romance1 the kernel1 the ,grail legend proper1 may be said to have formed for itself a shell composed of accretions of widely differing provenance4 ,it is the legitimate task of criticism to analyse such accretions1 and to resolve them into their original elements1 but they are accretions1 and should be treated as such1 not confounded with the original and essential material4 ,after upwards of thirty years spent in careful study of the ,grail legend and romances ,i am firmly and entirely convinced that the root origin of the whole bewildering complex is to be found in the ,vegetation ,ritual1 treated from the esoteric point of view as a ,life-,cult1 and in that alone4 ,christian ,legend1 and traditional ,folk-tale1 have undoubtedly contributed to the perfected romantic corpus1 but they are in truth subsidiary and secondary features2 a criticism that would treat them as original and primary can but defeat its own object2 magnified out of proportion they become stumbling-blocks upon the path1 instead of sign-posts towards the goal4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,mithra and ,attis ,the fact that there was1 at a very early date1 among a certain sect of ,christian ,gnostics1 a well-developed body of doctrine1 based upon the essential harmony existing between the ,old ,faith and the ,new1 which claimed by means of a two-fold ,initiation to impact to the inner circle of its adherents the secret of life1 physical and spiritual1 being1 in face of the evidence given in the previous chapter1 placed beyond any possible doubt1 we must now ask1 is there any evidence that such teaching survived for any length of time1 or could have penetrated to the ,british ,isles1 where1 in view of the priority of the ,bleheris-,gawain form1 the ,grail legend1 as we know it1 seems to have originated8 ,i think there is at least presumptive evidence of such preservation1 and transmission4 ,i have already alluded to the close connection existing between the ,attis cult1 and the worship of the popular ,persian deity1 ,mithra1 and have given quotations from ,cumont illustrating this connection2 it will be worth while to study the question somewhat more closely1 and discover1 if possible1 the reason for this intimate alliance4 ,on the face of it there seems to be absolutely no reason for the connection of these cults2 the two deities in no way resemble each other2 the stories connected with them have no possible analogy2 the root conception is widely divergent4 ,with the character of the deity we know as ,adonis1 or ,attis1 we are now thoroughly familiar4 ,in the first instance it seems to be the human element in the myth which is most insisted upon4 ,he is a mortal youth beloved by a great goddess2 only after his tragic death does he appear to assume divine attributes1 and1 alike in death and resurrection1 become the accepted personification of natural energies4 ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 remarks that ,adonis belongs to 8einer ,klasse von ,wesen sehr unbestimmter ,art der wohl ber den ,menschen aber unter den grossen ,gttern stehen1 und weniger ,individualitt besitzen als diese40#a ,such a criticism applies of course equally to ,attis4 ,mithra1 on the other hand1 occupies an entirely different position4 ,cumont1 in his ,mystres de ,mithra1 thus describes him2 he is 8le gnie de la lumire cleste4 ,il n'est ni le soleil1 ni la lune1 ni les toiles1 mais l'aide de ces mille oreilles1 et de ces deux milles yeux1 il surveille le monde40#b ,his beneficent activities might seem to afford a meeting ground with the ,vegetation goods--8,il donne l'accroissement1 il donne l'abondance1 il donne les troupeaux1 il donne la progniture et la vie40#c ,this summary may aptly be compared with the lament for ,tammuz1 quoted in ,chapter #c4 ,but the worship of ,mithra in the form in which it spread throughout the ,roman ,empire1 ,mithra as the god of the ,imperial armies1 the deity beloved of the ,roman legionary1 was in no sense of this concrete and material type4 ,this is how ,cumont sums up the main features4 ,mithra is the ,mediator1 who stands between 8le ,dieu inaccessible1 et inconnaissable1 qui rgne dans les sphres thres1 et le genre humain qui s'agite ici-bas40--8,il est le ,logos man de ,dieu1 et participant sa toute puissance1 qui aprs avoir form le monde comme dmiurge continue veiller sur lui40 ,the initiates must practice a strict chastity--8,la rsistance la sensualit tait un des aspects du combat contre le principe du mal--le dualisme ,mithraique servait de fondement une morale trs pure et trs efficace40#d ,finally1 ,mithraism taught the resurrection of the body--,mithra will descend upon earth1 and will revive all men4 ,all will issue from their graves1 resume their former appearance and recognize each other4 ,all will be united in one great assembly1 and the good will be separated from the evil4 ,then in one supreme sacrifice ,mithra will immolate the divine bull1 and mixing its fat with the consecrated wine will offer to the righteous the cup of ,eternal ,life4#e ,the final parallel with the ,messianic ,feast described in ,chapter #i is too striking to be overlooked4 ,the celestial nature of the deity is also well brought out in the curious text edited by ,dieterich from the great ,magic ,papyrus of the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 and referred to in a previous chapter4 ,this text purports to be a formula of initiation1 and we find the aspirant ascending through the ,seven ,heavenly ,spheres1 to be finally met by ,mithra who brings him to the presence of ,god4 ,so in the ,mithraic temples we find seven ladders1 the ascent of which by the ,initiate typified his passage to the seventh and supreme ,heaven4#f ,bousset points out that the original idea was that of three ,heavens above which was ,paradise2 the conception of ,seven ,heavens1 ruled by the seven ,planets1 which we find in ,mithraism1 is due to the influence of ,babylonian sidereal cults4#g ,there is thus a marked difference between the two initiations2 the ,attis initiate dies1 is possibly buried1 and revives with his god2 the ,mithra initiate rises direct to the celestial sphere1 where he is met and welcomed by his god4 ,there is here no evidence of the death and resurrection of the deity4 ,what then is the point of contact between the cults that brought them into such close and intimate relationship8 ,i think it must be sought in the higher teaching1 which1 under widely differing external mediums1 included elements common to both4 ,in both cults the final aim was the attainment of spiritual and eternal life4 ,moreover1 both possessed essential features which admitted1 if they did not encourage1 an assimilation with ,christianity4 ,both of them1 if forced to yield ground to their powerful rival1 could1 with a fair show of reason1 claim that they had been not vanquished1 but fulfilled1 that their teaching had1 in ,christianity1 attained its normal term4 ,the extracts given above will show the striking analogy between the higher doctrine of ,mithraism1 and the fundamental teaching of its great rival1 a resemblance that was fully admitted1 and which became the subject of heated polemic4 ,greek philosophers did not hesitate to establish a parallel entirely favourable to ,mithraism1 while ,christian apologists insisted that such resemblances were the work of the ,devil1 a line of argument which1 as we have seen above1 they had already adopted with regard to the older ,mysteries4 ,it is a matter of historical fact that at one moment the religious fate of the ,west hung in the balance1 and it was an open question whether ,mithraism or ,christianity would be the dominant ,creed4#h ,on the other hand we have also seen that certainly one early ,christian sect1 the ,naassenes1 while equally regarding the ,logos as the centre of their belief1 held the equivalent deity to be ,attis1 and frequented the ,phrygian ,mysteries as the most direct source of spiritual enlightenment1 while the teaching as to the ,death and ,resurrection of the god1 and the celebration of a ,mystic ,feast1 in which the worshippers partook of the ,food and ,drink of ,eternal ,life1 offered parallels to ,christian doctrine and practice to the full as striking as any to be found in the ,persian faith4 ,i would therefore submit that it was rather through the medium of their inner1 ,esoteric1 teaching1 that the two faiths1 so different in their external practice1 preserved so close and intimate a connection and that1 by the medium of that same ,esoteric teaching1 both alike came into contact with ,christianity1 and1 in the case of the ,phrygian cult1 could1 and actually did1 claim identity with it4 ,baudissin in his work above referred to suggests that the ,adonis cult owed its popularity to its higher1 rather than to its lower1 elements1 to its suggestion of ever-renewing life1 rather than to the satisfaction of physical desire to be found in it4#i ,later evidence seems to prove that he judged correctly4 ,we may also note that the ,attis ,mysteries were utilized by the priests of ,mithra for the initiation of women who were originally excluded from the cult of the ,persian god4 ,cumont remarks that this1 an absolute rule in the ,western communities1 seems to have had exceptions in the ,eastern4#aj ,is it possible that the passage quoted in the previous chapter1 in which ,perceval is informed that no woman may speak of the ,grail1 is due to contamination with the ,mithra worship8 ,it does not appear to be in harmony with the prominent position assigned to women in the ,grail ritual1 the introduction of a female ,grail messenger1 or the fact that 7with the exception of ,merlin in the ,borron text7 it is invariably a maiden who directs the hero on his road to the ,grail castle1 or reproaches him for his failure there4 ,but there is little doubt that1 separately1 or in conjunction1 both cults travelled to the furthest borders of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the medium of transmission is very fully discussed by ,cumont in both of the works referred to4 ,the channel appears to have been three-fold4 ,first1 commercial1 through the medium of ,syrian merchants4 ,as ardently religious as practically business-like1 the ,syrians introduced their native deities wherever they penetrated1 8founding their chapels at the same time as their counting-houses40#aa ,secondly1 there was social penetration--by means of the ,asiatic slaves1 who formed a part of most ,roman households1 and the ,state employs1 such as officers of customs1 army paymasters1 etc41 largely recruited from ,oriental sources4 ,thirdly1 and most important1 were the soldiers1 the foreign legions1 who1 drawn mostly from the ,eastern parts of the ,empire1 brought their native deities with them4 ,cumont signalizes as the most active agents of the dispersion of the cult of ,mithra1 ,soldiers1 ,slaves1 and ,merchants4#ab ,as far ,north as ,hadrian's ,dyke there has been found an inscription in verse in honour of the goddess of ,hierapolis1 the author a prefect1 probably1 ,cumont remarks1 the officer of a cohort of ,hamii1 stationed in this distant spot4 ,dedications to ,melkart and ,astarte have been found at ,corbridge near ,newcastle4 ,the ,mithraic remains are practically confined to garrison centres1 ,london1 ,york1 ,chester1 ,caerleon-on-,usk1 and along ,hadrian's ,dyke4#ac ,from the highly interesting map attached to the ,study1 giving the sites of ascertained ,mithraic remains1 there seems to have been such a centre in ,pembrokeshire4 ,now in view of all this evidence is it not at least possible that the higher form of the ,attis cult1 that in which it was known and practised by early ,gnostic ,christians1 may have been known in ,great ,britain8 ,scholars have been struck by the curiously unorthodox tone of the ,grail romances1 their apparent insistence on a succession quite other than the accredited ,apostolic tradition1 and yet1 according to the writers1 directly received from ,christ ,himself4 ,the late ,m4 ,paulin ,paris believed that the source of this peculiar feature was to be found in the struggle for independence of the early ,british ,church2 but1 after all1 the differences of that ,church with ,rome affected only minor points of discipline3 the date of ,easter1 the fashion of tonsure of the clergy1 nothing which touched vital doctrines of the ,faith4 ,certainly the ,british ,church never claimed the possession of a revelation part4 ,but if the theory based upon the evidence of the ,naassene document be accepted such a presentation can be well accounted for4 ,according to ,hippolytus the doctrines of the sect were derived from ,james1 the brother of ,our ,lord1 and ,clement of ,alexandria asserts that 8,the ,lord imparted the ,gnosis to ,james the ,just1 to ,john and to ,peter1 after ,his ,resurrection2 these delivered it to the rest of the ,apostles1 and they to the ,seventy40#ad ,thus the theory proposed in these pages will account not only for the undeniable parallels existing between the ,vegetation cults and the ,grail romances1 but also for the ,heterodox colouring of the latter1 two elements which at first sight would appear to be wholly unconnected1 and quite incapable of relation to a common source4 ,nor in view of the persistent vitality and survival1 even to our own day1 of the ,exoteric practices can there be anything improbable in the hypothesis of a late survival of the ,esoteric side of the ritual4 ,cumont points out that the worship of ,mithra was practised in the fifth century in certain remote cantons of the ,alps and the ,vosges--i4e41 at the date historically assigned to ,king ,arthur4 ,thus it would not be in any way surprising if a tradition of the survival of these semi-,christian rites at this period also existed4#ae ,in my opinion it is the tradition of such a survival which lies at the root1 and explains the confused imagery1 of the text we know as the ,elucidation4 ,i have already1 in my short study of the subject1 set forth my views2 as ,i have since found further reasons for maintaining the correctness of the solution proposed1 ,i will repeat it here4#af ,the text in question is found in three of our existing ,grail versions3 in the ,,ms4 of ,mons2 in the printed edition of #aecj2 and in the ,german translation of ,wisse-,colin4 ,it is now prefixed to the poem of ,chrtien de ,troyes1 but obviously1 from the content1 had originally nothing to do with that version4 ,it opens with the passage quoted above 7p4 #acj7 in which ,master ,blihis utters his solemn warning against revealing the secret of the ,grail4 ,it goes on to tell how aforetime there were maidens dwelling in the hills#ag who brought forth to the passing traveller food and drink4 ,but ,king ,amangons outraged one of these maidens1 and took away from her her golden ,cup3 8,des puceles une esforcha ,et la coupe d'or li toli--#d40 ,his knights1 when they saw their lord act thus1 followed his evil example1 forced the fairest of the maidens1 and robbed them of their cups of gold4 ,as a result the springs dried up1 the land became waste1 and the court of the ,rich ,fisher1 which had filled the land with plenty1 could no longer be found4 ,for #ajjj years the land lies waste1 till1 in the days of ,king ,arthur1 his knights find maidens wandering in the woods1 each with her attendant knight4 ,they joust1 and one1 ,blihos-,bliheris1 vanquished by ,gawain1 comes to court and tells how these maidens are the descendants of those ravished by ,king ,amangons and his men1 and how1 could the court of the ,fisher ,king1 and the ,grail1 once more be found1 the land would again become fertile4 ,blihos-,bliheris is1 we are told1 so entrancing a story-teller that none at court could ever weary of listening to his words4 ,the natural result1 which here does not immediately concern us1 was that ,arthur's knights undertook the quest1 and ,gawain achieved it4 ,now at first sight this account appears to be nothing but a fantastic fairy-tale 7as such ,professor ,brown obviously regarded it71 and although the late ,dr ,sebastian ,evans attempted in all seriousness to find a historical basis for the story in the events which provoked the pronouncement of the ,papal ,interdict upon the realm of ,king ,john1 and the consequent deprivation of the ,sacraments1 ,i am not aware that anyone took the solution seriously4 ,yet1 on the basis of the theory now set forth1 is it not possible that there may be a real foundation of historical fact at the root of this wildly picturesque tale8 ,may it not be simply a poetical version of the disappearance from the land of ,britain of the open performance of an ancient ,nature ritual8 ,a ritual that lingered on in the hills and mountains of ,wales as the ,mithra worship did in the ,alps and ,vosges1 celebrated as that cult habitually was1 in natural caverns1 and mountain hollows8 ,that it records the outrage offered by some1 probably local1 chieftain to a priestess of the cult1 an evil example followed by his men1 and the subsequent cessation of the public celebration of the rites1 a cessation which in the folk-belief would certainly be held sufficient to account for any subsequent drought that might affect the land8 ,but the ritual1 in its higher1 esoteric1 form was still secretly observed1 and the tradition1 alike of its disappearance as a public cult1 and of its persistence in some carefully hidden strong-hold1 was handed on in the families of those who had been1 perhaps still were1 officiants of these rites4 ,that among the handers on of the torch would be the descendants of the outraged maidens1 is most probable4 ,the sense of mystery1 of a real danger to be faced1 of an overwhelming ,spiritual gain to be won1 were of the essential nature of the tale4 ,it was the very mystery of ,life which lay beneath the picturesque wrappings2 small wonder that the ,quest of the ,grail became the synonym for the highest achievement that could be set before men1 and that when the romantic evolution of the ,arthurian tradition reached its term1 this supreme adventure was swept within the magic circle4 ,the knowledge of the ,grail was the utmost man could achieve1 ,arthur's knights were the very flower of manhood1 it was fitting that to them the supreme test be offered4 ,that the man who first told the story1 and boldly1 as befitted a born teller of tales1 wedded it the ,arthurian legend1 was himself connected by descent with the ancient ,faith1 himself actually held the ,secret of the ,grail1 and told1 in purposely romantic form1 that of which he knew1 ,i am firmly convinced1 nor do ,i think that the time is far distant when the missing links will be in our hand1 and we shall be able to weld once more the golden chain which connects ,ancient ,ritual with ,medieval ,romance4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,the ,perilous ,chapel ,students of the ,grail romances will remember that in many of the versions the hero--sometimes it is a heroine--meets with a strange and terrifying adventure in a mysterious ,chapel1 an adventure which1 we are given to understand1 is fraught with extreme peril to life4 ,the details vary3 sometimes there is a ,dead ,body laid on the altar2 sometimes a ,black ,hand extinguishes the tapers2 there are strange and threatening voices1 and the general impression is that this is an adventure in which supernatural1 and evil1 forces are engaged4 ,such an adventure befalls ,gawain on his way to the ,grail ,castle4#a ,he is overtaken by a terrible storm1 and coming to a ,chapel1 standing at a crossways in the middle of a forest1 enters for shelter4 ,the altar is bare1 with no cloth1 or covering1 nothing is thereon but a great golden candlestick with a tall taper burning within it4 ,behind the altar is a window1 and as ,gawain looks a ,hand1 black and hideous1 comes through the window1 and extinguishes the taper1 while a voice makes lamentation loud and dire1 beneath which the very building rocks4 ,gawain's horse shies for terror1 and the knight1 making the sign of the ,cross1 rides out of the ,chapel1 to find the storm abated1 and the great wind fallen4 ,thereafter the night was calm and clear4 ,in the ,perceval section of ,wauchier and ,manessier we find the same adventure in a dislocated form4#b ,perceval1 seeking the ,grail ,castle1 rides all day through a heavy storm1 which passes off at night-fall1 leaving the weather calm and clear4 ,he rides by moonlight through the forest1 till he sees before him a great oak1 on the branches of which are lighted candles1 ten1 fifteen1 twenty1 or twenty-five4 ,the knight rides quickly towards it1 but as he comes near the lights vanish1 and he only sees before him a fair little ,chapel1 with a candle shining through the open door4 ,he enters1 and finds on the altar the body of a dead knight1 covered with a rich samite1 a candle burning at his feet4 ,perceval remains some time1 but nothing happens4 ,at midnight he departs2 scarcely has he left the ,chapel when1 to his great surprise1 the light is extinguished4 ,the next day he reaches the castle of the ,fisher ,king1 who asks him where he passed the preceding night4 ,perceval tells him of the ,chapel2 the ,king sighs deeply1 but makes no comment4 ,wauchier's section breaks off abruptly in the middle of this episode2 when ,manessier takes up the story he gives explanations of the ,grail1 etc41 at great length1 explanations which do not at all agree with the indications of his predecessor4 ,when ,perceval asks of the ,chapel he is told it was built by ,queen ,brangemore of ,cornwall1 who was later murdered by her son ,espinogres1 and buried beneath the altar4 ,many knights have since been slain there1 none know by whom1 save it be by the ,black ,hand which appeared and put out the light4 7,as we saw above it had not appeared47 ,the enchantment can only be put an end to if a valiant knight will fight the ,black ,hand1 and1 taking a veil kept in the ,chapel1 will dip it in holy water1 and sprinkle the walls1 after which the enchantment will cease4 ,at a much later point ,manessier tells how ,perceval1 riding through the forest1 is overtaken by a terrible storm4 ,he takes refuge in a ,chapel which he recognizes as that of the ,black ,hand4 ,the ,hand appears1 ,perceval fights against and wounds it2 then appears a ,head2 finally the ,devil in full form who seizes ,perceval as he is about to seek the veil of which he has been told4 ,perceval makes the sign of the ,cross1 on which the ,devil vanishes1 and the knight falls insensible before the altar4 ,on reviving he takes the veil1 dips it in holy water1 and sprinkles the walls within and without4 ,he sleeps there that night1 and the next morning1 on waking1 sees a belfry4 ,he rings the bell1 upon which an old man1 followed by two others1 appears4 ,he tells ,perceval he is a priest1 and has buried #cjjj knights slain by the ,black ,hand2 every day a knight has been slain1 and every day a marble tomb stands ready with the name of the victim upon it4 ,queen ,brangemore founded the cemetery1 and was the first to be buried within it4 7,but according to the version given earlier she was buried beneath the altar47 ,we have here evidently a combination of two themes1 ,perilous ,chapel and ,perilous ,cemetery1 originally independent of each other4 ,in other ,,mss4 the ,wauchier adventure agrees much more closely with the ,manessier sequel1 the ,hand appearing1 and extinguishing the light4 ,sometimes the ,hand holds a bridle1 a feature probably due to contamination with a ,celtic ,folk-tale1 in which a mysterious ,hand 7here that of a giant7 steals on their birth-night a ,child1 and a foal4#c ,these ,perceval versions are manifestly confused and dislocated1 and are probably drawn from more than one source4 ,in the ,queste ,gawain and ,hector de ,maris come to an old and ruined ,chapel where they pass the night4 ,each has a marvellous dream4 ,the next morning1 as they are telling each other their respective visions1 they see1 8a ,hand1 showing unto the elbow1 and was covered with red samite1 and upon that hung a bridle1 not rich1 and held within the fist a great candle that burnt right clear1 and so passed afore them1 and entered into the ,chapel1 and then vanished away1 and they wist not where40#d ,this seems to be an unintelligent borrowing from the ,perceval version4 ,we have1 also1 a group of visits to the ,perilous ,chapel1 or ,perilous ,cemetery1 which appear to be closely connected with each other4 ,in each case the object of the visit is to obtain a portion of the cloth which covers the altar1 or a dead body lying upon the altar4 ,the romances in question are the ,perlesvaus1 the prose ,lancelot1 and the ,chevalier deux ,espes4#e ,the respective protagonists being ,perceval's sister1 ,sir ,lancelot1 and the young ,queen of ,garadigan1 whose city has been taken by ,king ,ris and who dares the venture to win her freedom4 ,in the first case the peril appears to lie in the ,cemetery1 which is surrounded by the ghosts of knights slain in the forest1 and buried in unconsecrated ground4 ,the ,lancelot version is similar1 but here the title is definitely ,perilous ,chapel4 ,in the last version there is no hint of a ,cemetery4 ,in the ,lancelot version there is a dead knight on the altar1 whose sword ,lancelot takes in addition to the piece of cloth4 ,in the poem a knight is brought in1 and buried before the altar2 the young queen1 after cutting off a piece of the altar cloth1 uncovers the body1 and buckles on the sword4 ,there is no mention of a ,hand in any of the three versions1 which appear to be late and emasculated forms of the theme4 ,the earliest mention of a ,perilous ,cemetery1 as distinct from a ,chapel1 appears to be in the ,chastel ,orguellous section of the ,perceval1 a section probably derived from a very early stratum of ,arthurian romantic tradition4 ,here ,arthur and his knights1 on their way to the siege of ,chastel ,orguellous1 come to the ,vergier des ,sepoltures1 where they eat with the ,hermits1 of whom there are a hundred and more4 8ne me l'ost or pas chi dire ,les merveilles del chimetire car si sont diverses et grans qu'il n'est hom terriens vivans qui poist pas quidier ne croire que ce fust onques chose voire40#f ,but there is no hint of a ,perilous ,chapel here4 ,the adventures of ,gawain in the ,atre ,perilleus1#g and of ,gawain and ,hector in the ,lancelot of the final cyclic prose version1 are of the most banal description2 the theme1 originally vivid and picturesque1 has become watered down into a meaningless adventure of the most conventional type4 ,but originally a high importance seems to have been attached to it4 ,if we turn back to the first version given1 that of which ,gawain is the hero1 we shall find that special stress is laid on this adventure1 as being part of #8the ,secret of the ,grail1' of which no man may speak without grave danger4#h ,we are told that1 but for ,gawain's loyalty and courtesy1 he would not have survived the perils of that night4 ,in the same way ,perceval1 before reaching the ,fisher ,king's castle1 meets a maiden1 of whom he asks the meaning of the lighted tree1 ,chapel1 etc4 ,she tells him it is all part of the saint secret of the ,grail4#i ,now what does this mean8 ,unless ,i am much mistaken the key is to be found in a very curious story related in the ,perlesvaus1 which is twice referred to in texts of a professedly historical character4 ,the tale runs thus4 ,king ,arthur has fallen into slothful and fainant ways1 much to the grief of ,guenevere1 who sees her lord's fame and prestige waning day by day4 ,in this crisis she urges him to visit the ,chapel of ,saint ,austin1 a perilous adventure1 but one that may well restore his reputation4 ,arthur agrees2 he will take with him only one squire2 the place is too dangerous4 ,he calls a youth named ,chaus1 the son of ,yvain the ,bastard1 and bids him be ready to ride with him at dawn4 ,the lad1 fearful of over-sleeping1 does not undress1 but lies down as he is in the hall4 ,he falls asleep--and it seems to him that the ,king has wakened and gone without him4 ,he rises in haste1 mounts and rides after ,arthur1 following1 as he thinks1 the track of his steed4 ,thus he comes to a forest glade1 where he sees a ,chapel1 set in the midst of a grave-yard4 ,he enters1 but the ,king is not there2 there is no living thing1 only the body of a knight on a bier1 with tapers burning in golden candlesticks at head and foot4 ,chaus takes out one of the tapers1 and thrusting the golden candlestick betwixt hose and thigh1 remounts and rides back in search of the ,king4 ,before he has gone far he meets a man1 black1 and foul-favoured1 armed with a large two-edged knife4 ,he asks1 has he met ,king ,arthur8 ,the man answers1 ,no1 but he has met him1 ,chaus2 he is a thief and a traitor2 he has stolen the golden candlestick2 unless he gives it up he shall pay for it dearly4 ,chaus refuses1 and the man smites him in the side with the knife4 ,with a loud cry the lad awakes1 he is lying in the hall at ,cardoil1 wounded to death1 the knife in his side and the golden candlestick still in his hose4 ,he lives long enough to tell the story1 confess1 and be shriven1 and then dies4 ,arthur1 with the consent of his father1 gives the candlestick to the church of ,saint ,paul1 then newly founded1 8for he would that this marvellous adventure should everywhere be known1 and that prayer should be made for the soul of the squire40#aj ,the pious wish of the ,king seems to have been fulfilled1 as the story was certainly well known1 and appears to have been accepted as a genuine tradition4 ,thus the author of the ,histoire de ,fulk ,fitz-,warin gives a rsum of the adventure1 and asserts that the ,chapel of ,saint ,austin referred to was situated in ,fulk's patrimony1 i4e41 in the tract known as the ,blaunche ,launde1 situated in ,shropshire1 on the border of ,north ,wales4 ,as source for the tale he refers to ,le ,graal1 le lyvre de le ,seint ,vassal1 and goes on to state that here ,king ,arthur recovered sa bount et sa valur when he had lost his knighthood and fame4 ,this obviously refers to the ,perlesvaus romance1 though whether in its present1 or in an earlier form1 it is impossible to say4 ,in any case the author of the ,histoire evidently thought that the ,chapel in question really existed1 and was to be located in ,shropshire4#aa ,but ,john of ,glastonbury also refers to the story1 and he connects it with ,glastonbury4#ab ,now how can we account for so wild1 and at first sight so improbable1 a tale assuming what we may term a semi-historical character1 and becoming connected with a definite and precise locality8--a feature which is1 as a rule1 absent from the ,grail stories4 ,at the risk of startling my readers ,i must express my opinion that it was because the incidents recorded were a reminiscence of something which had actually happened1 and which1 owing to the youth1 and possible social position1 of the victim1 had made a profound impression upon the popular imagination4 ,for this is the story of an initiation 7or perhaps it would be more correct to say the test of fitness for an initiation7 carried out on the astral plane1 and reacting with fatal results upon the physical4 ,we have already seen in the ,naassene document that the ,mystery ritual comprised a double initiation1 the ,lower1 into the mysteries of generation1 i4e41 of physical ,life2 the higher1 into the ,spiritual ,divine ,life1 where man is made one with ,god4#ac ,some years ago ,i offered the suggestion that the test for the primary initiation1 that into the sources of physical life1 would probably consist in a contact with the horrors of physical death1 and that the tradition of the ,perilous ,chapel1 which survives in the ,grail romances in confused and contaminated form1 was a reminiscence of the test for this lower initiation4#ad ,this would fully account for the importance ascribed to it in the ,bleheris-,gawain form1 and for the asserted connection with the ,grail4 ,it was not till ,i came to study the version of the ,perlesvaus1 with a view to determining its original provenance1 that ,i recognized its extreme importance for critical purposes4 ,the more one studies this wonderful legend the more one discovers significance in what seem at first to be entirely independent and unrelated details4 ,if the reader will refer to my ,notes on the ,perlesvaus1 above referred to1 he will find that the result of an investigation into the evidence for locale pointed to the conclusion that the author of the ,histoire de ,fulk ,fitz-,warin and most probably also the author of the ,perlesvaus before him1 were mistaken in their identification1 that there was no tradition of any such ,chapel in ,shropshire1 and consequently no tale of its foundation1 such as the author of the ,histoire relates4 ,but ,i was also able to show that further north1 in ,northumberland1 there was also a ,blanchland1 connected with the memory of ,king ,arthur1 numerous dedications to ,saint ,austin1 and a tradition of that ,saint driving out the local demons closely analogous to the tale told of the presumed ,shropshire site4 ,i therefore suggested that inasmuch as the ,perlesvaus represented ,arthur as holding his court at ,cardoil 7,carlisle71 the ,northern ,blanchland1 which possessed a ,chapel of ,saint ,austin1 and lay within easy reach1 was probably the original site rather than the ,shropshire ,blaunche ,launde1 which had no ,chapel1 and was much further away4 ,now in view of the evidence set forth in the last chapter1 is it not clear that this was a locality in which these semi-,pagan1 semi-,christian1 rites1 might1 prima facie1 be expected to linger on8 ,it is up here1 along the ,northern border1 that the ,roman legionaries were stationed2 it is here that we find monuments and memorials of their heathen cults2 obviously this was a locality where the demon-hunting activities of the ,saint might find full scope for action4 ,i would submit that there is at least presumptive evidence that we may here be dealing with the survival of a genuine tradition4 ,and should any of my readers find it difficult to believe that1 even did initiations take place1 and even were they of a character that involved a stern test of mental and physical endurance--and ,i imagine most scholars would admit that there was1 possibly1 more in the original institutions1 than1 let us say1 in a modern admission to ,free-,masonry--yet it is #8a far cry' from pre-,christian initiations to ,medieval ,romance1 and a connection between the two is a rash postulate1 ,i would draw their attention to the fact that1 quite apart from our ,grail texts1 we possess a romance which is1 plainly1 and blatantly1 nothing more or less than such a record4 ,i refer1 of course1 to ,owain ,miles1 or ,the ,purgatory of ,saint ,patrick1 where we have an account of the hero1 after purification by fasting and prayer1 descending into the ,nether ,world1 passing through the abodes of the ,lost1 finally reaching ,paradise1 and returning to earth after ,three ,days1 a reformed and regenerated character4#ae 8,then with his monks the ,prior anon1 ,with ,crosses and with ,gonfanon ,went to that hole forthright1 ,thro' which ,knight ,owain went below1 ,there1 as of burning fire the glow1 ,they saw a gleam of light2 ,and right amidst that beam of light ,he came up1 ,owain1 ,god's own knight1 ,by this knew every man ,that he in ,paradise had been1 ,and ,purgatory's pains had seen1 ,and was a holy man40 ,now if we turn to ,bousset's article ,himmelfahrt der ,seele1 to which ,i have previously referred 7p4 ---71 we shall find abundant evidence that such a journey to the ,worlds beyond was held to be a high spiritual adventure of actual possibility--a venture to be undertaken by those who1 greatly daring1 felt that the attainment of actual knowledge of the ,future ,life was worth all the risks1 and they were great and terrible1 which such an enterprise involved4 ,bousset comments fully on ,saint ,paul's claim to have been #8caught up into the ,third ,heaven' and points out that such an experience was the property of the ,rabbinical school to which ,saul of ,tarsus had belonged1 and was brought over by him from his ,jewish past2 such experiences were rare in ,orthodox ,christianity4#af ,according to ,jewish classical tradition but one ,rabbi had successfully passed the test1 other aspirants either failing at a preliminary stage1 or1 if they persevered1 losing their senses permanently4 ,the practice of this ecstatic ascent ceased among ,jews in the second century ,a4,d4 ,bousset also gives instances of the soul leaving the body for three days1 and wandering through other worlds1 both good and evil1 and also discusses the origin of the bridge which must be crossed to reach ,paradise1 both features characteristic of the ,owain poem4#ag ,in fact the whole study is of immense importance for a critical analysis of the sources of the romance in question4 ,and here ,i would venture to beg the adherents of the #8,celtic' school to use a little more judgment in their attribution of sources4 ,visits to the ,otherworld are not always derivations from ,celtic ,fairy-lore4 ,unless ,i am mistaken the root of this theme is far more deeply imbedded than in the shifting sands of ,folk and ,fairy tale4 ,i believe it to be essentially a ,mystery tradition2 the ,otherworld is not a myth1 but a reality1 and in all ages there have been souls who have been willing to brave the great adventure1 and to risk all for the chance of bringing back with them some assurance of the future life4 ,naturally these ventures passed into tradition with the men who risked them4 ,the early races of men became semi-mythic1 their beliefs1 their experiences1 receded into a land of mist1 where their figures assumed fantastic outlines1 and the record of their deeds departed more and more widely from historic accuracy4 ,the poets and dreamers wove their magic webs1 and a world apart from the world of actual experience came to life4 ,but it was not all myth1 nor all fantasy2 there was a basis of truth and reality at the foundation of the mystic growth1 and a true criticism will not rest content with wandering in these enchanted lands1 and holding all it meets with for the outcome of human imagination4 ,the truth may lie very deep down1 but it is there1 and it is worth seeking1 and ,celtic fairy-tales1 charming as they are1 can never afford a satisfactory1 or abiding1 resting place4 ,i1 for one1 utterly refuse to accept such as an adequate goal for a life's research4 ,a path that leads but into a ,celtic ,twilight can only be a by-path1 and not the ,king's ,highway6 ,the ,grail romances repose eventually1 not upon a poet's imagination1 but upon the ruins of an august and ancient ritual1 a ritual which once claimed to be the accredited guardian of the deepest secrets of ,life4 ,driven from its high estate by the relentless force of religious evolution--for after all ,adonis1 ,attis1 and their congeners1 were but the #8half-gods' who must needs yield place when #8the ,gods' themselves arrive--it yet lingered on2 openly1 in ,folk practice1 in ,fast and ,feast1 whereby the well-being of the land might be assured2 secretly1 in cave or mountain-fastness1 or island isolation1 where those who craved for a more sensible 7not necessarily sensuous7 contact with the unseen ,spiritual forces of ,life than the orthodox development of ,christianity afforded1 might1 and did1 find satisfaction4 ,were the ,templars such8 ,had they1 when in the ,east1 come into touch with a survival of the ,naassene1 or some kindred sect8 ,it seems exceedingly probable4 ,if it were so we could understand at once the puzzling connection of the ,order with the ,knights of the ,grail1 and the doom which fell upon them4 ,that they were held to be ,heretics is very generally admitted1 but in what their ,heresy consisted no one really knows2 little credence can be attached to the stories of idol worship often repeated4 ,if their ,heresy1 however1 were such as indicated above1 a ,creed which struck at the very root and vitals of ,christianity1 we can understand at once the reason for punishment1 and the necessity for secrecy4 ,in the same way we can now understand why the ,church knows nothing of the ,grail2 why that ,vessel1 surrounded as it is with an atmosphere of reverence and awe1 equated with the central ,sacrament of the ,christian ,faith1 yet appears in no ,legendary1 is figured in no picture1 comes on the scene in no ,passion ,play4 ,the ,church of the eleventh and twelfth centuries knew well what the ,grail was1 and we1 when we realize its genesis and true lineage1 need no longer wonder why a theme1 for some short space so famous and so fruitful a source of literary inspiration1 vanished utterly and completely from the world of literature4 ,were ,grail romances forbidden8 ,or were they merely discouraged8 ,probably we shall never know1 but of this one thing we may be sure1 the ,grail is a living force1 it will never die2 it may indeed sink out of sight1 and1 for centuries even1 disappear from the field of literature1 but it will rise to the surface again1 and become once more a theme of vital inspiration even as1 after slumbering from the days of ,malory1 it woke to new life in the nineteenth century1 making its fresh appeal through the genius of ,tennyson and ,wagner4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,the ,author ,having now completed our survey of the various elements which have entered into the composite fabric of the ,grail ,legend1 the question naturally arises where1 and when1 did that legend assume romantic form1 and to whom should we ascribe its literary origin8 ,on these crucial points the evidence at our disposal is far from complete1 and we can do little more than offer suggestions towards the solution of the problem4 ,with regard to the first point1 that of locality1 the evidence is unmistakably in favour of a ,celtic1 specifically a ,welsh1 source4 ,as a literary theme the ,grail is closely connected with the ,arthurian tradition4 ,the protagonist is one of ,arthur's knights1 and the hero of the earlier version1 ,gawain1 is more closely connected with ,arthur than are his successors1 ,perceval and ,galahad4 ,the ,celtic origin of both ,gawain and ,perceval is beyond doubt2 and the latter is not merely a ,celt1 but is definitely ,welsh2 he is always #8li ,gallois4' ,galahad ,i hold to be a literary1 and not a traditional1 hero2 he is the product of deliberate literary invention1 and has no existence outside the frame of the later cyclic redactions4 ,it is not possible at the present moment to say whether the ,queste was composed in the ,british ,isles1 or on the continent1 but we may safely lay it down as a basic principle that the original ,grail heroes are of insular origin1 and that the ,grail legend1 in its romantic1 and literary1 form is closely connected with ,british pseudo-historical tradition4 ,the beliefs and practices of which1 if the theory maintained in these pages be correct1 the ,grail stories offer a more or less coherent survival can be shown1 on the evidence of historic monuments1 and surviving ,folk-customs1 to have been popular throughout the area of the ,british ,isles2 while1 with regard to the higher teaching of which ,i hold these practices to have been the vehicle1 ,pliny comments upon the similarity existing between the ancient ,magian ,gnosis and the ,druidical ,gnosis of ,gaul and ,britain1 an indication which1 in the dearth of accurate information concerning the teaching of the ,druids1 is of considerable value4#a ,as we noted in the previous chapter1 an interesting parallel exists between ,wales1 and localities1 such as the ,alps1 and the ,vosges1 where we have definite proof that these ,mystery cults lingered on after they had disappeared from public celebration4 ,the ,chart appended to ,cumont's ,monuments de ,mithra shows ,mithraic remains in precisely the locality where we have reason to believe certain of the ,gawain and ,perceval stories to have originated4 ,as to the date of origin1 that1 of course1 is closely connected with the problem of authorship2 if we can1 with any possibility1 identify the author we can approximately fix the date4 ,so far as the literary evidence is concerned1 we have no trace of the story before the twelfth century1 but when we do meet with it1 it is already in complete1 and crystallized1 form4 ,more1 there is already evidence of competing versions2 we have no existing ,grail romance which we can claim to be free from contamination1 and representing in all respects the original form4 ,there is no need here to go over old1 and well-trodden1 ground2 in my studies of the ,perceval ,legend1 and in the later popular rsum of the evidence1#b ,the ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 ,i have analysed the texts1 and shown that1 while the poem of ,chrtien de ,troyes is our earliest surviving literary version1 there is the strongest possible evidence that ,chrtien1 as he himself admits1 was not inventing1 but re-telling1 an already popular tale4#c ,the ,grail ,quest was a theme which had been treated not once nor twice1 but of which numerous1 and conflicting1 versions were already current1 and1 when ,wauchier de ,denain undertook to complete ,chrtien's unfinished work1 he drew largely upon these already existing forms1 regardless of the fact that they not only contradicted the version they were ostensibly completing1 but were impossible to harmonize with each other4 ,it is of importance for our investigation1 however1 to note that where ,wauchier does refer to a definite source1 it is to an evidently important and already famous collection of tales1 ,le ,grant ,conte1 comprising several #8,branches1' the hero of the collection being not ,chrtien's hero1 ,perceval1 but ,gawain1 who1 both in pseudo-historic and romantic tradition1 is far more closely connected with the ,arthurian legend1 occupying1 as he does1 the traditional position of nephew1 ,sister's ,son1 to the monarch who is the centre of the cycle2 even as ,cuchullinn is sister's son to ,conchobar1 ,diarmid to ,finn1 ,tristan to ,mark1 and ,roland to ,charlemagne4 ,in fact this relationship was so obviously required by tradition that we find ,perceval figuring now as sister's son to ,arthur1 now to the ,grail ,king1 according as the ,arthurian1 or the ,grail1 tradition dominates the story4#d ,the actual existence of such a group of tales as those referred to by ,wauchier derives confirmation from our surviving ,gawain poems1 as well as from the references in the ,elucidation1 and on the evidence at our disposal ,i have ventured to suggest the hypothesis of a group of poems1 dealing with the adventures of ,gawain1 his son1 and brother1 the ensemble being originally known as ,the ,geste of ,syr ,gawayne1 a title which1 in the inappropriate form ,the ,jest of ,sir ,gawain1 is preserved in the ,english version of that hero's adventure with the sister of ,brandelis4#e ,so keen a critic as ,dr ,brugger has not hesitated to accept the theory of the existence of this ,geste1 and is of opinion that the ,german poem ,di ,crne may1 in part at least1 be derived from this source4 ,the central adventure ascribed to ,gawain in this group of tales is precisely the visit to the ,grail ,castle to which we have already referred1 and we have pointed out that the manner in which it is related1 its directness1 simplicity1 and conformity with what we know of the ,mystery teaching presumably involved1 taken in connection with the personality of the hero1 and his position in ,arthurian romantic tradition1 appear to warrant us in assigning to it the position of priority among the conflicting versions we possess4 ,at two points in the re-telling of these ,gawain tales ,wauchier definitely refers to the author by name1 ,bleheris4 ,on the second occasion he states categorically that this ,bleheris was of ,welsh birth and origin1 n et engenus en ,galles1 and that he told the tale in connection with which the statement is made to a certain ,comte de ,poitiers1 whose favourite story it was1 he loved it above all others1 which would imply that it was not the only tale ,bleheris had told him4#f ,as we have seen in a previous chapter1 the ,elucidation prefaces its account of the ,grail ,quest by a solemn statement of the gravity of the subject to be treated1 and a warning of the penalties which would follow on a careless revelation of the secret4 ,these warnings are put into the mouth of a certain ,master ,blihis1 concerning whom we hear no more4 ,a little further on in the poem we meet with a knight1 ,blihos-,bliheris1 who1 made prisoner by ,gawain1 reveals to ,arthur and his court the identity of the maidens wandering in the woods1 of the ,fisher ,king1 and the ,grail1 and is so good a story-teller that none can weary of listening to his tales4#g ,again1 in the fragmentary remains of ,thomas's ,tristan we have a passage in which the poet refers1 as source1 to a certain ,brri1 who knew 8all the feats1 and all the tales1 of all the kings1 and all the counts who had lived in ,britain40#h ,finally1 ,giraldus ,cambrensis refers to famosus ille fabulator1 ,bledhericus1 who had lived 8shortly before our time0 and whose renown he evidently takes for granted was familiar to his readers4 ,now are we to hold that the ,bleheris who1 according to ,wauchier1 had told tales concerning ,gawain1 and ,arthur's court1 one of whic tales was certainly the ,grail adventure2 the ,master ,blihis1 who knew the ,grail mystery1 and gave solemn warning against its revelation2 the ,blihos-,bliheris1 who knew the ,grail1 and many other tales2 the ,brri1 who knew all the legendary tales concerning the princes of ,britain2 and the famous story-teller ,bledhericus1 of whom ,giraldus speaks1 are distinct and separate personages1 or mere inventions of the separate writers1 or do all these passages refer to one and the same individual1 who1 in that case1 may well have deserved the title famosus ille fabulator8 ,with regard to the attitude taken up by certain critics1 that no evidential value can be attached to these references1 ,i would point out that when ,medieval writers quote an authority for their statements they1 as a rule1 refer to a writer whose name carries weight1 and will impress their readers2 they are offering a guarantee for the authenticity of their statements4 ,the special attribution may be purely fictitious but the individual referred to enjoys an established reputation4 ,thus1 the later cyclic redactions of the ,arthurian romances are largely attributed to ,walter ,map1 who1 in view of his public position1 and political activities1 could certainly never have had the leisure to compose one half of the literature with which he is credited6 ,in the same way ,robert de ,borron1 ,chrtien de ,troyes1 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach1 are all referred to as sources without any justification in fact4 ,nor is it probable that ,wauchier1 who wrote on the continent1 and who1 if he be really ,wauchier de ,denain1 was under the patronage of the ,count of ,flanders1 would have gone out of his way to invent a ,welsh source4 ,judging from analogy1 the actual existence of a personage named ,bleheris1 who enjoyed a remarkable reputation as a story-teller1 is1 prima facie1 extremely probable4#i ,but are these references independent1 was there more than one ,bleheris8 ,i think not4 ,the name is a proper1 and not a family1 name4 ,in the latter case it might be possible to argue that we were dealing with separate members of a family1 or group1 of bardic poets1 whose office it was to preserve1 and relate1 the national legends4 ,but we are dealing with variants of a proper name1 and that of distinctly insular1 and ,welsh origin4#aj ,the original form1 ,bledri1 was by no means uncommon in ,wales3 from that point of view there might well have been four or five1 or even more1 of that name1 but that each and all of these should have possessed the same qualifications1 should have been equally well versed in popular traditions1 equally dowered with the gift of story-telling1 on equally friendly terms with the ,norman invaders1 and equally possessed of such a knowledge of the ,french language as should permit them to tell their stories in that tongue1 is1 ,i submit1 highly improbable4 ,this latter point1 i4e41 the knowledge of ,french1 seems to me to be of crucial importance4 ,given the relations between conqueror and conquered1 and the intransigeant character of ,welsh patriotism1 the men who were on sufficiently friendly terms with the invaders to be willing to relate the national legends1 with an assurance of finding a sympathetic hearing1 must have been few and far between4 ,i do not think the importance of this point has been sufficiently grasped by critics4 ,the problem then is to find a ,welshman who1 living at the end of the eleventh and commencement of the twelfth centuries1 was well versed in the legendary lore of ,britain2 was of sufficiently good social status to be well received at court2 possessed a good knowledge of the ,french tongue2 and can be shown to have been on friendly terms with the ,norman nobles4 ,mr ,edward ,owen1 of the ,cymmrodorion ,society1 has suggested that a certain ,welsh noble1 ,bledri ap ,cadivor1 fulfils1 in a large measure1 the conditions required4 ,some years ago ,i published in the ,revue ,celtique a letter in which ,mr ,owen summarized the evidence at his disposal4 ,as the review in question may not be easily accessible to some of my readers ,i will recapitulate the principal points4#aa ,the father of ,bledri1 ,cadivor1 was a great personage in ,west ,wales1 and is looked upon as the ancestor of the most important families in the ancient ,dyfed1 a division now represented by ,pembrokeshire1 and the ,western portion of ,carmarthen4 7,we may note here that the traditional tomb of ,gawain is at ,ross in ,pembrokeshire1 and that there is reason to believe that the ,perceval story1 in its earliest form1 was connected with that locality47 ,cadivor had three sons1 of whom ,bledri was the eldest2 thus1 at his father's death1 he would be head of this ancient and distinguished family4 ,at the division of the paternal estates ,bledri inherited1 as his share1 lands ranging along the right bank of the lower ,towey1 and the coast of ,south ,pembrokeshire1 extending as far as ,manorbeer1 the birthplace of ,giraldus ,cambrensis4 7,this is again a geographical indication which should be borne in mind47 ,cadivor himself appears to have been on friendly terms with the ,normans2 he is said to have entertained ,william the ,conqueror on his visit to ,st ,david's in #ajhj1 while every reference we have to ,bledri shows him in close connection with the invaders4 ,thus1 in #aaac the ,brut-y-,tywysogion mentions his name as ally of the ,norman knights in their struggle to maintain their ground in1 and around1 ,carmarthen4 ,in #aabe we find his name as donor of lands to the ,augustinian ,church of ,st ,john the ,evangelist1 and ,st ,theuloc of ,carmarthen1 newly founded by ,henry ,i4 ,here his name appears with the significant title ,latinarius 7,the ,interpreter71 a qualification repeated in subsequent charters of the same collection4 ,in one of these we find ,griffith1 the son of ,bledri1 confirming his father's gift4 ,professor ,lloyd1 in an article in ,archaeologia ,cambrensis1 ,july #aijg1 has examined these charters1 and considers the grant to have been made between #aabi and #aacd1 the charter itself being of the reign of ,henry ,i1 #aaja-aace4ab ,in the ,pipe ,roll of ,henry ,i1 #aaca1 ,bledri's name is entered as debtor for a fine incurred by the killing of a ,fleming by his men2 while a highly significant entry records the fine of #g marks imposed upon a certain ,bleddyn of ,mabedrud and his brothers for outraging ,bledri's daughter4 ,when we take into consideration the rank of ,bledri1 this insult to his family by a fellow ,welshman would seem to indicate that his relations with his compatriots were not of a specially friendly character4 ,mr ,owen also points out that portion of the ,brut-y-,tywysogion which covers the years #aaja-bj 7especially the events of the year #aaac1 where we find ,bledri1 and other friendly ,welsh nobles1 holding the castle of ,carmarthen for the ,normans against the ,welsh71 is related at an altogether disproportionate length1 and displays a strong bias in favour of the invaders4 ,the year just referred to1 for instance1 occupies more than twice the space assigned to any other year4 ,mr ,owen suggests that here ,bledri himself may well have been the chronicler2 a hypothesis which1 if he really be the author we are seeking1 is quite admissible4 ,so far as indications of date are concerned1 ,bledri probably lived between the years #ajgj-aaej4 ,his father ,cadivor died in #ajhi1 and his lands were divided between his sons of whom ,bledri1 as we have seen1 was the eldest4 ,thus they cannot have been children at that date2 ,bledri1 at least1 would have been born before #ajhj4 ,from the evidence of the ,pipe ,roll we know that he was living in #aaca4 ,the charter signed by his son1 confirmatory of his grant1 must have been subsequent to #aadh1 as it was executed during the ,episcopate of ,david1 ,bishop of ,st ,david's #aadh-aagf4 ,thus the period of #hj years suggested above 7#ajgj-aaej7 may be taken as covering the extreme limit to be assigned to his life1 and activity4 ,the passage in which ,giraldus ,cambrensis refers to ,bledhericus1 famosus ille fabulator who tempora nostra paulo praevenit1 was written about #aaid2 thus it might well refer to a man who had died some #dj or #ej years previously4 ,as we have noted above1 ,giraldus was born upon ground forming a part of ,bledri's ancestral heritage1 and thus might well be familiar with his fame4 ,the evidence is of course incomplete1 but it does provide us with a personality fulfilling the main conditions of a complex problem4 ,thus1 we have a man of the required name1 and nationality2 living at an appropriate date2 of the requisite social position2 on excellent terms with the ,french nobles1 and so well acquainted with their language as to sign himself officially #8,the ,interpreter4' ,we have no direct evidence of his literary skill1 or knowledge of the traditional history of his country1 but a man of his birth could scarcely have failed to possess the latter1 while certain peculiarities in that section of the national ,chronicle which deals with the aid given by him to the ,norman invaders would seem to indicate that ,bledri himself may well have been responsible for the record4 ,again1 we know him to have been closely connected with the locality from which came the writer who refers to the famous story-teller of the same name4 ,i would submit that we have here quite sufficient evidence to warrant us in accepting ,bledri ap ,cadivor as1 at least1 the possible author of the romantic ,grail tradition4 ,in any case1 so far1 there is no other candidate in the field4#ac ,shortly after the publication of the second volume of my ,perceval studies1 ,i received a letter from ,professor ,singer1 in which1 after expressing his general acceptance of the theories there advanced1 in especial of the suggested date and relation of the different versions1 which he characterized as 8sehr gelungen1 und zu meiner ,alffassung der ,entwickelung der ,altfranzsischen ,literatur sehr zu stimmen10 he proceeded to comment upon the probable character of the literary activity of ,bleheris4 ,his remarks are so interesting and suggestive that ,i venture to submit them for the consideration of my readers4 ,professor ,singer points out that in ,eilhart von ,oberge's ,tristan we find the name in the form of ,pleherin attached to a knight of ,mark's court4 ,the same name in a slightly varied form1 ,pfelerin1 occurs in the ,tristan of ,heinrich von ,freiberg2 both poems1 ,professor ,singer considers1 are derived from a ,french original4 ,under a compound form1 ,blihos1 7or ,blio7-,bliheris1 he appears1 in the ,gawain-,grail compilation1 as a knight at ,arthur's court4 ,now ,brri-,blihis-,bleheris is referred to as authority alike in the ,tristan1 ,grail and ,gawain tradition1 and ,professor ,singer makes the interesting suggestion that these references are originally due to ,bleheris himself1 who not only told the stories in the third person 7a common device at that period1 v4 ,chrtien's ,erec1 and ,gerbert's continuation of the ,perceval71 but also introduced himself as eye-witness of1 and actor1 in a subordinate rle1 in1 the incidents he recorded4 ,thus in the ,tristan he is a knight of ,mark's1 in the ,elucidation and the ,gawain stories a knight of ,arthur's1 court4 ,professor ,singer instances the case of ,dares in the ,de exidio ,trojae1 and ,bishop ,pilgrim of ,passau in the lost ,nibelungias of his secretary ,konrad1 as illustrations of the theory4 ,if this be the case such a statement as that which we find in ,wauchier1 regarding ,bleheris's birth and origin1 would have emanated from ,bleheris himself1 and simply been taken over by the later writer from his source2 he incorporated the whole tale of the shield as it stood1 a quite natural and normal proceeding4#ad ,again1 this suggestion would do away with the necessity for postulating a certain lapse of time before the story-teller ,bleheris could be converted into an ,arthurian knight--the two rles1 ,gewhrsmann und ,mithandelnden1 as ,professor ,singer expresses it1 are coincident in date4 ,i would also suggest that the double form1 ,blihos-,bliheris1 would have been adopted by the author himself1 to indicate the identity of the two1 ,blihis1 and ,bleheris4 ,it is worthy of note that1 when dealing directly with the ,grail1 he assumes the title of ,master1 which would seem to indicate that here he claimed to speak with special authority4 ,i sent the letter in question to the late ,mr ,alfred ,nutt1 who was forcibly struck with the possibilities involved in the suggestion1 the full application of which he thought the writer had not grasped4 ,i quote the following passages from the long letter ,i received from him in return4 8,briefly put we presuppose the existence of a set of semi-dramatic1 semi-narrative1 poems1 in which a ,bledri figures as an active1 and at the same time a recording1 personage4 ,now that such a body of literature may have existed we are entitled to assume from the fact that two such have survived1 one from ,wales1 in the ,llywarch ,hen cycle1 the other from ,ireland1 in the ,finn ,saga4 ,in both cases1 the fact that the descriptive poems are put in the mouth1 in ,wales of ,llywarch1 in ,ireland largely of ,oisin1 led to the ascription at an early date of the whole literature to ,llywarch and ,oisin4 ,it is therefore conceivable that a ,welsh #8littrateur1' familiar as he must have been with the ,llywarch1 and as he quite possibly was with the ,oisin1 instance1 should cast his version of the ,arthurian stories in a similar form1 and that the facts noted by you and ,singer may be thus explained40 ,now that both ,professor ,singer 7who has an exceptionally wide knowledge of ,medieval literature71 and the late ,mr ,alfred ,nutt1 knew what they were talking about1 does not need to be emphasized1 and the fact that two such competent authorities should agree upon a possible solution of a puzzling literary problem1 makes that solution worthy of careful consideration2 it would certainly have the merit of simplifying the question and deserves to be placed upon record4 ,but while it would of course be far more satisfactory could one definitely place1 and label1 the man to whom we owe the original conception which gave birth and impetus to this immortal body of literature1 yet the precise identity of the author of the earliest ,grail romance is of the accident1 rather than the essence1 of our problem4 ,whether ,bleheris the ,welshman be1 or be not1 identical with ,bledri ap ,cadivor1 ,interpreter1 and friend of the ,norman nobles1 the general hypothesis remains unaffected and may be thus summarized-- ,the ,grail story is not du fond en comble the product of imagination1 literary or popular4 ,at its root lies the record1 more or less distorted1 of an ancient ,ritual1 having for its ultimate object the initiation into the secret of the sources of ,life1 physical and spiritual4 ,this ritual1 in its lower1 exoteric1 form1 as affecting the processes of ,nature1 and physical life1 survives to-day1 and can be traced all over the world1 in ,folk ceremonies1 which1 however widely separated the countries in which they are found1 show a surprising identity of detail and intention4 ,in its esoteric #8,mystery' form it was freely utilized for the imparting of high spiritual teaching concerning the relation of ,man to the ,divine ,source of his being1 and the possibility of a sensible union between ,man1 and ,god4 ,the recognition of the cosmic activities of the ,logos appears to have been a characteristic feature of this teaching1 and when ,christianity came upon the scene it did not hesitate to utilize the already existing medium of instruction1 but boldly identified the ,deity of ,vegetation1 regarded as ,life ,principle1 with the ,god of the ,christian ,faith4 ,thus1 to certain of the early ,christians1 ,attis was but an earlier manifestation of the ,logos1 ,whom they held identical with ,christ4 ,the evidence of the ,naassene document places this beyond any shadow of doubt1 and is of inestimable value as establishing a link between pre-,christian1 and ,christian1 ,mystery tradition4 ,this curious synthetic belief1 united as it was with the highly popular cult of ,mithra1 travelled with the foreign legionaries1 adherents of that cult1 to the furthest bounds of the ,roman ,empire1 and when the struggle between ,mithraism and ,christianity ended in the definite triumph of the latter1 by virtue of that dual synthetic nature1 the higher ritual still survived1 and was celebrated in sites removed from the centres of population--in caves1 and mountain fastnesses2 in islands1 and on desolate sea-coasts4 ,the earliest version of the ,grail story1 represented by our ,bleheris form1 relates the visit of a wandering knight to one of these hidden temples2 his successful passing of the test into the lower grade of ,life initiation1 his failure to attain to the highest degree4 ,it matters little whether it were the record of an actual1 or of a possible1 experience2 the casting into romantic form of an event which the story-teller knew to have happened1 had1 perchance1 actually witnessed2 or the objective recital of what he knew might have occurred2 the essential fact is that the mise-en-scne of the story1 the nomenclature1 the march of incident1 the character of the tests1 correspond to what we know from independent sources of the details of this ,nature ,ritual4 ,the ,grail ,quest was actually possible then1 it is actually possible to-day1 for the indication of two of our romances as to the final location of the ,grail is not imagination1 but the record of actual fact4 ,as first told the story preserved its primal character of a composite between ,christianity and the ,nature ,ritual1 as witnessed by the ceremony over the bier of the ,dead ,knight1 the procession with ,cross and incense1 and the solemn ,vespers for the ,dead4 ,this1 ,i suspect1 correctly represents the final stage of the process by which ,attis-,adonis was identified with ,christ4 ,thus1 in its first form the story was the product of conscious intention4 ,but when the tale was once fairly launched as a romantic tale1 and came into the hands of those unfamiliar with its ,ritual origin 7though the fact that it had such an origin was probably well understood71 the influence of the period came into play4 ,the ,crusades1 and the consequent traffic in relics1 especially in relics of the ,passion1 caused the identification of the sex ,symbols1 ,lance and ,cup1 with the ,weapon of the ,crucifixion1 and the ,cup of the ,last ,supper2 but the ,christianization was merely external1 the tale1 as a whole1 retaining its pre-,christian character4 ,the conversion into a definitely ,christian romance seems to have been due to two causes4 ,first1 the rivalry between the two great monastic houses of ,glastonbury and ,fescamp1 the latter of which was already in possession of a genuine ,saint-,sang relic1 and fully developed tradition4 ,there is reason to suppose that the initial combination of the ,grail and ,saint-,sang traditions took place at ,fescamp1 and was the work of some member of the minstrel ,guild attached to that ,abbey4 ,but the ,grail tradition was originally ,british2 ,glastonbury was from time immemorial a ,british sanctuary2 it was the reputed burial place of ,arthur1 of whose court the ,grail ,quest was the crowning adventure2 the story must be identified with ,british soil4 ,consequently a version was composed1 now represented by our ,perlesvaus text1 in which the union of ,nicodemus of ,fescamp1 and ,joseph of ,glastonbury1 fame1 as ancestors of the ,grail hero1 offers a significant hint of the provenance of the version4 ,secondly1 a no less important element in the process was due to the conscious action of ,robert de ,borron1 who well understood the character of his material1 and radically remodelled the whole on the basis of the triple ,mystery tradition translated into terms of high ,christian ,mysticism4 ,a notable feature of ,borron's version is his utilization of the tradition of the final ,messianic ,feast1 in combination with his ,eucharistic symbolism1 a combination thoroughly familiar to early ,christian ,mystics4 ,once started on a definitely romantic career1 the ,grail story rapidly became a complex of originally divergent themes1 the most important stage in its development being the incorporation of the popular tale of the ,widow's ,son1 brought up in the wilderness1 and launched into the world in a condition of absolute ignorance of men1 and manners4 ,the ,perceval story is a charming story1 but it has originally nothing whatever to do with the ,grail4 ,the original tale1 now best represented by our ,english ,syr ,percyvelle of ,galles1 has no trace of ,mystery element2 it is ,folk-lore1 pure and simple4 ,i believe the connection with the ,grail legend to be purely fortuitous1 and due to the fact that the hero of the ,folk-tale was known as #8,the ,widow's ,son1' which he actually was1 while this title represented in ,mystery terminology a certain grade of ,initiation1 and as such is preserved to-day in ,masonic ritual4#ae ,finally the rising tide of dogmatic ,medievalism1 with its crassly materialistic view of the ,eucharist2 its insistence on the saving grace of asceticism and celibacy2 and its scarcely veiled contempt for women1 overwhelmed the original conception4 ,certain of the features of the ancient ritual indeed survive1 but they are factors of confusion1 rather than clues to enlightenment4 ,thus1 while the ,grail still retains its character of a ,feeding ,vessel1 comes and goes without visible agency1 and supplies each knight with #8such food and drink as he best loved in the world1' it is none the less the ,chalice of the ,sacred ,blood1 and critics are sorely put to it to harmonize these conflicting aspects4 ,in the same way ,galahad's grandfather still bears the title of the ,rich ,fisher1 and there are confused references to a ,land laid ,waste as the result of a ,dolorous ,stroke4 ,but while the terminology lingers on to our perplexity the characters involved lie outside the march of the story2 practically no trace of the old ,nature ,ritual survives in the final ,queste form4 ,the remodelling is so radical that it seems most reasonable to conclude that it was purposeful1 that the original author of the ,queste had a very clear idea of the real nature of the ,grail1 and was bent upon a complete restatement in terms of current orthodoxy4 ,i advisedly use this term1 as ,i see no trace in the ,queste of a genuine ,mystic conception1 such as that of ,borron4 ,so far as criticism of the literature is concerned ,i adhere to my previously expressed opinion that the ,queste should be treated rather as a ,lancelot than as a ,grail romance4 ,it is of real importance in the evolution of the ,arthurian romantic cycle2 as a factor in determining the true character and origins of the ,grail legend it is worse than useless2 what remains of the original features is so fragmentary1 and so distorted1 that any attempt to use the version as basis for argument1 or comparison1 can only introduce a further element of confusion into an already more than sufficiently involved problem4 ,i am also still of opinion that the table of descent given on p4 #bhc of ,volume ,,ii4 of my ,perceval studies1 represents the most probable evolution of the literature2 at the same time1 in the light of further research1 ,i should feel inclined to add the ,grail section of ,sone de ,nansai as deriving from the same source which gave us ,kiot's poem1 and the ,perlesvaus4#af ,as evidence for a ,french original combining important features of these two versions1 and at the same time retaining unmistakably archaic elements which have disappeared from both1 ,i hold this section of the poem to be of extreme value for the criticism of the cycle4 ,while there are still missing links in the chain of descent1 versions to be reconstructed1 writers to be identified1 ,i believe that in its ensemble the theory set forth in these pages will be found to be the only one which will satisfactorily meet all the conditions of the problem2 which will cover the whole ground of investigation1 omitting no element1 evading no difficulty2 which will harmonize apparently hopeless contradictions1 explain apparently meaningless terminology1 and thus provide a secure foundation for the criticism of a body of literature as important as it is fascinating4 ,the study and the criticism of the ,grail literature will possess an even deeper interest1 a more absorbing fascination1 when it is definitely recognized that we possess in that literature a unique example of the restatement of an ancient and august ,ritual in terms of imperishable ,romance4 ,,notes ,,chapter ,,ii #a ,,ms4 ,bibl4 ,nat41 f4 ,fran4 #abegf fo4 #ij4 #b ,ibid4 fo4 #ijvo1 #ia4 #c ,di ,crne 7ed4 ,stoll1 ,stuttgart1 #aheb74 ,cf4 ,sir ,gawain of the ,grail ,castle for both versions4 #d ,cf4 ,,ms4 ,b4,n4 #abegf1 fo4 #aed4 #e ,perceval1 ed4 ,hucher1 p4 #dff2 ,modena1 p4 #fa4 #f ,cf4 ,hucher1 p4 #dhb2 ,modena1 p4 #hb4 #g ,perceval li ,gallois1 ed4 ,potvin1 ll4 #fjdh-eb4 #h ,ib4 ll4 #fjef-fj4 #i ,potvin1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ae4 #aj ,ib4 p4 #bf4 #aa ,ib4 p4 #hf4 #ab ,ib4 pp4 #agf1 #agh4 #ac ,,ms4 ,b4,n4 #abegf1 ff4 #bba-bbbvo4 #ad ,mabinogion1 ed4 ,nutt1 p4 #bhb4 #ae ,cf4 ,peredur 7ed4 ,nutt71 pp4 #bhb1 #bia-ib4 #af ,parzival1 ,book v4 ll4 #idg-ej4 #ag ,ib4 ,book ,,vi4 ll4 #ajgh-hj4 #ah ,parzival1 ,book ,,xvi1 ll #bge-hf4 #ai ,cf4 ,morte ,arthure1 ,malory1 ,book ,,xvii4 ,chap4 #ah4 ,note the remark of ,mordrains that his flesh which has waxen old shall become young again4 #bj ,parzival1 ,bk4 ,,ix4 ll4 #achh-ib4 #ba ,sone de ,nansai 7ed4 ,goldschmidt1 ,stuttgart1 #ahii71 ll #dgge-gf4 #bb ,sone de ,nansai1 ll4 #dhda-ef4 #bc ,it is evidently such a version as that of ,sone de ,nansai1 and ,parzival1 which underlies the curious statement of the ,merlin ,,ms4 ,b4,n4 f4 ,fr4 #ccg1 where the wife of the ,fisher ,king is known as #8la ,veve ,dame1' while her husband is yet in life1 though sorely wounded4 ,,chapter ,,iii #a ,cf4 ,rig-,veda ,sanhita1 trans4 ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson1 #f vols4 #ahed-ahhh4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #hh1 v4 #ab4 #agb1 v4 #h #bjf1 v4 #aj ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #aeg1 vv4 #b1 #e1 #g1 #h4 #b ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlandischen ,geschichte1 ,vols4 ,,xxxvii4 and ,,xxxix4 #c ,cf4 ,le ,thatre ,indien1 ,paris1 #ahij4 #d ,cf4 ,wiener ,zeitsch1 fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes1 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #aijd4 #e ,leipzig1 #aijh4 #f ,op4 cit4 p4 #aje4 #g ,ib4 p4 #bcj4 #h ,ib4 p4 #bib1 for sources1 and variants of tale4 #i ,on this point cf4 ,cornford1 ,origin of ,attic ,comedy1 pp4 #h1 #gh1 for importance of this feature4 #aj ,op4 cit4 pp4 #afa-agj1 for general discussion of question1 and summary of authorities4 ,also pp4 #big et seq4 #aa ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,peceval1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chapter #c4 #ab ,,ms4 ,bibl4 ,nat41 f4 ,fr4 #abegf1 fo4 #agc4 ,cf4 also ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,i4 ,chap4 #d4 #ac ,malory1 ,le ,morte ,arthure1 ,book ,,xiv4 ,chaps4 #h and #i4 ,potvin1 ll4 #djdbj et seq4 ,,chapter ,,iv #a ,cf4 ,frazer1 ,adonis1 ,attis1 ,osiris1 p4 #e4 #b ,in this connection not only the epoch-making works of ,mannhardt and ,frazer1 which are more specifically devoted to an examination of ,folk-belief and practice should be studied1 but also works such as ,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 ,e4 ,k4 ,chambers2 ,themis1 ,j4 ,e4 ,harrison2 ,the ,origin of ,attic ,comedy1 ,f4 ,cornford2 and ,sir ,gilbert ,murray's essay on the evolution of the ,greek ,drama1 published in ,miss ,harrison's ,themis4 ,the cumulative evidence is most striking4 #c ,a full study of this evolutionary process will be found in ,miss ,harrison's ,themis1 ,a ,study of ,greek ,social ,origins1 referred to above4 #d ,baudissin1 in his exhaustive study of these cults1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 comes to the conclusion that ,tammuz and ,adonis are different gods1 owing their origin to a common parent deity4 ,where the original conception arose is doubtful2 whether in ,babylon1 in ,canaan1 or in a land where the common ancestors of ,phoenicians and ,babylonian ,semites formed an original unit4 #e ,cf4 ,tammuz and ,ishtar1 ,s4 ,langdon1 p4 #e4 #f ,it may be well to note here the the #8,life' deity has no proper name2 he is only known by an appellative2 ,damu-zi1 ,damu1 #8faithful son1' or #8son and consort1' is only a general epithet1 which designates the dying god in a theological aspect1 just as the name ,adni1 #8my lord1' certainly replaced a more specific name for the god of ,byblos4 ,esmun of ,sidon1 another type of ,adonis1 is a title only1 and means simply1 #8the name4' ,cf4 ,langdon1 op4 cit4 p4 #g4 ,cf4 this with previous passages on the evolution of the ,greek idea from a nameless entity to a definite god4 ,mr ,langdon's remarks on the evolution of the ,tammuz cult should be carefully studied in view of the theory maintained by ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway--that the ,vegetation deities were all of them originally men4 #g ,from a liturgy employed at ,nippur in the period of the ,isin dynasty4 ,langdon1 op4 cit4 p4 #aa4 ,also1 ,sumerian and ,babylonian ,psalms1 p4 #cch4 #h ,cf4 ,langdon1 ,tammuz and ,ishtar1 p4 #bc4 #i ,what we have been able to ascertain of the ,sumerian-,babylonian religion points to it rather as a religion of mourning and supplication1 than of joy and thanksgiving4 ,the people seem to have been in perpetual dread of their gods1 who require to be appeased by continual acts of humiliation4 ,thus the #ith1 #aeth1 #aith1 #bhth1 and #bith of the month were all days of sack-cloth and ashes1 days of wailing2 the #aith especially was #8the day of the wrath of ,gulu4' #aj ,cf4 ,langdon1 op4 cit4 p4 #bd4 #aa ,cf4 ,langdon1 op4 cit4 p4 #bf4 #ab ,the most complete enquiry into the nature of the god is to be found in ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun4 ,for the details of the cult cf4 ,farnell1 ,cults of the ,greek ,states1 ,vol4 ,,ii42 ,vellay1 ,adonis 7,annales du ,muse ,guimet74 ,for the ,folk-lore evidence cf4 ,mannhardt1 ,wald un ,feld-,kulte2 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 and ,adonis1 ,attis and ,osiris4 ,these remarks apply also to the kindred cult of ,attis1 which as we shall see later forms an important link in our chain of evidence4 ,the two cults are practically identical and scholars are frequently at a loss to which group surviving fragments of the ritual should be assigned4 #ac ,in this connection note the extremely instructive remarks of ,miss ,harrison in the chapter on ,herakles in the work referred to above4 ,she points out that the ,eniautos ,daimon never becomes entirely and ,olympian1 but always retains traces of his #8,earth' origin4 ,this principle is particularly well illustrated by ,adonis1 who1 though1 admitted to ,olympus as the lover of ,aphrodite1 is yet by this very nature forced to return to the earth1 and descend to the realm of ,persephone4 ,this agrees well with the conclusion reached by ,baudissin 7,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #ga7 that ,adonis belongs to 8einer ,klasse von ,wesen sehr unbestimmter ,art1 die wohl ber den ,menschen aber unter den grossen ,gttern stehen40 #ad ,cf4 ,vellay1 op4 cit4 p4 #ic4 ,dulaure1 ,des ,divinits ,gnratrices4 ,if ,baudissin is correct1 and the introduction of the ,boar a later addition to the story1 it would seem to indicate the intrusion of a phallic element into ritual which at first1 like that of ,tammuz1 dealt merely with the death of the god4 ,the ,attis form1 on the contrary1 appears to have been phallic from the first4 ,cf4 ,baudissin1 ,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #afj4 #ae ,op4 cit4 p4 #hc4 #af ,cf4 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,vollendung den ,arischen ,mysterium1 p4 #ad4 #ag ,it may be well to explain the exact meaning attached to these terms by the author4 ,in ,professor von ,schroeder's view ,mysterium may be held to connote a drama in which the gods themselves are actors2 ,mimus on the contrary1 is the term applied to a drama which treats of the doings of mortals4 #ah ,op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #fdg4 #ai ,op4 cit4 p4 #aae4 ,much of the uncertainty as to date is doubtless due to the reflective influence of other forms of the cult2 the ,tammuz celebrations were held from ,june #bjth1 to ,july #bjth1 when the ,dog-star ,sirius was in the ascendant1 and vegetation failed beneath the heat of the summer sun4 ,in other1 and more temperate1 climates the date would fall later4 ,where1 however1 the cult was an off-shoot of a ,tammuz original 7as might be the case through emigration7 the tendency would be to retain the original date4 #bj ,cf4 ,vellay1 op4 cit4 p4 #ee2 ,mannhardt1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #bgg-gh1 for a description of the feast4 ,with regard to the order and sequence of the celebration cf4 ,miss ,harrison's remark1 ,themis1 p4 #dae3 8,in the cyclic monotony of the ,eniautos ,daimon it matters little whether ,death follows ,resurrection1 or ,resurrection1 ,death40 #ba ,cf4 ,mannhardt1 supra1 p4 ---4 #bb ,cf4 ,vellay1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajc4 ,this seems also to have been the case with ,tammuz1 cf4 ,ezekiel1 ,chap4 viii4 v4 #ad4 #bc ,cf4 ,frazer1 ,the ,golden ,bough1 under heading ,adonis4 #bd ,vellay1 p4 #acj1 ,mannahrdt1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhg2 note the writer's suggestion that the women here represent the goddess1 the stranger1 the risen ,adonis4 #be ,cf4 ,vellay1 p4 #ic4 #bf ,vide supra1 pp4 ---4 ---4 #bg ,supra1 p4 #ba4 #bh ,cf4 ,potvin1 appendix to ,vol4 ,,iii42 ,sir ,gawain and the ,grail ,castle1 pp4 #da1 #dd1 and note4 #bi ,my use of this parallel has been objected to on the ground that the prose ,lancelot is a late text1 and therefore cannot be appealed to as evidence for original incidents4 ,but the ,lancelot in its original form was held by so competent an authority as the late ,m4 ,gaston ,paris to have been one of the earliest1 if not the very earliest1 of ,french prose texts4 7,cf4 ,m4 ,paris's review of ,suchier and ,birch-,hirschfield's ,geschichte der ,franz4 ,litt47 ,the adventure in question is a #8,gawain' adventure2 we do not know whence it was derived1 and it may well have been included in an early version of the romance4 ,apart from the purely literary question1 from the strictly critical point of view the adventure is here obviously out of place1 and entirely devoid of raison d'tre4 ,if the origins of the ,grail legend is really to be found in these cults1 which are not a dead but a living tradition 7how truly living1 the exclusively literary critic has little idea71 we are surely entitled to draw attention to the obvious parallels1 no matter in which text they appear4 ,i am not engaged in reconstructing the original form of the ,grail story1 but in endeavoring to ascertain the ultimate source1 and it is surely justifiable to point out that1 in effect1 no matter what version we take1 we find in that version points of contact with one special group of popular belief and practice4 ,if ,i be wrong in my conclusions my critics have only to suggest another origin for this particular feature of the romance--as a matter of fact1 they have failed to do so4 #cj ,cf4 ,perlesvaus1 ,branch ,,ii4 ,chap4 ,i4 #ca ,throwing into1 or drenching with1 water is a well known part of the #8,fertility' ritual2 it is a case of sympathetic magic1 acting as a rain charm4 ,,chapter ,v #a ,ancient ,greek ,religion1 and ,modern ,greek ,folk-,lore1 ,j4 ,c4 ,lawson1 gives some most interesting evidence as to modern survivals of mythological beliefs4 #b ,wald und ,feld-,kulte1 #bnd edition1 #b vols41 ,berlin1 #aijd4 ,cf4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bhf4 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #crd edition1 #e vols4 #c ,i cite from ,mannhardt1 as the two works overlap in the particular line of research we are following3 the same instances are given in both1 buyt the honour of priority belongs to the ,german scholar4 #d ,op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #daa4 #e ,see ,g4 ,calderon1 #8,slavonic ,elements in ,greek religion1' ,classical ,review1 #aiah1 p4 #gi4 #f ,op4 cit4 p4 #daf4 #g ,op4 cit4 pp4 #aee and #cab4 #h ,op4 cit4 p4 #cec4 #i ,op4 cit4 p4 #ceh4 #aj ,op4 cit4 p4 #ceh4 #aa ,op4 cit4 p4 #cei4 ,cf4 the ,lausitz custom given supra1 which ,mannhardt seems to have overlooked4 #ab ,in the poem1 besides the ordinary figures of the ,vegetation ,deity1 his female counterpart1 and the ,doctor1 common to all such processions1 ,laubfrosch1 combining the two first1 and ,horse4 ,cf4 ,mannhardt1 ,mythol4 ,forsch4 pp4 #adb-dc2 ,mysterium und ,mimus1 pp4 #djh et seq42 also1 pp4 #ddc-dd4 ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway 7op4 cit4 p4 #aef7 refers slightingly to this interpretation of a #8harmless little hymn'--doubless the poem is harmless2 until ,prof4 von ,schroeder pointed out its close affinity with the ,fertility processions it was also meaningless4 #ac ,op4 cit4 ,chap4 #ag1 p4 #bec4 #ad ,cf4 ,folk-,lore1 ,vol4 ,,xv4 p4 #cgd4 #ae ,op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,v4 ,the ,dying ,god1 pp4 #ag et seq4 #af ,see ,dr ,seligmann's study1 ,the ,cult of ,nyakang and the ,divine ,kings of the ,shilluk in the ,fourth ,report of the ,wellcome ,research ,laboratories1 ,kkartum1 #aiaa1 ,vol4 ,b4 #ag ,cf4 ,address on reception into the ,academy when ,m4 ,paris succeeded to ,pasteur's fauteuil4 ,,chapter ,,vi #a ,op4 cit4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #id4 #b ,the ,legend of ,longinus1 ,r4 ,j4 ,peebles 7,bryn ,mawr ,college monographs1 ,vol4 ,,ix474 #c ,i discussed this point with ,miss ,lucy ,broadwood1 ,secretary of the ,folk-,song ,society1 who has made sketches of these ,crosses1 and she entirely agrees with me4 ,in my ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 pp4 #ed et seq41 ,i have pointed out the absolute dearth of ecclesiastical tradition with regard to the story of ,joseph and the ,grail4 #d ,cf4 ,littaturzeitung1 ,,xxiv4 7#aijc71 p4 #bhba4 #e ,cf4 ,the ,bleeding ,lance1 ,a4 ,c4 ,l4 ,brown4 #f ,cf4 ,brown1 op4 cit4 p4 #ce2 also ,a4 ,nutt1 ,studies in the ,legend of the ,holy ,grail1 p4 #ahd4 #g ,cf4 ,brown1 ,notes on ,celtic ,cauldrons of ,plenty1 p4 #bcg4 #h ,cf4 ,queste1 ,malory1 ,book ,,xiii4 ,chap4 #g1 where the effect is the same4 #i ,cf4 ,germanische ,elben und ,gtter beim ,estenvolker1 ,l4 von ,schroeder 7,wien1 #aijf74 #aj ,i suggested this point in corrspondence with ,dr ,brugger1 who agreed with me that it was worth working out4 #aa ,before leaving the discussion of ,professor ,brown's theory1 ,i would draw attention to a serious error made by the author of ,the ,legend of ,longinus4 ,on p4 #aia1 she blames ,professor ,brown for postulating the destructive qualities of the ,lance1 on the strength of #8an unsupported passage' in the #8,mons' ,,ms41 whereas the ,montpellier text says that the ,lance shall bring peace4 ,unfortunately1 it is this latter version which is unsupported1 all the ,,mss41 without even excepting ,b4,n4 #adbi1 which as a rule agrees with ,montpellier1 give the #8destructive' version4 #ab ,cf4 ,dulaure1 ,des ,divinits ,gnratrices1 p4 #gg4 ,also additional chapter to last edition by ,van ,gennep1 p4 #ccc2 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,mysterium und ,mimus1 pp4 #bgi-hj1 for symbolic use of the ,spear4 ,mc,culloch1 ,religion of the ,celts1 p4 #cjb1 suggests that it is not impossible that the cauldron,hindu yoni1 which of course would bring it into line with the above suggested meaning of the ,grail4 ,i think however that the real significance of the cauldron is that previously indicated4 #ac ,it is interesting to note that this relative position of ,lance and ,grail lingers on in late and fully ,christianized versions2 cf4 ,sommer1 ,the ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 ,romania1 ,,xxxvi4 p4 #ege4 #ad ,my informant on this point was a scholar1 resident in ,japan1 who gave me the facts within his personal knowledge4 ,i referred the question to ,prof4 ,basil ,hall ,chamberlain1 who wrote in answer that he had not himself met with the practice but that the ,samurai ceremonies differed in different provinces1 and my informant might well be correct4 #ae ,this explanation has at least the merit of simplicity as compared with that proposed by the author of ,the ,legend of ,longinus1 pp4 #bji et seq41 which would connect the feature with an obscure heretical practice of the early ,irish church4 ,it would also meet ,professor ,brown's very reasonable objections1 ,the ,bleeding ,lance1 p4 #h2 cf4 also remarks by ,baist quoted in the foot-note above4 #af ,cf4 my ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cad-cae1 note4 #ag ,mr ,a4 ,e4 ,waite1 who has published a book on the subject1 informs me that the #ag cards preserved in the ,bibliothque du ,roi 7,bibl4 ,nationale87 as specimens of the work of the painter ,charles ,gringonneur1 are really ,tarots4 #ah ,falconnier1 in a brochure on ,les ,,xxii ,lames ,hermetiques du ,tarot1 gives reproductions of these ,egyptian paintings4 #ai ,journal of the ,gipsy-,lore ,society1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,new ,series1 pp4 #ad-cg4 #bj ,from a private letter4 ,the ultimate object of ,magic in all ages was1 and is1 to obtain control of the sources of ,life4 ,hence1 whatever was the use of these objects 7of which ,i know nothing71 their appearance in this connection is significant4 ,,chapter ,,vii #a ,mysterium und ,mimus1 p4 #ej4 ,this work contains a most valuable and interesting study of the ,maruts1 and the kindred groups of ,sword ,dancers4 #b ,op4 cit4 pp4 #dg et seq4 #c ,rig-,veda1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #ccg4 #d ,mysterium und ,mimus1 p4 #dh4 #e ,op4 cit41 ,indra1 die ,maruts1 und ,agastya1 pp4 #ia et seq4 #f ,rig-,veda1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 pp4 #cca1 #ccd1 #cce1 #ccg4 #g ,mysterium un ,mimus1 p4 #aba4 #h ,vollendung des ,arische ,mysterium1 p4 #ac4 ,the introductory section of this book1 containing a study of early ,aryan belief1 and numerous references to modern survivals1 is both interesting and valuable4 ,the latter part1 a panegyric on the ,wagnerian drama1 is of little importance4 #i ,mysterium und ,mimus1 p4 #aca4 #aj ,cf4 ,rscher's ,lexikon1 under heading ,kureten4 #aa ,op4 cit4 #ab ,cf4 ,preller1 ,graechishe ,mythologie1 p4 #acd4 #ac ,quoted by ,preller1 p4 #fed4 #ad ,themis1 ,a ,study in ,greek ,social ,origins 7,cambridge1 #aiab71 pp4 #f et seq4 #ae ,mysterium un ,mimus1 p4 #bc4 #af ,themis1 p4 #bd4 #ag ,cf4 ,mysterium und ,mimus1 section ,indra1 die ,maruts1 und ,agastya specially pp4 #aea et seq4 #ah ,cf4 von ,schroeder1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ada et seq4 for a very full account of the ceremonies2 also1 ,themis1 p4 #aid2 ,mannhardt1 ,wald und ,feld-,kulte1 and ,rscher's ,lexikon1 under heading ,mars1 for various reasons4 #ai ,folk-,lore1 ,vols4 ,,vii41 ,x41 and ,,xvi4 contain interesting and fully illustrated accounts of some of these dances and plays4 #bj ,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bjb4 ,it would be interesting to know the precise form of this ring2 was it the ,pentangle8 #ba ,cf4 also ,mysterium und ,mimus1 pp4 #aaj1 #aaa1 for a general description of the dance1 minus the text of the speeches4 #bb ,pp4 #ahf-aid4 #bc ,cf4 ,folk-,lore1 ,vol4 ,,xvi4 pp4 #bab et seq4 #bd ,i would draw attention to the curious name of the adversary1 ,golisham2 it is noteworthy that in one ,arthurian romance ,gawain has for adversary ,golagros1 in another ,percival fights against ,golerotheram4 ,are these all reminiscences of the giant ,goliath1 who became the synonym for a dangerous1 preferably heathen1 adversary1 even as ,mahomet became the synonym for an idol8 #be ,cf4 ,mannhardt1 ,wald und ,feld-,kulte1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #aia et seq4 for a very full account of the ,julbock 7,yule ,buck74 #bf ,cf4 ,folk-,lore1 ,vol4 ,,viii4 #8,some ,oxfordshire ,seasonal ,festivals1' where full illustrations of the ,bampton ,morris ,dancers and their equipment will be found4 #bg ,cf4 ,the ,padstow ,hobby-,horse1 ,f4-,l4 ,vol4 ,,xvi4 p4 #ef2 ,the ,staffordshire ,horn-,dance1 ,ib4 ,vol4 ,,vii4 p4 #chb1 and ,,viii4 p4 #gj4 #bh ,cf4 supra1 pp4 #ec1 #hj1 #he4 #bi ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bfd4 #cj ,see ,english ,folk-,song and ,dance by ,frank ,kidson and ,mary ,neal1 ,cambridge1 #aiae1 plate facing p4 #ajd4 ,a curious point in connection with the illustration is that the ,chalice is surmounted by a ,heart1 and in the ,tarot suits ,cups are the equivalent of our ,hearts4 ,the combination has now become identified with the cult of the ,sacred ,heart1 but is undoubtedly much older4 ,,chapter ,,viii #a ,cf4 supra1 ,chap4 #e1 pp4 #eb1 #ed2 ,chap4 #g1 pp4 #ij1 #ia4 #b ,mysterium und ,mimus1 p4 #cfi1 ,der ,mimus des ,medizinmannes4 #c ,cf4 ,chap4 #e1 pp4 #ec1 #ed4 #d ,op4 cit4 p4 #cga #e ,op4 cit4 pp4 #gh et seq4 #f ,i would draw attention to the fact that while scholars are now coming to the conclusion that ,classic ,drama1 whether ,tragedy or ,comedy1 reposes for its origin upon this ancient ritual1 others have pointed out that ,modern ,drama derives from the ritual ,play of the ,church1 the first recorded medieval drama being the ,easter ,quem ,quaeritis8 the dramatic celebration of ,our ,lord's ,resurrection4 ,cf4 ,chambers1 ,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 where this thesis is elaborately developed and illustrated4 ,it is a curious fact that certain texts of this1 the #8,classical' ,passion ,play1 contain a scene between the ,maries and the #8,unguentarius' from whom they purchase spices for the embalmment of ,our ,lord4 ,can this be a survival of the ,medicine ,man8 7,cf4 op4 cit4 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #cc47 #g ,bibl4 ,nat41 fonds ,franais1 #abegg1 fo4 #dj #h ,bibl4 ,nat41 f4 ,f4 #adec1 fo4 #di4 ,parzival1 ,bk4 x4 ll1 #dac-bb4 #i ,lanceloet1 ,jonckbloet1 ,vol4,,ii4 ll4 #bbbga-bcabf4 #aj ,op4 cit4 ll4 #bbhbe-bf4 #aa ,op4 cit4 ,vol4 #a4 ll4 #dbedj-dgbfb4 #ab ,op4 cit4 ll4 #dffga-gd4 #ac ,op4 cit4 ll4 #dffgh-hj4 #ad ,cf4 ,loth1 ,les ,mabinogion1 ,vol4 ii4 p4 #bcj1 and note4 ,the other two are ,riwallawn ,walth ,banhadlen1 and ,llacheu son of ,arthur4 #ae ,the only instance in which ,i have found medicine directly connected with the knightly order is in the case of the warrior clan of the ,samurai1 in ,japan1 where members1 physically unfitted for the task of a warrior1 were trained as ,royal ,doctors1 the ,folk ,doctors being recruited from a class below the ,samurai4 ,cf4 ,medizin der ,natur-,vlker1 ,bartels1 p4 #fe4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,chapter ,,viii #a ,cf4 uvres de ,rutebuf1 ,kressner1 p4 #aae4 #b ,my attention was drawn to the poem by references to it in ,the ,mediaeval ,stage1 ,chambers4 ,,chapter ,,ix #a ,cf4 my ,sir ,gawain and the ,grail ,castle1 pp4 #c-cj4 ,the best text is that of ,,ms4 ,b4,n41 fonds ,fran4 #abegf1 ff4 #hgvo-#ia4 ,the above remarks apply also to the ,elucidation1 which is using a version of the ,bleheris form4 #b ,b4,n4 #abegg1 fo4 #acfvo4 #c ,cf4 ,sir ,gawain at the ,grail ,castle1 pp4 #cc-df4 #d ,cf4 ,b4,n4 #abegf1 ff4 #bbj-bbbvo and fo4 #beh4 #e ,hucher1 ,le ,saint ,graal1 ,vo4 ,i4 pp4 #bea et seq41 #cae et seq4 #f ,cf4 ,modena ,,ms4 pp4 #aa1 #ab1 #ba1 etc42 ,dr ,nitze1 ,the ,fisher-,king in the ,grail ,romances1 p4 #cgc1 says ,borron uses the term ,rice ,pescheur1 as opposed to the ,roi ,pescheur of ,chrtien4 ,this remark is only correct as applied to the ,joseph4 #g ,modena ,,ms p4 #fa and note4 #h ,ibid4 p4 #fc4 #i ,the evidence of the ,parzival and the parallel ,grail sections of ,sone de ,nansai1 which appear to repose ultimately on a source common to all three authors1 makes this practically certain4 #aj ,this is surely a curious omission1 if the second ,king were as essential a part of the scheme as ,dr ,nitze supposes4 #aa ,cf4 ,chapter #b1 p4 ---4 #ab ,i cannot agree with ,dr ,nitze's remark 7op4 cit4 p4 #cgd7 that 8in most versions the ,fisher ,king has a mysterious double40 ,i hold that feature to be a peculiarity of the ,chrtien-,wolfram group4 ,it is not found in the ,gawain versions1 in ,wauchier1 nor in ,manessier4 ,gerbert is using the ,queste in the passage relative to ,mordrains1 and for the reason stated above ,i hold that heither ,queste nor ,grand ,saint ,graal should be cited when we are dealing1 as ,dr ,nitze is here dealing1 with questions of ultimate origin4 #ac ,cf4 my ,legend of ,sir ,lancelot1 pp4 #afg and #afh4 #ad ,cf4 ,heinzel1 ,ueber die ,alt-,franz4 ,gral-,romanen1 pp4 #acf and #acg4 #ae ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cdc1 note4 ,these three kings are found in the curious ,merlin ,,ms4 ,b4,n41 f4 ,fran4 #ccg1 fo4 #bdi et seq4 #af ,vide supra1 pp4 #ia4 #ib4 #ag ,op4 cit4 p4 #ahd4 #ah ,cf4 ,chapter #e1 p4 #eb1 ,chap4 #g1 p4 #hh4 #ai ,di ,crone1 ll4 #agcbi et seq4 #bj ,in the ,parzival ,titurel is grandfather to ,anfortas1 ,frimutel intervening2 critics of the poem are apt to overlook this difference between the ,german and ,french versions4 #ba ,cf4 ,chapter #b1 p4 #bj4 #bb ,cf4 here my notes on ,sone de ,nansai 7,romania1 ,vol4 ,,xliii4 p4 #dab74 #bc ,in connection with my previous remarks on the subject 7p4 #aab7 ,i would point out that the ,queste and ,grand ,sainte ,graal versions repeat the ,maimed ,king motif in the most unintelligent manner4 ,the element of old age1 inherent in the ,evalach-,mordrains incident1 is complicated and practically obscured1 by an absurdly exaggerated wounding element1 here devoid of its original significance4 #bd ,heinzel1 op4 cit4 p4 #ac4 #be ,for an instance of the extravagances to which a strictly ,christian interpretation can lead1 cf4 ,dr ,sebastian ,evans's theories set forth in his translation of the ,perlesvaus 7,the ,high ,history of the ,holy ,grail7 and in his ,the ,quest of the ,holy ,grail4 ,the author places the origin of the cycle in the first quarter of the thirteenth century1 and treats it as an allegory of the position in ,england during the ,interdict pronounced against ,king ,john1 and the consequent withholding of the ,sacraments4 ,his identification of the character with historical originals is most ingenious1 an extraordinary example of misapplied learning4 #bf ,for a general discussion of the conflicting views cf4 ,dr ,nitze's study1 referred to above4 ,the writer devotes special attention to the works of the late ,prof4 ,heinzel and ,mr ,alfred ,nutt as leading representatives of their respective schools4 #bg ,r4 ,pischel's ,ueber die ,ursprung des ,christlichen ,fisch-,symbols is specifically devoted to the possible derivation from ,indian sources4 ,scheftelowitz1 ,das ,fischsymbolik in ,judentem und ,christentum 7,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 ,vol4 ,,xiv471 contains a great deal of valuable material4 ,r4 ,eisler1 ,orpheus the ,fisher 7,the ,quest1 ,vols4 ,i and ,,ii471 ,john1 ,jonas1 ,oannes 7ibid4 ,vol4 ,,iii471 ,the ,messianic ,fish-meal of the ,primitive ,church 7ibid4 ,vol4 ,,iv471 are isolated studies1 forming part of a comprehensive work on the subject1 the publication of which has unfortunately been prevented by the ,war4 #bh ,mahbhrata1 ,bk4 ,,iii4 #bi ,cf4 ,scheftekowitz1 op4 cit4 p4 #ea4 #cj ,cf4 ,the ,open ,court1 ,june and ,july1 #aiaa1 where reproductions of these figures will be found4 #ca ,op4 cit4 p4 #djc4 ,cf4 here an illustration in ,miss ,harrison's ,themis 7p4 #bfb71 which shows ,cecrops1 who played the same rle with regard to the ,greeks1 with a serpent's tail4 #cb ,ibid4 p4 #afh4 ,in this connection note the prayer to ,vishnu1 quoted above4 #cc ,cf4 ,eisler1 ,orpheus the ,fisher 7,the ,quest1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #abf74 #cd ,cf4 ,w4 ,staerk1 ,ueber den ,ursprung der ,gral-,legende1 pp4 #ee1 #ef4 #ce ,df4 ,s4 ,langdon1 ,sumerian and ,babylonian ,psalms1 pp4 #cja1 #cje1 #cjg1 #cac4 #cf ,cf4 ,eisler1 ,the ,messianic ,fish-meal of the ,primitive ,church 7,the ,quest1 ,vol4 ,,iv471 where the various frescoes are described2 also the article by ,scheftelowitz1 already referred to4 ,while mainly devoted to ,jewish beliefs and practices1 this study contains much material derived from other sources4 ,so far it is the fullest and most thoroughly document treatment of the subject ,i have met with4 #cg ,cf4 ,eisler1 op4 cit4 and ,scheftelowitz1 pp4 #ai4 #bj4 #ch ,cf4 ,eisler1 op4 cit4 p4 #ejh4 #ci ,cf4 ,scheftelowitz1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ccg1 #cch1 and note #d4 #dj ,hucher1 ,le ,saint ,graal1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #bea et seq41 #cae et seq4 #da ,cf4 ,a4 ,nutt1 ,studies in the ,legend of the ,holy ,grail1 p4 #bji4 #db ,cf4 ,eisler1 ,the ,mystic ,epitaph of ,bishop ,aberkios 7,the ,quest1 ,vol4 ,v4 pp4 #cjb-cab72 ,scheftelowitz1 op4 cit4 p4 #h4 #dc ,cf4 ,the ,voyage of ,saint ,brandan1 ll4 #cgb1 et seq41 #ffj et seq4 #dd ,op4 cit4 ll4 #agj et seq41 and supra1 p4 #aai4 #de ,vide supra1 p4 #gj4 #df ,op4 cit4 p4 #afh4 #dg ,cf4 ,the ,messianic ,fish-meal4 #dh ,op4 cit4 p4 #ib1 fig4 #db a4 #di ,op4 cit4 p4 #bc1 and note1 p4 #bi4 #ej ,parzival1 ,bk4 ,,ix4 ll41 #aaji et seq41 ,bk4 ,,xvi4 ll4 #age et seq4 #ea ,cf4 ,sir ,gawain at the ,grail ,castle1 p4 #ee4 ,certain of the ,lancelot ,,mss41 e4g41 ,b4,n41 f4 ,fr4 #abc1 give two doves4 #eb ,cf4 ,scheftelowitz1 p4 #cch4 ,haven1 ,der ,gral1 has argued that ,wolfram's stone is such a meteoric stone1 a ,boetylus4 ,i am not prepared to take up any position as to the exact nature of the stone itself1 whether precious stone or meteor2 the real point of importance being its ,life-giving potency4 #ec ,op4 cit4 p4 #cha4 #ed ,ibid4 p4 #cgf et seq4 #ee ,ibid4 p4 #bj4 #ef ,ibid4 p4 #cgg4 ,,chapter ,x #a ,elucidation1 ll4 #d-i and #ab1 #ac4 #b ,potvin1 ll4 #aiicc-dj4 ,i quote from ,potvin's edition as more accessible than the ,,mss41 but the version of mons is1 on the whole1 an inferior one4 #c ,potvin1 ll4 #bhajh-bh4 #d ,this is to my mind the error vitiating much of ,dr ,nitze's later work1 e4g41 the studies entitled ,the ,fisher-,king in the ,grail ,romances and ,the ,sister's ,son1 and the ,conte del ,graal4 #e ,op4 cit4 ,introduction1 p4 ,x4 #f ,rohde1 ,psyche1 p4 #bic1 and ,cumont1 op4 cit4 p4 #dd4 #g ,anrich1 ,das alte ,mysterien-,wesen in seinem ,verhltniss zum ,christentum1 p4 #df4 #h ,op4 cit4 p4 #acf4 #i ,cumont1 op4 cit4 p4 #hd4 #aj ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ajd1 #aje4 #aa ,cf4 ,anrich1 op4 cit4 p4 #ha4 #ab ,hepding1 ,attis1 p4 #ahi4 #ac ,cumont1 ,mystres de ,mithra1 pp4 #ai and #gh4 #ad ,ibid4 p4 #ahh4 #ae ,ibid4 pp4 #aij et seq4 #af ,vide ,hepding1 ,attis1 ,chap4 #d1 for details4 #ag ,dieterich1 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie1 p4 #agd4 #ah ,hepding1 op4 cit4 p4 #aif4 #ai ,cf4 my ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cac4 ,hepding mentions 7op4 cit4 p4 #agd7 among the sacra of the goddess ,phrygium ferrum1 which he suggests was the knife from which the ,archigallus wounded himself on the #8,blood' day4 ,thus it is possible that the primitive ritual may have contained a knife4 ,,chapter ,,xi #a ,cumont1 op4 cit4 ,introd4 pp4 ,,xx and ,,xxi4 #b ,thrice-,greatest ,hermes1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #aie4 #c ,op4 cit4 p4 #ada4 #d ,op4 cit4 p4 #adb4 #e ,op4 cit4 pp4 #adf et seq4 ,reitzenstein1 ,die ,hellenistischen ,mysterien ,religionen1 ,leipzig1 #aiaj1 gives the document in the original4 ,there is also a translation of ,hippolytus in the ,ante-,nicene ,library4 #f ,quoted by ,mead1 op4 cit4 p4 #ach4 #g ,op4 cit4 pp4 #adf1 #adg4 #h ,op4 cit4 p4 #aea4 #i ,op4 cit4 p4 #aeb4 ,mr ,mead concludes that there is here a lacuna of the original4 #aj ,op4 cit4 p4 #aha4 ,in a note ,mr ,mead says of the ,greater ,mysteries1 8presumaby the candidate went through some symbolic rite of death and resurrection40 #aa ,op4 cit4 pp4 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,i would draw especial attention to this passage in view of the present controversey as to the ,origin of ,drama4 ,it looks as if the original writer of the document 7and this section is in the ,pagan ,source7 would have inclined to the views of ,sir ,gilbert ,murray1 ,miss ,harrison1 and ,mr ,cornford rather than to those championed by their sarcastic critic1 ,sir ,w4 ,ridgeway4 #ab ,op4 cit4 p4 #aij4 #ac ,vide supra1 p4 #acg4 #ad ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,chapters #aj and #aa4 #ae ,cf4 my ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 ,bell1 #aiac1 ,chap4 #d1 for summary of evidence on this point4 #af ,cf4 ,heinzel1 ,alt-,franz4 ,gral-,romanen1 p4 #gb4 ,,chapter ,,xii #a ,op4 cit4 p4 #ga4 #b ,op4 cit4 p4 #c4 #c ,op4 cit4 p4 #d4 #d ,cumont1 op4 cit4 pp4 #abi-ada et seq4 #e ,op4 cit4 p4 #adh4 #f ,dieterich1 ,eine ,mithrasliturgie1 the text is given with translation and is followed by an elaborate commentary4 ,the whole study is most interesting and suggestive4 #g ,cf4 ,bousset1 ,der ,himmelfahrt der ,seele1 ,archiv fr ,religionswissenschaft1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 #h ,cumont1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aii et seq4 #i ,adonis und ,esmun1 p4 #eba4 #aj ,cf4 ,mead1 op4 cit4 p4 #agi1 note2 ,cumont1 ,mystres de ,mithra1 p4 #ahc4 #aa ,cumont1 ,les ,religions ,orientales1 pp4 #afj et seq4 #ab ,mystres de ,mithra1 p4 #gg4 #ac ,les ,religions ,orientales1 pp4 #aff1 #afg1 ,mystres de ,mithra1 p4 #eg4 #ad ,mead1 op4 cit4 pp4 #adg1 #adh1 and note4 #ae ,without entering into indiscreet details ,i may say that students of the ,mysteries are well aware of the continued survival of this ritual under circumstances which correspond exactly with the indications of two of our ,grail romances4 #af ,the ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 pp4 #aaj et seq4 #ag puys4 ,professor ,a4 ,c4 ,l4 ,brown1 ,notes on ,celtic ,cauldrons of ,plenty1 n4 p4 #bdi1 translates this #8wells1' an error into which the late ,mr ,alfred ,nutt had already fallen4 ,wisse ,colin translates this correctly1 berg1 gebirge4 #ah ,i suspect that the robbery of the ,golden ,cup was originally a symbolic expression for the outrage being offered4 ,,chapter ,,xiii #a ,,ms ,b4,n4 #abegf1 ff4 #hgvo et seq4 ,a translation will be found in my ,sir ,gawain at the ,grail ,castle1 pp4 #ac-ae4 #b ,,ms ,b4,n4 #abegf1 ff4 #aejvo1 #bbb1 #bchvo4 #c ,cf4 here ,prof4 ,kittredge's monograph ,arthur and ,gorlagon4 #d ,cf4 ,malory1 ,book ,,xvi4 ,chap4 #b4 #e ,cf4 ,perlesvaus1 ,branch ,,xv4 sections ,,xii4-,,xx42 ,malory1 ,book ,,vi4 ,chap4 #ae2 ,chevalier deux ,espes1 ll4 #eca et seq4 #f ,b4,n4 #abegf1 fo4 #gdvo4 #g ,cf4 ,b4,n4 ,,ms #adcc1 ff4 #aj1 #aa1 and the analysis and remarks in my ,legend of ,sir ,lancelot1 p4 #bai and note4 #h ,cf4 passage in question quoted on p4 #acg4 #i ,b4,n4 #abegf1 fo4 #aejvo4 #aj ,perlesvaus1 ,branch ,i4 sections ,,iii41 ,,iv4 #aa ,cf4 my notes on the subject1 ,romania1 ,vol4 ,,xliii4 pp4 #dbj-dbf4 #ab ,cf4 ,nitze1 ,glastonbury and the ,holy ,grail1 where the reference is given4 #ac ,vide supra1 p4 #adg4 #ad ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bfa4 ,i suggested then that the actual initiation would probably consist in enlightenment into the meaning of ,lance and ,cup1 in their sexual juxtaposition4 ,i would now go a step further1 and suggest that the identification of the ,lance with the weapon of ,longinus may quite well have rpelaced the original explanation as given by ,bleheris4 ,in ,the ,quest1 ,oct4 #aiaf1 ,i have given1 under the title 8,the ,ruined ,temple10 a hypothetical reconstruction of the ,grail ,initiation4 #ae ,owain ,miles1 edited from the unique ,,ms4 by ,turnbull and ,laing1 ,edinburgh1 #ahcg4 ,the ,purgatory of ,saint ,patrick will be found in ,horstmann's ,southern ,legendary4 ,i have given a modern ,english rendering of part of ,owain ,miles in my ,chief ,middle-,english ,poets1 published by ,houghton ,mifflin ,co41 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 #af ,cf4 op4 cit4 pp4 #adh et seq4 #ag ,op4 cit4 pp4 #aee and #bed4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,the ,author #a ,cf4 ,mead1 ,thrice ,greatest ,hermes1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bie4 ,on this point the still untranslated corpus of ,bardic poetry may possibly throw light4 #b ,the ,quest of ,the ,holy ,grail 7,quest series1 ,bell1 #aiac74 #c ,on the point that ,chrtien was treating an already popular theme1 cf4 ,brugger1 ,enserrement ,merlin1 ,i4 7,zeitschrift fr ,franz4 ,sprache1 ,,xxix474 #d ,that is1 the relationship is due to romantic tradition1 not to ,mystery survival1 as ,dr ,nitze maintains4 #e ,cf4 ,romania1 ,vol4 ,,xxxiii4 pp4 #ccc et seq4 #f ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chap4 #ab1 for the passages referred to1 also article in ,romania1 ,,xxxiii4 #g ,cf4 my ,quest of the ,holy ,grail1 pp4 #aaj et seq4 #h ,cf4 ,tristan 7,bdier's ed471 ,vol4 ,i4 l4 #babj4 #i ,a critic of my ,quest volume remarks that 8we have as little faith in ,wauchier's appeal to a ,welshman ,bleheris as source for his continuation of ,chrtien's #8,perceval' as we have in ,layamon's similar appeal to ,bede and ,st ,austin at the beginning of the #8,brut4'0 ,the remark seems to me singularly inept1 there is no parallel between the cases4 ,in the first place ,layamon does not refer to ,bede and ,st ,austin as source1 but as models1 a very different thing4 ,then the statement is discredited by the fact that we possess the writings of these men1 and know them to be of another character than ,metrical ,chronicles4 ,in the case of ,wauchier his reference does not stand alone2 it is one of a group1 and that group marked by an extraordinary unanimity of statement2 whoever ,bleheris may have been he was certainly possessed of two definite qualifications--he knew a vast number of tales1 and he possessed a remarkable gift of narration1 i4e41 he was a story-teller1 par excellence4 ,thus he was1 a priori1 a probable source for that section of ,wauchier's work which is attributed to him1 a section consisting of short1 picturesque1 and mutually independent tales1 which formed part of a popular collection4 ,it is misleading to speak as if ,wauchier refers to him as general source for his ,perceval continuation2 the references are clearly marked and refer to ,gawain tales4 ,apart from the fact that ,wauchier's reference does not stand alone we have independent evidence of the actual existence of such a group of tales1 in our surviving ,gawain poems1 certain of which1 such as ,kay and the ,spit1 and ,golagros and ,gawayne are versions of the stories given by ,wauchier1 while the author of the ,elucidation was also familiar with the same collection4 ,if evidence for the identity of ,bleheris is incomplete1 that for his existence appears to be incontrovertible4 ,would it not be more honest if such a would-be critic as the writer referred to said1 #8,i do not choose to believe in the existence of ,bleheris1 because it runs counter to my pre-conceived theory of the evolution of the literature'8 ,we should then know where we are4 ,such a parallel as that cited above has no value for those familiar with the literature but may easily mislead the general reader4 ,i would also draw attention to the fact noted in the text--the extreme improbability of ,wauchier1 a continental writer1 inventing an insular and ,welsh source4 ,this is a point critics carefully evade4 #aj ,cf4 ,bledhericus de ,cornouailles1 note contributed by ,m4 ,ferd4 ,lot1 to ,romania1 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4 p4 #ccf4 ,m4 ,lot remarks that he has not met with the name in ,armorica2 it thus appears to be insular4 #aa ,cf4 ,revue ,celtique1 #aiaa1 ,a note on the identification of ,bleheris4 #ab ,ed4 ,rhys-,evans1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #big2 cf4 also ,revue ,celtique4 #ac ,in the course of #aiae-af ,i received letters from ,mr ,rogers ,rees1 resident at ,stepaside1 ,pembrokeshire1 who informed me that he held definite proof of the connection of ,bledri with both ,grail and ,perceval legends4 ,the locality had been part of ,bledri's estate1 and the house in which he lived was built on the site of what had been ,bledri's castle4 ,mr ,rogers ,rees maintained the existence of a living tradition connecting ,bledri with the legends in question4 ,at his request ,i sent him the list of the names of the brothers of ,alain li ,gros1 as given in the #aeaf edition of the ,perlesvaus1 a copy of which is in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 and received in return a letter stating that the list must have been compiled by one familiar with the district4 ,unfortunately1 for a year1 from the autumn of #aiaf1 ,i was debarred from work1 and when1 on resuming my studies1 ,i wrote to my correspondent asking for the promised evidence ,i obtained no answer to my repeated appeal4 ,on communicating with ,mr ,owen ,i found he had had precisely the same experience1 and1 for his part1 was extremely sceptical as to there being any genuine foundation for our correspondent's assertions4 ,while it is thus impossible to use the statements in question as elements in my argument1 ,i think it right in the interests of scholarship to place them on record2 they may afford a clue which some ,welsh scholar may be able to follow up to a more satisfactory conclusion4 #ad ,had ,wauchier really desired to invent an authority1 in view of his date1 and connection with the house of ,flanders1 he had a famous name at hand--that of ,chrtien de ,troyes4 #ae ,cf4 ,legend of ,sir ,perceval1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cjg and note4 ,i have recently received ,dr ,brugger's review of ,mr ,r4 ,h4 ,griffith's study of the ,english poem1 and am glad to see that the critic accepts the independence of this version4 ,if scholars can see their way to accept as faits acquis the mutual independence of the ,grail1 and ,perceval themes1 we shall1 at last1 have a solid basis for future criticism4 #af ,cf4 my ,notes1 ,romania1 ,vol4 ,,xliii4 pp4 #djc et seq4