,illustration3 7,see ,page #da47 ,,elementary ,,color ,,by ,,milton ,,bradley4 ,author of ,color in the ,schoolroom and ,color in the ,kindergarten4 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction ,,by ,,henry ,,lefavour1 ,ph4,d41 ,professor of ,physics1 ,williams ,college4 ,third ,edition4 ,,milton ,,bradley ,,co41 ,,springfield1 ,,mass4 ,,copyrighted1 #ahie1 ,,by ,,milton ,,bradley ,,co41 ,,springfield1 ,,mass4 ,,contents4 ,,page4 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,color #i ,why ,artists and ,scientists ,have ,disagreed #aj ,the ,speculations of the ,past #ab ,what the ,primary ,teacher ,needs to ,consider #ac ,concerning the ,solar ,spectrum #ae ,six ,spectrum ,standards of ,color #ag ,the ,color ,wheel and ,maxwell ,disks #ah ,the ,bradley ,system of ,color ,instruction #bj ,,color ,,definitions #bc ,,practical ,,experiments #ca ,the ,color ,wheel #ca ,the ,color ,top #cb ,use of the ,disks #cb ,how to ,begin the ,experiments #cd ,the ,old ,theories ,tested by ,mixture of ,three ,pigments #de ,old ,theories ,tested by the ,color ,wheel or ,color ,top #df ,concerning the ,complementary ,colors #ej ,citrines and ,russets #ed ,olives #ee ,vermilion1 ,burnt ,sienna1 ,raw ,sienna and ,indian ,red #ee ,classification of ,harmonies #ef ,the ,work of ,chevreul ,reviewed #eh ,simultaneous1 ,successive and ,mixed ,contrast #fa ,contrasted ,harmony #fd ,color with ,white #fd ,black with ,white #fd ,color with ,black #fe ,colors with ,gray #fe ,contrast of ,colors #fg ,dominant ,harmonies #fg ,complementary ,harmonies #fi ,analogous ,harmonies #gj ,perfected ,harmonies #gj ,field's ,chromatic ,equivalents #gc ,colored ,papers #gd ,,color ,,teaching ,,in ,,the ,,schoolroom #gf ,the ,glass ,prism #gh ,how the ,bradley ,color ,standards ,were ,chosen #gi ,paper ,color ,tablets #hj ,color ,wheel or ,top #hb ,the ,study of ,tones #he ,neutral ,grays #hi ,explanation of ,broken ,colors #ia ,an ,exercise in ,broken ,colors #ib ,formulas for a ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales #ie ,certain ,color ,puzzles #if ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales ,completed #ih ,the ,work of ,cutting and ,pasting #ii ,a ,variety of ,designs #aja ,analysis of ,color ,materials #ajf ,the ,bradley ,colored ,papers #aab ,engine ,colored ,papers #aaf ,water ,colors #aah ,color ,blindness #aba ,,outline ,,of ,a ,,course ,,in ,,color ,,instruction #abd ,the ,solar ,spectrum #abe ,pigmentary ,spectrum ,colors #abe ,study of ,tones #abf ,broken ,colors #abg ,complete ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales in ,five ,tones #abg ,advanced ,study of ,harmonies #abh ,,introduction4 ,the movement in educational reform at present is in the direction of unification4 ,it is held that in framing the programme for any grade the interest not only of the next higher but of all higher grades must be considered4 ,this is done not solely that those who are to enter the higher grades may be directly prepared for their more advanced studies1 but especially because it is felt that better work will thus be done for those whose school training is soon to terminate4 ,for the child's education is never finished and a mind rightly directed at the start will gather from its practical experience that with which it may develop and augment the resources and the ideas already received4 ,no education can be sound which teaches anything that is inconsistent with the more advanced truths1 however complex and profound those truths may be4 ,there should be no unlearning in the course of an education nor any expenditure of time on that which has no permanent value4 ,it is of importance therefore to consider in connection with the study of any special subject what the problems are which lie at the end of the educational journey and what basis will be needed in the child's maturer thought4 ,there will thus be the inspiration of the goal to be attained and guidance in the selection of the most helpful methods4 ,there is scarcely any subject that has so many practical and scientific aspects as the subject of color4 ,its great importance in the arts and its contribution to the enjoyment of life are matched by the multiplicity of problems in the physical and philosophical sciences with which it is connected4 ,without attempting to enumerate all of the scientific problems related to this subject1 it may be of interest to briefly summarize those which are most prominent4 ,at the outset we have such purely physical questions as the nature of light1 the cause of its emission1 the mode of its propagation1 the difference in the waves which give rise to the various color sensations1 the principles of absorption1 of reflection and of refraction1 and the nature of material surfaces whereby they acquire their characteristic colors4 ,then comes the physiology of the eye1 including its structure and its function and involving the much discussed questions of primary and secondary colors1 and these are closely related to the psychological or psycho-physical study of the nature1 duration and delicacy of color vision and color judgment4 ,next to these comes the study of pigments and of the chromatic effects of their mixture1 essentially a chemical and technical question1 and finally1 the most important of all1 the purely psychological or sthetic problem touching the harmonization and grouping of the various colors and their modifications4 ,the recent advance made in experimental psychology has given an impetus to the study of the whole subject and we may reasonably expect that rational explanations may be found for questions in sthetics hitherto considered purely arbitrary4 ,it will be readily seen that there must be a well developed and carefully trained color sense at the basis of an education which is to lead to the consideration of these and similar chromatic problems4 ,as in the development of any special perceptive power1 a great deal depends upon making a beginning early in life1 when the mind is most receptive and there are no preconceptions to be overcome4 ,every means should be employed that will help the child to distinguish between principal colors and between modifications of principal colors4 ,his attention should be directed at as early a stage as possible to the analysis of composite colors and the effects obtained by the combination of colored lights and the results of irradiant light4 ,the principles of chromatic harmony are perhaps not simple1 but a child1 before whom right standards of color combinations are constantly presented1 will acquire a correct sthetic judgment that may become intuitive4 ,the effect of such a training on the higher development of our people and on their appreciation of true art would be of the greatest value4 ,if the instruction in color is to be systematic and efficient1 it is unquestionable that there must be a simple nomenclature for the standard colors2 and for the teacher's guidance at least as well as for the use of the older pupils1 a scientifically accurate system of describing any required modification of these recognized standards4 ,the system presented in this book is based on the well-known principle of the ,maxwell wheel and has been elaborated by one who has had in view not only the theory of the subject but also the practical possibilities of its use in preparing educational material4 ,this fact1 ,i feel sure1 greatly enhances the value of the conclusions at which he arrives4 ,,henry ,,lefavour4 ,williams ,college1 ,december #bj1 #ahid4 ,,preface4 ,ever since ,newton discovered the solar spectrum it has been referred to in a poetic way as ,nature's standard of color4 ,but as soon as the author attempted1 some twelve years ago1 to use it practically by making pigmentary imitations of the spectrum colors as standards they were decried as vulgar and inartistic4 ,under such circumstances it was a great pleasure to him to hear a celebrated art professor answer his inquiry if the solar spectrum is the proper place to look for standards of color with the emphatic assertion1 ,certainly1 there is no other place to go4 ,where there are no standards there can be no measurements1 and if in color we have no measurements of effects1 no records can be made1 and hence no comparisons of results at various places and times1 and consequently no discussion and little progress4 ,because there have been no accepted standards and no measurements of color very little has thus far been decided regarding psychological color effects4 ,in drawing1 as at present taught in our best schools from the kindergarten to the university1 the foundation of art in black and white is laid in form study4 ,from the drawing teachers we learn that a good touch and a fine sense for light and shade in all their subtle relations to each other are without value1 unless due care has been given to the commonplace consideration of lengths and directions of lines1 that is to say to the measurement of lines and angles1 and to the laws of perspective4 ,we cannot have measurements without standards4 ,by the foot or the metre we measure lines and by the divided circle we measure angles4 ,geometrical forms have already been so definitely analyzed by the science of mathematics that if destroyed to-day these solids and surfaces could be reconstructed at any future time from written or printed directions4 ,but suppose all material samples of color to be lost1 it would be impossible by the ordinary system of color nomenclature to even approximately restore a single one from written or verbal descriptions4 ,color is one of the first things to attract the attention of the infant1 almost as soon as a sound and long before form appeals to him1 so that a collection of colored papers will often prove more interesting and instructive than a picture book to the baby1 while the graduate from a two year's course in the kindergarten may have a better color sense than is at present enjoyed by the average business or professional man4 ,if we could determine the colors used by the great masters in the past1 we could add much to our knowledge of the fine arts2 and if we knew what colors ,chevreul1 the master dyer of the ,gobelins ,tapestry works1 refers to in his writings1 and which he indicated by hundreds of numbered samples filed away in his cabinet1 we should in this generation have a wonderful fund of information to increase our knowledge of harmonies1 on which to base our study of color in the industrial arts4 ,but alas6 the paintings of the old masters have faded and the great dyer had no language in which to describe his colors in his writings1 and therefore it is claimed that little or no advance in color perception has been made in modern times1 if indeed we have held our own4 ,the further assertion is made that those semi-civilized nations whose drawings are the least artistic greatly surpass us in natural color perceptions4 ,if color is the one thing in which we are deficient and in which we are making no advance1 is it not necessary that we adopt a new line of operations for our color instruction in the primary grades8 ,it is self-evident that in primary work highest art is not expected in either literature1 music1 drawing or painting1 but as has been the aim in literature for a long time and in drawing and music more recently1 so in coloring1 our instruction should be based on those principles on which highest art must rest4 ,when through the introduction of colored papers in the kindergartens and primary schools the teachers began to call for better assortments of colors in their papers than were to be found in the market1 and some of us in the field attempted to meet their wants1 the solution of the problem seemed almost a hopeless task1 because no two wanted the same colors2 each teacher was a law to herself and one thought a color just lovely which another declared perfectly horrid4 ,according to the early theories then in vogue the first colors called for were red1 yellow and blue for primaries1 but no two persons were sure just what they wanted for either of these1 and there was no authority to be referred to for a decision4 ,in this strait1 which was practically a serious difficulty1 the artists were appealed to for a decision as to the three primary colors1 and also for examples showing in what proportions the ideal primaries must be mixed to produce the ideal secondaries4 ,but in this there was no satisfaction because hardly two agreed in the primaries and necessarily the secondaries were much less definite1 which was the result that should have been expected4 ,it is a self-evident proposition that if two indefinite primaries are combined in indefinite proportions the possible secondaries which may thus be produced must be exceedingly numerous1 and if this idea is carried out in the production of tertiaries by the combination of the secondaries the resulting colors may be almost infinite4 ,in view of the indifference of the artists and the popular ignorance regarding the subject the solution of this question and the discovery of any solid basis on which to formulate a system of elementary color instruction seemed very problematical4 ,but after much experimenting and many conferences with artists and scientists a basis for operation was decided upon and at the end of fifteen years the efforts begun in doubt have resulted in a definite system of color instruction which it is the purpose of this book to concisely set forth4 ,it is prepared in response to inquiries from primary school teachers for a clear and condensed explanation of the ,bradley ,system of ,color ,instruction4 ,the aim is to offer a definite scheme and suitable material for a logical presentation of the truths regarding color in nature and art to the children of the primary schools4 ,much of this instruction is so simple that it should be familiar to children who have had kindergarten training and has therefore already been explained in substantially the same form in ,color in the ,kindergarten4 ,a few years ago it might well have been thought necessary to preface a treatise on the subject with arguments to prove that color is a legitimate object for school instruction1 but to-day this is not a question with thoughtful educators1 whether considered from the practical1 industrial or sthetic standpoint4 ,with the establishment of professorships of practical psychology and the equipment of laboratories1 provided with delicate and expensive apparatus for making and recording tests1 there comes with increasing force the demand for some means by which the experiments in color made in various localities may be unified both as to the colors used and the terms and measurements for recording the result4 ,it is the hope of the author that the system here outlined may be the initial step in gathering together such facts regarding color effects as will form a fund of knowledge little dreamed of at the present day4 ,illustration ,the ,theory of ,color4 ,in order to place the study of color on a broad and safe foundation1 the work must commence at the bottom with a rational presentation of the subject1 based on experiments and the use of color material4 ,we must intelligently consider the relation that exists between the pure science of light which is the source of all color and the use of color materials with their effect on our color perceptions4 ,while it is true in all study that there is here and there found a natural genius in some line of work who seems to have such inborn perceptions as to require little or no logical instruction in his special line1 it is also manifest that the masses must gain their knowledge through a systematic presentation of the subject1 if they secure it at all4 ,therefore with the growth of modern pedagogics the laboratory work of the psychologist has become a necessity4 ,this consists in collecting and tabulating the results of hundreds and thousands of experiments regarding any subject under investigation1 and the averaging of these to form theories and laws4 ,in making these experiments there must be standards and measurements on which they may be based and some nomenclature in which to make the records2 and the standards1 measurements and nomenclature adopted must be common to those who desire to compare their results made in different places at different times4 ,from the results of many physical experiments properly measured and recorded certain psychological theories are deduced4 ,these experiments are tried on hundreds and thousands of individuals and the average results establish the theories1 which will ultimately stand or fall according to the truth and accuracy with which the experiments have been made4 ,experiments are useless for formulating any exact theories unless they can be recorded in some generally accepted terms for comparison with other experiments made under similar conditions and recorded in the same terms4 ,so in color perceptions it is not necessary that we know anything of the theories of color in order to see colors1 and if endowed by nature with a natural genius for color1 education in color may not be necessary1 but if there is to be education in color which can be transmitted to a second party there must be some standards of colors and some measurement of color effects which can be recorded in accepted terms4 ,why ,artists and ,scientists ,have ,disagreed4 ,in the realm of art there is no necessity for any purely scientific analysis of sunlight1 which is the origin of natural colors1 because all the practical value of color is found in its sthetic effects on the mind1 and in order to enjoy these even in the highest degree it is not necessary that we understand the scientific origin of the colors1 any more than it is necessary for the artist to know the chemical composition of his pigments in order to produce best effects with them on his canvas4 ,because of this almost self-evident fact1 artists have as a rule been very impatient when any reference has been made to the science of color in connection with color education1 believing that color is an exception to the general subjects of study to such a degree that it lies outside of all scientific investigations4 ,consequently they have not been in sympathy with the physio-psychological investigations which have been prosecuted with such promising results in other lines1 when such investigations have been proposed regarding color4 ,while it is not essential for best results in his own work that an expert artist shall know anything of the science of color1 still if he is to communicate his knowledge of art to any others except his personal pupils1 he must have some language in which to make known his ideas1 and on the same grounds if any psychological tests are to be made regarding color1 it is evident that there must be some accepted terms in which to record the results1 which has not hitherto been the case4 ,when the well known ,newton and ,brewster theory of three primary colors red1 yellow and blue1 was advocated by those scientists there appeared to be something of interest and value in it for the artists also1 because with the three pigments red1 yellow and blue1 they seemed to be able to confirm the truth of the scientific theories regarding the spectrum colors4 ,but the scientists have long been convinced that there is no truth in this theory and have quite generally accepted the ,young-,helmholtz idea of three other color perceptions red1 green and violet1 from which they claim all color vision is produced1 and which they call fundamental colors4 ,this more modern theory has seemed so far removed from the realm of the artists and the colorists that they have not been able to see anything in it of truth or value to them1 and so have continued to repeat the old1 old story of the three primaries red1 yellow and blue1 from which the secondaries orange1 green and purple are made etc41 etc41 all of which is the more pernicious when accepted as a correct theory because of its seeming approximation to the facts4 ,and yet there is not in it all any scientific truth on which to build a logical system of color education1 and some of the effects which are considered prominent arguments for the system are directly opposed to well known facts in the science of color4 ,consequently1 the artist has failed to gain from the investigations of the scientists anything to aid him in his pigmentary work1 and the scientist has not been interested in the sthetic ideas of the artists which in fact he has generally been unable to fully appreciate1 from lack of training and associations4 ,the system of color instruction here presented for primary grades is based on the results of careful study and experiment for many years in which the attempt has been made to bring the scientist and the artist on to common ground1 where they may work in sympathy with each other instead of at cross purposes as has been the case heretofore1 and the results with children have already been such as to testify fully to the efficiency of this line of work4 ,thus the feeling for color which every true artist has1 may be to a certain extent analyzed so that it can be understood by the scientist and recorded for the benefit of fellow artists one hundred or a thousand miles away and in time an aggregation of facts regarding the psychological effects of color collected which will form the beginning of a valuable fund of color knowledge to be increased from age to age4 ,the ,speculations of the ,past4 ,ever since ,newton produced the prismatic solar spectrum1 the so-called science of color as applied to pigments and coloring1 has been a most curious mixture of truth1 error and speculation4 ,it was supposed by ,newton and ,brewster that in the solar spectrum the colors were produced by the over-lapping of three sets of colored rays red1 yellow and blue4 ,the red rays at one end were supposed to overlap or mix with the yellow rays to make the orange1 and on the other side of the yellow the blue rays were supposed to combine with the yellow to produce green4 ,following the same theory in pigmentary colors1 it has been claimed that all colors in nature may be produced by the combination of pigments in these three colors red1 yellow and blue1 and hence they have been called primary colors4 ,it is still claimed by the advocates of this theory that from the three primaries red1 yellow and blue the so-called secondaries orange1 green and purple can be made1 and that the secondaries are complementary to the primaries in pairs2 the orange to the blue1 the green to the red and the purple to the yellow4 ,by similar combinations of the secondaries it is claimed that three other colors1 in themselves peculiar1 and different from the first six1 may be made1 the orange and green forming citrines1 orange and violet russets1 and green and violet olives and these are called tertiaries4 ,after having accepted this fiction as a scientific theory for so many years1 it is very difficult to convince the artists and colorists that in it all there is nothing of value to any one1 but such is practically a fact1 because from no three pigmentary effects in red1 yellow and blue can the three colors orange1 green and purple of corresponding purity be produced1 neither are the primary colors complementary to the secondaries as claimed nor are the so-called tertiaries new and distinct colors but simply gray spectrum colors4 ,because the red1 yellow and blue theory would not stand the test of scientific investigation the ,young-,helmholtz theory of three other primaries red1 green and violet1 has been quite generally adopted by the scientists of the past generation4 ,what the ,primary ,teacher ,needs to ,consider4 ,all these discussions of the scientists are intensely interesting and no doubt of great importance in the line to which they pertain1 but practically neither the artists nor the primary school teachers care for all these theories and discussions and because the scientists have closely confined themselves to these lines1 the artists and teachers have seen nothing of value to them in their theories4 ,in going to the solar spectrum for standards on which to base pigmentary standards1 we have given little attention to these various theories in their details1 but the one fact of science has received careful attention1 namely1 that all color effects in nature and art are produced by light reflected from material surfaces4 ,therefore1 inasmuch as the light reflected from any surface must be affected by both the material color of the surface and the color of the light which illuminates the surface1 it is necessary that every one having to do with this subject be informed as to what color must be expected to result from given conditions4 ,in order that this phase of the subject be discussed and thus more fully understood1 there must be a terminology or nomenclature in which to express the results produced by given conditions1 and also standards by which to analyze1 measure and record these results4 ,in selecting these standards more regard must be given to the sthetic or psychical effect of the pigmentary standards than to the purely scientific or physical properties of colored light4 ,this selection is of great interest to the physiological psychologist because it is only by the comparison and averaging of thousands of experiments made on different people that valuable theories can be formulated4 ,with standards and a nomenclature1 color will be placed on an equal footing with other subjects1 so that perceptions of color effects may be recorded and discussed with much of the definiteness with which we treat form and tone4 ,because this has not heretofore been possible1 comparatively little advance has been made during the last two decades in the sthetic consideration of material color which is the only practical phase of the subject1 and if any greater progress is to be achieved in the future it evidently must be along new lines4 ,from the nursery to the university we are constantly asking two questions1 ,what is it8 and ,why is it8 and this is what the educator from the ,kindergarten to the ,college is called upon to answer4 ,in his laboratory the psychologist is collecting physical facts by tests regarding the powers of the eye and the ear1 the sense of touch1 weight1 memory1 etc41 and these experiments when classified1 arranged and averaged1 furnish a basis for formulating theories1 all of which is called psychology4 ,in vision1 form and color play the principal parts1 in fact cover the whole ground if we include light and shade in color where it belongs4 ,experiments regarding form can be and have long been very definitely recorded but this has not been true with color4 ,to ,froebel must be given the honor of introducing logical form study into primary education1 and on this has been built the present admirable system of drawing in our higher grades of schools1 and the introduction of the standard forms in solids and surfaces has brought about a definite use of geometrical terms by young children which would have seemed very unnaturally mature a generation ago4 ,but in color no corresponding advance has been made because there have been no generally accepted standards in color to correspond to the sphere1 cube1 cylinder1 circle1 ellipse and triangle in form1 nor any means for measurements to take the place of the foot or metre for lengths and the divided circle for angles4 ,it is not expected that the children in the lowest grades will learn much of the science of color1 but it is desirable that the teachers have such knowledge of it that they will not unconsciously convey to the children erroneous impressions which must be unlearned later in life4 ,concerning the ,solar ,spectrum4 ,more than two hundred years ago ,sir ,isaac ,newton discovered that a triangular glass prism would transform a beam of sunlight into a beautiful band of color4 ,if the prism is held in a beam of sunlight which enters a moderately lighted room1 there will appear on the walls1 ceiling or floor1 here and there1 as the glass is moved1 beautiful spots in rainbow colors4 ,if the room is darkened by shutters1 and only a small beam of light is admitted through a very narrow slit and the prism properly adjusted to receive this beam of light1 a beautiful band of variegated colors may be thrown on to a white ceiling or screen1 and this effect is called a prismatic solar spectrum4 ,a perfect solar spectrum once seen under favorable conditions in a dark room is a sight never to be forgotten4 ,the accompanying illustration shows the relative positions of the parts named4 ,a is the beam of light as it enters the room4 ,b is the triangular prism4 ,the dotted lines represent groups of rays extending to the vertical band of colors indicated by the letters ,v for violet at the top1 then blue1 green1 yellow1 orange to red at the bottom4 ,the explanation of this phenomenon is that the beam of sunlight is composed of a great number of different kinds of rays1 which in passing through the prism are refracted or bent from their direct course1 and some are bent more than others1 the red least of all and the violet most4 ,it is supposed that light is propagated by waves or undulations in an extremely rare substance termed ether which is supposed to occupy all space and transparent bodies4 ,these waves are thought to be similar to sound waves in the air or the ripples on the smooth surface of a pond when a pebble is thrown into it4 ,because so many of the phenomena of light can be satisfactorily explained by this theory1 it has been very generally adopted by the scientists4 ,the amount that rays of light are refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second1 and in inverse proportion to the length of the waves4 ,the red waves are refracted the least and are the longest1 while the violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,whether this theory of the spectrum formation is absolutely correct or not1 the fact is established that the colors found in a prismatic solar spectrum are always the same under the same conditions and the order of their arrangement is never changed4 ,by means of the quality of spectrum colors called the wave length1 a given color can always be located in the spectrum1 and hence if a spectrum color is selected as a standard it can always be determined by its recorded wave length4 ,six ,spectrum ,standards of ,color4 ,therefore it seems possible to establish certain standards of color by a series of definitely located portions of the solar spectrum and in the system here presented six have been chosen1 namely red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet4 ,these six are more distinctly recognized than the others1 and from them by combination in pairs of colors adjacent in the spectrum all the other colors can be very closely imitated1 and hence these six are selected as the spectrum standards4 ,in these standards the most intense expression of each color is chosen i4e4 the reddest red1 greenest green1 etc4 which by the closest scientific investigation have been located by their wave lengths so that if they are in doubt in future they can be re-determined by individuals or if disputed1 may be corrected by any authoritatively established congress1 selected for the purpose4 ,the wave lengths of our six standards are represented by the following numbers in ten millionths of a millimeter4 ,red1 #fega2 ,orange1 #fjhe2 ,yellow1 #egic2 ,green1 #eafd2 ,blue1 #dfie2 violet1 #dbaj4 ,having thus scientifically established these unchangeable standards the attempt is made to secure the best possible pigmentary imitation of each4 ,to any one who has ever compared a piece of colored material with a good presentation of a spectrum color1 it is unnecessary to say that the result in an attempt to match the spectrum color with the material or pigmentary color is a very weak approximation1 but the one thing aimed at is to secure nearly as possible the same kind of color4 ,for example in the red1 it is the aim to obtain the same kind of red1 by which we mean the same location in the spectrum1 i4e4 a red neither more orange nor more violet than the reddest spot in the spectrum4 ,this selection must be based on a purely sthetic perception or impression of color4 ,the same is true of each of the six standard colors1 as for example1 for orange we select the location which has seemed to a large number of good judges to best represent the feeling of orange as between the quite well defined red on one hand and the equally definite narrow band of yellow on the other1 and it is quite wonderful what unanimity of opinion there is on this particular color which would naturally seem to be the one most doubtful in its location4 ,on the other side of the yellow the green seems to offer little difficulty and the pure ,paris or emerald green is very nearly the standard4 ,the violet being at the other end of the spectrum is as easily decided as the red1 but the blue between the green and violet is not so easily determined1 because1 from the best blue the hue runs so imperceptibly into the violet on one side and the green on the other4 ,pure ultramarine blue is the nearest approach to the spectrum standard of blue of any of the permanent pigments1 but even this is a trifle too violet4 ,for educational purposes papers coated with pigments afford at once the purest colors and the most economical and useful material1 and on this plan a line of colored papers has been prepared for color instruction in the kindergartens and primary schools in imitation of the above described spectrum standards4 ,from the pure spectrum standards it is possible by reflected light to combine the two standards to produce a color between them1 for example if two small mirrors are held in a spectrum one at the red and the other at the orange and the two reflected on to the same spot on a white surface1 the result is a color between the red and the orange4 ,so also if we mix red and orange pigments together we may produce colors between the two which may be termed orange-red or red-orange2 but unfortunately there is no means known by which we can measure the proportion of the red and orange color-effect which is produced by any given mixture of these two pigments1 because color-effect cannot be measured by the pint of mixed paint or the ounce of dry pigment4 ,the ,color ,wheel and ,maxwell ,disks4 ,we1 however1 have another means for measuring color effect which just in this emergency seems providential4 ,it is a fact well known to every boy that if he rapidly whirls a lighted stick the fire at the end produces the effect of a circle of light1 which phenomenon is explained by a quality of the eye called retention of vision1 by which the impression made by the point of light remains on the retina of the eye during an entire rotation4 ,it is a fact1 based on the same quality of vision1 that if one color is presented to the eye1 and instantly replaced by another the effect is a combination of the two colors4 ,therefore if one-quarter of the surface of a disk of cardboard is covered with orange paper and three-quarters with red paper1 and then the disk placed on a rapidly rotating spindle1 the color effect is a mixture of red and orange1 and the effect is exactly in proportion to the angular measurements of the two sectors1 so that if the circumference is divided into #ajj equal parts the resultant color will be definitely represented by the formula ,red1 #ge2 ,orange1 #be4 ,less than forty years ago an ,english scientist named ,j4 ,clerk ,maxwell while making experiments with such painted disks happily conceived the idea of cutting a radial slit in each of two disks from the circumference to the center so that by joining the disks they could be made to show any desired proportion of each and hence they are called ,maxwell disks4 ,with such disks made in the six pigmentary standards red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet1 the intermediate pigmentary spectrum colors may be very accurately determined by combination and rotation4 ,if we give to each of these standards a symbol as ,r4 for red1 ,o4 for orange1 ,y4 for yellow1 ,g4 for green1 ,b4 for blue1 ,v4 for violet1 we then have the basis for a definite nomenclature of colors in imitation of the pure spectrum colors4 ,as all pigmentary or material colors are modified by light and shade thus producing in high light tints and in shadow shades of the colors1 we must seek for some means of imitating these effects1 and fortunately find them in white and black disks4 ,if with a standard color disk we combine a white disk we may have a line of tints of that color1 and with a black disk1 shades4 ,giving this white disk a symbol of ,w4 and the black disk ,n4 we complete our nomenclature4 ,we cannot use ,b for black because ,b has already been used for blue1 and therefore we use ,n4 for niger1 the ,latin word for black4 ,the ,bradley ,system of ,color ,instruction4 ,briefly stated then this system of color instruction is comprised under the six general heads3 ,spectrum ,standards2 ,pigmentary ,standards based on the spectrum standards2 ,maxwell ,rotating ,disks in the pigmentary standards and ,black and ,white2 a ,color ,nomenclature based on the accepted standards and their disk combinations2 and ,colored ,papers and ,water ,colors made in accordance with these standards4 ,for spectrum standards1 six definite locations expressing the natural sthetic or psychological impressions of red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet are selected4 ,six standards are chosen instead of a larger number as for example twelve1 because for the purpose of a nomenclature the smaller number is more convenient than a greater number4 ,the six are selected rather than three1 four or five1 because while in the consideration of colored light alone the smaller number would possibly suffice to form by combinations imitations of all other colors1 any number smaller than six is entirely inadequate to form by pigmentary or disk combinations fairly good expressions of the corresponding spectrum color combinations4 ,in selecting the spectrum standards special prominence has been given to the psychological color perceptions of experts in determining those locations in the spectrum best expressing the color feeling of red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet1 while the purely scientific consideration of these several questions has not been ignored or lightly treated4 ,for pigmentary standards the best possible pigmentary imitations of the six spectrum standards are secured and to these are added the nearest approach to white and black that can be produced in pigments4 ,pigmentary standards on which to base a nomenclature are valueless without some means by which measurements of standards embraced in a given compound color can be expressed4 ,the ,maxwell color disks are the only known means by which we may measure the relative proportions of color effect embodied in a given color1 and therefore the eight color disks are the foundation of the original color nomenclature herein advocated4 ,colored papers are chosen for primary color instruction because paper is a valuable medium for simple schoolroom manual training and because no other pigmentary medium is at once so economical and affords such pure colors as may be secured in specially prepared colored papers1 without a glazed surface4 ,before leaving this part of the subject we do well to remember that in the present conditions of chemistry as applied to the preparation of pigments it is not possible to establish any absolutely definite science of such color combinations4 ,nor is it possible to establish permanent pigmentary standards without great expense1 but if the locations of the standard colors in the spectrum are established by wave lengths the pigmentary standards may be re-determined at any time and produced1 in the purest pigments available at the time4 ,in art or harmony effects1 the purity of the pigmentary standard is not so important as its hue1 i4e4 its location in the spectrum1 which may always be determined by the established wave length4 ,this last statement may be illustrated by the investigations regarding complementary harmonies4 ,scientifically one color is not considered complementary to another unless when combined in equal quantities they produce white light1 or in other words when combined by the rotation of disks each color must occupy a half circle and the result must be a neutral gray4 ,but this is not essential in considering a complementary harmony1 as harmonies in different tones and in various proportions are pleasing and as yet the proportions and tones which produce the best combinations have not been determined4 ,the entire question of harmonies or pleasing color effects is dependent on individual color perception1 and the establishment of rules and laws on these points can result only from a comparison of the opinions of many experts in various localities and at different times4 ,this cannot occur without some means for recording these opinions in generally accepted terms4 ,it is too late for any individual opinion to be accepted as authority regarding the relative values of two different harmonies in color and this will be still less possible as we become better educated in color and able to sense finer distinctions in color combinations4 ,illustration ,color ,definitions4 ,among other advantages to be gained by a logical study of the psychology of color is the establishment of more accurate color terms and definitions4 ,if experiments and discussions based on accepted standards and methods of comparisons can be carried on we may hope in time to have as definite expressions of color terms as we now have in music and literature4 ,all color terms used by artists1 naturalists1 manufacturers1 tradesmen1 milliners and the members of our households are as indefinite as one might naturally expect from the utter lack of a logical basis for the whole subject4 ,without definitions or means for intelligently naming any color1 it is not strange that the terms used in speaking of colors and color effects are so contradictory as to lose much of their force1 if perchance they retain anything of their original meaning4 ,for example1 probably most people apply the term ,,shade to any modification of a color1 either a hue1 tint or shade4 ,it is true that a concise and reasonably full dictionary of color terms must be the outcome of long experience in the logical study of the science of color and its use in our every-day lives1 and at the best only suggestions can be made at present4 ,but as there must be a beginning and some terms seem to be fairly well established1 the following incomplete list of definitions is offered1 always subject to amendment by the majority vote1 for whenever such changes indicate advance they should be welcomed4 ,ray of ,light4--,the finest supposable element of light impression in the eye4 ,beam of ,light4--,a number of rays4 ,standard ,colors4--,as used in this system of color nomenclature1 the best pigmentary imitation of each of the six spectrum colors red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet and black and white4 ,these are more specifically called ,pigmentary ,standards in distinction from spectrum standards4 ,spectrum ,standards4--,the six colors found in the solar spectrum and definitely located by their wave lengths1 as follows in the ten millionths of a millimeter4 ,red1 #fega2 ,orange1 #fjhe2 ,yellow1 #egic2 ,green1 #eafd2 ,blue1 #dfie2 ,violet1 #dbaj4 ,pigmentary ,colors4--,all colors used and produced in the arts and sciences4 ,this is in distinction from colors seen in nature1 as in flowers and the solar spectrum4 ,the term refers not only to pigments in the strictest sense but to all surfaces coated1 painted or dyed artificially4 ,pure ,colors4--,a pure or full color1 also called a saturated color1 is the most intense expression of that color without the admixture of white or black or gray4 ,all spectrum colors are pure1 while no pigmentary color is absolutely pure1 but the pigmentary color which approaches most nearly to the corresponding color in the spectrum must be selected as the pigmentary type of purity of that color4 ,for example1 the standard for green must be the best possible pigmentary imitation of the spot in the spectrum which by general consent is called green1 and so not only for the six standards but for all their combinations which produce the other colors in nature4 ,in pigmentary colors the term pure is entirely one of relative degree4 ,as processes of manufacture are improved and new chemical discoveries made1 there is good reason to believe that we shall have much more intense colors and hence much better imitations of spectrum colors than are at present possible4 ,therefore as our pigments become purer those now accepted as full colors will in time become tints or broken colors and new standards will be adopted4 ,hue4--,the hue of a given color is that color with the admixture of a smaller quantity of another color4 ,an orange hue of red is the standard red mixed with a smaller quantity of orange4 ,with the disks1 pure hues are secured only by mixing two standards adjacent in the spectrum circuit4 ,for convenience in speaking and writing about colors in this system of color instruction1 all the spectrum colors other than the six standard spectrum colors are designated as intermediate spectrum hues1 and often for convenience in speaking of them they are called simply spectrum hues4 ,to these are also added the colors between red and violet which are not in the spectrum4 ,when so used the term must be considered as purely technical in this particular relation1 because a color between the standard blue and the standard green is in the abstract no more a hue than either of these colors4 ,if two standards not adjacent in the spectrum circuit are combined the result is not a pure spectrum hue but always some broken spectrum color4 ,local ,color4--,a term applied to the natural color of an object when seen in ordinarily good daylight and at a convenient distance1 as a sheet of paper at arms length1 a tree at twice its height1 etc4 ,tint4--,any pure or full color mixed with white1 or reduced by strong sunlight4 ,in the disk combinations a spectrum color combined with white4 ,shade4--,a full color in shadow1 i4e41 with a low degree of illumination4 ,in disk combinations a spectrum color combined with a black disk produces by rotation a shade of that color4 ,in pigments the admixture of black does not usually produce as satisfactory shades of a color as may be secured with some other pigments1 and each artist has his own preferences in making shades of the various colors on his palette4 ,scale4--,a scale of color is a series of colors consisting of a pure or full color at the center and graduated by a succession of steps to a light tint on one side and a deep shade on the other4 ,tone4--,each step in a color scale is a tone of that color1 and the full color may be called the normal tone in that scale4 ,in art this word has had such a variety of meaning as to render it very convenient for ,amateur ,art ,critics1 together with such terms as breadth1 atmosphere1 quality1 values1 etc41 but in the consideration of color it should have this one definite meaning4 ,warm ,colors4--,red1 orange and yellow1 and combinations in which they predominate4 ,cool ,colors4--,usually considered to be green1 blue and violet1 and the combinations in which they predominate4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 questionable whether green and violet may properly be termed either warm or cool4 ,the term cool as applied to colors is quite indefinite1 except in a general way1 but red1 orange and yellow are universally considered as warm1 and blue and green-blue as cool4 ,neutral ,gray4--,white in shade or shadow4 ,pure black and white mixed by disk rotation4 ,black and white pigments mixed do not usually produce a neutral gray1 but rather a blue gray4 ,warm ,gray4--,a neutral gray with the admixture of a small quantity of red1 orange or yellow4 ,cool ,gray4--,a neutral gray with a small quantity of blue or green-blue4 ,green ,gray4--,a neutral gray having combined with it a small quantity of green4 ,as this color could hardly be classed with either warm or cool grays this fourth class of grays is suggested as helpful in giving definiteness to the more general color expressions4 ,broken ,colors4--,gray colors1 often improperly called broken tints4 ,for simplicity1 a tint of a color is described as the pure color mixed with white and a shade as the color mixed with black1 and the corresponding broken color is the same color mixed with both white and black or with neutral gray4 ,a tint of a color thrown into a shadow or a shade of a color in bright sunlight gives a broken color4 ,for various reasons a very large proportion of the colors in nature are broken4 ,broken colors are much easier to combine harmoniously than full colors1 or even tints and shades4 ,in disk combinations when a pure color is combined with both a white and black disk the result will be a broken color4 ,when a color is mixed with both black and white1 i4e41 with gray1 and becomes thereby a broken color1 it then belongs to a broken scale and educationally has no place in any pure scale1 i4e41 a scale in which the key tone is a pure color4 ,neither has a broken scale of a color any place in a chart of pure scales or spectrum scales4 ,neutral ,colors4--,a term often improperly applied to grays1 white1 black1 silver and gold4 ,see passive colors4 ,passive ,colors4--,a term suggested as covering black1 white1 silver1 gold and very gray colors4 ,the term neutral colors is often used in this sense but this is evidently improper if we are to confine the term neutral gray to the representation of white in shadow because as soon as a gray has any color in it1 it is no longer neutral4 ,active ,colors4--,those colors neither passive or neutral4 ,necessarily both the terms active and passive used in relation to colors must be quite indefinite4 ,complementary ,colors4--,as white light is the sum of all color if we take from white light a given color the remaining color is the complement of the given color4 ,when the eye has been fatigued by looking intently for a few seconds at a red spot on a white wall and is then slightly turned to the wall1 a faint tint of a bluish green is seen1 and this is called the accidental color of the red1 and is supposed to be identical with its complementary color4 ,if with the disks we determine a color which with a given color will produce by rotation a neutral gray1 we have the complementary color more accurately than by any other means at present known in the use of pigmentary colors4 ,harmony4--,two colors are said to be in harmony or to combine harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in juxtaposition or are used in a composition4 ,spectrum ,circuit4--,if a pigmentary imitation of the solar spectrum with the addition of violet red at the red end and red violet at the violet end be made1 and the two ends joined1 we shall have a spectrum circuit4 ,this may be in the form of a circle1 an ellipse or an oval4 ,primary ,colors4--,in the ,brewster theory red1 yellow and blue4 ,in the ,young-,helmholtz theory red1 green and violet are termed primary colors because it is supposed that from these three sensations all color perceptions are experienced4 ,in purely scientific investigations of color perceptions these last three or others which are supposed to serve the same purpose are also called fundamental colors4 ,practically every spectrum color is a primary1 because each has its own wave length4 ,secondary ,colors4--,in the ,brewster theory orange1 green and purple have been called secondary because it is claimed that they are produced by the combination of primary colors in pairs4 ,tertiary ,colors4--,a term used in the ,brewster theory to denote three classes of colors called russet1 citrine and olive1 made by mixing the secondaries in pairs4 ,these are all broken spectrum colors4 ,the orange and purple produce russet2 the orange and green form citrine2 the green and purple1 olive4 ,there seems to be no good reason for perpetuating the indefinite terms secondaries and tertiaries as applied to color4 ,values4--,this word is very freely used in discussing effects in works of art1 both in color and in black and white4 ,at present it seems to be a very difficult term to define1 and yet each artist is quite sure that he can feel it1 although few will attempt to put into words a definition satisfactory even to themselves4 ,when an engraver1 who is also an artist1 attempts to interpret nature in black and white on the metal plate or wooden block1 he endeavors to reproduce the values of the various parts of the subject before him4 ,in doing this he1 for one thing1 attempts to produce a variety of neutral grays which will express to the eye by means of black and white lines the same tones of color effect as are seen in the several parts of the subject under investigation4 ,if this were the whole problem the matter would be easily expressed by the disk nomenclature4 ,for instance1 if we are to consider a certain red object which may be represented by the standard red disk1 we place a medium sized disk of that color on the spindle1 and in front of it1 smaller disks of white and black united4 ,by rotation the white and black disks become a neutral gray at the center of the red disk4 ,if this gray is made nearly white all observers will agree that the gray is lighter than the red1 and if it is nearly black the opinion will be equally unanimous that it is darker than the red4 ,consequently there evidently must be a gray somewhere between these two extremes which a large majority of experts may agree to be equal in depth or tone to the red1 i4e41 neither lighter nor darker4 ,but the artist-engraver will insist that to him the term value expresses much more than this and that he must use different lines in the sky or distance from those which he uses in the foreground2 and some engravers will also insist that two different colors in the foreground must receive different treatment with the graver in order to express their true values4 ,we know that true values of colors are not expressed in a photograph1 as the warm colors are too dark and the blue far too light4 ,if the term value of a color is to be used as expressing something more than a neutral gray of such a tone as to seem equal to it1 then possibly this latter quality must be expressed by the word tone1 and yet this use of that word will seem to enlarge its scope beyond its present limits as it now is used to express the relations between the different localities in one scale of color1 while this new use will extend to the comparison of tones in various color scales1 including neutral grays4 ,luminosity4--,the luminosity of a color is determined by comparing it with a neutral gray4 ,when a color seems to be of the same brightness as a given neutral gray1 i4e41 not lighter nor darker1 then that gray is its measure of luminosity4 ,a noted authority says3 ,no colored object can have the luminosity of a white object reflecting practically the whole of the light impinging upon it4 ,therefore if we take absolute reflection as #ajj a fraction of #ajj will give the relative luminosity of any body4 ,luminosity is another expression of the quality above described as forming a prominent feature in the term values4 ,potentiality4--,the ability or strength of a color to affect other colors by combinations with them4 ,for example1 white has a greater potentiality than black1 yellow greater than red1 and violet the least of all the spectrum colors4 ,it is a pertinent question whether any quality is involved in this term which is not found in value1 tone and luminosity1 but it expresses a somewhat different phase of a line of color effects4 ,quality4--,this term seems to be used rather indefinitely when applied to color1 but perhaps it is not far removed from the term hue or kind of color4 ,illustration ,practical ,experiments ,illustrating the ,theory of ,color4 ,in the foregoing pages an attempt is made to explain clearly and as briefly as possible the principles on which the ,bradley system of color instruction is based1 and also to suggest a few definitions necessary to an intelligent discussion of the general subject of ,color4 ,owing to the peculiar nature of the questions involved1 demonstration by actual experiment is more convincing than the mere statement of theories can possibly be1 and therefore a few of the following pages will be devoted to the explanation of some valuable experiments1 all of which may be tried by the teacher in private1 while many of them can be shown the pupils with great advantage4 ,in this system the ,maxwell color disks are the means for color combinations and the basis for measurements1 and therefore for a color nomenclature4 ,for this reason the present chapter treats largely of the proper use of the wheel and incidentally the theory of red1 yellow and blue primaries with combinations to produce secondaries and tertiaries4 ,no teacher using the material connected with this color scheme can hope to meet with success without a knowledge of the principles on which it is based1 and in this subject as in all others1 it is essential that the teacher shall know much more of it than he or she is ever required to teach4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4 ,the ,color ,wheel4 ,for most convenient use the machine should be clamped to the front of a table and near one end1 so that the speaker using it can stand at the end of the table and operate it with the right hand4 ,fig4 #b represents the ,normal ,school ,color ,wheel showing the face of the disks as seen by the audience4 ,facility in the operation of the ,color ,wheel is rapidly acquired by practice and the exact position is easily determined by the operator after a few trials4 ,fig4 #c shows the ,primary ,school ,color ,wheel1 which has only two sizes of disks1 while the largest machine has four sizes and is much finer in construction4 ,the smaller machine does not require clamping to a table1 but may be steadied by the left hand while being operated by the right hand4 ,illustration ,the ,color ,top4 ,many of the experiments of the color wheel can be produced with a small toy called a ,color ,top1 which is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,it is composed of a thick cardboard disk forming the body of the top and a central wooden spindle on which the disk closely fits4 ,a number of colored paper disks are provided with this top so that very many of the experiments performed before a class can be repeated individually by the pupils and in this way the facts which may have been demonstrated to the class with the color wheel can be fixed in the minds of the pupils by their own experiments with the top4 ,also as a home toy in the hands of the pupils it can be of value1 not only to the children1 but to the parents as well4 ,illustration ,use of the ,disks4 ,fig4 #e shows the method of joining two ,maxwell disks and ,fig4 #f their appearance when properly joined to be placed on the rotating spindle of the color wheel4 ,in joining two or more disks for use on a color wheel or top1 care should be taken to place them in such relation to each other that when rotated the radial edges exposed on the face toward the audience will not catch the wind4 ,with small disks on the color wheel this is not important1 and if there is no whole graduated disk on the arbor behind the slitted disks there is no advantage1 but in using the larger disks it is well to put the graduated disk behind the others for this purpose1 as at best it is quite laborious to keep up speed when using several of the large disks1 even with the best possible conditions4 ,with the thin paper disks of the color top this is an important matter4 ,it will be noticed that the method of joining the disks for use on the ,color ,top is the reverse of that to be observed with the disks of the ,color ,wheel as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration ,fig4 #g shows the same two color disks placed in front of a large white disk having its edge graduated to one hundred parts1 so that the relative proportions of two or more colors to be combined can be determined accurately4 ,as the smaller disks offer so much less resistance in rotation than the larger ones they are most desirable in private experiments or before a small class1 and the largest disks of the ,normal ,school ,wheel are necessary only when more than three expressions of color are required to be shown at the same time4 ,in making experiments before an audience those persons in front should if possible be at least ten feet from the color wheel4 ,from ten to forty feet there seems to be but little difference in the color perception1 but for best tests fifteen to twenty feet is the most desirable position4 ,for private practice with the color wheel a small mirror may be placed five or six feet in front of the wheel in such position as to furnish an image of the disks to the person operating the machine4 ,owing to a slight loss of light by reflection the closest criticism may not be possible when working with a mirror in this way1 but if a plate mirror is used the results are very good and a bevel plate mirror about #g x #i inches without frame1 can usually be procured at small cost2 this method is much more satisfactory for personal experimenting than an assistant to turn the wheel4 ,these disks have heretofore been used as a curious piece of philosophical apparatus rather than because they have been supposed to have any practical value in color training1 but in establishing a color nomenclature based on six spectrum colors the disks at once assume a great value and are indispensable in a system of color instruction founded on the science of color and on the psychological perception of colors4 ,let us suppose that the two disks shown in ,fig4 #g are yellow and green1 #hj parts yellow and #bj parts green2 then by rotation we shall have a green yellow indicated by the symbol ,y4 #hj1 ,g4 #bj4 ,no argument is necessary to prove that when an exact expression of color effect is required this is better than the simple statement that it is a greenish yellow4 ,how to ,begin the ,experiments4 ,for practice it is profitable to commence with the red and orange disks combined on the spindle1 with a smaller red disk in front of them1 the smallest being preferable4 ,begin by introducing say five per cent of orange and notice that a change from the standard red at the center is visible4 ,gradually increase the orange until it seems difficult to say whether the resulting color is more like red or orange1 and then exchange the small red disk for an orange disk of the same size1 and continue adding orange in the larger disks until the difference cannot be detected between the small disk and the larger combined disks4 ,the standards may be combined in pairs1 as has been indicated with the red and orange1 to produce all the intermediate hues throughout the spectrum1 but it must be remembered that these combinations are to be made by joining in pairs1 colors adjacent in the spectrum1 red and orange1 orange and yellow1 yellow and green1 green and blue1 blue and violet4 ,we then shall have representations of all the spectrum colors1 but there are still the colors between violet and red1 known in nature and art as purples1 which must be produced by uniting the red and violet disks1 thus completing a circuit of colors containing all the pure colors in nature4 ,in nature all colors are modified by light and shade1 strong light producing tints and shadows more or less deep forming shades4 ,these effects are imitated on the color wheel by the use of a white disk combined with a disk of a standard color for tints and a black disk for shades1 and can be tested in the same order as indicated for the hues1 by combining each standard disk with a white or a black disk in varying proportions4 ,it will be noticed early in disk experiments that a very small amount of white produces a decided effect in the tone of a color while a comparatively large amount of black is necessary to produce a marked change4 ,as this is exactly the reverse of the effects of white and black pigments it is always a subject of remark4 ,in pigments these effects are imitated by the mixture of white with a color to produce tints1 and black for shades1 or more generally instead of black some dark natural pigment approaching the hue of the color1 may be preferred because a black pigment will too often impart an unexpected and undesirable hue to the color4 ,as for example1 in making shades of red some natural brown pigment is better than black1 and so various dark browns and grays are used for different colors4 ,even with the disks it is impossible to imitate purest tints of all the standard colors1 because in some of the colors1 as peculiarly in red and blue1 the rotation of the white disk seems to develop a slightly violet gray1 for which effect there has as yet been no scientific explanation4 ,this gray dulls the purity of the tint as compared with that which is found in the color under a bright illumination1 but on the whole both tints and shades as well as the hues can be better illustrated with the disks than in any other way1 and in addition1 the advantage is secured of being able to measure and record the tone by the graduated disk in the same way as the hues are measured and recorded4 ,a further advantage is secured in the use of disks in color instruction because with pigments1 the only other method by which colors can be combined1 much time must be lost not only in the mixing and applying of the colors but in the delay necessary to allow them to dry before the true results can be seen4 ,the shades of yellow as shown on the wheel will not be generally accepted without criticism1 but careful comparison with yellow paper in shadow will prove the substantial truth of the disk results4 ,this experiment may be tried as follows3 ,join two cards with a hinge of paper or cloth to form a folding screen like the covers of a book as in ,fig4 #h4 ,on the surface ,a1 paste a piece of standard yellow paper and on ,b1 a piece of yellow shade ,no4 #a4 ,hold these two surfaces toward the class in such a position that the strong light will fall on ,b1 which is the yellow shade1 and thus bring the face ,a1 which is a standard yellow1 in a position to be shaded from the light4 ,by varying the angle of the covers with each other and turning them as a whole from side to side1 a position will be secured in which the two faces will seem so nearly alike as to convince the class that this color which they may have thought to be green1 is not green1 but a color peculiar to itself1 a shade of yellow2 because the darker paper when in full light appears substantially the same as the standard yellow in the shade or shadow4 ,illustration ,in our experiments thus far with the wheel we have combined the standards in pairs to produce the colors of the spectrum between the standards1 which for convenience may be called intermediate spectrum hues1 and also have combined a white disk with each of the standards to produce tints of the standards and a black disk to make shades4 ,by combining a white disk with an orange and a yellow disk1 for example1 forming a trio of disks1 a variety of tints of orange yellow and yellow orange may be made4 ,also by the use of the black disk instead of the white a series of shades of the intermediate hues may be produced1 and thus a great variety of tints and shades of many spectrum colors shown4 ,now if the white and black disks are combined with each other the result will be a shade of white1 i4e41 a white in shadow1 which is an absolutely neutral gray4 ,as the experiments progress it will be seen that this neutral gray is a very important feature in the study of color1 and therefore it may be well at this point to make sure that the disk combinations give the true gray of a white in shadow by a test similar to the one used for the shade of yellow1 thus disarming criticism4 ,such a test may conveniently be made by covering the reverse sides of the folding covers with white on one cover and neutral gray paper ,no4 #a on the other4 ,as the neutral gray papers are made in imitation of combinations of black and white disks this experiment is as convincing as the one regarding the yellow shade4 ,this is but one of many examples of the value of disk combinations in the classification and analysis of colors4 ,in an elaborate chart of colors highly recommended for primary color instruction a dozen years ago no correct understanding of the classification of colors is shown1 the tints and shades being indicated by a very decided change of hue rather than a consistent modification of tone4 ,for example1 in the red scale the standard or normal red is vermilion1 i4e41 an orange red2 shade ,no4 #a is simply a red less orange in hue than the standard1 and shade ,no4 #b a shade of the standard red advocated in this system2 while tint ,no4 #a is a broken yellow orange and tint ,no4 #b is much more yellow and more broken than ,no4 #a4 ,similar inconsistencies occur in all the other scales1 showing that the author had no correct knowledge of the analysis of colors1 and yet this was the best and practically the only aid offered for instruction in color at that time4 ,neither were there any true standards for neutral grays and the term neutral was used in such an indefinite way as to rob it of all actual value1 until by the aid of disk combinations it came to be confined to white in shadow as closely imitated by the combinations of white and black disks4 ,illustration ,with colored papers made in imitation of the six standards and two tints and two shades of each1 six scales of colors may be produced by arranging the five different tones of each color in a row1 as in ,fig4 #i1 which represents the orange scale with tints at the left and shades at the right4 ,if1 in addition to these six scales1 we have two scales between each two of the standards1 we may have between the orange scale and the yellow scale a yellow orange scale and an orange yellow scale1 and if we thus introduce the intermediate scales between each of the other two standards1 and include the red violet and violet red1 we shall have eighteen scales of five tones each4 ,the eighteen scales as above named may be arranged as shown in ,fig4 #aj to form a chart of pure spectrum scales which is very valuable for study and comparison and especially so in the study of the theory of harmonies4 ,all these tones are called pure tones and this chart is therefore called a chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales4 ,the idea that soft1 dull1 broken colors produce best harmonies when used in combination may or may not be a universally accepted truth1 but there is a general belief that it is much easier to make acceptable combinations with broken colors than with pure spectrum colors and their tints and shades1 and therefore the temptation has been strong to select a general assortment of colors which easily harmonize because of the pleasing effect1 instead of having regard solely to the educational value of colors4 ,truth in education requires that when colors are classified as spectrum colors they shall all be the nearest approach possible to the true spectrum colors1 and in the spectrum there are no broken or impure colors4 ,therefore1 whenever the spectrum is set up as nature's standard or chart of colors and an imitation is made in pigments or papers1 great care should be used to secure the most accurate imitation possible1 but in the past this has not been the case1 because of the prevailing idea that the colors must all be possible combinations of three primaries1 and hence the orange1 green and violet have often been very broken colors4 ,while pure colors and their tints and shades may be advantageously combined with various tones of broken colors in one composition for artistic effect1 they should be definitely divided when classified for educational purposes1 and their differences clearly explained to students4 ,in a scale of tones in any color the several papers will harmonize more easily if the tints and shades are not too far removed from the standard1 but it is thought by many good judges that the educational advantage in learning to see the relationship of color in the more extreme tones is of greater importance in the elementary grades than the facility for making most pleasing combinations4 ,consequently in the ,bradley colored papers the tints are very light and the shades quite dark4 ,if1 instead of adding either a white disk or a black disk to a spectrum color1 by which we make pure tints and shades1 we add both white and black1 a line of gray colors or so-called broken colors is formed4 ,this is most beautifully shown with the disks1 and in this way a line of true broken colors is secured1 because in each case a true neutral gray has been added to the color1 which cannot be insured in the mixture of gray pigments4 ,as an example1 this may be shown with the three smaller sizes of the orange disks4 ,with the medium size of these three make the combination ,orange1 #ce2 ,white1 #aj2 ,black #ee4 ,with the larger size disks make the proportions ,orange1 #af2 ,white1 #e2 ,black1 #gi1 and with the smallest size ,orange1 #dc2 ,white1 #cc2 ,black1 #bd4 ,place these three sets of disks on the spindle at one time and you have the three tones of a broken orange scale4 ,with similar combinations applied to the six standards and one intermediate hue between each two1 there will be material for a chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales1 as shown in ,fig4 #aa1 including twelve scales of three tones each4 ,these are the most beautiful colors in art or nature when combined harmoniously4 ,because of the loss of color in broken colors it is not advisable to attempt so many different hues or so many tones of each hue as in pure colors1 for slight differences in either hues or tones are not as readily perceived4 ,in these two charts of color scales two distinct classes of colors are represented1 namely1 pure colors and broken colors4 ,the pure colors consist of the purest possible pigmentary imitations of spectrum colors1 with their tints and shades1 and the broken colors are these pure colors dulled by the admixture of neutral grays in various tones4 ,this distinction is readily recognized under proper training1 so that if a broken color is introduced into a combination of colors from a pure scale it will be readily detected1 which always occurs when the attempt is made to produce a series of spectrum scales by the combination of the three primary colors red1 yellow and blue4 ,by this method1 if logically carried out1 the orange1 green and violet are dark broken colors1 and hence to a less extent the intermediate colors also1 because each of these is a mixture of a pure color with a broken color4 ,the usual result1 however1 is that the orange made from the red and yellow seem so out of place in the warm end of the spectrum that it is modified and made much nearer the pure color1 usually1 however1 too yellow1 while the greens and violets1 which are deep and rich broken colors1 may seem more harmonious1 but are so dark as to be out of place among spectrum colors4 ,illustration ,if light broken colors are properly combined a beautiful imitation rainbow is produced1 which is more harmonious than the spectrum made from full colors4 ,a series of such colors combined in spectrum order produce a more pleasing effect when separated by a small space of white1 black1 gray1 silver or gold4 ,the reason for this may be found in the discussion of simultaneous contrasts4 ,in nature nearly all colors are broken4 ,first1 there is always more or less vapor together with other impurities in the air1 so that even in a clear day objects a few hundred feet from us are seen through a gray veil1 as it were1 and in a misty or hazy day this is very evident4 ,in the case of somewhat distant foliage the general color effect is produced by the light reflected from the aggregation of leaves1 some of which may be in bright sunlight and others in shadow1 with a mixture of brown twigs4 ,all these tints and shades of green and brown are mingled in one general effect in the eye4 ,also1 owing to the rounded forms and irregular illumination of objects1 we see very little full or local color in nature4 ,therefore the study of broken colors becomes the most fascinating branch of this whole subject1 and it also has an added interest because nearly all the colors found in tapestries1 hangings1 carpets1 ladies' dress goods1 etc41 come under this head4 ,in fact it would be hazardous for an artisan or an artist to use any full spectrum color in his work1 except in threads1 lines or dots4 ,a considerable quantity of pure standard green1 for instance1 would mar the effect of any landscape4 ,it is a very interesting diversion to analyze samples of the dress goods sold each season under the most wonderful names4 ,for example3-- ,ecru1 a color sold a few seasons ago1 is a broken orange yellow with a nomenclature ,o4 #ab1 ,y4 #ae1 ,w4 #ag1 ,n4 #ef1 while this year ,leghorn and ,furet are two of the new colors1 the former having a nomenclature of ,o4 #af1 ,y4 #ed1 ,w4 #ai1 ,n4 #aa1 and the latter ,o4 #ah1 ,y4 #ah1 ,w4 #h1 ,n4 #ef1 all of which are very beautiful broken orange yellows4 ,ashes of ,roses of past years is a broken violet red which can be analyzed as follows3 ,r4 #h-a_/b1 ,v4 #b-a_/d1 ,w4 #ae-a_/d1 ,n4 #gd4 ,anemon of this season is ,r4 #bh1 ,v4 #g1 ,w4 #e1 ,n4 #fj1 which is another broken violet red4 ,old ,rose is a broken red3 ,r4 #fe-a_/b1 ,w4 #bd-a_/b1 ,n4 #aj4 ,empire of past seasons is ,g4 #ah-a_/b1 ,b4 #aa1 ,w4 #af-a_/b1 ,n4 #ed1 while ,neptune of this season is ,g4 #ac-a_/b1 ,b4 #b-a_/b1 ,w4 #aa1 ,n4 #gc1 both being broken blue greens4 ,topia1 a beautiful brown1 is ,o4 #aj1 ,n4 #ij1 a pure shade of orange1 while ,bolide is a lighter yellow orange with a nomenclature of ,o4 #ah-a_/b1 ,y4 #b-a_/b1 ,w4 #a-a_/b1 ,n4 #gg-a_/b4 ,we might analyze ,elephant's ,breath1 ,baby ,blue1 ,nile ,green1 ,crushed ,strawberry and others common in the market1 but while the names will no doubt occur each season the colors will change with the fickle demands of the goddess of fashion and the interests of the manufacturers and dealers4 ,in writing any color nomenclature the letters should be used in the following order3 ,r4-,o4-,y4-,g4-,b4-,v4-,w4-,n41 thus always listing the standard colors before the white or black4 ,for example1 never place ,y4 before ,o4 or ,r41 and never use ,n4 before ,w4 ,if this order is strictly adhered to the habit is soon acquired and a valuable point gained4 ,it has been shown that combined white and black disks form neutral gray1 which is a white in shadow or under a low degree of illumination4 ,if to such a gray a very small amount of color is added1 as orange for example1 by the introduction of an orange disk1 this neutral gray becomes an orange gray1 but unless the amount is considerable it can not be detected as an orange1 but the gray may be termed a warm gray1 denoting that it is affected by some one of the colors near the red end of the spectrum4 ,if blue instead of orange is added to the neutral gray1 a cool gray is produced4 ,when green is added to a gray the result can not fairly be called either warm or cool1 and hence we have termed it a green gray4 ,according to this plan we have four classes of grays1 ,neutral1 ,warm1 ,cool and ,green grays4 ,as there may be many tones of each1 and many intermediate combinations from red to green1 or green to blue1 the number of grays in nature is infinite1 but these four classes with two tones of each in the papers form what may be called standards or stations from which to think of the grays1 the same as the six standards in the spectrum constitute points from which to think of pure colors4 ,a careful consideration of the foregoing pages1 accompanied with a color wheel or even a color top1 can hardly fail to give a student who will make the experiments a clear idea of the use of the disks in the system of color education in which they form such an important feature1 and therefore the old theory of three primaries1 red1 yellow and blue1 and all that it leads to can be very intelligently considered and tested by them in the experiments which follow4 ,this old theory briefly restated is as follows3 ,it is said there are in nature three primary colors1 red1 yellow and blue2 and by the mixture of these primary colors in pairs1 orange1 green and violet may be made4 ,in fact leading educators have said that in the solar spectrum1 which is nature's chart of colors1 the principal colors are red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet2 of these red1 yellow and blue are primaries from which may be made the secondaries1 orange1 green and violet4 ,all such statements as heretofore made in any popular treatment of the subject are understood to mean that in a pigmentary imitation of a spectrum the secondaries as enumerated may be produced by the mixtures of the primary pigments1 because pigmentary mixtures are the only combinations generally recognized4 ,this theory has also included the statement that the primaries are complementary to the secondaries in pairs1 and that the combination of the secondaries in pairs may produce a distinct class of colors called tertiaries4 ,it will be the aim of the following pages to demonstrate that in all this there is neither scientific or sthetic truth nor educational value4 ,the ,old ,theories ,tested by ,mixture of ,three ,pigments4 ,experiments in mixing the three pigments1 red1 yellow and blue1 to produce the secondaries1 orange1 green and violet1 have been very carefully made with interesting and instructive results4 ,all such experiments are valueless unless made with one accepted set of primaries for the three combinations1 because it is self-evident that if we select a vermilion red which is very decidedly an orange red1 and choose for our yellow one of the orange yellows1 the mixture will more nearly approach a true orange than if a standard red and standard yellow are used4 ,also in making a violet1 if we mix a carmine1 which is a violet red1 with a decidedly violet blue1 of which there are many1 the result will be a better violet than the combination of the standard red and blue4 ,so also in the mixing of blue and yellow to make green1 a greenish yellow and a greenish blue will necessarily produce better results than the standards4 ,therefore1 to test the matter fairly1 the same pigments which are used to coat the standard red1 yellow and blue papers have been combined so as to produce the best possible orange1 green and violet1 and these results when analyzed on the color wheel are as follows3-- ,the orange made by mixing standard red and yellow pigments in the best proportions is equal to ,o4 #df1 ,w4 #b1 ,n4 #eb4 ,the violet is equal to ,v4 #bj1 ,w4 #a1 ,n4 #gi1 and the nearest approach to a standard green is shown by disk analysis to be ,g4 #cg1 ,w4 #g1 ,n4 #ef1 which is better than the violet and nearly as good as the orange4 ,these experiments show that heretofore when a line of standards of six colors has been prepared from three primaries1 red1 yellow and blue1 even though the purest possible colors may have been selected for the primaries1 the secondaries have not been in the same class of colors1 and that all of them are very dark broken colors4 ,therefore1 in using educational colored papers based on such a scheme1 the pupil has received no correct impressions of the relative values of the several colors involved in pure spectrum scales1 but has been shown at the outset a mixture of pure and broken colors as standards4 ,this is not a matter of opinion regarding best harmonies1 because it is easy to demonstrate that less skill is required to combine broken colors harmoniously than pure colors1 but it is a choice between truth and error in the early education of color perception4 ,old ,theories ,tested by the ,color ,wheel or ,color ,top4 ,while it may be impossible for the reader to secure pigments exactly like the standards1 red1 yellow and blue1 used in the above experiments1 and therefore the statement here made can not be accurately verified1 any one having a color wheel or even a color top may test the same combinations by use of disks4 ,if it is true1 as claimed1 that a good standard orange can be made by mixing red and yellow1 then it should follow that when a red and yellow disk are combined and a smaller orange disk placed in front of them1 that it ought to be possible to so adjust the proportion of red to yellow that by rotation the outer ring of color will match the central orange disk4 ,a trial of this experiment will show that while the color resulting from the best possible combination of red and yellow is a kind of orange1 it is not even an approximation to the standard orange1 but is a shade of orange which may be matched by combining the smaller orange disk with a black disk in the proportion of ,o4 #de1 ,n4 #ee1 the larger disks being ,r4 #hi1 ,y4 #aa4 ,in combining red and blue disks to make a violet the result is more satisfactory1 while if we attempt to produce a green by combining the yellow and blue disks the result will be surprising1 but probably not convincing1 because the statement that yellow and blue make green has been so persistently reiterated as a fundamental axiom that people who have given the subject but little attention will feel that to doubt it is rank heresy4 ,in a text book treating of color is found the following passage3 ,green substances reflect the green1 i4e41 the blue and yellow rays of the sunlight and absorb all the others4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that in the mixture of blue and yellow light there is little or no trace of green1 as a single experiment with a color top or color wheel will readily demonstrate4 ,in response to this convincing experiment a colorist of the old school1 7and there are few others7 will doubtless say1 ,such an assertion seems to be true when applied to these rotating disks1 but we see no practical value in experiments of this kind1 because in the use of color we must depend on pigmentary combinations1 and in pigments yellow and blue do make green4 ,the author of a statement of this kind is always honest in making it1 and yet it is absolutely untrue1 because as has already been shown1 the green resulting from the mixture of yellow and blue can not be placed even approximately in the same class as the yellow and blue of which it is composed4 ,in accepting the disk combinations of standard pigmentary colors we are assuming a system of color investigation based on the combination of colored light rather than the mixture of pigments1 and to an artist who has given the subject little thought this seems quite radical1 not to say startling4 ,but1 logically1 why is it not the most natural as well as the correct basis for this work8 ,art in color must be based on the imitation of natural color effects4 ,we must first learn to see color correctly and to know what we see1 and after that it is a very simple matter to learn which pigments to combine for producing any desired result which is already clearly defined in the mind4 ,in fact the best selection of pigments must often be based on their chemical and mechanical qualities as much as on their peculiar hues4 ,all color impressions of material substances are produced by colored light reflected from a material surface to the retina of the eye1 through which by some unknown means it is conveyed to the brain4 ,when the white sunlight falls on a material substance a portion of the rays are absorbed and others are reflected to the eye1 thereby conveying impressions of color4 ,if on a surface of yellow material we throw a strong orange light through a colored glass1 some of the orange rays from the glass will mingle with the yellow rays and the two are reflected to the eye1 thereby producing an orange yellow or yellow orange effect where before it was yellow4 ,so in a summer evening landscape when there is a so-called red sunset1 everything is illuminated by an orange light and each color in the landscape is affected by the orange rays which mingle with the rays of the local color and are reflected to the eyes of the observer1 producing the effect of local colors mixed with orange4 ,in a room where the windows open on to a green lawn with many trees in close proximity to the house1 nearly all the light is reflected from green surfaces1 and hence is green light4 ,in such a case a correct painting of objects in that room would have a general green effect4 ,the afternoon light in a room on the west side of a city street may be nearly all red light1 reflected from an opposite red brick wall1 and such a room would be ill-adapted to showing fine dress goods1 because the hues of the more delicate colors would be entirely changed1 and hence would give a false impression as to the relations of the several colors in combination as seen in white or clear daylight4 ,if a piece of light blue silk is illuminated by sunlight passing through a bit of yellow glass1 no trace of green effect will be produced1 but a gray either slightly yellow or blue1 according to the relative strength of the colors in the glass and the silk4 ,this same effect would be secured if the yellow light of the setting sun illuminated the same material1 but under such conditions everything else would be similarly affected so that the effect would not be so apparent4 ,the idea that all color is derived from the three primaries1 red1 yellow and blue1 is so generally believed that our best writers among artists1 colorists and educators have repeated it for many years4 ,george ,barnard1 an ,english artist1 in a very valuable book on water color painting1 speaking of the colors of the spectrum which may be re-combined to form white light1 says that if the yellow and blue rays are combined they produce green4 ,chevreul also states in his invaluable book on color contrasts that yellow and blue threads woven into a texture1 side by side1 produce green4 ,this statement is the more remarkable because the writer was a very careful investigator and is but another evidence of the strong hold which the ,newton and ,brewster theory has had on the public mind for so many years4 ,the story is told of an artist who wished to introduce into a composition of still life a blue vase with a bit of yellow lace thrown over a portion of it1 and having been educated to believe that yellow and blue made green1 gave a green effect to the portion of the vase covered by the lace4 ,had he known that blue and yellow light combined make gray instead of green he would have avoided the error4 ,the fact that gray is the product of blue and yellow light is sometimes taken advantage of in forming backgrounds in lithographic printing1 in which a stippling of alternate dots of yellow and blue1 very close together but not overlapping1 is used to produce a beautifully transparent gray much more pleasing than any one tint of gray4 ,this result is due to the blending of the two colors in the eye with the same effect as the colors of two rotating disks are mingled4 ,the fact that there is a difference between the color effects produced by mixing two pigments and the mixing of the light reflected from similar colored surfaces is a very strong argument for a system of color instruction based on disk combinations1 rather than on pigmentary mixtures4 ,in order to obtain the most truthful effects of color in nature the artist should have sufficient knowledge of the principles which govern the combination of colors by reflected light1 so that his reason may aid his eyes4 ,a little experimenting with the rotating disks and with pigments will convince any one that the disk combinations form the only possible basis at present known for logical color instruction4 ,concerning the ,complementary ,colors4 ,having shown that the three colors1 red1 yellow and blue1 can not be combined to make an orange1 a green or a violet of a corresponding degree of purity1 we will consider the other claim which is set up by the advocates of the ,brewster theory1 namely1 that the secondaries are complementary to the primaries in pairs1 the green to the red1 the violet to the yellow and the orange to the blue4 ,as all color is contained in white light1 if we take from white light any given color1 the color remaining is the complementary4 ,if a small disk of standard red paper is placed on a white wall and the eyes fixed intently on it for a few seconds1 and then the eyes slightly moved back and forth1 a ring of a bluish green tint will be seen surrounding the red paper1 or if the eyes are fixed intently on the disk for a short time and the paper suddenly removed1 a disk of the same blue green tint will be seen in place of the red disk4 ,this is called the accidental color and is supposed to be identical with the complementary color1 although the image is too faint to give any very exact effect1 but it is sufficient to furnish a clue to the complementary1 and we may infer that a color between green and blue is that which is required4 ,now if we can determine in what proportions red1 blue and green must be united to produce white light we may solve the problem4 ,this is not possible in the use of any pigmentary colors1 because of the impurity of all pigments as compared with spectrum colors4 ,although the mixture of colored light reflected from the disks1 which are made of pigmentary colors1 gives much purer color than the actual mechanical mixture of the two pigments1 still1 because it is a reflection of pigmentary colors1 it is far lower in tone than the corresponding mixture of spectrum colors4 ,therefore it can not be a pure white1 but may be white in shade or a neutral gray1 which1 as already shown1 can be produced by the combination of a white and a black disk4 ,therefore if red1 blue and green disks of medium size are joined on the wheel and in front of them small white and black disks are combined1 we have a means for solving this problem4 ,if these various disks can be so adjusted that when rotated the effect of the three colored disks is a neutral gray1 7or white under a low degree of illumination7 exactly matching a gray that may be obtained by adjusting the small black and white disks1 then one step in the solution is taken1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration ,with such an arrangement a very close match is produced1 when the combined disks show the proportions to be ,r4 #da-a_/b1 ,b4 #bb-a_/b1 ,g4 #cf for the larger disks1 and for the small disks ,w4 #ae1 and ,n4 #he4 ,now if blue and green are combined in the same proportions1 as indicated above and in quantities sufficient when added together to fill the entire circle of #ajj parts1 blue will contain #ch4c parts and green1 #fa4g parts1 as shown in ,fig4 #ac1 and the disks when rotated will give the color which is the complementary of red3 namely1 a blue green4 ,in the same way the complementary of each of the other standard colors1 and in fact of any color1 may be obtained4 ,the complementary of orange is another color between the green and blue1 but more largely blue4 ,the complementary of green is a violet red1 and of violet a color between yellow and green1 while yellow and blue are very nearly complementary to each other4 ,these figures furnish the results in a very well-lighted room1 with a perfectly white interior4 ,it is a well-established fact that this experiment is somewhat affected by the degrees of illumination1 and also that colored light from the walls and ceiling of a room must of necessity have its effect1 but all these matters are so insignificant as to be of no material consequence in the sthetic study of the subject1 and they can be very nearly eliminated when necessary by a careful selection of conditions4 ,whenever accurate experiments in pigmentary color comparisons are to be made1 either by the use of rotating disks or otherwise1 it is desirable to have a very well-lighted room1 with a northern exposure and to select a morning or noonday light from a slightly overcast sky4 ,these conditions obviate the unpleasant effect of direct sunlight in the room and also the very slightly blue effect of the clear sky4 ,these precautions are unnecessary in experiments relating to the ordinary sthetic consideration of color combinations1 but even in such work it is important to exclude all light reflected from neighboring trees or colored buildings4 ,also the interior of the room should be as free from color as possible2 a clean white surface is especially desirable4 ,a ,chart of ,complementary ,colors1 shown in ,fig4 #ad1 has been found very valuable in fixing in the minds of teacher and pupils the complementaries of the six standards4 ,in this chart1 which is about eighteen inches in diameter1 the circles at the ends of the six diameters are colored papers selected from the ,bradley coated papers1 as approximating the true complementaries4 ,in the majority of cases they are not far from correct1 but are least satisfactory in the blue and yellow4 ,theoretically the complementary of the ideal standard blue is a slightly orange yellow1 and of the standard yellow a slightly violet blue4 ,but there is as yet no blue pigment in the market suitable for commercial use which is free from a slightly violet effect4 ,therefore the standard blue paper is practically as good a complementary for the standard yellow as the violet blue paper4 ,but notwithstanding these slight imperfections which are at present unavoidable1 the chart is a valuable aid in fixing in the mind the positions of the complementary pairs in the spectrum circuit4 ,illustration ,each of the foregoing experiments furnishes an interesting class exercise1 and may be very closely repeated by the pupils with their tops4 ,also the computation of the proportion of green and blue when raised to the full circle may form a practical problem in proportion for pupils of the higher grades4 ,taken together1 these experiments prove that the complementaries of the old primaries are not found in the secondaries4 ,the last claim of the ,brewster theory is that the secondaries by combination form three lines of colors peculiar to themselves1 called citrines1 russets and olives4 ,it is asserted that the mixture of orange and green makes citrine2 orange and violet russet2 green and violet olive4 ,although these names may be very convenient terms to express three general classes of colors1 they must of necessity be too general and indefinite to be of value for accurate expression of color effects1 and are in fact so vague that hardly two persons can be found in a large company who will agree as to the best expression of either of them4 ,the following are formulas for a number of colors in each class1 as made from analyses of colors coming under these names4 ,it is an interesting exercise to produce some of these colors by means of the rotating color disks and test the opinions of the different members of a company as to which best represents to each one of them a tertiary color1 as citrine1 for example4 ,for this purpose three different formulas may be shown at the same time1 with three sizes of disks4 ,citrines4 ,o4 #g4 ,y4 #ac4 ,w4 #c-a_/b4 ,n4 #gf-a_/b4 ,y4 #ae4 ,w4 #d4 ,n4 #ha4 ,y4 #ac4 ,w4 #e4 ,n4 #gf4 ,g4 #f4 ,o4 #f4 ,y4 #bj4 ,w4 #d4 ,n4 #gj4 ,o4 #c4 ,y4 #f4 ,w4 #h4 ,n4 #hc4 ,russets4 ,r4 #cg4 ,o4 #h4 ,w4 #h4 ,n4 #dg4 ,r4 #gi4 ,w4 #aj-a_/b4 ,n4 #aj-a_/b4 ,r4 #cc4 ,o4 #bj4 ,w4 #f4 ,n4 #da4 ,r4 #cf4 ,o4 #d4 ,w4 #i4 ,n4 #ea4 ,r4 #dg4 ,o4 #g4 ,w4 #h4 ,n4 #ch4 ,olives4 ,g4 #ai4 ,b4 #aa-a_/b4 ,w4 #aj-a_/b4 ,n4 #ei4 ,g4 #ac4 ,b4 #f4 ,w4 #ab4 ,n4 #fi4 ,g4 #ad4 ,b4 #ab4 ,w4 #h4 ,n4 #ff4 ,g4 #aj-a_/b4 ,b4 #ae4 ,w4 #h4 ,n4 #ff-a_/b4 ,g4 #ab-a_/b4 ,b4 #e-a_/b4 ,w4 #d4 ,n4 #gh4 ,the term citrine theoretically covers all possible combinations of orange and green1 but as generally understood those colors which are so near the orange or the green as to very decidedly approach either the one or the other are not included1 and1 as shown in the above analyses1 a citrine is a very broken color ranging from an orange yellow through yellow to a green yellow4 ,although the russets would theoretically range from violet to orange1 yet the general conception of russet will hardly accept a violet red1 but will cover only the red and orange reds as above indicated1 while olives are confined to blue greens and green blues4 ,these tests are based on combinations of the ,bradley standard orange1 green and violet pigments1 and therefore are far stronger in color than those colors usually termed citrine1 russet and olive1 made by mixing the pigmentary secondaries4 ,for example1 if a yellow and blue pigment are mixed to form a green1 and red and yellow pigments to make an orange1 and then this green and orange are mixed to produce a citrine1 the result will be very much darker and more broken than the mixture of the purer orange and green colors used as standards4 ,restricted to these limits these names may become very useful terms for general color expressions1 as covering three different classes of broken colors4 ,if any one believes that these color formulas do not correctly represent the three classes of colors indicated1 a series of experiments with even the small color top will prove very convincing4 ,when the subject of standards as a means for identifying colors is mentioned artists frequently express the feeling that the names of pigments are good enough for them1 such as ,ultramarine ,blue1 ,prussian ,blue1 ,vermilions1 the ,siennas1 ,indian ,red1 etc4 ,the following are the analyses of several samples of ,vermilion1 ,burnt ,sienna1 ,raw ,sienna1 and ,indian ,red of the best tube oil colors in the market3-- ,vermilion4 ,r4 #hj4 ,o4 #ad4 ,w4 #f4 ,r4 #hg4 ,o4 #h4 ,w4 #e4 ,r4 #ej4 ,o4 #bd4 ,w4 #bf4 ,burnt ,sienna4 ,r4 #a-a_/d4 ,o4 #f4 ,w4 #c4 ,n4 #hi-a_/b4 ,r4 #bb-a_/b4 ,o4 #aa-a_/b4 ,w4 #b4 ,n4 #fd4 ,r4 #be4 ,o4 #ab-a_/b4 ,w4 #e-a_/b4 ,n4 #eg4 ,raw ,sienna4 ,o4 #ah-a_/b4 ,y4 #f-a_/b4 ,n4 #ge4 ,o4 #ag4 ,y4 #ad4 ,w4 #a4 ,n4 #fh4 ,o4 #h-a_/b4 ,y4 #c-a_/b4 ,w4 #b4 ,n4 #hf4 ,indian ,red4 ,r4 #aa-a_/b4 ,o4 #g4 ,w4 #d4 ,n4 #gg-a_/b4 ,r4 #ac-a_/b4 ,o4 #ac-a_/b4 ,w4 #b-a_/b4 ,n4 #gj-a_/b4 ,a careful examination of these formulas and a reproduction and comparison of the colors on the color top will convince any one that in no case does the commercial name determine the color with a degree of accuracy sufficient for any valuable nomenclature4 ,classification of ,harmonies4 ,the theory of the harmonies of colors is a subject which awaits very careful investigation and a general discussion by artists and expert colorists4 ,such investigations must include many experiments based on common standards and uniform methods of measurements and records4 ,harmonies naturally seem to fall into a few general classes which are convenient for comparison and discussion as well as for elementary instruction1 but no one person can set himself or herself up to decide which are the best harmonies4 ,the practices and recommendations of noted artists who have appeared to be gifted with intuitive perceptions regarding color combinations have frequently included those for which there seemed to be no recognized authority1 and yet their beauty could not be questioned4 ,as the rules of grammar are but the correlation of the practices of the best scholars1 so the rules governing color combinations must be the summary of the practices and recommendations of the best artists1 if they are to be generally accepted as final1 and hence we must patiently await the growth of similarly established laws by the comparison of the opinions of critics of acknowledged ability in various departments of the world of art4 ,this has not been possible in the past and can never occur until there is a language of color through which color facts can be somewhat accurately expressed in verbal and written language1 and this language cannot exist until there is an accepted alphabet of color on which it can be based4 ,this alphabet is now in part furnished by the spectrum standards and completed by the pigmentary standards and the rotating disks made like them4 ,together they form the basis for a nomenclature by the use of which the questions involved in harmonies can be discussed and the results expressed in written language4 ,in the investigation of any subject with a view to elementary instruction1 classification is an important factor1 but one which heretofore has been almost ignored as regards color education4 ,consequently at present the more definite division of harmonies into classes is very much a matter of personal opinion1 but ,mr4 ,henry ,t4 ,bailey1 ,state ,supervisor of ,drawing in ,massachusetts1 has suggested a very useful classification in which he arranges all harmonies under these five heads3 ,contrasted1 ,dominant1 ,complementary1 ,analogous and ,perfected4 ,contrasted4--,the contrasted harmonies are those in which color is contrasted with non-color1 or more accurately in which an active color1 that is a tone from the spectrum circuit1 is contrasted with a passive color1 white1 black1 gray or silver and gold2 for example1 a blue green tint with white1 or green blue with warm gray ,no4 #a4 ,dominant4--,by dominant harmonies we mean those in which are combined different tones from one color scale4 ,for example1 red tint ,no4 #a1 and red shade ,no4 #a1 or a green blue tint1 green blue1 and a green blue shade4 ,a dominant harmony composed of grays1 or white1 gray and black1 is sometimes called a neutral harmony4 ,complementary4--,this term refers to those harmonies in which are combined opposite or complementary colors in the spectrum circuit4 ,the best of them show not only opposition in color but also opposition in tone4 ,thus1 tints of one color with shades of its complementary produce a more pleasing effect than do complementaries of equal value4 ,the best complementary harmonies contain one or more passive colors4 ,analogous4--,this name is applied to those harmonies in which are combined tones from scales of neighboring colors in the spectrum circuit4 ,for example1 in a composition of colors from that part of the spectrum containing yellow1 green yellow and yellow green the following simple combination may be made3 ,yellow tint ,no4 #a1 green yellow and yellow green shade ,no4 #b4 ,perfected4--,by perfected harmonies we mean those in which the general effect of one analogous harmony is complementary to that of another4 ,the above classification of harmonies is very valuable for fixing in the mind the various effects of color combinations1 and yet they may seem to somewhat merge into each other in their application1 until the underlying principles which govern them are understood4 ,it is unwise to suppose that because the above classification of harmonies is based on the science of color we can infer that it furnishes definite rules for producing best effects4 ,the ,work of ,chevreul ,reviewed4 ,the good or bad effect of two or more colors in combination in decorative designs or fine art depends very largely upon phenomena which are elaborately explained in a book entitled ,the principles of ,harmony and ,contrasts of ,colours by ,m4 ,chevreul4,a ,the first edition of this book was prepared in #ahce and published in #ahch4 ,the author had at that time been employed for a number of years as superintendent of the manufactory of ,gobelin ,tapestries in ,paris under the control of the ,french government4 ,a ,the ,principles of ,harmony and ,contrasts of ,colours and their ,application to the ,arts4 ,by ,m4 ,e4 ,chevreul4 ,translated from the ,french by ,charles ,martel4 ,third ,edition4 ,london4 ,george ,bell and ,sons4 #ahij4 ,in this book are described in detail the results of a great number of experiments which were instigated by complaints regarding certain colors produced in the dyeing department of the manufactory1 and which afford the most elaborate exposition of the subject ever published4 ,one of the first things which led ,chevreul to make his investigation was the complaint that certain black yarns used as shades in blue draperies were not a full black but more or less gray4 ,the author says in his preface1 ,the work ,i now publish is the result of my researches on ,simultaneous ,contrasts of ,colours2 researches which have been greatly extended since the lectures ,i gave on this subject at the institute on the #gth ,april1 #ahbh4 ,in reflecting on the relations these facts have together1 in seeking the principle of which they are the consequence1 ,i have been led to the discovery of the one which ,i have named the ,law of ,simultaneous ,contrast of ,colours4 ,the closing sentence of the preface to the first edition and dated #ahce is as follows3-- ,i beg the reader never to forget when it is asserted of the phenomena of simultaneous contrast1 that one colour placed beside another receives such a modification from it1 that this manner of speaking does not mean that two colours1 or rather the two material objects that present them to us1 have a mutual action1 either physical or chemical2 it is really only applied to the modification that takes place before us when we perceive the simultaneous impression of these two colours4 ,it was not till three years later that a publisher could be found for this book1 which is still a standard4 ,the ,english translation comprises over five hundred closely printed pages with many engraved and colored plates1 and yet1 it has been of comparatively little value in popular instruction because of the lack of a generally accepted color nomenclature or list of well defined color terms1 by which the readers might have understood and repeated for themselves the experiments described4 ,unfortunately ,chevreul was fully impressed with the ,newton-,brewster idea of three primaries1 red1 yellow and blue1 and therefore some of his deductions from his experiments seem to have been more or less influenced by the attempt to make them harmonize with this theory1 and yet the subject which he has treated so exhaustively and intelligently is one of the most important in the sthetic study and use of colors4 ,in all expressions of colors in combination with each other1 whether in nature1 fine arts or the decorative and industrial arts1 every color is affected by its surrounding colors1 a fact which is exhaustively treated in this book4 ,while with our present knowledge of the subject it does not seem that the material use of color can be reduced to an exact science1 this should not prevent us from accepting all the natural and scientific aids which have been or may be discovered toward this desirable result4 ,because of this lack of scientific knowledge in ,chevreul's time much of the worth of his experiments is lost to us1 yet there is very much of value in his work1 suggesting as it does experiments which may be tried with present standards and modern methods4 ,if the use of ,maxwell disks had been known to ,chevreul his deductions from his experiments would have been quite different in their details4 ,for example1 in accepting the proposition that there are three primaries1 red1 yellow and blue1 which may be combined in pairs to make the secondaries1 orange1 green and violet1 he states that owing to the impurities of the pigments the secondaries are not as pure as the primaries4 ,consequently he believes that this may account for many of the shortcomings which he was too observing to overlook2 but notwithstanding such an error in theory this wonderful investigator made many practical experiments and established very valuable facts regarding color contrasts4 ,the term ,simultaneous ,contrast seems rather restricted for a title covering such a range of effects1 and the author subdivides the subject into simultaneous contrasts1 successive contrasts and mixed contrasts1 which he defines as follows3-- ,simultaneous ,contrast4 ,in the ,simultaneous ,contrast of ,colors is included all the phenomena of modification which differently colored objects appear to undergo in their physical composition and in the height of tone of their respective colors1 when seen simultaneously4 ,successive ,contrast4 ,the ,successive ,contrast of ,colors includes all the phenomena which are observed when the eyes1 having looked at one or more colored objects for a certain length of time1 perceive1 upon turning them away1 images of these objects having a color complementary to that which belongs to each of them4 ,mixed ,contrast4 ,the distinction of ,simultaneous and ,successive ,contrast renders it easy to comprehend a phenomenon which we may call the mixed contrast2 because it results from the fact that the eye1 having seen for a time a certain color1 acquires an aptitude to see for another period the complementary of that color1 and also a new color1 presented to it by an exterior object2 the sensation then perceived is that which results from this new color and the complementary of the first4 ,these last two effects may be shown very clearly in simple experiments4 ,there are various phenomena which may be classed as successive contrasts sometimes called after images4 ,the phenomena which ,chevreul groups under the term ,simultaneous ,contrast of ,colors belong to a class of physio-psychological effects termed after images1 and more definitely to the subdivision called negative images4 ,the positive after images are not important in the consideration of the theories of color and therefore are not described here4 ,the specific effect most directly involved in the subject of harmonies may be observed if the eyes are fixed upon a small disk of red paper on a white wall for a few seconds and then the paper is suddenly removed1 as there will appear on the wall in place of the full red disk a faint tint of a blue green4 ,this is called an after image1 and is nearly or exactly a tint of the color complementary to red4 ,for making this experiment mount a circle of red paper1 say three inches in diameter on a square white card1 four or five inches across1 and grasping the card by one corner hold it in front of a white wall or a sheet of white paper pinned on any support4 ,tell the observer to look intently at the red disk for a half minute1 and then without giving any notice suddenly remove it and ask what color is seen in place of it4 ,at the first trial the result may not be entirely successful1 because the eyes of the observer may naturally follow the red spot when it is removed instead of remaining fixed in the original position1 but a second trial will bring the expected result4 ,to illustrate mixed contrast1 fasten on the wall a piece of red tint ,no4 #b paper four or five inches square4 ,this may be very conveniently done by using a bit of beeswax on each corner of the paper1 which will not soil the wall4 ,then having the three-inch circle of standard red paper mounted on a white card somewhat larger than five inches square hold the card in front of the red tint on the wall and repeat the experiment as before4 ,the effect now should be a three-inch disk of very light gray in the center of the pink square1 which is a mixed contrast according to ,chevreul4 ,the reason is simple4 ,the after-image or successive contrast of light blue-green is projected on the red tint and being complementary the resulting effect is a gray4 ,if the red tint could be exactly graded to the complementary effect in the eye the resulting gray circle would be a true neutral gray4 ,another illustration of the same physical effect by which the complementary is induced may be shown by substituting for the tint of red a light tint of the blue-green paper retaining the full red disk as before4 ,the same blue-green after image is now projected on to the light blue-green paper and hence a circle of more intense blue-green is produced4 ,thus it is seen that ,chevreul's successive and mixed contrasts are both due to the same physiological effect1 the only difference being in the ground on to which the after image is projected4 ,it probably is unnecessary to state that these experiments may be made with any color and its complementary and that red and blue-green are used here merely as an example4 ,another phase of the same physical effect is seen under other conditions which may at first seem to be quite different from those described1 but which on examination appear somewhat similar4 ,it is a well established fact that when two surfaces approximating each other in color1 as red and orange for example1 are placed side by side1 both are rendered less brilliant1 an effect which might be reasonably expected because in order to see both the eye is naturally directed first to one and then to the other1 and in each case the after image induced is a green-blue or blue-green1 which being approximately complementary to both1 dulls both4 ,or in other words1 it is as though one examines for a long time a line of goods of similar colors so that the eye becomes fatigued and the color dulled4 ,it is said that a good salesman of colored materials will endeavor to occasionally attract a customer's attention for a few moments to some other colors approximating a complementary1 so that when the attention is again directed to the goods under consideration the full effect of the color may be secured4 ,if it is true that the phenomenon of the after image is the cause of the peculiar effects expressed by the terms simultaneous1 successive and mixed contrasts1 and that by these effects all harmonies in color are governed1 it is certainly profitable to understand them while using color material with the children1 for their good as well as our own pleasure4 ,contrasted ,harmony4 ,returning to our classification of harmonies1 already stated1 we find the first to be ,contrasted ,harmony1 which covers those combinations in which a positive color1 as a spectrum color for example1 is combined with white1 black or gray1 leaving out for the present silver and gold1 which may be confusing1 and can at best be used only as outlines4 ,the simplest combinations of colors are found in this class1 all of which are not equally harmonious1 and some may not perhaps be entitled to be classed as harmonies1 although not positively inharmonious4 ,in this class1 as in all others1 there is involved contrast of tone and contrast of color1 which may best be considered in several divisions4 ,color with ,white4 ,according to the results of ,chevreul's elaborate experiments the effect of a combination of an active color with white is to render the color more brilliant and to give to the white the effect of the complementary of the active color4 ,he admits that the modification of white is very indefinite1 but claims that1 knowing what to expect1 a complementary effect may be seen which otherwise would not be noticed4 ,there is also a contrast of tone which in all cases tends to strengthen a color when used with white4 ,black with ,white4 ,white and black are both intensified by combination with each other1 and this is the type of contrast of tone4 ,contrast of tone is very clearly shown when two or more grays of different tones are placed contiguous to each other4 ,this experiment is easily tried by mounting side by side several strips of gray papers of different tones4 ,if more than two are used they should be arranged in order from lightest to darkest4 ,in this case each band will appear to be graded in tone from one edge to the other1 each being lighter at the edge next to the darker paper4 ,this effect is plainly shown on the color wheel by producing several rings of grays with white and black disks of several sizes graduated from light at the center to darker at the circumference4 ,color with ,black4 ,in consequence of this law of contrast of tone the contrast of black with active colors generally tends to intensify the black and lower the tone of the color1 i4e41 to weaken it as though white or light gray was mixed with it1 but this effect is modified by contrast of color4 ,contrast of color is perceptible in black when combined with color simply because the black is not perfectly black but a very dark gray1 and hence there is the same complementary effect which shows in white and the lighter grays1 but in a smaller degree4 ,this effect is most clearly seen when the color used in combination is blue or blue-green1 which induces in the black1 yellow or red complementaries and gives the black a rusty appearance4 ,on the other hand1 for example1 red with black adds the complementary green-blue to the black1 which improves it4 ,the orange and yellow have a similar effect by their blue complementaries to relieve the black from any rusty appearance and a green yellow induces a violet effect in the black4 ,colors with ,gray4 ,when a color is contrasted with white the light from the pure white surface is so intense as to very largely obscure the complementary effect on the white1 while on the other hand the feeble light from the black is not favorable for the exhibition of a complementary4 ,so it might naturally be inferred that some tone between the white and black would be much more favorable than either for the observance of this effect1 which is proved by experiment to be the case4 ,this fact is illustrated in the familiar experiment of placing a white tissue paper over black letters on a colored ground1 by which the black is practically rendered a neutral gray and the color a light broken color1 and in appearance the gray letters receive a color complementary to the color of the page on which they are printed4 ,each color has its own tone of gray most susceptible to this complementary effect4 ,the truth of this proposition can be perfectly shown on the color wheel by forming with three different sizes of disks a gray ring on a colored surface4 ,for example1 select small disks of orange and white of equal size1 then a black and a white disk of the second size and an orange and a white disk of the third size4 ,first place the large orange and white disks on the spindle1 then join the two medium-sized white and black disks and put them in front of it1 and lastly add the small orange and white disks4 ,by rotation the result is the required neutral gray ring on a light orange surface4 ,by the joining of the white disk with each of the orange disks the orange surface may be changed to a variety of tints for trial with the different grays which may be made from the black and white disks1 so that the best tones of both orange and gray may be secured4 ,when the best proportions are obtained the effect will be surprising1 because when such disks are properly adjusted the complementary effect is so strong in the gray that it appears as a very definite color1 a broken green-blue4 ,it is said that the tone of gray should have the same relation to the tone of the color that its complementary would have in order to get best results4 ,for the same reason if a circle of lightest neutral gray paper1 say four inches in diameter1 is placed on a piece of yellow paper about six inches square1 and another circle just like it is put on a piece of blue paper of similar size1 it will be quite difficult to convince any one who has not previously seen the experiment that both gray circles are from the same sheet of paper4 ,the results observed in this experiment are produced by a contrast of tone which causes one to look lighter than the other1 and a contrast of hue which gives one a blue and to the other a yellow hue1 in contrast to the color on which it is mounted4 ,contrast of ,colors4 ,if two colors contiguous in the spectrum circuit are placed in juxtaposition the effect of the contrast of hue is to throw them away from each other4 ,for example1 if orange red and the red orange papers are put side by side the former will seem more red and the latter more orange4 ,therefore1 when colored papers are pasted up or laid in order to form a spectrum1 for example1 the colors not only fail to blend together but each line of contact is very disagreeably prominent4 ,if two colors are separated by a narrow strip of light gray1 gold1 black or white1 the effect is greatly improved4 ,for this reason a design in analogous colors is often improved by separating certain colors by a fine line of black1 gold or gray4 ,if two colors not closely related to each other in the spectrum circuit are placed in juxtaposition1 each is modified by an effect which is the complementary of the other4 ,for example1 if red and yellow are placed side by side1 in contact1 the red is rendered more violet by the added effect of blue1 which is the complementary of yellow1 and the yellow is modified by the blue-green complementary of the red1 which tends to dull the yellow and change it slightly toward green4 ,if blue and yellow are joined both are improved1 as the two are so nearly complementary to each other that each is intensified by simultaneous contrast1 blue being added to blue and yellow to yellow4 ,dominant ,harmonies4 ,in the use of colored papers those combinations classified as dominant harmonies are the most simple to make because they are all in one family1 as the little children like to consider the relationship4 ,the red family consists of the standard red and its tints and shades1 or in other words the red scale4 ,with the several papers ready made this harmony becomes very simple1 but in the use of pigments the production of a true color scale is not a thing to be confidently undertaken by a novice4 ,in a very elaborate color chart for ,primary education prepared with great care by ,dr4 ,hugo ,magnus and ,prof4 ,b4 ,joy ,jeffries1 and published at large expense about ten years ago with hand-painted samples in oil colors1 this lack of classification of hues is very noticeable1 although at that time it was by far the best publication of the kind and was not criticised on this point4 ,for example in a scale of five tones of red the following are the analyses1 beginning at the lightest tint3-- ,tint ,no4 #b1 ,o4#de1 ,y4#bj1 ,w4#ah1 ,n4#ag4 ,tint ,no4 #a1 ,o4#fi1 ,y4#c1 ,w4#g1 ,n4#ba4 ,standard1 ,r4#ge1 ,o4#be4 ,shade ,no4 #a1 ,r4#he1 ,o4#ae4 ,shade ,no4 #b1 ,r4#ge1 ,n4#be4 ,in this scale according to the ,bradley nomenclature the standard or full color is a very fine vermilion expressed by ,r4#ge1 ,o4#be1 i4e4 an orange red1 and therefore in order to form a perfect scale both tints and shades should be in the orange reds1 but in fact the tints are both broken colors1 the lightest a very broken yellow-orange and the deeper tint very nearly a light broken orange4 ,the lightest shade is a pure orange-red but with a larger proportion of red to the orange than the standard1 while the darkest tone is a pure shade of red4 ,thus in the five tones we have the following arrangement1 beginning at the lightest tint3-- ,broken yellow-orange1 broken orange1 orange-red2 another pure orange-red but more red1 and lastly red shade1 thus embracing in one orange-red scale parts of four scales from yellow-orange to red4 ,in these defects in the best chart of its kind in the market only ten years ago is seen the best possible evidence of the advance made since that time in color perception1 largely due to the use of the color disks in determining scales4 ,while in the use of colored papers the dominant harmony may be the simplest and the one in which there is least danger of really bad work1 some of the combinations are much better than others1 and superiority is perhaps secured as much by the relative quantities of each tone used in a composition as in the selecting of the tones4 ,in the entire range of the spectrum even this class of harmonies involves problems too complex to be solved by a few rules1 but it is a very interesting field in which the children may safely be allowed to roam and experiment4 ,complementary ,harmonies4 ,complementary ,harmonies may perhaps be classified next to dominant because they are more easily described and more definitely limited than those effects termed ,analogous ,harmonies4 ,a pure ,complementary ,harmony consists of the combination of tones from two scales which are complementary to each other4 ,for example1 the red scale is complementary to the blue-green scale1 as also the green to the violet-red1 and so on throughout the entire range of the spectrum scales4 ,as explained on ,page #ej1 the complementary of any color can be determined by means of the color wheel1 or nearly enough for sthetic purposes with the color top4 ,but even though the colors complementary to each other may be determined scientifically there will always remain ample opportunity for the exhibition of color sense and artistic feeling in the choice of colors because the difference between a very beautiful composition in complementary harmony and an indifferently good one may be found in the choice of tones1 or in the proportions of each and their arrangement with relation to each other4 ,this harmony certainly contains great possibilities with comparatively few limitations4 ,while it is perhaps approximately true that complementaries are harmonious in combination1 yet best authorities do not seem to fully sustain this opinion and it is quite evident that pure tones of some complementary pairs when combined are very hard in their effects1 if not positively unpleasant4 ,this can be relieved very decidedly and oftentimes very pleasing results secured by modifying the colors to tints and shades or various broken tones4 ,but as has before been stated1 and must be constantly reiterated1 all fine questions of harmonies can only be determined by a general agreement of experts in color based on accepted standards4 ,analogous ,harmonies may seem to be more closely related to the dominant than the complementary and hence1 logically1 should perhaps be considered before the complementary1 but there may be greater difficulties involved in the analogous than in the complementary because they are not so definitely limited4 ,analogous ,harmonies4 ,in an ,analogous ,harmony we may use tones from a number of scales more or less closely related in the spectrum circuit4 ,in some parts of the spectrum it is possible to include a much wider range than in others4 ,it is comparatively easy to produce safe compositions through that part bounded by the orange-yellow and the green scales1 while from the green to the violet experiments are much less safe4 ,in almost any section of the spectrum a range of three scales is safe if the tones are properly selected and proportioned1 and in some sections as many as five or six may possibly be included1 by an artist1 with striking and pleasing effect4 ,perfected ,harmonies4 ,the compositions which have been classified as ,perfected ,harmonies may be defined as the combination of two ,analogous ,harmonies which as a whole are approximately complementary to each other1 or in which the key tones of the ,analogous ,harmonies are complementary to each other4 ,such compositions may be entirely composed of analogous colors with the addition of but one complementary color1 and this is in fact a very safe harmony1 especially if that one color is used as a border line or an outline here and there in the design1 in which case it may sometimes be strong in color and tone4 ,the chart of spectrum scales as made from colored papers cut in squares is of great value in explaining the classification of harmonies4 ,fig4 #ae is a reduced copy of the chart of pure spectrum scales shown on page #da1 and which is here placed horizontally for convenience4 ,illustration ,the black zig-zag lines are designed as graphic illustrations of the various classes of harmonies4 ,contrasted ,harmonies as defined are limited to designs in one active color mounted on a background of one of the passive colors and thus need no further explanation1 although experience will prove that some combinations are very much more pleasing than others4 ,the ,dominant ,harmonies which are defined as combinations of tones from one scale cannot be made more clear by a diagram1 which would be simply a straight vertical line through any one of the eighteen scales1 indicating that the five tones in that scale or any selection from them may be used in a ,dominant ,harmony4 ,the ,analogous ,harmony has given students the most trouble and the diagram is principally prepared to illustrate the great variety in harmonies of this class4 ,commencing at the left1 the first line indicates a harmony in three scales beginning with red-violet shade ,no4 #b and passing to shade ,no4 #a1 then to standard violet and thence to blue-violet tints ,no4 #a and ,no4 #b4 ,the next is in two scales1 beginning at violet-blue shade ,no4 #b1 thence to blue shade ,no4 #a2 back to normal violet-blue2 again into the blue scale at tint ,no4 #a and back to violet-blue tint ,no4 #b4 ,the next begins at green-blue shade ,no4 #b and ends in green tint ,no4 #b4 ,theoretically the line beginning in ,g4 ,b4 ,s4 #b4 and leading to ,g4 ,t4 #a4 and thence to ,y4 ,s4 #b4 may represent an ,analogous ,harmony1 but it may be doubtful whether a range of such an extent in that part of the spectrum could be made very harmonious4 ,this may be divided into two harmonies at ,g4 ,t4 #a4 and each part may be extended to ,g4 ,t4 #b4 ,the straight line from ,g4 ,s4 #b4 to ,o4 ,y4 ,t4 #b41 embracing five scales1 might be extended to include the joining broken line running into the ,y4 ,o4 scale and finishing at ,o4 ,y4 ,s4 #b4 ,the remaining lines at the red end of the chart may be considered as indicating one harmony in six tones1 or two harmonies in three tones each4 ,if the two ends of the ,chart of ,spectrum ,scales are joined so as to form an endless band or a cylinder1 bringing the violet-red scale adjoining the red-violet1 as in the spectrum circuit1 the same graphic illustration could be given of harmonies extending from violet to red4 ,the complementary harmonies require no diagrams1 because they are limited to the combination of two scales complementary to each other and would be represented by two parallel vertical lines through any two complementary colors1 as for example vertical lines through the red and green-blue scales4 ,the compositions termed ,perfected ,harmonies may be fairly well illustrated in the diagram by the combination of the line in ,v4 ,b4 and ,b4 with the broken line commencing in ,g4 ,y4 ,s4 #b4 and ending in ,g4 ,y4 ,t4 #b42 or again by the line in ,r4 ,v4 to ,b4 ,v4 combined with the straight line from ,g4 ,t4 #a4 to ,y4 ,s4 #b42 or the broken line ,g4 to ,y4 ,s4 #b4 ,or again1 the entire range of the double combination ,o4 ,s4 #b41 ,o4 ,r4 ,t4 #b41 ,v4 ,r4 and ,o4 ,r4 ,s4 #b4 with the broken line from ,g4 ,b4 ,s4 #b4 to ,g4 ,t4 #b4 ,another sample of ,perfected ,harmony is found in the union of line ,o4 ,r4 ,s4 #b41 ,v4 ,r41 ,o4 ,r4 ,t4 #b41 with line ,g4 ,b4 ,s4 #b4 to ,g4 ,t4 #b4 ,these diagrams are designed to show the range or extent which a single composition may cover under its special definition and do not imply a necessity for using at one time all the colors through which the line passes1 or that they are specially good harmonies4 ,a striking illustration in nature of a ,perfected ,harmony was seen one bright autumn morning in a species of woodbine covering the side of a red brick building1 in which could be discovered an infinite variety of colors in greens and violet-reds whose tones were increased in number and intensified in effect by the reflections of the sunlight and the corresponding shadows1 producing very light tints and very dark shades of various hues of the complementary colors1 and forming a complicated and wonderfully beautiful effect very definitely classified as a ,perfected ,harmony4 ,field's ,chromatic ,equivalents4 ,so much has been said and written about ,field's ,equivalents that there is a very general impression among artists and others that they constitute an important element in harmonious compositions of color4 ,this proposition as given in ,owen ,jones' ,grammar of ,ornament is as follows3-- ,the primaries of equal intensities will harmonize or neutralize each other1 in the proportions of #c yellow1 #e red and #h blue--integrally as #af4 ,the secondaries in the proportions of #h orange1 #ac purple1 #aa green--integrally as #cb4 ,the tertiaries1 citrine 7compound of orange and green71 #ai2 russet 7orange and purple71 #ba2 olive 7green and purple71 #bd--;integrally as #fd4 ,in commenting on this in ,the ,theory of ,color ,dr4 ,von ,bezold says3 ,it is often maintained that the individual colors in a colored ornament should be so chosen1 both as regards hues and the areas assigned to them1 that the resulting mixture1 as well as the total impression produced when such ornaments are looked at from a considerable distance1 should be a neutral gray4 ,starting from this idea1 the attempt has been made to fix the proportional size of the areas1 which would have to be assigned to the various colors usually employed in the arts1 for the purpose of arriving at the result indicated4 ,this idea was especially elaborated by ,field1 an ,englishman1 who gave the name of 'chromatic equivalents' to the numbers of the proportions obtained1 a designation which has since been very generally adopted4 ,in reality1 however1 these 'chromatic equivalents' have no value whatever4 ,the same writer also says3 ,it will always remain incomprehensible that even a man like ,owen ,jones in the text accompanying his beautiful ,grammar of ,ornament should have adopted this proposition in the form given to it by ,field1 since among all the ornaments reproduced in the work just mentioned there are scarcely any which will really show the distribution of colors demanded by the proposition in question4,b ,b ,the ,theory of ,color in its relation to ,art and ,art ,industry4 ,by ,dr4 ,william ,von ,bezold4 ,translated from the ,german by ,s4 ,k4 ,koehler with introduction and notes by ,edward ,c4 ,pickering4 ,boston2 ,l4 ,prang ,company1 #ahgf4 ,in accordance with this eminent authority any one familiar with disk combinations will know by experiment that no combinations of red1 yellow and blue approaching the proportion named by ,field can produce a neutral gray effect in the eye4 ,colored ,papers4 ,for practical study of color some economic material is absolutely necessary and nothing so well combines manual work with sthetic cultivation as colored papers1 if specially prepared in standard colors and with a dead plated surface4 ,in the manufacture of the colored papers adopted in the ,bradley scheme of color instruction1 the effort has constantly been to produce the closest possible imitations of natural colors consistent with the material4 ,with this aim in view we have secured the brightest possible red1 orange1 yellow1 green and blue and have chosen a violet which has the same relation to the other pigmentary colors that the soft beauty of the spectrum violet bears to the other parts of the spectrum4 ,it however happens that in the pure aniline colors discovered in recent years a line of purples and violets has been found so much purer than the other pigments that we cannot with our red and violet make a perfect imitation of the brightest aniline purples used in some of the goods now in the market4 ,purple is a general name for the several modifications of violet1 red-violet and violet-red as ,peacock ,blue is a name given to the beautiful hues of blue-green and green-blue4 ,these aniline purples are but another indication that we may expect such advance in the science of pigment manufacture in the comparatively near future that a much purer line of standards may be secured than is now possible in papers4 ,but it does not materially affect the value of the present standards as long as they are accepted as indicating the kind of color1 i4e41 its location in the spectrum1 and the artists certainly should not object to this lack of purity1 because their only present criticism is that the standards are too raw1 which is but another term for pure4 ,in the glazed colored papers in the market we may find some of these purples1 especially in the tints or pinks which when placed beside the unglazed surfaces of the standard papers render the latter quite subdued4 ,but in primary color education there is no place for these purest purple papers1 until chemistry discovers other colors correspondingly brilliant to complete a purer chart of spectrum colors than is now possible4 ,illustration ,color ,teaching in ,the ,schoolroom4 ,in the preceding sections of this book the author has aimed to so guide the teacher who is looking for aids in elementary color teaching that she can by actual experiment determine for herself the truths regarding color1 and hence be able to choose such facts as are suited to the needs of her pupils from time to time1 and to present them in such a logical order as to render them of the greatest value in practical results4 ,it should be possible to interest the children in color more easily than in any other subject4 ,examples are always around them at home1 in the street1 in the garden and the field1 if perchance they are fortunate enough to see the field1 and those who see no attractive colors elsewhere certainly should find them in the schoolroom4 ,to a teacher who is in love with the subject the world will be full of examples1 every day4 ,the beautiful yellows and greens of the spring leaves1 the flowers1 birds and butterflies of the summer1 the autumn foliage1 the sunsets and blue and purple mountains of winter1 are but hints of the multitude of object lessons in color all around us2 and if none of these are available the more commonplace subjects found in the latest seasonable colors of dress goods and house furnishings will be almost equally valuable4 ,when the children are once interested they will discover1 through their own observation1 examples of such value as to surprise one who has had experience with only the old methods of trying to teach color1 or rather the utter lack of all methods heretofore in vogue4 ,the value of kindergarten training has been so thoroughly demonstrated as to be beyond controversy1 and all progressive school boards must soon recognize the necessity of adopting kindergarten methods in the lower primary grades1 until such time as it may be possible to introduce the complete kindergarten for all the children1 to precede the school proper4 ,the conditions prevailing in the kindergarten are peculiarly favorable to the study of color1 because of the opportunities afforded for introducing it in connection with the manual exercises of the gifts and occupations4 ,the first gift of the kindergarten1 as originally introduced by ,froebel1 consists of six soft worsted balls in six colors1 which he seems to have selected as standards without care or knowledge regarding the theory of three primaries and three secondaries1 although no doubt he may have indifferently accepted it1 because it was the only one in his day suggesting any logical scheme of color combinations4 ,the use of colored papers educationally in a systematic way originated in the kindergarten1 and comprised folding1 cutting1 pasting and weaving1 from which some color instruction was incidentally derived by the children4 ,but with the papers formerly in the market little special training in the selecting1 matching and naming of colors1 such as is of so great value at the present time1 was possible4 ,the call for better colors in papers came first from the kindergartners1 and the diversity of ideas expressed by them caused the writer to institute a series of investigations which have resulted in the system to which this book is devoted4 ,the occupations of paper folding1 cutting and pasting have been adopted into the primary school from the kindergarten1 and there is no question but the occupation of paper mat weaving as practiced in the kindergarten should also be introduced in the lowest primary grades for those who have not had kindergarten training1 because of its value in simple manual work and in designing symmetrical patterns and harmonious color combinations4 ,by general consent colored papers have been chosen as the most available material for this work1 because while relatively cheap1 the purest colors possible in pigments are secured1 and the material is adapted to the most elementary manual training and education in form as well as color4 ,it is not the author's aim to here provide a definite course of lessons to be given in a perfunctory way or in a fixed order1 but rather to furnish suggestions based on practical work in the schoolroom that may be of value to those who have carefully examined the preceding pages of this book and become familiar with the experiments described4 ,the suggestions are based on the experience of teachers who have been using the system here advocated for several years and testing it in various ways1 and therefore it is hoped that they may be of value to any earnest worker who is not fully satisfied with her efforts in teaching color up to date4 ,consequently a brief outline of work is suggested for the earliest years1 according to a definite order1 and then further suggestions and experiments are introduced1 somewhat in the order in which they may naturally present themselves4 ,the time has passed when it is necessary to offer any argument for the study of color in the schoolroom4 ,every child begins his school life with many color impressions which he has been acquiring since the day when his baby fingers first stretched toward some bit of color1 and his development demands a clear presentation to him during the earliest school years of the fundamental facts concerning color upon which all later work must be based4 ,the ,glass ,prism4 ,a glass prism is one of the first requisites in the appliances for teaching color1 and a prism which may be bought for a few cents will work wonders in the hands of an interested teacher1 although a more perfect instrument1 such as is sold with physical apparatus1 will give colors which are better defined4 ,experience in many schoolrooms has proved that a spectrum can be shown somewhere in the average room at some hour in every sunny day1 especially in the longer days of spring and summer1 and it is well to have the prism when not in use so fixed as to project the spectrum into the room much of the time1 so that it may become familiar to the younger children4 ,observation of the spectrum enthuses the children with a feeling for color which can be developed in no other way1 and they never tire with watching the wonderful vibrating effects of the liquid colors2 and by studying it the mental image of each of the six colors becomes as distinct as that of the cube after it has been handled and modeled4 ,if the schoolroom is provided with shutters or dark curtains a much better spectrum can be produced by closing them1 as even a slight change from a bright sunny daylight has a very perceptible effect in bringing out the colors4 ,a person who has never seen a carefully prepared spectrum in a room almost perfectly dark can have no realizing sense of the purest possible expressions of color4 ,accident once disclosed a simple means by which one teacher secured a very good spectrum4 ,there was a deep1 dark closet opening from the schoolroom and one bright day when the prism was being used the spectrum was accidentally thrown into this closet1 and the sudden and enthusiastic expression of approval by those pupils who were in position to discover it was certainly interesting to the teacher of that country school1 with a dark coal closet4 ,in a spectrum such as can be produced in a dark room with the most perfect form of prism1 all the various colors can be separated and carefully examined and by special appliances compared with pigmentary colors4 ,experiments of this kind are exceedingly interesting and instructive1 and demonstrate the wonderful intensity and purity of the spectrum colors as compared with the purest pigmentary colors that can be produced4 ,such experiments were carried to a great degree of perfection when the six standard colors for the ,bradley ,colored ,papers were selected4 ,how the ,bradley ,color ,standards ,were ,chosen4 ,after many months of labor in securing samples of material colors1 and many days spent with the spectrum1 a committee of artists1 scientists1 teachers1 and artizans unanimously decided that sthetically and psychologically the colors adopted were the best possible material expression of the six localities in the spectrum corresponding to the feeling or psychological perception of red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet4 ,many subsequent experiments have apparently proved that practically the same six colors best serve the purpose of primaries from which to make all others by combination4 ,in accordance with these selections the educational colored papers have been made1 and since that time an expert scientist has accurately located each of these colors in the spectrum by its wave length4 ,consequently after the children have come to know the six colors in the sun spectrum the six standard colors of the papers may be shown as the best imitations possible4 ,in studying the six colors from the spectrum in a schoolroom it frequently happens that one color may be best seen on the floor1 another on the wall or even the blackboard1 and another on the ceiling1 and after the order of the colors in the whole spectrum has been observed1 it is well to get each color where it can be best secured4 ,paper ,color ,tablets4 ,when the spectrum has been studied so that the children have some idea of the six colors and their location relative to each other1 give each of the children a package of the colored paper tablets1 one inch by two inches1 containing the eighteen normal spectrum colors1 i4e41 those in the central vertical column in the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,page #da1 and tell them to select from the eighteen the six which they have seen in the spectrum and which may be named to them as red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet4,c ,c ,tablets of paper instead of cardboard are recommended because in primary instruction the standards or types of color presented to the child ought to be the purest possible expressions of the colors represented1 and a piece of color material cannot meet this requirement after having been used one year by a child4 ,the necessary expense of cardboard tablets practically precludes a new supply each year4 ,but the papers can finally be used to form1 by pasting1 some chart or combination which the pupil may be allowed to own as a sample of his work4 ,if a sheet of neutral gray cardboard can be secured for use on each desk all early color work will be more valuable1 because of the undesirable effect of the usual yellow or orange color of the wood of the desk4 ,if some of the pupils do not make the correct selection of the papers it may be well to let the error pass for that time and have another exhibition of the spectrum before the next trial4 ,get as many of them as possible to make the selection of the six colors from the eighteen solely by comparison with the spectrum4 ,later if some are still unable to succeed1 a paper spectrum may be shown to them1 or what is better1 six bits of paper like their own1 pasted on a card1 with an interval as wide as two papers between each two4 ,when every child can readily select the six standard colors from the eighteen then all of them may with advantage be told to lay the six in a row on the gray cardboard or desk1 in their proper order1 and sufficiently separated to allow room for two other papers between each two4 ,when all have made the attempt and some have failed to arrange the papers correctly the card having them properly mounted may again be shown and each one in error may make the necessary corrections by comparison4 ,in a solar spectrum such as is possible in the ordinary schoolroom the intermediate colors between the standards cannot be very distinctly seen but the child can be shown that between the red and orange1 with which he is familiar1 there are colors different from both and possibly he may be led to see that these colors seem to be a mixture of the two4 ,with this impression in the minds of the children the following experiment may be a very interesting psychological test of the natural color perception of each child1 or in other words his color feeling4 ,ask the children to arrange the remaining twelve papers between the six standards in pairs and one outside of the red and violet at the ends4 ,this exercise will serve to bring each of the other colors to the critical attention of the children so that they may not be entirely strangers to them in the succeeding exercises4 ,at this stage the color wheel or color top or both will be most valuable4 ,color ,wheel or ,top4 ,if the wheel is available let the teacher place on it combined red and orange disks of medium size and in front a small red disk4 ,before beginning the six papers should be laid on the desk in order1 separated by two spaces4 ,call attention to the fact that the red disks are like the red sample of paper4 ,explain how the disks are joined and that the two larger ones can be made to show more or less of the orange and the red4 ,then introduce a small amount of orange1 perhaps not enough to cause the effect to be perceived by the children when the wheel is in motion1 and rotate4 ,ask if they see any difference between the small disk at the center and the larger surface4 ,add more orange till they see a difference1 and continue to add orange to the red until nearly one-half the disk is orange or till it may be questionable whether the color made by rotation is more nearly orange or red4 ,this point will be reached before the orange nearly equals the red1 because the orange is more luminous4 ,explain that all these colors which the children have been seeing are orange-reds and ask the pupils to select that color from their papers which is orange-red1 or most like the orange and red4 ,in the meantime set the orange and red disks to the proportion of ,r4 #he1 ,o4 #ae1 which nearly or exactly matches the orange-red paper4 ,when the children have selected the paper which they think is orange-red1 put the wheel in motion and ask them if their selection is like the color on the wheel4 ,if not1 see that all understand and have selected the orange-red paper to place next the red sample4 ,when this has been done remove the disks from the wheel and readjust the larger ones so as to show a combination that is nearly all orange2 then replace them and substitute in front a small orange disk instead of the red one and proceed to show a series of red-orange colors from the orange toward the red1 as previously shown from the red toward the orange4 ,with experiments before adults this break in the order of proceeding and the change of disks would be unnecessary1 but with children it is desirable to mark a distinction between the orange-red and the red-orange colors1 a fact which is emphasized by the mechanical manipulation4 ,when the children have been asked to place their red-orange paper in its proper position the disks may be set to ,r4 #ej1 ,o4 #ej1 and an imitation of their red-orange paper shown4 ,if the school is provided with color tops their use may be begun at this point by allowing the children to attempt to repeat the wheel experiments with the tops and thus produce for themselves an imitation of the two intermediate spectrum hues in the papers4 ,in all combinations of colors by disks as well as pigments there is some loss of purity and hence the colors of papers in the intermediate hues may be a little brighter in some cases than the results of two disks in combination4 ,this suggestion for the presentation of one pair of the intermediate spectrum hues may serve to illustrate all the others1 and the time which can be devoted to the whole subject must determine the detail with which each pair is treated4 ,if the tops are provided in a school but no color wheel then the teacher must begin with a top as a substitute for the wheel and let the children follow her with their tops by dictation4 ,at first this will be much more difficult than if the wheel could be used1 but after the children have become somewhat familiar with the handling of the top by dictation the result will be quite surprising4 ,there will be in every school some children who are exceedingly awkward in the manipulation of the top1 until the happy day arrives when all school children are graduates of kindergartens4 ,at present the average kindergarten pupil will handle the top better than the children in the lowest primary grades who have not had the advantages of kindergarten instruction4 ,when all the hues except the red-violet and violet-red have been located1 the teacher should be prepared with a chart made by pasting the eighteen paper samples1 including standards and intermediate hues1 in their order on a strip of paper1 so that by bringing the ends together the children may see that when they place the violet-red at one end of their row and the red-violet at the other they are really completing a spectrum circuit and forming a chart of natural colors4 ,ever since ,newton's day it has been fashionable to speak of the spectrum as nature's chart of colors4 ,this expression is but partially true and is entirely false if we mean that it contains examples of all the colors in nature4 ,the spectrum is valuable in color study only from the fact that it enables us to establish permanent standard colors from which all colors in nature and the arts may be named and by the combinations of which such colors may be imitated4 ,unless the standard colors in a system of color instruction are the closest possible imitations of corresponding spectrum colors there is no logical relation between such a system and a chart of colors based on the spectrum1 because the spectrum does not furnish a complete circuit of colors and its only value is1 as before stated1 in furnishing a permanent standard on which to found a nomenclature of colors4 ,up to this time we have not suggested the practice of introducing any natural objects or calling the attention of the children to various colors found in their surroundings4 ,each teacher must use her judgment regarding this matter1 but as soon as miscellaneous colors are to be considered the two questions of hues and tones are necessarily involved1 and experienced teachers have been divided in their opinions as to which should be first considered1 tone or hue4 ,when it was thought necessary to occupy a long time in presenting all the spectrum colors this question assumed greater importance than at present1 but very many teachers have become convinced that we have not been giving the children credit for nearly as much ability in the recognition of colors as they deserve1 and that with the methods at present in use the six standard colors and twelve hues can be learned in a few weeks1 during which time it may not be necessary to discuss the complicated combinations of colors in nature and our domestic surroundings4 ,this is not intended to mean that the child will in this time be able to name the various hues when seen separately1 but that having the eighteen paper tablets he may feel their relations to each other to such an extent as to be able to lay them in their spectrum order4 ,those pupils who seem to have no natural perception of the proper relationship of colors will require more experience than the rest of the class before they can be sure of their colors and the teacher must exercise her judgment in deciding how long to hold the class to this subject of spectrum hues on their account4 ,as in other class work it is not necessary that the dull children perfectly comprehend all that is told them at each step1 because there will always be some in a class who will comprehend and thus the others may learn by observation1 and in this subject particularly every step in advance must necessarily include a continual review of all that has preceded4 ,consequently when a teacher has given as much time to the study of hues in the arrangement of the papers as she deems profitable1 considering the entire time that can be devoted to the subject during the year1 she may well proceed to tones4 ,the ,study of ,tones4 ,it is unnecessary at the beginning to use the word tones with the children1 as light and dark colors will be understood more clearly4 ,the first lesson in light and shade may be given with some book bound in a bright color1 as red for example1 which is common in cloth bindings4 ,for this experiment partially open the book and hold it vertically1 with back toward the class1 in such position that a strong light from one side of the room will fall directly on one cover while the other is in the shade4 ,if properly manipulated this simple experiment may be made effective to an entire class by moving the book in various directions to accommodate the several members1 so that at different times all the pupils may get very clearly the idea of light and dark colors in the same scale4 ,this idea can be more clearly shown by means of a simple model very easily made for the purpose4 ,take1 for example1 three pieces of standard red paper1 #dd inches1 and mount them on a piece of cardboard side by side1 in a row4 ,trim the card parallel to the edges of the papers1 leaving a margin of uniform width1 and with the point of a knife score a line partially through the card from the front1 at the joining of the papers1 so that it can be neatly bent to the form shown in ,fig4 #af which represents the model as seen by the class4 ,by holding one of the rear edges with each hand the faces can be folded to different angles with each other and the model turned to different positions with relation to the children4 ,possibly the windows at the rear of the room may be partially darkened to advantage2 they certainly can be if they have a sunny exposure at the time4 ,the object is to give a fair daylight on the central surface for the standard1 a strong light on one side to form a tint of the standard and a shadow on the other for a shade of the same color4 ,illustration ,by a trial before school1 in company with some other teacher perhaps1 the best positions for different parts of the room as well as best lighting of the room may be determined in advance and thus such a success achieved with the first experiment that the whole idea of tint and shade may be impressed on each child for all time and definitions firmly fixed in his mind for these two most abused words in our every day vocabulary4 ,added interest may be excited by showing similar models in several other colors during the same lesson1 thus avoiding the possible impression on any mind that the term tint and shade apply to any special color4 ,tints and shades may also be shown very beautifully by some kinds of colored materials4 ,colored satin ribbons1 folded or crumpled1 and velvets and plushes give good object lessons4 ,one of the most effective exhibitions of tints and shades may be found in a material used for upholstering furniture and technically called crushed plush1 which is a worsted plush embossed in figures and very changeable in its effects as its relation to the light is changed1 giving at the same time very light tints and very dark shades in different portions4 ,having thus shown how real tints and shades in nature are produced1 the color wheel may be introduced with advantage4 ,if it were practicable to use opaque colors in the school they could be employed to show that the effect of a tint is produced in pigments by mixing white with the standard color and a shade by mixing black with it1 but while the mixture of white may produce the best imitations of some tints in nature1 the same result does not hold good in the use of black to form shades1 and black pigments are rarely used for this purpose1 because they impart various untruthful hues1 according to the colors with which they are mixed4 ,for this reason1 and others which will appear later1 the white and black disks of the color wheel are found to be better than any other single method for representing tones4 ,in shades the black disk produces by far the best imitation of nature1 and so does the white disk for more than half of the colors4 ,but1 as previously stated1 there is an effect which has never been satisfactorily explained by which the tints of red and blue especially receive an unexpected violet gray tinge by rotation4 ,therefore in showing tints on the wheel it is well not to show very light tints of red or blue until the class has received some impressions of tones in other colors4 ,in the orange and violet the tints seem to be practically perfect1 and in the yellow and green not far from correct1 but in the green they run a trifle toward the blue and in the yellow become a little gray or broken4 ,but in the shades the black disk has done wonders for color instruction1 particularly in making standard neutral grays which cannot be imitated by white and black pigments1 and in determining the shades of yellow1 as has been explained4 ,see ,page #cf4 ,therefore1 after having shown actual tints and shades with the folded models1 and perhaps the other materials suggested1 place a colored disk combined with a white disk on the wheel1 and in front of them a smaller colored disk of the same color as the larger one for comparison1 and by changing the relative proportions show various tints4 ,then substitute a black disk for the white and show shades4 ,if1 for example1 orange is taken1 all proportions of both tints and shades may be shown very truthfully1 the deeper shades being very rich browns4 ,having in this way impressed on the children the terms tints and shades1 give them the paper tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #b1 in the deepest tints and the lightest shades1 reserving the lightest tints and deepest shades found in ,selection ,no4 #d for later use4 ,let each member of the class lay the spectrum in the normal colors and then select the six tints corresponding to the six standards4 ,when all of them think they have done this1 tell them to choose the corresponding shades4 ,if a number fail in the attempt it may be well to set up three sizes of disks on the color wheel in shade1 standard and tint of red4 ,in showing a tint of red with the disks it is not a good plan to make a tint lighter than ,r4 #ie1 ,w4 #e1 which is about ,r4 ,t4 #a4 ,if the wheel is not available samples of papers may be held up in the three tones so that the class can get the correct idea4 ,there is no best method of reaching all pupils in any class1 but in some way at this point in color education every pupil ought to acquire such knowledge of the subject as to be able to select at least the six standard scales in three tones1 and this should be practically accomplished before much time is devoted to the consideration of such materials as flowers1 fabrics and miscellaneous papers1 because until the child understands both hues and tones he can do nothing in either analyzing or naming colors4 ,as soon as these six scales are familiar to the pupil the selecting of various objects and placing them in general families may be very valuable work1 but until that time the classification of colors cannot be carried out very accurately1 or at best the families will be very likely to include some uncles1 and cousins and aunts1 and yet1 on the other hand1 if even the distant relatives are recognized in preference to strangers the choice will give evidence of a sympathetic feeling for color relations1 favorable to future progress and indicating something of the natural color sense of the child4 ,if such occupations as paper cutting and pasting1 or weaving of mats have a place in the school1 combinations in two or three tones of the six standards can now be made4 ,at this stage names are of little importance1 but they will come in play early1 as it is natural to give names to everything1 and as soon as the child knows the definite names which belong to colors they will be used4 ,neutral ,grays4 ,immediately following the first idea of tints and shades or tones1 the grays should have attention1 because in the occupations with papers they will play an important part4 ,for this purpose white1 black and the neutral gray papers are included in ,selection ,no4 #b of the paper tablets and should be made familiar to the children while the tints and shades are being studied4 ,the suggestion that a neutral gray is a tint of black or a shade of white may or may not aid a child to better understand the relation of the neutral grays to the color chart1 but it is a thought worthy of the attention of the teacher1 as expressing a fact important in the consideration of color impressions4 ,this gray may also be illustrated on the wheel by the union of white and black disks1 and should be early presented in this way1 because this is the only means by which we can secure standards for pigmentary neutral grays1 and the fact that this special and peculiar gray is so important in all color investigation furnishes sufficient argument for making it prominent before the other grays4 ,even at this early period in his color education a child may be shown that white in shadow is a gray1 and the fact that it is a neutral gray is not essential to him1 as he has no knowledge of any other gray and probably it may not be desirable to call attention to the various classes of grays until after the broken colors have been studied4 ,a sheet of white card or heavy paper may serve to show that white in shade or shadow is a gray4 ,for this experiment fold the card or paper very sharply and hold it with the folded edge vertical and projecting toward the class1 and in such a position relative to the windows that half of the paper is in very full light and the other in shadow4 ,a comparison of neutral gray paper ,no4 #a with a true shade of white or white in shadow1 as explained on ,page #cf1 will serve to connect the gray papers with the shades of white4 ,after the idea of tones is made clear to the children1 so that they can readily form the six standard scales in three tones1 the completing of the ,chart of ,spectrum ,scales in three tones will be merely a matter of drill1 as no new principles are involved4 ,when the pupils can lay the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales in three tones correctly1 the thoughtful teacher will naturally ask herself what is the next logical step1 and it may at first seem as though the completion of the chart in five tones ought to immediately follow4 ,but it is very desirable that the pupils begin as early as possible to make a practical application of their knowledge of colors to the familiar objects around them2 and it is evident that before any very accurate comparison of miscellaneous colors can be intelligently undertaken the child should be able to recognize the effect of mixing gray with a color1 in distinction from the pure tints and shades of that color4 ,explanation of ,broken ,colors4 ,very few of the common colors seen in fabrics and house furnishings are either full pure colors or their tints and shades1 but nearly all are broken colors4 ,therefore it seems desirable to introduce the study of broken colors1 before considering the extreme tones of the pure colors as represented in tints and shades ,no4 #b in the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales in five tones4 ,this order of presentation seems specially advisable1 because the distinguishing of the extreme tones where the color is lost to so great a degree is more difficult than anything connected with the subject of broken colors4 ,therefore at this point paper tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #c are introduced4 ,from this collection of tablets when properly arranged a ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales of twelve colors in three tones may be made1 and in addition there are tablets illustrating the several classes of grays other than neutral grays4 ,the first result desired is a definite distinction in the mind of each pupil between a broken color and any tint or shade of the same color4 ,in order that the explanation of this distinction shall be intelligently comprehended each child must have such a clear idea of the meaning of the terms tints and shades that he shall not fail to readily understand any statement regarding them because of confusion as to the definite meaning of these terms4 ,the child should know clearly that a tint is a color in a strong light or mixed with white either in pigments or disks1 while a shade is a color in shade or shadow1 i4e4 with less than the normal illumination1 or mixed with black4 ,when this has been fixed in the mind of a pupil1 and he has also been shown that neutral gray1 the only gray he has learned anything of1 is the result of the combination of white and black1 it will not be difficult for him to see that a broken color is produced by the mixture of both white and black with the pure color4 ,much later it will be possible for him to think of a broken color as a tint thrown into a shade or shadow1 as may be observed by casting a strong shade or shadow on to a piece of colored paper in some one of the tints of the spectrum scales4 ,the color wheel and tops furnish the simplest and most effective means for the presentation of broken colors1 because they automatically analyze every color shown1 so that the pupil sees for himself just what has been done4 ,an ,exercise in ,broken ,colors4 ,after having refreshed the minds of the class as to tints and shades and grays by a brief restatement of the conditions involved in these terms1 the idea of broken colors may be shown with disks on the color wheel or top4 ,for this experiment place on the spindle1 for example1 a combination of orange1 white and black disks1 and in front of these disks put combined orange and black disks of smaller size4 ,make the proportions of the larger disks1 ,o4 #ae1 ,w4 #d1 ,n4 #ha1 and the smaller1 ,o4 #bf1 ,n4 #gd4 ,in rotation the larger ring will show a dark broken orange and the inner one a dark shade of orange1 and the difference in quality will be readily seen and felt4 ,the effect is more valuable as a lesson if the tones of the two are nearly equal1 although this is not necessary4 ,a very much lighter pair of colors is secured by using the following formulas1 ,o4 #dc1 ,w4 #bf1 ,n4 #ca1 and ,o4 #gg1 ,w4 #bc4 ,both these experiments may be made with the primary color wheel or color top4 ,if the ,high ,school ,color ,wheel is in use so that the four rings of color can be shown at one time1 the two larger rings may show two tones of broken color and the smaller rings a tint and shade of pure color4 ,in the use of tops two may be spun at once as near together as possible1 the two broken tones on one top and the tint and shade on another4 ,in green similar experiments may be tried1 with the following formulas3-- ,g4 #bj1 ,w4 #f1 ,n4 #gd4 ,g4 #cf1 ,w4 #ac1 ,n4 #ea4 ,g4 #cd1 ,n4 #ff4 ,g4 #hb1 ,w4 #ah4 ,practically the same methods may be adopted in the study of broken colors as were employed with the pure colors4 ,the paper tablets contained in ,selection ,no4 #c1 comprising broken colors and grays1 will now come into use to accompany experiments with disks in broken colors4 ,the tablets in the broken spectrum colors number thirty-six1 comprising twelve scales of three tones each1 thus producing but one intermediate hue between each two standards1 instead of two1 as in the chart of pure colors4 ,exercises in selection and arrangement of these tablets to form a chart may be employed to familiarize the pupils with the new kind of colors4 ,the colors are not so pronounced as in the pure scales1 and for this reason the arranging may be more difficult1 but the smaller number of hues simplifies it somewhat1 so that1 with the better-trained color perception which the child will have acquired at this stage1 no greater effort will be required than in the earlier lessons4 ,when the ,chart of ,broken ,scales can be laid with reasonable accuracy by the majority of the class the two charts as far as studied1 each in three tones1 may be laid on the desk at the same time for comparison and thus the difference in quality or character emphasized4 ,all kinds of materials may now be considered and classified1 and great interest inspired in the subject generally4 ,flowers1 autumn leaves1 dress goods and anything with color can be studied and the colors analyzed4 ,before the study of broken colors was taken up some few flowers could be quite accurately matched with the disks and analyzed1 but now very many more of the flowers and plants as well as other material can be accurately analyzed and a definite nomenclature given to each sample4 ,selection ,no4 #c of tablets contains1 in addition to the twelve scales of broken colors1 six colored grays1 which must at some stage be considered in connection with gray colors or broken colors1 to which they are closely related4 ,as has already been stated1 there is a point where by the continued addition of gray to a color1 the color is so far obscured that its identity is practically lost and the result becomes a colored gray4 ,although the line between gray colors and colored grays cannot be definitely drawn there are so many grades visible beyond the point where the exact color used with the gray can be determined1 that the term colored gray1 which covers the three classes1 warm1 cool and green grays1 is convenient for common use4 ,it is very desirable that a distinction be observed between the terms colored grays and gray colors1 and therefore broken colors may be a better term to apply to the gray colors because a distinction is thus more strongly emphasized between these two classes of colors4 ,the following table furnishes formulas from which the colors of the ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales may be very nearly imitated on the ,high ,school ,color ,wheel4 ,each scale should be shown by the three smaller sets of disks1 namely1 the smallest for light tone1 next size for standard or medium1 and the third size for darkest tone4 ,this list of disk combinations is furnished here for the convenience of teachers who may have occasion to illustrate the compositions of the various classes of colors comprised in the ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales1 which covers the entire range of the sthetic colors and from which by modifications every subdued color in material substances can be analyzed and definitely named4 ,owing to the color usually found on the interior of a schoolroom and the lack of pure white light from outside it is not probable that these proportions will exactly match the papers1 but the formulas will enable the teacher to approximate the color1 and then the more accurate match in conformity to the conditions in each case may be secured by making changes in accordance with suggestions from a majority of the class1 an exercise which will afford valuable practice for the pupils4 ,formulas for a ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales4 ,,light4 ,,medium4 ,,dark4 ,,red4 ,r4#fh1 ,w4#ah1 ,n4#ad4 ,r4#ei1 ,w4#e1 ,n4#ce4 ,r4#bb-a_/b1 ,w4#e1 ,n4#gb-a_/b4 ,,orange ,,red4 ,r4#ea1 ,o4#ag-a_/b1 ,w4#bc1 ,n4#h-a_/b4 ,r4#dg1 ,o4#af1 ,w4#h-a_/b1 ,n4#bh-a_/b4 ,r4#ae1 ,o4#g-a_/b1 ,w4#g-a_/b1 ,n4#gj4 ,,orange4 ,o4#dc1 ,w4#bb-a_/b1 ,n4#bd-a_/b4 ,o4#cd-a_/b1 ,w4#aj1 ,n4#ee4 ,o4#ae1 ,w4#e1 ,n4#gi-a_/b4 ,,yellow ,,orange4 ,o4#bc1 ,y4#ae1 ,w4#bg1 ,n4#ce4 ,o4#bd-a_/b1 ,y4#ag-a_/b1 ,w4#ae1 ,n4#dc4 ,o4#aj1 ,y4#d-a_/b1 ,w4#f1 ,n4#gi-a_/b4 ,,yellow4 ,y4#cd1 ,w4#cj-a_/b1 ,n4#ce-a_/b4 ,y4#bd1 ,w4#ab-a_/b1 ,n4#fc-a_/b4 ,y4#ab-a_/b1 ,w4#e1 ,n4#hb-a_/b4 ,,green ,,yellow4 ,y4#bd1 ,g4#ac1 ,w4#bh1 ,n4#ce4 ,y4#be1 ,g4#aj1 ,w4#ag1 ,n4#dh4 ,y4#aa1 ,g4#ac1 ,w4#aj1 ,n4#ff4 ,,green4 ,g4#af1 ,w4#i1 ,n4#ge4 ,g4#cd1 ,w4#ai1 ,n4#di4 ,g4#bc1 ,w4#da1 ,n4#cf4 ,,blue ,,green4 ,g4#h-a_/b1 ,b4#g-a_/b1 ,w4#g1 ,n4#gg4 ,g4#bb1 ,b4#ah1 ,w4#ab1 ,n4#dh4 ,g4#bd1 ,b4#be1 ,w4#bc1 ,n4#bh4 ,,blue4 ,b4#bb-a_/b1 ,w4#f1 ,n4#ga-a_/b4 ,b4#ch1 ,w4#ac1 ,n4#di4 ,b4#cf1 ,w4#bi1 ,n4#ce4 ,,blue ,,violet4 ,b4#ac1 ,v4#i-a_/b1 ,w4#f-a_/b1 ,n4#ga4 ,b4#ac1 ,v4#be1 ,w4#ae1 ,n4#dg4 ,b4#bj1 ,v4#ae1 ,w4#bi1 ,n4#ci4 ,,violet4 ,v4#bj1 ,w4#ac1 ,n4#fg4 ,v4#ea1 ,w4#bd1 ,n4#be4 ,v4#fa1 ,w4#cb1 ,n4#g4 ,,red ,,violet4 ,r4#ag1 ,v4#aj1 ,w4#e1 ,n4#fh4 ,r4#af-a_/b1 ,v4#de1 ,w4#ac1 ,n4#be-a_/b4 ,r4#bc1 ,v4#dj1 ,w4#bf1 ,n4#aa4 ,in preparing the papers for the ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,colors the selection of the tones of the several colors has been made in accordance with the sthetic color feeling of those to whom the matter was intrusted1 but the hues of the colors are based on the standards of the pure spectrum colors4 ,if these colors are considered independently of their relation to a general system of color education1 it may seem that a stronger and purer line of colors would be more beautiful2 but the more broken or subdued colors have been chosen after very careful consideration1 because they are intended for elementary instruction and therefore should be so far removed from the pure color scales as to impress themselves on the minds of the children as a distinct and representative class of colors4 ,when the color sense of the pupils has been sufficiently cultivated to observe smaller distinctions1 a variety of color scales much less broken may be shown with the disks4 ,different selections for a score of charts could be made1 all beautiful and representing broken colors1 but after much consideration these thirty-six were selected from a very large number of hand-painted samples made for the purpose1 as furnishing a sufficient number of typical broken colors for elementary color instruction1 and in such hues and tones as to form a harmonious chart for comparison with the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales4 ,certain ,color ,puzzles4 ,when the children have advanced far enough to understand the analysis of a color1 i4e41 to correctly name a color1 exercises which may be called color puzzles can be introduced from time to time with great interest and profit4 ,the idea is simply to suddenly show to the class a series of disks in rapid rotation and ask them to guess what colors it is composed of1 i4e41 what the definite name of the color is4 ,the following is a suggestion for this exercise1 supposing that a broken green yellow is to be shown3-- ,select a green1 a yellow1 a white and a black disk of medium size and combine them as follows3 ,y4#bj1 ,g4#aj1 ,w4#aj1 ,n4#fj4 ,then1 having previously removed the nut from the spindle of the wheel and laid it in a convenient place1 take the combined disks and lay on the top of them any other disk of a larger size1 with the center holes of all corresponding with each other and place all these disks on the spindle of the wheel with the larger disk still covering the face of the others4 ,having previously furnished an assistant with a sheet of cardboard of sufficient size to conceal the disks from the class have it held in front of the wheel while the disk which conceals the combination is removed1 the nut screwed to place and the disks put into rapid rotation2 then order the card taken away and ask the class what color they see1 still continuing the rotation4 ,the correct answer should be broken green-yellow1 and not a shade of green-yellow1 a broken yellow-green1 a tint of yellow or a yellow shade2 for there is but one true name and that should be stated4 ,definite expressions of color are as possible as the terms used regarding other scientific subjects1 and should be encouraged4 ,much interest can be inspired and valuable instruction imparted to the children by experiments with the color wheel1 but whenever color analysis is the object in view1 if disks of more than one of the standard colors are used in the same combination they must be of colors adjacent to each other in the spectrum4 ,for example1 if a blue and a yellow disk are united and placed in rotation the result may be a blue gray1 a yellow gray1 or perhaps very nearly a neutral gray1 because blue and yellow are so nearly complementary to each other4 ,but a nomenclature of the resulting color effect expressed in terms of blue and yellow is not of practical value1 because it is evident that in the analysis of a gray-blue1 yellow has no logical place4 ,if in an attempt to match a color which seems to be a broken blue1 something else besides the blue1 white and black is required1 it must be either green or violet1 i4e41 one of the two standard colors adjacent to the blue in the spectrum4 ,in other words1 every color in nature is a spectrum color1 i4e41 either a pure spectrum color1 a tint or a shade of a spectrum color1 or a broken spectrum color4 ,hence every color can be matched1 and therefore analyzed by the combination of one disk of a standard color with a white disk1 a black disk or both1 or else by two adjacent spectrum standards with white and black or both4 ,there are many combinations of disks outside the limitations above named which are valuable and interesting in color investigation when not used for simple analysis1 but if they are presented as pleasing experiments before the pupils can understand their logical relation to the subject of color education1 the result may be entirely misleading rather than instructive4 ,in making experiments in broken colors with the wheel the most satisfactory results are secured in orange1 violet1 green and yellow1 while the red is fairly good and the blue less satisfactory than the others because of the slight effect of gray or violet which comes into the lighter tones by rotation1 to which reference has already been made4 ,as explained on ,page #ed1 the so-called tertiary colors1 russets1 citrines and olives were formerly supposed to be classes of peculiar colors to which these names were given4 ,the fact that these are all broken spectrum colors was first demonstrated by the use of the color wheel and they are now quite generally accepted as such by those who have given heed to modern methods of color instruction4 ,as already shown the disks have also seemed to correctly define the several scales of colors1 so that in contrast to the color charts of a dozen years ago a distinction is clearly drawn between the colors in the yellow and the orange scales1 or even between the yellow-orange and the orange-yellow scales1 so accurately do the disks determine the hue of a color4 ,when the pupils have progressed so far that they can arrange the paper tablets to form the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales in three tones and also the ,chart of ,broken ,scales1 they will be prepared to intelligently begin the use of papers in cutting and pasting designs in the several classes of harmonies1 but before most effective results can be produced the lightest tints and deepest shades of the full chart of pure scales in five tones must be considered4 ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales ,completed4 ,the entire mastery of these extreme tones will be quite difficult because they are so far removed from the standards1 and the children can hardly be expected to recognize and name them when seen separately4 ,if a pupil is able to correctly arrange them in connection with the other tones of the chart1 his accomplishment will show a high grade of color perception4 ,but these extreme tones are introduced because their use in the more advanced work of paper cutting and pasting produces stronger and more beautiful harmonies and a higher degree of color training than would result were the tints and shades nearer the standards in tone4 ,no detailed rehearsal of the lessons for this work is necessary to enable a teacher who has pursued the course of instruction thus far to complete it in a logical way1 and relatively little time will be required by the pupils to become sufficiently familiar with these tones for practical purposes1 because of their more acute color perception which will be developed at this period4 ,the ,work of ,cutting and ,pasting4 ,in the study of color the work of cutting and pasting designs in educational colored papers affords the earliest and best practical expression of the color feeling which has been acquired and stimulates the further development of color perception4 ,the order in which the use of these papers can be most profitably taken up in the occupations of cutting and pasting may be determined by a careful consideration of the subject of harmonies as explained quite fully in the foregoing section entitled ,practical ,experiments1 ,pages #fg to #gc4 ,the first in order is ,contrasted ,harmony1 in which cut papers in one color may be mounted on a ground of some passive color as white or gray4 ,in selecting the gray1 analogy is usually preferable to contrast1 while neutral gray is fairly safe for all colors4 ,according to this suggestion the warm grays may be used with the warm colors and the cool grays with the cool colors1 and in a majority of the cases the lightest tone of gray is preferable4 ,without question ,dominant ,harmonies or the arrangement in families are the most profitable and safe for early practice4 ,in this class a light tint may be used for the background on which to mount any of the other tones of the same scale4 ,beyond these two classes of harmonies the order of presentation must be determined by the teacher4 ,if the complementary is attempted with simple geometrical forms a light tint may most safely be selected for a background in the least aggressive of the two colors and the design or pasted forms in some of the complementary tones other than the normal color4 ,do not attempt to combine full complementary colors in elementary work4 ,the ,analogous ,harmony may be used in simple designs with beautiful effects when judicious selections are made1 but owing to the latitude necessarily involved in the definition of this class of combinations the children cannot very early be trusted to make their own selections4 ,it is evident that nothing can be attempted in the ,perfected ,harmonies in any of the ready-cut forms1 but beautiful results can be produced in this class with well-drawn and accurately cut ornamental designs in colored papers1 which may even surpass in strength and beauty any effects which can be produced in water colors such as can be used by the children4 ,for earliest practice in making designs in colored papers the ready cut forms of the kindergarten1 technically called parquetry papers are very convenient and may be procured either with or without gum on the back4 ,these are prepared in various geometrical forms based on the one-inch standard1 among which the most useful for pasting decorative designs are the circle1 half-circle1 square1 half-square and equilateral triangle4 ,where models and tablets are used in form study the tablets may serve as patterns from which the children can mark out the papers which they can then cut for themselves1 and thus the oval and ellipse may be added to the forms1 and also practice in accurate cutting secured4 ,in the use of tablets as patterns the outlines should be made on the backside of the paper1 by holding the tablet in place with one finger and working carefully around it with a well-pointed pencil4 ,the marking to the pattern and cutting to the line provides valuable elementary practice in manual training4 ,as it is the prime object of these papers to treat of color no attempt is here made to give directions for designing units of ornament or for folding and cutting designs4 ,all such exercises furnish the best possible practice in both designing and manual work1 but they belong more directly to the department of drawing and are fully treated in the hand books explaining modern systems of drawing4 ,we offer here a number of simple arrangements of such forms as may be found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the form study tablets as before mentioned1 with the addition of a few other figures which involve some very simple designs for free-hand cutting4 ,a ,variety of ,designs4 ,the accompanying illustrations show a number of simple arrangements of such forms as are found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the form study tablets already mentioned1 with the addition of a few other figures which include some very simple forms requiring free-hand cutting4 ,suggestions for more elaborate designs and specific directions for paper cutting can be found in elementary books treating of decorative drawing and those devoted solely to paper cutting4 ,illustration ,figs4 #ag to #be show arrangements of one-inch kindergarten parquetry papers in one color1 used as units to form border designs in contrasted harmony on a white or a gray ground1 in all of which there is repetition of form as well as color4 ,a narrow strip of paper in the same color as the units may be used at top and bottom to finish the design4 ,illustration ,figs4 #bf to #cg show border designs1 each of which is made with one form in two colors or tones in alternation4 ,illustration ,illustration ,figs4 #ch and #ci show border designs in one color1 with forms marked from the elliptical and oval tablets and cut by hand4 ,in ,fig4 #ci borders are made by combining half-squares which may be used with or without narrow strips of the same color4 ,illustration ,figs4 #dj and #da are made by using one form with alternation of tone and of position4 ,fig4 #da is derived from ,fig4 #dj by laying the dark squares with the corners in contact and placing the light squares over them4 ,fig4 #db shows alternation of form and color or tone1 which is also the scheme employed in ,fig4 #dc in a design less simple with the addition of the half-circles4 ,figs4 #dd and #de show two other simple and pleasing designs with alternation of both form and tone or color4 ,figs4 #df1 #dg1 #dh1 and #di comprise designs in two forms and two tones or colors1 in which some hand cutting is necessary on the part of the pupils4 ,illustration ,figs4 #ej to #ed are rosettes made from parquetry papers with the addition of a small circle or square at the center cut by hand4 ,illustration ,figs4 #ee to #fj are principally hand-cut forms1 and #fa1 #fb and #fc show surface patterns made from parquetry squares and half-squares4 ,illustration ,illustration ,colored papers can be used more advantageously in decorative designs than in imitations of natural objects1 for which water colors are much better suited1 but some copies of natural flowers and autumn leaves have been made in colored papers which were exceedingly close imitations of water color paintings when seen at a little distance1 rivaling in the case of the autumn leaves the best water color effects in brilliancy and depth of color4 ,there need be no definite rules governing the continuation of color study from this point by a teacher who is interested in the subject and has tried the experiments suggested in the preceding pages4 ,the work will become very interesting at this stage1 because now all sorts of material may be introduced for analysis and classification and from this point forward1 to the highest achievements of the artist1 nature will furnish abundant stimulus to color thought and investigation1 if the foundation has been laid according to the true theory of color perception which it is the object of this system to explain4 ,analysis of ,color ,materials4 ,a valuable and interesting phase of color investigation and color training may be found in the analysis and naming of the natural colors found in flowers1 minerals and the plumage of birds4 ,the necessity for a definite and adequate nomenclature which naturalists experience in this department of education has been emphasized by the publication within a few years of a book entitled ,a ,nomenclature of ,colors for ,naturalists1 and a ,compendium of useful knowledge for ,ornithologists4 ,this book has been prepared with great care by ,robert ,ridgway of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 and contains a large number of hand-painted plates showing nearly two hundred colors which represent selections from three hundred and fifty names of colors which are given in ,english1 ,latin1 ,german1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian and ,norwegian or ,danish4,d ,d ,a ,nomenclature of ,colors for ,naturalists and ,compendium of useful ,knowledge for ,ornithologists by ,robert ,ridgway1 ,curator1 ,department of ,birds1 ,national ,museum4 ,boston1 ,little1 ,brown ,co41 #ahhf4 ,the fact that a book involving so much technical knowledge and the expenditure of so much time and money was deemed justifiable is an evidence of the great need for some definite nomenclature4 ,in the introduction the author says3 ,undoubtedly one of the chief desiderata of naturalists1 both professional and amateur1 is a means of identifying the various shades of colors named in descriptions1 and of being able to determine exactly what name to apply to a particular tint which it is desired to designate in an original description4 ,no modern work of this character it appears1 is extant1--the latest publication of its kind which the author has been able to consult being ,syme's edition of ',werner's ,nomenclature of ,colors1' published in ,edinburgh in #ahba4 ,it is found1 however1 that in ,syme's 'nomenclature' that the colors have become so modified by time1 that in very few cases do they correspond with the tints they were intended to represent4 ,the following are the opening sentences of the preface3 ,the want of a nomenclature of colors adapted particularly to the use of naturalists has ever been more or less an obstacle to the study of ,nature2 and although there have been many works published on the subject of color1 they either pertain exclusively to the purely scientific or technical aspects of the case or to the manufacturing industries1 or are otherwise unsuited to the special purposes of the zoologist1 the botanist and the mineralogist4 ,in the same book the ,chapter on ,principles of ,color opens with the following sentences3 ,the popular nomenclature of colors has of late years1 especially since the introduction of aniline dyes and pigments1 become involved in almost chaotic confusion through the coinage of a multitude of new names1 many of them synonymous1 and still more of them vague or variable in their meaning4 ,these new names are far too numerous to be of any practical utility1 even were each one identifiable with a particular fixed tint4 ,many of them are invented at the caprice of the dyer or manufacturer of fabrics1 and are as capricious in their meaning as in their origin2 among them being such fanciful names as ',zulu1' ',crushed ,strawberry1' ',baby ,blue1' ',woodbine-berry1' ',night ,green1' etc41 besides such nonsensical names as ',ashes of ,roses' and ',elephant's ,breath4' ,these extracts from this valuable and interesting book by an author of large experience are quoted here to emphasize the practical necessity for more definite color education based on analysis and nomenclature4 ,with the color wheel or color top1 the colors of flowers and leaves as well as all other objects in nature and art may be analyzed and named1 and the names definitely recorded in the terms of a nomenclature based on permanent standards4 ,the following list of flowers and leaves of plants and trees with their analyses in terms of our nomenclature is taken from a recently published paper entitled ,on the ,color ,description of ,flowers1 by ,prof4 ,j4 ,h4 ,pillsbury1 to whom the writer is indebted for some of the earliest suggestions regarding the practical application of the scientific facts of color to color teaching1 and also for valuable scientific work which he has done including the exact location of the six color standards in the solar spectrum by their wave lengths3-- ,with these standards to work from1 ,i undertook to determine the color analysis of certain of our common flowers4 ,the following results1 will1 ,i think1 be interesting to botanists4 ,the numbers given indicate per cent4 of color required to produce the hue of the flower3-- ,common forsythia1 ,f4 viridissima3 ,pure spectrum yellow4 ,fringed polygala1 ,p4 paucifolia3 ,r4 #dh1 ,v4 #eb4 ,wistaria1 ,w4 frutescens1 wings3 ,r4 #aa1 ,v4 #hi4 ,wistaria1 ,w4 frutescens1 standard3 ,r4 #i1 ,v4 #gi1 ,w4 #ab4 ,flowering quince1 ,cydonia japonica3 ,r4 #ie1 ,v4 #b1 ,w4 #c4 ,wild cranesbill1 ,geranium maculatum3 ,r4 #bh1 ,v4 #ff1 ,w4 #f4 ,the variations of color in the early summer foliage is also interesting4 ,the following analyses are for the upper side of fresh and well developed healthy leaves4 ,it is not impossible that a little attention to these variations in the color of foliage on the part of artists would save us the annoyance of some of the abominable green which we so often see in the pictures of artists of good reputation3-- ,white oak3 ,y4 #g4e1 ,g4 #aa4e1 ,n4 #ha4 ,apple3 ,y4 #e1 ,g4 #ac1 ,w4 #b1 ,n4 #hj4 ,copper beech3 ,r4 #ag1 ,v4 #b1 ,n4 #ha4 ,hemlock3 ,y4 #b1 ,g4 #i1 ,n4 #hi4 ,white pine3 ,y4 #b4e1 ,g4 #aa1 ,n4 #hf4e4 ,white birch3 ,y4 #e4e1 ,g4 #aa4e1 ,w4 #a1 ,n4 #hb4 ,hornbeam3 ,y4 #e4e1 ,g4 #ab4e1 ,n4 #hb4 ,shagbark hickory3 ,y4 #d4e1 ,g4 #i4e1 ,n4 #hf4 ,these analyses were made in a moderately strong diffused light with ,maxwell disks of the standard hues referred to above4 ,these are but a few of the numerous flowers the colors of which may be perfectly imitated and consequently analyzed and named with the color wheel or the top4 ,in fact for individual work in natural history the top is more convenient than the wheel and sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes1 while it is a very fascinating occupation for child or adult4 ,in the use of disks for analyzing colors it must be remembered that every material color is some quality of some color in the spectrum circuit1 and therefore may be matched with not more than two standard disks1 either alone or with white or black or both4 ,if more than two color disks1 besides white and black1 are used they will neutralize each other more or less1 and a neutral gray or a gray and some spectrum color will be the result4 ,for example1 if yellow and blue in nearly equal parts are introduced in connection with red and orange1 the yellow and blue being nearly complimentary to each other will produce practically a neutral gray1 and the result will be the same as if only red1 orange1 white and black were used4 ,illustration ,owing to the recent advances in the art of dyeing there are some textile goods which are too intense in color to be exactly imitated by the disk standards1 but this fact need not prevent a practical analysis of such colors1 because by very slightly reducing with white the color to be examined the same color is retained1 the modification making it1 of course1 somewhat lighter4 ,fig4 #fd1 showing a small circle representing a disk of the material mounted on thick paper1 illustrates this statement4 ,suppose we have a piece of rich brown cloth1 so intense in color that when red1 orange and black are combined in the proportions of ,r4 #bb1 ,o4 #af1 ,n4 #fb1 the material is still a little richer in color than can be made with the disks of the color wheel4 ,if we introduce a small amount of white into the brown of the material we may hope to match it with the disks and this may be done by cutting a bit of fairly heavy white paper in the form shown in the diagram and loosening the nut of the color wheel slightly1 after which we insert the point of the triangle under the nut so that when tightened the white paper may be held in front of the brown disk1 as in the illustration4 ,trim the outer end even with the disk and then rotate4 ,if the effect of the white is too great trim off a little from the side of the white paper to make it narrower1 until a perfect match is secured4 ,the small disk in rotation is then of the same color but not quite so intense as before1 or in other words1 is a very deep tint of the color4 ,in this way the ,nomenclature can be recorded as follows3 ,brown #ie1 ,w4 #e1 ,r4 #bb1 ,o4 #af1 ,n4 #fb4 ,this result does not often occur1 but the subject is noticed here in detail that no one may be in doubt when such cases do come to light1 as they will sooner or later4 ,the aniline colors give some purples which are much more brilliant than either the violet or red which otherwise should by combination produce them1 so that with these standards they cannot be made1 but must be reduced with white1 or possibly with white and black4 ,if a color wheel is not available many of these experiments may be tried on the color top1 but not as satisfactorily1 because of the accuracy necessary in cutting so small a disk in a woven material4 ,in using the top for analysis of all ordinary colors1 the best plan is lay the material on a table or other level surface and spin the top on it4 ,if quite an accurate test is desired the cardboard disk of the top may be trimmed down to the size of the largest paper disk1 so that there will be no intervening ring of light color to separate the color of the rotating disks from the material on which it is spun4 ,practical applications of the color top are already being made1 as for example1 in the selection of house furnishings4 ,for this purpose disks of the top are combined at home to produce the desired colors to match the wood finishings and papers or draperies in a partially completed room1 the top being used as a guide in preliminary selections of additional materials from the stores4 ,if a number of colors are required it is convenient to use several combinations of disks1 each set being slightly gummed together4 ,in this way standards for various colors with a top spindle for rotation in the salesroom may be carried in a very small space4 ,the ,bradley ,colored ,papers4 ,as every competent artisan must understand the use for which each implement is designed1 in order to secure the best results with it1 possibly a brief explanation of the principles on which the colors in the ,bradley ,educational ,colored ,papers are selected and classified may be of value4 ,in the sample books of these colored papers there are four sections4 ,the first section of the book1 following the title leaf called ,pure ,spectrum ,scales consists in part of the six standard colors1 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet1 with two intermediate hues between each two standards1 which eighteen colors form the central vertical column in the ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales shown on ,page #da4 ,in addition to these eighteen normal spectrum colors1 there are two tints and two shades of each1 thus producing eighteen spectrum scales of five tones1 in which the normal colors as indicated in the central column aim to be the purest possible pigmentary expressions of the spectrum colors represented4 ,in determining the number of colors to adopt in the preparation of the papers enough have been selected to furnish types of all the colors in the spectrum1 and also the hues between red and violet1 but at the same time the number has been so restricted as to secure a reasonably simple nomenclature of the intermediate hues4 ,a hue of a color is defined as the result of the admixture of that color with a smaller quantity of another color2 thus a hue of red approaching the orange is an orange hue of red1 or an orange-red4 ,if a small amount of red is added to orange the result is a red hue of orange1 or a red-orange4 ,therefore in selecting two hues between each two standards1 rather than a larger number1 the simplest nomenclature possible is secured1 and one in which no mental effort is necessary to recall the color indicated by each symbol4 ,for example1 we have four colors indicated as ,r1 ,,or1 ,,ro1 ,o2 red1 orange-red1 red-orange1 orange2 or more extended1 red1 orange hue of red1 red hue of orange1 orange4 ,thus by using as symbols familiar terms1 no effort of the memory is required to recall the color indicated by each symbol1 as would necessarily be the case if there were a greater number of hues and therefore more arbitrary symbols4 ,the use of rotating color disks on the wheel and the top by which an infinite variety of intermediate hues can be made and accurately named by the pupils reduces the required number of papers to those types necessary for first primary work1 and thus prepares the child for the use of pigments at an earlier age than would be possible without such color instruction4 ,the second section of the sample book contains white1 black and grays as indicated on the separating fly leaf4 ,in these the best pigmentary expression of black and white are furnished4 ,in material colors as found in industrial products1 there are various so-called blacks and whites4 ,for black there are blue-black1 green-black1 and brown-black2 and in white1 cream-white and pearl-white4 ,cream-white is a yellow-white and pearl-white a blue-white4 ,in fine white papers either blue1 red or yellow is generally added to the pulp to counteract or cover up the gray tone of the natural material4 ,the standard black here presented is the best possible pigmentary imitation of a very deep black hole1 as for example1 the projecting end of a large iron water or sewer pipe of considerable length buried in the ground1 which is the blackest thing known4 ,the white is an imitation of new-fallen snow4 ,neither of these standards can be very nearly approached although we often hear of things as white as snow and as black as night4 ,in the same group and following the black and white are two examples each of the four kinds of grays3 ,green gray1 warm gray1 cool gray and neutral gray4 ,a pure white in shadow is the true neutral gray and a perfect imitation of this is made by the rotation of combined black and white disks on the color wheel4 ,if to the black and white disks we add a blue disk we have cool grays4 ,with red1 orange or yellow the warm grays are produced1 while the use of a green disk gives green grays4 ,in the papers two tones of each gray are furnished4 ,the papers found in the first two sections comprise all the colors necessary for earliest primary color instruction1 and should become familiar to the children before explanation is made of the colors in the succeeding collections4 ,in the third section1 designated ,broken ,spectrum ,scales will be found a collection of gray colors or broken colors4 ,as has before been stated1 a broken color is a pure color mixed with a neutral gray4 ,in the combination of pigmentary colors a tint of a color is the pure color mixed with white1 a shade is the color mixed with black1 and a broken color is a pure color mixed with both black and white1 which is a neutral gray4 ,therefore if with red1 for example1 we mix a certain amount of a given neutral gray and call that the normal tone of a broken scale of red1 for the tint in that scale we must mix with the standard red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray4 ,when a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is combined with a pure color the result is a gray color1 as above described1 because the color is quite definitely retained1 but more or less modified by the gray4 ,on the other hand1 if a relatively small quantity of color is added to a neutral gray1 the resulting color is properly called a colored gray1 because it is still a gray modified by color1 and in this class we have warm grays1 cool grays1 etc41 according to the color combined with the gray4 ,the gray colors are quite generally termed broken colors and this seems a very useful practice1 because it avoids the confusion of the somewhat similar terms gray color and colored gray4 ,by reference to the ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales on ,page #da it will be seen that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each scale1 instead of eighteen scales and five tones1 as in the pure scales1 for which there is a good reason4 ,for educational purposes in the elementary grades1 which is the only place where there is a legitimate use for colored papers1 the steps in gradation of hue or tone must not be too short1 and if the saturation or intensity of the normal colors in the several scales is reduced by adding gray1 as in the broken colors1 there is not the possibility for as many steps in either hues or tones without leaving those colors adjacent to each other too nearly alike4 ,therefore in the broken colors there are but thirty-six1 instead of ninety1 as in the pure scales4 ,the distinction between pure colors with tints and shades1 and broken colors in various tones1 should be made very plain to the children whenever the subject is brought to their notice1 because it is a vital point in the classification of colors4 ,educationally this is one of the most objectionable features in the old red1 yellow and blue theory of color composition1 because no distinction is observed between pure and broken colors in classification4 ,in the ,bradley colored papers the distinction is made very decided for educational purposes1 so that no one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors from the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the formation of a spectrum4 ,this may be illustrated by a selection as follows3 ,first lay in order the normal spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first section of the sample book1 thereby forming the central vertical column of ,fig4 #aj4 ,then substitute for the orange1 green and violet1 those colors selected from the collection of broken colors1 and the result will seem to render the operation absurd1 but it is the same in principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum by the combination of three primary pigments1 red1 yellow and blue1 because so produced the orange1 green and violet1 show by disk analysis from #ed to #hj per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as the corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales1 but not exactly the same in tone4 ,engine ,colored ,papers4 ,those papers which are termed ,engine ,colored ,papers are so named from the process of manufacture as distinguished from coated papers which comprise the first three sections of the book4 ,in coated papers a white paper is covered with a coating of colored pigment fixed with a small amount of white gum1 gelatine or glue1 and in this way the pure color of the pigment is obtained4 ,in the engine colored papers the color is mixed with the paper pulp in the process of making the paper4 ,in a paper mill the tub or vat in which the pulp is kept stirred up and perfectly mixed is called the engine1 and hence this technical term has been applied to such papers as are colored in the pulp4 ,in this class of papers both sides are alike1 and for this reason in some of the folding exercises these papers are preferred1 also because they are thinner and tougher4 ,heretofore1 it has been impossible to obtain engine colored papers in families or scales1 but in this assortment the numbers from one to six1 furnish six scales of three tones each1 comprising the normal tones with tints and shades4 ,following these from seven to sixteen are a collection of unclassified colors including grays which are much used4 ,all these can be analyzed and classified by the color wheel4 ,black and white complete this class4 ,it is impossible to make any close approximation to a black in this class of papers1 as when they are compared with the coated blacks the result is a very gray black1 or very dark gray4 ,all the colors in these papers from ,no4 #a ,a to ,no4 #ac are quite light broken spectrum colors1 but less broken than the coated papers designated as broken spectrum colors4 ,while great care has been bestowed on the original selection of the colors of all these above-described papers and every effort is constantly exercised to keep them the same from year to year1 the subject is materially complicated by the guarantee required of the manufacturers that no arsenic colors shall be used in the preparation of any of the papers4 ,this guarantee is strictly insisted on1 because1 while the writer has never been able to learn of any authentic case where a child has been injured by the use of plated or glazed papers1 he believes that the opinions of parents and teachers should be respected in the matter1 although the arsenic colors are often the most permanent and the aniline substitutes which are necessarily used belong to a class which is the most fugitive of all colors4 ,the line of colored papers now in use is the result of many experiments on the part of the writer and careful tests by experienced teachers for several years1 and in its present condition affords but small indication of the time and care which has been expended on it4 ,this has been inevitable1 because the peculiar system on which the colors are based has been one of growth and the papers have been designed to afford the necessary material colors for this special scheme of instruction4 ,in preparing the tints and shades in the papers many experiments have been made to determine the true effect of light and shadow on each normal color1 and then to imitate these effects in the papers4 ,all this is independent of the professional tricks which artists use to heighten their effects1 some of which are legitimate1 while others may be questionable on sound principles4 ,it is a common habit with artists to introduce very warm effects into all sunlight by the use of orange or yellow in the warm colors4 ,this extreme tendency has been intentionally avoided in the preparation of these papers1 however desirable or allowable it may be considered in heightening effects4 ,so also in the shades as in the tints1 the aim has been to keep all the tones of one color in the same scale1 even though artists often run the various tones of the same piece of color into two or three analogous scales4 ,it is the object of color education to train the eye to see color wherever or however it may be produced1 either by actual color reflection or contrasted effects1 and in order that these effects may be understood as explained under ,simultaneous ,contrasts it is necessary that the prepared material be truthful to nature1 the more so because these effects are sometimes greatly exaggerated by artists4 ,water ,colors4 ,when the subject of color was introduced into the curriculum of the common schools of this country1 the use of paints was a novelty4 ,so little was known regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means of education1 that the teachers may be excused for having had grave doubts about the practicability of the scheme4 ,very few teachers in the lower grades of schools had received at that time any definite instruction in the harmonies of colors or the manipulation of pigments2 and what little thought had been given to the subject was based on the three-color theory of ,brewster1 which was the only one available at that time4 ,during the intervening years much has been done to make entirely feasible the introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing and educating occupation4 ,color standards have been adopted1 which are nothing less than selections from the solar spectrum itself1 and the manufacture of pigments has improved so much that it may almost be said to be a new industry4 ,in the training of teachers1 also1 color instruction is now given an important place1 so that the kindergartner and primary teacher can give the attention that it deserves to a subject which is so interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world around us4 ,passing from one form of color work to another1 it is exceedingly important that children of any grade should find the same principles obtaining in each step of the way1 and also that the knowledge gained in the earliest stages of the work should be available in the higher forms4 ,this is particularly true of color instruction as it is now found in the best schools1 and the principal reason why water colors are so much better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in former years1 is because paints are now made to correspond in color with the standards with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers and other material of the kindergarten4 ,at present it is generally conceded that these six colors1 ,red1 ,orange1 ,yellow1 ,green1 ,blue and ,violet1 which stand out so prominently in the solar spectrum1 are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as the basis of an alphabet of color4 ,there should1 therefore1 be no question as to the adoption of these same colors as the palette of paints for the earliest color work1 even with the babes in the kindergarten1 when anything beyond the colored papers and the usual kindergarten occupations is wanted4 ,not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors and let him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the relation which each color should bear to the others4 ,in fact1 with the usual cheap box of paints then in the market there was no decided correlation of the colors nor any educational selection1 both of which we have to-day4 ,water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards of the colored papers that they are of the greatest assistance in developing the sthetic taste and judgment of the pupils1 and it is remarkable how early in the training of children paints can be used with advantage4 ,in some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false theory of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 who supposed that there were three primary colors in the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced by the overlapping or mixing of these in pairs4 ,this error1 being applied to pigments1 has worked much harm and has greatly retarded the progress of color study4 ,even now some teachers recommend the use of the red1 yellow and blue palette on the ground of simplicity and economy4 ,all the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme as already exploded1 because the simplest as well as the most complex experiments with colored light prove its falsity4 ,nevertheless1 the fact that yellow and blue1 which with light make very nearly white1 do in the mixture of pigments produce a green1 has deceived many persons4 ,but the best green that can be so procured is a very broken color and not to be successfully compared with the beautiful and brilliant green of the spectrum4 ,why then1 should we not have in our paints imitations of the solar green1 orange and violet as well as the red1 yellow and blue8 ,it is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity1 and as for economy1 it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would take no more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with three4 ,oil colors1 of course1 are out of the question and pastels almost equally so1 for although full colors may be produced in both these mediums1 they are not suited to the use of young children1 and at best are neither neat nor convenient1 while colored pencils are not sufficiently satisfactory in results4 ,therefore water colors seem to be better adapted to primary work than any other pigmentary material4 ,of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he may meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to give it a definite name1 other than the one by which it is sold4 ,more than one professional artist has already worked successfully from nature in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close approximations to the six standard colors with white and a few grays4 ,a person whose color perception has been trained by the use of the color disk in six standard colors with colored papers to correspond1 will undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce the colors which he sees in nature1 on the canvas or paper by means of such a palette than if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary pigments4 ,color ,blindness4 ,the subject of color blindness has received much attention because of its practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives4 ,the use of colored lights as signals on ships and railroads has necessitated very strict regulations regarding the employment of persons whose color vision is defective1 and therefore in some states specialists have been employed by the state authorities to examine from time to time the school children regarding their perception of colors4 ,possibly this condition of things may not at present be considered a serious reflection on the methods of color instruction1 or lack of such instruction in our schools because it has become so common as to attract little attention4 ,but if it were necessary for the same course to be pursued in any other department of our public education that fact would not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary remarks regarding the methods employed4 ,for example1 if a state official were necessary to determine whether pupils are deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools1 and preliminary to accepting positions of responsibility1 it would seem that something was wrong1 and yet after a child has had instruction in color according to a logical system there should be no more necessity for an examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors than there should regarding his ability to hear4 ,color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes1 red1 green1 and violet blindness1 those afflicted with red blindness being most numerous1 and the cases of violet blindness being very rare1 if indeed there are any which may properly be so called4 ,this classification1 known as the ,holmgren system1 seems to have been based on the ,young-,helmholtz theory that all color perceptions are the result of three primary effects in the eye1 namely1 red1 green and violet1 rather than on any analytical classification of actual experiments concerning color blindness4 ,color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the brain which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of the several colors1 or in the eye1 by which he cannot see a difference between two dissimilar colors4 ,a person totally color blind would see in the solar spectrum a band of gray in various tones1 and hence if a red and a green should seem to be of the same tone of gray he would call both either red or green1 and after much experience would come to give color names to various tones of gray4 ,such cases1 however1 are exceedingly rare1 if in fact they exist4 ,other scientists and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made by both ,holmgren and ,helmholtz1 and some have made extended experiments regarding color blindness which seem to oppose the ,holmgren theory4 ,in view of these conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the elementary grades to attempt to grasp the situation very fully1 and much less to aid in the solution of the problem4 ,very fortunately this is unnecessary1 because in all the scientific tests proposed for adults nothing is accomplished which any primary school teacher will not be easily able to determine during the first two or three years of ordinary school work1 if the modern system of color instruction is pursued4 ,there is no better material than colored papers for testing the color perceptions1 and the exercises of selecting1 matching and arranging the spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in the first years of school are the very best that can be devised without regard to any of the abstract theories concerning either the cause or the possible classification of color blindness4 ,for some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a confusion between red and green1 as for example1 we are told1 by some people1 that in picking wild strawberries in a field the fruit can be distinguished from the leaves and grass only by the shape1 and the green fruit from the ripe by the touch or taste4 ,if a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name of a color it may not indicate want of color vision1 but merely inability to remember names1 and therefore various tests which will naturally suggest themselves can be made to aid in reaching a decision on this point4 ,should the results of the tests seem to indicate some defect in color vision1 the nature of the trouble should be sought and memoranda made from time to time for future reference1 and if the final result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents should be informed of the fact and a physician consulted4 ,it is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less than that of men1 and much time has been spent in debating the matter1 but some doubt remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain because the girls are brought so much more intimately into relation with colored materials in selecting their articles of dress1 and consequently come to know the names of colors much better1 and in fact enjoy a much better color education than the men4 ,a more correct decision regarding this question can better be reached when both the boys and girls receive a systematic color education and their color sense is more equally cultivated4 ,outline of a ,course in ,color ,instruction4 ,illustration ,the course of color instruction suggested in the preceding pages is not arbitrarily divided into lessons or even years1 because the conditions in the city and rural schools in the various states of this country are so varied that no uniform allotment or division of time can be suggested which will be satisfactory to all4 ,the number of hours that can be devoted to any subject must be determined by those who prepare the school programme and the progress must be more or less rapid1 with instruction correspondingly superficial or complete at each stage1 according to the time allowed1 the preparation of the teacher and the natural ability of the pupils4 ,the teaching of color is usually classed with drawing because both relate directly to art1 but inasmuch as color enters into our every day experiences so much more largely than the graphic arts there seems to be good reason for teaching it very fully where little attention is given to drawing4 ,every competent teacher can and will become expert and even enthusiastic in teaching color1 if she fully understands the system which it is the object of the foregoing pages to explain4 ,the following brief outline suggests the order in which the facts concerning color may be presented and the material which can be used in an elementary course1 beginning with the first primary grade pupils1 who for the most part have not had kindergarten training4 ,as a part of the material the ,bradley ,educational ,colored ,papers1 cut to tablets each #a x #b inches1 are prepared and put up in four small envelopes which are enclosed in one larger envelope4 ,on the larger envelope these words are printed3 ,the ,bradley ,paper ,tablets for ,primary ,color ,education1 ,selections #a1 #b1 #c1 #d for ,complete ,course4 ,the four small envelopes are labeled in this way3 ,selection ,no4 #a1 eighteen pieces from ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 the ,normal ,spectrum ,colors4 ,selection ,no4 #b1 forty pieces from ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,tint ,no4 #a and ,shades ,no4 #a1 with ,white1 ,black and ,neutral ,grays4 ,selection ,no4 #c1 forty-two pieces comprising complete ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales and ,warm1 ,cool and ,green ,grays4 ,selection ,no4 #d1 thirty-six pieces from ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,tints ,no4 #b and ,shades ,no4 #b4 ,the ,solar ,spectrum4 ,,material4 ,a ,glass ,prism1 the cost of which need not exceed a few cents1 as almost any lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose4 ,by the use of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of any schoolroom having a sunny exposure during any part of the day4 ,this spectrum will make plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many colors4 ,,method4 ,show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be produced under the controlling conditions4 ,call attention to the six colors1 red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue and violet1 and the order of their arrangement in the spectrum4 ,present the colors separately as far as possible1 selecting the best conditions available for each one4 ,pigmentary ,spectrum ,colors4 ,,material4 ,neutral gray or white card to cover desk top for a background4 ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales4 ,colored ,paper ,tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #a1 embracing the six standards and the intermediate spectrum hues1 eighteen pieces4 ,color ,wheel or ,tops4 ,,method4 ,ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum hues4 ,standards to be arranged in spectrum order4 ,teach the names of the standards4 ,test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the spectrum in the eighteen papers4 ,explain the intermediate hues by the color disks1 and drill with the tablets4 ,continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire spectrum with the papers until it is familiar to them4 ,,practical ,,occupations4 ,pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors1 on white or gray background1 with ready-cut papers4 ,marking forms from tablets and cutting and pasting them on backgrounds4 ,study of ,tones4 ,,material4 ,folding models to show light and shade4 ,crumpled satins and plushes4 ,standard color disks with white and black1 on wheel or tops4 ,paper tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #b1 ,tints ,no4 #a1 ,shades ,no4 #a1 ,white1 ,black and ,neutral ,grays4 ,,method4 ,ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors4 ,lay tints and shades of the six standards4 ,have the children complete tints and shades ,no4 #a of entire spectrum circuit4 ,illustrate neutral grays by white in shadow with folding model1 also with white and black disks combined4 ,begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color material brought by the pupils4 ,,practical ,,occupations4 ,pasting of ready-cut papers in standard and shade on a background of the tint of same scale4 ,paste designs in three tones of one scale on white or neutral gray background4 ,mat weaving in tones of one scale4 ,mat weaving in neutral gray and one or two tones of one color4 ,broken ,colors4 ,,material4 ,disks on wheel or top4 ,paper tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #c4 ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales4 ,,method4 ,illustrate broken colors by disk combinations4 ,let the pupils lay paper tablets to form ,chart of ,broken ,scales4 ,compare this chart with the ,chart of ,pure ,scales laid with the papers4 ,classifying of miscellaneous materials with reference to pure and broken colors4 ,analysis of samples of pure and broken colors in cloths and flowers4 ,,practical ,,occupations4 ,paper cutting and pasting to be continued4 ,following the broken colors in three tones which form the ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,colors1 the three kinds of colored grays1 warm1 cool and green1 may be considered preparatory to their use in contrasted effects4 ,complete ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales in ,five ,tones4 ,,material4 ,paper tablets1 ,selection ,no4 #d4 ,chart of ,spectrum ,scales in five tones may be introduced for observation when the children are able to lay it with their papers4 ,,method4 ,continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones1 as was done in the first three tones4 ,from the ,chart of ,spectrum ,scales the study and classification of harmonies can begin in a simple way4 ,from this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may be introduced at pleasure1 employing the colored papers in five tones when required4 ,advanced ,study of ,harmonies4 ,by taking advantage of the instruction imparted in a course of color study such as has been outlined in the preceding pages the pupil will be able to advance in his ability to perceive colors and to make definite analyses of colors in natural and manufactured material4 ,in this way the advanced study of harmonies can be greatly facilitated so that it will be possible for the student to apprehend and appreciate many delicate and subtle color effects in art and nature never before imagined4 ,in fact the foundation of color study will have been laid in such a logical and fascinating manner that its further advance will be but a pleasure to the pupil and teacher1 so that no arbitrary plan will be necessary1 because so many lines of work will suggest themselves to all who are interested in the subject4 ,water ,colors4 ,this outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors1 but this is not the place to give definite instructions as to their use4 ,kindergartners and primary teachers are now generally competent to direct the children in this work1 if they will avail themselves of such aid as is furnished by recently published books on the subject4 ,non-poisonous paints1 cheap and still of fair quality1 can now be obtained in standard colors and put up in various forms4 ,the moist paints in collapsible tubes are the most convenient as well as the most economical for school use4 ,this form should be accompanied by a small mixing palette containing several compartments1 which can be bought at so small a price that each pupil can have one4 ,the paint in the tubes can then be dealt out only as required for each day's use4 ,,material ,,for ,,color ,,instruction4 ,where the price is preceded by a star the article is too large to be sent by mail4 ,in other cases where no postage is given the goods are sent postpaid on receipt of price4 ,,water ,,colors4 ,in ordering it will be necessary to give only the number of the box4 ,no4 ,price #a4 ,an enameled box containing eight pans of semi-moist colors1 six ,standards and two ,grays1 one brush1 per box 4#ce #b4 ,an enameled box containing ten pans semi-moist colors1 six ,standards1 ,black1 ,white1 ,cool ,gray and ,warm ,gray1 one brush1 per box 4#ej #c4 ,same box as above1 containing five pans semi-moist colors4 ,red1 two ,yellows1 ,blue and ,gray1 one brush1 per box 4#cj #d4 ,enameled box containing four pans semi-moist colors1 ,red1 ,yellow1 ,blue and ,gray1 one brush1 per box 4#bj #e4 ,same as above1 ,red1 two ,yellows and ,blue1 per box 4#bj #f4 ,a decorated box containing eight cakes of dry colors1 six ,standards and two ,grays1 one brush1 per box 4#be #g4 ,a decorated box containing four large cakes of dry colors4 ,red1 ,yellow1 ,blue and ,gray1 one brush1 per box 4#bj #h4 ,same box as above4 ,red1 two ,yellows and ,blue1 two brushes1 per box 4#bj #i4 ,nine tubes moist colors in strong paper box4 ,six ,standards1 ,warm ,gray1 ,cool ,gray and ,black1 per set 4#ij #aj4 ,photograph ,colors4 ,a box of eight colors1 the six ,standards and a ,chinese ,white and a ,brown1 with one brush4 ,these colors are expressly prepared for coloring photographs1 half tone prints1 maps1 etc4 4#be ,bradley's ,school ,colors1 moist in ,tubes4 ,the most economical form for school use4 ,these colors are so prepared that they remain moist out of the tube4 ,the set comprises the following colors3 ,postage ,carmine1 ,crimson ,lake1 ,vermilion1 ,gamboge1 ,chinese ,yellow1 ,hooker's ,green1 ,no4 ,i1 ,hooker's ,green1 ,no4 ,,ii1 ,ultramarine1 ,prussian ,blue1 ,sepia1 ,warm ,sepia1 ,burnt ,sienna1 ,payne's ,gray1 ,ivory ,black1 ,chinese ,white and the six ,standards1 with ,warm1 ,cool and ,neutral ,gray1 ,black and ,white1 per tube 4#aj ,little ,artist's ,complete ,outfit1 comprising a ,mixing ,palette with its seven compartments filled with semi-moist colors and a brush1 the whole enclosed in a strong cardboard case 4#ae 4#jc ,,accessories4 ,standard ,mixing ,palette1 with seven compartments for paints and two for mixing4 ,almost indispensable in using tube colors4 ,extra deep1 per doz4 4#fj 4#be ,water ,cups4 ,an enameled metal cup1 practically indestructible1 per doz4 4#fj 4#ac ,camel's ,hair ,brushes1 ,quill1 per doz4 4#cj 4#jb ,camel's ,hair ,brushes1 ,long ,handles1 per doz4 4#fj 4#jc ,japanese ,school ,brushes1 per doz4 4#fj 4#je ,artists' ,camel ,hair ,brushes1 ,no4 #f1 ,wooden ,handles1 per doz4 4#ge 4#jc ,milton ,bradley ,co4's ,water ,color ,pads--,made of extra quality paper for water color work4 ,no4 #a1 ,pad of #ej sheets1 #fi1 each 4#aj 4#ji ,no4 #b1 ,pad of #be sheets1 #iab1 each 4#aj 4#aj ,,apparatus4 ,high ,school ,color ,wheel1 with ,disks in box 99#aj4jj ,one set of ,disks for above1 in box 99#b4jj ,primary ,school ,color ,wheel1 with ,disks 99#c4jj ,one set of ,disks for above in portfolio 4#ge 4#jf ,color ,top1 by mail1 each 4#jf ,color ,top1 by mail1 per doz4 4#ej ,no4 #a ,prism1 at buyer's risk 4#aj ,no4 #b ,prism1 at buyer's risk 4#ae ,no4 #c ,prism1 at buyer's risk 4#cj ,rainy ,day ,spectrum1 made from colored papers1 mounted on cardboard1 one inch by #ac1 each 4#aj 4#jd ,large ,spectrum1 #e by #cj inches1 mounted on cloth1 each 4#be 4#jd ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,no4 #a ,x1 on cardboard1 #ix#bd inches1 hinged and folded4 ,ninety papers one inch square1 each 4#ej 4#aj ,chart of ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,no4 #b ,x4 ,size1 #abx#dh1 folded and hinged4 ,ninety papers two inches square1 each 4#ge 4#ae ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales1 ,no4 #a4 ,size1 #ix#ab inches1 with paper #a-a_/b inches square1 comprising twelve scales of three tones each 4#ej 4#aj ,chart of ,broken ,spectrum ,scales1 ,no4 #b4 ,size1 #abx#dh inches1 with the same papers as ,no4 #a1 three inches square1 each 4#ge 4#ae ,chart of ,complementary ,colors4 ,on cardboard #ah inches square1 each 994#ej ,standard ,color ,chart4 ,on two cards #aax#bh inches1 hinged and eyeleted for hanging4 ,this is a combination chart comprising ,spectrum ,standards1 ,pure ,spectrum ,scales1 ,complementary ,contrasts1 ,broken ,spectrum ,scales1 and ,grays4 ,printed suggestions for using the charts on the back1 each #a4be 4#ae ,,books ,,on ,,color4 ,water ,colors in the ,schoolroom1 by ,milton ,bradley1 boards 4#be ,a new book of practical suggestions1 valuable to every one who would undertake to teach the use of water colors4 ,elementary color1 by ,milton ,bradley1 cloth 4#ge ,gives the principles on which the ,bradley ,system is based and an explanation of the use of the ,glass ,prism1 ,color ,wheel1 ,maxwell ,disks1 ,color ,top1 ,colored ,papers1 ,color ,charts and ,water ,colors4 ,the ,little ,artist by ,marion ,mackenzie1 cloth 4#ge 4#ae ,a practical book of water color work for children1 with #ab beautiful1 colored plates4 ,size of book1 #ab by #ad inches4 ,color in the ,kindergarten1 by ,milton ,bradley1 paper covers 4#be ,a manual of the theory of color and the use of color material in the ,kindergarten4 ,a ,class ,book of ,color1 by ,prof4 ,mark ,m4 ,maycock4 ,teachers' ,edition1 cloth #a4jj ,pupils' ,edition1 boards 4#ej ,a very complete teachers' handbook in color4 ,practical ,color ,work1 by ,helena ,p4 ,chace1 paper 4#be ,a handbook for the educational use of colored papers in teaching color in primary and ungraded schools4 ,the ,color ,primer1 by ,milton ,bradley1 paper4 ,teachers' ,edition1 #hj pages 4#aj ,pupils' ,edition1 #bd pages 4#je ,simple and direct teachings4 ,,miscellaneous ,,material4 ,paper ,tablets1 ,set ,no4 #a1 #ax#b in4 4#jb ,paper ,tablets1 ,set ,no4 #b1 #ax#b in4 4#jb ,paper ,tablets1 ,set ,no4 #c1 #ax#b in4 4#jc ,paper ,tablets1 ,set ,no4 #d1 #ax#b in4 4#jd ,sample ,book1 one by four inches1 containing the full assortment 4#je 4#ja ,package1 #dx#d papers1 #ajj pieces 4#bj 4#jd ,package1 #ex#e papers1 #ajj pieces 4#cj 4#je ,fun1 ,physics and ,psychology in ,color4 ,a box of material for simple experiment1 each 4#be 4#jg ,complementary ,color ,contrasts4 ,a box of large material for popular experiments in color vision1 each 4#ge 4#bj ,the ,dunn and ,curtis ,illustrative ,sewing ,cards1 in color4 ,two sets3 ,a4 ,literature ,illustration4 ,b4 ,cards for ,special ,occasions4 ,set of eight cards 4#be ,dozen of any ,design 4#dj ,,milton ,,bradley ,,company1 ,springfield1 ,mass4 ,transcriber's ,note ,italic text has been enclosed in underscores4 ,bold text has been enclosed in dollar signs4