file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #djgjf-;h4htm or #djgjf-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#djgjf_/pg#djgjf-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dj gjf_/djgjf-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive_/,american ,libraries4 ,see http3_/_/archive4org_/details_/introduct iontohi#jjlibb ,transcriber's note3 ,every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible4 ,some changes have been made4 ,they are listed at the end of the text1 apart from some changes of puctuation in the ,index4 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,characters enclosed by curly braces are subscripts 7example3 ,h#b,o74 ,dalton's symbols for the elements have been represented as follows3 ,white circle 7 7 ,hydrogen ,circle with vertical bar 77 ,nitrogen ,circle with central dot 77 ,oxygen ,black cirle 7997 ,carbon ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,science by ,,walter ,,libby1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,professor of the ,history of ,science in the ,carnegie ,institute of ,technology ,illustration ,boston ,new ,york ,chicago ,houghton ,mifflin ,company ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,copyright1 #aiag1 by ,walter ,libby ,all ,rights ,reserved ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge4 ,massachusetts ,u 4 ,s 4 ,a ,,to ,,my ,,students ,,of ,,the ,,last ,,twelve ,,years ,,in ,,the ,,chicago ,,and ,,pittsburgh ,,districts ,,this ,,book ,,is ,,inscribed ,,in ,,furtherance ,,of ,,the ,,endeavor ,,to ,,inculcate ,a ,,democratic ,,culture1 ,,ever ,,mindful ,,of ,,the ,,daily ,,task1 ,,not ,,altogether ,,ignorant ,,of ,,the ,,achievements ,,of ,,the ,,past ,,preface ,the history of science has something to offer to the humblest intelligence4 ,it is a means of imparting a knowledge of scientific facts and principles to unschooled minds4 ,at the same time it affords a simple method of school instruction4 ,those who understand a business or an institution best1 as a contemporary writer on finance remarks1 are those who have made it or grown up with it1 and the next best thing is to know how it has grown up1 and then watch or take part in its actual working4 ,generally speaking1 we know best what we know in its origins4 ,the history of science is an aid in scientific research4 ,it places the student in the current of scientific thought1 and gives him a clue to the purpose and necessity of the theories he is required to master4 ,it presents science as the constant pursuit of truth rather than the formulation of truth long since revealed2 it shows science as progressive rather than fixed1 dynamic rather than static1 a growth to which each may contribute4 ,it does not paralyze the self-activity of youth by the record of an infallible past4 ,it is only by teaching the sciences in their historical development that the schools can be true to the two principles of modern education1 that the sciences should occupy the foremost place in the curriculum and that the individual mind in its evolution should rehearse the history of civilization4 ,the history of science should be given a larger place than at present in general history2 for1 as ,bacon said1 the history of the world without a history of learning is like a statue of ,polyphemus with the eye out4 ,the history of science studies the past for the sake of the future4 ,it is a story of continuous progress4 ,it is rich in biographical material4 ,it shows the sciences in their interrelations1 and saves the student from narrowness and premature specialization4 ,it affords a unique approach to the study of philosophy4 ,it gives new motive to the study of foreign languages4 ,it gives an interest in the applications of knowledge1 offers a clue to the complex civilization of the present1 and renders the mind hospitable to new discoveries and inventions4 ,the history of science is hostile to the spirit of caste4 ,it shows the sciences rising from daily needs and occupations1 formulated by philosophy1 enriching philosophy1 giving rise to new industries1 which react in turn upon the sciences4 ,the history of science reveals men of all grades of intelligence and of all social ranks coperating in the cause of human progress4 ,it is a basis of intellectual and social homogeneity4 ,science is international1 ,english1 ,germans1 ,french1 ,italians1 ,russians--all nations--contributing to advance the general interests4 ,accordingly1 a survey of the sciences tends to increase mutual respect1 and to heighten the humanitarian sentiment4 ,the history of science can be taught to people of all creeds and colors1 and cannot fail to enhance in the breast of every young man1 or woman1 faith in human progress and good-will to all mankind4 ,this book is intended as a simple introduction1 taking advantage of the interests of youth of from seventeen to twenty-two years of age 7and their intellectual compeers7 in order to direct their attention to the story of the development of the sciences4 ,it makes no claim to be in any sense complete or comprehensive4 ,it is1 therefore1 a psychological introduction1 having the mental capacity of a certain class of readers always in view1 rather than a logical introduction1 which would presuppose in all readers both full maturity of intellect and considerable initial interest in the history of science4 ,i cannot conclude this preface without thanking those who have assisted me in the preparation of this book--,sir ,william ,osler1 who read the first draft of the manuscript1 and aided me with his counsel2 ,dr4 ,charles ,singer1 who read all the chapters in manuscript1 and to whom ,i am indebted for advice in reference to the illustrations and for many other valuable suggestions2 the officers of the ,bodleian ,library1 whose courtesy was unfailing during the year ,i worked there2 ,professor ,henry ,crew1 who helped in the revision of two of the chapters by his judicious criticism2 ,professor ,j4 ,e4 ,rush1 whose knowledge of bacteriology improved the chapter on ,pasteur2 ,professor ,l4 ,o4 ,grondahl1 who read one of the chapters relating to the history of physics and suggested important emendations2 and ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,brashear1 who contributed valuable information in reference to the activities of ,samuel ,pierpont ,langley4 ,i wish to express my gratitude also to ,miss ,florence ,bonnet for aid in the correction of the manuscript4 ,w4 ,,libby4 ,february #b1 #aiag4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,science ,,and ,,practical ,,needs--,,egypt ,,and ,,babylonia #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,abstract ,,thought--,,greece3 ,,aristotle #ae ,,iii4 ,,scientific ,,theory ,,subordinated ,,to ,,application--,,rome3 ,,vitruvius #cj ,,iv4 ,,the ,,continuity ,,of ,,science--,,the ,,medieval ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,arabs #dc ,v4 ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,sciences--,,francis ,,bacon #eg ,,vi4 ,,scientific ,,method--,,gilbert1 ,,galileo1 ,,harvey1 ,,descartes #gb ,,vii4 ,,science ,,as ,,measurement--,,tycho ,,brahe1 ,,kepler1 ,,boyle #hf ,,viii4 ,,co,,peration ,,in ,,science--,,the ,,royal ,,society #ii ,,ix4 ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,liberty--,,benjamin ,,franklin #aad ,x4 ,,the ,,interaction ,,of ,,the ,,sciences--,,werner1 ,,hutton1 ,,black1 ,,hall1 ,,william ,,smith #abi ,,xi4 ,,science ,,and ,,religion--,,kant1 ,,lambert1 ,,laplace1 ,,sir ,,william ,,herschel #adb ,,xii4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,law--,,dalton1 ,,joule #aee ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,scientist--,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy #agj ,,xiv4 ,,scientific ,,prediction--,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,neptune #ahd ,,xv4 ,,science ,,and ,,travel--,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,beagle #aig ,,xvi4 ,,science ,,and ,,war--,,pasteur1 ,,lister #bac ,,xvii4 ,,science ,,and ,,invention--,,langley',s ,,aeroplane #bca ,,xviii4 ,,scientific ,,hypothesis--,,radioactive ,,substances #bde ,,xix4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,imagination #beh ,,xx4 ,,science ,,and ,,democratic ,,culture #bgj ,,index #bhc ,,illustrations ,,earliest ,,picture ,,known ,,of ,a ,,surgical ,,operation4 ,,egypt1 #bejj ,b4,c4 #f ,,st4 ,,thomas ,,aquinas ,,overcoming ,,averro,s #ed ,,dr4 ,,gilbert ,,showing ,,his ,,electrical ,,experiments ,,to ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,and ,,her ,,court #gb ,,the ,,tichonic ,,quadrant #hh ,,wadham ,,college1 ,,oxford #ajd ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton #aab ,,john ,,dalton ,,collecting ,,marsh ,,gas #afb ,,the ,,first ,,successful ,,heavier-,,than-,,air ,,flying ,,machine #bcf ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,science ,,chapter ,i ,,science ,,and ,,practical ,,needs--,,egypt ,,and ,,babylonia ,if you consult encyclopedias and special works in reference to the early history of any one of the sciences1--astronomy1 geology1 geometry1 physiology1 logic1 or political science1 for example1--you will find strongly emphasized the part played by the ,greeks in the development of organized knowledge4 ,great1 indeed1 as we shall see in the next chapter1 are the contributions to the growth of science of this highly rational and speculative people4 ,it must be conceded1 also1 that the influence on ,western science of civilizations earlier than theirs has come to us1 to a considerable extent at least1 through the channels of ,greek literature4 ,nevertheless1 if you seek the very origins of the sciences1 you will inevitably be drawn to the banks of the ,nile1 and to the valleys of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates4 ,here1 in ,egypt1 in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 dwelt from very remote times nations whose genius was practical and religious rather than intellectual and theoretical1 and whose mental life1 therefore1 was more akin to our own than was the highly evolved culture of the ,greeks4 ,though more remote in time1 the wisdom and practical knowledge of ,thebes and ,memphis1 ,nineveh and ,babylon1 are more readily comprehended by our minds than the difficult speculations of ,athenian philosophy4 ,much that we have inherited from the earliest civilizations is so familiar1 so homely1 that we simply accept it1 much as we may light1 or air1 or water1 without analysis1 without inquiry as to its origin1 and without full recognition of how indispensable it is4 ,why are there seven days in the week1 and not eight8 ,why are there sixty minutes in the hour1 and why are there not sixty hours in the day8 ,these artificial divisions of time are accepted so unquestioningly that to ask a reason for them may1 to an indolent mind1 seem almost absurd4 ,this acceptance of a week of seven days and of an hour of sixty minutes 7almost as if they were natural divisions of time like day and night7 is owing to a tradition that is ,babylonian in its origin4 ,from the ,old ,testament 7which is one of the greatest factors in preserving the continuity of human culture1 and the only ancient book which speaks with authority concerning ,babylonian history7 we learn that ,abraham1 the progenitor of the ,hebrews1 migrated to the west from southern ,babylonia about twenty-three hundred years before ,christ4 ,even in that remote age1 however1 the ,babylonians had established those divisions of time which are familiar to us4 ,the seven days of the week were closely associated in men's thinking with the heavenly bodies4 ,in our modern languages they are named after the sun1 the moon1 ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,jupiter1 ,venus1 and ,saturn1 which from the remotest times were personified and worshiped4 ,thus we see that the usage of making seven days a unit of time depends on the religious belief and astronomical science of a very remote civilization4 ,the usage is so completely established that by the majority it is simply taken for granted4 ,another piece of commonplace knowledge--the cardinal points of the compass--may be accepted1 likewise1 without inquiry or without recognition of its importance4 ,unless thrown on your own resources in an unsettled country or on unknown waters1 you may long fail to realize how indispensable to the practical conduct of life is the knowledge of east and west and north and south4 ,in this matter1 again1 the records of ancient civilizations show the pains that were taken to fix these essentials of science4 ,modern excavations have demonstrated that the sides or the corners of the temples and palaces of ,assyria and ,babylonia were directed to the four cardinal points of the compass4 ,in ,egypt the pyramids1 erected before #cjjj ,b4,c41 were laid out with such strict regard to direction that the conjecture has been put forward that their main purpose was to establish1 in a land of shifting sands1 east and west and north and south4 ,that conjecture seems extravagant2 but the fact that the ,phnicians studied astronomy merely because of its practical value in navigation1 the early invention of the compass in ,china1 the influence on discovery of the later improvements of the compass1 make us realize the importance of the alleged purpose of the pyramids4 ,without fixed points1 without something to go by1 men1 before they had acquired the elements of astronomy1 were altogether at sea4 ,as they advanced in knowledge they looked to the stars for guidance1 especially to the pole star and the imperishable star-group of the northern heavens4 ,the ,egyptians even developed an apparatus for telling the time by reference to the stars--a star-clock similar in its purpose to the sundial4 ,by the ,egyptians1 also1 was carefully observed the season of the year at which certain stars and constellations were visible at dawn4 ,this was of special importance in the case of ,sirius1 for its heliacal rising1 that is1 the period when it rose in conjunction with the sun1 marked the coming of the ,nile flood 7so important in the lives of the inhabitants7 and the beginning of a new year4 ,not unnaturally ,sirius was an object of worship4 ,one temple is said to have been so constructed as to face that part of the eastern horizon at which this star arose at the critical season of inundation4 ,of another temple we are told that only at sunset at the time of the summer solstice did the sun throw its rays throughout the edifice4 ,the fact that astronomy in ,egypt as in ,babylonia1 where the temples were observatories1 was closely associated with religion confirms the view that this science was first cultivated because of its bearing on the practical needs of the people4 ,the priests were the preservers of such wisdom as had been accumulated in the course of man's immemorial struggle with the forces of nature4 ,it is well known that geometry had its origin in the valley of the ,nile1 that it arose to meet a practical need1 and that it was in the first place1 as its name implies1 a measurement of the earth--a crude surveying1 employed in the restoration of boundaries obliterated by the annual inundations of the river4 ,egyptian geometry cared little for theory4 ,it addressed itself to actual problems1 such as determining the area of a square or triangular field from the length of the sides4 ,to find the area of a circular field1 or floor1 or vessel1 from the length of the diameter was rather beyond the science of #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,this was1 however1 a practical problem which had to be solved1 even if the solution were not perfect4 ,the practice was to square the diameter reduced by one ninth4 ,in all the ,egyptian mathematics of which we have record there is to be observed a similar practical bent4 ,in the construction of a temple or a pyramid not merely was it necessary to have regard to the points of the compass1 but care must be taken to have the sides at right angles4 ,this required the intervention of specialists1 expert rope-fasteners1 who laid off a triangle by means of a rope divided into three parts1 of three1 four1 and five units4 ,the ,babylonians followed much the same practice in fixing a right angle4 ,in addition they learned how to bisect and trisect the angle4 ,hence we see in their designs and ornaments the division of the circle into twelve parts1 a division which does not appear in ,egyptian ornamentation till after the incursion of ,babylonian influence4 ,there is no need1 however1 to multiply examples2 the tendency of all ,egyptian mathematics was1 as already stated1 concerned with the practical solution of concrete problems--mensuration1 the cubical contents of barns and granaries1 the distribution of bread1 the amounts of food required by men and animals in given numbers and for given periods of time1 the proportions and the angle of elevation 7about #eb7 of a pyramid1 etc4 ,moreover1 they worked simple equations involving one unknown1 and had a hieroglyph for a million 7the drawing of a man overcome with wonder71 and another for ten million4 ,the ,rhind mathematical papyrus in the ,british ,museum is the main source of our present knowledge of early ,egyptian arithmetic1 geometry1 and of what might be called their trigonometry and algebra4 ,it describes itself as ,instructions for arriving at the knowledge of all things1 and of things obscure1 and of all mysteries4 ,it was copied by a priest about #afjj ,b4,c4--the classical period of ,egyptian culture--from a document seven hundred years older4 ,illustration3 ,,earliest ,,picture ,,known ,,of ,a ,,surgical ,,operation4 ,,egypt1 #bejj ,b4,c4 ,medicine1 which is almost certain to develop in the early history of a people in response to their urgent needs1 has been justly called the foster-mother of many sciences4 ,in the records of ,egyptian medical practice can be traced the origin of chemistry1 anatomy1 physiology1 and botany4 ,our most definite information concerning ,egyptian medicine belongs to the same general period as the mathematical document to which we have just referred4 ,it is true something is known of remoter times4 ,the first physician of whom history has preserved the name1 ,i-em-hetep 7,he-who-cometh-in-peace71 lived about #dejj ,b4,c4 ,recent researches have also brought to light1 near ,memphis1 pictures1 not later than #bejj ,b4,c41 of surgical operations4 ,they were found sculptured on the doorposts at the entrance to the tomb of a high official of one of the ,pharaohs4 ,the patients1 as shown in the accompanying illustration1 are suffering pain1 and1 according to the inscription1 one cries out1 ,do this and let me go1 and the other1 ,don't hurt me so6 ,our most satisfactory data in reference to ,egyptian medicine are derived1 however1 from the ,ebers papyrus4 ,this document displays some little knowledge of the pulse in different parts of the body1 of a relation between the heart and the other organs1 and of the passage of the breath to the lungs 7and heart74 ,it contains a list of diseases4 ,in the main it is a collection of prescriptions for the eyes1 ears1 stomach1 to reduce tumors1 effect purgation1 etc4 ,there is no evidence of a tendency to homeopathy1 but mental healing seems to have been called into play by the use of numerous spells and incantations4 ,each prescription1 as in medical practice to-day1 contains as a rule several ingredients4 ,among the seven hundred recognized remedies are to be noted poppy1 castor-oil1 gentian1 colchicum1 squills1 and many other familiar medicinal plants1 as well as bicarbonate of soda1 antimony1 and salts of lead and copper4 ,the fat of the lion1 hippopotamus1 crocodile1 goose1 serpent1 and wild goat1 in equal parts1 served as a prescription for baldness4 ,in the interests of his art the medical practitioner ransacked the resources of organic and inorganic nature4 ,the ,ebers papyrus shows that the ,egyptians knew of the development of the beetle from the egg1 of the blow-fly from the larva1 and of the frog from the tadpole4 ,moreover1 for precision in the use of medicaments weights of very small denominations were employed4 ,the ,egyptian embalmers relied on the preservative properties of common salt1 wine1 aromatics1 myrrh1 cassia1 etc4 ,by the use of linen smeared with gum they excluded all putrefactive agencies4 ,they understood the virtue of extreme dryness in the exercise of their antiseptic art4 ,some knowledge of anatomy was involved in the removal of the viscera1 and much more in a particular method they followed in removing the brain4 ,in their various industries the ,egyptians made use of gold1 silver1 bronze 7which on analysis is found to consist of copper1 tin1 and a trace of lead1 etc471 metallic iron and copper and their oxides1 manganese1 cobalt1 alum1 cinnabar1 indigo1 madder1 brass1 white lead1 lampblack4 ,there is clear evidence that they smelted iron ore as early as #cdjj ,b4,c4 maintaining a blast by means of leather tread-bellows4 ,they also contrived to temper the metal1 and to make helmets1 swords1 lance-points1 ploughs1 tools1 and other implements of iron4 ,besides metallurgy they practiced the arts of weaving1 dyeing1 distillation4 ,they produced soap 7from soda and oil71 transparent and colored glass1 enamel1 and ceramics4 ,they were skilled in the preparation of leather4 ,they showed aptitude for painting1 and for the other fine arts4 ,they were expert builders1 and possessed the engineering skill to erect obelisks weighing hundreds of tons4 ,they cultivated numerous vegetables1 grains1 fruits1 and flowers4 ,they had many domestic animals4 ,in seeking the satisfaction of their practical needs they laid the foundation of geometry1 botany1 chemistry 7named1 as some think1 from the ,egyptian ,khem1 the god of medicinal herbs71 and other sciences4 ,but their practical achievements far transcended their theoretical formulations4 ,to all time they will be known as an artistic1 noble1 and religious people1 who cherished their dead and would not allow that the good and beautiful and great should altogether pass away4 ,excavations in ,assyria and ,babylonia1 especially since #ahdc1 have brought to our knowledge an ancient culture stretching back four or five thousand years before the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the records of ,assyria and ,babylonia1 like those of ,egypt1 are fragmentary and still in need of interpretation4 ,here again1 however1 it is the fundamental1 the indispensable1 the practical forms of knowledge that stand revealed rather than the theoretical1 speculative1 and purely intellectual4 ,by the ,babylonian priests the heavens were made the object of expert observation as early as #chjj ,b4,c4 ,the length of the year1 the length of the month1 the coming of the seasons1 the course of the sun in the heavens1 the movements of the planets1 the recurrence of eclipses1 comets1 and meteors1 were studied with particular care4 ,one motive was the need of a measurement of time1 the same motive as underlies the common interest in the calendar and almanac4 ,it was found that the year contained more than #cfe days1 the month 7synodic7 more than #bi days1 #ab hours1 and #dd minutes4 ,the sun's apparent diameter was contained #gbj times in the ecliptic1 that is1 in the apparent path of the sun through the heavens4 ,like the ,egyptians1 the ,babylonians took special note of the stars and star-groups that were to be seen at dawn at different times of the year4 ,these constellations1 lying in the imaginary belt encircling the heavens on either side of the ecliptic1 bore names corresponding to those we have adopted for the signs of the zodiac1--,balance1 ,ram1 ,bull1 ,twins1 ,scorpion1 ,archer1 etc4 ,the ,babylonian astronomers also observed that the successive vernal 7or autumnal7 equinoxes follow each other at intervals of a few seconds less than a year4 ,a second motive that influenced the ,babylonian priests in studying the movements of the heavenly bodies was the hope of foretelling events4 ,the planets1 seen to shift their positions with reference to the other heavenly bodies1 were called messengers1 or angels4 ,the appearance of ,mars1 perhaps on account of its reddish color1 was associated in their imaginations with war4 ,comets1 meteors1 and eclipses were considered as omens portending pestilence1 national disaster1 or the fate of kings4 ,the fortunes of individuals could be predicted from a knowledge of the aspect of the heavens at the hour of their birth4 ,this interest in astrology1 or divination by means of the stars1 no doubt stimulated the priests to make careful observations and to preserve religiously the record of astronomical phenomena4 ,it was even established that there is a cycle in which eclipses1 solar and lunar1 repeat themselves1 a period 7saros7 somewhat more than eighteen years and eleven months4 ,moreover1 from the ,babylonians we derive some of our most sublime religious and scientific conceptions4 ,they held that strict law governs the apparently erratic movements of the heavenly bodies4 ,their creation myth proclaims3 ,merodach next arranged the stars in order1 along with the sun and moon1 and gave them laws which they were never to transgress4 ,the mathematical knowledge of the ,babylonians is related on the one hand to their astronomy and on the other to their commercial pursuits4 ,they possessed highly developed systems of measuring1 weighing1 and counting--processes1 which1 as we shall see in the sequel1 are essential to scientific thought4 ,about #bcjj ,b4,c4 they had multiplication tables running from #a to #acej1 which were probably used in connection with astronomical calculations4 ,unlike the ,egyptians they had no symbol for a million1 though the ten thousand times ten thousand of the ,bible 7,daniel ,,vii3 #aj7 may indicate that the conception of even larger numbers was not altogether foreign to them4 ,they counted in sixties as well as in tens4 ,their hours and minutes had each sixty subdivisions4 ,they divided the circle into six parts and into six-times-sixty subdivisions4 ,tables of squares and cubes discovered in southern ,babylonia were interpreted correctly only on a sexagesimal basis1 the statement that #a plus #d is the square of #h implying that the first unit is #fj4 ,as we have already seen1 considerable knowledge of geometry is apparent in ,babylonian designs and constructions4 ,according to a ,greek historian of the fifth century ,b4,c41 there were no physicians at ,babylon1 while a later ,greek historian 7of the first century ,b4,c47 speaks of a ,babylonian university which had attained celebrity1 and which is now believed to have been a school of medicine4 ,modern research has made known letters by a physician addressed to an ,assyrian king in the seventh century ,b4,c4 referring to the king's chief physician1 giving directions for the treatment of a bleeding from the nose from which a friend of the prince was suffering1 and reporting the probable recovery of a poor fellow whose eyes were diseased4 ,other letters from the same general period mention the presence of physicians at court4 ,we have even recovered the name 7,ilu-bani7 of a physician who lived in southern ,babylonia about #bgjj ,b4,c4 ,the most interesting information1 however1 in reference to ,babylonian medicine dates from the time of ,hammurabi1 a contemporary of the patriarch ,abraham4 ,it appears from the code drawn up in the reign of that monarch that the ,babylonian surgeons operated in case of cataract2 that they were entitled to twenty silver shekels 7half the sum for which ,joseph was sold into slavery1 and equivalent to seven or eight dollars7 for a successful operation2 and that in case the patient lost his life or his sight as the result of an unsuccessful operation1 the surgeon was condemned to have his hands amputated4 ,the ,babylonian records of medicine like those of astronomy reveal the prevalence of many superstitious beliefs4 ,the spirits of evil bring maladies upon us2 the gods heal the diseases that afflict us4 ,the ,babylonian books of medicine contained strange interminglings of prescription and incantation4 ,the priests studied the livers of sacrificial animals in order to divine the thoughts of the gods--a practice which stimulated the study of anatomy4 ,the maintenance of state menageries no doubt had a similar influence on the study of the natural history of animals4 ,the ,babylonians were a nation of agriculturists and merchants4 ,sargon of ,akkad1 who founded the first ,semitic empire in ,asia 7#chjj ,b4,c471 was brought up by an irrigator1 and was himself a gardener4 ,belshazzar1 the son of the last ,babylonian king1 dealt in wool on a considerable scale4 ,excavation in the land watered by the ,tigris and ,euphrates tells the tale of the money-lenders1 importers1 dyers1 fullers1 tanners1 saddlers1 smiths1 carpenters1 shoemakers1 stonecutters1 ivory-cutters1 brickmakers1 porcelain-makers1 potters1 vintners1 sailors1 butchers1 engineers1 architects1 painters1 sculptors1 musicians1 dealers in rugs1 clothing and fabrics1 who contributed to the culture of this great historic people4 ,it is not surprising that science should find its matrix in so rich a civilization4 ,the lever and the pulley1 lathes1 picks1 saws1 hammers1 bronze operating-lances1 sundials1 water-clocks1 the gnomon 7a vertical pillar for determining the sun's altitude7 were in use4 ,gem-cutting was highly developed as early as #chjj ,b4,c4 ,the ,babylonians made use of copper hardened with antimony and tin1 lead1 incised shells1 glass1 alabaster1 lapis-lazuli1 silver1 and gold4 ,iron was not employed before the period of contact with ,egyptian civilization4 ,their buildings were furnished with systems of drains and flushes that seem to us altogether modern4 ,our museums are enriched by specimens of their handicraft--realistic statuary in dolerite of #bgjj ,b4,c42 rock crystal worked to the form of a plano-convex lens1 #chjj ,b4,c42 a beautiful silver vase of the period #ciej ,b4,c42 and the head of a goat in copper about #djjj ,b4,c4 ,excavation has not disclosed nor scholarship interpreted the full record of this ancient people in the valley of the ,tigris and the ,euphrates1 not far from the ,gulf of ,persia1 superior in religious inspiration1 not inferior in practical achievements to the ,egyptians4 ,both these great nations of antiquity1 however1 failed to carry the sciences that arose in connection with their arts to a high degree of generalization4 ,that was reserved for another people of ancient times1 namely1 the ,greeks4 ,,references ,f4 ,h4 ,garrison1 ,an ,introduction to the ,history of ,medicine4 ,h4 ,v4 ,hilprecht1 ,excavations in ,assyria and ,babylonia4 ,max ,neuburger1 ,history of ,medicine4 ,a4 ,h4 ,sayce1 ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,abstract ,,thought--,,greece3 ,,aristotle ,no sooner did the ,greeks turn their attention to the sciences which had originated in ,egypt and ,babylonia than the characteristic intellectual quality of the ,hellenic genius revealed itself4 ,thales 7#fdj-edf ,b4,c471 who is usually regarded as the first of the ,greek philosophers1 was the founder of ,greek geometry and astronomy4 ,he was one of the seven wise men of ,greece1 and might be called the ,benjamin ,franklin of antiquity1 for he was interested in commerce1 famous for political sagacity1 and honored for his disinterested love of general truth4 ,his birthplace was ,miletus1 a ,greek city on the coast of ,asia ,minor4 ,there is evidence that he acquired a knowledge of ,babylonian astronomy4 ,the pursuit of commerce carried him to ,egypt1 and there he gained a knowledge of geometry4 ,not only so1 but he was able to advance this study by generalizing and formulating its truths4 ,for the ,egyptians1 geometry was concerned with surfaces and dimensions1 with areas and cubical contents2 for the ,greek1 with his powers of abstraction1 it became a study of line and angle4 ,for example1 ,thales saw that the angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal1 and that when two straight lines cut one another the vertically opposite angles are equal4 ,however1 after having established general principles1 he showed himself capable of applying them to the solution of particular problems4 ,in the presence of the ,egyptian priests1 to which class he was solely indebted for instruction1 ,thales demonstrated a method of measuring the height of a pyramid by reference to its shadow4 ,and again1 on the basis of his knowledge of the relation of the sides of a triangle to its angles1 he developed a practical rule for ascertaining the distance of a ship from the shore4 ,the philosophical mind of ,thales laid hold1 no doubt1 of some of the essentials of astronomical science4 ,the particulars usually brought forward to prove his originality tend rather to show his indebtedness to the ,babylonians4 ,the number of days in the year1 the length of the synodic month1 the relation of the sun's apparent diameter to the ecliptic1 the times of recurrence of eclipses1 were matters that had long been known to the ,babylonians1 as well as to the ,chinese4 ,however1 he aroused great interest in astronomy among the ,greeks by the prediction of a solar eclipse4 ,this was probably the eclipse of #ehe ,b4,c41 which interrupted a fierce battle between the ,medes and the ,lydians4 ,the advice of ,thales to mariners to steer by the ,lesser ,bear1 as nearer the pole1 rather than by the ,great ,bear1 shows also that in his astronomical studies as in his geometrical he was not indifferent to the applications of scientific knowledge4 ,in fact1 some writers maintain that ,thales was not a philosopher at all1 but rather an astronomer and engineer4 ,we know very little of his purely speculative thought4 ,we do know1 however1 that he arrived at a generalization--fantastic to most minds--that all things are water4 ,attempts have been made to add to this statement1 and to explain it away4 ,its great interest for the history of thought lies in the fact that it is the result of seeking the constant in the variable1 the unitary principle in the multiple phenomena of nature4 ,this abstract and general view 7though perhaps suggested by the ,babylonian belief that the world originated in a watery chaos1 or by the teaching of ,egyptian priests7 was preminently ,greek1 and was the first of a series of attempts to discover the basis or origin of all things4 ,one of the followers of ,thales taught that air was the fundamental principle2 while ,heraclitus1 anticipating to some extent modern theories of the origin of the cosmos1 declared in favor of a fiery vapor subject to ceaseless change4 ,empedocles1 the great philosopher-physician1 first set forth the doctrine of the four elements--earth1 air1 fire1 and water4 ,for ,democritus indivisible particles or atoms are fundamental to all phenomena4 ,it is evident that the theory of ,thales was a starting point for ,greek abstract thought1 and that his inclination to seek out principles and general laws accounts for his influence on the development both of philosophy and the sciences4 ,pythagoras1 on the advice of ,thales1 visited ,egypt in the pursuit of mathematics4 ,there is reason to believe that he also visited ,babylonia4 ,for him and his followers mathematics became a philosophy--almost a religion4 ,they had discovered 7by experimenting with the monochord1 the first piece of physical-laboratory apparatus1 consisting of a tense harpstring with a movable bridge7 the effect on the tone of the string of a musical instrument when the length is reduced by one half1 and also that strings of like thickness and under equal tension yield harmonious tones when their lengths are related as #a3b1 #b3c1 #c3d1 #d3e4 ,the ,pythagoreans drew from this the extravagant inference that the heavenly bodies would be in distance from the earth as #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 etc4 ,much of their theory must seem to the modern mind merely fanciful and unsupported speculation4 ,at the same time it is only just to this school of philosophers to recognize that their assumption that simple mathematical relationships govern the phenomena of nature has had an immense influence on the advance of the sciences4 ,whether their fanaticism for number was owing to the influence of ,egyptian priests or had an ,oriental origin1 it gave to the ,pythagoreans an enthusiasm for pure mathematics4 ,they disregarded the bearing of their science on the practical needs of life4 ,old problems like squaring the circle1 trisecting the angle1 and doubling the cube1 were now attempted in a new spirit and with fresh vigor4 ,the first1 second1 and fourth books of ,euclid are largely of ,pythagorean origin4 ,for solid geometry as a science we are also indebted to this sect of number-worshipers4 ,one of them 7,archytas1 #dbh-cdg ,b4,c41 a friend of ,plato7 was the first to apply geometry to mechanics4 ,we see again here1 as in the case of ,thales1 that the love of abstract thought1 the pursuit of science as science1 did not interfere with ultimate practical applications4 ,plato 7#dbi-cdg ,b4,c471 like many other ,greek philosophers1 traveled extensively1 visiting ,asia ,minor1 ,egypt1 and ,lower ,italy1 where ,pythagorean influence was particularly strong4 ,his chief interest lay in speculation4 ,for him there were two worlds1 the world of sense and the world of ideas4 ,the senses deceive us2 therefore1 the philosopher should turn his back upon the world of sensible impressions1 and develop the reason4 ,in his ,dialogues he outlined a course of training and study1 the professed object of which was to educate a class of philosophers4 7,strange to say1 ,plato's curriculum1 planned originally for the intellectual lite1 still dictates in our schools the education of millions of boys and girls whose careers do not call for a training merely of the reason47 ,over the porch of his school1 the ,academy at ,athens1 were inscribed the words1 ,let no one who is unacquainted with geometry enter here4 ,it was not because it was useful in everyday life that ,plato laid such insistence on this study1 but because it increased the students' powers of abstraction and trained the mind to correct and vigorous thinking4 ,from his point of view the chief good of geometry is lost unless we can through it withdraw the mind from the particular and the material4 ,he delighted in clearness of conception4 ,his main scientific interest was in astronomy and mathematics4 ,we owe to him the definition of a line as length without breadth1 and the formulation of the axiom1 ,equals subtracted from equals leave equals4 ,plato had an immediate influence in stimulating mathematical studies1 and has been called a maker of mathematicians4 ,euclid1 who was active at ,alexandria toward the end of the fourth century ,b4,c41 was not one of ,plato's immediate disciples but shared the great philosopher's point of view4 ,the story is told that one of his pupils1 arrived perhaps at the pons asinorum1 asked1 ,what do ,i get by learning these things8 ,euclid1 calling his servant1 said1 ,give him sixpence1 since he must make gain out of what he learns4 ,adults were also found1 even among the nimble-witted ,greeks1 to whom abstract reasoning was not altogether congenial4 ,this is attested by the familiar story of ,ptolemy1 ,king of ,egypt1 who once asked ,euclid whether geometry could not be learned in some easier way than by studying the geometer's book1 ,the ,elements4 ,to this the schoolmaster replied1 ,there is no royal road to geometry4 ,for the academic intelligence abstract and abstruse mathematics are tonic and an end in themselves4 ,as already stated1 their ultimate practical value is also immense4 ,one of ,plato's associates1 working under his direction1 investigated the curves produced by cutting cones of different kinds in a certain plane4 ,these curves--the ellipse1 the parabola1 the hyperbola--play a large part in the subsequent history of astronomy and mechanics4 ,another ,platonist made the first measurement of the earth's circumference4 ,aristotle1 the greatest pupil of ,plato1 was born at ,stagira in #chd ,b4,c4 ,he came of a family of physicians1 was trained for the medical profession1 and had his attention early directed to natural phenomena4 ,he entered the ,academy at ,athens about #cfg ,b4,c41 and studied there till the death of ,plato twenty years later4 ,he was a diligent but1 as was natural1 considering the character of his early education1 by no means a passive student4 ,plato said that ,aristotle reacted against his instructor as a vigorous colt kicks the mother that nourishes it4 ,the physician's son did not accept without modification the view that the philosopher should turn his back upon the things of sense4 ,he had been trained in the physical science of the time1 and believed in the reality of concrete things4 ,at the same time he absorbed what he found of value in his master's teachings4 ,he thought that science did not consist in a mere study of individual things1 but that we must pass on to a formulation of general principles and then return to a study of the concrete4 ,his was a great systematizing intellect1 which has left its imprint on nearly every department of knowledge4 ,physical astronomy1 physical geography1 meteorology1 physics1 chemistry1 geology1 botany1 anatomy1 physiology1 embryology1 and zology were enriched by his teaching4 ,it was through him that logic1 ethics1 psychology1 rhetoric1 sthetics1 political science1 zology 7especially ichthyology71 first received systematic treatment4 ,as a great modern philosopher has said1 ,aristotle pressed his way through the mass of things knowable1 and subjected its diversity to the power of his thought4 ,no wonder that for ages he was known as ,the ,philosopher1 master of those who know4 ,his purpose was to comprehend1 to define1 to classify the phenomena of organic and inorganic nature1 to systematize the knowledge of his own time4 ,twenty years' apprenticeship in the school of ,plato had sharpened his logical powers and added to his stock of general ideas1 but had not taught him to distrust his senses4 ,when we say that our eyes deceive us1 we really confess that we have misinterpreted the data that our sight has furnished4 ,properly to know involves the right use of the senses as well as the right use of reason4 ,the advance of science depends on the development both of speculation and observation4 ,aristotle advised investigators to make sure of the facts before seeking the explanation of the facts4 ,where preconceived theory was at variance with observed facts1 the former must of course give way4 ,though it has been said that while ,plato was a dreamer1 ,aristotle was a thinker1 yet it must be acknowledged in qualification that ,plato often showed genuine knowledge of natural phenomena in anatomy and other departments of study1 and that ,aristotle was carried away at times by his own presuppositions1 or failed to bring his theories to the test of observation4 ,the ,stagirite held that the velocity of falling bodies is proportional to their weight1 that the function of the diaphragm is to divide the region of the nobler from that of the animal passions1 and that the brain is intended to act in opposition to the heart1 the brain being formed of earthy and watery material1 which brings about a cooling effect4 ,the theory of the four elements--the hot1 the cold1 the moist1 the dry--led to dogmatic statements with little attempt at verification4 ,from the standpoint of modern studies it is easy to point out the mistakes of ,aristotle even4 ,science is progressive1 not infallible4 ,in his own time he was rather reproached for what was considered an undignified and sordid familiarity with observed facts4 ,his critics said that having squandered his patrimony1 he had served in the army1 and1 failing there1 had become a seller of drugs4 ,his observations on the effects of heat seem to have been drawn from the common processes of the home and the workshop4 ,even in the ripening of fruits heat appears to him to have a cooking effect4 ,heat distorts articles made of potters' clay after they have been hardened by cold4 ,again we find him describing the manufacture of potash and of steel4 ,he is not disdainful of the study of the lower animals1 but invites us to investigate all forms in the expectancy of discovering something natural and beautiful4 ,in a similar spirit of scientific curiosity the ,aristotelian work ,the ,problems studies the principle of the lever1 the rudder1 the wheel and axle1 the forceps1 the balance1 the beam1 the wedge1 as well as other mechanical principles4 ,in ,aristotle1 in fact1 we find a mind exceptionally able to form clear ideas1 and at the same time to observe the rich variety of nature4 ,he paid homage both to the multiplicity and the uniformity of nature1 the wealth of the phenomena and the simplicity of the law explaining the phenomena4 ,many general and abstract ideas 7category1 energy1 entomology1 essence1 mean between extremes1 metaphysics1 meteorology1 motive1 natural history1 principle1 syllogism7 have through the influence of ,aristotle become the common property of educated people the world over4 ,plato was a mathematician and an astronomer4 ,aristotle was first and foremost a biologist4 ,his books treated the history of animals1 the parts of animals1 the locomotion of animals1 the generation of animals1 respiration1 life and death1 length and shortness of life1 youth and old age4 ,his psychology is1 like that of the present day1 a biological psychology4 ,in his contributions to biological science is manifested his characteristic inclination to be at once abstract and concrete4 ,his works display a knowledge of over five hundred living forms4 ,he dissected specimens of fifty different species of animals4 ,one might mention especially his minute knowledge of the sea-urchin1 of the murex 7source of the famous ,tyrian dye71 of the chameleon1 of the habits of the torpedo1 the so-called fishing-frog1 and nest-making fishes1 as well as of the manner of reproduction of whales and certain species of sharks4 ,one of his chief contributions to anatomy is the description of the heart and of the arrangement of the blood-vessels4 ,a repugnance to the dissection of the human body seems to have checked to some extent his curiosity in reference to the anatomy of man1 but he was acquainted with the structure of the internal ear1 the passage leading from the pharynx to the middle ear1 and the two outer membranes of the brain of man4 ,aristotle's genius did not permit him to get lost in the mere details of observed phenomena4 ,he recognized resemblances and differences between the various species1 classified animals as belonging to two large groups1 distinguished whales and dolphins from fishes1 recognized the family likeness of the domestic pigeon1 the wood pigeon1 the rock pigeon1 and the turtle dove4 ,he laid down the characteristics of the class of invertebrates to which octopus and sepia belong4 ,man takes a place in ,aristotle's system of nature as a social animal1 the highest type of the whole series of living beings1 characterized by certain powers of recall1 reason1 deliberation4 ,of course it was not to be expected that ,aristotle should work out a fully satisfactory classification of all the varieties of plants and animals known to him4 ,yet his purpose and method mark him as the father of natural science4 ,he had the eye to observe and the mind to grasp the relationships and the import of what he observed4 ,his attempt to classify animals according to the nature of their teeth 7dentition7 has been criticized as unsuccessful1 but this principle of classification is still of use1 and may be regarded as typical of his mind1 at once careful and comprehensive4 ,one instance of ,aristotle's combining philosophical speculation with acute observation of natural phenomena is afforded by his work on generation and development4 ,he knew that the transmission of life deserves special study as the predominant function of the various species of plants and animals4 ,deformed parents may have well-formed offspring4 ,children may resemble grandparents rather than parents4 ,it is only toward the close of its development that the embryo exhibits the characteristics of its parent species4 ,aristotle traced with some care the embryological development of the chick from the fourth day of incubation4 ,his knowledge of the propagation of animals was1 however1 not sufficient to make him reject the belief in spontaneous generation from mud1 sand1 foam1 and dew4 ,his errors are readily comprehensible1 as1 for example1 in attributing spontaneous generation to eels1 the habits and mode of reproduction of which only recent studies have made fully known4 ,in regard to generation1 as in other scientific fields1 the philosophic mind of ,aristotle anticipated modern theories1 and also raised general questions only to be solved by later investigation of the facts4 ,only one indication need be given of the practical results that flowed from ,aristotle's scientific work4 ,in one of his writings he has stated that the sphericity of the earth can be observed from the fact that its shadow on the moon at the time of eclipse is an arc4 ,that it is both spherical and small in comparison with the heavenly bodies appears1 moreover1 from this1 that stars visible in ,egypt are invisible in countries farther north2 while stars always above the horizon in northern countries are seen to set from countries to the south4 ,consequently the earth is not only spherical but also not large2 otherwise this phenomenon would not present itself on so limited a change of position on the part of the observer4 ,it seems1 therefore1 not incredible that the region about the ,pillars of ,hercules ,gibraltar is connected with that of ,india1 and that there is thus only one ocean4 ,it is known that this passage from ,the ,philosopher influenced ,columbus in his undertaking to reach the ,orient by sailing west from the coast of ,spain4 ,we must pass over ,aristotle's observation of a relationship 7homology7 between the arms of man1 the forelegs of quadrupeds1 the wings of birds1 and the pectoral fins of fishes1 as well as many other truths to which his genius for generalization led him4 ,in the field of botany ,aristotle had a wide knowledge of natural phenomena1 and raised general questions as to mode of propagation1 nourishment1 relation of plants to animals1 etc4 ,his pupil and lifelong friend1 and successor as leader of the ,peripatetic school of philosophy1 ,theophrastus1 combined a knowledge of mathematics1 astronomy1 botany1 and mineralogy4 ,his ,history of ,plants describes about five hundred species4 ,at the same time he treats the general principles of botany1 the distribution of plants1 the nourishment of the plant through leaf as well as root1 the sexuality of date palm and terebinth4 ,he lays great stress on the uses of plants4 ,his classification of plants is inferior to ,aristotle's classification of animals4 ,his views in reference to spontaneous generation are more guarded than those of his master4 ,his work ,on ,stones is dominated by the practical rather than the generalizing spirit4 ,it is evidently inspired by a knowledge of mines1 such as the celebrated ,laurium1 from which ,athens drew its supply of silver1 and the wealth from which enabled the ,athenians to develop a sea-power that overmatched that of the ,persians4 ,even to-day enough remains of the galleries1 shafts1 scoria1 mine-lamps1 and other utensils to give a clear idea of this scene of ancient industry4 ,theophrastus considered the medicinal uses of minerals as well as of plants4 ,we have failed to mention ,hippocrates 7#dfj-cgj ,b4,c471 the ,father of ,medicine1 in whom is found an intimate union of practical science and speculative philosophy4 ,we must also pass over such later ,greek scientists as ,aristarchus and ,hipparchus who confuted the theories of ,pythagoras and ,plato in reference to the relative distances of the heavenly bodies from the earth4 ,archimedes of ,syracuse demands1 however1 particular consideration4 ,he lived in the third century ,b4,c41 and has been called the greatest mathematician of antiquity4 ,in him we find the devotion to the abstract that marked the ,greek intelligence4 ,he went so far as to say that every kind of art is ignoble if connected with daily needs4 ,his interest lay in abstruse mathematical problems4 ,his special pride was in having determined the relative dimensions of the sphere and the enclosing cylinder4 ,he worked out the principle of the lever4 ,give me1 he said1 a place on which to stand and ,i will move the earth4 ,he approximated more closely than the ,egyptians the solution of the problem of the relation between the area of a circle and the radius4 ,his work had practical value in spite of himself4 ,at the request of his friend the ,king of ,sicily1 he applied his ingenuity to discover whether a certain crown were pure gold or alloyed with silver1 and he hit upon a method which has found many applications in the industries4 ,his name is associated with the endless screw4 ,in fact1 his practical contrivances won such repute that it is not easy to separate the historical facts from the legends that enshroud his name4 ,he aided in the defense of his native city against the ,romans in #bab ,b4,c41 and devised war-engines with which to repel the besiegers4 ,after the enemy had entered the city1 says tradition1 he stood absorbed in a mathematical problem which he had diagrammed on the sand4 ,as a rude ,roman soldier approached1 ,archimedes cried1 ,don't spoil my circles1 and was instantly killed4 ,the victorious general1 however1 buried him with honor1 and on the tomb of the mathematician caused to be inscribed the sphere with its enclosing cylinder4 ,the triumphs of ,greek abstract thought teach the lesson that practical men should pay homage to speculation even when they fail to comprehend a fraction of it4 ,,references ,aristotle1 ,historia ,animalium2 translated by ,d',a4 ,w4 ,thompson4 7,vol4 ,,iv of the ,works of ,aristotle ,translated into ,english4 ,oxford3 ,clarendon ,press47 ,a4 ,b4 ,buckley 7,mrs4 ,buckley ,fisher71 ,a ,short ,history of ,natural ,science4 ,g4 ,h4 ,lewes1 ,aristotle2 ,a ,chapter in the ,history of ,science4 ,t4 ,e4 ,lones1 ,aristotle's ,researches in ,natural ,science4 ,d',a4 ,w4 ,thompson1 ,on ,aristotle as a ,biologist4 ,william ,whewell1 ,history of the ,inductive ,sciences4 ,alfred ,weber1 ,history of ,philosophy4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,scientific ,,theory ,,subordinated ,,to ,,application--,,rome3 ,,vitruvius ,vitruvius was a cultured engineer and architect4 ,he was employed in the service of the ,roman ,state at the time of ,augustus1 shortly before the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,he planned basilicas and aqueducts1 and designed powerful war-engines capable of hurling rocks weighing three or four hundred pounds4 ,he knew the arts and the sciences1 held lofty ideals of professional conduct and dignity1 and was a diligent student of ,greek philosophy4 ,we know of him chiefly from his ten short books on ,architecture 7,de ,architectura1 ,libri ,decem71 in which he touches upon much of the learning of his time4 ,architecture for ,vitruvius is a science arising out of many other sciences4 ,practice and theory are its parents4 ,the merely practical man loses much by not knowing the background of his activities2 the mere theorist fails by mistaking the shadow for the substance4 ,vitruvius in the theoretical and historical parts of his book draws largely on ,greek writers2 but in the parts bearing on practice he sets forth1 with considerable shrewdness1 the outcome of years of thoughtful professional experience4 ,one cannot read his pages without feeling that he is more at home in the concrete than in the abstract and speculative1 in describing a catapult than in explaining a scientific theory or a philosophy4 ,he was not a ,plato or an ,archimedes1 but an efficient officer of ,state1 conscious of indebtedness to the great scientists and philosophers4 ,with a just sense of his limitations he undertook to write1 not as a literary man1 but as an architect4 ,his education had been mainly professional1 but1 the whole circle of learning being one harmonious system1 he had been drawn to many branches of knowledge in so far as they were related to his calling4 ,in the judgment of ,vitruvius an architect should be a good writer1 able to give a lucid explanation of his plans1 a skillful draftsman1 versed in geometry and optics1 expert at figures1 acquainted with history1 informed in the principles of physics and of ethics1 knowing something of music 7tones and acoustics71 not ignorant of law1 or of hygiene1 or of the motions1 laws1 and relations to each other of the heavenly bodies4 ,for1 since architecture is founded upon and adorned with so many different sciences1 ,i am of opinion that those who have not1 from their early youth1 gradually climbed up to the summit1 cannot without presumption1 call themselves masters of it4 ,vitruvius was far from sharing the view of ,archimedes that art which was connected with the satisfaction of daily needs was necessarily ignoble and vulgar4 ,on the contrary1 his interest centered in the practical2 and he was mainly concerned with scientific theory by reason of its application in the arts4 ,geometry helped him plan a staircase2 a knowledge of tones was necessary in discharging catapults2 law dealt with boundary-lines1 sewage-disposal1 and contracts2 hygiene enabled the architect to show a ,hippocratic wisdom in the choice of building-sites with due reference to airs and waters4 ,vitruvius had the ,roman practical and regulative genius1 not the abstract and speculative genius of ,athens4 ,the second book begins with an account of different philosophical views concerning the origin of matter1 and a discussion of the earliest dwellings of man4 ,its real theme1 however1 is building-material--brick1 sand1 lime1 stone1 concrete1 marble1 stucco1 timber1 pozzolano4 ,in reference to the last 7volcanic ash combined with lime and rubble to form a cement7 ,vitruvius writes in a way that indicates a discriminating knowledge of geological formations4 ,likewise his discussion of the influence of the ,apennines on the rainfall1 and1 consequently1 on the timber of the firs on the east and west of the range1 shows a grasp of meteorological principles4 ,his real power to generalize is shown in connection with his specialty1 in his treatment of the sources of building-material1 rather than in his consideration of the origin of matter4 ,similarly the fifth book begins with a discussion of the theories of ,pythagoras1 but its real topic is public buildings--fora1 basilicas1 theaters1 baths1 palstras1 harbors1 and quays4 ,in the theaters bronze vases of various sizes1 arranged according to ,pythagorean musical principles1 were to be used in the auditorium to reinforce the voice of the actor4 7,this recommendation was misunderstood centuries later1 when ,vitruvius was considered of great authority1 and led to the futile practice of placing earthenware jars beneath the floors of church choirs47 ,according to our author1 ,the voice arises from flowing breath1 sensible to the hearing through its percussion on the air4 ,it is compared to the wavelets produced by a stone dropped in water1 only that in the case of sound the waves are not confined to one plane4 ,this generalization concerning the nature of sound was probably not original1 however2 it may have been suggested to ,vitruvius by one of the ,aristotelian writings4 ,the seventh book treats of interior decoration--mosaic floors1 gypsum mouldings1 wall painting1 white lead1 red lead1 verdigris1 mercury 7which may be used to recover gold from worn-out pieces of embroidery71 encaustic painting with hot wax1 colors 7black1 blue1 genuine and imitation murex purple74 ,the eighth book deals with water and with hydraulic engineering1 hot springs1 mineral waters1 leveling instruments1 construction of aqueducts1 lead and clay piping4 ,vitruvius was not ignorant of the fact that water seeks its own level1 and he even argued that air must have weight in order to account for the rise of water in pumps4 ,in his time it was more economical to convey the hard water by aqueducts than by such pipes as could then be constructed4 ,the ninth book undertakes to rehearse the elements of geometry and astronomy--the signs of the zodiac1 the sun1 moon1 planets1 the phases of the moon1 the mathematical divisions of the gnomon1 the use of the sundial1 etc4 ,one feels in reading ,vitruvius that his purpose was to turn to practical account what he had gained from the study of the sciences2 and1 at the same time1 one is convinced that his applications tend to react on theoretical knowledge1 and lead to new insights through the suggestion of new problems4 ,the tenth book of the so-called ,de ,architectura is concerned with machinery--windmills1 windlasses1 axles1 pulleys1 cranes1 pumps1 fire-engines1 revolving spiral tubes for raising water1 wheels for irrigation worked by water-power1 wheels to register distance traveled by land or water1 scaling-ladders1 battering-rams1 tortoises1 catapults1 scorpions1 and ballist4 ,on the subject of war-engines ,vitruvius speaks with special authority1 as he had served1 probably as military engineer1 under ,julius ,csar in #df ,b4,c41 and had been appointed superintendent of ballist and other military engines in the time of ,augustus4 ,it was to the divine ,emperor that his book was dedicated as a protest against the administration of ,roman public works4 ,in its pages we see reflected the life of a nation employed in conquering and ruling the world1 with a genius more distinguished for practical achievement than for theory and speculation4 ,its author is truly representative of ,roman culture1 for nearly everything that ,rome had of a scientific and intellectual sort it drew from ,greece1 and it selected that part of ,greek wisdom that ministered to the daily needs of the times4 ,in his work on architecture1 ,vitruvius shows himself a diligent and devoted student of the sciences in order that he may turn them to account in his own department of technology4 ,if you glance at the study of mathematics1 astronomy1 and medicine among the ,romans prior to the time of ,greek influence1 you find that next to nothing had been accomplished4 ,their method of field measurement was far less developed than the ancient ,egyptian geometry1 and even for it 7as well as for their system of numerals7 they were indebted to the ,etruscans4 ,the history of astronomy has nothing to record of scientific accomplishment on the part of the ,romans4 ,they reckoned time by months1 and in the earlier period kept a rude tally of the years by driving nails into a statue of ,janus1 the ancient sun-god4 ,as we shall see1 they were unable to regulate the calendar4 ,again1 so far were they from contributing to the development of medicine that they had no physicians for the six hundred years preceding the coming of ,greek science4 ,a medical slave acted as overseer of the family health1 and disease was combated in primitive fashion by prayers and offerings to various gods1 who were supposed to furnish general health or to influence the functions of the different parts of the body4 ,so rude was the native culture of the ,romans that it is doubtful whether they had any schools before the advent of ,greek learning4 ,the girls were trained by their mothers1 the boys either by their fathers or by some master to whom they were apprenticed4 ,the ,greeks were conquered by the ,romans in #adf ,b4,c41 but before that time ,roman life and institutions had been touched by ,hellenic culture4 ,cato the ,censor 7who died in #adi ,b4,c47 and other conservatives tried in vain to resist the invasion of ,greek science1 philosophy1 and refinement4 ,after the conquest of ,greece the master became pupil1 and the conqueror was taken captive4 ,the ,romans1 however1 never rose to preminence in science or the fine arts4 ,a further development in technology corresponded more closely to their national needs1 and in this field they came undoubtedly to surpass the ,greeks4 ,bridges1 ships1 military roads1 war-engines1 aqueducts1 public buildings1 organization of the ,state and the army1 the formulation of legal procedure1 the enactment and codification of laws1 were necessary to secure and maintain the ,empire4 ,the use in building construction of a knowledge of the right-angled triangle as well as other matters known to the ,egyptians and ,babylonians1 and ,archimedes' method of determining specific gravity were of peculiar interest to the practical ,romans4 ,julius ,csar1 #ajb-dd ,b4,c41 instituted a reform of the calendar4 ,this was very much needed1 as the ,romans were eighty-five days out of their reckoning1 and the date for the spring equinox1 instead of coming at the proper time1 was falling in the middle of winter4 ,an ,alexandrian astronomer 7,sosigenes7 assisted in establishing the new 7,julian7 calendar4 ,the principle followed was based on ancient ,egyptian practice4 ,among the #cfe days of the year was to be inserted1 or intercalated1 every fourth year an extra day4 ,this the ,romans did by giving to two days in leap-year the same name2 thus the sixth day before the first of ,march was repeated1 and leap-year was known as a bissextile year4 ,csar1 trained himself in the ,greek learning and known to his contemporaries as a writer on mathematics and astronomy1 also planned a survey of the ,empire1 which was finally carried into execution by ,augustus4 ,there is evidence that the need of technically trained men became more and more pressing as the ,empire developed4 ,at first there were no special teachers or schools4 ,later we find mention of teachers of architecture and mechanics4 ,then the ,state came to provide classrooms for technical instruction and to pay the salaries of the teachers4 ,finally1 in the fourth century ,a4,d41 further measures were adopted by the ,state4 ,the ,emperor ,constantine writes to one of his officials3 ,we need as many engineers as possible4 ,since the supply is small1 induce to begin this study youths of about eighteen years of age who are already acquainted with the sciences required in a general education4 ,relieve their parents from the payment of taxes1 and furnish the students with ample means4 ,pliny the ,elder 7#bc-gi ,a4,d471 in the encyclopedic work which he compiled under the title ,natural ,history1 drew freely on hundreds of ,greek and ,latin authors for his facts and fables4 ,in the selection that he made from his sources can be traced1 as in the work of ,vitruvius and other ,latin writers1 the tendency to make the sciences subservient to the arts4 ,for example1 the one thousand species of plants of which he makes mention are considered from the medicinal or from the economic point of view4 ,it was largely in the interest of their practical uses that the ,roman regarded both plants and animals2 his chief motive was not a disinterested love of truth4 ,pliny thought that each plant had its special virtue1 and much of his botany is applied botany4 ,so comprehensive a work as the ,natural ,history was sure to contain interesting anticipations of modern science4 ,pliny held that the earth hovers in the heavens upheld by the air1 that its sphericity is proved by the fact that the mast of a ship approaching the land is visible before the hull comes in sight4 ,he also taught that there are inhabitants on the other side of the earth 7antipodes71 that at the time of the winter solstice the polar night must last for twenty-four hours1 and that the moon plays a part in the production of the tides4 ,nevertheless1 the whole book is permeated by the idea that the purpose of nature is to minister to the needs of man4 ,it further marks the practical spirit among the ,romans that a work on agriculture by a ,carthaginian 7,mago7 was translated by order of the ,senate4 ,cato 7#bcd-adi ,b4,c471 so characteristically ,roman in his genius1 wrote 7,de ,re ,rustica7 concerning grains and the cultivation of fruits4 ,columella wrote treatises on agriculture and forestry4 ,among the technical writings of ,varro besides the book on agriculture1 which is extant1 are numbered works on law1 mensuration1 and naval tactics4 ,it was but natural that at the time of the ,roman ,empire there should be great advances in medical science4 ,a ,roman's interest in a science was keen when it could be proved to have immediate bearing on practical life4 ,the greatest physician of the time1 however1 was a ,greek4 ,galen 7#aca-bja ,a4,d471 who counted himself a disciple of ,hippocrates1 began to practice at ,rome at the age of thirty-three4 ,he was the only experimental physiologist before the time of ,harvey4 ,he studied the vocal apparatus in the larynx1 and understood the contraction and relaxation of the muscles1 and1 to a considerable extent1 the motion of the blood through the heart1 lungs1 and other parts of the body4 ,he was a vivisector1 made sections of the brain in order to determine the functions of its parts1 and severed the gustatory1 optic1 and auditory nerves with a similar end in view4 ,his dissections were confined to the lower animals4 ,yet his works on human anatomy and physiology were authoritative for the subsequent thirteen centuries4 ,it is difficult to say how much of the work and credit of this practical scientist is to be given to the race from which he sprang and how much to the social environment of his professional career4 7,in the ruins of ,pompeii1 destroyed in #gi ,a4,d41 have been recovered some two hundred kinds of surgical instrument1 and in the later ,empire certain departments of surgery developed to a degree not surpassed till the sixteenth century47 ,if it is too much to say that the ,roman environment is responsible for ,galen's achievements1 we can at least say that it was characteristic of the ,roman people to welcome such science as his1 capable of demonstrating its utility4 ,dioscorides was also a ,greek who1 long resident at ,rome1 applied his science in practice4 ,he knew six hundred different plants1 one hundred more than ,theophrastus4 ,the latter laid much stress1 as we have seen in the preceding chapter1 on the medicinal properties of plants1 but in this respect he was outdone by ,dioscorides 7as well as by ,pliny74 ,theophrastus was the founder of the science of botany1 ,dioscorides the founder of materia medica4 ,quintilian1 born in ,spain1 spent the greater part of his life as a teacher of rhetoric in ,rome4 ,he valued the sciences1 not on their own account1 but as they might subserve the purposes of the orator4 ,music1 astronomy1 logic1 and even theology1 might be exploited as aids to public speech4 ,in the time of ,quintilian 7first century ,a4,d471 as in our own1 oratory was considered one of the great factors in a young man's success2 mock debating contests were frequent1 and the periods of the future orators reverberated among the seven hills of ,rome4 ,to him our schools are also indebted for the method of teaching foreign languages by declensions1 conjugations1 vocabularies1 formal rhetoric and annotations4 ,he considered ethics the most valuable part of philosophy4 ,in fact1 it would not be pressing our argument unduly to say that1 so far as the minds of the ,romans turned to speculation1 it was the tendency to practical philosophy--,epicureanism or ,stoicism--that was most characteristic4 ,this was true even of ,lucretius 7#ih-ee ,b4,c471 author of the noble poem concerning the ,nature of ,things 7,de ,rerum ,natura74 ,in this work he writes under the inspiration of ,greek philosophy4 ,his model was a poem by ,empedocles on ,nature1 the grand hexameters of which had fascinated the ,roman poet4 ,the distinctive feature of the work of ,lucretius is the purpose1 ethical rather than speculative1 to curb the ambition1 passion1 luxury of those hard pagan times1 and likewise to free the souls of his countrymen from the fear of the gods and the fear of death1 and to replace superstition by peace of mind and purity of heart4 ,from the work on ,physical ,science 7,qustionum ,naturalium1 ,libri ,septem7 of ,seneca1 the tutor of ,nero1 we learn that the ,romans made use of globes filled with water as magnifiers1 employed hothouses in their highly developed horticulture1 and observed the refraction of colors by the prism4 ,at the same time the book contains interesting conjectures in reference to the relation of earthquakes and volcanoes1 and to the fact that comets travel in fixed orbits4 ,in the main1 however1 this work is an attempt to find a basis for ethics in natural phenomena4 ,seneca was a ,stoic1 as ,lucretius was an ,epicurean1 moralist4 ,when we glance back at the culture1 or cultures1 of the great peoples of antiquity1 ,egyptian1 ,babylonian1 ,greek1 and ,roman1 that which had its center on the banks of the ,tiber offers the closest analogy to our own4 ,among ,english-speaking peoples as among the ,romans there is noticeable a certain contempt for scientific studies strangely mingled with an inclination to exploit all theory in the interest of immediate application4 ,an ,english author1 writing in #ahcd1 remarks that the ,romans1 eminent in war1 in polite literature1 and civil policy1 showed at all times a remarkable indisposition to the pursuit of mathematical and physical science4 ,geometry and astronomy1 so highly esteemed by the ,greeks1 were not merely disregarded by the ,italians1 but even considered beneath the attention of a man of good birth and liberal education2 they were imagined to partake of a mechanical1 and therefore servile1 character4 ,the results were seen to be made use of by the mechanical artist1 and the abstract principles were therefore supposed to be1 as it were1 contaminated by his touch4 ,this unfortunate peculiarity in the taste of his countrymen is remarked by ,cicero4 ,and it may not be irrelevant to inquire1 whether similar prejudices do not prevail to some extent even among ourselves4 ,to ,americans also must be attributed an impatience of theory as theory1 and a predominant interest in the applications of science4 ,,references ,lucretius1 ,the ,nature of ,things2 translated by ,h4 ,a4 ,j4 ,munro4 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history2 translated by ,philemon ,holland4 ,professor ,baden ,powell1 ,history of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,seneca1 ,physical ,science2 translated by ,john ,clarke4 ,vitruvius1 ,architecture2 translated by ,joseph ,gwilt1 #ahbf4 ,vitruvius1 ,architecture2 translated by ,professor ,m4 ,h4 ,morgan1 #aiad4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,continuity ,,of ,,science--,,the ,,medieval ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,arabs ,learning has very often and very aptly been compared to a torch passed from hand to hand4 ,by the written sign or spoken word it is transmitted from one person to another4 ,very little advance in culture could be made even by the greatest man of genius if he were dependent1 for what knowledge he might acquire1 merely on his own personal observation4 ,indeed1 it might be said that exceptional mental ability involves a power to absorb the ideas of others1 and even that the most original people are those who are able to borrow the most freely4 ,in recalling the lives of certain great men we may at first be inclined to doubt this truth4 ,how shall we account for the part played in the progress of civilization by the rustic ,burns1 the village-bred ,shakespeare1 or by ,lincoln the frontiersman8 ,when1 however1 we scrutinize the case of any one of these1 we discover1 of course1 exceptional natural endowment1 susceptibility to mental influence1 remarkable powers of acquisition1 but no ability to produce anything absolutely original4 ,in the case of ,lincoln1 for example1 we find that in his youth he was as distinguished by diligence in study as by physical stature and prowess4 ,after he withdrew from school1 he read1 wrote1 and ciphered 7in the intervals of manual work7 almost incessantly4 ,he read everything he could lay hands on4 ,he copied out what most appealed to him4 ,a few books he read and re-read till he had almost memorized them4 ,what constituted his library8 ,the ,bible1 sop's ,fables1 ,robinson ,crusoe1 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 a ,life of ,washington1 a ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,these established for him a vital relation with the past1 and laid the foundations of a democratic culture2 not the culture of a ,chesterfield1 to be sure1 but something immeasurably better1 and none the less good for being almost universally accessible4 ,lincoln developed his logical powers conning the dictionary4 ,long before he undertook the regular study of the law1 he spent long hours poring over the revised statutes of the ,state in which he was living4 ,from a book he mastered with a purpose the principles of grammar4 ,in the same spirit he learned surveying1 also by means of a book4 ,there is no need to ignore any of the influences that told toward the development of this great statesman1 the greatest of ,english-speaking orators1 but it is evident that remote as was his habitation from all the famous centers of learning he was1 nevertheless1 early immersed in the current of the world's best thought4 ,similarly1 in the history of science1 every great thinker has his intellectual pedigree4 ,aristotle was the pupil of ,plato1 ,plato was the disciple of ,socrates1 and the latter's intellectual genealogy in turn can readily be traced to ,thales1 and beyond--to ,egyptian priests and ,babylonian astronomers4 ,the city of ,alexandria1 founded by the pupil of ,aristotle in #ccb ,b4,c41 succeeded ,athens as the center of ,greek culture4 ,on the death of ,alexander the ,great1 ,egypt was ruled by one of his generals1 ,ptolemy1 who assumed the title of king4 ,this monarch1 though often engaged in war1 found time to encourage learning1 and drew to his capital scholars and philosophers from ,greece and other countries4 ,he wrote himself a history of ,alexander's campaigns1 and instituted the famous library of ,alexandria4 ,this was greatly developed 7and supplemented with schools of science and an observatory7 by his son ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 a prince distinguished by his zeal in promoting the good of the human species4 ,he collected vast numbers of manuscripts1 had strange animals brought from distant lands to ,alexandria1 and otherwise promoted scientific research4 ,this movement was continued under ,ptolemy ,,iii 7#bdf-bba ,b4,c474 ,something has already been said of the early astronomers and mathematicians of ,alexandria4 ,the scientific movement of the later ,alexandrian period found its consummation in the geographer1 astronomer1 and mathematician ,claudius ,ptolemy 7not to be confused with the rulers of that name74 ,he was most active #abg-aea ,a4,d41 and is best known by his work the ,syntaxis1 which summarized what was known in astronomy at that time4 ,ptolemy drew up a catalogue of #ajhj stars based on the earlier work of ,hipparchus4 ,he followed that astronomer in teaching that the earth is the center of the movement of the heavenly bodies1 and this geocentric system of the heavens became known as the ,ptolemaic system of astronomy4 ,to ,hipparchus and ,ptolemy we owe also the beginnings of the science of trigonometry4 ,the ,syntaxis sets forth his method of drawing up a table of chords4 ,for example1 the side of a hexagon inscribed in a circle is equal to the radius1 and is the chord of #fj1 or of the sixth part of the circle4 ,the radius is divided into sixty equal parts1 and these again divided and subdivided sexagesimally4 ,the smaller divisions and the subdivisions are known as prime minute parts and second minute parts 7partes minut prim and partes minut secund71 whence our terms minute and second4 ,the sexagesimal method of dividing the circle and its parts was1 as we have seen in the first chapter1 of ,babylonian origin4 ,ptolemy was the last of the great ,greek astronomers4 ,in the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth1 ,theon and his illustrious daughter ,hypatia commented on and taught the astronomy of ,ptolemy4 ,in the ,greek schools of philosophy ,plato's doctrine of the supreme reality of the invisible world was harmonized for a time with ,christian mysticism1 but these schools were suppressed at the beginning of the sixth century4 ,the extinction of scientific and of all other learning seemed imminent4 ,what were the causes of this threatened break in the historical continuity of science8 ,they were too many and too varied to admit of adequate statement here4 ,from the latter part of the fourth century the ,roman ,empire had been overrun by the ,visigoths1 the ,vandals1 the ,huns1 the ,ostrogoths1 the ,lombards1 and other barbarians4 ,even before these incursions learning had suffered under the calamity of war4 ,in the time of ,julius ,csar the larger of the famous libraries of ,alexandria1 containing1 it is computed1 some #dij1jjj rolls1 caught fire from ships burning in the harbor1 and perished4 ,this alone involved an incalculable setback to the march of scientific thought4 ,another influence tending to check the advance of the sciences was the clash between ,christian and ,pagan ideals4 ,to many of the bishops of the ,church the aims and pursuits of science seemed vain and trivial when compared with the preservation of purity of character or the assurance of eternal felicity4 ,many were convinced that the end of the world was at hand1 and strove to fix their thoughts solely on the world to come4 ,their austere disregard of this life found some support in a noble teaching of the ,stoic philosophy that death itself is no evil to the just man4 ,the early ,christian teachers held that the body should be mortified if it interfered with spiritual welfare4 ,disease is a punishment1 or a discipline to be patiently borne4 ,one should choose physical uncleanliness rather than run any risk of moral contamination4 ,it is not impossible for enlightened people at the present time to assume a tolerant attitude toward the worldly ,greeks or the other-worldly ,christians4 ,at that time1 however1 mutual antipathy was intense4 ,the long and cruel war between science and ,christian theology had begun4 ,not all the ,christian bishops1 to be sure1 took a hostile view of ,greek learning4 ,some regarded the great philosophers as the allies of the ,church4 ,some held that churchmen should study the wisdom of the ,greeks in order the better to refute them4 ,others held that the investigation of truth was no longer necessary after mankind had received the revelation of the gospel4 ,one of the ablest of the ,church ,fathers regretted his early education and said that it would have been better for him if he had never heard of ,democritus4 ,the ,christian writer ,lactantius asked shrewdly whence atoms came1 and what proof there was of their existence4 ,he also allowed himself to ridicule the idea of the antipodes1 a topsy-turvy world of unimaginable disorder4 ,in #chi ,a4,d4 one of the libraries at ,alexandria was destroyed and its books were pillaged by the ,christians4 ,in #dae ,hypatia1 ,greek philosopher and mathematician1 was murdered by a ,christian mob4 ,in #fdb the ,arabs having pushed their conquest into northern ,africa gained possession of ,alexandria4 ,the cause of learning seemed finally and irrecoverably lost4 ,the ,arab conquerors1 however1 showed themselves singularly hospitable to the culture of the nations over which they had gained control4 ,since the time of ,alexander there had been many ,greek settlers in the larger cities of ,syria and ,persia1 and here learning had been maintained in the schools of the ,jews and of a sect of ,christians 7,nestorians71 who were particularly active as educators from the fifth century to the eleventh4 ,the principal ,greek works on science had been translated into ,syrian4 ,hindu arithmetic and astronomy had found their way into ,persia4 ,by the ninth century all these sources of scientific knowledge had been appropriated by the ,arabs4 ,some fanatics among them1 to be sure1 held that one book1 the ,koran1 was of itself sufficient to insure the well-being of the whole human race1 but happily a more enlightened view prevailed4 ,in the time of ,harun ,al-,rashid 7#hjj ,a4,d471 and his son1 the ,caliphate of ,bagdad was the center of ,arab science4 ,mathematics and astronomy were especially cultivated2 an observatory was established2 and the work of translation was systematically carried on by a sort of institute of translators1 who rendered the writings of ,aristotle1 ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 ,euclid1 ,ptolemy1 and other ,greek scientists1 into ,arabic4 ,the names of the great ,arab astronomers and mathematicians are not popularly known to us2 their influence is greater than their fame4 ,one of them describes the method pursued by him in the ninth century in taking measure of the circumference of the earth4 ,a second developed a trigonometry of sines to replace the ,ptolemaic trigonometry of chords4 ,a third made use of the so-called ,arabic 7really ,hindu7 system of numerals1 and wrote the first work on ,algebra under that name4 ,in this the writer did not aim at the mental discipline of students1 but sought to confine himself to what is easiest and most useful in calculation1 such as men constantly require in cases of inheritance1 legacies1 partition1 law-suits1 and trade1 and in all their dealings with one another1 or where the measuring of lands1 the digging of canals1 geometrical computation1 and other objects of various sorts and kinds are concerned4 ,in the following centuries ,arab institutions of higher learning were widely distributed and the flood-tide of ,arab science was borne farther west4 ,at ,cairo about the close of the tenth century the first accurate records of eclipses were made1 and tables were constructed of the motions of the sun1 moon1 and planets4 ,here as elsewhere the ,arabs displayed ingenuity in the making of scientific apparatus1 celestial globes1 sextants of large size1 quadrants of various sorts1 and contrivances from which in the course of time were developed modern surveying instruments for measuring horizontal and vertical angles4 ,before the end of the eleventh century an ,arab born at ,cordova1 the capital of ,moorish ,spain1 constructed the ,toletan ,tables4 ,these were followed in #abeb by the publication of the ,alphonsine ,tables1 an event which astronomers regard as marking the dawn of ,european science4 ,physics and chemistry1 as well as mathematics and astronomy1 owe much in their development to the ,arabs4 ,an ,arabian scientist of the eleventh century studied the phenomena of the reflection and refraction of light1 explained the causes of morning and evening twilight1 understood the magnifying power of lenses and the anatomy of the human eye4 ,our use of the terms retina1 cornea1 and vitreous humor may be traced to the translation of his work on optics4 ,the ,arabs also made fair approximations to the correct specific weights of gold1 copper1 mercury1 and lead4 ,their alchemy was closely associated with metallurgy1 the making of alloys and amalgams1 and the handicrafts of the goldsmiths and silversmiths4 ,the alchemists sought to discover processes whereby one metal might be transmuted into another4 ,sulphur affected the color and substance4 ,mercury was supposed to play an important part in metal transmutations4 ,they thought1 for example1 that tin contained more mercury than lead1 and that the baser1 more unhealthy metal might be converted into the nobler and more healthy by the addition of mercury4 ,they even sought for a substance that might effect all transmutations1 and be for mankind a cure for all ailments1 even that of growing old4 ,the writings that have been attributed to ,geber show the advances that chemistry made through the experiments of the ,arabs4 ,they produced sulphuric and nitric acids1 and aqua regia1 able to dissolve gold1 the king of metals4 ,they could make use of wet methods1 and form metallic salts such as silver nitrate4 ,laboratory processes like distilling1 filtering1 crystallization1 sublimation1 became known to the ,europeans through them4 ,they obtained potash from wine lees1 soda from sea-plants1 and from quicksilver the mercuric oxide which played so interesting a part in the later history of chemistry4 ,much of the science lore of the ,arabs arose from their extensive trade1 and in the practice of medicine4 ,they introduced sugar-cane into ,europe1 improved the methods of manufacturing paper1 discovered a method of obtaining alcohol1 knew the uses of gypsum and of white arsenic1 were expert in pharmacy and learned in materia medica4 ,they are sometimes credited with introducing to the ,west the knowledge of the mariner's compass and of gunpowder4 ,avicenna 7#ihj-ajcg71 the ,arab physician1 not only wrote a large work on medicine 7the ,canon7 based on the lore of ,galen1 which was used as a text-book for centuries in the universities of ,europe1 but wrote commentaries on all the works of ,aristotle4 ,for ,averros 7#aabf-aaih71 the ,arab physician and philosopher1 was reserved the title ,the ,commentator1 due to his devotion to the works of the ,greek biologist and philosopher4 ,it was through the commentaries of ,averros that ,aristotelian science became known in ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,in his view ,aristotle was the founder and perfecter of science2 yet he showed an independent knowledge of physics and chemistry1 and wrote on astronomy and medicine as well as philosophy4 ,he set forth the facts in reference to natural phenomena purely in the interests of the truth4 ,he could not conceive of anything being created from nothing4 ,at the same time he taught that ,god is the essence1 the eternal cause1 of progress4 ,it is in humanity that intellect most clearly reveals itself1 but there is a transcendent intellect beyond1 union with which is the highest bliss of the individual soul4 ,with the death of the ,commentator the culture of liberal science among the ,arabs came to an end1 but his influence 7and through him that of ,aristotle7 was perpetuated in all the western centers of education4 ,the preservation of the ancient learning had not1 however1 depended solely on the ,arabs4 ,at the beginning of the sixth century1 before the taking of ,alexandria by the followers of ,mohammed1 ,st4 ,benedict had founded the monastery of ,monte ,cassino in ,italy4 ,here was begun the copying of manuscripts1 and the preparation of compendiums treating of grammar1 dialectic1 rhetoric1 arithmetic1 astronomy1 music1 and geometry4 ,these were based on ancient1 ,roman writings4 ,works like ,pliny's ,natural ,history1 the encyclopedia of the ,middle ,ages1 had survived all the wars by which ,rome had been devastated4 ,learning1 which in ,rome's darkest days had found refuge in ,britain and ,ireland1 returned book in hand4 ,charlemagne 7#hjj7 called ,alcuin from ,york to instruct princes and nobles at the ,frankish court4 ,at this same palace school half a century later the ,irishman ,scotus ,erigena exhibited his learning1 wit1 and logical acumen4 ,in the tenth century ,gerbert 7,pope ,sylvester ,,ii7 learned mathematics at ,arab schools in ,spain4 ,the translation of ,arab works on science into the ,latin language1 freer intercourse of ,european peoples with the ,east through war and trade1 economic prosperity1 the liberation of serfs and the development of a well-to-do middle class1 the voyages of ,marco ,polo to the ,orient1 the founding of universities1 the encouragement of learning by the ,emperor ,frederick ,,ii1 the study of logic by the schoolmen1 were all indicative of a new era in the history of scientific thought4 ,the learned ,dominican ,albertus ,magnus 7#aaic-abhj7 was a careful student of ,aristotle as well as of his ,arabian commentators4 ,in his many books on natural history he of course pays great deference to the ,philosopher1 but he is not devoid of original observation4 ,as the official visitor of his order he had traveled through the greater part of ,germany on foot1 and with a keen eye for natural phenomena was able to enrich botany and zology by much accurate information4 ,his intimacy with the details of natural history made him suspected by the ignorant of the practice of magical arts4 ,his pupil and disciple ,thomas ,aquinas 7#abbg-abgd7 was the philosopher and recognized champion of the ,christian ,church4 ,in #ahgi ,pope ,leo ,,xiii1 while proclaiming that every wise saying1 every useful discovery1 by whomsoever it may be wrought1 should be welcomed with a willing and grateful mind1 exhorted the leaders of the ,roman ,catholic ,church to restore the golden wisdom of ,st4 ,thomas and to propagate it as widely as possible for the good of society and the advancement of all the sciences4 ,certainly the genius of ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas seems comprehensive enough to embrace all science as well as all philosophy from the ,christian point of view4 ,according to him there are two sources of knowledge1 reason and revelation4 ,these are not irreconcilably opposed4 ,the ,greek philosophers speak with the voice of reason4 ,it is the duty of theology to bring all knowledge into harmony with the truths of revelation imparted by ,god for the salvation of the human race4 ,averros is in error when he argues the impossibility of something being created from nothing1 and again when he implies that the individual intellect becomes merged in a transcendental intellect2 for such teaching would be the contrary of what has been revealed in reference to the creation of the world and the immortality of the individual soul4 ,in the accompanying illustration we see ,st4 ,thomas inspired by ,christ in glory1 guided by ,moses1 ,st4 ,peter1 and the ,evangelists1 and instructed by ,aristotle and ,plato4 ,he has overcome the heathen philosopher ,averros1 who lies below discomfited4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,thomas ,,aquinas ,,overcoming ,,averro,s ,the ,english ,franciscan ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abid7 deserves to be mentioned with the two great ,dominicans4 ,he was acquainted with the works of the ,greek and ,arabian scientists4 ,he transmitted in a treatise that fell under the eye of ,columbus the view of ,aristotle in reference to the proximity of another continent on the other side of the ,atlantic2 he anticipated the principle on which the telescope was afterwards constructed2 he advocated basing natural science on experience and careful observation rather than on a process of reasoning4 ,roger ,bacon's writings are characterized by a philosophical breadth of view4 ,to his mind the earth is only an insignificant dot in the center of the vast heavens4 ,in the centuries that followed the death of ,bacon the relation of this planet to the heavenly bodies was made an object of study by a succession of scientists who like him were versed in the achievements of preceding ages4 ,peurbach 7#adbc-adfa71 author of ,new ,theories of the ,planets1 developed the trigonometry of the ,arabians1 but died before fulfilling his plan to give ,europe an epitome of the astronomy of ,ptolemy4 ,his pupil1 ,regiomontanus1 however1 more than made good the intentions of his master4 ,the work of ,peurbach had as commentator the first teacher in astronomy of ,copernicus 7#adgc-aedc74 ,later ,copernicus spent nine years in ,italy1 studying at the universities and acquainting himself with ,ptolemaic and other ancient views concerning the motions of the planets4 ,he came to see that the apparent revolution of the heavenly bodies about the earth from east to west is really owing to the revolution of the earth on its axis from west to east4 ,this view was so contrary to prevailing beliefs that ,copernicus refused to publish his theory for thirty-six years4 ,a copy of his book1 teaching that our earth is not the center of the universe1 was brought to him on his deathbed1 but he never opened it4 ,momentous as was this discovery1 setting aside the geocentric system which had held captive the best minds for fourteen slow centuries and substituting the heliocentric1 it was but a link in the chain of successes in astronomy to which ,tycho ,brahe1 ,kepler1 ,galileo1 ,newton1 and their followers contributed4 ,,references ,the ,catholic ,encyclopedia4 ,j4 ,l4 ,e4 ,dreyer1 ,history of the ,planetary ,systems4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,arabian ,philosophy2 ,roger ,bacon4 ,w4 ,j4 ,townsend1 ,the ,great ,schoolmen of the ,middle ,ages4 ,r4 ,b4 ,vaughan1 ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquin2 his ,life and ,labours4 ,andrew ,d4 ,white1 ,a ,history of the ,warfare of ,science with ,theology in ,christendom4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,sciences--,,francis ,,bacon ,the preceding chapter has shown that there is a continuity in the development of single sciences4 ,the astronomy1 or the chemistry1 or the mathematics1 of one period depends so directly on the respective science of the foregoing period1 that one feels justified in using the term growth1 or evolution1 to describe their progress4 ,now a vital relationship can be observed not only among different stages of the same science1 but also among the different sciences4 ,physics1 astronomy1 and chemistry have much in common2 geometry1 trigonometry1 arithmetic1 and algebra are called branches of mathematics2 zology and botany are biological sciences1 as having to do with living species4 ,in the century following the death of ,copernicus1 two great scientists1 ,bacon and ,descartes1 compared all knowledge to a tree1 of which the separate sciences are branches4 ,they thought of all knowledge as a living organism with an interconnection or continuity of parts1 and a capability of growth4 ,by the beginning of the seventeenth century the sciences were so considerable that in the interest of further progress a comprehensive view of the tree of knowledge1 a survey of the field of learning1 was needed4 ,the task of making this survey was undertaken by ,francis ,bacon1 ,lord ,verulam 7#aefa-afbf74 ,his classification of human knowledge was celebrated1 and very influential in the progress of science4 ,he kept one clear purpose in view1 namely1 the control of nature by man4 ,he wished to take stock of what had already been accomplished1 to supply deficiencies1 and to enlarge the bounds of human empire4 ,he was acutely conscious that this was an enterprise too great for any one man1 and he used his utmost endeavors to induce ,james ,i to become the patron of the plan4 ,his project admits of very simple statement now2 he wished to edit an encyclopedia1 but feared that it might prove impossible without coperation and without state support4 ,he felt capable of furnishing the plans for the building1 but thought it a hardship that he was compelled to serve both as architect and laborer4 ,the worthiness of these plans was attested in the middle of the eighteenth century1 when the great ,french ,encyclopaedia was projected by ,diderot and ,d',alembert4 ,the former1 its chief editor and contributor1 wrote in the ,prospectus3 ,if we come out successful from this vast undertaking1 we shall owe it mainly to ,chancellor ,bacon1 who sketched the plan of a universal dictionary of sciences and arts at a time when there were not1 so to speak1 either arts or sciences4 ,this extraordinary genius1 when it was impossible to write a history of what men knew1 wrote one of what they had to learn4 ,bacon1 as we shall amply see1 was a firm believer in the study of the arts and occupations1 and at the same time retained his devotion to principles and abstract thought4 ,he knew that philosophy could aid the arts that supply daily needs2 also that the arts and occupations enriched the field of philosophy1 and that the basis of our generalizations must be the universe of things knowable4 ,for1 he writes1 if men judge that learning should be referred to use and action1 they judge well2 but it is easy in this to fall into the error pointed out in the ancient fable2 in which the other parts of the body found fault with the stomach1 because it neither performed the office of motion as the limbs do1 nor of sense1 as the head does2 but yet notwithstanding it is the stomach which digests and distributes the aliment to all the rest4 ,so that if any man think that philosophy and universality are idle and unprofitable studies1 he does not consider that all arts and professions are from thence supplied with sap and strength4 ,for ,bacon1 as for ,descartes1 natural philosophy was the trunk of the tree of knowledge4 ,human ,learning 7,bacon's ,classification7 ,column ,key3 7,a7 ,reason ,philosophy1 or the ,sciences 7,b7 ,imagination ,poesy 7,c7 ,memory ,history ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,philosophia prima1 or sapience ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 7,a7 ,civil ,philosophy ,intercourse ,n 7,standards of ,business a right in37 ,government t ,man ---------------------------------------- -------------- u ,philosophy ,body ,medicine1 ,athletics1 etc4 r of ,humanity --------------------------------------- a 7,anthropology7 ,logic l ,soul ,ethics ,p ---------------------------------------- ------------------- h ,physics ,concrete i 7,material and ,m l ,secondary ,abstract a o ,causes7 t s ,nature ,speculative h o ,metaphysics ,concrete e p 7,form and ,final m h ,causes7 ,abstract a y ---------------------------------------- t ,mechanics i ,operative c ,purified ,magic s ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,god ,natural ,theology1 ,nature of ,angels and ,spirits ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,divinity ,revelation ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- 7,b7 ,narrative1 or ,heroical ,dramatic ,parabolic 7,fables7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- 7,c7 ,political ,memorials ,civil 7,civil ,history proper7 ,antiquities ,perfect ,history ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,learning ,literary ,arts ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ecclesiastical ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bonds ,arts ,mechanical 7,control by ,man7 ,experimental ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,errors ,pretergenerations ,natural 7,anomics7 7,monsters7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,freedom ,generations ,astronomical ,physics 7,nomic ,law7 ,physical ,geography ,physics of ,matter ,organic ,species ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,knowledge ,classified 7,hugo of ,st4 ,victor1 d4 #aada74 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,theoretical ,theology ,natural ,philosophy 7,physic7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,mathematics ,arithmetic ,music 7study of harmony7 ,geometry ,astronomy ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,practical ,ethics1 or individual morality 7,moral7 ,economics1 or family morality ,politics1 or civics ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,mechanical ,weaving1 spinning1 sewing2 work in wool1 flax1 etc4 ,equipment--arms1 ships2 work in stone1 wood1 metal ,navigation ,agriculture ,hunting1 fishing1 foods ,medicine ,theatricals--drama1 music1 athletics1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,logical ,oratory ,grammar ,dialectic ,rhetoric ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,on the other hand1 he looked to the arts1 crafts1 and occupations as a source of scientific principles4 ,in his survey of learning he found some records of agriculture and likewise of many mechanical arts4 ,some think them a kind of dishonor4 ,but if my judgment be of any weight1 the use of ,history ,mechanical is1 of all others1 the most radical and fundamental towards natural philosophy4 ,when the different arts are known1 the senses will furnish sufficient concrete material for the information of the understanding4 ,the record of the arts is of most use because it exhibits things in motion1 and leads more directly to practice4 ,upon this history1 therefore1 mechanical and illiberal as it may seem 7all fineness and daintiness set aside71 the greatest diligence must be bestowed4 ,again1 among the particular arts those are to be preferred which exhibit1 alter1 and prepare natural bodies and materials of things as agriculture1 cooking1 chemistry1 dyeing2 the manufacture of glass1 enamel1 sugar1 gunpowder1 artificial fires1 paper and the like4 ,weaving1 carpentry1 architecture1 manufacture of mills1 clocks1 etc4 follow4 ,the purpose is not solely to bring the arts to perfection1 but all mechanical experiments should be as streams flowing from all sides into the sea of philosophy4 ,shortly after ,james ,i came to the throne in #afjc1 ,bacon published his ,advancement of ,learning4 ,he continued in other writings1 however1 to develop the organization of knowledge1 and in #afbc summed up his plan in the ,de ,augmentis ,scientiarum4 ,a recent writer 7,pearson1 #aijj7 has attempted to summarize ,bacon's classification of the different branches of learning4 ,when one compares this summary with an outline of the classification of knowledge made by the ,french monk1 ,hugo of ,st4 ,victor1 who stands midway between ,isidore of ,seville 7#egj-fcf7 and ,bacon1 some points of resemblance are of course obvious4 ,moreover1 ,hugo1 like ,bacon1 insisted on the importance of not being narrowly utilitarian4 ,men1 he says1 are often accustomed to value knowledge not on its own account but for what it yields4 ,thus it is with the arts of husbandry1 weaving1 painting1 and the like1 where skill is considered absolutely vain1 unless it results in some useful product4 ,if1 however1 we judged after this fashion of ,god's wisdom1 then1 no doubt1 the creation would be preferred to the ,creator4 ,but wisdom is life1 and the love of wisdom is the joy of life 7felicitas vit74 ,nevertheless1 when we compare these classifications diligently1 we find very marked differences between ,bacon's views and the medieval4 ,the weakest part of ,hugo's classification is that which deals with natural philosophy4 ,physica1 he says1 undertakes the investigation of the causes of things in their effects1 and of effects in their causes4 ,it deals with the explanation of earthquakes1 tides1 the virtues of plants1 the fierce instincts of wild animals1 every species of stone1 shrub1 and reptile4 ,when we turn to his special work1 however1 on this branch of knowledge1 ,concerning ,beasts and ,other ,things1 we find no attempt to subdivide the field of physica1 but a series of details in botany1 geology1 zology1 and human anatomy1 mostly arranged in dictionary form4 ,when we refer to ,bacon's classification we find that ,physics corresponds to ,hugo's ,physica4 ,it studies natural phenomena in relation to their material causes4 ,for this study1 ,natural ,history1 according to ,bacon1 supplies the facts4 ,let us glance1 then1 at his work on natural history1 and see how far he had advanced from the medieval toward the modern conception of the sciences4 ,for purposes of scientific study he divided the phenomena of the universe into 7#a7 ,celestial phenomena2 7#b7 ,atmosphere2 7#c7 ,globe2 7#d7 ,substance of earth1 air1 fire1 water2 7#e7 ,genera1 species1 etc4 ,great scope is given to the natural history of man4 ,the arts are classified as nature modified by man4 ,history means1 of course1 descriptive science4 ,bacon's ,catalogue of ,particular ,histories by ,titles 7#afbj7 #a4 ,history of the ,heavenly ,bodies2 or ,astronomical ,history4 #b4 ,history of the ,configuration of the ,heavens and the parts thereof towards the ,earth and the parts thereof2 or ,cosmographical ,history4 #c4 ,history of ,comets4 #d4 ,history of ,fiery ,meteors4 #e4 ,history of ,lightnings1 ,thunderbolts1 ,thunders1 and ,coruscations4 #f4 ,history of ,winds and ,sudden ,blasts and ,undulations of the ,air4 #g4 ,history of ,rainbows4 #h4 ,history of ,clouds1 as they are seen above4 #i4 ,history of the ,blue ,expanse1 of ,twilight1 of ,mock-,suns1 ,mock-,moons1 ,haloes1 various colours of the ,sun2 and of every variety in the aspect of the heavens caused by the medium4 #aj4 ,history of ,showers1 ,ordinary1 ,stormy1 and ,prodigious2 also of ,waterspouts 7as they are called72 and the like4 #aa4 ,history of ,hail1 ,snow1 ,frost1 ,hoar-frost1 ,fog1 ,dew1 and the like4 #ab4 ,history of all other things that fall or descend from above1 and that are generated in the upper region4 #ac4 ,history of ,sounds in the upper region 7if there be any71 besides ,thunder4 #ad4 ,history of ,air as a whole1 or in the ,configuration of the ,world4 #ae4 ,history of the ,seasons or ,temperatures of the ,year1 as well according to the variations of ,regions as according to accidents of ,times and ,periods of ,years2 of ,floods1 ,heats1 ,droughts1 and the like4 #af4 ,history of ,earth and ,sea2 of the ,shape and ,compass of them1 and their ,configurations compared with each other2 and of their broadening or narrowing2 of ,islands in the ,sea2 of ,gulfs of the ,sea1 and ,salt ,lakes within the ,land2 ,isthmuses and ,promontories4 #ag4 ,history of the ,motions 7if any be7 of the ,globe of ,earth and ,sea2 and of the ,experiments from which such motions may be collected4 #ah4 ,history of the greater motions and ,perturbations in ,earth and ,sea2 ,earthquakes1 ,tremblings and ,yawnings of the ,earth1 ,islands newly appearing2 ,floating ,islands2 ,breakings off of ,land by entrance of the ,sea1 ,encroachments and ,inundations and contrariwise ,recessions of the ,sea2 ,eruptions of ,fire from the ,earth2 ,sudden ,eruptions of ,waters from the ,earth2 and the like4 #ai4 ,natural ,history of ,geography2 of ,mountains1 ,vallies1 ,woods1 ,plains1 ,sands1 ,marshes1 ,lakes1 ,rivers1 ,torrents1 ,springs1 and every variety of their course1 and the like2 leaving apart ,nations1 ,provinces1 ,cities1 and such like matters pertaining to ,civil life4 #bj4 ,history of ,ebbs and ,flows of the ,sea2 ,currents1 ,undulations1 and other ,motions of the ,sea4 #ba4 ,history of other ,accidents of the ,sea2 its ,saltness1 its various ,colours1 its ,depth2 also of ,rocks1 ,mountains1 and ,vallies under the ,sea1 and the like4 ,next come ,histories of the ,greater ,masses #bb4 ,history of ,flame and of things ,ignited4 #bc4 ,history of ,air1 in ,substance1 not in the ,configuration of the ,world4 #bd4 ,history of ,water1 in ,substance1 not in the ,configuration of the ,world4 #be4 ,history of the ,earth and the diversity thereof1 in ,substance1 not in the ,configuration of the ,world4 ,next come ,histories of ,species #bf4 ,history of perfect ,metals1 ,gold1 ,silver2 and of the ,mines1 ,veins1 ,marcasites of the same2 also of the ,working in the ,mines4 #bg4 ,history of ,quicksilver4 #bh4 ,history of ,fossils2 as ,vitriol1 ,sulphur1 etc4 #bi4 ,history of ,gems2 as the ,diamond1 the ,ruby1 etc4 #cj4 ,history of ,stones2 as ,marble1 ,touchstone1 ,flint1 etc4 #ca4 ,history of the ,magnet4 #cb4 ,history of ,miscellaneous ,bodies1 which are neither entirely ,fossil nor ,vegetable2 as ,salts1 ,amber1 ,ambergris1 etc4 #cc4 ,chemical ,history of ,metals and ,minerals4 #cd4 ,history of ,plants1 ,trees1 ,shrubs1 ,herbs2 and of their parts1 ,roots1 ,stalks1 ,wood1 ,leaves1 ,flowers1 ,fruits1 ,seeds1 ,gums1 etc4 #ce4 ,chemical ,history of ,vegetables4 #cf4 ,history of ,fishes1 and the ,parts and ,generation of them4 #cg4 ,history of ,birds1 and the ,parts and ,generation of them4 #ch4 ,history of ,quadrupeds1 and the ,parts and ,generation of them4 #ci4 ,history of ,serpents1 ,worms1 ,flies1 and other insects2 and of the ,parts and ,generation of them4 #dj4 ,chemical ,history of the things which are taken by ,animals4 ,next come ,histories of ,man #da4 ,history of the ,figure and ,external ,limbs of man1 his ,stature1 ,frame1 ,countenance1 and ,features2 and of the variety of the same according to ,races and ,climates1 or other smaller differences4 #db4 ,physiognomical ,history of the same4 #dc4 ,anatomical ,history1 or of the ,internal ,members of ,man2 and of the variety of them1 as it is found in the ,natural ,frame and ,structure1 and not merely as regards ,diseases and ,accidents out of the course of ,nature4 #dd4 ,history of the parts of ,uniform ,structure in ,man2 as ,flesh1 ,bones1 ,membranes1 etc4 #de4 ,history of ,humours in ,man2 ,blood1 ,bile1 ,seed1 etc4 #df4 ,history of ,excrements2 ,spittle1 ,urine1 ,sweats1 ,stools1 ,hair of the ,head1 ,hairs of the ,body1 ,whitlows1 ,nails1 and the like4 #dg4 ,history of ,faculties2 ,attraction1 ,digestion1 ,retention1 ,expulsion1 ,sanguification1 ,assimilation of ,aliment into the members1 conversion of ,blood and ,flower of ,blood into ,spirit1 etc4 #dh4 ,history of ,natural and ,involuntary ,motions2 as ,motion of the ,heart1 the ,pulses1 ,sneezing1 ,lungs1 ,erection1 etc4 #di4 ,history of ,motions partly ,natural and ,partly ,violent2 as of ,respiration1 ,cough1 ,urine1 ,stool1 etc4 #ej4 ,history of ,voluntary ,motions2 as of the ,instruments of ,articulation of ,words2 ,motions of the ,eyes1 ,tongue1 ,jaws1 ,hands1 ,fingers2 of ,swallowing1 etc4 #ea4 ,history of ,sleep and ,dreams4 #eb4 ,history of different habits of ,body--,fat1 ,lean2 of the ,complexions 7as they call them71 etc4 #ec4 ,history of the ,generation of ,man4 #ed4 ,history of ,conception1 ,vivification1 ,gestation in the ,womb1 ,birth1 etc4 #ee4 ,history of the ,food of ,man2 and of all things ,eatable and ,drinkable2 and of all ,diet2 and of the variety of the same according to nations and smaller differences4 #ef4 ,history of the ,growth and ,increase of the ,body1 in the whole and in its parts4 #eg4 ,history of the ,course of ,age2 ,infancy1 ,boyhood1 ,youth1 ,old ,age2 of ,length and ,shortness of ,life1 and the like1 according to nations and lesser differences4 #eh4 ,history of ,life and ,death4 #ei4 ,history ,medicinal of ,diseases1 and of the ,symptoms and ,signs of them4 #fj4 ,history ,medicinal of the ,treatment and ,remedies and ,cures of ,diseases4 #fa4 ,history ,medicinal of those things which preserve the ,body and the ,health4 #fb4 ,history ,medicinal of those things which relate to the ,form and ,comeliness of the ,body4 #fc4 ,history ,medicinal of those things which alter the ,body1 and pertain to ,alterative ,regimen4 #fd4 ,history of ,drugs4 #fe4 ,history of ,surgery4 #ff4 ,chemical ,history of ,medicines4 #fg4 ,history of ,vision1 and of things ,visible4 #fh4 ,history of ,painting1 ,sculpture1 ,modelling1 etc4 #fi4 ,history of ,hearing and ,sound4 #gj4 ,history of ,music4 #ga4 ,history of ,smell and ,smells4 #gb4 ,history of ,taste and ,tastes4 #gc4 ,history of ,touch1 and the objects of ,touch4 #gd4 ,history of ,venus1 as a species of ,touch4 #ge4 ,history of ,bodily ,pains1 as species of ,touch4 #gf4 ,history of ,pleasure and ,pain in general4 #gg4 ,history of the ,affections2 as ,anger1 ,love1 ,shame1 etc4 #gh4 ,history of the ,intellectual ,faculties2 ,reflexion1 ,imagination1 ,discourse1 ,memory1 etc4 #gi4 ,history of ,natural ,divinations4 #hj4 ,history of ,diagnostics1 or ,secret ,natural ,judgements4 #ha4 ,history of ,cookery1 and of the arts thereto belonging1 as of the ,butcher1 ,poulterer1 etc4 #hb4 ,history of ,baking1 and the ,making of ,bread1 and the arts thereto belonging1 as of the ,miller1 etc4 #hc4 ,history of ,wine4 #hd4 ,history of the ,cellar and of different kinds of ,drink4 #he4 ,history of ,sweetmeats and ,confections4 #hf4 ,history of ,honey4 #hg4 ,history of ,sugar4 #hh4 ,history of the ,dairy4 #hi4 ,history of ,baths and ,ointments4 #ij4 ,miscellaneous ,history concerning the care of the body--as of ,barbers1 ,perfumers1 etc4 #ia4 ,history of the working of ,gold1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #ib4 ,history of the manufactures of ,wool1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #ic4 ,history of the manufactures of ,silk1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #id4 ,history of the manufactures of ,flax1 ,hemp1 ,cotton1 ,hair1 and other kinds of ,thread1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #ie4 ,history of manufactures of ,feathers4 #if4 ,history of ,weaving1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #ig4 ,history of ,dyeing4 #ih4 ,history of ,leather-making1 ,tanning1 and the arts thereto belonging4 #ii4 ,history of ,ticking and ,feathers4 #ajj4 ,history of working in ,iron4 #aja4 ,history of ,stone-cutting4 #ajb4 ,history of the making of ,bricks and ,tiles4 #ajc4 ,history of ,pottery4 #ajd4 ,history of ,cements1 etc4 #aje4 ,history of working in ,wood4 #ajf4 ,history of working in ,lead4 #ajg4 ,history of ,glass and all vitreous substances1 and of ,glass-making4 #ajh4 ,history of ,architecture generally4 #aji4 ,history of ,waggons1 ,chariots1 ,litters1 etc4 #aaj4 ,history of ,printing1 of ,books1 of ,writing1 of ,sealing2 of ,ink1 ,pen1 ,paper1 ,parchment1 etc4 #aaa4 ,history of ,wax4 #aab4 ,history of ,basket-making4 #aac4 ,history of ,mat-making1 and of manufactures of ,straw1 ,rushes1 and the like4 #aad4 ,history of ,washing1 ,scouring1 etc4 #aae4 ,history of ,agriculture1 ,pasturage1 ,culture of ,woods1 etc4 #aaf4 ,history of ,gardening4 #aag4 ,history of ,fishing4 #aah4 ,history of ,hunting and ,fowling4 #aai4 ,history of the ,art of ,war1 and of the arts thereto belonging1 as ,armoury1 ,bow-making1 ,arrow-making1 ,musketry1 ,ordnance1 ,cross-bows1 ,machines1 etc4 #abj4 ,history of the ,art of ,navigation1 and of the crafts and arts thereto belonging4 #aba4 ,history of ,athletics and ,human ,exercises of all kinds4 #abb4 ,history of ,horsemanship4 #abc4 ,history of ,games of all kinds4 #abd4 ,history of ,jugglers and ,mountebanks4 #abe4 ,miscellaneous ,history of various ,artificial ,materials1--,enamel1 ,porcelain1 various cements1 etc4 #abf4 ,history of ,salts4 #abg4 ,miscellaneous ,history of various ,machines and ,motions4 #abh4 ,miscellaneous ,history of ,common ,experiments which have not grown into an ,art4 ,histories must also be written of ,pure ,mathematics2 though they are rather observations than experiments #abi4 ,history of the ,natures and ,powers of ,numbers4 #acj4 ,history of the ,natures and ,powers of ,figures4 ,the fragment containing this catalogue 7,parasceve--,day of ,preparation7 was added to ,bacon's work on method1 ,the ,new ,logic 7,novum ,organum71 #afbj4 ,besides completing his survey and classification of the sciences 7,de ,augmentis ,scientiarum71 #afbc1 he published a few separate writings on topics in the catalogue--,winds1 ,life and ,death1 ,tides1 etc4 ,in #afbg1 a year after his death1 appeared his much misunderstood work1 ,sylva ,sylvarum4 ,he had found that the ,latin word sylva meant stuff or raw material1 as well as a wood1 and called this final work ,sylva ,sylvarum1 which ,i would translate1 ,jungle of ,raw ,material4 ,he himself referred to it as an undigested heap of particulars2 yet he was willing it should be published because he preferred the good of men to anything that might have relation to himself4 ,in it1 following his catalogue1 he fulfilled the promise made in #afbj1 of putting nature and the arts to question4 ,some of the problems suggested for investigation are3 congealing of air1 turning air into water1 the secret nature of flame1 motion of gravity1 production of cold1 nourishing of young creatures in the egg or womb1 prolongation of life1 the media of sound1 infectious diseases1 accelerating and preventing putrefaction1 accelerating and staying growth1 producing fruit without core or seed1 production of composts and helps for ground1 flying in the air4 ,in the ,new ,atlantis1 a work of imagination1 ,bacon had represented as already achieved for mankind some of the benefits he wished for3 artificial metals1 various cements1 excellent dyes1 animals for vivisection and medical experiment1 instruments which generate heat solely by motion1 artificial precious stones1 conveyance of sound for great distances and in tortuous lines1 new explosives4 ,we imitate1 says the guide in the ,utopian land1 also flights of birds2 we have some degree of flying in the air2 we have ships and boats for going under water4 ,bacon believed in honoring the great discoverers and inventors1 and advocated maintaining a calendar of inventions4 ,he was a fertile and stimulating thinker1 and much of his great influence arose from the comprehensiveness that led to his celebrated classification of the sciences4 ,,references ,bacon's ,philosophical ,works1 vol4 ,,iv1 ,parasceve1 edited by ,r4 ,l4 ,ellis1 ,j4 ,spedding1 and ,d4 ,d4 ,heath4 ,karl ,pearson1 ,grammar of ,science4 ,j4 ,a4 ,thomson1 ,introduction to ,science4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,scientific ,,method--,,gilbert1 ,,galileo1 ,,harvey1 ,,descartes ,the previous chapter has given some indication of the range of the material which was demanding scientific investigation at the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century4 ,the same period witnessed a conscious development of the method1 or methods1 of investigation4 ,as we have seen1 ,bacon wrote in #afbj a considerable work1 ,the ,new ,logic 7,novum ,organum71 so called to distinguish it from the traditional deductive logic4 ,it aimed to furnish the organ or instrument1 to indicate the correct mental procedure1 to be employed in the discovery of natural law4 ,some seventeen years later1 the illustrious ,frenchman ,ren ,descartes 7#aeif-afej7 published his ,discourse on the ,method of rightly conducting the ,reason and seeking ,truth in the ,sciences4 ,both of these philosophers illustrated by their own investigations the efficiency of the methods which they advocated4 ,illustration3 ,painting by ,a4 ,ackland ,hunt ,,dr4 ,,gilbert ,,showing ,,his ,,electrical ,,experiments ,,to ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,and ,,her ,,court ,before #afbj1 however1 the experimental method had already yielded brilliant results in the hands of other scientists4 ,we pass over ,leonardo da ,vinci and many others in ,italy and elsewhere1 whose names should be mentioned if we were tracing this method to its origin4 ,by #afjj ,william ,gilbert 7#aedj-afjc71 physician to ,queen ,elizabeth1 before whom1 as a picture in his birthplace illustrates1 he was called to demonstrate his discoveries1 had published his work on the ,magnet1 the outcome of about eighteen years of critical research4 ,he may be considered the founder of electrical science4 ,galileo1 who discovered the fundamental principles of dynamics and thus laid the basis of modern physical science1 although he did not publish his most important work till #afch1 had even before the close of the sixteenth century prepared the way for the announcement of his principles by years of strict experiment4 ,by the year #afaf1 ,william ,harvey 7#aegh-afeg71 physician at the court of ,james ,i1 and1 later1 of ,charles ,i1 had1 as the first modern experimental physiologist1 gained important results through his study of the circulation of the blood4 ,it is not without significance that both ,gilbert and ,harvey had spent years in ,italy1 where1 as we have implied1 the experimental method of scientific research was early developed4 ,harvey was at ,padua 7#aeih-afjb7 within the time of ,galileo's popular professoriate1 and may well have been inspired by the physicist to explain on dynamical principles the flow of blood through arteries and veins4 ,this conjecture is the more probable1 since ,galileo1 like ,harvey and ,gilbert1 had been trained in the study of medicine4 ,bacon in turn had in his youth learned something of the experimental method on the ,continent of ,europe1 and1 later1 was well aware of the studies of ,gilbert and ,galileo1 as well as of ,harvey1 who was indeed his personal physician4 ,although these facts seem to indicate that method may be transmitted in a nation or a profession1 or through personal association1 there still remains some doubt as to whether anything so intimate as the mental procedure involved in invention and in the discovery of truth can be successfully imparted by instruction4 ,the individuality of the man of genius engaged in investigation must remain a factor difficult to analyze4 ,bacon1 whose purpose was to hasten man's empire over nature through increasing the number of inventions and discoveries1 recognized that the method he illustrated is not the sole method of scientific investigation4 ,in fact1 he definitely states that the method set forth in the ,novum ,organum is not original1 or perfect1 or indispensable4 ,he was aware that his method tended to the ignoring of genius and to the putting of intelligences on one level4 ,he knew that1 although it is desirable for the investigator to free his mind from prepossessions1 and to avoid premature generalizations1 interpretation is the true and natural work of the mind when free from impediments1 and that the conjecture of the man of genius must at times anticipate the slow process of painful induction4 ,as we shall see in the nineteenth chapter1 the psychology of to-day does not know enough about the workings of the mind to prescribe a fixed mental attitude for the investigator4 ,nevertheless1 ,bacon was not wrong in pointing out the virtues of a method which he and many others turned to good account4 ,let us first glance1 however1 at the activities of those scientists who preceded ,bacon in the employment of the experimental method4 ,gilbert relied1 in his investigations1 on oft-repeated and verifiable experiments1 as can be seen from his work ,de ,magnete4 ,he directs the experimenter1 for example1 to take a piece of loadstone of convenient size and turn it on a lathe to the form of a ball4 ,it then may be called a terrella1 or earthkin4 ,place on it a piece of iron wire4 ,the ends of the wire move round its middle point and suddenly come to a standstill4 ,mark with chalk the line along which the wire lies still and sticks4 ,then move the wire to other spots on the terrella and repeat your procedure4 ,the lines thus marked1 if produced1 will form meridians1 all coming together at the poles4 ,again1 place the magnet in a wooden vessel1 and then set the vessel afloat in a tub or cistern of still water4 ,the north pole of the stone will seek approximately the direction of the south pole of the earth1 etc4 ,it was on the basis of scores of experiments of this sort1 carried on from about #aehb till #afjj1 that ,gilbert felt justified in concluding that the terrestrial globe is a magnet4 ,this theory has since that time been abundantly confirmed by navigators4 ,the full title of his book is ,concerning the ,magnet and ,magnetic ,bodies1 and concerning the ,great ,magnet the ,earth3 ,a ,new ,natural ,history 7,physiologia7 demonstrated by many ,arguments and ,experiments4 ,it does not detract from the credit of ,gilbert's result to state that his initial purpose was not to discover the nature of magnetism or electricity1 but to determine the true substance of the earth1 the innermost constitution of the globe4 ,he was fully conscious of his own method and speaks with scorn of certain writers who1 having made no magnetical experiments1 constructed ratiocinations on the basis of mere opinions and old-womanishly dreamed the things that were not4 ,galileo 7#aefd-afdb7 even as a child displayed something of the inventor's ingenuity1 and when he was nineteen1 shortly after the beginning of ,gilbert's experiments1 his keen perception for the phenomena of motion led to his making a discovery of great scientific moment4 ,he observed a lamp swinging by a long chain in the cathedral of his native city of ,pisa1 and noticed that1 no matter how much the range of the oscillations might vary1 their times were constant4 ,he verified his first impressions by counting his pulse1 the only available timepiece4 ,later he invented simple pendulum devices for timing the pulse of patients1 and even made some advances in applying his discovery in the construction of pendulum clocks4 b --------- --------- --------- c d e ,in #aehi he was appointed professor of mathematics in the ,university of ,pisa1 and within a year or two established through experiment the foundations of the science of dynamics4 ,as early as #aeij he put on record1 in a ,latin treatise ,concerning ,motion 7,de ,motu71 his dissent from the theories of ,aristotle in reference to moving bodies1 confuting the ,philosopher both by reason and ocular demonstration4 ,aristotle had held that two moving bodies of the same sort and in the same medium have velocities in proportion to their weights4 ,if a moving body1 whose weight is represented by b1 be carried through the line c--e which is divided in the point d1 if1 also1 the moving body is divided according to the same proportion as line c--e is in the point d1 it is manifest that in the time taken to carry the whole body through c--e1 the part will be moved through c--d4 ,galileo said that it is as clear as daylight that this view is ridiculous1 for who would believe that when two lead spheres are dropped from a great height1 the one being a hundred times heavier than the other1 if the larger took an hour to reach the earth1 the smaller would take a hundred hours8 ,or1 that if from a high tower two stones1 one twice the weight of the other1 should be pushed out at the same moment1 the larger would strike the ground while the smaller was still midway8 ,his biography tells that ,galileo in the presence of professors and students dropped bodies of different weights from the height of the ,leaning ,tower of ,pisa to demonstrate the truth of his views4 ,if allowance be made for the friction of the air1 all bodies fall from the same height in equal times3 the final velocities are proportional to the times2 the spaces passed through are proportional to the squares of the times4 ,the experimental basis of the last two statements was furnished by means of an inclined plane1 down a smooth groove in which a bronze ball was allowed to pass1 the time being ascertained by means of an improvised water-clock4 ,galileo's mature views on dynamics received expression in a work published in #afch1 ,mathematical ,discourses and ,demonstrations concerning ,two ,new ,sciences relating to ,mechanics and ,local ,movements4 ,it treats of cohesion and resistance to fracture 7strength of materials71 and uniform1 accelerated1 and projectile motion 7dynamics74 ,the discussion is in conversation form4 ,the opening sentence shows ,galileo's tendency to base theory on the empirical4 ,it might be freely translated thus3 ,large scope for intellectual speculation1 ,i should think1 would be afforded1 gentlemen1 by frequent visits to your famous ,venetian ,dockyard 7arsenale71 especially that part where mechanics are in demand2 seeing that there every sort of instrument and machine is put to use by numbers of workmen1 among whom1 taught both by tradition and their own observation1 there must be some very skillful and also able to talk4 ,the view of the shipbuilders1 that a large galley before being set afloat is in greater danger of breaking under its own weight than a small galley1 is the starting-point of this most important of ,galileo's contributions to science4 ,vesalius 7#aead-aefd7 had in his work on the structure of the human body 7,de ,humani ,corporis ,fabrica1 #aedc7 shaken the authority of ,galen's anatomy2 it remained for ,harvey on the basis of the new anatomy to improve upon the ,greek physician's experimental physiology4 ,harvey professed to learn and teach anatomy1 not from books1 but from dissections1 not from the dogmas of the philosophers1 but from the fabric of nature4 ,there have come down to us notes of his lectures on anatomy delivered first in #afaf4 ,a brief extract will show that even at that date he had already formulated a theory of the circulation of the blood3-- ,illustration3 ,,wh monogram#a ,by the structure of the heart it appears that the blood is continually transfused through the lungs to the aorta--as by the two clacks of a water-ram for raising water4 ,it is shown by ligature that there is continuous motion of the blood from arteries to veins4 ,whence it is demonstrated that there is a continuous motion of the blood in a circle1 affected by the beat of the heart4 ,it was not till #afbh that ,harvey published his ,anatomical ,disquisition on the ,motion of the ,heart and ,blood in ,animals4 ,it gives the experimental basis of his conclusions4 ,if a live snake be laid open1 the heart will be seen pulsating and propelling its contents4 ,compress the large vein entering the heart1 and the part intervening between the point of constriction and the heart becomes empty and the organ pales and shrinks4 ,remove the pressure1 and the size and color of the heart are restored4 ,now compress the artery leading from the organ1 and the part between the heart and the point of pressure1 and the heart itself1 become distended and take on a deep purple color4 ,the course of the blood is evidently from the vena cava through the heart to the aorta4 ,harvey in his investigations made use of many species of animals--at least eighty-seven4 ,it was believed by some1 before ,harvey's demonstrations1 that the arteries were hollow pipes carrying air from the lungs throughout the body1 although ,galen had shown by cutting a dog's trachea1 inflating the lungs and tying the trachea1 that the lungs were in an enclosing sack which retained the air4 ,harvey1 following ,galen1 held that the pulmonary artery1 carrying blood to the lungs from the right side of the heart1 and the pulmonary veins1 carrying blood from the lungs to the left side of the heart1 intercommunicate in the hidden porosities of the lungs and through minute inosculations4 ,in man the vena cava carries the blood to the right side of the heart1 the pulmonary artery inosculates with the pulmonary veins1 which convey it to the left side of the heart4 ,this muscular pump drives it into the aorta4 ,it still remains to be shown that in the limbs the blood passes from the arteries to the veins4 ,bandage the arm so tightly that no pulse is felt at the wrist4 ,the hand appears at first natural1 and then grows cold4 ,loose the bandage sufficiently to restore the pulse4 ,the hand and forearm become suffused and swollen4 ,in the first place the supply of blood from the deep-lying arteries is cut off4 ,in the second case the blood returning by the superficial veins is dammed back4 ,in the limbs as in the lungs the blood passes from artery to vein by anastomoses and porosities4 ,all these arteries have their source in the aorta2 all these veins pour their stream ultimately into the vena cava4 ,the veins have valves1 which prevent the blood flowing except toward the heart4 ,again1 the veins and arteries form a connected system2 for through either a vein or an artery all the blood may be drained off4 ,the arguments by which ,harvey supported his view were various4 ,the opening clause of his first chapter1 ,when ,i first gave my mind to vivisection as a means of discovering the motions and uses of the heart1 throws a strong light on his special method of experimental investigation4 ,bacon1 stimulated by what he called philanthropia1 always aimed1 as we have seen1 to establish man's control over nature4 ,but all power of a high order depends on an understanding of the essential character1 or law1 of heat1 light1 sound1 gravity1 and the like4 ,nothing short of a knowledge of the underlying nature of phenomena can give science advantage over chance in hitting upon useful discoveries and inventions4 ,it is1 therefore1 natural to find him applying his method of induction--his special method of true induction--to the investigation of heat4 ,in the first place1 let there be mustered1 without premature speculation1 all the instances in which heat is manifested--flame1 lightning1 sun's rays1 quicklime sprinkled with water1 damp hay1 animal heat1 hot liquids1 bodies subjected to friction4 ,add to these1 instances in which heat seems to be absent1 as moon's rays1 sun's rays on mountains1 oblique rays in the polar circle4 ,try the experiment of concentrating on a thermoscope1 by means of a burning-glass1 the moon's rays4 ,try with the burning-glass to concentrate heat from hot iron1 from common flame1 from boiling water4 ,try a concave glass with the sun's rays to see whether a diminution of heat results4 ,then make record of other instances1 in which heat is found in varying degrees4 ,for example1 an anvil grows hot under the hammer4 ,a thin plate of metal under continuous blows might grow red like ignited iron4 ,let this be tried as an experiment4 ,after the presentation of these instances induction itself must be set to work to find out what factor is ever present in the positive instances1 what factor is ever wanting in the negative instances1 what factor always varies in the instances which show variation4 ,according to ,bacon it is in the process of exclusion that the foundations of true induction are laid4 ,we can be certain1 for example1 that the essential nature of heat does not consist in light and brightness1 since it is present in boiling water and absent in the moon's rays4 ,the induction1 however1 is not complete till something positive is established4 ,at this point in the investigation it is permissible to venture an hypothesis in reference to the essential character of heat4 ,from a survey of the instances1 all and each1 it appears that the nature of which heat is a particular case is motion4 ,this is suggested by flame1 simmering liquids1 the excitement of heat by motion1 the extinction of fire by compression1 etc4 ,motion is the genus of which heat is the species4 ,heat itself1 its essence1 is motion and nothing else4 ,it remains to establish its specific differences4 ,this accomplished1 we arrive at the definition3 ,heat is a motion1 expansive1 restrained1 and acting in its strife upon the smaller particles of bodies4 ,bacon1 glancing toward the application of this discovery1 adds3 ,if in any natural body you can excite a dilating or expanding motion1 and can so repress this motion and turn it back upon itself1 that the dilation shall not proceed equally1 but have its way in one part and be counteracted in another1 you will undoubtedly generate heat4 ,the reader will recall that ,bacon looked for the invention of instruments that would generate heat solely by motion4 ,descartes was a philosopher and mathematician4 ,in his ,discourse on ,method and his ,rules for the ,direction of the ,mind 7#afbh7 he laid emphasis on deduction rather than on induction4 ,in the subordination of particulars to general principles he experienced a satisfaction akin to the sense of beauty or the joy of artistic production4 ,he speaks enthusiastically of that pleasure which one feels in truth1 and which in this world is about the only pure and unmixed happiness4 ,at the same time he shared ,bacon's distrust of the ,aristotelian logic and maintained that ordinary dialectic is valueless for those who desire to investigate the truth of things4 ,there is need of a method for finding out the truth4 ,he compares himself to a smith forced to begin at the beginning by fashioning tools with which to work4 ,in his method of discovery he determined to accept nothing as true that he did not clearly recognize to be so4 ,he stood against assumptions1 and insisted on rigid proof4 ,trust only what is completely known4 ,attain a certitude equal to that of arithmetic and geometry4 ,this attitude of strict criticism is characteristic of the scientific mind4 ,again1 ,descartes was bent on analyzing each difficulty in order to solve it2 to neglect no intermediate steps in the deduction1 but to make the enumeration of details adequate and methodical4 ,preserve a certain order2 do not attempt to jump from the ground to the gable1 but rise gradually from what is simple and easily understood4 ,descartes' interest was not in the several branches of mathematics2 rather he wished to establish a universal mathematics1 a general science relating to order and measurement4 ,he considered all physical nature1 including the human body1 as a mechanism1 capable of explanation on mathematical principles4 ,but his immediate interest lay in numerical relationships and geometrical proportions4 ,recognizing that the understanding was dependent on the other powers of the mind1 ,descartes resorted in his mathematical demonstrations to the use of lines1 because he could find no method1 as he says1 more simple or more capable of appealing to the imagination and senses4 ,he considered1 however1 that in order to bear the relationships in memory or to embrace several at once1 it was essential to explain them by certain formul1 the shorter the better4 ,and for this purpose it was requisite to borrow all that was best in geometrical analysis and algebra1 and to correct the errors of one by the other4 ,descartes was above all a mathematician1 and as such he may be regarded as a forerunner of ,newton and other scientists2 at the same time he developed an exact scientific method1 which he believed applicable to all departments of human thought4 ,those long chains of reasoning1 he says1 quite simple and easy1 which geometers are wont to employ in the accomplishment of their most difficult demonstrations1 led me to think that everything which might fall under the cognizance of the human mind might be connected together in the same manner1 and that1 provided only one should take care not to receive anything as true which was not so1 and if one were always careful to preserve the order necessary for deducing one truth from another1 there would be none so remote at which he might not at last arrive1 or so concealed which he might not discover4 ,,references ,francis ,bacon1 ,philosophical ,works 7,ellis and ,spedding edition71 vol4 ,,iv1 ,novum ,organum4 ,j4 ,j4 ,fahie1 ,galileo2 ,his ,life and ,work4 ,galileo1 ,two ,new ,sciences2 translated by ,henry ,crew and ,alphonse ,de ,salvio4 ,william ,gilbert1 ,on the ,loadstone2 translated by ,p4 ,f4 ,mottelay4 ,william ,harvey1 ,an ,anatomical ,disquisition on the ,motion of the ,heart and ,blood in ,animals4 ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,method and ,results4 ,d',arcy ,power1 ,william ,harvey 7in ,masters of ,medicine74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this is ,harvey's monogram1 which he used in his notes to mark any original observation4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,science ,,as ,,measurement--,,tycho ,,brahe1 ,,kepler1 ,,boyle ,considering the value for clearness of thought of counting1 measuring and weighing1 it is not surprising to find that in the seventeenth century1 and even at the end of the sixteenth1 the advance of the sciences was accompanied by increased exactness of measurement and by the invention of instruments of precision4 ,the improvement of the simple microscope1 the invention of the compound microscope1 of the telescope1 the micrometer1 the barometer1 the thermoscope1 the thermometer1 the pendulum clock1 the improvement of the mural quadrant1 sextant1 spheres1 astrolabes1 belong to this period4 ,measuring is a sort of counting1 and weighing a form of measuring4 ,we may count disparate things whether like or unlike4 ,when we measure or weigh we apply a standard and count the times that the unit--cubit1 pound1 hour--is found to repeat itself4 ,we apply our measure to uniform extension1 meting out the waters by fathoms or space by the sun's diameter1 and even subject time to arbitrary divisions4 ,the human mind has been developed through contact with the multiplicity of physical objects1 and we find it impossible to think clearly and scientifically about our environment without dividing1 weighing1 measuring1 counting4 ,in measuring time we cannot rely on our inward impressions2 we even criticize these impressions and speak of time as going slowly or quickly4 ,we are compelled in the interests of accuracy to provide an objective standard in the clock1 or the revolving earth1 or some other measurable thing4 ,similarly with weight and heat2 we cannot rely on the subjective impression1 but must devise apparatus to record by a measurable movement the amount of the pressure or the degree of temperature4 ,god ordered all things by measure1 number1 and weight4 ,the scientific mind does not rest satisfied till it is able to see phenomena in their number relationships4 ,scientific thought is in this sense ,pythagorean1 that it inquires in reference to quantity and proportion4 ,as implied in a previous chapter1 number relations are not clearly grasped by primitive races4 ,many primitive languages have no words for numerals higher than five4 ,that fact does not imply that these races do not know the difference between large and small numbers1 but precision grows with civilization1 with commercial pursuits1 and other activities1 such as the practice of medicine1 to which the use of weights and measures is essential4 ,scientific accuracy is dependent on words and other means of numerical expression4 ,from the use of fingers and toes1 a rude score or tally1 knots on a string1 or a simple abacus1 the race advances to greater refinement of numerical expression and the employment of more and more accurate apparatus4 ,one of the greatest contributors to this advance was the celebrated ,danish astronomer1 ,tycho ,brahe 7#aedf-afja74 ,before #aeig he had completed his great mural quadrant at the observatory of ,uraniborg4 ,he called it with characteristic vanity the ,tichonic quadrant4 ,it consisted of a graduated arc of solid polished brass five inches broad1 two inches thick1 and with a radius of about six and three quarters feet4 ,each degree was divided into minutes1 and each minute into six parts4 ,each of these parts was then subdivided into ten seconds1 which were indicated by dots arranged in transverse oblique lines on the width of brass4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tichonic ,,quadrant ,the arc was attached in the observation room to a wall running exactly north1 and so secured with screws 7firmissimis cochleis7 that no force could move it4 ,with its concavity toward the southern sky it was closely comparable1 though reverse1 to the celestial meridian throughout its length from horizon to zenith4 ,the south wall1 above the point where the radii of the quadrant met1 was pierced by a cylinder of gilded brass placed in a rectangular opening1 which could be opened or closed from the outside4 ,the observation was made through one of two sights that were attached to the graduated arc and could be moved from point to point on it4 ,in the sights were parallel slits1 right1 left1 upper1 lower4 ,if the altitude and the transit through the meridian were to be taken at the same time the four directions were to be followed4 ,it was the practice for the student making the observation to read off the number of degrees1 minutes1 etc41 of the angle at which the altitude or transit was observed1 so that it might be recorded by a second student4 ,a third took the time from two clock dials when the observer gave the signal1 and the exact moment of observation was also recorded by student number two4 ,the clocks recorded minutes and the smaller divisions of time2 great care1 however1 was required to obtain good results from them4 ,there were four clocks in the observatory1 of which the largest had three wheels1 one wheel of pure solid brass having twelve hundred teeth and a diameter of two cubits4 ,lest any space on the wall should lie empty a number of paintings were added3 ,tycho himself in an easy attitude seated at a table and directing from a book the work of his students4 ,over his head is an automatic celestial globe invented by ,tycho and constructed at his own expense in #aeij4 ,over the globe is a part of ,tycho's library4 ,on either side are represented as hanging small pictures of ,tycho's patron1 ,frederick ,,ii of ,denmark 7d4 #aehh7 and ,queen ,sophia4 ,then other instruments and rooms of the observatory are pictured2 ,tycho's students1 of whom there were always at least six or eight1 not to mention younger pupils4 ,there appears also his great brass globe six feet in diameter4 ,then there is pictured ,tycho's chemical laboratory1 on which he has expended much money4 ,finally comes one of ,tycho's hunting dogs--very faithful and sagacious2 he serves here as a hieroglyph of his master's nobility as well as of sagacity and fidelity4 ,the expert architect and the two artists who assisted ,tycho are delineated in the landscape and even in the setting sun in the top-most part of the painting1 and in the decoration above4 ,the principal use of this largest quadrant was the determination of the angle of elevation of the stars within the sixth part of a minute1 the collineation being made by means of one of the sights1 the parallel horizontal slits in which were aligned with the corresponding parts of the circumference of the cylinder4 ,the altitude was recorded according to the position of the sight attached to the graduated arc4 ,tycho ,brahe had a great reverence for ,copernicus1 but he did not accept his planetary system2 and he felt that advance in astronomy depended on painstaking observation4 ,for over twenty years under the kings of ,denmark he had good opportunities for pursuing his investigation4 ,the island of ,hven became his property4 ,a thoroughly equipped observatory was provided1 including printing-press and workshops for the construction of apparatus4 ,as already implied1 capable assistants were at the astronomer's command4 ,in #aeih1 after having left ,denmark1 ,tycho in a splendid illustrated book 7,astronomi ,instaurat ,mechanica7 gave an account of this astronomical paradise on the ,insula ,venusia as he at times called it4 ,the book1 prepared for the hands of princes1 contains about twenty full-page colored illustrations of astronomical instruments 7including1 of course1 the mural quadrant71 of the exterior of the observatory of ,uraniborg1 etc4 ,the author had a consciousness of his own worth1 and deserves the name ,tycho the ,magnificent4 ,the results that he obtained were not unworthy of the apparatus employed in his observations1 and before he died at ,prague in #afja1 ,tycho ,brahe had consigned to the worthiest hands the painstaking record of his labors4 ,johann ,kepler 7#aega-afcj7 had been called1 as the astronomer's assistant1 to the ,bohemian capital in #afjj and in a few months fell heir to ,tycho's data in reference to #ggg stars1 which he made the basis of the ,rudolphine tables of #afbg4 ,kepler's genius was complementary to that of his predecessor4 ,he was gifted with an imagination to turn observations to account4 ,his astronomy did not rest in mere description1 but sought the physical explanation4 ,he had the artist's feeling for the beauty and harmony1 which he divined before he demonstrated1 in the number relations of the planetary movements4 ,after special studies of ,mars based on ,tycho's data1 he set forth in #afji 7,astronomia ,nova7 7#a7 that every planet moves in an ellipse of which the sun occupies one focus1 and 7#b7 that the area swept by the radius vector from the planet to the sun is proportional to the time4 ,luckily for the success of his investigation the planet on which he had concentrated his attention is the one of all the planets then known1 the orbit of which most widely differs from a circle4 ,in a later work 7,harmonica ,mundi1 #afai7 the title of which1 the ,harmonics of the ,universe1 proclaimed his inclination to ,pythagorean views1 he demonstrated 7#c7 that the square of the periodic time of any planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun4 ,kepler's studies were facilitated by the invention1 in #afad by ,john ,napier1 of logarithms1 which have been said1 by abridging tedious calculations1 to double the life of an astronomer4 ,about the same time ,kepler in purchasing some wine was struck by the rough-and-ready method used by the merchant to determine the capacity of the wine-vessels4 ,he applied himself for a few days to the problems of mensuration involved1 and in #afae published his treatise 7,stereometria ,doliorum7 on the cubical contents of casks 7or wine-jars71 a source of inspiration to all later writers on the accurate determination of the volume of solids4 ,he helped other scientists and was himself richly helped4 ,as early as #afaj there had been presented to him a means of precision of the first importance to the progress of astronomy1 namely1 a ,galilean telescope4 ,the early history of telescopes shows that the effect of combining two lenses was understood by scientists long before any particular use was made of this knowledge2 and that those who are accredited with introducing perspective glasses to the public hit by accident upon the invention4 ,priority was claimed by two firms of spectacle-makers in ,middelburg1 ,holland1 namely1 ,zacharias1 miscalled ,jansen1 and ,lippershey4 ,galileo heard of the contrivance in ,july1 #afji1 and soon furnished so powerful an instrument of discovery that things seen through it appeared more than thirty times nearer and almost a thousand times larger than when seen by the naked eye4 ,he was able to make out the mountains in the moon1 the satellites of ,jupiter in rotation1 the spots on the revolving sun2 but his telescope afforded only an imperfect view of ,saturn4 ,of course these facts1 published in #afaj 7,sidereus ,nuncius71 strengthened his advocacy of the ,copernican system4 ,galileo laughingly wrote ,kepler that the professors of philosophy were afraid to look through his telescope lest they should fall into heresy4 ,the ,german astronomer1 who had years before written on the optics of astronomy1 now 7#afaa7 produced his ,dioptrice1 the first satisfactory statement of the theory of the telescope4 ,about #afci ,gascoigne1 a young ,englishman1 invented the micrometer1 which enables an observer to adjust a telescope with very great precision4 ,before the invention of the micrometer exactitude was impossible1 because the adjustment of the instrument depended on the discrimination of the naked eye4 ,the micrometer was a further advance in exact measurement4 ,gascoigne's determinations of1 for example1 the diameter of the sun1 bear comparison with the findings of even recent astronomical science4 ,the history of the microscope is closely connected with that of the telescope4 ,in the first half of the seventeenth century the simple microscope came into use4 ,it was developed from the convex lens1 which1 as we have seen in a previous chapter1 had been known for centuries1 if not from remote antiquity4 ,with the simple microscope ,leeuwenhoek before #afgc had studied the structure of minute animal organisms and ten years later had even obtained sight of bacteria4 ,very early in the same century ,zacharias had presented ,prince ,maurice1 the commander of the ,dutch forces1 and the ,archduke ,albert1 governor of ,holland1 with compound microscopes4 ,kircher 7#afja-afhj7 made use of an instrument that represented microscopic forms as one thousand times larger than their actual size1 and by means of the compound microscope ,malpighi was able in #affa to see blood flowing from the minute arteries to the minute veins on the lung and on the distended bladder of the live frog4 ,the ,italian microscopist thus1 among his many achievements1 verified by observation what ,harvey in #afbh had argued must take place4 ,in this same epoch apparatus of precision developed in other fields4 ,weight clocks had been in use as time-measurers since the thirteenth century1 but they were1 as we have seen1 difficult to control and otherwise unreliable4 ,even in the seventeenth century scientists in their experiments preferred some form of water-clock4 ,in #afcf ,galileo1 in a letter1 mentioned the feasibility of constructing a pendulum clock1 and in #afda he dictated a description of the projected apparatus to his son ,vincenzo and to his disciple ,viviani4 ,he himself was then blind1 and he died the following year4 ,his instructions were never carried into effect4 ,however1 in #afeg ,christian ,huygens applied the pendulum to weight clocks of the old stamp4 ,in #afgd he gave directions for the manufacture of a watch1 the movement of which was driven by a spring4 ,galileo1 to whom the advance in exact science is so largely indebted1 must also be credited with the first apparatus for the measurement of temperatures4 ,this was invented before #afjc and consisted of a glass bulb with a long stem of the thickness of a straw4 ,the bulb was first heated and the stem placed in water4 ,the point at which the water1 which rose in the tube1 might stand was an indication of the temperature4 ,in #afca ,jean ,rey just inverted this contrivance1 filling the bulb with water4 ,of course these thermoscopes would register the effect of varying pressures as well as temperatures1 and they soon made way for the thermometer and the barometer4 ,before #afda a true thermometer was constructed by sealing the top of the tube after driving out the air by heat4 ,spirits of wine were used in place of water4 ,mercury was not employed till #afgj4 ,descartes and ,galileo had brought under criticism the ancient idea that nature abhors a vacuum4 ,they knew that the horror vacui was not sufficient to raise water in a pump more than about thirty-three feet4 ,they had also known that air has weight1 a fact which soon served to explain the so-called force of suction4 ,galileo's associate ,torricelli reasoned that if the pressure of the air was sufficient to support a column of water thirty-three feet in height1 it would support a column of mercury of equal weight4 ,accordingly in #afdc he made the experiment of filling with mercury a glass tube four feet long closed at the upper end1 and then opening the lower end in a basin of mercury4 ,the mercury in the tube sank until its level was about thirty inches above that of the mercury in the basin1 leaving a vacuum in the upper part of the tube4 ,as the specific gravity of mercury is #ac1 ,torricelli knew that his supposition had been correct and that the column of mercury in the tube and the column of water in the pump were owing to the pressure or weight of the air4 ,pascal thought that this pressure would be less at a high altitude4 ,his supposition was tested on a church steeple at ,paris1 and1 later1 on the ,puy de ,dme1 a mountain in ,auvergne4 ,in the latter case a difference of three inches in the column of mercury was shown at the summit and base of the ascent4 ,later ,pascal experimented with the siphon and succeeded in explaining it on the principle of atmospheric pressure4 ,torricelli in the space at the top of his barometer 7pressure-gauge7 had produced what is called a ,torricellian vacuum4 ,otto von ,guericke1 a burgomaster of ,magdeburg1 who had traveled in ,france and ,italy1 succeeded in constructing an air-pump by means of which air might be exhausted from a vessel4 ,some of his results became widely known in #afeg1 though his works were not published till #afgc4 ,robert ,boyle 7#afbf-afia71 born at ,castle ,lismore in ,ireland1 was the seventh son and fourteenth child of the distinguished first ,earl of ,cork4 ,he was early acquainted with these various experiments in reference to the air1 as well as with ,descartes' theory that air is nothing but a congeries or heap of small1 and1 for the most part1 flexible particles4 ,in #afei he wrote his ,new ,experiments ,physico-,mechanical touching the ,spring of the ,air4 ,instead of spring1 he at times used the word elater 774 ,in this treatise he describes experiments with the improved air-pump constructed at his suggestion by his assistant1 ,robert ,hooke4 ,one of ,boyle's critics1 a professor at ,louvain1 while admitting that air had weight and elasticity1 denied that these were sufficient to account for the results ascribed to them4 ,boyle thereupon published a ,defence of the ,doctrine touching the ,spring and ,weight of the ,air4 ,he felt able to prove that the elasticity of the air could under circumstances do far more than sustain twenty-nine or thirty inches of mercury4 ,in support of his view he cited a recent experiment4 ,he had taken a piece of strong glass tubing fully twelve feet in length4 7,the experiment was made by a well-lighted staircase1 the tube being suspended by strings47 ,the glass was heated more than a foot from the lower end1 and bent so that the shorter leg of twelve inches was parallel with the longer4 ,the former was hermetically sealed at the top and marked off in forty-eight quarter-inch spaces4 ,into the opening of the longer leg1 also graduated1 mercury was poured4 ,at first only enough was introduced to fill the arch1 or bent part of the tube below the graduated legs4 ,the tube was then inclined so that the air might pass from one leg to the other1 and equality of pressure at the start be assured4 ,then more mercury was introduced and every time that the air in the shorter leg was compressed a half or a quarter of an inch1 a record was made of the height of the mercury in the long leg of the tube4 ,boyle reasoned that the compressed air was sustaining the pressure of the column of mercury in the long leg plus the pressure of the atmosphere at the tube's opening1 equivalent to #bi-b_/af inches of mercury4 ,some of the results were as follows3 ,when the air in the short tube was compressed from #ab to #c inches1 it was under a pressure of #aag-i_/af inches of mercury2 when compressed to #d it was under pressure of #hg-ae_/af inches of mercury2 when compressed to #f1 #eh-ac_/af2 to #i1 #ci-e_/h4 ,of course1 when at the beginning of the experiment there were #ab inches of air in the short tube1 it was under the pressure of the atmosphere1 equal to that of #bi-b_/af inches of mercury4 ,boyle with characteristic caution was not inclined to draw too general a conclusion from his experiment4 ,however1 it was evident1 making allowance for some slight irregularity in the experimental results1 that air reduced under pressure to one half its original volume1 doubles its resistance2 and that if it is further reduced to one half1--for example1 from six to three inches1--it has four times the resistance of common air4 ,in fact1 ,boyle had sustained the hypothesis that supposes the pressures and expansions to be in reciprocal proportions4 ,,references ,sir ,robert ,s4 ,ball1 ,great ,astronomers4 ,robert ,boyle1 ,works 7edited by ,thomas ,birch74 ,sir ,david ,brewster1 ,martyrs of ,science4 ,j4 ,l4 ,e4 ,dreyer1 ,tycho ,brahe4 ,sir ,oliver ,lodge1 ,pioneers of ,science4 ,flora ,masson1 ,robert ,boyle2 a ,biography4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,co,,peration ,,in ,,science--,,the ,,royal ,,society ,the period from #afcg to #afhg affords a good illustration of the value for the progress of science of the coperation in the pursuit of truth of men of different creeds1 nationalities1 vocations1 and social ranks4 ,at1 or even before1 the beginning of that period the need of coperation was indicated by the activities of two men of pronouncedly social temperament and interests1 namely1 the ,french ,minim father1 ,mersenne1 and the ,protestant ,prussian merchant1 ,samuel ,hartlib4 ,mersenne was a stimulating and indefatigable correspondent4 ,his letters to ,galileo1 ,jean ,rey1 ,hobbes1 ,descartes1 ,gassendi1 not to mention other scientists and philosophers1 constitute an encyclopedia of the learning of the time4 ,a mathematician and experimenter himself1 he had a genius for eliciting discussion and research by means of adroit questions4 ,through him ,descartes was drawn into debate with ,hobbes1 and with ,gassendi1 a champion of the experimental method4 ,through him the discoveries of ,harvey1 ,galileo1 and ,torricelli1 as well as of many others1 became widely known4 ,his letters1 in the dearth of scientific associations and the absence of scientific periodicals1 served as a general news agency among the learned of his time4 ,it is not surprising that a coterie gathered about him at ,paris4 ,hobbes spent months in daily intercourse with this group of scientists in the winter of #afcf-cg4 ,hartlib1 though he scarcely takes rank with ,mersenne as a scientist1 was no less influential4 ,of a generous and philanthropic disposition1 he repeatedly impoverished himself in the cause of human betterment4 ,his chief reliance was on education and improved methods of husbandry1 but he resembled ,horace ,greeley in his hospitality to any project for the public welfare4 ,one of ,hartlib's chief hopes for the regeneration of ,england1 if not of the whole world1 rested on the teachings of the educational reformer ,comenius1 a bishop of the ,moravian ,brethren4 ,in #afcg1 ,comenius having shown himself rather reluctant to put his most cherished plans before the public1 his zealous disciple precipitated matters1 and on his own responsibility1 and unknown to ,comenius1 issued from his library at ,oxford ,preludes to the ,endeavors of ,comenius4 ,besides ,hartlib's preface it contained a treatise by the great educator on a ,seminary of ,christian ,pansophy1 a method of imparting an encyclopedic knowledge of the sciences and arts4 ,the two friends were followers of the ,baconian philosophy4 ,they were influenced1 as many others of the time1 by the ,new ,atlantis1 which went through ten editions between #afbg and #afgj1 and which outlined a plan for an endowed college with thirty-six ,fellows divided into groups--what would be called to-day a university of research endowed by the ,state4 ,it is not surprising to find ,comenius 7who in his student days had been under the influence of ,alsted1 author of an encyclopedia on ,baconian lines7 speaking in #afch on the need of a collegiate society for carrying on the educational work that he himself had at heart4 ,in #afda ,hartlib published a work of fiction in the manner of the ,new ,atlantis1 and dedicated it to the ,long ,parliament4 ,in the same year he urged ,comenius to come to ,london1 and published another work1 ,a ,reformation of ,schools4 ,he had great influence and did not hesitate to use it in his adoptive country4 ,everybody knew ,hartlib1 and he was acquainted with all the strata of ,english society2 for although his father had been a merchant1 first in ,poland and later in ,elbing1 his mother was the daughter of the ,deputy of the ,english ,company in ,dantzic and had relatives of rank in ,london1 where ,hartlib spent most of his life4 ,he gained the good-will of the ,puritan ,government1 and even after ,cromwell's death was working1 in conjunction with ,boyle1 for the establishment of a national council of universal learning with ,wilkins as president4 ,when ,comenius arrived in ,london he learned that the invitation had been sent by order of ,parliament4 ,this body was very anxious to take up the question of education1 especially university education4 ,bacon's criticisms of ,oxford and ,cambridge were still borne in mind2 the legislators considered that the college curriculum was in need of reformation1 that there ought to be more fraternity and correspondence among the universities of ,europe1 and they even contemplated the endowment by the ,state of scientific experiment4 ,they spoke of erecting a university at ,london1 where ,gresham ,college had been established in #aeig and ,chelsea ,college in #afaj4 ,it was proposed to place ,gresham ,college1 the ,savoy1 or ,winchester ,college1 at the disposition of the pansophists4 ,comenius thought that nothing was more certain than that the design of the great ,verulam concerning the opening somewhere of a universal college1 devoted to the advancement of the sciences1 could be carried out4 ,the impending struggle1 however1 between ,charles ,i and the ,parliament prevented the attempt to realize the pansophic dream1 and the ,austrian ,slav1 who knew something of the horrors of civil war1 withdrew1 discouraged1 to the ,continent4 ,nevertheless1 ,hartlib did not abandon the cause1 but in #afdd broached ,milton on the subject of educational reform1 and drew from him the brief but influential tract on ,education4 ,in this its author alludes rather slightingly to ,comenius1 who had something of ,bacon's infelicity in choice of titles and epithets and who must have seemed outlandish to the author of ,lycidas and ,comus4 ,but ,milton joined in the criticism of the universities--the study of words rather than things--and advocated an encyclopedic education based on the ,greek and ,latin writers of a practical and scientific tendency 7,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1 ,cato1 ,varro1 ,vitruvius1 ,seneca1 and others74 ,he outlined a plan for the establishment of an institution to be known by the classical 7and ,shakespearian7 name ,academy--a plan destined to have a great effect on education in the direction indicated by the friends of pansophia4 ,in this same year ,robert ,boyle1 then an eager student of eighteen just returned to ,england from residence abroad1 came under the influence of the genial ,hartlib4 ,in #afdf he writes his tutor inquiring about books on methods of husbandry and referring to the new philosophical college1 which valued no knowledge but as it had a tendency to use4 ,a few months later he was in correspondence with ,hartlib in reference to the ,invisible ,college1 and had written a third friend that the corner-stones of the invisible1 or1 as they termed themselves1 the philosophical college1 did now and then honor him with their company4 ,these philosophers whom ,boyle entertained1 and whose scientific acumen1 breadth of mind1 humility1 and universal good-will he found so congenial1 were the nucleus of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 of which1 on its definite organization in #affb1 he was the foremost member4 ,they had begun to meet together in ,london about #afde1 worthy persons inquisitive into natural philosophy--,wilkins1 interested in the navigation of the air and of waters below the surface2 ,wallis1 mathematician and grammarian2 the many-sided ,petty1 political economist1 and inventor of a double-bottomed boat1 who had as a youth of twenty studied with ,hobbes in ,paris in #afdc1 and in #afdh was to write his first treatise on industrial education at the suggestion of ,hartlib1 and finally make a survey of ,ireland and acquire large estates2 ,foster1 professor of astronomy at ,gresham ,college2 ,theodore ,haak from the ,pfalz2 a number of medical men1 ,dr4 ,merret1 ,dr4 ,ent1 a friend of ,harvey1 ,dr4 ,goddard1 who could always be relied upon to undertake an experiment1 ,dr4 ,glisson1 the physiologist1 author in #afed of a treatise on the liver 7,de ,hepate71 and others4 ,they met once a week at ,goddard's in ,wood ,street1 at the ,bull's ,head ,tavern in ,cheapside1 and at ,gresham ,college4 ,dr4 ,wilkins1 the brother-in-law of ,cromwell1 who is regarded by some as the founder of the ,royal ,society1 removed to ,oxford1 as ,warden of ,wadham1 in #afdi4 ,here he held meetings and conducted experiments in conjunction with ,wallis1 ,goddard1 ,petty1 ,boyle1 and others1 including ,ward 7afterwards ,bishop of ,salisbury7 interested in ,bulliau's ,astronomy2 and the celebrated physician and anatomist1 ,thomas ,willis1 author of a work on the brain 7,cerebri ,anatome71 and another on fevers 7,de ,febribus71 in which he described epidemic typhoid as it occurred during the ,civil ,war in #afdc4 ,in the mean time the weekly meetings in ,london continued1 and were attended when convenient by members of the ,oxford group4 ,at ,gresham ,college by #afeh it was the custom to remain for discussion ,wednesdays and ,thursdays after ,mr4 ,wren's lecture and ,mr4 ,rooke's4 ,during the unsettled state of the country after ,cromwell's death there was some interruption of the meetings1 but with the accession of ,charles ,,ii in #affj there came a greater sense of security4 ,new names appear on the records1 ,lord ,brouncker1 ,sir ,robert ,moray1 ,john ,evelyn1 ,brereton1 ,ball1 ,robert ,hooke1 and ,abraham ,cowley4 ,illustration3 ,from a print of #afge ,,wadham ,,college1 ,,oxford ,plans were discussed for a more permanent form of organization1 especially on ,november #bh1 #affj1 when something was said of a design to found a college for the promotion of physico-mathematical experimental learning4 ,a few months later was published ,cowley's proposition for an endowed college with twenty professors1 four of whom should be constantly traveling in the interests of science4 ,the sixteen resident professors should be bound to study and teach all sorts of natural1 experimental philosophy1 to consist of the mathematics1 mechanics1 medicine1 anatomy1 chemistry1 the history of animals1 plants1 minerals1 elements1 etc42 agriculture1 architecture1 art military1 navigation1 gardening2 the mysteries of all trades and improvement of them2 the facture of all merchandise1 all natural magic or divination2 and briefly all things contained in the ,catalogue of ,natural ,histories annexed to my ,lord ,bacon's ,organon4 ,the early official history of the ,royal ,society 7,sprat1 #affg7 says that this proposal hastened very much the adoption of a plan of organization4 ,cowley wished to educate youth and incur great expense 7#d1jjj71 but most of the other particulars of his draught the ,royal ,society is now putting in practice4 ,a charter of incorporation was granted in ,july1 #affb2 and1 later1 ,charles ,,ii proclaimed himself founder and patron of the ,royal ,society for the advancement of natural science4 ,charles continued to take an interest in this organization1 devoted to the discovery of truth by the corporate action of men2 he proposed subjects for investigation1 and asked their coperation in a more accurate measurement of a degree of latitude4 ,he showed himself tactful to take account of the democratic spirit of scientific investigation1 and recommended to the ,royal ,society ,john ,graunt1 the author of a work on mortality statistics first published in #affa4 ,graunt was a shop-keeper of ,london1 and ,charles said that if they found any more such tradesmen1 they should be sure to admit them all without more ado4 ,it was a recognized principle of the ,society freely to admit men of different religions1 countries1 professions4 ,sprat said that they openly professed1 not to lay the foundation of an ,english1 ,scotch1 ,irish1 ,popish or ,protestant philosophy1 but a philosophy of mankind4 ,they sought 7hating war as most of them did7 to establish a universal culture1 or1 as they phrased it1 a constant intelligence throughout all civil nations4 ,even for the special purposes of the ,society1 hospitality toward all nations was necessary2 for the ideal scientist1 the perfect philosopher1 should have the diligence and inquisitiveness of the northern nations1 and the cold and circumspect and wary disposition of the ,italians and ,spaniards4 ,haak from the ,german ,palatinate was one of the earliest ,fellows of the ,society1 and is even credited by ,wallis with being the first to suggest the meetings of #afde4 ,oldenburg from ,bremen acted as secretary 7along with ,wilkins7 and carried on an extensive foreign correspondence4 ,huygens of ,holland was one of the original ,fellows in #affc1 while the names of ,auzout1 ,sorbire1 the ,duke of ,brunswick1 ,bulliau1 ,cassini1 ,malpighi1 ,leibnitz1 ,leeuwenhoek 7as well as ,winthrop and ,roger ,williams7 appear in the records of the ,society within the first decade4 ,it seemed fitting that this cosmopolitan organization should be located in the world's metropolis rather than in a mere university town4 ,sprat thought ,london the natural seat of a universal philosophy4 ,as already implied1 the ,royal ,society was not exclusive in its attitude toward the different vocations4 ,a spirit of true fellowship prevailed in ,gresham ,college1 as the ,society was sometimes called4 ,the medical profession1 the universities1 the churches1 the court1 the army1 the navy1 trade1 agriculture1 and other industries were there represented4 ,social partition walls were broken down1 and the ,fellows1 sobered by years of political and religious strife1 joined1 mutually assisting one another1 in the advance of science for the sake of the common weal4 ,their express purpose was the improvement of all professions from the highest general to the lowest artisan4 ,particular attention was paid to the trades1 the mechanic arts1 and the fostering of inventions4 ,one of their eight committees dealt with the histories of trades2 another was concerned with mechanical inventions1 and the king ordained in #affb that no mechanical device should receive a patent before undergoing their scrutiny4 ,a great many inventions emanated from the ,fellows themselves--,hooke's hygroscope2 ,boyle's hydrometer1 of use in the detection of counterfeit coin2 and1 again1 the tablet anemometer used by ,sir ,christopher ,wren 7the ,leonardo da ,vinci of his age7 to register the velocity of the wind4 ,a third committee devoted itself to agriculture1 and in the ,society's museum were collected products and curiosities of the shop1 mine1 sea1 etc4 ,one ,fellow advised that attention should be paid even to the least and plainest of phenomena1 as otherwise they might learn the romance of nature rather than its true history4 ,so bent were they on preserving a spirit of simplicity and straightforwardness that in their sober discussions they sought to employ the language of artisans1 countrymen1 and merchants rather than that of wits and scholars4 ,of course there was in the ,society a predominance of gentlemen of means and leisure1 free and unconfined4 ,their presence was thought to serve a double purpose4 ,it checked the tendency to sacrifice the search of truth to immediate profit1 and to lay such emphasis on application1 as1 in the words of a subsequent president of the ,society1 would make truth1 and wisdom1 and knowledge of no importance for their own sakes4 ,in the second place their presence was held to check dogmatism on the part of the leaders1 and subservience on the part of their followers4 ,they understood how difficult it is to transmit knowledge without putting initiative in jeopardy and that quiet intellect is easily dismayed in the presence of bold speech4 ,the ,society accepted the authority of no one1 and adopted as its motto ,nullius in ,verba4 ,in this attitude they were aided by their subject and method4 ,search for scientific truth by laboratory procedure does not favor dogmatism4 ,the early meetings were taken up with experiments and discussions4 ,the ,fellows recognized that the mental powers are raised to a higher degree in company than in solitude4 ,they welcomed diversity of view and the common-sense judgment of the onlooker4 ,as in the ,civil ,war the private citizen had held his own with the professional soldier1 so here the contribution of the amateur to the discussion was not to be despised4 ,they had been taught to shun all forms of narrowness and intolerance4 ,they wished to avoid the pedantry of the mere scholar1 and the allied states of mind to which all individuals are liable2 they valued the concurring testimony of the well-informed assembly4 ,in the investigation of truth by the experimental method they even arrived at the view that true experimenting has this one thing inseparable from it1 never to be a fixed and settled art1 and never to be limited by constant rules4 ,in its incipience at least it is evident that the ,royal ,society was filled with the spirit of tolerance and coperation1 and was singularly free from the spirit of envy and faction4 ,not least important of the joint labors of the ,society were its publications1 which established contacts and stimulated research throughout the scientific world4 ,besides the ,philosophical ,transactions1 which1 since their first appearance in #affe1 are the most important source of information concerning the development of modern science1 the ,royal ,society printed many important works1 among which the following will indicate its early achievements3-- ,hooke1 ,robert1 ,micrographia3 or some ,physiological ,descriptions of ,minute ,bodies made by ,magnifying ,glasses4 #affe4 ,graunt1 ,john1 ,natural and ,political ,observations 444 made upon the ,bills of ,mortality1 with reference to the ,government1 ,religion1 ,trade1 ,growth1 ,air1 ,diseases1 and the several changes of the ,city4 #c;d edition1 #affe4 ,sprat1 ,thomas1 ,the ,history of the ,royal ,society of ,london1 for the ,improving of ,natural ,knowledge4 #affg4 ,malpighi1 ,marcello1 ,dissertatio epistolica de ,bombyce2 ,societati ,regi ,londini dicata4 #affi4 7,on the silkworm47 ,evelyn1 ,john1 ,sylva1 or a ,discourse of ,forest ,trees4 #afgj4 ,horrocks1 ,jeremiah1 ,opera ,astronomica postuma4 #afgc4 ,malpighi1 ,marcello1 ,anatome ,plantarum4 #afge4 ,willughby1 ,francis1 ,ornithology 7revised by ,john ,ray74 #afgf4 ,evelyn1 ,john1 ,a ,philosophical ,discourse of ,earth1 relating to the ,culture and ,improvement of it for ,vegetation4 #afgf4 ,grew1 ,nehemiah1 ,the ,anatomy of ,plants4 #afhb4 ,willughby1 ,f41 ,historia ,piscium4 #afhf4 ,ray1 ,john1 ,historia ,plantarum4 #b vols41 #afhf-hh4 ,flamsteed1 ,john1 ,tide-,table for #afhg4 ,newton1 ,isaac1 ,philosophi ,naturalis ,principia ,mathematica4 ,autore ,is4 ,newton4 ,imprimatur3 ,s4 ,pepys1 ,reg4 ,soc4 ,prses4 ,julii #e1 #afhf4 #dto4 ,londini1 #afhg4 ,after the ,society had ordered that ,newton's ,mathematical ,principles of ,natural ,philosophy should be printed1 it was found that the funds had been exhausted by the publication of ,willughby's book on fishes4 ,it was accordingly agreed that ,halley should undertake the business of looking after it1 and printing it at his own charge1 which he had engaged to do4 ,shortly after1 the ,president of the ,royal ,society1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,pepys1 was desired to license ,mr4 ,newton's book4 ,it was not merely by defraying the expense of publication that ,halley contributed to the success of the ,principia4 ,he1 ,wren1 ,hooke1 and other ,fellows of the ,royal ,society1 concluded in #afhd that if ,kepler's third law were true1 then the attraction exerted on the different planets would vary inversely as the square of the distance4 ,what1 then1 would be the orbit of a planet under a central attraction varying as the inverse square of the distance8 ,halley found that ,newton had already determined that the form of the orbit would be an ellipse4 ,newton had been occupied with the problem of gravitation for about eighteen years1 but until ,halley induced him to do so1 had hesitated1 on account of certain unsettled points1 to publish his results4 ,he writes3 ,i began 7#afff7 to think of gravity extending to the orb of the moon1 444 and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth1 and found them answer pretty nearly4 ,as early as ,march of that same year ,hooke had communicated to the ,society an account of experiments in reference to the force of gravity at different distances from the surface of the earth1 either upwards or downwards4 ,at this and at every point in ,newton's discovery the records of co-workers are to be found4 ,by ,flamsteed1 the first ,royal ,astronomer1 were supplied more accurate data for the determination of planetary orbits4 ,to ,huygens ,newton was indebted for the laws of centrifugal force4 ,two doubts had made his meticulous mind pause--one1 of the accuracy of the data in reference to the measurement of the meridian1 another1 of the attraction of a spherical shell upon an external point4 ,in the first matter the ,royal ,society1 as we have seen1 had been long interested1 and ,picard1 who had worked on the measurement of the earth under the auspices of the ,acadmie des ,sciences1 brought his results1 which came to the attention of ,newton1 before the ,royal ,society in #afgb4 ,the second difficulty was solved by ,newton himself in #afhe1 when he proved that a series of concentric spherical shells would act on an external point as if their mass were concentrated at the center4 ,for his calculations henceforth the planets and stars1 comets and all other bodies are points acted on by lines of force1 and ,every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force varying inversely as the square of their mutual distances1 and directly as the mass of the attracting particle4 ,he deduced from this law that the earth must be flattened at the poles2 he determined the orbit of the moon and of comets2 he explained the precession of the equinoxes1 the semi-diurnal tides1 the ratio of the mass of the moon and the earth1 of the sun and the earth1 etc4 ,no wonder that ,laplace considered that ,newton's ,principia was assured a preminence above all the other productions of the human intellect4 ,it is no detraction from ,newton's merit to say that ,halley1 ,hooke1 ,wren1 ,huygens1 ,bulliau1 ,picard1 and many other contemporaries 7not to mention ,kepler and his predecessors71 as well as the organizations in which they were units1 share the glory of the result which they coperated to achieve4 ,on the contrary1 he seems much more conspicuous in the social firmament because1 in spite of the austerity and seeming independence of his genius1 he formed part of a system1 and was under its law4 ,illustration3 ,portrait by ,john ,van der ,bank ,by permission of ,w4 ,a4 ,maxwell ,co4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton ,shortly after the founding of the ,royal ,society1 correspondence1 for which a committee was appointed1 had been adopted as a means of gaining the coperation of men and societies elsewhere4 ,sir ,john ,moray1 as ,president1 wrote to ,monsieur de ,monmort1 around whom1 after the death of ,mersenne1 the scientific coterie in ,paris had gathered4 ,this group of men1 which toward the close of the seventeenth century regarded itself1 not unnaturally1 as the parent society1 was in #afff definitely organized as the ,acadmie ,royale des ,sciences4 ,finally1 ,leibnitz1 who had been a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society as early as #afgc1 and had spent years in the service of the ,dukes of ,brunswick1 was instrumental in the establishment in #agjj of the ,prussian ,akademie der ,wissenschaften at ,berlin4 ,,references ,sir ,david ,brewster1 ,memoirs of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,e4 ,conradi1 ,learned ,societies and ,academies in ,early ,times1 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 vol4 ,,xii 7#aije71 pp4 #chd-dbf4 ,abraham ,cowley1 ,a ,proposition for the ,advancement of ,experimental ,philosophy4 ,d4 ,masson1 ,life of ,milton4 ,vol4 ,,iii1 chap4 ,,ii4 ,thomas ,sprat1 ,the ,history of the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,the ,record of the ,royal ,society 7third edition1 #aiab74 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,struggle ,,for ,,liberty--,,benjamin ,,franklin ,of the ,fellows of the ,royal ,society1 ,benjamin ,franklin 7#agjf-agij7 is the most representative of that age of enlightenment which had its origin in ,newton's ,principia4 ,franklin represents the eighteenth century in his steadfast pursuit of intellectual1 social1 and political emancipation4 ,and in his long fight1 calmly waged1 against the forces of want1 superstition1 and intolerance1 such as still hamper the development of aspiring youth in ,america1 ,england1 and elsewhere1 he found science no mean ally4 ,there is some reason for believing that the ,franklins 7francus--free7 were of a free line1 free from that vassalage to an overlord1 which in the different countries of ,europe did not cease to exist with the ,middle ,ages4 ,for hundreds of years they had lived obscurely near ,northampton4 ,they had early joined the revolt against the papal authority4 ,for generations they were blacksmiths and husbandmen4 ,franklin's great-grandfather had been imprisoned for writing satirical verses about some provincial magnate4 ,of the grandfather's four sons the eldest became a smith1 but having some ingenuity and scholarly ability turned conveyancer1 and was recognized as able and public-spirited4 ,the other three were dyers4 ,franklin's father ,josiah and his ,uncle ,benjamin were nonconformists1 and conceived the plan of emigrating to ,america in order to enjoy their way of religion with freedom4 ,benjamin1 born at ,boston1 twenty-one years after his father's emigration1 was the youngest of ten sons1 all of whom were eventually apprenticed to trades4 ,the father was a man of sound judgment who encouraged sensible conversation in his home4 ,uncle ,benjamin1 who did not emigrate till much later1 showed interest in his precocious namesake4 ,both he and the maternal grandfather expressed in verse dislike of war and intolerance1 the one with considerable literary skill1 the other with a good deal of decent plainness and manly freedom1 as his grandson said4 ,benjamin was intended as a tithe to the ,church1 but the plan was abandoned because of lack of means to send him to college4 ,after one year at the ,latin ,grammar ,school1 and one year at an arithmetic and writing school1 for better or worse1 his education of that sort ceased2 and at the age of ten he began to assist in his father's occupation1 now that of tallow-chandler and soap-boiler4 ,he wished to go to sea1 and gave indications of leadership and enterprise4 ,his father took him to visit the shops of joiners1 bricklayers1 turners1 braziers1 cutlers1 and other artisans1 thus stimulating in him a delight in handicraft4 ,finally1 because of a bookish turn he had been exhibiting1 the boy was bound apprentice to his brother ,james1 who about #agbj began to publish the ,new ,england ,courant1 the fourth newspaper to be established in ,america4 ,among the books early read by ,benjamin ,franklin were ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 certain historical collections1 a book on navigation1 works of ,protestant controversy1 ,plutarch's ,lives1 filled with the spirit of ,greek freedom1 ,dr4 ,mather's ,bonifacius1 and ,defoe's ,essay on ,projects4 ,the last two seemed to give him a way of thinking1 to adopt ,franklin's phraseology1 that had an influence on some of the principal events of his life4 ,defoe1 an ardent nonconformist1 educated in one of the ,academies 7established on ,milton's model7 and especially trained in ,english and current history1 advocated among other projects a military academy1 an academy for improving the vernacular1 and an academy for women4 ,he thought it barbarous that a civilized and ,christian country should deny the advantages of learning to women4 ,they should be brought to read books and especially history4 ,defoe could not think that ,god ,almighty had made women so glorious1 with souls capable of the same accomplishments with men1 and all to be only stewards of our houses1 cooks1 and slaves4 ,benjamin still had a hankering for the sea1 but he recognized in the printing-office and access to books other means of escape from the narrowness of the ,boston of #agbj4 ,between him and another bookish boy1 ,john ,collins1 arose an argument in reference to the education of women4 ,the argument took the form of correspondence4 ,josiah ,franklin's judicious criticism led ,benjamin to undertake the well-known plan of developing his literary style4 ,passing over his reading of the ,spectator1 however1 it is remarkable how soon his mind sought out and assimilated its appropriate nourishment1 ,locke's ,essay on the ,human ,understanding1 which began the modern epoch in psychology2 the ,port ,royal ,logic1 prepared by that brilliant group of noble ,catholics about ,pascal2 the works of ,locke's disciple ,collins1 whose ,discourse on ,freethinking appeared in #agac2 the ethical writings 7#agjh-agac7 of ,shaftesbury1 who defended liberty and justice1 and detested all persecution4 ,a few pages of translation of ,xenophon's ,memorabilia gave him a hint as to ,socrates' manner of discussion1 and he made it his own1 and avoided dogmatism4 ,franklin rapidly became expert as a printer1 and early contributed articles to the paper4 ,his brother1 however1 to whom he had been bound apprentice for a period of nine years1 humiliated and beat him4 ,benjamin thought that the harsh and tyrannical treatment he received at this time was the means of impressing him with that aversion to arbitrary power that stuck to him through his whole life4 ,he had a strong desire to escape from his bondage1 and1 after five years of servitude1 found the opportunity4 ,james ,franklin1 on account of some offensive utterances in the ,new ,england ,courant1 was summoned before the ,council and sent to jail for one month1 during which time ,benjamin1 in charge of the paper1 took the side of his brother and made bold to give the rulers some rubs4 ,later1 ,james was forbidden to publish the paper without submitting to the supervision of the ,secretary of the ,province4 ,to evade the difficulty the ,new ,england ,courant was published in ,benjamin's name1 ,james announcing his own retirement4 ,in fear that this subterfuge might be challenged1 he gave ,benjamin a discharge of his indentures1 but at the same time signed with him a new secret contract4 ,fresh quarrels arose between the brothers1 however1 and ,benjamin1 knowing that the editor dared not plead before court the second contract1 took upon himself to assert his freedom1 a step which he later regretted as not dictated by the highest principle4 ,unable to find other employment in ,boston1 condemned by his father's judgment in the matter of the contract1 somewhat under public criticism also for his satirical vein and heterodoxy1 ,franklin determined to try his fortunes elsewhere4 ,thus1 at the age of seventeen he made his escape from ,boston4 ,unable to find work in ,new ,york1 he arrived after some difficulties in ,philadelphia in ,october1 #agbc4 ,he had brought no recommendations from ,boston2 his supply of money was reduced to one ,dutch dollar and a shilling in copper4 ,but he that hath a ,trade hath an ,estate 7as ,poor ,richard says74 ,his capital was his industry1 his skill as a printer1 his good-will1 his shrewd powers of observation1 his knowledge of books1 and ability to write4 ,franklin1 recognized as a promising young man by the ,governor1 ,sir ,william ,keith1 as previously by ,governor ,burnet of ,new ,york1 had a growing sense of personal freedom and self-reliance4 ,but increased freedom for those who deserve it means increased responsibility2 for it implies the possibility of error4 ,franklin1 intent above all on the wise conduct of life1 was deeply perturbed in his nineteenth and twentieth years by a premature engagement1 in which his ever-passionate nature had involved him1 by his failure to pay over money collected for a friend1 and by the unsettled state of his religious and ethical beliefs4 ,encouraged by ,keith to purchase the equipment for an independent printing-office1 ,franklin1 though unable to gain his father's support for the project1 went to ,london 7for the ostensible purpose of selecting the stock7 at the close of the year #agbd4 ,he remained in ,london a year and a half1 working in two of the leading printing establishments of the metropolis1 where his skill and reliability were soon prized4 ,he found the ,english artisans of that time great guzzlers of beer1 and influenced some of his co-workers to adopt his own more abstinent and hygienic habits of eating and drinking4 ,about this time a book1 ,religion of ,nature ,delineated1 by ,william ,wollaston 7great-grandfather of the scientist ,wollaston7 so roused ,franklin's opposition that he wrote a reply1 which he printed in pamphlet form before leaving ,london in #agbf1 and the composition of which he afterwards regretted4 ,he returned to ,philadelphia in the employ of a ,quaker merchant1 on whose death he resumed work as printer under his former employer4 ,he was given control of the office1 undertook to make his own type1 contrived a copper-plate press1 the first in ,america1 and printed paper money for ,new ,jersey4 ,the substance of some lectures in defense of ,christianity1 in courses endowed by the will of ,robert ,boyle1 made ,franklin a ,deist4 ,at the same time his views on moral questions were clarified1 and he came to recognize that truth1 sincerity1 and integrity were of the utmost importance to the felicity of life4 ,what he had attained by his own independent thought rendered him ultimately more careful rather than more reckless4 ,he now set value on his own character1 and resolved to preserve it4 ,in #agbg1 still only twenty-one1 he drew together a number of young men in a sort of club1 called the ,junto1 for mutual benefit in business and for the discussion of morals1 politics1 and natural philosophy4 ,they professed tolerance1 benevolence1 love of truth4 ,they discussed the effect on business of the issue of paper money1 various natural phenomena1 and kept a sharp look-out for any encroachment on the rights of the people4 ,it is not unnatural to find that in a year or two 7#agbi71 after ,franklin and a friend had established a printing business of their own and acquired the ,pennsylvania ,gazette1 the young politician championed the cause of the ,massachusetts ,assembly against the claims first put forward by ,governor ,burnet1 and that he used spirited language referring to ,america as a nation and clime foreign to ,england4 ,in #agcj ,franklin bought out his partner1 and in the same year published dialogues in the ,socratic manner in reference to virtue and pleasure1 which show a rapid development in his general views4 ,about the same time he married1 restored the money that had long been owing1 and formulated his ethical code and religious creed4 ,he began in #agcb the ,poor ,richard ,almanacks1 said to offer in their homely wisdom the best course in existence in practical morals4 ,as early as #agbi ,franklin had published a pamphlet on ,paper ,currency4 ,it was a well-reasoned discussion on the relation of the issue of paper currency to rate of interest1 land values1 manufactures1 population1 and wages4 ,the want of money discouraged laboring and handicraftsmen4 ,one must consider the nature and value of money in general4 ,this essay accomplished its purpose in the ,assembly4 ,it was the first of those contributions which1 arising from ,franklin's consideration of the social and industrial circumstances of the times1 gained for him recognition as the first ,american economist4 ,it was in the same spirit that in #agea he discussed the question of population after the passage of the ,british ,act forbidding the erection or the operation of iron or steel mills in the colonies4 ,science for ,franklin was no extraneous interest2 he was all of a piece1 and it was as a citizen of ,philadelphia he wrote those essays that commanded the attention of ,adam ,smith1 ,malthus1 and ,turgot4 ,in #agca he was instrumental in founding the first of those public libraries1 which 7along with a free press7 have made ,american tradesmen and farmers as intelligent1 in ,franklin's judgment1 as most gentlemen from other countries1 and contributed to the spirit with which they defended their liberties4 ,the diffusion of knowledge became so general in the colonies that in #agff ,franklin was able to tell the ,english legislators that the seeds of liberty were universally found there and that nothing could eradicate them4 ,franklin became clerk of the ,general ,assembly and postmaster1 improved the paving and lighting of the city streets1 and established the first fire brigade and the first police force in ,america4 ,then in #agdc in the same spirit of public beneficence ,franklin put forth his ,proposal for ,promoting ,useful ,knowledge among the ,british ,plantations in ,america4 ,it outlines his plan for the establishment of the ,american ,philosophical ,society4 ,correspondence had already been established with the ,royal ,society of ,london4 ,it is not difficult to see in ,franklin the same spirit that had animated ,hartlib1 ,boyle1 ,petty1#b ,wilkins1 and their friends one hundred years before4 ,in fact1 ,franklin was the embodiment of that union of scientific ideas and practical skill in the industries that with them was merely a pious wish4 ,in this same year of #agdc an eclipse of the moon1 which could not be seen at ,philadelphia on account of a northeast storm1 was yet visible at ,boston1 where the storm came1 as ,franklin learned from his brother1 about an hour after the time of observation4 ,franklin1 who knew something of fireplaces1 explained the matter thus3 ,when ,i have a fire in my chimney1 there is a current of air constantly flowing from the door to the chimney1 but the beginning of the motion was at the chimney4 ,so in a mill-race1 water stopped by a gate is like air in a calm4 ,when the gate is raised1 the water moves forward1 but the motion1 so to speak1 runs backward4 ,thus the principle was established in meteorology that northeast storms arise to the southwest4 ,no doubt ,franklin was not oblivious of the practical value of this discovery1 for1 as ,sir ,humphry ,davy remarked1 he in no instance exhibited that false dignity1 by which philosophy is kept aloof from common applications4 ,in fact1 ,franklin was rather apologetic in reference to the magic squares and circles1 with which he sometimes amused his leisure1 as a sort of ingenious trifling4 ,at the very time that the question of the propagation of storms arose in his mind he had contrived the ,pennsylvania fireplace1 which was to achieve cheap1 adequate1 and uniform heating for ,american homes4 ,his aspiration was for a free people1 well sheltered1 well fed1 well clad1 well instructed4 ,in #agdg ,franklin made what is generally considered his chief contribution to science4 ,one of his correspondents1 ,collinson 7a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society and a botanist interested in useful plants1 through whom the vine was introduced into ,virginia71 had sent to the ,library ,company at ,philadelphia one of the recently invented ,leyden jars with instructions for its use4 ,franklin1 who had already seen similar apparatus at ,boston1 and his friends1 set to work experimenting4 ,for months he had leisure for nothing else4 ,in this sort of activity he had a spontaneous and irrepressible delight4 ,by ,march1 #agdg1 they felt that they had made discoveries1 and in ,july1 and subsequently1 ,franklin reported results to ,collinson4 ,he had observed that a pointed rod brought near the jar was much more efficacious than a blunt rod in drawing off the charge2 also that if a pointed rod were attached to the jar1 the charge would be thrown off1 and accumulation of charge prevented4 ,franklin1 moreover1 found that the nature of the charges on the inside and on the outside of the glass was different4 ,he spoke of one as plus and the other as minus4 ,again1 ,we say ,b 7and bodies like-circumstanced7 is electricized positively2 ,a negatively4 ,dufay had recognized two sorts of electricity1 obtained by rubbing a glass rod and a stick of resin1 and had spoken of them as vitreous and resinous4 ,for ,franklin electricity was a single subtle fluid1 and electrical manifestations were owing to the degree of its presence1 to interruption or restoration of equilibrium4 ,his mind1 however1 was bent on the use1 the applications1 the inventions1 to follow4 ,he contrived an electric jack driven by two ,leyden jars and capable of carrying a large fowl with a motion fit for roasting before a fire4 ,he also succeeded in driving an automatic wheel by electricity1 but he regretted not being able to turn his discoveries to greater account4 ,he thought later--in #agdh--that there were many points of similarity between lightning and the spark from a ,leyden jar1 and suggested an experiment to test the identity of their natures4 ,the suggestion was acted upon at ,marly in ,france4 ,an iron rod about forty feet long and sharp at the end was placed upright in the hope of drawing electricity from the storm-clouds4 ,a man was instructed to watch for storm-clouds1 and to touch a brass wire1 attached to a glass bottle1 to the rod4 ,the conditions seemed favorable ,may #aj1 #ageb2 sparks between the wire and rod and a sulphurous odor were perceived 7the manifestations of wrath674 ,franklin's well-known kite experiment followed4 ,in #agec he received from the ,royal ,society a medal for the identification and control of the forces of lightning2 subsequently he was elected ,fellow1 became a member of the ,acadmie des ,sciences1 and of other learned bodies4 ,by #aghb there were as many as four hundred lightning rods in use in ,philadelphia alone1 though some conservative people regarded their employment as impious4 ,franklin's good-will1 clearness of conception1 and common sense triumphed everywhere4 ,one has only to recall that in #agec he 7along with ,hunter7 was in charge of the postal service of the colonies1 that in #aged as delegate to the ,albany ,convention he drew up the first plan for colonial union1 and that in the following year he furnished ,braddock with transportation for the expedition against ,fort ,duquesne1 to realize the distractions amid which he pursued science4 ,in #agdh he had sold his printing establishment with the purpose of devoting himself to physical experiment1 but the conditions of the time saved him from specialization4 ,in #agdi he drew up proposals relating to the education of youth in ,pennsylvania1 which led1 two years later1 to the establishment of the first ,american ,academy4 ,his plan was so advanced1 so democratic1 springing as it did from his own experience1 that no secondary school has yet taken full advantage of its wisdom4 ,the school1 chartered in #agec1 grew ultimately into the ,university of ,pennsylvania4 ,moreover1 it became the prototype of thousands of schools1 which departed from the ,latin ,grammar ,schools and the ,colleges by the introduction of the sciences and practical studies into the curriculum4 ,franklin deserves mention not only in connection with economics1 meteorology1 practical ethics1 electricity1 and pedagogy2 his biographer enumerates nineteen sciences to which he made original contributions or which he advanced by intelligent criticism4 ,in medicine he invented bifocal lenses and founded the first ,american public hospital2 in navigation he studied the ,gulf ,stream and waterspouts1 and suggested the use of oil in storms and the construction of ships with water-tight compartments2 in agriculture he experimented with plaster of ,paris as a fertilizer and introduced in ,america the use of rhubarb2 in chemistry he aided ,priestley's experiments by information in reference to marsh gas4 ,he foresaw the employment of air craft in war4 ,thinking the ,english slow to take up the interest in balloons1 he wrote that we should not suffer pride to prevent our progress in science4 ,pride that dines on vanity sups on contempt1 as ,poor ,richard says4 ,when it was mentioned in his presence that birds fly in inclined planes1 he launched a half sheet of paper to indicate that his previous observations had prepared his mind to respond readily to the discovery4 ,his quickness and versatility made him sought after by the best intellects of ,europe4 ,i pass over his analysis of mesmerism1 his conception of light as dependent 7like lightning7 on a subtle fluid1 his experiments with colored cloths1 his view of the nature of epidemic colds1 interest in inoculation for smallpox1 in ventilation1 vegetarianism1 a stove to consume its own smoke1 the steamboat1 and his own inventions 7clock1 harmonica1 etc471 for which he refused to take out patents4 ,however1 from the many examples of his scientific acumen ,i select one more4 ,as early as #agdg he had been interested in geology and had seen specimens of the fossil remains of marine shells from the strata of the highest parts of the ,alleghany ,mountains4 ,later he stated that either the sea had once stood at a higher level1 or that these strata had been raised by the force of earthquakes4 ,such convulsions of nature are not wholly injurious1 since1 by bringing a great number of strata of different kinds today1 they have rendered the earth more fit for use1 more capable of being to mankind a convenient and comfortable habitation4 ,he thought it unlikely that a great bouleversement should happen if the earth were solid to the center4 ,rather the surface of the globe was a shell resting on a fluid of very great specific gravity1 and was thus capable of being broken and disordered by violent movement4 ,as late as #aghh ,franklin wrote his queries and conjectures relating to magnetism and the theory of the earth4 ,did the earth become magnetic by the development of iron ore8 ,is not magnetism rather interplanetary and interstellar8 ,may not the near passing of a comet of greater magnetic force than the earth have been a means of changing its poles and thereby wrecking and deranging its surface1 and raising and depressing the sea level8 ,we are not here directly concerned with his political career1 in his checking of governors and proprietaries1 in his activities as the greatest of ,american diplomats1 as the signer of the ,declaration of ,independence1 of the ,treaty of ,versailles1 and of the ,american ,constitution1 nor as the president of the ,supreme ,executive ,council of ,pennsylvania in his eightieth1 eighty-first1 and eighty-second years4 ,when he was eighty-four1 as president of the ,society for ,promoting the ,abolition of ,slavery1 he signed a petition to ,congress against that atrocious debasement of human nature1 and six weeks later1 within a few weeks of his death1 defended the petition with his accustomed vigor1 humor1 wisdom1 and ardent love of liberty4 ,turgot wittily summed up ,franklin's career by saying that he had snatched the lightning from the heavens and the scepter from the hands of tyrants 7eripuit clo fulmen sceptrumque tyrannis72 for both his political and scientific activities sprang from the same impelling emotion--hatred of the exercise of arbitrary power and desire for human welfare4 ,it is no wonder that the ,french ,national ,assembly1 promulgators of the ,rights of ,man1 paused in their labors to pay homage to the simple citizen1 who1 representing ,america in ,paris from his seventy-first till his eightieth year1 had by his wisdom and urbanity illustrated the best fruits of an instructed democracy4 ,,references ,american ,philosophical ,society1 ,record of the ,celebration of the ,two ,hundredth ,anniversary of the ,birth of ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,s4 ,g4 ,fisher1 ,the ,true ,benjamin ,franklin4 ,paul ,l4 ,ford1 ,many-sided ,franklin4 ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,complete ,works1 edited by ,a4 ,h4 ,smyth1 ten volumes1 vol4 ,x containing biography4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,see ,the ,advice of ,w4 ,p4 to ,mr4 ,samuel ,hartlib for the ,advancement of some ,particular ,parts of ,learning1 in which is advocated a ,gymnasium ,mechanicum or a ,college of ,tradesmen with fellowships for experts4 ,petty wanted trade encyclopedias prepared1 and hoped for inventions in abundance4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,interaction ,,of ,,the ,,sciences--,,werner1 ,,hutton1 ,,black1 ,,hall1 ,,william ,,smith ,the view expressed by ,franklin regarding the existence of a fiery mass underlying the crust of the earth was not in his time universally accepted4 ,in fact1 it was a question very vigorously disputed what part the internal or volcanic fire played in the formation and modification of rock masses4 ,divergent views were represented by men who had come to the study of geology with varying aims and diverse scientific schooling1 and the advance of the science of the earth's crust was owing in no small measure to the interaction of the different sciences which the exponents of the various points of view brought to bear4 ,abraham ,gottlob ,werner 7#agej-ahag7 was the most conspicuous and influential champion on the side of the argument opposed to the acceptance of volcanic action as one of the chief causes of geologic formations4 ,he was born in ,saxony and came of a family which had engaged for three hundred years in mining and metal working4 ,they were active in ,saxony when ,george ,agricola prepared his famous works on metallurgy and mineralogy inspired by the traditional wisdom of the local iron industry4 ,werner's father was an overseer of iron-works1 and furnished his son with mineral specimens as playthings before the child could pronounce their names4 ,in #agfi ,werner was invited to attend the newly founded ,bergakademie 7,school of ,mines7 at ,freiberg4 ,three years later he went to the ,university of ,leipzig1 but1 true to his first enthusiasm1 wrote in #aggd concerning the outward characteristics of minerals 7,von den usserlichen ,kennzeichen der ,fossilien74 ,the next year he was recalled to ,freiberg as teacher of mineralogy and curator of collections4 ,he was intent on classification1 and might be compared in that respect with the naturalist ,buffon1 or the botanist ,linnus4 ,he knew that chemistry afforded a surer1 but slower1 procedure2 his was a practical1 intuitive1 field method4 ,he observed the color1 the hardness1 weight1 fracture of minerals1 and experienced the joy the youthful mind feels in rapid identification4 ,he translated ,cronstedt's book on mineralogy descriptive of the practical blow-pipe tests4 ,after the identification of minerals1 ,werner was interested in their discovery1 the location of deposits1 their geographical distribution1 and the relative positions of different kinds of rocks1 especially the constant juxtaposition or superposition of one stratum in relation to another4 ,werner was an eloquent1 systematic teacher with great charm of manner4 ,he kept in mind the practical purposes of mining1 and soon people flocked to ,freiberg to hear him from all the quarters of ,europe4 ,he had before long disciples in every land4 ,he saw all phenomena from the standpoint of the geologist4 ,he knew the medicinal1 as well as the economic1 value of minerals4 ,he knew the relation of the soil to the rocks1 and the effects of both on racial characteristics4 ,building-stone determines style of architecture4 ,mountains and river-courses have bearing on military tactics4 ,he turned his linguistic knowledge to account and furnished geology with a definite nomenclature4 ,alex4 v4 ,humboldt1 ,robert ,jameson1 ,d',aubuisson1 ,weiss 7the teacher of ,froebel71 were among his students4 ,crystallography and mineralogy became the fashion4 ,goethe was among the enthusiasts1 and philosophers like ,schelling1 under the spell of the new science1 almost deified the physical universe4 ,werner considered all rocks as having originated by crystallization1 either chemical or mechanical1 from an aqueous solution--a universal primitive ocean4 ,he was a ,neptunist1 as opposed to the ,vulcanists or ,plutonists1 who believed in the existence of a central fiery mass4 ,werner thought that the earth showed universal strata like the layers of an onion1 the mountains being formed by erosion1 subsidence1 cavings-in4 ,in his judgment granite was a primitive rock formed previous to animal and vegetable life 7hence without organic remains7 by chemical precipitation4 ,silicious slate was formed later by mechanical crystallization4 ,at this period organized fossils first appear4 ,sedimentary rocks1 like old red sandstone1 and1 according to ,werner1 basalt1 are in a third class4 ,drift1 sand1 rubble1 boulders1 come next2 and finally volcanic products1 like lava1 ashes1 pumice4 ,he was quite positive that all basalt was of aqueous origin and of quite recent formation4 ,this part of his teaching was soon challenged4 ,he was truer to his own essential purposes in writing a valuable treatise on metalliferous veins 7,die ,neue ,theorie der ,erzgnge71 but even there his general views are apparent1 for he holds that veins are clefts filled in from above by crystallization from aqueous solution4 ,before ,werner had begun his teaching career at ,freiberg1 ,desmarest1 the ,french geologist1 had made a special study of the basalts of ,auvergne4 ,as a mathematician he was able to make a trigonometrical survey of that district1 and constructed a map showing the craters of volcanoes of different ages1 the streams of lava following the river courses1 and the relation of basalt to lava1 scoria1 ashes1 and other recognized products of volcanic action4 ,in #aghh he was made inspector-general of ,french manufactures1 later superintendent of the porcelain works at ,svres4 ,he lived to the age of ninety1 and whenever ,neptunists would try to draw him into argument1 the old man would simply say1 ,go and see4 ,james ,hutton 7#agbf-agig71 the illustrious ,scotch geologist1 had something of the same aversion to speculation that did not rest on evidence2 though he was eminently a philosopher in the strictest sense of the word1 as his three quarto volumes on the ,principles of ,knowledge bear witness4 ,hutton was well trained at ,edinburgh in the ,high ,school and ,university4 ,in a lecture on logic an illustrative reference to aqua regia turned his mind to the study of chemistry4 ,he engaged in experiments1 and ultimately made a fortune by a process for the manufacture of sal ammoniac from coal-soot4 ,in the mean time he studied medicine at ,edinburgh1 ,paris1 and ,leyden1 and continued the pursuit of chemistry4 ,then1 having inherited land in ,berwickshire1 he studied husbandry in ,norfolk and took interest in the surface of the land and water-courses2 later he pursued these studies in ,flanders4 ,during years of highly successful farming1 during which ,hutton introduced new methods in ,berwickshire1 he was interested in meteorology1 and in geology as related to soils4 ,in #agfh1 financially independent1 ,dr4 ,hutton retired to reside in ,edinburgh4 ,he was very genial and sociable and was in close association with ,adam ,smith1 the economist1 and with ,black1 known in the history of chemistry in connection with carbonic acid1 latent heat1 and experiments in magnesia1 quicklime1 and other alkaline substances 7#aggg74 ,playfair1 professor of mathematics1 and later of natural philosophy1 was ,hutton's disciple and intimate friend4 ,in the distinguished company of the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 established in #aghb1 the founder of dynamic geology was stimulated by these and other distinguished men like ,william ,robertson1 ,lord ,kames1 and ,watt4 ,the first volume of the ,transactions contains his ,theory of ,rains1 and the first statement of his famous ,theory of the ,earth4 ,he was very broad-minded and enthusiastic and would rejoice in ,watt's improvements of the steam engine or ,cook's discoveries in the ,south ,pacific4 ,without emphasizing his indebtedness to ,horace-,bndict de ,saussure1 physicist1 geologist1 meteorologist1 botanist1 who gave to ,europeans an appreciation of the sublime in nature1 nor dwelling further on the range of ,hutton's studies in language1 general physics1 etc41 it is already made evident that his mind was such as to afford comprehensiveness of view4 ,he expressed the wish to induce men who had sufficient knowledge of the particular branches of science1 to employ their acquired talents in promoting general science1 or knowledge of the great system1 where ends and means are wisely adjusted in the constitution of the material universe4 ,philosophy1 he says1 is surely the ultimate end of human knowledge1 or the object at which all sciences properly must aim4 ,sciences no doubt should promote the arts of life2 but1 he proceeds1 what are all the arts of life1 or all the enjoyments of mere animal nature1 compared with the art of human happiness1 gained by education and brought to perfection by philosophy8 ,man must learn to know himself2 he must see his station among created things2 he must become a moral agent4 ,but it is only by studying things in general that he may arrive at this perfection of his nature4 ,to philosophize1 therefore1 without proper science1 is in vain2 although it is not vain to pursue science1 without proceeding to philosophy4 ,in the early part of #aghe ,dr4 ,hutton presented his ,theory of the ,earth in ninety-six pages of perfectly lucid ,english4 ,the globe is studied as a machine adapted to a certain end1 namely1 to provide a habitable world for plants1 for animals1 and1 above all1 for intellectual beings capable of the contemplation and the appreciation of order and harmony4 ,hutton's theory might be made plain by drawing an analogy between geological and meteorological activities4 ,the rain descends on the earth2 streams and rivers bear it to the sea2 the aqueous vapors1 drawn from the sea1 supply the clouds1 and the circuit is complete4 ,similarly1 the soil is formed from the overhanging mountains2 it is washed as sediment into the sea2 it is elevated1 after consolidation1 into the overhanging mountains4 ,the earth is more than a mechanism1 it is an organism that repairs and restores itself in perpetuity4 ,thus ,hutton explained the composition1 dissolution1 and restoration of land upon the globe on a general principle1 even as ,newton had brought a mass of details under the single law of gravitation4 ,again1 as ,newton had widened man's conception of space1 so ,hutton 7and ,buffon7 enlarged his conception of time4 ,for the geologist did not undertake to explain the origin of things2 he found no vestige of a beginning1--no prospect of an end2 and at the same time he conjured up no hypothetical causes1 no catastrophes1 or sudden convulsions of nature2 neither did he 7like ,werner7 believe that phenomena now present1 were once absent2 but he undertook to explain all geological change by processes in action now as heretofore4 ,countless ages were requisite to form the soil of our smiling valleys1 but ,time1 which measures everything in our idea1 and is often deficient to our schemes1 is to nature endless and as nothing4 ,the calcareous remains of marine animals in the solid body of the earth bear witness of a period to which no other species of chronology is able to remount4 ,hutton's imagination1 on the basis of what can be observed to-day1 pictured the chemical and mechanical disintegration of the rocks2 and saw ice-streams bearing huge granite boulders from the declivities of primitive and more gigantic ,alps4 ,he believed 7as ,desmarest7 that rivulets and rivers have constructed1 and are constructing1 their own valley systems1 and that the denudation ever in progress would be eventually fatal to the sustenance of plant and animal and man1 if the earth were not a renewable organism1 in which repair is correlative with waste4 ,all strata are sedimentary1 consolidated at the bottom of the sea by the pressure of the water and by subterranean heat4 ,how are strata raised from the ocean bed8 ,by the same subterranean force that helped consolidate them4 ,the power of heat for the expansion of bodies1 is1 says ,hutton 7possibly having in mind the steam engine71 so far as we know1 unlimited4 ,we see liquid stone pouring from the crater of a lofty volcano and casting huge rocks into mid-air1 and yet find it difficult to believe that ,vesuvius and ,etna themselves have been formed by volcanic action4 ,the interior of the planet may be a fluid mass1 melted1 but unchanged by the action of heat4 ,the volcanoes are spiracles or safety-valves1 and are widely distributed on the surface of the earth4 ,hutton believed that basalt1 and the whinstones generally1 are of igneous origin4 ,moreover1 he put granite in the same category1 and believed it had been injected1 as also metalliferous veins1 in liquid state into the stratified rocks4 ,if his supposition were correct1 then granite would be found sending out veins from its large masses to pierce the stratified rocks and to crop out where stratum meets stratum4 ,his conjecture was corroborated at ,glen ,tilt 7and in the island of ,arran74 ,hutton was so elated at the verification of his view that the ,scotch guides thought he had struck gold1 or silver at the very least4 ,in the bed of the river ,tilt he could see at six points within half a mile powerful veins of red granite piercing the black micaceous schist and giving every indication of having been intruded from beneath1 with great violence1 into the earlier formation4 ,hutton felt confirmed in his view that in nature there is wisdom1 system1 and consistency4 ,even the volcano and earthquake1 instead of being accidents1 or arbitrary manifestations of divine wrath1 are part of the economy of nature1 and the best clue we have to the stupendous force necessary to heave up the strata1 inject veins of metals and igneous rocks1 and insure a succession of habitable worlds4 ,in #agie ,dr4 ,hutton published a more elaborate statement of his theory in two volumes4 ,in #ahjb ,playfair printed ,illustrations of the ,huttonian ,theory1 a simplification1 having1 naturally1 little originality4 ,before his death in #agig ,hutton devoted his time to reading new volumes by ,saussure on the ,alps1 and to preparing a book on ,the ,elements of ,agriculture4 ,sir ,james ,hall of ,dunglass was a reluctant convert to ,hutton's system of geology4 ,three arguments against the ,huttonian hypothesis gave him cause for doubt4 ,would not matter solidifying after fusion form a glass1 a vitreous1 rather than a crystalline product8 ,why do basalts1 whinstones1 and other supposedly volcanic rocks differ so much in structure from lava8 ,how can marble and other limestones have been fused1 seeing that they are readily calcined by heat8 ,hutton thought that the compression under which the subterranean heat had been applied was a factor in the solution of these problems4 ,he was encouraged in this view by ,black1 who1 as already implied1 had made a special study of limestone and had demonstrated that lime acquires its causticity through the expulsion of carbonic acid4 ,hall conjectured in addition that the rate at which the fused mass cooled might have some bearing on the structure of igneous rocks4 ,an accident in the ,leith glass works strengthened the probability of his conjecture and encouraged him to experiment4 ,a pot of green bottle-glass had been allowed to cool slowly with the result that it had a stony1 rather than a vitreous structure4 ,hall experimenting with glass could secure either structure at will by cooling rapidly or slowly1 and that with the same specimen4 ,he later enclosed some fragments of whinstone in a black-lead crucible and subjected it to intense heat in the reverberating furnace of an iron foundry4 7,he was in consultation with ,mr4 ,wedgwood on the scale of heat1 and with ,dr4 ,hope and ,dr4 ,kennedy1 chemists47 ,after boiling1 and then cooling rapidly1 the contents of the crucible proved a black glass4 ,hall repeated the experiment1 and cooled more slowly4 ,the result was an intermediate substance1 neither glass nor whinstone--a sort of slag4 ,again he heated the crucible in the furnace1 and removed quickly to an open fire1 which was maintained some hours and then permitted to die out4 ,the result in this case was a perfect whinstone4 ,similar results were obtained with regular basalts and different specimens of igneous rock4 ,hall next experimented with lava from ,vesuvius1 ,etna1 ,iceland1 and elsewhere1 and found that it behaved like whinstone4 ,dr4 ,kennedy by careful chemical analysis confirmed ,hall's judgment of the similarity of these two igneous products4 ,still later ,hall introduced chalk and powdered limestone into porcelain tubes1 gun barrels1 and tubes bored in solid iron1 which he sealed and brought to very high temperatures4 ,he obtained1 by fusion1 a crystalline carbonate resembling marble4 ,under the high pressure in the tube the carbonic acid was retained4 ,by these and other experiments this doubting disciple confirmed ,hutton's theory1 and became one of the great founders of experimental geology4 ,it remained for ,william ,smith 7#agfi-ahci71 surveyor and engineer1 to develop that species of chronology that ,hutton had ascribed to organic remains in the solid strata1 to arrange these strata in the order of time1 and thus to become the founder of historic geology4 ,for this task his early education might at first glance seem inadequate4 ,his only schooling was received in an elementary institution in ,oxfordshire4 ,he managed1 however1 to acquire some knowledge of geometry1 and at eighteen entered1 as assistant1 a surveyor's office4 ,he never attained any literary facility1 and was always more successful in conveying his observations by maps1 drawings1 and conversation than by books4 ,however1 he early began his collection of minerals and observed the relation of the soil and the vegetation to the underlying rocks4 ,engaged at the age of twenty-four in taking levelings for a canal1 he noticed that the strata were not exactly horizontal1 but dipped to the east like slices of bread and butter1 a phenomenon he considered of scientific significance4 ,in connection with his calling he had an opportunity of traveling to the north of ,england and so extended the range of his observation1 always exceptionally alert4 ,for six years he was engaged1 as engineer1 in the construction of the ,somerset ,coal ,canal1 where he enlarged and turned to practical account his knowledge of strata4 ,collectors of fossils 7as ,lamarck afterwards called organic remains7 were surprised to find ,smith able to tell in what formation their different specimens had been found1 and still more when he enunciated the view that whatever strata were to be found in any part of ,england the same remains would be found in it and no other4 ,moreover1 the same order of superposition was constant among the strata1 as ,werner1 of whom ,smith knew nothing1 had indeed taught4 ,smith was able to dictate a ,tabular ,view of ,british ,strata from coal to chalk with the characteristic fossils1 establishing an order that was found to obtain on the ,continent of ,europe as well as in ,britain4 ,he constructed geological maps of ,somerset and fourteen other ,english counties1 to which the attention of the ,board of ,agriculture was called4 ,they showed the surface outcrops of strata1 and were intended to be of assistance in mining1 roadmaking1 canal construction1 draining1 and water supply4 ,it was at the time of ,william ,smith's scientific discoveries that the public interest in canal transportation was at its height in ,england1 and his study of the strata was a direct outcome of his professional activity4 ,he called himself a mineral surveyor1 and he traveled many thousand miles yearly in connection with his calling and his interest in the study of geology4 ,in #ahae he completed an extensive geological map of ,england1 on which all subsequent geological maps have been modeled4 ,it took into account the collieries1 mines1 canals1 marshes1 fens1 and the varieties of soil in relation to the substrata4 ,later 7#ahaf-ahai7 ,smith published four volumes1 ,strata ,identified by ,organized ,fossils1 which put on record some of his extensive observations4 ,his mind was practical and little given to speculation4 ,it does not lie in our province here to trace his influence on ,cuvier and other scientists1 but to add his name as a surveyor and engineer to the representatives of mineralogy1 chemistry1 physics1 mathematics1 philosophy1 and various industries and vocations1 which contributed to the early development of modern geology4 ,,references ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 ,founders of ,geology4 ,james ,hutton1 ,theory of the ,earth4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology4 ,john ,playfair1 ,illustrations of the ,huttonian ,theory4 ,k4 ,a4 v4 ,zittel1 ,history of ,geology and ,palontology4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,science ,,and ,,religion--,,kant1 ,,lambert1 ,,laplace1 ,,sir ,,william ,,herschel ,hutton had advanced the study of geology by concentrating attention on the observable phenomena of the earth's crust1 and turning away from speculations about the origin of the world and the relation of this sphere to other units of the cosmos4 ,in the same century1 however1 other scientists and philosophers were attracted by these very problems which seemed not to promise immediate or demonstrative solution1 and through their studies they arrived at conclusions which profoundly affected the science1 the ethics1 and the religion of the civilized world4 ,whether religion be defined as a complex feeling of elation and humility--a sacred fear--akin to the sthetic sense of the sublime2 or1 as an intellectual recognition of some high powers which govern us below--of some author of all things1 of some force social or cosmic which tends to righteousness2 or1 as the outcrop of the moral life touched with light and radiant with enthusiasm2 or1 as partaking of the nature of all these3 it cannot be denied that the eighteenth century contributed to its clarification and formulation1 especially through the efforts of the ,german philosopher1 ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd74 ,yet it is not difficult to show that the philosophy of ,kant and of those associated with him was greatly influenced by the science of the time1 and that1 in fact1 in his early life he was a scientist rather than a philosopher in the stricter sense4 ,his ,general ,natural ,history and ,theory of the ,heavens1 written at the age of thirty-one1 enables us to follow his transition from science to philosophy1 and1 more especially1 to trace the influence of his theory of the origin of the heavenly bodies on his religious conceptions4 ,for part of this theory ,kant was indebted to ,thomas ,wright of ,durham 7#agaa-aghf74 ,wright was the son of a carpenter1 became apprenticed to a watchmaker1 went to sea1 later became an engraver1 a maker of mathematical instruments1 rose to affluence1 wrote a book on navigation1 and was offered a professorship of navigation in the ,imperial ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it was in #agej that he published1 in the form of nine letters1 the work that stimulated the mind of ,kant1 ,an ,original ,theory or ,new ,hypothesis of the ,universe4 ,the author thought that the revelation of the structure of the heavens naturally tended to propagate the principles of virtue and vindicate the laws of ,providence4 ,he regarded the universe as an infinity of worlds acted upon by an eternal ,agent1 and full of beings1 tending through their various states to a final perfection4 ,who1 conscious of this system1 can avoid being filled with a kind of enthusiastic ambition to contribute his atom toward the due admiration of its great and ,divine ,author8 ,wright discussed the nature of mathematical certainty and the various degrees of moral probability proper for conjecture 7thus pointing to a distinction that ultimately became basal in the philosophy of ,kant74 ,when he claimed that the sun is a vast body of blazing matter1 and that the most distant star is also a sun surrounded by a system of planets1 he knew that he was reasoning by analogy and not enunciating what is immediately demonstrable4 ,yet this multitude of worlds opens out to us an immense field of probation and an endless scene of hope to ground our expectation of an ever future happiness upon1 suitable to the native dignity of the awful ,mind which made and comprehended it4 ,the most striking part of ,wright's ,original ,theory relates to the construction of the ,milky ,way1 which he thought analogous in form to the rings of ,saturn4 ,from the center the arrangement of the systems and the harmony of the movements could be discerned1 but our solar system occupies a section of the belt1 and what we see of the creation gives but a confused picture1 unless by an effort of imagination we attain the right point of view4 ,the various cloudy stars or light appearances are nothing but a dense accumulation of stars4 ,what less than infinity can circumscribe them1 less than eternity comprehend them1 or less than ,omnipotence produce or support them8 ,he passes on to a discussion of time and space with regard to the known objects of immensity and duration1 and in the ninth letter says that1 granting the creation to be circular or orbicular1 we can suppose in the center of the whole an intelligent principle1 the to-all-extending eye of ,providence1 or1 if the creation is real1 and not merely ideal1 a sphere of some sort4 ,around this the suns keep their orbits harmoniously1 all apparent irregularities arising from our eccentric view4 ,moreover1 space is sufficient for many such systems4 ,kant resembled his predecessor in his recognition of the bearing on moral and religious conceptions of the study of the heavens and also in his treatment of many astronomical details1 sometimes merely adopting1 more frequently developing or modifying1 the teachings of ,wright4 ,he held that the stars constitute a system just as much as do the planets of our solar system1 and that other solar systems and other ,milky ,ways may have been produced in the boundless fields of space4 ,indeed1 he is inclined to identify with the latter systems the small luminous elliptical areas in the heavens reported by ,maupertuis in #agdb4 ,kant also accepted ,wright's conjecture of a central sun or globe and even made selection of one of the stars to serve in that office1 and taught that the stars consist like our sun of a fiery mass4 ,one cannot contemplate the world-structure without recognizing the excellent orderliness of its arrangement1 and perceiving the sure indications of the hand of ,god in the completeness of its relations4 ,reason1 he says in the ,allgemeine ,naturgeschichte1 refuses to believe it the work of chance4 ,it must have been planned by supreme wisdom and carried into effect by ,omnipotence4 ,kant was especially stimulated by the analogy between the ,milky ,way and the rings of ,saturn4 ,he did not agree with ,wright that they1 or the cloudy areas1 would prove to be stars or small satellites1 but rather that both consisted of vapor particles4 ,giving full scope to his imagination1 he asks if the earth as well as ,saturn may not have been surrounded by a ring4 ,might not this ring explain the supercelestial waters that gave such cause for ingenuity to the medieval writers8 ,not only so1 but1 had such a vaporous ring broken and been precipitated to the earth1 it would have caused a prolonged ,deluge1 and the subsequent rainbow in the heavens might very well have been interpreted as an allusion to the vanished ring1 and as a promise4 ,this1 however1 is not ,kant's characteristic manner in supporting moral and religious truth4 ,to account for the origin of the solar system1 the ,german philosopher assumes that at the beginning of all things the material of which the sun1 planets1 satellites1 and comets consist1 was uncompounded1 in its primary elements1 and filled the whole space in which the bodies formed out of it now revolve4 ,this state of nature seemed to be the very simplest that could follow upon nothing4 ,in a space filled in this way a state of rest could not last for more than a moment4 ,the elements of a denser kind would1 according to the law of gravitation1 attract matter of less specific gravity4 ,repulsion1 as well as attraction1 plays a part among the particles of matter disseminated in space4 ,through it the direct fall of particles may be diverted into a circular movement about the center toward which they are gravitating4 ,of course1 in our system the center of attraction is the nucleus of the sun4 ,the mass of this body increases rapidly1 as also its power of attraction4 ,of the particles gravitating to it the heavier become heaped up in the center4 ,in falling from different heights toward this common focus the particles cannot have such perfect equality of resistance that no lateral movements should be set up4 ,a general circulatory motion is in fact established ultimately in one direction about the central mass1 which receiving new particles from the encircling current rotates in harmony with it4 ,mutual interference in the particles outside the mass of the sun prevents all accumulation except in one plane and that takes the form of a thin disk continuous with the sun's equator4 ,in this circulating vaporous disk about the sun differences of density give rise to zones not unlike the rings of ,saturn4 ,these zones ultimately contract to form planets1 and as the planets are thrown off from the central solar mass till an equilibrium is established between the centripetal and centrifugal forces1 so the satellites in turn are formed from the planets4 ,the comets are to be regarded as parts of the system1 akin to the planets1 but more remote from the control of the centripetal force of the sun4 ,it is thus that ,kant conceived the nebular hypothesis1 accounting 7through the formation of the heavenly bodies from a cloudy vapor similar to that still observable through the telescope7 for the revolution of the planets in one direction about the sun2 the rotation of sun and planets2 the revolution and rotation of satellites2 the comparative densities of the heavenly bodies2 the materials in the tails of comets2 the rings of ,saturn1 and other celestial phenomena4 ,newton1 finding no matter between the planets to maintain the community of their movements1 asserted that the immediate hand of ,god had instituted the arrangement without the intervention of the forces of ,nature4 ,his disciple ,kant now undertook to explain an additional number of phenomena on mechanical principles4 ,granted the existence of matter1 he felt capable of tracing the cosmic evolution1 but at the same time he maintained and strengthened his religious position1 and did not assume 7like ,democritus and ,epicurus7 eternal motion without a ,creator or the coming together of atoms by accident or haphazard4 ,it might be objected1 he says1 that ,nature is sufficient unto itself2 but universal laws of the action of matter serve the plan of the ,supreme ,wisdom4 ,there is convincing proof of the existence of ,god in the very fact that ,nature1 even in chaos1 cannot proceed otherwise than regularly and according to law4 ,even in the essential properties of the elements that constituted the chaos1 there could be traced the mark of that perfection which they have derived from their origin1 their essential character being a consequence of the eternal idea of the ,divine ,intelligence4 ,matter1 which appears to be merely passive and wanting in form and arrangement1 has in its simplest state a tendency to fashion itself by a natural development into a more perfect constitution4 ,matter must be considered as created by ,god in accordance with law and as ever obedient to law1 not as an independent or hostile force needing occasional correction4 ,to suppose the material world not under law would be to believe in a blind fate rather than in ,providence4 ,it is ,nature's harmony and order revealed to our understanding that give us a clue to its creation by an understanding of the highest order4 ,in a work written eight years later ,kant sought to furnish people of ordinary intelligence with a proof of the existence of ,god4 ,it might seem irrelevant in such a production to give an exposition of physical phenomena1 but1 intent on his method of mounting to a knowledge of ,god by means of natural science1 he here repeats in summarized form his theory of the origin of the heavenly bodies4 ,moreover1 the influence of his astronomical studies persisted in his maturest philosophy1 as can be seen in the well-known passage at the conclusion of his ethical work1 the ,critique of the ,practical ,reason 7#aghh73 ,there are two things that fill my spirit with ever new and increasing awe and reverence--the more frequently and the more intently ,i contemplate them--the star-strewn sky above me and the moral law within4 ,his religious and ethical conceptions were closely associated with--indeed1 dependent upon--an orderly and infinite physical universe4 ,in the mathematician1 astronomer1 physicist1 and philosopher1 ,j4 ,h4 ,lambert 7#agbh-aggg71 ,kant found a genius akin to his own1 and through him hoped for a reformation of philosophy on the basis of the study of science4 ,lambert like his contemporary was a disciple of ,newton1 and in #agfa he published a book in the form of letters expressing views in reference to the ,milky ,way1 fixed stars1 central sun1 very similar to those published by ,kant in #agee4 ,lambert had heard of ,wright's work1 so similar to his own1 a year after the latter was written4 ,comets1 now robbed of many of the terrors with which ancient superstition endowed them1 might1 he says1 seem to threaten catastrophe1 by colliding with the planets or by carrying off a satellite4 ,but the same hand which has cast the celestial spheres in space1 has traced their course in the heavens1 and does not allow them to wander at random to disturb and destroy each other4 ,lambert imagines that all these bodies have exactly the volume1 weight1 position1 direction1 and speed necessary for the avoidance of collisions4 ,if we confess a ,supreme ,ruler who brought order from chaos1 and gave form to the universe2 it follows that this universe is a perfect work1 the impress1 picture1 reflex of its ,creator's perfection4 ,nothing is left to blind chance4 ,means are fitted to ends4 ,there is order throughout1 and in this order the dust beneath our feet1 the stars above our heads1 atoms and worlds1 are alike comprehended4 ,laplace in his statement of the nebular hypothesis made no mention of ,kant4 ,he sets forth1 in the ,exposition of the ,solar ,system1 the astronomical data that the theory is designed to explain3 the movements of the planets in the same direction and almost in the same plane2 the movements of the satellites in the same direction as those of the planets2 the rotation of these different bodies and of the sun in the same direction as their projection1 and in planes little different2 the small eccentricity of the orbits of planets and satellites2 the great eccentricity of the orbits of comets4 ,how on the ground of these data are we to arrive at the cause of the earliest movements of the planetary system8 ,a fluid of immense extent must be assumed1 embracing all these bodies4 ,it must have circulated about the sun like an atmosphere and1 in virtue of the excessive heat which was engendered1 it may be assumed that this atmosphere originally extended beyond the orbits of all the planets1 and was contracted by stages to its present form4 ,in its primitive state the sun resembled the nebul1 which are to be observed through the telescope1 with fiery centers and cloudy periphery4 ,one can imagine a more and more diffuse state of the nebulous matter4 ,planets were formed1 in the plane of the equator and at the successive limits of the nebulous atmosphere1 by the condensation of the different zones which it abandoned as it cooled and contracted4 ,the force of gravity and the centrifugal force sufficed to maintain in its orbit each successive planet4 ,from the cooling and contracting masses that were to constitute the planets smaller zones and rings were formed4 ,in the case of ,saturn there was such regularity in the rings that the annular form was maintained2 as a rule from the zones abandoned by the planet-mass satellites resulted4 ,differences of temperature and density of the parts of the original mass account for the eccentricity of orbits1 and deviations from the plane of the equator4 ,in his ,celestial ,mechanics 7#ahbe7 ,laplace states that1 according to ,herschel's observations1 ,saturn's rotation is slightly quicker than that of its rings4 ,this seemed a confirmation of the hypothesis of the ,exposition du ,systme du ,monde4 ,when ,laplace presented the first edition of this earlier work to ,napoleon1 the ,first ,consul said3 ,newton has spoken of ,god in his book4 ,i have already gone through yours1 and ,i have not found that name in it a single time4 ,to this ,laplace is said to have replied3 ,first ,citizen ,consul1 ,i have not had need of that hypothesis4 ,the astronomer did not1 however1 profess atheism2 like ,kant he felt competent to explain on mechanical principles the development of the solar system from the point at which he undertook it4 ,in his later years he desired that the misleading anecdote should be suppressed4 ,so far was he from self-sufficiency and dogmatism that his last utterance proclaimed the limitations of even the greatest intellects3 ,what we know is little enough1 what we don't know is immense 7,ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose1 ce que nous ignorons est immense74 ,sir ,william ,herschel's observations1 extended over many years1 confirmed both the nebular hypothesis and the theory of the systematic arrangement of the stars4 ,he made use of telescopes #bj and #dj feet in focal length1 and of #ah4g and #dh inches aperture1 and was thereby enabled1 as ,humboldt said1 to sink a plummet amid the fixed stars1 or1 in his own phrase1 to gauge the heavens4 ,the ,construction of the ,heavens was always the ultimate object of his observations4 ,in a contribution on this subject submitted to the ,royal ,society in #aghg he announced the discovery of #dff new nebul and clusters of stars4 ,the sidereal heavens are not to be regarded as the concave surface of a sphere1 from the center of which the observer might be supposed to look1 but rather as resembling a rich extent of ground or chains of mountains in which the geologist discovers many strata consisting of various materials4 ,the ,milky ,way is one stratum and in it our sun is placed1 though perhaps not in the very center of its thickness4 ,by #ahaa he had greatly increased his observations of the nebul and could arrange them in series differing in extent1 condensation1 brightness1 general form1 possession of nuclei1 situation1 and in resemblance to comets and to stars4 ,they ranged from a faint trace of extensive diffuse nebulosity to a nebulous star with a mere vestige of cloudiness4 ,herschel was able to make the series so complete that the difference between the members was no more than could be found in a series of pictures of the human figure taken from the birth of a child till he comes to be a man in his prime4 ,the difference between the diffuse nebulous matter and the star is so striking that the idea of conversion from one to the other would hardly occur to any one without evidence of the intermediate steps4 ,it is highly probable that each successive state is the result of the action of gravity4 ,in his last statement1 #ahah1 he admitted that to his telescopes the ,milky ,way had proved fathomless1 but on either side of this assemblage of stars1 presumably in ceaseless motion round their common center of gravity1 ,herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous masses1 such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to be formed4 ,in the theory of the evolution of the heavenly bodies1 as set forth by ,kant1 ,laplace1 and ,herschel1 it was assumed that the elements that composed the earth are also to be found elsewhere throughout the solar system and the universe4 ,the validity of this assumption was finally established by spectrum analysis4 ,but this vindication was in part anticipated1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 by the analysis of meteorites4 ,in these were found large quantities of iron1 considerable percentages of nickel1 as well as cobalt1 copper1 silicon1 phosphorus1 carbon1 magnesium1 zinc1 and manganese4 ,,references ,g4 ,f4 ,becker1 ,kant as a ,natural ,philosopher1 ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 ,v 7#ahih71 pp4 #ig-aab4 ,w4 ,w4 ,bryant1 ,a ,history of ,astronomy4 ,agnes ,m4 ,clerke1 ,history of ,astronomy during the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,agnes ,m4 ,clerke1 ,the ,herschels and ,modern ,astronomy4 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 ,papers on the ,construction of the ,heavens 7,philosophical ,transactions1 #aghd1 #ahaa1 etc474 ,a4 ,r4 ,hinks1 ,astronomy 7,home ,university ,library74 ,e4 ,w4 ,maunders1 ,the ,science of the ,stars 7,the ,people's ,books74 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,law--,,dalton1 ,,joule ,in the middle of the eighteenth century1 when ,lambert and ,kant were recognizing system and design in the heavens1 little progress had been made toward discovering the constitution of matter or revealing the laws of the hidden motions of things4 ,boyle had1 indeed1 made a beginning1 not only by his study of the elasticity of the air1 but by his distinction of the elements and compounds and his definition of chemistry as the science of the composition of substances4 ,how little had been accomplished1 however1 is evident from the fact that in #agej the so-called elements--earth1 air1 fire1 water--which ,bacon had marked for examination in #afbj1 were still unanalyzed1 and that no advance had been made beyond his conception of the nature of heat1 the majority1 indeed1 of the learned world holding that heat is a substance 7variously identified with sulphur1 carbon1 or hydrogen7 rather than a mode of motion4 ,how scientific thought succeeded in bringing order out of confusion and chaos in the subsequent one hundred years1 and especially at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 can well be illustrated by these very matters1 the study of combustion1 of heat as a form of energy1 of the constituents of the atmosphere1 and of the chemistry of water and of the earth4 ,reference has already been made to ,black's discovery of carbonic acid1 and of the phenomena which he ascribed to latent heat4 ,the first discovery 7#aged7 was the result of the preparation of quicklime in the practice of medicine2 the second 7#agfa7 involving experiments on the temperatures of melting ice1 boiling water1 and steam1 stimulated ,watt in his improvement of the steam engine4 ,in #agff ,joseph ,priestley began his study of airs1 or gases4 ,in the following year observation of work in a brewery roused his curiosity in reference to carbonic acid4 ,in #aggb he experimented with nitric oxide4 ,in the previous century ,mayow had obtained nitric oxide by treating iron with nitric acid4 ,he had then introduced this gas into ordinary air confined over water1 and found that the mixture suffered a reduction of volume4 ,priestley applied this process to the analysis of common air1 which he discovered to be complex and not simple4 ,in #aggd1 by heating red oxide of mercury by means of a burning-glass1 he obtained a gas which supported combustion better than common air4 ,he inhaled it1 and experienced a sense of exhilaration4 ,who can tell1 he writes1 but in time this pure air may become a fashionable article in luxury8 ,hitherto only two mice and myself have had the privilege of breathing it4 ,the ,swedish investigator ,scheele had1 however1 discovered this same constituent of the air before #aggc4 ,he thought that the atmosphere must consist of at least two gases1 and he proved that carbonic acid results from combustion and respiration4 ,in #aggb the great ,french scientist ,lavoisier found that sulphur1 when burned1 gains weight instead of losing weight1 and five years later he concluded that air consists of two gases1 one capable of absorption by burning bodies1 the other incapable of supporting combustion4 ,he called the first oxygen4 ,in his ,elements of ,chemistry ,lavoisier gave a clear exposition of his system of chemistry and of the discoveries of other ,european chemists4 ,after his studies the atmosphere was no longer regarded as mysterious and chaotic4 ,it was known to consist largely of oxygen and nitrogen1 and to contain in addition aqueous vapor1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia which might be brought to earth by rain4 ,cavendish obtained nitrogen from air by using nitric oxide to remove the oxygen1 and found that air consists of about seventy-nine per cent nitrogen and about twenty-one per cent oxygen4 ,he also by use of the electric spark caused the oxygen and nitrogen of the air to unite to form nitric acid4 ,when the nitrogen was exhausted and the redundant oxygen removed1 only a small bubble of air remained unabsorbed4 ,similarly ,cavendish had found that water results from the combination of oxygen and hydrogen4 ,watt had likewise held that water is not an element1 but a compound of two elementary substances4 ,thus the great masses1--earth1 air1 fire1 water1--assumed as simple by many philosophers from the earliest times1 were resolving into their constituent parts4 ,at the same time other problems were demanding solution4 ,what are the laws of chemical combination8 ,what is the relation of heat to other forms of energy8 ,to the answering of these questions 7as of those from which these grew7 the great manufacturing centers contributed1 and no city more potently than ,manchester through ,dalton and his pupil and follower ,joule4 ,john ,dalton 7#agff-ahdd7 was born in ,cumberland1 went to ,kendal to teach school at the age of fifteen1 and remained in the ,lake ,district of ,england till #agic4 ,in this region1 where the annual rainfall exceeds forty inches1 and in some localities is almost tropical1 the young student's attention was early drawn to meteorology4 ,his apparatus consisted of rude home-made rain-gauges1 thermometers1 and barometers4 ,his interest in the heat1 moisture1 and constituents of the atmosphere continued throughout life1 and ,dalton made in all some #bjj1jjj meteorological observations4 ,we gain a clue to his motive in these studies from a letter written in his twenty-second year1 in which he speaks of the advantages that might accrue to the husbandman1 the mariner1 and to mankind in general if we were able to predict the state of the weather with tolerable precision4 ,in #agic ,dalton took up his permanent residence in ,manchester1 and in that year appeared his first book1 ,meteorological ,observations and ,essays4 ,here he deals1 among other things1 with rainfall1 the formation of clouds1 evaporation1 and the distribution and character of atmospheric moisture4 ,it seemed to him that aqueous vapor always exists as a distinct fluid maintaining its identity among the other fluids of the atmosphere4 ,he thought of atmospheric moisture as consisting of minute drops of water1 or globules among the globules of oxygen and nitrogen4 ,he was a disciple of ,newton's 7to whom1 indeed1 ,dalton had some personal likeness71 who looked upon matter as consisting of solid1 massy1 hard1 impenetrable1 movable particles1 of such sizes and figures1 and with such other properties1 and in such proportion1 as most conduced to the end for which ,god formed them4 ,dalton was so much under the influence of the idea that the physical universe is made up of these indivisible particles1 or atoms1 that his biographer describes him as thinking corpuscularly4 ,it is probable that his imagination was of the visualizing type and that he could picture to himself the arrangement of atoms in elementary and compound substances4 ,now ,dalton's master had taught that the atoms of matter in a gas 7elastic fluid7 repel one another by a force increasing in proportion as their distance diminishes4 ,how did this teaching apply to the atmosphere1 which ,priestley and others had proved to consist of three or more gases8 ,why does this mixture appear simple and homogeneous8 ,why does not the air form strata with the oxygen below and the nitrogen above8 ,cavendish had shown1 and ,dalton himself later proved1 that common air1 wherever examined1 contains oxygen and nitrogen in fairly constant proportions4 ,french chemists had sought to apply the principle of chemical affinity in explaining the apparent homogeneity of the atmosphere4 ,they supposed that oxygen and nitrogen entered into chemical union1 the one element dissolving the other4 ,the resultant compound in turn dissolved water2 hence the phenomena of evaporation4 ,dalton tried in vain to reconcile this supposition with his belief in the atomic nature of matter4 ,he drew diagrams combining an atom of oxygen with an atom of nitrogen and an atom of aqueous vapor4 ,the whole atmosphere could not consist of such groups of three because the watery particles were but a small portion of the total atmosphere4 ,he made a diagram in which one atom of oxygen was combined with one atom of nitrogen1 but in this case the oxygen was insufficient to satisfy all the nitrogen of the atmosphere4 ,if the air was made up partly of pure nitrogen1 partly of a compound of nitrogen and oxygen1 and partly of a compound of nitrogen1 oxygen1 and aqueous vapor1 then the triple compound1 as heaviest1 would collect toward the surface of the earth1 and the double compound and the simple substance would form two strata above4 ,if to the compounds heat were added in the hope of producing an unstratified mixture1 the atmosphere would acquire the specific gravity of nitrogen gas4 ,in short1 says ,dalton1 ,i was obliged to abandon the hypothesis of the chemical constitution of the atmosphere altogether as irreconcilable to the phenomena4 ,he had to return to the conception of the individual particles of oxygen1 nitrogen1 and water1 each a center of repulsion4 ,still he could not explain why the oxygen did not gravitate to the lowest place1 the nitrogen form a stratum above1 and the aqueous vapor swim upon the top4 ,in #ahja1 however1 ,dalton hit upon the idea that gases act as vacua for one another1 that it is only like particles which repel each other1 atoms of oxygen repelling atoms of oxygen and atoms of nitrogen repelling atoms of nitrogen when these gases are intermingled in the atmosphere just as they would if existing in an unmixed state4 ,according to this1 we were to suppose that atoms of one kind did not repel the atoms of another kind1 but only those of their own kind4 ,a mixed atmosphere is as free from stratifications1 as though it were really homogeneous4 ,in his analyses of air ,dalton made use of the old nitric oxide method4 ,in #ahjb this led to an interesting discovery4 ,if in a tube 4#c of an inch wide he mixed #ajj parts of common air with #cf parts of nitric oxide1 the oxygen of the air combined with the nitric oxide1 and a residue of #gi parts of atmospheric nitrogen remained4 ,and if he mixed #ajj parts of common air with #gb of nitric oxide1 but in a wide vessel over water 7in which conditions the combination is more quickly effected71 the oxygen of the air again combined with the nitric oxide and a residue of #gi parts of nitrogen again resulted4 ,but in the last experiment1 if less than #gb parts of nitric oxide be employed1 there will be a residue of oxygen as well as nitrogen2 and if more than #gb1 there will be a residue of nitric oxide in addition to the nitrogen4 ,in the words of ,dalton1 oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas as he called nitric oxide1 or with twice that portion1 but with no intermediate portion4 ,naturally these experimental facts were to be explained in terms of the ultimate particles of which the various gases are composed4 ,in the following year ,dalton gave graphic representation to his idea of the atomic constitution of chemical elements and compounds4 7 7 ,hydrogen 77 ,nitrogen 77 ,oxygen 7997 ,carbon 77 77 ,nitric oxide 77 77 77 ,nitrous oxide 77 7997 77 ,carbonic acid ,much against ,dalton's will his method of indicating chemical elements and their combinations had to yield to a method introduced by the great ,swedish chemist ,berzelius4 ,in #ahcg ,dalton wrote3 ,berzelius's symbols are horrifying3 a young student in chemistry might as soon learn ,hebrew as make himself acquainted with them4 ,they appear like a chaos of atoms 444 and to equally perplex the adepts of science1 to discourage the learner1 as well as to cloud the beauty and simplicity of the ,atomic ,theory4 ,meantime ,dalton's mind had been turning to the consideration of the relative sizes and weights of the various elements entering into combination with one another4 ,he argued that if there be not exactly the same number of atoms of oxygen in a given volume of air as of nitrogen in the same volume1 then the sizes of the particles of oxygen must be different from those of nitrogen4 ,his interest in the absorption of gases by water1 in the reciprocal diffusion of gases1 as well as in the phenomena of chemical combination1 stimulated ,dalton to determine the relative size and weight of the atoms of the various elements4 ,dalton said nothing of the absolute weight of the atom4 ,but on the assumption that when only one compound of two elements is known to exist1 the molecule of the compound consists of one atom of each of these elements1 he proceeded to investigate the relative weights of equal numbers of the two sorts of atoms4 ,in #ahjc he pursued this investigation with remarkable success1 and taking hydrogen 7the lightest gas known to him7 as unity1 he arrived at a statement of the relative atomic weights of oxygen1 nitrogen1 carbon1 etc4 ,dalton thus introduced into the study of chemical combination a very definite idea of quantitative relationship4 ,by him the atomic theory of the constitution of matter was made definite and applicable to all the phenomena known to chemistry4 ,illustration3 ,painting by ,ford ,madox ,brown ,by permission of the ,town ,hall ,committee of the ,manchester ,corporation ,,john ,,dalton ,,collecting ,,marsh ,,gas ,during the following months he returned to the study of those cases in which the same elements combine to form more than one compound4 ,we have seen that oxygen unites with nitric oxide to form two compounds1 and that into the one compound twice as much nitric oxide 7by weight7 enters as into the other4 ,a like relation was found in the weight of oxygen combining with carbon in the two compounds carbon monoxide and carbonic acid4 ,in the summer of #ahjd he investigated the composition of two compounds of hydrogen and carbon1 marsh gas 7methane7 and olefiant gas 7ethylene71 and found that the first contained just twice as much hydrogen in relation to the carbon as the second compound contained4 ,in a series of compounds of the same two elements one atom of one unites with one1 two1 three1 or more atoms of the other2 that is1 a simple ratio exists between the weights in which the second element enters into combination with the first4 ,this law of multiple proportions afforded confirmation of ,dalton's atomic theory1 or chemical theory of definite proportions4 ,without such a theory1 says ,sir ,henry ,roscoe1 modern chemistry would be a chaos2 with it1 order reigns supreme1 and every apparently contradictory discovery only marks out more distinctly the value and importance of ,dalton's work4 ,in #ahbf ,sir ,humphry ,davy recognized ,dalton's services to science in the following terms3 ,finding that in certain compounds of gaseous bodies the same elements always combined in the same proportions1 and that when there was more than one combination the quantity of the elements always had a constant relation1--such as #a to #b1 or #a to #c1 or #a to #d1--;he explained this fact on the ,newtonian doctrine of indivisible atoms2 and contended that1 the relative weight of one atom to that of any other atom being known1 its proportions or weight in all its combinations might be ascertained1 thus making the statics of chemistry depend upon simple questions in subtraction or multiplication and enabling the student to deduce an immense number of facts from a few well-authenticated experimental results4 ,mr4 ,dalton's permanent reputation will rest upon his having discovered a simple principle universally applicable to the facts of chemistry1 in fixing the proportions in which bodies combine1 and thus laying the foundation for future labors respecting the sublime and transcendental parts of the science of corpuscular motion4 ,his merits in this respect resemble those of ,kepler in astronomy4 ,in #ahjh ,dalton's atomic theory received striking confirmation through the investigations of the ,french scientist ,gay-,lussac1 who showed that gases1 under similar circumstances of temperature and pressure1 always combine in simple proportions by volume when they act on one another1 and that when the result of the union is a gas1 its volume also is in a simple ratio to the volumes of its components4 ,one of ,dalton's friends summed up the result of ,gay-,lussac's research in this simple fashion3 ,his paper is on the combination of gases4 ,he finds that all unite in equal bulks1 or two bulks of one to one of another1 or three bulks of one to one of another4 ,when ,dalton had investigated the relative weights with which elements combine1 he had found no simple arithmetical relationship between atomic weight and atomic weight4 ,when two or more compounds of the same elements are formed1 ,dalton found1 however1 as we have seen1 that the proportion of the element added to form the second or third compound is a multiple by weight of the first quantity4 ,gay-,lussac now showed that gases1 in whatever proportions they may combine1 always give rise to compounds whose elements by volume are multiples of each other4 ,in #ahaa ,avogadro1 in an essay on the relative masses of atoms1 succeeded in further confirming ,dalton's theory and in explaining the atomic basis of ,gay-,lussac's discovery of simple volume relations in the formation of chemical compounds4 ,according to the ,italian scientist the number of molecules in all gases is always the same for equal volumes1 or always proportional to the volumes1 it being taken for granted that the temperature and pressure are the same for each gas4 ,dalton had supposed that water is formed by the union of hydrogen and oxygen1 atom for atom4 ,gay-,lussac found that two volumes of hydrogen combined with one volume of oxygen to produce two volumes of water vapor4 ,according to ,avogadro the water vapor contains twice as many atoms of hydrogen as of oxygen4 ,one volume of hydrogen has the same number of molecules as one volume of oxygen4 ,when the two volumes combine with one1 the combination does not take place1 as ,dalton had supposed1 atom for atom1 but each half-molecule of oxygen combines with one molecule of hydrogen4 ,the symbol for water is1 therefore1 not ,,ho but ,h#b,o4 ,enough has been said to establish ,dalton's claim to be styled a great lawgiver of chemical science4 ,his influence in further advancing definitely formulated knowledge of physical phenomena can here be indicated only in part4 ,in #ahjj he wrote a paper ,on the ,heat and ,cold produced by the ,mechanical ,condensation and ,rarefaction of ,air4 ,this contains1 according to ,dalton's biographer1 the first quantitative statement of the heat evolved by compression and the heat evolved by dilatation4 ,his contribution to the theory of heat has been stated thus3 ,the volume of a gas under constant pressure expands when raised to the boiling temperature by the same fraction of itself1 whatever be the nature of the gas4 ,in #agih ,count ,rumford had reported to the ,royal ,society his ,enquiry concerning the ,source of ,heat excited by ,friction1 the data for which had been gathered at ,munich4 ,interested as he was in the practical problem of providing heat for the homes of the city poor1 ,rumford had been struck by the amount of heat developed in the boring-out of cannon at the arsenal4 ,he concluded that anything which could be created indefinitely by a process of friction could not be a substance1 such as sulphur or hydrogen1 but must be a mode of motion4 ,in the same year the youthful ,davy was following independently this line of investigation by rubbing two pieces of ice together1 by clock-work1 in a vacuum4 ,the friction caused the ice to melt1 although the experiment was undertaken in a temperature of #bi ,fahrenheit4 ,for ,james ,prescott ,joule 7#ahah-ahhi71 who came of a family of brewers and was early engaged himself in the brewing industry1 was reserved1 however1 the distinction of discovering the exact relation between heat and mechanical energy4 ,after having studied chemistry under ,dalton at ,manchester1 he became engrossed in physical experimentation4 ,in #ahdc he prepared a paper ,on the ,calorific ,effects of ,magneto-,electricity and on the ,mechanical ,value of ,heat4 ,in this he dealt with the relations between heat and the ordinary forms of mechanical power1 and demonstrated that the mechanical energy spent in turning a magneto-electrical machine is converted into the heat evolved by the passage of the currents of induction through its coils2 and1 on the other hand1 that the motive power of the electro-magnetic engine is obtained at the expense of the heat due to the chemical reactions of the battery by which it is worked4 ,in #ahdd he proceeded to apply the principles maintained in his earlier study to changes of temperature as related to changes in the density of gases4 ,he was conscious of the practical1 as well as the theoretical1 import of his investigation4 ,indeed1 it was through the determination by this illustrious pupil of ,dalton's of the amount of heat produced by the compression of gases that one of the greatest improvements of the steam engine was later effected4 ,joule felt that his investigation at the same time confirmed the dynamical theory of heat which originated with ,bacon1 and had at a subsequent period been so well supported by the experiments of ,rumford1 ,davy1 and others4 ,already1 in this paper of ,june1 #ahdd1 ,joule had expressed the hope of ascertaining the mechanical equivalent of heat with the accuracy that its importance for physical science demanded4 ,he returned to this question again and again4 ,according to his final result the quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water in temperature by one degree ,fahrenheit is equivalent to the mechanical energy required to raise #ggb4ee pounds through a distance of one foot4 ,heat was thus demonstrated to be a form of energy1 the relation being constant between it and mechanical energy4 ,mechanical energy may be converted into heat2 if heat disappears1 some other form of energy1 equivalent in amount to the heat lost1 must replace it4 ,the doctrine that a certain quantity of heat is always equivalent to a certain amount of mechanical energy is only a special case of the ,law of the ,conservation of ,energy1 first clearly enunciated by ,joule and ,helmholtz in #ahdg1 and generally regarded as the most important scientific discovery of the nineteenth century4 ,roscoe1 referring to the two life-sized marble statues which face each other in the ,manchester ,town ,hall1 says with pardonable pride3 ,thus honor is done to ,manchester's two greatest sons--to ,dalton1 the founder of modern ,chemistry and of the ,atomic ,theory1 and the discoverer of the laws of chemical combining proportions2 to ,joule1 the founder of modern ,physics and the discoverer of the ,law of the ,conservation of ,energy4 ,,references ,alembic ,club ,reprints1 ,foundations of the ,atomic ,theory4 ,joseph ,priestley1 ,experiments and ,observations on ,different ,kinds of ,air4 ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 ,the ,gases of the ,atmosphere and the ,history of their ,discovery4 ,sir ,henry ,e4 ,roscoe1 ,john ,dalton4 ,sir ,e4 ,thorpe1 ,essays in ,historical ,chemistry4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,scientist--,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy ,humphry ,davy 7#aggh-ahbi7 was born in ,cornwall1 a part of ,england known for its very mild climate and the combined beauty and majesty of its scenery4 ,on either side of the peninsula the ,atlantic in varying mood lies extended in summer sunshine1 or from its shroud of mist thunders on the black cliffs and their time-sculptured sandstones4 ,from the coast inland1 stretch1 between flowered lanes and hedges1 rolling pasture-lands of rich green made all the more vivid by the deep reddish tint of the ploughed fields4 ,in ,penzance1 then a town of about three thousand inhabitants1 and in its picturesque vicinity1 the early years of ,davy's life were passed4 ,across the bay rose the great vision of the guarded mount 7,st4 ,michael's7 of which ,milton's verse speaks4 ,farther to the east lay ,lizard ,head1 the southernmost promontory of ,england1 and a few miles to the north ,st4 ,ives with its sweep of sandy beach2 while not far to the west of ,penzance ,land's ,end stood sentry ',twixt two unbounded seas4 ,the youthful ,davy was keenly alive to the charms of his early environment1 and his genius was susceptible to the belief in supernatural agencies native to the imaginative ,celtic people among whom he was reared4 ,as a precocious child of five he improvised rhymes1 and as a youth set forth in excellent verse the glories of ,mount's ,bay3-- ,there did ,i first rejoice that ,i was born ,amidst the majesty of azure seas4 ,davy received what is usually called a liberal education1 putting in nine years in the ,penzance and one year in the ,truro ,grammar ,school4 ,his best exercises were translations from the classics into ,english verse4 ,he was rather idle1 fond of fishing 7an enthusiasm he retained throughout life7 and shooting1 and less appreciated and beloved by his masters than by his school-fellows1 who recognized his wonderful abilities1 sought his aid in their ,latin compositions 7as well as in the writing of letters and valentines71 and listened eagerly to his imaginative tales of wonder and horror4 ,years later he wrote to his mother3 ,after all1 the way in which we are taught ,latin and ,greek does not much influence the important structure of our minds4 ,i consider it fortunate that ,i was left much to myself when a child1 and put upon no particular plan of study1 and that ,i enjoyed much idleness at ,mr4 ,coryton's school4 ,i perhaps owe to these circumstances the little talents that ,i have and their peculiar application4 ,when ,davy was about sixteen years old1 his father died1 leaving the widow and her five children1 of whom ,humphry was the eldest1 with very scanty provision4 ,the mind of the youth seemed to undergo an immediate change4 ,he expressed his resolution 7which he nobly carried out7 to play his part as son and brother4 ,within a few weeks he became apprenticed to an apothecary and surgeon1 and1 having thus found his vocation1 drew up his own particular plan of self-education1 to which he rigidly adhered4 ,his brother1 ,dr4 ,john ,davy1 bears witness that the following is transcribed from a notebook of ,humphry's1 bearing the date of the same year as his apprenticeship 7#agie73-- #a4 ,theology or ,religion ,taught by ,nature4 ,ethics or ,moral ,virtues by ,revelation4 #b4 ,geography4 #c4 ,my ,profession-- #a4 ,botany4 #b4 ,pharmacy4 #c4 ,nosology4 #d4 ,anatomy4 #e4 ,surgery4 #f4 ,chemistry4 #d4 ,logic4 #e4 ,language1 etc4 ,a series of essays which ,davy wrote in pursuing his scheme of self-culture proves how rapidly his mind drew away from the superstitions which characterized the masses of the people among whom he lived4 ,he had as a boy been haunted by the fear of monsters and witches in which the credulous of all classes then believed4 ,his notebook shows that he was now subjecting to examination the religious and political opinions of his time4 ,he composed essays on the immortality and immateriality of the soul1 on governments1 on the credulity of mortals1 on the dependence of the thinking powers on the organization of the body1 on the ultimate end of being1 on happiness1 and on moral obligation4 ,he studied the writings of ,locke1 ,hartley1 ,berkeley1 ,hume1 ,helvetius1 ,condorcet1 and ,reid1 and knew something of ,german philosophy4 ,it was not till he was nineteen that ,davy entered on the experimental study of chemistry4 ,guided by the ,elements of ,lavoisier1 encouraged by the friendship of ,gregory ,watt 7a son of ,james ,watt7 and by another gentleman of university education1 stimulated by contact with the ,cornish mining industry1 ,davy pursued this new study with zeal1 and within a few months had written two essays full of daring generalizations on the physical sciences4 ,these were published early in #agii4 ,partly on the basis of the ingenious experiment mentioned in the preceding chapter1 he came to the conclusion that ,heat1 or that power which prevents the actual contact of the corpuscles of bodies1 and which is the cause of our peculiar sensations of heat and cold1 may be defined as a peculiar motion1 probably a vibration1 of the corpuscles of bodies1 tending to separate them4 ,other passages might be quoted from these essays to show how the gifted youth of nineteen anticipated the science of subsequent decades1 but in the main these early efforts were characterized by the faults of overwrought speculation and incomplete verification4 ,he soon regretted the premature publication of his studies4 ,when ,i consider1 he wrote1 the variety of theories that may be formed on the slender foundation of one or two facts1 ,i am convinced that it is the business of the true philosopher to avoid them altogether4 ,it is more laborious to accumulate facts than to reason concerning them2 but one good experiment is of more value than the ingenuity of a brain like ,newton's4 ,in the mean time ,davy had been chosen superintendent of the ,pneumatic ,institution at ,bristol by ,dr4 ,beddoes1 its founder4 ,it was supported by the contributions of ,thomas ,wedgwood and other distinguished persons1 and aimed at discovering by means of experiment the physiological effect of inhaling different gases1 or factitious airs1 as they were called4 ,the founding of such an establishment has been termed a scientific aberration1 but the use now made in medical practice of oxygen1 nitrous oxide1 chloroform1 and other inhalations bears witness to the sanity of the sort of research there set on foot4 ,even before going to ,bristol1 ,davy had inhaled small quantities of nitrous oxide mixed with air1 in spite of the fact that this gas had been held by a medical man to be the principle of contagion4 ,he now carried on a series of tests1 and finally undertook an extended experiment with the assistance of a doctor4 ,in an air-tight or box-chamber he inhaled great quantities of the supposedly dangerous gas4 ,after he had been in the box an hour and a quarter1 he respired twenty quarts of pure nitrous oxide4 ,he described the experience in the following words3-- ,a thrilling1 extending from the chest to the extremities1 was almost immediately produced4 ,i felt a sense of tangible extension highly pleasurable in every limb2 my visible impressions were dazzling1 and apparently magnified2 ,i heard every sound in the room1 and was perfectly aware of my situation4 ,by degrees1 as the pleasurable sensations increased1 ,i lost all connection with external things2 trains of vivid visible images rapidly passed through my mind1 and were connected with words in such a manner1 as to produce perceptions perfectly novel4 ,i existed in a world of newly connected and newly modified ideas3 ,i theorized1 ,i imagined that ,i made discoveries4 ,when ,i was awakened from this semi-delirious trance by ,dr4 ,kinglake1 who took the bag from my mouth1 indignation and pride were the first feelings produced by the sight of the persons about me4 ,my emotions were enthusiastic and sublime1 and for a minute ,i walked round the room perfectly regardless of what was said to me4 ,as ,i recovered my former state of mind1 ,i felt an inclination to communicate the discoveries ,i had made during the experiment4 ,i endeavored to recall the ideas3 they were feeble and indistinct2 one collection of terms1 however1 presented itself2 and with the most intense belief and prophetic manner1 ,i exclaimed to ,dr4 ,kinglake1 ',nothing exists but thoughts6 ,the universe is composed of impressions1 ideas1 pleasures and pains6' ,davy aroused the admiration and interest of every one who met him4 ,a literary man to whom he was introduced shortly after his arrival in ,bristol spoke of the intellectual character of the young man's face4 ,his eye was piercing1 and when he was not engaged in conversation1 its expression indicated abstraction1 as though his mind were pursuing some severe train of thought scarcely to be interrupted by external objects2 and1 this writer adds1 his ingenuousness impressed me as much as his mental superiority4 ,mrs4 ,beddoes1 a gay1 witty1 and elegant lady1 and an ardent admirer of the youthful scientist1 was a sister of ,maria ,edgeworth4 ,the novelist's tolerance of ,davy's enthusiasm soon passed into a clear recognition of his commanding genius4 ,coleridge1 ,southey1 and other congenial friends1 whom the chemist met under ,dr4 ,beddoes' roof1 shared in the general admiration of his mental and social qualities4 ,southey spoke of him as a miraculous young man1 at whose talents he could only wonder4 ,coleridge1 when asked how ,davy compared with the cleverest men he had met on a visit to ,london1 replied expressively3 ,why1 ,davy can eat them all6 ,there is an energy1 an elasticity in his mind1 which enables him to seize on and analyze all questions1 pushing them to their legitimate consequences4 ,every subject in ,davy's mind has the principle of vitality4 ,living thoughts spring up like turf under his feet4 ,he thought that if ,davy had not been the first chemist he would have been the first poet of the age4 ,their correspondence attests the intimate interchange of ideas and sentiments between these two men of genius1 so different1 yet with so much in common4 ,in #ahja ,davy was appointed assistant lecturer in chemistry at the ,royal ,institution 7,albemarle ,street1 ,london71 which had been founded from philanthropic motives by ,count ,rumford in #agii4 ,its aim was to promote the application of science to the common purposes of life4 ,its founder desired while benefiting the poor to enlist the sympathies of the fashionable world4 ,davy1 with a zeal for the cause of humanity and a clear recognition of the value of a knowledge of chemistry in technical industries and other daily occupations1 lent himself readily to the founder's plans4 ,his success as a public expositor of science soon won him promotion to the professorship of chemistry in the new institution1 and through his influence an interest in scientific investigation became the vogue of ,london society4 ,his popularity as a lecturer was so great that his best friends feared that the head of the brilliant provincial youth of twenty-two might be turned by the adulation of which he soon became the object4 ,i have read1 writes his brother1 copies of verses addressed to him then1 444 anonymous effusions1 some of them displaying much poetical taste as well as fervor of writing1 and all showing the influence which his appearance and manner had on the more susceptible of his audience4 ,his study of the tanning industry 7#ahja-ahjb7 and his lectures on agricultural chemistry 7#ahjc-ahac7 are indicative of the early purpose of the ,royal ,institution and of ,davy's lifelong inclination4 ,the focus of his scientific interest1 however1 rested on the furtherance of the application of the electrical studies of ,galvani and ,volta in chemical analysis4 ,in a letter to the chairman of managers of the ,royal ,institution ,volta had in #ahjj described his voltaic pile made up of a succession of zinc and copper plates in pairs separated by a moist conductor1 and before the end of the same year ,nicholson and ,carlisle had employed an electric current1 produced by this newly devised apparatus1 in the decomposition of water into its elements4 ,in the spring of the following year the ,philosophical ,magazine states3 ,we have also to notice a course of lectures1 just commenced at the institution1 on a new branch of philosophy--we mean ,galvanic ,phenomena4 ,on this interesting branch ,mr4 ,davy 7late of ,bristol7 gave the first lecture on the #beth of ,april4 ,he began with the history of ,galvanism1 detailed the successive discoveries1 and described the different methods of accumulating influence4444 ,he showed the effects of galvanism on the legs of frogs1 and exhibited some interesting experiments on the galvanic effects on the solutions of metals in acids4 ,in a paper communicated to the ,royal ,society in #ahjf1 ,on ,some ,chemical ,agencies of ,electricity1 ,davy put on record the result of years of experiment4 ,for example1 as stated by his biographer1 he had connected a cup of gypsum with one of agate by means of asbestos1 and filling each with purified water1 had inserted the negative wire of the battery in the agate cup1 and the positive wire in that of the sulphate of lime4 ,in about four hours he had found a strong solution of lime in the agate cup1 and sulphuric acid in the cup of gypsum4 ,on his reversing the arrangement1 and carrying on the process for a similar length of time1 the sulphuric acid appeared in the agate cup1 and the solution of lime on the opposite side4 ,it was thus that he studied the transfer of certain of the constituent parts of bodies by the action of electricity4 ,it is very natural to suppose1 says ,davy1 that the repellent and attractive energies are communicated from one particle to another particle of the same kind1 so as to establish a conducting chain in the fluid4 ,there may be a succession of decompositions and recompositions before the electrolysis is complete4 ,the publication of this paper in #ahjf attracted much attention abroad1 and gained for him--in spite of the fact that ,england and ,france were then at war--a medal awarded1 under an arrangement instituted by ,napoleon a few years previously1 for the best experimental work on the subject of electricity4 ,some people1 said ,davy1 say ,i ought not to accept this prize2 and there have been foolish paragraphs in the papers to that effect2 but if the two countries or governments are at war1 the men of science are not4 ,that would1 indeed1 be a civil war of the worst description3 we should rather1 through the instrumentality of men of science1 soften the asperities of national hostility4 ,in the following year ,davy reported other chemical changes produced by electricity2 he had succeeded in decomposing the fixed alkalis and discovering the elements potassium and sodium4 ,to analyze a small piece of pure potash slightly moist from the atmosphere1 he had placed it on an insulated platinum disk connected with the negative side of a voltaic battery4 ,a platinum wire connected with the positive side was brought in contact with the upper surface of the alkali4 ,the potash began to fuse at both its points of electrization4 ,at the lower 7negative7 surface small globules having a high metallic luster like quicksilver appeared1 some of which burned with explosion and flame while others remained and became tarnished4 ,when ,davy saw these globules of a hitherto unknown metal1 he danced about the laboratory in ecstasy and for some time was too much excited to continue his experiments4 ,after recovering from a very severe illness1 owing in the judgment of some to overapplication to experimental science1 and in his own judgment to a visit to ,newgate ,prison with the purpose of improving its sanitary condition1 ,davy made an investigation of the alkaline earths4 ,he failed in his endeavor to obtain from these sources pure metals1 but he gave names to barium1 strontium1 calcium1 and magnesium1 conjecturing that the alkaline earths were1 like potash and soda1 metallic oxides4 ,in addition ,davy anticipated the isolation of silicon1 aluminium1 and zirconium4 ,no doubt what gave special zest to his study of the alkalis was the hope of overthrowing the doctrine of ,french chemists that oxygen was the essential element of every acid4 ,lavoisier had given it1 indeed1 the name oxygen 7acid-producer7 on that supposition4 ,davy showed1 however1 that this element is a constituent of many alkalis4 ,in #ahaj he advanced his controversy by explaining the nature of chlorine4 ,discovered long before by the indefatigable ,scheele1 it bore at the beginning of the nineteenth century the name oxymuriatic acid4 ,davy proved that it contained neither oxygen nor muriatic 7hydrochloric7 acid 7though1 as we know1 it forms1 with hydrogen1 muriatic acid74 ,he gave the name chlorine because of the color of the gas 71 pale green74 ,davy studied later the compounds of fluorine1 and though unable to isolate the element1 conjectured its likeness to chlorine4 ,he lectured before the ,dublin ,society in #ahaj1 and again in the following year2 on the occasion of his second visit receiving the degree of ,,ll4,d4 from ,trinity ,college4 ,he was knighted in the spring of #ahab1 and was married to a handsome1 intellectual1 and wealthy lady4 ,he was appointed ,honorary ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,royal ,institution4 ,his new independence gave him full liberty to pursue his scientific interests4 ,toward the close of #ahab he writes to ,lady ,davy3-- ,yesterday ,i began some new experiments to which a very interesting discovery and a slight accident put an end4 ,i made use of a compound more powerful than gunpowder destined perhaps at some time to change the nature of war and influence the state of society4 ,an explosion took place which has done me no other harm than that of preventing me from working this day and the effects of which will be gone to-morrow and which ,i should not mention at all1 except that you may hear some foolish exaggerated account of it1 for it really is not worth mentioning4444 ,the compound on the investigation of which he was then engaged is now known as the trichloride of nitrogen4 ,in the autumn of #ahac ,sir ,humphry and ,lady ,davy1 accompanied by ,michael ,faraday1 who on ,davy's recommendation had in the spring of the same year received a post at the ,royal ,institution1 set out1 in spite of the continuance of the war1 on a ,continental tour4 ,at ,paris ,sir ,humphry was welcomed by the ,french scientists with every mark of distinction4 ,a substance which had been found in the ashes of seaweed two years previously1 by a soap-boiler and manufacturer of saltpeter1 was submitted to ,davy for chemical examination4 ,until ,davy's arrival in ,paris little had been done to determine its real character4 ,on ,december #f ,gay-,lussac presented a brief report on the new substance1 which he named iode and considered analogous to chlorine4 ,davy1 working with almost incredible rapidity in the presence of his rivals1 was able a week later to sketch the chief characters of this new element1 now known by the name he chose for it--iodine4 ,we have passed over his investigation of boracic acid1 ammonium nitrate1 and other compounds2 we can merely mention in passing his later studies of the diamond and other forms of carbon1 of the chemical constituents of the pigments used by the ancients1 his investigation of the torpedo fish1 and his anticipation of the arc light4 ,it seems fitting that ,sir ,humphry ,davy should be popularly remembered for his invention of the miner's safety-lamp4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century the development of the iron industry1 the increasing use of the steam engine and of machinery in general led to great activity and enterprise in the working of the coal mines4 ,colliery explosions of fire-damp 7marsh gas7 became alarmingly frequent1 especially in the north of ,england4 ,the mine-owners in some cases sought to suppress the news of fatalities4 ,a society1 however1 was formed to protect the miners from injury through gas explosions1 and ,davy was asked for advice4 ,on his return from the ,continent in #ahae he applied himself energetically to the matter4 ,he visited the mines and analyzed the gas4 ,he found that fire-damp explodes only at high temperature1 and that the flame of this explosive mixture will not pass through small apertures4 ,a miner's lamp was therefore constructed with wire gauze about the flame to admit air for combustion4 ,the fire-damp entering the gauze burned quietly inside1 but could not carry a high enough temperature through the gauze to explode the large quantity outside4 ,to one of the members of the philanthropic society which had appealed to him ,davy wrote3 ,i have never received so much pleasure from the result of any of my chemical labours2 for ,i trust the cause of humanity will gain something by it4 ,davy was elected ,president of the ,royal ,society in #ahbj1 and retained that dignity till he felt compelled by ill health to relinquish it in #ahbg4 ,it was his wish1 says his brother1 to have seen the ,royal ,society an efficient establishment for all the great practical purposes of science1 similar to the college contemplated by ,lord ,bacon1 and sketched in his ,new ,atlantis2 having subordinate to it the ,royal ,observatory at ,greenwich for astronomy2 the ,british ,museum1 for natural history1 in its most extensive acceptation4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 after a life crowded with splendid achievements1 died at ,geneva in #ahbi with many of his noblest dreams unfulfilled4 ,fortunately in ,michael ,faraday1 who is sometimes referred to as the greatest of his discoveries1 he had a successor who was fully adequate to the task of furthering the various investigations that his genius had set on foot1 and who1 to the majority of men of mature mind1 is no less personally interesting than the ,cornish scientist1 poet1 and philosopher4 ,,references ,john ,davy1 ,works of ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,john ,davy1 ,fragmentary ,remains1 literary and scientific1 of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 ,bart4 ,bence ,jones1 ,life and ,letters of ,faraday4 ,john ,tyndall1 ,faraday as a ,discoverer4 ,e4 v4 ,meyer1 ,history of ,chemistry4 ,s4 ,p4 ,thompson1 ,michael ,faraday2 his ,life and ,work4 ,sir ,edward ,thorpe1 ,humphry ,davy1 ,poet and ,philosopher4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,scientific ,,prediction--,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,neptune ,under this heading we have to consider a single illustration--the prediction1 and the discovery1 in #ahdf1 of the planet ,neptune4 ,this event roused great enthusiasm among scientists as well as in the popular mind1 afforded proof of the reliability of the ,newtonian hypothesis1 and demonstrated the precision to which the calculation of celestial motions had attained4 ,scientific law appeared not merely as a formulation and explanation of observed phenomena but as a means for the discovery of new truths4 ,would it not be admirable1 wrote ,valz to ,arago in #ahce1 to arrive thus at a knowledge of the existence of a body which cannot be perceived8 ,the prediction and discovery of ,neptune1 to which many minds contributed1 and which has been described with a show of justice as a movement of the times1 arose from the previous discovery of the planet ,uranus by ,sir ,william ,herschel in #agha4 ,after that event ,bode suggested that it was possible other astronomers had observed ,uranus before1 without recognizing it as a planet4 ,by a study of the star catalogues this conjecture was soon verified4 ,it was found that ,flamsteed had made1 in #afij1 the first observation of the heavenly body now called ,uranus4 ,ultimately it was shown that there were at least seventeen similar observations prior to #agha4 ,it might naturally be supposed that these so-called ancient observations would lead to a ready determination of the planet's orbit1 mass1 mean distance1 longitude with reference to the sun1 etc4 ,the contrary1 however1 seemed to be the case4 ,when ,alexis ,bouvard1 the associate of ,laplace1 prepared in #ahba tables of ,uranus1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn on the principles of the ,mcanique ,cleste1 he was unable to fix an orbit for ,uranus which would harmonize with the data of ancient and modern observations1 that is1 those antecedent and subsequent to ,herschel's discovery in #agha4 ,if he computed an orbit from the two sets of data combined1 the requirements of the earlier observations were fairly well met1 but the later observations were not represented with sufficient precision4 ,if on the other hand only the modern data were taken into account1 tables could be constructed meeting all the observations subsequent to #agha1 but failing to satisfy those prior to that date4 ,a consistent result could be obtained only by sacrificing the modern or the ancient observations4 ,i have thought it preferable1 says ,bouvard1 to abide by the second alternative1 as being that which combines the greater number of probabilities in favor of the truth1 and ,i leave it to the future to make known whether the difficulty of reconciling the two systems result from the inaccuracy of ancient observations1 or whether it depend upon some extraneous and unknown influence1 which has acted on the planet4 ,it was not till three years after the death of ,alexis ,bouvard that the extraneous influence1 of which he thus gave in #ahba some indication1 became fully known4 ,almost immediately1 however1 after the publication of the tables1 fresh discrepancies arose between computation and observation4 ,at the first meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahcb ,professor ,airy in a paper on the ,progress of ,astronomy showed that observational data in reference to the planet ,uranus diverged widely from the tables of #ahba4 ,in #ahcc through his influence the reduction of all the planetary observations made at ,greenwich from #agej was undertaken4 ,airy became ,astronomer ,royal in #ahce1 and continued to take special interest in ,uranus1 laying particular emphasis on the fact that the radius vector assigned in the tables to this planet was much too small4 ,in #ahcd the ,reverend ,t4 ,j4 ,hussey1 an amateur astronomer1 had written to ,airy in reference to the irregularities in the orbit of ,uranus3 ,the apparently inexplicable discrepancies between the ancient and modern observations suggested to me the possibility of some disturbing body beyond ,uranus1 not taken into account because unknown4444 ,subsequently1 in conversation with ,bouvard1 ,i inquired if the above might not be the case4 ,bouvard answered that the idea had occurred to him2 indeed1 he had had some correspondence in reference to it in #ahbi with ,hansen1 an authority on planetary perturbations4 ,in the following year ,nicolai 7as well as ,valz7 was interested in the problem of an ultra-,uranian planet in connection with the orbit of ,halley's comet 7itself the subject of a striking scientific prediction fulfilled in #ageh71 now reappearing1 and under the disturbing influence of ,jupiter4 ,in fact1 the probability of the approaching discovery of a new planet soon found expression in popular treatises on astronomy4 ,mrs4 ,somerville in her book on ,the ,connection of the ,physical ,sciences 7#ahcf7 said that the discrepancies in the records of ,uranus might reveal the existence and even the mass and orbit of a body placed for ever beyond the sphere of vision4 ,similarly ,mdler in his ,popular ,astronomy 7#ahda7 took the view that ,uranus might have been predicted by study of the perturbations it produced in the orbit of ,saturn4 ,applying this conclusion to a body beyond ,uranus we1 he continued1 may1 indeed1 express the hope that analysis will one day or other solemnize this1 her highest1 triumph1 making discoveries with the mind's eye in regions where1 in our actual state1 we are unable to penetrate4 ,one should not pass over in this account the labors of ,eugne ,bouvard1 the nephew of ,alexis1 who continued to note anomalies in the orbit of ,uranus and to construct new planetary tables till the very eve of the discovery of ,neptune4 ,in #ahcg he wrote to ,airy that the differences between the observations of ,uranus and the calculation were large and were becoming continually larger3 ,is that owing to a perturbation brought about in this planet by some body situated beyond it8 ,i don't know1 but that's my uncle's opinion4 ,in #ahdj the distinguished astronomer ,bessel declared that attempts to explain the discrepancies must be based on the endeavor to discover an orbit and a mass for some unknown planet1 of such a nature1 that the resulting perturbations of ,uranus may reconcile the present want of harmony in the observations4 ,two years later he undertook researches in reference to the new planet of whose existence he felt certain4 ,his labors1 however1 were interrupted by the death of his assistant ,flemming1 and by his own illness1 which proved fatal in #ahdf1 a few months before the actual discovery of ,neptune4 ,it is evident that the quest of the new planet had become general4 ,the error of ,uranus still amounted to less than two minutes4 ,this deviation from the computed place is not appreciable by the naked eye1 yet it was felt1 by the scientific world1 to challenge the validity of the ,newtonian theory1 or to foreshadow the addition of still another planet to our solar system4 ,in ,july1 #ahda1 ,john ,couch ,adams1 a young undergraduate of ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 whose interest had been aroused by reading ,airy's paper on the ,progress of ,astronomy1 made note of his resolution to attempt1 after completing his college course1 the solution of the problem then forming in so many minds4 ,after achieving the ,b4,a4 as senior wrangler at the beginning of #ahdc1 ,adams undertook to find the most probable orbit and mass of the disturbing body which has acted on ,uranus4 ,the ordinary problem in planetary perturbations calls for the determination of the effect on a known orbit exerted by a body of known mass and motion4 ,this was an inverse problem2 the perturbation being given1 it was required to find the position1 mass1 and orbit of the disturbing planet4 ,the data were further equivocal in that the elements of the given planet ,uranus were themselves in doubt2 the unreliability of its planetary tables1 in fact1 being the occasion of the investigation now undertaken4 ,that thirteen unknown quantities were involved indicates sufficiently the difficulty of the problem4 ,adams started with the assumptions1 not improbable1 that the orbit of the unknown planet was a circle1 and that its distance from the sun was twice that of ,uranus4 ,this latter assumption was in accord with the so-called ,bode's ,law1 which taught that a simple numerical relationship exists between the planetary distances 7#d1 #g1 #aj1 #af1 #bh1 #eb1 #ajj1 #aif71 and that the planets as they lie more remote from the sun tend to be more nearly double the distance of the next preceding4 ,adams was encouraged1 by his first attempt1 to undertake a more precise determination4 ,on his behalf ,professor ,challis of ,cambridge applied to ,astronomer ,royal ,airy1 who furnished the ,reductions of the ,planetary ,observations made at ,greenwich from #agej till #ahcj4 ,in his second endeavor ,adams assumed that the unknown planet had an elliptical orbit4 ,he approached the solution gradually1 ever taking into account more terms of the perturbations4 ,in ,september1 #ahde1 he gave the results to ,challis1 who wrote to ,airy on the #bb;d of that month that ,adams sought an opportunity to submit the solution personally to the ,astronomer ,royal4 ,on the #bast of ,october1 #ahde1 the young mathematician1 twice disappointed in his attempt to meet ,airy1 left at the ,royal ,observatory a paper containing the elements of the new planet4 ,the position assigned to it was within about one degree of its actual place4 ,on ,november #e ,airy wrote to ,adams and1 among other things1 inquired whether the solution obtained would account for the errors of the radius vector as well as for those of heliocentric longitude4 ,for ,airy this was a crucial question2 but to ,adams it seemed unessential1 and he failed to reply4 ,by this time a formidable rival had entered the field4 ,leverrier at the request of ,arago had undertaken to investigate the irregularities in the tables of ,uranus4 ,in ,september of the same year ,eugne ,bouvard had presented new tables of that planet4 ,leverrier acted very promptly and systematically4 ,his first paper on the problem undertaken appeared in the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,acadmie des ,sciences ,november #aj1 #ahde4 ,he had submitted to rigorous examination the data in reference to the disturbing influence of ,jupiter and of ,saturn on the orbit of ,uranus4 ,in his second paper1 ,june #a1 #ahdf1 ,leverrier reviewed the records of the ancient and modern observations of ,uranus 7#bgi in all71 subjected ,bouvard's tables to severe criticism1 and decided that there existed in the orbit of ,uranus anomalies that could not be accounted due to errors of observation4 ,there must exist some extraneous influence1 hitherto unknown to astronomers4 ,some scientists had thought that the law of gravitation did not hold at the confines of the solar system 7others that the attractive force of other systems might prove a factor71 but ,leverrier rejected this conception4 ,other theories being likewise discarded he asked3 ,is it possible that the irregularities of ,uranus are due to the action of a disturbing planet1 situated in the ecliptic at a mean distance double that of ,uranus8 ,and if so1 at what point is this planet situated8 ,what is its mass8 ,what are the elements of the orbit which it describes8 ,the conclusion reached by the calculations recorded in this second paper was that all the so-called anomalies in the observations of ,uranus could be explained as the perturbation caused by a planet with a heliocentric longitude of #beb on ,january #a1 #ahjj4 ,this would correspond to #cbe ,january #a1 #ahdg4 ,airy received ,leverrier's second paper on ,june #bc1 and was struck by the fact that the ,french mathematician assigned the same place to the new planet as had ,adams in the preceding ,october4 ,he wrote to ,leverrier in reference to the errors of the radius vector and received a satisfactory and sufficiently compliant reply4 ,at one time the ,astronomer ,royal had felt very skeptical about the possibility of the discovery which his own labors had contributed to advance4 ,he had always1 to quote his own rather nebulous statement1 considered the correctness of a distant mathematical result to be the subject of moral rather than of mathematical evidence4 ,now that corroboration of ,adams's results had arrived1 he felt it urgent to make a telescopic examination of that part of the heavens indicated by the theoretical findings of ,adams and ,leverrier4 ,he accordingly wrote to ,professor ,challis1 ,july #i1 requesting him to employ for the purpose the great ,northumberland equatorial of the ,cambridge ,observatory4 ,professor ,challis had felt1 to use his own language1 that it was so novel a thing to undertake observations in reliance upon merely theoretical deductions1 that1 while much labor was certain1 success appeared very doubtful4 ,nevertheless1 having received fresh instructions from ,adams relative to the theoretical place of the new planet1 he began observations ,july #bi4 ,on ,august #d in fixing certain reference points he noted1 but mistook for a star1 the new planet4 ,on ,august #ab1 having directed the telescope in accordance with ,adams's instructions he again noted the same heavenly body1 as a star4 ,before ,challis had compared the results of the observation of ,august #ab with the results of an observation of the same region made on ,july #cj1 and arrived at the inference that the body in question1 being absent in the latter observation1 was not a star but a planet1 the prize of discovery had fallen into the hands of another observer4 ,on ,august #ca had appeared ,leverrier's third paper1 in which were stated the new planet's orbit1 mass1 distance from the sun1 eccentricity1 and longitude4 ,the true heliocentric longitude was given as #cbf #cb' for ,january #a1 #ahdg4 ,this determination placed the planet about #e to the east of star of ,capricorn4 ,leverrier said it might be recognized by its disk1 which1 moreover1 would subtend a certain angle4 ,the systematic and conclusive character of ,leverrier's research1 submitted to one of the greatest academies of science1 carried conviction to the minds of astronomers4 ,the learned world felt itself on the eve of a great discovery4 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 in an address before the ,british ,association on ,september #aj1 said that the year past had given prospect of a new planet4 ,we see it as ,columbus saw ,america from the shores of ,spain4 ,its movements have been felt trembling along the far-reaching line of our analysis with a certainty hardly inferior to ocular demonstration4 ,on ,september #ah ,leverrier sent a letter to ,dr4 ,galle1 of the ,berlin ,observatory1 which was provided with a set of star maps1 prepared at the instance of ,bessel4 ,galle replied one week later4 ,the planet1 of the position of which you gave the indication1 really exists4 ,the same day that ,i received your letter ,september #bc ,i found a star of the eighth magnitude1 which was not inscribed in the excellent map 7prepared by ,dr4 ,bremiker7 belonging to the collection of star maps of the ,royal ,academy of ,berlin4 ,the observation of the following day showed decisively that it was the planet sought4 ,it was only #eg' from the point predicted4 ,arago said that the discovery made by ,leverrier was one of the most brilliant manifestations of the precision of modern astronomic science4 ,it would encourage the best geometers to seek with renewed ardor the eternal truths which1 in ,pliny's phrase1 are latent in the majesty of theory4 ,professor ,challis received ,leverrier's third paper on ,september #bi1 and in the evening turned his magnificent refractor to the part of the heavens that ,leverrier had so definitely and so confidently indicated4 ,among the three hundred stars observed ,challis was struck by the appearance of one which presented a disk and shone with the brightness of a star of the eighth magnitude4 ,this proved to be the planet4 ,on ,october #a ,challis heard that the ,german observer had anticipated him4 ,arago1 while recognizing the excellent work done by ,adams in his calculations1 thought that the fact that the young mathematician had failed to publish his results should deprive him of any share whatever in the glory of the discovery of the new planet1 and that history would confirm this definite judgment4 ,arago named the new planet after the ,french discoverer1 but soon acquiesced in the name ,neptune1 which has since prevailed4 ,airy1 in whose possession ,adams's results had remained for months unpublished and unheeded1 wrote ,leverrier3 ,you are to be recognized beyond doubt as the predictor of the planet's place4 ,a vigorous official himself1 ,airy was deeply impressed by the calm decisiveness and definite directions of the ,french mathematician4 ,it is here1 if ,i mistake not1 that we see a character far superior to that of the able1 or enterprising1 or industrious mathematician2 it is here that we see the philosopher4 ,this explains1 if anything could1 his view that a distant mathematical result is the subject of ethical rather than of mathematical evidence4 ,adams's friends felt that he had not received from either of the astronomers1 to whom he confided his results1 the kind of help or advice he should have received4 ,challis was kindly1 but wanting in initiative4 ,although he had command of the great ,northumberland telescope1 he had no thought of commencing the search in #ahde1 for1 without mistrusting the evidence which the theory gave of the existence of the planet1 it might be reasonable to suppose that its position was determined but roughly1 and that a search for it must necessarily be long and laborious4 ,in the view of ,simon ,newcomb1#c ,adams's results1 which were delivered at the ,greenwich ,observatory ,october #ba1 #ahde1 were so near to the mark that a few hours' close search could not have failed to make the planet known4 ,both ,adams and ,leverrier had assumed as a rough approximation at starting that the orbit of the new planet was circular and that1 in accordance with ,bode's ,law1 its distance was twice that of ,uranus4 ,s4 ,c4 ,walker1 of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,washington1 was able to determine the elements of the orbit of ,neptune accurately in #ahdg4 ,in ,february of that year he had found 7as had ,petersen of ,altona about the same time7 that ,lalande had in ,may1 #agie1 observed ,neptune and mistaken it for a fixed star4 ,when ,lalande's records in ,paris were studied1 it was found that he had made two observations of ,neptune on ,may #h and #aj4 ,their failure to agree caused the observer to reject one and mark the other as doubtful4 ,had he repeated the observation1 he might have noted that the star moved1 and was in reality a planet4 ,neptune's orbit is more nearly circular than that of any of the major planets except ,venus4 ,its distance is thirty times that of the earth from the sun instead of thirty-nine times1 as ,bode's ,law would require4 ,that generalization was a presupposition of the calculations leading to the discovery4 ,it was then rejected like a discredited ladder4 ,man's conception of the universe is widened at the thought that the outmost known planet of our solar system is about #b1gif1jjj1jjj miles from the sun and requires about #afe years for one revolution4 ,professor ,peirce1 of ,harvard ,university1 pointing to the difference between the calculations of ,leverrier and the facts1 put forward the view that the discovery made by ,galle must be regarded as a happy accident4 ,this view1 however1 has not been sustained4 ,,references ,sir ,robert ,ball1 ,neptune's ,jubilee ,year1 ,scientific ,american1 ,supplement1 ,oct4 #aj1 #ahif4 ,sir ,robert ,ball1 ,the ,story of the ,heavens1 chap4 ,,xv4 ,b4 ,a4 ,gould1 ,report on the ,history of the ,discovery of ,neptune1 ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge1 #ahej4 ,robert ,grant1 ,history of ,physical ,astronomy4 ,simon ,newcomb1 ,popular ,astronomy4 ,benjamin ,peirce1 ,proceedings of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,sciences1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #eg-fh1 #add1 #bhe1 #cch-da1 etc4 ,,footnotes3 #c ,see article ,neptune1 ,encyc4 ,brit4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,science ,,and ,,travel--,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,beagle ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in his ,principles of ,geology1 the first edition of which appeared in #ahcj-ahcc1 says3 ,if it be true that delivery be the first1 second1 and third requisite in a popular orator1 it is no less certain that travel is of first1 second1 and third importance to those who desire to originate just and comprehensive views concerning the structure of our globe4 ,the value of travel to science in general might very well be illustrated by ,lyell's own career1 his study of the mountainous regions of ,france1 his calculation of the recession of ,niagara ,falls and of the sedimentary deposits of the ,mississippi1 his observations of the coal formations of ,nova ,scotia1 and of the composition of the ,great ,dismal ,swamp of ,virginia--suggestive of the organic origin of the carboniferous rocks4 ,although it is not with ,lyell that we have here principally to deal1 it is not irrelevant to say that the main purpose of his work was to show that all past changes in the earth's crust are referable to causes now in operation4 ,differing from ,hutton as to the part played in those changes by subterranean heat1 ,lyell agreed with his forerunner in ascribing geological transformations to the slow agency of existing causes4 ,he was1 in fact1 the leader of the uniformitarians and opposed those geologists who held that the contemporary state of the earth's crust was owing to a series of catastrophes1 stupendous exhibitions of natural force to which recent history offered no parallel4 ,also enlightened as to the significance of organic remains in stratified rock1 ,lyell in #ahcj felt the need of further knowledge in reference to the relation of the plants and animals represented in the fossils to the fauna and flora now existing4 ,it is to ,lyell's disciple1 ,charles ,darwin1 however1 that we turn for our main illustration of the value of travel for comprehensive scientific generalization4 ,born1 like another great liberator1 on ,february #ab1 #ahji1 ,darwin was only twenty-two years old when he received appointment as naturalist on ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle1 about to sail from ,devonport on a voyage around the world4 ,the main purpose of the expedition1 under command of the youthful ,captain ,fitzroy1 three or four years older than ,darwin1 was to make a survey of certain coasts in ,south ,america and the ,pacific ,islands1 and to carry a line of chronometrical measurements about the globe4 ,looking back in #ahgf on this memorable expedition1 the naturalist wrote1 ,the voyage of the ,beagle has been by far the most important event in my life1 and has determined my whole career4 ,in spite of the years he had spent at school and college he regarded this experience as the first real training or education of his mind4 ,darwin had studied medicine at ,edinburgh1 but found surgery distasteful4 ,he moved to ,cambridge1 with the idea of becoming a clergyman of the ,established ,church4 ,as a boy he had attended with his mother1 daughter of ,josiah ,wedgwood1 the ,unitarian services4 ,at ,cambridge he graduated without distinction at the beginning of #ahca4 ,it should be said1 however1 that the traditional studies were particularly ill suited to his cast of mind1 that he had not been idle1 and had developed particular diligence in different branches of science1 and above all as a collector4 ,he was six feet tall1 fond of shooting and hunting1 and able to ride seventy-five or eighty miles without tiring4 ,he had shown himself at college fond of company1 and a little extravagant4 ,he was1 though a sportsman1 extremely humane2 had a horror of inflicting pain1 and such repugnance at the thought of slavery that he quarreled violently with ,captain ,fitzroy when the latter condoned the abomination4 ,darwin was not1 however1 of a turbulent disposition4 ,sir ,james ,sulivan1 who had accompanied the expedition as second lieutenant1 said many years after3 ,i can confidently express my belief that during the five years in the ,beagle1 he was never known to be out of temper1 or to say one unkind or hasty word of or to any one4 ,darwin's father was remarkable for his powers of observation1 while the grandfather1 ,erasmus ,darwin1 is well known for his tendency to speculation4 ,charles ,darwin possessed both these mental characteristics in an eminent degree4 ,one who has conversed with him reports that what impressed him most in meeting the great naturalist was his clear blue eyes1 which seemed to possess almost telescopic vision1 and that the really remarkable thing about ,darwin was that he saw more than other people4 ,at the same time it will scarcely be denied that his vision was as much marked by insight as by careful observation1 that his reasoning was logical and singularly tenacious1 and his imagination vivid4 ,it was before this supreme seer that the panorama of terrestrial creation was displayed during a five years' voyage4 ,no one can read ,darwin's ,journal descriptive of the voyage of the ,beagle and continue to entertain any doubts in reference to his sthetic sense and poetic appreciation of the various moods of nature4 ,throughout the voyage the scenery was for him the most constant and highest source of enjoyment4 ,his emotions responded to the glories of tropical vegetation in the ,brazilian forests1 and to the sublimity of ,patagonian wastes and the forest-clad hills of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,it is easy1 writes the gifted adolescent1 to specify the individual objects of admiration in these grand scenes2 but it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the higher feelings of wonder1 astonishment1 and devotion1 which fill and elevate the mind4 ,similarly1 on the heights of the ,andes1 listening to the stones borne seaward day and night by the mountain torrents1 ,darwin remarked3 ,the sound spoke eloquently to the geologist2 the thousands and thousands of stones1 which striking against each other1 made the one dull uniform sound1 were all hurrying in one direction4 ,it was like thinking on time1 where the minute that now glides past is irrecoverable4 ,so was it with these stones1 the ocean is their eternity1 and each note of that wild music told of one more step towards their destiny4 ,when the ,beagle left ,devonport1 ,december #bg1 #ahca1 the young naturalist was without any theory1 and when the ship entered ,falmouth harbor1 ,october #b1 #ahcf1 though he felt the need of a theory in reference to the relations of the various species of plants and animals1 he had not formulated one4 ,it was not till #ahei that his famous work on the ,origin of ,species appeared4 ,he went merely as a collector1 and frequently in the course of the voyage felt a young man's misgivings as to whether his collections would be of value to his ,cambridge professors and other mature scientists4 ,professor ,henslow1 the botanist1 through whom ,darwin had been offered the opportunity to accompany the expedition1 had presented his pupil with the first volume of ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology4 7,perhaps1 after ,lyell1 the most potent influence on ,darwin's mind at this time was that of ,humboldt and other renowned travelers1 whose works he read with avidity47 ,at the ,cape ,verde ,islands he made some interesting observations of a white calcareous stratum which ran for miles along the coast at a height of about forty-five feet above the water4 ,it rested on volcanic rocks and was itself covered with basalt1 that is1 lava which had crystallized under the sea4 ,it was evident that subsequently to the formation of the basalt that portion of the coast containing the white stratum had been elevated4 ,the shells in the stratum were recent1 that is1 corresponded to those still to be found on the neighboring coast4 ,it occurred to ,darwin that the voyage might afford material for a book on geology4 ,later in the voyage1 having read portions of his ,journal to ,captain ,fitzroy1 ,darwin was encouraged to believe that this also might prove worthy of publication4 ,darwin's account of his adventures and manifold observations is so informal1 so rich in detail1 as not to admit of summary4 ,his eye took in the most diverse phenomena1 the color of the sea or of rivers1 clouds of butterflies and of locusts1 the cacique with his little boy clinging to the side of a horse in headlong flight1 the great earthquake on the coast of ,chile1 the endless variety of plant and animal life1 the superstition of savage and padre1 the charms of ,tahiti1 the unconscious humor of his mountain guides for whom at an altitude of eleven thousand feet the cursed pot 7which was a new one7 did not choose to boil potatoes--all found response in ,darwin's open mind2 everything was grist to his mill4 ,any selection from the richness of the original is almost sure to show a tendency not obvious in the ,journal4 ,on the other hand1 it is just such multiplicity of phenomena as the ,journal mirrors that impels every orderly mind to seek for causes1 for explanation4 ,the human intellect cannot rest till law gives form to the wild chaos of fact4 ,no disciple of ,lyell could fail to be convinced of the immeasurable lapse of time required for the formation of the earth's crust4 ,for this principle ,darwin found abundant evidence during the years spent in ,south ,america4 ,on the heights of the ,andes he found marine shell fossils at a height of fourteen thousand feet above sea-level4 ,that such an elevation of submarine strata should be achieved by forces still at ,nature's command might well test the faith of the most ardent disciple4 ,of how great those forces are ,darwin received demonstration on the coast of ,chile in #ahce4 ,under date of ,february #ab1 he writes3 ,this day has been memorable in the annals of ,valdivia for the most severe earthquake experienced by the oldest inhabitant4444 ,a bad earthquake destroys our oldest associations2 the earth1 the very emblem of solidity1 has moved beneath our feet like a thin crust over a fluid4 ,he observed that the most remarkable effect of this earthquake was the permanent elevation of the land4 ,around the ,bay of ,concepcion it was raised two or three feet1 while at the island of ,santa ,maria the elevation was much greater2 on one part ,captain ,fitzroy found beds of putrid mussel shells still adhering to the rocks1 ten feet above high-water mark4 ,on the same day the volcanoes of ,south ,america were active4 ,the area from under which volcanic matter was actually erupted was #gbj miles in one line and #djj in another at right angles to it4 ,great as is the force at work1 ages are required to produce a range of mountains like the ,cordilleras2 moreover1 progress is not uniform and subsidence may alternate with elevation4 ,it was on the principle of the gradual subsidence 7and elevation7 of the bed of the ,pacific ,ocean that ,darwin accounted for the formation of coral reefs4 ,nothing is so unstable as the level of the crust of this earth4 ,closely associated with the evidence of the immensity of the force of volcanic action and the infinitude of time elapsed1 ,darwin had testimony of the multitude of plant and animal species1 some gigantic1 others almost infinitely small1 some living1 others extinct4 ,we know that his thought was greatly affected by his discovery in ,uruguay and ,patagonia of the fossil remains of extinct mammals1 all the more so because they seemed to bear relationship to particular living species and at the same time to show likeness to other species4 ,the ,toxodon 7bow-tooth71 for example1 was a gigantic rodent whose fossil remains were discovered in the same region where ,darwin found living the capybara1 a rodent as large as a pig2 at the same time the extinct species showed in its structure certain affinities to the ,edentata 7sloths1 ant-eaters1 armadillos74 ,other fossils represented gigantic forms distinctly of the edentate order and comparable to the ,cape ant-eater and the ,great ,armadillo 7,dasypus gigas74 ,again1 remains were found of a thick-skinned non-ruminant with certain structural likeness to the ,camelid1 to which the living species of ,south ,american ruminants1 the guanacos1 belong4 ,why have certain species ceased to exist8 ,as the individual sickens and dies1 so certain species become rare and extinct4 ,darwin found in ,northern ,patagonia evidence of the ,equus curvidens1 an extinct species of native ,american horse4 ,what had caused this species to die out8 ,imported horses were introduced at ,buenos ,ayres in #aecg1 and so flourished in the wild state that in #aehj they were found as far south as the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,darwin was well fitted by the comprehensiveness of his observations to deal with the various factors of extinction and survival4 ,he studied the species in their natural setting1 the habitat1 and range1 and habits1 and food of the different varieties4 ,traveling for three years and a half north and south on the continent of ,south ,america1 he noticed one species replacing another1 perhaps closely allied1 species4 ,of the carrion-feeding hawks the condor has an immense range1 but shows a predilection for perpendicular cliffs4 ,if an animal die on the plain the polyborus has prerogative of feeding first1 and is followed by the turkey buzzard and the gallinazo4 ,european horses and cattle running wild in the ,falkland ,islands are somewhat modified2 the horse as a species degenerating1 the cattle increasing in size and tending to form varieties of different color4 ,the soil being soft the hoofs of the horse grow long and produce lameness4 ,again1 on the mainland1 the niata1 a breed of cattle supposed to have originated among the ,indians south of the ,plata1 are1 on account of the projection of the lower jaw1 unable to browse as effectually as other breeds4 ,this renders them liable to destruction in times of drought4 ,a similar variation in structure had characterized a species of extinct ruminant in ,india4 ,how disastrous a great drought might prove to the cattle of the ,pampas is shown by the records of #ahbe and of #ahcj4 ,so little rain fell that there was a complete failure of vegetation4 ,the loss of cattle in one province alone was estimated at one million4 ,of one particular herd of twenty thousand not a single one survived4 ,darwin had many other instances of nature's devastations4 ,after the ,beagle sailed from the ,plata1 ,december #f1 #ahcc1 vast numbers of butterflies were seen as far as the eye could range in bands of countless myriads4 ,before sunset a strong breeze sprung up from the north1 and this must have caused tens of thousands of the butterflies and other insects to perish4 ,two or three months before this he had ocular proof of the effect of a hailstorm1 which in a very limited area killed twenty deer1 fifteen ostriches1 numbers of ducks1 hawks1 and partridges4 ,in the war of extermination that was ever before the great naturalist's eye in ,south ,america1 what is it that favors a species' survival or determines its extinction8 ,not only is the struggle between the animals and inanimate nature1 the plants and inanimate nature1 plant and animal1 rival animals1 and rival plants2 it goes on between man and his environment1 and1 very fiercely1 between man and man4 ,darwin was moved by intense indignation at the slavery on the east coast and the cruel oppression of the laborer on the west coast4 ,he was in close contact with the sanguinary political struggles of ,south ,america1 and with a war of attempted extermination against the ,indian4 ,he refers to the shocking but unquestionable fact1 that in the latter struggle all the women who appear above twenty years old are massacred in cold blood6 ,when ,i exclaimed that this appeared rather inhuman1 he the informant answered1 ',why1 what can be done8 they breed so6' ,in all his travels nothing that ,darwin beheld made a deeper impression on his sensitive mind than primitive man4 ,of individual objects1 perhaps nothing is more certain to create astonishment than the first sight in his native haunt of a barbarian--of man in his lowest and most savage state4 ,one's mind hurries back over past centuries1 and then asks1 could our progenitors have been men like these8444 ,i do not believe it is possible to describe or paint the difference between savage and civilized man4 ,it was at ,tierra del ,fuego that he was particularly shocked4 ,he admired the ,tahitians2 he pitied the natives of ,tasmania1 corralled like wild animals and forced to migrate2 he thought the black aborigines of ,australia had been underestimated and remarked with regret that their numbers were decreasing through their association with civilized man1 the introduction of spirits1 the increased difficulty of procuring food1 and contact with ,european diseases4 ,in this last cause tending to bring about extinction there was a mysterious element4 ,in ,chile his scientific acumen had been baffled in the attempt to explain the invasion of the strange and dreadful disease hydrophobia4 ,in ,australia the problem of the transmission to the natives of various diseases1 even by ,europeans in apparent health1 confronted his intelligence4 ,the varieties of man seem to act on each other in the same way as different specimens of animals--the stronger always extirpating the weaker4 ,it was at ,wollaston ,island1 near ,cape ,horn1 however1 that ,darwin saw savage men held in extremity by the hard conditions of life1 and at bay4 ,they had neither food1 nor shelter1 nor clothing4 ,they stood absolutely naked as the sleet fell on them and melted4 ,at night1 naked and scarcely protected from the wind and rain of this tempestuous climate1 they slept on the wet ground coiled up like animals4 ,they subsisted on shell fish1 putrid whale's blubber1 or a few tasteless berries and fungi4 ,at war1 the different tribes are cannibals4 ,darwin writes1 ,it is certainly true1 that when pressed in winter by hunger1 they kill and devour their old women before they kill their dogs4 ,a native boy1 when asked by a traveler why they do this1 had answered1 ,doggies catch otters1 old women no4 ,in such hard conditions what are the characteristics that would determine the survival of individual or tribe8 ,one might be tempted to lay almost exclusive emphasis on physical strength1 but ,darwin was too wise ultimately to answer thus the question that for six or seven years was forming in his accurate and discriminating mind4 ,on its way west in the ,pacific the ,beagle spent a month at the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 which lies under the equator five or six hundred miles from the mainland4 ,most of the organic productions are aboriginal creations1 found nowhere else2 there is even a difference between the inhabitants of the different islands2 yet all show a marked relationship with those of ,america4 ,why should the plants and animals of the islands resemble those of the mainland1 or the inhabitants of one island differ from those of a neighboring island8 ,darwin had always held that species were created immutable1 and that it was impossible for one species to give rise to another4 ,in the ,galapagos ,archipelago he found only one species of terrestrial mammal1 a new species of mouse1 and that only on the most easterly island of the group4 ,on the ,south ,american continent there were at least forty species of mice1 those east of the ,andes being distinct from those on the west coast4 ,of land-birds he obtained twenty-six kinds1 twenty-five of which were to be found nowhere else4 ,among these1 a hawk seemed in structure intermediate between the buzzard and polyborus1 as though it had been modified and induced to take over the functions of the ,south ,american carrion-hawk4 ,there were three species of mocking-thrush1 two of them confined to one island each4 ,there were thirteen species of finches1 all peculiar to the archipelago4 ,in the different species of geospiza there is a perfect gradation in the size of the beaks1 only to be appreciated by seeing the specimens or their illustrations4 ,few of the birds were of brilliant coloration4 ,the same was true of the plants and insects4 ,darwin looked in vain for one brilliant flower4 ,this was in marked contrast to the fauna and flora of the ,south ,american tropics4 ,the coloration of the species suggested comparison with that of the plants and animals of ,patagonia4 ,amid brilliant tropical plants brilliant plumage may afford means of concealment1 as well as being a factor in the securing of mates4 ,darwin found the reptiles the most striking feature of the zology of the islands4 ,they seem to take the place of the herbivorous mammalia4 ,the huge tortoise 7,testudo nigra7 native in the archipelago is so heavy as to be lifted only by six or eight men4 7,the young naturalist frequently got on the back of a tortoise1 but as it moved forward under his encouragement1 he found it very difficult to keep his balance47 ,different varieties1 if not species1 characterize the different islands4 ,of the other reptilia should be noted two species of lizard of a genus 7,amblyrhynchus7 confined to the ,galapagos ,islands4 ,one1 aquatic1 a yard long1 fifteen pounds in weight1 with limbs and strong claws admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava1 feeds on seaweed4 ,when frightened it instinctively shuns the water1 as though it feared especially its aquatic enemies4 ,the terrestrial species is confined to the central part of the group2 it is smaller than the aquatic species1 and feeds on cactus1 leaves of trees1 and berries4 ,fifteen new species of sea-fish were obtained1 distributed in twelve genera4 ,the archipelago1 though not rich in insects1 afforded several new genera1 each island with its distinct kinds4 ,the flora of the ,galapagos ,islands proved equally distinctive4 ,more than half of the flowering plants are native1 and the species of the different islands show wonderful differences4 ,for example1 of seventy-one species found on ,james ,island thirty-eight are confined to the archipelago and thirty to this one island4 ,in ,october the ,beagle sailed west to ,tahiti1 ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,keeling or ,cocos ,islands1 ,mauritius1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,ascension2 arrived at ,bahia1 ,brazil1 ,august #a1 #ahcf2 and finally proceeded from ,brazil to ,england4 ,among his many observations1 ,darwin noted the peculiar animals of ,australia1 the kangaroo-rat1 and several of the famous ,ornithorhynchus paradoxus1 or duckbill4 ,on the ,keeling or ,cocos ,islands the chief vegetable production is the cocoanut4 ,here ,darwin observed crabs of monstrous size1 with a structure which enabled them to open the cocoanuts4 ,they thus secured their food1 and accumulated surprising quantities of the picked fibres of the cocoanut husk1 on which they rest as a bed4 ,in preparing his ,journal for publication in the autumn of #ahcf the young naturalist saw how many facts pointed to the common descent of species4 ,he thought that by collecting all facts that bore on the variation of plants and animals1 wild or domesticated1 light might be thrown on the whole subject4 ,i worked on true ,baconian principles1 and1 without any theory1 collected facts on a wholesale scale4 ,he saw that pigeon-fanciers and stock-breeders develop certain types by preserving those variations that have the desired characteristics4 ,this is a process of artificial selection4 ,how is selection made by ,nature8 ,in #ahch he read ,malthus' ,essay on the ,principle of ,population1 which showed how great and rapid1 without checks like war and disease1 the increase in number of the human race would be4 ,he had seen something in his travels of rivalry for the means of subsistence4 ,he now perceived that under these circumstances favorable variations would tend to be preserved1 and unfavorable ones to be destroyed4 ,the results of this would be the formation of a new species4 ,as special breeds are developed by artificial selection1 so new species evolve by a process of natural selection4 ,those genera survive which give rise to species adapted to new conditions of existence4 ,in #aheh1 before ,darwin had published his theory1 he received from another great traveler1 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 then at ,ternate in the ,moluccas1 a manuscript essay1 setting forth an almost identical view of the development of new species through the survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence4 ,,references ,charles ,darwin1 ,a ,naturalist's ,journal4 ,francis ,darwin1 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin4 ,w4 ,a4 ,locy1 ,biology and its ,makers 7third revised edition71 chap4 ,,xix4 ,g4 ,j4 ,romanes1 ,darwin and ,after ,darwin1 vol4 ,i4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,darwinism4 ,see also ,john ,w4 ,judd1 ,the ,coming of ,evolution 7,the ,cambridge ,manuals of ,science and ,literature74 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,science ,,and ,,war--,,pasteur1 ,,lister ,in the history of science war is no mere interruption1 but a great stimulating influence1 promoting directly or indirectly the liberties of the people1 calling into play the energy of artisan and manufacturer1 and increasing the demand for useful and practical studies4 ,in the activities of naval and military equipment and organization this influence is obvious enough2 it is no less real in the reaction from war which impels all to turn with new zest to the arts and industries of peace and to cherish whatever may tend to culture and civil progress4 ,not infrequently war gives rise1 not only to new educational ideals1 but to new institutions and to new types of institution favorable to the advancement of science4 ,as we have already seen1 the ,royal ,society and ,milton's ,academies owed their origin to the ,great ,rebellion4 ,similarly the ,ecole ,polytechnique1 mother of many scientific discoveries1 rose in answer to the needs of the ,french ,revolution4 ,no less noteworthy was the reconstruction of education under the practical genius of ,napoleon ,i1 the division of ,france into acadmies1 the founding of the lyces1 the restablishment of the great ,ecole ,normale1 and the organization of the ,imperial ,university with new science courses and new provincial ,faculties at ,rennes1 ,lille1 and elsewhere4 ,with all these different forms in which the influence of war makes itself felt in the progress of science the life and career of ,louis ,pasteur 7#ahbb-ahie71 the founder of bacteriology1 stood intimately associated4 ,he was born at ,dle1 but the family a few years later settled at ,arbois4 ,for three generations the ,pasteurs had been tanners in the ,jura1 and they naturally adhered to that portion of the population which hailed the ,revolution as a deliverance4 ,the great-grandfather was the first freeman of ,pasteur's forbears1 having purchased with money his emancipation from serfdom4 ,the father in #ahaa1 at the age of twenty1 was one of ,napoleon's conscripts1 and in #ahad received from the ,emperor1 for valor and fidelity1 the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honor4 ,the directness and endurance of the influence of this trained veteran on his gifted son a hundred fine incidents attest4 ,in #ahdh--year of revolt in the monarchies of ,europe--the young scientist enrolled himself in the ,national ,guard1 and1 seeing one day in the ,place du ,panthon a structure inscribed with the words autel de la patrie1 he placed upon it all the humble means--one hundred and fifty francs--then at his disposal4 ,it was in that same year that ,pasteur put on record his discovery of the nature of racemic acid1 his first great service to science1 from which all his other services were to proceed4 ,as a boy he had attended the collge at ,arbois where his teacher had inspired him with an ambition to enter the great ,ecole ,normale4 ,before reaching that goal he took his bachelor's degree in science as well as in arts at the ,besanon college4 ,at ,paris he came in contact with the leaders of the scientific world--,claude ,bernard1 ,balard1 ,dumas1 ,biot4 ,j4 ,b4 ,biot had entered the ranks of science by way of the ,ecole ,polytechnique and the artillery service4 ,in #ahai he had announced that the plane of polarized light--for example1 a ray passed through ,iceland spar--is deflected to right or left by various chemical substances4 ,among these is common tartaric acid--the acid of grape-juice1 obtained from wine lees4 ,racemic acid1 however1 which is identical with tartaric acid in its chemical constituents1 is optically inactive1 rotating the plane of polarized light neither to the right nor the left4 ,this substance ,pasteur subjected to special investigation4 ,he scrutinized the crystals of sodium ammonium racemate obtained from aqueous solution4 ,these he observed to be of two kinds differing in form as a right glove from a left1 or as an object from its mirror-image4 ,separating the crystals according to the difference of form1 he made a solution from each group4 ,one solution1 tested in the polarized-light apparatus1 turned the plane to the right2 the other solution turned it to the left4 ,he had made a capital discovery of far-reaching importance1 namely1 that racemic acid is composite1 consisting of dextro-tartaric and lvo-tartaric acids4 ,biot hesitated to credit a mere tyro with such an achievement4 ,the experiment was repeated in his presence4 ,convinced by ocular demonstration1 he was almost overcome with emotion4 ,my dear boy1 he exclaimed1 ,i have loved the sciences so much my life through that that makes my heart jump4 ,pasteur began his regular professional experience as a teacher of physics in the ,dijon lyce1 but he was soon transferred to the ,university of ,strasburg 7#ahdi74 ,there he married the daughter of the rector of the acadmie1 and three years later became ,professor of ,chemistry4 ,in #ahed he was appointed ,dean of the ,faculty of ,sciences at ,lille1 a town then officially described as the richest center of industrial activity in the north of ,france4 ,in his opening address he showed the value and attractiveness of practical studies4 ,he believed as an educator in the close alliance of laboratory and factory4 ,application should always be the aim1 but resting on the severe and solid basis of scientific principles2 for it is theory alone which can bring forth and develop the spirit of invention4 ,his own study of racemic acid1 begun in the laboratories of ,paris1 and followed up in the factories of ,leipzig1 ,prag1 and ,vienna1 had led to his theory of molecular dissymmetry1 the starting point of modern stereo-chemistry4 ,it now gave rise on ,pasteur's part to new studies and to new applications to the industries4 ,he tried an experiment which seems almost whimsical1 placing ammonium racemate in the ordinary conditions of fermentation1 and observed that only one part--the dextro-rotatory--ferments or putrefies4 ,why8 ,because the ferments of that fermentation feed more easily on the right hand than on the left hand molecules4 ,he succeeded in keeping alive one of the commonest moulds on the surface of ashes and racemic acid1 and saw the lvo-tartaric acid appear4 ,it was thus that he passed from the study of crystals to the study of ferments4 ,in the middle of the nineteenth century little was known of the nature of fermentation1 though some sought to explain by this ill-understood process the origin of various diseases and of putrefaction4 ,why does fruit-juice produce alcohol1 wine turn to vinegar1 milk become sour1 and butter rancid8 ,pasteur's interest in these problems of fermentation was stimulated by one of the industries of ,lille4 ,he was accustomed to visit with his students the factories of that place as well as those of neighboring ,french and ,belgian cities4 ,the father of one of his students was engaged in the manufacture of alcohol from beetroot sugar1 and ,pasteur came to be consulted when difficulties arose in the manufacturing process4 ,he discovered a relationship between the development of the yeast and the success or failure of the fermentation1 the yeast globules as seen under the microscope showing an alteration of form when the fermentation was not proceeding satisfactorily4 ,in #aheg ,pasteur on the basis of this study was able to demonstrate that alcoholic fermentation1 that is1 the conversion of sugar into alcohol1 carbonic acid1 and other compounds1 depends on the action of yeast1 the cells of which are widely disseminated in the atmosphere4 ,in this year of his second great triumph ,pasteur was appointed director of science studies in the ,ecole ,normale1 from which he had graduated in #ahdg4 ,two years later the loss of his daughter by a communicable disease--typhoid fever--had a great effect on his sensitive and profound mind4 ,many of his opponents1 it is true1 found ,pasteur implacable in controversy4 ,undoubtedly he had the courage of his convictions1 and his belief that1 for the sake of human welfare1 right views--his views won by tireless experiment--must prevail1 gained him the name of a fighter4 ,but in all the intimate relations of life his essential tenderness was manifest4 ,like ,darwin he had a horror of inflicting pain1 and always insisted1 when operations on animals were necessary in the laboratory1 on the use of ansthetics 7our command of which had been greatly advanced by ,simpson in #ahdg74 ,emile ,roux said that ,pasteur's agitation at witnessing the slightest exhibition of pain would have been ludicrous if1 in so great a man1 it had not been touching4 ,a few months after his daughter's death ,pasteur wrote to one of his friends3 ,i am pursuing as best ,i can these studies on fermentation1 which are of great interest1 connected as they are with the impenetrable mystery of life and death4 ,i am hoping to make a decisive advance very soon1 by solving without the least lack of clearness the famous question of spontaneous generation4 ,two years previously a scientist had claimed that animals and plants could be generated in a medium of artificial air or oxygen1 from which all atmospheric air and all germs of organized bodies had been precluded4 ,pasteur now filtered atmospheric air through a plug of cotton or asbestos 7a procedure which had been followed by others in #ahed71 and proved that in air thus treated no fermentation takes place4 ,nothing in the atmosphere causes life except the micro-organisms it contains4 ,he even demonstrated that a putrescible fluid like blood will remain unchanged in an open vessel so constructed as to exclude atmospheric dust4 ,pasteur's critics maintained that if putrefaction and fermentation be caused solely by microscopic organisms1 then these must be found everywhere and in such quantities as to encumber the air4 ,he replied that they were less numerous in some parts of the atmosphere than in others4 ,to prove his contention he set out for ,arbois with a large number of glass bulbs each half filled with a putrescible liquid4 ,the necks of the bulbs had been drawn out and hermetically sealed after the contents had been boiled4 ,in case the necks were broken 7to be again sealed immediately71 the air would rush in1 and 7if it held the requisite micro-organisms7 furnish the conditions for putrefaction4 ,it was found that in every trial the contents of a certain number of the bulbs always escaped alteration4 ,twenty were opened in the country near ,arbois free from human habitations4 ,eight out of the twenty showed signs of putrefaction4 ,twenty were exposed to the air on the heights of the ,jura at an altitude of eight hundred and fifty meters above sea-level2 the contents of five of these subsequently putrefied4 ,twenty others were opened near ,mont ,blanc at an altitude of two thousand meters and while a wind was blowing from the ,mer de ,glace2 in this case the contents of only one of the bulbs became putrefied4 ,while his opponents still professed to believe in the creation of organized beings lacking parents1 ,pasteur was under the influence of the theory of the slow and progressive transformation of one species into another1 and was becoming aware of phases of the struggle for existence hitherto shrouded in mystery4 ,he wished he said to push these studies far enough to prepare the way for a serious investigation of the origin of disease4 ,he returned to the study of lactic fermentation1 showed that butyric fermentation may be caused by organisms which live in the absence of oxygen1 while vinegar is produced from wine through the agency of bacteria freely supplied with the oxygen of the air4 ,pasteur was seeing ever more clearly the part played by the infinitesimally small in the economy of nature4 ,without these microscopic beings life would become impossible1 because death would be incomplete4 ,on the basis of ,pasteur's study of fermentation1 his demonstration that decomposition is owing to living organisms and that minute forms of life spring from parents like themselves1 his disciple ,joseph ,lister began in #ahfd to develop antiseptic surgery4 ,pasteur's attention was next directed to the wine industry1 which then had an annual value to ,france of #ejj1jjj1jjj francs4 ,might not the acidity1 bitterness1 defective flavor1 which were threatening the foreign sale of ,french wines1 be owing to ferments8 ,he discovered that this was1 indeed1 the case1 and that the diseases of wine could be cured by the simple expedient of heating the liquor for a few moments to a temperature of #ej to #fj ,c4 ,tests on a considerable scale were made by order of the naval authorities4 ,the ship ,jean ,bart before starting on a voyage took on board five hundred liters of wine1 half of which had been heated under ,pasteur's directions4 ,at the end of ten months the pasteurized wine was mellow and of good color1 while the wine which had not been heated had an astringent1 almost bitter1 taste4 ,a more extensive test--seven hundred hectoliters1 of which six hundred and fifty had been pasteurized--was carried out on the frigate la ,sibylle with satisfactory results4 ,previously wines had been preserved by the addition of alcohol1 which made them both dearer and more detrimental to health4 ,in #ahfe ,pasteur was called upon to exercise his scientific acumen on behalf of the silk industry4 ,a disease--pbrine--had appeared among silkworms in #ahde4 ,in #ahdi the effect on the ,french industry was disastrous4 ,in the single arrondissement of ,alais an annual income of #abj1jjj1jjj francs was lost for the subsequent fifteen years4 ,the mulberry plantations of the ,cvennes were abandoned and the whole region was desolate4 ,pasteur1 at the instigation of the ,minister of ,agriculture1 undertook an investigation4 ,after four or five years1 in spite of repeated domestic afflictions and the breakdown of his own health1 he arrived at a successful conclusion4 ,pbrine1 due to corpuscles readily detected under the microscope1 could be recognized at the moment of the moth's formation4 ,a second disease1 flacherie1 was due to a micro-organism found in the digestive cavity of the moth4 ,measures were taken to select the seed of the healthy moths and to destroy the others4 ,these investigations revealed the infinitesimally small as disorganizers of living tissue1 and brought ,pasteur nearer his purpose of arriving1 as he had expressed it to ,napoleon ,,iii in #ahfc1 at the knowledge of the causes of putrid and contagious diseases4 ,returning in ,july1 #ahgj1 from a visit to ,liebig at ,munich1 ,pasteur heard at ,strasburg of the imminence of war4 ,all his dreams of conquest over disease and death seemed to vanish4 ,he hurried to ,paris4 ,his son1 eighteen years of age1 set out with the army4 ,every student of the ,ecole ,normale enlisted4 ,pasteur's laboratory was used to house soldiers4 ,he himself wished to be enrolled in the ,national ,guard1 and had to be told that a half-paralyzed man could not render military service4 ,he was obsessed with horror of wanton bloodshed and with indignation at the insolence of armed injustice4 ,trained to serve his country only in one way he tried1 but in vain1 to resume his researches4 ,he retired to the old home town of ,arbois1 and sought to distract his mind from the contemplation of human baseness4 ,arbois was entered by the enemy in ,january with the usual atrocities of war4 ,pasteur accompanied by wife and daughter had gone in search of his son1 sick at ,pontarlier4 ,the boy was restored to health and returned to his regiment the following month4 ,during this crisis ,pasteur and his friends felt1 as many ,english scientists feel in #aiag1 in reference to ignorance in high places4 ,we are paying the penalty1 he said1 of fifty years' forgetfulness of science1 and of its conditions of development4 ,again he speaks1 as ,englishmen to-day very well might1 of the neglect1 disdain even1 of the country for great intellectual men1 especially in the realm of exact science4 ,in the same strain his friend ,bertin said that after the war everything would have to be rebuilt from the top to the bottom1 the top especially4 ,pasteur recalled the period of #agib when ,lavoisier1 ,berthollet1 ,monge1 ,fourcroy1 ,guyton de ,morveau1 ,chaptal1 ,clouet1 and other scientists had furnished ,france with gunpowder1 steel1 cannon1 fortifications1 balloons1 leather1 and other means to repel unjust invasion4 ,on the day after ,sedan the ,quaker surgeon ,lister had published directions for the use of aqueous solutions of carbolic acid to destroy septic particles in wounds1 and of oily solutions to prevent putrefactive fermentation from without4 ,he recognized that the earlier the case comes from the field the greater the prospect of success4 ,sdillot 7the originator of the term microbe71 at the head of an ambulance corps in ,alsace1 was a pioneer in the rapid transport of wounded from the field of battle4 ,he knew the horrors of purulent infection in military hospitals1 and regretted that the principles of ,pasteur and ,lister were not more fully applied4 ,after the war was over1 ,pasteur kept repeating his life-long exhortation3 ,we must work--,travaillez1 travaillez toujours6 ,he applied himself to a study of the brewing industry4 ,he did not believe in spontaneous alterations1 but found that every marked change in the quality of beer coincides with the development of micro-organisms4 ,he was able to tell the ,english brewers the defects in their output by a microscopic examination of their yeast4 7,we must make some friends for our beloved ,france1 he said47 ,bottled beer could be pasteurized by bringing it to a temperature of #ej to #ee ,c4 ,whenever beer contains no ferments it is unalterable4 ,his scrupulous mind was coming ever closer to the goal of his ambition4 ,this study of the diseases of beer led him nearer to a knowledge of infections4 ,many micro-organisms may1 must1 be detrimental to the health of man and animals4 ,in #ahgd the ,government conferred upon ,pasteur a life annuity of twelve thousand francs1 an equivalent of his salary as ,professor of ,chemistry at the ,sorbonne4 7,he had received appointment in #ahfg1 but had been compelled by ill-health to relinquish his academic functions47 ,the grant was in all respects wise4 ,huxley remarked that ,pasteur's discoveries alone would suffice to cover the war indemnity of five milliards paid by ,france to ,germany in #ahga4 ,moreover1 all his activities were dictated by patriotic motives4 ,he felt that science is of no country and that its conquests belong to mankind1 but that the scientist must be a patriot in the service of his native land4 ,pasteur now applied his energies to the study of virulent diseases1 following the principles of his earlier investigations4 ,he opposed those physicians who believed in the spontaneity of disease1 and he wished to wage a war of extermination against all injurious organisms4 ,as early as #ahej ,davaine and ,rayer had shown that a rod-like micro-organism was always present in the blood of animals dying of anthrax1 a disease which was destroying the flocks and herds of ,france4 ,dr4 ,koch1 who had served in the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 succeeded in #ahgf in obtaining pure cultures of this bacillus and in defining its relation to the disease4 ,pasteur took up the study of anthrax in #ahgg1 verified previous discoveries1 and1 as we shall see1 sought means for the prevention of this pest4 ,he discovered 7with ,joubert and ,chamberland7 the bacillus of malignant edema4 ,he applied the principles of bacteriology to the treatment of puerperal fever1 which in #ahfd had rendered fatal #caj cases out of #acej confinements in the ,maternit in ,paris4 ,here he had to fight against conservatism in the medical profession1 and he fought strenuously1 one of his disciples remarking that it is characteristic of lofty minds to put passion into ideas4 ,swine plague1 which in the ,united ,states in #ahgi destroyed over a million hogs1 and chicken cholera1 also engaged his attention4 ,cultures of chicken cholera virus kept for some time became less active4 ,a hen that chanced to be inoculated with the weakened virus developed the disease1 but1 after a time1 recovered 7much as patients after the old-time smallpox inoculations74 ,it was then inoculated with a fresh culture supposed sufficient to cause death4 ,it again recovered4 ,the use of the weakened inoculation had developed its resistance to infection4 ,a weakened virus recovered its strength when passed through a number of sparrows1 the second being inoculated with virus from the first1 the third from the second1 and so on 7this species being subject to the disease74 ,hens that had not had chicken cholera could be rendered immune by a series of attenuated inoculations gradually increasing in strength4 ,in the case of anthrax the virus could be weakened by keeping it at a certain temperature1 while it could be strengthened by passage through a succession of guinea-pigs4 ,there are of course many instances where pathogenic bacteria lose virulence in passing from one animal to another1 the human smallpox virus1 for example1 producing typical cowpox in an inoculated heifer4 ,these facts help to explain why certain infections have grown less virulent in the course of history1 and why infections of which civilized man has become tolerant prove fatal when imparted to the primitive peoples of ,australia4 ,pasteur's preventive inoculation for anthrax was tested under dramatic circumstances at ,melun in ,june1 #ahha4 ,sixty sheep and a number of cows were subjected to experiment4 ,none of the sheep that had been given the preventive treatment died from the crucial inoculation2 while all those succumbed which had not received previous treatment4 ,the test for the cows was likewise successful4 ,pasteur thought that in places where sheep dead of anthrax had been buried1 the microbes were brought to the surface in the castings of earthworms4 ,hence he issued certain directions to prevent the transmission of the disease4 ,he also aided agriculture by discovering a vaccine for swine plague4 ,when ,pasteur at the age of fifteen was in ,paris1 overcome with homesickness1 he had exclaimed1 ,if ,i could only get a whiff of the old tannery yard1 ,i feel ,i should be cured4 ,certainly every time he came in contact with the industries--silk1 wine1 beer1 wool--his scientific insight1 ,antus-like1 seemed to revive4 ,all his life he had preached the doctrine of interchange of service between theory and practice1 science and the occupations4 ,what he did is more eloquent than words4 ,his theory of molecular dissymmetry1 that the atoms in a molecule may be arranged in left-hand and right-hand spirals or other tridimensional figures corresponding to asymmetrical crystals1 touches the abstruse question of the constitution of matter4 ,his preventive treatment breathes new life into the old dictum similia similibus curantur4 ,the view he adopted of the gradual transformation of species offers a new interpretation of the speculations of philosophy in reference to being and becoming and the relation of the real to the concrete4 ,yet ,pasteur felt he could learn much of value from the simplest shepherd or vine-dresser4 ,he was complete in the simplicity of his affections1 in his compassion for all suffering1 in the warmth of his religious faith1 and in his devotion to his country4 ,he thought ,france was to regain her place in the world's esteem through scientific progress4 ,he was therefore especially gratified in ,august1 #ahha1 at the thunders of applause which greeted his appearance at the ,international ,medical ,congress in ,london4 ,there he was introduced to the ,prince of ,wales 7fondateur de l',entente ,cordiale71 to whom ,i bowed1 saying that ,i was happy to salute a friend of ,france4 ,pasteur's investigation of rabies began in this same year4 ,difficulty was found in isolating the microbe of the rabic virus1 but an inoculation from the medulla oblongata of a mad dog injected into one of the brain membranes 7dura mater7 of another dog invariably brought on the symptoms of rabies4 ,to obtain attenuation of the virus it was sufficient to dry the medulla taken from an infected rabbit4 ,the weakened virus increased in strength when cultivated in a series of rabbits4 ,pasteur obtained in inoculations of graded virulence1 which could be administered hypodermically1 a means of prophylaxis after bites4 ,he conjectured that in vaccinal immunity the virus is accompanied by a substance which makes the nervous tissue unfavorable for the development of the microbe4 ,it was not till #ahhe that he ventured to use his discovery to prevent hydrophobia4 ,on ,july #f a little boy1 ,joseph ,meister1 from a small place in ,alsace was brought by his mother to ,paris for treatment4 ,he had been severely bitten by a mad dog4 ,pasteur1 with great trepidation1 but moved by his usual compassion1 undertook the case4 ,the inoculations of the attenuated virus began at once4 ,the boy suffered little inconvenience1 playing about the laboratory during the ten days the treatment lasted4 ,pasteur was racked with fears alternating with hopes1 his anxiety growing more intense as the virulence of the inoculations increased4 ,on ,august #bj1 however1 even he was convinced that the treatment was a complete success4 ,in ,october a shepherd lad1 who1 though badly bitten himself1 had saved some other children from the attack of a rabid dog1 was the second one to benefit by the great discovery4 ,pasteur's exchange of letters with these boys after they had returned to their homes reveals the kindliness of his disposition4 ,his sentiment toward children had regard both to what they were and to what they might become4 ,one patient1 brought to him thirty-seven days after being bitten1 he failed to save4 ,by ,march #a ,pasteur reported that three hundred and fifty cases had been treated with only one death4 ,when subscriptions were opened for the erection and endowment of the ,pasteur ,institute1 a sum of #b1ehf1fhj francs was received in contributions from many different parts of the world4 ,noteworthy among the contributors were the ,emperor of ,brazil1 the ,czar of ,russia1 the ,sultan of ,turkey1 and the peasants of ,alsace4 ,on ,november #ad1 #ahhh1 ,president ,carnot opened the institution1 which was soon to witness the triumphs of ,roux1 ,yersin1 ,metchnikoff1 and other disciples of ,pasteur4 ,in the address prepared for this occasion the veteran scientist wrote3-- ,if ,i might be allowed1 ,m4 le ,prsident1 to conclude by a philosophical remark1 inspired by your presence in this home of work1 ,i should say that two contrary laws seem to be wrestling with each other at the present time2 the one a law of blood and death1 ever devising new means of destruction and forcing nations to be constantly ready for the battlefield--the other1 a law of peace1 work1 and health1 ever developing new means of delivering man from the scourges which beset him4 ,the one seeks violent conquests1 the other the relief of humanity4 ,the latter places one human life above any victory2 while the former would sacrifice hundreds and thousands of lives to the ambition of one4 ,the law of which we are the instruments seeks1 even in the midst of carnage1 to cure the sanguinary ills of the law of war2 the treatment inspired by our antiseptic methods may preserve thousands of soldiers4 ,which of these two laws will ultimately prevail ,god alone knows4 ,but we may assert that ,french science will have tried1 by obeying the law of humanity1 to extend the frontiers of life4 ,,references ,w4 ,w4 ,ford1 ,the ,life and ,work of ,robert ,koch1 ,bulletin of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 ,dec4 #aiaa1 vol4 #bb4 ,c4 ,a4 ,herter1 ,the ,influence of ,pasteur on ,medical ,science1 ,bulletin of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 ,dec4 #aijc1 vol4 #ad4 ,e4 ,o4 ,jordan1 ,general ,bacteriology 7fourth edition1 #aiae74 ,charles ,c4 ,w4 ,judd1 ,the ,life and ,work of ,lister1 ,bulletin of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 ,oct4 #aiaj1 vol4 #ba4 ,stephen ,paget1 ,pasteur and ,after ,pasteur4 ,w4 ,t4 ,sedgwick1 ,principles of ,sanitary ,science4 ,ren ,vallery-,radot1 ,life of ,pasteur4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,science ,,and ,,invention--,,langley',s ,,aeroplane ,in his laudation of the nineteenth century ,alfred ,russel ,wallace ventured to enumerate the chief inventions of that period3 7#a7 ,railways2 7#b7 steam navigation2 7#c7 electric telegraphs2 7#d7 the telephone2 7#e7 friction matches2 7#f7 gas-lighting2 7#g7 electric-lighting2 7#h7 photography2 7#i7 the phonograph2 7#aj7 electric transmission of power2 7#aa7 ,rntgen rays2 7#ab7 spectrum analysis2 7#ac7 ansthetics2 7#ad7 antiseptic surgery4 ,all preceding centuries--less glorious than the nineteenth--can claim but seven or eight capital inventions3 7#a7 ,alphabetic writing2 7#b7 ,arabic numerals2 7#c7 the mariner's compass2 7#d7 printing2 7#e7 the telescope2 7#f7 the barometer and thermometer2 7#g7 the steam engine4 ,similarly1 to the nineteenth century thirteen important theoretical discoveries are ascribed1 to the eighteenth only two1 and to the seventeenth five4 ,of course the very purpose of these lists--namely1 to compare the achievements of one century with those of other centuries--inclines us to view each invention as an isolated phenomenon1 disregarding its antecedents and its relation to contemporary inventions4 ,studied in its development1 steam navigation is but an application of one kind of steam engine1 and1 moreover1 must be viewed as a phase in the evolution of navigation since the earliest times4 ,like considerations would apply to railways1 antiseptic surgery1 or friction matches4 ,the nineteenth-century inventor of the friction match was certainly no more ingenious 7considering the means that chemistry had put at his disposal7 than many of the savages who contributed by their intelligence to methods of producing1 maintaining1 and using fire4 ,in fact1 as we approach the consideration of prehistoric times it becomes difficult to distinguish inventions from the slow results of development--in metallurgy1 tool-making1 building1 pottery1 war-gear1 weaving1 cooking1 the domestication of animals1 the selection and cultivation of plants4 ,moreover1 it is scarcely in the category of invention that the acquisition of alphabetic writing or the use of ,arabic numerals properly belongs4 ,these and other objections1 such as the omission of explosives1 firearms1 paper1 will readily occur to the reader4 ,nevertheless1 these lists1 placed side by side with the record of theoretic discoveries1 encourage the belief that1 more and more1 sound theory is productive of useful inventions1 and that henceforth it must fall to scientific endeavor rather than to lucky accident to strengthen man's control over ,nature4 ,even as late as the middle of the nineteenth century accident and not science was regarded as the fountain-head of invention1 and the view that a knowledge of the causes and secret motions of things would lead to the enlarging of the bounds of human empire to the effecting of all things possible was scouted as the idle dream of a doctrinaire4 ,in the year #ahif three important advances were made in man's mastery of his environment4 ,these are associated with the names of ,marconi1 ,becquerel1 and ,langley4 ,it was in this year that the last-named1 long known to the scientific world for his discoveries in solar physics1 demonstrated in the judgment of competent witnesses the practicability of mechanical flight4 ,this was the result of nine years' experimentation4 ,it was followed by several more years of fruitful investigation1 leading to that ultimate triumph which it was given to ,samuel ,pierpont ,langley to see only with the eye of faith4 ,the ,english language has need of a new word 7plane7 to signify the floating of a bird upon the wing with slight1 or no1 apparent motion of the wings 7planer1 schweben74 ,to hover has other connotations1 while to soar is properly to fly upward1 and not to hang poised upon the air4 ,the miracle of a bird's flight1 that steady and almost effortless motion1 had interested ,langley intensely--as had also the sun's radiation--from the years of his childhood4 ,the phenomenon 7the way of an eagle in the air7 has always1 indeed1 fascinated the human imagination and at the same time baffled the comprehension4 ,the skater on smooth ice1 the ship riding at sea1 or even the fish floating in water1 offers only an incomplete analogy2 for the fish has approximately the same weight as the water it displaces1 while a turkey buzzard of two or three pounds' weight will circle by the half-hour on motionless wing upheld only by the thin medium of the air4 ,in #ahhg1 prior to his removal to ,washington as ,secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 ,langley began his experiments in aerodynamics at the old observatory in ,allegheny--now a part of the city of ,pittsburgh4 ,his chief apparatus was a whirling table1 sixty feet in diameter1 and with an outside speed of seventy miles an hour4 ,this was at first driven by a gas engine1--ironically named ,automatic1--for which a steam engine was substituted in the following year4 ,by means of the whirling table and a resistance-gauge 7dynamometer chronograph7 ,langley studied the effect of the air on planes of varying lengths and breadths1 set at varying angles1 and borne horizontally at different velocities4 ,at times he substituted stuffed birds for the metal planes1 on the action of which under air pressure his scientific deductions were based4 ,in #ahia he published the results of his experiments4 ,these proved--in opposition to the teaching of some very distinguished scientists--that the force required to sustain inclined planes in horizontal locomotion through the air diminishes with increased velocity 7at least within the limits of the experiment74 ,here a marked contrast is shown between aerial locomotion on the one hand1 and land and water locomotion on the other2 whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power1 within the limits of experiment in such aerial horizontal transport1 the higher speeds are more economical of power than the lower ones4 ,again1 the experiments demonstrated that the force necessary to maintain at high velocity an apparatus consisting of planes and motors could be produced by means already available4 ,it was found1 for example1 that one horse-power rightly applied is sufficient to maintain a plane of two hundred pounds in horizontal flight at a rate of about forty-five miles an hour4 ,langley had in fact furnished experimental proof that the aerial locomotion of bodies many times heavier than air was possible4 ,he reserved for further experimentation the question of aerodromics1 the form1 ascent1 maintenance in horizontal position1 and descent of an aerodrome 71 traversing the air71 as he called the prospective flying machine4 ,he believed1 however1 that the time had come for seriously considering these things1 and intelligent physicists1 who before the publication of ,langley's experiments had regarded all plans of aerial navigation as utopian1 soon came to share his belief4 ,according to ,octave ,chanute there was in ,europe in #ahhi utter disagreement and confusion in reference to fundamental questions of aerodynamics4 ,he thought ,langley had given firm ground to stand upon concerning air resistances and reactions1 and that the beginning of the solution of the problem of aerial navigation would date from the ,american scientist's experiments in aerodynamics4 ,very early in his investigations ,langley thought he received through watching the anemometer a clue to the mystery of flight4 ,observations1 begun at ,pittsburgh in #ahhg and continued at ,washington in #ahic1 convinced him that the course of the wind is a series of complex and little-known phenomena1 and that a wind to which we may assign a mean velocity of twenty or thirty miles an hour1 even disregarding the question of strata and currents1 is far from being a mere mass movement1 and consists of pulsations varying both in rate and direction from second to second4 ,if this complexity is revealed by the stationary anemometer--which may register a momentary calm in the midst of a gale--how great a diversity of pressure must exist in a large extent of atmosphere4 ,this internal work of the wind will lift the soaring bird at times to higher levels1 from which without special movement of the wings it may descend in the very face of the wind's general course4 ,from the beginning1 however1 of his experiments ,langley had sought to devise a successful flying machine4 ,in #ahhg and the following years he constructed about forty rubber-driven models1 all of which were submitted to trial and modification4 ,from these tests he felt that he learned much about the conditions of flight in free air which could not be learned from the more definitely controlled tests with simple planes on the whirling table4 ,his essential object was1 of course1 to reduce the principles of equilibrium to practice4 ,besides different forms and sizes he tried various materials of construction1 and ultimately various means of propulsion4 ,before he could test his larger steam-driven models1 made for the most part of steel and weighing about one thousand times as much as the air displaced1 ,langley spent many months contriving and constructing suitable launching apparatus4 ,the solution of the problem of safe descent after flight he in a sense postponed1 conducting his experiments from a house-boat on the ,potomac1 where the model might come down without serious damage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,first ,,successful ,,heavier-,,than-,,air ,,flying ,,machine ,a photograph taken at the moment of launching ,langley's aerodrome ,may #f1 #ahif ,it was on ,may #f1 #ahif 7the anniversary of which date is now celebrated as ,langley ,day71 that the success was achieved which all who witnessed it considered decisive of the future of mechanical flight4 ,the whole apparatus--steel frame1 miniature steam engine1 smoke stack1 condensed-air chamber1 gasoline tank1 wooden propellers1 wings--weighed about twenty-four pounds4 ,there was developed a steam pressure of about #aae pounds1 and the actual power was nearly one horse-power4 ,at a given signal the aeroplane was released from the overhead launching apparatus on the upper deck of the house-boat4 ,it rose steadily to an ultimate height of from seventy to a hundred feet4 ,it circled 7owing to the guys of one wing being loose7 to the right1 completing two circles and beginning a third as it advanced2 so that the whole course had the form of a spiral4 ,at the end of one minute and twenty seconds the propellers began to slow down owing to the exhaustion of fuel4 ,the aeroplane descended slowly and gracefully1 appearing to settle on the water4 ,it seemed to ,alexander ,graham ,bell that no one could witness this interesting spectacle1 of a flying machine in perfect equilibrium1 without being convinced that the possibility of aerial flight by mechanical means had been demonstrated4 ,on the very day of the test he wrote to the ,acadmie des ,sciences that there had never before been constructed1 so far as he knew1 a heavier-than-air flying machine1 or aerodrome1 which could by its own power maintain itself in the air for more than a few seconds4 ,langley felt that he had now completed the work in this field which properly belonged to him as a scientist--the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight--and that the public might look to others for its development and commercial exploitation4 ,like ,franklin and ,davy he declined to take out patents1 or in any way to make money from scientific discovery2 and like ,henry1 the first ,secretary of the ,smithsonian ,institution 7to whom the early development of electro-magnetic machines was due71 he preferred to be known as a scientist rather than as an inventor4 ,nevertheless1 ,langley's desire to construct a large1 man-carrying aeroplane ultimately became irresistible4 ,just before the outbreak of the ,spanish ,war in #ahih he felt that such a machine might be of service to his country in the event of hostilities that seemed to him imminent4 ,the attention of ,president ,mc,kinley was called to the matter1 and a joint commission of ,army and ,navy officers was appointed to make investigation of the results of ,professor ,langley's experiments in aerial navigation4 ,a favorable report having been made by that body1 the ,board of ,ordnance and ,fortification recommended a grant of fifty thousand dollars to defray the expenses of further research4 ,langley was requested to undertake the construction of a machine which might lead to the development of an engine of war1 and in ,december1 #ahih1 he formally agreed to go on with the work4 ,he hoped at first to obtain from manufacturers a gasoline engine sufficiently light and sufficiently powerful for a man-carrying machine4 ,after several disappointments1 the automobile industry being then in its infancy1 he succeeded in constructing a five-cylinder gasoline motor of fifty-two horse-power and weighing only about a hundred and twenty pounds4 ,he also constructed new launching apparatus4 ,after tests with superposed sustaining surfaces1 he adhered to the single-tier plan4 ,there is interesting evidence that in #aijj ,langley renewed his study of the flight of soaring birds1 the area of their extended wing surface in relation to weight1 and the vertical distance between the center of pressure and the center of gravity in gulls and different species of buzzards4 ,he noted among other things that the tilting of a wing was sufficient to bring about a complete change of direction4 ,by the summer of #aijc two new machines were ready for field trials1 which were undertaken from a large house-boat1 especially constructed for the purpose and then moored in the mid-stream of the ,potomac about forty miles below ,washington4 ,the larger of these two machines weighed seven hundred and five pounds and was designed to carry an engineer to control the motor and direct the flight4 ,the motive power was supplied by the light and powerful gasoline engine already referred to4 ,the smaller aeroplane was a quarter-size model of the larger one4 ,it weighed fifty-eight pounds1 had an engine of between two and a half and three horse-power1 and a sustaining surface of sixty-six square feet4 ,this smaller machine was tested ,august #h1 #aijc1 the same launching apparatus being employed as with the steam-driven models of #ahif4 ,in spite of the fact that one of the mechanics failed to withdraw a certain pin at the moment of launching1 and that some breakage of the apparatus consequently occurred1 the aeroplane made a good start1 and fulfilled the main purpose of the test by maintaining a perfect equilibrium4 ,after moving about three hundred and fifty feet in a straight course it wheeled a quarter-circle to the right1 at the same time descending slightly1 the engine slowing down4 ,then it began to rise1 moving straight ahead again for three or four hundred feet1 the propellers picking up their former rate4 ,once more the engine slackened1 but1 before the aeroplane reached the water1 seemed to regain its normal speed4 ,for a third time the engine slowed down1 and1 before it recovered1 the aeroplane had touched the water4 ,it had traversed a distance of one thousand feet in twenty-seven seconds4 ,one of the workmen confessed that he had poured into the tank too much gasoline4 ,this had caused an overflow into the intake pipe1 which in turn interfered with the action of a valve4 ,the larger aeroplane with the engineer ,manly on board was first tested on ,october #g of the same year1 but the front guy post caught in the launching car and the machine plunged into the water a few feet from the house-boat4 ,in spite of this discouraging mishap the engineers and others present felt confidence in the aeroplane's power to fly4 ,what would to-day be regarded by an aeronaut as a slight setback seemed at that moment like a tragic failure4 ,the fifty thousand dollars had been exhausted nearly two years previously2 ,professor ,langley had made as full use as seemed to him advisable of the resources put at his disposal by the ,smithsonian ,institution2 the young men of the press1 for whom the supposed aberration of a great scientist furnished excellent copy1 were virulent in their criticisms4 ,manly made one more heroic attempt under very unfavorable conditions at the close of a winter's day 7,december #h1 #aijc74 ,again difficulty occurred with the launching gear1 the rear wings and rudder being wrecked before the aeroplane was clear of the ways4 ,the experiments were now definitely abandoned1 and the inventor was overwhelmed by the sense of failure1 and still more by the skepticism with which the public had regarded his endeavors4 ,in #aije an account of ,langley's aeroplane appeared in the ,bulletin of the ,italian ,aeronautical ,society4 ,two years later this same publication in an article on a new ,blriot aeroplane said3 ,the ,blriot ,,iv in the form of a bird 444 does not appear to give good results1 perhaps on account of the lack of stability1 and ,blriot1 instead of trying some new modification which might remedy such a grave fault1 laid it aside and at once began the construction of a new type1 ,no4 ,v1 adopting purely and simply the arrangement of the ,american1 ,langley1 which offers a good stability4 ,in the summer of #aijg ,blriot obtained striking results with this machine1 the launching problem having been solved in the previous year--the year of ,langley's death--by the use of wheels which permitted the aeroplane to get under way by running along the ground under its own driving power4 ,the early flights with ,no4 ,v were made at a few feet from the ground1 and the clever ,french aviator could affect the direction of the machine by slightly shifting his position1 and even had skill to bring it down by simply leaning forward4 ,by the use of the steering apparatus he circled to the right or to the left with the grace of a bird on the wing4 ,when1 on ,july #be1 #aiji1 ,blriot crossed the ,english ,channel in his monoplane1 all the world knew that man's conquest of the air was a fait accompli4 ,about three years after ,langley's death the ,board of ,regents of the ,smithsonian ,institution established the ,langley ,medal for investigations in aerodromics in its application to aviation4 ,the first award went 7#aiji7 to ,wilbur and ,orville ,wright1 the second 7#aiac7 to ,mr4 ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss and ,m4 ,gustave ,eiffel4 ,on the occasion of the presentation of the medals of the second award--,may #f1 #aiac--the ,langley ,memorial ,tablet1 erected in the main vestibule of the ,smithsonian building1 was unveiled by the scientist's old friend1 ,dr4 ,john ,a4 ,brashear4 ,in the words of the present ,secretary of the ,institution1 the tablet represents ,mr4 ,langley seated on a terrace where he has a clear view of the heavens1 and1 in a meditative mood1 is observing the flight of birds1 while in his mind he sees his aerodrome soaring above them4 ,the lettering of the tablet is as follows3-- ,,samuel ,,pierpont ,,langley #ahcd-aijf ,,secretary ,,of ,,the ,,smithsonian ,,institution #ahhg-aijf ,,discovered ,,the ,,relations ,,of ,,speed ,,and ,,angle ,,of ,,inclination ,,to ,,the ,,lifting ,,power ,,of ,,surfaces ,,when ,,moving ,,in ,,air ,i have brought to a close the portion of the work which seemed to be especially mine1 the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight4 ,the great universal highway overhead is now soon to be opened4--,langley1 #ahig4 ,a still more fitting tribute to the memory of the great inventor came two years later from a successful aviator4 ,in the spring of #aiad ,mr4 ,glenn ,h4 ,curtiss was invited to send apparatus to ,washington for the ,langley ,day ,celebration4 ,he expressed the desire to put the ,langley aeroplane itself in the air4 ,the machine was taken to the ,curtiss ,aviation ,field at ,keuka ,lake1 ,new ,york4 ,langley's method of launching had been proved practical1 but ,curtiss finally decided to start from the water1 and accordingly fitted the aeroplane with hydroaeroplane floats4 ,in spite of the great increase in weight involved by this addition1 the ,langley aeroplane1 under its own power plant1 skimmed over the wavelets1 rose from the lake1 and soared gracefully in the air1 maintaining its equilibrium1 on ,may #bh1 #aiad1 over eight years after the death of its designer4 ,when furnished with an eighty horse-power motor1 more suited to its increased weight1 the aerodrome planed easily over the water in more prolonged flight4 ,in the periodical publications of ,june1 #aiad1 may be read the eloquent announcement3 ,langley's ,folly ,flies4 ,,references ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 ,experiments in ,mechanical ,flight1 ,nature1 ,may #bh1 #ahif4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell1 ,the ,pioneer ,aerial ,flight1 ,scientific ,american1 ,supplement1 ,feb4 #bf1 #aiaj4 ,s4 ,p4 ,langley1 ,experiments in ,aerodynamics4 ,s4 ,p4 ,langley1 ,the ,flying ,machine1 ,mc,clure's1 ,june1 #ahig 7illustrated74 ,langley ,memoir on ,mechanical ,flight1 ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge1 vol4 #bg1 no4 #c 7illustrated74 ,scientific ,american1 ,jan4 #ac1 #aiab1 ,a ,memorial ,honor to a ,pioneer ,inventor4 ,the ,smithsonian ,institution #ahdf-ahif4 ,the ,history of its ,first ,half-,century1 edited by ,g4 ,b4 ,goode4 ,a4 ,f4 ,zahm1 ,the ,first ,man-carrying ,aeroplane capable of ,sustained ,free ,flight1 ,annual ,report of the ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aiad 7illustrated74 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,scientific ,,hypothesis--,,radioactive ,,substances ,the untrained mind1 reliant on so-called facts and distrustful of mere theory1 inclines to think of truth as fixed rather than progressive1 static rather than dynamic4 ,it longs for certainty and repose1 and has little patience for any authority that does not claim absolute infallibility4 ,many a man of the world is bewildered to find ,newton's disciples building upon or refuting the teachings of the master1 or to learn that ,darwin's doctrine is itself subject to the universal law of change and development4 ,though in ethics and religion the older order changes yielding place to new1 and the dispensation of an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth finds its fulfilment and culmination in a dispensation of forbearance and non-resistance of evil1 still many look upon the overthrow of any scientific theory not as a sign of vitality and advance1 but as a symptom of the early dissolution or at least of the bankruptcy of science4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the public regard the scientific hypothesis with a kind of contempt2 for a hypothesis 71 foundation1 supposition7 is necessarily ephemeral4 ,when disproved1 it is shown to have been a false supposition2 when proved1 it is no longer hypothetic4 ,yet a page from the history of science should indicate that hypotheses play a rle in experimental science and lead to results that no devotee of facts and scorner of mere theory can well ignore4 ,in #ahie ,sir ,william ,ramsay1 who in the previous year had discovered an inert gas1 argon1 in the atmosphere1 identified a second inert gas 7obtained from minerals containing uranium and thorium7 as helium 71 sun71 an element previously revealed by spectrum analysis as a constituent of the sun4 ,in the same year ,rntgen1 while experimenting with the rays that stream from the cathode in a vacuum tube1 discovered new rays 7which he called ,x-rays7 possessed of wonderful photographic power4 ,at the beginning of #ahif ,henri ,becquerel1 experimenting on the supposition1 or hypothesis1 that the emission of rays was associated with phosphorescence1 tested the photographic effects of a number of phosphorescent substances4 ,he exposed1 among other compounds1 crystals of the double sulphate of uranium and potassium to sunlight and then placed upon the crystals a photographic plate wrapped in two thicknesses of heavy black paper4 ,the outline of the phosphorescent substance was developed on the plate4 ,an image of a coin was obtained by placing it between uranic salts and a photographic plate4 ,two or three days after reporting this result ,becquerel chanced 7the sunlight at the time seeming to him too intermittent for experimentation7 to put away in the same drawer1 and in juxtaposition1 a photographic plate and these phosphorescent salts4 ,to his surprise he obtained a clear image when the plate was developed4 ,he now assumed the existence of invisible rays similar to ,x-rays4 ,they proved capable of passing through sheets of aluminum and of copper1 and of discharging electrified bodies4 ,days elapsed without any apparent diminution of the radiation4 ,on the supposition that the rays might resemble light he tried to refract1 reflect1 and polarize them2 but this hypothesis was by the experiments of ,rutherford1 and of ,becquerel himself1 ultimately overthrown4 ,in the mean time the ,french scientist obtained radiations from metallic uranium and from uranous salts4 ,these1 in contrast with the uranic salts1 are non-phosphorescent4 ,becquerel's original hypothesis was thus overthrown4 ,radiation is a property inherent in uranium and independent both of light and of phosphorescence4 ,on ,april #ac and ,april #bc 7#ahih7 respectively ,mme4 ,sklodowska ,curie and ,g4 ,c4 ,schmidt published the results of their studies of the radiations of the salts of thorium4 ,each of these studies was based on the work of ,becquerel4 ,mme4 ,curie examined at the same time the salts of uranium and a number of uranium ores4 ,among the latter she made use of the composite mineral pitchblende from the mines of ,joachimsthal and elsewhere1 and found that the radiations from the natural ores are more active than those from pure uranium4 ,this discovery naturally led to further investigation1 on the assumption that pitchblende contains more than one radioactive substance4 ,polonium1 named by ,mme4 ,curie in honor of her native country1 was the third radioactive element to be discovered4 ,in the chemical analysis of pitchblende made by ,mme4 ,curie 7assisted by ,m4 ,curie7 polonium was found associated with bismuth4 ,radium1 also discovered in this analysis of #ahih1 was associated with barium4 ,mme4 ,curie succeeded in obtaining the pure chloride of radium and in determining the atomic weight of the new element4 ,there is 7according to ,soddy7 about one part of radium in five million parts of the best pitchblende1 but the new element is about one million times more radioactive than uranium4 ,it was calculated by ,m4 ,curie that the energy of one gram of radium would suffice to lift a weight of five hundred tons to a height of one mile4 ,after discussing the bearing of the discovery of radioactivity on the threatened exhaustion of the coal supply ,soddy writes enthusiastically3 ,but the recognition of the boundless and inexhaustible energy of ,nature 7and the intellectual gratification it affords7 brightens the whole outlook of the twentieth century4 ,the element yields spontaneously radium emanation without any apparent diminution of its own mass4 ,in #ahii ,debierne discovered1 also in the highly complex pitchblende1 actinium1 which has proved considerably less radioactive than radium4 ,during these investigations ,m4 and ,mme4 ,curie1 ,m4 ,becquerel1 and those associated with them were influenced by the hypothesis that radioactivity is an atomic property of radioactive substances4 ,this hypothesis came to definite expression in #ahii and again in #aijb through ,mme4 ,curie4 ,in the latter year the physicist ,e4 ,rutherford and the chemist ,f4 ,soddy1 while investigating the radioactivity of thorium in the laboratories of ,mc,gill ,university1 ,montreal1 were forced to recognize that thorium continuously gives rise to new kinds of radioactive matter differing from itself in chemical properties1 in stability1 and in radiant energy4 ,they concurred in the view held by all the most prominent workers in this subject1 namely1 that radioactivity is an atomic phenomenon4 ,it is not molecular decomposition4 ,they declared that the radioactive substances must be undergoing a spontaneous transformation4 ,the daring nature of this hypothesis and its likelihood to revolutionize physical science is brought home to one by recalling that three decades previously an eminent physicist had said that though in the course of ages catastrophes have occurred and may yet occur in the heavens1 though ancient systems may be dissolved and new systems evolved out of their ruins1 the molecules atoms out of which these systems are built--the foundation stones of the material universe--remain unbroken and unworn4 ,in #aijc ,rutherford and ,soddy stated definitely their hypothesis1 generally known as the ,transformation ,theory1 that the atoms of radioactive substances suffer spontaneous disintegration1 a process unaffected by great changes of temperature 7or by physical or chemical changes of any kind at the disposal of the experimenter7 and giving rise to new radioactive substances differing in chemical 7and physical7 properties from the parent elements4 ,the radiations consist of particles 7atoms of helium minus two negative electrons71 particles1 or electrons 7charges of negative electricity71 and rays1 of the nature of ,rntgen rays and light but of very much shorter wave length and of very great penetrating power4 ,it is by the energy inherent in the atom of the radioactive substance that the radiations are ejected1 sometimes1 in the case of the rays1 with velocity sufficient to penetrate two feet of lead4 ,it is through these radiations that spontaneous transformation takes place4 ,after ten years of further investigation ,rutherford stated that this hypothesis affords a satisfactory explanation of all radioactive phenomena1 and gives unity to what without it would seem disconnected facts4 ,besides accounting for old experimental results it suggests new lines of work and even enables one to predict the outcome of further investigation4 ,it does not really contradict1 as some thought might be the case1 the principle of the conservation of energy4 ,the atom1 to be sure1 can no longer be considered the smallest unit of matter1 as the mass of a particle is approximately one seventeen-hundredths that of an atom of hydrogen4 ,still the new hypothesis is a modification and not a contradiction of the atomic theory4 ,the assumption that the series of radioactive substances is due1 not to such molecular changes as chemistry had made familiar1 but to a breakdown of the atom seemed to ,rutherford in #aiac at least justified by the results of the investigators whose procedure had been dictated by that hypothesis4 ,he set forth in tables these results 7since somewhat modified71 indicating after the name of each radioactive substance the nature of the radiation through the emission of which the element is transformed into the next-succeeding member of its series4 ,list of ,radioactive ,substances ,,uranium particles ,uranium ,x ,uranium ,y ,,ionium ,,radium slow ,emanation ,radium ,a ,radium ,b ,radium ,c ,c#a ,c#b ,,radium ,d ,,radio-,,lead slow ,radium ,e ,radium ,f ,polonium ,,thorium ,,mesothorium #a no rays ,mesothorium #b ,,radiothorium ,thorium ,x ,emanation ,thorium ,a ,thorium ,b slow ,thorium ,c ,c#a ,c#b ,thorium ,d ,,actinium no rays ,radio-actinium ,actinium ,x ,emanation ,actinium ,a ,actinium ,b slow ,actinium ,c ,actinium ,d ,even a glance at this long list of new elements reveals certain analogies between one series of transformations and another4 ,each series contains an emanation1 or gas1 which through the loss of particles is transformed into the next following member of the series4 ,continuing the comparison in either direction1 up or down the lists1 one could readily detect other analogies4 ,there is some ground for thinking that lead is the end product of the ,uranium series4 ,to reverse the process of the transformation and produce radium from the base metal lead would be an achievement greater than the vaunted transmutations of the alchemists4 ,although that seems beyond the reach of possibility1 the idea has stirred the imagination of more than one scientist4 ,the philosopher's stone1 writes ,soddy1 was accredited the power not only of transmuting the metals1 but of acting as the elixir of life4 ,now1 whatever the origin of this apparently meaningless jumble of ideas may have been1 it is really a perfect and but very slightly allegorical expression of the actual present views we hold to-day4 ,again1 it is conjectured that bismuth is the end-product of the thorium series4 ,the presence of the results of atomic disintegration 7like lead and helium7 has proved of interest to geology and other sciences as affording a clue to the age of the rocks in which they are found deposited4 ,before ,rutherford1 ,mme4 ,curie1 and others especially interested in radioactive substances1 assumed that atoms are far different from the massy1 hard1 impenetrable particles that ,newton took for granted1 ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson and his school were studying the constitution of the atom from another standpoint but with somewhat similar results4 ,this great physicist had proved that cathode rays are composed not of negatively charged molecules1 as had been supposed1 but of much smaller particles or corpuscles4 ,wherever1 as in the vacuum tube1 these electrons appear1 the presence of positively charged particles can also be demonstrated4 ,it is manifest that the atom1 instead of being the ultimate unit of matter1 is a system of positively and negatively charged particles4 ,rutherford in the main concurred in this view1 though differing from ,sir ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson as to the arrangement of corpuscles within the atom4 ,let it suffice here to state that ,rutherford assumes that the greater mass of the atom consists of negatively charged particles rotating about a positive nucleus4 ,the surrounding electrons render the atom electrically neutral4 ,this corpuscular theory of matter may throw light on the laws of chemical combination4 ,the so-called chemical affinity between two atoms of such and such valencies1 which ,davy and others since his time had regarded as essentially an electrical phenomenon1 seems now to admit of more definite interpretation4 ,each atom is negatively or positively charged according to the addition or subtraction of electrons4 ,chemical composition takes place between atoms the charges of which are of opposite sign1 and valency depends on the number of unit charges of electricity4 ,moreover1 the electrical theory of matter lends support to the hypothesis that there is a fundamental unitary element underlying all the so-called elements4 ,the fact that elements fall into groups and that their chemical properties vary with their atomic weights long ago suggested this assumption of a primitive matter1 protyl1 from which all other substances were derived4 ,in the light of the corpuscular theory as well as of the transformation theory it seems possible that the helium atom and the negative corpuscle will offer a clue to the genesis of the elements4 ,what is to be learned from this rapid sketch1 of the discovery of the radioactive substances1 concerning the nature and value of scientific hypothesis8 ,for one thing1 the scientific hypothesis is necessary to the experimenter4 ,the mind runs ahead of and guides the experiment4 ,again1 the hypothesis suggests new lines of research1 enables one in some cases to anticipate the outcome of experiment1 and may be abundantly justified by results4 ,it is safe to say1 writes ,rutherford1 that the rapidity of growth of accurate knowledge of radioactive phenomena has been largely due to the influence of the disintegration theory4 ,the valid hypothesis serves to explain facts1 leads to discovery1 and does not conflict with known facts or with verified generalizations1 though1 as we have seen1 it may modify other hypotheses4 ,those who support a hypothesis should bring it to the test of rigid verification1 avoiding skepticism1 shunning credulity4 ,even a false assumption1 as we have seen1 may prove valuable when carefully put to the proof4 ,the layman's distrust of the unverified hypothesis is in the main wholesome4 ,it is a duty not to believe it1 not to disbelieve it1 but to weigh judicially the evidence for and against4 ,the fact that assumption plays a large part in our mental attitude toward practical affairs should make us wary of contesting the legitimacy of scientific hypotheses4 ,no one would deny the right of forming a provisional assumption to the intelligence officer interpreting a cipher1 or to the detective unravelling the mystery of a crime4 ,the first assumes that the message is in a certain language1 and1 perhaps1 that each symbol employed is the equivalent of a letter1 his assumption is put to the proof of getting a reasonable and consistent meaning from the cipher4 ,the detective assumes a motive for the crime1 or the employment of certain means of escape2 even if his assumption does not clear up the mystery1 it may have value as leading to a new and more adequate assumption4 ,henri ,poincar has pointed out that one of the most dangerous forms of hypothesis is the unconscious hypothesis4 ,it is difficult to prove or disprove because it does not come to clear statement4 ,the alleged devotee of facts and of things as they are1 in opposing the assumptions of an up-to-date science1 is often1 unknown to himself1 standing on a platform of outworn theory1 or of mere vulgar assumption4 ,for example1 when ,napoleon was trying to destroy the commercial wealth of ,england at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 he unconsciously based his procedure on an antiquated doctrine of political economy4 ,for him the teachings of ,adam ,smith and ,turgot were idle sophistries4 ,i seek1 he said to his ,minister of ,finance1 the good that is practical1 not the ideal best3 the world is very old1 we must profit by its experience2 it teaches that old practices are worth more than new theories3 you are not the only one who knows trade secrets4 ,we are not here especially concerned with the question of whether ,napoleon was or was not pursuing the best means of breaking down ,english credit4 ,he did try to prevent the ,english from exchanging exports for ,european gold1 while permitting imports in the hope of depleting ,england of gold4 ,but in pursuing this policy he thought he was proceeding on the ground of immemorial practice1 while he was merely pitting the seventeenth-century doctrine of ,locke against the doctrine of ,adam ,smith which had superseded it4 ,according to one scientific hypothesis1 ,species originated by means of natural selection1 or1 through the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life4 ,this assumption was rightly subjected to close scrutiny in #ahei and the years following4 ,the ephemeral nature of the vast majority of hypotheses and the danger to progress of accepting an unverified assumption justify the demand for demonstrative evidence4 ,the testimony having been examined1 it is our privilege to state and to support the opposing hypothesis4 ,it was thus that the hypothesis that the planets move in circular orbits1 recommended by its simplicity and sthetic quality1 was forced to give way to the hypothesis of elliptical orbits4 ,newton's hypothesis that light is due to particles emitted by all luminous bodies yielded1 at least for the time1 to the theory of light vibrations in an ether pervading all space4 ,the path of scientific progress is strewn with the ruins of overthrown hypotheses4 ,many of the defeated assumptions have been merely implicit errors of the man in the street1 and they are overthrown not by facts alone1 but by new hypotheses verified by facts and leading to fresh discoveries4 ,according to ,john ,stuart ,mill1 ,it appears 444 to be a condition of a genuinely scientific hypothesis1 that it be not destined always to remain an hypothesis1 but be of such a nature as to be either proved or disproved by that comparison with observed facts which is termed ,verification4 ,this statement is of value in confirming the general distrust of mere hypothesis1 and in distinguishing between the unverified and unverifiable presupposition and the legitimate assumption which through verification may become established doctrine4 ,,references ,j4 ,cox1 ,beyond the ,atom1 #aiac 7,cambridge ,manuals of ,science and ,literature74 ,r4 ,k4 ,duncan1 ,the ,new ,knowledge1 #aije4 ,h4 ,poincar1 ,science and ,hypothesis4 ,e4 ,rutherford1 ,radioactive ,substances and their ,radiations4 ,f4 ,soddy1 ,the ,interpretation of ,radium4 ,f4 ,soddy1 ,matter and ,energy 7,home ,university ,library74 ,sir ,william ,a4 ,tilden1 ,progress of ,scientific ,chemistry in our ,own ,time1 #aiac4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,the ,,scientific ,,imagination ,psychology1 or the science of mental life as revealed in behavior1 has been greatly indebted to physiologists and to students of medicine in general4 ,any attempt to catalogue the names of those who have approached the study of the mind from the direction of the natural sciences is liable to prove unsatisfactory1 and a brief list is sure to entail many important omissions4 ,the mention of ,locke1 ,cheselden1 ,hartley1 ,cabanis1 ,young1 ,weber1 ,gall1 ,mller1 ,du ,bois-,reymond1 ,bell1 ,magendie1 ,helmholtz1 ,darwin1 ,lotze1 ,ferrier1 ,goltz1 ,munk1 ,mosso1 ,maudsley1 ,carpenter1 ,galton1 ,hering1 ,clouston1 ,james1 ,janet1 ,kraepelin1 ,flechsig1 and ,wundt will1 however1 serve to remind us of the richness of the contribution of the natural sciences to the so-called mental science4 ,indeed1 physiology would be incomplete unless it took account of the functions of the sense organs1 of the sensory and motor nerves1 of the brain with its association areas1 as well as the expression of the emotions1 and the changes of function accompanying the development of the nervous system1 from the formation of the embryo till physical dissolution1 and from species of the simplest to those of the most complex organization4 ,at the beginning of the nineteenth century the ,french physician ,cabanis was disposed to identify human personality with mere nervous organization reacting to physical impressions1 and to look upon the brain as the organ for the production of mind4 ,he soon1 however1 withdrew from this extreme position and expressed his conviction of the existence of an immortal spirit apart from the body4 ,one might say that the brain is the instrument through which the mind manifests itself rather than the organ by which mind is excreted4 ,even so1 it must be agreed that the relation between the psychic agent and the physical instrument is so close that physiology must take heed of mental phenomena and that psychology must not ignore the physical concomitants of mental processes4 ,hence arises a new branch of natural science1 physiological psychology1 or1 as ,fechner 7#ahfj71 the disciple of ,weber1 called it1 psycho-physics4 ,through this alliance between the study of the mind and the study of bodily functions the intelligence of the lower animals and its survival value1 the mental growth of the child1 mental deterioration in age and disease1 and the psychological endowments of special classes or of individuals1 became subjects for investigation4 ,now human psychology is recognized as contributing to various branches of anthropology1 or the general study of man4 ,wilhelm ,wundt1 who1 as already implied1 had approached the study of the mind from the side of the natural sciences1 established in #ahge at the ,university of ,leipzig the first psycho-physical institute for the experimental study of mental phenomena4 ,his express purpose was to analyze the content of consciousness into its elements1 to examine these elements in their qualitative and quantitative differences1 and to determine with precision the conditions of their existence and succession4 ,thus science after contemplating a wide range of outer phenomena--plants1 animals1 earth's crust1 heavenly bodies1 molecules and atoms--turns its attention with keen scrutiny inward on the thinking mind1 the subjective process by which man becomes cognizant of all objective things4 ,the need of expert study of the human mind as the instrument of scientific discovery might have been inferred from the fact that the physicist ,tyndall read before the ,british ,association in #ahgj a paper on the ,scientific ,use of the ,imagination1 in which he spoke of the imagination as the architect of physical theory1 cited ,newton1 ,dalton1 ,davy1 and ,faraday as affording examples of the just use of this creative power of the mind1 and quoted a distinguished chemist as identifying the mental process of scientific discovery with that of artistic production4 ,tyndall even chased the psychologists in their own field and stated that it was only by the exercise of the imagination that we could ascribe the possession of mental powers to our fellow creatures4 ,you believe that in society you are surrounded by reasonable beings like yourself4444 ,what is your warrant for this conviction8 ,simply and solely this3 your fellow-creatures behave as if they were reasonable4 ,on the traces of this brilliant incursion of the natural philosopher into the realm of mental science1 later psychologists must follow but haltingly4 ,just as in the history of physics a long series of studies intervened between ,bacon's hypothesis that heat is a kind of motion 7#afbj7 and ,tyndall's own work1 ,heat as a ,mode of ,motion 7#ahfc71 so must many psychological investigations be made before an adequate psychology of scientific discovery can be formulated4 ,it may ultimately prove that the passages in which ,tyndall and other scientists speak of scientific imagination would read as well if for this term1 intuition1 inspiration1 unconscious cerebration1 or even reason were substituted4 ,at first glance it would seem that the study of the sensory elements of consciousness1 motor1 tactile1 visual1 auditory1 olfactory1 gustatory1 thermal1 internal1 pursued for the last half century by the experimental method1 would furnish a clue to the nature of the imagination4 ,a visual image1 or mental picture1 is popularly taken as characteristic of the imaginative process4 ,in fact1 the distinguished psychologist ,william ,james devotes the whole of his interesting chapter on the imagination to the discussion of different types of imagery4 ,the sensory elements of consciousness are involved1 however1 in perception1 memory1 volition1 reason1 and sentiment1 as they are in imagination4 ,they have been recognized as fundamental from antiquity4 ,nothing is in the intellect which was not previously in the senses4 ,to be out of one's senses is to lack the purposive guidance of the intelligence4 ,the psychology of individuals and groups shows startling differences in the kind and vividness of imagery4 ,many cases are on record where the mental life is almost exclusively in visual1 in auditory1 or in motor terms4 ,one student learns a foreign language by writing out every word and sentence2 another is wholly dependent on hearing them spoken2 a third can recall the printed page with an almost photographic vividness4 ,the history of literature and art furnishes us with illustrations of remarkable powers of visualization4 ,blake and ,fromentin were able to reproduce in pictures scenes long retained in memory4 ,the latter recognized that his painting was not an exact reproduction of what he had seen1 but that it was none the less artistic because of the selective influence that his mind had exerted on the memory image4 ,wordsworth at times postponed the description of a scene that appealed to his poetic fancy with the express purpose of blurring the outlines1 but enhancing the personal factor4 ,goethe had the power to call up at will the form of a flower1 to make it change from one color to another and to unfold before his mind's eye4 ,professor ,dilthey has collected many other records of the hallucinatory clearness of the visual imagery of literary artists4 ,on the other hand1 ,galton1 after his classical study of mental imagery 7#ahhc71 stated that scientific men1 as a class1 have feeble powers of visual representation4 ,he had appealed for evidence of visual recall to distinguished scientists because he thought them more capable than others of accurately stating the results of their introspection4 ,he had recourse not only to ,english but to foreign scientists1 including members of the ,french ,institute4 ,to my astonishment1 he writes1 ,i found that the great majority of men of science to whom ,i first applied protested that mental imagery was unknown to them1 and they looked on me as fanciful and fantastic in supposing that the words 'mental imagery' really expressed what ,i believed everybody supposed them to mean4 ,they had no more notion of its true nature than a color-blind man1 who has not discerned his defect1 has of the nature of color4 ,one scientist confessed that it was only by a figure of speech that he could describe his recollection of a scene as a mental image to be perceived with the mind's eye4 ,when ,galton questioned persons whom he met in general society he found an entirely different disposition to prevail4 ,many men and a yet larger number of women1 and many boys and girls1 declared that they habitually saw mental imagery1 and that it was perfectly distinct to them and full of color4 ,the evidence of this difference between the psychology of the average distinguished scientist and the average member of general society was greatly strengthened upon cross-examination4 ,galton attributed the difference to the scientist's habits of highly generalized and abstract thought1 especially when the steps of reasoning are carried on by words employed as symbols4 ,it is only by the use of words as symbols that scientific thought is possible4 ,it is through coperation in work that mankind has imposed its will upon the creation1 and coperation could not have been carried far without the development of language as a means of communication4 ,were it not for the help of words we should be dependent1 like the lower animals1 on the fleeting images of things4 ,we should be bound to the world of sense and not have range in the world of ideas4 ,words are a free medium for thought1 for the very reason that they are capable of shifting their meaning and taking on greater extension or intension4 ,for example1 we may say that the apple falls because it is heavy1 or we may substitute synonymous phraseology that helps us to view the falling apple in its universal aspects4 ,the mind acquires through language a field of activity independent of the objective world4 ,we have seen in an earlier chapter that geometry developed as a science is becoming gradually weaned from the art of surveying4 ,triangles and rectangles cease to suggest meadows1 or vineyards1 or any definite imagery of that sort1 and are discussed in their abstract relationship4 ,science demands the conceptual rather than the merely sensory4 ,the invisible real world of atoms and corpuscles has its beginning in the reason1 the word4 ,to formulate new truths in the world of ideas is the prerogative of minds gifted with exceptional reason4 ,to be sure1 language itself may be regarded as imagery4 ,some persons visualize every word spoken as though it were seen on the printed page2 others cannot recall a literary passage without motor imagery of the speech organs or even incipient speech2 while others again experience motor imagery of the writing hand4 ,with many1 in all forms of word-consciousness1 the auditory image is predominant4 ,in the sense of being accompanied by imagery all thinking is imaginative4 ,but it is the use of words that permits us to escape most completely from the more primitive forms of intelligence4 ,so directly does the printed word convey its meaning to the trained mind that to regard it as so much black on white rather than as a symbol is a rare and rather upsetting mental experience4 ,words differ among themselves in their power to suggest images of the thing symbolized4 ,the word existence is less image-producing than flower1 and flower than red rose4 ,it is characteristic of the language of science to substitute the abstract or general expression for the concrete and picturesque4 ,when1 therefore1 we are told that the imagination has been at the bottom of all great scientific discoveries1 that the discovery of law is the peculiar function of the creative imagination1 and that all great scientists have1 in a certain sense1 been great artists1 we are confronted with a paradox4 ,in what department of thought is imagination more strictly subordinated than in science8 ,genetic psychology attempts to trace the development of mind as a means of adjustment4 ,it examines the instincts that serve so wonderfully the survival of various species of insects4 ,it studies the more easily modified instinct of birds1 and notes their ability to make intelligent choice on the basis of experience4 ,does the bird's ability to recognize imply the possession of memory1 or imagery8 ,increased intelligence assures perpetuation of other species in novel and unforeseen conditions4 ,the more tenacious the memory1 the richer the supply of images1 the greater the powers of adaptation and survival4 ,we know something concerning the motor memory of rodents and horses1 and its biological value4 ,the child inherits less definitely organized instincts1 but greater plasticity1 than the lower animals4 ,its mental life is a chaos of images4 ,it is the work of education to discipline as well as to nourish the senses1 to teach form as well as color1 to impart the clarifying sense of number1 weight1 and measurement1 to help distinguish between the dream and the reality1 to teach language1 the treasure-house of our traditional wisdom1 and logic1 so closely related to the right use of language4 ,the facts of abnormal1 as well as those of animal and child psychology1 prove that the subordination of the imagination and fancy to reason and understanding is an essential factor in intellectual development4 ,no one1 of course1 will claim that the mental activity of the scientific discoverer is wholly unlike that of any other class of man2 but it leads only to confusion to seek to identify processes so unlike as scientific generalization and artistic production4 ,the artist's purpose is the conveyance of a mood4 ,the author of ,macbeth employs every device to impart to the auditor the sense of blood-guiltiness2 every lurid scene1 every somber phrase1 serves to enhance the sentiment4 ,a certain picture by ,drer1 a certain poem of ,browning's1 convey in every detail the feeling of dauntless resolution4 ,again1 a landscape painter1 recognizing that his satisfaction in a certain scene depends upon a stretch of blue water with a yellow strand and old-gold foliage1 proceeds to rearrange nature for the benefit of the mood he desires to enliven and perpetuate4 ,it is surely a far cry from the attitude of these artists manipulating impressions in order to impart to others an individual mood1 to that of the scientific discoverer formulating a law valid for all intellects4 ,in the psychology of the present day there is much that is reminiscent of the biological psychology of ,aristotle4 ,from the primitive or nutrient soul which has to do with the vital functions of growth and reproduction1 is developed the sentient soul1 concerned with movement and sensibility4 ,finally emerges the intellectual and reasoning soul4 ,these three parts are not mutually exclusive1 but the lower foreshadow the higher and are subsumed in it4 ,aristotle1 however1 interpreted the lower by the higher and not vice versa4 ,it is no compliment to the scientific discoverer to say that his loftiest intellectual achievement is closely akin to fiction1 or is the result of a mere brooding on facts1 or is accompanied by emotional excitement1 or is the work of blind instinct4 ,it will be found that scientific discovery1 while predominantly an intellectual process1 varies with the nature of the phenomena of the different sciences and the individual mental differences of the discoverers4 ,as stated at the outset the psychology of scientific discovery must be the subject of prolonged investigation1 but some data are already available4 ,one great mathematician1 ,poincar1 attributes his discoveries to intuition4 ,the essential idea comes with a sense of illumination4 ,it is characterized by suddenness1 conciseness1 and immediate certainty4 ,it may come unheralded1 as he is crossing the street1 walking on the cliffs1 or stepping into a carriage4 ,there may have intervened a considerable period of time free from conscious effort on the special question involved in the discovery4 ,poincar is inclined to account for these sudden solutions of theoretical difficulties on the assumption of long periods of previous unconscious work4 ,there are many such records from men of genius4 ,at the moment the inventor obtains the solution of his problem his mind may seem to be least engaged with it4 ,the long-sought-for idea comes like an inspiration1 something freely imparted rather than voluntarily acquired4 ,no mental process is more worthy to command respect2 but it may not lie beyond the possibility of explanation4 ,like ethical insight1 or spiritual illumination1 the scientific idea comes to those who have striven for it4 ,the door may open after we have ceased to knock1 or the response come when we have forgotten that we sent in a call2 but the discovery comes only after conscious work4 ,the whole history of science shows that it is to the worker that the inspiration comes1 and that new ideas develop from old ideas4 ,it may detract still further from the mysteriousness of the discovery-process to add that the illuminating idea may come in the midst of conscious work1 and that then also it may appear as a sudden gift rather than the legitimate outcome of mental effort4 ,the spontaneity of wit may afford another clue to the mystery of scientific discovery4 ,the utterer of a witticism is frequently as much surprised by it as the auditors1 probably because the idea comes as verbal imagery1 and the full realization of their significance is grasped only with the actual utterance of the words4 ,the fact that to the scientific discoverer the solution of his problem arrives at the moment when it is least sought is analogous to the common experience that the effort to recall a name may inhibit the natural association4 ,the tendency to emphasize unduly the rle played by the scientific imagination springs probably from the misconception that the imagination is a psychological superfluity1 one of the luxuries of the mental life1 which should not be withheld from those who deserve the best4 ,the view lingers with regard to the sthetic imagination4 ,james could not understand the biological function of the sthetic faculty4 ,on the alleged uselessness of this phase of the human mind ,a4 ,j4 ,balfour has recently based an argument for the immortality of the soul4 ,this view is strikingly at variance with that which inclines to identify it with that mental process which creates scientific theories and thus paves the way for the adjustment of posterity to earthly conditions4 ,,references ,baldwin1 ,j4 ,m41 ,history of ,psychology1 #aiac4 #b vols4 ,dessoir1 ,max1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,psychology1 #aiab4 ,klemm1 ,otto1 ,a ,history of ,psychology1 #aiad4 ,merz1 ,j4 ,t41 ,history of ,european ,thought in the ,nineteenth ,century1 vol4 ,,ii1 chap4 ,,xii1 ,on the ,psycho-physical ,view of ,nature4 ,rand1 ,benjamin1 ,the ,classical ,psychologists1 #aiab4 ,ribot1 ,t4 ,a41 ,english ,psychology1 #ahhi4 ,ribot1 ,t4 ,a41 ,german ,psychology of ,to-day1 #ahhf4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,science ,,and ,,democratic ,,culture ,education is the oversight and guidance of the development of the immature with certain ethical and social ends in view4 ,pedagogy1 therefore1 is based partly on psychology--which1 as we have seen in the preceding chapter1 is closely related to the biological sciences--and partly on ethics1 or the study of morals1 closely related to the social sciences4 ,these two aspects of education1 the psychological and the sociological1 were treated respectively in ,rousseau's ,emile and ,plato's ,republic4 ,the former ill-understood work1 definitely referring its readers to the latter for the social aspect of education1 applies itself as exclusively as possible to the study of the physical and mental development of the individual child4 ,rousseau consciously set aside the problem of nationality or citizenship2 he was cosmopolitan1 and explicitly renounced the idea of planning the education of a ,frenchman or a ,swiss4 ,neither did he desire to set forth the education of a wild man1 free and unrestrained4 ,he wished rather to depict the development of a natural man in a state of society2 but he emphasized the native hereditary endowment1 while expressing his admiration for ,plato's ,republic as the great classic of social pedagogy4 ,the titles of the two works1 one from the name of an individual child1 the other from a form of government1 should serve to remind us of the purpose and limitations of each4 ,plato's thought was centered on the educational and moral needs of the city-state of ,athens4 ,he was apprehensive that the city was becoming corrupted through the wantonness and lack of principle of the ,athenian youth4 ,he strove to rebuild on reasoned foundations the sense of social obligation and responsibility which had in the earlier days of ,athens rested upon faith in the existence of the gods4 ,as a conservative he hoped to restore the ancient ,athenian feeling for duty and moral worth1 and he even envied some of the educational practices of the rival city-state ,sparta1 by which the citizen was subordinated to the state4 ,the novel feature of ,plato's pedagogy was the plan to educate the directing classes1 men disciplined in his own philosophical and ethical conceptions4 ,he was1 in fact1 an intellectual aristocrat1 and spoke of democracy in very ironical terms1 as the following sentences will show3-- ,and thus democracy comes into being after the poor have conquered their opponents4444 ,and now what is their manner of life1 and what sort of a government have they8 ,for as the government is1 such will be the man4444 ,in the first place1 are they not free8 and the city is full of freedom and frankness--a man may do as he likes4444 ,and where freedom is1 the individual is clearly able to order his own life as he pleases8444 ,then in this kind of ,state there will be the greatest variety of human natures8444 ,this then will be the fairest of ,states1 and will appear the fairest1 being spangled with the manners and characters of mankind1 like an embroidered robe which is spangled with every sort of flower4 ,and just as women and children think variety charming1 so there are many men who will deem this to be the fairest of ,states4444 ,and is not the equanimity of the condemned often charming8 ,under such a government there are men who1 when they have been sentenced to death or exile1 stay where they are and walk about the world2 the gentleman convict parades like a hero1 as though nobody saw or cared4444 ,see too 444 the forgiving spirit of democracy and the 'don't care' about trifles1 and the disregard of all the fine principles which we solemnly affirmed 444 how grandly does she trample our words under her feet1 never giving a thought to the pursuits which make a statesman1 and promoting to honor anyone who professes to be the people's friend4444 ,these and other kindred characteristics are proper to democracy1 which is a charming form of government1 full of variety and disorder1 and dispensing equality to equals and unequals alike4444 ,consider now 444 what manner of man the individual is 444 he lives through the day indulging the appetite of the hour2 and sometimes he is lapped in drink and strains of the flute2 then he is for total abstinence1 and tries to get thin2 then1 again1 he is at gymnastics2 sometimes idling and neglecting everything1 then once more living the life of a philosopher2 often he is in politics1 and starts to his feet and says and does whatever comes into his head2 and1 if he is emulous of anyone who is a warrior1 off he is in that direction1 or of men of business1 once more in that4 ,his life has neither order nor law2 so he goes on continually1 and he terms this joy and freedom and happiness4 ,yes1 his life is all liberty and equality4 ,yes1 444 and multiform1 and full of the most various characters2 444 he answers to the ,state1 which we described as fair and spangled4444 ,let him then be set over against democracy2 he may truly be called the democratic man4 ,in spite of the satirical tone of this passage much of it may be accepted as the unwilling tribute of a hostile critic4 ,democracy is the triumph of the masses over the oligarchs4 ,it is merciful in the administration of justice4 ,it shows a magnanimous spirit and does not magnify the importance of trifles4 ,it prefers the rule of its friends to the rule of a despot4 ,under its government people feel themselves blessed by happiness1 liberty1 and equality4 ,the culture of the democratic man is above all characterized by adaptability4 ,in the nineteenth century ,matthew ,arnold1 the apostle of culture1 discussing the civilization of a democratic nation of many millions1 unconsciously confirmed the views of ,plato in some respects1 while showing interesting points of difference4 ,he expressed his admiration of the institutions1 solid social conditions1 freedom and equality1 power1 energy1 and wealth of the people of the ,united ,states4 ,in the daintiness of ,american house-architecture1 and in the natural manners of the free and happy ,american women he saw a real note of civilization4 ,he felt that his own country had a good deal to learn from ,america1 though he did not close his eyes to the real dangers to which all democratic nations are exposed4 ,arnold failed in his analysis of ,american civilization to confirm ,plato's judgment concerning the variety of natures to be found in the democratic ,state1 as well as the ,greek philosopher's censure that democracy shows disregard of ethical principles4 ,in fact1 ,arnold considered the people of the ,united ,states singularly homogeneous1 singularly free from the distinctions of class2 we the ,english are so little homogeneous1 we are living with a system of classes so intense1 that the whole action of our minds is hampered and falsened by it2 we are in consequence wanting in lucidity1 we do not see clear or think straight1 and the ,americans have here much the advantage of us4 ,as for the second point of difference between ,arnold and ,plato1 the ,english critic recognized that the ,american people belonged to the great class in society in which the sense of conduct and regard for ethical principles are particularly developed4 ,nearly all the old charges against ,american democracy can be summarized in one general censure1--the lack of calm and reasoned self-criticism1--and this general defect is rapidly being made good4 ,it is partly owing to charity and good-will1 and it includes the toleration of the mediocre or inferior1 as1 for example1 in the theater2 the failure to recognize distinction1 and to pay deference to things deserving it2 the glorification of the average man1 and the hustler1 and the lack of special educational opportunities for the exceptionally gifted child4 ,that criticism as an art is still somewhat behindhand in ,america seems to be confirmed by comparing ,french and ,american literary criticism4 ,in ,france it is a profession practiced by a corps of experts2 in ,america only a very few of the best periodicals can be relied on to give reviews based on critical principles1 of works in verse or prose4 7,one ,american reviewer confesses that in a single day he has written notices of twenty new works of fiction1 his work bringing him1 as remuneration1 seventy-five cents a volume47 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that ,americans as individuals are wanting in the self-critical spirit4 ,and for ,arnold this is vital1 seeing that the watchword of the culture he proclaims is ,know ,thyself4 ,it is not a question of gaining a social advantage by a smattering of foreign languages4 ,it is more than intellectual curiosity4 ,culture is more properly described as having its origin in the love of perfection4 ,it moves by the force1 not merely or primarily of the scientific passion for pure knowledge1 but also of the passion for doing good4 ,human perfection1 the essence of culture1 is an internal condition1 but the will to do good must be guided by the knowledge of what is good to do2 acting and instituting are of little use unless we know how and what we ought to act and institute4 ,moreover1 because men are all members of one great whole1 and the sympathy which is human nature will not allow one member to be indifferent to the rest1 the expansion of our humanity1 to suit the idea of perfection which culture forms1 must be a general expansion4 ,for ,arnold's contemporary ,nietzsche1 the ,german exponent of ,aristocracy1 the expansion of education entailed its diminution4 ,for him ancient ,greece was the only home of culture1 and such culture was not for all comers4 ,the rights of genius are not to be democratized2 not the education of the masses1 but rather the education of a few picked men must be the aim4 ,the one purpose which education should most zealously strive to achieve is the suppression of all ridiculous claims to independent judgment1 and the inculcation upon young men of obedience to the scepter of genius4 ,the scientific man and the cultured man belong to two different spheres which1 though coming together at times in the same individual1 are never fully reconciled4 ,in order to appreciate the full perverseness1 from the democratic standpoint1 of ,nietzsche's view of culture1 it is necessary to glance at his political ideals as explained by one of his sponsors4 ,nietzsche repudiates the usual conception of morality1 which he calls slave-morality1 in favor of a morality of masters4 ,the former according to him encourages the deterioration of humanity2 the latter promotes advancement4 ,he favors a true aristocracy as the best means of producing a race of supermen4 ,instead of advocating 'equal and inalienable rights to life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness1' for which there is at present such an outcry 7a rgime which necessarily elevates fools and knaves1 and lowers the honest and intelligent71 ,nietzsche advocates simple justice--to individuals and families according to their merits1 according to their worth to society2 not equal rights1 therefore1 but unequal rights1 and inequality in advantages generally1 approximately proportionate to deserts2 consequently1 therefore1 a genuinely superior ruling class at one end of the social scale1 and an actually inferior ruled class1 with slaves at its basis1 at the opposite social extreme4 ,since it is the view of this aristocratic philosopher that science is the ally of democracy--a view that every chapter of the history of science serves to demonstrate--it is of interest to review his opinion of the character of the scientist4 ,for ,nietzsche the scientist is not a heroic superman1 but a commonplace type of man1 with commonplace virtues4 ,he lacks domination1 authority1 self-sufficiency2 he is rather in need of recognition from others and is characterized by the self-distrust innate in all dependent men and gregarious animals4 ,he is industrious1 patiently adaptable to rank and file1 equable and moderate in capacity and requirement4 ,he has a natural feeling for people like himself1 and for that which they require3 ,a fair competence and the green meadow without which there is no rest from labor4 ,the scientist shows no rapture for exalted views2 in fact1 with an instinct for mediocrity1 he is envious and strives for the destruction of the exceptional man4 ,a training in natural science tends to make one objective4 ,but the objective man1 in ,nietzsche's opinion1 distrusts his own personality and regards it as something to be set aside as accidental1 and a detriment to calm judgment4 ,the temperamental philosopher thinks the scientist serene1 but that his serenity springs not from lack of trouble1 but from incapacity to grasp and deal with his own private grief4 ,his is merely disinterested knowledge1 according to ,nietzsche4 ,the scientist is emotionally impoverished4 ,his love is constrained1 and his hatred artificial2 he is less interesting to women than the warrior4 ,his mirroring and externally self-polished soul no longer knows how to affirm1 no longer how to deny2 he does not command2 neither does he destroy4 ,as we see in the case of ,leibnitz1 the scientist contemns scarcely anything 7,je ne mprise presque rien74 ,the scientist is an instrument1 but not a goal2 he is something of a slave1 nothing in himself--presque rien6 ,there is in the scientist nothing bold1 powerful1 self-centered1 that wants to be master4 ,he is for the most part a man without content and definite outline1 a selfless man4 ,this educational product1 which the builders of modern aristocracy reject1 and describe after their fashion1 we accept as the ally of the masses of the people1 and we term it democratic culture4 ,the objective man1 at the same time1 may find even in the vehement pages of ,nietzsche warnings and criticisms which the friends of democracy should not disregard4 ,extreme1 almost insane1 as his doctrine undoubtedly is1 it may have value as a corrective influence1 an antidote for other extreme views4 ,it serves to remind us that democracy may be misled by feelings in themselves noble1 and may1 by grasping what seems good1 miss what is best4 ,for example1 there are in the ,united ,states about three hundred thousand persons1 defective or subnormal mentally2 there is a smaller number of persons exceptionally gifted mentally4 ,it is a poor form of social service that would exhaust the resources of science and philanthropy to care for the former without making any special provision for the latter4 ,genius is too great an asset to be wasted or misapplied4 ,all culture would have suffered if ,newton had been held1 in his early life1 to exacting administrative work2 or if ,darwin had devoted his years to alleviating the conditions of the miners of ,peru whose misery touched him so profoundly2 or if ,pasteur had been taken from the laboratory and pure science to make a country doctor4 ,nor can democracy rest satisfied with any substitute for culture which would disregard what is great in literature1 in art1 and in philosophy1 or which would ignore history1 and the languages and civilizations of the past1 as if culture had its beginning yesterday4 ,in this chapter we have considered democracy and democratic culture from the standpoint of three writers on education1 a ,greek aristocrat1 a ,german advocate of the domination of the classes over the masses1 and an ,oxford professor1 all by training and temperament more or less hostile critics4 ,a more direct procedure might have been employed to establish the claim of science to afford a basis of intellectual and social homogeneity4 ,a brilliant literary man of the present day considers that places in the first ranks of literature are reserved for the doctrinally heterodox4 ,none of the great writers of ,europe1 he asserts1 have been the adherents of the traditional faith4 7,he makes an exception in favor of ,racine3 but this is a needless concession1 for ,racine owed his early education to the ,port ,royalists1 became alienated from them and wrote under the inspiration of the idea of the moral sufficiency of worldly honor2 then1 after an experience that shook his faith in his own code1 he returned to the early religious influences in his life and composed his ,esther and ,athalie47 ,but1 unlike literature1 the study of science is not exclusive4 ,in the front ranks of science stand the devout ,roman ,catholic ,pasteur1 the ,anglican ,darwin1 the ,unitarian ,priestley1 the ,calvinist ,faraday1 the ,quakers ,dalton1 ,young1 and ,lister1 ,huxley the ,agnostic1 and ,aristotle the pagan biologist4 ,science has no ,test ,acts4 ,that the cultivation of the sciences tends to promote a type of culture that is democratic rather than aristocratic1 sympathetic rather than austere1 inclusive rather than exclusive1 is further witnessed by the fact that the tradesman and artisan1 as well as the dissenter1 play a large part in their development4 ,we have seen that ,pasteur was the son of a tanner1 ,priestley of a cloth-maker1 ,dalton of a weaver1 ,lambert of a tailor1 ,kant of a saddler1 ,watt of a shipbuilder1 ,smith of a farmer4 ,john ,ray was1 like ,faraday1 the son of a blacksmith4 ,joule was a brewer4 ,davy1 ,scheele1 ,dumas1 ,balard1 ,liebig1 ,whler1 and a number of other distinguished chemists1 were apothecaries' apprentices4 ,franklin was a printer4 ,at the same time other ranks of society are represented in the history of science by ,boyle1 ,cavendish1 ,lavoisier4 ,the physicians and the sons of physicians have borne a particularly honorable part in the advancement of physical as well as mental science4 ,the instinctive craving for power1 the will to dominate1 of which ,nietzsche was the lyricist1 was in these men subdued to patience1 industry1 and philanthropy4 ,the beneficent effect of their activities on the health and general welfare of the masses of the people bears witness to the sanity and worth of the culture that prompted these activities4 ,as was stated at the outset of this chapter1 education is the oversight and guidance of the development of the immature with certain ethical and social ends in view4 ,the material of instruction1 the method of instruction1 and the type of educational institution1 will vary with the hereditary endowment1 age1 and probable social destiny of the child4 ,in a democratic country likely to become more1 rather than less1 democratic1 those subjects will naturally be taught which have vital connection with the people's welfare and progress in civilization4 ,at the same time the method of instruction will be less dogmatic and more inclined 7under a free than under an absolute government7 to evoke the child's powers of individual judgment2 arbitrary discipline must yield gradually to self-discipline4 ,the changes here indicated as desirable are already well under way in ,america4 ,as regards types of educational institution1 it is significant that ,america about the middle of the eighteenth century introduced the ,miltonic1 nonconformist ,academy1 with its science curriculum1 in place of the traditional ,latin grammar school4 ,later the ,american high school1 institutions of which type now have over a million pupils1 and teach science by the heuristic laboratory method1 became the popular form of secondary school4 ,it is1 likewise1 not without social significance that the ,kindergarten was suppressed in ,prussia after the revolt of the people in the middle of the nineteenth century1 and that it found a more congenial home in a democratic country4 ,its educational ideal of developing self-activity without losing sight of the need of social adaptation finds its corollary in systematic teaching of the sciences in relation both to the daily work and to their historical and cultural antecedents4 ,,references ,matthew ,arnold1 ,essays in ,criticism1 and ,culture and ,anarchy4 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,civilization in the ,united ,states4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 ,on the ,future of our ,educational ,institutions1 vol4 ,,vi4 of the ,complete ,works2 translation edited by ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 vol4 ,v1 chap4 ,,vi4 of the ,complete ,works4 ,plato1 ,republic1 ,book ,,viii2 vol4 ,,iii4 of ,benjamin ,jowett's translation of the ,dialogues of ,plato1 #ahge4 ,,index ,acadmie des ,sciences1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,academy1 at ,athens1 #ai2 ,milton's plan1 #ajb2 ,defoe's1 #aaf2 ,franklin's1 #abe2 type of secondary school1 #bhb4 ,adams1 ,john ,couch1 #ahh et seq4 ,aerodynamics1 #bcc4 ,agricola1 ,george1 #abi4 ,agriculture1 #ab1 #ch1 #ajg1 #abf1 #acg4 ,air1 #aeg4 ,air craft1 #ga1 #abf1 #bca et seq4 ,air-pump1 #if4 ,akademie der ,wissenschaften1 #aac4 ,albertus ,magnus1 #ec4 ,alchemy1 #ej1 #beb4 ,alcuin1 #eb4 ,alexandria1 #ai1 #dd et seq4 ,algebra1 #di4 ,alkaline earths1 #agi4 ,american ,philosophical ,society1 #aba4 ,anatomy1 #f1 #h1 #ch1 #ej1 #gh4 ,anemometer1 #ajg1 #bce4 ,anthrax1 #bbd et seq4 ,antipodes1 #cg1 #dh4 ,antiseptic surgery1 #bbj1 #bca4 ,application1 #cj et seq4 ,aqua regia1 #ea1 #acb4 ,aqueducts1 #cc4 ,aqueous vapor1 #aeg et seq4 ,arago1 #ahd4 ,archimedes1 #bg4 ,architecture1 #cj et seq4 ,archytas1 #ah4 ,aristotle1 #bj et seq41 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #bff4 ,arithmetic1 #f1 #aa1 #dh4 ,arnold1 ,matthew1 #bgc4 ,astrology1 #aj4 ,astronomy1 7,egyptian and ,babylonian7 #b et seq42 7,greek7 #af2 7,roman7 #cd2 7,alexandrian7 #de2 7,hindu7 #dh2 7,arabian7 #di1 #ej2 7,copernican7 #ee2 7,tycho ,brahe and ,kepler7 #hg et seq42 7,newton7 #aaj et seq42 7nebular hypothesis7 #adb et seq42 7discovery of ,neptune7 #ahd et seq4 ,atmosphere1 #aeg4 ,atomic ,theory1 #aeh et seq41 #bej4 ,atoms1 #ag1 #adh1 #aeh1 #bec4 ,augustus ,csar1 #cf4 ,averros1 #ea et seq4 ,avicenna1 #ea4 ,avogadro1 #afe4 ,babylonia1 #a et seq4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 #eg et seq41 #hj et seq41 #aje2 ,baconian principles1 #baa4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 #ed4 ,bacteria1 #ic4 ,bacteriology1 #bac et seq4 ,bagdad1 #di4 ,barbarians1 #df4 ,barometer1 #id et seq4 ,basalt1 #aca1 #acb1 #acf1 #acg1 #bja4 ,becquerel1 #bcc1 #bdf et seq4 ,beddoes1 #agc4 ,beer1 #bbc1 #bbf4 ,berzelius1 #afb4 ,bessel1 #ahg4 ,biology1 #f1 #g1 #bc et seq41 #cg1 #ec1 #gh1 #aji1 #aig et seq41 #bac4 ,biot1 #bae et seq4 ,black1 #abi1 #acc4 ,bode's ,law1 #ahi4 ,botany1 #f1 #bf1 #cg1 #ci1 #ec1 #bca et seq4 ,bouvard1 ,alexis1 #ahe4 ,bouvard1 ,eugne1 #ahg4 ,boyle1 #if1 #ajg4 ,buffon1 #acj1 #ace4 ,building material1 #cb4 ,cabanis1 #beh4 ,cairo1 #di4 ,calendar1 #i1 #cf4 ,carbonic acid1 #ach1 #aee1 #aeg1 #bag4 ,carlisle1 #agg4 ,cato1 #ce1 #ch4 ,challis1 #ahi4 ,charlemagne1 #eb4 ,charles ,,ii1 #aje4 ,chemical affinity1 #aei1 #bec4 ,chemistry1 #f1 #h1 #ej1 #ea1 #aee et seq41 #agj et seq41 #bde et seq4 ,chicken cholera1 #bbe4 ,chlorine1 #ahj4 ,clocks1 #hi1 #id4 ,collinson1 #abc4 ,columbus1 #bf1 #ed4 ,columella1 #ch4 ,comenius1 #ajj4 ,comets1 #aj1 #dj1 #adi4 ,conservation of energy1 #afh4 ,constantine1 #cg4 ,copernicus1 #ee4 ,coral reefs1 #bjc4 ,cordova1 #ej4 ,counting1 #f1 #aa1 #cd1 #di1 #hf4 ,cowley1 #ajd et seq4 ,cronstedt1 #acj4 ,curie1 ,p4 and ,s41 #bdg et seq4 ,d',alembert1 #eh4 ,dalton1 #aee1 #aeg et seq4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 #aih et seq4 ,darwin1 ,erasmus1 #aii4 ,davy1 #abb1 #afc1 #agj et seq4 ,deduction1 #hb4 ,defoe1 #aaf4 ,democratic culture1 #dd1 #bgj et seq4 ,democritus1 #ag1 #dh1 #adh4 ,descartes1 #eg1 #gb1 #hb et seq4 ,desmarest1 #acb4 ,dialogues of ,plato1 #ai4 ,diderot1 #eh4 ,dioscorides1 #ci4 ,dyes1 #bd1 #cc1 #ga1 #aha4 ,earthquakes1 #dj1 #acg4 ,ebers papyrus1 #g4 ,eclipses1 #aj1 #af1 #di4 ,education1 #ai1 #ce1 #cf1 #dj1 #dd1 #eb1 #ec1 #ajj et seq41 #aaf1 #abb1 #abc1 #aga-gb1 #aih1 #bac1 #bad1 #baf1 #bgj et seq4 ,egypt1 #a et seq4 ,electricity1 #ge1 #abc et seq41 #agg1 #bca4 ,electrolysis1 #agh4 ,elements1 #ag1 #bj1 #bb1 #aee4 ,ellipse1 #bj4 ,embalmers1 #g4 ,empedocles1 #ag1 #dj4 ,encyclopaedia1 #eh4 ,ethics1 #ba1 #dj1 #da4 ,euclid1 #ah1 #ai4 ,evelyn1 #aji4 ,experiment1 #gb et seq4 ,extinction1 #bjf4 ,faraday1 #aha4 ,fermentation1 #baf et seq4 ,fitzroy1 #aih4 ,flacherie1 #bba4 ,flamsteed1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #ahd4 ,fossils1 #adj4 ,franklin1 #ae1 #aad4 ,galen1 #ch1 #gi4 ,galileo1 #ge et seq41 #ie4 ,galapagos ,archipelago1 #bjh et seq4 ,galle1 #aic4 ,galton1 #beh4 ,galvani1 #agg4 ,gascoigne1 #ic4 ,gassendi1 #ii4 ,gay-,lussac1 #afd1 #aha4 ,geber1 #agg4 ,geology1 #abi et seq4 ,geometry1 #d1 #ae1 #ah1 #ai1 #hd1 #bfd4 ,gerbert1 #ec4 ,gilbert1 #gb1 #gd1 #gf4 ,glen ,tilt1 #acf4 ,gnomon1 #ac1 #cc4 ,granite1 #aca4 ,graunt1 #aje1 #aji4 ,gravity1 #aaj et seq4 ,greece1 #ae et seq4 ,gresham ,college1 #aja1 #ajf4 ,grew1 #aji4 ,guericke1 #if4 ,hall1 ,sir ,james1 #abi1 #acg et seq4 ,halley1 #aaj1 #aab1 #ahf4 ,hammurabi1 #ab4 ,hartley1 #agb1 #beh4 ,hartlib1 #ii4 ,harun ,al-,rashid1 #dh4 ,heat1 #hb1 #aee1 #aef1 #aff1 #afh1 #agc4 ,heliacal rising1 #d4 ,helmholtz1 #afh1 #beh4 ,henry1 #bch4 ,heraclitus1 #ag4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 #aib4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,william1 #aeb et seq41 #ahd4 ,hindu arithmetic and astronomy1 #dh1 #di4 ,hipparchus1 #bg1 #de4 ,hippocrates1 #bg4 ,hobbes1 #ii4 ,homology1 #bf4 ,hooke1 #ajg1 #aji4 ,hope1 #ach4 ,horrocks1 #aji4 ,horse1 #bjd4 ,horticulture1 #dj4 ,hugo of ,st4 ,victor1 #fj4 ,humboldt1 #aca1 #bja4 ,hussey1 #ahf4 ,hutton1 #acb et seq4 ,huygens1 #id1 #aaa4 ,hydrophobia1 #bjg1 #bbg et seq4 ,hypatia1 #df1 #dh4 ,hypothesis1 #adg1 #aej1 #bde et seq4 ,i-em-hetep1 #f4 ,ilu-bani1 #ab4 ,induction1 #ha1 #agg4 ,industries1 #h1 #bg1 #fh et seq41 #agc1 #ahb1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bbf4 ,inoculation1 #abf4 ,inventions1 #ajg1 #bcc et seq4 ,invisible ,college1 #ajc4 ,iodine1 #aha4 ,iron1 #h1 #ac1 #ahb4 ,isidore of ,seville1 #fj4 ,james1 ,william1 #beh1 #bfa1 #bfh4 ,joule1 #aee1 #afg et seq4 ,julius ,csar1 #cf4 ,kant1 #adb1 #ade et seq4 ,kepler1 #ij et seq41 #aaj4 ,kindergarten1 #bha4 ,kircher1 #ic4 ,lactantius1 #dh4 ,lambert1 #adb1 #adi et seq4 ,langley1 #bca et seq4 ,laplace1 #aab1 #aej et seq4 ,laurium1 #bg4 ,lava1 #ach4 ,lavoisier1 #aef1 #agb4 ,leeuwenhoek1 #ic4 ,leibnitz1 #ajf1 #aab1 #bgg4 ,lenses1 #dj1 #ej4 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 #gb4 ,leverrier1 #aij et seq4 ,libraries1 #df1 #dh1 #aba4 ,lincoln1 #dc et seq4 ,linnus1 #acj4 ,lippershey1 #ib4 ,lister1 #bac1 #bbj1 #bbc4 ,locke1 #aaf1 #agb1 #beh4 ,logarithms1 #ia4 ,logic1 #ba1 #ec4 ,lucretius1 #dj4 ,lyell1 #aig1 #bja4 ,magnetism1 #ge1 #abg4 ,magnifiers1 #dj4 ,malpighi1 #ic1 #ajf1 #aji4 ,malthus1 #aba1 #baa4 ,manchester1 #aeg4 ,marble1 #aci4 ,mars1 #aj1 #ia4 ,marsh gas1 #abf1 #afc1 #ahb4 ,materia medica1 #ci1 #ea4 ,mathematics1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #aj1 #aa1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #cd1 #dh1 #di1 #ee1 #hg et seq41 #aaj et seq41 #ahd et seq41 #bfd4 ,maupertuis1 #ade4 ,mayow1 #aef4 ,measuring1 #e1 #aj1 #hf et seq4 ,mechanics1 #ah1 #gg1 #bca et seq4 ,medicine1 #f1 #aa1 #bg1 #cd1 #abf1 #agc et seq41 #bjg1 #baf et seq4 ,mensuration1 #e1 #ib4 ,mental imagery1 #bfc4 ,mercury1 #ej1 #ea1 #aef4 ,mersenne1 #ii1 #aab4 ,metallurgy1 #h1 #ac1 #bc1 #ej4 ,meteorology1 #abb1 #acc1 #aeh4 ,microscope1 #ic4 ,milky ,way1 #add4 ,mill1 ,john ,stuart1 #bef4 ,milton1 #ajb1 #bac4 ,mineralogy1 #acj4 ,minute and second1 #df4 ,monochord1 #ag4 ,monte ,cassino1 #eb4 ,moray1 #ajd1 #aab4 ,murex1 #bd1 #cc4 ,napier1 #ia4 ,napoleon ,i1 #aea1 #agg1 #bad4 ,napoleon ,,iii1 #bba4 ,natural history1 #bc1 #cg1 #eb1 #fa4 ,navigation1 #c1 #af1 #bf1 #ed1 #abf1 #bca4 ,nebular hypothesis1 #adg1 #aej4 ,neptune1 #ahd et seq4 ,neptunist1 #aca4 ,new ,atlantis1 #ga1 #ajj1 #ahc4 ,newton1 #aaj1 #ace1 #aeh4 ,nicholson1 #agg4 ,nietzsche1 #bgg et seq4 ,nitric oxide1 #aef1 #afa4 ,nitrous oxide1 #agd4 ,novum ,organum1 #gj1 #gb4 ,numerals1 #f1 #aa1 #cd1 #di1 #hg1 #bca4 ,observatories1 #d1 #di4 ,occupations1 #ab1 #ea1 #eh1 #fh et seq41 #ajg4 ,optics1 #ej1 #ed1 #ic4 ,organic remains1 #abf1 #adj4 ,origin of the sciences1 #a et seq4 ,origin of ,species1 #bja4 ,pansophy1 #ajj4 ,pascal1 #ie1 #aag4 ,pasteur1 #bac et seq4 ,pearson1 ,karl1 #fj4 ,peirce1 #aie4 ,pepys1 #aaj4 ,petty1 #ajc1 #abb4 ,peurbach1 #ee4 ,philosophical ,transactions1 #aji4 ,philosophy1 #ae et seq41 #acd4 ,physics1 #ba1 #bh1 #ca1 #cb1 #ej1 #ed1 #gd et seq41 #id et seq41 #aaj et seq41 #abh1 #aee et seq41 #agj et seq41 #bca et seq41 #bde et seq4 ,physiology1 #f1 #ba1 #ch1 #gh1 #agc et seq41 #bbe et seq4 ,picard1 #aaa4 ,plato1 #ah1 #bgj et seq4 ,playfair1 #acc1 #acg4 ,pliny1 #cg4 ,pneumatic ,institution1 #agc4 ,poincar1 ,henri1 #bee1 #bfg4 ,port ,royal1 #aaf1 #bgi4 ,potash1 #bc1 #ea1 #agi4 ,potassium1 #agi4 ,precession of the equinoxes1 #aj1 #aab4 ,priestley1 #abf1 #aef4 ,primitive man1 #bjf4 ,principia1 #aaj1 #aad4 ,prism1 #dj4 ,protyl1 #bed4 ,psychology1 #bc1 #bef et seq4 ,ptolemy1 #de1 #ee4 ,pythagoras1 #ag4 ,quadrants1 #ej1 #hf4 ,quintilian1 #ci4 ,rabies1 #bbg et seq4 ,racemic acid1 #bae4 ,radioactivity1 #bde et seq4 ,ramsay1 #bdf4 ,ray1 #aaj4 ,regiomontanus1 #ee4 ,religion1 #c1 #h1 #aj1 #dj1 #dc et seq41 #adb et seq4 ,rey1 #id4 ,rhind papyrus1 #f4 ,rntgen rays1 #bca4 ,rousseau1 #bgj4 ,royal ,institution1 #agf4 ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh1 #acc4 ,royal ,society of ,london1 #ii et seq4 ,rumford1 #aff4 ,rutherford1 #bdg et seq4 ,st4 ,benedict1 #eb4 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #ec4 ,saturn1 #b1 #ib1 #ade4 ,saussure1 #acc4 ,scheele1 #aef1 #ahj4 ,scientific apparatus1 #ag1 #di1 #hf et seq4 ,scotus ,erigena1 #ec4 ,seneca1 #dj4 ,shaftesbury1 #aag4 ,signs of zodiac1 #i1 #cc4 ,silkworm1 #aji1 #bba et seq4 ,siphon1 #ie4 ,sirius1 #d4 ,smith1 ,adam1 #aba1 #acc1 #bef4 ,smith1 ,william1 #aci et seq4 ,smithsonian ,institution1 #aie1 #bcc1 #bch4 ,socrates1 #dd1 #aag4 ,soda1 #h1 #ea1 #agi4 ,soddy1 #bdh et seq4 ,sodium1 #agi4 ,sosigenes1 #cf4 ,sound1 #cc4 ,species1 #bd1 #aig et seq4 ,specific gravity1 #bh1 #cf1 #ej4 ,spectrum analysis1 #aec1 #bca4 ,sphericity of the earth1 #bf1 #cg4 ,spontaneous generation1 #be1 #bah4 ,sprat1 #aje1 #aji4 ,steel1 #h1 #bc4 ,sundial1 #ac4 ,survival1 #bjf4 ,syntaxis1 #de4 ,tables1 astronomical1 #di1 #ej1 #ia1 #ahe et seq4 ,tanning1 #agg4 ,technology1 #e1 #af1 #bj1 #bg1 #cj et seq41 #ej1 #fh et seq41 #hf et seq41 #ajc1 #ajg1 #abf1 #abi1 #acj1 #aci-da1 #aef1 #afj1 #afg1 #agg1 #ahb1 #bca4 ,thales1 #ae4 ,theology1 #dg1 #fb1 #agb4 ,theon1 #df4 ,theophrastus1 #bf1 #ci4 ,theory1 #cj1 #da2 ,t4 of the ,earth1 #acc4 ,tides1 #ch1 #aab4 ,torricelli1 #ie4 ,trade and trades1 #ab1 #ea1 #fh et seq41 #ajg1 #aae1 #aah4 ,transformation ,theory1 #bdi et seq4 ,trigonometry1 #df1 #di1 #ee4 ,turgot1 #aba4 ,tycho ,brahe1 #hg et seq4 ,tyndall1 #bfj-fa4 ,uranus1 #ahd et seq4 ,vacuum1 #ie4 ,varro1 #ch4 ,vesalius1 #gh4 ,vitruvius1 #cj et seq4 ,viviani1 #id4 ,vivisection1 #ch1 #ga1 #hj4 ,volcanoes1 #dj1 #acf4 ,volta1 #agg4 ,vulcanist1 #aca1 #acg4 ,wadham ,college1 #ajd4 ,walker1 #aie4 ,wallace1 #baa1 #bca4 ,wallis1 #ajc4 ,war1 #df1 #agh1 #bac et seq4 ,war-engines1 #bh1 #cd4 ,watch1 #id4 ,water1 #aeg1 #agg4 ,water-clocks1 #ac1 #id4 ,watt1 ,gregory1 #agb4 ,watt1 ,james1 #acc1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,wedgwoods1 #ach1 #agc1 #aii4 ,weighing1 #g1 #aj1 #hf4 ,werner1 #abi et seq4 ,wilkins1 #aja1 #ajd4 ,willis1 #ajd4 ,willughby1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,wine1 #bbj1 #bbf4 ,wollaston1 #aai4 ,wool1 #bbf4 ,wren1 #ajd1 #ajg4 ,wright1 #adc et seq4 ,wundt1 #beh1 #bei4 ,xenophon1 #aag4 ,young1 #beh1 #bgi4 ,zacharias1 #ib4 ,zodiac1 #i1 #cc4 ,zology1 #g1 #ab1 #ba1 #bd1 #be1 #cg1 #ec1 #ff1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aig et seq4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the following is a list of changes made to the original4 ,the first line is the original line1 the second the corrected one4 parabola1 hyperbola--play a large part in the subsequent parabola1 the hyperbola--play a large part in the subsequent ,seneca1 ,physcial ,science2 translated by ,john ,clarke4 ,seneca1 ,physical ,science2 translated by ,john ,clarke4 ,college by #aeeh it was the custom to remain for discussion ,college by #afeh it was the custom to remain for discussion slowly with the result that it had a stony1 rather a slowly with the result that it had a stony1 rather than a ,this would correspond to #cbe ,january #a1 #ahdg4 ,this would correspond to #cbe on ,january #a1 #ahdg4 sometimes1 in the case of the rays with velocity sometimes1 in the case of the rays1 with velocity positively and negatively chasged particles4 ,rutherford positively and negatively charged particles4 ,rutherford