99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the original publication has been replicated faithfully except as shown in the ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments near the end of the text4 ,to preserve the alignment of tables and headers1 this etext presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device1 such as ,courier ,new4 ,words in italics are indicated like this4 ,text emphasized with bold characters or other treatment is shown like this4 ,the footnotes section is located near the end of the text4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,from the ,london and ,country ,cookbook1 #aggj4 ,courtesy of the ,bryson ,library4 ,,foods ,,and ,,household ,,management ,a ,,textbook ,,of ,,the ,,household ,,arts ,,by ,,helen ,,kinne ,,professor ,,of ,,household ,,arts ,,education ,,and ,,anna ,m4 ,,cooley1 ,b4,s4 ,,assistant ,,professor ,,of ,,household ,,arts ,,education ,,teachers ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiah ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,january1 #aiad4 ,reprinted ,february1 ,june1 ,august1 ,october1 #aiad2 ,february1 ,june1 ,october1 #aiae2 ,april1 ,august1 #aiaf2 ,may1 #aiag2 ,january1 #aiah4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4----,berwick ,smith ,co4 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,this volume1 like its companion1 ,shelter and ,clothing1 is intended for use in the course in household arts in the high school and normal school1 whether the work be vocational or general in its aim4 ,it is hoped that both volumes will prove useful in the home as well1 including as they do a treatment of the homecrafts1 and the related topics now so significant to the home maker1----the cost and purchasing of foods and clothing1 the cost of operating1 the management of the home1 and questions of state and city sanitation vital to the health of the individual family4 ,the volume treats specifically of foods1 their production1 sanitation1 cost1 nutritive value1 preparation1 and serving1 these topics being closely interwoven with the practical aspects of household management1 and they are followed by a study of the household budget and accounts1 methods of buying1 housewifery1 and laundering4 ,it includes about #afj carefully selected and tested recipes1 together with a large number of cooking exercises of a more experimental nature designed to develop initiative and resourcefulness4 ,shelter and ,clothing deals with the organization and ideals of the home1 house sanitation1 decoration1 and furnishing2 and treats in full1 textiles1 sewing1 costume design1 and dressmaking4 ,some of the recipes here given are adapted from those of such authorities as ,mrs4 ,lincoln1 ,miss ,farmer1 and ,miss ,barrows1 and others are original and from private sources4 ,the authors are glad to acknowledge their indebtedness to those who have read and criticized the manuscript3 ,professor ,mary ,swartz ,rose of ,teachers ,college1 for her criticism and contributions to the book2 ,miss ,l4 ,ray ,balderston1 of ,teachers ,college1 for reading the chapters on ,housewifery and ,laundering2 ,professor ,may ,b4 ,van ,arsdale1 of ,teachers ,college1 for reading the chapters on ,food2 ,professor ,van ,arsdale1 ,miss ,bertha ,e4 ,shapleigh1 and ,miss ,mary ,h4 ,peacock for their assistance in arranging for photographs2 ,miss ,laura ,b4 ,whittemore1 formerly of ,teachers ,college1 and ,miss ,amy ,l4 ,logan of the ,horace ,mann ,school for criticizing the manuscript from the point of view of the high school teacher2 and also ,professor ,hermann ,vult for his kind assistance4 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,teachers ,the topics in this volume are so arranged that they can be followed in sequence as the course of study develops through the year1 with such modifications as seem necessary to the teacher in order that the work may best meet the needs of the pupils4 ,the practice has become quite general of beginning the practical work in the autumn with the preparation and preservation of fruit1 especially for those pupils who have had previous work in foods2 and this plan commends itself as being seasonable and as making an appeal to the interest of the pupils4 ,the opening chapters furnish material that is in part preliminary and that may also be studied as the practical work progresses from ,chapter ,v onward4 ,the preparation of a meal need not be deferred until all types of dishes have been cooked singly1 as it is possible to prepare a luncheon box1 to set an invalid tray1 or to serve a simple breakfast quite early in the course1 provided the equipment permits4 ,if the school program allows1 it is well to give a period to recitation at stated intervals1 which would include a discussion of the text and of problems that arise from the laboratory work4 ,the cost of food is a topic to be borne in mind throughout the year4 ,it is an excellent plan for the pupils to record the current prices of each food material as it is used1 and the cost of a given dish for a given number of people1 the topic culminating in a detailed discussion when the chapter on the cost of food is read4 ,a similar method may be pursued in connection with the nutritive values of food1 the theme developing from lesson to lesson1 until the pupils are ready for the chapter on menus and dietaries4 ,an occasional lesson on housewifery or laundering may be introduced from time to time1 if a complete sequence of lessons on these topics does not seem practicable2 and through the year the pupils may be encouraged to keep simple accounts for themselves and in connection with the supplies of the school kitchen4 ,those teachers are fortunate who may coperate with a school lunch room1 thus affording their pupils opportunity for dealing with practical administrative and economic problems4 ,the way in which the topics are used must of necessity vary with the previous experience of the pupils1 whether or not they have had cookery1 chemistry1 and physiology1 and the teacher will use the exercises at the end of the chapters with freedom1 omitting some questions1 and adding others as the need arises4 ,the following references will prove useful to teachers in developing the different topics of the volume3---- ,laboratory ,handbook for ,dietetics----,mary ,s4 ,rose4 ,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition----,sherman4 ,food ,products----,sherman4 ,science of ,nutrition----,lusk4 ,the ,world's ,commercial ,products----,freeman and ,chandler4 ,elementary ,household ,chemistry----,snell4 ,nutritional ,physiology----,stiles4 ,household ,bacteriology----,buchanan4 ,bacteria1 ,yeasts1 and ,molds in the ,home----,conn4 ,microbiology----,marshall4 ,household ,physics----,lynde4 ,selection and ,preparation of ,food----,bevier and ,van ,meter4 ,principles of ,cookery----,anna ,m4 ,barrows4 ,technique of ,cookery----,m4 ,b4 ,van ,arsdale4 ,cost of ,living----,ellen ,h4 ,richards4 ,cost of ,food----,ellen ,h4 ,richards4 ,cost of ,shelter----,ellen ,h4 ,richards4 ,cost of ,cleanness----,ellen ,h4 ,richards4 ,standards of ,living----,chapin4 ,the ,new ,housekeeping----,frederick4 ,increasing ,home ,efficiency----,martha ,b4 and ,robert ,w4 ,bruere4 ,household ,hygiene----,s4 ,maria ,elliott4 ,household ,management----,bertha ,e4 ,terrill4 ,the ,new ,hostess of ,today----,larned4 ,laundry ,manual----,balderston and ,limerick4 ,bulletins of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,contents ,,foods ,,and ,,household ,,management ,,chapter ,i ,,food ,,materials ,,and ,,foodstuffs ,,page ,what ,food is----,vegetable and ,animal ,foods----,foodstuffs----,elements in ,foodstuffs----,foodstuffs in ,nutrition----,food ,adjuncts #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,,kitchen ,,furnishings ,plans of ,kitchens----,materials for ,floors and ,walls----,the ,table----,the ,cupboard----,the ,refrigerator----,the ,sink----,the ,hot ,water ,supply----,the ,utensils----,care of the ,kitchen #ae ,,chapter ,,iii ,,fuels ,,and ,,stoves ,economy of ,fuel----,the ,common ,fuels----,electricity for ,cooking----,cooking ,apparatus for all ,fuels----,how to ,operate----,cost of ,operating #cc ,,chapter ,,iv ,,food ,,preparation ,the ,principles of ,cooking----,the ,technique of ,cooking----,care of ,food in the ,house----,the ,processes of ,food ,preparation----,how to study a ,recipe----,weighing and ,measuring----,preparing and ,mixing----,cooking ,processes----,disposal of ,waste ,food #ed ,,chapter ,v ,,water ,,and ,,other ,,beverages ,the ,functions of ,water in ,nutrition----,uses in ,cookery----,fruit ,beverages----,cocoa1 ,coffee1 and ,tea #gj ,,chapter ,,vi ,,fruit ,,and ,,its ,,preservation ,composition and ,food ,value----,principles of ,preparation----,molds1 ,yeasts1 and ,bacteria----,methods of ,preservation and ,preparation #hg ,,chapter ,,vii ,,vegetables ,,and ,,vegetable ,,cookery ,composition and ,nutritive ,value----,how to ,buy----,principles and ,methods of ,preparation #aji ,,chapter ,,viii ,,cereal ,,products ,the ,manufactured ,forms----,an ,economic ,food----,the ,pure ,starches---- ,principles and ,methods of ,preparation #abf ,,chapter ,,ix ,,eggs1 ,,milk1 ,,and ,,cheese ,comparative ,study of their ,nutritive ,values----,fresh and ,cold-storage ,eggs----,clean ,milk----,cheese a ,meat ,substitute----,principles and ,methods of ,preparation #ach ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,fats ,,and ,,the ,,sugars ,comparison of ,cost of ,fat ,foods----,fats and ,sugars the ,fuel ,foods---- ,amounts to be taken ,daily----,effect of ,heat upon ,them----,their ,uses in ,cookery #aeh ,,chapter ,,xi ,,muffins1 ,,biscuit1 ,,cake1 ,,and ,,pastry ,ingredients and ,proportions----,leavening ,agents----,tests for ,baking---- ,experiments and ,methods #aga ,,chapter ,,xii ,,yeast ,,bread ,importance of ,yeast ,bread----,manufacture of ,flour----,experiments with ,yeast----,ingredients1 ,proportions1 and ,making----,comparison of ,homemade and ,baker's ,bread #ahg ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,meats ,,and ,,poultry ,values in the ,diet----,quality and ,cost----,cuts of ,meat----,principles and ,methods of ,cooking----,poultry----,principles and ,methods of ,cooking #bji ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,fish ,,and ,,shellfish ,protection of the ,fish ,supply----,comparison of ,nutritive ,values----,varieties and ,seasons----,methods of ,preparation and ,serving #bca ,,chapter ,,xv ,,salads ,,and ,,desserts ,their ,place in the ,menu----,materials ,used----,methods of ,preparation---- ,garnishing and ,serving #bdg ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,preparation ,,of ,,meals ,,and ,,table ,,service ,preparing a ,meal on ,time----,serving and ,garnishing ,dishes----,table ,equipment----,setting the ,table----,duties of the ,waitress #bfe ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,cost ,,and ,,the ,,purchase ,,of ,,food ,permanent and ,variable ,factors affecting the ,price of ,food----,what is ,cheap ,food----,cost and ,nutritive ,value----,adulterations1 ,misbranding1 and ,preservatives----,the ,pure ,food ,laws----,what to select and avoid in ,shops and ,markets #bgh ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,menus ,,and ,,dietaries ,food ,requirements for ,energy and ,growth----,meals2 the ,number1 ,amount of ,food1 and ,regularity----,balanced ,meals----,uses of the #ajj-;,calorie ,portions----,making of ,menus----,relation of ,nutrition to ,cost #bie ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,household ,,budget ,divisions of the ,income----,expenditures for ,food1 ,shelter1 ,clothing1 and ,operating ,expenses----,savings and ,allowances----,typical ,budgets #cba ,,chapter ,,xx ,,system ,,in ,,management ,business ,equipment----,keeping ,accounts----,methods of ,payment----,the ,bank ,account and ,check ,book #ccb ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,how ,,to ,,buy ,rules for ,good ,buying----,shopping ,methods----,bargain ,sales1 ,trading ,stamps and ,prizes----,purchasing of ,clothing and ,household ,textiles #cdb ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,housewifery ,equipment and ,materials for ,cleaning----,methods of ,cleaning----,care of ,rooms----,household ,insects----,precautions against ,fire----,household ,repairs #ceb ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,laundering ,,and ,,dry ,,cleansing ,principles of ,washing and ,ironing----,hard and ,soft ,water and ,detergents----,laundry ,equipment----,order of ,work----,methods of ,washing and ,ironing----,public ,laundries----,economics of ,laundering #cfe ,,appendix #chc ,,index #cia ,,foods ,,and ,,household ,,management ,,chapter ,i ,,food ,,materials ,,and ,,foodstuffs ,food problems4----8,what shall ,i plan for the three meals80 is a question as new each day as the day itself4 ,that many women ask it1 and are glad for an answer or a suggestion is proved by a glance at the daily or weekly paper or woman's magazine1 whose publishers know that it pays to print menus innumerable4 ,indeed1 the daily press is full of signs that the food problem is an acute one1 for the current joke about food prices1 the accounts of boycotts by housekeepers1 popular articles on nutrition and pure foods1 and the records of state and national legislation1 all show that as a nation we are awake and seeking a way out of our present difficulties4 ,doubtless1 the housekeeper has always found the task of supplying food to her family one of the most perplexing1 but modern conditions have made the difficulties manifold when contrasted with olden times4 ,a pretty picture of household management in seventeenth century ,england is drawn by ,sir ,walter ,scott in 8,peveril of the ,peak40 ,the lord of the castle has invited the village people to a great feast in celebration of the restoration of ,charles the ,second1 and ,lady ,peveril finds her larder rather low4 ,to be sure1 there are carp in the pond1 and deer in the park1 but the beef question is puzzling1 for the steward does not wish to kill his choice steer4 ,then appear in the courtyard two fine oxen1 and several wethers1 or sheep1 gifts from a neighbor1 and the menu is complete4 ,lady ,peveril is described as an excellent housekeeper1 and doubtless felt burdened by many cares1 but how different were her problems from ours1 and how simple by comparison6 ,beef trusts and the high price of beef1 tuberculous cattle1 unsanitary transportation and markets were not factors in her problem4 ,in her day1 and in the time of our grandmothers1 less variety in diet was possible1 and less expected except on state occasions2 food was not transported over great distances1 and the cost was not so much out of proportion to the average income4 ,now every large city1 and even the small town1 is the market of the world4 ,we have long been accustomed to the importation of oranges and lemons1 and dried fruits from distant lands2 but now we have peaches and pears from ,south ,africa1 melons from ,spain1 pineapples from the ,azores1 hothouse grapes from ,england1 and apples from ,australia1 and in #aiac1 we read of the shipment of beef from ,argentina4 ,in our own country1 early fruits and vegetables travel from the south to the north1 so that the season of some foods is long extended4 ,the large amount of canned food also does away with the natural limits of the season1 and this is further affected by cold storage4 ,both the quality and the cost of food are modified by these new methods of commerce1 and furthermore1 modern methods of manufacture have changed the quality4 ,in an ideal community these changes would be for the better1 but manufacturers often think more of their own profit than of the quality of their goods1 and as a result adulterations have crept in1 making necessary the enactment and enforcement of pure food laws4 ,this is by no means so simple a matter as it seems1 for we must first understand what pure food really is4 ,instinct guides somewhat in the selection of food where conditions of living are simple4 ,under more complex conditions there must be a scientific study of the whole situation in order that the individual may cope with it4 ,then1 too1 with such a variety of foods from which to select1 it is easy to be tempted beyond our means1 and to disregard the simple and the wholesome4 ,we know that it is easy to develop a taste for some one food in excess1 as for instance1 sweets or dishes rich in fat and too highly flavored1 and the physician adds his word here to the plea for a study of food and its functions4 ,the conclusion is this1 that the housekeeper who has the welfare of her family at heart will not confine her interest in food to cooking processes and new recipes4 ,good cooks we must have1 and our standard of cooking could easily be raised4 ,but other facts about food are important to-day1 and as we learn to prepare and serve food daintily1 we must study such topics as the following3 ,what food is1 its composition and how it nourishes us2 how it is manufactured and transported2 8pure food02 sanitary and convenient markets2 the cost of food and how to buy2 principles of food preparation2 suitable combinations and amounts of food4 ,these topics are all treated in this volume1 and should be considered as important as the actual preparation of food4 ,,food ,,materials ,what is food8----,this would seem to be a difficult question to answer as we look about a modern grocery or market with its bewildering assortment of foods4 ,it seems hardly possible to describe such a variety of articles in a brief sentence1 or to find a definition that will apply to all4 ,yet we seem to know instinctively what food is1 although we may not find it easy to give a definition4 ,even the lower animals are guided in selecting food by some natural instinct and seldom make a mistake4 ,a widely used government bulletin gives this definition3 8,food is that which taken into the body builds tissue or yields energy or does both40 ,probably we have learned this in our physiology1 and admit it to be true1 but for practical purposes1 we need a more complete statement than this4 ,let us carefully determine what our foods really are1 and what elements they contain1 in order that we may select wisely for purposes of nutrition1 and also that we may learn how to prepare food materials in a way that will utilize everything in them and waste nothing4 ,vegetable and animal foods4----,it is easy to divide food materials in a general way into those derived from the vegetable kingdom and those derived from the animal kingdom4 ,in the vegetable group we have first1 the different parts of many plants1 and second1 substances manufactured from plants4 ,while we do not usually eat the whole of any one plant1 yet there is not any part of the plant that we have not adopted as food4 ,we use roots and tubers in beets1 carrots1 and potatoes1 and the onion is a bulb4 ,in celery and asparagus we eat the plant stalk4 ,plant leaves give us lettuce and other salads1 cabbage and the like4 ,peas and beans and nuts are seeds1 and cauliflower is a part of the flower4 ,the fruit as a whole is familiar in many forms4 ,manufactured vegetable food materials include flour1 meals1 breakfast cereals1 starch1 sugar1 molasses and sirups4 ,the animal kingdom gives us the flesh of animals1 fish and shell fish1 and substances derived from animals1 like eggs1 milk1 and the milk products1 cream1 butter1 and cheese4 ,these materials vary so much in appearance that they would seem to have nothing in common4 ,if1 however1 we compare the food of different animals and different races of men1 we cannot but conclude that this is a mistaken judgment4 ,we find an animal like the lion feeding entirely upon the flesh of other animals1 and a strong creature like the ox1 eating nothing but grass and grain4 ,we also note that one race of men includes meat in its diet1 and another subsists almost entirely upon vegetable food1 such as rice and beans4 ,yet in both cases1 these diverse kinds of food accomplish the same end1----body building and the supplying of energy4 ,let us study two common foods1 from the two kingdoms1 and see if through this study we can discover in what ways they are alike4 ,comparison of milk and beans4----,a moment's thought enables us to see that in milk we have a food that must have all the elements needed in nutrition1 since it is the only food taken by many young animals4 ,the baby and the young calf find in it everything that is needed to build the growing body1 and to give them energy4 ,if you see a young calf frisking about the field1 you can appreciate how well his food supplies his needs4 ,a simple experiment will help us to find some of the substances contained in milk4 ,let the milk stand until the cream rises on the top4 ,skim the cream1 warm it slightly and beat it with an egg beater4 ,butter will soon 8come10 and butter1 we know1 is a form of fat4 ,warm a pint of the skimmed milk1 add to it a dissolved rennet tablet1 and set it in a warm place4 ,in a short time1 the milk becomes solidified to a consistency like that of jelly4 ,if allowed to stand longer1 a watery liquid will separate itself from the solid portion4 ,these are the 8curds and whey0 that result1 also1 from the souring of milk4 ,the whey can be squeezed out of the curd1 leaving it quite dry4 ,we have now found at least three constituents of milk1----water1 fat1 and curd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4----;,composition of milk4 #a4 ,whole milk4 #b4 ,water4 #c4 ,fat4 #d4 ,protein4 #e4 ,carbohydrate4 #f4 ,mineral matter or ash4 ,courtesy of ,president ,gulliver1 ,rockford ,college4 ,you may then surmise from the sweet taste of milk that sugar is present2 the chemist knows how to obtain it in pure form as 8sugar of milk40 ,the chemist also finds certain mineral substances which remain behind when all the water is evaporated and the curds and sugar burned away4 ,these mineral substances are spoken of by the chemist as 8ash10 because this is what remains after burning the other portions of a food material1 as ashes remain from a wood fire4 ,figure #a shows you these substances in the amounts in which each occurs in a pint of milk4 ,the sugar is one of a class of substances to which the chemist gives the name carbohydrate4 ,to the substance in the curd that is different from all the other substances in the milk the name 8protein0 is given4 ,we will now turn to the composition of beans1 for in beans we find food stored up to nourish the young plant1 which we1 also1 appropriate as food4 ,the composition of both the milk and the beans is given in this table4 ,compare also ,figures #ce and #da4 ,composition of ,milk and ,beans ,,water ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbohydrate ,,ash ,,food ,,materials ,,per ,,cent,,per ,,cent,,per ,,cent ,,per ,,cent ,,per ,,cent ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,milk #hg4j #c4c #d4j #e4j #j4g ,beans1 dried #ab4f #bb4e #a4h #ei4f #c4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,notice that the substances in the beans are the same in general nature as those in the milk1 although the amounts are different4 ,the water that the young plant needs is1 of course1 supplied from the earth4 ,there is another difference to note although this is not shown in the table2 in the beans the carbohydrate is of two kinds1 sugar and starch4 ,,foodstuffs#a ,all the varieties of food with which we are supplied will be found to contain some of these substances3 protein1 fat1 carbohydrate1 mineral matter1 water2 and to these we give the name foodstuffs4 ,some food materials 7like the milk and beans just studied7 contain all the foodstuffs1 some only one1 as in the case of sugar4 ,we can now define food as something that contains one or more of the substances known as foodstuffs4 ,but what are the foodstuffs themselves8 ,elements in the foodstuffs4----,although we are not chemists1 and may not even have taken a course in chemistry1 yet through our nature study or physiology lessons1 we are familiar with the fact that all the materials about us1 including our own bodies and our food1 are made up of simple substances that we call 8elements40 ,we know1 for instance1 that coal is chiefly carbon1 and we are familiar with such substances as sulphur1 calcium1 phosphorus1 and iron4 ,we know that the air contains oxygen1 which we inhale1 and that we breathe out a combination of carbon and oxygen called 8carbon dioxide40 ,since our bodies are composed of these and other elements1 these elements must be supplied by our foods1 and therefore1 the foodstuffs in turn are composed of these same elements4 ,proteins1 fats1 and carbohydrates all contain large amounts of carbon1 and on this account are called fuel foods4 ,but proteins are distinguished because they contain nitrogen in addition1 which is found in no other foodstuff4 ,sulphur1 too1 we get only from protein1 but we need less of it than of nitrogen1 so we think about the nitrogen and let the sulphur take care of itself4 ,the nitrogen that we draw in from the air with every breath1 we breathe out again without being able to use it4 ,this element is necessary to every living cell1 but we can make it ours only through our protein food4 ,nitrogen is cheapest when obtained from the grains1 from dried beans and peas4 ,we pay a higher price for it in milk1 eggs1 fish1 meat1 and nuts4 ,carbon1 which is found in all foodstuffs except water and some kinds of mineral matter1 costs much less1 especially when we take it in the form of carbohydrates such as starches and sugars4 ,oxygen is also abundant in our foods1 but we get it even more cheaply in water and by breathing it in from the air4 ,phosphorus1 iron1 and calcium are very important elements1 but we do not need them in very large quantities4 ,we can get them cheaply in whole grains1 peas and beans1 some fruits and green vegetables1 but they are worth paying for in milk and eggs4 ,the elements last mentioned are present in the food partly as constituents of certain proteins and fats1 partly as mineral salts4 ,other elements found as mineral matter are sodium and chlorine 7which we take as common salt71 potassium1 magnesium1 and traces of iodine and fluorine4 ,these are all necessary to keep our bodies in good working order4 ,we shall see later how to select our food materials so as to have all the different elements in the foodstuffs present in sufficient amounts4 ,,functions ,,of ,,the ,,foodstuffs ,food for energy4----,the first requirement of the body is for fuel1 because it has a great deal of work to do4 ,even when one lies perfectly quiet and appears to be resting1 the heart is working to keep up the circulation of the blood1 the chest and diaphragm muscles are working to maintain the oxygen supply to the lungs1 the alimentary tract is moving food material along1 working to digest it and get rid of waste1 and the skeletal muscles are being held up to 8tone0 so as to be ready for further action4 ,all this work that we scarcely realize1 may be called involuntary4 ,to it we may add all sorts of voluntary movements1 from simply speaking a word to turning somersaults or lifting heavy weights4 ,all work involves energy1 which we can obtain only from the fuel foods1 proteins1 fats1 and carbohydrates4 ,energy takes different forms4 ,our supply comes from the sun in the forms of heat and light1 and plants store it up in the form of chemical energy when they build carbohydrates1 fats1 and proteins4 ,this may be changed into the forms of work or of heat when we eat the food4 ,whenever an attempt is made to change chemical energy to work1 some of it will change to heat4 ,so in our bodies1 the fuel foods1 which enable us to do both involuntary and voluntary work1 furnish heat at the same time1 to keep our bodies warm4 ,when we are too cold1 we can shiver or run or jump1 and thus1 by doing more work1 get more heat too4 ,the unit of fuel value4----,in our studies of food materials1 we must find out just how much energy1 or working power1 can be obtained from each kind4 ,we must have a measure of energy or fuel value2 and just as the inch is a measure of length1 and the pound of weight1 so the ,calorie serves as a measure of fuel value4 ,this unit#b measures energy as heat1 being the amount of heat required to raise #a kilogram of water #a ,c4 7or #a pound of water about #d ,f471 but we can express it also as work1 being sufficient energy to raise a #a-pound weight #cjhg feet into the air 7or #a ton about #a-a_/b feet7 if it were possible to convert it into mechanical work without loss4 ,by burning foods in pure oxygen in a vessel placed in water so that all the heat is given off to the water1 and then noting the change in temperature of the water1 it is possible to find out just how much energy each will yield4 ,such a device is called a calorimeter4 ,in the body there is usually a small portion of each kind of foodstuff which escapes digestion1 and protein is not quite so completely burned as in the calorimeter4 ,when allowance for the probable loss is made1 the energy values of the fuel foodstuffs are as follows3 ,protein #d ,calories per gram or #ahad per pound4 ,fat #i ,calories per gram or #djhb per pound4 ,carbohydrate #d ,calories per gram or #ahad per pound4 ,the standard portion4----,knowing the composition of any food material1 it is possible from these figures to calculate the total fuel value1 or we can refer to tables in which this has been calculated1 and save ourselves labor4 ,for comparison of different foods the ,standard1 or #ajj-;,calorie1 ,portion is used1 as this corresponds very closely with the amount of food for a single serving in many cases4 ,in the sections treating of different foods the ,standard ,portion will be stated4 ,food for body building4----,every living cell has a little life history of its own1 and constantly demands a certain amount of new material to replace old which it has worn out4 ,besides this1 old cells die1 and new ones have to be made to replace them4 ,hence even a full-grown person needs building material1 and much more is required in proportion when the person is growing and perhaps adding several ounces a week to his weight4 ,the foodstuffs which have especial value as building material are protein and mineral matter4 ,food for body regulating4----,to help in the digestion of food1 to keep the blood in proper condition1 the muscles supple1 and all the processes of the body at their best1 ash constituents and water in the diet are necessary4 ,a tabular summary of the functions of the foodstuffs and an outline of the changes which take place in digestion will be found in the appendix4 ,we are now able to give a more complete answer to our question1 8,what is ,food80 ,food has been said to be that which taken into the body builds tissue or yields energy1 or both4 ,the food as a whole must contain all the chemical elements needed by the body1 these elements being supplied in substances known as foodstuffs1 viz41 protein1 fat1 carbohydrates1 mineral matter or ash1 water4 ,to be a food1 a substance must contain one or all of the foodstuffs4 ,it must be noted here that our food materials as bought1 contain inedible matter1 as in the shells of eggs1 the bone of meat1 the skins and pods of vegetables4 ,moreover1 the fiber that we eat in vegetable foods is not digested under ordinary circumstances1 but seems rather to serve a useful purpose in giving bulk to our foods4 ,food adjuncts4----,in preparing foods for the table1 we have the habit of adding substances to develop or give flavor4 ,with the exception of sugar1 which we use largely for its agreeable taste1 these substances have no nutritive value4 ,they are not hurtful unless used in excess1 although pepper and other spices sometimes disturb digestion4 ,pepper1 too1 irritates a delicate throat4 ,only a few flavors are really detected by the sense of taste4 ,these are salt1 sugar1 acids1 and bitter flavors2 and something in the spices that gives a sensation hard to describe1 but is unmistakable in an overdose of mustard or horse-radish4 8,pungent0 describes such a flavor4 ,the other flavors are really odors1 and are detected by the sense of smell4 ,have you not at some time seemed to lose the sense of taste when suffering from a severe cold in the head8 ,yet even then you could taste sugar1 salt1 vinegar1 and feel the pungency of pepper4 ,these other flavors or odors are due to a volatile oil in the flavoring material1 that is1 an oil that readily evaporates1 especially when heated1 as distinguished from the non-volatile oils and fats like olive oil and butter4 ,this is a practical bit of knowledge in our cookery1 for whatever passes off as fragrance during the cooking process1 is lost as flavor4 ,for instance1 to cook vanilla essence in a soft custard is equivalent to throwing most of it away4 ,salt4----,a mineral substance that develops other flavors4 ,it should not be used in excess4 ,a small amount is desirable even in sweet dishes4 ,acids4----,vinegar1 lemon juice1 and juices of other sour fruits4 ,these are pleasing in themselves1 and in small quantities develop other flavors and give a certain brightness of taste4 ,they are used with meat and fish1 and in sweet dishes4 ,spices4----,red1 black1 and white pepper1 cinnamon1 cloves1 allspice1 nutmeg1 mace1 and ginger are examples4 ,they are made from the seeds of certain plants1 used whole or ground4 ,stick cinnamon is a layer of a stem4 ,ginger is a root4 ,herbs4----,thyme1 mint1 sweet marjoram1 summer savory are the leaves of old-fashioned pot herbs1 used either fresh or dried4 ,there were many others used in olden days that are not common now1 such as sweet basil and pot marigold4 ,a quite complete list will be found nowadays in any good seed catalogue4 ,these herbs are used with meat dishes4 ,vegetable flavors4----,celery seeds and stalks1 onions1 leek and garlick1 carrots and turnips1 all contain flavoring oils1 and we use them for their flavors in small portions1 in meat dishes4 ,essences4----,the oils of vanilla1 bitter almonds1 lemon and orange peel are dissolved in alcohol1 and used in liquid form in cakes and desserts4 ,violet leaves and violet essence are sometimes used1 but are a fad as a flavor4 ,rose water made from rose leaves is an old-fashioned flavoring1 used infrequently now in blancmanges4 ,the fresh leaf of a rose geranium gives a pleasing flavor1 for occasional use4 ,chocolate1 coffee1 and tea are used for flavorings as well as for beverages4 ,coloring substances4----,these come of many colors made from aniline dyes1 and while probably not often hurtful1 they should be used only in sweets and candies1 and very seldom1 if ever4 ,it is better to depend on natural fruit coloring when color is wanted4 ,the fine art of cooking is to develop the natural flavor of each foodstuff by the proper application of heat1 and never to use these condiments and flavorings in excess4 ,the artist in cookery has a gift for flavoring1 somewhat as the painter has for color4 ,beverages4----,the dictionary defines 8beverage0 as 8drink of any kind40 ,the word is used in different forms in several languages and is traced back to the ,latin bibere1 to drink4 ,the common beverages will be studied in detail in connection with their preparation4 ,they have slight nutritive value1 save for the added milk1 cream1 and sugar4 ,cocoa and chocolate contain fat1 and so have to be classed as foods4 ,milk is not a beverage1 strictly speaking1 but a food1 and should be counted as a part of a meal4 ,,exercises #a4 ,state the important topics in the study of foods4 #b4 ,explain the difference between a 8food material0 and a 8foodstuff40 #c4 ,what are the important elements in protein1 fat1 and carbohydrates8 #d4 ,what food materials are rich in protein8 ,in fat8 ,in carbohydrate8 ,in mineral matter8 #e4 ,explain the meaning and use of the 8,calorie40 #f4 ,state the functions of food4 #g4 ,what is a food adjunct8 #h4 ,what is the waste material in food8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,kitchen ,,furnishings ,there is no more attractive room than a well-fitted kitchen1 shining with cleanliness2 and the kitchen furnishings should have their fair share of the money spent in buying furniture for the house4 ,a spotless cleanliness is the standard for the kitchen1 and all the equipment should be selected with the thought of making cleanliness easily possible4 ,next in order is forethought in securing the comfort and convenience of the worker4 ,plan of the kitchen4----,here the motto should be 8,save steps40 ,how many weary miles do women walk within their kitchen walls because the sink1 the stove1 the refrigerator and the closets for food and dishes are put in to fit the spaces allowed by the windows and doors1 with no thought of the rapid and easy dispatch of work4 ,figure #b shows the plan of a kitchen1 of the 8buffet0 type1 suitable for a small home or apartment4 ,as this plan is drawn it would be necessary to use either electric apparatus1 or a small gas stove upon one of the tables4 ,a large gas stove could stand in place of the table at 7#a71 or against the wall at 7#b71 pushing the table at 7#c7 nearer the door4 ,the cupboards at 7#d7 and 7#e7 should be raised1 leaving table space at both the right and left of the sink4 ,notice that the ice box is in the entry1 and also that there is a cupboard that could be used for food4 ,the china cupboard is conveniently near in the dining-room4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4----,plan of a small kitchen4 ,courtesy of the ,house ,beautiful4 ,figure #c shows a larger kitchen1 with a serving room between it and the dining-room4 ,the ice box is in the outer wall and is filled from the outside4 ,the cupboard at 7#a7 could hold the cooking utensils1 as it stands conveniently between the sink and the range4 ,a kitchen as large as this should have a small table on rollers for carrying food materials and utensils back and forth4 ,if you have ever visited the kitchen in a dining-car you will realize that compactness is one of the advantages of the small kitchen over the large1 although the latter may be better ventilated and cooler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4----,plan of a larger kitchen4 ,courtesy of the ,house ,beautiful4 ,furnishing the kitchen4----,the walls and floors1 and even the ceiling1 should be washable4 ,a tiled wall is as easy to wash as a china dish1 but the expense is prohibitive in many cases4 ,table oilcloth for wall and ceiling is very satisfactory2 next to this in desirability is paint1 and for the last choice a washable paper4 ,this paper will bear scarcely more than a damp cloth for cleansing purposes1 however4 ,avoid cracks and crevices in the woodwork1 having all surfaces as plain as possible4 ,the best floor is one covered with an inlaid linoleum1 which gives warmth and comfort to the foot1 is easy to clean1 and wears for many years 7,fig4 #d74 ,it should be cemented down at the edges that no dust may collect4 ,the first cost is rather high1 but it pays in the end4 ,a hardwood floor of maple or yellow pine is also satisfactory4 ,tiling is the cleanest of all floorings1 but is very fatiguing to the worker4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4----;,a kitchen corner4 ,courtesy of the ,department of ,household ,science and ,art1 ,pratt ,institute4 ,enamel-paint makes a smooth finish for the woodwork4 ,in the kitchen of the future1 which will be fireproof1 steel fittings will probably take the place of all wood4 ,have harmonious colors in the kitchen4 ,decide upon a cheerful color scheme1 and carry it out in all the fittings4 ,one most attractive kitchen is furnished in soft brown and buff1 with a touch of blue in the linoleum on the floor4 ,figure #d shows the interior of a small kitchen1 practical for a family of six or eight4 ,the curtain at the window1 which gives a touch of daintiness1 is of a washable material4 ,figure #e shows a much larger kitchen1 with two sinks1 and a work-table in the center4 ,see how conveniently the refrigerator is placed for serving1 and for returning food from the serving room to the refrigerator4 ,the vegetable sink is near the stove1 and the utensils1 too1 are near by4 ,a rolling table is seen at the left4 ,no plan can be drawn that would be perfect in all situations4 ,if you ever have the opportunity to plan your own kitchen1 decide just what you want it to contain1 and then plan the places for each article4 ,sometimes there are too many drawers and shelves1 and these not of the right size or position4 ,the kitchen table4----,the table should have a top with room for food materials and utensils to stand in neat order without crowding4 ,glass is the cleanest top1 painted steel and hard maple coming next in order4 ,have some arrangement of shelves and drawers that small utensils and some food materials may be always at hand4 ,figure #f shows a kitchen 8cabinet0 of painted steel with such conveniences4 ,notice the bin for flour1 and the inverted jar for sugar1 both with an opening at the bottom4 ,spices and flavorings and materials needed in small quantities are kept in jars on the shelves4 ,the cupboard and drawers beneath will hold small utensils1 towels1 and whatever proves to be needed close by4 ,several makes of such cabinets are now on sale4 ,a flat-topped table for a large kitchen1 ,fig4 #e1 could have drawers and cupboards below4 ,if the outlay for a cabinet seems too great1 the bins for sugar and flour may be purchased separately and fastened on the wall above the table1 and one or two shelves screwed on the wall for the jars1 with hooks fastened in underneath on which a few small utensils may be hung4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4----;,a well-equipped kitchen4 ,courtesy of the ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,co4 ,a small rolling table may be made inexpensively by putting castors on a light table costing not more than a dollar4 ,put table oilcloth over the top4 ,this is a great convenience in many ways4 ,the height of the table should be such that the worker is not fatigued by bending over4 ,thirty-two inches is a good table height for a woman of five feet four or five inches4 ,blocks hollowed to fit the table legs may be used with a table of ordinary height for a tall person4 ,cupboards and shelves4----,if you purchase a cupboard see that the shelves are movable1 and of varying widths4 ,there are a few large utensils that need a deep shelf1 about fifteen inches4 ,if the shelves are to be built in1 provide several widths from six to ten inches4 ,much space is sometimes wasted between shelves4 ,vary the distances here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4----;,a kitchen cabinet4 ,courtesy of the ,columbia ,school ,supply ,co4 ,smooth paint is the best surface for the shelf4 ,shelf covers of paper or oilcloth look clean when they are fresh1 but are less sanitary than uncovered shelves4 ,drawers should not be too large1 for these are heavy to pull and push when full4 ,cupboard shelves are on the whole more satisfactory than drawers1 because this tiresome pulling out and pushing in are avoided4 ,towels can be piled on the shelves1 and small utensils hung on right-angled screw hooks4 ,do not use curved hooks1 except for hanging cups from the bottom of a shelf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4----,section of a refrigerator wall4 ,courtesy of the ,white ,enamel ,refrigerator ,co4 ,the refrigerator4----,a good refrigerator is built with double walls1 and has several layers of non-conducting material4 ,figure #g shows the careful way in which the refrigerator wall is made4 #a4 ,porcelain enamel lining lock joint4 #b4 ,inside wood lining4 #c4 ,three-ply red rope water-proof paper4 #d4 ,wool felt deafening paper4 #e4 ,flaxlinum insulation4 #f4 ,dead air space4 #g4 ,flaxlinum insulation4 #h4 ,wool felt deafening paper4 #i4 ,three-ply red rope water-proof paper4 #aj4 ,outside wood case4 ,the ice chamber is arranged to be easily filled1 and has a connecting pipe for carrying off the water4 ,if this is connected with the sewerage system of the house1 make sure that it is properly trapped 7,fig4 #h74 ,see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 page #ea1 for description of the ,s trap4 ,the closets for the food should have an enamel or tiled lining4 ,this is non-absorptive1 and may be kept perfectly clean4 ,a large refrigerator is more economical of ice than a small one1 and in the end more than balances the few dollars extra that must be paid for the larger size4 ,select the coolest spot that you have for the refrigerator4 ,figure #i shows the construction of a good refrigerator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4----;,a refrigerator trap4 ,courtesy of the ,white ,enamel ,refrigerator ,co4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4----;,a well-constructed refrigerator4 ,courtesy of the ,white ,enamel ,refrigerator ,co4 ,artificial ice is cleaner and therefore safer to use than the natural4 ,always wash off the block before putting it into the ice chamber4 ,wash out the ice chamber once a week1 and pour a solution of washing soda down the waste pipe4 ,the food chambers should be washed out once a week and dried1 and no spilled food allowed to remain a moment4 ,do not leave the doors open4 ,have a strong ice pick for breaking ice4 ,a window box fastened outside the window by strong iron brackets provides a convenient place for cooling food1 and keeping some semi-perishable foods4 ,it is easily made from a watertight wooden box1 painted outside and in1 the opening toward the window having a curtain of table oilcloth4 ,a piece of wire netting set in one side of the box permits of a current of air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4----;,a sink of simple construction4 ,courtesy of ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,co4 ,the sink4----,white enameled iron and porcelain are the most desirable materials for the sink4 ,a simply constructed sink is shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,notice that the sink is supported from the wall1 leaving a free space underneath4 ,a larger sink is shown in ,fig4 #aa1 with the draining board in the sink4 ,the trap below the sink should be a large ,s trap1 and the trap and faucets should be nickel plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4----;,a larger sink4 ,courtesy of the ,j4 ,l4 ,mott ,co4 ,an iron sink should be rubbed and polished until it becomes very smooth4 ,do not attempt to paint it4 ,if it is left perfectly dry1 it will not rust4 ,hot water supply4----,a good supply is essential to rapid and thorough work4 ,the apartment dweller who finds it piped to the sink is most fortunate4 ,the separate house must have a boiler connected with the coal range1 or a water tank fastened to the range4 ,if gas is used1 have some kind of gas water heater that will give a sufficient flow for dish-washing and cleaning purposes4 ,a boiler may be heated with a kerosene stove4 ,the boiler should be fastened above the floor with space below for a one-burner blue-flame kerosene stove4 ,have a faucet in the boiler4 ,wherever a boiler is used it is economy to have it covered with some non-conducting material1 just as steam pipes are packed4 ,utensils4----,the expert cook is known by the small number of utensils that she uses4 ,if you watch the expert at work1 you will see too1 that each utensil is exactly fitted to its use4 ,the skilled cook is like the carpenter or painter1 and her set of tools is individual4 ,the list given on page #bh is a sample one1 to be changed to suit the individual preference1 and increased as the need arises2 it could be smaller1 if necessary4 ,when you first furnish a kitchen1 avoid an elaborate display of tools1 beginning with the few essentials only4 ,no one material is suitable for the construction of all utensils4 ,those subjected to intense heat must be of material able to resist it4 ,the material for a given utensil must be selected with the purpose of the utensil in mind4 ,the material should be durable1 easy to clean1 and of such a nature that it does not affect chemically the food material cooked in it4 ,aluminium4----,a white metal1 fairly durable1 very light in weight4 ,discolors easily1 and is not easy to clean4 ,expensive4 ,used for all kinds of utensils4 ,copper4----,endures heat1 durable1 fairly light to handle4 ,hard to keep clean4 ,expensive4 ,used for kettles4 ,not desirable for family use4 ,earthenware4----,will not endure the highest temperatures without crackling4 ,easily breakable4 ,easy to clean1 unless crackled4 ,inexpensive4 ,useful for slow oven processes1 for pitchers and mixing bowls4 ,enamel4----,a vitrified material upon iron or steel4 ,the ,english enamel ware upon iron is durable1 excellent for preserving1 heavy4 ,the ,german and ,american enamels are lighter4 ,avoid the attractive blue1 and blue and white except for pitchers1 cups1 bowls1 and plates4 ,they crackle and chip off more easily with heat then the gray enamels4 ,one ,german make1 of a dark mottled gray1 is less brittle in the finish than most ,american makes4 ,all the enamels are easy to keep clean4 ,used for kettles1 saucepans1 roasting1 and baking4 ,less durable than steel and iron4 ,iron4----,endures intense heat4 ,durable4 ,heavy to handle4 ,becomes smooth with long use1 and then is not difficult to clean4 ,affects the color of acid fruits4 ,not expensive4 ,used for frying kettles and pans and kettles for boiling4 ,russia iron is a sheet iron of good quality for roasting and bread pans4 ,expensive4 ,steel4----,endures intense heat4 ,durable4 ,medium weight4 ,fairly easy to clean4 ,affects acid fruits4 ,medium cost4 ,same uses as iron1 also for roasting and baking pans1 and smaller kettles4 ,tin4----,tin1 a 8useful metal10 is plated on thin sheet iron for utensils4 ,so-called block tin is the best quality4 ,will not endure intense heat4 ,the tin wears and scratches off with use4 ,not easy to clean4 ,discolors easily1 and colors acid fruit4 ,poor tin ware is not worth buying4 ,good quality is not cheap4 ,may be used for measures1 and for small saucepans1 but is less desirable than other wares4 ,wooden ware4----,used for molding boards1 meat boards1 and spoons4 ,the patterns of utensils4----,select those made without seams1 or flutings1 where food particles collect4 ,bowls1 saucepans1 and kettles should have a lip on the side1 for the pouring out of liquids4 ,a pitcher should be of such shape that it can be easily washed1 and it should have a lip that will pour well4 ,a pot for boiling coffee should have a lip and not a spout4 ,select utensils with non-conducting handles4 ,study carefully the selection of knives1 and do not try to economize in their purchase4 ,knives must be sharp1 and poor quality steel will never take a good edge4 ,a worn table knife of ,sheffield steel1 when ground down1 makes the best of kitchen knives4 ,buy a good sharpener and use it frequently4 ,labor-saving devices4----,a good machine saves the wear and tear of human muscle1 and also much time4 ,if you have studied the principles of the lever and other mechanical devices1 you will understand why this is4#c ,learn to pay for1 use1 and clean good machines4 ,a 8,dover0 egg beater is built on the principle of the 8wheel and axle40 ,the large wheel has five times as many cogs as the small1 one revolution of the large wheel giving five of the small1 and one turn of the handle five revolutions of the blades4 ,it saves your wrist1 and saves time to use the 8,dover0 in place of a fork4 ,it is more trouble to wash the ,dover beater than the fork4 ,yet a cook may object to a bread mixer and meat chopper1 because they are harder to clean than the bowl and spoon and knife4 ,a good bread mixer saves strength and is sanitary4 ,fig4 #ab4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4----;,an inexpensive bread mixer1 cover on and off4 ,courtesy of ,landers1 ,frary and ,clark4 ,a meat chopper or grinder also saves strength and time1 and is cleaner than the wooden chopping bowl4 ,,list ,,of ,,utensils#d ,for preparing and mixing4 #a can opener4 #a corkscrew4 #a vegetable knife1 pointed4 #a steel table knife1 broad blade4 #a meat knife and fork4 #a bread knife1 or slicer4 #a small meat axe4 #a knife sharpener4 #a #c-;bladed chopping knife1 or meat grinder4 #a apple corer4 #b plated or steel forks1 table4 #a long-handled fork1 three-pronged4 #a palette knife4 #a pair heavy scissors4 #a set skewers4 #a large mixing spoon1 enamel ware4 #f plated tablespoons1 or ,german silver4 #f plated teaspoons1 or ,german silver4 #a saltspoon1 bone4 #a wooden spatula4 #a ,dover egg beater1 large size4 #a wire egg beater4 #a wire potato masher4 #a colander4 #a wire strainer4 #a wire strainer1 cup size4 #a flour sifter4 #a flour dredger4 #a salt shaker4 #a coffee mill4 #a grater4 #a nutmeg grater4 #a glass lemon squeezer4 #a large mixing bowl for bread4 #a medium bowl for cake4 #b pint bowls4 #a quart measure4 #a half-pint measuring cup4 #a molding board4 #a rolling pin4 #a meat board4 #a or #b plates4 #a or #b china molds4 #a kitchen scales4 ,other conveniences4 #f small hand towels4 ,towel racks4 #a high stool4 #a or #b comfortable chairs4 ,a clock4 ,sheets of paper1 tissue and heavier4 ,heavy linen thread and large needle4 ,ball of soft1 strong twine4 ,a shelf for cook books4 ,for stewing1 steaming1 and boiling4 7,sizes dependent on number in family47 #a teakettle1 enamel or aluminium4 #a double-boiler1 enamel ware4 #a pint saucepan1 enamel covered4 #a or #b stewpans1 enamel covered4 #a kettle1 covered4 #a steamer4 ,for broiling1 pan broiling1 the saut1 and frying4 7,broiler and toaster supplied with gas range47 #a wire toaster4 #a heavy wire broiler4 #a frying pan1 with lip1 steel or iron4 #a frying kettle and basket4 ,for roasting1 braising1 and baking4 7,roasting pan provided with gas range47 #a roasting pan1 covered1 steel or iron4 #a or #b heavy earthen pots1 covered4 #a baking pan for fish1 iron1 or heavy earthenware4 #b or #c bread pans 7for loaf cake also74 #a shallow pan for cake4 #a muffin pan4 #a flat cooky tin4 #c round pans1 for layer cake1 enamel4 #b pie pans4 #b or #c pitchers4 #f-ab heavy earthen cups1 for popovers and custards4 #b round baking dishes1 earthen or enamel4 ,for holding food materials4 ,a few cheap saucers1 plates1 and bowls for food in the refrigerator4 ,bins for flour1 meals1 and sugar4 ,a dozen glass wide-mouthed preserving jars4 ,jelly glasses for spices1 etc4 ,tin boxes can be kept for such purposes4 7,use gummed labels on these jars and glasses47 ,for washing dishes4 #a dishpan1 enamel4 #a shallow rinsing pan4 #a soap shaker4 #b soap dishes4 #a shaker for washing powder4 #f glass towels4 #f heavier towels4 #f loose weave dishcloths4 ,care of the kitchen4----,the daily cleaning must include the care of the sink and traps1 the cleaning of the stove1 brushing the floor1 and washing off of tables4 ,more thorough cleaning includes the scrubbing of the floor1 washing of walls1 woodwork1 and windows1 cleaning of closets and drawers4 ,the stoves should be rubbed often with paper1 and washed thoroughly when necessary4 ,great pains must be taken to keep the ovens clean1 by frequent washing out4 ,gas burners must be taken off and boiled in a solution of sal soda once in a while4 ,the top and bottom of coal ovens should be cleaned out once a month4 ,kerosene stoves need constant cleaning4 ,stove blacking makes the stove more attractive4 ,dish-washing4----,it is not difficult to wash dishes well1 although many people make it a very disagreeable process4 ,the necessary apparatus is given in the utensil list4 ,the cleansing materials include a plentiful supply of hot water1 a good soap1 ammonia or borax to soften the water1 a gritty soap or powder4 ,have a pan for washing and another for rinsing1 and a tray for draining if there is no drainer attached to the sink4 ,order of work4----,prepare the dishes by scraping and neatly piling articles of a kind together4 ,rub greasy dishes with soft paper1 and put water and ammonia or washing powder into utensils that need soaking4 ,have clean towels at hand4 ,make ready a pan of hot soap suds1 by using a soap shaker1 or soap solution1 but do not put the cake of soap in the pan4 ,have rinsing water ready4 ,wash the cleanest dishes first1 usually the glasses1 next the cups and saucers1 and the silver next4 ,have the soiled dishes near the pan1 and put in only one or two articles at a time1 washing with mop or dish cloth4 ,to pile in a number means the nicking of china1 and scratching of silver4 ,dip each dish in the rinsing water and then put in the drainer4 ,if there is not room for two pans1 the dishes may be piled on the drainer not too many at a time1 and the rinsing water poured over4 ,be careful not to use too hot water for delicate china and glass4 ,change the soapy water when it becomes in the least greasy4 ,wipe the dishes while they are still warm1 and use dry towels4 ,wash the utensils thoroughly1 especially on the bottom4 ,heavy utensils can be dried without wiping1 on or near the stove4 ,do not put any utensils away until they are perfectly dry4 ,steel knives should be scoured and thoroughly rinsed and dried4 ,wash out the towels and dishpan1 and leave the sink and drainboard perfectly clean4 ,it does take time and work for this whole process1 but spotless cleanliness is our aim4#e ,home dish-washers are being devised1 and should save some of the labor4 ,none as yet has proved very satisfactory4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is essential to the planning of a convenient kitchen8 #b4 ,how may cleanliness be secured through the furnishings8 #c4 ,what are the requisites in a good work table8 #d4 ,explain the construction of a refrigerator4 ,of a good sink4 #e4 ,compare the materials used in utensils4 #f4 ,what is the advantage of a machine compared with hand power8 #g4 ,make an estimate of the cost of utensils for the home kitchen from a price list obtained from some standard furnishing shop4 #h4 ,examine the utensils in the school kitchen and at home4 ,consider the material and shape with reference to durability and convenience4 #i4 ,what are the important points in cleaning the kitchen8 #aj4 ,what are the important points in good dish-washing8 #aa4 ,what is a good order of work in dish-washing8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,fuel ,,and ,,stoves ,the fuels most widely used in this country are coal1 gas1 and kerosene4 ,wood is still used for cooking by those who own wood lots1 or who live in a district where wood is abundant1 but in a sense it is the fuel of the past4 ,electricity is generated from coal except in the few communities where the electric current is derived through machinery from the energy of falling water but electricity is not in common household use1 and is still the method of the future for the average family4 ,other substances are burned for fuel occasionally or in restricted localities4 ,corn cobs are used sometimes in the corn belt4 ,peat is an old-world fuel4 ,it is a vegetable substance taken in blocks from marshes1 in reality the first stage of coal formation4 ,it is a slow-burning fuel which is cheap in its own locality4 ,economy of fuel is a world problem1 for it is evident that the coal supply will be exhausted in course of time1 and this is true also of coal oil or petroleum4 ,scientists are experimenting to discover practical methods1 not dependent upon the burning of coal1 for generating electricity4 ,water power is the only practicable method so far1 and to make it permanently available we must conserve the forests still remaining to us1 and thus safeguard the sources of our rivers4 ,another effort toward economy is seen in the use for fuel of waste products treated in some way to make them readily combustible4 ,the briquet is used in ,europe where the fuel supply is limited4 ,it is made of sawdust or waste coal1 with some petroleum1 tar1 resin1 or other substance1 heated together and molded4 ,good briquets yield a large amount of heat in proportion to bulk and weight4 ,the problem here1 as with all waste1 is to find a manufacturing process that will make the product cheap enough to be practical for common use4 ,it is a natural impulse to use lavishly whatever is at hand in abundance1 and it is only a highly civilized community that takes thought for the economy of the future4 ,considered only from a selfish point of view1 however1 with coal and petroleum at the high prices that are likely to prevail1 the saving of fuel is one of our most important economies4 ,the common fuels4----,coal is of two kinds1 anthracite and bituminous1 or hard and soft4 ,hard coal of good quality has #ij per cent or more of carbon1 and burns with little flame4 ,soft coal contains as much as #ah per cent of flame-making substances1 and gives off a heavy smoke4 ,hard coal is therefore cleaner1 but it is more costly than soft coal1 because the supply is smaller4 ,the most important anthracite mines are found in the eastern ,united ,states1 and hard coal is used more in this section than elsewhere4 ,good hard coal may be recognized by its glossy black color and bright surfaces4 ,it is sold under different names taken often from the locality where it is mined4 ,there are two kinds1 one leaving a reddish ash1 and the other a white4 ,the red ash coal burns more freely than the white ash and the ash is heavier and therefore cleaner4 ,the price is higher per ton or bag4 ,coal is sorted in different sizes1 a medium size being best for the ordinary range4 ,poor coal has slaty pieces in it1 that will not burn but break up and mingle with the ashes4 ,you can learn to detect it by the slaty color4 ,clinkers are formed by unburnable minerals1 mixed with the coal1 that melt and stick together1 and even adhere to the lining or the grate4 ,they are not often troublesome in the cooking range4 ,coal is measured by the ton of two thousand pounds avoirdupois4 ,a common hod of coal holds about thirty pounds4 ,coal should be bought in large quantity1 and stored away in summer1 if possible4 ,the retail dealer in the city often charges an exorbitant sum for coal by the bag1 so that the buyer of small quantities pays a much higher price for a ton bought in this way4 ,the wholesale price of coal has increased on an average about #ac per cent since #aijj4 ,coke is the solid substance remaining after gas has been made from certain kinds of coal1 and is sometimes sold by gas companies1 as a by-product4 ,it is light1 and therefore easy to handle and does not smoke1 but it burns out quickly1 and the fire of coke requires frequent replenishing4 ,it is sold by the bag1 or in large quantities by the ton1 also sometimes by the chaldron1 an old ,english measure for coal1 containing from thirty-two to thirty-six bushels4 ,gas was used for illuminating long before it came into common use for heating and cooking4 ,commercial gas manufactured for both lighting and cooking is really a mixture of various gases4 ,one method produces it from bituminous coal heated in retorts4 ,another method gives 8water gas10 by passing steam through heated coal4 ,the value of gas will depend upon the components of the mixture1 and the manufacturer has an opportunity to make an inferior gas unless the law stipulates what the quality shall be4 ,the small town or country dweller may use a gas machine on the premises1 the gas to be stored or generated in some tank in the ground1 and piped into the house4 ,acetylene1 a compound of carbon and hydrogen1 is used in this way4 ,acetylene has a low flashing point1 and there is question as to its safety4 ,one firm sends a mixed gas of good quality in metal bottles to the consumer1 the bottles being placed in a metal closet above ground outside the house4 ,the firm claims that an explosion has never occurred4 ,gas is measured by the cubic foot1 and its price estimated per #ajjj cubic feet4 ,the amount is recorded on a meter as the gas passes into the house4 ,see ,fig4 #ac4 ,it is an easy matter to learn to read a meter1 and every one should do so who uses gas4 ,always compare the gas bill with the amount recorded by the meter4 ,if the gas bill becomes larger than usual1 and you feel sure that the consumption has been normal1 report the matter to the company4 ,a meter may be out of order1 and need repair4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4----,reading the gas meter4 ,courtesy of ,new ,york ,consolidated ,gas ,co4 ,to read the meter4----,figure #ac shows the three dials found on the face of a gas meter4 ,the arrows show the direction4 ,the dial at the right indicates #ajj cubic feet between the numbers1 the middle dial #ajjj and the left-hand dial #aj1jjj4 ,the dials in this figure record #ec1bej cubic feet4 ,the price of gas varies from eighty cents to a dollar and a half per thousand cubic feet4 8,eighty-cent gas0 is the hope of many a consumer4 ,at a dollar and a half it is not a cheap fuel4 ,gas does away with the handling of coal and ashes in the kitchen and is thus a clean and labor-saving fuel4 ,it gives an intense heat the moment the flame is lighted and this heat is easily regulated in a well-made stove4 ,the flame should burn with a clear blue or greenish color4 ,with a properly constructed stove only a small percentage of the heat is lost4 ,in all these points it has the advantage over coal4 ,the comparative cost is studied in the problems on page #ec4 ,natural gas is used in those regions where it occurs1 piped to the house from a central source4 ,it is found in limited areas only1 and in some places has already been exhausted4 ,coal oil1 or petroleum1 sometimes found oozing from crevices in rocks1 or even floating on water1 is a natural inflammable oil stored in the earth4 ,it was known in ancient ,persia1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 but did not become of great commercial importance until the middle of the nineteenth century4 ,it is now obtained by boring wells1 and is found in great quantities in certain regions of the country4 ,the crude oil yields many products valuable in the arts1 medicine1 and manufacture4 ,kerosene is the substance useful as a fuel and for giving light4 ,when of good quality it is nearly colorless1 and the flashing point should be #adi ,f41 or #fe ,c4 ,this flashing point is the temperature at which the vapor from the kerosene explodes or flashes4 ,if the vapor flashes at a point lower than this1 it means that the oil has not been sufficiently refined2 that is1 in the process of manufacture the substances that flash at a low temperature have not been removed1 and therefore the oil is less safe4 ,kerosene is sold by the gallon or barrel4 ,the price for a good quality is about seventy cents for a five-gallon can4 ,by the barrel a saving is made of several cents a gallon4 ,it is useful as a fuel to those housekeepers who cannot have gas1 and who find it a convenient substitute for coal in the summer4 ,with the new blue-flame stoves it gives an intense heat1 easily regulated4 ,there is no heavy labor involved in its use1 but even the best stove requires constant care and watchfulness4 ,it is not so clean and easy to use as gas4 ,the kerosene supply should be kept in a cool place1 and stoves and lamps should never be filled by candle or lamplight4 ,gasolene is used as a fuel for cooking in some places1 but in others the fire insurance companies have such strict rules in regard to it that its use is practically prohibited4 ,it is more volatile than kerosene1 and its flashing point is very low4 ,kerosene is much safer for household use4 ,alcohol is used with the chafing dish4 ,denatured alcohol is so cheap in ,germany that it is used in large and especially adapted stoves for cooking purposes4 ,there are denatured alcohol stoves on the market here1 but they are little used4 ,charcoal1 wood partially burnt out1 is little used for domestic purposes now4 ,the relative value of the common fuels is stated in quantities as follows1 but this is of course dependent on the quality of the coal and the gas4 ,one thousand feet of gas about equals from fifty to sixty pounds of coal1 or four and one half gallons of kerosene2 and one half ton of coal approximates a cord of wood4 ,those who may be interested will find a fuller discussion of fuels and fuel values in ,snell's 8,elementary ,household ,chemistry40 ,electricity is not a fuel1 but is classed here as a source of heat4 ,it may be supplied for cooking purposes by any company that furnishes electric light1 and should be available in the country wherever an electric trolley runs4 ,the energy supplied is measured and paid for by the kilowatt2 that is1 one thousand watts4 ,the terms used for electrical measurements cannot be really understood until one has studied electricity4 ,it may be said1 however1 that the ampere#f is the unit of current strength1 the volt is the unit of electrical pressure or electromotive force1 the watt is the unit of electrical power and the basis of payment for current supplied for heating or lighting4 ,voltage1 amperage1 and watt or kilowatt are the terms in common use4 ,if you read the circulars that advertise electric cooking apparatus1 you will find the request to state the voltage of your electric current in ordering a piece of apparatus4 ,or again1 the number of watts used per hour is given1 with the catalogue number and the size of an electric stove4 ,the cost of electricity per kilowatt 7usually from ten to fifteen cents7 varies in different localities4 ,the great advantage of electricity is that little heat is lost in radiation1 and that the degree of heat is well under control4 ,there are also no products of combustion present1 and this is the only source of heat for cooking of which this is true4 ,both gas and kerosene vitiate the air to some extent4 ,cooking apparatus4----,the wastefulness of cooking operations1 past and present1 is due largely to the defects of the apparatus used4 ,the open fireplace for wood1 and the open grate for coal1 are two arrangements that permit most of the heat to pass up the chimney1 and into the room4 ,see ,frontispiece and ,fig4 #ad4 ,in ,fig4 #ad there is illustrated at the right a brick oven with a flue opening into the chimney4 ,this was one of the earliest inventions for saving fuel and heat4 ,this oven was lined with brick or stone1 and the fire of wood was built in it1 and allowed to remain until it had burned out4 ,the coals and ashes were removed1 and when the brick had cooled somewhat cakes and pies were put in to bake4 ,this oven retained its heat for twenty-four hours1 and beans put in ,saturday afternoon were taken out hot for the ,sunday morning breakfast4 ,the method was clumsy1 but a good heat saver4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4----;,a colonial fireplace4 ,courtesy of the ,historical ,society1 ,ipswich1 ,mass4 ,figure #ae is an ,american stove1 early nineteenth century1 wood the fuel2 and from this form1 modified for using coal1 has developed the modern ,american coal range 7,fig4 #ah74 ,even the latest types are very wasteful of heat4 ,stoves like that shown in ,fig4 #ai have been devised for use with gas4 ,even with these only a small percentage of the heat generated is available for cooking4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4----;,an early ,american stove1 #ahbc4 ,courtesy of the ,bryson ,library4 ,the ideal system is that which gives the largest possible percentage of its heat for cooking1 and puts the degree of heat under quick control with the greatest saving of fuel1 and of labor in operating4 ,this does not mean that the stove which gives the most intense heat is the best1 although some stoves seem to be constructed with that as the aim4 ,let us consider some of the methods of saving heat1 and study different kinds of apparatus with this knowledge in mind4 ,we recall the fact1 first1 that some substances are good conductors of heat1 and others poor4#g ,if you hold a metal poker in your hand1 and place the other end in red hot coals1 you will realize that metal is a rapid conductor of heat4 ,if the poker has a wooden handle1 the heat of the coals does not readily reach your hand1 for the wood is a poor conductor4 ,moreover1 this good conductor is a poor holder of heat1 the heat radiating rapidly from it into the surrounding air1 but the poor conductor1 once thoroughly heated1 cools off slowly4 ,you can think of many illustrations from your daily life4 ,why do you prefer a woolen blanket on a cool night1 rather than a linen sheet1 merely8 ,why do you use a cloth holder in ironing8 ,what is the principle of a hot water bottle8 ,air is a poor conductor4 ,can you think of an illustration of this8 ,what is the principle of a thermos bottle8 ,it is not difficult to see how these facts apply in our cooking apparatus4 ,from an oven with metal sides heat is lost by radiation4 ,in a double oven1 with an air space between the inner and outer part1 some heat is saved4 ,if the outer cover is of some non-conducting material1 even less radiation takes place4 ,this is the principle of the oven devised by ,mr4 ,edward ,atkinson4 ,here the inner oven is of sheet iron1 and the outer covering of a non-conducting material1 some composition with wood pulp or paper as the basis4 ,if in this way heat can be trapped1 as it were1 in an oven1 it will follow that less heat will have to be supplied1 and we can use a smaller amount of fuel4 ,this is the case in the ,atkinson oven 7,fig4 #af71 where the source of heat is either a kerosene lamp1 or a small ,bunsen burner of the rose type1 which uses only a small amount of gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4----,the ,atkinson cooker4 ,another illustration of the conserving of heat by the prevention of radiation is in the fireless cooker4 ,this is a method used in ,sweden in simple form1 and adapted and improved to suit modern needs4 ,heat is supplied in the first place by gas or kerosene1 and the water in the vessel containing the food is raised to the boiling point1 and held there in some cases for a few minutes4 ,the vessel is then placed in the 8cooker10 which is a box with thick walls of some non-conducting material1 and the heat already present is sufficient to finish the cooking process1 since the radiation is very slow4 ,in some cookers a heated stone is introduced to raise the temperature slightly4 ,both of these devices are excellent for the long1 slow cooking that seems to mellow the food material and develop the flavors that do not result from rapid cooking4 ,at the same time1 we need rapid processes1 such as broiling and toasting1 which give characteristic flavors4 ,to meet this double need1 a new type of gas stove has been made4 ,see ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4----;,construction of the duplex gas range4 ,courtesy of ,domestic ,equipment ,co4 ,this is a gas stove1 where the oven has thick walls of a non-conducting material4 ,the oven is heated1 for a short time only1 the gas flame being cut off when the oven has reached the desired temperature4 ,at the left is an attachment where rapid cooking may be accomplished when desired1 and there is a device at 7#a7 with the same principle as the fireless cooker1 or the tea 8cosey40 ,this cover is dropped over the kettle when the boiling point is reached1 the flame is turned out1 and the heat in the water finishes the process4 ,there is no good reason why stoves embodying this same principle should not be used with kerosene1 and with the electric current4 ,improved stoves of this type will be constructed1 and certainly will tend toward great economy of fuel4 ,one method of saving fuel is by the use of a steam cooker1 which consists of a series of compartments1 one above another1 containing several kinds of food1 all to be cooked over the same burner1 either gas or kerosene1 or on one section of the top of the coal range when space is being used for the wash boiler or irons4 ,it requires intelligence to use such devices1 and those who lack it cling obstinately to hot fires and violent cooking4 ,the coal range4----,progress is slow1 and the coal range will not be abolished at present4 ,figure #ah is an example of a good range as easy to manage as possible4 ,the coal box at 7#a7 has a lining that prevents the iron from burning out4 ,the air enters at 7#b7 and passes out at 7#c71 when the fire is first made4 ,when it is necessary to heat the oven1 a damper is closed at 7#d71 and the heated air then passes around the oven in the direction of the arrows4 ,the coal is put in at 7#e7 and the ashes shaken down at 7#f74 ,larger ranges1 resting upon the floor1 have a 8dump0 for the ashes directly into the ash box in the cellar1 and some makes have a device for operating this with the foot4 ,the coal stove involves the labor of bringing in coal and taking out ashes1 and space must be given to the coal bin and ash pit4 ,a range of this size would serve for a family of five or six4 ,it requires from #b to #c hods per day4 ,a hood should be placed above a large range1 whether coal or gas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4----;,a modern coal range4 ,courtesy of ,detroit ,stove ,works4 ,to make a coal fire4----,see that the grate is clean and that the ashes have been removed4 ,you know that a current of air containing oxygen is needed to make the fire burn4 ,how will you arrange the damper at 7#b7 and 7#c7 when you are starting the fire8 ,coal does not begin to burn easily4 ,therefore we kindle it by materials that have a low kindling temperature1 light wood1 paper1 and matches4 ,in the bottom of the grate1 lay twisted pieces of paper1 or very finely split pieces of wood1 or shavings1 next in order larger pieces of wood laid 8crisscross10 yet close enough not to let the coal fall through1 and on the top a shovelful or two of coal4 ,why do you not put in flat newspapers1 and lay the kindling lengthwise and solid8 ,put on the stove lids1 arrange the dampers properly1 and touch the match4 ,why do you use the match8 ,why does the match light8 ,perhaps your nature study lessons will help you to explain this whole kindling process4 ,what should be the next step in the fire making8 ,how should you finally arrange the dampers8 ,a coal fire will keep well for a considerable length of time1 if the coal is put on and the ash removed regularly1 provided the stove is well constructed1 and the coal of good quality4 ,add fresh coal before the fire becomes a dull red1 and shows ashes4 ,if it gets too low1 wood kindling will be needed1 and this is poor management4 ,be careful not to put in so much coal that you cannot put the lid on firmly4 ,it ruins the top of a stove if the hot coals touch it4 ,soot must be removed once in a while from the top and bottom of the oven1 and from the stove pipe4 ,the gas stove4----,figure #ai shows a well-constructed stove of the usual type4 ,notice the air space1 and asbestos lining around the oven4 ,the burner for heating the oven is at 7#a74 ,holes in the sides allow the heated air to pass outside of the oven at 7#b7 and into the oven as indicated by the arrows4 ,the heated current passes out of the oven at the back of the top1 and passes out of the stove at 7#c71 where it should be carried away by a pipe into a flue4 ,the heat of the oven burner is also used for toasting and roasting underneath1 on the movable rack at 7#d74 ,the oven burner is lighted by a leader burner at 7#e74 ,the top burners1 five in number1 are at 7#f74 ,below those is a removable pan at 7#g74 ,the top of the stove is removable in sections1 and the burners are easily removed when cleaning is necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4----;,a modern gas range4 ,courtesy of ,detroit ,stove ,works4 ,the gas burner 7,fig4 #bj7 is constructed on the principle of the ,bunsen burner1 which you may have used in the laboratory4 ,there is an opening in the pipe1 near the stopcock1 which admits the air1 that it may mix with the gas1 and give the blue flame4 ,if there is not enough air1 the flame burns with a yellow color1 and smokes4 ,if there is too much air1 there is a roaring sound1 and the flame 8pulls back0 and burns with a smoky yellow flame1 and disagreeable odor4 ,there is a valve always to regulate the air supply for each burner4 ,figure #bj shows a burner removed from the range4 7#a7 is the hollow1 star-shaped chamber which gives space for the thorough mixing of the gas with the air4 ,the gas enters from the connecting pipe at 7#b71 the air at 7#c71 and 7#d7 is the valve for regulating the air supply4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4----;,a gas stove burner4 ,courtesy of ,detroit ,stove ,works4 ,gas ranges of this type are built in different sizes1 and with varying arrangements of ovens and hot-closets4 ,an oven above the stove is convenient4 ,ranges are built also for using either gas or coal4 ,a range of the size pictured1 with four large burners on the top1 will serve for a family of five or six1 if the work is well planned4 ,the oven burner consumes #cj to #dj cubic feet per hour1 the top burners #b cubic feet each1 and the simmering burner somewhat less4 ,this is estimated for a burner turned on full4 ,to manage a gas stove4----,before lighting the top or oven burners see that the stopcocks are all tight1 with no escaping gas4 ,to light the top burners1 strike the match1 turn on the stopcock1 and touch the match to the gas when it is flowing well4 ,a disagreeable 8popping0 follows if the match is applied to the burner before the gas flows4 ,for lighting the oven1 a 8leader0 burner at the side of the stove acts as a taper4 ,open the oven doors1 and the door below1 strike the match1 turn on the leader1 and light it1 turn on the back burner1 and then the front burner1 and turn out the leader4 ,the so-called explosion of a gas stove is due to the sudden lighting of a quantity of gas under the oven that has collected without being lighted4 ,the important point in managing a gas stove is to keep the stopcock turned so that the flame is low4 ,the full flame is needed only when water is being brought to the boiling point1 and for the first heating of the oven4 ,the low flame should be protected from draft4 ,many gas stoves now have a small simmering burner that is more useful than the large burner4 ,another point in the use of the stove is the prevention of the 8boiling over0 from some kettle4 ,the low flame helps here1 and it is also necessary that the kettles should not be too full4 8,boiling over0 clogs the burners1 and makes necessary the frequent cleaning of the pan underneath the burners4 ,the oven burner should be lighted from five to ten minutes before the oven is wanted1 depending upon the intensity of the flames4 ,after the food has been put in the oven1 allow a few minutes1 not more than five1 for the food to heat through1 and then turn the flame as low as possible4 ,often1 one burner can be turned out4 ,this you have to learn by experience4 ,when toasting or broiling is the process1 light the oven burner before using1 because the work is performed by the heated iron as well as by the gas flame4 ,leave the lower door open1 as bread toasts or meat broils1 to hasten the browning process1 for it is the oxygen of the air that causes the browning4 ,some coal ovens have a damper for admitting air for this same purpose and though some flavor is lost in this way by evaporation1 the amount is negligible in a quick cooking process4 ,the ,atkinson oven is so tightly closed1 that food does not acquire a rich brown in it4 ,an opening at the top is available when a delicate brown is wanted4 ,it is true1 however1 that the slow process with a minimum of evaporation gives a flavor that compensates for the brown color and flavor4 ,all burners should be removed if the holes seem clogged and be boiled out in a solution of washing soda1 two tablespoonfuls to a gallon of water4 ,do not blacken the burners4 ,kerosene stoves4----,the best type is a blue-flame stove with a wick4 ,kerosene stoves are made with no wick1 the kerosene being vaporized just before it reaches the burner1 but such a stove requires occasional pumping to force the kerosene into the vaporizing chamber1 and on the whole is less satisfactory than the stove with the wick4 ,the heat is intense from this blue flame1 and the burner is economical of the fuel4 ,the small kerosene stoves1 burning with a yellow flame are always inclined to smoke1 and difficult to keep clean4 ,a three- or four-burner oil stove with a portable oven will do the cooking in summer for a family of five or six4 ,one burner consumes a gallon of oil in #ae hours4 ,portable double ovens are furnished with such stoves4 ,the kerosene stove is cheaper to operate than a gas range1 even with kerosene at fourteen cents a gallon1 but the heat is not under such perfect control1 and the stove requires more work to keep it clean4 ,the one important point in the management of this blue-flame wick stove is to keep the flame down by having the wick low1 and where it belongs4 ,the cylinder around the burner prevents the escape of heat and carries it to the utensil above4 ,a careless person1 by raising the wick too high1 and producing a yellow smoky flame1 makes much trouble for herself4 ,it is important to fill the tank without spilling a drop of kerosene1 and to keep every part of the stove well washed off with soap and water4 ,the wick should be rubbed off occasionally1 never cut1 and if an odor becomes perceptible1 the burner should be taken apart and boiled in a solution of washing soda and water4 ,the wick will need to be renewed at intervals1 depending upon the amount of use that it has4 ,with care a stove of this kind is clean and odorless4 ,electric apparatus4----,figure #ba shows a table arranged for cooking by electricity1 each piece of apparatus having its own connection4 ,compare this with the frontispiece1 the method of cooking in the eighteenth century1 and you will realize how far we have progressed in the way of convenience1 comfort1 and heat economy4 ,figure #bb shows a disk stove four and a half inches in diameter1 upon which a saucepan may stand1 and which is therefore available for more than one purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4----;,an electric cooking outfit4 ,courtesy of ,department of ,household ,science1 ,university of ,illinois4 ,the advantages of electric cooking are obvious4 ,the heat is directly conducted to each utensil1 and a minimum amount is lost in radiation4 ,the degree of heat is perfectly under control1 and the manipulation is nothing more than the turning of a knob4 ,when the apparatus is installed1 it is adjusted to the voltage1 so that no further regulation is necessary4 ,there are no waste products1 and no matches to light or throw away4 ,if the wiring is properly done1 there is no danger from fire4 ,the one present disadvantage is the cost4 ,each piece of apparatus is expensive4 ,the cost of running must depend upon the cost of electricity in the neighborhood1 and the number of watts per hour used by each piece of apparatus4 ,the larger the utensil1 the more watts consumed4 ,the disk stove in ,fig4 #bb uses #bej watts2 a disk of #f inches diameter1 #dge watts2 of #h inches1 #fej watts4 ,some pieces of apparatus are arranged for three different heats1 with a different number of watts for each heat4 ,with one disk stove #aj inches in diameter1 #c heats are possible1 with #bej1 #ejj1 and #ajjj watts respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4----;,a disk electric stove4 ,courtesy of ,landers1 ,frary and ,clark4 ,oven thermometers4----,a thermometer is furnished set in the door of many ranges4 ,while these are guides after one has learned to use the oven1 they are not really accurate by scale4 ,for exact work in testing oven temperature1 a hole must be bored in the side of the oven1 and a chemical thermometer inserted1 protected by asbestos and metal4 ,simple tests for oven temperature will be found in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,,exercises #a4 ,why is the question of the cost and kind of fuel important8 #b4 ,what is the difference between hard and soft coal8 ,between red and white ash8 #c4 ,why are certain fuels in more common use than others8 #d4 ,explain the advantage of gas over coal4 ,over kerosene4 #e4 ,what are the advantages of electricity as a source of heat8 #f4 ,explain the way in which electricity is measured4 #g4 ,read the gas meter at home and estimate the amount and cost per day4 7,the ordinary burner consumes about two cubic feet per hour47 #h4 ,obtain the prices of the fuels used in the neighborhood and work out a comparison of the cost of fuel for preparing a meal4#h #i4 ,what are the methods of conserving heat in cooking apparatus8 #aj4 ,explain the structure and management of a coal stove4 #aa4 ,explain the principles involved in making a fire4 #ab4 ,the structure and management of a gas stove4 #ac4 ,why does gas in a burner sometimes 8pull back08 #ad4 ,state the requirements in a perfect example of cooking apparatus4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,food ,,preparation1 ,,the ,,principles ,,and ,,technique ,the principles of cooking4----,in science the word 8principle0 ordinarily means a formulation of some general or constant mode of behavior----a generalization based on many observations of fact4 ,in cookery the word is used in the same sense2 for example1 one may say that an important principle to bear in mind when cooking with any fat is that the fats may be melted without decomposition1 but when too strongly heated they begin to decompose with the production of acrid and irritating products4 ,sometimes1 however1 we speak of 8principles of cookery0 in a broader and somewhat less exact sense to indicate the general purposes of cooking operations1 as when we say that the most important principle of vegetable cookery is to soften the fiber without destroying the flavor or dissolving away the ash constituents of the vegetable4 ,that is1 the change either chemical or physical that takes place in a certain foodstuff by the application of heat or cold or by the use of a fermentation process may be referred to as the underlying1 working principle4 ,we shall study in detail these changes as we experiment with and prepare each food material1 but a general statement of the effect of heat on various foodstuffs will be helpful here4 ,protein4----,there are several forms of protein1 with differences that we can understand only after a thorough study of chemistry4 ,the most important proteins in meat1 fish1 eggs1 milk1 old beans and peas coagulate1 or become slightly harder or firmer at a temperature below the boiling point of water4 ,we shall perform an experiment to show this while studying the egg4 ,there is no marked chemical change2 that is1 the protein is not changed to another substance4 ,fats4----,solid fats are liquefied by heat1 and freed from the tissue that contains them in animal fats like suet4 ,when a fat begins to smoke with heat1 a chemical change is taking place4 ,if intense heat is continued1 all the hydrogen and oxygen are driven off and pure carbon remains4 ,when the fat is 8brown10 giving the flavor we like1 a part of the oxygen and hydrogen have been driven off4 ,the 8boiling0 of fat in a kettle is ordinarily due to the boiling of the water contained in the fat4 ,starch4----,starch occurs in the form of granules4 ,see ,fig4 #ci4 ,in boiling water1 the granule expands and finally bursts1 and frees the content1 the pure starch1 and the whole mass thickens4 ,boiled with an acid the starch is changed to dextrin1 a substance resembling a gum1 and the mixture becomes thin2 and this process continued changes the dextrin to dextrose4 ,with intense 8dry0 heat1 as in toasting1 the granule expands and opens1 and the contents change to dextrin4 ,continued heat reduces the starch to pure carbon4 ,the brown color and pleasant flavor in toast are a stage on the road to carbon4 ,sugar4----,sugar first melts with heat1 then begins to decompose1 giving off water4 ,this is also a stage on the road to pure carbon4 ,caramel1 a familiar flavor1 is sugar in the brown stage1 with the water partly driven off4 ,the art in applying intense heat to fat1 starch1 and sugar is to know the stopping point1----to reach the 8brown taste0 and stop short of the 8burnt taste40 ,mineral matter4----,the 8ash0 remains for the most part unchanged by heat1 but may be lost in the water in which vegetables and meat are cooked if the water is thrown away4 ,vegetable fiber is softened by heat and moisture1 and the protein1 starch1 fat1 and sugar are freed1 making them available for our digestion and nutrition4 ,meat fiber softens at a low temperature1 that is1 below the boiling point of water1 with moisture2 continued intense heat shrinks and hardens it4 ,a tender steak fried with fat in a hot pan will soon resemble sole leather4 ,the technique of food preparation4----,from the moment the food materials enter the kitchen until the unusable portions are destroyed or carried away1 there is a best way of working with them at each step1 and the sum of these may be said to make a good technique4 ,this technique will include cleanliness first and foremost1 then skill in the use of tools1 judgment in managing cooking apparatus and in applying heat in cooking processes1 and accuracy and rapidity of execution4 ,it will also include or add to itself the sthetic element1 the fine art of flavoring1 the dainty garnishing of a dish4 ,moreover1 this technique is the method of putting into practice some basic1 scientific principle4 ,to illustrate3 ,the principle that underlies toast-making is threefold1---- ,heat evaporates moisture throughout the slice of bread4 ,intense heat changes the content of the starch granules on the surface of the slice of bread to dextrin4 ,intense heat1 long continued1 will change first the surface starch1 and then all1 to carbon 7charcoal74 ,a good technique will secure the first two1 and avoid the third and includes1---- ,the selection of bread already partially dry4 ,the cutting of bread into slices of uniform thickness4 ,regulating the source of heat4 ,placing the slices firmly in a toaster1 or on a fork1 or evenly on a rack when toasting by gas4 ,keeping the toast at a distance from the source of heat that insures a steady but not too rapid change4 ,turning the toaster or the slices to cook each surface in turn and thus to make the process slower4 ,stopping the process before carbon is formed and the toast 8burned40 7,a good technique does not include scraping the toast67 ,the sthetic element in toast-making might be a pretty shape of the slices1 say triangular pieces1 and a dainty arrangement4 ,in this case and in others it is true that the result of a good technique is sthetic1 in that correct manipulation while securing the desired chemical change also develops the pleasing golden brown that makes the toast so attractive4 ,the care of food materials4----,when food materials are delivered1 have receptacles ready for each kind of food4 7,see kitchen furnishing47 ,attend first to perishable foods4 ,wash and dry milk and cream bottles before putting them in the refrigerator4 ,treat eggs in the same way4 ,this is also a good plan with lemons and other skin fruit1 unless the quantity is too large1 in which case they should not be put into the refrigerator4 ,remove wrappings from meat1 poultry1 and fish2 wipe them with a soft cloth1 dipped in salt and water1 dry them1 and place them in the ice box4 ,wash the cloth thoroughly and dry it4 ,fish should be covered that its odor may not affect other food4 ,vegetables like lettuce1 celery1 and spinach should be washed and picked over immediately1 and the poor portions thrown away4 ,all semi-perishable foods should be put in a cool1 dry place1 and the non-perishables in their separate receptacles4 7,see page #bj47 ,do not keep anything in brown paper bags1 but save these bags for other uses4 ,have a regular time for inspecting and for cleaning all the places and receptacles where food is kept4 ,do not allow any spilled food material to remain anywhere1 and do not tolerate the presence of any material1 cooked or uncooked1 that shows the least taint4 ,a keen sense of smell is a good servant here4 ,the processes of food preparation4----,with kitchen in order1 tools ready1 and food materials at hand1 we are ready for the actual food preparation4 ,a distinction is to be made between cookery and cooking4 ,cookery includes all the steps necessary to produce the finished product1 while cooking is the actual application of heat1 only one step of the whole process1 though1 indeed1 one of the most important and difficult4 ,the order of procedure in food preparation is as follows3 ,see first that the stove is ready 7,chapter ,,iv74 ,then comes the choice and study of the recipe or the method of cooking4 ,the word 8recipe0 is from a ,latin word meaning 8take40 ,follow this advice and 8take0 or bring together on the work table whatever materials are needed4 ,decide upon the necessary utensils1 and place them conveniently near4 ,as you gather the materials together you will measure and weigh the exact amounts4 ,do this before you begin the putting together or mixing4 ,sometimes instead of mixing1 the necessary process is paring1 or scraping1 or cutting1 each with its own best way4 ,then follows the application of heat4 ,some foods are then served at once1 others must be carefully put away after cooling4 ,or again1 there is no application of heat1 for instance1 when the freezing temperature is used in ice cream2 or in a salad1 or fruit preparation where cooling in the refrigerator is the next step4 ,the technique of preparing a meal and serving will be found in ,chapter ,,xvi4 ,how to study a recipe4----,remember that a recipe is a bit of experience handed down for us to make useful4 ,some one experimented at some time long ago1 perhaps failed at first1 tried again1 finally succeeded1 and passed on the result by word of mouth to others4 ,there were doubtless good cooks long before there were printed or written recipes4 ,some recipes1 however1 have been handed down from ,roman times1 and recipes were printed as early as the sixteenth century4 ,modern recipes are much more accurate than the old1 as you may see if you have opportunity to read some old cook book4 ,at first in using a recipe follow its directions exactly4 ,notice the proportions1 and read carefully the directions for combining the ingredients1 noting those points that are most important4 ,have the whole process well in mind before you begin work4 ,do not let it be necessary to refer to the printed page at every move you make4 ,this is poor technique4 ,when the use of a recipe is preceded by some simple experiment that makes the basic principle clear1 it is much easier to use the recipe with intelligence4 ,when you are no longer a novice you may take liberties with a recipe1 even a new one1 scanning it with a critical eye1 and perhaps giving it a cool welcome4 ,it may not be new at all6 ,for this is the secret of recipes1----there are really only a few1 and the key to their use is the recognition of the old in the new garb1 and the having of a few type recipes clearly in mind4 ,each kind of prepared dish has one1 or two1 or three basic forms or mixtures4 ,learn these1 and then with experience you will become inventive1 and make your own variations4 ,for example1 there are but two kinds of cake1----those made with butter 7or other fat7 and those without butter 7the sponge cake74 ,you will not attempt to memorize many recipes1 but you will find that in studying these type recipes you have learned a few proportions so well that you cannot forget them4 ,when you have reached this stage of freedom you will still do exact work1 but your ingenuity and taste will have free play and you will not be tied to other people's recipes4 ,but you cannot well begin at this end4 ,make some plan for recording new recipes that you test and find good4 ,it may be a printed recipe1 or one that a friend gives you4 ,the most convenient plan is a recipe box or card file4 ,the guide cards are arranged alphabetically1 and each recipe is either pasted upon a card or written upon it4 ,this plan makes it easy to discard an old recipe1 or one that has proved unsatisfactory1 and to keep new recipes in alphabetical order1 which cannot be done in a book4 ,a loose-leaf book is made for recipes1 alphabetized at the side1 with envelopes for holding cuttings that may be fastened in between the pages4 ,this is a little less easy to use than the card file4 ,weighing and measuring4----,the system is 8,avoirdupois10 sixteen ounces to the pound4 ,learn to read the scales exactly1 and when weighing1 always allow for the weight of the utensil or paper holding the food4 ,weighing is more accurate than measuring1 but it is slower1 and the measuring can be made sufficiently accurate for most daily work4 ,weighing is necessary in the cookery of large pieces of meat and with poultry in order to estimate correctly the time for cooking2 and it is more convenient to weigh than measure when preserving fruit if the quantities are large4 ,also in studying food values it is usually necessary to weigh the articles of food4 ,the measures in common use are the saltspoon1 teaspoon1 and tablespoon1 the half-pint measuring cup1 the pint1 quart1 and gallon of liquid measure4 ,the saltspoon is not accurate1 and it is better to use some fraction of a teaspoonful4 ,teaspoons and tablespoons of a standard volume may be found at some furnishing shops4 ,the spoons in common use vary in size1 and the only way to approximate accuracy is to use the level spoonful4 ,this is now the common practice4 ,tin and glass half-pint cups are made gauged in quarters and thirds4 ,those commonly on sale sometimes measure more than one fourth of the standard quart4 ,inquire when you buy if the cup measure is standard1----that is1 exactly one half standard pint4 ,a quart measure1 with four divisions1 is necessary for careful work4 ,a pint measure is convenient1 but not necessary if you have the quart and half-pint measuring cup4 ,it is necessary to know the relation of these different weights and measures to each other4 ,while you may find tables of relative weight and measures in many cookbooks1 it is much better for you to work out a few of the most useful for yourself1 making careful record in your notebooks4 ,the following abbreviations are short cuts in reading and writing4 oz4 ounce lb4 pound ssp4 saltspoonful tsp4 teaspoonful tbsp4 tablespoonful cp4 cup pt4 pint qt4 quart gall4 gallon ,if you wish something quicker even than this for notebook work1 you can use1 t teaspoonful ,t tablespoonful ,c cup ,p pint ,q quart ,g gallon ,experiments in weighing and measuring4#i ,answer these questions by performing the experiments4 ,record in notebook in orderly form4 ,apparatus4 ,standard scales1 a quart measure1 and for each pupil a measuring cup1 table knife1 teaspoon1 and tablespoon4 ,materials4 ,those mentioned below4 #a4 ,how many eggs 7medium size7 to #a lb48 #b4 ,what is the weight of one egg8 #c4 ,of one pint of flour8 #d4 ,of one cup of flour8 #e4 ,of one cup of granulated sugar8 #f4 ,of one cup of powdered sugar8 #g4 ,of one pint of milk8 #h4 ,average the weight of six potatoes4 #i4 ,how many level teaspoonfuls of flour to a level tablespoonful8 #aj4 ,how many teaspoonfuls of water to a tablespoonful8 #aa4 ,how many tablespoonfuls of flour to a cup8 #ab4 ,how many tablespoonfuls of water to a cup8 7,these relative measures are convenient for dividing recipes47 #ac4 ,measure a level tablespoonful of flour1 by filling the spoon1 holding it level1 and leveling the flour by running the back of the knife quickly from the base of the bowl of the spoon to the tip4 ,how can you most accurately divide this in halves8 ,in quarters8 #ad4 ,how much does a cup of flaked cereal weigh8 #ae4 ,how much does a cup of granular cereal weigh8 #af4 ,butter is hard to measure in a cup4 ,if a recipe calls for #a_/d cup butter1 it is easier to measure it by tablespoonfuls4 ,find out how many make #a_/d cup4 #ag4 ,how much does a cup of butter weigh8 ,if you know this1 you can weigh it1 instead of measuring1 or if your butter is in pound 8pats10 you will be able to cut off a cupful1 instead of weighing it4 #ah4 ,an old-fashioned recipe for sponge cake reads thus3 ,take the weight of the eggs in sugar and half their weight in flour4 ,translate this into measures4 ,preparing and mixing4----,food materials that are not to be mixed with others still need special preparation before heat is applied4 ,for fruits and vegetables1 washing is the first stage1 followed by scraping1 paring1 peeling1 cutting1 or slicing4 ,meats1 poultry1 and fish must be cleaned by wiping1 and cut and trimmed with a sharp knife4 ,cooked meats and fish and vegetables may be chopped or sliced4 ,cooked vegetables are also mashed and beaten4 ,cream is whipped or beaten1 and eggs served raw likewise4 ,these seem simple processes1 but each one needs a good tool and a knack in the muscles4 ,each method will be taken up in detail1 with each food material4 ,methods of mixing are important1 where several ingredients are combined4 ,we seek for a way that will give the most complete mingling of all the substances with smoothness and lightness1 at the same time saving time and strength4 ,we must look always for the 8short cut40 ,it is necessary to have the texture of the food such that it can be well masticated and mixed with the digestive fluids1 but time is too precious to spend hours on a dessert1 or in beating biscuits4 ,sifting1 or putting materials through a fine mesh1 is used to lighten flour that has been packed down1 to remove coarse portions1 or to mix thoroughly several dry ingredients4 ,stirring is done with a spoon1 and is a round and round motion1 used for mixing a liquid and a dry ingredient4 ,rubbing is used for combining a dry ingredient with a semi-solid substance like butter4 ,creaming is a term used for the rubbing of butter until it becomes soft and creamy4 ,a spoon should be used1 not the hand4 8,cutting in0 with a knife is used for combining butter with flour in biscuit and pastry where the butter should not be softened4 ,beating with a spoon1 or beater of the spoon type1 is a free over and over motion1 the spoon being lifted from the mixture for the backward stroke4 ,this is used for increasing the smoothness of the mixture after the first stirring1 and for beating in air4 ,it needs a strong free motion of the forearm4 ,beating is also accomplished by the rotary motion of a mechanical beater like the ,dover4 ,cutting and folding is the delicate process of mixing lightly beaten egg with a liquid or semi-liquid without losing out the air4 ,the spoon is cut in1 sidewise1 a rotary motion carries it down and up again1 and it folds in the beaten egg as it goes4 ,kneading is a motion used with dough1 and is a combination of a rocking and pressing motion1 accomplished by the hands4 ,a good result can be obtained by some bread machines1 and this is the cleaner method4 ,rolling out is just what the term denotes1 a rolling of a thick piece of dough by means of a cylindrical wooden 8pin0 to the thickness proper for cookies and crusts4 ,dry bread is also rolled to break it into fine crumbs4 ,pounding and grinding are usually accomplished for us now in factories in breaking of spices and coffee4 ,it is better to have a coffee mill at home4 ,the order of mixing is important in its effect in batters and doughs and is discussed in that chapter4 ,cooking processes4----,for the beginnings of cooking we should need to go back to the days when game was roasted by the open fire1 built for warmth1 or corn parched on hot stones4 ,perhaps some root was cooked in the hot ashes4 ,this primitive method of roasting we still use in camp fires1 and in modified form wherever food is directly exposed to the heat of coal or gas4 ,water could not be a cooking medium until man advanced at least to the first stage of pottery making1 when some rude basket daubed with clay was water-tight and sufficiently heat proof4 ,application of heat is the most difficult stage of the whole process of cookery4 ,it is so easy to have the heat too intense1 or too low1 to expose the food for too long or too short a time to its action4 ,most of our apparatus fails to give us a uniform heat1 the tendency being to an increase or decrease of temperature4 ,since the boiling temperature of water remains at #bab ,f41 boiling is an easy process to manage1 provided the water does not boil out4 ,the presence of water insures a low or moderate temperature always4 ,it requires patience and time to learn how to bring this natural force of heat under control4 ,one novice who had allowed a flour paste to boil over and burn while she was looking out of the window remarked3 8,we may forget1 but they never do60----a pretty way of stating the steady working of nature's forces which we can harness for our use only by the exercise of reason and will and constant watchfulness4 ,the unintelligent cook is impatient of slow processes1 and cannot believe that food will finally be 8done0 unless the water is at a 8galloping0 boil1 and a red-hot fire is keeping the oven at burning temperature4 ,look upon the application of heat as a continuation of nature's slow ripening process1 a softening of tough fibers and a development of pleasing flavors4 ,for why do we cook at all except for these reasons8 ,primitive man thought only that the food had a better taste4 ,he may have decided1 too1 that it was easier to masticate2 but we have learned that in some cases we may1 with right methods of cooking1 make it easier to digest farther on in the alimentary canal4 ,modern science carries us a step farther and teaches us that cooking destroys lower organisms1 such as harmful bacteria that may be present1 and even animal parasites in meats4 ,we cook1 therefore1 to improve the appearance of food1 to develop flavors1 to render some foodstuffs more digestible and to destroy microrganisms4 ,we have at our command the following processes3 ,heat direct from coal1 charcoal1 wood1 or gas4 ,toasting4----,surfaces of food exposed and turned for browning4 ,broiling4----,thin portions of meat or fish exposed and turned for searing1 browning1 and short cooking of the interior4 ,roasting4----,thicker cuts of meat exposed and turned frequently for searing1 browning1 and gradual cooking of the interior4 ,this is an ancient method4 ,it survives in the ,french 8,rtisserie02 and we use it in the modern gas stove when we cook directly under the gas4 ,heat through an intervening medium4 ,water1 the medium4 ,boiling4----,cooking in boiling water1 temperature1 #bab ,f41 or #ajj ,c4 ,simmering1 stewing1 or 8coddling40----,cooking in water below the boiling temperature1 #ahj ,f4 up to #baj ,f4 ,steaming4----,cooking in a receptacle into which steam penetrates1 #bab ,f4----or in a closed receptacle surrounded by steam or boiling water as in a double boiler1 or a 8steamer10 temperature from #bjj ,f4 to #baj ,f4 ,fat1 the medium4 ,deep fat frying1 temperature #cej-djj ,f4 ,heated surfaces1 the medium4 ,pan broiling4----,cooking of chops or steaks in a heated pan1 without additional fat4 ,saut4----,to cook in a heated pan with a small amount of fat1 enough merely to prevent the food from sticking to the pan and to hasten the browning process4 8,baking0 cakes on a griddle is a modification of this method4 ,baking4----,cooking in a heated oven1 temperature from #cjj ,f4 to #dej ,f41 or higher for rapid browning4 ,meat and poultry cooked in an oven are baked and not roasted1 although we use the word 8roast0 for this method4 ,braising4----,cooking meat in a heated oven in a closed vessel1 with a supply of water to keep down the temperature4 ,this might be called an 8oven stew40 ,these methods are sometimes combined in one process4 ,in a brown stew1 the meat is first cooked in a pan with a little fat to brown it1 and to sear the outside for retaining the juices1 before the actual stewing begins4 ,a 8pot-roast10 is an old-fashioned method of cooking a solid piece of meat with a little water in a pot on top of the stove4 ,the water simmers out1 and the meat is browned4 ,what methods does this process unite8 ,the ,american ,indians in their ,squantum1 or ,clam ,bake1 heated a layer of stones by means of a fire on top1 removing the ashes when the fire died down4 ,a layer of wet seaweed was placed on the stones1 and upon this clams1 fish1 and corn were laid1 and covered with another layer of seaweed4 ,we have inherited this method from the ,indians1 and use it at the shore4 ,what is the cooking process8 ,care of food after cooking4----,bread1 cake1 cookies1 and pastry should be cooled on a rack1 or spread out in such a way that they do not steam4 ,they should then be placed in a tin box or stone jar1 which has been cleaned by washing and scalding with boiling water1 and thoroughly dried4 ,this process destroys any mold that might be lurking about4 ,keep paraffin paper on hand to cover this class of food in its box or jar4 ,this will prevent too rapid drying out4 ,do not use cloth4 ,it flavors the bread or cake1 no matter how clean it may be4 ,all food that is to be served cold or reheated should be cooled before placing in the ice box4 ,for what reason8 ,cool by placing in a draught1 or set the vessel containing the food in running cold water from the faucet4 ,it is particularly important to cool soups and broths rapidly4 ,which of these methods will you use1 as being the more rapid8 ,all meat that is to be served cold should be cooled1 especially if it is rare1 or underdone4 ,how will you accomplish this8 ,care of left overs4----,this is one of the tests of food management4 ,it is so easy at the end of a meal either to throw food away1 or set it into the refrigerator on the dish in which it has been served4 ,have a good supply of cheap bowls1 plates1 and saucers to hold left overs in the refrigerator1 thus avoiding one possibility for breakage of the table china4 ,keep slices of bread for toasting1 pieces of bread1 to dry for crumbs1 with special receptacles for each4 ,return pieces of cake to the cake box4 ,muffins may be reheated4 ,toast may be kept to serve under eggs or meat4 ,all butter should be saved4 ,pieces left on butter plates if clean should be scraped into a wide-mouthed jar and kept for cooking4 ,pieces of meat should be kept for reheating or 8made0 dishes1 stews or soups or for salads4 ,in hot weather1 let your first order of meat be small1 and dispose of left overs as rapidly as possible4 ,vegetables may be reheated1 or used for flavoring soups and stews1 or used cold in salads4 ,desserts and fruits may be used for a 8pick up0 luncheon4 ,salads do not keep their freshness and flavor well1 and should be used very soon4 ,milk and cream should be returned to proper receptacles in the refrigerator as soon as possible4 ,disposal of waste food4----,this is the final test of good housekeeping1 and many otherwise good housekeepers fail just here4 ,even at its best the garbage pail is not altogether a pleasing object1 and at its worst it is unspeakable4 ,it must not be ignored4 ,have a system adapted to your own kitchen1 and the municipal method of disposal1 if there is such4 ,use a covered pail of enamel ware1 rather than one of galvanized iron4 ,the surface of the enamel is smooth1 and therefore easier to wash1 and there is no excuse for putting off the cleansing of the pail4 ,wash1 rinse1 and dry the pail and the cover immediately after it is emptied4 ,do not put a piece of paper in the bottom of the pail4 ,this request is made by the department in ,new ,york ,city1 and it is always better not to mix food waste and paper waste4 ,if you live in an apartment house1 your name should be painted on the pail4 ,never put liquid into the garbage pail with solid refuse4 ,strain out whatever liquid may be left in coffee or tea1 and pour it into the sink drain4 ,if there is a greasy liquid to throw away1 add to it a teaspoonful or more of washing powder1 and let it stand a time4 ,if you have used enough of the powder1 you will find that you have a soapy liquid to pour down the sink4 ,coffee1 tea1 cocoa1 or lemonade left in cups should be diluted and poured down the sink and never into the garbage pail4 ,empty garbage at evening when possible1 to prevent the long standing through the night4 ,keep the pail closely covered both day and night1 to keep out flies1 and water bugs1 if they are about4 ,allow the pail to stand outside the kitchen unless the fire escape is the only accessible out-of-doors4 ,remember that the fire escape is not a back porch1 and that you would be fined for using it as such if the inspectors were efficient4 ,there are two classes of waste3 uncooked refuse1 like potato skins1 egg shells1 pea pods1 meat trimmings and bones2 and table scraps from plates4 ,pieces of fat may be 8tried out10 but do not accumulate more than you use4 ,a few egg shells may be kept for settling coffee1 but again do not keep too many4 ,the country dweller has a simple problem4 ,what the farm animals do not eat will serve as fertilizer for plant life4 ,after the bones have been picked1 keep them together1 in some receptacle1 and finally bury or burn them4 ,have a compost heap properly covered where the uneaten fragments will decompose and make fertilizer1 or bury them at once if preferred4 ,the city dweller who uses a coal stove is able to burn some refuse4 ,strain out whatever liquid is present1 dry the refuse under the grate1 and put it into a hot fire4 ,do not crowd damp refuse into the fire box when the fire is low1 for it will smoulder1 and this heavy smoke will eventually clog the flues4 ,the odor of this smoke1 too1 is disagreeable in the neighborhood4 ,a garbage drier1 set into the stove pipe1 has been devised1 but the simpler plan of drying the refuse under the grate is quite as satisfactory4 ,where gas or kerosene is the fuel1 or where electricity is used1 the garbage pail is the only resort1 unless one lives in a building equipped with a special stove or 8garbage burner0 for the disposal of waste4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is a principle in cooking8 #b4 ,what are the effects of heat upon the foodstuffs8 #c4 ,what is meant by technique in cookery8 #d4 ,what are the essentials in caring for food in the house8 #e4 ,what are the steps in the preparation of food8 #f4 ,explain the origin and usefulness of a recipe4 #g4 ,what are the standard weights and measures8 #h4 ,what is the purpose of stirring ingredients8 ,of beating8 #i4 ,what is the difference between boiling and steaming8 #aj4 ,the difference between baking and roasting8 ,roasting and broiling8 ,broiling and toasting8 #aa4 ,what is the difference between frying and the saut8 #ab4 ,describe the care of 8left overs0 and waste4 ,,chapter ,v ,,water ,,and ,,other ,,beverages ,although water does not supply energy to the body1 it plays an important part in nutrition4 ,as building material1 it constitutes about two thirds of the body weight1 and as a regulator of body processes it serves as a solvent and carrier of nutritive material and waste1 keeps the blood and digestive fluids of proper concentration1 and helps to regulate the temperature of the body4 ,it is contained in nearly all food materials and is the basis of all beverages4 ,water as a beverage4----,water is being given off all the time from the body through the lungs1 skin1 and kidneys4 ,the exact amount depends partly upon atmospheric conditions and the amount of exercise1 which affect the loss through the lungs and skin1 and partly on the amount taken in1 for water passes through the body rather quickly4 ,we can endure lack of food for weeks1 but can exist only a few days without water4 ,a drink of water taken the first thing in the morning tends to clean out the digestive tract and put one in good condition for breakfast4 ,water with meals aids digestion1 provided it is not used to wash down food but is taken when the mouth is empty4 ,it should not be extremely cold nor hot4 ,two glasses at a single meal are usually all that are desirable4 ,when there is much water in the food1 as in soups1 milk1 fruits1 and some vegetables1 or when other beverages are taken1 less will be taken as plain water4 ,when one feels hungry and uncomfortable between meals a drink of water will often relieve the sensation4 ,water is either soft or hard4 ,rain water is perfectly soft1 but as it passes through the earth after falling1 it sometimes becomes laden with mineral substances1 that affect its cleansing properties1 and that may affect its physiological action4 ,such water is called hard4 ,temporary hardness is caused by a soluble lime compound which is precipitated by boiling4 ,if the teakettle is incrusted inside by a layer of lime1 the hardness is of this character4 ,such water should be boiled and cooled for drinking4 ,permanent hardness is due to other compounds of lime and magnesia which are not precipitated by boiling1 but which can be counteracted for cleansing purposes by the addition of some substance like ammonia1 borax1 or soda4 ,if the excess of salts has some undesirable physiological effect1 this water should be distilled1 or bottled water for drinking brought from elsewhere4 ,of much greater importance is the question of the freedom of the water supply from harmful bacteria and organic matter4 ,never use a well without having the water tested by an expert4 ,this will sometimes be done by the local or state ,board of ,health or ,experiment ,station4 ,all water sources should be guarded from contamination4 7,see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 ,chapter ,v47 ,filters may be used1 and are effective in straining out sediment1 but the home filter is seldom to be relied upon to remove actual bacterial contamination4 ,if used at all1 the filter should be frequently cleaned and sterilized in boiling water4 ,in case the supply is suspected1 the water for drinking should be boiled for at least ten minutes1 allowed to settle1 if necessary1 and poured off into bottles for cooling4 ,this is a practice to be commended after a heavy rainfall1 and especially in the autumn4 ,these bottles may be placed on the ice4 ,ice must be used with caution always in drinking water1 and it is the safer way to cool the water beside the ice4 ,the freezing of water in pond and river does not purify or sterilize it4 ,natural ice is usually questionable4 ,artificial ice1 if properly manufactured1 is much safer4 ,always have a supply of water in covered pitcher or water bottle1 with clean glasses at hand1 where it may be taken freely when wanted4 ,remember that the individual cup or glass is an absolute necessity4 ,the dipper or glass in common must not be countenanced4 ,in a large family of many children it would save labor to use paper cups between meals4 ,water should be swallowed slowly1 and ice-cold water should not be taken when one is overheated4 ,when one is overthirsty1 control must be exercised in regard to quantity and rapidity of drinking4 ,water in cooking4----,water is necessary to the softening of fiber1 and the cooking of starch4 ,it acts as a solvent for sugar and salt and for gelatin1 and is the basis of meat soups1 certain substances in the meat dissolving in the water4 ,the flavors of tea and coffee are extracted by water4 ,as a medium in cooking it supplies heat in the steaming1 boiling1 and stewing processes1 and in the form of melting ice with salt it acts as a freezing medium4 ,it is not necessary to lift the cover of a kettle to see if the water boils1 if one is familiar with the action of water nearing and at the boiling point4 ,a simple experiment with the boiling of water in a ,florence flask is always interesting1 and from it one gains practical knowledge4 ,experiments with the boiling temperature of water4 ,a4 ,apparatus3 ,a ring stand1 a ,florence flask1 a square of wire net1 a chemical thermometer1 a ,bunsen burner4 ,method3 ,place the ,florence flask1 half full of water1 on the square of wire net upon the large ring of the ring stand over the ,bunsen burner4 ,put the chemical thermometer in the ,florence flask1 clamping it in such a way that the bulb is covered by the water and yet does not touch the bottom of the flask4 ,make record in the notebook as follows3 7#a7 ,the temperature when the first small bubbles appear on the side of the flask4 7#b7 ,temperature when the first large bubbles appear on the bottom4 7#c7 ,temperature when many bubbles rise rapidly to the top4 7#d7 ,point at which temperature ceases to rise4 7#e7 ,temperature when vapor first appears at the mouth of the flask4 7#f7 ,what differences are apparent in the amount and motion of the vapor before and after boiling8 7#g7 ,lift the thermometer above the water and note the temperature just above the surface1 when the water is rapidly boiling4 ,the small bubbles are bubbles of air4 ,the large are bubbles of steam4 ,a complete study of the boiling process should be made in the ,physics class4 ,the boiling point is the point at which water becomes steam1 and also the point at which steam condenses again to water4 ,the temperature of boiling water and steam are the same4 ,under pressure steam may be heated to a higher temperature4 ,b4 ,boil water in a small saucepan closely covered4 7#a7 ,note the sounds of the water just before boiling1 and the change in sound as the boiling begins4 7#b7 ,note the difference between the vapor escaping1 before boiling1 and after4 ,this experiment is best performed in a teakettle4 ,c4 ,test the temperature of the inner part of the double boiler1 when the water boils rapidly below4 ,to be exact1 a hole should be bored in the cover of the boiler1 a cork with a hole inserted1 the thermometer run through the cork4 ,an approximate result is obtained by putting in the thermometer1 setting on the cover tilted1 and covering the opening with a cloth4 ,d4 ,stir salt into rapidly boiling water in the lower part of the double boiler until no more salt will dissolve 7a saturated solution74 ,test the temperature4 ,e4 ,put the inner part of the double boiler containing water into this boiling solution of saturated salt1 being sure that the inner part is sufficiently deep in the salt solution4 ,note the temperature of the water in the inner boiler when it becomes heated4 ,boiling at high altitudes4----,when the air pressure upon the surface of the water is lessened1 the water boils at a lower temperature4 ,as the altitude increases1 the air pressure decreases1 as many a mountain traveler knows to his cost4 ,the boiling temperature of water is so much lowered that the dwellers in high regions of several thousand feet find it difficult to cook starchy vegetables well4 ,a heavy iron pot is made with clamps for fastening down a tight cover1 which increases the temperature somewhat4 ,experiments ,d and ,e indicate a method that can be used to a small extent4 ,the baking process should be largely used1 and boiling avoided4 ,for meat1 eggs1 and fish the lower temperature is not undesirable4 7,see the chapters relating to these foods47 ,the uses of ice4----,water freezes and ice melts at the same point1 #cb ,f41 or #j ,c4 ,if ice is mixed with salt1 the temperature is reduced far below the freezing point1 nearly to #j ,f4 ,this process reduces any watery substance which it surrounds to its freezing point1 the heat being used in the melting of the ice4 ,this is an interesting topic to discuss in the ,physics class4 ,ice at its ordinary temperature of #cb ,f4 is used for cooling food agreeably4 ,its most important function in the refrigerator is as preserver of food for a short time at least4 ,for this it is invaluable1 and cheap ice is really necessary in summer to the health of a great city4 ,ice substitutes4----,where the supply fails or the price is exorbitant1 one property of water makes it a partial aid4 ,the rapid evaporation of water will absorb heat so rapidly as to reduce the temperature of adjacent bodies4 ,in the tropics when ice is lacking1 water is hung in porous jars in the breeze1 and the temperature of the water in the jar is reduced4 ,to keep milk and butter cool wrap a wet cloth about the containing jar1 and set the jar upon the window sill1 keeping one end of the towel in a vessel of water2 or the cloth may be wrapped directly around the butter4 ,this method is surprisingly effective4 ,fruit beverages4----,fruit juices with water and sugar make refreshing beverages and have nutritive value as well4 7,see the next chapter47 ,cocoa and chocolate1 coffee1 and tea4----,these are the three most important non-alcoholic beverages used by man4 ,they are used because of the agreeable flavor given them by volatile oils1 and also because they have a stimulating effect4 ,the stimulating property is due to an alkaloid1 a crystallizable substance known in cocoa as theobromine1 in coffee as caffeine1 and in tea as theine4 ,chemical investigation indicates that caffeine and theine are the same and theobromine is a closely related substance4 ,these substances have a recognized stimulating effect upon the nervous system1 and the beverages containing them should therefore be used with caution by all4 ,in the opinion of the writers1 tea and coffee should not be taken by young people under twenty-five years of age4 ,tea and coffee also contain tannin1 an astringent substance giving a disagreeable flavor to coffee and tea when these are improperly made1 and having an undesirable effect upon digestion4 ,chocolate contains a non-volatile fat 7cocoa butter7 in large amount1 and should be classed as a food as well as a beverage4 ,the plants from which cocoa1 coffee1 and tea are derived are natives of semi-tropical or tropical ,africa1 ,asia1 and ,america1 having been introduced to ,europe by early travelers in these lands4 ,the introduction of these beverages is an interesting bit of history4 ,the ,spaniards found cocoa in tropical ,america1 and carried it back to ,spain1 and it was not used in ,england until #afeg4 ,it was sold in ,danvers1 ,massachusetts1 in #agga1 the raw material having been brought by ,gloucester fishermen from the ,west ,indies4 ,coffee is said to have originated in ,abyssinia1 reaching ,europe by way of ,arabia1 and being sold in ,england in #afej4 ,coffee-houses were licensed in ,america in #agae4 ,a ,chinese tradition places the discovery of the use of tea at #bgjj ,b4,c4 ,it was first used in ,england in #afeg1 and was imported into ,america in #agaa4 ,an amusing story is told of the first tea party in a town of western ,connecticut1 where the tea was boiled violently in a large iron kettle and served on a platter with the leaves1 as a form of soup1 the leaves themselves being eaten4 ,cocoa and chocolate4----,cocoa and chocolate are manufactured from the seed of a tree1 ,theobroma cacao1 grown in tropical ,america4 ,the seeds1 when removed from the containing pod1 are fermented to improve the flavor1 dried1 cleaned1 roasted1 and finally ground4 ,the outer husk is loosened in the roasting1 and is then removed1 and sold as 8cocoa shells40 ,it is the basis of a cheap beverage with an agreeable flavor4 ,the first crushing of the seeds gives cocoa 8nibs10 and these are further ground in a mill1 and finally molded into the cake of plain chocolate4 ,the addition of sugar1 vanilla1 cinnamon1 and sometimes other spices gives a variety of sweet chocolates4 ,powdered cocoa is prepared by the removal of the fat1 which is a valuable product in itself1 sugar and flavorings are added and sometimes a starch4 ,the ,dutch manufacturers use alkalies for removing the crude fiber and improving the color1 and the consequent loss of flavor is balanced by the use of other flavoring matter4 ,the adulterations of cocoa are largely starch in excess4 ,the ,french and ,american cocoas are flavored with vanilla1 the ,dutch manufacturers using cinnamon as well4 ,the so-called soluble cocoas are very finely ground1 and therefore mix readily with water1 remaining in suspension for some time1 but the cocoa itself is not dissolved4 ,powdered cocoa is bought in tin cans1 is cheap1 and is even more economical if bought in large cans than in small4 ,chocolate is more expensive always than the cocoa1 and may be bought in cakes in pound packages1 or in powdered form for immediate use4 ,coffee is the inner seed of a berry from a tree1 ,coffea arabica1 the process of manufacture consisting of the removal of the outer pulp1 fermentation1 washing1 drying1 and roasting4 ,the first stages of the process are carried on at the coffee plantation1 the raw berries being imported1 and roasted shortly before using4 ,the roasting in cocoa1 coffee1 and tea is necessary for desirable flavors1 the heat developing volatile1 aromatic principles1 caramelizing the sugar1 and causing other chemical changes4 ,the differences in the flavor of coffees are due to the variety1 the soil and climate1 and methods of production and manufacture4 ,no coffee grown in the western hemisphere has excelled1 and scarcely has any equaled1 the original ,mocha and ,java coffees1 and these have long been trade names for coffee from other places1 because of the popular liking for these brands4 ,brazil is now the great coffee producing country of the world1 and from ,south and ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies we obtain coffee of excellent flavor4 ,the adulterations of coffee should be noted1 although these are of the kind that gives the buyer something cheaper in place of coffee1 rather than a substance that is injurious4 ,ground chicory root is sometimes mixed with coffee1 but cannot be classed strictly as an adulterant1 because many people1 notably the ,french1 add it openly1 preferring its flavor4 ,among adulterants are rye meal1 bran1 beans and peas1 cocoa shells1 and even sawdust4 ,artificial beans have been made of bran1 molasses1 and water1 sometimes with the addition of chicory and coloring matter4 ,if ground coffee is put into a glass of cold water1 it floats on the top and remains hard1 while several of the adulterants named soften and sink to the bottom of the glass4 ,highly roasted coffee1 however1 will sometimes sink4 ,coffee beans from which coffee extract has been made are sometimes mixed with other coffee4 ,coffee extracts and crystallized coffee are manufactured to simplify the coffee-making process1 but the flavor is not equal to that of coffee infusion made directly from the bean4 ,a preparation of coffee is also offered with the caffeine removed by some chemical process1 but it is expensive in this country4 ,buy coffee in the bean1 and see that it is freshly roasted4 ,coffee1 whole or ground1 is sold extensively by the pound in tin cans1 with a fancy label and name1 and in this form it is usually expensive4 ,good coffee may be bought for twenty-five cents a pound of many reliable dealers1 and may be purchased in five or ten pound packages1 or bought in bulk to be kept in a tightly closed can4 ,tea is the dried leaf of a shrub1 ,camellia thea1 growing in the comparatively high lands of ,japan1 ,china1 ,india1 and ,ceylon4 ,a tea plantation exists in ,south ,carolina1 ,u4,s4,a41 and furnishes a very pleasing grade of tea1 somewhat resembling ,japan tea in flavor4 ,we are familiar with the fact that there are many kinds and grades of tea1 the tea shrub varying as does the coffee tree1 and the methods of curing affecting both color and flavor4 ,the teas from the countries named have characteristic flavors1 and each country has different varieties and grades4 ,russian tea is not grown in ,russia1 but is ,chinese tea carried across the continent of ,asia4 ,in general1 tea may be classed as green or black1 this difference in color depending upon the age of the leaf1 and largely upon differences in the curing process4 ,green tea is made from the young leaf1 and after picking is dried immediately by artificial heat1 being constantly stirred for about an hour1 in which time the leaves twist and curl4 ,for black tea the leaves are allowed to wilt and ferment1 before they are rolled and heated2 and sometimes the heating is repeated4 ,these details of the process vary in different localities4 ,the leaves are finally sorted and graded for packing4 ,both black and green teas are made in ,china4 8,bohea0 is one of the famous black ,chinese teas4 8,english ,breakfast ,tea0 is known as such only in ,america1 and is a blend of black teas4 ,black tea is not so successfully made in ,japan as in ,china4 8,oolong10 from the island of ,formosa1 has the appearance of a black tea1 with the flavor of a green4 ,in ,japan and ,china old-time methods prevail1 with much handling of the tea leaves1 but in ,ceylon and ,india modern machinery makes the process a much more cleanly one4 ,another classification of tea is that depending upon the age and size of the leaf1 the young leaf making the finer grade tea4 ,for example1 in the black teas of ,india 8flowery pekoe0 is made from the youngest leaf1 8orange pekoe0 from the second1 8pekoe0 from the third1 and 8souchong0 and 8congou0 come from the larger leaves4 ,the adulterations of tea are usually the leaves of other plants1 but as a matter of fact very little adulterated tea is imported4 ,the first grades of teas1 however1 and those most highly prized by the ,chinese and ,japanese1 seldom find their way to ,america4 ,other beverages4----,several very acceptable coffee substitutes are on the market1 made from roasted and ground grain1 and they give an agreeable hot drink for breakfast when served with cream or milk4 ,in some cases they seem to have a laxative effect1 which is well for some people and not for others4 ,a pleasant hot drink of the same nature may be made from the browned crusts of bread4 ,the substitutes for tea are not usually satisfactory4 ,the ,indians of the western coast of the ,united ,states make a tea from a plant which they call 8,buona ,yerba10 but for us it has a strong resemblance to the medicinal herb teas formerly used for curative purposes1 such as sage1 catnip1 motherwort1 and the like4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes #a4 ,lemonade and fruit drinks4 ,utensils4----,silver knife for paring and slicing1 glass lemon squeezer1 a grater1 a strainer1 and a saucepan4 ,avoid the use of tin and iron utensils4 ,materials4----,lemon or other fruits1 sugar water4 ,proportions4----,one half lemon to a glass1 or #b or #c to a quart of water4 ,other fruits 8according to taste40 ,experiment here1 using the juice and pulp of any fruit1 combining those that are very acid with those that lack acidity1----lemon and raspberry1 for example4 ,one third to #a_/b cup sugar to a quart4 ,the proportion cannot be stated with exactness1 for fruit varies in acidity1 and the final result must always be tested by the taste4 ,method4 ,plain lemonade4----,after deciding upon the proper amounts to be used1 dissolve the sugar in a part of the water1 brought to the boiling point4 ,when cool1 add the lemon juice and remaining water1 ice and serve4 ,a small portion of grated rind may be added to the boiling water4 ,another method is to use lump sugar1 rubbing the peel of the lemon upon each lump before dissolving4 ,the general method is the same with other fruits1 pulpy fruit and berries being mashed1 the water added1 and strained4 ,cherries1 strawberries1 and pieces of pulp are sometimes added before serving1 when the fruit drink is ladled from a bowl as fruit punch4 ,be sure to cut the berries if they are large4 ,a brightness is imparted to the fruit punch by the addition of carbonated water just before serving4 ,a quart of fruit punch1 if served in small cups1 will suffice for eight people4 #b4 ,cocoa shells4 ,principle4----,to extract the flavor from the shells1 by boiling in water4 ,utensil4----,a saucepan or coffee boiler4 ,proportions4----,one half cup shells to #a quart boiling water4 ,as much as #a cup of the shells may be used4 ,method4 ,wash the shells in a strainer under the faucet4 ,put the shells in the pot1 pour on boiling water1 and simmer gently for #a_/b hour4 ,strain off1 and serve with cream1 or milk1 or evaporated milk and sugar4 #c4 ,cocoa4 ,principle4----,to mix the particles smoothly and evenly with the liquid by stirring and by heating4 ,utensils4----,a measuring cup1 a saucepan1 spoon1 and beater4 ,a double boiler1 if milk only is used4 ,ingredients4----,powdered cocoa1 sugar1 water1 or milk1 or milk and water4 ,cocoa made with milk does not agree with some people1 in which case it may be made with water only1 and served with cream1 milk1 or evaporated milk4 ,proportions4----,one teaspoonful of cocoa to #a_/b measuring cup4 ,more or less as preferred4 ,one teaspoonful of sugar1 ditto4 ,method4 ,heat the liquid4 ,stir a portion of the liquid cold1 with the cocoa1 add this to the hot liquid1 add the sugar1 and beat vigorously for a minute before removing from the fire4 #d4 ,chocolate4 ,principle4----,to mix the chocolate smoothly with the liquid that the fat may not float on the top4 ,this is accomplished by having all the ingredients either hot or cold4 ,if after the chocolate is dissolved in a hot liquid1 cold liquid is added1 the oil separates and floats4 ,utensils4----,a grater1 or sharp knife1 a saucepan1 mixing spoon1 and beater4 ,a ,french chocolate maker claims that any metal utensil affects the flavor of the chocolate1 and always uses an earthen pot and wooden spoon and heater4 ,an earthenware chocolate pot for this purpose is on the market4 ,ingredients4----,chocolate1 sugar1 milk1 or milk and water4 ,proportions4----,the amount of chocolate may be varied1 depending upon the richness desired4 ,three or #d ounce squares to #a quart liquid1 #d teaspoonfuls sugar to #a quart4 ,the liquid is better half milk and half water1 rather than milk only4 ,method #a4aj ,the cold method4 ,put the liquid and sugar into the saucepan4 ,break or cut the chocolate into small pieces1 add to the liquid1 and heat the liquid slowly1 stirring occasionally but not constantly4 ,when the liquid is hot1 just before it reaches the boiling point1 beat vigorously with a wooden spoon1 or beater4 ,the ,dover beater is convenient4 ,this beating makes a velvety smooth and a foamy mixture4 ,method #b4 ,the hot method4 ,heat the liquid with the sugar4 ,grate the chocolate or shave it with a knife4 ,protect the chocolate from the warmth of the fingers by a piece of paper4 ,the process is less 8sticky0 if the chocolate and grater are chilled in the refrigerator4 ,just as the liquid is reaching the boiling point1 pour in the grated chocolate1 and beat vigorously4 ,beaten chocolate does not need any additional cream when served4 ,beaten whipped cream is attractive on the top of each cup4 ,but remember that chocolate is already rich in fat1 and that additional fat may be indigestible4 ,such a cup of chocolate taken for luncheon with a roll is sufficient for the meal1 and is certainly too rich in fat for serving at an afternoon tea4 #e4 ,coffee4 ,principle4----,to extract the flavoring oils at the boiling point of water1 and to avoid the extraction of the tannin4 ,the tannin is extracted by prolonged boiling1 and when the liquid coffee stands upon the grounds4 ,utensils4----,coffee grinder1 measuring cup1 pot4 ,the kind of pot depends upon the method used4 ,one house furnishing firm displays some seventy different coffee pots1 but they may be divided into three classes1 the pot for boiling1 the drip coffee pot1 and the percolator 7see ,figs4 #bc and #bd74 ,the coffee boiler should have a lip1 and not a spout4 ,a word of warning is needed in regard to the care of the pot4 ,coffee grounds should be removed from any pot immediately1 and the pot washed at once in scalding hot soapsuds1 rinsed1 dried1 and aired4 ,let the pot stand with cover off4 ,if this is not done1 a coat is soon formed on the inside of the pot1 which spoils the flavor of the coffee4 ,where the pot has been neglected1 boiling it out with a solution of caustic soda is sometimes a remedy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4----;,a pot for boiling coffee and a pot for drip coffee4 ,courtesy of the ,brambhall ,dean ,co4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4----;,a coffee percolator4 ,courtesy of ,landers1 ,frary and ,clark4 ,ingredients4----,ground coffee1 water1 cold or boiling1 white of egg or egg shell for boiled coffee4 ,the coffee should be ground to medium fineness for boiled coffee1 to a finer powder for the percolated and drip coffee4 ,proportions4----,one part of coffee to #e or #f of water1 depending upon the strength desired4 ,one egg shell1 or half the white of an egg to #a cup of ground coffee4 ,method #a4 ,boiling4----,measure the coffee and water4 ,stir the white or the shell of an egg with the coffee1 adding a little of the water1 put this into the pot1 add the remaining water cold1 stir thoroughly1 allow the water to rise slowly to the boiling point1 and to boil one minute1 remove the pot from the fire1 pour in a small amount of cold water1 and let the coffee stand for five minutes or until the grounds settle4 ,during the cooking close the lip with clean soft paper if it has no lid4 ,the actual boiling is continued for a brief period only1 and coffee made by this method is considered by some people to have a flavor lacking in drip or percolator coffee4 ,the egg is added to clarify the coffee4 ,pour off the liquid coffee from the grounds1 and keep hot until it is time to serve it4 ,a second method differs from this in that the water is poured on at the boiling temperature1 allowed to reach the boiling point in two or three minutes1 and boiled for five minutes4 ,the first gives uniformly better results4 ,it is true1 however1 that different kinds of coffee need different treatment1 and there is room here for much experimenting4 ,method #b4 ,drip coffee4----,in this method the coffee is put in a receptacle above1 the water passes slowly through1 collecting in the pot below1 from which it is served4 ,stand the lower part of the pot in a pan of hot water1 or where it will keep hot4 ,measure the water1 and bring it to the boiling point4 ,heat the ground coffee slightly1 put it in the upper section of the pot1 and pour on the water very slowly4 ,of course1 the water is not actually boiling when it touches the coffee4 ,if the liquid coffee is not strong enough1 pour it from the lower part and pass it through the grounds again4 ,this is the ,french method1 and is an excellent way to prepare after-dinner coffee4 ,method #c4 ,percolator coffee4----,in the percolator the water boils within the pot1 and passes through the coffee at the boiling temperature4 ,the exact method depends upon the pattern of the pot1 and directions always accompany a given pot4 ,for those who can use electricity1 the electric percolator certainly gives an excellent coffee4 ,coffee is served 8black10 or with cream1 milk1 or evaporated milk and sugar4 ,if milk is used for breakfast coffee1 serve it hot4 #f4 ,tea4 ,principle4----,to extract flavor by allowing the leaves to remain for a few minutes1 in water which has been poured on at the boiling temperature1 and to avoid the extraction of tannin by making the period of steeping short4 ,tea must never be boiled4 ,utensils4----,an earthen pot1 measuring cup1 teaspoon1 strainer4 ,sometimes a tea ball or piece of cheesecloth4 ,proportion4----,one teaspoonful of tea to about #a cup of water1 the amount depending upon the kind of tea4 ,method4----,measure the water and bring it to the boiling point4 ,heat the tea slightly in the pot1 pour on the water rapidly1 allow to stand three to five minutes1 strain into a heated pot for serving4 ,the length of the steeping depends also upon the kind of tea4 ,if there is an astringent flavor1 the tea has stood too long4 ,the following method was recommended by an expert in ,india teas4 ,bring the water to a boil in a saucepan1 throw in the tea leaves1 lift the saucepan instantly to stop the boiling1 steep for #c or #d minutes1 strain off and keep hot4 ,this expert claimed that by actually having the tea leaves at the boiling temperature for an instant the flavor is improved4 ,serve with cream or milk1 or sliced lemon and sugar4 ,where tea is to be served in very large quantities1 this last method is very convenient4 ,the water can be brought to the boil in a large kettle1 and the tea thrown in1 but care must be exercised to see that the steeping does not last too long4 ,the tea1 once decanted1 can be kept hot for several hours1 without losing flavor4 ,or again1 a small amount of extra strong tea may be prepared1 to be diluted with boiling water as it is served4 ,the tea ball1 or the plan of tying the tea in small pieces of cheesecloth1 is convenient for serving at an afternoon tea4 #g4 ,iced cocoa1 coffee1 and tea4 ,cocoa and coffee are agreeable in hot weather served in a glass with ice1 and cream and powdered sugar4 ,make both slightly stronger than for hot drinks1 as the ice in melting dilutes the liquid4 ,iced tea4----,prepare a small amount of strong tea1 using #d teaspoonfuls to #a cup boiling water1 strain off and cool4 ,dilute with iced water to the proper strength1 sweeten with powdered sugar1 and serve in glasses with one or two slices of lemon to each glass4 ,for those who do not like the lemon1 iced tea may be served with cream4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what are the functions of water in the body8 #b4 ,what cautions should be exercised when drinking water8 #c4 ,explain the likenesses and differences of cocoa and chocolate1 coffee and tea4 #d4 ,why is it better to serve whipped cream with cocoa1 rather than with chocolate8 #e4 ,explain the principles in making each beverage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,the beverages are treated in one chapter for convenience1 but need not of necessity come at the beginning of the course4 ,a fruit beverage1 or cocoa1 may make a convenient first lesson1 when the pupils are becoming acquainted with the school kitchen4 ,coffee and tea may be made during the baking lessons4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,fruit ,,and ,,its ,,preservation ,the ,united ,states is fortunate in the native fruit supply1 including as it does so many degrees of latitude and longitude with the differences in altitude1 climate1 and soil needed by different varieties4 ,now that we count ,porto ,rico among our possessions1 a list of our fruits would include most of the varieties known in the temperate and semi-tropical zones4 ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture experiments with new varieties from foreign lands that may make themselves at home in our soil1 and work like that of ,luther ,burbank produces new species4 ,scientific methods of fruit growing are becoming more common1 and the quality of fruit will doubtless improve in spite of fungous diseases and injurious insects4 ,our wild fruits are not yet entirely rooted out4 ,the ,maine blueberry1 for example1 is found on hundreds of acres and needs no cultivation beyond burning over every third year4 ,fruit is necessary in our diet1 and is not an extravagance unless we buy fancy varieties brought from a distance1 or native fruits out of season4 ,composition and nutritive value4----,the chief foodstuffs in fruits are carbohydrates and mineral matter4 ,fresh fruit contains from #ge to #ie per cent of water1 and its presence is apparent in such juicy fruits as the melon and the orange4 ,figure #be shows that seemingly dry fruits like the banana and the apple also contain much water4 ,even fruits which have been artificially dried1 like prunes and raisins1 contain some water4 7,fig4 #bf47 ,although the carbohydrates of fruits are largely in the form of sugars easily digested and valuable as fuel1 this kind of food is especially valuable for its rich supply of ash1 including the compounds of calcium1 magnesium1 potassium1 phosphorus1 and iron4 ,the iron is of great importance1 being in a form much more useful to the normal processes of the body than that prescribed medicinally4 ,the bulk given by cellulose1 and the laxative property of fruit acids also are safeguards against constipation1 especially in a meat diet4 ,fruit is the best possible dessert after a hearty meat dinner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4----;,composition of fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4----;,composition of fruit4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4----ajj-;,calorie portions of fresh and dried fruit4 ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,,kind ,,weight ,,of ,,portion ,,ounces ,apple #g4e ,banana #e4e ,grapes #d4i ,orange #i4e ,peaches #aj4e ,pears #f4c ,apricots #a4c ,dates #a4a ,prunes #a4d ,raisins #a4a ,the digestibility of fruit is increased for some people by cooking4 ,this is probably due to the softening of the fiber1 to the destruction of any bacteria present1 and in the case of the banana1 to the cooking of the starch4 ,fruit juice can be taken by little children and invalids who might find the fiber troublesome4 ,some people cannot eat berries on account of irritation caused by the seeds4 ,in this case1 juice may be squeezed from cooked berries and used for beverages and jelly4 ,how to buy4----,since we should eat fruit daily1 and not merely as a 8treat10 it is important to practice economy in buying it4 ,fresh fruits in season1 and dried fruits are the cheapest4 ,canned fruit is economical when it is a product of one's own garden1 or put up when some fruit has a low market price4 ,prices are so variable1 even with one variety1 that no definite sum can be given as a fixed price4 ,apples vary from fifty cents a bushel near the orchard and in season1 to ten cents apiece for a fancy table variety in the winter4 ,when you buy fresh fruit1 inquire the prices of the many kinds offered1 note which is cheapest1 and then observe whether the cheaper kind is such because it is abundant1 or because it is of inferior quality4 ,if you chance to want apples for cooking1 and the only cheap apples are spotted and bruised1 then buy dried apples1 or even canned4 ,it is best to decide upon the fruit after you have studied market conditions rather than before4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,fresh ,fruits ,principles of preparation4 ,thorough cleansing in clear water4 ,cleanliness1 in avoiding use of the fingers4 ,making convenient for eating1 sometimes by paring or cutting or expressing the juices4 ,adjuncts4----,sugar4 ,the juice of an acid fruit with an insipid fruit4 ,tools4----,a sharp steel knife for paring and peeling4 ,a silver-plated knife for cutting4 ,a glass lemon squeezer4 ,methods4 ,berries4----,pick over4 ,wash in colander with a gentle stream of water1 and shake carefully to avoid bruising and breaking4 ,chill in the refrigerator4 ,sprinkle with sugar when served4 ,oranges4----,scrub the peel with a brush4 7#a7 ,cut in two crosswise and serve4 7#b7 ,peel with a sharp knife and remove the pith4 ,cut crosswise1 remove seeds1 and break up the slices4 ,sprinkle with sugar4 ,chill in the refrigerator4 ,grapefruit4----,the same method as with the orange1 but in method 7#b7 the pulp only should be served4 ,bananas4----,wash thoroughly4 7#a7 ,cut in two lengthwise1 and serve1 or ,pour a teaspoonful of lemon juice on each half1 and sprinkle with sugar4 ,chill in the refrigerator4 7#b7 ,pull off the skin1 lengthwise4 ,cut in slices crosswise4 ,chill1 and serve with sugar and cream1 or ,pour on lemon or orange juice1 add sugar1 and chill4 ,peaches4----,wash gently4 ,hold the peach on a fork at one end4 ,peel with a plated knife1 and slice4 ,chill in the refrigerator for a short time only before serving1 as peaches discolor quickly4 ,sprinkle with sugar when served4 ,pears and apples4----,when very mellow1 these are delicious sliced and served with sugar and cream4 ,fruit juice4----,cut the fruit in two1 and press on the glass squeezer over a cup4 ,cooked ,fruits ,principles of cooking4 ,the fiber1 and skin when retained1 are softened4 ,flavors are developed at a low temperature long continued4 ,a high temperature at the end of process1 browns1 and adds flavor4 ,flavors retained by prevention of evaporation through covering tightly4 ,bacteria and molds are destroyed4 ,adjuncts4----,sugar4 ,sometimes a bit of butter4 ,acid fruit juices1 or ,an acid jelly4 ,seeded raisins1 with acid fruit1 as sour apples4 ,nutmeg or cinnamon with some fruits4 ,cooking processes4----,stewing and baking4 ,utensils4----,knife and corer4 ,stew pan1 enamel ware1 close cover4 ,round or square baking pans1 enamel ware1 covered4 ,earthenware pot1 covered4 ,methods4----,if you can cook one fruit1 you can cook all4 ,two common fruits are selected for your experiments1 the apple and the prune2 both are delicious1 and both contain iron1 the prune more than the apple4 ,the apple4----,a tart variety is best for cooking4 ,the ,greening and the ,baldwin are excellent4 ,apples are cooked whole1 or as a sauce4 ,whole1 cooked with or without the skin1 either stewed or baked4 ,for cooking whole1 select those of uniform size4 ,for cooking whole1 with the skin1 select those with fair skins4 ,for cooking whole without skin1 select firm texture1 not mellow4 ,an apple sauce may consist of slices1 or may be mashed or strained1 and may be either stewed or baked4 ,less perfect apples may be used than for baking4 ,first step for all4----,wash1 and examine carefully for blemishes1 bruises1 and insects in the interior4 #a4 ,whole apple baked1 with skin4 7#a7 ,remove core4 7#b7 ,place in pan1 with enough water to barely cover the bottom of the pan4 7#c7 ,pour sugar into the holes4 7#d7 ,a bit of butter may be put on the top of the sugar4 7#e7 ,nutmeg or cinnamon may be mixed with the sugar if the apples are flat in taste4 7#f7 ,cover the pan1 and bake in a moderate oven1 until the apples are tender4 ,the length of time depends upon the quality of the apple4 7,see class experiment47 ,half apples4----,this is a modification of 7#a74 ,cut the apples in two crosswise1 and proceed as with the whole apple4 #b4 ,whole apples baked1 without skin4----,a good method when skins are tough4 7#a7 ,remove core and pare4 7#b7 ,place in earthen baking dish4 ,the remainder of the process is the same4 7#c7 ,serve in the dish in which they are baked4 7#d7 ,currant jelly1 or seeded raisins may be placed in the core holes instead of sugar4 ,class experiment4----,bake side by side two apples of uniform size1 one with1 one without1 the skin4 ,note carefully the length of time for baking each4 ,what difference8 ,why is this8 ,it may be necessary in the school kitchen to bake in a quick oven1 on account of the shortness of the class period4 ,it does not spoil the apple to do this2 but the longer process that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor4 ,for this experiment1 one pupil may bake the apple without the skin1 and the next pupil one with the skin in case there is but one apple apiece2 or it may be made a class experiment with two apples4 #c4 ,whole1 stewed4 7,compote47----,this is a more difficult method than method #b1 and really no better4 7#a7 ,core and pare five or six apples4 7#b7 ,dissolve #a_/b cup sugar in #a_/b pint water in a saucepan4 7#c7 ,place apples in the sirup4 ,they should be barely covered4 7#d7 ,cover closely and keep just below the boiling point1 until the apples are tender4 7#e7 ,cool slightly1 remove the apples with care and place in the serving dish4 ,put a spoonful of jelly in each apple4 7#f7 ,boil down the sirup and pour it over the apples4 7#g7 ,chill1 before serving with plain or whipped cream4 #d4 ,apple sauces4----,in the cooking of the whole apple you have all the principles and processes of apple cooking4 ,you can now make apple sauce of your own invention1 and need no printed directions4 ,answer these questions before you begin work4 ,after you have made the sauce1 record the work exactly in your notebook4 ,if you want the slices of apple to remain whole1 will the method be like #a1 #b1 or #c8 ,if you wish a smooth sauce1 what utensil will you need8 ,how will you determine the amount of sugar required8 ,if you are very fond of sugar1 your taste may not be the safest guide4 ,practical home work4----,if you can secure a very slow oven1 say a coal oven at night1 or a gas oven with a low flame1 make an apple sauce in an earthenware pot1 as heavy as a bean pot1 closely covered1 leaving the pot in the oven from six to eight hours4 ,this process is satisfactory in a fireless cooker where a hot stone or iron is used4 ,remember that water keeps down temperature1 and also that it evaporates steadily even in a slow oven4 ,how much water will you put over the apples when the process begins8 ,if you have never cooked apples in this way you will be surprised at the color and flavor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some other fruits4----,pears and quinces develop pleasing flavors when baked4 ,cook the quinces sliced1 as suggested for the apples1 in the bean pot1 using a little molasses for sweetening and you will have the delicious old-time 8molasses quince40 ,prunes4----,we are dealing now with a dried fruit4 ,if you compare the raisins with the grapes in ,fig4 #bf1 you will see how much water is lost in the drying process4 ,the same difference would be evident if you had pictures of a fresh plum and a prune1 side by side4 ,this water must be supplied in the process of preparation4 ,the best way to accomplish this is by soaking the prunes many hours1 say over night4 ,prunes have a most undeserved reputation1 because they are not well cooked1 and at some tables are served too often4 ,with this one new step introduced you may plan the cooking of the prunes1 from what you know of apple sauce4 ,the slower and longer the process1 the better4 ,the cheaper kinds of prunes will be very satisfactory1 with the soaking and slow cooking4 ,what is the sensible thing to do in regard to sugar8 ,if on some occasion you would like prunes to be unusually nice1 remove the stones carefully1 and in their places slip in seeded raisins which have also been soaked and gently stewed4 ,other dried fruits may be treated in the same way4 ,apricots and peaches yield delightful flavors when carefully prepared2 and dried apples are also excellent4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,fruit ,,and ,,other ,,foods ,the preservation of fruit and other foods has been a household industry for generations1 and it is now an important commercial industry4 ,the old-time farm had its smokehouse where hams and beef were 8cured10 the barrel of brine stood in the cellar for pork and corned beef1 apples and corn were dried for winter use1 and rows of preserve jars stood upon the shelves4 ,food was preserved by simple processes long before the reason for the decay and spoiling of food was fully understood1 but with larger knowledge and better appliances1 we now preserve food more effectively and in quantities larger than were possible in former days4 ,fruit is the food material now most commonly preserved in the home kitchen4 ,vegetables need to be subjected to heat for a much longer time than fruit1 and many people prefer to buy canned vegetables rather than to go to the trouble and expense of canning them at home4 ,where there is an oversupply of vegetables in the home garden1 it is sometimes economy to can them1 and this may be done if care is exercised4 ,the cost of fuel and labor must be counted in1 when studying the question of home preserving versus buying the canned product4 ,whatever the food material1 and the process1 the principles of preservation are the same for all4 ,why does food spoil8----,the decay and moldiness of fresh fruit are matters of common observation2 and the housekeeper knows that mold is liable to cover the top of a jelly glass1 and that a can of fruit will ferment at times1 even to the point of bursting the can4 ,we recognize another kind of deterioration in meat and fish that have become tainted1 even when no mold is visible1 and there is no opportunity for ordinary fermentation4 ,the microscope has given us eyes to see1 and as a result of the patient work of the scientist with this instrument we now know that the difficulties in keeping food are caused by the presence of minute vegetable organisms known as molds1 yeasts1 and bacteria4 ,it is impossible in some cases to draw a sharp line between these different forms of lower life1 yet we are able to distinguish them sufficiently for practical purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4----,three species of mold4 ,buchanan's ,household ,bacteriology4 ,masses of mold that can be seen with the naked eye are distinguished by a feathery appearance and bright color4 ,figure #bh shows three species of the green mold that affects jam and jellies4 ,other species are found in ,roquefort and ,camembert cheese1 and give the flavors characteristic in these cheeses4 ,the presence of yeast can be detected by its action1 but it cannot itself be seen without the microscope4 ,when canned fruit or homemade fruit juice 8works10 yeasts cells are present in great number4 ,figure #bi shows one form of yeast1 highly magnified1 and ,fig4 #cj shows a single yeast cell4 ,the yeast cake is a mixture of thousands of such cells with some flour or flour and meal1 and the cells lie dormant in the cake1 until we are ready to use them in bread4 7,see ,chapter ,,xii47 ,the actual yeast1 however1 is what ,fig4 #cj shows it to be1 a tiny1 one-celled plant1 increasing in number by the division of the single cell1 or by the budding out of one cell from another4 ,when conditions are favorable the yeast cells increase in number with great rapidity1 and some of the sugar that is present is broken down into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol4 ,it is this gas that causes the familiar bubbling when fermentation is taking place4 ,we put yeast cells into bread and cultivate it for this gas4 ,but how does it occur in canned fruits1 when its presence is not desired8 ,wild yeast floats in the air1 and lies upon the surface of fruit4 ,all cultivated yeast has been derived from wild yeast4 ,in old-fashioned ways of bread-making no yeast was introduced1 a soft dough being left in a warm place to ferment naturally1 the yeast cells probably being present in the flour4 ,the yeast that spoils the canned fruit is present in the fruit1 in the utensils1 or can1 and has not been killed as it should be in the canning process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4----,one form of yeast4 ,buchanan's ,household ,bacteriology ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4----;,a yeast cell4 a1 cell wall4 b1 vacuole4 c1 granules4 d1 nucleus4 e and e1 buds4 ,buchanan's ,household ,bacteriology4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4----,the four types of bacterial cells4 ,a1 cocci4 ,b1 bacilli4 ,c1 spirila4 ,d1 branched filamentous organism4 ,buchanan's ,household ,bacteriology4 ,the bacteria are also one-celled microrganisms1 smaller than the yeast4 ,figure #ca shows the four types of bacterial cells4 ,their size is measured by the unit used in the microscope1 called the micron1 which is about #a_/bejjj of one inch4 ,bacteria may measure from one to three or four of these microns in length4 ,some bacteria are reproduced by means of spores which form within the cell4 ,bacteria1 as they develop in some material1 produce substances from the material that may or may not be injurious to us4 ,one important truth about the bacteria is this3 that many of them are harmless1 and may even be made useful1 as in the manufacture of fruit vinegar4 ,the pleasant acid of buttermilk and of sour milk is due also to bacteria which are not harmful to us4 ,however1 there may be disease producing bacteria present in milk that is not clean1 and their presence must not be tolerated4 ,other bacteria1 developing in meat and fish1 produce substances known as ptomaines1 which are dangerous poisons2 or1 more often1 the kinds of bacteria which thrive in meats and fish may themselves be directly injurious to man4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that the problem before us is the control of these lower organisms1 that we may increase or destroy them as we will4 ,the control of microrganisms4----,with warmth1 water1 and food all living things flourish and grow2 most organisms require air1 but some of the microrganisms do not4 ,where these conditions are best met1 the organism is most active and multiplies most rapidly4 ,to retard growth or to destroy life1 the conditions must be the reverse of favorable4 ,while warmth1 say a temperature from #gj to #ij ,f41 promotes the life of most microrganisms1 intense heat destroys it4 ,the boiling temperature1 #bab ,f41 will kill these lower organisms1 although this heat has to be continued for some length of time1 particularly in the case of spores4 ,the spores of certain bacteria are quite resistant4 ,a temperature of #cb ,f4 and lower retards growth1 but it requires extreme cold to destroy bacteria4 ,since moisture is necessary to all the lower organisms1 they do not develop in a dry material or dry place4 ,we cannot destroy these lower forms of life by removing food from them1 since they are ever present1 but we can make the food unavailable to them through the introduction in the material of certain substances called preservatives which prevent their growth4 ,the preservatives long familiar are salt1 sugar1 wood-smoke1 spices1 vinegar1 and alcohol4 ,while a small amount of sugar is necessary in the fermentation process1 a large amount acts as a preservative1 as in candied fruit4 ,it is an interesting fact that alcohol and vinegar1 products of fermentation processes1 tend 7when sufficiently concentrated7 to stop the growth of the fermentation organisms4 ,to the reader who desires a fuller account of the bacteria1 yeast1 and molds1 especially as related to household affairs1 ,buchanan's 8,household ,bacteriology0 is recommended as the most recent and satisfactory book in this field4 ,a word about buying canned goods4----,when canned goods are put up in large quantities at the factory1 abuses are likely to exist4 ,poor1 even decayed1 fruit may be used1 the whole process may be unclean from beginning to end1 and undesirable preservatives or an excess of sugar or spice may be introduced to cover the use of poor materials or methods4 ,the condition of the worker in the cannery is one of the important industrial problems at the present time4 ,unhappily1 poor conditions do often exist in canneries that turn out a cheap product4 ,on the other hand1 there are firms that may well take pride in their system from beginning to end4 ,serving canned food4----,all canned food should be exposed to the air for a short time before serving1 and stirred that the material may be aerated4 ,this partially removes a certain flatness of taste4 ,canned fruit is improved by reheating1 even4 ,when possible1 vegetables bought in a tin can should be washed in the colander before they are heated4 ,this greatly improves the flavor4 ,principles of preservation4 ,sterilization of food and all apparatus by the boiling temperature1 #bab ,f4 ,the removal of moisture by some drying process4 ,the addition of a preservative4 ,sealing1 to prevent the entrance of air4 ,practical methods4 ,canning4----,fruit or vegetables sterilized at #bab ,f4 and tightly sealed in jars or cans4 ,preserving4----,whole fruit1 sterilized1 large amount of sugar added1 and sealed or covered in jars4 ,jam making4----,fruit broken up1 sterilized1 sugar added1 and covered4 ,jelly making4----,fruit juices1 sterilized1 sugar added1 covered4 ,pickling4----,fruit and vegetables sterilized1 vinegar1 spices1 and sugar the preservatives used4 ,drying4----,fruits and vegetables protected from dust and insects1 and slowly dried by the sun's heat or artificial heat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4----,preserving kettles in a large factory4 ,courtesy of ,h4 ,j4 ,heinz ,co4 ,apparatus4----,scales4 ,quart measure4 ,a preserving kettle of good enamel ware4 ,plated knives4 ,large spoon of enamel or wood4 ,tablespoon and table fork4 ,pint and quart cans with glass tops fastened by springs4 ,new rubber rings4 ,jelly glasses with covers4 ,cloth jelly bag4 ,stick on which to hang the bag4 ,large bowl4 ,boiler1 in which to stand the cans4 ,a funnel4 ,a dipper4 ,old towels1 or cheap cloths4 ,saucer and spoon for testing4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,general directions4----,thoroughly wash all the utensils1 just before using4 ,sterilize the cans and glasses by placing them in a large kettle or boiler on the stove1 covering them with cold water1 and allowing the water to reach the boiling point and to boil for half an hour4 ,covers and rubber rings should be treated in the same way4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4----,picking over strawberries4 ,courtesy of ,h4 ,j4 ,heinz ,co4 ,prepare the fruit by careful washing1 picking over1 paring and cutting4 ,the skins may be loosened on peaches and tomatoes by pouring hot water over them4 ,weigh both fruit and sugar1 or measure if no scales are available4 ,see that the cooking apparatus is in good order1 that the proper heat may be continued4 ,avoid rapid boiling of the fruit4 ,place the cans when they are to be filled with hot fruit upon a towel wet in very hot water1 or in a pan holding an inch or so of hot water4 ,never hold the can or glass in the hand4 ,use a dipper for putting cooked fruit into the can4 ,a funnel is useful placed in the mouth of the jar4 ,put whole fruit and halves compactly in the jar1 using tablespoon and fork1 or two tablespoons4 ,it requires practice to do this well4 ,see that all air bubbles are removed1 and fill the cans to overflowing1 before putting on the glass tops and fastening on the spring4 ,wipe off the jars1 carefully1 and stand them on their tops for a day in order to test the tightness of the rubbers and the fastening4 ,after filling jelly glasses1 set them at one side1 and cover them all with a piece of cheesecloth1 until the jelly becomes firm4 ,then pour melted paraffin upon the jelly in each glass1 and when the paraffin is cooled1 put the covers on firmly4 ,label the jars with the name of the fruit and the date of the preserving before putting them away4 ,canning4 ,method #a4----,material cooked before it is put into the can4 ,this is a good method for berries1 and for fruit that will be served as a sauce4 ,proceed in the preparation and finishing according to the general directions4 ,cook the fruit gently for half an hour4 ,use as little water as possible4 ,no sugar is required in the canning process1 but the flavor is better if a small amount is used in the beginning1 a half cup of sugar to a pound of fruit4 ,method #b4----,material cooked in the can4 ,this is the better method for whole fruit and halves4 ,select firm1 well-shaped fruit for this method1 rejecting the mellow and soft fruit4 ,pack the cans tightly with the fruit1 and pour in hot water with sugar dissolved in it1 a half cup to the quart can4 ,more sugar can be used1 if so desired4 ,set the jars in a boiler on a rack1 and surround them with warm water1 to a height that will not allow the water to boil into the cans4 ,set the cover on each jar1 but do not fasten them4 ,cover the boiler closely1 bring the water to a boil1 and allow it to boil for an hour4 ,at the end of this time1 test the fruit for tenderness with a fork1 pour in more sirup if it is necessary4 ,remove the jars when the water has cooled sufficiently1 and adjust the covers4 ,cold water is sometimes used at the beginning1 but this makes the process longer4 ,this is a good method also for the canning of whole vegetables like peas and asparagus4 ,the cooking of vegetables should continue for at least two hours1 and three hours are better for peas and string beans4 ,apparatus is constructed for this method of canning1 but the ordinary boiler answers the purpose4 ,preserving4 ,a good method for peaches1 apricots1 and quinces4 ,select firm and handsome fruit and prepare it carefully4 ,allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit4 7,what is the measure of a pound of sugar87 ,place enough water in the kettle to cover the fruit1 dissolve the sugar in the water1 put the fruit into the kettle1 and cook very gently until the fruit becomes a clear color4 ,rapid boiling spoils the shape of the fruit4 ,do not stir at all1 but skim off any scum that rises to the top4 ,when the fruit is done1 put it with great care into the jars4 ,if the sirup is thin1 boil it down for a short time1 and then fill the jar4 ,close the jar as in canning4 ,this is a difficult process for beginners4 ,jam making1 and fruit butter4 ,this is the most economical of the preserving processes and the easiest for the novice4 ,it is nothing more than a fruit sauce1 with a larger amount of sugar than usual to assist in its preservation4 ,soft and somewhat imperfect fruit may be used4 ,if in the basket of fruit bought for canning or preserving there are some fully ripe or poorly shaped specimens1 these may be used for jam4 ,for jam proper allow a pint of sugar to a pound of fruit4 ,cook the fruit with enough water to prevent its sticking to the kettle1 using as little as possible4 ,mash the fruit by stirring it occasionally as it cooks4 ,when the fruit is soft1 add the sugar1 stir thoroughly1 and cook gently for about five minutes4 ,test by cooling a spoonful on a saucer4 ,the jam should thicken slightly4 ,when ready1 pour it into jelly glasses1 or somewhat larger earthen jars----8jam pots40 ,seal1 as directed for jelly4 ,the fruit butter is even more like fruit sauce than is the jam1 for it is softer than jam1 and contains less sugar4 ,a cup or only a half cup of sugar to the pound of fruit is enough4 ,proceed exactly as in jam-making4 ,apple butter may be flavored with spices1 with ginger root and lemon juice1 and with other fruits4 ,one or two quinces or a slice of pineapple cooked with the apples gives a pleasing variety4 ,exercise the inventive faculty here4 ,jelly making4 ,there is another principle involved in jelly making in addition to the principle of preservation4 ,fruit contains a substance known as pectose1 one of the carbohydrates1 that partially solidifies the fruit juice when the water in the juice is partially evaporated4 ,the addition of sugar helps in this process1 but no amount of sugar will set the jelly if the pectose is not present4 ,some fruits have more than others1 and also more when not over-ripe4 ,currants and firm apples are good jelly makers1 and serve as a basis for other fruits that do not jelly well4 ,mellow summer apples do not set well4 ,crab apples are excellent for this purpose4 ,there is another step in this process1 the straining out of the juice from the pulp4 ,for this1 prepare a jelly bag from firm cotton cloth which has been boiled and washed4 ,this bag must be hung in such a way that the juice drops from the point of the bag into a bowl below4 ,it may be hung upon a stick between two chairs1 or upon the rod of a strong towel rack over a table4 #a4 ,apple jelly4 ,select tart1 red-skinned apples1 cut them in small pieces with the skins on1 retain the cores1 and put them in a kettle with cold water to barely cover4 ,when thoroughly cooked and mashed1 put this pulp into the jelly bag1 and allow the juice to drip as long as it will4 ,do not squeeze the bag1 nor stir the pulp if you wish clear jelly4 ,this dripping process is a matter of hours1 and in the home kitchen may continue all night4 ,allow a pint of sugar to a pint of juice4 ,return the juice to the kettle1 and allow it to simmer for twenty-five minutes or half an hour1 skimming when necessary4 ,in the meantime1 heat the sugar1 being careful not to melt or burn it4 ,stir the sugar gently into the juice1 and boil five minutes4 ,test a little upon a saucer4 ,it should show signs of jellying as it cools4 ,boil longer1 if necessary4 ,finish as directed4 ,jelly often does not set until twenty-four hours have elapsed4 #b4 ,currant jelly4 ,the method is the same as with apple jelly4 ,it is not necessary to remove the currants from the stem4 ,heat just long enough before the straining to make the juices flow well4 ,very agreeable flavors are secured by the combining of two or more fruits in a jelly2 quince and pineapple with apple2----a leaf of rose geranium or lemon verbena in a glass of apple jelly2 raspberry with currant4 ,white apple jelly may be flavored with mint leaves1 and used in place of mint sauce with meat4 ,pickling4 ,pickles are not desirable in the diet4 ,if acid is craved1 it is much wiser to secure it by fresh fruits1 and by the use of lemon juice4 ,drying4 ,this process should not be discarded if there is a supply of fruit in the orchard or garden4 ,place thinly sliced apples and peaches upon plates or trays1 protect by clean cheesecloth1 and dry in the sun4 ,the color may be dark1 but the flavor is excellent4 ,laboratory management4----,the fruit selected for use in the school kitchen depends upon the time of year4 ,the autumn is the season for preserving1 but some fruit is available at any time of year3 in the winter1 apple and peach butter from the dried fruit2 in the spring rhubarb jam or jelly2 in the late spring or early summer1 strawberry jam4 ,if the school program and the equipment permit the serving of meals by the class1 fruit may be preserved in the fall for these occasions4 ,,exercises #a4 ,explain the value of fruit in the diet4 #b4 ,why is cooked fruit sometimes better than raw8 #c4 ,inquire the price of fresh fruit in the market1 and compute the cost of a #ajj-;,calorie portion of two of the most common and cheapest4 #d4 ,the same with one or two of the dried fruits4 #e4 ,what are the important points in the preparation of fresh fruit for the table8 #f4 ,what changes are effected in baking an apple8 #g4 ,what are the principles of the preservation of food8 #h4 ,what is meant by a preservative8 #i4 ,what is meant by sterilization8 #aj4 ,what is mold8 ,decay8 ,fermentation8 #aa4 ,what are the important points in canning8 #ab4 ,what is the difference between canned fruit and 8preserves08 #ac4 ,how does jelly making differ from the other processes8 #ad4 ,what is one of the most important points in cooking dried fruits8 #ae4 ,find the cost of a can of peaches at the grocery4 ,weigh the contents and count the peaches4 ,compare with the cost of an equal amount of home-canned peaches4 ,what points in the problem must be taken into account8 #af4 ,the same problem with jelly bought at the grocery and made at home4 #ag4 ,work out the problem of estimating the comparative cost of canned peaches and dried peaches1 when calculated to the same food value4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,vegetables ,,and ,,vegetable ,,cookery ,the distinction between the fruit and the vegetable is purely arbitrary1 since both are parts of plants and have the same general composition4 ,botanically the tomato is as truly a fruit as the apple2 but when it is stewed and served with meat1 it is classed as a vegetable4 ,other parts of plants1 however1 besides the fruit are used as vegetables4 ,composition and nutritive value4----,vegetables are much like fruits in composition1 being richest usually in carbohydrates and ash1 but sometimes containing a large amount of protein4 ,some have carbohydrates in the form of starch1 as the potato1 and others in the form of sugar1 as the beet2 young corn is rich in sugar1 old corn in starch4 ,all have more or less cellulose1 that in lettuce being very tender1 while that in beets is so firm as to be softened only by long cooking4 ,study carefully ,figs4 #cd and #ce4 ,notice how the amount of water compares with the amount in fruits4 ,see1 too1 that beans1 both green and dry1 are richer in protein than other vegetables4 ,celery has the highest percentage of water1 and is valuable for its ash and the bulk it gives because of the large amount of cellulose4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4----;,composition of vegetables4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4----;,composition of vegetables4 ,to explain these facts we must understand something of the physiology of the plant4 ,the stem is the carrier of water and nutritive material to other parts of the plant4 ,the onion bulb1 the parsnip root1 and the potato tuber are the winter storehouses of food for the next year's plant when the leaves first sprout4 ,in the dry bean seed1 and also in the pea and lentil1 the young plant lies dormant1 with a large supply of all the foodstuffs ready for its first growth when warmth and moisture are supplied in the spring4 ,classified according to their nutritive value1 the vegetables rank as follows4 ,leaves are grouped with stems4 ,the seeds ,contain all the foodstuffs4 ,high in protein4 ,roots and tubers ,contain all the foodstuffs4 ,low in and the bulb protein and fat4 ,high in starch or some form of sugar4 ,rinds 7squash and ,contain all the foodstuffs in small pumpkin7 amounts4 ,mineral content the chief value4 ,leaves and stems ,mineral content the chief value4 ,certain substances in some vegetables are supposed to have a physiological effect1 but we should be cautious in accepting statements that have not been scientifically proved2 for instance1 that celery is 8good for the nerves40 ,it is doubtless true that the oils which give onions and the cabbage their strong flavors do not agree with some people1 and these vegetables should be eaten with caution4 ,how to buy4----,much interest is added to the study of vegetables by the examination of a seed catalogue easily obtainable from a firm selling seeds and plants4 ,in this way1 one may increase one's knowledge of varieties for planting in the home garden1 even if they are not common on the market4 ,city markets offer an increasing variety of vegetables1 and the purchaser should not hesitate to buy a vegetable because it is new to her4 ,an inexpensive ,italian vegetable1 fenucchi1 is now sometimes found on sale1 and its characteristic flavor is very agreeable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4----ajj-;,calorie portions of vegetables4 ,,kind ,,weight ,,of ,,portion1 ,,ounces ,asparagus #af ,beets #aj ,cabbage #ac ,carrots #aj ,corn #i ,cucumbers #bj ,lettuce #bb ,onions #h ,potatoes #e ,spinach #ae ,tomatoes #ae ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,the season of vegetables is so extended by canning1 by the shipping of vegetables from the ,south1 and by growing under glass that there is always a wide range of choice4 ,there are in winter1 however1 some tempting delicacies in the way of green vegetables that the buyer with a limited purse should pass by4 ,a cucumber at fifty cents or even at ten cents is not a sensible purchase4 ,lettuce1 grown under glass1 at ten cents a head is not an extravagance1 if the income allows thirty-five to forty cents per capita per day for food4 ,as a rule1 select the less expensive vegetable1 provided it is in good condition4 ,the prices are so fluctuating that a definite statement is impossible4 7,see ,chapter ,,xvii47 ,root vegetables should be uniform in size1 sound1 the skins fair4 ,head vegetables should be solid1 with but few waste leaves on the outside4 ,vegetables with hard rind should be sound and firm4 ,asparagus should be even in size1 the stalks not bitten by insects4 ,cauliflower should be firm and white1 not affected by insects or blight4 ,celery should be firm and white1 free from blemishes1 fine in texture4 ,peas should have crisp pods well filled1 but not too full4 ,string beans should be crisp and snap easily4 ,all leaf vegetables should be crisp----not wilted4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,uncooked vegetables4----,crisp vegetables with tender fiber are eaten raw4 ,their preparation includes freshening in cold water1 thorough washing to remove grit and insects1 thorough drying by shaking in a soft cloth or wire basket1 and cooling on the ice4 ,lettuce should not be served so wet that the water collects on the plate1 making it impossible to dress the salad with oil4 ,see salad making1 ,chapter ,,xv4 ,cooked vegetables4----,vegetable cooking is an art much neglected1 and in consequence vegetables are sometimes served lacking their proper flavor and their original nutrients4 ,to cook vegetables in boiling salted water1 throwing the water away1 is not the correct method1 except in a few cases4 ,with this method much of the valuable mineral matter and the flavoring substances are lost in the water4 ,with such strong flavored vegetables as the cabbage1 old onions and beets1 and old potatoes this method is permissible1 but even in these cases the nutritive value is decreased4 ,principles of cooking4----,softening of the fiber4 ,opening of the starch granules1 when starch is present1 at a temperature of #bab ,f4 ,retaining mineral and flavoring matters4 ,cooking processes4----,these rank in value as they do or do not retain the mineral and flavoring matters4 ,baking4----,no nutritive material lost4 ,the best method for potatoes and sweet potatoes4 ,used also for squash1 pumpkin1 beets1 young onions1 dried beans1 peas1 and lentils4 ,steaming4 7,cooking in a steamer47----,no nutritive material lost4 ,a good method for all fresh vegetables4 ,steamed vegetables have less flavor than baked4 ,stewing4----,cooking in a stew pan or kettle with so little water that it is almost boiled out at the end of the process1 any remaining liquid being served with the vegetable4 ,the best method for spinach1 which can be cooked with no additional water1 beyond that remaining on the leaves from the washing4 ,the ,french use this method almost entirely1 and with tender peas and carrots they omit water and use butter only4 ,a substitute for this latter is a very small amount of water1 with the addition of butterine or some good butter substitute4 ,boiling4----,cooking in a large amount of boiling1 salted water1 the water to be drained off and thrown away4 ,may be used with old beets of rank flavor1 strong onions1 old potatoes1 or potatoes boiled with the skins on4 ,a wasteful method4 ,adjuncts4----,salt1 pepper1 butter1 or some other fat1 milk1 cheese1 bread crumbs1 parsley1 eggs4 ,utensils4----,a vegetable brush1 a sharp knife1 a chopper1 a potato masher1 a strainer1 a colander1 a stew pan1 kettle or steamer1 baking pan1 baking dish1 bean pot1 frying pan or kettle4 ,general directions4----,wash the vegetables1 scrubbing the skin vegetables with a brush4 ,washing in several waters is important with spinach to remove all grit4 ,scrape off thin skins or pare off the thicker4 ,thick skins such as those of old beets are more easily removed after cooking4 ,the outer covering must be removed in the case of peas1 shell beans1 and sweet corn4 ,pull or cut strings from string beans with great care4 ,discard all poor portions4 ,remove and throw away the inner pulp and seeds of old squashes and pumpkins4 ,the whole of a tender summer squash is eatable4 ,when boiling salted water is used1 allow one tablespoonful of salt to four quarts of water4 ,steamed and stewed vegetables are salted and dressed with butter or butter substitute before serving4 ,butter is a better dressing for vegetables than white sauce4 ,where cream is available1 nothing is so delicious4 ,use white sauce very sparingly with some escalloped vegetable for variety4 ,making a sauce adds to the labor of preparation1 and the sauce hides the delicious flavor of a well-cooked vegetable4 ,some vegetables are mashed before serving2 potatoes1 turnip1 squash1 either boiled or baked4 ,time of cooking4----,the following table is a guide1 but one must learn from practice1 for the time depends upon the quality of the vegetable1 whether tender or tough1 and upon the size whether large or small4 ,test by gently inserting a fork4 ,allow more time for cooking in a steamer1 than for stewing or boiling4 ,it requires more time to bake a potato than to boil one of the same size4 ,why8 ,time-table 7,for stewing and boiling unless stated otherwise47 ,fifteen minutes4----,tender cabbage and sweet corn4 ,these are usually cooked too long4 ,thirty minutes4----,asparagus2 peas2 potatoes of medium size2 summer squash2 tomatoes4 ,forty-five minutes4----,young beets and carrots2 onions2 young parsnips2 medium potatoes baked1 sweet potatoes boiled4 ,one hour4----,string and shelled beans2 cauliflower2 oyster plant2 winter squash1 steamed or baked2 young turnips4 ,two hours4----,old carrots1 beets1 and turnips4 ,six to eight hours 7or more74----,dried beans1 lentils1 and peas1 baked in the oven1 with water added4 ,the potato1 a starchy vegetable4----,make it your pride to serve a plain potato1 mealy and inviting4 ,potatoes are 8new10 fully ripe1 and old4 ,the new potato is in market in ,july and ,august1 and may be recognized by its very thin skin4 ,the later potatoes have a thicker skin1 the color still being fresh4 ,in the spring after its winter storage1 the potato is 8old40 ,it seems a little less firm1 the color of the exterior is somewhat changed2 perhaps the buds in the eyes of the potato are beginning to grow4 ,when cooked it has a stronger flavor1 and rather darker color4 ,if the potato has been frozen1 a sweet flavor is developed1 and the quality is waxy4 ,potatoes are sometimes inferior in quality when the season is a poor one1 or when some potato disease is prevalent4 ,the following classification shows you in how many ways potatoes may be cooked1 and also shows you how easy it is to classify recipes in an orderly way4 ,i4 ,potatoes cooked whole4 #a4 ,steamed4 a4 ,with skin4 b4 ,without skin4 #b4 ,boiled4 a4 ,with skin4 b4 ,without skin4 #c4 ,baked4 a4 ,with skin4 b4 ,without skin4 ,,ii4 ,potatoes1 not whole4 #a4 ,from raw potatoes4 a4 ,sliced and escalloped4 b4 ,cut in cubes and stewed4 c4 ,cut in slices or fancy shapes and fried4 #b4 ,from cooked potatoes4 a4 ,mashed4 7a7 ,from boiled potatoes1 plain or browned on top4 7b7 ,from baked potatoes1 seasoned and served in shell4 b4 ,creamed4 ,from either cold-boiled or baked potatoes2 the latter are better4 c4 ,saut4 7a7 ,sliced and browned4 7b7 ,hashed and browned4 ,if you know some other method1 see if you can fit it into this grouping4 #a4 ,baked potatoes4 ,method #a4 ,the best method1 for new potatoes4 ,select those of uniform size4 ,when scrubbed1 place them in a shallow pan1 or upon the rack of the oven4 ,the oven should be hot1 about #dej ,f4 or even a higher temperature4 7,see oven tests1 ,chapter ,,ix47 ,the length of time required depends upon the size of the potato1 forty-five minutes being the average time4 ,a potato is largely water4 ,what is the temperature of the interior of the potato during the baking process8 ,test by pressing firmly1 protecting the fingers by a soft cloth2 or insert a fork4 ,when the potato is done1 it yields to the pressure of the fingers4 ,if the potatoes cannot be served at once1 break the skin that the steam may escape1 cover with a cloth1 and keep them hot4 ,for convenience at the table1 cut the potatoes in two lengthwise1 loosen the content of each half with a fork1 sprinkle with salt1 and add a bit of butter1 as much as one would add at the table4 ,potato on the half shell carries serving one step farther4 ,cut the baked potatoes in two lengthwise1 remove the contents1 mash lightly1 add butter or butterine1 milk1 and salt1 allowing a teaspoonful of butter1 a tablespoonful of milk and a shake or two of salt to each potato4 ,these measurements cannot be given with exactness1 because potatoes vary in size4 ,beat this mixture well1 replace lightly in each half shell1 and brown the tops slightly4 ,this is nothing more than mashed baked potato1 prettily served4 ,invent other variations of this dish1 adding ingredients that are agreeable when mixed with the potato4 ,the beaten white of an egg added1 gives greater lightness to the mixture in the potato shell4 ,method #b4 ,the same as ,method #a1 except that the potatoes are pared before baking4 ,a good method when the skins are not fair4 ,a brown crust is formed on the potato1 which is crisp and pleasant to eat4 ,large potatoes may be cut in two before baking1 or even sliced4 ,what difference in length of baking will there be between ,methods #a and #b8 #b4 ,boiled potatoes4 ,the only way to prevent the loss of nutrients in using this process is to boil the potatoes with the 8jackets0 on4 ,this is the best way with new potatoes4 ,this method with ripe and old potatoes gives a yellowish color to the surface and indeed throughout4 ,it is a labor-saving method for the busy housewife1 as the skin cracks and loosens at the end of the boiling process1 and is easily removed4 ,if you choose to have a snow-white potato1 it must be pared before boiling1 and thus you deliberately waste the valuable mineral matter provided by nature4 ,if your income permits this sthetic pleasure1 the mineral matter can of course be supplied in other vegetables4 ,the woman who can spend but twenty to thirty cents per capita for food per day should boil the potatoes with the skins on and gratify her artistic sense in some other way4 ,the method of boiling is the same in either case1 whether the potato is pared or not4 ,have enough boiling water to cover the potatoes4 ,put the potatoes of uniform size one at a time into the kettle that the boiling may not stop4 ,allow a gentle boiling to continue until the potatoes are done4 ,why avoid rapid boiling8 ,test with a fork at the end of half an hour4 ,when the potatoes are mellow1 drain off the water1 and set the kettle where the remaining moisture will steam off4 ,shake gently to hasten this process1 and sprinkle the potatoes with salt4 ,if they must stand before serving will you place a tin cover or a cloth over the kettle8 ,old potatoes1 with a strong flavor1 should be pared before boiling1 or even soaked in cold water4 #c4 ,mashed potatoes4----,some one devised this convenient method of serving1 to save trouble at the table4 ,mashed potato can be very poor and unappetizing when wet and lumpy4 ,do not attempt it with new1 poor1 or old potatoes4 ,see that the boiled potatoes are as dry as can be----every particle of water steamed away4 ,mash thoroughly with the wire masher1 add butter or butterine1 salt and milk in about the proportions given for potato in the half shell4 ,use a tablespoonful or so of cream if it is available4 ,beat vigorously4 ,the mealiness of the potato and the vigorous beating are the secrets of success4 ,the finished product should be light and somewhat moist1----not wet4 ,reheat in the kettle4 ,pile lightly in a hot dish and serve2 or brown the top before serving4 ,potato puff4 7,souffl47----,with your knowledge of mashed potato1 can you not invent a potato puff8 #d4 ,escalloped potato4----,the name escalloped is applied to any baked dish that is arranged in layers4 ,escalloped potato is a palatable dish and this is one of the most economical of methods4 ,wash1 pare1 and slice the potatoes in #a_/d-;inch pieces4 ,slightly grease an earthen or enameled baking dish4 ,cover the bottom of the dish with a layer of the slices1 sprinkle the slices lightly with flour1 and put on two teaspoonfuls of butter1 or butterine1 in small bits4 ,continue until the dish is nearly full4 ,pour in milk to barely cover the potatoes1 put a cover on the dish and set the dish in an oven of #chj ,f4 ,remove the cover in time to allow the top to brown4 ,allow rather more than half an hour for the baking4 #e4 ,creamed potatoes4----,method #a1 an easy way4 ,chop cold baked potatoes with the chopper4 ,allow one tablespoonful of butter to #a pint of chopped potato4 ,melt the butter in a saucepan4 ,stir in the potatoes4 ,shake from the dredger the equivalent of a tablespoonful of flour1 stirring the potato with one hand as you shake with the other4 ,pour in enough milk to barely cover the chopped potato4 ,set the saucepan in the coolest spot on the range2 or on the simmering burner of a gas range1 upon an asbestos mat2 or turn all into an earthenware jar1 or baking dish1 and proceed as with escalloped potato4 ,allow the mixture to cook until it becomes creamy4 ,method #b4 ,cut the cold potatoes in cubes1 and heat in a thin white sauce4 ,see ,chapter ,x4 ,boiled potatoes may be used1 but baked are better in texture and flavor for creaming4 #f4 ,french fried potatoes4----,wash and pare small potatoes1 cut in eighths lengthwise1 and soak a few minutes in cold water4 ,take from water1 dry between towels1 and fry in deep fat4 ,drain on brown paper and sprinkle with salt4 7#a7 ,deep fat frying4----,an iron kettle is the best for deep fat1 #c quarts a convenient size4 ,a wire basket is almost necessary for frying soft material4 ,fill the kettle #a_/b full of fat and place over fire4 ,when a slight blue smoke or vapor rises from it1 it is ready to test4 ,test with small cubes of bread4 ,if bread browns in #a minute1 the temperature is right for uncooked mixtures4 ,if it browns in #aj seconds1 it is right for cooked materials4 ,care must be taken to keep the temperatures at the right point1 for if too cool1 the material will soak fat2 if too hot1 both fat and material to be cooked will burn4 7#b7 ,to clarify fat4----,drop several slices raw1 pared potato into the fat and let bubble up4 ,strain all through cheesecloth back into pail from which fat was taken4 ,the potatoes seem to absorb food odors and collect crumbs and leave the fat clear4 #g4 ,stewed celery4----,a green vegetable4 ,stalks of celery1 too tough or coarse for serving uncooked1 are delicious when stewed4 ,the process is simple4 ,wash1 scrape1 and cut the stalks crosswise4 ,place them in a stewpan1 barely cover with hot water1 adding a teaspoonful of salt to a pint of celery4 ,cook gently for half an hour or until the celery is tender4 ,use the liquid remaining in making a sauce1 adding some milk to make the necessary amount of liquid4 ,three fourths of a cup of sauce is enough for a pint of celery4 ,see ,chapter ,x4 #h4 ,cabbage4----,the method given makes cabbage a delicious and attractive vegetable1 as delicate as cauliflower1 and the odor in the kitchen is not noticeable4 ,select a small cabbage1 with the ribs in the leaves not too thick4 ,prepare the cabbage before washing it by cutting out the stalks from below with a sharp knife4 ,separate the leaves4 ,have ready the largest kettle available1 nearly full of rapidly boiling water4 ,drop in one cabbage leaf at a time1 pressing each one down with a long-handled spoon or skimmer4 ,do this so slowly that the water does not stop boiling4 ,leave the kettle uncovered1 and allow the cabbage to cook from #ab to #ae minutes1 depending on the thickness of the leaf stalks4 ,remove the leaves with a long-handled skimmer1 putting them into a colander standing on a plate4 ,immediately pour the hot water down the sink drain1 turn on the cold water to flush away the odor1 and fill the kettle with cold water4 ,while the cabbage is cooking1 you have made a pint of white sauce1 ,no4 #b 7,ch4 ,x71 adding a teaspoonful of salt1 and have prepared #a_/b cup of buttered crumbs4 ,cut the cabbage leaves slightly1 place them in a baking dish1 pour the white sauce over them1 sprinkle the crumbs on the top1 and brown the crumbs in the oven or under the gas4 ,if you can1 prepare this as a surprise at home1 and ask the family to 8guess0 what it is4 ,if the cabbage is a good one1 some of the leaves turn a very pretty green with this method of boiling4 #i4 ,baked beans4----,a nitrogenous vegetable and a meat substitute4 ,a dish known in old days in ,new ,england1 baked to perfection in the old brick oven4 ,baked beans seem difficult of digestion for some people4 ,the mustard is supposed to be helpful1 and adds something to the flavor4 ,if the molasses is omitted1 or but a small amount used1 and if butter takes the place of pork or suet1 the beans seem more digestible4 ,in different parts of ,new ,england the dish is varied4 ,some people prefer rather dry baked beans1 others wish them moist and very sweet4 ,utensils4----,a kettle4 ,a covered bean pot4 ,ingredients4---- #a quart of white beans4 #a teaspoonful of soda4 #a_/d lb4 salt pork or more1 or #d tablespoonfuls of beef fat or butter substitute4 ,molasses1 from two tablespoonfuls to #a_/b cup1 or none4 #a teaspoonful of mustard4 ,method4----,wash1 and soak the beans in cold water over night4 ,pour off any water that remains4 ,put the beans into the kettle1 cover with cold water1 add the soda1 and cook gently until the beans are slightly softened4 ,the soda aids the softening4 ,pour off the water again1 and put the beans into the pot4 ,mix the molasses and mustard with a pint of water1 and pour this over the beans1 adding more water if the beans are not covered4 ,place the pork or other fat upon the beans1 and cover the pot4 ,if fat other than pork is used1 salt must be added to the beans4 ,the beans should bake slowly1 for from #f to #h hours1 and even longer in a very slow oven4 ,a stove of the type shown in ,fig4 #ag is good for this purpose4 ,they can be baked in the ordinary gas oven1 if only one burner is used1 and that is turned very low4 ,laboratory management4----,the last experiment is the only one not easily performed in the school kitchen4 ,the process1 can begin perhaps on one day1 and be finished the next4 ,if there is some apparatus that cooks at a low temperature1 the practical difficulties may be overcome4 ,vegetable1 or 8cream0 soups4 ,these are of two classes3 the pures 7porridge71 or thick soups1 with vegetable pulp as the thickening material1 and the cream soups1 which are somewhat thinner1 the juices of some vegetable giving the flavor4 ,potato pure1 or soup1 is an example of the first2 cream of tomato of the second4 ,the line is not sharply drawn between the two in many cook books4 ,milk is an important ingredient in these soups1 so that they are sometimes known as milk soups4 ,butter and flour are used in both1----the flour in the pure 8binds0 the mixture and makes it smoother2 in the cream soup the flour is used for thickening as well4 ,dried beans1 peas1 or lentils make a delicious pure1 the secret of success being long slow cooking in some low temperature apparatus4 ,they are brought to perfection in the ,atkinson ,cooker4 #aj4 ,potato ,pure4 ,ingredients4 ,potato #a cup ,milk #a quart ,flour #a tablespoonful ,butter #a tablespoonful ,salt #b teaspoonfuls ,celery stalks1 cut small #a teaspoonful ,onion1 chopped #a tablespoonful ,pepper1 ,cayenne ,to taste4 ,remarks4----,if a thicker pure is desired1 use more of the mashed potato4 ,if celery salt is used1 omit one teaspoonful of the salt4 ,less onion may be used1 and the pepper omitted4 ,utensils4----,make the list yourself1 after reading the directions for mixing4 ,method of mixing4----,boil and mash the potato1 or use cold mashed potato4 ,heat the milk in the double boiler with the celery and onion4 ,add the milk gradually to the mashed potato1 beating vigorously4 ,put this mixture through a strainer into the double boiler1 and reheat it4 ,melt the butter in a small saucepan1 or stir in the flour1 add slowly half a cup of the soup to the butter and flour paste1 and then pour this slowly into the mixture in the double boiler1 stirring all the time4 ,the soup will be ready to serve in about ten minutes4 ,the important point in this recipe is the quality of the mashed potato4 ,it should be dry and light4 ,it may be made from hot1 mealy baked potatoes4 ,if cold mashed potato is used1 this should be made light again with a fork4 ,an excellent luncheon dish4 ,will serve four to six people4 #aa4 ,cream of tomato soup4 ,ingredients4 ,tomato juice #a_/b cup ,milk #a quart ,flour #b tablespoonfuls ,butter #b tablespoonfuls ,salt #b teaspoonfuls ,bicarbonate of soda #a_/b teaspoonful ,pepper1 ,cayenne ,to taste4 ,remarks4----,celery and onion may be added1 but are not necessary4 ,when you become expert1 you will be able to use a larger amount of tomato juice1 and even omit the soda4 ,method of mixing4----,this you will be able to work out for yourself4 ,first perform this simple experiment4 ,stir together a tablespoonful of stewed tomato and a tablespoonful of milk4 ,what happens8 ,heat this mixture4 ,what further do you notice8 ,how may you best extract the juice from the tomato8 ,you have noticed the effect of the acid tomato upon the milk4 ,the soda is added to partly counteract this effect4 ,will you stir the soda into the tomato juice or into the milk8 ,will you stir the tomato juice into the milk1 or the milk into the tomato juice8 ,will you cook the mixture at all8 ,how long before serving will you mix the two8 ,when will you add the butter and flour8 ,laboratory management4----,an individual portion of soup may be made with #a_/b cup of liquid1 but it is better to allow #a cup when possible to each pupil1 or two pupils may work together4 ,the important point in this soup is to prevent the curdling1 so you safeguard the milk at each step4 ,croutons may be served with any of these soups4 #ab4 ,chili sauce4 ,ingredients4 ,tomatoes #ab1 medium sized and ripe ,green pepper #a1 finely chopped ,vinegar #b cups ,sugar #c tablespoonfuls ,salt #a tablespoonful ,clove #b teaspoonfuls ,cinnamon #b teaspoonfuls ,allspice #b teaspoonfuls ,nutmeg #b teaspoonfuls grated ,method4----,peel tomatoes and slice into a preserving kettle4 ,add other ingredients and heat to the boiling point4 ,cook slowly two and one half hours4 ,pour into preserve jars and seal4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is the distinction between fruits and vegetables8 #b4 ,how does the composition of apples compare with that of carrots8 #c4 ,contrast the nutritive values of celery1 potatoes1 and old beans4 #d4 ,what other foods must be served with potato to make a meal complete8 #e4 ,how may we best retain the mineral matter of vegetables in cooking8 #f4 ,is it allowable to cook a vegetable in boiling water and throw away the water8 #g4 ,why must more time be allowed for baking a potato than for boiling8 #h4 ,why more time for an old beet than for a young8 #i4 ,find the cost of potatoes in your locality4 ,estimate the cost of a dish of mashed potato for five people4 #aj4 ,estimate the cost of #ajj-;,calorie portions of several vegetables4 ,see ,fig4 #cf4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,cereal ,,products ,the common grains1 sometimes called cereals1#aa yield some of the most important of all the food materials4 ,those most widely used are wheat1 maize1 or ,indian corn1 oats1 rice1 barley1 rye1 and millet4 ,in this country wheat and corn are the two great crops upon which our prosperity largely depends1 and a shortage in one of these crops is felt in the business world1 not only in this country1 but abroad4 ,rice is the important cereal in ,china1 ,japan1 and ,india1 and a failure of the rice crop may mean famine to millions of people1 especially in ,india4 ,these facts are mentioned to show that the race has learned to depend upon the grains as a staple food1 and a study of their composition proves that this common habit is founded in reason4 ,the grains are all members of the grass family1 and the edible portion is the seed4 ,from these seeds are manufactured pure starch1 breakfast cereals1 meal1 and flour4 ,like beans and peas1 these seeds are the storehouses of food for the young plants1 and we therefore find the high nutritive value depicted in ,fig4 #cg4 ,notice that the carbohydrate 7starch7 content is high in all2 that all contain protein1 oats1 wheat1 and rye being about equal in this and higher than the others2 oats are highest in fat1 corn ranking next4 ,the ash contains the same important mineral substances that we found in the fruits1 the percentages of each differing somewhat with the different grains and being quite different for the cereals as a class than for the fruits and vegetables as a class4 ,it must be remembered that these percentages are given for the whole grain1 and that the amounts of the nutrients in the manufactured product depend upon the process employed4 ,manufacture of cereal food materials4#ab----,the primitive method of making the material in the grain available for use was by grinding the grain between two stones1 or by pounding one stone upon another1 and this method is used by the ,mexicans and certain of the ,american ,indians to this day1 human muscle being the power employed4 ,wind and water were harnessed for grinding grain1 and were the only motive powers available until the invention of steam1 the grinding being done by stones4 ,in a ,connecticut town there still exists a mill stone1 one of a pair so small that they were carried into the settlement on horseback1 and when placed in a small mill by a brook1 they ground a bushel of corn in a day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4----;,composition of cereals4 ,breakfast cereals and meal are now made in the great factories that produce flour2 steam is the motive power and the grains are broken1 or rolled1 between steel rollers4 7,see ,chapter ,,xii47 ,breakfast cereals4----,the ready-to-eat breakfast cereal has met the popular demand for a quickly prepared food for the first meal of the day4 ,a few of these are made under known conditions1 but they are sometimes manufactured from inferior grain1 and the presence of grit at times indicates a possible lack of cleanliness in the process4 ,it is a question1 too1 whether or not the starch has been subjected to heat for a sufficient length of time1 and whether they can be masticated sufficiently to make the grain digestible1 and the nutritive material available4 ,their use for young children is undesirable4 ,for older people1 they add variety to the diet1 but they are usually more expensive than the home-cooked breakfast foods1 even when the cost of fuel is taken into account4 ,see ,fig4 #ch4 ,cooked breakfast cereals4----,it is an easy task to cook a cereal1 especially now that the fireless cooker in some form is present in so many homes4 ,the cereal for breakfast does not necessitate early rising2 as it may be prepared the day or evening before and be served in palatable form in the morning4 ,the most common breakfast cereals are made from oats1 wheat1 and corn1 varying in fineness of grain from those ground like a meal to the coarser cracked wheat and the samp made from corn4 ,it is well to use kinds made from different grains1 but when the worth of a few has been proved1 it is not wise to try another kind simply because it has a new label4 ,one manufacturer confessed to a visitor that the same cereal was put into boxes of different colors and sold under different names as a means of inviting purchasers4 ,the cereal foods made from whole grains are especially valuable on account of the high mineral content4 ,it usually pays to buy in boxes1 rather than in bulk1 in the case of cereals2 and always from a reliable grocer4 ,if you purchase a box of cereal as a 8bargain10 weigh its contents and compare the weight with the weight of a box bought in the regular way4 ,also examine such a box for the presence of insects4 ,these may be recognized sometimes by a webby substance1 and again the insects themselves may be detected4 ,do not buy too large a stock of cereals1 since they are better when they are fresh from the factory1 and a good firm renews its stock often4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4----ajj-;,calorie portions of starches and cereals4 ,,no4 ,,kind ,,weight ,,of ,,portion ,,ounces #a4 ,shredded ,wheat #a4j #b4 ,cornmeal #a4j #c4 ,farina #a4j #d4 ,rice #a4j #e4 ,tapioca #a4j #f4 ,cornstarch #a4j #g4 ,hominy ,grits #a4j #h4 ,rolled ,oats #a4j #i4 ,flaked ,wheat #a4j #aj4 ,corn ,flakes #a4j #aa4 ,puffed ,wheat #a4j #ab4 ,puffed ,rice #a4j ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,principles of cooking4----#a4 ,softening of the fiber by long-continued low temperature with a supply of water present4 #b4 ,complete opening of the starch granules by the boiling temperature of water4 #c4 ,the protein present presents no special problem4 ,its digestibility is not especially affected1 but the softening of the fiber of the cereal makes the protein available to us4 ,methods4----,there are two classes into which the cereals may be divided1---- the flaked and the granular4 ,the weighing experiments 7page #fb7 show that the granular is the heavier4 ,this means that more water will be absorbed by a given measure of the granular1 because it contains more material4 ,in experimenting with a cereal at home it is well to try the proportion of water and cereal printed on the box the first time1 altering the proportion if the first result is not satisfactory4 ,there should be enough water to soften the cereal1 and only just enough4 ,if the cooked cereal is stiff1 the measure of water is short2 if so thin that the cereal runs on the plate1 too much water was allowed4 #a4 ,preparation of breakfast cereal4 ,ingredients4 #a part1 by measure1 flaked cereal to #b of water4 #a part granular cereal to #c to #d of water4 #a cup of dry cereal will serve three or four people4 ,samp1 cracked wheat1 and coarse corn meal will take from #d to #f parts of water4 ,salt4 ,a tablespoonful to a quart of water is an average amount4 ,utensils3 a measuring cup2 a double boiler2 a fork4 ,method4----,measure the cereal and water1 put the water into the inner part of the double boiler with the salt4 ,have the lower part of the boiler ready----about half full of hot water2 place the inner boiler directly upon the stove or over the flame4 ,when the water is boiling rapidly1 shake the cereal into the water from a cup1 so slowly that the water does not stop boiling4 ,this is the first secret of a well-cooked cereal4 ,the rapidly boiling water keeps the grains of cereal in motion1 and thus they do not stick to the vessel nor to each other1 and the heat reaches the starch in the grains equally4 ,if the grains begin to settle1 shake the vessel gently1 but do not stir1 even with a fork4 ,allow this process to continue for about five minutes1 or until you see a thickening of the mass1 so much so that the separate grains do not settle4 ,if toward the end of this stage there is danger of sticking1 lift the mass with the fork1 but do not stir it1 as this motion will break the grains4 ,this first process opens the starch grains4 ,place the inner part of the boiler in the outer over boiling water and allow the cooking to continue for at least one hour4 ,for this is the second secret of the perfect cereal1----a long-continued process that softens the fiber and develops flavor4 ,one cereal1 advertised as being cooked in three minutes1 remains unpalatable after that length of time1 but is delicious at the end of two hours4 ,if you have a fireless cooker1 put the cereal in the double boiler into the cooker overnight for the second stage4 ,any low temperature apparatus gives the desired result4 #b4 ,the uses of cold cereal4----,never throw away cooked cereals4 ,the cold cereal is useful in many ways4 7a7 ,mold in small cups with dates or other fruit1 and serve with sugar and cream for luncheon4 7b7 ,cool corn meal mush in a flat dish1 cut it in slices when cold1 and brown the slices in a frying pan1 with beef fat1 or a butter substitute4 ,serve with sugar1 molasses1 or sirup for breakfast or luncheon4 7c7 ,rice or hominy may be mixed with a beaten egg1 molded into small cakes1 and browned either in the frying pan1 or in the oven4 7d7 ,a small remaining portion of any cereal may be used to thicken soup4 7e7 ,any cooked cereal may be used in muffins or even yeast bread4 7,see those chapters47 #c4 ,corn meal 8mush40----,this is cooked by the same method as the other cereals1 except that the amount of water is larger and the first boiling should continue longer4 ,the meal must be scattered slowly into the boiling water1 or else be mixed first with cold water1 as it lumps very easily4 ,the second stage of the process should continue several hours4 ,rice4----,rice varies very much in quality and in the shape of the grain4 ,louisiana and ,chinese rice are among those that have a firm and large grain keeping its shape well when cooked4 ,inferior varieties become too soft1 and the finished product is pasty and poor in color and flavor4 ,much is said at present about the harmful effect of the polishing process upon the quality of the rice4 ,an unpolished rice may sometimes be found on the market1 brownish in color and with a good flavor4 #d4 ,boiled rice4----,rice may be cooked in the double boiler by the same method as other cereals1 allowing #a part of rice to #c of water4 ,the rice should be well washed in cold water4 ,the second stage need not be continued so long1 from three quarters of an hour to an hour being sufficient4 ,the flavor is improved by the use of milk in place of half of the water4 ,by this method the nutritive value is much increased4 ,another method used by the ,chinese continues the boiling throughout the whole process4 ,a very large amount of water is used1 several quarts for one cup of rice1 and when the water is boiling violently the rice is scattered in very slowly4 ,the boiling continues from twenty minutes to half an hour1 or until the grains are tender1 and then the water is drained off1 through a colander4 ,the rice in the colander should then be placed where the remaining moisture will steam off4 ,by this method nutrients are lost1 but the grains of the rice stand out distinctly and are light and dry4 ,it is a difficult method for the novice1 because its success depends upon the removal of the rice from the water just at the moment it is tender1 but not too soft4 ,the grains should be tested in twenty minutes4 ,corn products4----,corn being our most abundant grain1 it is the cheapest1 and we should promote its use4 ,hominy and samp and ,indian meal1 when well cooked1 are all most palatable4 ,there is a difference between old and new process corn meal1 to be noticed in the flavor and in the behavior of the two kinds in cooking4 ,the new process meal now more largely on the market has been deprived of the germ1 which contains a large amount of oil1 and although the meal does not deteriorate so soon1 there is some loss of flavor4 ,moreover1 when the new process meal is used in an old-time recipe1 more wetting must be used than the recipe calls for and a larger amount of fat4 ,the old process of grinding between stones is still employed in some localities4 ,southern and ,rhode ,island corn meal are ground in this way1 and may be found at some groceries4 ,there are also two colors1 the yellow and the white1 each with a distinctive flavor1 and some people who think they dislike corn meal find the white meal agreeable4 ,pure starches4----,these occur as food materials in several forms4 ,cornstarch is the starchy portion only removed from the grain of corn4 ,wheat starch is more largely used for laundry purposes than for food4 ,rice flour may be treated as starch in cooking4 ,arrowroot is a fine starch from the roots of a family of plants growing in the ,west ,indies and other warm climates4 ,it is used principally in cooking for invalids4 ,cassava1 manioca1 tapioca1 and sago are starchy materials in granular form4 ,the first three are made from the pith of the cassava plant1 the sago from the sago palm4 ,the pure starches are all easily digested and inexpensive4 ,corn starch is the most abundant and cheapest pure starch in this country4 ,the starch granule4----,to understand the behavior of materials like cornstarch1 rice flour1 and arrowroot in cooking1 we need to know more of the starch grain4 ,cornstarch is composed of myriads of tiny granules somewhat like those pictured in ,fig4 #ci1 but smaller4 ,the starch granules of different plants differ in size and even in shape1 but they all have a covering lying in folds1 the pure starch being within4 ,the granule unfolds or bursts when exposed to heat4 ,when these granules are floating in water1 and1 being heated1 open at the same moment1 the starch paste is smooth2 otherwise1 the starch lumps4 ,a4 ,starch experiments4 ,starch turns a characteristic blue color in the presence of iodine4 ,this is an unfailing starch test1 but must be used in the cold4 #a4 ,grate a piece of potato into a small amount of water1 and strain out the pulp4 ,the starch settles from the water in a few minutes4 ,pour off the water1 and add a drop of diluted iodine to the remaining starch4 ,if a microscope is available1 dilute this mixture and with a dropper tube place a drop upon a slide4 ,the potato starch granules are comparatively large and easy to see through the microscope4 #b4 ,drop a teaspoonful of dry starch into boiling water4 #c4 ,mix a teaspoonful of starch with a small quantity of cold water1 and stir this into boiling water4 #d4 ,mix a teaspoonful of starch with cup of cold water1 and bring the water to the boiling point1 stirring the mixture as it heats4 ,why are #c and #d similar in result1 and different from #b8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4----;,changes of starch cells in cooking3 a1 cells of a raw potato with starch grains in natural condition2 b1 cells of a partially cooked potato2 c1 cells of a thoroughly boiled potato4 ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #bie1 ,u4 ,s4 ,dept4 ,agriculture4 ,desserts from the starches4----,cornstarch1 in particular1 is often disliked1 because it is undercooked1 and too large a proportion is used4 ,it may be made very palatable1 and is too valuable in cooking and too inexpensive to be discarded4 #e4 ,chocolate cornstarch4 ,milk #a pint ,cornstarch #c tablespoonfuls1 level ,cocoa 7,baker's7 #c tablespoonfuls1 level ,sugar #a_/b cup ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,vanilla #a teaspoonful ,what utensils8 ,you should be able to plan the method of mixing4 ,the milk must be heated in a double boiler4 ,which method of mixing in the cornstarch will you use8 ,how can you best add the cocoa1 sugar1 and salt8 ,the vanilla8 ,it is difficult to boil milk directly over the fire or flame1 without scorching it4 ,since the starch cannot well be exposed to the boiling temperature in this case1 the process must continue in the double boiler until the mixture has thickened well1 for at least half an hour1 three quarters being better4 ,when the cooking is finished1 pour the mixture into molds which have been wet in cold water4 ,when the mixture is cooled1 chill it in the refrigerator4 ,serve with cream or milk and sugar for those who may want it sweeter4 ,this gives a soft mold1 that is much more palatable than one so stiff1 that it has a firm shape4 ,this will serve four or five people4 #f4 ,tapioca and sago4----,these materials make delicious desserts with fruit4 ,they are also used with eggs and milk4 7,see ,chapter ,,xv47 ,laboratory management4----,the undivided portion of cereal may be #a_/d cup4 ,cornstarch may be made with #a_/b cup of liquid4 ,macaroni1 spaghetti1 and vermicelli are valuable cereal products made from flour1 this form of cereal food having originated in ,italy4 ,the ,italians manufacture the paste in a large variety of forms1 and some of the small fancy shapes are also used in soup4 ,the composition of macaroni is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,it is a valuable material1 and when served or cooked with cheese may well be the main dish of a home luncheon4 #g4 ,boiled macaroni4 ,ingredients4 ,macaroni #c_/d cup1 broken in inch pieces ,boiling water #b quarts ,salt #a tablespoonful ,cream #a_/b cup ,method4----,cook macaroni in boiling salted water twenty minutes or until soft1 drain in a strainer1 pour cold water over it to remove stickiness4 ,add cream and reheat4 ,a thin white sauce may be used in place of the cream4 #h4 ,macaroni baked with cheese4----,cover the bottom of a baking dish with plain boiled macaroni4 ,sprinkle with grated cheese4 ,add another layer of macaroni and another of cheese4 ,repeat until the dish is full4 ,pour a thin sauce over this1 almost filling the dish4 ,cover with buttered crumbs and bake in hot oven until crumbs are brown4 ,some prefer to omit the crumbs and have a thick layer of the cheese on top which becomes crisp and brown4 ,boiled macaroni and spaghetti may be served with tomato sauce and a little grated cheese4 ,this is called 8,italian style40 ,,exercises #a4 ,for what reasons are the cereal products so valuable8 #b4 ,compare the composition of the different grains4 #c4 ,what changes are effected in the proper cookery of cereals8 #d4 ,what are the important points in practice8 #e4 ,what are the advantages of a good 8ready to serve0 breakfast cereal8 #f4 ,ascertain the cost of a box of puffed cereal and an uncooked cereal of the same size4 ,weigh the contents of the two4 #g4 ,estimate the cost of each one served to a family of six4 #h4 ,what is the cost of a #ajj-;,calorie portion8 #i4 ,what is the advantage of serving dry toast with a cereal8 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,eggs1 ,,milk1 ,,and ,,cheese ,eggs are a specially interesting food because they contain all the elements necessary to the development of the young chick within the shell4 ,the structure of the egg is familiar1 with its division into the yolk and white1 and it is interesting to note the details of this structure4 ,break a fresh egg carefully into a saucer4 ,the shell is porous1 allowing water to evaporate from the egg and air to enter4 ,to this porosity is due the fact that other substances may enter the egg1 giving it an unnatural flavor and even hastening its deterioration4 ,within the shell is a fine membrane which protects the white4 ,the yolk is also divided from the white by a more delicate membrane which enables one to separate the yolk from the white of a fresh egg4 ,a careful examination reveals at each end of the yolk a continuation of this membrane in the form of small cords which are fastened at each end of the shell1 holding the yolk evenly suspended in the center of the shell4 ,rough handling or jolting breaks this membrane1 and the yolk drops to one side4 ,lift the white carefully with a fork1 and notice its elasticity4 ,this cohesive property makes it possible to beat air into the white until the whole mass become porous4 ,the yolk is creamy rather than light when beaten1 and a bit of the yolk mixed with the white prevents the latter from becoming light and dry4 ,composition of the egg4----,figure #dj gives the composition of the yolk and white taken together1 and of the yolk and white separated4 ,the protein content is high1 and the fat content as well1 the yolk containing a higher percentage of these two foodstuffs than the white4 ,the mineral matter is of high value1 iron and phosphorus being found in ideal forms in the yolk4 ,in using the egg as food we are availing ourselves of one of nature's richest storehouses4 ,a single egg of average size yields about #ge calories1 of which #fj come from the yolk and #ae from the white4 ,a very large egg1 weighing two and two thirds ounces1 will yield #ajj calories4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4----;,composition of eggs and cheese4 ,fresh eggs and cold storage eggs4----,the fresh-laid egg is always desired for its delicious flavor1 and this flavor changes but little in a week or two if the egg is kept cool4 ,it is desirable to preserve eggs1 however1 for future use at the season when they are most abundant and cheap4 ,many methods have been tried1 such as laying them away in sawdust1 sinking them in water-glass solution1 or coating the shell with paraffin or some other substance to prevent evaporation and the entrance of air4 ,the introduction of cold storage on a large scale promises a solution of the problem4 ,if eggs are fresh when placed in storage1 it is possible to keep them just above the freezing temperature for months without appreciable deterioration4 ,eggs too long in storage may be detected by the musty odor and flavor1 the running of the yolk into the white1 and the thin quality of the white which prevents beating stiff4 ,some states have already passed stringent laws in regard to the sale of cold storage eggs4 ,the cost of eggs and how to buy4----,the demand for fresh eggs is great1 and so many eggs are exported1 that the price is high1 even in the summer4 ,twenty-five cents a dozen is a reasonable price1 but this is below the average at the present date4 ,the thirty-five or forty-cent daily allowance for food will permit the moderate use of eggs at thirty-five cents a dozen1 but not a liberal use in cakes and desserts4 ,they should be used at such a price and with that allowance as the main dish for breakfast or luncheon at times1 and not in sweet dishes calling for three or four eggs4 ,if a recipe for soft custard calls for three eggs to a pint of milk1 leave out one egg or even two1 and use one or two tablespoonfuls of cornstarch instead4 ,select eggs with a hard shell1 and yolk of rich yellow4 ,if the shell is soft and the yolk pale1 these deficiencies should be reported1 as they can be corrected by the poultryman4 ,the difference in color of the shells1 whether white or brown1 is not of great consequence4 ,if you can buy eggs by the crate direct from the poultryman1 this is a saving1 provided the eggs can be used before they deteriorate4 ,a small crate holds fifteen dozen2 the usual size thirty dozen4 ,some express companies have a special rate for eggs1 and parcel post should aid in this method of buying4 ,relative digestibility of soft and hard-cooked eggs4----,the fact must be recalled that to digest is to dissolve1 and that the digestion of food means a dissolving by the digestive juices1 aided by water4 ,when we speak of the digestibility of food we may mean the ease and comfort of digestion1 or the length of time taken by the process1 or the completeness of the process4 ,if we take the third of these meanings1 hard-cooked egg is as digestible as the soft-cooked or the raw egg1 because it is completely dissolved in digestion in the course of time4 ,if the second meaning of digestion is taken1 the hard-cooked egg may be slightly less digestible1 for a slightly longer time is consumed in the process4 ,the latest researches1 however1 show that the digestive process is longer with any food than was formerly supposed1 and the difference in this case is not especially important4 ,indeed1 we must accept the conclusions of the scientist and frankly admit that the differences of temperature in cooking of egg do not have any great effect upon its digestibility4 ,why then the popular idea that a hard-boiled egg is 8absolutely indigestible08 ,a hard-boiled egg1 or more than one1 eaten rapidly1 without mastication1 at a picnic1 and with much sweet food at an unusual hour1 may interfere with the 8ease and comfort in digestion0 resulting from such a meal4 ,but if the whites of the hard-boiled eggs are chopped fine1 the yolk mashed1 and the two served upon toast1 thus insuring mastication1 a dish is produced that is of average digestibility and that may be used for breakfast or luncheon without hesitation4 ,if a tender1 jellylike consistency is wanted1 cook the egg below the boiling point of water4 ,if1 however1 a firmer egg is preferred1 use the old-time method1 and cook the egg three or four minutes in boiling water4 ,it is the easier and quicker method4 ,moreover1 do not hesitate to use an egg 8boiled0 half an hour1 provided it is chopped fine or sliced4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes #a4 ,eggs used raw4----,an egg1 swallowed whole1 followed by a cracker1 is a 8quick lunch0 that is not harmful1 and it is sometimes convenient to be able to take an egg in this way4 ,a sprinkling of salt upon it makes it more agreeable4 #b4 ,beaten eggs4----,beat the yolk and white separately4 ,add to the yolk a teaspoonful of sugar1 a shake of salt1 some flavoring1 and #c_/d of a cup of milk4 ,beat the white gently into this mixture and serve in a glass4 ,the flavoring may be a quarter of a teaspoonful of vanilla1 or a tablespoonful of orange juice4 ,this is sometimes served to an invalid who can take milk1 and is an agreeable luncheon for any one4 ,if milk does not agree with one1 a larger amount of fruit juice may be used with the addition of some water1 possibly carbonated4 ,the white alone is given in cases of severe illness1 mixed with a small amount of water1 and fruit juice if the physician permits the latter4 ,this is sometimes the only food that can be retained by an invalid4 ,principles of egg cookery4----,protein in the form of an egg-albumin is the foodstuff to consider in the cooking of eggs4 ,heat produces in the egg a change in color and in texture or firmness1 the firmness or hardness depending upon the degree of heat and the length of time given to the cooking4 ,coagulation is the term used for this change in the egg-albumin4 #a4 ,the white of egg begins to coagulate and to show an opaque white at about #ahj ,f4 #b4 ,a temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water for about ten minutes will give the white a jellylike1 tender consistency1 and slightly cook the yolk4 ,continued for an hour1 the white becomes solid and adheres to the shell4 #c4 ,the boiling point of water gives a firmer consistency than a temperature below this point4 ,the white is free from the shell4 #d4 ,a high temperature1 that of a hot pan1 will produce a leathery consistency if long continued4 ,a4 ,an experiment with the egg4 ,apparatus and materials4----,a ring stand1 wire net1 ,bunsen burner1 glass beaker1 test tube1 chemical thermometer1 white of egg4 ,method4----,put the beaker two thirds full of water on the wire net over the flame4 ,put enough white of egg into the test tube to cover the bulb of the thermometer when this is put into the tube4 ,clamp the test tube so that it rests in the water in the beaker4 ,the surface of the water should stand above the top of the white of egg4 ,clamp the thermometer so that it is held in the white of egg in the test tube4 ,the white should be stirred with a fork before it is put into the test tube1 and only a small quantity used4 ,note3 #a4 ,the temperature when the first visible change occurs4 #b4 ,the temperature when the whole mass becomes of a jellylike consistency4 #c4 ,the temperature when the water reaches the boiling point4 ,remove2 note the consistency4 #c4 ,jellied or coddled eggs4----,see that the shells are whole and clean4 ,if the eggs are just taken from the refrigerator1 lay them in warm water a few minutes4 ,make ready a double boiler1 the lower part half full of boiling water4 ,put the required number of eggs into the inner boiler1 cover with water that has just stopped boiling1 put on the boiler cover1 and stand the boiler where the water below will no longer boil4 ,the eggs will be done in from six to eight minutes4 ,having performed the preceding experiment1 you should be able to invent another way of accomplishing this result4 #d4 ,boiled eggs4 ,put one egg at a time from a tablespoon into boiling water4 ,allow the water to boil for three or four minutes1 depending upon the preference of those served4 ,remove the eggs1 and serve at once4 ,the hard-boiled egg should remain in the boiling water half an hour4 ,bearing in mind the fact that hard-boiled eggs must be chopped or sliced1 cannot you invent a way of using them in a luncheon dish8 #e4 ,poached eggs4----,make ready a frying pan by setting muffin rings in it1 and filling it about half full of gently simmering water1 with a teaspoonful of salt dissolved in it4 ,break the eggs one at a time into a saucer1 and slip each egg carefully into a muffin ring4 ,see that the pan stands where the water is just below the boiling point1 for rapidly bubbling water breaks the eggs4 ,when the white begins to set1 pour the hot water gently over the tops of the eggs from a spoon4 ,cook until the white is firm4 ,slip a griddle cake turner under the egg1 lift it gently1 and place it upon a piece of buttered toast which you have ready on a hot plate1 or platter1 and remove the ring4 ,an easier method resembling the poached egg is to break the egg raw into a small buttered cup or 8patty10 standing the cups in a pan of water just below the boiling point1 the pan being on the top of the stove or in the oven4 ,each egg should have a sprinkling of salt1 and may have a bit of butter1 and a shake of pepper4 ,cover the pan4 ,this process is longer than the other1 and the eggs must be watched to see when the process is complete4 #f4 ,scrambled eggs4 ,as the name denotes1 this is a process needing a quick motion4 ,allow an egg to each person4 ,have ready a frying pan heated1 a broad bladed knife1 and a tablespoonful of butter1 or butter substitute1 ready to melt in the pan4 7#a7 ,melt the butter1 break the eggs into the pan1 without beating them1 and begin to scrape them from the bottom of the pan with the knife1 as fast as you can move your hand4 ,this is an old-time method1 and gives a mixture of white and yellow color4 ,stop the process when the eggs are softer than you wish them for serving1 as they will stiffen after they are removed from the fire4 ,sprinkle in salt1 before you give the last scramble1 and serve at once4 7#b7 ,beat the eggs1 adding a tablespoonful of water for each egg1 and a shake of salt for each1 and proceed as in 7#a74 #g4 ,the omelet4 ,the novice should see an omelet made1 as there is a 8knack0 in the motion not to be conveyed by words4 ,the omelet is a ,french dish1 and is made to perfection by the ,french cook4 ,a perfect omelet is rolled or folded over1 and is creamy within and a golden brown without4 8,omelet pans0 are made for the purpose1 but a small frying pan may be used4 ,the pan should be perfectly smooth4 ,do not attempt to make an omelet with more than two eggs until you become expert4 ,this is one method1 and others are used by different ,french cooks4 ,the first stage makes the whole mass creamy1 the second browns one surface4 7#a7 ,have the pan warm enough to melt two teaspoonfuls of butter1 but not hot4 ,beat two eggs with a fork until they are creamy but not foamy1 and add two teaspoonfuls of water1 with two shakes of salt4 ,put the mixture into the pan1 standing the pan where it has a medium heat4 ,if over gas1 the flame should be low1 and covered with asbestos4 ,proceed as with the scrambled egg1 with great rapidity1 and when the mass is creamy1 lift the pan1 tip it slightly1 and push the whole mass toward the handle end of the pan4 ,put two teaspoonfuls more of butter in the pan1 and set it where the heat is intense4 ,smooth the mass of egg over the whole surface of the pan that the omelet may become brown underneath4 ,shake the pan gently back and forth1 lift the omelet at the edge with a knife to see if the browning is accomplished1 take the pan from the fire1 fold or roll the omelet from the handle end of the pan to the front1 and turn it out upon a hot plate4 ,a method easier for the novice is to accomplish the first stage in a bowl set into a teakettle1 beating into the mass as it thickens a teaspoonful of butter1 or a tablespoonful of cream4 ,when the mixture is evenly creamy1 turn it into the hot buttered pan and proceed as with 7#a74 7#b7 ,light omelet4----,this is not a true omelet1 but in reality a souffl cooked in a frying pan4 ,it is somewhat insipid in flavor and is not easier to make well than the ,french omelet4 ,as commonly served it is apt to be underdone or tough4 ,with the light omelet1 the eggs and whites are separated and the whites beaten until light and dry4 ,beat the yolks until creamy1 adding water and salt as in 7#a74 ,pour this mixture over the white1 and cut and fold the mass4 ,see page #fc4 ,pour this into a buttered baking dish and set in a moderate oven4 ,the oven should not be more than #cjj ,f4 ,serve in the pan4 ,when gas is used1 the souffl may be set in the oven with the flame low1 and browned for a moment under the flame turned high4 ,both of these omelets may be varied by the addition of chopped parsley or chopped ham1 or grated cheese4 ,laboratory management4 ,when the price of eggs is high1 some of the experiments can be demonstrated by the teacher4 ,eggs should be used when the price is at its lowest1 even if this interferes with the logical sequence of lessons4 ,,milk ,,and ,,milk ,,products ,milk is the natural food of the young mammal1 and contains all the foodstuffs in a form easily assimilable4 ,starch is not present1 the carbohydrate being found in the form of lactose1 or milk sugar1 a sugar differing somewhat from the sugars found in vegetables and fruit 7see ,chapter ,x74 ,whole milk and the milk products1 cream1 butter1 and cheese1 are all important food materials among the nations of the western world2 and the manufacture of milk products1 such as condensed milk1 butter1 and cheese1 has developed large industries4 ,while the ,chinese and ,japanese are two great peoples who have not utilized milk or any of its products as food for grown people to any extent1 yet we are fully justified in counting these foods among the necessities4 ,nothing can fully take the place of milk in the family dietary4 ,figure #da shows how all the foodstuffs are represented in milk4 ,when milk first comes from the cow the fat is suspended in tiny1 invisible particles throughout the water1 giving the milk its yellow tint1 and the fat rises to the top in the form of cream after a few hours4 ,the protein1 sugar1 and ash are dissolved in the water4 ,when milk reaches the stomach1 the protein separates from the water in the form of curd4 ,this change is brought about by an enzyme 7soluble ferment7 called rennin1 which is present1 along with pepsin1 in the gastric juice4 ,curd is also formed by the souring of milk through the action of bacteria1 or by adding acid directly to the milk4 ,milk should never be gulped down1 but taken in sips1 so that only small portions of curd are formed in the stomach1 because these are much easier to digest than large ones4 ,sometimes milk is soured purposely1 as in buttermilk or zoolak or matzoon1 that curds may form and be beaten fine before it is drunk4 ,this is very easy to digest1 because then no large curds can form4 ,for the same reason1 it is often better to take milk with bread or some other food1 or to cook it in some dish4 ,skim milk is a valuable food1 for it has everything found in whole milk but the fat4 ,we miss the flavor of the fat in drinking it1 hence it is better to use it in pudding or soup or in cooking cereals where we do not care so much about the milk flavor4 ,study ,fig4 #da1 comparing the percentages of the foodstuffs in whole1 skim1 and buttermilk1 and cream4 ,notice that the skim milk is higher than the whole milk in protein and sugar1 that it has as much ash1 and a trace of fat even4 ,it does not tell us1 however1 that the forms of ash in milk are most valuable1 and that it is richer in calcium than any other food material4 ,how these foods compare in fuel value is shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4----;,composition of milk and cream4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4----ajj-;,calorie portions of milk and cream4 ,no4 ,,kind ,,weight ,,of ,,portion1 ,,ounces #a4 ,cream 7#ah4e fat7 #a4h #b4 ,whole milk #e4a #c4 ,skim milk #i4f #d4 ,buttermilk #i4i ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,wholesome and clean milk4----,at present1 the milk supply is one of our most pressing community problems1 showing how closely the country and the city are united4 ,a case of typhoid fever in one farm family1 not properly cared for1 may be the seed of a serious epidemic in some town4 ,to insure clean milk to the consumer1 and a fair return in money to the producer1 is a great sanitary and commercial problem1 not to be solved in a day4 ,milk is a medium in which bacteria flourish1 both the harmless and the disease producing4 ,typhoid fever and other fatal diseases may be carried by milk from unclean barns and dairies1 and tuberculosis is possible from diseased cows4 ,the cows must be in good health1 and the stable clean4 ,figure #dc shows a stable with cement floor and good drainage4 ,the cows must themselves be clean1 and should be curried and washed4 ,the milkers should have clean clothes and hands1 and all receptacles should be sterilized4 ,the milk must be rapidly cooled 7see ,fig4 #dd71 bottled in sterilized bottles1 kept cool during transportation1 and delivered as promptly as possible to the consumer4 8,certified0 milk is produced and handled under the best conditions1 but costs at least #ae cents a quart4 ,since a quart of milk is equivalent to a pound of steak or to #h eggs1 milk even at #ae to #bj cents a quart is more economical than meat and eggs at ordinary prices4 ,at the usual price of #h to #aj cents a quart1 milk is very economical as compared with other perishable foods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4----;,a modern cow house4 ,courtesy of the ,walker-,gordon ,laboratory4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4----,milk bottling room4 ,courtesy of ,walker-,gordon ,laboratory4 ,the question of preservation and pasteurization can be treated here but briefly4 ,preservatives are forbidden by law in most states4 ,pasteurization is heating at a temperature sufficiently high to kill any disease germs present1 but not high enough to give a cooked taste4 ,this process1 while it destroys most of the bacteria1 does not kill the spores of all4 ,the chief arguments against pasteurization are 7#a7 that on a commercial scale it is difficult to really accomplish this1 and 7#b7 that it is easily used to cover the sale of unclean milk4 ,the argument for it is1 that it is impossible to obtain as yet an ideal supply for a large city in hot weather1 and that pasteurization1 if properly conducted1 kills nearly all of the dangerous bacteria and saves the lives of many babies4 ,clean milk that needs no pasteurization is our ultimate aim1 and we must remember that milk pasteurized under unknown conditions needs to be kept cold and treated with even more care than fresh milk1 for it 8spoils0 quite as easily1 only we may not know it because it may not taste sour4 ,in the last few years the question of pasteurization has been studied with very great care4 ,it is found best to heat the milk for #bj to #cj minutes at a temperature of #adj to #aee ,f4 ,if it is certain that this method has been used1 one need not hesitate to trust the milk1 for the arguments against pasteurization do not properly apply here4 ,how to buy4----,investigate by question and inspection1 if possible1 the available milk supply4 ,be sure to do this in the country in the summer4 ,always buy bottled milk4 ,where the income is small1 good quality milk should be used for the little children and invalids1 and skim milk purchased for cooking4 ,in many places skim milk is supplied in bottles by reliable firms4 ,the usual price for bottled milk in the city is #h to #aj cents1 and this is of good average quality4 ,keep milk cold4 ,if there is no ice1 use an ice substitute 7page #gd71 and in very hot weather pasteurize or scald the milk1 cooling afterward as quickly as possible by placing in cold water and stirring the water4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,principles of cookery4----,clean1 sweet milk is an ideal food1 which requires no cooking4 ,heating milk to #bab ,f4 changes its properties in some way1 so that it is not considered an ideal food for babies' regular diet4 ,if it must be used1 for reasons of safety1 some uncooked food1 such as orange juice1 should also be given4 ,this is the reason for pasteurizing milk instead of boiling it4 ,heating milk in an open vessel causes some of the protein to harden into a thin 8skin0 on the top4 ,this can be prevented by stirring the milk until it is cool4 #a4 ,to pasteurize milk4 ,this cannot be done accurately without a thermometer4 ,the milk bottle should be placed upon a rack in a kettle of water1 with a clean thermometer inserted through the cover of the bottle4 ,heat the water slowly1 and watch the thermometer4 ,when it reaches #aee ,f41 see that the water becomes no hotter4 ,set the kettle on a rack on the stove top1 or use a simmering burner with rack and asbestos mat4 ,it is difficult to keep the temperature even1 but it should remain at #adj-aee ,f4 half an hour4 ,at the end of half an hour1 the bottle should be removed1 and cooled as rapidly as possible in running cold water4 #b4 ,rennet custard4 #a quart milk1 two tablespoonfuls of sugar1 a shake of salt1 flavoring1 #a rennet tablet4 ,the flavoring may be3 #a teaspoonful vanilla1 or a few tablespoonfuls of orange juice1 or the vanilla1 plus three or four tablespoonfuls of cocoa to suit the taste4 ,to prepare4----,this is a process without cooking4 ,rennet tablets are made from the stomach of the calf1 and contain the digestive enzyme1 rennin1 which results in the solidifying of the curd of the milk4 ,rennet custard has passed the first stage of milk digestion4 ,put all the flavoring substances into the milk1 and warm it slightly1 not more than #ajj ,f4 ,the cocoa when used should be 8dissolved0 in a small amount of hot water4 ,dissolve the rennet in a tablespoonful of cold water1 and stir this very thoroughly into the milk4 ,pour the milk into the cups in which the custard will be served1 and set the cups in a warm but not hot place4 ,a good method is to place them in a pan of warm water 7#ajj ,f474 ,the milk becomes firm in a half hour or an hour1 and as soon as it is set1 should be put in the ice box1 otherwise the process continues and the custard becomes watery as the curd shrinks and forces out the whey4 ,serve very cold with fruit on the top1 or whipped cream with the cocoa flavoring2 or put grated nutmeg or powdered cinnamon on the top4 ,this is a simple and delicious dessert1 and one of the most wholesome4 ,for children it should be flavored with fruit juice or vanilla rather than with cocoa4 #c4 ,uses of sour milk4 ,do not throw away any sour milk that is clean and not stale4 ,milk that has soured enough to set1 is a delicious dessert1 with cream and sugar4 ,the acid is very pleasant1 being the same as that of buttermilk4 ,sour milk is better for griddlecakes and muffins than sweet milk4 7,see ,chapter ,,xi47 ,another excellent use for sour milk is to make it into cottage cheese4 7,see below47 ,matzoon and other similar preparations are essentially soured milks1 prepared under controlled conditions4 ,these preparations are the common form of milk in certain parts of the ,orient1 where milk is never used sweet4 ,kumyss is milk slightly soured and fermented with one species of yeast4 ,this is a ,russian method4 ,these preparations are excellent for invalids and exhausted people1 for they can sometimes be assimilated because of the fine curds when sweet milk cannot4 ,condensed milk is a practical method of preserving milk4 ,the milk is evaporated under pressure at a high temperature in apparatus constructed for the purpose4 ,cane sugar or glucose is sometimes added4 ,a new patent process condenses the milk at low temperature1 preserving it for a short period1 as compared with the condensed milk in tins1 but it keeps well for several days1 and bears transportation4 ,condensed milk may be used in cooking1 when clean fresh milk is not available4 ,the unsweetened kinds are most useful1 but1 like pasteurized milk1 must be treated with care after the cans are opened4 ,cheese4----,cheese is made from the curd of milk1 and contains the most nutritive parts of the milk in highly concentrated form4 ,in the process of manufacture1 the milk is first curdled by rennet1 and the whey strained out4 ,the curds after preliminary treatment1 varying according to the style of cheese to be made1 are finally pressed together very slowly in a cheese press1 which is screwed down more tightly as the cheese becomes dryer4 ,the cheeses are then covered with cheesecloth and 8ripened0 slowly1 the ripening process giving characteristic consistency and flavor4 ,this ripening is due to the action of bacteria and molds4 7,see page #ig47 ,foreign varieties of cheese1 made originally in some one locality1 have marked colors1 quality1 and flavors1 as ,brie1 ,camembert1 ,roquefort1 and the ,swiss cheeses4 ,parmesan is an ,italian cheese1 excellent with macaroni and spaghetti4 ,american cheeses vary in color1 in strength of flavor1 in creaminess1 and in degree of hardness4 ,much the greater part is1 however1 of the general type known as 8,american cheddar0 or 8standard factory0 cheese4 ,club cheese is an ,american cheese of good quality1 put up in small jars4 ,it is a soft cheese1 excellent to serve with crackers1 but is too expensive for common use4 ,cottage cheese is a home product made from sour milk1 and used at once4 ,composition and nutritive value4----,cheese is high in protein1 and usually in fat4 7,see ,fig4 #dj47 ,note the small amount of water1 which makes cheese a very concentrated food4 ,the protein content makes it a meat substitute1 for those with whom cheese does not disagree4 ,being a dense as well as concentrated form of food1 it should be eaten in small quantities1 and in combination with other food materials in such a way that it will become finely divided1 or it will not be easily digested4 ,the ash content is high1 the most valuable of the ash constituents of the milk being retained in the cheese4 ,the cost of cheese4----,the foreign cheeses are expensive1 but ,american cheeses may be classed among the moderate priced foods and they compare favorably with other protein foods4 ,cheese costs more than beans1 and less than most cuts of meat4 ,a good ,american cheese costs about twenty-five cents per pound4 ,taking account of composition as well as cost per pound1 we find that a given amount of money buys about twice as much food value when spent for cheese as it would if spent for beef4 ,see ,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4----ajj-;,calorie portions of cheese4 ,no4 ,,kind ,,weight ,,of ,,portion1 ,,ounces #a4 ,swiss #j4h #b4 ,cream #j4i #c4 ,american #j4h #d4 ,roquefort #a4j #e4 ,parmesan #a4i #f4 ,cottage #c4b ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,care of cheese in the pantry4----,cheese should be kept dry and covered1 that its odor may not be noticeable4 ,soft cheese should be kept in the ice box4 ,the receptacle for cheese should be thoroughly sterilized before each new purchase is put away4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes #a4 ,uncooked cheese4----,serve a cream cheese with a salad of lettuce1 and the imported cheeses with crackers and fruit for dessert4 ,american cheese may be thinly sliced and used in sandwiches4 ,a small piece of cheese with apple pie or pudding is an old-fashioned combination that is always agreeable1 but sometimes difficult of digestion4 #b4 ,cottage cheese4 ,use sour milk that has set4 ,other ingredients3 salt to taste1 cayenne pepper or paprika1 if liked4 ,quality and flavor are improved by the addition of a tablespoonful of butter or two tablespoonfuls of cream to a pint of the curd1 but these are not necessary4 ,warm the milk slowly1 until the whey begins to separate from the curd4 ,if this process is continued too long1 and the milk becomes hot1 the curd will be tough4 ,place a piece of cheesecloth over a bowl1 pour in the curds and whey1 and lift the cloth carefully1 allowing the whey to run through4 ,squeeze out the remaining whey4 ,add the seasoning and other ingredients to the curd1 shape in balls1 and chill before serving4 ,it is delicious served with lettuce and dressing as a salad1 or with gingerbread for dessert at luncheon or supper4 ,principles of cooking cheese4----,the fat in the cheese is melted by heat4 ,the protein is toughened by a high temperature1 therefore a low temperature process should be used4 #c4 ,cheese cooked with other food materials4----,a creamy cheese should be selected for cooking4 ,cheese may be grated and sprinkled on the top of potato on the half shell1 or any other mashed potato2 or it may be sliced and placed with each layer in escalloped potato4 ,its use is common with macaroni2 and a dish of macaroni with milk and cheese is a good meat substitute1 and may be used as the main dish of a luncheon or simple dinner4 ,those to whom cheese is agreeable will find many places for its use4 ,its flavor harmonizes with celery and with tomato4 ,the ,italians serve grated ,parmesan cheese with soup1 and with spaghetti that has a tomato sauce4 #d4 ,cheese crackers4----,select crackers of a firm quality that will not crumble or flake easily1 and of a small size4 ,spread very thinly with soft butter1 put the crackers in a pan1 and sprinkle grated cheese upon each one4 ,set the pan in a moderate oven until the cheese is melted4 ,a sprinkling of paprika may be used4 ,serve with lettuce1 celery1 or other green salad4 ,,exercises #a4 ,compare the composition of eggs1 milk1 and cheese4 #b4 ,how may an egg which has been kept too long in cold storage be detected8 #c4 ,what is the effect of the boiling temperature of water upon an egg8 #d4 ,compare a hard- and a soft-cooked egg for digestibility4 #e4 ,what are the dangers from unclean milk8 #f4 ,how may the milk supply be safeguarded8 #g4 ,why is cheese a meat substitute8 #h4 ,what caution should we exercise in using it8 #i4 ,what precaution must we take in cooking cheese8 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,fats ,,and ,,the ,,sugars ,fats are composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 but have much more carbon than the other kinds of foodstuffs4 ,notice in ,fig4 #df that olive oil and lard are pure fats2 the other fat foods containing water1 protein1 and ash4 ,fat is available in various forms1 with differing flavors and a wide range of prices4 ,to many people it is unpalatable in some of its cheapest forms2 yet its use is important1 and some kind should be included in the diet4 ,fluid and emulsified fats are the most easily digested1 hence olive oil1 cream1 and egg yolk are highly desirable4 ,bacon and butter belong nearly in the same class4 ,a vigorous man at hard labor can digest fat of any kind without difficulty1 and needs it because it gives so much fuel in proportion to its bulk4 ,fat tends to retard gastric digestion1 and delicate persons must be careful about taking with it other foods which are hard to digest1 or taking it in the form of fried foods1 pastries1 rich cakes1 and sauces4 ,persons with delicate appetite1 who lose weight because they do not get enough fuel1 may be benefited by taking a little more fat in the diet1 especially if they do not digest starch and sugar readily1 but a very large amount 7over #f or #g ounces a day7 will not be perfectly digested4 ,fat as a food4----,beef fat1 as it occurs with lean1 is a digestible fat4 ,if thoroughly browned in the cooking process1 it is most palatable1 and the taste for it should be cultivated4 ,in gravy1 it may be used with potato1 instead of butter4 ,fat tried out from suet1 may be used in place of butter as an ingredient in some puddings1 and even in batter mixtures4 ,it may also be used with vegetables when the price of butter is prohibitive4 ,see ,fig4 #dg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4----;,composition of fat foods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4----ajj-;,calorie portions of fat foods4 ,,weight ,,of ,,portion ,no4 ,,kind ,,ounces #a4 ,cream 7extra rich1 #dj fat7 #j4i #b4 ,olive oil #j4d #c4 ,butter #j4e #d4 ,oleomargarine #j4e #e4 ,suet #j4e #f4 ,bacon #j4f ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,bacon is a digestible and agreeable form of fat1 but it is not so cheap as beef fat1 though cheaper than butter4 ,fat pork is lower in price than bacon1 and can be assimilated by vigorous people1 especially those living out of doors4 ,cream is one of the most delicious fatty food materials1 and is digestible1 but ranks with butter and bacon as to cost4 ,while it is not a cheap food1 it is not such an extravagance when moderately used as some people suppose1 who have not worked out the problem4 ,usually the most economical source of cream is to take it from the top of the bottle of milk4 ,the remaining partially skimmed milk may be used at table or in cooking or for making cottage cheese4 ,butter is a digestible fat1 ranking at present among the more expensive food materials4 ,watchfulness is necessary with both cream and milk that cleanliness and quality may be insured4 ,butter substitutes4----,these are made from beef fat and other edible fats and oils1 and are much less expensive than butter4 ,they may be used in cooking with good result4 ,the usual trade names are butterine1 or oleomargarine1 or some word similar to these4 ,oleomargarine has the same food value as butter at lower cost1 but lacks fine flavor4 ,olive or sweet oil4----,the fat content of olive oil is one hundred per cent1 its fuel value being equal to that of lard4 ,see ,fig4 #df4 ,it is made in ,italy1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,california1 the oils from the different countries differing somewhat in flavor4 ,the cheaper grades are sometimes adulterated with corn oil or cottonseed oil1 which have the same food value but should1 of course1 be sold under their own names and not at olive oil prices4 ,an ,american firm is now manufacturing olive oil in ,spain2 this and the ,california olive oil are of high grade4 ,italian oil by the gallon is of good quality1 and usually somewhat less expensive than the ,french4 ,it is a costly food material1 but valuable in the dietary4 ,never buy it in small bottles1 as this adds greatly to the cost4 ,the most economical method is to purchase by the gallon in a tin can4 ,if kept cool1 it will not deteriorate except very slowly4 ,always wipe off the mouth of the bottle or can before pouring out the oil4 ,fat as a cooking medium4----,fat is necessary for the saut1 and for deep fat frying4 ,for deep fat frying several preparations are made from cottonseed oil that are agreeable to use and of moderate price4 ,lard has been the most commonly used1 but many people object to the flavor4 ,beef drippings should be saved and kept cool in covered jelly glasses4 ,these drippings are useful for browning vegetables1 meatballs1 and in pan-broiling if a small amount of additional fat is necessary4 ,when deep fat frying is used1 great pains must be taken to see that the fat is sufficiently hot in order that the food material may not soak fat1 and the cooked food must be kept hot when the fat is draining off on absorptive paper4 ,the best fats for this purpose are the vegetable oils4 ,the refined cottonseed oils now on the market are excellent4 ,for details of use see page #abj4 ,keep a box of sand to pour into it1 if the kettle of fat takes fire4 ,never pour water into blazing fat4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,principles of cooking4 ,fat melts at a low temperature4 ,at about #cej ,f4 it begins to smoke4 ,at a higher temperature1 a chemical change takes place1 and the fat finally 8burns10 as the hydrogen and oxygen pass off4 ,it is emulsified by mixing with a substance like egg4 #a4 ,to whip cream4----,chill the cream1 and set it in a bowl of ice water1 or chipped ice4 ,if the cream is warm1 the beating will churn the cream to butter4 7#a7 ,for a fine1 close-whipped cream use a ,dover egg beater4 7#b7 ,for a lighter whipped cream1 use a wire beater4 #b4 ,to mold butter4----,a pair of wooden butter pats is necessary for this4 ,dip these first into hot water1 then into cold4 ,cut off a square piece of butter1 enough for one person1 make it flat or round with two knives1 and then roll it into shape between the butter pats4 ,chill1 and serve in a dish on ice2 or give one to each person on a butter plate1 just at the last moment before serving the meal4 ,never serve soft butter4 #c4 ,to cook bacon4----,bacon has alternate layers of fat and lean1 but it is the fat that has chief consideration in the cooking process4 ,the aim is to brown and crisp the fat without burning it and without causing a volume of smoke in the kitchen4 ,make ready a frying pan1 and have at hand a jar for holding fat standing on a plate4 ,cut the bacon in thin slices with a sharp knife4 ,heat the pan1 and put in the bacon4 ,the fat will begin to 8try out0 at the melting point4 ,pour this melted fat into the jar4 ,turn the pieces of bacon with a fork4 ,if the smoke is rising in volumes the pan is too hot4 ,the novice should not try this experiment for the first time by herself4 ,the fat may even burst into flame if the pan is too hot4 ,when the bacon is sufficiently cooked to become crisp on cooling1 it is ready to serve1 by itself1 with toast1 or with eggs4 ,the making of sauces and gravies4----,many sauces and gravies are made from a fat1 mixed with a starchy substance1 the two mingled with a liquid4 ,the fat gives flavor and nutriment1 the starch is used for thickening1 the liquid also gives flavor4 ,you are now familiar with the cooking of fat and starch1 and can readily understand that the combination of all these ingredients is not an easy matter4 ,the fat will float upon the top of the liquid unless the right amount of starch or flour is used1 and the flour will have a tendency to lump4 ,there are several good methods in use4 ,the method given for your experiment is one of the simplest1 because it uses only a few utensils1 and gives uniformly good results4 ,it requires no more watchfulness than the other methods4 ,these sauces and gravies are not foods for little children and invalids4 #d4 ,foundation recipe for sauces4 ,proportions4 7#a7 ,thin sauce 7for milk toast7 #a tablespoonful of fat1 #a of flour1 #a_/b pint liquid4 or 7#b7 ,medium sauce 7for vegetables74 #b tablespoonfuls of fat1 #b of flour1 #a_/b pint liquid4 or 7#c7 ,thicker sauce1 also for vegetables1 meats1 fish1 and macaroni4 #c tablespoonfuls of fat1 #c of flour1 #a_/b pint liquid4 ,salt is used to taste4 ,method4----,melt the fat in a saucepan4 ,pour in the flour1 all at once1 and stir the flour and fat together1 until the mass thickens slightly4 ,pour in all the liquid at once1 cold4 ,set the saucepan where the heat is moderate4 ,stir steadily with a wooden spoon until the mixture thickens4 #e4 ,a white sauce is made with butter1 and milk the liquid4 ,stop the cooking just short of the boiling point4 #f4 ,a tomato sauce is made with butter or beef fat1 strained tomato juice the liquid4 ,cook a piece of onion1 a sprig of parsley1 or a small portion of dried herbs1 and a clove with the tomato before straining1 if these flavors are liked4 #g4 ,a brown sauce or meat gravy may be made in the same way1 using beef fat1 and 7as the liquid7 water that has been poured into the pan in which the meat is cooked4 ,when you are familiar with cooking there is an easier way for thickened meat gravies1 as follows3 ,pour off some of the fat from the meat pan4 ,set the pan upon the stove and stir in the flour1----about two tablespoonfuls for the ordinary roasting pan4 ,when the flour is thoroughly mixed in1 add about a pint of water1 cold or warm1 and stir again4 ,pour this mixture through a strainer4 ,with practice you can make an excellent gravy in this way4 ,it requires judgment to proportion the flour and liquid to the material in the pan4 ,,the ,,sugars ,sugars are of common occurrence in the vegetable world in the fruits and juices of many plants4 ,pure grape juice may contain as high as #be per cent of glucose though usually it is not so concentrated4 ,glucose is also found in considerable amount in sweet corn and onions4 ,it is not so sweet as cane sugar 7sucrose74 ,fructose is one of the sweetest of sugars1 and helps to give honey its great sweetness4 ,lactose or milk sugar is found chiefly in milk4 ,it is the least sweet of all the sugars4 ,if there were as much cane sugar in milk1 we should soon grow tired of it because it would be too sweet4 ,it is sometimes added to milk to make its fuel value higher1 especially in case the milk has been diluted1 as in the diet of babies and invalids4 ,maltose or malt sugar is formed from starch in germinating seeds4 ,sucrose or cane sugar is most commonly manufactured from sugar cane and sugar beets4 ,to a much smaller extent it is made commercially from the sugar maple1 sorghum cane1 and sugar palm1 and it is found in considerable amount in some common fruits and vegetables4 ,its manufacture forms a great industry1 and its consumption is enormous1 some ten million tons coming into commerce annually1 and this does not represent the total consumption4 ,figure #dh shows the composition of several common sugars4 ,notice that the granulated sugar is a pure foodstuff1 being #ajj per cent carbohydrate1 while all the others contain traces of protein1 ash1 and water4 ,sugar is a fuel food1 exclusively1 like olive oil and other pure fats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4----;,composition of sugars4 ,sugar is a valuable food material1 but should not be used in excess2 the tendency in the ,united ,states is rather toward an excessive use of sugar4 ,it is liable to cause an acid fermentation in digestion1 when taken in large amounts1 and is sure to irritate the stomach4 ,it should be well diluted by other foods4 ,the amount that may be eaten daily varies for most people from two ounces for young children to four ounces for adults1 but many people cannot eat these amounts without more or less irritation of the stomach4 ,it is a common practice to oversweeten cakes and desserts1 the sweetness of the sugar often disguising other agreeable flavors4 ,the liking for sweets should be well under control1 for the eating of too much sugar is a habit easy to form1 and one which crowds out other valuable foods4 ,cane ,sugar is sold both brown and white1 and is manufactured in powdered1 granulated1 and solid form1 the latter usually cut in cubes or dominoes4 ,the canes are first crushed1 the juices passing from the machine being of a rather dark greenish color4 ,this juice is first clarified and filtered1 and then boiled down in order to crystallize the sugar1 the liquid sirup forming molasses4 ,in the older methods the sirup was boiled in open pans1 and the crystals filtered from the molasses by a slow process4 ,in the modern process the sirup is boiled at a low temperature in vacuum pans1 and the sugar is separated from the molasses by a centrifugal machine1 built on the same principle as a cream separator4 ,the principles of beet sugar manufacture are essentially the same1 with some differences in detail4 ,the molasses manufactured in the older method is richer in cane sugar and is a better table molasses than the new process molasses1 the latter being used chiefly for the manufacture of alcohol4 ,molasses is either dark or light1 the darker having a stronger flavor especially suited to gingerbread and ,indian meal pudding4 ,molasses comes in the bulk1 and may be slightly acid2 or in cans1 in which case no acid fermentation should have taken place4 ,where canned molasses is used in a batter1 it is sometimes necessary to use baking powder instead of soda4 8,new ,orleans0 is a light-colored molasses1 8,porto ,rico0 dark4 ,brown sugar has not passed through the refining processes necessary to the whitening of the sugar4 ,it is softer than the granulated white1 has a decided brownish color and a rich flavor4 ,in buying sugar it is economy to purchase granulated in large quantities1 a fraction of a cent per pound being saved in this way4 ,the cut sugar comes in convenient boxes1 which keep the product clean4 ,powdered sugar may be bought in small quantities1 three or five pounds1 since it is not used so much in cooking as the granulated4 ,candy1 homemade and purchased4----,candy1 if not eaten between meals1 is an allowable form of sugar4 ,the best time for eating it is at the end of a meal1 one or two pieces4 ,even in this case1 however1 it would be better for the body if the craving for sweet were satisfied by fruit rather than candy4 ,candy made at home costs less than high grade commercial candy1 even counting in the labor4 ,it is superior to cheap grade candy1 which may even contain poisonous coloring matter4 ,it is a pleasure to make it at times1 and it is always a pleasing gift at the holiday season4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,principles of cooking4 ,a sirup is formed by cooking sugar with water4 ,the sirup thickens if process is prolonged and water evaporates4 ,cane sugar is changed to glucose and fructose by boiling with an acid4 ,heated without additional water1 the sugar is partially decomposed1 giving off water and becoming brown in color4 ,this is 8caramel10 used for coloring1 and flavoring4 ,the final stage of heating leaves pure carbon4 #h4 ,peanut brittle4 ,ingredients4 ,sugar #b cups ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,peanuts #a quart ,method4----,shell the peanuts and chop them in small pieces4 ,put the sugar in a saucepan and place over a moderate fire4 ,stir from the bottom until the sugar is entirely melted and of a rich brown color4 ,the sugar will lump badly at first1 but these lumps will entirely melt in time4 ,turn the chopped peanuts and salt into the sirup and stir together and immediately turn out on a buttered pan4 ,when cold1 break into pieces4 #i4 ,fudge4 ,ingredients4 ,sugar #b cups ,cream of tartar #a_/h teaspoonful ,chocolate #b squares ,milk or water #a cup ,vanilla #a teaspoonful ,method4----,mix the first four ingredients and place over a hot fire4 ,stir steadily until the mixture begins to boil4 ,stir occasionally after this until1 when half a teaspoonful is dropped into cold water1 it may be rolled to a soft ball with the fingers4 ,set the saucepan in a cool place and leave until it becomes just lukewarm4 ,add the vanilla and stir the mixture until it becomes thick and seems very slightly granular4 ,pour it into a buttered tin and as soon as possible cut into squares4 ,the exact point at which to remove the fudge from the fire and again at which to cease stirring and pour into the pan is a matter which only practice can teach4 #aj4 ,penocha4 ,ingredients4 ,brown sugar #b cups ,butter #b tablespoonfuls ,milk1 cream1 or water #a cup ,cream of tartar #a_/h teaspoon or less ,vanilla #a teaspoon ,method4----,as with recipe #i4 ,the very dark brown sugar contains some acid and therefore less cream of tartar may be used4 ,chopped nuts may be added with the vanilla to both fudge and penocha4 #aa4 ,fondant for ,french creams4 ,ingredients4 ,sugar #b cups ,cream of tartar #a_/h teaspoonful ,boiling water #b_/c cup ,method4----,mix the sugar and cream of tartar4 ,add the boiling water and place over a moderate fire1 stirring slowly and steadily until the sugar is dissolved4 ,do not stir after the mixture begins to boil1 but let it boil slowly until the sirup will form a soft ball in cold water4 ,turn out on a platter without scraping the saucepan4 ,the success of the fondant depends upon the complete changing of the cane sugar into fructose and glucose1 the crystals of the latter being much finer than those of cane sugar4 ,stirring the mixture while it boils or before it has cooled sufficiently will result in the formation of cane sugar crystals1 and the fondant will be harsh and rough4 ,when the fondant is barely lukewarm begin to stir it with long steady strokes and continue this until the mixture becomes creamy and thick and begins to break away from the sides of the dish and the spoon4 ,then gather it all together into a round mass and knead like bread until it becomes pliable4 ,it may then be wrapped in oiled paper or put into a covered bowl or fruit jar and kept until wanted4 ,fondant is the foundation for all bonbons and may be made up into a great variety of shapes and with many flavors4 ,it may be mixed with chopped candied fruits or nuts or coated with chocolate4 ,laboratory management4----,the holiday time is the natural season for the candy-making lesson4 ,it is not worth while to spend much time on this topic1 at the sacrifice of others4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is meant by a fuel food8 #b4 ,why should fat be taken daily8 #c4 ,compare the cost of different kinds of fat4 #d4 ,why is beef fat less expensive than butter8 #e4 ,how is fat mixed with other ingredients in a sauce8 #f4 ,what is the chief point to consider in the cookery of fat8 #g4 ,what is the difference between cane sugar and honey8 #h4 ,compare the cost of a pound of homemade candy with that of good quality bought at a shop4 #i4 ,how is fat changed in digestion8 #aj4 ,how is sugar changed in digestion8 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,muffins1 ,,biscuit1 ,,cake1 ,,and ,,pastry ,wheat flour is the important material in this group1 but muffins and biscuit may be varied by the use of corn meal1 rye1 and ,graham flour1 and cooked cereals may also be utilized4 ,the ingredients are flour1 salt1 a liquid1 sometimes a fat1 eggs1 and sugar4 ,the flavorings are spices1 essences1 fruit juice1 dried fruits1 nuts1 chocolate4 ,the mixture must be smooth1 but it is also necessary to make it porous or 8light40 ,this is accomplished by means of leavening agents1 8to leaven0 meaning 8to make light40 ,leavening agents4----,the batter1 or dough1 is leavened by introducing into it air or a gas that expands when heated in the oven1 thus making the whole more porous and larger in bulk4 ,air4----,this is introduced into the batter by beating1 or by beating air into the white of egg and stirring the beaten white into the batter4 ,steam4----,the water in the batter turns to steam in the oven1 and as it expands it assists in the leavening of the mass4 ,see ,popovers4 ,carbon dioxide gas4----,this is introduced in three ways4 7#a7 ,by using an acid with a carbonate4 7#b7 ,by yeast fermentation4 7#c7 ,by machinery4 ,yeast fermentation is studied in the chapter on bread making 7,chapter ,,xii71 and the mechanical method is a commercial process exclusively4 ,only the first method will be treated in this chapter4 ,when an acid and any alkaline carbonate are dissolved together1 a chemical action takes place1 a gas is given off 7carbon dioxide7 and another substance is formed that is neutral1 being neither acid nor alkaline1 and known as a 8salt40 ,in selecting the two substances we must bear in mind this neutral substance that remains in the batter and insure its harmlessness4 ,the lactic acid of sour milk is probably the earliest used1 being a domestic product4 ,the lactic acid is neutralized by bicarbonate of sodium1 the latter being also called 8baking soda40 ,the resulting salt is harmless4 ,acid molasses with soda is another old-fashioned method4 ,here the acid is developed by the fermentation of the molasses4 ,cream of tartar 7acid potassium tartrate71 obtained from crystals deposited in wine vats1 came into use later1 neutralized by bicarbonate of soda1 two parts of cream of tartar to one of soda4 ,baking powder4----,the first baking powders were made of cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda1 mixed with a starch1 to prevent the slight chemical action which would cause the powder to lose strength2 and these two substances are now used in the best baking powders4 ,the resulting salt is the ,rochelle salt of medicine4 ,an acid phosphate is sometimes used with soda1 and this gives a harmless neutral substance4 ,cheaper acids have sometimes been used1 especially alum4 ,it is best not to use an alum powder4 ,select a standard kind1 avoiding those that offer prizes for a certain number of boxes purchased4 ,even if these latter do not contain alum1 there is probably an excess of starch or flour4 ,the advantage of baking powder is in the accuracy of the proportions of the two substances by weight4 ,even though the measuring of the cream of tartar and soda separately is accurate1 the proportions may not be correct4 ,there is no great advantage in homemade baking powder4 ,it costs almost as much as the manufactured1 and is not as perfect a product4 ,the proportions of the main ingredients4----,attempts are made to define the degrees of stiffness of batters and doughs1 but these distinctions are not very accurate4 ,a 8pour batter0 is liquid enough to pour1 and a 8dough batter0 soft enough to drop from a spoon2 a 8soft dough0 is next in grade1 and 8dough0 is the stiffest of all4 ,to understand proportioning the ingredients1 the nature of the ingredients when heated must be taken into account4 ,butter and other fats melt when heated1 and behave like a liquid in the mixture4 ,therefore1 when there is a very large amount of butter1 no other wetting is necessary1 as in pound cake4 ,we may make a scale1 with a thin popover mixture at one extreme1 with no butter in it1 and the stiff pound cake at the other1 with butter the only liquid 7except the flavoring74 ,between these two are the mixtures of medium stiffness1 with both butter and liquid4 ,this general rule may be given3 ,as the quantity of butter is increased1 the batter must increase in stiffness1 and there must be either less liquid or more flour4 ,a beaten egg looks like a liquid and behaves so during the mixing1 but in the oven it stiffens4 ,for this reason we can make a sponge cake with many eggs and no liquid in the mixing1 and use no other leavening agent than the air beaten into the egg4 ,one old-fashioned rule for sponge cake reads3 ,take the weight of the eggs in sugar and half their weight in flour1 with the juice and rind of a lemon for ten eggs4 ,such a rule was adapted to the days when eggs were cheap4 ,we should now use fewer eggs in sponge cake1 and this means that water and baking powder must replace the eggs omitted4 ,methods of mixing4----7#a7 ,for popovers1 griddlecakes1 muffins1 and plain cake4 ,sift together the dry ingredients4 ,beat the eggs1 without separating the yolk and white1 and stir the eggs and milk together4 ,pour the liquid gradually into the flour1 first stirring1 then beating4 ,melt the butter or other shortening1 and beat it into the batter4 7#b7 ,biscuits and shortcakes4 ,sift together the dry ingredients4 ,cut in or chop in the butter4 ,add the wetting slowly4 7#c7 ,a richer1 fine-grained butter cake4 ,sift together the dry ingredients4 ,cream the butter1 and beat in the sugar4 ,beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately4 ,beat the yolks into the creamed butter and sugar4 ,add the flour and milk alternately2 that is1 a quarter or third of the flour1 then a portion of the milk1 and so on4 ,first stir1 then beat vigorously4 ,fold in the beaten whites lightly and do not beat the mixture again4 7#d7 ,sponge cake4 ,if baking powder is used1 sift with the flour4 ,beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately4 ,beat the sugar into the yolks1 and add the liquid and flavoring4 ,add the flour and beaten whites in alternate portions1 dividing both into quarters or thirds4 ,baking4----,this is a science and an art that requires much practice4 ,do not be discouraged if you do not succeed at first4 ,concerning the utensils for baking1 see ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the cups or pans are prepared by warming and greasing4 ,use a bit of soft paper or a brush for greasing the pan and ordinarily an inexpensive fat1 reserving butter for delicate cake4 ,flour sprinkled on a pan is sufficient for biscuit and cookies4 ,line a pan for loaf cake with white paper1 and grease the paper4 ,see that the oven is ready before the mixing begins4 ,we shall not be able to bake accurately until our ovens are equipped with thermometers4 ,in the meantime we must use some simple oven test4 ,the indicators on the doors of some ovens are a guide1 although they are not really accurate according to the scale of the thermometer4 ,a glass door is also a convenience4 ,a loaf should be baked at a lower temperature than a biscuit or muffin4 ,why8 ,for loaves1 #chj ,f4 ,test by the hand1 counting fifteen slowly1 fifteen seconds4 ,a piece of white paper will become a delicate brown in five minutes4 ,for biscuits1 muffins1 and small cakes1 #dbe to #dej ,f4----,test by the hand1 a count of ten4 ,a piece of paper becomes a deeper golden brown in five minutes4 ,any mixture containing baking powder may stand some little time before it is put in the oven1 provided it is kept cold4 ,the action of the baking powder is not immediate1 and is very slight at a low temperature4 ,the stages of the baking are first1 the rising2 second1 the crusting over2 third1 the baking of the interior2 and last1 a shrinkage of the whole4 ,many ovens bake unevenly1 and pans must be shifted4 ,this should be done with care and not before the third stage of the baking4 ,it is often well to cool off the oven the latter part of the time4 ,an oven that is too hot may be cooled by a pan of water4 ,paper may be laid over the top of the cake if the browning has been too rapid4 ,these are all makeshifts1 and indicate a poor oven1 or poor management of the fire4 ,do not look into the oven for the first ten minutes of baking1 and always close the oven door gently4 ,when we are privileged to have electric ovens1 with glass doors1 and an accurate thermometer1 baking will be an easy and accurate process4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,recipes ,a4 ,experiments with baking powder4 #a4 ,dissolve half a teaspoonful of baking powder in two tablespoonfuls of water and heat in a test tube1 or saucepan1 over a flame2 notice the effervescence when the bubbling is at its height1 and hold a lighted match in the mouth of the tube4 ,this is a simple test for carbon dioxide4 #b4 ,dissolve #b teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar in #a_/b cup water in a glass4 ,dissolve #a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda in #a_/b cup water in a glass4 ,taste both of these4 ,test both with litmus paper1 noting the change of color4 ,there are several vegetable coloring matters that change color in this way1 in the presence of an acid or an alkaline substance4 ,turn the two solutions together1 and test with both blue and pink litmus paper1 after the solution has stood for several minutes4 ,what results8 ,taste this mixed solution to see if you can detect any difference4 ,to prove that there is a substance still left1 evaporate the water4 #c4 ,a pretty form of this experiment is to use1 instead of litmus1 the water in which red cabbage has previously been boiled and which therefore contains some of the coloring matter of the cabbage4 ,the changes in color are very striking1 and prove conclusively that neither the cream of tartar nor the soda remains such4 ,b4 ,oven experiments4 ,if one oven in the school kitchen can be equipped with a chemical thermometer inserted in the oven1 the following experiments are helpful4 #a4 ,let each pupil test the oven by feeling1 when it has reached #chj ,f41 #djj ,f41 #dbe ,f41 #dej ,f41 #dge ,f4-#ejj ,f4 #b4 ,place pieces of white paper1 one for each pupil1 in the oven for five minutes at the various temperatures4 ,these may be pasted in the notebook for future reference4 #a4 ,popovers1 puffovers1 or mahogany cakes4 ,ingredients for #ab4 ,flour #a pint ,milk #a pint ,eggs #c ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,some rules give two eggs only4 ,for baking1 heavy earthen cups1 hot and greased4 ,method of mixing is ,no4 #a4 ,special points4----,the liquid must be poured very slowly into the flour to prevent lumping4 ,a large ,dover egg beater is convenient for beating out lumps1 if any occur4 ,the leavening of the popover is effected by steam1 and it is not necessary therefore to spend time and strength in the long beating sometimes recommended4 ,this has been conclusively proved by experiment4 ,neither is it necessary to put the batter into the oven immediately1 as sometimes directed4 ,it may stand all day or even over night4 ,pour the batter in the hot cups1 having each cup two thirds full4 ,the baking of the popovers is unique1 in that they should be put into an intensely hot oven for the first stage of the baking---- as hot as #dge ,f41 or even more----then the oven must be cooled4 ,this first stage crusts the top2 then the expansive force of the steam pushes up the top2 and the muffin 8pops0 or 8puffs0 over4 ,the more moderate heat cooks the sides and the bottom1 and makes an agreeable crust4 ,the perfect puffover is hollow4 ,three quarters of an hour is the average time of baking4 ,if at the end of that time the oven door is set ajar1 and the popovers allowed to remain longer1 they are improved1 coming from the oven stiff and crisp with a rich brown color1 rather than soft and underdone4 ,in an old family cookbook1 one recipe1 sixty years old1 calls popovers 8,mahogany ,cakes40 ,they may be eaten as a muffin1 or served with a pudding sauce as a dessert4 #b4 ,plain muffins4 ,ingredients for #ab4 ,flour #a pint ,baking powder #c teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,eggs #b or #a ,milk #a-a_/d cup ,butter1 or butter substitute #a tablespoonful ,sugar1 if desired #a tablespoonful ,for baking1 greased muffin pan4 ,bake about half an hour4 ,method of mixing is ,no4 #a4 ,this recipe may be varied in many ways4 7a7 ,use #a_/b cup cooked cereal in place of an equal quantity of flour4 ,will you change the amount of wetting8 7b7 ,one cup fine white corn meal1 or #a_/b cup yellow meal in place of equal quantities of flour4 ,corn meal absorbs more water than white flour4 ,what change in the wetting8 ,the oven should be the temperature for bread1 and the baking at least #c_/d of an hour4 7c7 ,one cup ,graham or rye meal in place of an equal quantity of flour4 #c4 ,baking-powder biscuit4 ,ingredients4 ,flour #a pint ,baking powder #c teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,butter1 or butter substitute #a or #b tablespoonfuls ,milk #a scant cup ,for shaping1 molding board1 rolling pin1 and biscuit cutter4 ,for baking1 an iron sheet or pan sprinkled with flour4 ,oven about #dbe ,f41 a ten-second test1 or golden brown paper4 ,bake twenty minutes to half an hour4 ,method of mixing is ,no4 #b4 ,to shape4 ,dust the board with flour1 turn out the dough1 dredge with flour1 pat into a firm mass1 and then pat or lightly roll out to #a_/b inch thickness4 ,cut out with a cutter dipped in flour4 7,a small glass or the top of a round tin can may be used47 ,variations4----,add #a egg4 ,this makes a delicious biscuit4 ,sprinkle the top with granulated sugar1 and spice4 ,dried currants washed1 and dredged with flour1 may be laid on the top4 ,increase the butter to two or three tablespoonfuls1 and decrease the wetting and the mixture becomes shortcake4 ,this is the mixture to use for the true strawberry shortcake4 ,many other fruits may be used1 both uncooked and cooked4 #d4 ,sour milk griddlecakes4 ,ingredients4 ,flour #b-a_/b cups ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,melted butter #b tablespoonfuls ,sour milk #b cups ,soda #a-a_/d teaspoonfuls ,egg #a ,method4----,mix dry ingredients4 ,add sour milk1 egg well beaten1 and melted butter in order given4 ,beat thoroughly4 ,drop by spoonfuls on a greased griddle and let cook until the edges are cooked and the cake full of bubbles4 ,turn with a cake turner or spatula knife and cook on the other side4 ,serve with butter and sirup or scraped maple sugar4 #e4 ,sweet milk griddlecakes4 ,ingredients4 ,flour #c cups ,baking powder #d teaspoonfuls ,salt #a teaspoonful ,sugar #a_/d cup ,milk #b cups ,egg #a ,melted butter #b tablespoonfuls ,method4----,mix dry ingredients4 ,beat egg and mix with it the milk4 ,pour liquid ingredients into the dry ingredients and stir altogether until smooth4 ,add the melted butter and cook the cakes the same as with sour milk griddlecakes4 #f4 ,cookies4----,cookies may be plain1 or rich in butter2 crisp and thin1 or soft and thick4 ,they may be sweetened with sugar1 or molasses1 and spiced in various ways4 ,it would be an interesting exercise to tabulate all the possible forms of cookies4 ,ingredients4 ,butter #a cup ,sugar #a-a_/b cups ,eggs #b ,milk #c tablespoonfuls ,flour about #c cups ,baking powder #a teaspoonful ,salt #a-a_/b teaspoonfuls ,the flavoring may be two teaspoonfuls of vanilla1 or lemon essence1 one or two tablespoonfuls of ground spice1 or caraway seeds4 ,for baking1 a floured iron sheet or flat pan4 ,temperature #dbe ,f41 or even more4 ,the baking requires from #ae to #bj minutes1 depending on the thickness of the cooky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4----,materials and utensils for fancy cookies4 ,courtesy of ,miss ,anna ,m4 ,barrows4 ,the method of mixing is ,no4 #c4 ,notice that this is a stiff dough4 ,the amount of flour depends somewhat upon the expertness of the cooky maker4 ,the flour used in rolling out must be accounted for1 as the expert can manage a softer dough than the novice4 ,mix the baking powder and salt with one cup of the flour4 ,shaping the cookies4----,figure #di shows you the apparatus4 ,the dough is turned out upon the floured board1 gently rolled out to a quarter of an inch1 cut and placed in a floured pan2 or cut off a small piece1 roll in the flour1 until it forms a ball1 set the ball in the pan1 and pat it down to a round4 ,this may seem to take longer1 but it is easier1 and there is no board to clean afterward4 ,a plainer cooky is made with #a_/b cup butter1 and #a_/b cup water or milk1 with somewhat more flour4 #g4 ,butter cake4----,a foundation recipe4 ,learn to make one cake well1 and vary it by changing the forms and flavors4 ,ingredients4 ,butter #a_/c cup ,sugar #a cup ,eggs #b ,milk #b_/c cup ,flour #a-c_/d cup ,baking powder #b-a_/b teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,the flavoring may be #a teaspoonful of vanilla or lemon essence1 or #a_/b teaspoonful of almond1 or two teaspoonfuls of spices4 ,raisins1 #a_/b cup1 citron #a_/d lb41 nuts1 #a_/b cup4 ,the rind of #a_/b orange is delicious with the vanilla flavor4 ,with the vanilla use #d tablespoonfuls of cocoa1 for a chocolate flavor4 ,to make a plainer cake1 omit one egg1 use #a_/d cup butter1 and #c_/d cup of milk4 ,if you use #a_/b cup butter1 making a richer cake1 what other changes should be made8 ,bake in deep or shallow pan1 jelly cake tins1 or small tin cups4 ,the mixing is ,method #c4 ,as layer cake1 it may be used with a variety of fillings and icings1----jelly1 cream filling1 soft icing with nuts1 raisins1 or dates4 ,a chocolate filling4----,one half cup milk1 #b ounces unsweetened chocolate1 #a cup of sugar1 yolk of one egg1 #a teaspoonful vanilla extract4 ,break up the chocolate1 melt it in a bowl over hot water or in a double boiler1 with the sugar and the milk4 ,when the mixture is smooth add the beaten yolk1 cook for one or two minutes1 add the vanilla1 and remove from the fire4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4----;,a loaf of sponge cake4 ,courtesy of ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 #h4 ,sponge cake4----,the old-time sponge cake is given on page #agc4 ,sponge cakes should be baked in a very moderate oven1 below #chj ,f41 the bread temperature4 7,see ,fig4 #ej47 #i4 ,hot water sponge cake4 ,ingredients4 ,eggs #b ,sugar #a cup ,hot water or ,milk #c_/h cup ,flour #a cup ,baking powder #a-a_/b teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,lemon or #a_/d teaspoonful ,vanilla extract #a_/b teaspoonful ,method4----,separate eggs and beat yolks and whites thoroughly4 ,mix and sift the dry ingredients4 ,add the sugar gradually to beaten yolks alternately with water until well blended4 ,next add the flavoring and then fold in the stiffly beaten whites together with the dry ingredients until blended4 ,bake in a buttered shallow pan in a moderate oven for twenty-five minutes or until cake shrinks from the side of the pan4 #aj4 ,plain gingerbread4 ,ingredients4 ,molasses #a cup ,boiling water #a_/b cup ,flour #b-a_/b cups ,soda #a teaspoonful ,ginger #a-a_/b teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,butter #d tablespoonfuls ,method4----,melt butter in boiling water4 ,mix dry ingredients4 ,add the molasses to the water and butter and stir this mixture into the dry ingredients1 beating vigorously4 ,pour into a buttered shallow pan and bake twenty minutes in a moderate oven4 ,if the molasses is taken from a freshly opened can1 no acid will be present and the soda should be omitted and #c teaspoonfuls of baking powder used instead4 ,laboratory management4----,effective work in batters cannot be accomplished with less than #a_/b cup liquid1 though a smaller portion is sometimes used4 ,it is well to have some group work1 so that the pupils may learn to beat larger quantities4 ,if there is a school lunch room1 large quantities may be utilized there4 ,pastry4----,pastry is a stiff dough with a large proportion of shortening1 and is flaky when baked rather than porous4 ,pastry and pies should not be used as a staple food1 but when well made and properly masticated1 pies may be eaten occasionally by people in good health4 ,the crust should be flaky1 and thoroughly baked4 #aa4 ,foundation recipes for pastry4 #a4 ,proportions4 7#a7 ,plain crust4 ,this crust is more digestible and more economical than the 8short0 or rich crust and may be used for ,english deep apple pie1 or meat or chicken pies4 ,flour #b cups ,baking powder #b teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,fat 7butter or lard1 or half of each7 #a_/b cup 7measured solid7 ,ice water #a_/d cup 7#b7 ,short crust4 ,flour #b cups ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,fat 7equal parts butter and lard7 #b_/c cup ,ice water #a_/b cup 7#c7 ,rich flaky crust4 ,same as 7#b7 7more fat is to be added later7 #b4 ,method of mixing for all4 ,have all the ingredients and utensils icy cold4 ,mix the dry ingredients and cut in the fat with two knives4 ,stir in the ice water until the dough will just hold together4 ,toss upon a floured board and roll to #a_/d inch or less in thickness4 ,roll this up4 ,if not ready to be used1 this pie crust may be covered with moist cheesecloth and put on the ice until wanted4 ,this amount of crust will make two medium-sized pies with two crusts each4 #c4 ,method of shaping4 ,for plain crust4----,cut off #a_/b of the roll of crust4 ,roll out to about #a_/h inch thickness4 ,have a deep dish ready containing either the apple or meat fillings 7see recipes below7 and with the edge of dish buttered4 ,invert a small cup in the center of the dish to hold up the crust if apples are used4 ,lay the rolled-out crust over the top1 having rolled it a little larger than the dish4 ,turn under the edges of the crust and crimp them down on the dish4 ,make several small cuts in the top of the crust to let the steam escape4 ,bake in a moderate oven until the filling 7if apples7 is cooked and the crust brown4 ,for short crust4----,cut off #a_/d of the roll of crust and roll very thin1 keeping the shape round4 ,line a buttered pie plate with the crust4 ,fill this with the desired filling1 moisten the edge of bottom crust with water1 and cover with another round of crust rolled as before4 ,crimp down the edges of the top crust and make cuts in the top as before4 ,bake until the filling is cooked and the crust is brown4 ,for rich crust4----,roll the crust to #a_/b inch thickness4 ,have ready #a_/c cup ice-cold fat4 ,cut off small bits of this and spread it in dabs over the rolled-out crust4 ,roll this again and then proceed as for the 8short0 crust 7#b74 #ab4 ,apple pie filling4 ,use juicy1 tart apples4 ,pare1 cut in quarters1 core1 and slice apples into pie dish1 filling it heaping full4 ,add #a_/d cup water and #a_/b cup sugar4 ,any flavor desired may be used1 lemon rind1 or spices4 ,a little butter gives an agreeable flavor4 #ac4 ,lemon pie filling4 ,ingredients4 #a heaping tablespoonful cornstarch #a egg whole1 or mixed with yolks of #b eggs ,a little cold water ,juice and rind of #a lemon ,large cup hot water ,a very little salt ,piece butter the size of walnut ,whites of #b eggs #a cup sugar ,powdered sugar1 #a tablespoonful ,method4 ,mix the starch with the cold water1 add the boiling water and cook until it thickens1 and add the butter and sugar4 ,beat the egg 7or yolks7 and add the other ingredients4 ,add the lemon last4 ,when the pie is done1 if two yolks were used1 beat the whites with a tablespoonful of powdered sugar1 place on the top1 and brown in a moderate oven4 #ad4 ,meat or chicken pie4 ,use left-over1 cooked meat4 ,cut the meat into dice or small bits and fill the dish4 ,sprinkle with salt and moisten with gravy1 if possible4 ,if not1 add #a cup hot water and dredge lightly with flour4 ,have top crust only4 ,how would the time for cooking this pie compare with that for deep apple pie8 ,,exercises #a4 ,what are the chief ingredients of batter mixtures and doughs8 #b4 ,explain leavening by air4 #c4 ,why is steam a leavening agent8 #d4 ,how is gas formed for leavening purposes8 #e4 ,how does the presence of butter or other fat affect the stiffness of a mixture8 #f4 ,what are the important points to remember in mixing ingredients8 #g4 ,why are baking-powder biscuits mixed differently from popovers8 #h4 ,what are the most practical oven tests8 #i4 ,why is a loaf cake baked longer than cookies8 #aj4 ,how many muffins1 average size1 can be made from a pint of flour8 #aa4 ,compare the cost of homemade cake with bakers' cake4 #ab4 ,what are the advantages of the homemade over the bakers'1 or the bakers' over the homemade8 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,yeast ,,bread ,yeast bread when well made is a food of which the palate never tires1 and it is usually recognized as a part of every well-planned meal4 ,the quick breads are a convenient substitute at times1 but they are not the staff of life in the same sense1 and are1 on the whole1 less widely used4 ,the making of a perfect loaf of bread is the goal of all those who aspire to excel in cookery2 and the art of bread making requires not only a clear understanding of the underlying principles1 but patience and persistence in experimentation and practice until a uniformly perfect product is achieved4 ,the fact that in yeast we have a living organism with which to deal makes the whole process a delicate one1 in which every detail is of importance1 whether it be a matter of ingredients1 proportions1 methods of mixing1 or temperature4 ,the standard of good bread4----,there will always be some difference of opinion in regard to a desirable quality in bread1 and individual preference will control the final result1 whether the crumb of the bread shall be dry and porous or somewhat more moist and finer in grain4 ,french bread is of the former type1 the ,english preferring a close grain and solid loaf4 ,allowing for these differences1 it is still possible to standardize bread1 and to state in percentages the different points to be considered in judging a loaf4 ,we must consider the size and symmetry of the loaf1 in order that the interior of the bread may be baked to the very center1 without overbaking or burning the crust1 and therefore very large loaves should be avoided4 ,the crust should be uniform in color1 the shade ranging from a light golden to a darker brown1 and the quality may be soft or crisp1 but never tough4 ,the crumb should be light1 the cavities evenly distributed throughout the loaf and of uniform size4 ,it should also be elastic1 tender1 and yet not pasty1 evenly baked without streaks and heavy portions near the crust1 and the color should be creamy rather than a snowy white4 7,fig4 #ee47 ,the following score cards will be useful in judging loaves1 and in the bread contests which are interesting and helpful4 ,,bread ,,score ,,card #a ,i4 ,general ,appearance #ae #a4 ,shape #b4e #b4 ,size #b4e #c4 ,crust #aj4j 7a7 ,color 7b7 ,smoothness ,,ii4 ,internal ,appearance #ee #a4 ,depth of crust #aj #b4 ,texture 7lightness7 #ae #c4 ,crumb #cj 7a7 ,moisture ,elasticity 7#be7 7b7 ,color 7#e7 ,,iii4 ,flavor #cj -------- #ajj ,,bread ,,score ,,card #b ,i4 ,external ,appearance #bj #a4 ,shape #e #b4 ,size #e #c4 ,crust #aj 7a7 ,color 7b7 ,smoothness ,,ii4 ,internal ,factors #ej #a4 ,depth of crust #aj #b4 ,texture #bj #c4 ,crumb #bj 7a7 ,moisture 7#ae7 7b7 ,color 7#e7 ,,iii4 ,flavor #cj -------- #ajj ,,note4----,these two score cards are the average of the work of sixty students in judging bread in experimental cookery1 ,department of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college1 ,columbia ,university4 ,see also ,bulletin #be1 ,university of ,illinois4 ,digestibility and nutritive value4----,bread of the standard described is readily digestible when at least twelve hours old and stands high in nutritive value4 ,figure #ea compares the composition of several varieties4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4----;,composition of bread4 ,like the cereals1 it has considerable protein1 and some fat1 but is highest in starch4 ,the white bread1 unless made with milk1 has very little ash4 ,a slice almost one inch thick weighing #a4ch ounces1 from a baker's five-cent loaf1 will yield #ajj ,calories4 ,the cost of bread4----,the table in ,chapter ,,xvii states the amount of protein and energy obtained for ten cents from bread as compared with other common foods1 and makes the fact clear that bread is essentially one of the cheapest foods1 remaining relatively so whatever the general fluctuations in food prices may be4 ,a pound loaf of bread at the bakery should cost five cents1 the cost being slightly less when the bread is made at home1 even taking the fuel into account4 ,it is an open question1 however1 whether bread should be made at home or bought at the bakery1 all the circumstances being weighed in the balance by the individual4 7,see ,chapter ,,xvii47 ,in ,america1 we need to learn to dictate and control the methods in the public bakeries because bakers' bread is being used more and more1 although it is said that #ej per cent is still made at home4 ,if bread is to be bought1 it is necessary for the housekeeper to understand the bread-making process and the standard of good bread that she may criticize intelligently1 and force the public bakeries to furnish bread made under ideal conditions4 ,such bread is supplied in ,france1 where the housekeepers in the city1 though noted for their thrift1 do not think of bread making at home as a practical or economical procedure4 ,it must be understood that the baker's oven is fitted to do better work than the small oven of the average kitchen1 and if the public through laws and inspection will control the quality of the materials used and the cleanliness of the process1 baker's bread will be a useful 8ready-cooked0 food4 ,the ingredients of bread4----,the essential ingredients are flour1 water1 and yeast4 ,the liquid may be milk1 or milk and water1 the milk changing the flavor slightly and increasing the nutritive value1 while the cream in the milk increases the tenderness of the crumb and crust4 ,the non-essentials include salt to develop flavor1 sugar sometimes added to hasten fermentation and also for flavor1 and a fat to increase tenderness1 as1 for instance1 butter or some cheaper fat4 ,spices and dried fruits are used in sweet breads1 and when eggs are added sweet bread becomes a plain cake having a delicious and characteristic flavor4 ,the characteristics of good flour4----,the average composition of flour is as follows3 ,protein #aa4d per cent ,fat #a4j 0 ,carbohydrate #ge4a 0 ,fuel value #afaj ,cal4 per pound #ajj-;,calorie portion #bh grams 7#a ounce7 ,the protein occurs in the form of gluten1 which has the property of stretching and expanding1 and which makes the framework of the loaf of bread1 since it retains the air and carbon dioxide1 and hardens when baked4 ,the protein of oats and corn lacks this property1 and therefore oatmeal and corn meal give a very different type of bread4 ,rye flour contains gluten1 and the rye loaf therefore resembles the wheat loaf4 ,wheat and flour differ largely on account of the difference in the amount of gluten1 and the gluten itself varies in quality with the variety of wheat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4----;,experiment illustrating the effect of the kind of wheat upon the size of the loaf4 ,courtesy of ,utah ,agricultural ,college4 ,figure #eb shows the result of an experiment with flour made from different kinds of wheat1 all the other factors in the bread making being identical4 ,this effect of the difference in the composition of the flour is very striking4 ,again1 the same variety of wheat will differ from season to season1 and the time of planting1 also1 affects the quality of the grain4 ,the time of planting and reaping gives us two classes of wheat and flour1 the winter and spring4 ,winter wheat is sown in the fall and obtains its first growth before winter1 living through the winter in those latitudes where the climate is sufficiently mild1 being harvested in early summer4 ,spring wheat is sown in the spring and harvested late and it is the wheat of the great flour-producing state1 ,minnesota4 ,the difference in the composition of the two wheats is shown in this table4#ac ,,water ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbohydrate ,,ash ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,wheat ,spring varieties #aj4d #ab4e #b4b #gc4 #a4i ,winter varieties #aj4e #aa4h #b4a #gc4h #a4h ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,note that the spring wheat contains more protein and therefore more gluten4 ,the flour from spring wheat is creamy in color1 granular to the touch1 has more gluten1 and is known as a strong flour4 ,flour from winter wheat is somewhat whiter in color and smoother to the touch1 feeling more like cornstarch1 and if a portion is squeezed in the hand1 it retains the imprint of the fingers4 ,it has less gluten1 more starch1 and is known as a soft flour4 ,this type of flour is sometimes called 8pastry flour10 the smaller percentage of gluten making it more desirable for pastry or cake than the stronger flour4 ,flour manufacturers and bakers are constantly experimenting to find the best possible varieties and combinations of varieties for bread flour4 ,some difference of opinion exists1 but a combination of winter and spring wheat in flour is considered the best for bread by some authorities4 ,we must learn to like a creamy color in bread1 for this means the presence of more gluten4 ,to summarize3 a good bread flour contains a large percentage of gluten1 is creamy in color1 and granular to the touch4 ,manufacture of flour4----,modern machinery has taken the place of the old-time stones in the grinding of flour1 although the two main divisions of the process remain the same1 these being the crushing of the grain and the sifting out of the coarse portion4 ,milling now includes many stages in the process not possible with the cruder machinery of former times1 and the present effects a greater number of separations and permits the miller to make a greater variety of products4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4----;,a dissected grain of wheat4 ,courtesy of ,washburn ,crosby ,co4 ,figure #ec shows a dissected kernel of wheat1 with its five layers of bran4 ,within these at ,b is a shell of glutinous matter1 yellowish and of flinty hardness1 and within this1 but not sharply divided from it1 lie the starch granules in a network of woody fiber1 the germ lying at ,a4 ,the milling process must remove the bran coats and the germ1 and crush and roll the remaining portions to the necessary fineness4 ,the germ if allowed to remain affects the color and keeping properties4 ,the breaking and rolling are accomplished by steel machinery1 and the final sifting is done through silk bolting cloth4 ,by the new machinery about #gj per cent of the wheat is saved for food1 #cj per cent being bran1 8shorts10 and other by-products used chiefly for cattle feeding4 ,figure #ed shows the vertical section of a mill1 simplified in the drawing that all the steps of the process may be clear4 ,the diagram does not1 of course1 show the actual arrangement of the mill4#ad ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4----,simplified diagram of a flour mill4 ,courtesy of the ,washburn ,crosby ,co4 ,the typical parts in a modern flour mill are as follows3 7#a7 ,scales1 for weighing wheat as it is received4 7#b7 ,receiving separator1 for separating other kinds of seeds from wheat4 7#c7 ,storage bins1 for reserve supply of wheat in advance of mill requirements4 7#d7 ,mill separator1 for further separating foreign seeds from wheat4 7#e7 ,scourer1 for removing dust from wheat kernels4 7#f7 ,cockle cylinder1 for removing all round seeds4 7#g7 ,wheat washer1 for thoroughly cleansing the wheat4 7#h7 ,wheat dryer1 for drying wheat after washing4 7#i7 #ast break rolls1 for rupturing bran1 enabling bran and germ to be separated from interior4 7#aj7 #ast break scalper1 for sifting middlings through bolting cloth to separate from bran4 7#aa7 #b;d break rolls1 for further loosening the middlings from bran4 7#ab7 #b;d break scalper1 for separating more middlings from bran4 7#ac7 #c;d break rolls1 for further loosening middlings from bran4 7#ad7 #c;d break scalper1 for final separation of middlings from bran4 7#ae7 ,bran duster1 for dusting low grade flour from bran4 7#af7 ,bran bin1 for packing bran for shipment4 7#ag7 ,grading reel1 for separating middlings by sifting through various sizes of bolting cloth4 7#ah7 ,dust collector and purifier1 for cleaning and purifying middlings by air and sifting4 7#ai7 ,smooth rolls1 for grinding purified middlings very fine to flour4 7#bj7 ,flour bolter1 for sifting flour from purified middlings4 7#ba7 #b;d reduction rolls1 for further grinding of purified middlings4 7#bb7 ,flour bolter1 for separating flour from purified middlings of second grading4 7#bc7 ,flour bin and packer1 for packing flour for shipment4 7#bd7 ,elevator1 for raising products to the various machines4 ,other forms of flour4----,there has been much discussion of entire wheat flour versus white flour1 and the practical conclusions are as follows3 the bread from whole wheat flour compares favorably with that from white flour 7see ,fig4 #ea71 but this material is slightly less available for digestion than the material of the white flour4 ,the mineral content is higher1 and when the income is so limited that this cannot be furnished in milk1 green vegetables1 and fruit1 whole wheat bread should be used4 ,it makes a pleasing variety1 too1 for any table4 ,graham flour is a coarse flour1 containing the outer bran4 ,it is useful for its effect upon the intestines in case of constipation1 but has to be avoided by some people on account of its irritating effect4 ,white flour may have coarser material mixed with it1 for variety in bread making1 such as rye or ,indian meal1 or graham flour4 ,yeast in bread4----,yeast is put into bread dough in order to produce carbon dioxide gas to lighten the whole mass4 ,it is studied in the chapter on preservation of fruit1 but in bread making we need to foster its growth instead of destroying it as1 you will recall1 we found necessary in preserving4 ,you can easily reason out for yourself just how this should be done1 especially after performing the experiments with yeast4 ,if yeast is in good condition1 it has little effect on the flavor of bread1 even if used in a rather large quantity to hasten the process4 ,the best forms of yeast now in use are the compressed and dried cakes1 the former needing to be fresh1 the latter keeping the vitality of the yeast cells for a long time4 ,liquid yeast may be made at home1 but it is somewhat uncertain unless made with great exactness1 and less easy to manage on the whole than the other forms4 ,proportions of the ingredients4----,one part of water to three of flour1 or one cup to three of flour for a loaf1 is an average proportion4 ,the practiced bread maker will vary this slightly to suit the variations in the flour from time to time1 but it is a safe rule for the beginner to follow4 ,spring wheat flour requires somewhat more water than the winter wheat1 or the blend of the two4 ,salt should be used sparingly1 for although it improves the flavor of the loaf1 salt is a preservative which retards or prevents the growth of lower organisms1 and in the case of bread it acts therefore as a check to fermentation4 ,one teaspoonful to a loaf is the largest amount that it is best to use4 ,the quantity of yeast depends upon several conditions4 ,the larger the amount of yeast used1 the shorter is the time of rising1 and as many as two compressed yeast cakes may be used to one loaf if it is necessary to hasten the process1 without any perceptible effect on the color1 texture or flavor4 ,if a very large amount of yeast is used1 the bread is 8crumbly10 and a difference in flavor will be noticed4 ,a smaller amount may be used if time is allowed for the rising1 even #a_/h cake of compressed yeast to a loaf1 if the bread is to rise over night in warm weather4 ,it must be remembered that1 if the rising process is too prolonged1 other organisms have a chance to work1 and the bread may sour4 ,a small amount of sugar hastens fermentation1 and from one to two teaspoonfuls to a loaf may be used4 ,many people prefer the flavor of bread with no sugar1 however4 ,some bakers use malt extract both as a yeast food to hasten fermentation and for its effect upon the flavor4 ,fat1 or shortening1 should be sparingly used1 not more than one or two teaspoonfuls being allowed to a loaf4 ,if you study a number of bread recipes1 you will see that this ingredient varies more than the others4 ,as a matter of fact1 if the flour is of good quality and the bread well made1 this ingredient is not necessary 7in loaf bread at least71 although it seems to improve the quality of biscuit and rolls4 ,methods of mixing and the rising of bread4----,dissolve the yeast in a portion of the liquid1 stir this mixture into the remaining liquid1 add half the flour1 and beat the mixture thoroughly at this stage4 ,add the sugar if any is to be used4 ,when this soft mixture1 called the 8sponge10 becomes full of bubbles1 add the salt1 the shortening if used1 and the remaining flour4 ,knead the dough by the hand1 or by the machine1 for about ten minutes1 or until it is smooth and elastic4 ,put it into a greased bowl1 cover the bowl1 and allow the dough to remain until it doubles its bulk4 ,some bread makers knead in all the flour at the first1 and obtain a good result4 ,the first rising is more rapid1 however1 and experience seems to prove that the results are better on the whole with the sponge4 ,cut the dough down1 knead again1 using as little flour as possible4 ,shape into loaves1 place the loaves in greased pans1 cover1 and leave again until the loaves double their bulk1 when they are ready for baking4 ,if left too long1 the bubbles of gas become too large4 ,temperature and time are important1 in this matter of mixing and rising4 ,the process may be shortened to five or six hours1 including the baking1 or lengthened to twenty-four by the choice of the amount of yeast and the temperature4 ,the shorter process is the better1 on the whole4 ,after reading over the sections of the chapter on preservation of fruit1 performing the yeast experiments1 and discussing the results1 you will be able to answer these questions3 #a4 ,what should be the temperature of the ingredients when the bread is mixed8 #b4 ,if milk is used1 how may the souring of the milk be prevented8 #c4 ,what temperature will you secure for the bread while it is rising8 #d4 ,if an emergency occurs1 and the dough cannot be kneaded or baked at the moment it is ready1 what can be done8 ,can you think of two expedients8 ,a few suggestions4----,the kneading stretches the gluten and long kneading gives a fine grain4 ,in such a recipe as that for the making of ,parker ,house rolls1 a very delicate quality results from a protracted process2 one old-fashioned housekeeper recommends a half hour's kneading three times4 ,fortunately a sufficiently good bread or roll may be made by ten or fifteen minutes' kneading at a time4 ,bread dough may be cut or stirred with a large knife in place of the kneading1 and this is a good method to teach to those who live in crowded space and find it difficult to have a perfectly clean kitchen and proper utensils4 ,with this method the dough must be softer1 and it remains in the bowl until it is turned into the baking pan4 ,the resulting loaf is somewhat moist1 and not fine-grained1 but the flavor is good4 ,brushing the surface of the dough in the bowl or pan with water or milk will prevent the formation of a dry crust on the top4 ,baking the bread4----,the temperature of the oven should be steady1 and about #chj ,f4 ,an authority recommends #ahj ,c4 7#cee ,f47 when the loaf is put in1 rising to #bbj ,c4 7#dbe ,f474#ae ,the amount of flour for one loaf has been given4 ,a loaf this size should be baked in a pan #h-a_/b to #i inches #c-a_/b to #d #c to #c-a_/b4 ,the material of the pan is not of great consequence4 ,tin gives good results1 a longer time being required for baking in a granite pan4 ,a loaf should bake about one hour4 7,see ,fig4 #ee47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4----;,a few loaves of bread4 ,courtesy of the ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,rolls and biscuit may be shaped in many ways4 7,see ,fig4 #ef47 ,how will the baking differ from that of the loaf8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4----,rolls of different shapes4 ,courtesy of the ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,care of bread after baking4----,remove from the pans1 cool on a rack1 place in tin box or stone jar1 and cover with paraffin paper4 ,uses of stale bread4----,bread that has become too dry may be freshened by moistening the surface and heating in the oven4 ,bread may be used for toast1 croutons for soup1 escalloped dishes1 puddings1 crumbs for coating other food materials1 and may be made into cups for holding other materials4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,recipes ,a4 ,experiment with gluten4 ,materials4----#a cup of flour1 a #aj-;inch square of cheesecloth1 a piece of string1 a pan or tin or granite plate4 ,method4----,tie the flour in the cheesecloth1 and wash it1 preferably under the faucet1 until the starch is washed out4 ,remove the gluten1 stretch and knead into a ball4 ,place the ball on a pan in the oven4 ,note results4 ,note temperature of oven1 if possible4 ,b4 ,experiments with yeast4 #a4 ,materials1 7a7 #a cake of yeast dissolved in #a_/c of a cupful of lukewarm water with water added to make #a_/b cupful1 7b7 #a_/d cup water and #a_/d cup flour stirred together #a tablespoonful of molasses4 ,divide this mixture into three parts4 ,method4----,add #b tablespoonfuls of 7a7 to each of two thirds of 7b74 ,put remaining portion of 7a7 into a saucepan and bring it to the boiling point and then add it to the third part of 7b74 ,number these bowls #a1 #b1 #c4 7#a7 ,surround bowl ,no4 #a with lukewarm water and keep the water at this temperature by adding warmer water from time to time4 ,note result4 7#b7 ,surround bowl ,no4 #b with cracked ice and salt4 ,note result4 7#c7 ,surround bowl ,no4 #c with lukewarm water as in ,no4 #a4 ,note result4 7#d7 ,before the end of the hour remove bowl ,no4 #b from the ice water and surround it with water at #ajj ,f4 and watch results4 ,state conclusions as to effect of temperature upon the growth of the yeast cell4 #b4 ,materials4----#a yeast cake dissolved in #a_/b cup of water #hj ,f4 #a tablespoonful molasses4 ,limewater4 #d small wide-mouthed bottles1 or test tubes1 #d saucers or beakers4 ,method4----,fill the small bottle1 cover with a saucer and invert2 or the same with the test tubes4 ,keep the bottles at a temperature of #hj ,f4 until they are emptied4 ,test for carbon dioxide with a match1 and with limewater4 #a4 ,plain bread4----,you should be able to make your own recipe for plain bread from the foregoing pages4 ,write this out in detail4 #b4 ,milk bread4 ,proportions4 ,milk #b cups ,butter #b tablespoonfuls ,sugar #a tablespoonful ,salt #a-a_/b teaspoonfuls ,yeast #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup lukewarm water ,sifted flour #f cups ,special method4----,scald milk and add to this the butter1 sugar1 and salt4 ,cool this until it is just lukewarm4 ,add the dissolved yeast and stir in the flour beating thoroughly4 ,proceed as in general directions4 #c4 ,entire wheat bread4 ,proportions4 ,scalded milk #b cups ,sugar #a_/d cup or ,molasses #a_/c cup ,salt #a teaspoonful ,yeast #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup lukewarm water ,entire wheat flour #d-b_/c cups ,special method4----,add sweetening and salt to scalded milk and cool until lukewarm4 ,add dissolved yeast and beat in the flour4 ,cover with cloth and let rise to double its bulk4 ,again beat and turn into greased bread pans1 filling half full4 ,let this rise to not quite double its bulk1 and bake same as white bread4 ,this mixture may also be baked in gem pans4 #d4 ,parker ,house rolls4 ,proportions4 ,scalded milk #b cups ,butter #c tablespoonfuls ,sugar #b tablespoonfuls ,salt #a teaspoonful ,yeast #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup lukewarm water ,flour ,special method4----,add butter1 sugar1 and salt to milk4 ,when lukewarm1 add dissolved yeast cake and three cups of flour4 ,beat thoroughly1 cover and let rise until light4 ,cut down and add enough flour to knead 7it will take about #b-a_/b cups74 ,let rise again1 toss on floured board and knead1 pat and roll out to #a_/c inch thickness4 ,shape with a biscuit cutter first dipped in flour4 ,dip the handle of a case knife in flour and make a crease through the middle of each round4 ,brush over #a_/b of each piece with melted butter1 fold over1 and press edges together4 ,place in greased pan1 one inch apart1 cover1 let rise1 and bake in hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes4 ,as the rolls rise they will part slightly1 and if hastened in rising are apt to lose their shape4 #e4 ,buns4 ,proportions4 ,scalded milk #a cup ,butter #a_/c cup ,sugar #a_/c cup ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,raisins cut in quarters #a cup ,yeast #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup lukewarm water ,ext4 lemon #a teaspoonful ,special method4----,add #a_/b sugar and salt to milk4 ,when lukewarm1 add dissolved yeast and #a-a_/b cups flour4 ,cover and let rise until light4 ,add butter1 remaining sugar1 raisins1 lemon1 and flour enough to make a stiff batter4 ,let rise1 shape like biscuits1 let rise again and bake4 ,if wanted glazed1 brush over with beaten egg before baking4 #f4 ,german coffee bread4 ,proportions4 ,scalded milk #a cup ,butter #a_/c cup ,sugar #a_/d cup ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,egg #a ,yeast #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup lukewarm milk ,raisins stoned and cut in pieces #a_/b cup ,flour ,special method4----,add butter1 sugar1 and salt to milk4 ,when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake1 egg well beaten1 flour to make a stiff batter1 and raisins4 ,cover and let rise4 ,when light spread in buttered pan one half inch thick4 ,cover and let rise again4 ,before baking brush over with well beaten egg and cover with following mixture4 ,melt #c tablespoonfuls butter1 add #a_/c cup sugar and #a teaspoonful cinnamon4 ,when sugar is partially melted1 add #c tablespoonfuls flour and remove from fire4 ,laboratory management4----,for individual work or for work in groups of two1 the use of #a_/b cup of liquid will be found to make as small an amount of dough as it is desirable to handle4 ,in making the white bread two portions may be baked in one tin1 brushing with butter where the two portions touch each other1 so that the loaves will separate when baked4 ,where it is necessary to hurry the process not less than #a_/b yeast cake should be used with this quantity4 ,it is impossible in an ordinary school period to complete the entire process4 ,a number of solutions will occur to the teacher4 ,one of these is to arrange the lessons as follows3 ,lesson ,i4 ,yeast experiments1 summary1 bread mixed in groups and set to rise1 demonstration by teacher of kneading1 using dough previously prepared4 ,lesson ,,ii4 ,quantity of dough set to rise by volunteer pupils before class4 ,dough kneaded1 shaped and set to rise by pupils4 ,review of yeast experiments4 ,baking of bread4 ,lesson ,,iii4 ,parker ,house rolls or sweet breads mixed and set to rise1 completed by volunteers after class4 ,in recipes where three risings are called for one may be omitted1 if necessary4 #g4 ,toast4----,directions for making toast will be found in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,to serve toast4----,toast should be served as soon as it is made1 if possible1 and if not must be kept hot4 ,fold it in a napkin4 ,toast may also be buttered1 piled neatly on a plate1 and kept hot in the oven until it is time for serving4 ,for milk toast the bread is cut somewhat thicker than for buttered toast4 ,the milk is prepared by thickening1 ,no4 #a under ,white ,sauce4 ,dip each slice of toast in the thickened milk and then put the slices in a dish for serving and pour the thickened milk over4 ,to moisten toast that is too dry1 or when moist toast is wanted to serve under some other food1 place it in a steamer or colander over boiling water a few minutes before buttering it4 ,this is much better than toast moistened with boiling water4 #h4 ,the sandwich4----,the sandwich is a convenient way of serving bread and other foods away from the table1 for picnics1 teas1 and receptions4 ,to prepare the bread4----,either white or brown bread may be used4 ,select a well-shaped loaf of fine grain that will not crumb when it is sliced4 ,cut off the end of the loaf1 spread the loaf evenly with butter1 cut a thin slice1 butter again1 and so on4 ,the butter should be softened4 ,be careful to spread it evenly and see that it is near the edge of the bread4 ,sandwiches may be made either with or without the crust4 ,if the crust is to be removed1 cut it off the loaf before buttering and slicing4 ,the filling4----,there is an endless variety of filling possible for sandwiches1 from slices of meat and poultry1 which make a substantial luncheon for picnics1 to the dainty fillings used for afternoon teas and receptions4 ,a crisp bit of lettuce leaf with ,mayonnaise dressing is always acceptable4 ,cream cheese mixed with nuts and raisins is a good filling4 ,for a sweet sandwich1 jam or jelly may be spread on the slices and possibly a small amount of cream cheese put between4 ,you can invent many combinations4 ,the shape of the sandwich may be oblong1 triangular1 or round4 ,the round sandwich is cut with a sharp cooky cutter4 ,the pieces remaining may be dried and used for bread crumbs4 ,the crusts may always be utilized in this way4 #i4 ,croutons4----,cut a slice of bread a day old #a_/b inch thick4 ,spread with soft butter1 cut off the crust1 put the slices in a pan1 cut in cubes and set the pan in the oven until the croutons are brown4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is a standard for good bread8 #b4 ,describe a perfect loaf4 #c4 ,how do climate and method of raising affect the composition of wheat and flour8 #d4 ,what are the essentials of good bread flour8 #e4 ,why is it so necessary to control temperature in bread making8 #f4 ,what is the best temperature and why8 #g4 ,explain the part played by gluten in bread making4 #h4 ,state the underlying principles of bread making4 #i4 ,explain the advantage of a bread machine over the hand in kneading4 #aj4 ,what is the best temperature for baking a loaf8 ,for baking biscuit8 #aa4 ,what are the principles and practical points in toast-making8 7,see ,chapter ,,iv47 #ab4 ,what is the argument in connection with homemade bread versus baker's bread8 #ac4 ,how can the public insure good quality baker's bread8 #ad4 ,what is the nutritive value and digestibility of bread8 #ae4 ,how much bread in the #ajj-;,calorie portion8 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,meats ,,and ,,poultry ,the meats that we commonly use are derived from the flesh of domestic and wild animals of herbivorous habits and from fowls4 ,the flesh of carnivorous animals is seldom used as food4 ,the various kinds are obtained as follows3 ,meat ,animal ,beef ,ox ,veal ,calf ,mutton ,sheep ,lamb ,young sheep ,pork ,pig ,ham and bacon ,pig ,venison ,deer ,under the head of poultry we include the common fowl1 turkeys1 ducks and geese1 the guinea hen1 and game birds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4----;,fiber cells of plain muscular tissue4 ,kimber's ,anatomy for ,nurses4 ,quality of good meat4----,the quality of meat is dependent on the condition of the animal from which it is derived4 ,the creature should be in perfect health and well fed4 ,good beef is largely obtained from the cattle ranges of the ,west1 but there is no reason why cattle should not be raised to greater extent in the ,east4 ,sheep for mutton are best raised where the climate is not too severe4 ,methods of slaughter1 transportation1 and preservation all affect the quality of beef4 ,the pure food laws and ,federal meat inspection law are valuable to the consumer in their control of the quality of the meat1 that it shall be free from disease and from adulterations4 ,see ,chapter ,,xvii for the discussion of preservatives and pure food laws4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4----;,cuts of ,beef4 ,,key3 ,a4 ,ribs ,b4 ,hip bone ,c4 ,loin ,d4 ,porterhouse ,e4 ,prime ribs ,f4 ,shoulder ,g4 ,neck ,h4 ,head ,i4 ,brisket ,j4 ,shin ,l4 ,navel ,m4 ,plate ,n4 ,flank ,o4 ,leg ,p4 ,horseshoe ,q4 ,round ,r4 ,oxtail ,s4 ,rump ,z4 ,sirloin ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,in meat as it is purchased we have bone1 fat1 and the flesh1 consisting of the muscle of the animal with its connective tissue4 ,the color of the meat should be clear and fairly bright1 not purplish or dull4 ,there should be little or no odor1 and the meat should be firm and elastic to the touch4 ,beef should be a bright red and well streaked with fat4 ,veal should be pink and is somewhat less firm than beef4 ,if watery and flabby1 it is too young4 ,mutton is a duller red1 and firm4 ,the fat is white or slightly yellow and hard4 ,lamb is pink1 rather than red1 and slightly less firm4 ,pork is rather pale1 somewhat less firm than beef and mutton1 and the fat is softer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4----,the hind quarter of beef hanging4 ,cuts3 ,a1 ,leg2 ,b1 ,round2 ,c1 ,rump2 ,d1 ,top ,sirloin2 ,e1 ,loin2 ,f1 ,flank4 ,bones3 g1 leg bone2 h1 socket bone2 j1 rump bone2 k1 hip bone2 e1 back bone2 m1 part of rump bone2 n1 wing rib4 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college ,tough and tender meat4----,to understand the difference between the tough and tender cuts we must be familiar with the structure of the muscle 7see ,fig4 #eg74 ,each muscle consists of bundles of tubes held together by connective tissue4 ,in tough meat1 the muscle tubes are thicker and there is more connective tissue present4 ,exercise strengthens the muscle1 and this accounts for the fact that the unexercised muscles of the young animal give us a softer meat4 ,in the mature animal the muscles most exercised furnish the tough meat1 and the less used muscles the tender4 ,if you study ,fig4 #eh1 you can easily determine where the tough meat will occur1 if you think of the proportionate amount of exercise that the different muscles receive4 ,the tough cuts come from the neck and legs1 the tender cuts from the middle of the back1 the toughness increasing as the cuts approach the neck and the hind legs4 ,the muscles of the abdomen are also tender1 but they give a coarse-grained meat4 ,the various cuts of meat are shown as they occur in the standing animal in ,fig4 #eh1 and in the hind and fore quarters hanging1 in ,figs4 #ei and #fj4 ,the individual cuts of beef and mutton are shown in the figures that follow4 ,the tender cuts from the ribs and loin are the most highly prized1 and therefore bring the highest price4 ,these cuts are liked because of their tenderness although the nutritive value of the tough meat is as high or possibly even higher than that of the tender4 ,all meat is now high-priced1 and you will find the reasons for this discussed in ,chapter ,,xvii4 ,for the sake of economy we are forced to use the relatively cheaper cuts1 and to seek for meat substitutes4 ,we must also take pains to use the cooking processes that will make the tough meats palatable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4----,the fore quarter of beef1 hanging4 ,,key ,,uses #a4 #ast and #b;d ribs #b4 #c;d and #dth ribs ,prime ,roasts #c4 #eth and #fth ribs 0 #d4 #gth rib 0 #e4 #hth rib 0 #f4 #ith rib 0 #g4 ,chuck steaks1 or roasts1 #ajth to #acth ribs 0 #h4 ,chuck pot roast 0 #i4 ,neck ,beef tea1 etc4 #aj4 ,yoke 0 #aa4 ,navel ,stew and corning #ab4 ,plate 0 #ac4 ,brisket ,corning #ad4 ,cross ,rib ,pot ,roast #ae4 ,shoulder 0 #af4 ,shin ,soup ,courtesy of the ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,composition and nutritive value4----,figure #fd shows you the composition of several common meats4 ,meat is valuable chiefly for its protein1 fat1 and mineral salts4 ,the juices of the meat in the muscle cells contain nitrogenous extractive materials which give flavor1 and are possibly stimulating1 but they have no food value4 ,from the bone and also from the connective tissue1 gelatin is dissolved in cooking4 ,gelatin is a protein1 but differs in certain chemical properties from other proteins1 and cannot be used as the only source of nitrogen4 ,it is a very useful protein1 however1 and as it can be substituted in part for more expensive proteins1 it used to be called a 8protein saver40 ,in spite of the fact that meat is a common article of diet it should not be used in excess4 ,other forms of protein1 as those in eggs and milk1 are usually digested as easily1 and most people can digest vegetable proteins if the vegetables are carefully prepared4 ,very little children should not have meat1 for it has stimulating properties which are undesirable for them1 and it takes away the taste for foods more important for growth 7see ,food for ,growth1 ,chapter ,,xviii74 ,when used largely in the diet1 meat tends to cause intestinal putrefaction and to form excess of acid in the body4 ,it is less likely to be harmful if taken with plenty of fruits and green vegetables and liberal drinking of clear water4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa;,a4----,left3 ,chuck rib roast1 #ith and #ajth ribs4 ,right3 ,blade rib1 #gth and #hth ribs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa;,b4----,left3 #ast cut prime rib roast4 ,right3 #b;d cut prime rib roast4 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb;,a4----,porterhouse steak2 ,delmonico steak4 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb;,b4----,flatbone sirloin steak2 ,hip steak4 ,it should be realized that in none of the ,european countries is meat used so liberally as in the ,united ,states1 and that there are reasons to believe that we might be better off if we could satisfy ourselves with a meat consumption nearer the average of other civilized peoples----say half as much meat per person per year as we are now accustomed to use4 ,the fuel value of meat depends largely upon the amount of fat which is eaten4 ,if a pound of steak contains #b ounces of fat and #ad ounces of clear lean1 the rejection of the fat means a loss of fully one half of the fuel value4 ,the following table shows the difference between raw meat of the same cut1 free from bones and connective tissue1 due to differences in amounts of fat4 ,most people would prefer the strictly lean meat4 ,,table ,,showing #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,raw ,,edible ,,meat ,,lean ,,medium ,,fat ,,meat -------------------------------- ,weight1 ,ounces ,weight1 ,ounces ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,beef1 round #b4c #a4g ,chicken 7,fowl7 #c4b #a4f ,lamb1 leg #b4h #a4f ,mutton1 leg #a4i #a4e ,pork1 loin chops #a4d #a4j ,veal1 leg #b4i #b4b ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc;,a4----#a3 ,rib lamb chops1 ,french4 #b3 ,rib lamb chops4 #c3 ,loin lamb chops4 #d3 ,left3 ,blade shoulder chop4 ,right3 ,round bone shoulder chop4 #e3 ,chuck steak4 #f3 ,skirt steak4 #g3 ,flank steak4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc;,b4----,left4----,top and bottom round4 ,right4----,round bone sirloin steak4 ,courtesy of ,bureau of ,publications1 ,teachers ,college4 ,for very complete and conveniently arranged tables giving the percentage composition1 the food values per pound and per ounce1 the weight and nutrients of the #ajj-;,calorie portions of all the important meats and other food materials as well1 see ,rose's 8,laboratory ,handbook for ,dietetics40 ,dangers from meat4----,three dangers from meat must be recognized2 7#a7 animal parasites1 such as the trichina sometimes found in pork1 7#b7 poisons developed in the meat by bacteria when it is kept too long or without sufficient refrigeration1 this danger being recognized as ptomaine poisoning1 7#c7 bacteria1 sometimes present in meat1 which are directly injurious to man and which are now held to be the cause of most of the sickness commonly attributed to ptomaine poisoning4 ,government protection must be given us here1 but the housekeeper too has a responsibility4 ,if the raw meat has failed to receive proper inspection1 we can protect ourselves by cooking the meat to a degree that will kill any parasite present4 ,for this reason meat should not be served that looks raw or too underdone4 ,the cooked meat should be pink rather than red4 ,meat poisoning may be avoided in the first place by exercising great care in regard to the odor of meat4 ,meat may hang to 8ripen10 as the butchers say1 but one must learn to distinguish between the odor of properly ripened meat1 and that of even slightly tainted meat4 ,quite as important is the rapid cooling of meat1 poultry1 fish1 and soups that are not to be used at once4 ,cases of digestive disturbance and even actual poisoning sometimes occur when underdone meat1 especially lamb1 veal1 or poultry1 remains warm overnight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4----;,composition of meats4 ,the effect of heat upon meat4----,the fat of meat is melted by heat4 ,the meat fiber shrinks and hardens with intense heat2 on the other hand it softens at a temperature somewhat below the boiling point of water4 ,the structure of the muscle must be studied further in order to make the principles of cooking perfectly clear4 ,if you think of the structure of the muscle cell as somewhat resembling the structure of an orange1 you can picture quite clearly what happens under different conditions4 ,open a section of orange and separate some of the single cells4 ,these may represent the muscle cells of meat that can be seen only under the microscope4 ,if you cut across one of these tiny cells1 the contents will escape1 and this is what happens when the muscle cells are cut across4 ,then1 too1 if the muscle is heated1 the juices will pass through the membrane of the cell1 and this happens1 too1 if the meat is put into cold water4 ,the substances in the juices of the meat which are not coagulated by heat are called the extractives1 because they can be extracted by hot water4 ,the most valuable protein matter remains behind in the muscle cell1 however4 ,among these proteins are those known as meat albumin1 and this behaves in cooking very much as does the white of egg1----that is to say1 it coagulates4 ,bearing these facts in mind1 we can decide just what to do in order to bring about the result that we desire in meat cookery1 for sometimes we wish to extract the juices and sometimes we wish to have all1 or nearly all1 retained in the meat4 ,we are now ready to state the principles of meat cookery as follows3 #a4 ,juices retained4 ,in broiling1 pan broiling1 roasting1 and boiling the high temperature coagulates the meat albumin and hardens the fiber on the surface1 thus forming a coating which prevents the further escape of juices4 ,in the roasting and boiling of large pieces the temperature may then be lowered to prevent the further shrinking and hardening of the fiber in the interior of the meat1 which comes from a protracted high temperature4 ,with a very thick steak after the surface searing the cooking may be completed in the oven4 #b4 ,juices extracted4 ,in beef juice or beef tea1 this may be done by placing the chopped beef in a jar and placing the jar in an oven1 or in hot water2 or for beef tea and ordinary soup by putting the chopped meat1 or small pieces of meat1 in cold water and heating the water slowly4 #c4 ,juices partly retained and partly extracted4 ,this is desirable in stews1 in braised beef1 and in pot roast4 ,state for yourself just how this would be accomplished4 #d4 ,connective tissue softened at low temperature1 and with water4 #e4 ,sterilization by continued heat which destroys parasites and bacteria4 #f4 ,rapid cooling1 when serving is not immediate4 ,flavors suitable with meat4 ,herbs4 ,all the pot herbs including savory1 marjoram1 thyme1 sage1 pot marigold4 ,vegetables4 ,onion1 carrot1 turnip1 celery1 celery root1 parsley root and leaf4 ,spices4 ,clove1 allspice1 mustard1 red1 black1 and white pepper4 ,some nationalities use nutmeg4 ,acids4 ,lemon1 tomato1 and other acid fruits4 ,,experiments ,,and ,,recipes ,experiment ,a4 ,chop finely a small piece of meat1 squeeze out the juice with a lemon squeezer and heat this juice in a saucepan4 ,observe the coagulation that takes place4 ,experiment ,b4 7#a7 ,apparatus4----,if possible1 #b glass beakers1 #a square wire net4 ,if these are not available1 use an ordinary tumbler and a small saucepan4 7#b7 ,method4----a4 ,put a small piece of meat in a beaker with cold water1 and allow it to stand4 b4 ,bring water to the boiling point in the beaker on the net over the gas flame4 ,throw in a small piece of meat4 ,compare the appearance of the two pieces of meat and the water in the two beakers4 #a4 ,broiled steak4 7#a7 ,wipe steak with a damp cloth4 ,if a wood or coal stove is used1 have a bed of glowing coals ready4 ,if gas is used1 have the gas broiler thoroughly heated4 ,grease the bars of the broiler4 ,place steak in the broiler and sear meat first on one side1 then on the other4 ,continue to turn the broiler and cook the meat until it is brown and done according to taste4 ,steak an inch thick will take about ten minutes to be cooked to a medium degree4 ,chops are broiled in the same way4 7#b7 ,steak and chops may also be broiled in the pan4 ,an iron frying pan is the best utensil4 ,heat the pan1 and brush it over with a small piece of fat cut from the steak or the chops4 ,the purpose of this is merely to keep the meat from sticking to the pan4 ,the principle of procedure is the same as with 7#a74 ,the steak or chops must be frequently turned1 using a knife and a fork1 being careful not to prick the meat with the fork4 ,the length of time is slightly longer than for 7#a74 ,this method must not be confused with the frying of steak in a pan with a large amount of fat4 ,by this method the steak is not fried1 and it is often a convenient substitute for 7#a74 #b4 ,roast of beef4 ,wipe roast with a damp cloth4 ,sprinkle with salt and dredge with flour4 ,place in a roasting pan1 fat side up if it is a standing roast4 ,put the roast in a very hot oven and after fifteen minutes reduce the heat4 ,baste roast two or three times with the fat that tries out during cooking4 ,the usual allowance of time for a medium rare roast is fifteen minutes for every pound of meat4 ,roast beef gravy4----,after the roast has been taken from the pan1 pour out all but #a-a_/b tablespoonfuls of the melted fat4 ,stir in #a heaping tablespoonful of flour and brown very slightly4 ,add one cup of cold water and stir constantly until thickened4 ,add #a_/b teaspoonful salt4 ,strain4 #c4 ,bouillon4 ,shin of beef #f pounds ,cold water #c quarts ,peppercorns #a_/b teaspoonful ,cloves #f ,bay leaf #a_/b ,thyme #c sprigs ,marjoram #a sprig ,parsley #b sprigs ,carrot ,turnip #a_/b cup each ,onion cut in dice ,celery ,salt #a tablespoonful ,wipe beef and cut the lean meat in inch cubes4 ,brown one third of the meat in fat cut from meat or marrow from a marrow bone4 ,put remaining two thirds with bone and fat in soup kettle1 add water and let stand for thirty minutes4 ,place on back of range1 add browned meat1 and heat gradually to the boiling point4 ,cover and cook slowly six hours1 keeping below the boiling point during cooking4 ,add the vegetables and seasonings1 cook one and one half hours1 strain and cool as quickly as possible4 ,this is called soup stock4 ,to clarify bouillon4----,when stock is cold1 remove fat which has hardened on top and put quantity to be cleared into a stew pan4 ,allow white and shell of one egg to each quart of stock4 ,put over fire and stir constantly until boiling point is reached4 ,boil two minutes4 ,set back on stove and let simmer twenty minutes4 ,remove scum and strain through double thickness of cheesecloth4 #d4 ,general directions for meat soups4 ,soup making is an art that is well worth cultivating4 ,the expert soup maker will obtain delicious flavors by adding bits of many kinds of left overs----almost anything that is found in the refrigerator in the way of fruit1 vegetables1 and pieces of meat4 ,with the coming of the gas stove1 many people have given up soup making4 ,these various left overs add much to the flavor of the soup and can be used in a thickened soup which is like the bouillon strained and thickened4 ,the thickening may be flour1 arrowroot1 cold cereal1 sago1 tapioca1 or rice4 ,spaghetti1 vermicelli1 and fancy forms of paste are sometimes served4 ,vegetables may be cut into dice or fancy shapes and served in the clear soup4 ,a great variety is possible in flavoring and serving soup if one will take the trouble to make it an art4 ,soup meat may be served in a soup of the old-fashioned kind1 thickened and containing vegetables4 ,in such a soup some fat is left1 and the total result is a dish that makes a meal when served with bread4 ,when the soup is a clear soup1 the meat that is left may be used for made over dishes2 although some practical housekeepers think that it costs almost as much to make it palatable as to buy fresh meat4 ,try it in an escalloped dish with plenty of tomato1 onion1 and some dried herbs for additional flavor4 #e4 ,beef stew with dumplings4 ,lean meat #c pounds ,potatoes #d cups1 cut in #a_/d inch slices ,turnip #b_/c cup each1 cut in half inch ,carrot cubes ,onion #a_/b small one1 cut in thin slices ,flour #a_/d cup ,salt ,pepper ,wipe meat1 cut in #a-a_/b inch cubes1 sprinkle with salt and pepper1 and dredge with flour4 ,cut some of the fat in small pieces and try out in frying pan4 ,add meat and stir constantly1 that the surface may be quickly seared4 ,when well browned1 put in kettle1 and rinse frying pan with boiling water1 that none of the flavor may be lost4 ,cover with boiling water and boil five minutes1 then cook below the boiling point until meat is tender 7about #c hours74 ,add vegetables except potatoes and seasoning the last hour of cooking4 ,parboil potatoes five minutes and add to stew #ae minutes before taking from fire4 ,thicken stew with #a_/d cup flour mixed with enough cold water to pour easily4 ,pour in deep hot platter and surround with dumplings4 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,broiled steak would be suitable for group work1 using small steaks 7,delmonico cut74 ,a small roast may be prepared by a group and roasted after class4 ,this meat and that left from the steak should be used in a subsequent class for a lesson on left over meat4 ,broiled or pan-broiled chops may be prepared individually4 #f4 ,dumplings4 ,flour #b cups ,baking powder #d teaspoonfuls ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,butter #b teaspoonfuls ,milk #g_/h cup ,mix and sift dry ingredients4 ,work in butter with a knife1 add milk gradually4 ,remove enough liquid from stew so that when dumplings are dropped in they will rest on top of meat4 ,drop by spoonfuls and let cook about twenty minutes4 ,the stew should be thickened before dumplings are dropped in4 #g4 ,uses of left over meat4 7#a7 ,rissoles4----,run meat together with small piece of onion through a chopper4 ,add salt1 pepper1 a little cold cereal1 or bread crumbs1 and beaten egg1 allowing one egg to about a pound of meat4 ,shape into flat round cakes1 roll in flour and saut in butter until well browned4 ,these may be served with tomato sauce4 ,tomato ,sauce4 ,onion #a teaspoonful chopped ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,pepper ,flour #b tablespoonfuls ,butter #b tablespoonfuls ,sugar #a teaspoonful ,cloves #c ,tomatoes #b cups ,brown the onion in butter and stir in the flour4 ,when it has bubbled up1 add the tomatoes and seasonings4 ,stir constantly until it thickens4 ,strain into a hot bowl4 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,one sixth of these recipes would be as small an amount as it would be practicable to use4 7#b7 ,croquettes4 ,cold meat or chicken #b cups ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,pepper #a_/h teaspoonful ,cayenne ,few grains ,onion juice ,few drops ,white sauce #a cup1 thick1 hot ,beaten egg ,dried bread crumbs ,mix ingredients in order given and let mixture cool4 ,shape into croquettes1 roll in crumbs1 beaten egg and crumbs again1 place in a frying basket and fry in deep fat to a golden brown4 7#c7 ,escalloped meat ,cold meat ,bread crumbs1 soft #b cups ,onion #a slice1 chopped fine ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,mixed poultry seasoning #a tablespoonful ,a little chopped celery is desirable ,this is a simple method of serving left over meat that needs no specific recipe4 ,layers of bread crumbs are alternated with layers of meat which may be chopped or cut into small pieces4 ,liquid may be used like tomato or tomato juice1 or soup that is left over1 or plain water4 ,the flavor may be varied by the use of the different materials that are suitable to meat4 ,layers of mashed potato may be used instead of bread4 ,,poultry ,in selecting poultry see that the flesh is firm1 that there is a good amount of fat underneath the skin1 and that the skin is whole and a good yellow4 ,notice the odor of the fowl particularly4 ,the skin of cold-storage poultry has not such a good color and is sometimes broken4 ,often the flesh is shrunken1 and if the cold storage has been too long continued the odor is unpleasant4 ,refrigeration is allowable for a period4 ,another way to judge cold-storage poultry is by the price4 ,well-fed poultry freshly killed brings a high market price and a bargain quite often proves to be poultry too long in cold storage4 ,good quality poultry is at present a high-priced food4 ,to prepare poultry for cooking1 the 8dressing0 of the chicken is often done now at the market4 ,if it is necessary to do this at home1 make an incision with a sharp knife just inside of one of the legs1 in the groin4 ,insert the hand and remove all the entrails4 ,the skin must be loosened at the neck and the crop removed4 ,in any case1 wash the chicken thoroughly inside and out1 even holding the cavity under running water4 ,if there is hair remaining on the chicken1 singe this off over burning paper or over a gas flame4 ,the composition is essentially the same as that of meat4 ,the white of chicken1 fowls1 and turkeys is thought to be more digestible than the dark meat4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,the principles of cookery are the same as with the meat4 ,chicken soup is made on the same principle as beef soup4 ,after straining1 it is delicious with the addition of milk or cream4 ,the meat of the chicken may be chopped fine and used as a thickening4 ,rice may be added or a hard-boiled egg chopped fine4 ,chicken may be served cold1 for luncheon or supper1 and is always very desirable in made-over dishes4 ,any stuffing left over may be used in the made dishes4 #a4 ,roast chicken4 ,dress and clean a chicken4 ,fill the cavity with stuffing and sew edges together4 ,truss chicken and place on its back in a roasting pan4 ,rub surface with salt and spread breast and legs with butter4 ,dredge with flour4 ,put a little water in bottom of pan4 ,place in hot oven and when flour is well browned1 reduce the temperature4 ,baste frequently during roasting with liquid in pan4 ,when breast meat is tender and a brown crust formed the bird is cooked4 ,a four-pound chicken requires about #a-a_/b hours4 ,stuffing4 7,see recipe for stuffing1 page #bcg47 ,mix all together4 ,no moisture need be added as the juices of the chicken will be sufficient4 ,gravy4----,pour off liquid from pan in which chicken has been roasted4 ,add #b tablespoonfuls of either chicken fat or butter4 ,stir in #b tablespoonfuls of flour and let bubble up4 ,add one cup stock1 in which giblets1 neck1 and tips of wings have been cooked1 and stir steadily until thickened4 ,add #a_/b teaspoonful salt4 #b4 ,chicken fricassee4 ,clean and cut up a fowl4 ,cover with boiling water and let boil #e minutes4 ,simmer until meat is tender4 ,remove chicken from kettle and place pieces in hot1 greased frying pan4 ,saut until browned4 ,put on platter4 ,melt #d tablespoonfuls chicken fat in pan4 ,add #d tablespoonfuls flour4 ,stir and let bubble up4 ,add #b cups chicken stock1 stir and let boil until thickened4 ,pour over chicken on platter4 ,laboratory management4----,a lesson on poultry is a very expensive one and difficult to manage so that each may have a share of the work4 ,such a lesson is suitable where the pupils have had work in previous years and are used to working in groups4 ,preserved meats and poultry4----,smoked and salted meats are valuable foods1 although the nutritive content is somewhat less available for digestion4 ,the salted and smoked meats need long and slow cooking below the boiling temperature of water4 ,canned meats and poultry of good quality are now in the market1 and they are convenient and useful when not used to excess4 ,buy well-known brands4 ,the government inspection of canned meats is of great importance1 for the individual cannot protect himself4 ,canned soups are convenient for those who cook by gas and who live in small quarters4 ,buy good brands even if they are somewhat more expensive4 ,the best firms manufacturing canned soup are scrupulously clean in their methods and pride themselves on using good material4 ,other parts of meat and poultry4----,some of the internal organs of the animals and fowl are used for food4 ,most of them are comparatively cheap1 and may be made palatable4 ,the liver and kidneys are organs having to do with the waste products of the body and objection is raised to their use on that account4 ,if used1 they should be soaked in cold salted water1 put into fresh cold water1 and allowed to heat very slowly4 ,this water should be poured off1 and then a brown stew can be made4 ,what flavors are pleasant with liver and kidneys8 ,make your own recipe for liver or kidney stew4 ,the heart does not contain waste products4 ,why is it tough8 ,what process would you select to make it tender8 ,even when softened1 it would not be attractive or very palatable without further treatment4 ,it is hollow1 somewhat as the chicken is before roasting4 ,look over the recipes and flavors suitable to meat and see if you cannot make your own for ,baked ,heart4 ,sweetbreads1 the pancreas1 are highly prized on account of their delicacy1 and are costly4 ,they may be broiled1 or served in sauce in pastry cases or in patties4 ,calf's head and brain4----,the brain is sometimes used as substitute for sweetbreads4 ,from the meat and bones of the head soup and stew may be made4 ,,exercises #a4 ,from what animals are meats derived8 #b4 ,what are the chief values of meat8 #c4 ,why should its use be limited8 #d4 ,what actual dangers may arise from its use8 #e4 ,what precautions must be exercised by the government1 inspector and the housekeeper8 #f4 ,we are told that chicken pie should have the crust pricked or lifted when it comes from the oven4 ,is this reasonable8 #g4 ,how may you judge good meats in the market8 #h4 ,why is the neck of beef tough8 ,for what would you use it8 #i4 ,why is porterhouse steak tender8 ,why is it not used in a stew8 7,it would make a delicious stew47 #aj4 ,what cuts would you select for stewing and braising8 #aa4 ,make a list of the cuts of beef and mutton and lamb1 pork1 etc41 in your notebook1 with the best methods of cookery for each4 #ab4 ,add to this list the current prices of each in your locality4 #ac4 ,what is the size and cost of a #ajj-;,calorie portion of beef round8 #ad4 ,with this in mind1 calculate how much round steak you would buy for dinner for five people4 ,how much porterhouse8 #ae4 ,explain the structure of the muscle4 #af4 ,what takes place when meat is seared8 ,when is this process used8 #ag4 ,explain the principle of soup making4 ,devise an experiment to show the effect of salt upon the pieces of meat4 ,what is the nutritive value of soup meat8 #ah4 ,explain the principle of stewing meats4 #ai4 ,what is the difference between broiling and pan broiling8 #bj4 ,what are some of the best ways of utilizing left over meat and poultry8 #ba4 ,which is more economical1 croquettes or an escalloped dish8 ,explain fully4 #bb4 ,how may you distinguish poultry in good condition from that too long in cold storage8 #bc4 ,why is good poultry not a cheap food8 #bd4 ,discuss making soup versus buying canned soup4 #be4 ,what are the advantages of canned meat8 ,the possible disadvantages8 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,fish1 ,,shellfish1 ,,and ,,other ,,meat ,,substitutes ,fish and shellfish are valuable assets as food1 so much so that the government has a ,bureau of ,fisheries1 and has established stations at intervals on the coast and on inland lakes for the study and production of those foods that come from salt and fresh water4 ,we have used these products of the waters as if the supply were limitless1 forgetting that fish and shellfish are living creatures with habits that we cannot ignore without working havoc to the species4 ,young salmon and shad are hatched in the upper reaches of the rivers1 and if we insist on trapping the mature fish at the river mouth on their northern migrations1 the number of young decreases1 and salmon and shad become high-priced foods4 ,to ignore fishery and game laws is an ignorant and dishonest proceeding1 with far-reaching economic results4 ,varieties of fish4----,in ,bulletin ,no4 #bh of the ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 forty-four different fish are listed1 all used as food4 ,a visit to the fish stall in the market of a seaboard city will acquaint you with many interesting species4 ,fresh and salt water fish differ in flavor1 and there is a difference to be detected between fish from running1 or from lake water1 brook trout1 for instance1 having a superior flavor4 ,the food supply also influences the flavor1 and both fresh and salt water fish have a better flavor when taken from sandy and rocky bottoms rather than muddy4 ,the habit of the fish also has an effect on the quality and taste4 ,the chequit1 for instance1 is so sluggish and easy to catch that it is sometimes called 8lazy0 or 8weakfish10 and it is watery and poor flavored compared with the shad1 a fish of more vigorous habits4 ,the amount of fat also causes a difference in flavor1 such high flavored fish as salmon and shad containing much fat4 ,the distinctive flavors of mackerel and herring are apparently not due to fat1 since their fat content is not particularly high4 ,among the most common and best liked fish are bass1 blackfish1 bluefish1 cod1 flounder1 haddock1 halibut1 herring1 mackerel1 porgy 7sometimes called scup or scuppaug71 salmon1 shad1 smelt1 weakfish1 whitefish4 ,brook trout and salmon trout are luxuries4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4----;,composition of fish4 ,composition and nutritive value4----,figure #fe shows the composition of several kinds4 ,compare their composition with that of meat4 ,the nutritive content is high1 yet fish seems a lighter and less satisfying food than meat1 although on the seaboard of some countries it is the chief animal food4 ,the digestibility of fish and meat are about equal1 but some varieties of fish are less digestible than others1 this being true of the oily and strong-flavored fish1----herring1 mackerel1 salmon1 and shad4 ,there are popular prejudices for and against fish that are not warranted4 ,the idea that fish is a 8brain food0 because it contains phosphorus was exploded long since1 for fish contains no more phosphorus than some other foods1 and phosphorus is no more valuable to the brain than to the other tissues4 ,fish1 however1 is valuable in the dietary for supplying protein and giving variety1 and in season1 it is one of the cheaper foods4 ,quality of fish4----,fish deteriorates and decomposes much more rapidly than meat1 and is at its best when cleaned and cooked just after being caught4 ,ice will preserve fish for a short time only4 ,if ever on a camping trip you have eaten bluefish caught in the surf1 or trout from the brook1 cooked immediately1 you know what flavor a fish may have4 ,fish should be killed immediately1 and put on ice if they are not to be cooked at once4 ,if there is no ice1 clean the fish1 sprinkle the flesh with pepper and salt1 wrap in a wet cloth1 and set in a breeze or draught4 ,when fish are transported over long distances they should be packed in ice in refrigerator cars1 and you will notice that the fishman in the shop keeps the fish on ice until he sells them4 ,in selecting fish1 see that the flesh feels firm and that the eyes are still bright4 ,if you have a keen sense of smell1 this will also guide you1 although to the novice the odor of fish may be disagreeable even if untainted4 ,fish in season and caught plentifully near by1 are of good quality and should be cheap4 ,shad and salmon have their season in the spring1 bluefish come north in the summer1 sometimes as late as ,august1 porgies are a summer and autumn fish1 and smelt are abundant in the winter4 ,deep-sea fish like cod and halibut have a long season1 and may be bought at any time4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,the scaling and cleaning of fish are important first steps4 ,in the city this may be done for you at the market1 but sometimes on fishing expeditions when you are not a successful fisher you may make yourself useful by cleaning the fish4 ,clean the fish on a large piece of paper4 ,use a sharp strong knife1 and rub off the scales from the tail to the head4 ,to skin a fish well1 you should first watch an expert4 ,cut through the skin of the back and abdomen1 loosen it at the tail and pull it off4 ,remove the head1 open the abdomen1 and take out the entrails4 ,burn the paper on which the fish has been cleaned4 ,fish is boned by slitting the flesh down the back1 and patiently separating the flesh from the side bones1 and finally pulling out the spine and attached bones4 ,the strong odor of fish clings to everything the fish touches4 ,wash the fish1 the knife1 and your own hands in cold water and salt4 ,always pour the water in which fish is washed or cooked down the sink at once1 pour in some salt1 and flush the trap with cold water4 ,the utensils1 and dishes in which fish is served1 need very careful washing in several waters4 ,the connective tissue of fish softens and dissolves more readily than does that of meat4 ,fish varies in the dryness of the flesh1 but there is no such thing as tough fish1 and the texture of the muscles is about the same in all parts of the fish1 although there is a difference in flavor in the dark and white flesh when these both occur4 ,on account of this characteristic of the connective tissue the fish 8falls apart0 and our aim must be to prevent this4 ,principles of cooking4 #a4 ,the protein is affected as in all other foods where it occurs4 #b4 ,the fat is melted4 #c4 ,connective tissue quickly softened4 ,to avoid the breaking of the fish it may be wrapped in cloth for boiling1 and the water should simmer only4 ,the coating of small fish or slices of large fish with beaten egg and crumbs tends to hold it together4 ,in all cases avoid overcooking4 ,fish is done when a fork easily pierces it and separates the flakes of flesh from the bone4 #a4 ,boiled fish4 ,use thick pieces of large fish for boiling1 or if small fish are used they may be boiled whole4 ,add salt and vinegar to water in proportion of #a tablespoonful of salt and two of vinegar to three quarts of water4 ,use enough water to cover the fish4 ,wrap the fish in cheesecloth to prevent breaking apart1 and plunge into boiling water4 ,do not let the water boil after fish is in4 ,the fish is done when the flesh leaves the bone or when the flesh flakes apart easily4 ,the usual time for a thick piece is #cj-dj minutes4 ,mock ,hollandaise sauce4 ,butter #c tablespoonfuls ,flour #c tablespoonfuls ,eggs #b ,milk #b cups ,salt #a teaspoonful ,lemon #a_/b to #a4 ,make as for white sauce1 adding the beaten eggs just before taking from fire and stirring until well thickened4 ,add lemon juice just before serving4 ,this sauce is suitable for boiled fish and vegetables4 #b4 ,left over fish4 ,fish may be picked apart1 mixed with cream sauce1 and served as creamed fish or served as an escallop4 ,escalloped fish4 #b cups left over fish1 picked over and freed of bones4 #a cup thin white sauce1 dried bread crumbs buttered4 ,butter a baking dish and line with crumbs4 ,add a layer of fish1 using half1 and cover with half the sauce4 ,cover with a layer of crumbs4 ,add another layer of fish1 sauce1 and crumbs1 making this last layer of crumbs quite thick4 ,place in a hot oven and leave until crumbs are brown and fish is heated through4 ,to butter crumbs4 ,melt a little butter in a saucepan and turn the crumbs in1 stirring them over and over with a spoon until all the crumbs are coated4 #c4 ,baked fish4 ,almost any medium sized fish is suitable for baking4 ,the favorites are bluefish1 shad1 haddock1 and halibut1 sliced4 ,clean the fish1 seeing that all scales are removed4 ,stuff and sew4 ,shape with skewers to form a letter ,s and place upright on a baking pan or lay fish on side4 ,if the fish is not a fat kind1 put strips of salt pork over it and in pan or cut gashes in fish and lay strips of pork in them4 ,dredge with flour4 ,bake one hour for a three-pound fish1 in a hot oven1 basting frequently with the tried-out fat4 ,serve with drawn butter or ,hollandaise sauce4 ,fish stuffing4 ,dried crumbs #a cup ,melted butter #a_/b cup ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,pepper #a_/h teaspoonful ,onion juice ,a few drops ,parsley #a teaspoonful ,capers each1 finely ,pickles chopped ,mix ingredients in order given4 #d4 ,creamed codfish4 ,soak the fish in cold water1 and pull it apart with knife and fork4 ,put it in a saucepan of cold water1 allow the water to heat slowly1 and stop the heating just before the water reaches the boiling point4 ,pour off the water1 shake the saucepan over the fire1 add a thin white sauce1 ,no4 #b1 and reheat4 ,serve on toast if desired4 #e4 ,codfish balls or cakes4 ,ingredients4 ,codfish1 picked #a cup ,potatoes1 cut in cubes #b cups ,egg #a ,salt1 if needed to taste ,flour for dredging ,method4 ,put the fish and potatoes in a stewpan1 cover with cold water1 bring the water to the boiling point1 and cook until the potato is tender4 ,the whole process will take about #bj minutes4 ,drain off the water very thoroughly and shake the stewpan over the fire to dry the contents4 ,it is very necessary to have the mixture free from water4 ,mash and heat the mixture in the stewpan1 and add the egg4 ,taste to see if more salt is needed1 as is sometimes the case4 ,finish as follows3 7a7 ,shape into round flat cakes about an inch thick1 dredge with flour and saut4 7b7 ,the same1 browning the cakes on a greased pan in the oven1 or under the gas flame1 turning if necessary4 7c7 ,shape in balls1 place these in a wire frying basket1 lower the basket into hot fat until the balls brown1 lift the basket1 drain1 and drain the balls on paper4 ,keep hot until it is time to serve4 ,laboratory management4----,for individual work or work in groups of two1 small fish1 as perch1 may be procured and these may be stuffed and baked in the period4 ,,shellfish ,the shellfish are of two classes2 the mollusks including clams1 mussels 7seldom used in this country71 oysters1 and scallops1 and the crustaceans1----lobsters and crabs4 ,none of the mollusks have high nutritive value1 but they are a protein food1 and add to the variety of the diet4 ,the composition of the oyster is shown in ,fig4 #fe1 and it will be noted that the fat percentage is small and the calorie value low4 ,the oyster is raised in beds in the ocean1 or bays often near the river mouth1 and it is the neighborhood to the river that makes it possible for the oyster to carry germs of contagion1 particularly of typhoid fever1 when city sewage poured into the river passes over the oyster bed4 ,here1 too1 government protection is essential1 and this is a matter that has created so much excitement that conditions are already improved4 ,there is an association of oyster growers who make a point of advertising clean oyster beds1 and cleanly methods of handling and transporting4 ,oysters vary in size and flavor1 the flavor seeming to depend upon the locality4 ,the smaller are sought for serving raw1 and the medium and larger for cooking4 ,they are sold by the measure or number when taken from the shell1 the latter giving the surer quantity2 and the price is usually one cent apiece4 ,they are in season from ,september to ,may4 ,the whole flesh of the oyster is soft and edible1 even the muscle by which it opens and shuts its shell being tender4 ,clams are of two kinds1 distinguished differently in different places4 ,they are known as hard and soft1 or round and long1 and in ,rhode ,island the hard round clam still bears the ,indian name ,quahaug1 the soft shell clam being the only 8clam40 ,the long clam lies buried in the soft mud of creeks and muddy shores left exposed at low tide1 when they are dug by hoes from the mud4 ,the round clam lies on the bottom of shallow warm waters1 and is raked with an implement made for the purpose4 ,the round clam is used when very young and small in place of raw oysters2 but both kinds when matured have a tough portion that is not softened in cooking1 and that is more or less indigestible4 ,the long 8neck0 which protrudes from the shell has to be discarded4 ,both kinds may be roasted in the shell1 and are very palatable served hot with melted butter1 salt1 and pepper4 ,they are most commonly used in soups and in chowder4 ,they are purchased by the quantity or number1 are cheaper than oysters1 and are always in season4 ,scallops1 as purchased1 are only a part of the animal in the shell1 consisting solely of the round white muscle which operates the shell4 ,the escallop1 or scallop1 is migratory1 moving by a shooting motion1 the mature scallops reaching the creeks and shores in the autumn1 and though found in so-called beds they are not fixtures like the oysters4 ,the flavor is sweet1 and they have a quality that makes them more or less indigestible1 especially when fried4 ,they are very palatable and more digestible served in a stew made like an oyster stew4 ,they are sold by the measure and are cheap in season4 ,the lobster is now a luxury1 for methods of catching in the past have made them scarce in their old haunts4 ,the lobster is a much more highly developed animal than the mollusk1 having strong muscles inside its coat of mail1 and the flesh has a protein content that compares very favorably with meat4 ,when fresh1 and not served with rich sauces or eaten at irregular hours1 it is not especially indigestible1 and may be the main dish at luncheon or supper1 served simply with salt1 pepper1 and melted butter and not taken with meat foods4 ,its own delicious flavor needs no addition in the way of sauces and high seasoning4 ,the crab is essentially like the lobster1 being smaller1 and having a sweeter flavor4 ,the soft shell crab is caught just as the old shell is shed1 and is highly esteemed as a delicacy4 ,both lobsters and crabs are cooked in the shell1 and if allowed to die naturally before cooking they are uneatable4 ,they may be purchased alive or cooked1 and one is surer of their condition when they are bought alive4 ,twenty-five cents a pound is now an average price for lobsters in shell4 ,crabs are somewhat less expensive at times1 but soft shells are always high-priced4 ,the following table shows the food value of a few of this group in terms of the weight of the #ajj-;,calorie portion4 #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,fish ,,and ,,shellfish ,,fresh ,,fish ,,weight ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portion ,,kind ----------------------------------- ,,as ,,purchased 7,entrails ,removed7 ,,edible ,,material ---------------------------------------- ------- ,ounces ,ounces ,blue fish #g4h #d4j ,cod4 #g4f #e4e ,flounder #ab4e #f4b ,haddock #aj4j #d4i ,halibut steak #c4e #b4i ,mackerel #d4e #b4e ,salmon #b4h #a4h ---------------------------------------- --------- ,,salt ,,or ,,smoked ,,fish ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,cod1 ,salt #d4d #c4d ,herring1 ,smoked #b4b #a4b ,halibut1 ,smoked #a4g #a4f ,mackerel1 ,salt #a4d #a4b ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,shellfish ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,clams #f4i ,crabs #d4c ,lobster #d4b ,oysters #g4j ,scallops #d4h ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,preserved fish and shellfish4----,smoking and salting are two old-time methods that are still in use1 and smoked salmon1 herring1 and finnan haddie furnish us well-flavored foods at a reasonable price4 ,small smoked herring are eaten uncooked1 and the other two kinds are excellent broiled1 or parboiled and finished in the oven4 ,salt cod should not be despised1 for it is convenient and may be made palatable4 ,like the meats1 the fish preserved by these methods are slightly less available for digestion4 ,preserving in oil is made familiar to us by the sardine of ,italy in olive oil and the small herring of ,america in cottonseed oil1 which also bears the name of sardine4 ,the latter is less delicate in flavor than the ,european sardine1 but is of course cheaper1 and is palatable and of equal food value4 ,canned fish and shellfish are used in localities where fresh fish are not easily available1 and should not be unwholesome if the process is properly inspected4 ,canned salmon is the most common1 and makes an excellent luncheon dish when well prepared 7see chapter on salads74 ,principles of cooking4----,the protein in all of these is the chief consideration4 ,the oyster is more delicate when cooked just below the boiling point of water for a brief period only4 ,this is also true of the clam1 except the tough membranes which must be chopped4 ,the flesh of both lobster and clam is toughened by cooking1 and the process should be short4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,general directions4----,all fish and shellfish should be thoroughly cleansed in cold water before using1 and under running water when possible4 ,wash oysters1 clams1 and scallops in a colander or strainer under the faucet4 ,if the oyster or clam liquor is used1 put it through a fine strainer4 #a4 ,to serve oysters and small clams raw4 ,arrange on finely chopped ice on a plate1 with a piece of lemon in the center4 ,cut a section of lemon1 not a slice4 ,horse-radish is sometimes served with the raw oyster4 ,garnish with parsley if you wish4 #b4 ,creamed oysters4 ,clean oysters of all pieces of shell4 ,cook them below the boiling point for a few minutes until plump and edges begin to curl4 ,drain and add to white sauce seasoned with celery salt4 ,serve on toast1 in bread cases1 or patty shells4 #c4 ,sautd oysters4 ,clean one pint of oysters1 sprinkle on both sides with salt and pepper4 ,lift by the tough muscle with a fork and dip on both sides in cracker crumbs and saut in butter until well browned on both sides4 #d4 ,clam chowder4 ,proportions4 ,clams #a quart ,potatoes #d cups1 cut in #c_/d inch dice ,onion ,one1 chopped ,salt #a tablespoonful ,pepper #a_/h teaspoonful ,butter #d tablespoonfuls ,milk #f cups1 scalded ,soda ,crackers ,clean and pick over clams1 separate the hard and soft part of clams and chop the former4 ,strain clam liquor through cheesecloth4 ,try out the pork and fry the onion in it until brown and turn into a large kettle4 ,boil potatoes until tender1 drain1 and pour potatoes into kettle4 ,add clams1 milk1 butter1 and crackers broken into small pieces4 ,let cook three minutes4 ,just before serving add clam liquor previously heated4 ,serve in bowls4 #e4 ,to prepare lobster and crabs for serving4 ,make ready a large kettle of rapidly boiling water4 ,wrap a piece of paper around the lobster or crab1 and plunge it head downward into the boiling water4 ,let the water boil gently for #bj minutes----longer if the lobsters are very large4 ,to open1 a strong pair of scissors is the best utensil and sometimes a hammer is necessary for the heavy claws4 ,pull out the flesh1 keeping it as whole as possible4 ,the stomach of the lobster and crab should be taken out and can be recognized near the head4 ,the long intestine should also be removed and is easy to find in the hinderpart by splitting open this part and removing a long white string4 ,the soft green portion is the liver and is eatable4 ,to serve4----7a7 ,pick apart and serve on lettuce with a ,french dressing1 or 7b7 ,serve hot with melted butter4 ,,meat ,,substitutes ,among these1 beans1 peas1 lentils1 eggs1 milk1 and cheese have already been mentioned4 ,fish is classed also as a meat substitute4 ,nuts4----,these are a valuable meat substitute1 some of them having a good protein content1 and a high fat content as well4 7,see ,fig4 #ff47 ,they maybe served raw for dessert1 with some fruit either fresh or dried1 raisins and nuts being a pleasing combination4 ,they should be thoroughly masticated4 ,they are also palatable and possibly more digestible when cooked4 ,the reason that many people consider nuts indigestible is because they eat them between meals1 and do not give them a proper place in a meal1 eating them when enough food of other kinds has been taken4 ,one who is open-minded in the matter of menus will find that nuts1 raw or cooked1 can literally take the place of meat in a meal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4----;,composition of nuts4 ,almonds are always available in the markets and are so rich in protein and fat that a pound of shelled almonds is equivalent in food value to about three pounds of steak4 ,at usual prices a good grade of almonds is more economical than the ordinary cuts of meat4 ,chestnuts are a staple food in parts of ,italy1 and have a delicious flavor in soups1 stuffings1 and sauces4 ,our own native chestnuts1 boiled and served whole or roasted1 make an excellent simple dessert4 ,hickory nuts1 ,english walnuts1 pecan nuts1 and filberts are not only palatable in muffins1 cake1 and yeast bread1 but add to the food value in a rational way4 ,peanuts are rich in oil and protein4 ,they are nearly equal to almonds in food value and are even more economical4 ,peanuts are too concentrated a food for eating between meals or to be taken after a meal already sufficient1 but they may take the place of meat in the meal and peanut butter may be used on bread and in sandwiches without butter4 ,they1 too1 may be used with cake and cookies4 ,chopped nuts may be served with a variety of desserts4 ,remember always that they are to be considered food4 #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,shelled ,,nuts ,,kind ,,weight ,,of #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portion ,ounces ,brazil nuts #j4e ,chestnuts #a4e ,filberts #j4e ,hickory nuts #j4e ,peanuts #j4f ,pecans #j4e ,walnuts 7,english7 #j4e ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,when time permits and circumstances make desirable the development of the economic phase of the food work1 students may be directed to look up the composition1 or the food value per ounce or per pound1 of a variety of the foods of whatever group is under study and work out the return in food value for a given expenditure of money4 ,the tables in ,rose's 8,laboratory ,handbook for ,dietetics0 will be found especially useful in such work4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what is the chief food value of fish8 #b4 ,compare the composition of fish and meat4 #c4 ,what are the causes influencing the flavor and quality of fish8 #d4 ,what precautions may be taken to prevent the spoiling of fish8 #e4 ,how may the oyster beds be safeguarded8 #f4 ,in what way does the cookery of fish and shellfish resemble that of meat8 #g4 ,in what important way does the cookery of fish differ from that of meat8 #h4 ,why is fish cheapest in season8 #i4 ,estimate the cost of #ajj-;,calorie portion of one or two given varieties4 #aj4 ,what precaution is necessary in opening a lobster8 #aa4 ,what must a food contain to make a meat substitute8 #ab4 ,what are the important meat substitutes8 #ac4 ,in what way should nuts be used in the diet8 #ad4 ,what are some of the practical ways of using nuts8 #ae4 ,price several kinds of nuts and several cuts of meat in the market1 then look up the composition of each1 remembering that the whole kernel of the nut is eaten1 but often only the lean part of the meat4 ,with this in mind calculate the food value actually obtained for a given expenditure in each case4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,salads ,,and ,,desserts ,salads and desserts are sometimes looked upon as luxuries1 and something to be omitted where people must exercise strict economy1 and as more or less indigestible forms of food to be avoided4 ,as a matter of fact both of these types of dishes are extremely valuable in giving variety to the diet4 ,they may be very inexpensive1 and when they have the right relation to the rest of the meal1 are not more indigestible than many other forms of food4 ,a heavy salad or rich dessert eaten after a sufficient amount of other food will naturally cause digestive disturbance4 ,to disprove the theory of great cost of desserts1 two friends once had an amusing contest to see which could serve the largest number of palatable desserts at the lowest price4 ,it was interesting to see how many could be made for a cost of from six to ten cents for a family of five4 ,materials used for salad4----,the word 8salad0 is said to be derived from the ,latin 8salis0 7salt7 which implies that the salad has been looked upon more or less as a relish4 ,we all associate with a salad appetizing crispness and freshness4 ,the materials used in the modern salad are so varied that a complete list would include nearly all our fruits and vegetables and meat foods4 ,green vegetables4----,celery1 chicory or endive1 corn salad1 cress1 cucumber1 dandelion1 lettuce1 onions1 peppers1 romaine or cos lettuce1 radishes1 and tomatoes4 ,cooked vegetables4----,beans1 string and whole1 beets1 cauliflower1 carrots1 potatoes1 and spinach4 ,fruits uncooked4----,any fresh fruit1 possibly with the exception of some of the berries4 ,meat and poultry4----,the white meats like veal1 chicken1 and turkey are more attractive in salad1 but any kind of cold meat may be used4 ,fish and shellfish4----,lobsters1 crabs1 scallops1 and cold fish4 ,nuts4----,several kinds may be used in combination with fruit4 ,jellies4----,tomato jelly1 meat1 chicken1 and fish molded in jelly1 may be served as a salad4 ,eggs4----,hard-boiled eggs are used as a garnish4 ,cream cheese4----,may be served with lettuce4 ,salad dressings4----,plain lettuce or celery served with salt is in a sense a salad1 but it is our custom to dress the lettuce with a mixture which contains an acid and usually an oil4 ,a very simple1 old-fashioned form of dressing used in this country is vinegar and sugar4 ,substitute lemon juice or fresh lime juice for the vinegar and you will have a very refreshing and simple salad for a summer day4 ,the ordinary dressing consists of vinegar or lemon juice1 and oil2 another form is mayonnaise1 where the yolk and sometimes the white of egg are used to hold the oil and vinegar together4 ,another form is a cooked dressing which may be bottled and kept for a longer time than the ,french dressing or the mayonnaise4 ,olive oil4----,this is the most delicious oil for salad dressing when the flavor is liked and when it can be afforded4 ,cottonseed and corn oil4----,there are now in the market clarified cottonseed oil and corn oil that may be used in mayonnaise dressing1 and the flavor is not unacceptable1 and certainly superior to the poorer grades of olive oil which quite likely contain one of these oils as an adulterant4 ,cottonseed oil makes a better substitute for olive oil then does corn oil as it is at present refined4 ,butter4----,butter may be used in boiled salad dressing for those who dislike the flavor of the oils4 ,the acids in dressing4----,these may be either vinegar or lemon juice1 and many people with whom the vinegar disagrees can eat a salad made with lemon juice4 ,the acid should not be used in excess in any case2 the best dressings do not give a distinctively acid taste4 ,adjuncts4----,salt1 mustard1 cayenne pepper1 paprika4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4----;,a cucumber salad4 ,courtesy of ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,,general ,,methods ,,and ,,recipes ,general directions4----,the two important points in the preparation of the material for salad are1 first1 that everything should be thoroughly dry1 and1 second1 thoroughly chilled4 ,the importance of these two points cannot be overemphasized1 and they are of equal value in salad making4 ,many a salad is unpalatable because it is watery and wilted4 ,for the preparation of green vegetables see ,chapter ,,vii4 ,vegetables should be cut in cubes or sometimes in slices4 ,meat1 poultry1 and shellfish should be cut in small pieces or chopped4 ,the prepared meat should be mixed with some of the oil and acid and allowed to stand in an ice box for some time before it is dressed and arranged for serving4 ,this process is called marinating in the cookbooks1 and gives a flavor to the salad that it cannot have if a dressing is poured over the meat just before serving4 ,combinations in salad4----,several well-known combinations will at once occur to you4 ,meat salads usually have a mixture of celery4 ,several vegetables may be used together1 as beans and carrots1 or carrots1 peas1 and string beans with lettuce4 ,apples1 nuts1 and celery make a pleasing combination4 ,indeed there would seem to be no end to the possibilities here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4----;,a salad with salmon molded in gelatin4 ,courtesy of ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,serving and garnishing4----,the principle here is to make the dish attractive with as little labor as possible4 ,everything served as a garnish should be eatable4 ,a bed of crisp dry lettuce leaves is the most attractive setting for any salad4 ,when this is not procurable1 cress makes an attractive border to a salad4 ,figure #fh shows you a salmon jelly molded in a ring and attractively served in lettuce4 ,figure #fg shows a cucumber placed on lettuce leaves1 dressed with a ,french dressing and sprinkled with chopped peppers4 ,the cucumber is sliced ready to serve2 the slices being cut not entirely through the cucumber4 ,this is rapidly prepared and is most attractive4 ,when the salad is arranged in its dish1 it should be put in the ice box and allowed to remain until it is time to take it to the table4 ,the salad is sometimes served on individual plates4 #a4 ,french dressing4 ,ingredients4 ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,pepper #a_/d teaspoonful ,vinegar #b tablespoonfuls ,olive oil #d tablespoonfuls ,method4 ,mix the salt1 pepper1 and vinegar and stir in the olive oil slowly4 ,a few drops of onion juice may be added4 #b4 ,mayonnaise dressing4 ,ingredients4 ,mustard #a teaspoonful ,salt #a teaspoonful ,powdered sugar #a teaspoonful ,a few grains of cayenne ,eggs ,yolks of #b ,lemon juice #b tablespoonfuls ,vinegar #b tablespoonfuls ,olive oil #a-a_/b cups ,method4 ,stir together the eggs1 mustard1 salt1 pepper1 and sugar4 ,add the oil1 a drop at a time1 stirring and beating constantly4 ,the back of a silver fork is a good thing for mixing mayonnaise1 though some people prefer a ,dover beater4 ,as the dressing becomes very thick it should be thinned occasionally with vinegar and lemon1 alternately1 but never let it lose its consistency4 ,after the first1 the oil may be added more rapidly4 ,all ingredients and utensils must be cold4 ,if the weather is warm1 the bowl should be surrounded with ice water4 ,if the dressing should separate1 begin with another yolk of egg and stir the separated mixture into it slowly1 as before4 ,set the bowl in a cold place and it should keep for many days4 #c4 ,boiled dressing4 ,ingredients4 ,eggs #b ,mustard #a_/b teaspoonful ,salt #a_/b tablespoonful ,sugar #a_/b tablespoonful ,vinegar #c tablespoonfuls ,hot water #a_/b cup ,butter #a tablespoonful ,a few grains of cayenne ,method4 ,mix the dry ingredients and beat with the eggs until light4 ,add the vinegar and water and cook in a double boiler1 stirring constantly until thick and smooth4 ,remove from the fire1 stir in the butter and set away to cool4 ,a little cream added after the dressing cools is a great addition4 ,sour cream may be used instead of the water1 in which case less vinegar and butter should be used4 #d4 ,potato salad4 ,ingredients4 ,potatoes1 cold-boiled or baked ,parsley or onion juice ,egg1 hard-boiled1 olives1 pickled beets1 etc4 ,french dressing ,method4 ,cut the cold-boiled or baked potatoes into #a_/b-;inch cubes4 ,marinate 7i4e4 mix and let stand7 with ,french dressing4 ,chopped parsley or onion juice may be mixed with potatoes4 ,arrange in a mound and garnish with slices of hard-boiled egg1 olives1 pickled beets1 etc4 #e4 ,chicken salad4 ,ingredients4 ,cold-boiled or roast fowl ,celery1 #a_/b as much as fowl ,french dressing ,mayonnaise or boiled dressing ,olives ,method4 ,cut cold-boiled or roast fowl in #a_/b-;inch cubes4 ,add to this #a_/b as much celery which has been washed1 scraped1 and cut into cubes4 ,marinate with ,french dressing4 ,just before serving moisten with mayonnaise or boiled salad dressing4 ,garnish with celery tips and olives4 #f4 ,waldorf salad4 ,ingredients4 ,apples1 tart and juicy ,celery1 #a_/b as much as apples ,mayonnaise dressing ,lettuce leaves ,method4 ,select tart1 juicy apples4 ,cut in quarters1 pare and core and cut in #a_/b-;inch cubes4 ,add half as much celery1 washed1 scraped1 and cut into cubes4 ,mix with boiled or mayonnaise dressing and serve cold on lettuce leaves4 ,if handsome red apples can be had1 they may be washed and polished and a slice cut from the stem end and the apple used as a cup after scooping out the inside to use for a filling with the celery4 ,serve on a lettuce leaf4 ,chopped nuts may be mixed with the apple and celery if desired4 #g4 ,stuffed tomato salad4 ,ingredients4 ,tomatoes1 medium sized ,boiling water ,salt ,cucumbers 7or celery7 ,mayonnaise dressing ,lettuce leaves ,method4 ,cover medium sized tomatoes with boiling water for a minute and remove the skin4 ,cut a thin slice from the top and take out part of the seeds and pulp4 ,sprinkle inside of the tomato with salt1 invert1 and let stand one half hour4 ,fill tomatoes with cucumbers 7or celery7 cut in small cubes and moistened with mayonnaise dressing4 ,arrange on lettuce leaves and garnish top with mayonnaise dressing4 ,laboratory management4----#a_/b egg yolk 7#a teaspoonful7 and #a_/d cup of olive oil is as small a quantity as is practicable to use in making the mayonnaise4 ,this quantity made by groups of two works out well as the process of adding the oil drop by drop is difficult for a beginner working alone4 ,the boiled dressing works in well as a variation of the boiled custard4 ,,desserts ,the dessert in this country includes the sweet dish1 or the fruit at the end of the meal4 ,in simple meals the dessert is usually one of the two1 although in more elaborate meals fruit is served after the sweet dish1 and sometimes crackers and cheese are served at the last4 ,from the point of view of nutrition and digestibility this is more than is necessary1 and you will notice that when both are served1 the fruit is often declined4 ,like the salad1 the dessert may be made from a large variety of materials and bears different names4 ,there are hot puddings and cold puddings1 pies and tarts1 jellies and ices and ice creams4 ,it is very interesting to read over the many dishes of this class in a cookbook and to attempt to classify them4 ,if you are fortunate enough to have access to a cookbook of the eighteenth century1 you will find that much labor was given to the preparation of elaborate structures which served as table ornaments2 even now you will find ,french cooks who spend much time in making elaborate displays of their skill4 ,for everyday life the dessert should be attractive to the eye and yet simple4 ,materials used in desserts4 ,eggs1 milk1 and cream2 these are important and are used in custards1 in dishes stiffened with gelatin or thickened with cornstarch1 or in ice cream4 ,breadstuffs4----,cake and sponge cake1 bread crumbs and sliced bread1 are valuable in desserts4 ,bread pudding may be made a very delicious dish4 ,bread may be combined with fruit in the shape of an escalloped dish4 ,baking-powder biscuits1 crust1 and shortcake are also used4 ,other starchy substances4----,these are cornstarch1 arrowroot1 sago1 tapioca and manioca4 ,fruits4----,raw and cooked fruits of every possible kind4 ,a few fruits like the lemon1 orange1 grapefruit1 and melon are not cooked4 ,for preparing fruit served alone1 see ,chapter ,,vi4 ,gelatin4----,this material has been mentioned in the chapter on meat4 ,it is prepared for use in desserts in a number of forms1 the granular being the most convenient4 ,gelatin has the property1 first1 of absorbing water1 then of dissolving at the boiling temperature of water and becoming stiff again when cool4 ,after dissolving1 as it is cooling and just as it begins to thicken slightly1 it can be beaten like white of egg4 ,if beating is attempted while the liquid is warm1 or again if it becomes too stiff1 the result is not successful4 ,this property makes it useful in the sponges and other fancy desserts where the light spongy texture is desirable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4----;,a gelatin mold4 ,courtesy of ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,making desserts attractive4----,this is done by serving hot desserts in a dish around which a napkin may be folded2 and cold desserts1 especially those made with gelatin1 may be molded in some attractive form and garnished4 ,figure #fi shows a very simple gelatin dessert garnished with candied cherries and a little angelica1 the stem of a plant which has been sugared1 and the whole surrounded with whipped cream4 ,whipping the cream and putting it around the base takes only a few minutes4 ,as in salad1 the garnish should be eatable and easily prepared4 #a4 ,boiled custard4 ,ingredients4 ,milk #a pt4 ,sugar #b tablespoonfuls ,eggs #c ,vanilla #a_/b teaspoonful ,salt #a_/h teaspoonful ,method4 ,put the milk1 sugar1 and salt in a double boiler to scald4 ,separate the eggs and set the whites in a cold place until wanted4 ,beat the yolks until lemon-colored4 ,pour a little of the scalded milk on the yolks of the eggs1 stirring until well mixed4 ,set the double boiler back on the stove and pour the egg and milk mixture slowly into the rest of the scalded milk1 stirring constantly until thickened enough to coat the spoon4 ,remove from the fire1 add the flavoring1 and turn into a dish to cool4 ,just before serving beat the whites to a very stiff froth and pile by spoonfuls on the custard4 ,the whites may be sweetened with powdered sugar after beating if desired4 ,corn starch may be used1 and fewer eggs4 #b4 ,baked custard4 ,ingredients4 ,milk #a pt4 ,sugar #b tablespoonfuls ,salt #a_/h teaspoonful ,eggs #b ,lemon or ,vanilla #a_/b teaspoonful ,method4 ,scald the milk1 sugar1 and salt together4 ,beat the eggs in a baking dish and pour the scalded milk over them4 ,add the flavoring and stir well4 ,set the baking dish in a pan of boiling water and bake in a moderate oven until a knife thrust into the custard will come out clean4 ,serve cold either plain1 or with chocolate sauce4 ,nutmeg may be grated on top of the custard before baking1 or caramel flavoring may be added in place of the vanilla4 #c4 ,chocolate sauce4 ,ingredients4 ,chocolate #a square ,sugar #a_/d cup ,boiling water #a_/b cup ,cream #a_/b cup ,method4 ,mix the chocolate1 boiling water1 and sugar together and stir over the fire until smooth and thick4 ,add the cream and serve hot4 #d4 ,caramel flavoring4 ,ingredients4 ,sugar #b cups ,boiling water #a cup ,method4 ,pour the sugar into a saucepan and stir over the fire until it becomes a thick brown sirup4 ,pour the boiling water on this and leave on the fire1 stirring occasionally until the sugar is all dissolved4 ,this may be bottled and kept for some time4 #e4 ,shortcake4 ,ingredients4 ,flour #a cup ,baking powder #a teaspoonful ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,butter #d tablespoonfuls or ,one half butter and one half lard4 ,milk #a_/b cup ,method4 ,mix dry ingredients and cut butter into this mixture with two knives4 ,stir in the milk and spread the mixture out on a buttered layer cake tin4 ,bake in a hot oven until brown4 ,wash and hull a box of strawberries1 sprinkle with #a_/b cup of sugar1 and crush with a spoon4 ,when the shortcake is done remove from the pan1 cut around the edge with a sharp knife and right through the center of the cake1 making two layers of it4 ,spread the lower layer with butter and then with the crushed strawberry4 ,replace the top layer and serve hot4 ,fresh peaches1 preserves1 or a mixture of orange and banana may be used for this shortcake4 ,another kind of strawberry cake is made of sponge cake1 and served cold with whipped cream4 #f4 ,steamed pudding4 ,ingredients4 ,suet chopped #a cup ,raisins1 currants1 and citron sliced #a cup ,egg #a ,sweet milk #a cup ,molasses #a_/b cup ,soda #a teaspoonful ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,flour #c-a_/b cups ,method4 ,skin1 wash1 and chop the suet1 and dredge with flour4 ,wash1 pick over and seed the dried fruit1 slice the citron if it is used1 and dredge all with flour4 ,stir together the milk and molasses1 sift the dry ingredients with the flour1 and stir the liquid into the flour slowly4 ,add the suet1 beating the mass thoroughly1 and last the fruit1 sprinkling in both the suet and the fruit as you stir4 ,fill a greased mold #b_/c full1 close tightly1 and cook in a kettle of boiling water for three hours4 ,serve with a hard or foamy sauce4 ,laboratory management4----,this can be made in class if each pupil will bring an empty baking powder or cocoa tin to school4 ,a strip of greased cloth should be fastened around the edge of the cover4 ,the recipe can be made in #a_/d cup proportions1 and this amount can be cooked if the class period is two hours in length1 but it is better to have the cooking finished at home4 ,this is a seasonable exercise at ,thanksgiving or ,christmas4 #g4 ,brown ,betty or apple scallop4 ,ingredients4 ,buttered crumbs ,tart cooking apples ,sugar ,cinnamon ,a little water ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,individual shortcakes may be made by using a stiffer dough and rolling and cutting them like biscuits4 ,method4 ,put a layer of buttered crumbs in a baking dish4 ,pare and slice tart cooking apples and put a layer into the dish4 ,sprinkle with sugar1 cinnamon1 and a little water4 ,add a layer of bread crumbs and repeat with apples1 flavoring and cover the top with crumbs4 ,bake in a moderate oven until apples are cooked and crumbs brown4 ,any fruit such as peaches or blueberries may be used instead of apples4 ,serve hot with hard or foamy sauce or cold with cream and sugar1 or the bread may be used in slices1 buttered4 #h4 ,hard sauce4 ,ingredients4 ,butter #a_/c cup ,powdered sugar #a cup ,lemon extract #a_/c teaspoonful or ,vanilla #b_/c teaspoonful ,nutmeg ,method4 ,cream the butter2 add sugar gradually1 and flavoring4 ,grate nutmeg over the top4 ,chill before serving4 #i4 ,foamy sauce4 ,ingredients4 ,butter #a_/b cup ,powdered sugar #a cup ,egg #a ,vanilla #a teaspoonful ,method4 ,cream the butter1 add gradually the sugar1 the egg well beaten1 and vanilla4 ,beat while heating over hot water4 #aj4 ,tapioca cream4 ,ingredients4 ,pearl tapioca #a_/b cup or ,minute tapioca #a-a_/b tablespoonfuls ,scalded milk #b cups ,eggs #b1 or #a ,sugar #a_/c cup ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,vanilla #a_/b teaspoonful ,method4 ,minute tapioca needs no soaking4 ,if pearl tapioca is used1 it must be soaked one hour in cold water to cover4 ,pick over and wash the tapioca1 drain off the water and add tapioca to the milk and salt scalded in the double boiler1 and cook until the tapioca is transparent1 or about #a_/b hour4 ,beat eggs and add the sugar to them4 ,combine mixtures by pouring a little of the hot mixture in the egg and then stirring this into the mixture remaining in the double boiler4 ,stir over fire until it becomes thick4 ,add the flavoring and pour into a dish to cool4 #aa4 ,apple tapioca4 ,ingredients4 ,minute tapioca #c_/d cup ,lemon peel ,boiling water #b-a_/b cups ,salt #a_/b teaspoonful ,tart apples #f ,sugar #a_/b cup ,method4 ,cook the tapioca in salt water until it becomes transparent4 ,core and pare the apples and place in the bottom of the baking dish4 ,fill the cavities with sugar and add a little lemon peel4 ,pour the tapioca over the apples and bake in a moderate oven until the apples are soft4 ,serve cold with sugar and cream4 #ab4 ,lemon jelly4 ,ingredients4 ,shredded gelatin #a_/b box or ,granulated gelatin #b tablespoonfuls ,lemon juice #a_/b cup ,cold water #a_/b cup ,boiling water #b-a_/b cups ,sugar #a cup ,method4 ,soak the gelatin in cold water for #bj minutes4 ,add the boiling water and sugar and stir until it dissolves4 ,add the lemon juice and strain into a mold and set away to harden4 ,when it is stiff loosen from the sides of the mold 7a cloth wrung out of hot water may be needed74 ,turn on to a plate and serve with whipped cream or soft custard4 #ac4 ,snow pudding4 ,ingredients4 ,granulated gelatin #a tablespoonful ,cold water #a_/b cup ,boiling water #a cup ,sugar #a cup ,lemon juice #a_/d cup ,eggs ,whites of #c ,method4 ,mix as for lemon jelly4 ,set aside in a cool place1 and as soon as it becomes sirupy stir occasionally until quite thick4 ,then beat with wire spoon or whisk until frothy4 ,fold in the beaten whites1 and continue to beat lightly until quite stiff4 ,pile by spoonfuls on a plate and serve with boiled custard1 or mold as in ,fig4 #fi4 ,frozen mixtures4----,there are some interesting principles to note here4 ,the freezing is accomplished by using a mixture of chopped ice and rock salt4 ,can you explain how this reduces the temperature8 ,another interesting point is this3 ,have you ever seen a milk bottle on a cold winter morning with the paper cover or even the metal cap pushed up1 the frozen milk standing high above the top of the bottle8 ,what does this suggest to you in connection with the filling of the ice cream freezer8 ,it must be noted1 too1 that a larger amount of flavoring material is needed in a frozen dessert than in one that is not4 ,the frozen custard1 for instance1 needs more vanilla than one prepared in the ordinary manner4 ,can you account for this8 ,method of freezing4 ,there are many patterns of ice cream freezers that are well constructed and inexpensive4 ,they are sold by the size1 a #b quart freezer giving you #b quarts of the frozen cream4 ,see that the crank is oiled and the whole apparatus clean4 ,have ready pounded ice and rock salt1 usually in the proportion of #a part salt to #c of ice4 ,machines come for cutting the ice1 but it is easy to pound it in a strong bag4 ,set the freezer can in place1 put around it the ice and salt alternately1 shaking down and packing firmly4 ,have the ice cream mixture cool1 pour it in1 having the can not more than #b_/c full4 ,put on the lid1 cover with ice and salt1 and begin to turn the crank4 ,open and stir down once or twice1 being careful to keep out the salt4 ,take out the crank before the cream is too stiff4 ,pack the cream firmly down in the can4 ,see that the melted water is removed from the pail1 put in more ice and salt1 and leave until the ice cream is firm4 ,to mold ice cream or mousse4 ,directions for packing in a mold are given under strawberry mousse4 #ad4 ,american ice cream4 7a7 ,ingredients4 ,cream #a quart ,sugar #c_/d cup ,vanilla #a tablespoonful ,method4 ,mix ingredients and freeze4 7b7 ,ingredients4 ,milk #a pint ,flour #a tablespoonful ,egg #a ,sugar #a cup ,salt #a_/d teaspoonful ,cream #a quart ,vanilla #a tablespoonful ,method4 ,as in ,french ice cream4 #ae4 ,french ice cream4 ,ingredients4 ,cream #a quart ,milk #a quart ,eggs #d or #f to #h yolks ,sugar #a-a_/b cups ,vanilla #b tablespoonfuls ,method4 ,make a custard of milk1 eggs1 sugar1 and vanilla4 ,add cream1 chill and freeze4 #af4 ,milk sherbet4 ,ingredients4 ,milk #d cups ,sugar #a-a_/b cups ,lemons ,juice of #c ,method4 ,mix juice and sugar1 stirring constantly while slowly adding milk4 ,if the mixture should curdle1 this will disappear when frozen4 #ag4 ,raspberry ice4 ,ingredients4 ,water #d cups ,sugar #a-b_/c cups ,raspberry juice #b cups ,lemon juice #b tablespoonfuls ,method4 ,make a sirup by boiling water and sugar twenty minutes1 add raspberry juice1 strain and freeze4 ,any fruit juice may be used for this sherbet4 #ah4 ,strawberry mousse4 ,ingredients4 ,cream #a quart ,strawberries #a box ,sugar #a cup ,granulated gelatin #a-a_/d tablespoonfuls ,cold water #b tablespoonfuls ,hot water #c tablespoonfuls ,method4 ,wash and hull berries1 sprinkle with sugar1 and let stand one hour2 mash and rub through a fine sieve1 add the gelatin soaked in cold water and dissolved in hot water4 ,set in a pan of ice water and stir until it begins to thicken2 then fold in the whipped cream1 put into a mold1 cover1 pack in two parts ice to one of salt1 and let stand four hours4 ,use a mold with a tight cover and seal the crack with a strip of cloth dipped in melted butter and bound around the mold while still wet4 ,,exercises #a4 ,explain the value of salads and desserts in the dietary4 #b4 ,what are the important points in a good salad8 #c4 ,give a number of agreeable combinations of material in a salad4 #d4 ,what are the substitutes for olive oil8 #e4 ,why should mayonnaise dressing be kept cold in the mixing8 #f4 ,make a classification of the different types of dessert4 #g4 ,what is gelatin1 and why is it useful in desserts8 #h4 ,what are the underlying principles of custard making8 #i4 ,why is it important that the can in a freezer should not be filled to the top8 #aj4 ,why does chopped ice and salt freeze the mixture8 #aa4 ,estimate the cost of the following dishes for five people3 ,potato salad with boiled dressing2 a baked custard2 a ,brown ,betty2 ,french ice cream2 raspberry or lemon ice4 #ab4 ,explain what is meant by garnishing4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,preparation ,,of ,,meals ,,and ,,table ,,service ,the preparation of a number of dishes assembled for a meal requires a skill quite different from that necessary for the making of a single dish4 ,a menu being decided upon1 it needs an accurate sense of time1 forethought1 and promptness1 to have a number of dishes ready at the same time1 or in proper sequence if several courses are served4 ,such questions as the following must be answered3 ,technique of preparation4 #a4 ,what steps in preparation can be taken ahead of time1 as washing1 paring1 cutting1 etc48 #b4 ,what dishes take the longest to cook8 #c4 ,which must be served the moment they are done8 #d4 ,which can be kept hot for some time without injury8 #e4 ,which can be finished and cooled perhaps several hours before8 #f4 ,do the dishes selected require the same utensils at the same time8 7,if so1 the menus must be changed47 #g4 ,what is the order of serving8 ,to understand the bearing of these questions you will need to select some menu and make a plan for preparing it4 7,see exercises at the end of this chapter47 ,the fact is obvious that in preparing a meal you cannot finish the dishes one at a time1 but that steps individual to each dish must be interwoven with each other1 and the cook must have them all 8on her mind10 and is often doing half a dozen things at once4 ,as a high school girl1 preparing a part of her first meal1 remarked1 8,this is as good training as mathematics40 ,the woman at home will devise many ways of easing and shortening the labor just before the meal is served1 avoiding haste and anxiety in this way4 ,with the fireless cooker and other slow-cooking apparatus1 the heavy work may sometimes be done far ahead of mealtime4 ,a dessert can be prepared and be cooking as breakfast dishes are washed1 and at the time left overs are put away they can be arranged ready for serving1 as in the case of poultry or meat to be served cold4 ,while the preparation of the midday meal is in progress1 something can sometimes be done for the last meal1 too4 ,this1 indeed1 is a field for generalship1 and it is a successful campaign when the meals are all on time and well prepared1 and the cook and family cheerful4 ,important points in serving each dish4----,each dish should be perfectly done1 neither over nor under cooked4 ,all hot dishes should be hot1 and cold dishes cold4 ,lukewarm food is not agreeable4 ,bread and cake and some kinds of pastry are the only foods that may have the temperature of the room4 ,sliced meat and salads should be cold4 ,chill chocolate clairs before serving and see how much they are improved2 indeed1 experiment with a number of foods that are usually served at room temperature4 ,to keep food hot4----,a hot closet above a coal or gas range is made for this purpose1 and steam heaters sometimes have hot-closets4 ,a double boiler is a help1 and one utensil may be set into a larger1 filled with boiling water4 ,some dishes can be set back on the stove1 or over a simmering gas burner with an asbestos mat underneath4 ,the oven may be used sometimes1 with the door set ajar4 ,the food may be kept covered unless it will steam1 in which case cover it with a towel4 ,serve food in hot dishes4 ,to keep food cool4----,leave the dish in the ice box until the last possible moment4 ,sometimes serve with ice 7butter in warm weather74 ,if ice is lacking1 use other cooling devices4 ,serve in chilled dishes4 ,garnishing the dish4----,all food must be neatly placed in the dish1 and arranged or piled with some sort of symmetry1 and this is the most that some people have time to do4 ,many foods may be served in the utensil or dish in which they are cooked1 and in the case of a baking dish1 if its appearance is not neat1 a napkin can be folded about it4 ,the simplest form of garnish is browning on the top1 which makes many dishes attractive 7mashed potato74 ,make the garnishing simple1 and have it eatable when possible4 ,slices of hard-boiled eggs on spinach1 chopped parsley and butter on boiled or mashed potato1 parsley and slices of lemon1 with meat and fish4 ,vegetable borders are attractive and save labor in dish washing4 ,arrange the meat in the center of the platter1 and pile mashed potato1 or boiled rice or peas or beans1 or a mixture of hot vegetables around the edge4 ,this saves time in table service1 too4 ,the garnishing of salads1 desserts1 and cakes is treated in previous chapters4 ,table equipment and service4----,this is a place where beauty is a large element1 and most people understand the charm of a daintily laid table1 as the family gathers for a meal4 ,but many factors must be taken into account1 for it is an easy matter to pass from the simple and beautiful to an extravagant display1 to spend more on the dining-room equipment than the income warrants1 and to waste much energy in unnecessary work4 ,our great need here is to learn to see beauty in simplicity4 ,we must remember1 too1 that many people in our country live in crowded quarters1 and have no time for anything but the simplest kind of table service4#af ,the table should be firm1 large enough to accommodate the family comfortably1 and it should permit of extension when occasion demands a larger board4 ,the top should have an oil finish that will not easily mar and that can be washed off4 ,have a thick cloth or pad to protect it----the 8silence cloth40 ,table covers may be the small doilies with centerpiece1 strips of fine linen crash1 or blue or brown and white ,japanese toweling laid across both ways1 a cloth that just covers the table1 or a large cloth that hangs well below the table edge4 ,the doilies and strips are used conventionally for breakfast and luncheon1 but save much labor when used for all meals4 ,the color may be white1 or tinted1 but the dark-colored cloth should be banished4 ,the material may be linen or mercerized cotton4 ,many people think white table oilcloth is impossible1 but a table covered with it may be made very pretty2 it can be kept clean by washing at the end of each meal1 and the saving in labor is incalculable4 ,the pattern and quality and cost of table linens are mentioned in ,chapter ,,xxi4 ,napkins may match the tablecloths4 ,a small size economizes labor4 ,avoid fringes1 selecting a scalloped edge or hemstitch4 ,japanese paper napkins are useful in summer1 and for box luncheons4 ,the dishes4----,only a few practical suggestions can be given here4 ,this is a topic for the art class4 ,buy from 8open stock40 ,this means1 not a single set1 but a pattern that the manufacturer and retailer have always on hand1 so that the purchaser can buy one plate or cup and saucer1 to replace breakage4 ,an elaborate or highly colored design becomes wearisome1 is not practical for those who have a limited supply of dishes1 and is in questionable taste4 ,a positive color demands always the same general scheme for other decorations4 ,a band of color1 or a narrow design at the edge1 of a color harmonizing easily with other colors1 is in good taste4 ,gold and green are safe colors4 ,see ,fig4 #gb4 ,white dishes with a raised border are dainty1 and any color scheme may be used with them4 ,see ,fig4 #ga4 ,the number of dishes depends upon the simplicity or elaborateness of the method of living and the size of the family4 ,it is much better to begin with a few1 and increase the number when necessary1 than to have the shelves filled with unused ware4 7,see exercises47 ,glassware is pressed or cut1 the latter being beautiful1 but an expensive luxury4 ,glasses for water1 and dishes for berries1 are made with simple and attractive designs in the pressed ware1 and serve all ordinary purposes4 ,a pretty shape for the glass for water is shown in ,fig4 #ga4 ,silver and plated silver for knives1 forks1 and spoons1 coffee and tea sets1 all add to the charm of the table4 ,a large collection is not necessary for everyday use1 and it adds greatly to the labor of the housewife4 ,figure #gj shows some good designs in spoons1 and spoons and forks of different sizes come in the same design4 ,a simple design is easy to clean4 ,three sizes of spoons1 tablespoons1 teaspoons1 and coffee spoons1 and two sizes of forks are all sufficient1 with a few larger spoons for service and desserts4 ,triple-plated ware lasts for years1 if well cared for1 and comes in good designs4 ,pewter1 familiar in olden days1 is being used again in ,colonial designs1 and makes an attractive tea or coffee set1 is less costly than solid silver1 and has a better tone and color than plated ware4 ,cutlery4----,plated knives are easy to care for1 but steel knives are more effective for some purposes4 ,purchase good quality steel knives1 especially in the carving set4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4----;,good designs for table silver4 ,courtesy of ,gorham ,co4 ,setting the table4----,the first principles here are to have everything clean and shining1 and to lay everything straight4 ,have as little on the table as possible4 ,it is not comfortable to have a large array of articles at one's place4 ,figure #ga shows you a dainty and well-laid table1 arranged for a ,sunday night supper1 and this arrangement is a good one for any meal1 with substitutes for the chafing dish4 ,be sure that the cloth is straight1 the center fold in the middle of the table1 and that the cloth hangs evenly on all sides4 ,see that centerpiece and doilies are laid at even distance4 ,laying each place4----,in ,fig4 #ga the knife1 edge out1 is at the right1 with one spoon1 and the glass is at the right1 in line with the end of the knife4 ,two forks are at the left1 and a plate for bread and butter1 with bread knife are at the left1 opposite the glass4 ,the napkin is at the left4 ,this plan1 somewhat elaborated1 may be safely followed for formal service4 ,two knives may be placed at the right1 with the soup spoon1 and three forks at the left4 ,if more than these are needed1 they may be supplied later1 laid on the plate placed for a certain course1 in the middle of the plate1 handle toward the guest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4----;,a table set for ,sunday night supper4 ,courtesy of ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,the other articles on the table may vary widely4 ,for everyday use1 where there is no maid1 or only one1 set in places convenient to pass1 the salt and pepper1 vinegar and sugar1 bread plate and butter plate1 and any small dish of condiment or pickle1 with pretty mats for the hot dishes to be set on later1 and enough spoons for serving4 ,see that the arrangement is symmetrical and convenient4 ,a table laid in this way has room for little more in the way of 8decoration0 than a slender vase holding a few flowers in the center4 ,the dishes for dessert can be ready on a side table4 ,for formal service nothing is placed on the table in addition to the equipment at each place1 but some centerpiece containing ferns or flowers1 with pretty dishes of silver or glass holding relishes1 candies1 or dried fruits1 a graceful arrangement being to alternate four of these with four candlesticks for meals served late in the day4 ,table decorations4----,here fancy may run riot with color schemes1 and pretty devices for special occasions4 ,a painted place card1 a small bonbon box1 a single flower with a pin for fastening it on1----all these have their place at times4 ,satin ribbon is not an appropriate table decoration laid across the table in a broad band1 even when it displays a class color4 ,find some other way to make the color effective4 ,a color scheme in the food can be carried out to a degree for some occasion1 but do not let the color interfere with a really satisfactory menu4 ,relishes have already been suggested as decoration----radishes cut in rose shape1 olives1 candies1 and fruit4 ,the tray for invalid and convalescent4----,figures #gb and #gc suggest the daintiness possible in setting a tray4 ,it is well worth while to spend time in the careful arrangement of the tray1 for pretty dishes in orderly array may tempt the appetite of the invalid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4----;,a convalescent's tray4 ,courtesy of the ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4----;,a convalescent's tray with rack for holding cover4 ,courtesy of the ,dept4 of ,foods and ,cookery1 ,teachers ,college4 ,waiting on the table4----,when we wait on ourselves1 this should be done with cheerfulness1 and all should take a share4 ,after the food is on the table1 one person can 8help0 one thing and one another4 ,it is a good plan for the young people of the family to take turns as waiter in removing the soiled dishes and food and putting on the dessert4 ,a quick method is to place a tray on a small stand near the table1 taking the dishes from one place at a time1 and sorting them on the tray as you go4 ,the tray can then be carried into the kitchen1 with the dishes partly arranged for washing4 ,one mother uses a plan for having everybody help at breakfast time1 modeled after the tray system of a cafeteria4 ,the breakfast is cooked ready to serve1 and on the kitchen table is a small tray for each one of the family of four4 ,all necessary articles are at hand1 and even the boy of seven sets his own tray and helps himself to food1 and takes his place at the table2 and then when the meal is ended each one carries out his dishes and puts them in neat array for washing4 ,the waitress at a formal meal has to be alert1 rapid yet gentle in all her motions1 with a desire to make other people comfortable1 and a faculty for remembering their likes and dislikes4 ,a good waitress does not pass a second time a dish once declined4 ,the waitress must know the menu1 and have everything ready for each course at hand on the sideboard1 with dishes kept hot in the hot closet4 ,the table is laid in time1 she herself is immaculate1 and the room is well aired and the temperature agreeable4 ,a piece of bread is folded in each napkin4 ,if the first course is cold1----perhaps a grapefruit1----she arranges these at each place4 ,if it is to be a hot bouillon1 the cook tells her that all is ready1 and then she informs the hostess that dinner or luncheon is served4 ,the details of this type of waiting vary with the place and the taste of the hostess1 but the following method is simple and rapid4 ,serving4----,serve everything from the side table4 ,hold the dish to be served firmly in two hands with a napkin underneath1 a tablespoon and fork being placed on the dish4 ,pass to the left of the guest1 and hold the dish at a convenient height and near the plate4 ,after all the dishes in a course are passed in this way1 watch to see if second helps are needed4 ,remove the soiled plates at the left1 and place the clean at the left1 removing with the left hand and placing with the right4 ,fill glasses at the right1 and remove silver at the right before dessert when there are pieces left unused4 ,brush crumbs with a soft1 folded napkin upon a plate1 at the left1 just before dessert when everything is taken from the table but the center decoration1 the candies1 and the glass of water4 ,with this plan the guest helps himself each time1 even the after-dinner coffee being passed on a tray with cream and sugar1 and he can take as little as he pleases1 or decline4 ,some hostesses have some of the courses arranged on individual plates and placed1 and these may be placed either from the left or right4 ,but the other method is simple and satisfactory4 ,the finger bowls may be set on plates of dessert size with a doily underneath4 ,if a spoon or fork is needed with the dessert1 one or both may be placed on the plate also1 one on each side1 if both are used4 ,the bowls should be less than half full of water and the water should be a comfortable temperature1 neither cold nor noticeably warm4 ,set the plates arranged in this way before each guest4 ,the guest himself will remove the bowl and doily and silver before the dessert is passed4 ,in large banquets the food must be placed on the individual plate4 ,the question is sometimes asked1 8,who shall be served first80 ,it is a good plan to change this from course to course1 beginning the first time with the guest of honor4 ,it is not a matter of great importance1 provided no one has to wait long4 ,two waitresses make the service quicker4 ,the guests of honor sit at the right of the host and hostess4 ,the number of courses4----,two or three courses are enough for everyday comfort and health4 ,in formal serving1 it is good taste not to have too many4 ,a first course of grapefruit or perhaps oyster cocktail1 a soup1 a fish course1 or some light substitute for it1----the main course with meat1 a salad1 dessert1 coffee----make a quite sufficient meal4 ,the 8entre0 is a light dish1 say sweetbreads in cases1 after the fish course1 but it is quite unnecessary4 ,many people are becoming very weary of the long-drawn-out dinners and banquets1 which are certainly far from hygienic4 ,carving4----,this is an art that used to be taught as an accomplishment to girls1 and it is not an easy matter to master4 ,if not done at the table1 it must nevertheless be well done4 ,watch a good carver1 and practice when you have a chance4 ,a few simple directions can be given1 but a demonstration is really necessary4 ,first and foremost1 have a sharp1 strong knife1 and a strong fork4 ,the next essential is a platter large enough to hold the meat1 without having it slip off4 ,the fork must be firmly placed in the meat1 and the meat held down4 ,notice the shape of the cut of meat4 ,meat must be cut across the grain4 ,loosen from the bone1 notice the grain1 and cut evenly and firmly4 ,with fowl1 discover the joints1 pierce with the end of the knife1 disjoint1 and lay at the side1 and then slice the breast across the grain4 ,if carving at the table1 learn the preference of those served1 whether they wish light or dark meat1 meat well done or underdone4 ,have a spoon for dish gravy and stuffing4 ,,exercises #a4 ,plan the order of work for the following menus3 7a7 ,cooked cereal and cream1 stewed prunes1 poached egg on toast1 popovers1 coffee4 7b7 ,tomato bisque1 lamb chops with peas and mashed potatoes1 plain lettuce with ,french dressing1 ,brown ,betty with foamy sauce1 black coffee4 #b4 ,what are the important points in serving each dish8 ,give some simple garnishes4 #c4 ,obtain price lists and estimate the cost of table furnishings4 #d4 ,what do you consider good taste in china and silver8 #e4 ,what are the important points in table setting8 #f4 ,make a list of dishes to be used for the menus given above1 or other menus4 #g4 ,what are the fundamentals in waiting on the table8 #h4 ,how may the home service be made comfortable8 #i4 ,discuss different methods in formal service4 #aj4 ,how may the guest be made most comfortable8 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,cost ,,and ,,purchasing ,,of ,,food ,this is at all times an important matter1 but the notable increase in food prices1 during the last decade1 has made it a matter of interest to all4 ,the cost of food is one item only in the whole cost of living1 and this is affected by many conditions in manufacture and commerce and the business of the nations4 ,economists and others interested in social questions are studying the problem1 but as yet they do not agree upon the cause1 or causes1 of the increased cost of living4 ,we cannot hope1 therefore1 to understand the situation fully2 but we must be determined to spend money as wisely as we can1 and to learn what we may about food prices in relation to food values4 ,there are a few causes of the difference in price between one food and another that are more or less unchanging4 ,the cost of food may be considered from several points of view4 ,the question of the cost for each individual a day and relation of cost and nutritive value are studied in ,chapter ,,xviii4 ,the proportion of the income to be spent for food is taken up in ,chapter ,,xix4 ,labor and prices4----,the amount of labor involved in producing a food material affects its price4 ,meats cost more than staple vegetable foods1 like corn1 wheat1 or beans1 because we must raise the corn first to feed the animals4 ,meat is as cheap as vegetable foods only when the animal can find its own food1 as in the pioneer days of any country1 when only a small part of the land is under cultivation4 ,to the ,pilgrim ,fathers1 meat was cheaper than corn1 in terms of labor1 with deer at hand in the forest and corn raised with difficulty in small clearings4 ,meat production is now an industry1 and the product an expensive one1 especially as the wide cattle ranges of our ,west1 where the animals have formerly found natural food1 are now used more and more for other purposes4 ,transportation4----,carrying food from place to place increases its cost4 ,in one sense this is another form of labor4 ,each person who handles the food material from producer to consumer adds something to what the consumer pays4 ,we have heard much discussion of late of the 8middleman10 and the effort to bring the producer and consumer closer together4 ,this simply means doing away with some person who handles the product after it leaves the producer and before it reaches the consumer and who must have something for his labor4 ,in transportation there is another element involved1 the original cost of the means of conveyance2 and the natural wear and tear on the product are items that increase the final cost4 ,the modern farmer who carries his produce to market in an auto truck must have a return for the original cost of the truck and the keeping of it in repair4 ,the long-distance railway furnishes cold-storage cars1 and the cost of these and their maintenance affect freight rates4 ,a peach from ,south ,africa costs from fifty to sixty cents in the ,boston market4 ,it is probably true1 in this case1 that a fancy price is asked because ,african fruit is a novelty here2 but the difficulty and expense of long-distance transportation naturally make it costly4 ,demand and supply4----,the relation of demand to supply affects the price of food in a way not difficult to understand4 ,where the supply is permanently small and the demand widespread1 the price of the particular food material will be high1 and vice versa4 ,olive oil is a good example of the permanently high-priced food4 ,california olive oil brings a high price not only because it is pure and well flavored1 but because many people want it1 and the industry is a small one4 ,many years are needed to establish an olive grove1 and olive raising is not a popular way of making money1 because it is slow4 ,one enterprising ,american firm has bought an olive grove in ,spain1 and is using new methods there1 but the product1 though delicious1 is no cheaper4 ,although the manufacture of olive oil will doubtless remain a rather small industry1 the use of olive oil is increasing1 in this country1 at least4 ,it does not seem likely1 therefore1 to become a cheap form of fat4 ,we find nearly the opposite of this in cottonseed oil1 a large supply and a relatively smaller demand making a low price4 ,the seed 7a by-product of the cotton industry7 contains a large quantity of oil1 and it is not all used as food4 ,therefore1 it is permanently a low-priced fat1 as contrasted with the permanently high-priced fat1 olive oil4 ,agricultural conditions4----,there are two things of which the farmer can never feel sure1 the kind of weather to expect and the general character of the season4 ,of course1 the season affects the quality and the amount of any crop1 and this1 again1 influences the price4 ,another aspect of the effect of season on food is this3 that a food is in its own locality cheaper when it is in season than at other times of year1 when it has to be brought from a distance4 ,insect pests and plant diseases not infrequently spoil a crop1 and the market price goes up with the smaller supply4 ,this is what happened not long since to the potato crop and potato prices1 when potatoes were affected by the potato blight4 ,moreover1 if the farmer succeeds in keeping his crop free from a particular pest1 it means a more or less permanent increase in his expenses1 for in fighting insects and fungi there is an outlay for machinery and chemicals1 and much labor is expended4 ,unfortunately1 injurious insects and plant diseases are on the increase1 and this may mean a permanent rise in the cost of certain foods4 ,another fact has to be reckoned with in comparing the prices of different foods4 ,some vegetables are more difficult to raise than others1 even when the season is favorable1 and the insects at least partly conquered4 ,some plants have more vitality than others1 and grow under almost any condition of soil and moisture4 ,animal diseases must also affect the price of food4 ,if a large number of cattle are found to have tuberculosis1 and are condemned as food1 healthy cattle bring a higher price1 because1 again1 the supply is small in relation to the demand4 ,quality of food4----,poor food always costs less money than good food1 but it may not be economy to buy it4 ,there may be more usable material in one good apple at five cents than in three wormy ones for five4 ,form and place in which food is sold4----,food in the package costs more than in bulk1 and each fancy label adds a fraction to the cost4 ,plate-glass windows and ribbon decorations in a shop and the large expense of rent on a fashionable street are all paid for by the consumer4 ,relative cost of home and shop products4----,when prepared food of any kind is purchased1 one pays for raw material plus the cost of fuel and the labor involved in the cooking and the cleaning of apparatus and kitchen4 ,for example1 canned soup sold by one of the best manufacturers brings a good price because so much time and labor are used in a careful inspection of all material1 and in keeping up a high standard of cleanliness4 ,remember1 too1 that whenever cooked food appears on the table1 these two items1 fuel and labor1 are in reality added to the cost of the raw material4 ,we may not pay cash always for the labor1 but it must be accounted for in time and energy4 ,the woman who says1 8,my time doesn't count10 has a poor opinion of herself4 ,whether or not it is better to buy cooked food or to prepare food at home is discussed on page #bib4 ,other elements in food prices4----,so far we have considered those causes of food prices that are what may be called 8natural10 always to be taken into account1 and only partly under our control4 ,there are others that have to do with big business methods and interests and that have great influence at some one period in a nation's life1 and less at others4 ,they are more or less under our control if we have the wisdom and courage to act4 ,a discussion of these causes is part of the study of economics proper1 and we can only stop by the way to think of them for a moment4 ,transportation must always increase cost1 as we have learned1 but bad methods1 involving the handling of food by many people1 increase it unnecessarily4 ,our present methods of marketing food are clumsy1 and not economical1 especially in large cities4 ,the subject is being seriously studied with a view to improvement1 possibly by the establishment of public markets4 ,at present we have a bewildering state of things1 but the housekeeper who sincerely desires1 can learn to buy and prepare the less costly foods in an appetizing way1 and leave nothing for the garbage pail but the parts that are actually not eatable4 ,comparative costs4----,it would be useless to print here a list of actual prices1 since they vary in different localities1 and are constantly changing4 ,this list can be made by yourselves in your notebooks for your own home town1 and for the current year4 ,the table on page #cah is a guide1 however1 for in spite of fluctuations in prices there are certain foods that are permanently more economical than others2 for example1 grain products than meats1 for reasons already explained4 ,as a rule1 the rising cost of food has been so general as not to change greatly the relative economy of the different types of food as compared with each other4 ,cost and nutritive value4----,the discussion of cost has dealt so far with the cost of food materials as they are found in the market4 ,what we are really seeking to learn is the amount of nutritive material to be obtained for a given sum of money1 and in order to do this1 we must think of our purchases in terms of the foodstuffs and their values4 ,the accompanying table from a government bulletin#ag gives an estimate of cost from this point of view in terms of protein and fuel value4 ,notice that wheat bread is a cheap food1 standing first in the amount of building material and energy4 ,,amounts ,,of ,,protein ,,and ,,energy ,,obtained ,,for #aj ,,cents ,,expended ,,for ,,bread ,,and ,,other ,,foods ,,at ,,certain ,,assumed ,,prices ,,per ,,pound #aj ,,cents' ,,worth ,,will ,,contain #aj ,,cents ,,food ,,materials ,,price ,,will ,,buy ,,pro- ,a ,,fuel ,,tein ,,value ,,of ,ounces ,ounces ,calories ,wheat bread #e cents per lb4 #cb4j #b4i #bdjj ,cheese #bb cents per lb4 #g4c #a4i #hhf ,beef1 average #bj cents per lb4 #h4j #a4b #dfg ,porterhouse steak #be cents per lb #f4d #a4c #ddd ,dried beef #be cents per lb4 #f4d 4#a #cae ,eggs #bd cents per lb4 #aj4j #a4c #aih ,milk #i cents per qt4 #ch4c #a4b #gcf ,potatoes #fj cents per bu4 #afj4j ---- #biej ,apples #a-a_/b cents per lb4 #ajf4g ---- #abgj ,the price quoted for eggs is low1 and even less could be obtained for ten cents at prevailing prices in #aiac-aiad4 ,this kind of estimate is a help in making menus and dietaries4 7,see ,chapter ,,xviii47 ,another method of estimating economy for this purpose is by calculating the cost of #ajj-;,calorie portions of various food materials4 ,a table giving such a comparison will be found in the next chapter4 ,,purchasing ,,food ,in addition to the general principles of buying discussed in ,chapter ,,xxi there are some details to be studied in purchasing food4 ,personal attention in buying food4----,it is absolutely necessary to visit the market and the grocery where food is purchased4 ,the purchaser would not fail to visit a shop before deciding to patronize it regularly1 but frequent calls are necessary if buying is to be economical4 ,select the grocery1 market1 and bakery with a view to their cleanliness4 ,notice if the doors and windows are screened1 and if proper effort is made to catch flies that may have entered4 ,refuse to buy food that is exposed upon the sidewalk1 and if it is within doors1 see that it is protected from dust and flies4 ,the best markets now have tiled walls and floors1 which help to insure cleanliness4 ,the difference in odor is marked between a market that is properly cleaned daily1 and one where the proprietor uses uncleanly methods4 ,meat and vegetables1 in particular1 should be personally selected whenever this is possible4 ,the butcher must understand that the purchaser is familiar with the different cuts of meat and that honest service is demanded in regard to the quality1 trimming1 and weight of the meat4 ,one does not want to be too suspicious1 but it is well for the butcher to know that the purchaser has a set of standard scales at home by which to prove the accuracy of his weighing4 ,it is also important to inspect fruit and vegetables for quality and cost4 ,quantities in which to purchase food4----,the amount that one purchases of a certain food depends on its keeping qualities1 and upon the storage space available at home4 ,a general rule may be stated3 ,buy perishable foods in small quantities2 non-perishable foods in large4 ,the reason for buying in larger quantity is that the cost is somewhat less1 although sometimes it seems but little less4 ,some one has remarked that no one is a good buyer who does not consider a quarter of a cent4 ,in a modern house or apartment where there is not room for a barrel of flour or sugar1 then the quantity must be gauged by the space4 ,the same is true of canned goods as of flour and sugar4 ,buying by the dozen saves a little on each can if you have shelf room for piling the cans4 ,foods may be classed in this connection as perishable1 semi-perishable1 and non-perishable4 ,this depends somewhat for any one housekeeper upon the size of her refrigerator1 and upon an available place where food may be cool1 even if not so cold as in the refrigerator4 ,those foods classed here as perishable are those which readily 8spoil10 that is1 those that are affected by mold and bacteria on account of the moisture that they contain1 and also those that lose flavor and freshness quickly4 ,those most easily affected should be kept the coldest2 those in the semi-perishable group do not deteriorate so rapidly1 although a low temperature is desirable with all of these4 ,under the non-perishable foods are classed those that are not subject to bacteria or mold in ordinary circumstances4 ,these should be kept dry1 however1 and never in a heated place4 ,in a sense1 no food material is non-perishable4 ,insects sometimes develop in the cereal products1 for instance1 and the material is thus rendered unfit for food4 ,the food adjuncts do not spoil except as they lose flavor if kept too long4 ,perishable4----,milk1 cream1 uncooked meat1 uncooked fish1 shellfish1 berries1 fruits with delicate skins1 lettuce1 and vegetables that wilt easily4 ,semi-perishable4----,butter1 eggs1 cooked meat and fish1 root vegetables1 cooked vegetables1 left overs in general1 skin fruits like apples1 bananas1 oranges1 and lemons1 dried fruits1 scalded milk and cream1 smoked and salted fish and meats1 open molasses and sirup4 ,non-perishable4----,flour1 meals and cereals1 sugar1 salt1 and other condiments and flavorings1 jellies1 preserves and canned goods1 coffee1 tea1 cocoa1 and chocolate4 ,suggestions for buying4----,milk and cream must be delivered daily4 ,the average amount used by the family is the regular order4 ,fresh meat should be delivered on the day wanted unless the refrigerator is large with a space for hanging meat4 ,even then1 it should not be kept more than twenty-four hours4 ,meat should not be placed directly on the ice4 ,fresh berries and delicate vegetables should be delivered on the day wanted4 ,butter and eggs may be purchased once a week2 other semi-perishables in quantities depending on storage space4 ,it is economical to buy a box of lemons1 and the root vegetables in large quantities4 ,flour and sugar are purchased by the bag or barrel2 lump sugar1 in boxes4 ,breakfast cereals are best bought in packages1 and it is wise not to buy a large number at one time4 ,it is better to purchase oftener and have fresher material4 ,coffee may be bought in pound cans1 but it is economy to purchase it in five or ten pound quantities1 unground4 ,tea comes in closely sealed packages1 in #a_/d1 #a_/b1 and #a lb4 and larger4 ,cocoa is bought in #a_/b lb4 cans1 but it is economy to buy in large cans if it is frequently used4 ,macaroni is bought by the package1 and the number at one time must depend on how much it is used in the menu4 ,rice1 tapioca1 and sago may be bought in bulk and kept in tin or glass jars4 ,salt by the bag or box4 ,spices1 ground1 in tight boxes2 whole in bulk1 to be kept in tightly closed cans4 ,molasses comes by the gallon or in cans4 ,if in bulk1 it is usually acid2 in the can it is not4 ,vinegar comes by the gallon1 or in bottles4 ,canned and preserved goods1 singly1 by the dozen1 or case4 ,bakery products1 when bought at all1 should be purchased daily1 or every other day4 ,do not buy so much that stale bread accumulates4 ,weights1 measures1 and packages4----,the buyer is at a disadvantage here in regard to quantities1 for the baskets in which fruits and vegetables are sold do not always conform to the standard dry measures1 and dishonest dealers evade the law in regard to the use of standard scales4 ,even if they have the standard1 they resort to tricks that give the customer short weights4 ,here the ,bureau of ,weights and ,measures1 with its ,commissioner and corps of inspectors1 comes to the aid of the purchaser4 ,effective work has been done in our cities in enforcing the laws1 and this work continues4 ,selling fruit1 vegetables1 and even eggs by weight would simplify matters in many ways1 and this is the custom in some parts of the ,united ,states with vegetables and fruit1 although it is not yet a common practice2 with eggs it seems more convenient to sell by the dozen1 but grading according to size is a step toward standardization4 ,the alluring packages in which so many articles are offered are quite uneven as to the quantities they contain4 ,they certainly do away with some handling of food1 and they keep out dust4 ,unfortunately1 an attractive package does not guarantee a clean factory or clean handling in the packing4 ,dried figs1 for example1 in pretty baskets are sometimes packed in uncleanly places4 ,moreover1 small packages are poor economy1 since the box adds to the cost of the food material1 and sometimes there seems even more package than food4 ,if the family consumes many biscuits or 8crackers10 it costs considerably more to buy them in packages4 ,yet1 these are convenient1 and should be cleanly1 and are justified for these reasons1 provided the housekeeper does not buy many small packages4 ,the quantities in canned goods are variable and sometimes below measure when purchased from a second-rate dealer4 ,in ,september1 #aiad1 the net weight amendment to the ,national ,food ,law will go into effect1 after which1 in general1 foods sold in packages must be labeled to show net weight or measure or numerical count4 ,as already suggested1 you should own standard scales for testing the purchases made by weight1 even baker's bread4 ,buy fruit and vegetables by the quart1 peck1 and bushel1 rather than by the basket of uncertain measure4 ,examine baskets containing small fruits to see if they have false bottoms4 ,if you discover small measure1 report at once to the dealer1 and to whatever authority has charge of such matters in your town4 ,quality4----,modern methods of manufacture1 transportation1 and storage make it difficult to determine the history and quality of food we purchase in the markets4 ,yet the consumer has a natural right to know if the food offered for sale is the best of its kind2 fresh eggs1 clean milk1 meat from healthy animals1 untainted and free from harmful preservatives1 sound vegetables and fruit1 manufactured and preserved foodstuffs unspoiled by the manufacturing processes1 free from harmful preservatives1 and of good flavor4 ,many people must be in danger of forgetting the flavor of a fresh-laid egg4 ,the familiar signs in many small shops1 8,fresh eggs10 8,strictly fresh eggs10 8,fancy eggs10 are amusing1 but they bespeak an unnatural state of things4 ,as our business methods have created conditions beyond the control of the individual consumer it follows that we must take concerted action1 and make and enforce whatever laws are necessary4 ,this is done partly through the ,federal government1 and partly through state laws and municipal ordinances4 ,thus1 while we may not know the actual conditions in which food is produced1 we may through legislation seek to insure that the food we buy shall be 7#a7 what it purports to be in kind and amount1 7#b7 free from deterioration or unwholesome conditions1 7#c7 possessed of full nutritive value4 ,the ,federal ,food and ,drugs ,act of ,june #cj1 #aijf1 commonly known as 8,the ,pure ,food ,law10 and on which subsequent legislation by most of the states has been largely based1 defines the main types of adulteration and misbranding1 but1 except in the case of confectionery and of habit-forming drugs1 does not name the specific substances which are to be prohibited or restricted in use1 nor does the law itself contain standards of composition for foods4 ,according to this law a food is deemed adulterated3 7#a7 ,if any substance has been mixed or packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength4 7#b7 ,if any substance has been substituted1 wholly or in part4 7#c7 ,if any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted4 7#d7 ,if it be mixed1 colored1 coated1 powdered1 or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed4 7#e7 ,if it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious to health4 7#f7 ,if it consists in whole or in part of a filthy1 decomposed1 or putrid animal or vegetable substance1 or any portion of an animal unfit for food1 or if it be the product of a diseased animal1 or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter4 ,and a food is deemed to be misbranded3 7#a7 ,if it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article4 7#b7 ,if it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser1 or purport to be a foreign product when not so1 or if the contents shall have been substituted in whole or in part1 or if it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any narcotic or habit-forming drug which it contains4 7#c7 ,if it bear an incorrect statement of weight or measure4 7#d7 ,if the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement1 design1 or device which is false or misleading in any particular4 ,for a fuller discussion of the basis of pure food legislation and the essential features of the ,united ,states laws see ,sherman's 8,food ,products10 from which a part of the summary here given is drawn4 ,the modern cold storage plant is of immense service in keeping food from the season of abundance to that of scarcity1 but it may prove worse than useless if improperly managed4 ,state and federal laws must control the management1 and government inspection must be thorough4 ,cold storage would be a benefit to all under proper conditions of management1 and the prices of many foods would be evenly adjusted by the maintenance of a steady supply4 ,many states now have laws regulating cold storage plants and there is every reason to hope that the abuses which have sometimes existed will be eliminated and the usefulness of cold storage extended4 ,we may feel that the progress of the pure food movement has been most satisfactory1 even though much more remains to be done4 ,the states generally have either enacted new food laws1 or revised their laws following the national law4 ,under the national law over #bjjj prosecutions have already 7#aiac7 been decided in favor of the government4 ,congress has passed an even more stringent law for meat inspection supplementary to the ,pure ,food ,law with ample appropriation for its enforcement4 ,moreover1 in #aiac1 the ,secretary of ,agriculture appointed outside experts to inspect meat-packing establishments throughout the country4 ,this inspection is to check up the regular work being done by the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,the enforcing of federal and state laws has already largely stopped the misbranding of package foods as to weight or measure1 cheap substitutions1 the removal of valuable ingredients1 and the sale of decomposed or tainted food derived from diseased animals4 ,remember that abuses can be kept down to any extent that we are willing to pay for4 ,taxpayers must appropriate money to pay for inspection1 for laws1 no matter how good1 will not insure pure food unless carried out faithfully by an adequate number of specially trained inspectors4 ,in the face of all these difficulties we must not be frightened into that state of mind where danger seems to lurk in every mouthful4 ,we must use caution and common sense in our buying1 and earnestly support every good movement for bettering conditions4 ,there is a certain difference in quality even at a first class dealer's that one must learn to distinguish4 ,one can of peaches will cost more than another1 because the peaches are larger4 ,if it is only this1 and there is only a slight difference in flavor in favor of the more costly1 buy the cheaper by all means4 ,a fancy brand of imported preserves brings a fancy price which it is not worth while to pay4 ,we have to learn to distinguish between poor and good quality1 on the one hand1 and between good and what may be called 8fancy10 on the other4 ,we should demand the good1 but most of us cannot afford the 8fancy40 ,ready-cooked foods4----,more and more cooked food1 canned or otherwise1 is taking its place in the market4 ,when canned goods were first manufactured on a large scale they comprised fruits1 vegetables1 meats1 and fish1 but we are now accustomed to a miscellaneous variety1 including soups1 baked beans1 puddings1 and pudding sauces1 spaghetti1 hashed meat1 and shellfish4 ,bakery products have a larger sale than ever1 and are found in small towns1 and even in country districts carried there by bakers' wagons4 ,in our large cities we find the 8delicatessen shop0 very common1 where small portions of cooked meats and fowl may be purchased after the custom of ,europe1 and these stores are open even on ,sunday4 ,how shall we decide what is best for us in our buying8 ,we must not condemn entirely the buying of cooked food without a careful study of the situation4 ,the custom has grown with changes in our mode of living1 especially in cities1 where the small apartment is common1 and where gas is the fuel4 ,under these conditions it is difficult to prepare foods that need long and slow cooking1 and these processes are more expensive when gas is used4 ,the long slow cooking of soup and beans1 the even baking of bread1 are difficult to accomplish4 ,the odors from these processes fill the small apartment1 and scent it for some time1 and this is unpleasant at all seasons4 ,take another example1 the canning and preserving of fruits4 ,the first cost of the fruit is usually high in the city1 and this plus the sugar and the gas1 and the labor and the lack of storage space make it seem impracticable in these conditions1 and many people decide in favor of buying goods already canned4 ,such housekeeping is simplified by buying cooked products to some extent4 ,the fireless cooker helps here1 but not for all processes4 ,counting in fuel1 the cost is not so much greater as we might suppose2 and comfort and convenience are increased4 ,under other conditions1 even in the city1 a different conclusion is reached4 ,if coal is the fuel1 and a steady fire is kept1 perhaps in winter for heating purposes1 then it is economy to cook most food materials at home4 ,in the country and small village different conditions prevail4 ,here the abundance of certain fruits in season makes it economical to can and dry1 even counting fuel and labor4 ,in some sections many people can their own vegetables also4 ,however1 even in the country in the summer1 it is a decided relief to the farmer's wife1 probably short of 8help10 to win a little leisure by buying staple bakery products4 ,here if strict economy is not necessary1 is it not better to save strength rather than money8 ,each housekeeper must work out these problems for herself4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what are the more permanent factors in the cost of food material8 #b4 ,why is vegetable food usually cheaper than animal food8 #c4 ,explain the effect of season upon the cost4 #d4 ,why does transportation affect the cost of food8 #e4 ,why is clean milk more costly than unclean8 #f4 ,how do business conditions affect the cost8 #g4 ,why is wheat bread a truly cheap food8 #h4 ,how can we estimate the cost of the actual nutrients in food8 #i4 ,describe the working of the pure food law4 #aj4 ,why are such laws necessary8 #aa4 ,how may we all aid in the passage and enforcement of pure food laws8 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,menus ,,and ,,dietaries#ah ,when we have learned to choose and cook wholesome and appetizing food we have not solved the whole problem of successful feeding4 ,it is possible to make people sick with good food1 if it is badly selected and fed at wrong times or in unsuitable amounts4 ,whether children grow to their full size and strength depends more upon the choice of their food than upon any other one thing4 ,the effect of food is strikingly shown in the case of the white rats in ,fig4 #gd4 ,the two upper ones are the same age4 ,both had the same mother1 lived in the same kind of clean cages1 and had plenty of food1 but the diet of the upper was good for growth1 while that for the middle one was not4 ,it remained perfectly well1 but became stunted because of the character of its food4 ,you can see that it resembles the lowest one in the illustration1 which is only one fourth as old4 ,in this chapter we shall consider how and when and in what amounts to serve food so that every one may get from it the fullest benefit in both health and happiness4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4----,the effect of food on growth4 ,reprinted from publication of the ,carnegie ,institution4 ,courtesy ,professor ,lafayette ,b4 ,mendel4 ,in ,chapter ,i we learned that the body is a working machine whose first requirement is fuel4 ,hence the first consideration in the diet is to have the proper amount of fuel for each day1 to provide energy for the constant internal work that keeps the body alive1 and for the variable external work which may be so light as to consist of the few movements that one makes lying in bed1 or sitting quietly2 or so hard as to exercise many muscles1 as playing tennis1 bicycling1 or swimming4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4----,respiration calorimeter1 open4 ,from the 8,journal of ,biological ,chemistry40 ,courtesy of ,professor ,graham ,lusk4 ,energy requirements of adults4----,we have also learned something about the foods which supply this energy2 we must now find out how much fuel 7in the form of food7 it takes to do different amounts of work1 just as the owner of an automobile wants to know how much gasoline per mile or per hour is required to run his machine under different conditions4 ,very careful experiments have been made on many men in different ways to measure their energy output1 the most accurate and interesting being those made in a respiration calorimeter1 a device so delicate as to be able to measure the extra heat given off when one changes from lying perfectly quiet to sitting up equally still1 thus adding the work of holding the upper part of the body upright4 ,a respiration calorimeter large enough to hold a child is shown in ,figs4 #ge and #gf4 ,you can see that it consists of a chamber with thick walls to prevent loss of heat4 ,in ,fig4 #ge the door is open4 ,when an experiment is going on the door is closed1 as in ,fig4 #gf1 air being furnished through special tubes4 ,the walls are fitted with delicate thermometers and every device which will help to get the exact amount of heat given off from the body is employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4----,respiration calorimeter1 closed4 ,from the 8,journal of ,biological ,chemistry40 ,courtesy of ,professor ,graham ,lusk4 ,just as it takes more fuel to run a big machine than a little one1 so it takes more energy for a large person than a small one2 therefore we must know the weight of the one whose food requirements we wish to calculate1 as well as the amount of energy required to do different kinds and amounts of work4 ,the following table will help in calculating the approximate fuel requirements of any grown person4 ,the food needs of children and young people under twenty-five will be discussed later4 ,,approximate ,,energy ,,requirements ,,of ,,average-,,sized ,,man ,occupation ,calories per pound per hour ,sleeping #j4d ,sitting quietly #j4f ,at light muscular exercise #a4j ,at active muscular exercise #b4j ,at severe muscular exercise #c4j ,light exercise may be understood to include work equivalent to standing and working with the hands1 as at a desk in chemistry or cookery2 or work involving the feet like walking or running a sewing machine4 ,many persons1 as students1 stenographers1 seamstresses1 bookkeepers1 teachers1 and tailors do little or no work heavier than this4 ,active exercise involves more muscles1 as in bicycling compared with walking1 or exercise with dumb-bells as compared with typewriting4 ,carpenters1 general houseworkers1 and mail carriers do about this grade of work while on duty4 ,severe exercise not only involves a good many muscles1 but causes enough strain to harden and enlarge them4 ,bicycling up grade1 swimming1 and other active sports would be included in this kind of exercise4 ,lumbermen1 excavators1 and a few others do even heavier work than this4 ,knowing the weight of a grown man or woman1 and something of the daily occupation1 as in the case of a professional man1 we can estimate the probable energy requirement somewhat as follows3 ,sleeping1 #h hours2 #h #j4d ,calories #c4b ,calories per pound4 ,sitting quietly 7at meals1 reading1 etc471 #h hours2 #h #j4f ,calories #d4h per pound4 ,at light muscular exercise 7dressing1 standing1 walking1 etc471 #f #a4j ,calories #f4j ,calories per pound4 ,at active muscular exercise #b hours1 #b #b4j ,calories #d ,calories per pound4 ,total ,calories per pound for #bd hours1 #ah2 #ah #aed pounds 7the weight of the average man7 #bggb1 or approximately #bfhj1 ,calories per day required4 ,calculate in this way the energy requirement for various grown persons whom you know4 ,energy requirements during growth4----,in estimating food requirements of those who are under twenty-five years old1 we must bear in mind that the same materials which serve for fuel serve in part for building material4 ,protein is used for muscle building as well as for supplying energy1 and the larger one grows1 the greater the reserves of carbohydrate and fat which he can carry4 ,furthermore1 internal activity is greater in the young than the middle aged or very old1 and external activity is apt also to be greater4 ,think1 for instance1 how much running children do compared with their parents4 ,for all these reasons1 we cannot use the table for adults in calculating the energy requirement of young people4 ,in the following table an attempt has been made to take account of their greater needs1 but the estimates include only moderate exercise2 with hard work more will be required4 ,notice that the highest allowance per pound of body weight is for the youngest children4 ,,energy ,,requirements ,,during ,,growth ,age in ,years ,calories per pound per day ,under #a #de #a-b #de-dj #b-e #dj-cf #f-i #cf-cj #aj-ac #cj-bg #ad-ag #bg-bj #ag-be not less than #ah ,with these two tables for calculating energy requirement we can determine about how much will be needed by each member of the family4 ,a group consisting of a professional man1 his wife1 and three children under #af will require about #aj1jjj ,calories per day2 a workingman's family with the same number of children from #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj1 because of the harder work which both parents and possibly the children will do4 ,protein requirement4----,since few of our foods consist of a single foodstuff1 and we are not likely to make even a single meal on pure fat1 or pure protein1 or pure carbohydrate alone1 we are sure to get some building material in any diet1 but we must see to it that we are getting amounts which furnish the best possible conditions for growth and repair4 ,as we have already seen1 nitrogen in the form of protein is necessary to the life of every cell in the body4 ,from protein1 too1 muscle is built1 though we cannot build good muscle merely by feeding protein2 a diet moderate in its amount of protein1 but with plenty of fuel for healthy exercise is best for muscle building4 ,under all ordinary conditions1 if ten to fifteen ,calories in every hundred 7#aj to #ae per cent of the total ,calories7 are from protein1 the need for this kind of building material will be met4 ,thus a family requiring #aj1jjj ,calories per day should have from #ajjj to #aejj of these as protein ,calories4 ,the following table gives the protein ,calories in the #ajj-;,calorie portions of some common food materials4 ,,table ,,showing ,,distribution ,,of ,,calories ,,in #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,,of ,,common ,,food ,,materials ,,distribution ,,of ,,calories ,,food ,,material ,,weight------------------------ ,,protein ,,fat ,,carbohydrate ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,ounces ,almonds1 shelled #j4e #ac #gg #aj ,apples1 fresh #g4e #b #f #ib ,bacon #j4e #f #id ---- ,bananas #e4e #e #f #hi ,beans1 dried #a4j #bf #e #fi ,beef1 lean round #b4e #ed #df ---- ,bread #a4d #ad #d #hb ,butter #j4e #a #ii ---- ,cabbage #ac4c #ba #g #gb ,carrots #aj4a #aj #e #he ,cheese1 ,american #j4h #bg #gc ---- ,cod1 salt 7boneless7 #c4a #ih #b ---- ,cornmeal #a4j #aj #e #he ,eggs1 whole #b4g #cf #fd ---- ,flour1 white #a4j #ab #c #he ,lamb chops #a4c #bc #gg ---- ,lentils #a4j #bi #d #fg ,macaroni #a4j #ae #b #hc ,milk1 whole #e4a #ai #eb #bi ,milk1 skimmed #i4f #cg #g #ef ,oats1 rolled #j4i #ag #af #fg ,peanuts1 shelled #j4f #ai #fc #ah ,peas1 canned #f4d #bf #c #ga ,peas1 dried #a4j #bg #c #gj ,salmon1 canned #b4d #ed #df ---- ,veal #c4b #gj #cj ---- ,walnuts1 shelled #j4e #aj #hb #h ,notice that some foods1 like bread1 have about the right proportion of protein calories2 others1 like beef1 beans1 and peas are very high in protein calories4 ,by combining some foods high in protein with others containing little or none1 we can get the right proportion4 ,thus1 #ajj ,calories of beef combined with #djj each of bread and butter will give #ijj ,calories of which #aad1 or #ab4g per cent1 are from protein4 ,,protein ,,total ,,calories ,,calories ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,beef #ed #ajj ,bread #ef #djj ,butter #d #djj ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,totals #aad #ijj 7#aad #ijj #j4abg or #ab4g7 ,it is interesting to work out other combinations which give these good proportions4 ,ash requirement4----,we are also assured of ash in any ordinary diet1 but some attention should be paid to kind and amount1 especially as many common foods have lost the parts richest in ash4 ,patent flour1 for instance1 made from the inner part of the grain1 is not so rich in ash as whole or cracked wheat4 ,valuable salts are also lost in cooking vegetables when the water in which they were cooked is thrown away4 ,if not desired with the vegetable1 this should be saved for gravy or soup4 ,it is not necessary to calculate a definite amount of ash for the diet1 if ash-bearing foods are freely used4 ,by reference to the table on page #chd you can see what foods are valuable for supplying the important kinds of ash4 ,milk is particularly rich in calcium and hence is required when the bones are growing4 ,eggs have iron and phosphorus in forms well suited to growth4 ,but if eggs are too expensive1 the vegetables and fruits generally will supply these same substances4 ,diet for growth4----,diets made in the chemical laboratory from mixtures of pure 7isolated7 protein1 fat1 carbohydrate1 and ash to satisfy all the requirements which we have so far mentioned1 do not behave alike when fed to animals4 ,the kind of protein is important as well as the amount4 ,this is shown by experiments in which only one protein is fed at a time4 ,on some1 the animals will not thrive4 ,on others1 adult animals do very well1 but the young ones become stunted like the one shown on page #bie4 ,milk has been found to contain proteins on which young animals can thrive4 ,but even in diets containing the protein from milk1 young animals do not develop normally unless the salts of milk are added too4 ,no perfect substitute for milk has ever been found4 ,during the first year of life1 a child lives on it almost exclusively2 for the first five years it should be considered the most important article in the diet2 and throughout the period of growth it should be freely used if children are to become vigorous men and women4 ,if not liked as a beverage1 it can be used in cocoa1 or cereal coffee1 in soups1 puddings1 and other dishes4 ,considering what milk may save in the way of more expensive protein foods1 such as eggs and meat1 and of ash-supplying foods like fruits and vegetables1 it is to be regarded as a cheap food4 ,it is possible to get the proper amounts of fuel and protein from white bread and meat1 but such a diet is poorly balanced as to ash constituents and especially lacks calcium4 ,it would need to be balanced by adding some fruit or vegetable and even then would not contain as much calcium as is best for growing people4 ,a diet of bread and milk1 on the other hand1 is so nearly perfectly balanced 7supplying fuel1 protein1 and ash constituents in suitable amounts7 that it can be taken exclusively for a long time4 ,whole wheat bread and milk would be even better1 because the whole wheat would supply more iron1 in which white bread and milk are not rich4 ,the addition of fruits and vegetables to the bread and milk diet would also be an advantage----partly for the same reason4 ,other foods especially valuable for growth are eggs and cereals from whole grains4 ,children should acquire the habit of eating fruits and green vegetables of all kinds1 for when they are older and likely to take less milk and cereals1 the fruits and vegetables supply important ash constituents and also help to prevent constipation4 ,the foods good for children are also good for adults1 but the latter can keep their bodies in good repair with less protein and ash in proportion to body weight than are required during growth1 and many kinds of protein serve for repair4 ,if there are not enough milk and eggs to go around1 adults can take meat1 nuts1 peas1 beans and bread for protein1 and trust to these and fruit and vegetables for ash4 ,when the body has been wasted by sickness1 however1 a return to the foods of growth1 especially a diet of milk and eggs1 is best for building it up again4 ,the number of meals in a day4----,knowing how much and what kinds of food are best for each member of the family1 we must next find out how to divide the total food for the day into meals4 ,few of us could take our required fuel in one meal1 and if we could1 we should probably be hungry before the time for the next meal4 ,some persons get along very well with two meals a day1 but usually their fuel requirement is not high4 ,most people are more comfortable and more likely to eat a suitable amount in a deliberate fashion if they have three meals a day4 ,when large amounts of fuel have to be taken1 four or five meals may be better than three2 babies who have to eat in proportion to their size1 often #b-a_/b times as much as their mothers1 take #b-a_/b times as many meals1 i4e4 #g or #h in a day4 ,the amount of food for each meal4----,while the number of meals depends largely on the amount to be eaten in the whole day1 and the appetite of the subject1 the amount at each meal is most influenced by the nature of the daily occupation4 ,the baby with nothing to do but eat and sleep has meals uniform in kind and amount4 ,the business man who works very hard through the middle of the day1 and has not time to take an elaborate meal1 nor time to rest after it so that it may digest easily1 takes a light luncheon and makes up for it at breakfast and dinner4 ,the outdoor worker who has a long hard day and expends much energy1 takes an hour at noon for a substantial dinner1 in addition to a hearty breakfast and supper and sometimes a mid-forenoon or mid-afternoon lunch4 ,regularity of meals4----,more important than the number of meals is regularity as to time of eating and amount of food4 ,training for the digestive tract is just as important as training the eye or the hand or the brain4 ,we cannot expect good digestions if we have a hearty luncheon to-day1 none at all to-morrow1 and perhaps a scanty and hasty late one the next day4 ,to take food into the stomach between meals is to demoralize the digestive system4 ,foods that are excellent as part of a meal provoke headaches and bad complexions1 and many symptoms of a protesting stomach1 when taken between meals4 ,the younger the person1 the more important is regularity4 ,little children soon suffer if their meals are not 8on the minute40 ,adults have more difficulty in controlling their time1 but if they have to be late to meals1 they should be more careful than usual to eat slowly and to choose plain simple food that will digest easily4 ,mental attitude toward meals4----,good food may be provided at the proper time and yet the members of a family may fail to keep well and happy unless they come to meals in the right condition4 ,haste1 chill1 exhaustion1 anxiety1 excitement1 fretfulness1 or anger may interfere with the digestion of the most digestible of meals4 ,orderly table service1 good manners1 and cheerful conversation are very important factors in the success of a meal4 ,peace and joy as well as 8calories0 are watchwords of good nutrition4 ,balanced meals4----,having determined how many meals to serve in the day and what their hours shall be1 the next question is how to choose and distribute the constituents of the day's ration so as to promote digestibility and satisfaction4 ,a meal of pure protein1 or fat1 or carbohydrate would not be relished1 and would have some physiological disadvantages4 ,digestion is likely to be more complete on a mixed diet4 ,a meal of carbohydrate alone leaves the stomach more quickly than any other kind1 and one would feel hungry before the next meal1 though one might have had plenty of fuel2 a meal of fat alone would leave the stomach very slowly1 and one would not have so good an appetite for the next meal2 a meal of pure protein would stimulate heat production without any particular advantages1 except possibly in very cold weather3 it would be decidedly undesirable in hot weather4 ,for these and other reasons it is best to have the different foodstuffs represented in each meal1 and to see that no one contains an excess of fat1 which tends to retard all digestion4 ,this is what is usually meant by a balanced meal1 but it may also include care that about the same proportion of fuel is served at the same meal each day4 ,a meal does not need to be 8balanced0 in quite the same sense as a day's ration4 ,the latter must have a definite amount of fuel1 a suitable proportion of protein1 ash well represented1 some food for bulk1 the whole selected with regard for the physical condition1 tastes1 habits1 and pocketbooks of those to be fed4 ,menus4----,food taken at a stated time constitutes a meal4 ,it may consist of a single food material1 as bread1 or a single dish1 as soup2 or it may contain many kinds of food and many dishes4 ,when the day's ration consists of a single food1 there is no trouble in arranging the bill of fare1 for all meals are alike4 ,but as soon as we have two foods1 we may consider whether they will digest better if eaten together or separately1 and which way they will please the palate better4 ,balanced diets do not necessarily afford attractive menus4 ,macaroni and oatmeal would make a fairly well balanced meal except as regards ash constituents1 but no one would call such a combination pleasing4 ,by the substitution of a little cheese and an orange for the oatmeal1 a meal containing about the same fuel value and proportion of protein could be arranged1 and it would certainly appeal more to the appetite1 and furnish better proportions of ash constituents4 ,in the construction of the menu for the day or meal1 we must consider not only food values and time of day and combinations which shall be digestible1 but flavor1 color1 texture1 and temperature of our foods4 ,the study of digestible combinations belongs to the science of nutrition4 ,the harmonious blending of tastes1 odors1 colors1 and the like is an art4 ,just as there are pleasing combinations of sound1 so there are harmonies of flavor2 certain dishes seem naturally to 8go together40 ,habit has a great deal to do with food combinations4 ,a ,chinaman would not eat sugar on rice2 a ,japanese would not cook beans with molasses as the ,bostonian does4 ,it is interesting to experiment with new combinations1 and study to find out why old ones are pleasing4 ,why do we like crackers with soup8 ,butter on bread8 ,toast with eggs8 ,peas with lamb chops8 ,digestible menus4----,some of our eating habits are worth preserving and cultivating4 ,fresh fruit for breakfast stimulates the appetite and helps to prevent or overcome constipation4 ,a mild-flavored food like cereal is better relished before we have had meats or other highly flavored food4 ,soup at the beginning of a meal puts the stomach in better condition to digest the food that follows4 ,ice cream at the end of a meal is less likely to chill the stomach than at the beginning4 ,bread and butter afford a good combination of fat and carbohydrate4 ,crackers help in the breaking up of cheese into particles easy to digest4 ,not all of our eating habits are good1 however4 ,griddlecakes1 melted butter1 and maple sirup taste good1 but the cakes make a pasty mass difficult for digestive juices to penetrate4 ,the sirup is likely to ferment1 and the butter coating the whole delays digestion greatly4 ,chicken salad is popular1 but combinations of protein with much fat 7as in the mayonnaise dressing7 always digest very slowly4 ,simple dishes1 without rich sauces or gravies1 and not excessively high in fat1 are easiest of digestion4 ,pastries1 fried foods1 meats with much fat1 like pork and sausage1 are always more or less difficult and should be attempted only by the strong1 or when the body is free from physical or nervous weariness1 and not about to undertake mental work4 ,attention to the art of menu making not only helps to make the diet easier to digest1 but also better balanced4 ,foods which are similar in color1 flavor1 and texture1 like potatoes and rice1 are not artistic in combination1 and it is better to substitute for one of them a green vegetable1 or meat or butter1 in which case we get a better balance1 as more ash1 protein1 or fat would then be included with the starch of the rice or potato4 ,in making the bill of fare it is a great mistake to consider each meal by itself alone4 ,if we do so1 some days are likely to be very high in fuel1 while others may be very low4 ,then1 too1 the impression left from one meal carries over to the next4 ,we do not care to see on the dinner table the same foods that we saw at luncheon4 ,our love of variety is one of nature's ways of seeing to it that we get different kinds of foodstuffs in our diet4 ,variety stimulates appetite1 but this does not mean a great variety at one meal4 ,the truest variety is obtained by a few well-selected dishes at each meal4 ,if we do not exhaust our resources on one meal1 we shall be able to have a greater range of foods in the course of a week4 ,a hotel may have fifty or sixty items on its bill of fare1 but after a few days one feels as if there were a great sameness1 because all of them are impressed on the mind at each meal and every day4 ,dietaries4----,a dietary1 as we shall use the term here1#ai is a statement of the food requirements of a person or group of persons for a day or some other definite length of time1 with a selection of foods to satisfy this requirement4 ,the first part of a family dietary will have to be calculated according to the age1 weight1 and occupation1 as stated on pages #bii-cjc4 ,when complete1 it will stand somewhat like this3 ,,food ,,requirements ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,members ,,of ,,family ,,age ,,weight ,,total ,,protein ,,pounds ,,calories ,,calories ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,man #dj #aed #bfhj #bfh-djb ,woman #ch #abj #bafj #baf-cbd ,girl #af #aaj #bbjj #bbj-ccj ,boy #ab #ge #bbej #bbe-cch ,boy #f #dj #afjj #afj-bdj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total requirements #aj1hij #ajhi-afcd ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,in selecting food to satisfy these requirements it is a good plan to make first a list of those foods that need to be included in the day's dietary1 no matter what the particular menu may be4 ,this will include foods for growth where there are children1 special dishes needed if any one is sick1 and those common foods which we are accustomed to include in every day's menu1 such as bread and butter4 ,for the family which we are considering1 this list will stand somewhat as follows3 ,,food #ajj-;,,calorie ,,portions ,milk #bjbj 7#f for each child1 the rest for the ,cereal #e adults7 ,eggs 7for children7 #b 7counting #b_/c portion per egg7 ,fruit #e ,green vegetable #b ,meat or meat substitute #e ,bread #ae ,butter #ae ,this list is to be kept in planning the menu1 whose character is further determined by certain dishes which we wish particularly to have included4 ,for instance1 we may desire roast beef for dinner4 ,this is a highly flavored meat1 and a protein food which will go a long way towards satisfying the adult's protein needs4 ,special protein food for breakfast may well be omitted1 or take the form of eggs1 which are a contrast to the meat in flavor1 form1 etc4 ,protein food for luncheon might be fish or some other meat substitute4 ,vegetables for dinner should not only harmonize with the meat1 but contrast pleasingly with each other4 ,this result is insured by choosing one vegetable from the starchy type1 as potatoes or sweet potatoes1 and the other vegetable of the green or succulent group1 as spinach or asparagus4 ,below are two menus1 in which have been kept in mind the foods which ought to be included 7see page #caa7 and the artistic arrangement of the day's meals1 with roast beef as the keynote4 ,menu ,no4 ,i4 ,menu ,no4 ,,ii4 ,breakfast ,breakfast ,oranges ,grapes ,flaked wheat ,oatmeal ,twice baked rolls and ,toast with butter butter ,cereal caf au lait for ,milk for children children ,coffee for adults ,coffee for adults ,luncheon ,luncheon ,creamed salmon on toast ,eggs au gratin ,peas ,stewed tomatoes ,graham bread and butter ,bread and butter ,stewed pears ,raspberry tapioca ,milk to drink ,cocoa ,dinner ,dinner ,clear tomato soup ,julienne soup ,roast beef ,roast beef ,mashed potatoes1 string ,creamed macaroni1 beans spinach ,cabbage salad ,celery and nut salad ,lemon jelly1 whipped cream ,pineapple ice1 lady fingers ,milk for children to drink ,milk for children to drink ,by a little calculation from tables giving the #ajj-;,calorie portions of food materials#ba we can find out whether or not we have well-balanced dietaries4 ,let us take1 for example1 ,menu ,i1 and make a list of the foods required to prepare it for a family of this size4 ,,food ,,material #ajj-;,,calorie ,,total ,,protein ,,portions ,,calories ,,calories ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,oranges #b4e #bej #ae ,flaked wheat #e4j #ejj #gd ,rolls #e4j #ejj #fa ,milk for children #f4j #fjj #aad ,thin cream for cereal #e4j #ejj #bf ,butter for rolls #e4j #ejj #e ,sugar for coffee #a4j #ajj ---- ,creamed salmon ,salmon #c4j #cjj #afj ,milk #b4j #bjj #ch ,flour #j4c #cc #d ,butter #b4j #bjj #b ,toast #c4j #cjj #dc ,peas #b4e #bej #gj ,butter for peas #a4j #ajj #a ,graham bread #e4j #ejj #fh ,butter for bread #e4j #ejj #e ,pears #b4e #bej #h ,sugar for pears #b4j #bjj ---- ,milk to drink #f4j #fjj #aad ,tomato soup ,tomatoes #j4e #ej #aj ,butter #b4j #bjj #b ,flour #j4c #cc #d ,roast beef #e4j #ejj #ach ,mashed ,potatoes #e4j #ejj #eb ,milk #a4j #ajj #ai ,butter #a4j #ajj #a ,string beans #j4e #ej #aa ,butter for beans #a4j #ajj #a ,bread #e4j #ejj #gb ,butter #e4j #ejj #e ,cabbage salad ,cabbage #j4e #ej #aj ,lettuce #j4a #aj ---- ,heavy cream for dressing #b4j #bjj #d ,lemon jelly ,gelatin #j4e #ej #ej ,lemon juice #j4a #aj ---- ,sugar #d4j #djj ---- ,whipped cream ,heavy cream #c4j #cjj #g ,milk to drink #f4j #fjj #aad ------------------ ,totals #aj1fcf #acjh ,it is evident that we have enough protein1 and as a good share of it is from milk1 we know that it will satisfy the children's requirements in the best possible way4 ,the adults will get theirs largely from the salmon and meat4 ,comparing this list with our first tentative one1 we find that we have used in building up our dietary #ba portions of milk1 #e of cereal1 #e of fruit 7not including lemon juice71 #d4a of green vegetable1 #h of meat 7including salmon71 #ah of bread1 and #bb of butter1 but no eggs4 ,we have a good representation of the different kinds of foodstuffs1 with this exception1 and as the boys would need the eggs most1 we could put them in for their breakfast1 thus adding about #adj total ,calories and #ej protein ,calories4 ,with this addition we are still slightly deficient in total energy1 but to add one or two hundred ,calories is a very simple matter4 ,a second serving of potatoes1 an extra roll for those whose fuel requirement is highest1 or a slightly more liberal use of butter1 might well solve the problem4 ,this dietary calculation shows how the menu may help in getting a balanced diet1 and how knowledge of food values can be applied as a check on the menu4 ,if we had had fewer dishes in each meal1 we should have had to plan to serve larger portions of some or all of them1 or to use more freely such staples as bread1 butter1 and milk4 ,each family must find out the kind of menu best suited to its resources4 ,some typical meal plans suitable for everyday use are given below4 ,,typical ,,breakfast ,,plans ,i ,fruit ,toast ,beverage ,,ii ,fruit ,cereal ,toast ,beverage ,,iii ,fruit ,meat ,toast ,beverage ,,iv ,fruit ,cereal ,meat ,toast ,beverage ,v ,fruit ,cereal ,meat #a other hot dish ,toast ,beverage ,,typical ,,luncheon ,,plans ,i ,hot dish ,bread and butter ,beverage ,,ii ,hot dish ,bread and butter ,simple dessert ,beverage ,,iii ,soup ,another hot dish ,bread and butter ,dessert ,beverage ,,iv ,soup #b other hot dishes ,salad ,dessert ,beverage ,,typical ,,dinner ,,plans ,i #b hot dishes 7as meat and vegetable7 ,bread and butter ,dessert ,,ii ,soup #b or #c other hot dishes 7as meat and one or two vegetables7 ,bread and butter ,dessert ,beverage ,,iii ,soup #b or #c hot dishes ,a relish 7as jelly or pickle7 ,bread and butter ,salad ,dessert ,beverage ,more elaborate plans than these should usually be reserved for state occasions4 ,the cost of the dietary4----,the types of menu used will depend very largely upon the income of the family4 ,it is comparatively easy to plan attractive bills of fare if one does not have to consider the amount of work involved in preparing them1 or the cost of the materials to be used4 ,with knowledge of food values an expensive dietary may be wholesome1 but there is great temptation to overeating and waste of food1 and it is wise to keep meals simple for the sake of good digestion4 ,most families have to consider carefully the cost of food if any money is to be saved for books or travel or emergencies4 ,a dietary such as planned on page #cac will probably cost from #a4ej to #b4jj for the day1 or from #a-a_/b to #b cents per #ajj ,calories1 depending on the locality4 ,nothing is allowed for waste1 which may1 if the cook and those who eat the food are not careful1 amount to from #aj to #ae per cent of the total cost4 ,it is often estimated that the 8average0 man will consume about #cjjj ,calories per day1 and the cost may be expressed on this basis as from #de to #fj cents per man per day2 or the dietary spoken of as a #de-;cent or #fj-;cent dietary or whatever the exact cost per #cjjj ,calories may be4 ,the cost of food for such a family for a year would at this rate be from #eej to #gej4 ,if the allowance for food be placed at #be per cent of the total income1#bb this dietary would be appropriate for a family with an income of #bbjj to #cjjj per year4 ,the majority of families have to get along with a lower expenditure for food1 yet they want to be well nourished and to enjoy their fare4 ,fortunately there is no real connection between cost and nutritive value1 some of the most nutritious foods being among the cheapest4 ,at the same time1 we cannot get wholesome food for nothing4 ,there are very few foods which to-day cost less than #a_/c of a cent per #ajj ,calories1 and these are mostly cereal products1 such as cornmeal1 rolled oats1 and flour1 or sugars and molasses4 ,these alone will not make a well-balanced1 palatable dietary1 though they will supply all the fuel needed for an 8average0 man for a day for ten cents4 ,in many parts of the country to-day it is hardly possible to make a dietary satisfactory week in and week out with an average allowance of less than #c_/d of a cent per #ajj ,calories1 and even this sum will prove satisfactory only provided there be skill in food preparation as well as food selection4 ,with an allowance of #a cent per #ajj ,calories it is possible almost anywhere to make a balanced dietary with some attractiveness in appearance and flavor4 ,in choosing foods with regard to cost a table that shows which are cheap fuel and which dear1 is a great help4 ,prices vary so much with place and season that it is difficult to make one which is very exact1 and some rearrangement to suit any particular region may be necessary4 ,the table on page #cah will1 however1 serve as a guide4 ,,table ,,of ,,food ,,materials ,arranged according to cost per #ajj ,calories ,,group ,i ,,group ,,ii ,,group ,,iii ,,group ,,iv ,less than #a per #a-b per #ajj #b-a_/b-e per #ajj ,over #e per #ajj #ajj ,calories ,calories ,calories ,calories ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,apples1 dried ,almonds ,beans1 canned ,asparagus ,bacon 7all fat ,apricots1 dried ,limas ,beans1 canned1 eaten7 ,bananas ,beans1 string1 string ,beans1 dried ,butter1 over fresh ,celery ,bread #cb per pound ,beets1 fresh ,chicken ,butter under ,cabbage ,cauliflower ,cod1 fresh #cb per pound ,carrots1 old ,codfish1 salt ,cucumbers ,corned beef ,cheese ,corn1 canned ,lettuce ,cornmeal ,chestnuts ,eggs1 #be-cf ,olives ,cornflakes ,chocolate per doz4 ,oysters ,cornstarch ,cocoa ,haddock ,peaches1 ,cottonseed oil ,cream ,halibut canned ,crackers1 soda ,eggs under #be ,ham ,pears1 canned ,dates per doz4 ,lamb chops ,salmon1 ,farina ,figs ,onions 7city canned ,flour ,grapes prices7 ,sardines1 ,grapenuts ,milk1 #g to #ac ,oranges canned ,lard per qt4 ,round steak ,scallops ,lentils ,olive oil ,rump of beef ,steak1 choice ,macaroni ,peaches1 dried ,tomatoes cuts ,milk at #f or ,peanuts ,veal1 leg ,spinach less per qt4 ,peanut butter ,veal1 loin ,molasses ,pork sausage ,oatmeal ,puffed cereals ,oleomargarine ,sweet potatoes ,rolled oats ,turnips ,peas1 dried ,walnuts ,potatoes ,raisins ,pork1 salt fat ,prunes ,rice ,suet ,sugar ,tapioca ,inspection of this table shows that if we can afford only one cent per #ajj ,calories for food1 we must get a large share from ,group ,i1 and a few from ,group ,,ii2 if we wish to use foods in ,group ,,iii1 we shall have to do so sparingly1 or offset them with some of the very cheapest in ,group ,i1 to keep the average as we wish it4 ,when we plan an attractive menu and find it is too expensive for us1 we may often carry out our plan by substituting cheaper foods of the same sort4 ,thus in the dietary on page #cac we may substitute as follows3 ,bananas for oranges4 ,top milk for cream4 ,oleomargarine for a part of the butter4 ,bean loaf with tomato sauce for creamed salmon and peas4 ,stewed apricots for pears4 ,rump roast instead of rib roast4 ,doing this1 omitting the soup and crackers and the salad for dinner1 and increasing bread and potatoes1 flaked wheat1 and other cheaper foods to prevent any deficiency in fuel1 we can still prepare palatable and digestible meals with the right food values1 and save perhaps #be per cent on the total cost for the day4 ,feeding the sick4----,when illness is serious enough for a physician to be consulted1 he will give directions concerning the diet1 and these should be scrupulously followed4 ,if the case is so severe as to demand a trained nurse1 she will have charge of the feeding1 under the physician's guidance4 ,many times1 however1 a member of the family is temporarily indisposed and needs food different from the ordinary family bill of fare4 ,it is well to remember that in the first day or two of illness1 fasting or taking of very little food does no harm1 and may be an excellent help toward recovery1 as it gives the digestive tract a chance to rest1 if it has been disturbed4 ,nevertheless1 the internal work of the body goes on1 #j4d ,calorie per pound per hour being expended during sleep1 and about #j4f ,calorie per pound per hour during waking hours in bed4 ,a person in bed for twenty-four hours will require about #j4e ,calorie per pound per hour to prevent use of body material for fuel4 ,a man of average weight1 lying in bed1 will thus need about #ahej calories per day4 ,hence we must see to it1 that after a person has been sick for more than a few days 7during which he can afford to burn body fat7 enough fuel is given to satisfy his energy requirements if he can possibly digest it4 ,food for an invalid must always be given in its most digestible forms4 ,milk is one of the most valuable foods in sickness1 not only because it supplies so many body needs1 but because it can be used in so many ways1----hot1 or cold1 flavored or plain1 made into junkets or sherbets1 combined with eggs in eggnogs and custards1 fermented as in kumyss or soured as in buttermilk or zoolak4 ,in some form or other milk can almost always be made digestible4 ,eggs are also of great value1 not only poached or dropped and served on toast1 but as dainty omelets1 or in beverages1 as eggnog1 egg lemonade1 and orangeade4 ,mild fruit juices1 as orange1 grape1 or pineapple1 are not only refreshing but of considerable fuel value4 ,if there is no fever1 chicken1 lamb chops1 tender broiled steak or roast beef may serve to add variety to the menu4 ,broths stimulate the appetite and help digestion1 though they are of little or no food value themselves4 ,cereals1 eggs1 and milk may be added to increase their food value4 ,cereals in the form of gruels or delicate puddings1 as cornstarch blancmange and tapioca cream1 are easily digested4 ,vegetables are best given rather sparingly1 and only delicate1 mild-flavored ones1 such as spinach or asparagus1 if digestion is much disturbed4 ,in getting an invalid to take sufficient food1 much depends upon the attractiveness of the service4 ,remember that very little things1 like a fingermark on a glass1 or coffee spilled into the saucer1 may take away appetite and prevent enough food being eaten4 ,food in small quantities and taken at more frequent intervals than in health helps towards the best results4 ,knowledge of what particular diet is best in different diseases comes only through careful study of the science of nutrition after much study of chemistry and physiology4 ,,exercises #a4 ,calculate your own energy requirement4 #b4 ,calculate the energy requirement of your family group4 #c4 ,find the cost for your locality of the dietary arranged from ,menu ,no4 #a4 #d4 ,make a dietary yielding #aj1jjj ,calories1 from ten to fifteen per cent of which shall be protein calories1 from ,menu ,no4 ,,ii1 and calculate its cost4 #e4 ,find out the lowest sum for which a balanced dietary could be obtained in your locality4 #f4 ,revise the dietary from ,menu ,no4 ,i1 so that it shall not cost over one cent per hundred ,calories4 #g4 ,plan an ideal day's dietary for yourself4 #h4 ,plan a day's dietary for an invalid which shall yield #bjjj ,calories1 #cjj of which shall be protein ,calories4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,household ,,budget ,the divisions of the income for which we should provide are food1 shelter1 including taxes and operating expenses1 clothing1 and the 8higher life10 including recreation1 education1 and savings4 ,the size of the income determines largely the proportion of money allotted to each division4 ,we must be nourished and protected from the elements by shelter and clothing1 and an income must at least provide for these necessities to be a living wage4 ,yet we justly claim something more from our income than mere existence4 ,in most families there is a fairly definite income4 ,when the amount is not known it is wise to estimate upon the minimum income and have a surplus1 rather than to expend too much4 ,seventy-five years ago things cost less and incomes were less1 to-day the incomes have increased and cost of living is growing higher4 ,the question is one to be studied relatively1 and the cost of living will depend on the ratio between income and one's methods of living4 ,just what other satisfactions than the merely physical are to be gratified is the great question for the woman who divides the income4 ,the problem is naturally hardest with the smallest income1 where the 8must be0 crowds out the 8may be40 ,but there is room for choice even with the small wage4 ,this work of dividing the income and deciding on the ideals should be shared by the family4 ,when the home is first started the husband and wife should discuss frankly the problems of division and should agree on the methods of expenditure4 ,this common understanding between members of a family forms a bond of union1 and each feels a greater pleasure and pride in doing his part4 ,the fact that there is a budget and a system brings orderliness in methods of work and freedom from worry and anxiety as well as a saving of money4 ,and this saving of money and strength is the same as an increase in income4 ,this budget or division of expenses acts as a sailing chart and can be referred to from month to month4 ,it should not1 however1 become a burden1 and one should not worry if every penny is not accounted for4 ,statisticians tell us that about #ge per cent of the male adults of our country earn somewhat less than #fjj a year4 ,that in large cities #ijj to #ajjj a year is necessary to bring up a family to live decently and enjoy human happiness4 ,much depends upon how this income is divided as to whether results will tend to develop efficiency in the members of such a family4 ,as the income increases from #ajjj to #ejjj it is possible to apportion the income and indicate certain percentages which represent wise family expenditures so as to include the higher intellectual and emotional life as well as the physical welfare of the family4 ,from comparison of many budgets statisticians have worked out certain percentages that are helpful in making our decisions1 although they are not to be taken as fixed rules4 ,expenditure for food4----,on examining the budgets of families having incomes from #ejj to #ejjj1 it is found that the percentage spent for food increases as the income decreases1 amounting sometimes to at least #ej per cent of the income4 ,this means that there is a limit to the money spent per capita per day for food1 below which we cannot go and maintain life with even sufficient efficiency for unskilled labor4 ,figure #gg shows that a #ijj income gives about #de per cent to food4 ,an expenditure of thirty cents per capita per day for food in a family of five with an income of #aejj1 is #cf4e per cent2 i4e4 more than one third of the total income4 ,suggestions as to allowance for food in families of different incomes are contained in the tables of budgets given farther on in this chapter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4----,typical division of a small income4 ,courtesy of ,ladies' ,home ,journal1 ,oct41 #aiab4 ,thrift in buying and using is necessary with the small income1 and highly important with the larger where we are prone to yield to a foolish impulse to please a whim of the palate4 ,expenditure for shelter4----,the increased cost of building and the general advance in rentals make the expenditure for shelter a large one4 ,the question whether homes should be owned or rented is a vital one4 ,ownership is possible for comparatively few1 but there is probably nothing that contributes more to the upbuilding of a community and the development of good citizenship than the permanent residence of families in localities4 ,the pride of the members is enlisted in the home1 its surroundings and general community welfare4 ,this sense of ownership makes a house more a home although real home spirit is not confined to ownership of buildings4 ,there are of course advantages and disadvantages of ownership1 and these should be carefully weighed4 ,preference for fresh air1 more space1 less crowded conditions even if they necessitate daily travel1 have driven people of limited incomes and certain ideals from the crowded cities to the suburbs in search of homes4 ,when it is possible it is certainly much more advantageous to own than to rent a home1 when living means the attainment of certain ideals in the lives of the members of the family4 ,in deciding upon the proper expenditure1 we must take into account the location1 whether convenient to business1 school1 and church1 sanitary conditions in surroundings and in the house or apartment1 the appearance of the house and the attractiveness of the neighborhood as well as its convenience and healthfulness4 ,the house should be adapted to the needs of the family and selected with this thought in mind4 ,see the companion volume1 8,shelter and ,clothing10 ,chapters ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,it has been estimated that #bj per cent of incomes ranging from #ejj to #ejjj will secure a home1 not including operating expenses1 with the proper sanitary conditions and one which will contribute to a right standard of living4 ,if necessary to secure healthful surroundings more than #bj per cent may need to be spent1 but #be per cent of the income is the limit of the amount to be spent upon rent unless this also includes heat 7as in many apartments7 when as much as #bh per cent may be so spent4 ,if more than this is paid1 it is practically impossible to avoid debt when any unforeseen contingency arises4 ,one thrifty ,german woman used #cj per cent of the small family income for rent1 in order to have more bedrooms than most tenement-house dwellers can afford4 ,she did make ends meet by working until midnight at the family sewing1 and tailoring2 but though she was the very soul of thrift in regard to food1 and had never called in a doctor1 she could not save money until the children began to earn4 ,operating expenses4----,the question of operating expense is closely associated with the selection of shelter and should be carefully considered with it in the division of the income4 ,they are the expenses necessary to keep the house clean1 warm1 lighted1 insured1 and in constant repair4 ,to these must be added in a suburban community water tax1 property tax1 perhaps even a fire tax4 ,in city apartments1 heat and hot water are often furnished1 and this must be taken into account in deciding between apartment and house1 and between renting and ownership4 ,labor is an important item in the running of the house4 ,the close connection of selecting and operating a home will be seen4 ,should the administrator divide the family income in such a way that little is left for operating1 the little things of everyday life become a constant source of worry4 ,the questions of the number of rooms1 and their care1 relative expense of heating by furnace1 steam1 or hot water1 the cost of regular service in wages per week in order to attain one's ideals1 the cost of extra service1 the lighting by gas1 oil1 or electricity are all problems of operating4 ,knowledge of sanitary science will make the homemaker demand cleanliness in her surroundings1 quick disposal of waste1 and the prompt removal of dust4 ,much care in planning is necessary here in order that there may be no leakage and that there may be the full share of comfort for each member4 ,for the income of from #ejj to #ejjj it has been estimated that a proportion of from #aj to #bj per cent must usually be spent for operating in order to secure comfort4 ,much must necessarily depend upon the amount of hired service required1 which1 in turn1 depends largely upon whether the homemaker is to give her time chiefly to the care of her children or chiefly to the conduct of the housework4 ,clothing4----,a large proportion of the family income is spent on clothing4 ,a knowledge of textiles and of purchasing is necessary in order to do this wisely and economically4 ,clothing is as necessary an expense as food1 for it conserves the heat which the food furnishes and thus maintains body temperature4 ,health is the main factor in efficiency1 and health is preserved by clothing which protects the body from sudden changes in temperatures1 and conserves the energy for other purposes4 ,money should be spent on clothing to secure health1 but too often more than the right percentage of income is expended because of love of display4 ,the instinct for show1 color1 ornamentation is a primitive one1 and the sthetic 8want0 is1 in one sense1 as real as the physical and should be considered in expenditures for this purpose4 ,it is a duty to look well1 but it is not necessary1 nor does it show good sense1 to sacrifice the health1 happiness1 and higher life of the family by economizing on food and other essentials in order to secure hats1 shoes1 gowns1 and accessories that cater to a mania for show4 ,if the income be limited so that the essentials of clothing only can be purchased1 the margin of income which can be spent for pleasure may1 if taste so dictates1 be spent on clothing instead of pictures1 books1 or some recreation4 ,that is a matter for the individual or family to decide4 ,in the typical budgets cited below it will be seen that the expenditure for clothing was usually between #aj and #ah per cent4 ,the higher life4----,there are other needs of family life for which money must be spent besides the material ones of food1 shelter1 and clothing4 ,in the division of some family incomes little thought is given to this phase of living4 ,after the income reaches a certain amount1 it is possible so to plan that education1 recreation1 philanthropy1 and savings all figure in the division of expenditures4 ,some writers say that #be per cent of the income of #ajjj to #ejjj should be spent in this way4 ,if thought is given to this1 it would mean opportunities for books1 periodicals1 lectures1 and membership in societies2 some travel and vacation1 social clubs1 theaters and concerts2 charity and church expenditures2 life insurance and other savings4 ,it is the idea of ownership of property1 of homes1 of possessions of all kinds that has led from primitive living to advanced civilization4 ,and with advanced civilization comes the need for the higher life which should be satisfied and can be through wise division of funds4 ,the choice of things to satisfy this higher life rests with the individual2 it may be music1 it may be the cultivation of altruistic feeling in the help given to neighbors2 it may be a bank account for some future good1 or money spent on excursions1 lectures1 or theater4 ,whatever it is1 it satisfies the emotional1 spiritual1 and intellectual life of man and distinguishes him as one of advanced civilization4 ,savings4----,something should be saved yearly even if at first it is but little4 ,small amounts put away regularly in a savings bank mount up to a considerable sum at compound interest1 for regular saving is the only kind that counts4 ,life and sickness insurance are other forms of saving4 ,allowances4----,each member of the family should have a personal allowance1 even though it is small4 ,one mother gave each of her children five cents a week1 beginning at five years of age1 and increasing a cent a week each year1 until they were old enough to be trusted with more4 ,even at this age opposite characteristics showed themselves4 ,one boy saved his allowance until he had a quarter to spend at one time2 another was in debt before the end of the week4 ,each had a bank1 and kept accounts1 as well4 ,it is sometimes better for a child if he 8earns0 his allowances by performance of such household duties as seem best adapted to promote his development4 ,suggested and typical budgets4----,in preparation for the division of one's income it is helpful to study the budgets of other families or individuals4 ,mrs4 ,richards in her book on 8,the ,cost of ,living0 gives a theoretical division of incomes1 which is shown in the accompanying table headed ,suggested ,budgets4 ,it is interesting to study this account and then those of families who have worked out their problems 7either with or without the preparation of definite budgets in advance7 as shown in the table of ,typical ,budgets4 ,in ,new ,york ,city it has been estimated by those studying the problems of the cost of living of to-day that it is impossible for the average family of mother1 father1 and three children under #ad years to get food enough to keep the body in good condition with clothing and shelter to meet the most urgent demands of decency for less than #ijj4 ,this amount in other localities would probably buy more4 ,this means that in ,new ,york ,city for #ijj a family of five can have a very bare existence1 and that with #ajjj this family can begin to maintain a decent standard of living unless there is long sickness or other catastrophe4 ,at #abjj a normal family standard can be maintained so as to preserve health1 and so that the family will have opportunities to develop in a self-respecting manner4 ,when one considers that many families subsist on #ejj or #fjj a year1 it is necessarily under conditions of shelter and with limitations of food and clothing1 not conducive to the best development4 ,,suggested ,,budgets#bc ,key3 ,f ,food ,r ,rent ,o ,operating expenses1 ,wages1 ,fuel1 ,light1 ,,etc4 ,c ,clothes ,h ,higher ,life1 ,books1 ,travel1 ,church1 ,charity1 ,savings1 ,insurance ,,percentage ,,for ,,family ,,income ,f ,r ,o ,c ,h ---------------------------------------- ----- ,two adults and two or three children 7equal to four adults73 ,ideal division #be #bj #ae #ae #be #bjjj to #djjj #be #bj #ae #bj #bj #hjj to #ajjj #cj #bj #aj #ae #be #ejj to #hjj #de #ae #aj #aj #bj ,under #ejj #fj #ae #e #aj #aj ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,typical ,,budgets#bd ,,percentage ,,for ---------------------------------------- ------ ,rent and ,operating ,higher ,,family ,,income ,car ,fares ,expenses2 ,life1 ,food to ,fuel1 ,clothes ,savings1 and from ,wages1 ,charity1 ,work etc4 etc4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #cjih1 three adults1 two children #bg4e #ba4a #af4h #aj #bd4f #bejj 7,mass471 three adults1 no children #be #be #ac #ab #be #bejj 7,mass471 two adults1 one child1 much company #cb #ah #ah #aj #bb #aihj 7,st4 ,louis71 four adults1 two children #cf4c #bd4b #bj4i #ah4fj #iej 7,mass471 two adults1 three children #bj #ai #af #ae #cj #bf4a #fjj 7,boston71 two ,travel1 adults1 two children #bc #bf #d #e sickness1 and sundries3 #ae4i #ece 7,n4,y471 two adults1 three children #ee4b #bb4d #e4c #i4d #g4g #cab 78mean0 ,englishman7 two adults1 three children #ee4b #ae4e #h4i #ac4a #g4c #cjj1 ,dr4 ,engel's #fb #ab #e #af #e4j estimates ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,typical ,,budgets#be ,,average ,,average ,,average ,,income #fej;,,income #gdh;,,income #hdf ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,rent #aed #afa #afh ,carfare #aa #aj #af ,fuel and light #ch #cg #da ,furniture #f #h #g ,insurance #ac #ah #ah ,food #bgi #cad #cda ,meals eaten away from home #aa #bb #ag ,clothing #hc #ii #aad ,health #ad #ad #bb ,taxes1 dues and contributions #h #i #aa ,recreation and amusement #c #f #g ,education #e #e #g ,miscellaneous #be #cb #da ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total #fej #gce #haa ,,exercises #a4 ,what definite aims should the wise homemaker have in mind in dividing the income8 #b4 ,what ideals should affect the amount spent for food8 #c4 ,what should determine selection of the house whether owned or rented8 #d4 ,what is meant by the operating expenses of a house8 #e4 ,what ideals should determine the amount spent for clothing8 #f4 ,in what ways should the 8higher life0 of the family or individual be considered in the division of the income8 #g4 ,plan to keep account of every penny of spending money for one year4 ,look over and criticize at the end of the year4 #h4 ,plan a budget for a family of five in your community having #ajjj4 ,suppose they have #bjjj1 how would you change your budget8 #i4 ,work out with your parents a budget or schedule of probable household expenditures for your home for the next month2 the next year4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,system ,,in ,,management ,the housekeeper should learn to use the labor-saving devices for her records that are now employed so largely in the world of business4 ,this equipment should include a desk with fittings for systematized and rapid work4 ,a roll-top desk1 with pigeonholes and drawers is convenient1 but a flat-topped desk with drawers below gives a larger space for writing1 although it has to be supplemented by boxes to take the place of pigeonholes4 ,such desks may be purchased for twenty dollars and upward1 in woods to match other furniture4 ,it is a pleasure to have artistic desk furnishings1 but a large amount may be spent on these1 and the desk still be unequipped for practical purposes4 ,files and loose-leaf books4----,a card file is as advantageous to the housekeeper as to the business man4 ,some desks contain a place for the card file in the upper right-hand drawer4 ,guide cards are furnished in several colors to indicate divisions of the file1 and these are plain1 or with printed numbers and letters4 ,the record cards also are made of several colors1 to indicate different uses4 ,the suggestions here cover only a few of the possibilities4 ,visit some office furnishing department or shop to see what an array of conveniences has been devised for the dispatch of business4 ,if you once form the habit1 you will find new uses for the card file almost daily1 and will keep on the cards1 addresses1 engagements1 cash accounts1 shopping lists1 inventories of clothing and furnishings1 menus and recipes4 ,a loose-leaf book is preferred by some people for inventories and accounts4 ,a letter file shaped like a pocketbook can be purchased for only twenty-five cents1 and will serve the purpose for a small correspondence4 ,large files with guide cards are made for a larger correspondence4 ,the small file will answer for filing bills and is useful also for clippings4 ,some desks have bill files in the pigeonholes1 and a letter file in one of the large drawers4 ,have regular hours daily for attending to work at the desk1 stated times for planning menus1 making shopping lists1 looking over the inventories1 recording expenditures1 and balancing accounts4 ,order in time and place are studied further in the chapter on ,housewifery4 ,keeping of accounts4----,this has been called by many1 drudgery and tedious routine4 ,many business men go through much such drudgery to attain their goals1 why should not the housewife be willing to make a similar sacrifice in her home for the sake of the service she is rendering the members of her household8 ,the aim in keeping the accounts is to register the amounts spent for various purposes so that all phases of life will be considered and so that the manager will be able to profit the second year because of the experience of the first year4 ,this makes housekeeping interesting and businesslike4 ,the expenditure is made to produce the maximum of value received and is accompanied by the greatest possible pleasure4 ,in keeping accounts there should be some method of showing the receipts and expenses1 the income and the outgo1 so that a balance can be made at any time4 ,the items should be so listed1 too1 that it is possible to tell what expenditure has been made for any one item1 as rent1 or food1 or other necessities4 ,it is only in this way that the accounts become of value for future use4 ,there are many ways of keeping such accounts4 ,the simplest one for the housewife is the best if it shows the points mentioned above4 ,the envelope system is used by some when the income is small1 and a certain amount of money according to budget plan is put in labeled envelopes for various purposes1 as rent1 food1 operating expenses1 etc4 ,as sums are drawn from the various envelopes1 a slip of paper put in the particular envelope registers the amount drawn4 ,it is easy at the end of the month to balance the accounts4 ,this system necessitates the presence of a good deal of money on hand1 and sometimes of confusion of accounts1 if money is borrowed from one envelope for use in another4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,butcher,,grocer,,baker,,milk,,ice,,lig ht,,service,,fuel ,,and ,,other ,,headings ---------------------------------------- --------,,according ,,to ,january ,,expense ,jan4 #a ,jan4 #e 7,dates of expendi- tures7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,totals ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,various systems of card catalogues1 journals1 and ledgers are in use1 and all have more or less value4 ,the simplest form for the average young woman or housewife can be kept in an ordinary blank book and the spaces ruled according to one's need4 ,the account book can be started in somewhat the following manner1 with the dates of expenditures in the first column and the respective amounts opposite under their proper heads4 ,in this way it is possible by using double pages of the blank book to keep all the items for each month in horizontal series4 ,the columns for items of expenses should be ruled as needed1 but it is desirable to keep them under as few heads as will suffice to give the information which may be desired4 ,the use of the double page is advisable1 for then the outer edge of the left-hand page can be used for the dates of purchase and plenty of room for columns of expense left across the two pages4 ,the total in the various columns can be easily calculated at the end of the first month and a new set of pages ruled for the second4 ,the expenditures should be entered daily so as not to be forgotten4 ,a slip of paper kept in one's purse is of help if amounts are jotted down while one is shopping4 ,the totals for each month should be entered in another part of the blank book4 ,rule spaces for the year with columns for the months across the page and items of expense corresponding to those in the daily entry at the left-hand side4 ,in this way at the end of twelve months the totals for each item of expense can be easily found4 ,if one desires to know from day to day of a month how the balance stands1 it is possible to add to ,form ,i two columns for this purpose4 ,one column should show the income or amounts received with dates1 and the second the total sum expended each day4 ,this sum is found by adding the expense of each item across the page for the day and entering in the expense column4 ,form ,,ii ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,jan4 ,,feb4 ,,march ,,april ,,may ,,june ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,butcher ,grocer ,baker ,milk ,ice ,light ,service ,fuel ,clothes ,rent ,dentist ,school ,sundries and other items ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,totals ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,july ,,aug4 ,,sep4 ,,oct4 ,,nov4 ,,dec4 ,,totals ---------------------------------------- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,somewhere in the book there should be kept an account of the receipts from all sources4 ,the balance of the yearly expense account with the sheet of receipt can be easily made4 ,some plan must be made for showing which purchases are paid for in cash1 and which are charged4 ,a simple method is to record the articles charged1 with the place1 date1 and price on a card in the card file in a division kept for this purpose1 and labeled 8,purchases charged40 ,when the bill is rendered1 it can be checked up from these cards1 and the purchases entered in the permanent account book4 ,the record in the account book gives thus the date of payment1 but not the date of purchase1 unless this is added too4 ,the date of purchase can be recorded in the inventory of household goods 7see ,chapter ,,xxii74 ,this simple method of keeping accounts enables one to look over the monthly and yearly expenses and to see if the expenditure is apportioned to the different divisions as it should be4 ,if some of the needs of the physical or intellectual life are being neglected1 it should be possible to cut down or readjust the next year to the satisfaction both of the housewife and of her family4 ,it is wise for all girls before they have homes of their own to keep account of their own small incomes4 ,in many families daughters are given money for clothing and daily expenses4 ,some such system of keeping accounts as the above can be used4 ,it is astonishing in examining accounts for clothing1 to see how few maintain a correct balance4 ,one girl found1 by keeping accounts1 that she spent entirely too much for hats and gloves and did not have the proper underwear to protect her body and maintain the correct temperature for health4 ,accounts help us to determine whether our methods of living measure up to the ideals or standards of life which we have established in order to live rightly4 ,methods of payment4----,payment is either immediate1 known as 8spot cash10 or deferred4 ,if deferred1 the articles purchased are charged by the dealer1 and a bill rendered the first of each month4 ,when a charge account is opened1 a good business reference must be given4 ,according to another system1 articles may be paid for in installments1----that is1 so much each month1 according to some agreement4 ,of this method it may be said that it is unsafe1 or at least unwise1 always4 ,remember that more is always paid in the end4 ,in either case the payment may be made in bills1 specie1 or by checks2 although in ordinary shopping immediate payment is usually made in bills and specie4 ,the advantage of immediate payment is that the buyer spends only what she has1 and does not count on future money4 ,this method of payment enables one to keep the balance well in hand4 ,it necessitates1 however1 keeping bills and specie in the house1 and in one's pocketbook1 with the possibility of theft or loss2 and cash payment takes more time in the shop1 with the long wait for change4 ,sending 8collect on delivery0 7,c4,o4,d47 is a way of making cash payment and saving time at the shop4 ,be sure that in this case there is the exact change at home1 and some one ready to receive the goods4 ,charging goods makes for economy of time4 ,if you can remember that an article charged means money spent1 this is a safe plan4 ,one careful buyer says that she is too optimistic to have a charge account2 too sure that while she has not cash enough to-day for something that she wants1 she will surely have it by the first of next month4 ,there is another method of payment introduced by a few large department stores4 ,the firm requires a monthly deposit at the first of each month and charges up purchases against this4 ,this is good in so far that the customer is spending money that he really has1 but it restricts purchases to that one shop1 and this is inadvisable in the case of a small income4 ,the bank account and check book4----,whether payment is immediate or deferred1 payment by check is a great convenience4 ,it saves time and is also a record of money paid4 ,select a bank1 conveniently located1 and recommended by a conservative business man4 ,take to the bank a letter of introduction1 with the sum for deposit4 ,the bank will record your signature1 and give you a bank book in which is recorded the amount deposited4 ,a check book will be given you that contains blank checks1 and provides for keeping account of deposits and checks drawn4 ,each check has to be filled in1 and signed with your name exactly as recorded at the bank1 when you make a payment4 ,this must be recorded in the proper place when the check is made out1 stating date1 amount1 and payee4 ,the sums paid out are added1 usually for every three checks1 and this sum deducted from the deposit1 and the balance carried forward4 ,in this way you may always know your balance in the bank1 provided you are accurate4 ,great care must be taken to fill in the blank spaces correctly so that the check cannot be easily altered by any one4 ,if a check is made out to you1 and you wish to cash it1 or deposit it1 you 8indorse0 it by writing your name on the back across the left-hand end of the check4 ,the name must be written exactly as it appears on the face of the check4 ,if by chance the name is misspelled1 write it in with the correct spelling below4 ,the checks that you make out are indorsed by the payee in the same way1 and cannot be cashed until so indorsed4 ,therefore1 if a check is lost in the mail1 you do not lose the money4 ,the bank should be notified to 8stop payment0 on the lost check1 and you can then send another check in place of the first one4 ,when you wish bills or specie1 you go to the bank and present to the paying teller a check made out to 8,cash0 and signed by yourself4 ,it is wise not to make out or sign such a check until you reach the bank1 because if such a check is lost on the way1 there is danger of its being cashed by the finder4 ,once a month you should leave the book with the teller to be balanced4 ,in a few days you may call for it1 and will receive with it the checks that you have drawn1 and that have been returned to the bank by the date to which the book is balanced4 ,these checks are called vouchers4 ,with these there is also a list of the amounts showing the total paid out on them by the bank4 ,check up the vouchers with the list1 then check up the vouchers with your check book to see if all in your check book had been returned to the bank by the date of balancing4 ,if there are some still out1 add that sum to your check book balance1 and then compare the bank book balance with your check book4 ,deposits may be sent by mail1 either with or without the check book4 ,if the book is sent1 it should go by registered mail4 ,if you do not send the book1 the bank will send a receipt1 which you return with the book the next time the balance is made4 ,in either case1 write 8,for deposit0 above your signature on the back4 ,,exercises #a4 ,of what value is business equipment in household management8 #b4 ,suggest ways in which a card file might be used in the household4 #c4 ,suggest a system for filing household letters2 bills4 #d4 ,what should be one's aim in keeping household accounts8 #e4 ,estimate the cost of your clothing for the last year4 #f4 ,name different methods of payment of bills4 ,which do you consider the best for the family with #abjj income8 #g4 ,describe fully payment by check4 #h4 ,how should a check be indorsed8 #i4 ,how can one deposit checks by mail8 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,how ,,to ,,buy ,the first rule in good buying is to know standard quality in your intended purchase1 for then you need not be dependent upon the salesman4 ,the second is to know your own needs1 that you may not be beguiled by the clever advertisement in the daily paper1 or the well-displayed bargain1 and will not need to ask the salesman's advice about quantity4 ,keep lists of articles needed in the card file1 and make your shopping lists from these4 ,the third rule is to apportion your purchases to your income and the divisions of your budget4 ,where to buy4----,patronize reliable firms4 ,there are in any community shops of different grades1 and you will not find the best return for your money always at those houses where there is the greatest parade of cut prices and bargains4 ,in the end the reliable places are the cheapest4 ,sometimes a firm trades on its reputation and a degree of fashion it has attained1 but on the whole it is true that if one house has goods uniformly cheaper than another1 it is because the quality is inferior4 ,one fact that a good shopper learns is this----that certain articles may be purchased to greater advantage at one place than another4 ,one firm excels in silks1 another in household linen1 another in coffee1 and so on4 ,almost every community now has a 8white list0 and a branch of the ,consumers' ,league1 the significance of which was explained in 8,shelter and ,clothing10 p4 #bjb4 ,how to shop4----,know the shops you patronize1 first by personal inspection1 unless1 of course1 you are ordering from a distance4 ,mail orders and the telephone are helps to the buyer4 ,these should not entirely take the place of personal visits to the shops1 but1 if well used1 save many weary hours4 ,the parcel post makes possible buying by mail even perishable articles direct from the producer4 ,many country dwellers do a large part of their shopping even for clothing and furniture by mail1 and there are reputable firms who cater largely to this trade1 and send out well-illustrated price lists as guides4 ,however1 this method should be used very cautiously1 and it may be unsatisfactory for articles where the sthetic element is important1 as well as the quality4 ,bargains1 sales1 and advertisements4----,here the buyer matches her wit against the wiles of the seller4 ,bargain sales may be made up of sweat shop goods4 ,many women ignorant of textile production1 flock to the sales of materials and garments1 helping the storekeeper to dispose of silk which is rotting on his shelves1 or garments which have been poorly or cheaply constructed and which go to pieces the first time laundered4 ,remnants are often cut from materials on the regular shelves1 and sometimes are offered at an advance in price at the so-called bargain sales4 ,in reliable shops one can sometimes find bargains during clearance sales4 ,it pays to wait and buy out of season1 as much can be saved in this way4 ,a 8best0 hat in ,january1 or a white dress in ,august1 may often be purchased to advantage4 ,in order to do this1 one must plan the wardrobe systematically4 ,trading stamps and prizes4----,remember that nothing is given away1 and that you pay for everything that you receive4 ,it is well to deal with a firm that sells standard goods at standard prices4 ,a discount is sometimes allowed for cash4 ,buying on installments4----,methods of payment are discussed in ,chapter ,,xx4 ,the installment plan is important to consider1 since it is so common for people of small means4 ,how tempting for a young couple1 who have no savings1 to furnish the new home in this way8 ,it is a 8gambling on futures10 however1 as much as are some methods in the ,stock ,exchange4 ,if the income stops1 because the position is lost1 or if sickness comes1 and the installments cannot be paid1 the whole outfit may be lost4 ,there have been real household tragedies of this kind4 ,the better way is to save until a small amount of simple furniture can be purchased outright4 ,the installment method is also used by established firms of sound reputation to tempt one to buy the latest encyclopdia1 or the new musical instrument1 or some other much-desired possession4 ,this is safe if one is absolutely sure of a fixed future income2 but here again it is better to save first and buy outright4 ,you may say that the installment plan gives the use of the encyclopdia at once1 and this is true4 ,but if you have the saving habit1 there will already be a fund on which to draw4 ,the ethics of shopping4----,there is no greater test of good breeding and kindness than the tour of a crowded shop2 and sometimes the silken thread is strained to the snapping point4 ,remember that tired human beings are at the counter4 ,time your shopping that you may not help to crowd business at the closing hour4 ,if the shop closes at five1 leave several minutes before the hour4 ,as a matter of fact it is only to the shopper that the shop closes at the stated hour2 some of the hardest work of the day comes after hours4 ,avoid shopping at the luncheon hour1 and on ,saturday afternoon at the time of the week when the salespeople are most tired4 ,this is also a hard time for delivery men and boys4 ,consult here the pamphlets of the ,consumers' ,league4 ,in times of stress1 the shopkeeper asks you to carry small bundles home with you1 and this you should cheerfully do4 ,some women carry the ,c4,o4,d4 privilege to an extreme1 ordering in this way with the intention of sending certain articles back1 thus creating much unnecessary labor4 ,purchasing of clothing and household textiles4----,experience is a good teacher1 but knowledge so gained is often paid for at high price4 ,it seems an easier way1 with much saving of time1 money1 and energy1 for girls to learn beforehand what to guard against in purchasing their household textiles for both clothing and furnishings4 ,our great-grandmothers were sure their household textiles would wear1 for they followed every step of their manufacture and knew they were durable and honest4 ,conditions changed with the factory system of manufacture1 and to-day women know very little about textile fabrics or the making of garments4 ,this ignorance of manufacturing processes results in the increased cost of living by the wasteful expenditures made for household textiles4 ,women rely on the information given by clerks in stores1 often to their sad disadvantage4 ,as we have learned1 about #ae to #bj per cent of the family income is usually spent on clothing and household furnishings for a family of four4 ,is it not necessary then that girls should learn to make the dollars earned buy just as much as possible8 ,there is need of a pure textile law in order that the adulterations of textiles may be defined4 ,some of us cannot afford to buy pure linen or all wool1 but we do wish to know the percentage of adulterant in order that we may judge whether the materials will meet our needs4 ,it is beyond the power of women now to control the making of fabrics1 and the government1 therefore1 must help to maintain standards and proper supervision of textile labeling4 ,women can1 however1 study this problem1 and with a knowledge of the manufacture and composition of textiles will come the power to choose wisely1 for manufacturers have been able to perpetuate these frauds chiefly because of ignorance4 7,see the companion volume1 8,shelter and ,clothing407 ,some things to remember in purchasing household linens4 #a4 ,design is important4 ,french designs are the most beautiful in damasks1 ,scotch and ,irish are good1 and ,german patterns perhaps the least attractive4 ,weave often affects the wearing quality of linen as well as the appearance4 ,the satin stripes and long threads on surface are apt to wear off quickly and they are sometimes introduced to cover defects beneath4 ,they cannot stand heavy ironing as the closer1 more even1 weaves4 #b4 ,linen is sometimes adulterated with cotton2 if bought as union goods one may expect it4 ,if bought for pure linen1 ravel the material and untwist warp and woof threads4 ,do the threads appear long and lustrous8 ,the round threads are best4 ,if cotton has been used1 the ends will fly apart and fuzz1 if linen they will appear more parallel and pointed at the ends when separated4 ,the cheaper 8all linens0 are sometimes made from the tow or short refuse4 ,if the fiber is short1 it will not last as well as the long4 ,moistening with the finger was an old-fashioned test4 ,a better one is to use a drop of olive oil4 ,this test must be made at home4 ,water spreads more rapidly on linen than on cotton4 ,the oil makes the linen fibers more translucent than cotton4 #c4 ,cost is a guide4 ,linen is expensive4 ,is the price that which should insure a good article8 ,if cheap1 beware4 #d4 ,feel the cloth4 ,is it cold and does it feel rather heavy when crushed in the hand8 ,many buyers in department stores judge by weight4 ,in purchasing table linen less than #d-a_/b oz4 to the square yard is not worth buying4 ,above that it improves4 ,reliable firms will tell the weight4 ,custom house inspectors judge by the picks or throws of woof to the inch4 #e4 ,notice the finish4 ,is it full of starch and sizing which can be picked off8 ,if so1 in washing that will all disappear1 leaving a loosely woven instead of a smooth satiny surface4 ,calendering and beetling make the material smooth and lustrous and reduce the thickness4 ,do not be deceived4 ,it is better to buy a soft linen than one stiff with starch which will crack4 #f4 ,in buying table linen the goods received in ,december and ,january are apt to be the bleach of the previous summer4 ,remember that poor bleaching affects the wearing quality4 ,one can sometimes tell by tearing a sample4 ,for quality1 beauty1 and variety of patterns1 ,scotch1 ,french1 and ,irish linens are the best4 ,german damask is excellent4 ,the unbleached will wear much longer1 is less expensive1 and is bought by many housewives and bleached as used4 ,damask by the yard for tablecloths is slightly cheaper4 ,tablecloths from #b-a_/b to #c yards are good size for a medium family of five or six4 ,one dollar a yard is a fair price for everyday linen4 ,the cloth should about equal #a dozen napkins in cost1 and a cloth will usually wear as long as #a-a_/b to #b dozen napkins4 ,napkins come in three sizes1 #e_/h1 #ag-bb inches2 #c_/d1 #bc-bg inches2 #g_/h1 #bi-ca inches4 #g4 ,for family towels1 huckaback is the most serviceable1 although damask is used a great deal 7see ,fig4 #gh74 ,linen towels vary in price from three dollars a dozen up1 according to size and quality4 ,dish towels of linen crash are very serviceable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4----;,huckaback towels4 ,courtesy of ,j4 ,mc,cutcheon ,co4 #h4 ,bedding4 ,sheets can be purchased ready made in linen or cotton in various sizes4 ,if they are to be made at home1 buy sheeting that can be obtained for single1 two thirds1 or full-sized bed4 ,if cotton1 buy in bleached or unbleached condition4 ,purchase sheets which are long enough to fold over at the top and protect the blankets4 ,there are several good brands of cotton sheeting4 8,fruit of the ,loom0 is one of the best known4 ,tubing for pillow cases may also be bought4 ,it has no seams1 and comes in several widths4 #i4 ,it is better to purchase a certain amount of new linen annually and gradually supplement that worn than to wait and have all wear out at once4 ,some things to remember in purchasing silk4 #a4 ,that pure silk is seldom manufactured4 ,it is nearly always weighted1 and a large proportion of weighting is to be guarded against1 as it weakens the wearing quality4 ,up to #cj per cent is not harmful and helps the silk to take the dye4 ,the fact that it is heavy in the hand does not always mean that it is a good piece of material and will wear well----the weight may be due to artificial 8weighting0 and not silk4 ,choose rather a softer pliable silk4 #b4 ,try the test for strength with the thumb 7see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 page #aii7 to see if the warp and woof threads are equally strong1 or stronger one way than the other4 ,if the latter1 it will not wear well4 #c4 ,fray out the threads4 ,do they break easily8 ,if so1 the silk is not of good quality4 ,if the warp threads are weak1 the silk will split across1 if the woof is weak1 the silk dress will go in ribbons4 #d4 ,if you have time before purchasing1 test a sample of silk by burning4 ,place in a porcelain dish and heat gently for thirty minutes4 ,the silk will vanish and the weighting remain4 ,burn the threads to see if there is cotton in warp or woof4 ,burn end of sample4 ,if it is the same shape after burned1 it is probably weighted4 #e4 ,close weaves wear better than more loosely woven ones and soft silks better than stiff4 ,guard against buying soft silks1 however1 that are so woven as to pull in the seams when worn4 #f4 ,are you buying material made of reeled or spun silk8 ,bargains are seldom found at silk sales4 ,should you expect to find pure silk at #ej or #fj cents a yard or as many yards of silk thread ,b as ,a on a spool8 ,remember that the demand for a cheap product means the production of cheap products4 ,wear something else rather than cheap silks4 #g4 ,is the silk adulterated with mercerized cotton or artificial silk8 ,try the tests4 7,see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 page #aif47 ,some things to remember in purchasing wool4 #a4 ,wool mixed with cotton makes a cheaper fabric and should not be sold for all wool4 ,it wears well1 but is not as warm as all wool4 ,garments made of it do not keep their shape as well4 ,woolens are often adulterated in felting4 ,pull the closely woven fabric apart and untwist the fibers to see if cotton is present4 #b4 ,the burning test will help in deciding on the composition4 7,see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 page #aih47 #c4 ,a good woolen or worsted fabric can always be remade4 ,the inexpensive is not cheap unless you wish something which costs little but does not look well or wear well4 ,one should not expect to get blankets of all wool for two dollars a pair4 ,they cost five or six4 #d4 ,shoddy is one kind of recovered wool and is used to cheapen cost of all-wool material4 ,it can be detected because of shortness of the staple of wool1 but when mixed is difficult to see4 #e4 ,the weave of material affects the wearing quality4 ,a close twill weave is more durable than a basket weave4 ,some things to remember about color4 #a4 ,blue4 ,dark blue in woolen material or gingham usually fades little4 ,light blue is not as durable in color4 #b4 ,red4 ,woolen material of this color wears well and usually fades little4 ,red cotton when washed looks less brilliant4 ,it soon fades by washing4 #c4 ,black and gray4 ,woolen materials of gray1 white1 and black or in combination are generally satisfactory4 ,cotton materials of gray or black are apt to show starch in washing4 #d4 ,lavender4 ,this is a poor color to buy4 ,it fades easily in cotton goods4 #e4 ,pink4 ,fades with washing4 ,if a deep shade be bought it may be satisfactory4 #f4 ,green4 ,usually very unsatisfactory4 ,in good high-priced ginghams it may not fade1 but in cheap ones it is apt to turn yellow4 #g4 ,brown4 ,good usually in ginghams1 but likely to fade in woolen materials4 #h4 ,see chapters on costume design and dressmaking in 8,shelter and ,clothing10 for suggestions in relation to colors one should wear4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the above brief suggestions must be considered in the light of the knowledge gained from the study of the chapters on textiles in the companion volume1 8,shelter and ,clothing40 ,in purchasing any materials for clothing or household furnishings1 remember that demand causes production and those who are intelligent will make the right demands in the right places4 ,insist on the honest labeling of goods and demand that for which you pay4 ,why should cotton manufacturers label handkerchiefs which are cotton 8pure linen10 and sell them at ten cents8 ,we too should know linen cannot be bought at that price4 ,the ,united ,states government employs experts to examine the standards of textiles used in making army1 navy1 and other uniforms1 and will accept only those materials from the contracting manufacturers which stand their tests4 ,if a fuller discussion of the buying of textile materials is desired1 see ,woolman and ,mc,gowan's 8,textiles10 particularly the chapters on consumer's judgment of textiles1 on social and economic conditions1 and on clothing budgets4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what rules should be borne in mind in planning to buy the furnishings for a home8 #b4 ,what should guide one in relation to where to buy8 #c4 ,what methods of ordering facilitate shopping8 #d4 ,what is meant by the ethics of shopping8 #e4 ,what important facts should you have in mind in buying table linen8 #f4 ,what knowledge should you have before going to purchase a silk dress8 #g4 ,what will you think about in selecting colors for your garments8 #h4 ,mention five important facts to remember in purchasing wool fabrics4 #i4 ,how does the ,united ,states government protect itself in the purchase of textiles8 #aj4 ,what knowledge should a wise shopper possess8 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,housewifery ,this old-fashioned word is used here to include the methods and processes connected with the actual work of the house1 excepting the cookery1 sewing1 and laundering1 which have fuller treatment elsewhere4 ,this department of household management is a combination of sanitation and the economics of labor4 ,order in place4----,keep articles of a kind together conveniently arranged in places set apart for them1 these places to be easily accessible4 ,make an inventory of household goods in a card file1----household linen1 personal apparel1 including lists of clothing put away for summer or winter1 dishes1 and valuables4 ,each housekeeper must make a scheme that suits her own needs1 but a few suggestions may be helpful4 ,keep bed linen and towels1 piled preferably on shelves1 near bedrooms and bathrooms1 marked and numbered4 ,put the clean underneath when they come from the laundry4 ,clothing should be kept in an orderly way by each member of the family4 ,winter clothing and furs should be cleansed for putting away1 protected from moths by wrapping in paper1 hanging in tar bags1 putting in cedar chests1 or in trunks with some strong odored substances1----moth balls or cedar oil4 ,camphor is too expensive4 ,summer clothing should be washed and put away unstarched and unironed4 ,dishes and silver should be carefully arranged in very definite places1 and counted often enough to keep account of breakage and loss4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4----,madam1 who keeps your house8 ,courtesy of the ,woman's ,city ,club1 ,chicago4 ,brooms1 brushes1 dusters1 and cleansing materials should have a place of their own1 well ventilated when possible1 and all articles put away clean4 ,order in work and division of labor4----,this depends so largely upon the number of workers1 and upon the equipment of the house that no definite plan can be made for all4 ,the question must be differently answered for the woman who has a helper one day a week1 or with one or two1 or with a large staff of workers4 ,however1 there should be some definite plan for the days of the week and the hours of the day1 and some division of work among the members of the family or between the family and paid helpers4 ,the young people of the family should each have some regular piece of work1 at least in their own rooms2 and the paid helpers should have a definite plan given them1 including some hours to themselves1 as regular as possible4 ,there are emergencies that upset even the most perfect system1 and these must be met as they come1 but a fair amount of work at regular times should be the system4 8,domestic service0 is too large a social and economic problem to discuss at length here4 ,miss ,jane ,addams calls it 8belated industry10 meaning that in domestic work we are far behind the productive industries of commerce in organization4 ,we are trying experiments in putting work out1 and having helpers come in1 and in time we may bring order out of chaos when employers and employees are all properly trained and have the right relation to each other4 ,processes of housewifery4----,good working equipment1 including labor-saving apparatus1 is an essential2 and we must have knowledge of the effect of different cleansing materials on fabrics1 wood1 paint1 glass1 and metal4 ,equipment4----,brooms should be made of pliable straw 7broom corn71 be evenly made1 with a light and comfortable handle4 ,brushes may include the whisk broom1 soft brush of bristles both short and long handled for floors1 a long handled brush of wool or soft material for walls1 ceilings1 and cornices1 a soft brush for furniture1 a thin brush for radiators1 a silver brush1 and stiff scrubbing brush4 ,the variety of brushes at a furnishing shop is very large1 and interesting to study4 ,it is economy to buy good quality when you can1 and if cleaned and not abused they last a long time4 ,wash the brushes in soapsuds and water1 drain and dry before putting away4 ,a bamboo beater is convenient4 ,the dustpan should have a narrow cover at the handle side1 and a strong handle4 ,carpet sweepers prevent dust from flying and are easy to use1 but inclined to wear off the pile of the carpet4 ,vacuum cleaners are a necessity in crowded city quarters1 where we cannot beat and shake dusty carpets and rugs out of windows1 on the roof1 or in the street1 on account of our neighbors4 ,that we cannot all have them does not make them less necessary4 ,while they may involve no less muscular exertion they remove dust and old dirt in a remarkable way from fabrics1 and are very useful for taking dirt from cracks in the floor and woodwork and from upholstered furniture4 ,the principle of operation differs with different makes1 and some are less effective than others1 but there are several patterns that do good work and are not expensive4 ,experiment with one at the first opportunity4 ,a room cleaned in this way is markedly different in odor from a room that has been swept with a broom1 even when this is well done4 ,a good vacuum cleaner must have an air conveying system1 a separator or other means of disposal of the material picked up1 and a vacuum producer4 ,they may be divided1 according to the method employed1 into those worked by bellows1 by fan1 by rotary pump and piston pump4 ,this is a problem to take to the class in physics4 ,cleaning cloths4----,have a good supply of cheesecloth dusters1 and heavier cloth for work on the floors4 ,a sponge and chamois are useful4 ,the mop1 which is a cloth or fiber fabric on a handle1 is something that we ought to banish when we can1 for it is hard to keep clean1 and is a trap for bacteria4 ,a substitute for the common mop is a long handle with a cross bar covered with corrugated rubber1 which is held down on the cloth1 and rubbed back and forth but not fastened to the cloth4 ,avoid the use of linty old cloths1 because the thread and lint clog the traps and drains4 ,cleaning cloths should be boiled in strong soap suds1 rinsed1 and thoroughly dried before putting away4 ,this is a difficult rule to enforce1 for it is a temptation to tuck such things away where they will not show4 ,watch this matter as you do the garbage pail4 ,when a cloth is too dirty to wash clean1 burn it or send it away with paper refuse4 ,cleaning materials4----,air1 sunshine1 and water are the great purifiers1 plus muscular energy or the power of machinery1 but we frequently use chemical aids4 ,these should all be kept in stock4 ,soaps and alkalies4----,white and yellow soap1 some washing powder1 sal soda1 caustic soda1 household ammonia4 ,buy these in quantities if you have room to store them1 and if they will not be used too lavishly because the supply is large4 ,the soap is not much cheaper by the box1 but it hardens with age1 and then it wastes less rapidly when used4 ,oils and polishes4----,crude oil1 kerosene1 a mixture of linseed oil1 vinegar1 and turpentine1 one part each1 cottonseed oil1 alcohol4 ,acids4----,a solution of oxalic acid marked poison4 ,vinegar is on hand among kitchen supplies4 ,gritty substances4----,rotten stone1 whiting1 some gritty soap of a kind that does not scratch1 a gritty powder1 or fine sand for coarse work4 ,disinfectant and deodorizers4----,a weak solution of carbolic acid marked poison1 chloride of lime1 or some reliable preparation#bf 7though these are rather expensive71 rock salt1 and coarse common salt4 ,methods of cleaning4----,we must first consider what the substance is that has to be removed4 ,the fabrics and upholstery used in furnishing catch dust which contains lint1 grit1 organic material from our bodies1 and bacteria4 ,fabrics also become spotted 7see next chapter74 ,the walls and ceilings1 floors and cracks1 catch dust4 ,all wood and glass surfaces become soiled from the touch of even clean fingers1 and the moisture of the air mixed with dust dulls them4 ,metal surfaces oxidize1 and this oxidized layer must be rubbed off4 ,to clean fabrics4----,if you live in a suburb or in the country1 brush1 shake1 and beat articles to be cleaned out of doors1 noticing the way of the wind that the dust may not be carried back into the house4 ,to cleanse a rug1 spread it on the grass1 rub with a medium stiff brush with white soap solution on the wrong side1 turn it over1 and rinse with water from the hose2 or better still1 tack it by two corners to a wooden wall1 and then wash with hose4 ,the city dweller must resort to the vacuum cleaner1 or rely upon a cleaning establishment4 ,the other alternative is to shake out the dust in the room1 remove each article as it is cleaned1 let the dust settle1 and take it out as well as it can be4 ,one apartment dweller heard this remark rise from the window below her3 8,shut the window quick4 ,those dirty people upstairs are brushing a rug out the window60 ,painted surfaces and woodwork should be wiped off with a soft cloth wrung out of tepid water4 ,a small amount of neutral white soap solution in the water can be used for paint if it is greasy1 but alkalies are ruinous4 ,a highly polished surface 7piano7 is cleaned by washing with a sponge and tepid water1 and rubbing until dry with a wet chamois wrung out of cold water4 ,this method was learned from a piano polisher1 and it works excellently4 ,a dry chamois streaks the surface4 ,the wood of furniture is kept clean by rubbing with a soft dry cloth1 but once in a while needs cleaning with crude oil or the mixture of oil1 turpentine1 and vinegar4 ,bureau drawers need watching for finger marks4 ,glass is best cleaned by rubbing on a mixture of whiting and water4 ,leave it to dry and rub off with a dry cloth4 ,a fine gritty soap comes for this purpose4 ,ammonia and water and a soft cloth work well1 the success depending upon the final polishing4 ,very soft tissue paper is satisfactory for polishing4 ,marble1 porcelain1 and enamel need little more than white soap suds1 rinsed off and the surface dried4 ,if spotted1 use the finest kind of metal soap4 ,metals4----,fine silver and plated ware should be kept polished by the daily careful washing1 rinsing in hot water4 ,silver will spot and tarnish4 ,use whiting and alcohol1 let it dry on1 and rub off with a clean cloth or chamois4 ,the silver powders sold at the silversmith's are very good1 but the patent powders and liquids should not be used1 as they remove too much of the silver4 ,brass and copper are polished with rotten stone and oil4 ,if the metal is spotted1 use oxalic acid solution with the rotten stone4 ,after rubbing well1 the metal should be washed off in hot soap suds and finished with a dry cloth4 ,nickel plate keeps bright if kept clean by daily dry rubbing4 ,care of rooms4----,the bedroom4----,the daily care includes airing the room and its closets1 airing and making the bed1 dusting1 removing lint and threads from the floor1 and removing slops and bringing fresh water if bathing apparatus is in the room4 ,to make the bed4----,the amount of airing of the bedclothes depends somewhat upon the weather2 bed linen absorbs too much damp if placed by the window on a rainy or foggy day4 ,pull back the bedclothes and hang them over a chair set front to the foot of the bed1 seeing that the bedclothes do not drag on the floor4 ,on a bright1 fresh day remove all the clothes and hang them singly near the window4 ,if there is a screen in the room1 this is convenient for this purpose4 ,the blankets should be hung out on the line once in a while1 and washed twice a year4 ,one important point in the cleanliness of the bed is a pad or thick cloth placed on the mattress under the sheet4 ,the mattress should be sunned and aired often1 and beaten or cleaned with the vacuum cleaner4 ,to make the bed1 place the cover on the mattress1 lay the under sheet straight1 tuck in firmly at top and bottom1 and fold the sides under straight1 making angles at the corners4 ,put each piece on separately1 turning the upper sheet down over the others4 ,the cover is sometimes placed over all1 and a strip to match over the pillows4 ,care of the washstand4----,this is all important1 and cannot be neglected a day1 without causing an unpleasant odor4 ,the jars containing slops should be rinsed in cold water1 washed out in warm soap suds1 dried1 and aired4 ,if the ware is china1 hot water may crackle the glaze1 and then it is impossible to remove odors4 ,wash and dry all the small articles and wipe out and refill the water pitcher4 ,care of the bedroom at night4----,fold back1 or remove the covers1 and lay the bedclothes partly back4 ,see that drinking water is in the room1 and lighting conveniences4 ,the living room1 dining room1 and halls4----,the daily care consists in setting furniture and such small articles as the pictures and ornaments straight1 removing lint and dust from the floor1 dusting wherever needed4 ,the weekly cleaning of all rooms4----,whether a thorough cleaning is needed weekly1 depends upon the situation of the house1 and the number of people who use the rooms4 ,the rooms in a country house set in wide green spaces do not need cleaning so often as those of a city house4 ,general order for all rooms4----,dust all small articles1 place them together and cover them4 ,dust and clean off furniture and take the lighter pieces from the room4 ,cover what remains4 ,clean the textile fabrics in the best way available4 ,brush the walls1 with a special brush1 or soft cloth on a broom4 ,dust and cover pictures4 ,brush the rugs1 or use vacuum cleaner4 ,if the floor is hardwood1 brush it with a soft brush1 taking long1 steady strokes from corner and sides to center4 ,take up dust in pan1 and carry away to burn1 or put in dust can at once4 ,wipe the floor with moist cloth1 or with oiled cloth4 ,if there is a carpet and a broom is to be used1 scatter pieces of wet paper over it1 moisten the broom1 and sweep as directed for brushing1 using steady strokes and not allowing the dust to fly4 ,the broom should be washed and dried4 ,if dust flies1 allow it time to settle4 ,dust the surfaces left exposed4 ,wipe off the woodwork if necessary1 remove covers1 and replace all articles4 ,to have the room perfectly clean1 windows should be washed1 but if this is not convenient at the time1 or the weather is bad1 rub them and dust the sashes4 ,wash mirrors and the glass of pictures4 ,this means much labor1 and some people cannot accomplish it every week2 and different rooms should have different cleaning days4 ,but such thorough cleaning occasionally is necessary for keeping all articles in good condition and also for the health of the family4 ,the old-fashioned yearly house cleaning seems hardly necessary if cleaning is well done through the year1 but in both fall and spring some extra freshening may be necessary in the way of thorough cleansing of textiles and furniture4 ,all closets should have everything removed from them and the whole closet cleansed4 ,drawers should come out1 be emptied1 washed and aired1 and fresh white or brown paper put in all4 ,the bathroom and toilet4----,this needs very particular care1 no matter what the type may be4 ,all drains and traps should be flushed daily1 and a solution of caustic soda put down weekly4 ,if there is an odor about the water closet1 try salt first1 and then some chloride preparation4 ,the basin1 the tub1 and the seat and basin of the toilet should be thoroughly washed daily4 ,when the bathroom is used by more than one person1 all should be taught to leave all the toilet equipment perfectly clean4 ,if the toilet is not of the water-closet type1 even greater care should be taken4 ,everything must be kept scrubbed clean1 and chloride of lime should be put down daily1 if there is not a removable pail with earth4 7,see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 p4 #dh47 ,care of lamps4----,if kerosene is used1 this is an important feature of housework4 ,have a tray for holding necessary articles1 soft cloth1 paper1 strong1 sharp scissors1 lamp chimney brush4 ,when the lamp is to be cleaned1 set it upon this tray4 ,take off all the easily removable parts4 ,fill the lamp through a funnel1 and do not let the kerosene run over4 ,wipe off the charred wick with paper1 and wipe the burner4 ,wash off the lamp in warm soap suds1 wash and polish the chimney and shade1 and replace4 ,if you cannot get rid of odor1 take the burner apart1 boil it in a solution of washing soda1 and put in a new wick4 ,cleaning a lamp is not nearly so disagreeable as many people think it1 when it is done with good will4 ,to shirk it means an unpleasant odor in the room and a poor light4 ,always fill the lamp in the daytime and keep it away from the fire4 ,household insects4----,keep out flies and mosquitoes by screens1 but see first that your premises are clean1 and do what you can in the whole neighborhood4 ,flies breed in dirty stables and mosquitoes in standing water4 ,the stables must be cleaned and kept so1 and water drained off or kerosene put upon it4 ,mosquitoes will breed in water in an empty milk bottle or old tomato can4 ,if flies enter the house1 kill them in some way4 ,wire or net fly killers cost only ten cents1 and do good work4 ,if the flies are very numerous1 catch them in wire traps1 or burn pyrethrum powder in the room4 ,at night when they are on the ceiling1 catch them in a glass of hot water and soap1 not quite full1 by holding the glass under the fly and gently knocking the glass against the ceiling4 ,if the ceiling is high1 tack an empty can on the end of an old broom stick and set the glass in that4 ,clothing moths are kept out by precautions already mentioned4 ,if bed bugs appear1 go over the bed with great care and examine the bedstead4 ,wash it off with kerosene1 putting this well into the cracks4 ,a single insect may be brought in on the clothing4 ,if they continue to appear1 all wall paper should be removed1 woodwork varnished or painted4 ,it may be necessary to resort to fumigation1 but this should be done by an expert4 ,croton or water bugs are difficult to destroy1 if they are once in a house4 ,no garbage should be left about1 to attract them at night4 ,there are powders that drive them away1 and another remedy is sulphur paste1 which comes for the purpose1 and which may be spread on slices of potato4 ,the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture issues free bulletins on the suppression of household insects4 ,precautions against fire4----,so many disastrous fires occur as a result of a careless act that we need to train ourselves in caution4 ,the matches used should be of the safety type4 ,they should be blown out1 never shaken1 and never thrown into a basket of papers4 ,when matches are used1 always have a small fire-proof receptacle in each room4 ,smokers are often careless in regard to their matches1 cigars1 and pipes4 ,be careful in summer to see that a breeze cannot blow some light curtain over a candle or lamp4 ,if a kettle of fat catches fire1 pour on sand1 but never water4 ,as a general rule1 extinguish a flame by covering it rather than by throwing on water4 ,if clothing catches on fire1 wrap a rug or any large woolen article tightly around the body4 ,to rush into the air is fatal4 ,if a towel or apron catches fire1 roll it up quickly before the blaze spreads4 ,this can be done without injury to the hands4 ,small fire extinguishers are not expensive4 ,most kinds contain a solution of soda and a bottle of sulphuric acid which mix when the extinguisher is inverted1 and throw out a stream of water charged with gas from a small hose4 ,this works well just as a fire starts4 ,extinguishers arranged to throw a stream of carbon tetrachloride are also on the market4 ,repairs4----,too often in planning the budget1 and the daily work1 the housekeeper forgets to allow for the constant wear and tear on the house itself1 and its furnishings2 but to preserve the beauty and usefulness of both the house and furniture1 as much thought and time are necessary as for the repair of clothing4 ,in addition to the care and cleaning1 there must be a constant attention to small repairs4 ,inspecting and reporting4----,have a series of cards in the card file1 or pages in the notebook1 where needed repairs may be jotted down4 ,have a regular time for looking over different parts of the house2 and give a brief daily look as you pass from room to room4 ,each member of the family should be asked to report whatever goes wrong in his province1----a leaky faucet1 a squeaky door1 or broken castor1 a tear in a curtain1 a shade roller that does not work4 ,for large repairs1 like a leak in the water or waste system or shingle on a roof1 a trained worker is needed2 but for small repairs a special worker from outside is too expensive1 and there needs to be a handy person in the house1 who can put in a screw1 and use a monkey wrench1 touch up the paint or varnish1 or mend the wall paper4 ,it is pleasant work1 and in these days when schools teach so much handicraft1 there should be some one in the family glad to do it4 ,a repair outfit4----,have a shelf somewhere for the repair 8kit40 ,look at the woodwork of your house1 and see what is needed2 whether paint1 or varnish1 an oil mixture or stain1 or all of them4 ,have on hand a small can of each1 and bottles of alcohol1 turpentine1 and glue4 ,two or three paint brushes of good quality and of different sizes are needed4 ,keep a bundle of wall paper including pieces of all the patterns on the walls4 ,a box of tools is needed1 including a hammer1 gimlet1 screw driver1 monkey wrench1 a sharp knife1 with boxes of nails and screws of mixed kinds and sizes such as may be found at any hardware store4 ,,exercises #a4 ,what are the reasons for keeping an inventory of household goods8 #b4 ,how should winter garments be cared for in summer8 #c4 ,obtain a price list and estimate the cost of an equipment of brooms and cleansing materials4 #d4 ,what are the advantages of a vacuum cleaner over a broom8 #e4 ,what are the best methods of removing dust8 ,of cleaning paint and woodwork and glass8 #f4 ,how are metals cleaned8 #g4 ,what are the most important points in caring for a bedroom8 #h4 ,what is the order of work in a thorough cleaning of a room1 and why8 #i4 ,how should plumbing be cleaned8 #aj4 ,is the old-fashioned order of work the best now----,monday1 washing2 ,tuesday1 ironing2 ,wednesday1 mending2 ,thursday and ,friday1 cleaning2 and ,saturday1 baking8 #aa4 ,how may all the family help to some extent in household work8 #ab4 ,can you plan the best order of work for a day for the home worker who has no help but some one to wash and iron8 #ac4 ,what are the dangers from different household insects8 #ad4 ,if a kerosene lamp suddenly blazes up1 what should you do8 #ae4 ,what is the principle involved in putting out a fire8 #af4 ,what are some of the simple methods of fire prevention8 #ag4 ,what simple repairing can be done by members of the family8 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,laundering ,,and ,,dry ,,cleansing 8,washing is a necessity1 ironing a luxury40 ,this terse sentence expresses very clearly the relative value of the two large divisions of the laundering process4 ,the thorough washing of clothing is a most important branch of household sanitation1 upon which the health of the family and of the whole community depends1 for disease is communicable by means of soiled garments and those that are imperfectly cleansed in unsanitary houses and possibly in commercial laundries4 ,the ideal city will have many large and spotlessly clean laundries1 where skilled labor intelligently directed will insure clothing as clean as it can possibly be made4 ,there is an sthetic element in laundering as well1 for good washing methods give a tinted white to fabrics that it is a pleasure to see1 and ironing makes a smoothness that is pleasant to the touch1 and brings out beauty of design1 as in damasks and embroideries4 ,there is an economic feature1 too1 in that poor and rough methods of work in both washing and ironing injure fabrics and shorten their term of usableness4 8,washing ,day0 has an ill repute that it does not deserve1 for laundering is a science and an art that it is a pleasure to practice1 if one has skill4 ,make it one of the household arts which you must carefully study1 and you will find it pleasurable as well as necessary4 ,soil in garments4----,the dust and dirt of the street and house that soil our garments contain inorganic particles of earth1 lint from textiles1 organic matter from animals and human beings1 and also bacteria4 ,the material from our bodies consists of particles of skin1 skin secretions1 and bacteria1 which are collected in underwear and bed linen and towels4 ,spots of grease and stains may fall upon our outer clothing1 and fruit stains affect table linen in particular4 ,cleansing agents4----,water is the great cleanser1 and if it is not available in abundance and used freely1 the washing is a failure4 ,all other agents are merely aids to the water or substitutes for it4 ,in primitive outdoor methods1 still largely used in some countries1 the flowing water is the only agent1 and yet the result is fairly good4 ,we aid the process by the use of soap or washing powders or ammonia4 ,the air and sun are also purifiers1 and clothing should be exposed to their action for drying whenever possible4 ,there is a sweetness in air and sun-dried clothing that no artificial drier seems to give4 ,probably there takes place some oxidation of impurities present in very small amount and1 moreover1 any bacteria still clinging to the fabric may be killed by the sun's rays4 ,heat is a purifier1 oily substances being more readily removed by hot water and soap than by cold2 and the boiling temperature of water renders bacteria and organic matter harmless4 ,some mechanical action that forces water through the fabric is necessary1 and the method of accomplishing this is one of the important problems in laundering4 ,we seek a method that will be thorough1 that will not injure the fabric1 and that will economize the muscular energy of the worker4 ,beating1 pounding1 and rubbing are the old methods1 the use of a machine the new1 and that is the best machine that meets all the requirements of the properly conducted washing process as described below4 ,the water should be soft and clean4 ,rain water is a perfectly soft water and excellent for laundering if the cistern is kept clean1 and free from the dust of the roof4 ,lake1 river1 and well water are sometimes soft4 ,strainers may be used on the faucets if at any time the water from these sources becomes muddy4 7,see ,chapter ,v for discussion of soft and hard water47 ,hard water prevents the soap from lathering1 and this must be counteracted for laundering4 ,temporary hardness is removed by boiling4 ,permanent hardness is not affected by boiling and can be overcome only by the addition of some substance like ammonia1 borax1 or soda4 ,only enough of these should be used to allow the soap to do its work1 since they may injure fabric and the skin of the worker4 ,soap is the most useful of the cleansing agents added to water4 ,it may have been accidentally made in the first place by some housewife who put a greasy pot to soak with a solution of lye made from the ashes of her hearth fire4 ,heat and alkali break up the fat into two parts1 glycerin and a fatty acid4 ,the fatty acid combines with the alkali1 giving soap1 and the glycerin remains free4 ,both animal and vegetable fats are used1 and different forms of alkali1 usually potash or caustic soda1 the former for soft1 the latter for hard1 soap4 ,in these days soap is much better made in the factory than it can be at home4 ,in the factory the alkali is proportioned by weight1 so that as little free alkali is left as possible4 ,such a soap is called 8neutral40 ,resin is added1 in yellow laundry soaps1 and is supposed to aid in forming suds4 ,when there is an excess of resin1 as in some cheap soaps1 it is hard to rinse out and colors the clothes4 ,borax is sometimes added to soap1 and is useful when the water is hard1 but not necessary in soft water4 ,naphtha or some other petroleum oil in soap increases the cleansing property of soap1 by dissolving fatty or greasy impurities4 ,a soap solution is essential for use in the boiler and in washing machines and is useful for rubbing on spots before washing4 ,to make soap solution1 cut up the soap and dissolve it in hot water1 one pound soap to one gallon of water4 ,it should be strong enough to jelly when cool1 and may be kept in jars ready to use4 ,even more convenient are soap chips which come by the barrel1 but may be bought at pound rates4 ,bleaching and bluing agents4----,the sun1 as it bleaches white fabrics1 may be counted in this group4 ,chemical bleaches are used to whiten clothes1 but should not be resorted to unless clothes are yellow from poor washing1 as in the end they weaken the fabric4 ,commercial laundries sometimes use an excess of acid for this purpose4 ,cream of tartar is a harmless bleach4 ,javelle water is another household bleach1 chloride of lime being the bleaching substance4 ,this is also a good disinfectant4 ,to use cream of tartar4----,dissolve cream of tartar in hot water1 #a teaspoonful to each quart4 ,after the yellowed fabrics have been thoroughly washed and rinsed1 lay them overnight in a solution of this strength1 rinse1 blue1 and dry in the morning4 ,javelle water4----#a_/d pound chloride of lime1 #a pound sal soda1 #b quarts of cold water4 ,dissolve the chloride in half the water cold1 and the sal soda in the other half boiling4 ,stir together thoroughly1 allow the mixture to stand several hours1 pour off the clear water with care1 and bottle it4 ,use a tablespoonful of the solution to a gallon of water1 and heat the yellow fabric in this mixture after thorough washing1 for half an hour1 not allowing the temperature to rise above #ajj ,f4 ,rinse very thoroughly before bluing and drying4 ,bluing is used to neutralize the slightly yellowish tint of the fabric1 when it cannot be completely bleached4 ,ultramarine blue is sold in small balls and cakes4 ,aniline blue is a strong color1 and in a very dilute solution gives a pleasing pearly tint to the fabric1 especially when the violet tint is used4 ,mix an ounce of the blue with one gallon water1 and bottle for use4 ,prussian blue is to be avoided1 since it is a salt of iron1 and often yellows or spots the clothes4 ,it is usually sold in liquid form4 ,to test1 mix the liquid blue with a strong solution of washing soda and heat4 ,if the mixture turns red1 and there is a reddish precipitate1 the blue is this salt of iron4 ,starch is used to fill the interstices of fabrics and give a smoothness and stiffness to the cloth that prevents the rumpling of garments4 ,both wheat and cornstarch are used for laundry purposes when only the natural starches are available1 the wheat starch being better for home laundering1 as the cornstarch gives a quality that is too stiff and crackling4 ,recently1 however1 the manufacturers have learned to make 8thin boiling0 starches from corn and have placed on the market a variety of such modifications of cornstarch for laundry use4 ,rice starch or 8rice water0 is used for very thin muslins4 ,to make starch4----,for method of making1 see starch experiments1 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the starch must be perfectly smooth1 and should be stirred while it is boiling for a few minutes1 and strained4 ,proportions4 #a4 ,for lingerie1 #a teaspoonful of starch to #a quart water4 #b4 ,for medium fabrics1 #a-a_/b to #c tablespoonfuls starch to #a quart water4 #c4 ,for stiff work1 #e tablespoonfuls starch to #a quart water4 ,ironing4----,the ironing process is the most difficult art in laundering1 and requires good tools1 practice1 and patience4 ,in the summer it is an exhausting labor unless an electric or gas iron is available4 ,much energy may be saved in hot weather by omitting the ironing of certain articles4 ,dish towels1 even toilet towels1 and soft underwear may be stretched and folded1 and are perfectly comfortable to use4 ,some women who do their own work even fold sheets and pillow cases without ironing4 ,the smoothing of the fabric is accomplished by heated irons1 or by pressing between rollers in a mangle4 ,to summarize4----,the essential steps in laundering are3 the forcing of clear water through the fabric2 loosening of the soil and stains by soap and appropriate chemicals1 sterilization by boiling temperature1 drying and sweetening in the air if possible4 ,the less essential are bluing1 starching1 and in some cases ironing4 ,laundry equipment4----,we are beginning to realize that a separate room for laundering purposes is an essential in a well-equipped home4 ,such a laundry will be light and well ventilated1 will have washable floors1 walls1 and ceilings1 running water and hot water supply1 sanitary tubs and conveniences in the shape of machinery4 ,we shall not have perfect laundries until electric power is available at a fair price4 ,much is said about electricity on the farm1 and the progressive farmer who has his own engine should not fail to use the power for all laundry work4 ,trolley power should be available1 and this use of electricity should be made cooperative when practicable4 ,in a few communities abroad and at home1 the power available in a creamery is used for laundering purposes as well4 ,where there cannot be a separate laundry1 take pains to have the equipment as good as space will allow4 ,the tubs4----,if possible1 have three tubs1 for this makes for economy of time4 ,enameled tubs are the most sanitary1 and be sure that they are white4 ,you cannot tell whether or not the clothes are clean and blued to the proper tint in a buff-tinted tub1 which you may be tempted to buy because it is cheaper4 ,round portable tubs1 to be set upon a bench1 should be of galvanized iron1 which is sanitary and light4 ,wooden tubs are things of the past1 unsanitary and heavy4 ,equipment for forcing water4----,the rubbing board is the old-time method1 yet it wears the fabric and wears out the worker1 and should be used as little as possible4 ,if still considered necessary1 it should be of glass set in wood4 ,the wooden board is unsanitary and the metal board may at any moment develop a tiny crack that will tear the fabric4 ,fortunately1 many women are learning that the washing machine1 properly used1 is a great economy of fabric1 time1 and strength4 ,many machines are on the market1 and we need to discriminate and to select the machine constructed to force the water through the fabric without injury to the fabric1 and with the smallest amount of muscular energy and that properly exerted without strain4 ,of course1 if machine power is available1 the problem is easy4 ,these many washers may be classed in four groups4 ,one is a revolving arrangement1 sometimes consisting of two corrugated boards set in the center of a tub of clothes1 one objection being that the clothes are sometimes torn4 ,another type has a revolving perforated inner cylinder for the clothes1 and an outer one for the soap and water4 ,this is much more expensive4 ,still a third rocks the clothes in soap and water and is very effective4 ,a fourth type makes use of suction4 ,the principle of cleansing by pressure and suction is used in several machines and hand washers1 and these are1 on the whole1 inexpensive and practical for home work4 ,the work is accomplished by an inverted cone1 pushed down on the clothes1 and lifted4 ,such a washer is seen standing on the floor in ,fig4 #hj4 ,the same figure also shows another of this type standing on the table1 and still another to be used in the boiler4 ,most of these devices can be used with power4 ,the boiler4----,a portable boiler is convenient4 ,it should be made of good quality tin with copper bottom and must be thoroughly washed and dried after using4 ,the wringer is of great assistance to good work4 ,it should be a good machine having hard rubber rollers1 ball-bearing action1 and strong springs at the side4 ,it must be cleaned after using1 dried1 the pressure loosened1 and the whole kept covered4 ,the drier4----,if clothesline or heavy wire is used1 this must be of good quality1 and well cared for4 ,the clothesline should be taken in after each using4 ,a revolving drier is convenient1 and may even be used in apartment houses4 ,the steam drier has a rack on which clothes are hung1 and economizes space and time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4----,simple laundry equipment for the home4 ,a4 ,fowler1 ,photographer4 ,irons4----,the hand iron is heated in several different ways4 ,the old-fashioned iron heated on the stove1 and the electric iron are the most satisfactory4 ,in buying hand irons1 select those of good weight1 for this makes the work easier4 ,three or four will suffice for ordinary work1 and they should weigh from #d or #e to #g pounds4 ,a small pointed iron is necessary for fine work1 and for sleeves there is a special1 narrow iron4 ,the irons must be kept clean1 and perfectly dry when not in use4 ,wax tied in a cloth is a good cleaner1 and should be at hand during the ironing process4 ,a stand is necessary on which the iron may rest1 and paper or cloth on which to rub the iron when it comes from the stove4 ,electric irons are proving very satisfactory1 and although the first cost is high1 they should be used wherever possible4 ,the mangle4----,small mangles1 used either cold or heated1 are now made for family use1 and are great labor savers in flat work4 ,towels and small flat pieces may even be put through the wringer1 while they are still damp1 with very good effect4 ,the ironing board4----,this should be firm1 well padded1 and covered with clean cloth4 ,the cover may be made to tie on so that it can be easily changed4 ,ironing boards should be placed in a good light4 ,boards may be attached to the wall1 and these have firm support4 ,in a small room1 the board can be made to turn up4 ,other apparatus4----,a hamper or bag for soiled clothes1 a basket for clean1 pail and dipper1 a clothes stick1 a large pan1 a small and a large saucepan1 a teakettle for boiling water1 a knife1 wooden spoon1 common spoons and measures1 a sprinkler or brush for sprinkling clothes1 a clotheshorse1 clothes hangers for waists and dresses4 ,the soiled clothes bag should be washed weekly1 and the hamper should have a removable lining also for weekly washing4 ,monday and ,tuesday are the traditional days for washing and ironing1 but the woman who does her own work1 or perhaps has a helper1 or one maid1 may find it a good plan to do no more on ,monday than the mending1 removing of stains1 and sorting4 ,this gives time to make the house orderly1 after ,sunday1 and to prepare food1 some of which may last over the next two days4 ,some of the clothes may then be soaked overnight4 ,order of work4----,mending1 sorting the clothes1 removing stains1 soaking1 washing1 boiling1 rinsing1 bluing1 starching1 drying1 sprinkling and rolling1 ironing1 folding1 airing1 sorting1 and distributing4 ,methods4----,mending and removing spots from fabrics are discussed in 8,shelter and ,clothing40 ,a few common stains are removed as follows3 ,fruit and coffee stains4----,hold the spotted fabric tightly over a bowl and pour boiling water through it4 ,of course1 remove stains at once if possible4 ,peach stains are removed by ,javelle water4 ,apply a few drops and pour boiling water through at once4 ,cocoa and chocolate stains are helped by borax1 and by soap and cold water4 ,ink4----,liquid ink removers provided for the library table are convenient4 ,wet the spot1 use #a1 dry with a blotter1 and use #b1 and rinse at once4 ,the same thing is done by wetting1 applying an oxalic acid solution first1 then ,javelle water and rinsing4 ,blood stains are removed by soaking in lukewarm water1 and washing in a soap solution with a little ammonia and kerosene1 or with a naphtha soap4 ,sorting4----,separate the fabrics1 wool from cotton and so on1 and colored cotton from white2 also separate body linen from bed linen and from table linen4 ,soaking4----,this hastens the process since it loosens dirt1 and one laboratory experiment seemed to show that soaked clothes are freer from bacteria1 than those that are not4 ,shrinkable fabrics cannot be soaked4 ,body and table linen should be soaked separately4 ,the water should be cold1 softened with a little ammonia4 ,washing4----,wash woolens and silk underwear first1 in warm1 not hot1 soap suds1 wring out1 rinse1 and hang to dry4 ,use a white1 neutral soap4 ,have the same temperature for both washing and rinsing4 ,boiling water shrinks wool1 and yellows silk4 ,hand-knit wool1 as shawls and jackets1 stretch in drying4 ,if dried in a bag or pillow case1 this is partly obviated1 or lay them on a pad on the table4 ,prepare hot water in the tub1 with dissolved soap in it1 either for handwork or a washer4 ,wash table linen first1 then bed linen and towels1 and next the body clothes4 ,soap the articles well1 and rub or use a washer4 ,it is well to wash handkerchiefs by themselves1 boiling in a pail for half an hour4 ,if one of the family has a cold or influenza1 soak his handkerchiefs in a solution of salt and water and perhaps a little bleaching powder before washing and boiling4 ,make fresh suds often4 ,this means heavy labor in the case of portable tubs1 but clothes cannot be cleansed in dirty water4 ,colored cotton and linen articles may be washed last4 ,they should be put first into salt and water to set the color1 washed in tepid water with white soap1 rinsed thoroughly and hung in the shade1 wrong side out4 ,boiling4----,boil the washed clothes in soap solution for ten minutes4 ,in case of infectious disease1 all the patient's linen should be boiled an hour1#bg and of course exposed clothing is kept separate through the whole process4 ,rinsing4----,this must be thorough and two or three waters must be used4 ,this is the stage where many laundresses fail4 ,the suction washers are very useful here4 ,wringing4----,this must take place between every two stages of the process4 ,bluing4----,add the bluing solution to clean water to the desired shade1 shake each piece1 put it through the water1 and wring out at once4 ,do not use bluing in excess4 ,starching4----,next the fabrics that need a little thin starch may be starched4 ,starch for stiff collars and shirts is rubbed in at the time of ironing4 ,drying4----,hang out the clothes1 having pieces of a kind together1 and the threads straight4 ,if out of doors1 hang in such a way that the air will have easy access4 ,take down1 when dry1 and fold lightly in a basket4 ,sprinkle1 roll tightly1 and leave them until ironing time4 ,thin fabrics should be very moist1 as they dry quickly4 ,ironing4----,this art must be acquired by watching the expert and by practice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4----;,folding of nightdresses4 ,courtesy of ,balderston and ,limerick4 ,shake or stretch the article1 and lay it straight upon the board4 ,iron from right to left1 arranging the material with the left hand1 and iron with the long thread of the material4 ,bring the article on the board toward you4 ,iron first the parts that will wrinkle least1 such as ruffles and trimming and sleeves4 ,embroidery and damask should be ironed on a very soft material like a ,turkish towel1 right side down4 ,always iron until the fabric is dry4 ,all tucks and folds must be carefully straightened1 and if ironed crooked1 they must be made very wet and done over again4 ,when ironing a waist will you do the sleeve or the body first8 ,large flat pieces1 towels1 and napkins are folded in the ironing4 ,doilies and centerpieces should not be folded4 ,folding is necessary in order to make the garments of convenient shape for putting away4 ,figures #ha and #hb will suggest the method for some garments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4----;,folding of corset covers4 ,courtesy of ,balderston and ,limerick4 ,commercial laundries4----,the convenience of these has been suggested already4 ,when we can make them all sanitary1 and when methods are used that will not injure the fabric1 we can safely put this kind of work out of the house1 but at present many commercial laundries are unsanitary and ruin the clothes4 ,cost of laundering4----,we cannot have good service without paying for it1 and one cause of poor laundry work is the public demand for cheap work1 and this too has its effect upon the laundry worker4 ,the housekeeper often fails to have the laundry ready when the wagon calls1 and yet demands a quick return1 which also results in poor work4 ,if you have never done any laundering and expect a laundress to do up fine lingerie at a low rate1 it will be a revelation to you to attempt to iron a shirt waist or lingerie dress1 and then decide what remuneration you would yourself like to receive4 ,one class of high school girls1 after a course of six laundry lessons1 decided that a dollar a dozen was fair pay for ordinary work6 ,this is an interesting question for class and home discussion4 ,dry cleaning4----,this is accomplished by gasoline1 naphtha1 or benzine1 and should not be attempted by the city dweller4 ,in the country or suburbs1 it should be done out of doors1 far from any source of fire4 ,use a basin or tub1 and immerse the article in the liquid1 using as much as if water1 lifting gently up and down4 ,rinse in a second portion4 ,a suction washer may be used with large garments4 ,do not rub the fabric in the liquid4 ,lift1 drain1 and hang to dry4 ,keep the can in a safe place1 safety being insured by coolness4 ,powdered ,french chalk may be rubbed into delicate silk and wool1 where there is a grease spot1 or an oiliness from the skin4 ,leave for twenty-four hours1 then shake1 and brush out4 ,ether and chalk may be used1 but the ether affects some people unpleasantly1 and dissolves out some delicate colors4 ,meal may also be used for cleaning wool1 especially knitted fabrics1 but it is difficult to shake out1 and it needs blowing out on the clothesline4 ,laboratory management4----,a few lessons can be given in laundering where there is no complete equipment4 ,dish towels1 doilies1 and napkins can at least be washed in dishpans in the school kitchen1 and a few irons provided4 ,a few such lessons are helpful at least in developing an appreciation of what good laundering means at home and to the community4 ,the following order of practical work is suggested1 when there is a school equipment4 7,from 8,a ,laundry ,manual10 courtesy of ,balderston and ,limerick47 ,,first ,,course ,i4 ,make ,javelle water1 detergent1 soap1 and give general notes4 ,,ii4 ,removal of stains4 ,wash4 ,table linen4 #a tablecloth for every four students4 #a napkin for each student4 #a doily for each student4 ,,iii4 ,wash4 ,bed linen4 #a sheet for every four students4 #a pillow case for each student4 ,iron4 ,tablecloth1 napkins1 and doilies4 ,,iv4 ,wash4 ,drawers and stockings4 ,iron4 ,sheets and pillow cases4 ,v4 ,wash4 ,towels and plain colored pieces4 ,iron4 ,drawers and stockings4 ,,vi4 ,wash4 ,nightdress and corset covers4 ,iron4 ,towel and colored clothes4 ,,vii4 ,wash4 ,flannel underwear4 ,iron4 ,nightdress and corset covers4 ,,viii4 ,wash4 ,embroideries4 ,iron4 ,embroideries and flannels4 ,,second ,,course ,i4 ,wash4 ,white skirts4 ,wash and iron4 ,doilies and drawn work4 ,,ii4 ,wash4 ,shirtwaists4 ,iron4 ,white skirts4 ,,iii4 ,wash4 ,knit and crocheted articles and flannel waists4 ,iron4 ,shirtwaists4 ,,iv4 ,wash4 ,woolen dress goods1 down quilt1 and blankets4 ,iron4 ,flannel waists4 ,v4 ,wash4 ,collars and cuffs1 child's dress1 ribbons4 ,finish quilt and blankets4 ,,vi4 ,wash4 ,silks4 ,iron4 ,silks1 collars and cuffs1 child's dress4 ,,vii4 ,wash4 ,laces1 lace curtains4 ,,viii4 ,wash4 ,collarettes1 stocks1 handkerchiefs4 ,iron4 ,collarettes1 stocks1 handkerchiefs4 ,finish lace curtains4 ,,exercises #a4 ,why is ironing less necessary than washing8 #b4 ,what are the chief cleansing and purifying agents8 #c4 ,explain the difference between hard and soft water4 ,remedies for hardness8 #d4 ,what is soap1 and how does it act8 #e4 ,why do we blue and starch clothes8 #f4 ,describe the methods of forcing water through clothes4 #g4 ,why are clothes boiled8 #h4 ,what are some of the labor saving devices and methods in washing and ironing8 #i4 ,why must clothes be sorted according to fabrics8 #aj4 ,what are the essentials of a good washing machine8 #aa4 ,make a list of the cleansers and chemicals necessary to have on the laundry shelf4 #ab4 ,obtain price lists and estimate the cost of simple but sufficient laundry equipment4 #ac4 ,obtain a laundry list from a commercial laundry4 ,make a list of the articles washed at home1 and compare cost with the cost of putting out clothes1 estimating fuel1 cleansers1 labor1 and some wear and tear of apparatus4 ,,appendix ,,classification ,,of ,,foodstuffs ,elements required by the body ,carbon ,hydrogen ,oxygen ,nitrogen ,sulphur ,phosphorus ,iron ,calcium ,magnesium ,potassium ,sodium ,chlorine ,iodine 7traces7 ,fluorine 7traces7 ,silicon 7traces7 ,foodstuffs furnishing these elements ,proteins----furnish carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 and sometimes phosphorus and iron ,fats----furnish carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen ,carbohydrates----furnish carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen ,mineral matter----furnishes phosphorus1 iron1 calcium1 magnesium1 sodium1 potassium1 chlorine1 iodine1 fluorine ,water----furnishes hydrogen and oxygen ,general functions of these foodstuffs ,to supply energy ,to supply building material ,to regulate body processes ,special functions of each foodstuff ,proteins----supply energy2 also nitrogen1 sulphur1 and sometimes phosphorus for body building ,fats----supply energy in the most concentrated form ,carbohydrates----supply energy in the most economical form ,mineral matter----supplies building material and helps to regulate body processes ,water----supplies necessary material 7about #fj per cent of body being water7 and helps to regulate body processes ,examples of food materials rich in each of the foodstuffs ,proteins ,eggs ,milk ,cheese ,lean meats ,fish ,fats ,cream ,butter ,meat fats ,vegetable oils ,nuts ,yolk of egg ,carbohydrates ,cereals and cereal products ,potatoes and other starchy vegetables ,chestnuts ,sweet fruits ,sugar ,mineral matter ,milk ,green vegetables ,fruits ,whole wheat and other whole cereal products ,egg yolk ,water ,fresh fruits ,fresh vegetables ,milk ,beverages1 including water as such ,digestion of the foodstuffs ,having seen what each of the foodstuffs does in nourishing the body1 we may now see how they are prepared for the use of the body in the digestive tract4 ,digestion of carbohydrate4----,the simplest carbohydrate is a sugar which cannot be broken up into other sugars4 ,such a simple sugar is called a monosaccharid4 ,there are two common in foods1 glucose and fructose2 a third1 galactose1 is derived from more complex sugars4 ,two simple sugars united chemically make a double sugar or disaccharid2 thus cane sugar or sucrose will yield glucose and fructose1 while milk sugar or lactose will yield glucose and galactose1 and maltose will yield two portions of glucose4 ,these three disaccharids are the only common ones4 ,starches1 dextrins1 and cellulose or vegetable fiber are made of many simple glucose groups1 and are hence called polysaccharids4 ,all carbohydrates to be used by the body must be reduced to simple sugars4 ,glucose needs no digestion therefore1 but the double sugars must be split by enzymes into two simple sugars in the intestinal juice1 one for each kind1 namely1 sucrase 7sucrose-splitting71 maltase 7maltose-splitting7 and lactase 7lactose-splitting74 ,the digestion of starches and dextrins begins in the mouth1 where amylase 7starch-splitting7 changes starch first to dextrin and finally to maltose1 and maltase may change a little of the maltose so formed into glucose4 ,in the stomach there are no enzymes acting on carbohydrates1 but the digestion may continue under the influence of swallowed saliva for a time4 ,in the pancreatic juice there is another amylase1 which completes the splitting of starch to maltose1 and then the intestinal maltase can reduce this to glucose1 which will be absorbed4 ,cellulose cannot be digested and simply serves to add bulk to the diet4 ,digestion of fat4----,a fat is made up of two parts1 one a fatty acid1 the other glycerol4 ,fat cannot be absorbed by the body until it is split into these two parts4 ,a fat splitting enzyme is called a lipase4 ,there is none in the mouth2 one in the stomach works only on fat in the state of emulsion2 the most powerful is found in the pancreatic juice4 ,since fat cannot be digested in the mouth nor to any great extent in the stomach1 it is bad to have food coated with it1 for the protein and carbohydrates will have to wait till the fat is digested away1 before they can be digested2 that is1 till the intestine is reached4 ,this is one reason why pastries and fried foods are hard to digest4 ,digestion of protein4----,there are no enzymes in the mouth acting on protein4 ,in the stomach1 the hydrochloric acid helps to make it soften and swell1 and then pepsin begins its digestion4 ,protein1 like fat and carbohydrate1 can be subdivided into smaller and smaller portions1 finally being reduced to a form which the body can absorb1 namely1 amino acids1 of which there may be #ag or #ah kinds from a single protein4 ,the digestion in the stomach produces chiefly large fragments of the original protein1 called proteoses4 ,in the pancreatic juice is a powerful enzyme called trypsin1 which digests proteins1 first to fragments1 next smaller than proteoses1 called peptones1 and finally breaks these peptones into amino acids4 ,in the intestinal juice is another enzyme called erepsin1 which also forms amino acids from proteoses and peptones1 thus finishing any digestion of protein left incomplete by the trypsin4 ,fate of the absorbed foodstuffs ,carbohydrates1 absorbed as glucose or other monosaccharids1 are carried by the portal blood to the liver1 and thence passed into the blood1 to be burned in the muscles1 if needed for fuel1 or stored temporarily in the liver and muscles as glycogen 7a polysaccharid yielding glucose7 for future conversion to sugar when required as fuel4 ,fats1 passing through the intestinal wall as fatty acids and glycerol1 enter the lymph largely as fat again1 and finally pass to the blood to be burned in the muscles for fuel1 or to be stored as fat until needed4 ,proteins pass into the blood as amino acids4 ,those needed for building material are taken up by the cells 7especially cells of the muscles7 and those not required for this purpose are freed from their nitrogen 7in the liver or muscles7 and then burned for fuel4 ,for a fuller discussion of the fate of the absorbed foodstuffs see ,chapter ,,iv of ,sherman's 8,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition40 ,,appendix ,,table ,i ,edible ,organic ,nutrients and ,fuel ,values of ,foods ,note #a4----;,adapted from ,table ,i1 ,appendix1 8,chemistry of ,food and ,nutrition10 ,sherman4 ,see this volume for more complete list4 ,also ,bulletin #bh1 ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,note #b4----;,e4 ,p4 signifies edible portion2 ,a4 ,p4 signifies as purchased4 ,,carbo- ,,fuel #ajj- ,,food ,,protein ,,fat ,,hydrate ,,value ,,calorie 7,n#f4be7 ,,per ,,per ,,per ,,portion ,,per ,,cent ,,cent ,,cent ,,pound ,,grams ,,calories ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,apples ,e4 ,p4 4#d 4#e #ad4b #bce #aei ,a4 ,p4 4#c 4#c #aj4h #bad #bab ,asparagus1 fresh ,a4 ,p4 #a4h 4#b #c4c #ajj #dej cooked ,a4 ,p4 #b4a #c4c #b4b #bac #bac ,bacon1 smoked ,e4 ,p4 #aj4e #fd4h -------- #bhdj #af ,a4 ,p4 #i4e #ei4d -------- #bcgb #ai ,bananas ,e4 ,p4 #a4c 4#f #bb4j #ddg #aja ,a4 ,p4 4#h 4#d #ad4c #bij #aef ,beans1 dried #bb4e #a4h #ei4f #aefe #bi lima1 dried #ah4a #a4e #fe4i #aehf #bi string1 fresh ,e4 ,p4 #b4c 4#c #g4d #ahd #bda ,a4 ,p4 #b4a 4#c #f4i #agf #bei baked1 canned #f4i #b4e #ai4f #ehc #gh ,beef fore quarter1 lean ,e4 ,p4 #ah4i #ab4b -------- #hdb #ed ,a4 ,p4 #ad4g #i4e -------- #fee #fi hind quarter1 lean ,e4 ,p4 #bj4j #ac4d -------- #ijg #ej ,a4 ,p4 #af4g #aa4b -------- #geg #fj porterhouse steak ,e4 ,p4 #ba4i #bj4d -------- #abcj #cg ,a4 ,p4 #ai4a #ag4i -------- #ajgg #db roast ,a4 ,p4 #bb4c #bh4f -------- #aegf #bi round1 lean ,e4 ,p4 #ba4c #g4i -------- #fid #fd sirloin steak ,e4 ,p4 #ah4i #ah4e -------- #ajii #da ,a4 ,p4 #af4e #af4a -------- #ifj #dh ,beets1 cooked ,e4 ,p4 #b4c 4#a #g4d #ahj #beb ,bluefish ,e4 ,p4 #ai4d #a4b -------- #djb #aac ,bread1 graham #h4i #a4h #eb4a #aahi #ch toasted #aa4e #a4f #fa4b #ache #cc white1 homemade #i4a #a4f #ec4c #aaii #ch average #i4b #a4c #ec4a #aahb #ch whole wheat #i4g 4#i #di4g #aaac #da ,butter #a4j #he4j -------- #cdia #ac ,cabbage ,e4 ,p4 #a4f 4#c #e4f #adc #cag ,a4 ,p4 #a4d 4#b #d4h #aba #cgf ,carrots1 fresh ,e4 ,p4 #a4a 4#d #i4c #bjd #bba ,a4 ,p4 4#i 4#b #g4d #aeh #bhf ,celery ,e4 ,p4 #a4a 4#a #c4c #hd #edb ,a4 ,p4 4#i 4#a #b4f #fh #fgb ,cheese1 ,american pale #bh4h #ce4i 4#c #aiij #bc ,full cream #be4i #cc4g #b4d #ahij #bd ,chicken1 broilers ,e4 ,p4 #ba4e #b4e -------- #dic #ib ,a4 ,p4 #ab4h #a4d -------- #bhi #aeg ,chocolate #ab4i #dh4g #cj4c #bgfh #af ,cocoa #ba4f #bh4i #cg4g #bbeh #bj ,cod1 dressed ,a4 ,p4 #aa4a 4#b -------- #bji #bag ,corn1 green #b4h #a4b #ai4j #dee #ajb ,corn meal #i4b #a4i #ge4d #afbj #bh ,crackers1 butter ,a4 ,p4 #i4f #aj4a #ga4f #ahhg #bc soda ,a4 ,p4 #i4h #i4a #gc4a #ahge #bd water ,a4 ,p4 #aj4g #h4h #ga4i #ahee #bd ,cream #b4e #ah4e #d4e #hhc #ej ,cucumbers ,e4 ,p4 4#h 4#b #c4a #gi #ege ,a4 ,p4 4#g 4#b #b4f #fh #fff ,eggs1 uncooked ,e4 ,p4 #ac4d #aj4e -------- #fgb #fh ,a4 ,p4 #aa4i #i4c -------- #eid #gf ,farina #aa4j #a4d #gf4c #afdj #bh ,figs1 dried #d4c 4#c #gd4b #adcg #cb ,flour1 wheat1 average high med4 grades #aa4d #a4j #ge4a #afaj #bh ,fowls ,e4 ,p4 #ai4c #af4c -------- #ajag #de ,a4 ,p4 #ac4g #ab4c -------- #geb #fj ,gelatin #ia4d 4#a -------- #affj #bg ,grapes ,e4 ,p4 #a4c #a4f #ai4b #dcg #ajd ,a4 ,p4 #a4j #a4b #ad4d #cbh #ach ,haddock ,e4 ,p4 #ag4b 4#c -------- #cbd #adj ,a4 ,p4 #h4d 4#b -------- #afj #bhc ,ham1 fresh1 lean ,e4 ,p4 #be4j #ad4d -------- #ajdb #dd ,a4 ,p4 #bd4h #ad4b -------- #ajcj #dd ,hominy #h4c 4#f #gi4j #afji #bh ,honey 4#d -------- #ha4b #adha #ca ,kumyss #b4h #b4a #e4d #bcd #aid ,lamb1 chops1 broiled ,e4 ,p4 #ba4g #bi4i -------- #afad #bh leg1 roast #ai4g #ab4g -------- #hgf #eb ,lemons ,e4 ,p4 #a4j 4#g #h4e #bja #bbf ,a4 ,p4 4#g 4#e #e4i #adj #cbc ,lettuce ,e4 ,p4 #a4b 4#c #b4i #hg #ebe ,a4 ,p4 #a4j 4#b #b4e #gb #fcc ,lobster1 whole ,e4 ,p4 #af4d #a4h 4#d #cgi #abj ,a4 ,p4 #e4i 4#g 4#b #aci #cbf ,macaroni #ac4d 4#i #gd4a #afbe #bh ,milk1 condensed1 sweetened #h4h #h4c #ed4a #adhj #ca skimmed #c4d 4#c #e4a #afg #bgc whole #c4c #d4j #e4j #cad #ade ,mutton1 fore quarter ,e4 ,p4 #ae4f #cj4i -------- #aedc #bi ,a4 ,p4 #ab4c #bd4e -------- #abbc #cg hind quarter ,e4 ,p4 #af4g #bh4a -------- #adej #ca ,a4 ,p4 #ac4h #bc4b -------- #aaig #ch ,oatmeal #af4a #g4b #fg4e #ahaa #be ,olives1 green ,e4 ,p4 #a4a #bg4f #aa4f #aceg #cc ,onions1 fresh ,e4 ,p4 #a4f 4#c #i4i #bbj #bjf ,a4 ,p4 #a4d 4#c #h4i #aii #bbh ,oranges ,e4 ,p4 4#h 4#b #aa4f #bcc #aie ,a4 ,p4 4#f 4#a #h4e #afi #bfh ,oysters ,e4 ,p4 #f4b #a4b #c4g #bbh #aii ,pea soup1 canned ,a4 ,p4 #c4f 4#g #g4f #bcb #aif ,peaches1 fresh ,e4 ,p4 4#g 4#a #i4d #ahh #bdb ,a4 ,p4 4#e 4#a #g4g #aec #big ,peas1 canned ,a4 ,p4 #c4f 4#b #i4h #beb #ahj green ,e4 ,p4 #g4j 4#e #af4i #ded #ajj ,pies1 apple #c4a #i4h #db4h #abcc #cg squash #d4d #h4d #ba4g #hag #ef ,potato chips ,a4 ,p4 #f4h #ci4h #df4g #beih #ag ,potatoes1 white1 raw ,e4 ,p4 #b4b 4#a #ah4d #cgh #abj ,a4 ,p4 #a4h 4#a #ad4g #cjb #adi sweet1 raw ,e4 ,p4 #a4h 4#g #bg4d #eeh #ha ,a4 ,p4 #a4d 4#f #ba4i #ddg #ajb ,prunes1 dried ,e4 ,p4 #b4a -------- #gc4c #acfh #cc ,a4 ,p4 #a4h -------- #fb4b #aafj #ci ,radishes ,e4 ,p4 #a4c 4#a #e4h #acc #cda ,a4 ,p4 4#i 4#a #d4j #ia #dhh ,raisins ,e4 ,p4 #b4f #c4c #gf4a #aefb #bi ,rice #h4j 4#c #gi4j #aeia #bi ,salmon1 dressed ,a4 ,p4 #ac4h #h4a -------- #ehb #gh ,shad1 whole ,e4 ,p4 #ah4h #i4e -------- #gbg #fa ,a4 ,p4 #i4d #d4h -------- #cfg #abg ,shredded wheat #aj4e #a4d #gg4i #affj #bg ,spinach1 fresh ,a4 ,p4 #b4a 4#c #c4b #aji #dag ,squash ,e4 ,p4 #a4d 4#e #i4j #bji #bag ,a4 ,p4 4#g 4#b #d4e #ajc #ddc ,strawberries #a4j 4#f #g4d #afi #bfi ,succotash1 canned #c4f #a4j #ah4f #ddd #ajb ,sugar -------- -------- #ajj4j #ahae #be ,tomatoes1 fresh ,a4 ,p4 4#i 4#d #c4i #ajd #dch canned ,a4 ,p4 #a4b 4#b #d4j #ajc #ddc ,turkey ,e4 ,p4 #ba4a #bb4i -------- #acbj #cd ,a4 ,p4 #af4a #ah4d -------- #ajdb #dc ,turnips ,e4 ,p4 #a4c 4#b #h4a #agh #bef ,veal1 cutlet ,e4 ,p4 #bj4c #g4g -------- #fhc #ff ,a4 ,p4 #bj4a #g4e -------- #fgj #fh ,wheat1 cracked #aa4a #a4g #ge4e #afce #bh ,,index ,abbreviations for weighing and measuring1 #fa4 ,accounts1 keeping of1 #ccc4 ,account book1 #ccd4 ,acetylene gas1 #ce4 ,acid phosphate1 #agb4 ,acids1 #ab1 #ac1 #cef4 ,adulterated food1 #bhi4 ,agricultural conditions1 #bhj4 ,alcohol1 #ch4 ,alkalies1 #cef4 ,allowances1 #cbh4 ,almonds1 #bde1 #cah4 ,alum1 #agb4 ,american1 ice cream1 #bfb4 stove1 #dj4 ,amino acids1 #chf4 ,amperage1 #ci4 ,amylase1 #che4 ,animal foods1 #d4 ,apple1 #b1 #ib1 #bhc1 #cah1 #chg4 baked1 #ic4 butter1 #ajf4 jelly1 #ajf4 pie1 #ahe4 sauces1 #id4 scallop1 #beh4 stewed1 #id4 tapioca1 #bfj4 ,apples1 dried1 #if4 ,apricots1 dried1 #if1 #cah4 ,artificial ice1 #bc1 #gb4 8,ash10 #f1 #aji1 #aab1 #cjd1 #chc1 #chd4 ,ash requirement1 #cjc4 ,asparagus1 #d1 #aad1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chg4 ,atkinson oven1 #db4 ,avoirdupois1 #fj4 ,bacon1 #afa1 #afc1 #cah4 ,bacteria1 #ii1 #adi4 ,baked1 apple1 #ic4 beans1 #abb1 #chg4 custard1 #bef4 fish1 #bcf4 macaroni1 #acg4 potatoes1 #aag4 ,baking1 #ff1 #agd4 bread1 #bja4 ,baking powder1 #agb4 biscuit1 #agh4 experiments with1 #age4 ,bananas1 #ib1 #cah1 #chg4 ,bank account1 #cci4 ,bargain sales1 #cdc4 ,bathroom1 to clean1 #cfj4 ,batters1 #agc4 ,beans1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #aad1 #aaf1 #abb1 #cah1 #chg4 ,bed1 to make1 #ceh4 linen1 #ceb4 ,bedding1 #cdg4 ,bedroom1 care of1 #ceh4 ,beef1 #b1 #baj1 #chg4 average composition1 #bhc4 corned1 #cah4 cuts of1 #baj4 dried1 #bhc4 drippings1 #afb4 heart1 #bbi4 roast of1 #bbb4 rump of1 #cah4 stew1 #bbd4 ,beet sugar1 #afg4 ,beets1 #d1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chg4 ,benzine1 #cgh4 ,berries1 #ib4 ,beverage1 water as a1 #gj4 ,beverages1 #ac4 fruit1 #ge4 ,bill of fare1 #cji4 ,bleaching agents1 #cfh4 ,blood stains1 #cgd4 ,bluing1 #cfh1 #cge4 ,body building1 and regulating1 #aa4 ,boiled1 custard1 #bef4 dressing1 #beb4 eggs1 #add4 fish1 #bce4 potatoes1 #aah4 rice1 #acc4 ,boiler1 for clothes1 #cga4 for coffee1 #hc4 ,boiling1 #ff4 at high altitudes1 #gd4 in laundering1 #cge4 temperature of water1 experiments with1 #gb4 ,bouillon1 #bbc4 ,braising1 #ff4 ,brass1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,bread1 #cah4 baking1 #bja4 cost of1 #aij4 digestibility and nutritive values of1 #aij4 entire wheat1 #bjd1 #cje4 ,german coffee1 #bje4 ,graham1 #chh4 ingredients of1 #aia1 #aih4 machine1 #bh4 methods of mixing1 #bjj4 milk1 #bjc4 one hundred-,calorie portion1 #aia4 plain1 #bjc4 score card1 #ahh4 wheat1 #bhc4 white1 #cjd1 #chh4 whole wheat1 #chh4 yeast1 #ahg4 ,breakfast1 cereals1 #d1 #abi4 plans1 #cad4 ,brick oven1 #ci4 ,briquet1 #cc4 ,broiled steak1 #bbb1 #cai4 ,broiling1 #fe1 #ff4 ,brooms1 #ced4 ,broths1 #cai4 ,brown ,betty1 #beh4 sauce1 #afd4 sugar1 #afg4 ,brushes1 #cee4 ,budget1 household1 #cba4 typical1 #cbh4 ,buns1 #bje4 ,butter1 #d1 #e1 #ab1 #afa1 #cah1 #chh4 cake1 #aha4 fruit1 #aje4 substitutes1 #afa4 to mold1 #afb4 ,buttermilk1 #ii1 #adg4 ,buying1 canned goods1 #aja4 fruits1 #ia4 groceries and meat1 #bhf4 on installments1 #cdd4 sugar1 #afh4 vegetables1 #aab4 ,cabbage1 #d1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chh4 baked1 #aba4 ,caffeine1 #ge4 ,cake1 #ei1 #aha4 ,calcium1 #h1 #cjd4 ,calf's head and brain1 #bbi4 ,calorie1 definition of1 #aj4 portion4 ,see ,one-hundred-,calorie portion4 protein1 #cjc4 ,calorimeter1 #aj1 #bih4 ,candy1 #afh4 ,cane sugar1 #afg4 ,canned1 beans1 #cah4 food1 #b4 goods1 #aja4 meats1 #bbh4 poultry1 #bbh4 ,canning1 #aja1 #ajd4 ,caramel flavoring1 #beg4 ,carbohydrate1 #f1 #h1 #aj4 digestion of1 #chd4 ,carbohydrates1 functions of1 #chc4 ,carbon1 #h1 #ee4 ,carbon dioxide gas1 #h1 #ih1 #agb4 ,card file1 #fj1 #ccb4 ,care1 of kitchen1 #cj4 of lamps1 #cfa4 of rooms1 #ceh4 of washstand1 #cei4 ,carpet sweepers1 #cee4 ,carrots1 #d1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chh4 ,carving1 #bgg4 ,cauliflower1 #d1 #aad1 #aaf1 #cah4 ,celery1 #d1 #aad1 #cah1 #chh4 stewed1 #aba4 ,cellulose1 #ij1 #che4 ,cereals1 #abf1 #cje1 #cah1 #cbj4 breakfast1 #d4 manufacture of1 #abh4 molded1 #acb4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #abi4 principles of cooking1 #abi4 ready to eat1 #abi4 uses of cold1 #acb4 ,charcoal1 #ch4 ,check book1 #cci4 ,cheese1 #d1 #aed1 #bhc1 #cah1 #chh4 cost of1 #aee4 cottage1 #aed1 #aef4 crackers1 #aef4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #aee4 principles of cooking1 #aef4 ,chemical elements in body1 #chc4 ,chestnuts1 #bde1 #cah4 ,chicken1 #cah4 broilers1 #chh4 fricassee1 #bbh4 pie1 #ahf4 roast1 #bbg4 salad1 #beb4 ,chili sauce1 #abe4 ,chinaware1 #bfh4 ,chocolate1 #ad1 #ge1 #gf1 #ha1 #cah1 #chh4 cornstarch1 #ace4 filling1 #ahb4 sauce1 #beg4 stains1 #cgd4 ,clam chowder1 #bdb4 ,clams1 #bch4 small1 raw1 #bdb4 ,cleaning1 agents1 #cff4 and polishing1 #ceg4 bathroom1 #cfj4 cloths1 #cef4 dry1 #cgh4 equipment1 #ced4 fabrics1 #ceg4 materials1 #ced1 #cef4 methods of1 #ceg4 rugs1 #ceg4 toilet1 #cfj4 weekly1 #cei4 ,clean milk1 #adi4 ,clothing1 expenditure for1 #cbf4 purchasing of1 #cde4 ,coal1 #cd4 fire1 to make1 #df4 oil1 #cg4 range1 #de4 ,cocoa1 #ad1 #ge1 #gf1 #cah1 #chh4 iced1 #he4 shells1 #ha4 stains1 #cgd4 to make1 #ha4 ,coddled eggs1 #adc4 ,coddling1 #ff4 ,codfish1 #cah4 balls1 #bcg4 creamed1 #bcg4 ,coffee1 #ge1 #gg4 iced1 #he4 pots1 #hc4 stains1 #cgd4 to make1 #hb4 ,cake1 #ce4 ,cold storage1 #b4 eggs1 #adj4 ,coloring substances1 #ac4 ,colors in textiles1 #cej4 ,commercial laundries1 #cgg4 ,composition of foods1 charts1 #ij1 #aji1 #abh1 #adj1 #adi1 #afa1 #aff1 #aij1 #bah1 #bcc1 #bde4 tables1 #g1 #aia1 #aic1 #bhc1 #cjb1 #chd1 #chg-cij4 ,see also under name of each food4 ,condensed milk1 #aec4 ,consumers' ,league1 #cdd4 ,cooker1 fireless1 #dc4 steam1 #dd4 ,cookery1 principles of1 #ed1 #adc4 vegetable1 #aji4 ,cookies1 #agi4 ,cooking1 apparatus1 #ci4 care of food after1 #fg4 principles of1 #ed4 processes1 #fd4 utensils1 #be4 water in1 #gb4 ,copper1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,corn1 canned1 #cah4 green1 #aaf1 #chh4 oil1 #bdh4 products1 #acc4 ,corn meal1 #cah1 #chh4 mush1 #acb4 ,cornstarch1 #cah4 chocolate1 #ace4 ,cost1 of dietary1 #cae4 of electricity1 #ci4 of food1 #bgh1 #bhb1 #cae4 ,see also under each food4 of food1 relative1 home and shop products1 #bha4 of food1 table of comparative1 #bhc4 of fuels1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg4 of laundering1 #cgg4 ,cottage cheese1 #aed1 #aef4 ,cottonseed oil1 #bdh1 #cah4 ,course of laundry work1 #cgi4 ,courses1 number of1 #bgf4 ,crabs1 #bdj4 to prepare1 #bdc4 ,crackers1 #cah1 #chh4 ,cream1 #d1 #afa1 #cah1 #chh4 of tartar1 #agb1 #cfh4 of tomato1 #abd4 soups1 #abc4 tapioca1 #bei4 to whip1 #afb4 ,creamed codfish1 #bcg4 oysters1 #bdb4 ,croquettes1 #bbf4 ,croutons1 #abe1 #bjg4 ,crumbs1 to butter1 #bcf4 ,cucumbers1 #cah1 #chh4 ,cupboards1 #bj4 ,curds1 #e4 ,currant jelly1 #ajg4 ,custard1 #ab4 rennet1 #aeb4 ,custards1 #bef4 ,cutlery1 #bgj4 ,cuts of meat1 #baj4 ,damask1 #cdg4 ,dates1 #cah4 ,decorations for the table1 #bgb4 ,deep-fat frying1 #ff1 #abj1 #afb4 ,demand and supply of food1 #bgi4 ,deodorizers1 #cef4 ,design in linens1 #cdf4 ,desserts1 #bdg1 #bed4 ,dextrin1 #ee4 ,diet for growth1 #cjd4 ,dietaries1 #bie1 #caj4 ,dietary1 cost of the1 #cae4 ,digestion1 of carbohydrate1 #chd4 of fat1 #che4 of protein1 #che4 ,dining room1 to clean1 #cei4 ,dinner plans1 #cae4 ,disaccharids1 #chd4 ,dishes1 #ceb4 ,dishwashing1 #ca4 ,disinfectant1 #cef4 ,division1 of income1 #cba4 of labor1 #ced4 ,dover egg beater1 #bg4 ,dressings1 salad1 #bdh4 ,dried fruits1 #ie4 ,drier for clothes1 #cga4 ,drip coffee pot1 #hc4 ,dry cleaning1 #cgh4 ,drying1 #ajb1 #ajg4 ,dumplings1 #bbe4 ,economy1 of fuel1 #cc4 of milk1 #aej4 ,see ,cost4 ,eggs1 #d1 #bhc1 #cjd1 #cje1 #cah1 #chh4 beaten1 #adb4 boiled1 #add4 coddled1 #adc4 composition and cost of1 #adj4 digestibility of1 #ada4 experiment with1 #adc4 jellied1 #adc4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #adj4 poached1 #add4 principles of cookery1 #adc4 raw1 #adb1 #chh4 scrambled1 #add4 structure of1 #ach4 ,eggnogs1 #cai4 ,electric1 apparatus1 #ej4 irons1 #cgc4 ,electricity1 #cc1 #ch4 ,elements1 #h1 #chc4 in the foodstuffs1 #g1 #chc4 ,enamel1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,energy1 #i4 requirements of adults1 #big4 requirements during growth1 #cjj4 ,english walnuts1 #bde4 ,entire wheat bread1 #bjd1 #cje4 ,enzymes1 #che4 ,erepsin1 #chf4 ,escalloped1 fish1 #bcf4 fruit1 #bed4 meat1 #bbf4 potato1 #abj4 ,essences1 #ac4 ,expenditure1 for clothing1 #cbf4 for food1 #cbb4 for operating1 #cbe4 for shelter1 #cbd4 ,fabrics1 to clean1 #ceg4 ,fat1 #h1 #aj1 #ad1 #ee1 #aeh4 as a cooking medium1 #afb4 digestion of1 #che4 elements in1 #chc4 function of1 #chc4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #afj4 to clarify1 #aba4 ,fat frying1 deep1 #ff1 #abj1 #afb4 ,fatty acids1 #che4 ,feeding the sick1 #cah4 ,fiber1 meat1 #ef4 vegetable1 #ef4 ,figs1 #cah1 #chh4 ,filberts1 #bde4 ,fire1 precautions against1 #cfb4 ,fireless cooker1 #dc4 ,fish1 #d4 composition and nutritive value of1 #bcc4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #bdj4 preserved1 #bda4 principles of cooking1 #bdb4 principles of preparation and cooking1 #bce4 quality of1 #bcc4 stuffing1 #bcg4 varieties of1 #bca4 ,flavors1 #ab4 vegetable1 #ac4 ,flour1 #d1 #cah1 #chh4 composition of1 #aia4 entire wheat1 #aig4 ,graham1 #aig4 manufacture of1 #aid4 mill1 #aie4 patent1 #cjc4 spring and winter wheat1 #aic4 ,foamy sauce1 #bei4 ,fondant for ,french creams1 #afi4 ,food1 adjuncts1 #ab4 adulterated1 #bhi4 charts showing composition of4 7,see ,composition of foods47 comparative costs of1 #bhb4 cost of1 #bgh1 #cae4 definition of1 #aa4 demand and supply1 #bgi4 disposal of waste1 #fh4 effect of1 #bie4 expenditure1 #cbb4 for body building and regulating1 #aa4 for children1 #cje4 for energy1 #i4 for invalids1 #cai4 materials1 #c4 materials1 care of1 #eg4 materials1 table #ajj-;,calorie portions of common1 #cjb1 #cah1 #chg-cij4 misbranded1 #bij4 non-perishable1 #bhf4 perishable1 #bhf4 preparation1 processes of1 #eh4 preparation1 technique of1 #ef4 prices1 elements in1 #bhb4 problems1 #a4 purchasing of1 #bgh1 #bhd4 quality of1 #bhh4 quantities to purchase1 #bhe4 ready-cooked1 #bib4 relative cost of home and shop products1 #bha4 requirements1 #caj4 semi-perishable1 #bhf4 table of comparative cost of1 #bhc4 to keep hot and cool1 #bff4 transportation1 #bgi4 ,foods1 animal and vegetable1 #d4 ,foodstuffs1 elements in1 #g1 #chc4 digestion of1 #chd4 fate of1 #chf4 functions of1 #i1 #chc1 #chf4 in food materials1 #chd4 ,fowls1 #chh4 ,french1 chalk1 #cgh4 dressing1 #bea4 ice cream1 #bfb4 ,french-fried potatoes1 #abj4 ,fricasseed chicken1 #bbh4 ,frozen mixtures1 #bfa4 ,fructose1 #aff4 ,fruit1 beverages1 #ge4 butter1 #aje4 buying1 #ia4 composition and nutritive value1 #hg4 digestibility of1 #ij4 dried1 #ie4 drinks1 #hj4 juice1 #ib1 #cai4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #ij4 preparation of1 #ia4 preservation of1 #if4 stains1 #cgd4 ,frying1 deep-fat1 #ff1 #abj1 #afb4 ,fudge1 #afi4 ,fuel1 foods1 #aeh4 value1 unit of1 #aj4 ,fuels1 #cc1 #ch4 ,functions of the foodstuffs1 #i1 #chc4 ,furnishings1 kitchen1 #ae4 ,furniture1 to clean wood of1 #ceh4 ,garnishing the dish1 #bfg4 ,gas1 #ce4 natural1 #cg4 burner1 #dh4 meter1 to read1 #cf4 stove1 #af1 #dc1 #df1 #dh4 ,gasoline1 #ch1 #cgh4 ,gelatin1 #gb1 #bee1 #chh4 ,german coffee bread1 #bje4 ,gingerbread1 plain1 #ahc4 ,glass1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,glassware1 #bfh4 ,glucose1 #afd4 ,gluten1 #aib1 #bjb4 ,glycerol1 #che4 ,glycogen1 #chf4 ,graham1 bread1 #chh4 flour1 #aig4 ,grapefruit1 #ib4 ,grapenuts1 #cah4 ,grapes1 #b1 #cah1 #chh4 ,gravies1 #afc1 #afd1 #bbb4 ,griddle cakes1 sour milk1 #agh4 sweet milk1 #agi4 ,halibut1 #cah4 ,halls1 to clean1 #cei4 ,ham1 #cah1 #chh4 ,hard-boiled eggs1 #add4 ,hard sauce1 #bei4 ,herbs1 #ac4 ,hickory nuts1 #bde4 ,hominy1 #acb1 #chi4 ,honey1 #chi4 ,horse radish1 #ab4 ,hot-water1 sponge cake1 #ahb4 supply1 #bd4 ,household1 accounts1 #ccc4 budget1 #cba4 expenditures1 #cba4 insects1 #cfa4 linens1 purchasing1 #cdf4 textiles1 #cde4 ,huckaback towels1 #cdg4 ,hundred-,calorie portions4 ,see ,one hundred-,calorie portions4 ,ice1 #gb4 artificial1 #bc4 box1 #af4 creams1 #bfb4 substitutes1 #gd4 uses of1 #gd4 ,iced1 cocoa1 #he4 coffee1 #he4 tea1 #hf4 ,income1 divisions of1 #cbc4 yearly1 #cbb4 ,ingredients4 ,see under each food4 ,ink stains1 #cgd4 ,insects1 household1 #cfa4 ,installments1 buying on1 #cdd4 ,invalid feeding1 #cah4 ,iron1 #h4 ,ironing1 #cfi1 #cgf4 board1 #cgc4 ,irons1 #cgc4 ,jam making1 #ajb1 #aje4 ,javelle water1 #cfh4 ,jellied eggs1 #adc4 ,jelly1 lemon1 #bfj4 making1 #ajb1 #ajf4 ,keeping of accounts1 #ccc4 ,kerosene1 #cg4 stoves1 #ej4 ,kidneys1 #bbi4 ,kilowatt1 #ci4 ,kitchen1 care of1 #cj4 colors in1 #ag4 furnishings1 #ae4 plan of1 #ae4 table1 #bj4 ,knives1 #bg4 ,kumyss1 #aec1 #cai1 #chh4 ,labor-saving devices1 #bg4 ,lactic acid1 #agb4 ,lactose1 #aff4 ,lamb1 #baa1 #chi4 chops1 #cah4 ,lamps1 care of1 #cfa4 ,lard1 #afb1 #cah4 ,laundering1 #cfe4 ,laundries1 commercial1 #cgg4 ,laundry equipment1 #cgj4 ,law1 ,pure ,food1 #b1 #bhi1 #bia4 ,pure ,textile1 #cde4 ,leavening agents1 #aga4 ,left overs1 care of1 #fg4 ,lemon1 jelly1 #bfj4 pie1 #ahe4 ,lemonade1 #hj4 ,lemons1 #b1 #chi4 ,lentils1 #abc1 #cah4 ,lettuce1 #d1 #cah1 #chi4 ,linens1 bed1 #ceb4 designs in1 #cdf4 purchasing household1 #cdg4 ,lipase1 #che4 ,liver1 #bbi4 ,living room1 to clean1 #cei4 ,lobster1 #bci1 #chi4 to prepare1 #bdc4 ,loose-leaf books1 #ccb4 ,luncheon plans1 #cae4 ,macaroni1 #acf1 #cah1 #chh4 ,mail orders1 #cdc4 ,making1 bed1 #ceh4 chocolate1 #ha4 coal fire1 #df4 cocoa1 #ha4 coffee1 #hb4 tea1 #he4 ,maltose1 #aff4 ,managing a gas stove1 #dh4 ,mangle1 #cgc4 ,manufacture4 ,see under each food4 ,marble1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,markets1 clean1 #bhd4 ,mashed potato1 #aai4 ,matzoon1 #adg1 #aec4 ,mayonnaise dressing1 #bea4 ,meals1 balanced1 #cjg4 number of1 #cje4 serving1 #bff4 technique of preparation1 #bfe4 ,measures1 #fj1 #fa1 #bhg4 ,measuring1 #fj1 #fa4 ,meat1 #bji1 #cjd4 canned1 #bbh4 composition and nutritive value1 #bac4 cuts of1 #baj1 #baa1 #bac1 #baf1 #bag4 dangers from1 #bah4 effect of heat upon1 #bah4 experiments with1 #bba4 fiber1 #ef4 gravy1 #afd4 grinder1 #bh4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #baf4 pie1 #ahf4 poisoning1 #bah4 preserved1 #bbh4 soups1 #bbc4 substitutes1 #bdc4 tough and tender1 #baa4 ,menus1 #bie1 #cjh1 #cab4 ,metals1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,meter1 to read the gas1 #cf4 ,methods1 of cleaning1 #cef4 of payment1 #cch4 ,milk1 #d1 #e1 #ad1 #adf1 #bhc1 #cjd1 #cah1 #cai1 #chi4 bread1 #bjc4 composition of1 #g1 #adf4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #adi4 principles of cookery1 #aeb4 sherbet1 #bfc4 sour1 #ii4 ,mineral matter1 #h1 #ef1 #chd4 functions of1 #chc4 ,misbranded food1 #bij4 ,mixing1 methods of1 #fc4 ,mock ,hollandaise sauce1 #bcf4 ,molasses1 #d1 #afg1 #cah4 ,mold1 #ig4 ,molded1 butter1 #afb4 cereal1 #acb4 ,monosaccharid1 #chd4 ,mousse1 strawberry1 #bfc4 ,muffins1 plain1 #agg4 ,mustard1 #ab4 ,mutton1 #baa1 #chi4 ,napkins1 #bfh4 ,naphtha1 #cgh4 ,national ,food ,law1 #bhi4 ,natural1 gas1 #cg4 ice1 #gb4 ,nickel plate1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,nitrogen1 #h4 ,non-perishable foods1 #bhf4 ,nuts1 #d1 #bdc4 one-hundred-,calorie portion1 #bde4 ,oatmeal1 #cah1 #chi4 ,oils1 #cef4 cottonseed and corn1 #bdh4 olive1 #ab1 #cah4 ,oleomargarine1 #cah4 ,olive oil1 #afa4 ,olives1 #cah1 #chi4 ,omelet1 #ade4 ,one-hundred-,calorie portions1 #aj4 bread1 #aij4 cheese1 #aee4 common food materials1 #cjb4 cost of1 #cah4 eggs1 #adj4 fat foods1 #afj4 fish and shellfish1 #bdj4 foods generally1 #chg-cij4 fruit1 #ij4 in meals1 #cac4 meats and poultry1 #baf4 milk and cream1 #adi4 nuts1 #bde4 starches and cereals1 #abi4 vegetables1 #aac4 ,onions1 #d1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chi4 ,operating expenses1 #cbe4 ,oranges1 #b1 #ib1 #cah1 #chi4 ,order in work1 #ced4 ,orders by mail1 #cdc4 ,oven1 ,atkinson1 #db4 brick1 #ci4 experiments1 #agf4 thermometers1 #eb4 ,oxygen1 #h4 ,oyster1 #bch1 #cah1 #chi4 ,oysters1 creamed1 #bdb4 raw1 #bdb4 saut1 #bdb4 ,paint1 to clean1 #ceg4 ,pan broiling1 #ff4 ,pancreatic juice1 #che4 ,parasites1 animal1 #bah4 ,parker ,house rolls1 #bjd4 ,pasteurization1 #aej4 ,pasteurized milk1 #aea4 ,pastry1 #ahc4 ,patent flour1 #cjc4 ,payment1 methods of1 #cch4 ,peaches1 #b1 #ib1 #cah1 #chi4 dried1 #if4 ,peach stains1 #cgd4 ,peanut brittle1 #afh4 ,peanuts1 #bde1 #cah4 ,pears1 #b1 #ib1 #ie1 #cah4 ,peas1 #d1 #aad1 #aaf1 #cah1 #chi4 ,pea soup1 #chi4 ,peat1 #cc4 ,pecan nuts1 #bde4 ,penocha1 #afi4 ,pepper1 #ab4 ,peptones1 #che4 ,percolator coffee pot1 #hc4 ,perishable foods1 #bhf4 ,petroleum1 #cg4 ,pewter1 #bgj4 ,phosphorus1 #h4 ,pickling1 #ajb1 #ajg4 ,pies1 #ahd1 #chi4 ,pineapples1 #b4 ,plain bread1 #bjc4 gingerbread1 #ahc4 muffins1 #agg4 ,plan of the kitchen1 #ae4 ,plated silver1 #bgj4 ,poached eggs1 #adf4 ,polished surface1 to clean a1 #ceg4 ,polishes1 #cef4 ,popovers1 #agc4 ,porcelain1 to clean1 #ceh4 ,pork1 #afa1 #baa1 #cah4 ,portion1 standard1 #aj4 ,see ,one-hundred-,calorie portions4 ,potatoes1 #d1 #aaf1 #bhc1 #cah1 #chi4 baked1 #aag4 boiled1 #aah4 escalloped1 #abj4 ,french-fried1 #abj4 mashed1 #aai4 on the half shell1 #aah4 puff1 #aai4 pure1 #abc4 salad1 #beb4 ,poultry1 #bji1 #bbf4 canned1 #bbh4 ,preservation of fruit1 #if4 ,preservatives1 #ajj4 ,preserved meats1 #bbh4 ,preserving1 #aja1 #aje4 ,protein1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 #ed4 digestion of1 #che4 elements in1 #chc4 function of1 #chc4 requirement1 #cja4 ,proteoses1 #che4 ,prunes1 #ie1 #cah1 #chi4 ,ptomaines1 #ajj4 ,pudding1 snow1 #bfa4 ,pudding1 steamed1 #beh4 ,purchasing1 clothing1 #cde4 food1 #bgh1 #bhd4 household linens1 #cdf4 silk1 #cdg4 wool1 #cdi4 ,pure of peas1 #abc4 ,pure1 ,food ,law1 #b1 #bhi1 #bia4 starches1 #acd4 ,textile ,law1 #cde4 ,quinces1 #ie4 ,radishes1 #chi4 ,raisins1 #cah1 #cij4 ,raspberry ice1 #bfc4 ,reading the gas meter1 #cf4 ,ready-cooked foods1 #bib4 ,ready-to-eat cereals1 #abi4 ,recipe1 foundation for sauces1 #afc4 how to study a1 #eh4 ,recipes4 ,see under each food4 ,refrigerator1 #bb4 ,rennet custard1 #aeb4 ,rennin1 #adg4 ,rent1 proportion of income for1 #cbc1 #cbd4 ,repairs1 #cfb4 ,respiration calorimeter1 #bih4 ,rice1 #acb1 #cah1 #cij4 boiled1 #acc4 cakes1 #acb4 ,rissoles1 #bbe4 ,roast beef1 #bbb1 #cai1 #chg4 gravy1 #bbb4 ,roast chicken1 #bbg4 ,roasting1 #fe4 ,rolled oats1 #cah4 ,rolling table1 #bj4 ,rolls1 ,parker ,house1 #bjd4 ,rooms1 care of1 #ceg4 ,rugs1 to cleanse1 #ceg4 ,salad1 #bdg4 ,salmon1 #bcc1 #cah1 #cij4 ,salt1 #ab4 ,sandwich1 #bjg4 ,sardines1 #cah4 ,sauce1 foundation recipe for1 #afc4 ,sauce1 ,mock ,hollandaise1 #bcf4 tomato1 #afd1 #bbe4 white1 #afd4 ,sauces1 #bei4 apple1 #id4 brown1 #afd4 chili1 #abe4 chocolate1 #beg4 ,sausage1 #cah4 ,saut1 #ff4 ,sautd oysters1 #bdb4 ,savings1 #cbh4 ,scallops1 #bci1 #cah4 ,scrambled egg1 #add4 ,season of fish1 #bcd4 ,semi-perishable foods1 #bhf4 ,serving1 #bgd4 ,serving meals1 #bff4 ,setting the table1 #bgj4 ,shad1 #bcc1 #cij4 ,shellfish1 #d1 #bca1 #bch4 preserved1 #bda4 ,shelves1 #bj4 ,sherbet1 milk1 #bfc4 ,shopping1 #cdb4 ethics of1 #cdd4 ,shortcake1 #beg4 ,shredded wheat1 #cij4 ,silk1 purchasing1 #cdg4 test for1 #cdi4 ,silver1 #ceb4 for table1 #bgj4 ,simmering1 #ff4 ,sink1 #bd4 ,sirups1 #d4 ,skim milk1 #adg4 ,snow pudding1 #bfa4 ,soap1 #cef1 #cfg4 solution1 #cfh4 ,soups1 8cream10 #abc4 meat1 #bbc4 pea1 #chi4 vegetable1 #abc4 ,sour milk1 #ii1 #aec4 ,spaghetti1 #acf4 ,spices1 #ac4 ,spinach1 #cah1 #cij4 ,sponge cake1 #ahb4 ,spring wheat1 #aic4 ,squash1 #aab1 #aaf1 #cij4 ,stains1 #cgd4 ,standard of good bread1 #ahg4 ,standard portions #aj4 ,see ,one-hundred-,calorie portions4 ,starch1 #d1 #ee1 #cfi4 experiments1 #ace4 granule1 #acd4 ,starches1 one-hundred-,calorie portions1 #abi4 pure1 #acd4 ,starching1 #cge4 ,steak1 broiled1 #bbb1 #cai4 porterhouse1 #bhc1 #chg4 round1 #cah4 sirloin1 #chg4 ,steam cooker1 #dd4 ,steamed pudding1 #beh4 ,steaming1 #ff4 ,stew1 beef1 #bbd4 ,stewed1 apple1 #id4 celery1 #aba4 ,stewing1 #ff4 ,stove1 ,american1 #dj4 gas1 #af1 #dc1 #df4 ,stoves1 kerosene1 #ej4 ,strawberries1 #cij4 ,strawberry mousse1 #bfc4 ,studying a recipe1 #eh4 ,stuffed tomato salad1 #bec4 ,stuffing1 fish1 #bcg4 for fowl1 #bbh4 ,succotash1 #cij4 ,sucrose1 #aff4 ,suet1 #cah4 ,sugar1 #d1 #ab1 #ee1 #afd1 #aff1 #afg1 #cah1 #cij4 of milk1 #f4 principles of cooking1 #afh4 ,sulphur1 #h4 ,sweetbreads1 #bbi4 ,sweet1 oil1 #afa4 potatoes1 #cah4 ,tablecloths1 #bfh4 ,table1 decorations1 #bgb4 dining-room1 #bfg4 kitchen1 #bj4 of comparative cost of food1 #bhc4 of composition of foods1 #chg-cij4 ,table1 setting the1 #bgj4 waiting on the1 #bgb4 ,tannin1 #ge4 ,tapioca1 #cah4 puddings1 #bei4 ,tea1 #ge4 iced1 #hf4 to make1 #he4 ,technique of food preparation1 #ef4 ,test for silk1 #cdi4 ,textiles1 colors in1 #cdi4 household1 #cde4 ,theine1 #ge4 ,theobromine1 #ge4 ,thermometers1 oven1 #eb4 ,toast1 #ef1 #bjf1 #chh4 ,toasting1 #fe4 ,toilet1 to clean1 #cfj4 ,tomato1 #aaf1 #cah1 #cij4 salad1 stuffed1 #bec4 sauce1 #afd1 #bbe4 soup1 #abd4 ,towels1 #cdg1 #ceb4 ,trading stamps1 #cdc4 ,transportation of food1 #bgi4 ,trypsin1 #che4 ,tubs1 laundry1 #cgj4 ,turkey1 #cij4 ,turnips1 #aaf1 #cah1 #cij4 ,typical budgets1 #cbh4 ,unit of fuel value1 #aj4 ,utensils1 #be4 list of1 #bh4 materials used in1 #bf4 patterns of1 #bg4 ,vacuum cleaners1 #cee4 ,vanilla1 #ab4 ,veal1 #baa1 #cah1 #cij4 ,vegetable1 cookery1 #aji4 fiber1 #ef4 flavors1 #ac4 foods1 #d4 soups1 #abc4 ,vegetables1 #cbj4 composition and nutritive value1 #aji4 how to buy1 #aab4 one-hundred-,calorie portions1 #aac4 principles of cooking1 #aae4 quality of1 #aad4 season of1 #aad4 time-table1 #aaf4 ,vermicelli1 #acf4 ,vinegar1 #ab4 ,voltage1 #ci4 ,waiting on the table1 #bgb4 ,waitress1 #bgd4 ,waldorf salad1 #bec4 ,walnuts1 ,english1 #bde1 #cah4 ,washing1 #cgd4 machine1 #cga4 ,washstand1 care of1 #cei4 ,waste food1 disposal of1 #fh4 ,water1 as a beverage1 #gj4 elements in1 #chc4 experiments with the boiling temperature of1 #gb4 in cooking1 #gb4 soft and hard1 #ga1 #cff1 #cfg4 ,watt1 #ci4 ,weekly cleaning1 #cei4 ,weighing1 #fj1 #bhg4 abbreviations for1 #fa4 ,wheat1 #aic1 #cij4 bread1 #bhc4 flour1 #aga4 ,whey1 #e4 ,whipped cream1 #afb4 ,white1 bread1 #cjd4 sauce1 #afd4 ,whole wheat4 ,see ,entire wheat4 ,window box1 #bc4 ,winter wheat1 #aic4 ,wool1 purchasing1 #cdi4 ,wringer1 for clothes1 #cga4 ,yeast1 #ig4 bread1 #ahg4 in bread1 #aig4 experiments with1 #bjc4 ,zoolak1 #adg1 #cai4 99 99 99 99 99 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,glen ,,steel ,,door ,,mat ,illustration ,,sanitary----,,durable----,,artistic ,the ,glen is the most sanitary mat known4 ,it does not collect dust and germs as all old style mats do4 ,it requires no beating or cleaning4 ,the ,glen is heavily galvanized to prevent rusting4 ,it will not stain either stone or tile4 ,the ,glen has no sharp1 dangerous corners to scratch surfaces or any loose ends to ravel4 ,the ,glen is flexible3 it conforms to uneven surfaces4 ,the ,glen is easily handled3 it can be rolled or folded4 ,the ,glen is made in all sizes and special shapes4 ,the ,glen means cleaner homes4 ,,ask ,,for ,,the ,,glen ,,at ,,any ,,hardware ,,store ,agents wanted in all sections4 ,write us1 ,dept4 ,g1 for particulars and terms4 ,our market is in every home4 ,mc,k,i,n,n,e,y ,,manufacturing ,,co4 ,,pittsburg1 ,,penn41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,chemistry and its ,relations to ,daily ,life ,,by ,,louis ,,kahlenberg ,,and ,,edwin ,b4 ,,hart ,professors of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,wisconsin ,cloth1 #abmo1 illustrated1 #cic pages4 ,list price1 #a4be 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the contributions of chemical science to modern civilization were suddenly swept away1 what a blank there would be6 ,if1 on the other hand1 every person were acquainted with the elements of chemistry and its bearing upon our daily life1 what an uplift human efficiency would receive6 ,it is to further this latter end that this book has been prepared4 ,designed particularly for use by students of agriculture and home economics in secondary schools1 its use will do much to increase the efficiency of the farm and the home4 ,in the language of modern educational philosophy1 it 8functions in the life of the pupil40 ,useful facts rather than mere theory have been emphasized1 although the theory has not been neglected4 ,the practical character of the work is indicated by the following selected chapter headings3 ,,ii4 ,the ,composition and ,uses of ,water4 ,,iv4 ,the ,air1 ,nitrogen1 ,nitric ,acid1 and ,ammonia4 ,,ix4 ,carbon and ,its ,compounds4 ,,xii4 ,paints1 ,oils1 and ,varnishes4 ,,xiii4 ,leather1 ,silk1 ,wool1 ,cotton1 and ,rubber4 ,,xv4 ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,,xvi4 ,farm ,manure4 ,,xx4 ,milk and ,its ,products4 ,,xxi4 ,poisons for ,farm and ,orchard ,pests4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,,fifth ,,avenue ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,dallas ,,chicago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,practical ,physics ,by ,n4 ,,henry ,,black of the ,roxbury ,latin ,school ,boston1 and ,professor ,,harvey ,n4 ,,davis of ,harvard ,university4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 illustrated1 #dhh pages4 ,list price1 #a4be 8,in preparing this book10 say the authors in the ,preface1 8we have tried to select only those topics which are of vital interest to young people1 whether or not they intend to continue the study of physics in a college course4 8,in particular1 we believe that the chief value of the informational side of such a course lies in its applications to the machinery of daily life4 ,everybody needs to know something about the working of electrical machinery1 optical instruments1 ships1 automobiles1 and all those labor-saving devices1 such as vacuum cleaners1 fireless cookers1 pressure cookers1 and electric irons1 which are found in many ,american homes4 ,we have1 therefore1 drawn as much of our illustrative material as possible from the common devices in modern life4 ,we see no reason why this should detract in the least from the educational value of the study of physics1 for one can learn to think straight just as well by thinking about an electrical generator1 as by thinking about a ,geissler tube4444 8,to understand any machine clearly1 the student must have clearly in mind the fundamental principles involved4 ,therefore1 although we have tried to begin each new topic1 however short1 with some concrete illustration familiar to young people1 we have proceeded1 as rapidly as seemed wise1 to a deduction of the general principle4 ,then1 to show how to make use of this principle1 we have discussed other practical applications4 ,we have tried to emphasize still further the value of principles1 that is1 generalizations1 in science1 by summarizing at the end of each chapter the principles discussed in that chapter4 ,in these summaries we have aimed to make the phrasing brief and vivid so that it may be easily remembered and easily used40 ,the new and noteworthy features of the book are the admirable selection of familiar material used to develop and apply the principles of physical science1 the exceptionally clear and forceful exposition1 showing the hand of the master teacher1 the practical1 interesting1 thought-provoking problems1 and the superior illustrations4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,chicago ,new ,york ,city ,dallas ,boston ,atlanta ,san ,francisco ,botany for ,secondary ,schools ,,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,bailey ,of ,cornell ,university ,cloth1 #abmo1 illustrated1 #dfj pages4 ,list price1 #a4be ,it is not essential nor desirable that everybody should become a botanist but it is inevitable that people shall be interested in the more human side of plant and animal life4 ,we are interested in the evident things of natural history1 and the greater our interest in such things1 the wider is our horizon and the deeper our hold on life4 ,the secondary school could not teach botanical science if it would2 lack of time and the immaturity of the pupils forbid it4 ,but it can encourage a love of nature and an interest in plant study2 indeed1 it can originate these1 and it does4 ,professor ,bailey's ,botany has been known to do it4 ,in the revision of this book that has just been made1 the effective simplicity of the nature teacher and the genuine sympathy of the nature lover are as successfully blended as they were in the former book4 ,bailey's ,botany for ,secondary ,schools recognizes four or five general life principles3 that no two natural things are alike2 that each individual has to make and maintain its place through struggle with its fellows2 that 8as the twig is bent the tree inclines02 that 8like produces like10 and so on4 ,from these simple laws and others like them ,professor ,bailey proceeds to unfold a wonderful story of plant individuals that have improved upon their race characteristics1 of plant communities that have adopted manners from their neighbors1 of features and characteristics that have been lost by plants because of changed conditions of life or surroundings4 ,the story vibrates with interest4 ,the book is1 moreover1 perfectly organized along the logical lines of approach to a scientific subject4 ,four general divisions of material insure its pedagogical success3 ,,part ,i4----,the ,plant ,itself2 ,,part ,,ii4----,the ,plant in ,its ,relation to ,environment and to ,man2 ,,part ,,iii4----,histology1 or the ,minute ,structure of ,plants2 ,,part ,,iv4----,the ,kinds of ,plants1 including a ,flora of #acj pages4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,atlanta ,,dallas ,,san ,,francisco ,studies in ,literature ,,by ,,frederick ,,monroe ,,tisdel ,assistant ,professor of ,english in the ,university of ,missouri4 ,cloth1 #abmo41 illustrated1 #ccc pages1 list price 4#ij ,in ,part ,i of this book the author introduces the student to more than twenty standard ,english classics1 giving in connection with each a brief explanatory introduction1 suggestions for study and topics for oral and written discussion4 ,these classics are grouped with respect to the different types of literature which they represent1----epic1 drama1 essay1 novel1 etc41 and there is a brief exposition of the type4 ,the result is that in the mind of the reader the individual masterpiece and the type with its characteristics are inseparably connected4 ,part ,,ii consists of a brief but masterly survey of ,english literature4 ,the book as a whole serves to systematize and unify the study of secondary school literature1----a most desirable end4 ,professor ,e4 ,a4 ,cross1 ,state ,teachers ,college1 ,greeley1 ,colo4 8,it meets with my heartiest approval4 ,it is brief1 considers all the writers high school students need to know1 touches the interesting features in the lives and works of these men1----about all you could want it to do40 ,mr4 ,john ,b4 ,opdycke1 ,english ,department of the ,high ,school of ,commerce1 ,new ,york ,city4 8,i like it very much indeed4 ,it has just enough in its review of the history of ,english literature1 and its treatment of the classics is restrained and dignified4 ,so far as ,i have seen1 this is the only book that combines the two in one volume4 ,i am all against the use of an abstract ,history of ,english ,literature in the high school and ,i am all in favor of putting into the hands of the students some book that analyzes classics fully and yet with restraint4 ,this book seems to have combined the two in just the right proportions and treated them in just the right manner40 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,ave4 ,new ,york ,city ,boston ,chicago ,atlanta ,dallas ,san ,francisco 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,the term 8foodstuff0 is used in place of 8food principle10 as being the later and better term4 ,footnote #b3 ,this is the 8greater calorie0 or 8kilogram calorie10 and is written ,calorie to distinguish it from the 8lesser calorie0 or 8gram calorie10 largely used in physics and chemistry4 ,footnote #c3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,the machines operating with a crank are examples of the 8wheel and axle10 or the windlass1 or both4 ,the mechanical advantage can be worked out mathematically1----a good problem for the physics or mathematics class4 ,see 8,household ,physics10 ,c4 ,j4 ,lynde4 ,footnote #d3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,a good way to study utensils is to begin with the school kitchen equipment4 ,utensils for the home kitchen can be listed in the notebook1 as these are used in the school kitchen1 having the list grow by degrees throughout the year4 ,for reference1 have a price list and illustrated catalogue from some good firm4 ,footnote #e3 ,laboratory management4----,in the school kitchen the dish-washing may be done at the sink by housekeepers appointed for the day1 or if equipment allows1 the work may be done in twos with some definite plan for dividing the work4 ,footnote #f3 ,these terms perpetuate the names of scientists famous for their work in electricity4 ,volta was an ,italian who invented an electric battery2 ,ampere was a ,french electrician2 and ,watt a ,scottish engineer and electrician4 ,footnote #g3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,the teacher of physics can coperate here1 and indeed throughout the whole topic of apparatus and cooking processes4 ,footnote #h3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,if a meter can be used1 very exact problems can be worked out with gas and electricity4 ,footnote #i3 ,,teacher',s ,,note4----,these experiments may be performed as each food material is used4 ,in this case a page should be kept in the notebook for the table of weights and measures1 and each observation recorded as it is made4 ,it may be that the perishable articles will not be on hand1 except as they are used in order4 ,the weighing and measuring should be dwelt on all through the course4 ,footnote #aj3 ,both these methods were taught by ,french cooks connected with well-known chocolate firms1 and both give good results4 ,footnote #aa3 8,cereal0 is derived from the ,latin word 8cerealis10 pertaining to ,ceres1 the ,roman goddess of agriculture4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the manufacture of flour is discussed in the chapter on bread making4 ,footnote #ac3 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin #chi1 p4 #af4 ,footnote #ad3 ,several of the large firms manufacturing flour issue pamphlets descriptive of the whole process1 to be mailed free on application4 ,footnote #ae3 8,some ,points in the ,making and ,judging of ,bread10 #aiac4 ,isabel ,bevier1 ,univ4 of ,ill4 ,bulletin ,no4 #be4 ,footnote #af3 ,for ,furnishing the ,dining ,room1 see 8,shelter and ,clothing10 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #ag3 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,farmers' ,bulletin #dhg4 ,footnote #ah3 ,contributed by ,mary ,swartz ,rose1 ,ph4,d41 ,assistant ,professor1 ,department of ,nutrition1 ,teachers ,college4 ,footnote #ai3 ,observations of the food eaten by individuals or groups of people are also called dietary studies1 whether the observed dietary is such as to satisfy the food requirement or not4 ,footnote #bj3 ,one quart of milk yields #f-c_/d portions4 ,footnote #ba3 ,rose1 8,laboratory ,handbook for ,dietetics40 ,footnote #bb3 ,the apportionment of the income to the different expenses of living 7food1 clothing1 shelter1 etc47 is discussed in ,chapter ,,xix4 ,it will be found that the smaller the income the higher is the percentage of it which must be allowed for food4 ,footnote #bc3 ,printed by permission of ,j4 ,wiley ,sons1 publishers of 8,the ,cost of ,living10 by ,ellen ,richards4 ,footnote #bd3 ,published by ,j4 ,wiley ,sons1 publishers of 8,the ,cost of ,living10 by ,ellen ,richards4 ,footnote #be3 ,from ,chapin's 8,standards of ,living40 ,by permission ,russell ,sage ,foundation4 ,footnote #bf3 ,some of the widely advertised disinfectants are rather ineffective4 ,those interested should look up the tests of commercial disinfectants published from time to time by the ,united ,states ,public ,health ,service4 ,footnote #bg3 ,depending upon the nature of the infection1 it may be possible to substitute the use of a proper disinfectant1 followed by short boiling4 ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments ,transcriber's ,note3 ,blank pages have been deleted4 ,some illustrations have been moved and page references to such illustrations have been updated4 ,footnotes have been moved to the end of the etext4 ,paragraph formatting has been made somewhat more consistent4 ,the publisher's inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been corrected4 ,some wide tables have been re-formatted to narrower equivalents including a key4 ,duplicative front matter has been removed4 ,some ,laboratory ,management ,notes have been moved4 ,the following list indicates any additional changes made4 ,the page number represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext except for footnotes and illustrations since they may have been moved4 ,key3 fromto ,page #hb ,method #b4aj #hb chocolate1 and beat vigorously4#aj #ada these deficiencesdeficiencies should be reported #agj foundation for all bon bonsbonbons #bjc #a cake dissolved in #a_/d cup luke warmlukewarm water #bji wild animals of herbiverousherbivorous habits #baf ,left3 ,chuck rib roast1 #ith and #ajth ribs4 ,right3 #baf ,left3 #ast cut prime rib roast4 ,right3 #b;d cut #ccf ,total expenditure for year,totals 99 99 99 99 99