,transcriber's ,notes3 ,minor punctuation inconsistencies have been silently corrected4 ,a list of other changes made can be found at the end of the book4 ,footnotes were sequentially numbered and placed at the end of each chapter4 ,the page headers of the book on the odd numbered pages have been marked as ,header4 ,for this text version1 diacritical marks that cannot be represented in plain text are shown in the following manner3 ,ligature oe is encoded as oe4 p4 #hg3 ,o o with macron above 7d,oucement74 ,e e with macron above 7doucem,ent74 p4 #bhc3 upside down ,v4 ,mark up3 italics bold ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,manchester ,,french ,,series ,no4 ,,iii ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,in ,,england ,published by the ,university of ,manchester at ,,the ,,university ,,press 7,h4 ,m4 ,mc,k,e,c,h,n,i,e1 ,secretary7 #ab ,,lime ,,grove1 ,,oxford ,,road1 ,,manchester ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,co4 ,,london3 #ci ,paternoster ,row ,,new ,,york3 #ddc-ddi ,fourth ,avenue and ,thirtieth ,street ,,chicago3 ,prairie ,avenue and ,thirty-fifth ,street ,,bombay3 #h ,hornby ,road ,,calcutta3 #f ,old ,court ,house ,street ,,madras3 #afg ,mount ,road ,,the ,,teaching ,,and ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,in ,,england ,,during ,,tudor ,,and ,,stuart ,,times ,,with ,,an ,,introductory ,,chapter ,,on ,,the ,,preceding ,,period ,,by ,,kathleen ,,lambley1 ,m4,a4 ,lecturer in ,french in the ,university of ,durham ,sometime ,assistant ,lecturer in ,french in the ,university of ,manchester ,,manchester ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,press #ab ,,lime ,,grove1 ,,oxford ,,road ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,etc4 #aibj ,,publications ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,manchester ,no4 ,,cxxix ,all rights reserved4 ,,preface ,the present work1 begun during the author's tenure of a ,faulkner ,fellowship in the ,university of ,manchester1 and completed in subsequent years1 is an endeavour to trace the history of the teaching and use of ,french in ,england during a given epoch1 ending with the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes and the ,revolution of #afhi1 which events mark the beginning of a new period in the study of the ,french language in this country4 ,no attempt has been made to treat the wider topic of ,french influence in ,england in its literary and social aspects 7this has already been done by competent hands71 though this side of the question is naturally touched upon occasionally by way of reference or illustration4 ,i gladly take this opportunity of expressing my gratitude to ,professor ,l4 ,e4 ,kastner1 at whose suggestion this investigation was undertaken1 for his generous assistance1 and the unfailing interest he has shown in my work during the whole course of its preparation4 ,i am likewise considerably indebted to ,dr4 ,phoebe ,sheavyn for helpful criticism and advice1 to ,professor ,tout for kindly reading through the introductory chapter1 and to ,mr4 ,j4 ,marks for a careful revision of the proofs and many useful indications4 ,i owe a great deal to my father also1 whose sympathetic advice and encouragement did much to lighten my task4 ,nor can ,i close this list of acknowledgments without recording my obligation to the ,secretary of the ,press1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,m4 ,mc,kechnie1 for the valuable assistance he has so freely given me during the progress of this volume through the ,press4 ,,kathleen ,,lambley4 ,,durham1 ,january #aibj4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,introductory ,,chapter ,i ,,page ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,and ,,fourteenth ,,centuries #c ,french grammars in mediaeval ,england--,the use of the ,french language--,latin1 ,french1 and ,english vocabularies--,french at the ,universities--,popularity of ,french in the thirteenth century--,ceases to be a vernacular in ,england--,treatises for teaching ,french--,a treatise on ,french verbs--,the ,orthographia ,gallica--,the ,tractatus ,orthographiae--,t4 ,h4 ,parisiis studentis--,walter de ,bibbesworth--,french in the schools and ,universities--,the fourteenth century--,treatises on ,french--,the ,nominale--,model letters--,recovery of ,english in the second half of the fourteenth century--,deterioration of ,anglo-,french--,english in official documents and correspondence--,decline in use of ,french4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century #bf ,triumph of continental ,french over ,anglo-,french--,doux franois de ,paris a foreign language--,standard of ,french taught in ,england--,femina--,treatises on ,grammar--,barton's ,donait--,epistolaries--,books of conversation in ,french--,the ,cambridge manuscript in ,french and ,english--,first printed books for teaching ,french--,dialogues in ,french and ,english--,caxton1 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 and ,pynson--,french by conversation--,approaching improvement in the standard of ,french taught in ,england--,palsgrave's ,grammar4 ,,part ,,ii ,,tudor ,,times ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,at ,,court ,,and ,,among ,,the ,,nobility #fa ,french at the ,court of the ,tudors--,english neglected by foreigners--,latin a spoken language--,defective pronunciation of the ,english--,interest in modern languages awakened--,french holds the first place--,its use in correspondence and in official documents--,the ,french of ,henry ,,viii41 his courtiers1 and the ladies--,of ,anne ,boleyn and the other ,queens--,of the royal family1 ,edward1 ,mary1 and ,elizabeth--,french tutors--,bernard ,andr--,french ,grammars--,alexander ,barclay's ,introductory--,practice and ,theory--,pierre ,valence1 tutor to the ,earl of ,lincoln--,his ,introductions in ,french--,fragment of a ,grammar at ,lambeth--,french ,humanists as ,language masters--,bourbon and ,denisot--,england and the ,pliade4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,french ,,tutors ,,at ,,court--,,giles ,,duwes--,,john ,,palsgrave--,,jean ,,bellemain #hf ,french tutors at ,court--,john ,palsgrave and ,giles ,duwes--,palsgrave's ,esclarcissement--,the pronunciation of ,french--,his second and third books--,the vocabulary--,the ,introductorie of ,duwes--,his ,dialogues--,the methods of the two teachers--,dates of composition and editions--,attitude of the two teachers to each other--,duwes on ,english teachers of ,french--,palsgrave's claims--,palsgrave's acquaintance with ,french literature--,incidents in ,duwes's career in ,england--,his royal pupils--,palsgrave's teaching career--,mary ,tudor his pupil--,the ,duke of ,richmond1 ,gregory ,cromwell1 etc4--,palsgrave in the ,north1 at ,oxford1 and in ,london--,jean ,bellemain1 tutor to ,edward ,,vi4--,the ,king's ,french exercises--,intercourse with ,calvin--,bellemain on ,french orthography--,french tutor to ,elizabeth--,her translations from the ,french--,a4 ,r4 ,chevallier4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,religious ,,refugees ,,on ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,french ,,in ,,england--,,openings ,,for ,,them ,,as ,,teachers--,,demand ,,for ,,text-,,books--,,french ,,schools ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,scotland #aad ,effects of the persecution of the ,protestants on the teaching of ,french in ,england--,protestant refugees--,registers and returns of aliens--,french churches in ,london--,reception and treatment of foreigners--,incivility of the common people--,courtesy of the gentry--,refugees received into ,english families--,french in polite education--,french tutors and text-books--,converse with foreigners--,shakespeare's ,french--,professional schoolmasters--,no opening in the grammar schools--,french schools--,du ,ploich's school--,his ,treatise in ,french and ,english and method of teaching--,his works in manuscript--,claude ,holyband--,his ,french ,schoolemaister and ,french ,littleton--,his ,french school--,holyband as private tutor--,his method of teaching--,schools in connection with the ,french churches--,schools at ,canterbury and elsewhere--,saravia's school at ,southampton--,joshua ,sylvester--,place of ,french in the public schools of ,scotland--,in the parish and private schools--,no ,french grammars produced in ,scotland4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,huguenot ,,teachers ,,of ,,french--,,other ,,classes ,,of ,,french ,,teachers--,,rivalries ,,in ,,the ,,profession--,,the ,,dutch ,,and ,,english ,,teachers #aee ,importance of the ,huguenot teachers in ,london--,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard the centre of the profession--,the group of ,normans--,robert ,fontaine--,jacques ,bellot--,his ,french and ,english grammars1 and ,jardin de ,vertu--,the ,french ,methode--,g4 de ,la ,mothe--,his ,french ,alphabet and method of teaching--,french teachers from the ,netherlands--,roman ,catholic schoolmasters--,objections raised against ,french teachers--,the right of the ,english to teach ,french--,john ,eliote--,his attack on ,french teachers--,his love of ,rabelais and debt to ,french literature--,his 'merrie vaine'--,the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica and his other works4 ,,chapter ,v ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching ,,french--,,latin ,,and ,,french--,,french ,,and ,,english ,,dictionaries--,,study ,,of ,,french ,,literature #agi ,usual methods of learning ,french--,reading and translation--,pronunciation--,rules of grammar--,importance of 'practice'--,latin and ,french text-books--,contrast of methods--,grammar and ,practice--,books in ,french and ,english--,french by translation--,french dictionaries--,holyband's ,dictionaries--,dictionary printed by ,harrison--,a place given to ,french in some ,latin dictionaries--,veron--,baret--,john ,higgins--,french-,latin dictionaries--,cotgrave's great ,french-,english ,dictionary--,sherwood's ,english-,french ,dictionary--,howell's editions of ,cotgrave--,the reading of ,french literature--,attitude of ,french teachers--,favourite authors--,histories and ,memoirs of military life for soldiers and statesmen4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,french ,,at ,,the ,,universities #aih ,latin the language of the ,universities--,retention of the use of ,french formulae--,modern languages read--,french a relaxation from 'severer studies'--,french tutors and ,french grammars--,morlet's ,janitrix--,french grammars written in ,latin--,antonio de ,corro--,john ,sanford--,wye ,saltonstall--,henry ,leighton--,french grammarians and teachers at ,oxford--,robert ,farrear--,pierre ,bense--,french teachers at ,cambridge--,gabriel du ,grs at ,cambridge and ,oxford--,on the teaching of ,french--,french at the ,universities at the time of the ,restoration--,the ,french of the ,universities and of the fashionable world--,french at the ,inns of ,court--,one-sidedness of the ,university curriculum--,steps taken to supplement it4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french ,,by ,,english ,,travellers ,,abroad #baa ,travel in ,france and on the ,continent--,in the suite of ambassadors--,children in ,france--,course of studies--,girls in ,france--,objections to children being sent to ,france--,france and ,italy--,protests against travel--,prejudices against travel--,preference for ,france--,necessity of the ,french language--,the travelling tutor--,the age for travel--,literati as travelling tutors--,travel without a governor--,books on travel--',methods' of travel--,the study of ,french--,dallington and ,moryson--,study of ,french before travel--,french 'by rote'--,language masters for travellers--,french grammars for travellers--,charles ,maupas of ,blois and his son--,antoine ,oudin--,other grammars--,pre ,chiflet--,the 'exercises'--,travellers at the ,universities--,at the ,protestant ,academies--,geneva--,isaac ,casaubon--,the 'idle traveller'--,the 'beau'--,affectations of newly returned travellers--,commendation and censure of travel4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french ,,among ,,merchants ,,and ,,soldiers #bci ,merchants and the study of ,french--,text-books for merchants--,relations with the ,netherlands--,the 'book from ,anvers'--,barlement's book of dialogues--,meurier's manuals for teaching ,french to the ,english in ,antwerp--,the study of ,french in the ,netherlands--,french for soldiers--,the ,verneys--,john ,wodroeph--,the difficulty of the ,french language--,necessity of rules as well as practice--,the ,marrow of the ,french ,tongue4 ,,part ,,iii ,,stuart ,,times ,,chapter ,i ,,french ,,at ,,the ,,courts ,,of ,,james ,i4 ,,and ,,charles ,i4--,,french ,,studied ,,by ,,the ,,ladies--,,french ,,players ,,in ,,london--,,english ,,generally ,,ignored ,,by ,,foreigners #bei ,the ,french language in ,england in the time of the early ,stuarts--,in the royal family--,french tutors--,john ,florio--,guy ,le ,moyne--,massonet--,sir ,robert ,le ,grys--,french among the ladies--,erondelle's ,french ,garden for ,english ladies--,his dialogues--,his career as a teacher--,his earlier works--,the ,french ,queen of ,england--,french plays in ,london--,the ,english language neglected by foreigners--,english literature ignored in ,france--,english players abroad--,the study of ,english--,english grammars for foreigners in ,england--,french teachers and merchants further the study of ,english--,provision for teaching ,english in the ,netherlands and in ,france4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,french ,,grammars--,,books ,,for ,,teaching ,,latin ,,and ,,french--,,french ,,in ,,private ,,institutions #bha ,robert ,sherwood1 teacher of ,french and ,english--,his school and ,french ,tutour--,william ,colson1 another ,english teacher--,his 'method' and writings--,maupas's ,french grammar in ,england--,william ,aufeild--,how to study ,french--,the ,flower de ,luce--,laur du ,terme on the teaching of ,french--,paul ,cogneau's ,french grammar--,his method--,continued use of the sixteenth-century ,french grammars--,latin and ,french--,latin school-books adapted to teaching ,french--,books for teaching ,latin and ,french together--,the ,janua of ,comenius--,wye ,saltonstall--,de ,grave--,french in private institutions--,the ,museum ,minervae--,gerbier's ,academy--,french in schools for ladies4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,little ,,blois ,,in ,,london #cja ,the ,blois group of ,french teachers--,claude ,mauger and his ,french grammar--,its popularity and development--,mauger's ,letters--,other writings--,life in ,london--,teaches ,english--,mauger's method of teaching--,mauger at ,paris--,the demand for his grammar abroad--,paul ,festeau--,his ,french and ,english grammars--,editions and contents--,pierre ,lain--,his ,french grammar--,encouragement of the study of ,french literature4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,french ,,teaching ,,profession ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,the ,,language #cai ,vogue of ,french romances in ,england--,dorothy ,osborne--,pepys on ,french literature--,his ,french books--,french text-books and the prcieux spirit--,william ,herbert--,his criticism of the ,french teaching profession--,rivalry among teachers--,need for protection--,herbert's later works--,his early career in ,england--,quarrels with a minister of the ,french church--,english gentry at the ,french church--,pepys a regular attender--,french teachers encourage the practice--,the method of 'grammar and rote'--,french 'by rote'--,examples of how ,french was studied--,latin by grammar--,calls for reform--,the case against grammar--,french taught on the 'right method'--,attempts to teach ,latin on the same lines as ,french--,contrast between the learning of ,latin in ,england 'by grammar' and of ,french in ,france 'by rote4' ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,tour ,,in ,,france #cda ,the ,protestant schools and ,academies--,a group of ,english students at ,saumur--,travellers at the ,french ,universities--,a method of travel--,attitude of the ,french teachers to the tour in ,france--,guide books--,routes followed--,favourite resorts for study--,auberges and pensions--,language masters in ,france--,grammars for travellers--,howell's instructions for travellers--,suitable books for students--,the ',grand' and ',petit' ,tour in ,france--,paris--,inexperienced young travellers--,sir ,john ,reresby in ,france4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,gallomania ,,after ,,the ,,restoration #cfa ,gallomania in ,england after the ,restoration--,the royal family in ,france--,their knowledge of the language--,english courtiers and gentry in ,france--,men of letters in ,france--,french and the ,french at the ,english court after the ,restoration--,french 'salons' ,london--,french valets1 cooks1 dancing masters1 tailors--,the ,french language--,french among the ladies--,the ',frenchified' lady--,the 'beaux' or ,english 'monsieurs'--,french influence at the theatre--,popularity of ,french actors in ,london4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,french ,,and ,,its ,,popularity ,,after ,,the ,,restoration #cha ,french grammars after the ,restoration--,pierre de ,lain1 tutor to the children of the ,duke of ,york--,the ,princely ,way to the ,french ,tongue--,guy ,mige--,his ,dictionaries--,his ,french ,grammars--,his method of teaching--,rote and grammar--,mige's other works--,other ,french ,grammars--,pierre ,berault--,the universality of ,french--,supremacy over ,latin in the world of fashion and diplomacy--,position of ,french in the educational world--,the classics read in ,french--',all learning now in ,french'--,french recognized by writers on education--,projects for reformed schools--,numerous ,french schools in and about ,london--,villiers' school at ,nottingham--,academies for ladies--,academies for training gentlemen in the necessary social accomplishments and for business--,effects of the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,,appendices ,i ,,chronological ,,list ,,of ,,manuals ,,and ,,grammars ,,for ,,teaching ,,french ,,to ,,the ,,english #djc ,,ii ,,bibliography1 ,,arranged ,,alphabetically1 ,,of ,,manuals ,,for ,,teaching ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,to ,,the ,,english1 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,stuart ,,period #daj ,,index #dbi ,,part ,i ,,introductory ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,and ,,fourteenth ,,centuries ,the first important grammar of the ,french language was printed in ,england and written by an ,englishman4 ,this enterprising student was ,john ,palsgrave1 natyf de ,londres et gradu de ,paris1 whose work1 entitled ,l',esclarcissement de la langue francoyse1 was published in #aecj4 ,it is an enormous quarto of over a thousand pages1 full of elaborate1 detailed and often obscure rules1 written in ,english in spite of the ,french title4 ,it was no doubt the solid value and exhaustiveness of ,palsgrave's work which won for it the reputation of being the earliest grammar of the ,french language4#a ,yet ,palsgrave himself informs us that such was not the case1 though he claims to be the first to lay down 'absolute' rules for the language4 ,the kings of ,england1 he declares1 have never ceased to encourage suche clerkes as were in theyr tymes1 to prove and essay what they by theyr dylygence in this matter myght do4 ,this like charge1 he continues1 have dyvers others had afore my dayes 444 many sondrie clerkes have for their tyme taken theyr penne in hande4444 ,some thyng have they in writing lefte behynde them concerning into this mater1 for the ease and furtheraunce as well of suche as shilde in lyke charge after them succede1 as of them whiche from tyme to tyme in that tong were to be instructed 444 takyng light and erudition of theyr studious labours whiche in this matter before me have taken paynes to write4444 ,i dyd my effectuall devoire to ensertche out suche bokes as had by others of this mater before my tyme ben compyled1 of which undouted1 after enquery and ensertche made for them dyvers came into my handes as well suche whose authors be yet amongst us lyveng1 as suche whiche were of this mater by other sondrie persons longe afore my dayes composed4 ,the living predecessors to whom ,palsgrave refers--authors of short works of small philological value1 but of great interest to-day as evidence of the wide use of the ,french language in ,england--were likewise acquainted with earlier works on the subject4 ,giles ,duwes1 tutor in ,french to ,henry ,,viii4 and other members of the royal family1 frequently invokes the authority of the 'olde grammar4' ,the poet ,alexander ,barclay1 in his ,french ,grammar of #aeba1 informs us that the said treatyse hath ben attempted of dyvers men before my dayes1 and that he had sene the draughtes of others made before his time2 moreover1 in times past1 the ,french language hath ben so moche set by in ,england that who hath ben ignorant in the same language hath not ben reputed to be of gentyll blode4 ,in so moche that1 as the cronycles of englande recorde1 in all the gramer scoles throughout englande small scolars expounded theyr construccyons bothe in ,frenche and ,englysshe4 ,thus the ,french grammarians in ,england in the early sixteenth century were acquainted with1 and to some extent indebted to1 a series of mediaeval treatises on the ,french language1--a type of work which1 even at the time they wrote1 was unknown on the ,continent4#b ,that ,england1 before other countries1 took on herself the study of the ,french language1 was the result of events which followed the ,conquest4 ,from that time ,french had taken its place by the side of ,english as a vernacular4 ,it was the language of the upper classes and landed gentry1 the cultivated and educated2 ,english was used by the masses1 while all who read and wrote knew ,latin1 the language of clerks and scholars4 ,for nearly three centuries after the ,conquest almost all writings of any literary value produced in ,england were in ,french1 though the bulk of composition was in ,latin2 ,english never ceased to be written1 but was used in minor works for the most part4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find that from an early date ,latin was at times construed or translated into ,french#c as well as ,english in the grammar schools1 both languages serving as vernaculars4 ,there are still extant examples of this custom1#d dating from the twelfth century2 for instance1 a version of the psalter1 in which the ,french words are placed above the ,latin without any regard to the order of the ,french sentence4#e ,others are found in some of the first vocabularies written for the purpose of teaching ,latin1#f which consist of lists of words grouped round subjects and arranged1 as a rule1 in sentence form4 ,two of these works seem to have been particularly well known1 judging from the number of manuscripts still in existence--those of the ,english scholars1 ,alexander ,neckam 7#aaeg-abag7 and ,john de ,garlande1 both of whom were indebted to ,france for most of their learning4 ,neckam1 who in #aahj had attained celebrity as a ,professor of the ,university of ,paris1 was the author of a ,latin ,vocabulary--,de ,utensilibus--which was glossed in ,anglo-,french4#g ,in this he enumerates the various parts of a house and the occupations and callings of men1 and gives scenes from feudal and agricultural life4 ,the ,dictionarius 7c4 #abbj7 of ,john de ,garlande1 a student of ,oxford and ,paris1 and one of the first professors of ,toulouse ,university1 deals roughly with the same topics4#h ,it is glossed in both ,french and ,english--the sign of a later period--as was also a ,latin vocabulary or nominale of the names of plants1#i dating from a little later in the same century1 though probably existing in earlier manuscripts4 ,at the universities a decided preference for ,french was shown in the rare occasions on which the use of a vernacular was allowed4 ,the speaking of ,french was encouraged in some of the colleges at both ,oxford and ,cambridge1 chiefly those belonging to the second set of foundations4#aj ,the scholars and fellows of ,oriel could use either ,latin or ,french in their familiar conversation and at meals4 ,similar injunctions were in force at ,exeter and ,queen's4 ,among the ,cambridge colleges#aa the statutes of ,peterhouse allow ,french to be used for just and reasonable cause2 at ,king's it was permitted on occasion1 and at ,clare ,hall ,french was countenanced only if foreigners were present as visitors4 ,at ,pembroke1 founded by a ,frenchwoman1 ,mary de ,valence1 special favour was shown to ,frenchmen in the election of ,fellows1 provided that their total number did not exceed a quarter of the whole body4#ab ,the cosmopolitanism of the mediaeval centres of learning encouraged a number of such ,french students to come to ,england4 ,in #abei1 for instance1 owing to the disturbed state of the ,university of ,paris1 ,henry ,,iii4 invited the ,paris students to come to ,england and take up their abode wheresoever they pleased2#ac no doubt those who accepted his invitation settled at one or other of the two ,english universities4 ,we also find in the ,treaty of ,bretigny 7#acfj7 a clause to the effect that the subjects of the ,french and ,english kings should henceforth be free to resume their intercourse and to enjoy mutually the privileges of the universities of the two countries1 comme ils povoient faire avant ces presentes guerres et comme ils font a present4#ad ,on the other hand1 the ,english frequented the ,french universities in large numbers2 at ,paris in the thirteenth century they formed one of the four nations which composed the ,university4#ae ,the authors of the early ,latin vocabularies1 ,alexander ,neckam and ,john de ,garlande1 were both connected with the ,university of ,paris1 while most of the other ,english scholars of the period were indebted for much of their learning to the same great centre4 ,many1 no doubt1 could have written with ,garlande3 ,anglia cui mater fuerat1 cui ,gallia nutrix ,matri nutricem praefero mente meam4#af ,in the thirteenth century ,french was still widely used in ,england4 ,the fact that the fusion between conquerors and conquered was then complete1#ag and that at the same time ,french was very popular on the ,continent undoubtedly helped to make its position in ,england stronger4 ,it was then that the ,italian ,brunetto ,latini wrote his ,livres dou ,tresor 7#abfe71 in ,french rather than in his native tongue1 because ,french was plus delitable et plus commune toutes gens4 ,during the same century ,french came to be used in correspondence on both sides of the ,channel4#ah ,little by little it was recognized as the most convenient medium for official uses1 and the language most generally known in these sections of society which had to administer justice4#ai ,in the second half of the thirteenth century ,robert of ,gloucester complained that there was no land that holdeth not to its kindly speech save ,englonde only1 admitting at the same time1 however1 that ignorance of ,french was a serious disadvantage4 ,an idea of the extent to which the language was current in ,england may be gathered from the fact that in #acja ,edward ,i4 caused letters from the ,pope to be translated into ,french so that they might be understood by the whole army1#bj and in the previous year the author of the ,miroir des ,justices wrote in ,french as being the language le plus entendable de la comun people4 ,french1 indeed1 appears to have been used among all classes1 save the very poorest2#ba some of the ,french literature of the time was addressed more particularly to the middle classes4#bb ,nevertheless1 as the thirteenth century advanced1 ,french began to hold its own with some difficulty4 ,while it was in the unusual position of a vernacular gradually losing its power as such1 there appeared the earliest extant treatise on the language4 ,this1 and those that followed it1 were to some extent lessons in the vernacular2 yet not entirely1 as may be judged from the fact that they are set forth and explained in ,latin1 the language of all scholarship4 ,the first work on the ,french language1 dating from not later than the middle of the thirteenth century1 is in the form of a short ,latin treatise on ,french conjugations1#bc in which a comparison of the ,french with the ,latin tenses is instituted4#bd ,as it appeared at a time when ,french was becoming the literary language of the law1 and was being used freely in correspondence1 it may have been intended mainly for the use of clerks4 ,a treatise of considerably more importance composed towards the end of the century1 appears to have had the same purpose4 ,that he did not intend it exclusively for clerks1 however1 the author showed by adding rules for pronunciation1 syntax and even morphology as well as for orthography4 ,like most of the early grammatical writings on the ,french language1 this ,orthographia ,gallica is in ,latin4 ,the obscurity of many of its rules1 however1 called forth commentaries in ,french which appeared during the fourteenth century1 and exceed the size of the original work4 ,the ,orthographia was a very popular work1 as the number of manuscripts extant and the ,french commentary prove4 ,the different copies vary considerably1 and there is a striking increase in the number of rules given2 from being about thirty in the earliest manuscript1 they number about a hundred in the latest4#be ,it opens with a rule that when the first or middle syllable of a ,french word contains a short e1 i must be placed before the e1 as in bien1 rien1 etc4--a curious1 fumbling attempt to explain the development of ,latin free short e before nasals and oral consonants into ie4 ,on the other hand1 continues the author1 e acute need not be preceded by i1 as tenez4 ,it is not surprising that these early writers1 in spite of much patient observation1 should almost always have failed to grasp fundamental laws1 and group a series of corresponding facts into the form of a general rule4 ,we continually find rules drawn up for a few isolated examples1 with no general application4 ,the most striking feature in the treatment of ,french orthography in this work is the continual reference to ,latin roots1 and the clear statement of the principle that1 wherever possible1 the spelling of ,french words should be based on that of ,latin4 ,the ,orthographia does not by any means limit its observations to spelling2 there are also rules for pronunciation1 a subject which in later times naturally held a very important place in ,french grammars written for the use of ,englishmen1 while orthography became one of the chief concerns of ,french grammarians4 ,that orthography received so much attention at this early period in this country1 is explained by the fact that these manuals were partly intended for clerks1 who would frequently have to write in ,french4 ,as to the pronunciation1 we find1 amongst others1 the familiar rule that when a ,french word ending in a consonant comes before another word beginning with a consonant1 the first consonant is not pronounced4 ,an s occurring after a vowel and before an m1 writes the author1 in another rule1 is not pronounced1 as in mandasmes1 and l coming after a1 e1 or o1 and followed by a consonant is pronounced like u1 as in m'almi1 loialment1 and the like4 ,a list of synonyms#bf is also given1 which throws some light on the ,english pronunciation of ,french at this period1 and there are also a few hints for the translation of both ,latin and ,english into ,french4 ,nor are syntax and morphology neglected2 rules concerning these are scattered among those on orthography and pronunciation1 with the lack of orderly arrangement characteristic of the whole work4 ,thus we are told to use me in the accusative case1 and moy in all other cases2 that we should form the plural of verbs ending in t in the singular by adding z1 as il amet1 il list become vous amez1 vous lisez2 that when we ask any one for something1 we may say vous pri without je1 but that1 when we do this1 we should write pri with a y1 as pry1 and so on4 ,the claim of the ,orthographia ,gallica to be the first extant work on ,french orthography1 has been disputed by another treatise1 also written in ,latin1 and known as the ,tractatus ,orthographiae4 ,more methodically arranged than the ,orthographia1 this work deals more particularly with pronunciation and orthography4#bg ,it opens with a short introduction announcing that here are the means for the youth of the time to make their way in the world speedily and learn ,french pronunciation and orthography4 ,each letter of the alphabet is first treated in turn1#bh and then come a few more general observations4 ,like the author of the ,orthographia1 the writer of the ,tractatus would have the spelling of ,french words based on that of ,latin whenever possible4 ,he claims that his own ,french is secundum dulce ,gallicum and secundum usum et modum modernorum tam partibus transmarinis quam cismarinis4 ,though he apparently places the ,french of ,england and the ,french of ,france on the same footing1 it is noteworthy that he carefully distinguishes between the two4 ,the ,tractatus ,orthographiae bears a striking resemblance to another work of like nature1 which is better known--the ,tractatus ,orthographiae of ,canon ,m4 ,t4 ,coyfurelly1 doctor in ,law of ,orleans#bi--;and for some time it was thought to be merely a rehandling of ,coyfurelly's treatise which did not appear till somewhere about the end of the fourteenth century1 if not later4 ,but ,coyfurelly admits that his work was based on the labours of one ',t4 ,h4 ,parisii ,studentis1' and there appears1 on examination1#cj to be no doubt as to the priority of the anonymous ,tractatus described above1 which1 on the contrary1 is evidently the treatise rehandled by ,coyfurelly1 and the work of ',t4 ,h4 ,student of ,paris4' ,besides being the original which ,coyfurelly recast in his ,tractatus1 it also appears that ,t4 ,h4 may reasonably dispute with the author of the ,orthographia ,gallica1 the honour of being the first in the field4 ,his work shows no advance on the rules given for pronunciation in the ,orthographia1 while the orthography is of a decidedly older stamp4 ,at about the same time as these two treatises on orthography1 probably a few years earlier1 there was composed a work of similar purpose but very different character4 ,it is of particular interest1 and shows that1 towards the end of the thirteenth century1 ,french was beginning to be treated as a foreign language2 the ,french is accompanied by a partial ,english gloss1 and the author states that touz dis troverez-vous primes le ,frauncois et pus le ,engleys suaunt4 ,the author1 ,gautier or ,walter de ,bibbesworth1#ca was an ,englishman1 and appears to have mixed with the best society of the day4 ,he was a friend of the celebrated statesman of the reign of ,edward ,i41 ,henry de ,lacy1 ,earl of ,lincoln4 ,the only work by which his name is known to-day1 in addition to the treatise in question1 is a short piece of ,anglo-,norman verse1#cb written on the occasion of the expedition of ,edward ,i4 to the ,holy ,land in #abgj1 shortly before he came to the throne4 ,we gather from letters of protection granted him in that year that ,bibbesworth himself took part in this venture4 ,in this poem he is pictured discussing the ,crusade with ,lacy1 and trying to persuade his friend to take part in it4 ,the name of ,bibbesworth also occurs several times#cc in official documents of no special interest1 and as late as #acjb a writ of ,privy ,seal was addressed to the ,chancellor suing for a pardon under the ,great ,seal to ,w4 de ,bibbesworth1 in consideration of his good services rendered in ,scotland1 for a breach of the park of ,robert de ,seales at ,ravenhall1 and of the king's prison at ,colchester4#cd ,bibbesworth1 however1 interests us less as a crusader or a disturber of public order1 than as the author of a treatise for teaching the ,french language1 entitled ,le ,treytyz qe mounsire ,gauter de ,bibelesworthe fist a ma dame ,dyonisie de ,mounchensy#ce pur aprise de langwage4 ,the large number of manuscripts still in existence#cf suggest that it was a popular text-book among the children of the higher classes of society4 ,the treatise reproduces1 as might be expected1 the chief characteristics of the vocabularies for teaching ,latin4 ,in addition to giving a collection of words and phrases arranged in the form of a narrative1 it also incidentally aims at imparting some slight grammatical information4 ,its contents are of a very practical character1 and deal exclusively with the occurrences and occupations of daily life4 ,beginning with the new-born child1 it tells in ,french verses how it is to be nursed and fed4 ,rime was no doubt introduced to aid the memory1 as the pupil would1 in all probability1 have to learn the whole by heart4 ,the ,french is accompanied by a partial interlinear ,english gloss1 giving the equivalent of the more difficult ,french words4 ,this may1 perhaps1 be taken as an indication of the extent to which ,french was regarded as a foreign language4#cg ,after describing the life of the child during its earliest infancy1 ,bibbesworth goes on to tell how it is to be taught ,french as soon as it can speak1 that it may be better learned in speach and held up to scorn by none3 ,quaunt le enfes ad tel age ,ke il set entendre langage1 ,primes en ,fraunceys ly devez dire ,coment soun cors deyt descrivere1 ,pur le ordre aver de moun et ma1 ,toun et ta1 soun et sa1 better lered ,ke en parlole seyt meut apris scorned ,e de nul autre escharnys4 ,in accordance with this programme the parts of the human body1 which almost invariably forms the central theme in this type of manual1 are enumerated4 ,special care is taken to distinguish the genders and cases1 to teach the children ,kaunt deivunt dire moun et ma1 soun et sa1 le et la1 moy et jo 4 4 41 and to explain how the meaning of words of similar sound often depends on their gender3 lippe and an hare ,vous avet la levere et le levere1 a pound a book ,et la livere et le livere4 ,la levere si enclost les dens2 ,le levere en boys se tent dedens2 ,la livere sert en marchaundye2 ,le livere nous aprent clergye4 ,throughout ,bibbesworth seizes every opportunity to point out distinctions of gender of this kind1 regardless1 it appears1 of the difference between the definite and indefinite articles4 ,when the pupil can describe his body1 the teacher proceeds to give him an account of all that concerns it both inside and out 7kaunt ke il apent dedens et deores71 that is of its clothing and food3 ,vestet vos draps mes chers enfauns1 ,chaucez vos brays1 soulers1 e gauns2 ,mettet le chaperoun1 covrez le chef1 etc4 --a passage which illustrates the practical nature of the treatise1 ,bibbesworth's aim being to teach children to know the properties of the things they see 7les propretez des choses ke veyunt74 ,when the child is clothed1 ,bibbesworth next feeds him1 giving a full account of the meals and the food which is provided1 and1 by way of variety1 at the end of the dinner1 he teaches his pupil the names given to groups of different animals1 and of the verbs used to describe their various cries4 7,homme parle1 cheval hennist1 etc474 ,by this time the child is ready to observe ,nature1 and to learn the terms of husbandry1#ch and the processes by which his food is produced4 ,from the fields he passes to the woods and the river1 where he learns to hunt and to fish1 subjects which naturally lead to the introduction of the ,french names of the seasons1 and of the beasts and birds that are supposed to present themselves to his view4 ,during the whole of this long category the verse form is maintained1 and the intention of avoiding a vocabulary pure and simple is manifest4 ,how superior this method was to the more modern lists of words separated from the context is also evident4 ,besides giving a description of all the objects with which the child comes in contact1 and of all the actions he has to perform1 as well as examples for the distinctions of genders and of moy and jo--difficulties for which he makes no attempts to draw up rules--,bibbesworth claims for his work that it provides gentlemen with adequate instruction for conversational purposes 7tot le ordre en parler e respoundre ke checun gentyshomme covent saver74 ,and as he did not wish to neglect any of the items of daily life1 he finally gives a description of the building of a house and various domestic arrangements1 ending with a description of an old ,english feast with its familiar dish1 the boar's head3 ,au primer fust apport a boris heued ,la teste de un sengler tot arm1 the snout wit baneres of flurs ,e au groyn le colere en banere2 ,e pus veneysoun1 ou la fourment2 ,assez par my la mesoun tahen of gres tyme ,de treste du fermeyson4 ,pus avyent diversetez en rost1 ,eit checun autre de cost1 ,cranes1 pokokes1 swannes ,grues1 pounes1 e cygnes1 ,wilde ges1 gryses 7porceaus71 hennes1 ,owes1 roses1 porceus1 gelyns2 ,au tercez cours avient conyns en grav1 ,et viaunde de ,cypre enfundr1 ,de maces1 e quibibes1 e clous de orr1 ,vyn blanc e vermayl a graunt plent4 wodekok ,pus avoyunt fesauns1 assez1 et perdriz1 ,feldefares larkes ,grives1 alowes1 e pluviers ben rostez2 ,e braoun1 e crispes1 e fritune2 ,ke soucre roset poudra la temprune4 ,apres manger avyunt a graunt plent ,blaunche poudre1 ou la grosse drag1 ,et d'autre nobleie a fusoun1 ,ensi vous fynys ceo sermoun2 ,kar de fraunceis i ad assez1 ,de meynte manere dyversetez1 ,dount le vous fynys1 seynurs1 ataunt ,a filz ,dieu vous comaund4 ,ici finest la doctrine monsire ,gauter ,de ,byblesworde4 ,as time went on a conscious effort was made to retain the use of the ,french language in ,england4 ,higden1 writing at about the middle of the fourteenth century1#ci informs us that ,english was then neglected for two reasons3 ,one is bycause that children than gon to schole lerne to speke first ,englysshe and then ben compelled constrewe ther lessons in ,frenssh2 ,also gentilmens children ben lerned and taught from theyr yougthe to speke frenssh4#dj ,and uplandish men will counterfete and likene them self to gentilmen and arn besy to speke frensshe for to be more sette by4 ,wherefor it is sayd by a common proverbe ,jack wold be a gentilmen if he coude speke frensshe4 ,at the ,university of ,oxford1 likewise1 the ,grammar masters were enjoined to teach the boys to construe in ,english and in ,french1 so that the latter language be not forgotten4#da ,the same university gave some slight encouragement to the study of ,french4 ,there were special teachers who1 although not enjoying the privileges of those lecturing in the usual academic subjects1 were none the less recognised by the ,university4 ,they had to observe the ,statutes1 and to promise not to give their lessons at times which would interfere with the ordinary lectures in arts4 ,the ,french teachers were under the superintendence of the masters of grammar1 and had to pay thirteen shillings a year to the ,masters in ,arts to compensate them for any disadvantage they might suffer from any loss of pupils2 if there was only one teacher of ,french he had to pay the whole amount himself4 ,as for those learning to write1 to compose1 and speak ,french1 they had to attend lectures in rhetoric and grammar--the courses most akin to their studies#db--;and to contribute to the maintenance of the lecturers in these subjects1 there being no ordinary lectures in ,french4 ,in the meantime1 more treatises for teaching ,french appeared2 ,bibbesworth's book soon found imitators1 and early in the new century an anonymous author1 clearly an ,englishman1 made free use of ,bibbesworth in a treatise called ,the ,nominale sive ,verbale in ,gallicis cum expositione ejusdem in ,anglicis4#dc ,this anonymous writer#dd however1 thought it necessary to make the interlinear ,english gloss much fuller than ,bibbesworth had done1 which shows that ,french had become more of a foreign language in the interval between the two works4 ,he also placed the ,english rendering after the ,french1 instead of above it4 ,the later work differs further from the earlier in the order of the subject headings1 as well as by the introduction of a few new topics4 ,enumerating the parts of the body1#de as ,bibbesworth had done1 the author proceeds to make his most considerable addition to the subjects introduced by ,bibbesworth in describing la noyse et des faitz que homme naturalment fait3 ,homme parle et espire3 ,man spekyth vndyth4 ,femme teinge et suspire3 ,woman pantyth syketh4 ,homme bale et babeie3 ,man dravelith wlaffyth4 ,femme bale et bleseie3 ,woman galpyth wlispyth4 ,he then describes all the daily actions and occupations of men3 ,homme va a la herce3 ,man goth at the harewe4 ,femme bercelet berce3 ,woman childe in cradel rokkith4444 ,enfant sa lessone reherce3 ,his lessone recordeth1 and so on for about #cej lines4 ,other additions are of little importance1 and1 for the rest1 the author treats subjects first introduced by ,bibbesworth1 though the wording often differs to a certain extent4#df ,when1 towards the end of the thirteenth century1 ,french began to be used in correspondence1 need for instruction in ,french epistolary art arose2 and early in the fourteenth century guides to letter-writing in ,french1 in the form of epistolaries or collections of model letters1 were produced4#dg ,the letters themselves are given in ,french1 but the accompanying rules and instructions for composing them are in ,latin4 ,french and ,latin have changed rles2 in earlier times ,latin had been explained to school children by means of ,french4 ,forms for addressing members of the different grades of society are supplied1 from epistles to the king and high state and ecclesiastical dignitaries down to commercial letters for merchants1 and familiar ones for private individuals4 ,women1 too1 were not forgotten2 we find similar examples covering the same range--from the queen and the ladies of the nobility to her more humble subjects4 ,each letter is almost invariably followed by its answer1 likewise in ,french4 ,some contain interesting references to the great men or events of the day1 but those of a more private nature possess a greater attraction1 and throw light on the family life of the age4 ,a letter from a mother to her son at school may be quoted3#dh ,salut avesque ma benion1 tres chier filz4 ,sachiez que je desire grandement de savoir bons nouelles de vous et de vostre estat3 car vostre pere et moy estions a la faisance de ces lettres en bon poynt le ,dieu merci4 ,et sachiez que je vous envoie par le portour de ces lettres demy marc pur diverses necessaires que vous en avez a faire sans escient de vostre pere4 ,et vous pri cherement1 beau tres doulz filz1 que vous laissez tous mals et folyes et ne hantez mye mauvaise compagnie1 car si vous le faitez il vous fera grant damage1 avant que vous l'aperceiverez4 ,et je vous aiderai selon mon pooir oultre ce que vostre pere vous donnra4 ,dieus vous doint sa benion1 car je vous donne la mienne4 4 4 4 ,from about the middle of the fourteenth century a feeling of discontent with the prerogative of the ,french language in ,england becomes prominent4 ,the loss of the greater part of the ,french possessions1 and the continued state of hostilities with ,france during the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 brought home forcibly to the ,english mind the fact that the ,french were a distinct nation1 and ,french a foreign tongue4 ,this tardy recovery is sufficient proof of the strong resistance which had to be overcome4 ,chaucer is the greatest representative of the new movement4 ,let ,frenchmen endite their quaint terms in ,french1 he exclaims1 for it is kindly to their mouths1 but let us show our fantaisies in suche words as we learned from our dames' tongues4 ,his contemporary1 ,gower1 was less quick to discern the signs of the times4 ,of the four volumes of his works1 two are in ,latin1 one in ,french1 and one in ,english2 but the order in which he uses these languages is instructive--first ,french1 then ,latin1 and lastly ,english4 ,some writers made a compromise by employing a mixture of ,french and ,english4#di ,french1 however1 continued to hold an important place in prose writings until the middle of the fifteenth century2 but such works are of little literary value4 ,the reign of ,french as the literary language of ,england1 as ,chaucer had been quick to discern1 was approaching its end4 ,the same period is marked by a growing disrespect for ,anglo-,french as compared with the ,french of ,france4 ,the ,french of ,england1 cut off from the living source1 had developed apart1 and often with more rapidity than the other ,french dialects on the ,continent4 ,what is more1 the language brought by the invaders was not a pure form of the ,norman dialect2 men from various parts of ,france had joined in ,william's expedition4 ,the invaders1 always called ',french' by their contemporaries1 brought in a strong ,picard element2 and in the twelfth century there was a similar ,angevin influence4 ,moreover1 during ,norman and ,angevin times1 craftsmen and others immigrated to ,england1 each bringing with him the dialectal peculiarities of his own province4#ej ,thus no regular development of ,anglo-,french was possible1 and it can hardly be regarded as an ordinary dialect1 notwithstanding its literary importance4#ea ,this disparity in the quality of ,anglo-,french is illustrated in a remarkable way by the literature of the period4 ,those who had received special educational advantages1 or had travelled on the ,continent1 spoke and wrote ,french correctly2 others used forms which contrasted pitiably with continental ,french4 ,moreover1 the fourteenth century saw the triumph of the le de ,france dialect in ,france2 the other dialects ceased1 as a rule1 to be used in literature1#eb and this change was not without effect on ,anglo-,french1 which shared their degradation4 ,chaucer lets us know the poor opinion he had of the ,french of ,england2 his ,prioress speaks ,french full fayre and fetisly1 but ,after the scole of ,stratford atte ,bowe1 ,for ,french of ,paris was to her unknowe4 ,william ,langland admits that he knew no frenche in feith1 but of the ferthest ende of ,norfolke4#ec ,as early as the thirteenth century ,english writers had felt bound to apologize as ,englishmen for their ,french4 ,nor were their excuses superfluous in many cases2 ,william of ,wadington1 the author of the ,manuel des ,pechiez1 for example1 wrote3#ed ,de le franois ne del rimer ,ne me doit nuls hom blamer1 ,car en ,engleterre fu n ,et nurri lenz et ordin4 ,such apologies became all the more necessary as time went on4 ,even ,gower1 whose ,french was comparatively pure1#ee owing no doubt to travel in ,france in early life1 deemed it advisable to explain that he wrote in ,french for tout le monde en general1 and to ask pardon if he has not de ,franois la faconde3 ,jeo suis ,englois si quier par tiele voie ,estre excus4 ,at about the same time the anonymous author of the ,testament of ,love finds fault with the ,english for their persistence in writing in bad ,french1 of which speech the ,frenchmen have as good a fantasy as we have in hearing of ,frenchmen's ,english4#ef ,the notoriety of the ,french of ,englishmen reached ,france4 ,indeed this was a time when the ,english were more generally known in ,france than they were to be for several hundreds of years afterwards--until the eighteenth century4 ,englishmen filled positions in their possessions in ,france1 and during the long wars between the two countries in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 many of the ,english nobility resided in that country with their families4 ,montaigne refers to traces of the ,english in ,guyenne1 which still remained in the sixteenth century3 ,il est une nation1 he writes in one of his ,essays1 a laquelle ceux de mon quartier ont eu autrefois si prive accointance qu'il reste encore en ma maison aucune trace de leur ancien cousinage4#eg ,the opinions formed by the ,french of the ,english were naturally anything but flattering4 ,we find them expressed in songs of the time4#eh ,but the recriminations were mutual1 and the ,english had already hit upon the epithet which for centuries they applied to ,frenchmen1 and most other foreigners indiscriminately3 ,franche dogue dit un ,anglois4 ,vous ne faites que boire vin1 ,si faisons bien dist le ,franois1 ,mais vous buvez le lunnequin4 7bire47#ei ,even in the ,roman de ,renart we come across traces of familiarity with ,english ways1 and also of the ,english language4#fj ,it is not surprising1 then1 that ,anglo-,french was a subject of remark in ,france1 especially when we remember that already in the thirteenth century the provincial accents of the different parts of ,france herself had been the object of some considerable amount of raillery4#fa ,the ,english1 says ,froissart1 a good judge1 for he spent many years in ,england1 disoient bien que le franois que ils avoient apris chies eulx d'enfance n'estoit pas de telle nature et condition que celluy de ,france estoit4#fb ,and this 'condition' was soon recognized as a plentiful store for facetious remarks and parodies of all kinds4 ,in the ,roman de ,jehan et ,blonde1 the young ,frenchman's rival1 the ,duke of ,gloucester1 is made to appear ridiculous by speaking bad ,french2 and one of the tricks played by ,renart on ,ysengrin1 in the ,roman de ,renart1 is to pretend he is an ,englishman3#fc ,ez vos ,renart qui le salue3 ,godehelpe1 fait il1 bel ,sire6 ,non saver point ton reson dire4 ,and ,ysengrin answers3 ,et dex saut vos1 bau dous amis6 ,dont estes vos8 de quel pais8 ,vous n'estes mie ns de ,france1 ,ne de la nostre connoissance4 ,a fabliau of the fourteenth century#fd pictures the dilemma of two ,englishmen trying to make their ,french understood in ,france2 one of them is ill and would have some lamb3 ,si tu avez un anel cras ,mi porra bien mengier ce croi4 ,his friend sets out to try to get the 'anel' or 'lamb'2 but no one understands him1 and he becomes the laughing-stock of the villagers4 ,at last some one gives him a 'small donkey' instead of the desired 'agnel1' and out of this he makes a dish for the invalid who finds the bones rather large4 ,in the face of a reputation such as this it is no wonder that the ,english found additional encouragement to abandon the foreign language and cultivate their own tongue4 ,english was also beginning to make its way into official documents4#fe ,in #acfb the ,king's ,speech at the opening of ,parliament was pronounced in ,english1 and in the following year it was directed that all pleas in the courts of justice should be pleaded and judged in ,english1 because ,french was trope desconue en ledit realme4 ,despite that1 the act was very tardily obeyed1 and ,english progressed but slowly1 ,french continuing to be written long after it ceased to be spoken in the ,law ,courts4 ,there were a few public documents issued in ,english at the end of the century1 but the ,acts and ,records of ,parliament continued to be written in ,french for many years subsequently4 ,english first made its way into the operative parts of the ,statutes1 and till #aejc the formal parts were still written in ,french and ,latin4 ,protests were made to ,henry ,,viii4 against the continued use of ,french1 as thereby ys testyfied our subjectyon to the ,normannys2 yet it was not before the eighteenth century that ,english was exclusively used in the ,law ,courts1 and for many years ,french1 in its corrupt form1 remained the literary language of the ,english law4 ,till the seventeenth century works on jurisprudence and reports on cases were mainly written in ,french4 ,les ,cases de ,gray's ,inn shows ,french in accounts of discussions on difficult legal cases as late as #afhj4ff ,sir ,john ,fortescue 7#acid8-adgf71 ,lord ,chief ,justice of the ,king's ,bench1 in his ,de ,laudibus ,legum ,angliae1 suggests that this ,law ,french is more correct at bottom than ordinary spoken ,french1 which1 he contends1 is much altered by common use1 whereas ,law ,french is more often writ than spoken4 ,in later times no such illusions prevailed4 ,swift thus estimates the value of the three languages of the ,english ,law3#fg ,then from the bar harangues the bench1 ,in ,english vile1 and viler ,french1 ,and ,latin vilest of the three4 ,at about the same time as ,swift wrote1 the 'frenchified' ,lady1 then in fashion1 who prided herself on her knowledge of the language la mode is described as being able to keep the field against a whole army of ,lawyers1 and that in their own language1 ,french gibberish4#fh ,and long after ,french ceased to be used in the ,law many law terms and legal and official phrases remained1 and are still in use to-day4#fi ,anglo-,french also lingered in some of the religious houses after it had fallen into discredit elsewhere1 and continued to do so in some cases till the time of their dissolution4 ,the rules and accounts of the nunneries were more often in ,french than not4#gj ,and ,john ap ,rhys1 visitor of monasteries in the reign of ,henry ,,viii41 wrote to ,cromwell regarding the monastery of ,laycock in ,wiltshire1 that he had observed one thing worthy th'advertisement2 the ladies have their ,rule1 th'institutes of their ,religion and the ceremonies of the same written in the ,frenche tongue1 which they understand well and are very perfyt in the same1 albeit that it varieth from vulgar ,frenche that is now used1 and is moche like the ,frenche that the common ,lawe is written in4#ga ,during this same period ,english began to be used occasionally in correspondence2 but here again its progress was slow4 ,some idea of the extent to which ,french was utilized for that purpose may be gathered from the fact that three extant letters of ,william de ,wykeham1 addressed to ,englishmen1 are all in that tongue4 ,not till the second and third decades of the fifteenth century were ,english and ,french employed in correspondence to an almost equal extent1 and during the following years1 especially in the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 ,english gradually became predominant4#gb ,french remained in use longer in correspondence of a public and official nature1 but became more and more restricted to foreign diplomacy4 ,towards the middle of the fourteenth century1 at the beginning of the long wars with ,france1 ,french lost ground in ,england in yet another direction4 ,edward ,,iii4 is said to have found it necessary to proclaim that all lords1 barons1 knights1 burgesses1 should see that their children learn ,french for political and military reasons2#gc and when ,trevisa translated ,higden's ,polychronicon1 he wrote in correction of the earlier chronicler's description of the teaching of ,french in the grammar schools of ,england3#gd ,this maner was moche used before the grete deth 7#acdi74 ,but syth it is somdele chaunged4 ,now 7i4e4 #achg7 they leave all ,frensch in scholes1 and use all construction in ,englisch4 ,wherin they have advantage on way that they lerne the soner ther gramer4 ,and in another disadvantage4 ,for nowe they lerne no ,frenssh ne can none1 whiche is hurte for them that shall passe the see1 and thus children of the grammar schools know no more ,french than knows their lefte heele4 ,thus the custom of translating ,latin into ,french passed out of use early in the second half of the fourteenth century4 ,no doubt there had been signs of the approaching change in the preceding period1 and it is of interest here to notice that while ,neckham's ,latin vocabulary1 which dates from the second half of the twelfth century1 is glossed in ,french alone1 that of ,garlande1 which belongs approximately to the third decade of the following century1 is accompanied by translations in both ,french and ,english4 ,in the universities1 however1 where ,french had been slower in gaining a foothold1 it remained longer2 in the fifteenth century teachers of ,french were still allowed to lecture there as they had done previously1 but it is to be noticed that in all the colleges founded after the ,black ,death 7#acdi71 from which the change in the grammar schools is dated1 the regulations encouraging the speaking of ,french in ,hall are absent4 ,the change appears also to have affected the higher classes1 who did not usually frequent the grammar schools and universities1 but depended on more private methods of instruction4 ,trevisa here again adds a correction to the earlier chronicle1 and informs us that gentylmen haveth now myche lefte for to teach their children ,frensch4 ,we thus witness the gradual disappearance of the effects of the ,norman ,conquest in the history of the use of the ,french language in ,england4 ,the ,conquest had made ,norman-,french the language of the ,court1 and to some extent1 of the ,church2 it had brought with it a ,french literature which nearly smothered the national literature and replaced it temporarily2 it had led to the system of translating ,latin into ,french as well as into ,english in the schools4 ,in the later fourteenth century ,french was no longer the chief language of the ,court1 and the king spoke ,english and was addressed in the same tongue4 ,in the ,church the employment of ,french had been restricted and transitory1 though1 as has been mentioned1 it lingered in some of the monasteries until the sixteenth century2 yet ,latin never found in it a serious rival in this sphere1 and the ecclesiastical department of the law never followed the civil in the adoption of the use of ,french4 ,how ,french lost ground in the other spheres has already been traced3 in all these cases its employment may be regarded as a direct result of the ,conquest4 ,this great event had also indirect results4 ,french became the official language of ,england1 and the favourite medium of correspondence in the thirteenth century1 when the fusion between the two races was complete4 ,but it is highly improbable that ,french would have spread in these directions if the ,conquest had not in the first place made ,french the vernacular of a considerable portion of ,englishmen1 and that the most influential4 ,with its use in official documents and in correspondence1 may be classed the slight encouragement ,french received at ,oxford4 ,in all these spheres it remained longer than it had done where its status had been a more direct result of the ,conquest4 ,meanwhile the desire to cultivate and imitate the ,french of ,france had been growing stronger and stronger2 and when1 towards the end of the fourteenth century1 the older influences were getting feebler1 and in some cases had passed away1 the influence of the continental ,french1 especially the ,french of ,paris1 now supreme over the other dialects1 became more and more marked4 ,and it is this language which henceforth ,englishmen strove to learn1 gradually relinquishing the corrupt idiom with which for so long their name had been associated4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,this was the opinion of ,ames3 ,this seems to be the first grammar of the ,french language in our own country1 if not in ,europe4 ,dibdin1 ,herbert ,ames's ,typographical ,antiquities1 #ahai1 iii4 p4 #cfe4 #b ,the grammar of ,jacques ,sylvius or ,dubois appeared in #aeca1 a year after ,palsgrave's4 ,no attempt at a theoretical treatment of the ,french language appeared in ,france in the ,middle ,ages4 ,there are1 however1 two ,provenal ones extant4 7,f4 ,brunot1 ,le ,franais l'tranger1 in ,l4 ,petit de ,julleville's ,histoire de la langue et de la littrature franaise1 ii4 p4 #ebh47 #c ,one of the chief effects of the ,conquest in the schools is said to have been the substitution of ,norman for ,english schoolmasters 7,leach1 ,schools of ,mediaeval ,england1 #aiae1 p4 #ajc74 #d ,the majority of early ,latin vocabularies extant1 however1 are accompanied by ,english translations 7cp4 ,t4 ,wright1 ,volume of ,vocabularies1 #b vols41 #aheg71 as was also the comparatively well-known ,promptorium ,parvulorum 7c4 #addj71 ,camden ,soc41 #ahfe4 #e ,the text is given in ,l4 ,e4 ,menger's ,anglo-,norman ,dialect1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aijd1 p4 #ad4 ,the psalms1 together with ,cato1 ,ovid1 or possibly ,virgil1 formed the usual reading material in the ,grammar ,schools4 ,cp4 ,rashdall1 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 ,oxford1 #ahie1 ii4 p4 #fjc4 #f ,adam du ,petit ,pont 7d4 #aaej7 wrote an epistle in ,latin1 many words of which were glossed in ,french4 ,but there is no evidence that it was used in ,england4 ,it was published by ,e4 ,scheler in his ,trois traits de lexicographie latine du #ab;e et #ac;e sicles1 ,leipzig1 #ahfg4 #g ,ed4 ,t4 ,wright1 ,volume of ,vocabularies1 i4 #if1 and ,scheler1 op4 cit4 ,both editions are deemed unsatisfactory by ,paul ,meyer 7,romania1 xxxvi4 #dhb74 #h ,it has been published five times3 7#a7 ,at ,caen by ,vincent ,correr in #aejh 7,romania1 ut supra72 7#b7 ,h4 ,graud1 in ,documents indits sur l'histoire de ,france3 ,paris sous ,philippe le ,bel d'aprs les documents originaux1 #ahcg2 7#c7 ,kervyn de ,lettenhove1 #ahea2 7#d7 ,t4 ,wright1 ,volume of ,vocabularies1 i4 pp4 #abj sqq42 7#e7 ,scheler1 ,trois traits de lexicographie latine4 #i ,wright1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aci-ada4 #aj ,statutes of the ,colleges of ,oxford1 #c vols41 ,oxford and ,london1 #ahec2 ,a4 ,clark1 ,colleges of ,oxford1 #ahia1 p4 #adj2 ,h4 ,c4 ,maxwell ,lyte1 ,history of the ,university of ,oxford1 #ahhj1 pp4 #adj-aea4 #aa ,documents relating to the ,universities and ,colleges of ,cambridge1 #aheb1 ii4 p4 #cc2 ,j4 ,bass ,mullinger1 ,the ,university of ,cambridge1 #ahgc2 ,g4 ,peacock1 ,observations on the ,statutes of the ,university of ,cambridge1 #ahda1 p4 #d4 #ab ,j4 ,heywood1 ,early ,cambridge ,university and ,college ,statutes1 #ahhe1 ii4 p4 #ahb4 #ac ,c4 ,h4 ,cooper1 ,annals of ,cambridge1 ,cambridge1 #aheb1 i4 p4 #dj4 #ad ,rashdall1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #eai n4 #ae ,rashdall1 op4 cit4 i4 pp4 #cai et seq4 ,later the ,english nation was known as the ,german2 it included all students from the north and east of ,europe4 ,on the ,english in the ,university of ,paris see ,ch4 ,thurot1 ,de l'organisation de l'enseignement dans l',universit de ,paris1 ,paris1 #ahej2 and ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys1 ,english ,scholars of ,paris1 and ,franciscans of ,oxford1 in ,the ,cambridge ,history of ,english ,literature1 i41 #aijh1 chap4 x4 pp4 #ahc et seq4 #af ,quoted1 ,e4 ,j4 ,b4 ,rathery1 ,les ,relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la ,france et l',angleterre1 ,paris1 #ahef1 p4 #aa4 #ag ,a writer of about #aahj says it was impossible to tell who were ,normans and who ,english 7,dialogus de ,scaccario3 ,stubbs1 ,select ,charters1 #dth ed41 #ahha1 p4 #afh74 #ah ,discours sur l'tat des lettres au #ac;e sicle1 in the ,histoire littraire de la ,france1 xvi4 p4 #afh4 #ai ,d4 ,behrens1 in ,h4 ,paul's ,grundiss der germanischen ,philologie1 ,strassbourg1 #aija1 pp4 #iec-ee2 ,freeman1 ,norman ,conquest1 v4 #ahgf1 pp4 #ebh sqq42 ,maitland1 ,anglo-,french ,law ,language1 in the ,cambridge ,history of ,english ,literature1 i4 pp4 #djg sqq41 ,history of ,english ,law1 #ahie1 pp4 #eh sqq41 and ,collected ,papers1 #aiaa1 ii4 p4 #dcf4 ,at the universities1 where ,latin was the usual language of correspondence1 letters and petitions were often drawn up in ,french 7,oxford ,hist4 ,soc41 ,collectanea1 #ast series1 #ahhe1 pp4 #h sqq474 #bj ,bateson1 ,mediaeval ,england1 #aijc1 p4 #cai4 #ba ,maitland1 ,collected ,papers1 #aiaa1 ii4 p4 #dcg4 #bb ,such are ,bozon's ,contes moraliss 7c4 #acbj71 ed4 ,p4 ,meyer1 in the ,anciens ,textes ,franais1 #ahhi4 ,in his ,introduction ,meyer lays stress on the widespread use of ,french in ,england at this time1 and its chance of becoming the national language of ,england1 an eventuality which1 he thinks1 might have been a benefit to humanity4 #bc ,,ms4 at ,trinity ,col4 ,cambridge 7,r4 #c4 #ef74 #bd ,paul ,meyer calls it the work of a true grammarian 7,romania1 xxxii4 p4 #fe74 #be ,there are four ,,mss4 extant4 ,these have been collated and published by ,j4 ,sturzinger in the ,altfranzsische ,bibliothek1 vol4 viii41 ,heilbronn1 #ahhd2 cp4 ,romania1 xiv4 p4 #fj4 ,the earliest ,,ms4 is in the ,record ,office1 and was published by ,t4 ,wright in ,haupt and ,hoffman's ,altdeutsche ,blaetter 7ii4 p4 #aic74 ,diez quoted from this edition in his ,grammaire des langues romanes1 #crd ed4 i4 pp4 #dae1 #dah sqq4 ,the three other ,,mss4 are in the ,brit4 ,mus41 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 and ,magdalen ,col4 ,oxon41 and belong to the three succeeding centuries4 ,portions of the ,magdalen ,col4 ,,ms4 are quoted by ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis1 in his ,early ,english ,pronunciation1 pp4 #hcf-hci1 and by ,f4 ,gnin1 in his preface to the ,french ,government reprint of ,palsgrave's ,grammar1 #aheb4 ,it is the ,british ,museum copy1 made in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 which contains the ,french commentary4 #bf ,early ,english writers on the ,french tongue were fond of drawing attention to the opportunities for punning afforded by the language4 #bg ,edited by ,miss ,m4 ,k4 ,pope in the ,modern ,language ,review 7vol4 v41 #aiaj1 pt4 ii4 pp4 #ahh sqq471 from the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit4 ,,ms4 #aggaf1 ff4 #hh-ia2 it also exists at ,all ,souls1 ,oxford 7,,ms4 #ahb f4 #cdj71 and at ,trinity ,col4 ,cambridge 7,,ms4 ,b #ad4 #ci1 #dj72 in the last ,,ms4 the introduction of the two preceding ones is lacking 7cp4 ,meyer1 ,romania1 xxxii4 p4 #ei74 #bh ,for instance1 we are told that a is sounded almost like e as in savez vous faire un chauncoun 4 4 42 that the phrases a1 en a1 i a which mean one and the same thing when they come from the ,latin habet1 should be written without d2 that aura1 en array should be written without e in the middle1 and sounded without u1 as aray1 en array1 though the ,english include the e4 #bi ,published by ,stengel1 in the ,zeitschrift fr neufranzsische ,sprache und ,literatur1 #ahgi1 pp4 #af-bb4 #cj ,miss ,pope1 ut supra4 #ca ,his name has provoked some discussion as to its correct form4 ,it is frequently written as ,biblesworth1 and one ,,ms4 gives it the form of ,bithesway2 the correct form1 however1 is ,bibbesworth1 the name of a manor in the parish of ,kempton 7,herts71 of which ,walter was the owner 7,p4 ,meyer1 ,romania1 xv4 p4 #cab1 and xxx4 p4 #dd n42 ,w4 ,aldis ,wright1 ,notes and ,queries1 #ahgg1 #dth ,series1 viii4 p4 #fd74 #cb ,printed from the ,,ms4 in the ,bodleian1 in ,wright and ,halliwell's ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 i4 p4 #acd4 #cc ,calendar of ,patent ,rolls1 #abdg-eh1 pp4 #eh1 #ajc1 #ahg4 ,he received exemption from being put on assizes or juries in #abdi4 #cd ,calendar of ,patent ,rolls1 #acja-acjg1 p4 #ci4 #ce ,she died in #acjd2 her father was one of the leaders on the king's side at the battle of ,lewes 7#abfd74 #cf ,there are many ,,mss4 in the ,british ,museum2 others at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and one in the ,library of ,sir ,th4 ,phillips at ,cheltenham4 ,the best-known edition of the vocabulary is that of ,t4 ,wright1 ,volume of ,vocabularies1 i4 pp4 #adb-agd1 which is the one here quoted1 and which reproduces ,arundel ,,ms4 #bbj1 collated with ,sloane ,,ms4 #hji4 ,p4 ,meyer has given a critical edition of the first eighty-six lines in his ,recueil d'anciens textes--partie franaise1 ,no4 #cfg 7cp4 ,romania1 xiii4 p4 #ejj74 #cg ,in the vocabularies written in imitation of ,bibbesworth at later dates1 the ,english gloss is fuller1 and in the latest one complete1 as ,french became more and more a foreign language4 #ch ,pus to le frauncoys com il en court en age de husbonderie1 com pur arer1 rebiner1 waretter1 semer1 sarcher1 syer1 faucher1 carier1 batre1 moudre1 pestrer1 briser1 etc4 #ci ,polychronicon1 lib4 #a1 cap4 #ei 7ed4 ,babington and ,lumly1 ,rolls ,publications1 #da1 #ahfe-ff1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aei sqq474 #dj ,cp4 the thirteenth-century romance in which ,jehan de ,dammartin teaches ,french to ,blonde of ,oxford 7ed4 ,le ,roux de ,lincy1 ,camden ,soc41 #aheh74 #da ,f4 ,anstey1 ,monumenta ,academica1 #ahfh1 p4 #dch4 #db ,anstey1 op4 cit41 #ahfh1 p4 #cjb4 #dc ,published from a ,,ms4 in ,cambridge ,university ,library 7,ee #d1 #bj71 by ,skeat1 in the ,transactions of the ,philological ,society 7#aijc-aijf74 #dd ,the ,,ms4 in which the work is preserved dates from about #acdj1 but is probably copied from an earlier one4 #de ,corps teste et hanapel ,body heuede and heuedepanne ,et peil cresceant sur la peal4 ,and here growende on the skyn1 etc4 #df ,how close the resemblance is between the two works may be judged by the following quotations3 ,par le gel nous avons glas1 ,et de glas vient verglas4 7,,nominale47 ,pur le gel vous avomus glas1 ,et pluvye e gele fount vereglas4 7,,bibbesworth47 ,and it is in words almost identical with those of ,bibbesworth that the author describes the difference in the meaning of some words according to their gender3 ,la levere deit clore les dentz4 ,the lippe4 ,le levere en boys se tient de deynz4 ,the hare4 ,la livre sert a marchauntz4 ,the pounde4 ,le livere aprent nous enfauntz4 ,the boke4 #dg ,the earliest of these ,,mss4 dates from the second decade of the fourteenth century4 ,these epistolaries are found in the following ,,mss43 ,harleian #diga and #cihh1 ,addit4 #aggaf1 in the ,brit4 ,mus42 ,ee #d1 #bj in ,cantab4 ,univ4 ,library2 ,b #ad4 #ci1 #dj in ,trinity ,col4 ,camb42 #ahb at ,all ,souls1 ,oxford1 and #ahh ,magdalen ,col4 ,oxford 7cp4 ,strzinger1 ,altfranzsiche ,bibliothek71 viii4 pp4 xvii-xix4 ,the ,introductions to these letters were edited in a ,griefswald ,dissertation 7#ahih71 by ,w4 ,uerkvitz4 #dh ,stengel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #h-aj4 #di ,romania1 iv4 p4 #cha1 xxxii4 p1 #bb4 #ej ,w4 ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce1 ,cambridge1 #ahif1 pp4 #fce sqq4 #ea ,l4 ,menger1 ,anglo-,norman ,dialect2 ,behrens1 art4 cit4 pp4 #ifj sqq42 ,brunot1 ,histoire de la langue franaise1 i4 pp4 #cai sqq41 #cfi4 #eb ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cca4 #ec ,jusserand1 ,histoire littraire du peuple anglais1 #ahif4 p4 #bdj n4 #ed ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cfi4 #ee ,p4 ,meyer commends ,gower's ,french 7,romania1 xxxii4 p4 #dc74 #ef ,t4 ,r4 ,lounsbury1 ,studies in ,chaucer1 ,london1 #ahib1 p4 #deh4 #eg ,livre ii4 ch4 xii4 #eh ,as in those of ,olivier ,basselin4 #ei ,eustache ,deschamps1 ,oeuvres1 ed4 ,crapelet1 p4 #ia1 quoted by ,rathery1 op4 cit4 p4 #aha 7cp4 also ,english ,political ,songs1 ed4 ,t4 ,wright4 ,camden ,soc41 #ahci74 #fj ,jusserand1 op4 cit4 p4 #aec n4 ,the fourteenth branch of the ,roman is specially mentioned3 cp4 ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cfi1 n4 #d4 #fa ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 #ccj4 ,it is not rare to find ,english pronunciation of ,french ridiculed in ,france1 and ,englishmen represented as talking a sort of gibberish2 cp4 ,romania1 xiv4 pp4 #ii1 #bgi1 and ,brunot1 op4 cit4 p4 #cfi n4 #fb ,behrens1 op4 cit4 p4 #ieg4 #fc ,ed4 ,e4 ,martin1 #ahhb1 l4 #bcea sqq4 #fd ,recueil gnral et complet des fabliaux1 ed4 ,montaiglon et ,raynaud1 ii4 p4 #agh4 #fe ,maitland1 ,collected ,papers1 #aiaa1 ii4 p4 #dcf2 ,freeman1 op4 cit4 p4 #ecf2 ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cgc4 #ff ,f4 ,watson1 ,religious ,refugees and ,english ,education1 ,london1 #aiaa1 p4 #f4 ,there are numerous entries of such works in the ,stationers' ,register4 #fg ,answer to ,dr4 ,lindsey's epigram1 ,works1 ed4 #ahda1 i4 p4 #fcd4 #fh ,h4 ,dell1 ,the ,frenchified ,lady never in ,paris1 ,london1 #ageg4 #fi ,pepys in his ,diary notes the use of ,french in such phrases1 and the ,abb ,le ,blanc 7,lettres d'un ,franais sur les ,anglais1 la ,haye1 #agde7 was also struck by the custom4 #gj ,bateson1 ,mediaeval ,england1 p4 #cdb2 ,warton1 ,history of ,english ,poetry1 p4 #aj n4 #ga ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #crd series1 #ahdf1 i4 p4 xi4 #gb ,m4 ,a4 ,e4 ,green 7ne ,wood71 ,letters of ,royal and ,illustrious ,ladies1 ,london1 #ahdf2 ,the ,paston ,letters1 new edition by ,j4 ,gairdner1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahgb-ge2 ,h4 ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #crd series1 ,london1 #ahdf2 ,j4 ,o4 ,halliwell-,phillipps1 ,letters of the ,kings of ,england1 ,london1 #ahdf2 ,c4 ,l4 ,kingsford1 ,english ,historical ,literature in the ,fifteenth ,century1 ,oxford1 #ahic1 pp4 #aic et seq42 ,hallam1 ,literature of ,europe1 #fth ed41 ,london1 #ahfj1 i4 p4 #ed4 #gc ,que tout seigneur1 baron1 chevalier et honestes hommes de bonnes villes mesissent cure et dilligence de estruire et apprendre leurs enfans le langhe franoise1 par quoy il en fuissent plus avec et plus costumier ens leurs gherres 7,froissart1 quoted by ,behrens1 op4 cit4 p4 #ieg n474 #gd ,higden1 ut supra4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,these great changes which took place in the status of ,french in ,england did not1 however1 affect fundamentally the popularity of the language3 they had to do with ,anglo-,french alone4 ,french1 as distinct from this and as a foreign language1 received more attention than ever before1 especially from the higher classes1 and from travellers and merchants4 ,it was the language of politeness and refinement in the eyes of ,englishmen1 not only as a result of the ,conquest1 but for its inherent qualities2 and so it retained this position when it gave way to ,english or ,latin in other spheres where its predominance had been due1 either directly or indirectly1 to the ,conquest4 ,french had enjoyed a social reputation in ,england before the arrival of the invaders1#ge and had already made some progress towards becoming the language which the ,english loved and cultivated above all modern foreign tongues1 and to which they devoted for a great many years more care than they did to their own4 ,doulz franois1 writes an ,englishman at the end of the fourteenth century in a treatise for teaching the language1#gf is the most beautiful and gracious language in the world1 after the ,latin of the schools1#gg et de tous gens mieulx prise et ame que nul autre2 quar ,dieu le fist se doulce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes4 ,et pour ce il peut bien comparer au parler des angels du ciel1 pour la grant doulceur et biaulte d'icel--a more eloquent tribute even than the more famous lines of ,brunetto ,latini4 ,another writer of the same period informs us that les bones gens du ,roiaume d',engleterre sont embrasez a scavoir lire et escrire1 entendre et parler droit ,franois1 and that he himself thinks it is very necessary for the ,english to know the droict nature de ,franois1 for many reasons4#gh ,for instance1 that they may enjoy intercourse with their neighbours1 the good folk of the kingdom of ,france2 that they may better understand the laws of ,england1 of which a great many are still written in ,french2 and also because beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en ,franois1 and the lords and ladies of ,england are very fond of writing to each other in the same tongue4#gi ,as a result of the altered circumstances which were modifying the attitude of the ,english1 there is a corresponding change in the standard of the ,french which the manuals for teaching that language sought to attain4 ,all the best text-books of the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries endeavour with few exceptions to impart a knowledge of the ,french of ,paris1 doux franois de ,paris or la droite language de ,paris1 as it was called1 in contrast with the ,french of ,stratford-atte-,bowe and other parts of ,england4 ,those authors of treatises for teaching ,french of whose lives we have any details1 had studied ,french in ,france1 at ,paris1 ,orleans1 or some other ,university town4 ,the fact that many of their productions still contain numbers of words belonging to the ,norman and other dialects does not diminish the importance and significance of their more ambitious aims4 ,these pioneer works on the ,french language1 written in ,england by ,englishmen without the guidance of any similar work produced in ,france1 were bound to contain archaisms as well as anglicisms4#hj ,fluency in speaking ,french was the chief need of the classes of society in which the demand for instruction was greatest4 ,correctness in detail was only of secondary importance1 and grammar1 though desirable1 was not considered indispensable4 ,the importance of speaking ,french naturally brought the subject of pronunciation to the fore4 ,no doubt most of the early teachers shared the opinions of their successors1 that rules and theoretical information were of little avail in teaching the sounds of the language1 compared with the practice of imitation and repetition2 nevertheless1 many of them attempted to supply some information on the subject4 ,when1 in the second decade of the fifteenth century1 another writer based a new treatise for teaching ,french on the vocabulary of ,bibbesworth1 which had then been current for well over a century1 the chief point in which it differed from its original was precisely in the provision of guidance to facilitate pronunciation4 ,this new treatise was styled ,femina1#ha because just as the mother teaches her young child to speak his native tongue1 so does this work teach children to speak ,french naturally4#hb ,it covers almost exactly the same ground as the vocabulary of ,bibbesworth1 but1 as in the case of the earlier imitation of the same work1 the ,nominale1 the order of arrangement varies1 and the whole is permeated with a lively humour which makes it at least equal in interest to the work on which it is based4 ,the ,french lines are octosyllabic and arranged in distichs1 each pair being followed by an ,english translation1 which is given in full1 contrary to the practice in the earlier works of the same kind4 ,the author endeavours to teach the ,french of ,france#hc as distinguished from that of ,england1 and1 although he lavishes provincialisms from the local dialects of ,france--,norman1 ,picard1 ,walloon--in the main they are ,french provincialisms1 and many of them may be due to errors on the part of the scribe4 ,to assist pronunciation notes are provided at the bottom of the page1 giving pseudo-,english equivalents of the sounds of words written otherwise in the text4 ,the treatise opens with an exhortation to the child to learn ,french that he may speak fairly before wise men1 for heavy is he that is not taught3 ,cap3 primum docet rethorice loqui de assimilitudine bestiarum4 a b ,beau enfaunt pur apprendre c d ,en franceis devez bien entendre ,ffayre chyld for to lerne ,in french ye schal wel understande e ,coment vous parlerez bealment1 ,et devaunt les sagez naturalment4 ,how ye schal speke fayre1 ,and afore ye wysemen kyndly4 f g ,ceo est veir que vous dy1 h i ,hony est il qui n'est norry4 ,that ys soth that y yow say ,hevy ys he that ys not taugth k l ,parlez tout ditz com affaites m ,et nenny come dissafaites ,spekep alway as man ys tauth ,and not as man untauth4 ,parlez imprimer de tout assembl n o ,dez bestez que ,dieu ad form4 ,spekep fyrst of manere assemble alle ,of bestes that ,god hath y maked4 7a7 beau debet legi bev1 7b7 enfaunt1 7c7 fraunceys1 7d7 bein1 7e7 belement1 7f7 ce1 7g7 cet vel eyztt1 7h7 ,iil1 7i7 neot1 7k7 toutdiz1 7l7 afetes1 7m7 dissafetes1 7n7 beetez1 7o7 dv et non ,dieu4 ,the subsequent chapters deal with the same subjects as in ,bibbesworth1 and sometimes the wording is almost identical4 ,the concluding chapter1 ,de moribus infantis1 is taken from another source1 and gives admonitions for discreet behaviour1 quoting the moral treatise of the pseudo-,cato1 the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 and the like4 ,the passage in which ,femina deals with the upbringing of the child may be of interest1 as showing how the later author repeats the earlier1 while altering the wording2 and as throwing some light on the way ,french was then learnt3 ,et quaunt il court en graunt age ,mettez ly apprendre langage4 ,and when he runs in great age#hd ,put him to learn language4 ,en fraunceys a luy vous devez dire ,comez il doit soun corps discrire4 ,in ,french to him ye shall say ,how first he shall his body describe4 ,et pur ordre garder de moun et ma1 ,toun et ta1 son et sa1 masculino et feminino4 ,and for order to kepe of mon and ma1 ,toun and ta1 soun and sa1 for ma souneth4 ,quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino4 ,to femynyn gender and moun to masculyn4 ,cy que en parle soit bien apris1 ,et de nule homme escharnis4 ,so that in speach he be well learned1 ,and of no man scorned4 ,at the end is a 'calendar1' or table of words arranged alphabetically in three parallel columns4 ,the first gives the orthography of the word1 the second the pronunciation1 and the third the explanation of its meaning and construction1 which usually takes the form of an ,english equivalent4 ,in the meanwhile the grammatical study of ,french was not neglected4 ,there are still extant numerous small treatises#he dealing with different aspects of ,french grammar1 chiefly the flexions1 and belonging to the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,the conjugation of verbs receives special attention1 and there are several manuscripts providing paradigms and lists of the chief parts of speech--often very incorrect1 and of more value as showing the interest taken in ,french in ,england than as illustrating any development in the history of the conjugations of ,french verbs4 ,the usual verbs described in these fragmentary works#hf are amo1 habeo1 sum1 volo1 facio1 and the ,french paradigms are generally accompanied by ,latin ones1 on which they are naturally based1 and which were intended to help the student to understand the ,french 7cum expositione earundem in ,latinis74 ,the two most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list mentioned above4 ,of these the first1 the ,liber ,donati1#hg gives examples of law ,french rather than literary ,french2#hh but the other1 written in ,french1 endeavours to teach douce franois de ,paris--cy comence le ,donait soloum douce franceis de ,paris4#hi ,the ,donait belongs to the fifteenth century1 and is the work of one ,r4 ,dove1 who also wrote some ,regulae de ,orthographia ,gallica in ,latin1#ij which show considerable resemblance to those of the earlier ,orthographia ,gallica4 ,the same is true of some of the rules devoted to orthography in the ,liber ,donati1 which also owes something to the work of ',t4 ,h41 ,student of ,paris1' either in the original form1 or1 more probably1 in the recast1 due to ,canon ,coyfurelly4 ,in this respect1 ,coyfurelly continues the efforts of the earlier writer to purify ,english spelling of ,french--efforts which at this time would meet with more success than was the case earlier4#ia ,another topic touched on in the ,regulae of ,r4 ,dove is the formation of the plural of nouns1 and of the feminine of adjectives4 ,the substance of one of these rules may be quoted1 as an example of the failure of these early writers to grasp general principles4 ,all nouns ending in ge1 like lange1 says the grammarian1 take s in the plural1 as langes2 all nouns ending in urc1 as bourc1 have z or s in the plural and drop the c1 as bours2 all nouns ending in nyn1 as conyn1 take s in the plural1 as chemyns2 all nouns ending in eyn1 as peyn1 form their plural by adding s1 as peyns4 ,such is the rule for the formation of the plural of nouns1 and that for the feminine of adjectives1 which follows1 is on the same lines4 ,pronouns also received some attention from these early grammarians4 ,the ,liber ,donati#ib contains a few remarks on the personal1 demonstrative and possessive pronouns1 giving the different forms for the singular and plural and the various cases2 thus it tells us that jeo and sometimes moy are used for ,i 7ego7 in the nominative case1 and in other cases moy or me in the singular1 while nous is used for the plural in all cases1 and so forth4 ,we thus see that the verbs1 nouns and pronouns received consideration1 varying in degree1 at the hands of these pioneers in ,french grammar4 ,neither were the indeclinable parts of speech neglected2 at the end of the ,liber ,donati there is a list of some of these as well as of the ordinal and cardinal numbers in both ,latin and ,french1 while the ,donait gives the numbers only4 ,some manuscripts contain lists of adverbs1 prepositions and conjunctions in ,latin and ,french4#ic ,others give lists of the cardinal and ordinal numbers in ,french1 and one adds to these a nomenclature of the different colours4#id ,the names of the days1 months1 and feast-days were another favourite subject4 ,of these small treatises that which nearest approaches the form of a comprehensive grammar is the ,liber ,donati1 which includes observations on the orthography and pronunciation1 on verbs and pronouns1 and lists of adverbs1 conjunctions1 and numerals4 ,but there appeared at the beginning of the fifteenth century1 before #adji1 a more comprehensive treatise of some real value--the ,donait franois pur briefment entroduyr les ,anglois en la droit langue du ,paris et de pais la d'entour1#ie a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth century4#if ,the origin of this ,donait is interesting4 ,a certain ,englishman1 ,john ,barton1 born and bred in the county of ,cheshire1 but a student of ,paris1 and a passionate lover of the ,french language1 engaged some good clerks to compose the ,donait1 at his own great cost and trouble1 for the benefit of the ,english1 who are so eager 7embrasez7 to learn ,french4#ig ,judging from the lines with which ,barton closes his short but communicative preface1 the work was intended mainly for the use of young people--the chers enfants and tres douces pucelles1 'hungering' to learn ,french3 ,pur ce1 mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez puselles1 he writes1 que avez fam d'apprendre cest ,donait scachez qu'il est divis en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale4 ,barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks1' whose remarks are entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who1 like ,barton1 write in ,french4 ,most of the early treatises on ,french grammar which appeared in ,england are written in ,latin4 ,latin appears to have been the medium through which ,french was learnt and explained to a large extent1 although in the case of the riming vocabularies ,english was used for teaching the young children for whom these nomenclatures were chiefly written4 ,but grammar1 probably intended to be learnt by older students1 was usually studied in ,latin1 which was also found to be a help in learning ,french4 ,students are told to base ,french orthography on that of ,latin1 and there are constant references from ,french words to their ,latin originals4 ,the ,donait soloum douce franceis de ,paris is apparently the only work of any importance written in ,french before that of ,barton4 ,english was not used for this purpose before the sixteenth century1 when it was almost invariably employed1 even by ,frenchmen4 ,a grammar such as ,barton's would1 no doubt1 be read and translated with the help of a tutor2 and it is highly probable that the children for whom it was intended would have previously acquired some practical knowledge of ,french from some such elementary treatise as ,bibbesworth's vocabulary4 ,moreover1 ,french was so generally in use in the higher classes of society1 and had been for so long a kind of semi-national tongue1 that it would hardly be approached as an entirely foreign language1 as in later times4 ,in writing a ,french grammar in ,french1 ,barton and those who followed the same course merely adopted for the teaching of ,french a method in common use in the teaching of ,latin4 ,the advisability of writing ,french grammars in ,french was a question1 as we shall see1 much discussed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as well as in much more recent times4 ,the clerks employed by ,barton made free use of the observations on ,french grammar which had appeared previously4 ,but their work had an additional value2 the rules are stated with considerable clearness and are usually correct4#ih ,the opening chapters deal with the letters and their pronunciation1 set forth1 like the rest of the grammar1 in a series of questions and answers3 ,quantez letters est il8 ,vint4 ,quellez8 ,cinq voielx et quinse consonantez4 ,quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonns8 ,le premier vouyel est a et serra sonn en la poetrine1 la seconde est e et serra sonn en la gorge1 le tiers est i et serra sonn entre les joues1 le quart est o et serra sonn du palat de la bouche1 le quint est u et serra sonn entre les levres4 ,to these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants1 and belcoup de bones rieules 7six in all7 treating the avoidance of hiatus between two consonants and the effects of certain vowels and consonants on each other's pronunciation4 ,next come a few observations on the parts of speech2 for apres le ,chapitre des lettres il nous fault dire des accidens4 ,instead of giving a number of isolated instances as rules for the formation of the plural1 the general rule for the addition of s to the singular is evolved and emphasized by this advice3 ,pour ceo gardez vous que vous ne mettez pas le singuler pour le pulier 7pluriel7 ne a contraire1 si come font les sots4 ,further1 we must avoid imitating the 'sottez gens1' to whom frequent reference is made1 in using one person of a tense for another1 and saying je ferra for je ferray4#ii ,in this section of the work the rules follow each other without any orderly arrangement4#ajj ,at about the same time an ,english poet is said to have written a ,french grammar1 as another poet1 ,alexander ,barclay1 actually did later4 ,an early bibliographer#aja includes in his list of ,lydgate's works one entitled ,praeceptiones ,linguae ,gallicae1 in one book1 of which no further trace remains to-day4 ,lydgate1 however1 was well acquainted with ,french2 he made the customary foreign tour1 besides visiting ,paris again on a later occasion in attendance on noble patrons1 and put his knowledge of the language to the test by translating or adapting several works from the ,french1 like most contemporary writers4#ajb ,the same early authority informs us that1 as soon as ,lydgate returned from his travels1 he opened a school for the sons of noblemen1 possibly at ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds4 ,probably ,lydgate wrote a ,french grammar for the use of these young noblemen1 who would certainly have to learn the language2 and1 after serving their immediate purpose1 these rules1 we may surmise1 were lost and soon forgotten4 ,in the fifteenth century1 instruction in ,french epistolary style of all degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters2 and at the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching ,french appeared--the ,manire de ,langage or model conversation book1 intended for the use of travellers1 merchants1 and others desiring a conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical knowledge of ,french4 ,contrary to the custom1 prevalent at this later period1 of providing ,english translations1 the earliest of these contain no ,english gloss1 but simply the ,french text without any attempt at even the slight grammatical instruction provided in the vocabularies4 ,their sole purpose was to give the traveller or wayfarer a supply of phrases and expressions on the customary topics2 grammatical instruction could be sought elsewhere4 ,the earliest of these#ajc is the first work for teaching ,french to which a definite date can be assigned4 ,a sort of dedication at the end is dated from ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds1 la veille du ,pentecote1 #acif4 ,we have not the same definite information as to the author4#ajd ,the anglicisms make it clear that he was an ,englishman1 while the references to ,orleans and its university1 and the trouble there between the students and the townspeople in #achi1 suggest that he was a student of that university1 then much frequented by the ,english and other foreigners1 especially law students4 ,he may have been ,canon ,m4 ,t4 ,coyfurelly1 ,doctor of ,law of ,orleans1#aje and author of the contemporary recasting of ,t4 ,h4's treatise on ,french orthography4 ,the author tells us he undertook his task at the request of a tres honor et tres gentil sire2 that he had learnt ,french es parties la mere1 and that he wrote according to the knowledge he acquired there1 which1 he admits1 may not be perfect4 ,indeed his ,french is full of anglicisms2 que homme is written for 'that man'2 oeuvrer for 'worker'2 que for 'why1' and so on2 there are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders1 au homme1 de les for des1 de le for du4 ,this manire must have enjoyed a very considerable popularity1 judging from the number of manuscripts1 of various dates1 still in existence4 ,and1 in modern times1 it presents a greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned before1 partly from the navet and quaintness of its style1 partly owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which it was written4 ,it opens in a religious strain1 with a prayer that the students of the book may have sens naturel to learn to speak1 pronounce1 and write doulz franois3 ,a noster commencement nous dirons ainsi3 en nom du pere1 filz et ,saint ,esperit1 amen4 ,ci comence la ,maniere de ,language qui t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz franois selon l'usage et la coustume de ,france4 ,primiers1 au commencement de nostre fait et besogne nous prierons ,dieu devoutement et nostre ,dame la benoite vierge ,marie sa tres douce mere1 et toute la glorieuse compaigne du ,saint reaume de ,paradis celeste1 ou ,dieux mette ses amis et ses eslus1 de quoi vient toute science1 sapience1 grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz1 qu'il luy plaist de sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rouse de sa haute sapience et entendement1 qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a parler1 bien soner et a droit escrire doulz franois4 ,then1 because man is the noblest of all created things1 the author proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body1 which recalls the old riming vocabularies4 ,this1 however1 is the only portion in which conversation is sacrificed to vocabulary4 ,in the rest of the work1 though the vocabulary is increased by alternative phrases wherever possible1 it is never allowed to encroach too much on the conversation4 ,the second chapter presents a scene between a lord and his page1 in which the page receives minute instructions for commissions to the draper1 the mercer1 and upholsterer--an excellent opportunity of introducing a large choice of words4 ,conversation for travellers is the subject of the third chapter1 the most important1 and certainly the most interesting in the whole book4 ,it tells1 ,coment un homme chivalchant ou cheminant se doit contenir et parler sur son chemin qui voult aler bien loin hors de son pais4 ,after witnessing the preparations for the journey1 the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an imaginary journey in ,france4 ,dialogue and narrative alternate1 and the lord talks with his page ,janyn or whiles away the time with songs3 ,et quant il aura acheve sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier ou a ses escuiers1 ainsi disant3 ,mes amys1 il est bien pres de nuyt1 vel sic3 ,il sera par temps nuyt4 ,doncques respont ,janyn au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere3 ,vrayement mon seigneur1 vous ditez verit2 vel sic3 vous ditez voir2 vel sic3 vous dites vray--,je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy4 ,coment vous est avis8--,ainsi comme vous vuillez1 mon seigneur4 ,janyn6--,mon signeur8--,va devant et prennez nostre hostel par temps4--,si ferai-je1 mon seigneur4 ,et s'en vait tout droit en sa voie1 et quant il sera venu a l'ostel il dira tout courtoisement en cest maniere4 ,hosteler1 hosteler1 etc4 ,the page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his master to the inn1 and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his evening meal and diversions--another opportunity for the introduction of songs--and his departure in the morning towards tampes and ,orleans4 ,more humble characters appear in the next chapter3 ,un autre manire de parler de pietalle1 comme des labourers et oeuvrers de mestiers4 ,here we have conversations between members of the working classes4 ,a gardener and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings1 describe their work1 and finally go and dine together2 a baker talks with his servant1 and so gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade1 just as the gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits4 ,a merchant scolds his apprentice for various misdemeanours1 and then sends him off to market3 ,doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchi pour vendre les danres de son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les achater3 et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest maniere1--',mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville1 et vous en aurez de aussi bon march comme nul autre4 ,ore regardez1 biau sire1 comment vous est avis2 vel sic3 comment vous plaist il2 and after some bargaining he sells his goods4 ,in the next manire de parler a servant brings a torn doublet to a mender of old clothes1 and enlists his services4 ,a chapter of more interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks of society3 ,quant un homme encontrera aucun au matine il luy dira tout courtoisement ainsi3 ,mon signour ,dieux vous donne boun matin et bonne aventure1 vel sic3 ,sire ,dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne estraine1 ,mon amy1 ,dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre4 ,et a midi vous parlerez en cest maniere3 ,monsieur ,dieux vous donne bon jour et bonnes heures2 vel sic3 ,sire1 ,dieu vous beneit et la compaignie6 ,a peitaille vous direz ainsi3 ,dieux vous gart6 4 4 4 ,et as oeuvrers et labourers vous direz ainsi3 ,dieux vous ait1 mon amy1 and so on4 ,one traveller asks another whence he comes and where he was born1 and the other says he comes from ,orleans1 where there is a fierce quarrel between the students and the townspeople2 and was born in ,hainaut1 where they love the ,english well1 and there is a saying that qui tient un ,henner 7,hennuyer7 par la main1 tient un ,englois par le cuer4 ,we are next taught how to speak to children3 ,quant vous verez un enfant plorer et gemir1 vous direz ainsi3 ,qu'as tu1 mon enfant1 and comfort him1 and when a poor man asks you for alms1 you shall answer1 ,mon amy1 se je pourroi je vous aidasse tres volantiers4 4 4 4 ,from this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and wayfarers--how to inquire the road1 and to go on a pilgrimage to the tomb of ,st4 ,thomas--,becket4 ,the work closes with a gathering of companions in an inn1 which1 like the rest of the chapters1 is full of life and interest4 ,last of all1 a sort of supplement is added in the form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty3 ,il est hony qui pouveres est1 and a fatrasie in prose4 ,another treatise of the same kind1 written about three years later1 was intended chiefly for the use of children1 ,un petit livre pour enseigner les enfantz de leur entreparler comun franois4#ajf ,it was not the first of its kind4 ,the metrical vocabularies of ,bibbesworth and his successors were chiefly intended for the use of children4 ,there is also some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by children2 the commentary was added to the ,orthographica ,gallica because the rules were somewhat obscure pour jeosne gentz1 and ,barton1 in his introduction1 mentions the chiers enfantz and tresdoulez puselles1 as those whom his grammar particularly concerns4 ,in the ,petit livre1 however1 the teaching is of the simplest kind1 and specially suited to children4 ,the dialogue lacks the interest of the earlier 'manire1' and inclines1 in places1 to become a list of phrases pure and simple4 ,the work opens abruptly with the words3 ,pour ce sachez premierement que le an est divis en deux1 c'est asscavoir le yver et la est4 ,le yver a six mois et la est atant1 que vallent douse1 and so on to the other divisions of the year and time4 ,the children are then taught the numbers in ,french1 the names of the coins1 and those of the persons and things with which they come into daily contact4 ,then follow appropriate terms for addressing and greeting different persons1 and the author even goes so far as to provide the child with a stock of insulting terms for use in quarrels4 ,the rest of the treatise does not appear to be intended for children4 ,there are conversations in a tavern1 lists of salutations1 familiar talk for the wayside and for buying and selling1 all of which has little special interest1 and is designed apparently to meet the needs of merchants more than any other class4 ,in the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which enables us to date the work4 ,the traveller tells the hostess of the captivity of ,richard ,,ii4 as a recent event3 ,dieu1 dame1 j'ay ouy dire que le roy d',angleterre est ost4--,quoy desioie6--,par ma alme voir4--,et les ,anglois n'ont ils point de roy donques8--,marie1 ouy1 et que celuy que fust duc de ,lancastre1 que est nepveu a celluy que est ost4--,voire8--,voire vraiement4--,et le roygne que fera elle8--,par dieu dame1 je ne say1 je n'ay pas est en conceille4--,et le roy d',angleterre ou fust il coronn8--,a ,westmynstre4--,fustez vous la donques8--,marie1 oy1 il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie4--,et ou serra il a nouvel8--,par ma foy je ne say1 mais l'en dit qu'il serra en ,escoce4 ,the authorship is not so easy to ascertain4 ,the manual may be due to ,canon ,t4 ,coyfurelly1 probable author of the earlier and better-known work also4#ajg ,the many mistakes and anglicisms1 such as quoy for quelle 7'what'7 and the exclamatory ',marie' in the quotation just given1 show it to be the work of an ,englishman4 ,another book of conversation appeared in #adae1ajh as may be gathered from its first two chapters1 in which a person fresh from the wars in ,france tells of the siege of ,harfleur and the battle of ,agincourt1 and announces the return of the victorious ,english army4 ,the rest of the dialogues are represented as taking place in and about ,oxford4 ,there is the usual tavern scene4 ,travellers from ,tetsworth arrive at an ,oxford inn1 and are present at the evening meal and diversions4 ,the hostess describes the fair at ,woodstock and the articles bought and sold there2 her son1 a boy of twelve years1 wants to be apprenticed in ,london2 he goes to the school of ,will ,kyngesmylle1 where writing1 counting1 and ,french are taught4 ,one of the merchants calls the lad and questions him as to his knowledge of ,french3 ,et que savez vous en fraunceys dire8--,sir je say moun noun et moun corps bien descrire4--,ditez moy qu'avez a noun4--,j'ay a noun ,johan1 bon enfant1 beal et sage et bien parlant engleys1 fraunceys et bon normand1 beneyt soit la verge que chastie l'enfant et le bon maistre qui me prist taunt6 ,je pri a ,dieu tout puissant nous graunte le joye tous diz durant6 ,the lad then proceeds to give proof of his knowledge by naming the parts of his body and his clothing1 always1 it appears1 the first things learnt4 ,this reference to the teaching of ,french in the school of an ,oxford pedagogue shows that1 though ,french had at this time lost all standing in the ,grammar ,schools1 it was still taught in private establishments4#aji ,it seems highly probable that ,will ,kyngesmylle was the author of this work1 and that he used his text-book as a means of self-advertisement1 a method very common among later teachers of ,french4 ,at the close comes a chapter belonging to another work of the same type1 which is only preserved in this fragment2 no doubt other such works existed and have been entirely lost4 ,it is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals supplanted1 to a considerable extent1 the earlier type of practical manual for teaching ,french--the metrical vocabulary--with which they had something in common4 ,at any rate1 there is no copy of such nomenclatures extant after ,femina 7#adae74 ,the 'manires' provided in their dialogues much of the material found in the vocabularies1 giving1 wherever possible1 groups of words on the same topics--the body1 its clothing1 houses1 and men's occupations4 ,further1 the vocabularies1 which had never departed from the type instituted by ,bibbesworth in the thirteenth century1 dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the ,middle ,ages1 and so had fallen behind the times4 ,the ',manires de ,langage' were more in keeping with the new conditions4 ,towards the end of the century 7and perhaps at the beginning of the sixteenth century7 we come to a manual1#aaj which1 while resembling the 'manires' in most points1 reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies4 ,for instance1 the ,french is arranged in short lines1 which1 however1 do not rime1 and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain2 and these are followed by a full interlinear ,english gloss1 as in the later vocabularies4 ,the subject matter1 however1 is similar to that of the early conversation books4 ,first comes gossip at taverns and by the wayside3 ,ditez puisse ie savement aler8 ,saie may ,i saufly goo8 ,ye sir le chemyn est sure assez4 ,yes sir the wey is sure inough4 ,mes il convent que vous hastez4 ,but it behoveth to spede you4 ,sir dieu vous donne bon aventure4 ,sir god geve you good happe4 ,sir a dieu vous commaunde4 ,sir to god ,i you betake4 ,sir dieu vous esploide4 ,sir god spede you4 ,sir bon aventure avez vous4 ,sir good chaunce have ye4 ,sir par saint ,marie cy est bon servise4 ,sir by saint ,marie her is good ale4 ,sir pernes le hanappe1 vous comenceres4 ,sir take the coppe1 ye shal beginne4 ,dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous4 ,dame ,i wil not doo bifor you4 ,sir vous ferrez verrement4 ,sir ye shal sothely4 ,after some disconnected discourse on inquiring the time1 asking the way1 etc41 we again return to the tavern3 ,dame dieu vous donne bon jour4 ,dame god geve you good daie4 ,dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons8 ,dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes8 ,sir quant longement voudrez demourer8 ,sir how long wol ye abide8 ,dame nous ne savons point4 ,dame we wote not4 ,et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table8 ,and what wil ye geve a daie for your table8 ,dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour8 ,dame what wol ye take for the daie8 ,sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour4 ,sir noo lesse thenne vj d4 the day 444 etc4 ,next comes the usual scene between buyers and sellers1 followed by another inn scene of greater length4 ,after attending to their horses1 the travellers sup and spend the night at the inn1 and set out the next morning after reckoning with their hostess4 ,the manuscript ends abruptly in the midst of a list of salutations4 ,the nature of the ,french#aaa betrays the author's nationality2 he was evidently an ,englishman4 ,as to the ,english1 the quaint turn given to many of the phrases is usually explained by the writer's desire to give a literal translation of the ,french2 many of the inaccuracies in both versions are probably due to careless work on the part of the scribe4 ,merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which there was a demand for instruction in ,french4 ,in addition to the large part assigned to them in the ',manires de ,langage1' and in the epistolaries1 where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature1 there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills1 indentures1 receipts and other documents of similar import4 ,they are usually called 'cartularies1' are accompanied by explanations in ,latin1 and may be looked upon as the first text-books of commercial ,french4#aab ,one author explains their origin and aim by this introductory remark3#aac ,pour ceo qe j'estoie requis par ascunz prodeshommez de faire un chartuarie pour lour enfantz enformer de faire chartours1 endenturs1 obligations1 defesance1 acquitancez1 contuaries1 salutaries1 en ,latin et ,franceys ensemblement 4 4 4 fesant les chartours1 escripts munimentz a de primes en ,latyn et puis en ,franceys4 ,more emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in ,french among the merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were designed chiefly for their use4 ,the first of these may be classed with the new development of the ',manires de ,langage1' comprising dialogues in ,french and ,english1 although it does not exactly answer to this description4#aad ,it was issued from the press of ,william ,caxton in about #adhc1 and at least one other edition appeared at a later date4#aae ,in form it is a sort of narrative in ,french1 with an ,english translation opposite4 ,the aim of the work is stated clearly in an introductory passage which informs the reader that who this book shall learn may well enterprise merchandise from one land to another and to know many wares which to him shall be good to be bought1 or sold for rich to become4 ,caxton thus recommends the book to the learner3 ,tres bonne doctrine ,rygt good lernyng ,pour aprendre ,for to lerne ,briefment fransoys et engloys4 ,shortly frenssh englyssh4 ,au nom du pere ,in the name of the fadre ,et du filz ,and of the soone ,et du sainte esperite ,and of the holy ghost ,veul comnencier ,i wyll begynne ,et ordonner ung livre1 ,and ordeyne this book1 ,par le quel on pourra ,by the which men shall mowe ,raysonnablement entendre ,resonably understande ,franoys et ,anglois1 ,frenssh and ,englissh1 ,du tant comme cest escript ,of as moche as this writing ,pourra contenir et estendre1 ,shall conteyne stratche1 ,car il ne peut tout comprendre4 ,for he may not all comprise4 ,mais ce qu'on n'y trouvera ,but that which cannot be founden ,declair en cestui ,declared in this ,pourra on trouver ailleurs ,shall be founde somwhere els ,en aultres livres4 ,in other bookes4 ,mais sachies pour voir ,but knowe for truthe ,que es lignes de cest aucteur ,that in the lynes of this auctour ,sount plus de parolles et de raysons ,ben moo wordes reasons ,comprinses1 et de responses ,comprised1 of answers ,que en moult d'aultres livres4 ,than in many other bookes4 ,qui ceste livre vouldra aprendre ,who this booke shall wylle lerne ,bien pourra entreprendre ,may well enterprise ,merchandises d'un pays a ,marchandise fro one land to l'autre1 anoothir1 ,et cognoistre maintes denres ,and to know many wares ,que lui seroient bon ,which to him shall be good to be achets bought ,ou vendues pour riche devenir4 ,or sold for rich to become4 ,aprendes ce livre diligement1 ,lerne this book diligently1 ,grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement4 ,grete prouffyt lieth therein truly4 ,the 'doctrine' itself opens with a list of salutations with the appropriate answers4 ,a house and all its contents come next1 then its inhabitants1 which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship3 ,or entendes petys et grands1 ,je vous dirai maintenant ,dune autre matere ,la quele ie commence4 ,se vous estes maris ,et vous avez femme ,et vous ayez marye1 ,se vous maintiens paisiblement ,que vos voisins ne disent ,de vous fors que bien3 ,ce seroit vergoigne4 ,se vous aves pere et mere1 ,si les honnours tousiours2 ,faictes leur honneur24 4 4 ,si vous aves enfans1 ,si les instrues ,de bonnes meurs2 ,le temps qu'ilz soient josnes ,les envoyes a l'escole ,aprendre lire et escripre4 4 4 4 ,at the end of the category come the servants and their occupations1 which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there4 ,we then pass to buying1 selling1 and bargaining in general1 and to merchandise of all kinds1 with a list of coins1 popular fairs1 and fte-days4 ,after an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main chapter of the work1 giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades4 ,this takes the form of an alphabetical list of ,christian names1 each of which is made to represent one of the trades1 beginning with ,adam the ostler3 ,for this that many words shall fall or may fall which be not plainly heretofore written1 so shall ,i write you from henceforth divers matters of all things1 first of one thing1 then of another1 in which chapter ,i will conclude the names of men and women after the order of a1 b1 c4 ,the baker may be selected as a fair example3 ,ferin le boulengier ,fierin the baker ,vend blanc pain et brun4 ,selleth whit brede and brown4 ,il a sour son grenier gisant ,he hath upon his garner lieng ,cent quartiers de bled4 ,one hundred quarters of corn4 ,il achete a temps et a heure1 ,he byeth in tyme and at hour1 ,si qu'il n'a point ,so that he hath not ,du chier marchiet4 ,of the dere chepe 7high buying prices74 ,at last the author1 all weary of so many names to name1 of so many crafts1 so many offices1 so many services1 finds relief in certain considerations of a religious order3 ,god hath made us unto the likeness of himself1 he will reward those who do well and punish those who do not repent of their sins1 and attend the holy services3 ,if ye owe any pilgrimages1 so pay them hastily2 when you be moved for to go your journey1 and ye know not the waye1 so axe it thus4 ,the usual directions for inquiring the way follow with the description of the arrival at an inn1 and the customary gossip4 ,the reckoning and departure on the following morning afford an opportunity of including a further list of ,flemish and ,english coins together with the numerals2 and ,caxton concludes his work by commending it to the reader with a prayer that those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it3 ,cy fine ceste doctrine1 ,here endeth this doctrine1 ,a ,westmestre les ,loundres ,at ,westmestre by ,london ,en formes impresse1 ,in fourmes enprinted1 ,en le quelle ung chaucun ,in the whiche one everish ,pourra briefment aprendre ,may shortly lerne ,franois et ,engloys4 ,french and ,english4 ,la grace de sainct esperit ,the grace of the holy ghosst ,veul enluminer les cures ,wylle enlyghte the hertes ,de ceulx qui le aprendront1 ,of them that shall lerne it1 ,et nous doinst perseverance ,and us gyve perseverans ,en bonnes operacions1 ,in good werkes1 ,et apres cest vie transitorie ,and after lyf transitorie ,la pardurable ioye et glorie6 ,the everlasting ioye and glorie6 ,the short introduction and epilogue were most probably the composition of ,caxton himself4 ,the rest of the book is drawn from a set of dialogues in ,french and ,flemish1 first written at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 called ,le ,livre des ,mestiers in reference to its main chapter4#aaf ,this would possibly be known to merchants trading with ,bruges and other centres of the ,low ,countries2 and when we notice the numerous points of resemblance between it and the ,english manuals of conversation1 the first of which did not appear before the end of the same century1 it seems very probable that the ,flemish original had some influence on the works produced in ,england4 ,caxton was a silk mercer of ,london1 and his business took him to the towns of the ,low ,countries1 especially ,bruges1 where the ,english merchants had a large commercial connexion4 ,there1 no doubt1 he became acquainted with the ,livre des ,mestiers1 and probably improved his knowledge of ,french by its help1 for he studied and read the language a good deal during his long sojourn abroad4 ,there also he probably added an ,english column to his copy of the ,french-,flemish phrase-book1 as a sort of exercise rather than with any serious intention of publication2 and when he had set up his press at ,westminster1 remembering the need he had felt for ,french1 in his own commercial experience1 and the little book which had assisted him1 he would decide to print it4 ,caxton's copy of the ,livre des ,mestiers belonged1 no doubt1 to a later date than the one extant to-day1#aag probably to the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,it must have been fuller1 and have had different names attached to the characters1 so that1 as the names are still arranged in alphabetical order1 it is difficult1 at a glance1 to distinguish the identity of the two texts4 ,caxton's rendering of the ,french is often inaccurate1 owing perhaps to the influence of the ,flemish version from which he seems to have made his translation4#aag ,moreover1 at the early date at which ,caxton1 probably1 added the ,english column to the ,livre des ,mestiers1 his knowledge of ,french had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of ,french works into ,english4 ,he himself tells us in the prologue to the ,recuyell of the ,histories of ,troy of ,raoul le ,fvre 7,bruges1 #adge7--the first of his translations from the ,french1 and1 indeed1 the first book to be printed in ,english--that his knowledge of ,french was not by any means perfect4 ,with the exception of the introductory and closing sentences1 ,caxton made few additions to his original4 ,he did indeed supply the names of ,english towns1 coins1 bishoprics1 and so on2 but1 on the whole1 the setting of the work is foreign2 ,bruges1 not ,london1 is the centre of the action1 and no doubt the place where the original was composed4 ,not long after the publication of ,caxton's doctrine another work of like character and purpose appeared4 ,it claims to be a good book to learn to speak ,french for those who wish to do merchandise in ,france1 and elsewhere in other lands where the folk speak ,french4 ,the atmosphere is entirely ,english1 and consequently its contents bear a closer resemblance to its ,english predecessors4 ,in the arrangement of the dialogue it is identical with the ,cambridge conversation book1 except that the ,english lines come before the ,french1 and not the ,french before the ,english4#aah ,the four subjects round which the dialogue turns1 namely1 salutations1 buying and selling1 inquiring the way1 and conversation at the inn1 were all favourites in the early ,manires de ,langage4 ,for the rest it follows in the steps of its ,english predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple1 while ,caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form4 ,in one point1 however1 the work differs from the latest development of the old ,manire de ,langage1 as preserved in the ,cambridge ,dialogues in ,french and ,english2 the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary1 then a reprint of one of the old books on courtesy and demeanour for children1 with a ,french version added1 and finally commercial letters in ,french and ,english4 ,the work is thus made much more comprehensive than any of its type which had as yet appeared1 and includes samples1 so to speak1 of all the practical treatises for teaching ,french which had appeared in the ,middle ,ages4 ,it was printed separately by the two chief printers of the time1 both foreigners3 ,richard ,pynson1 a native of ,normandy and student of ,paris1 who came to ,england and began printing on his own account about #aeij-aeia2 and ,wynkyn de ,worde1 a native of ,alsace1 and apprentice to ,caxton1 with whom he probably came to ,england from ,bruges in #adgf1 and to whose business he succeeded in #adia4aai ,although neither of the printers dated their work1 it seems probable that the earliest edition was issued by ,pynson4 ,there is a unique copy of his edition in the ,british ,museum2 it is without title-page1 pagination1 or catch-words1 and the colophon reads simply ,per me ,ricardum ,pynson4 ,the colophon of ,wynkyn's work1 of which there is a complete copy in the ,grenville ,library 7,british ,museum71#abj and a fragment of two leaves in the ,bodleian1 is slightly more instructive and runs as follows3 ,here endeth a lytyll treatyse for to lern ,englyshe and ,frensshe4 ,emprynted at ,westmynster by my ,wynken de ,worde4 ,now as ,wynkyn moved from ,westminster in #aejj to set up his shop in the centre of the trade in ,fleet ,street1 opposite to that of his rival ,pynson1 his edition of the work must have appeared before that date1 because it was issued from what had been ,caxton's house in ,westminster4 ,on the other hand1 the type used by ,pynson is archaic1#aba and the work is evidently one of the earliest issued from his press4 ,it is inferior to ,wynkyn's edition from the technical point of view4 ,a headline is all there is by way of title2 while in ,wynkyn's copy we find a separate title-page1 containing the words1 ,here begynneth a lytell treatyse for to lern ,englishe and ,frensshe1 and a woodcut of a schoolmaster seated in a large chair1 with a large birch-rod in his left hand1 and1 on a stool at his feet1 three small boys holding open books4 ,this particular woodcut was a favourite in school-books of the period2#abb it appears1 for instance1 in a little treatise entitled ,pervula1 giving instructions for turning ,english into ,latin1 which ,wynkyn de ,worde printed about #adie4abc ,moreover1 each page of ,wynkyn's edition has a descriptive headline1 ,englysshe and ,frensshe1 which is not found in ,pynson's4 ,the text also is in many places more accurate than that of the ,norman printer1 and gives the impression of having been corrected here and there4 ,it is therefore probable that ,pynson first printed the treatise shortly after #adij1abd and that another edition was issued by ,wynkyn de ,worde during the period intervening between the date of the issue of ,pynson's edition and the end of the century4 ,a remnant1 consisting of one page of yet another edition1 is preserved in the ,british ,museum1 and shows some variations in spelling from the two other texts4 ,this little book1 then1 seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity during its short life4 ,on the whole it is more elementary in character than the 'doctrine' of ,caxton4 ,the first things taught are the numbers and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases4 ,the opening passage is very much like that written by ,caxton for his work3 ,here is a good boke to lerne to speke ,frenshe4 ,vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler franoys4 ,in the name of the fader and the sone ,en nom du pere et du filz ,and of the holy goost1 ,i wyll begynne ,et du saint esperit1 je vueil commencer ,to lerne to speke ,frensshe1 ,a apprendre a parler franoys1 ,soo that ,i maye doo my marchandise ,affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise ,in ,fraunce elles where in other londes1 ,en ,france et ailieurs en aultre pays1 ,there as the folk speke ,frensshe4 ,la ou les gens parlent franoys4 ,and fyrst ,i wylle lerne to reken by lettre4 ,et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre4 4 4 4 ,next come the cardinal numbers and a vocabulary of words goode for suche as use marchaundyse3 ,of gold sylver4 ,d'or et d'argent4 ,of cloth of golde4 ,de drap d'or4 ,of perles precyous stones4 ,de perles et ,pieres precieuses4 ,of velvet damaskes4 ,de velours et damas etc4 4 4 4 and so on for nearly a page1 in which the names of various cloths1 spices1 and wines are provided4 ,then follows another manner of speeche in a list of salutations arranged in dialogue form3 ,other maner of speche in frensshe4 ,autre magniere de langage en franoys4 ,syr1 ,god gyve you good daye4 ,sire1 ,dieu vous doint bon iour4 ,syr1 ,god gyve you goode evyn4 ,sire1 ,dieu vous doint bon vespere4 ,syr1 ,god gyve you goode nyght goode reste4 ,sire1 ,dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos4 ,syr1 how fare ye8 ,sire1 comment vous portez vous8 ,well at your commaundement4 ,bien a vostre commandement4 ,how fare my lorde my lady8 ,coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame8 ,ryght well blessyd be ,god4 ,tres bien benoit soit ,dieu4 ,syr1 whan go ye agayne to my lorde1 ,sire1 quant retournez vous a mon seigneour1 ,i praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym1 ,je vous prie que me recomandez a lui1 ,and also to my lady his wyfe4 ,et aussi a ma dame sa femme4 ,syr1 ,god be wyth you4 ,sire1 ,dieu soit avecques vous4 ,yet another favourite subject is next introduced--a conversation on buying and selling3 ,other maner of speche to bye and selle4 ,aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter4 ,syr1 ,god spede you4 ,sire1 ,dieu vous garde4 ,syr1 have ye not good cloth to sell8 ,sire1 n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre8 ,ye syr ryght good4 ,ouy sire tres bon4 ,now lette me see it and it please you4 ,or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest4 ,i shall doo it with a good wyll4 ,je le feray voulentiers4 ,holde1 here it is4 ,tenez sire1 le veez cy4 ,now saye how moche the yerde is worthe ,or me dites combyen l'aune vault4 ,ten shelynges4 ,dix solz4 ,forsothe ye set it to dere4 ,vrayment vous le faictez trop cher4 ,i shall gyve you eyght shelynges4 ,je vous en donneray huyt soulz4 ,i wyll not1 it is to lytell4 ,non feroy1 cest trop pou4 ,the yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges1 ,l'aune vous coustra neuf soulz1 ,yf that ye have it4 ,si vous l'airez4 ,ye shall have it for no lasse4 ,vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains4 ,the merchant has also to be able to ask for directions on his way1 and to gossip with the landlady of the wayside inn2 the phrases necessary for these purposes are recorded in the next manner of speech1 where1 as in the first treatise of #acif1 the scene is laid in ,france3 ,for to aske the waye4 ,pour demander le chemin4 ,frende1 ,god save you4 ,amy1 ,dieu vous sauve4 ,whiche is the ryght waye ,quelle est la voye droite ,for to goo from hens to ,parys8 ,pour aller d'icy a ,paris8 ,syr1 ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande4 ,sire1 il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main4 ,now saye me1 my frende1 ,or me ditez1 mon amy1 ,yf that any good lodginge ,y a il point de bon logis ,be betwixt this and the next vyllage8 ,entre cy et ce prochayn village8 ,there is a ryght good one4 ,il en y a ung tres bon4 ,ye shall be there ryght well lodged1 ,vous serez tres bien log1 ,ye also your horse4 ,vous et aussi vostre chevaul4 ,my frende1 ,god yelde it you1 ,mon ami1 ,dieu vous le rende1 ,and ,i shall doo an other tyme ,et ie feraye ung aultre foiz ,as moche for you and ,i maye4 ,autant pour vous se ie puis4 ,god be with you4 ,dieu soit avecques vous4 ,the passage proceeds to describe1 always in the form of a dialogue1 the traveller's arrival at the inn1 his entertainment there1 and his departure3 ,dame1 shall ,i be here well lodged8 ,dame1 seroy ie icy bien log8 ,ye syr1 ryght well4 ,ouy sire1 tres bien4 ,nowe doo me have a good chambre ,or me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre ,and a good fyre1 ,et bon feu1 ,and doo that my horse ,et faites que mon chevaul ,maye be well governed1 ,puisse estre bien gouvern1 ,and gyve hym good hay and good otes4 ,et lui donns bon foin et bon avoine4 ,dame1 is all redy for to dyne8 ,dame1 est tout prest pour aller digner8 ,ye syr1 whan it please you4 ,oui sire1 quant il vous plaise4 ,syr1 moche good do it you4 ,sire1 bon preu vous face4 ,i praye you make good chere ,je vous prie faictez bonne chere ,and be mery1 ,i drynke to you4 ,et soyez ioieux1 ie boy a vous4 ,now1 hostes1 saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner4 ,hostesse1 or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner4 ,i shall tell you with a good wyll4 ,je vous le diray voulentiers4 ,ye have in alle eyght shelyngs4 ,vous avez en tout huyt solz4 ,nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy4 ,or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy4 ,do my horse come to me4 ,or me faittz venir mon cheval4 ,is he sadled and redy for to ryde8 ,est il sell et appoint pour chevaucher8 ,ye syr1 all redy4 ,ouy sire1 tout prest4 ,now fare well and gramercy4 ,or adiu et grandmercy4 ,here the 'manire de langage' ends4 ,it is followed by a list of nouns arranged under headings4 ,the enumeration begins with the parts of the body1#abe followed by the clothing and armour--a list containing valuable information on the fashions of the time2 then come the natural phenomena1 the sun1 the stars1 water1 the winds1 and so on2 the products of the earth and the food they supply1 and finally1 the names of the days of the week4 ,with the exception of the last page1 each word is preceded by a possessive adjective or an article indicating its gender4 ,the ,english rendering is sometimes placed above the ,french word1 sometimes opposite4 ,after the vocabulary1 which covers nearly five pages1 comes the courtesy book in ,english and ,french1 occupying the next seven pages4 ,it is a reprint of the ,lytylle ,chyldrenes ,lytil ,boke1#abf which contains a set of maxims for discreet behaviour at meals1 in which children are told not to snatch meat from the table before grace is said2 not to throw bones on the floor2 nor pick their teeth with their knife2 nor do many other things1 which1 when we remember that such books were intended for the instruction of the gentry1 throw interesting sidelights on contemporary manners4 ,the inclusion of such precepts for children in a text-book for teaching ,french was not without precedent2 in the last of the series of riming vocabularies1 ,femina 7#adae71 there is a collection of moral maxims taken1 in this instance1 from the ancient writers1 and printed in ,latin1 ,french1 and ,english4 ,in conclusion1 the author reverts to the more strictly commercial side of the treatise1 with two letters1 given in both ,french and ,english4 ,one is from an apprentice who writes to his master reporting on some business he is transacting at ,paris1 and asking for more money4 ,in the second a merchant communicates to his 'gossip' the news of the arrival at ,london and ,southampton of ships laden with rich merchandise1 and proposes that they should find means and ways in this that their shops shall be well stuffed of all manner of merchandise4 ,in both these letters the ,english comes first3 ,a prentyse wryteth to his mayster1 fyrste in ,englysshe and after in frensshe4#abg ,ryght worshypful syr1 ,i recommaunde me unto you as moche as ,i may1 and please you wete that ,i am in ryght goode helth thanked be ,god4 ,to whome ,i praye that so it may be of you and of all your good frendes4 ,as for the mater for the whiche ye sent me to ,parys1 ,i have spoken with kynges advocate the which sayd to me ,i must go to the kynge and enfourme his royalle majeste thereof1 and have specyal commaundement4 ,therfore consyderynge the tyme ,i have taryed at ,parys in the pursute of this and the grete coste and expence done bycause of this4 ,please you for to knowe that for to pursue that mater unto the kyng1 the which is at ,monthason next ,tours1 and for to go thyder it is nedefull to sende me some monye and with the grace of ,god ,i shalle do suche dylygence that ,i shall gete your hertes desyre4 ,no more wryte ,i to you at this tyme but ,god have you in hys protectyon4 ,wryten hastely the ,,xix daye of this moneth4 ,tres honnor sire1 ie me recommande a vous tant comme je puis1 et plaise vous savoir que ie suis en tres bonne sant la marcy ,dieu au quel ie prie que ainsi soit il de vous et de tous vos bons amys4 ,quant pour la matiere pour la quelle vous me envoiastes a ,parys1 g'ay parl avec l'advocat du roy le quel m'a dit quil me fault aller au roy et advertir sa royalle maiest de ce et ay un specyal commandement4 ,pource consyderant le temps que j'ay attendu a ,paris en cest poursuite et lez granz costz et despens faitz par cause de ce4 ,plaise vous savoir que pour poursuir ceste matiere au roy1 le qyel est a ,monthason pres ,tours1 et pour aller la il est mestier de m'enuoyer de l'argent4 ,et avecques la grace de ,dieu je feray telle diligence que aurez ce que vostre cueur desire4 ,aultre chos ne vous escripz a ceste foiz mays que ,dieu vous ayt en sa protection4 ,escript hastivement le dixneufieme jour du moys4 ,and so ends this interesting little book4#abh ,the texts of the two complete editions are in the main identical4 ,the arrangement of the matter on the pages is different1 and the spelling of the words1 both ,french and ,english1 varies considerably4 ,slips which occur in ,pynson's text1 such as the rendering of 'neuf' by 'ten1' or the accidental omission of a word in the ,french version1 are sometimes corrected in ,wynkyn's version4 ,on the other hand1 similar mistakes1 though much fewer in number1 are found in ,wynkyn's edition and not in ,pynson's2 while yet others are common to both the printers4 ,dialect forms are scattered through the two editions with equal capriciousness4 ,both texts contain a few anglo-normanisms4 ,pynson's shows numerous characteristics of the ,north-,eastern dialects1 ,picard or ,lorrain1 but at times there is a ,picard form in ,wynkyn's version1 where the pure ,french form occurs in the other4 ,apart from such variations1 the wording of the two editions is usually similar4 ,in cases where it differs1 the improvements are found in ,wynkyn's edition1 in spite of the fact that1 as a general rule1 the output of ,pynson's press reaches a higher literary level than that of the more business-like ,alsatian4 ,this exception may1 no doubt1 be explained by the fact that ,pynson was the first to print the ,good ,book to learn to speak ,french4#abi ,yet here again mistakes are sometimes common to both texts1 as1 for instance1 the rendering of the lines3 ,for the clerks that the seven arts can ,sythen that courtesy from heaven came1 by the ,french3 ,pour les clers qui les sept arts savent ,puisque courtoisie de paradis vint1 in which the wrong interpretation of the ,english 'for' 7conjunction7 and 'sythen' 7taken as meaning 'since1' not 'say'7 destroys the sense4 ,on the whole1 the impression conveyed by the perusal of the two editions is that the work is a compilation of treatises already in existence in manuscript4 ,neither the letters nor the vocabulary present any strikingly new features4 ,the origin of the courtesy book is known1 and it is even possible that the fragment of one leaf preserved belongs1 not to another edition of the ,good ,book to learn to speak ,french1 but to an earlier edition of the courtesy book in ,french and ,english1 printed probably by ,caxton1 with the intention of imparting a knowledge of polite behaviour and of the favourite language of polite society at the same time4 ,the fact that it reproduces the original courtesy book more fully than does either of the complete texts of ,wynkyn and ,pynson1 suggests that it belonged to some such edition1 or to an edition of the ,good ,book earlier than either of these4 ,as to the dialogues1 they may have belonged to the group of conversational manuals1 which were1 no doubt1 fairly numerous4 ,caxton1 while maintaining that his 'doctrine' contains more than many other books1 adds3 ,that which cannot be found declared in it1 shall be found elsewhere in other books4 ,that such practical little books shared the fate of the great majority of school manuals is not surprising4 ,the hypothesis that the work is a compilation of older treatises would1 moreover1 explain the variations in the quality of the ,french4 ,the dialogues and letters1 it would appear1 were in the first place written by ,englishmen4 ,pynson corrected them here and there1 without1 however1 eliminating all the anglicisms1 archaisms1 and provincial forms2 and when they passed through the hands of ,wynkyn they underwent still further emendation4 ,the ,english version contains gallicisms1 just as the ,french contains anglicisms1#acj which were1 however1 probably due to a desire to make the ,english tally with the ,french4 ,this same supposition also makes it easier to understand how it came about that the treatise was printed by the two rival printers within the space of a few years1 and explains how it was they repeated the same obvious mistakes4 ,thus1 of the matter found in the mediaeval treatises for teaching ,french1 grammar rules alone are unrepresented in this ,good ,book4 ,its aim is entirely practical4 ,it seeks to teach those who wish to lerne to speke ,frensshe for practical purposes1 that is1 to do their merchaundise1 and there is no mention of any deeper or wider knowledge of the language4 ,that the work was intended for the use of children as well as for merchants is shown by the introduction of the courtesy book1 and1 in the later edition1 of the favourite frontispiece for children's school-books described above4 ,but these do not form a vital part of the work itself1 and are mere supplements1 added probably with the intention of increasing the public to which the book would appeal4 ,the children who used it1 we may assume1 would probably be of the class of the boy1 ,john1 enfant beal et sage1 who appears in the 'manire' of #adae1 and learns ,french that he may the more quickly achieve his end of being apprenticed to a ,london merchant4 ,to such children the apprentice's letter quoted above would be of much interest4 ,grammar did not hold a very large place in the teaching of ,french at this time4 ,practice and conversation were the usual methods of acquiring a knowledge of spoken ,french1 and no doubt such books as those of ,caxton and of ,pynson and ,wynkyn de ,worde found many eager students4 ,the two editions of the first and the three editions of the second with which we are acquainted1 all of which probably appeared in the course of the last decade of the fifteenth century1 bear testimony to this4 ,reference has already been made to the probable existence of numerous works of a similar scope in manuscript1 and later in print4 ,such were the little pages1 set in print1 with no precepts1 to which ,claude ,holyband1 the most popular ,french teacher of ,london in the second half of the sixteenth century1 refers with contempt2 he accuses them of wandering from the 'true phrase' of the language1 and of teaching nothing of the reading and pronunciation1 which is the chiefest point to be considered in that behalf1 and hence of serving but little to the furtherance of the knowledge of the ,french tongue4 ,yet1 though such was the case in all these early works1 they seem1 without exception1 to have enjoyed great popularity at the time they were written1 when to speak ,french fluently was an all-important matter4 ,the difficulty of this accomplishment was realised to the full4 ,we find it expressed in a few disconnected sentences added in ,french probably at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 at the end of the 'manire de langage' of #acif3 ,we need very long practice before we are able to speak ,french perfectly1 says the anonymous writer1 evidently an ,englishman1 for the ,french and ,english do not correspond word for word1 and the fine distinctions are difficult to seize4 ,he proceeds to urge the necessity of a glib tongue in making progress in ,french1 and quotes the case of an unfortunate man1 good fellow though he might otherwise be1 who lacked this faculty3 ,il ne luy avient plus a parler franceis qu' une vache de porter une selle1 a cause que sa langue n'est pas bien afile1 et pour cela n'entremette il pas parler entre les fraunceis4 ,in the early part of the sixteenth century1 however1 ,french began to be studied with more thoroughness in ,england4 ,communication with ,france and the tour in ,france were no longer fraught with the same dangers and difficulties1 and favoured the use of a purer form of ,french4 ,fluent was no longer sufficient without correct pronunciation and grammar4 ,the standard of ,french taught was also raised by the arrival of numerous ,frenchmen1 who made the teaching of their language the business of their lives4 ,further1 the spread of the art of printing had rendered ,french literature more accessible1 and supplied a rich material from which the rules of the language might be deduced4 ,and so it became possible for ,john ,palsgrave1 the ,london teacher and student of ,paris1 to complete the first great work on the ,french language1 in which1 however1 he did not forget to render due homage to his humble predecessors1#aca then fast passing into oblivion4 ,,footnotes3 #ge ,freeman1 ,norman ,conquest1 ii41 #ahfh1 pp4 #af sqq41 #bh sqq4 #gf ,manire de ,langage1 #acif2 cp4 infra1 p4 #ce4 #gg ,doulz franois qu'est la plus bel et la plus gracious language et plus noble parler1 apres latin d'escole1 qui soit au monde4 #gh ,jehan ,barton1 ,donait ,franois1 c4 #adjj4 #gi ,afin qu'ils puissent entrecomuner bonement ove lour voisin c'est a dire les bones gens du roiaume de ,france1 et ainsi pour ce que les leys d',engleterre pour le graigneur partie et ainsi beaucoup de bones choses sont misez en ,franois1 et aussi bien pres touz les sirs et toutes les dames en mesme roiaume d',engleterre volentiers s'entrescrivent en romance--tresnecessaire je cuide estre aus ,englois de scavoir la nature de ,franois4 #hj ,which no doubt became more numerous1 as ,english1 rather than ,latin1 became the medium through which ,french was learnt4 ,thus we find pour honte written for 'for shame'2 il est haut temps1 for 'it is high time'2 quoi 7'why'7 for pourquoi2 de les for des1 and so on4 #ha ,edited from a unique ,,ms4 in ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 by ,w4 ,aldis ,wright1 for the ,roxburghe ,club1 #aiji 7,camb4 ,univ4 ,press74 ,g4 ,hickes published part of the first chapter1 with remarks on its philological value1 in his ,linguarum ,veterum ,septentrionalium ,thesaurus ,grammatico-,criticus et ,archaeologicus1 ,oxford1 #agje1 i4 pp4 #add-aea4 #hb ,liber iste vocatur femina quia sicut femina docet infantem loqui maternam1 sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui ,gallicum prout infra patebit4 #hc ,p4 ,meyer1 ,romania1 xxxii4 pp4 #dc et seq4 #hd ,the ,english spelling1 very corrupt in the original1 is here modernized4 #he ,these ,,mss4 have been described and classified by ,j4 ,strzinger1 ,altfranzsische ,bibliothek1 viii4 pp4 v-x4 #hf ,brit4 ,mus4 ,harl4 ,,ms4 #diga2 ,addit4 ,,ms4 #aagaf1 and ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 ,,ms4 ,ee #d1 #bj4 #hg ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 ,,mss4 ,dd #ab1 #bc4 and ,gg #f1 #dd4 #hh ,p4 ,meyer1 ,romania1 xv4 p4 #bfb4 #hi ,brit4 ,mus4 ,sloane ,,ms4 #eac1 pp4 #ace-ach4 #ij ,brit4 ,mus4 ,sloane ,,ms4 #eac1 fol4 #aci4 #ia ,there is a fragment1 very indistinct1 on ,french pronunciation in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,,ms4 ,harl4 #diga3 ,modus pronunciandi dictiones in ,gallicis4 #ib ,cp4 also the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit ,,ms4 #aggaf1 fol4 #ajj4 #ic ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 ,,ms41 ,ee #d1 #bj2 ,oxford1 ,all ,souls1 ,,ms4 #ahb4 #id ,brit4 ,mus4 ,,ms4 ,harl4 #diga2 ,,ms4 ,addit4 #aggaf 7preceding the observations on pronouns and verbs mentioned above72 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr41 ,ee #d1 #bj2 ,oxford ,magdalen ,college1 ,,ms4 #ahh1 and ,all ,souls1 ,,ms4 #ahb4 #ie ,published by ,stengel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #be-dj1 from ,,ms4 #ahb of ,all ,souls1 ,oxford4 #if ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cgf4 #ig ,a le honneur de ,dieu et de sa tresdoulce miere et toutz les saintez de paradis1 je ,johan ,barton1 escolier de ,paris1 ne et nourie toutes foiez d',engleterre en la cont de ,cestre1 j'ey baill aus avantdiz ,anglois un ,donait franois pur les briefment entroduyr en la droit language du ,paris et de pais la d'entour la quelle language en ,engleterre on appelle doulce ,france4 ,et cest ,donat je le fis la fair a mes despenses et tres grande peine par pluseurs bons clercs du language avantdite4 #ih ,brunot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cgf4 #ii ,cy endroit il fault prendre garde qu'en parlant ,franois on ne mette pas une personne pour une aultre si come font les sottez gens1 disantz ainsi je ferra pour je ferray4 4 4 4 #ajj ,we pass from the numbers of nouns to the person of verbs1 then to the genders and kinds 7proper1 appellative7 of nouns and their cases1 six in number on the analogy of ,latin1 which is naturally the basis of the terminology of this work and all others for many years after2 then come observations on the degrees of comparison1 after which we return to the verbs1 and their moods and tenses4 ,the following sections deal with the parts of speech2 the four indeclinables 7adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections7 are merely mentioned4 ,nouns1 adjectives1 and pronouns receive some attention1 but the chief subject is the verb3 ,cy maintenant nous vous baillerons un exemple coment vous fourmeres touz les verbs franois du monde1 soient-ils actifez1 soient-ils passivez1 en quelque meuf ou temps qu'ils soient4 ,et ceste exemple serra pour cest verbe jeo aime4 4 4 4 ,but the verbs are not classified1 and only a few of the best known are conjugated as examples4 ,in the list of impersonal verbs which closes the treatise1 ,english is sometimes used to explain their meaning3 ,me est avis1 ,me seemth4 #aja ,j4 ,bale1 ,illustrium ,maioris ,britanniae scriptorum summarium4 ,ipswich1 #aedh1 p4 #bjc4 #ajb ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #ajc ,preserved in a considerable number of ,,mss43 ,brit4 ,mus4 7,harl4 #cihh1 ,addit4 #aggaf71 ,oxford 7,all ,souls1 #ahb71 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 7,bd #ab1 #bc71 and in ,sir ,thomas ,philipps's ,library at ,cheltenham 7,,ms4 ,no4 #hahh74 ,the earliest 7,harl4 #cihh7 was published by ,p4 ,meyer in the ,revue ,critique1 #ahgc1 pp4 #cgc-djh4 #ajd ,the name of ,kirmington1 which occurs at the end1 is no doubt that of the copyist4 #aje ,athenaeum1 ,oct4 #e1 #ahgh3 article by ,stengel4 #ajf ,published by ,stengel1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ab-ae4 #ajg ,stengel1 ,athenaeum1 ,oct4 #e1 #ahgh4 ,coyfurelly also rehandled the ,tractatus ,orthographiae of ',t4 ,h41 ,student of ,paris4' #ajh ,ed4 ,paul ,meyer1 ,romania1 xxxii4 pp4 #di-eh4 ,it exists in three ,,mss42 at the end of ,femina in ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 7,dd #ab1 #bc71 at ,trinity ,col4 ,camb4 7,b #ad4 #ci1 #dj71 and in the ,brit4 ,mus4 7,addit4 #aggaf74 #aji ,french1 however1 still had some standing at ,oxford at this date4 #aaj ,preserved in ,cambridge ,university ,library4 #aaa ,containing such anglicisms as the rendering of 'already' by tout prest4 #aab ,such collections exist in ,,mss4 ,harl4 #diga and ,addit4 #aggaf1 ,brit4 ,mus42 and in ,ee #d1 #bj1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr4 #aac ,harl4 #diga2 cp4 ,strzinger1 op4 cit4 p4 xvi4 #aad ,early bibliographers seem to have been uncertain as to what category it belonged to3 for some time it was called a ,book for ,travellers2 then a ,vocabulary in ,french and ,english 7,blades1 ,life and ,typography of ,wm4 ,caxton1 #ahfa-fc71 and finally by the more appropriate title of ,dialogues in ,french and ,english4 #aae ,caxton's edition contains ff4 #bd1 with about #bd lines on a page4 ,there are three complete texts extant 7at ,ripon ,cathedral1 ,rylands ,library1 and ,bamborough ,castle71 and one fragmentary one 7in the ,duke of ,devonshire's ,library74 ,the ,ripon copy was reprinted for the ,early ,english ,text ,society in #aijj1 by ,h4 ,bradley 7extra series lxxix474 ,the other edition1 of which a fragment exists in the ,bodleian1 was probably printed by ,wynkyn de ,worde 7,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt1 ,handbook 444 to the ,literature of ,great ,britain1 #ahfg1 p4 #fca74 #aaf ,published from a ,,ms4 in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 by ,m4 ,michelant3 ,le ,livre des ,mestiers1 dialogues franais-flamands1 composs au #ad;e sicle par un matre d'cole de la ville de ,bruges4 ,paris1 #ahge4 #aag ,h4 ,bradley3 ,introduction to the edition of ,caxton's ,dialogues4 #aah ,caxton's arrangement of the ,french and ,english in opposite columns is no doubt accounted for by the fact that he wrote the ,english version by the side of the ,french in his copy of the original phrase book4 #aai ,e4 ,g4 ,duff1 ,a ,century of the ,english ,book ,trade1 ,bibliographical ,soc41 #aije2 and ,handlists of ,books ,printed by ,london ,printers1 ,bibliog4 ,soc41 #aiac1 ad nom4 ,the work is here given the inappropriate title of a ,vocabulary in ,french and ,english4 #abj ,it was to have been reprinted by ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley in a collection of early grammars1 for the ,early ,english ,text ,society4 #aba ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt1 ,bibliographical ,collections and ,notes1 #crd series1 ,london1 #ahhg1 p4 #bic4 #abb ,for instance1 the ,cato cum commento 7#aead71 ,stans puer ad mensam 7#aeaf71 and ,vulgaria ,stanbrigi 7c4 #aebj74 #abc ,what shalt thou do when thou haste an englyssh to be made in ,latine8 ,i shall reherce myn englyssh fyrst1 ones1 twyces1 and loke out my princypal verbe1 and aske hym this questyon who or what4 ,and that worde that answeryth to the questyon shall be the nomynatif case to the verbe4 #abd ,in the ,british ,museum ,catalogue ,wynkyn's edition is dated #adic8 and ,pynson's #aejj82 the year #aejj8 is also put forward as the date for the fragmentary edition4 ,w4 ,c4 ,hazlitt dates ,wynkyn's edition at about the year #adih1 and ,pynson's at about #adib-c 7,bibliographical ,collections1 ut supra1 and ,handbook1 ,london1 #ahfg1 p4 #baj74 #abe ,my heres4 ,mes cheveulx4 ,my browes4 ,mez sourcieulx4 ,myn eres4 ,mez oreilles4 ,myn teeth4 ,mez dens4 ,my forhede4 ,mon front4 ,myn eyen4 ,mez yeulx4 ,my nose4 ,mon nez4 ,my tong4 ,ma langue 4 4 4 etc4 #abf ,published by ,e4 ,j4 ,furnivall1 ,manners and ,meals in ,olden ,time1 #ahfh1 pp4 #af sqq4 ,the ,,ms4 used by the compiler of the ,french manual was no doubt of a later date than the one here printed4 #abg ,pp4 #ai-bj in fine4 #abh ,it contains #aa quarto leaves1 of the size of the time1 with usually #bi lines to a page4 #abi ,thus in ,pynson's edition the order of the personal pronouns before the verb is often inverted 7le vous diray1 le vous rende71 while it is correct in ,wynkyn's2 and some lines of the ,french version of the courtesy book are almost unintelligible1 whereas their meaning is clearly expressed by ,wynkyn4 #acj ,such phrases as say me my friend for dites-moi mon ami2 do me have a good chamber for faites-moi avoir une bonne chambre4 #aca ,in addition to the works already mentioned1 some reference to these mediaeval treatises is also found in an article by ,h4 ,oelsner1 in the ,athenaeum 7,feb4 #aa1 #aije72 in ,a4 ,way's edition of the ,promptorium ,parvulorum 7,camden ,soc41 #ahfe1 ,no4 #hi2 ,appendix1 pp4 xxvii sqq4 and pp4 lxxi sqq472 ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #crd series1 ii4 p4 #bjh4 ,,part ,,ii ,,tudor ,,times ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,at ,,court ,,and ,,among ,,the ,,nobility ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century the gradual changes which brought about the extinction of ,anglo-,french were complete to all intents and purposes2 this corrupt form of the language lingered only in a few religious houses and the law courts4 ,the ,french spoken at the ,english ,court in the ,middle ,ages had remained purer than elsewhere2 for centuries the kings of ,england were as much attached to ,france as to ,england2 they had spent much of their time in ,france and fought for the ,french crown as their natural right1 not as ,englishmen in strife with ,frenchmen4 ,from the thirteenth century1 however1 ,english was understood1 though not widely spoken1 at ,court4 ,it progressed gradually until1 two centuries later1 in the reign of ,henry ,,vi41 it was used more frequently than ,french4 ,by the sixteenth century ,french was an entirely foreign language at the ,english ,court1 and it was round the ,court circles that developed the new and more serious study of the language which then arose--a study which led to the production of so important a work as ,john ,palsgrave's ,l',esclarcissement de la langue franoyse4 ,it will therefore be well to consider the extent to which ,french was used among the nobility and gentry of the time4 ,the personal ascendancy of the ,tudors and the pomp of their ,court began to attract the attention of foreigners1 and to excite their curiosity4 ,consequently numerous travellers made their way to the ,english capital2 and later in the same period religious persecution1 raging on the ,continent1 drove many ,protestants1 frequently men of distinction1 to seek refuge in ,england4 ,what language would these visitors employ in their intercourse with their hosts8 ,english is excluded from the purview1 because at this time1 and indeed for some time after1 our language received no recognition1 and certainly no homage from any foreigner1 and but scant deference from ,english scholars themselves4#acb ,several foreign visitors in ,london have left an account of their impressions on hearing this entirely unknown and strange language spoken4 ,thus ,nicander ,nucius1 the ,greek ,envoy at the ,court of ,henry ,,viii41 says of the ,english that they possess a peculiar language1 differing in some measure from all others2 although it is barbarous1 he finds in it a certain charm and attraction1 and judges it sweeter than ,german or ,flemish4#acc ,others formed a less favourable opinion4#acd ,the physician ,girolamo ,cordano1 for instance1 when he first heard ,englishmen speaking1 thought they were ,italians gone mad and raving1 for they inflect the tongue upon the palate1 twist words in the mouth1 and maintain a sort of gnashing with the teeth4 ,the ,dutchman1 ,immanuel von ,meteren1 gathered the impression that ,english is broken ,german1 not spoken from the heart as the latter1 but only prattling with the tongue4 ,we have1 however1 to recollect that1 among the learned1 ,latin was in general use as a spoken language2 it was the ideal of the ,humanists to make ,latin the universal language of the educated world4 ,erasmus was able to live several years in ,england1 and in familiar intercourse with ,englishmen1 without feeling the necessity for learning ,english or using any other modern language2 but he mingled almost entirely with scholars1 such as ,grocyn1 ,linacre1 ,latimer1 ,colet1 and ,more--men with whom ,henry ,,viii4 loved to surround himself4 ,still1 the great ,dutchman was an exception even amongst ,humanists1 who nearly all1 at some period in their lives1 forsook ,latin for their native tongue4 ,moreover1 ,latin was not fluently or colloquially spoken by the majority of the ,english nobility and gentry4 ,the poet1 ,alexander ,barclay1 tells us that the understandyne of ,latyn1 in the early years of the sixteenth century1 was almost contemned by ,gentylmen4#ace ,header3 ,,the ,,speaking ,,of ,,latin ,i have not these twenty years used any ,latin tongue1#acf said ,latimer at his trial for heresy in #aeed--;a striking testimony on the lips of one whose natural sympathies were towards ,humanism4 ,some years later the great ,huguenot scholar1 ,hubert ,languet1 wrote to his young ,english friend1 ,sir ,philip ,sidney--then newly returned from continental travel--to express his apprehension lest the young man should forget all his ,latin at the ,english ,court and entirely give up the practice of it2 he urges him to do his best to prevent this1 and maintain his ,latin along with his ,french4 ,languet affirms that he has never heard ,sidney pronounce a syllable of ,french incorrectly1 and wishes his pronunciation of ,latin were as perfect4#acg ,sidney1 however1 does not appear to have considered ,latin of as much importance to a courtier as ,french3 ,so you can speake and write ,latine not barbarously1 he wrote to his brother ,robert in #aehj1ach ,i never require great study ordinarily in ,ciceronianisme1 the cheife abuse of ,oxford4 ,no doubt ,sidney voices a general sentiment in this verdict4 ,it is increasingly clear that the supremacy of ,latin was beginning to be questioned on all sides1 and1 while ,latin remained to a large extent the language of scholars1 it was not generally employed in society4 ,further1 when the ,english did speak ,latin1 foreigners had considerable difficulty in understanding them1 on account of their notoriously bad pronunciation4 ,the great scholar ,scaliger1 who was in ,england in #aeij1 tells that he once listened to an ,englishman talking ,latin for a quarter of an hour1 and at last excused himself1 saying that he did not understand ,english6#aci ,to the same effect is the observation of ,tom ,coryat1 the traveller1 who1 on his journey on the ,continent1#adj found his ,latin so little understood1 that he had to modify his pronunciation4 ,at a later date1 when the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 ,cosmo ,,iii41 visited the two ,english ,universities1#ada he was unable to understand the ,latin speeches and orations with which he was greeted4 ,a ,latin comedy which the ,cambridge students performed in his honour was equally unintelligible to him4 ,to smatter ,latin with an ,english mouth1 wrote ,milton in a well-known passage1 is as ill a hearing as ,law ,french4 ,at the same time a quickened interest in modern languages generally was felt in ,england as in other countries4 ,two of these1 ,italian and ,spanish1 entered the arena to challenge the supremacy of ,french in the world of fashion and intellect4 ,the real issue of the contest1 however1 was never in doubt4 ,the ,renaissance and the new ,humanism appeared for a time to favour the ,italian rival1#adb but the inherent merits of ,french1 with its particular genius for precision and clarity1 easily won the day4 ,those circles--often very brilliant circles--of distinguished men and women for whom the ,renaissance was as the dawn of a new day1 often made ,italian a more serious object of study than ,french2 but though it was widely learned for the sake of its literature1 it was never so widely spoken or so universally popular as ,french4 ,italian1 and to a minor degree ,spanish1 were indeed seriously cultivated by the ,tudor group of distinguished linguists1#adc and so became a sort of fashion1 which1 spreading to more frivolous circles1 soon degenerated into mere affectation4 ,these dilettanti had been at a great feast of languages and stolen the scraps1 to use ,shakespeare's words4 ,such affectation was naturally felt to be dangerous4 ,while ,roger ,ascham renders due homage to the linguistic attainments of his queen1#add he finds it necessary to reproach the young gentlemen of the day with their deficiency in this respect4 ,header3 ,,interest ,,in ,,modern ,,languages ,professional teachers of modern languages likewise complain of the lack of seriousness on the part of many of their pupils4 ,john ,florio1#ade for example1 bewails the fact that when they have learned two words of ,spanish1 three words of ,french1 and four words of ,italian1 they think they have enough1 and will study no more2 and a ,french teacher#adf expresses the same thought in almost identical terms2 according to him they learn a little ,french one day1 then a bit of ,italian and a snatch of ,spanish1 and think themselves qualified for an embassy to the ,grand ,turk4 ,shakespeare's ,falconbridge1 the young baron of ,england1 may be taken as a fair example of such dilettantism4#adg ,thus ,italian was never a really dangerous rival to ,french1 which had struck its roots deep into the ,english soil long before ,italian influence reached our shores4 ,not only was this the case1 but ,french was also widely known throughout ,europe4 ,even in the early years of this period1 the poet ,alexander ,barclay1 himself the author of a ,french grammar1 affirms that ,french was spoken even by the ,turks and ,saracens4 ,the ,french themselves are said to have been in love with their own language1 and1 as a result1 to have neglected ,latin2#adh when the ,english ambassador at ,paris1 ,sir ,amias ,poulet1 sent to ,england for a chaplain for his household1 he wrote3 ,yt were to be wished that he had at the least some understandinge in the ,french tongue for his better conference with the ,frenche ministers1 whereof many are not best able to utter there mynde in ,lattyn4#adi ,we may therefore safely conclude that ,french was the language commonly spoken by ,englishmen in their intercourse with foreigners1 although ,latin was sometimes used in conversation1 and ,italians were occasionally addressed in their own tongue4 ,english was so little used in the ,court and its circles that foreigners were apt to forget that ,england had a language of her own2 one of them considers it a merit in ,henry ,,viii4 that he was able to speak ,english6 ,in ,london1 indeed1 the use of ,french was so common that several foreign observers deemed the fact worthy of note4 ,nicander ,nucius1 the ,greek envoy who visited ,london in #aede1 remarks#aej that1 for the most part1 the ,english use the ,french language1 besides having a great admiration for everything else ,french--an observation which cannot safely be taken as referring to any other class than the nobility1 as his relations would be almost wholly restricted to that class4 ,when the ,duke of ,wrttemberg visited the court of ,elizabeth1 where he found ample occasion to exercise his own admirable knowledge of ,french1 he left on record the fact that many ,english courtiers understood and spoke ,french very well4 ,the spread of ,french at the ,english ,court attracted the attention of ,frenchmen also1 and several years after ,nicander's account1 ,peletier du ,mans states that in ,england1 at least among the princes and their courts1 ,french is spoken on all occasions4#aea ,french was also not infrequently used in correspondence4 ,apart from such diplomatic correspondence as exists1 numerous examples of the interchange of private letters in ,french among the ,english nobility have come down to us4 ,even among scholars ,latin was by no means the only medium of communication4 ,in the sixteenth century the chief scholars of the two countries corresponded with each other1 and1 though ,englishmen never wrote in their native tongue1 ,frenchmen did occasionally use their own language rather than ,latin4 ,bacon wrote in ,french to the ,marquis of ,effiat1 and ,hotman1 on the other hand1 in ,french to ,camden3 ,me sentant detraqu de l'usage de la langue latine1 je vous escris cette lettre en franois pour renouveller avec vous notre amiti ancienne et correspondance4#aeb ,john ,calvin corresponded with ,edward ,,vi4 and ,protector ,somerset in ,french1 and ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france carried on a voluminous correspondence in his own language with his tres chere et tres aime bonne soeur1 ,elizabeth1 as well as with her chief ministers4#aec ,header3 ,,french ,,regarded ,,with ,,special ,,favour ,french was thus more than a mere accomplishment for the ,english gentleman1 and soon became an absolute necessity for all those who desired employment under the ,crown4 ,it is true that an interpreter might be had1 but the practice was looked upon with great disfavour as very unsuitable where private negotiations had to be conducted4 ,the necessity for a knowledge of ,french on the part of a minister of state may be gathered from the large number of petitions and other documents addressed to them in that language and preserved among the ,state ,papers4#aed ,a rather curious instance of the favour with which the use of ,french was regarded in official circles is supplied by the case of a ,scotch prisoner in ,london1 who1 when he desired leave on parole1 on the ground of ill-health1 was advised to make his application in ,french1 to shew his scholarship4#aee ,copies of proclamations1 issued in foreign countries1 were frequently translated into ,french before being sent to the ,english ,government2 and time after time we find a lack of knowledge of ,french regarded as a serious disqualification for diplomatic or other public service4 ,one young gentleman regrets that he cannot be engaged on any work of importance as he does not know ,french4 ,the drawbacks arising from an inadequate knowledge of the language appear from the case of a certain ,thomas ,thyrleby who writes from ,valance to ,wriothesly in #aech telling him how much discouraged he is concerning his knowledge of ,french4 ,he says he went with the ,bishop of ,winchester and ,brian to the ,constable that morning at eight o'clock1 and that he could understand them1 but not the ,grand ,master's answer1 except by conjecture1 guessing at a word here and there2 after dinner he had audience of the ,french king and bore away never one word but l'empereur1 l'empereur often rehearsed2 and he feels he must diligently apply himself to learn the language or the king will be ill served when he is left alone4#aef ,the ,tudors appear to have regarded the study of ,french with much favour4 ,the first king of this line had lived for many years in ,france and was strongly imbued with ,french tastes4#aeg ,he encouraged ,frenchmen to visit ,england1 and appointed one of them1 ,bernard ,andr1 his ,poet ,laureate and ,historiographer as well as tutor to his sons4 ,there were also troupes of ,french comedians and minstrels who performed at ,court from time to time4#aeh ,the king always received with favour at his ,court those who were fluent in the ,french tongue4 ,no doubt ,stephen ,hawes secured the king's patronage partly by his facility in the use of this language1 and partly from his really profound knowledge of ,french literature1 of which the king also was an eager student4 ,yet this first of the ,tudor kings belongs rather to the ,middle ,ages and the ,old ,learning than to the ,renaissance4 ,not until we reach the period of ,henry ,,viii41 a distinct favourer of the ,new ,learning1 do we enter fully into the spirit of the new movement4 ,in a true sense ,henry may be called the first ,king of ,england1 for ,england was his real home1 and while using the ancient title ,king of ,france1 he had no truly filial attachment to the country4 ,he may thus be taken as a fair example of the attitude of the cultivated ,english noble towards foreign languages4 ,he spoke ,french fluently though he had never been in ,france1 and also conversed in ,latin with ease2 ,italian he understood1 but made no attempt to speak4 ,he always addressed foreigners in either ,french or ,latin4#aei ,an admirer of ,french fashions1 he copied in such matters his friend and rival1 the ,french king1 even allowing his beard to grow when he heard that ,francis wore one1 and having his hair dressed short and straight after the ,french fashion4 ,when the ,venetian ambassador1 ,piero ,pasqualigo1 came from ,paris to ,london in #aeae1 ,henry eagerly seized the opportunity to institute a comparison between himself and the ,french king4 ,pasqualigo1 meeting ,henry at ,greenwich1 writes how he on one occasion beheld his majesty mounted on a bay ,frieslander1 and dressed entirely in green velvet2 directly the envoy came in sight1 he began to make his horse to curvet and perform such feats1 that ,pasqualigo says he thought himself looking upon ,mars4 ,he came into our tent1 the narrator continues1 and1 addressing me in ,french1 said1 ,talk with me a while4#afj ,header3 ,,henry ,,viii4',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,french ,henry then proceeded to question him about ,francis and to induce him to draw comparisons between himself and the ,french king4 ,the ambassador remarks that ,henry spoke ,french very well indeed4 ,the campaign of #aeac supplies another example of the ease with which ,henry spoke ,french4 ,the ,english king was accompanied by ,brandon1 ,duke of ,suffolk1 who later incurred the royal anger by his presumption in marrying ,henry's sister ,mary1 the ,dowager of ,france4 ,on the present occasion1 however1 the king's knowledge of ,french was of great service to ,suffolk1 who found some difficulty in pressing his suit with the ,lady ,margaret of ,savoy1 owing to his ignorance of that language4 ,the ,duke had half seriously removed a ring from the lady's finger1 and1 as she particularly desired to reclaim it1 and he refused to return it1 she called him a thief2 but he could not understand the word larron1 so she was forced to call upon the king to explain4#afa ,there are extant several examples of ,henry's compositions in ,french4 ,much of his private correspondence was written in this tongue2 and he also essayed to write verses in ,french1 possibly in imitation of ,francis ,i4 ,their quality may be judged from the following specimens3#afb ,adieu madam et ma mastres1 ,adieu mon solas et mon joy1 ,adieu jusque vous revoy1 ,adieu vous diz par graunt tristesse4 or3 ,helas madam cel qe je metant j'eme tant1 soffre qe soie voutre humble svant servant2 ie seray vous a tousiours e tant que ie vivray alt n'airay qe vous4#afc ,we gather from ,henry's spelling of ,french that he had learnt the language chiefly by ear4 ,there is a curious example of the fluency with which the king and his courtiers spoke ,french1 in a scene described by ,wolsey's gentleman usher and afterwards dramatized by ,shakespeare4#afd ,the cardinal was among the few at the ,court of ,henry ,,viii4 who did not speak ,french with ease4 ,during a banquet he was giving at the palace of ,whitehall1 ,henry and a band of courtiers landed unexpectedly at the ,whitehall ,stairs1 disguised as foreign noblemen4 ,wolsey sent the ,lord ,chancellor to bid them welcome1 because he could not speak ,french himself4#afe ,the visitors were introduced1 and passed for a time as foreigners1 the ,lord ,chancellor acting as their interpreter to ,wolsey4 ,at last the royal joker and his companions disclosed their identity amidst a tumult of exclamations1 and then joined in the festivities4#aff ,the ladies of the ,court rivalled the noblemen in their knowledge of ,french4 ,when the ,french ambassadors with their brilliant suite1 who had come to ,england for the ratification of peace in #aead1 were entertained in great state at ,greenwich1 all the ladies and gentlewomen were able to converse in good ,french with their ,french partners1 which delighted them much to heare the ,ladies speake to them in their owne language4#afg ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find ,french holding an important place in the education of women of high birth4 ,the princess ,mary ,tudor1 one of the most attractive figures at the ,english ,court1 had1 like the king her brother1 been early initiated in the difficulties of the ,french language4#afh ,at the age of twelve she pronounced in ,french her betrothal vows to the ,prince of ,castile 7#aeac72 and when it fell to her lot to marry ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france1 she continued still more to apply herself to the study of the language4 ,she was able to write to her future husband in his own tongue1#afi and even occasionally made use of it in her correspondence with her brother1 the ,english king4 ,header3 ,,french ,,among ,,the ,,ladies ,henry's first queen did little to forward ,french tastes and never modified her natural preference for all things ,spanish1 but with the advent of ,queen ,anne ,boleyn ,french acquired a powerful and enthusiastic patroness4 ,anne was entirely ,french by education and tastes4 ,she had been brought up by a ,french governess1#agj and had from an early age used the ,french language in her correspondence with her father during his absences at the ,court and elsewhere4 ,it was her fluency in this language which led to her rapid advancement on her arrival at ,court4 ,she was soon chosen to accompany the king's sister ,mary to ,france1 and just before her appointment wrote to her father in ,french1 telling him that the presence of the ,queen of ,france would inspire her with a still greater desire to speak ,french well4#aga ,anne stayed in ,france several years1 first in the service of ,mary during the few months she was ,queen of ,france1 then in that of her successor1 ,queen ,claude1 consort of ,francis ,i41 and finally in the more lively household of ,margaret of ,alenon1 afterwards ,queen of ,navarre4 ,on her return to the ,english ,court she became maid of honour to ,queen ,katherine1 and her skill in dress and her ,french manners#agb did much to promote the taste for ,french fashions4 ,the famous ,elizabethan antiquary ,camden asserts that ,anne's ,french jollity first attracted to her the notice of ,henry4 ,at any rate the courtship was largely carried on in ,french4 ,out of the seventeen love letters of ,henry to ,anne ,boleyn1 which are preserved in the ,vatican ,library1 more than half are in ,french4#agc ,one of these may be quoted as an example of the ,english king's powers in ,french prose4 ,it was written to ,anne during one of the absences she deemed expedient to make from the ,court3 ,ma ,maitresse et amie1 moy et mon coeur s'en remettent en vos mains1 vous suppliant les avoir pour recommander a votre bonne grace1 et que par absence votre affection ne leur soit diminu4 ,car pur augmenter leur peine ce seroit grande piti1 car l'absence leur fait assez1 et plus que jamais je n'eusse pens 4 4 4 vous asseurant que de ma part l'ennuye de l'absence deja m'est trop grande4 ,et quand je pense a l'augmentation d'iceluy que par force faut que je soufre il m'est presque intollerable1 s'il n'estoit le ferme espoir que j'aye de votre indissoluble affection vers moi1 et pour le vous rementevoir alcune fois cela1 et voyant que personellement je ne puis estre en votre presence1 chose la plus approchante a cela qui m'est possible au present1 je vous envoye1 c'est-a-dire ma picture mise en braisselettes a toute la devise que deja savez1 me souhaitant en leur place quant il vous plairoit4 ,c'est de la main de--,votre serviteur et amy1 ,h4 ,r4 ,of ,henry's other queens1 ,jane ,seymour and ,katherine ,howard were both ardent admirers of the ,french language4 ,the former had1 like ,anne ,boleyn1 completed her education at the ,french ,court4 ,henry's chief objection to ,anne of ,cleves was her lack of ,french refinements4 ,we know from the ,french ambassador ,marillac that ,henry was ill pleased at ,anne's ,german costume and made her dress in the ,french style1#agd which1 according to the same authority1 had been favoured by ,queen ,katherine ,howard and all her ladies4 ,moreover1 the new queen could speak neither ,french#age nor ,english1 and her own language was displeasing to the king's ears2 consequently he refused to converse much with her by means of an interpreter4#agf ,as for ,katharine ,parr1 she was one of the most distinguished linguists of her time1 and did much to encourage the studies of the royal family4 ,french was one of the principal studies of ,henry ,,viii4's children4 ,it appears to have been the only modern foreign language with which ,edward ,,vi4 was acquainted2 he is said to have been in the ,french and ,latin ,tongues singularly perfect4#agg ,mary1 on the other hand1 knew ,spanish as well as she did ,french4 ,this is1 however1 accounted for by the fact that she was early destined to become the wife of the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 ,header3 ,,french ,,studied ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,family ,the emperor had even tried to persuade ,henry to allow his daughter to be brought up in ,spain4 ,his request was refused1 but a promise was given that the princess should be educated in all points as a ,spanish lady4#agh ,in addition to this1 her mother1 ,katherine of ,aragon1 superintended her early education1 and her attendants were all ,spanish4 ,thus ,spanish was for a time almost her native tongue4 ,yet ,french was by no means neglected1 especially after the ,spanish marriage was broken off4 ,fresh impetus was given to this study by the possibility of a ,french match1 when in #aeah negotiations for a union with the ,dauphin1 son of ,francis ,i41 were set on foot4 ,on the testimony of ,marillac1 ,mary spoke and wrote ,french well2 the ambassador had seen letters of hers written in ,french at the time of her mother's divorce4#agi ,the princess was also well acquainted with ,latin1 and understood ,italian1 though1 like many others1 she did not attempt to speak it4#ahj ,elizabeth alone of the royal family spoke ,italian with almost as much ease as she did ,french4#aha ,french and ,italian she speaks like ,english1 wrote her tutor1 ,roger ,ascham1 ,latin with fluency1 propriety1 and judgment2 and in addition she had some knowledge of ,greek4 ,when queen1 she retained her early fancy for ,italian1 and prided herself on using no other language in the presence of ,italians4#ahb ,the ,scotch ambassador1 ,sir ,james ,melville1 a very competent judge1 remarks that she spoke it raisonable weill4#ahc ,french1 however1 was her usual means of intercourse with other foreigners1 even when1 like ,melville1 they spoke ,english4 ,the queen commended ,melville's ,french4 ,she said my ,french was gud1 he writes in his memoirs1 where he likewise gives his own opinion of the queen's attainments in the language3 hir ,maiestie culd speak as gud ,frenche as any that had never bene out of the contrie1 but yet she laiketh the use of the ,frenche court language1 quhilk was frank and schort and had oft tymes twa significations1 quhilk discreit and famylier frendes tok always in the best part4#ahd ,if not idiomatic1 the queen's ,french is generally allowed to have been fluent4 ,her accent is reported to have been harsh and unpleasing2 she spoke with a drawl1 and1 according to ,m4 ,drizanval1 resident in ,london for the ,french king1#ahe she constantly repeated the phrase paar ,dieu1 paar maa foi in a ridiculous tone4 ,another visitor1 the ,duke of ,wrttemberg1 records that he once heard her deliver an appropriate speech in ,french1#ahf which1 as usual1 was the language in which he addressed her4 ,towards the end of her reign the queen still practised the use of ,french and ,italian4 ,in #aeih the ,german ,hentzner1 travelling in ,england1 describes how he saw ,elizabeth as she went along in all her ,state and magnificence1 and how she spoke very graciously first to one then to another 7whether foreign ministers or those who attend for different reasons7 in ,english1 ,french1 and ,italian4#ahg ,she also wrote ,french with some ease4 ,one of her earliest literary efforts was a translation from the ,french of ,margaret of ,navarre's ,miroir de l',ame pcheresse4 ,she likewise composed devotions and prayers in ,french--a habit which she retained after she had been queen for many years4 ,at the time when her marriage with the ,duke of ,alenon1 her little frog1 as she calls him1 was under discussion1 the queen compiled a curious little volume1 containing six prayers1 written on vellum in a very neat hand2 in addition to devotions in ,french and ,english there are others in ,italian1 ,latin1 and ,greek4 ,in the front of this work there is a miniature of the ,duke1 and at the end1 one of ,elizabeth4#ahh ,other examples of her compositions in ,french are found in her correspondence1 where this language holds a considerable place4 ,it thus appears that the majority of the ,english nobility and gentry spoke and understood ,french at least tolerably well4 ,header3 ,,french ,,tutors ,,and ,,french ,,grammars ,we are led to ask how they came by their knowledge1 and what facilities there were in ,england for learning ,french1 seeing that many of them never visited ,france4 ,in the sixteenth century private tuition played a large part in the education of the gentry2 and the professional tutor was1 in many cases1 a ,frenchman1 who would naturally further the study of his native tongue4 ,the ,court itself encouraged the custom of employing ,french tutors by engaging several in its midst2 and as1 at this time1 the ,court became a powerful factor in ,english social life1 and the chief means of entering the service of the ,state1 noblemen and gentlemen wishing to figure on the social stage endeavoured to adapt themselves to ,court requirements4 ,french tutors were to be found in all the chief families of the time4 tienne ,pasquier remarks that there was no noble family in ,england without its ,french tutor to instruct the children in the ,french language4#ahi ,this condition of things was still further developed a few years later when religious persecution in ,france and the ,netherlands drove increasingly large numbers of ,protestant refugees to take asylum in ,england4 ,all traces of the majority of these tutors have been lost2 those of whom anything is known were1 for the most part1 either the authors of manuals for teaching ,french1 or had won repute as writers or ,humanists before leaving their native land4 ,one of these ,humanists was ,bernard ,andr1 familiarly called ,master ,barnard1 the blind poet--an infirmity to which he frequently refers4 ,he was a native of ,toulouse1 and probably came to ,england with ,henry ,,vii41 his patron4#aij ,it is a curious fact that soon after his accession ,henry appointed this ,frenchman1 author of verses in ,french and ,latin but never a line in ,english1 ,poet ,laureate of ,england4 ,in addition to this he bestowed on him repeated marks of favour4 ,for a time ,andr was engaged as a tutor at ,oxford1 and in #adif was chosen as governor to ,prince ,arthur1 and probably had much to do with the education of his brother1 afterwards ,henry ,,viii4 ,appointed ,historiographer ,royal1 he began in this capacity to write his patron's life4 ,like so many other men of education1 ,andr was in ,holy ,orders2 he received preferment from time to time1 and was finally presented to the living of ,guisnes near ,calais1 which he resigned in #aeba1 having attained an extreme old age4 ,in the early sixteenth century1 as in the ,middle ,ages1 ,england took the initiative in the production of ,french grammars4#aia ,the numbers which appeared are so many testimonies to ,englishmen's interest in the ,french language4 ,the chief and best known of these grammars is the great work of ,john ,palsgrave 7#aecj71 already mentioned1 which stands out in contrast with the slight treatises which had previously appeared on the subject in ,england4 ,considering the time when it was written and the irregular and unsettled condition of the language with which it deals1 it is truly remarkable for its fulness and comprehensiveness4 ,almost alone of its predecessors and its immediate successors1 it answered more than a merely temporary and professional purpose1 and is still of very great value to the student of the ,english and ,french languages at that time1 and a great storehouse of obsolete words in both languages4 ,perhaps the very reason which makes it so valuable to the student of to-day hindered its success in the sixteenth century2 most students of ,french then preferred the shorter and more practical manuals4 ,palsgrave had a very exalted idea of the ,french tongue2 he desired to place it on a level with the three perfect tonges--,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew--and to make it a fourth and classical tongue1 by drawing up absolute rules for its use4 ,palsgrave's grammar acquires additional importance from the fact that no similar work had been produced in ,france4 ,it is the first systematized attempt to formulate rules for the ,french language1 or indeed for any modern tongue4 ,only one year later1 however1 ,sylvius or ,dubois published his ,in ,linguam ,gallicam ,eisagoge 7#aeca74 ,in the address to ,henry ,,viii41 which precedes his work1 ,palsgrave speaks of the great nombre of clerkes1 whiche before season of this mater have written nowe sithe the beginnyng of your most fortunate and most prosperous raigne4 ,all these clerkes1 he says1 have treated chiefly of two things1 which they judged specially useful to the ,english--the pronunciation of ,french1 and wherein the true analogie of the two tongues did rest4 ,header3 ,,barclay',s ,,introductory ,no doubt many of these treatises were in manuscript and are among the lost treasures of the sixteenth century4 ,yet some have come down to us4 ,palsgrave mentions three writers by name1 ,alexander ,barclay1 ,petrus ,vallensys1 and ,giles ,duwes1 copies of whose works are still in existence4 ,the earliest of these grammars--so far as is known the first ,french grammar ever printed--was the work of ,alexander ,barclay1 well known as a prolific writer and poet1 who devoted much of his time to translation and did much to make contemporary ,french literature known in ,england4 ,barclay had spent a time full of foly and unprofytable stody at some university1 possibly ,paris2 he had travelled1 and was well acquainted with ,french2 from his youth upwards1 he says1 he had been exercised in the two languages of ,french and ,english4 ,it was late in his literary career1 when he had withdrawen his pen from its olde dylygence1 that he undertook to compose a grammar of the ,french language1 at the request of the ,duke of ,norfolk1 ,lord ,treasurer of ,england1 and of certain other gentlemen4 ,the work appeared in #aebaaib under the title of ,here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche compyled by ,alexander ,barclay1 compendiously at the commandement of the right hye excellent and myghty prynce1 ,th4 duke of ,northfolke4 ,the printer1 ,robert ,coplande1 himself a good ,french scholar1 composed some lines on the coat of arms of the ,duke in ,french1 and printed them at the beginning of the book2 at the end he placed a translation of ,lambert ,danneau's ,trait des ,danses1 also from his own pen4#aic ,barclay's endeavour is to make his grammar as short and concise as possible2 his rules1 so far as they go1 are stated very clearly2 he plunges straight away into his subject without any preliminary observations3 je in frenche1 he begins1 is as moche to say in english as ,i1 tu1 thou1 il1 he1 nous1 vous1 ilz or els3 we may use sometyme ceux for this worde ilz4 ,if we answere to a question by this worde ',i' usynynge no verbe withall then shall not 'ie' be set for ',i' but 'moy1' as in this example1 'qui fist ce livre' 444 ,if ,i sholde answere saynge ,i1 addynge no verbe withall1 ,i must say 'moy1' and not 'ie4' ,after giving similar rules for the second person singular1 he proceeds to explain how1 when the words nous1 vous1 ilz are placed before a verb beginning with a consonant1 their last consonant is not pronounced1 although it remains in the spelling2 but if they come before a verb beginning with a vowel1 the consonants are pronounced4 ,he then turns to the conjugation of the two auxiliaries and some of the most common irregular verbs1 to show how these pronouns are ioyned with verbes4 ,on the back of folio #d he begins his introductory of orthography or true wrytynge wherby the diligent reder may be infourmed truly and perfytely to wryte and pronounce the ,frenche tunge after the dyvers customes of many contress of ,france4 ,barclay1 then1 does not adopt an exclusive attitude towards provincial accents2 he rather calls attention to them1#aid though probably merely stating facts and drawing distinctions with no intention of teaching provincial forms4 ,palsgrave1 on the other hand1 deals only with the ,french spoken between the ,seine and the ,loire1 which he regarded as the only pure ,french4 ,barclay's attitude to dialectal forms may possibly be explained by the fact that he transcribed freely from the mediaeval treatises1 especially the ,donait franois of ,john ,barton4 ,his debt was early noted by ,palsgrave1 who wrote3 ,i have sene an olde boke written in parchment1 in all thynges lyke to his sayd ,introductory1 whiche1 by conjecture1 was not unwritten this hundred yeares4#aie ,so freely1 indeed1 and so carelessly did ,barclay use his sources1 that he did not even trouble to modernize the spelling1 which contains many obsolete forms2 in this connexion ,palsgrave1 who criticizes ,barclay very severely when occasion arises1#aif remarks on his use of k for c4 ,having exemplified the pronunciation of some of the ,french letters by comparison with ,english sounds1#aig ,barclay suddenly#aih passes to the consideration of the number and gender of nouns1#aii besides supplying a short list of nouns beginning with the first two letters of the alphabet4 ,after this digression he concludes his observations on the pronunciation1#bjj and proceeds to give an alphabetical vocabulary of nouns1#bja adjectives and verbs1 apparently the earliest known attempt at an alphabetical ,french-,english vocabulary2 the earlier method of arranging words under headings is discarded1 though it continued to be the usual form adopted in most ,french grammars until the end of the eighteenth century4 ,barclay's vocabulary consists of a list of words pure and simple1 with no indication of gender or flexions4 ,the ,introductory ends with lists of ordinal numerals1 days1 seasons1 and so on1 together with words of learned origin common to both languages amonge eloquent men1 and1 last of all1 pieces of prose composition in both ,french and ,english1 arranged in alternate lines4#bjb ,as is usual in these early grammars1 there is an obvious lack of orderly arrangement1 and the work1 as a whole1 gives the impression of being a collection of rough notes rather than a carefully planned treatise4 ,barclay does not1 however1 make any claim to completeness1 nor pretend to lay down absolute rules as ,palsgrave claimed to do4 ,he shared the opinion1 common at that time among ,frenchmen1 that it was impossible to formulate anything like adequate rules for the ,french language4 ,the sketchy nature of his rules may be judged by that given for the position of the objective pronoun3 oft times that thynge whiche cometh before the verbe in ,englyshe commyth after it in frenche as il m'a fait tort 4 4 4 je ne me puis lever4 ,he was of opinion that rules were not of much use in learning ,french3 that language is best learnt by custome and use of redynge and spekynge1 by often enquirynge and frequentynge of company of frenchmen and of suche as have perfytnes in spekynge the sayd language4 ,this opinion prevailed throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in ,england1 and1 as a result1 rules are reduced to a minimum in manuals for teaching ,french4 ,who so desyreth to knowe more of the sayd language1 must provyde for mo bokes made for the same intent1 ,barclay notes at the end of his short and interesting treatise4 ,charles1 ,duke of ,suffolk1 the husband of ,mary1 sister to ,henry ,,viii4 and ,dowager ,queen of ,france1 was soon to make the necessary provision4 ,this syngular good lorde1 says ,palsgrave1 by cause that my poore labours required a longe tracte of tyme1 hath also in the meane season encouraged maister ,petrus ,vallensys1 scole maister to his excellent yong sonne the ,erle of ,lyncolne to shewe his lernynge and opinion on this behalfe4 ,such was the origin of the ,introductions in ,frensche for ,henry the ,yonge ,erle of ,lyncoln 7childe of greate esperaunce7 sonne of the most noble and excellent princesse ,mary 7by the grace of ,god1 queen of ,france etc471#bjc which is undated and anonymous1 but clearly the work of ,petrus ,vallensys or ,pierre ,valence1 ,french tutor to the ,earl of ,lincoln1 and must have been written sometime in the third decade of the century4#bjd ,valence is said to have taught ,french after a wonderesly compendious facile prompte and ready waye1#bje and ,gregory ,cromwell1 whom he also counted among his pupils1 is reported to have made good progress under his direction4 ,header3 ,,pierre ,,valence1 ,,teacher ,,of ,,french ,pierre ,valence was one of the natives of ,normandy1 so numerous in ,england at this time that the fact was commented on by tienne ,perlin1 a ,french priest who visited ,england at the end of the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 ,he describes them as being du tout tres mechans et mauditz ,franois1 worse than all the ,english1 which1 according to him1 is a very grave charge4#bjf ,the date at which ,valence came to ,england is unknown1 but he is said to have studied at ,cambridge in or about #aeae4bjg ,he was in all probability a refugee for religious reasons4 ,he is known to have held ,lutheran opinions1 and1 whilst at ,cambridge1 caused a disturbance by defacing a copy of the ,pope's general indulgence1 which had been set up over the gates of the schools4 ,vigorous but ineffectual attempts were made to discover the writer1 against whom the ,chancellor pronounced sentence of excommunication4 ,valence is alleged finally to have acknowledged the act as his1 to have expressed contrition1 and to have been absolved4 ,there are several points of contact between this man and his greater contemporary1 ,john ,palsgrave3 both were students at ,cambridge1 possibly at the same time1 though ,palsgrave was the senior2 both had as their pupil the son of ,mr4 ,secretary ,cromwell--the one for ,french and the other for ,latin2 both were protgs of the ,dowager ,queen of ,france 7sister of ,henry ,,viii4 and ,palsgrave's pupil for ,french7 and of her husband the ,duke of ,suffolk4 ,in #aece ,valence received a grant of letters of denization1#bjh and ultimately became domestic chaplain and almoner to ,dr4 ,goodrich1 ,bishop of ,ely1 and appears to have maintained this position under the bishop's successor4 ,he was still living in #aeee1 since1 in that year1 he visited some heretics in ,ely jail1 and conjured them to stand loyally by the truth of the ,gospel4#bji ,among the works of dyvers clerkes on the ,french language1 to which ,palsgrave refers1 is probably to be reckoned a short treatise bearing the date #aebh4 ,this work is only known by a fragment consisting of two leaves now preserved in the library at ,lambeth4#baj ,these pages are of quarto size and bear the signature ,b4 ,b4 ,the right-hand page is in ,french1 the left in ,english2 the former is in ,roman characters1 the latter in black letter4 ,although these two pages contain the date1 and the last is not full1 they do not appear to be the end of the work1 as the writer refers to what is to come hereafter4#baa ,one gathers from internal evidence that the author was a foreigner--no doubt a ,frenchman4 ,he speaks1 for instance1 of the gentz ,englois as though he was not one of them2 and it appears to be quite certain that the work was originally composed in ,french1 and translated into ,english rather carelessly1 and probably by another hand1 for in the version it is rendered almost unintelligible by the translation of the ,french illustrative examples as well as the text itself4 ,the contents are of a light and entertaining character4 ,the author holds that many rules do but trouble and marre the understanding4 ,he counsels students rather to follow the example of good writers as likely to be more helpful4 ,he treats entirely of the pronunciation1 and devotes special attention to the difficulties of the ,english1#bab laying emphasis on the importance of placing the accent on the right syllable4 ,the rules are put in an amusing way1 thus3 a should be pronounced fro the botom of the stomake and all openly1 e a lytell higher in the throte there properly where the ,englishman soundeth his e2 i1 in the roundnesse of the lippes2 u1 in puttynge a lytell of wynde out of the mouthe4 ,further uses of the vowel a are thus set forth3 it may be placed before all verbs1 in the infinitive mood1 and before all manner of nouns and pronouns1 as to ,robert1 to ,may1 and so on4 ,again1 it betokeneth 'have' when it cometh of the ,latin verb habeo4 ,the consonants are next dealt with and disposed of in much the same way4 ,some attention is also given to the question1 then much discussed1 whether the etymological consonants in the words where they are not pronounced should be retained or not4 ,the author's opinion was that every letter in a word ought to be sounded1 yet he feels himself utterly unable to struggle against custom1 and falls back on the rule go as you please3 ,header3 ,,two ,,french ,,poets ,,teach ,,french ,pronounce ech one as he shal please1 for to difficyl it is to correct olde errours4 ,among the ,french teachers in ,england at this time were also two ,frenchmen of considerable literary distinction--,nicolas ,bourbon1 the ,latin poet and well-known scholar1 friend of ,rabelais and ,marot2 and ,nicolas ,denisot1 who likewise held an important place among ,french humanists1 and finished his literary education under ,daurat1 the famous ,hellenist4 ,bourbon came to ,england under the protection of ,anne ,boleyn1 who appears to have taken a special interest in him2#bac she had1 he tells us1 procured his liberation from imprisonment4 ,bourbon was for some time a private tutor in ,paris1 and soon after he regained his freedom he crossed to ,england1 intending to continue his work there4 ,he had a cordial welcome1 and invariably speaks of his stay and treatment in ,london with gratitude4 ,his ,latin verses#bad show him to be acquainted with the chief ,englishmen who gathered round the ,court1 where he occupied his leisure by writing satirical verses against the queen's enemies1 especially ,sir ,thomas ,more1#bae and in eulogizing ,cromwell1 ,cranmer1 and the ,reform ,party then in power4 ,it was on the recommendation of the king and queen1 he informs us1 that he was engaged as ,french tutor in several families of distinction1 including the ,carews1 ,norrisses1 and ,harveys4 ,john ,dudley1 ,duke of ,northumberland1 was one of his patrons1 and from him ,robert ,dudley1 afterwards ,earl of ,leicester1 together with his brothers1 learnt ,french as children4 ,bourbon left ,england in #aece1 on hearing of the death of his father4 ,he had probably been in the country at least two years1 and1 perhaps happily for himself1 left it a year before the fall of his patroness ,anne ,boleyn4 ,at a somewhat later date1 #aedg1 the elegant poet and artist ,nicolas ,denisot arrived in ,england1 driven from ,paris by an unfortunate love affair4#baf ,his nephew1 ,jacques ,denisot1 declares he was fort bien accueilliz dans la cour d',angleterre o son estime et sa reputation estoit deja cogneue4 ,he mixed with the writers and politicians#bag of the day1 and attracted the notice of the ,court by writing verses in honour of the young king1 ,edward ,,vi4#bah ,he soon found himself in the distinguished position of ,french and ,latin tutor to the three daughters of the ,protector ,somerset1--,anne1 ,margaret1 and ,jane1--who were destined shortly to become famous in ,paris as his pupils1 and to form an important link in the literary relations of the two countries4 ,calvin corresponded with one of ,denisot's pupils1 the ,lady ,anne2 and in #aedi he wrote requesting her to use her knowledge of ,french in transmitting to her mother an expression of his gratitude for a ring he had received from that lady1 he being unable to do so1 on account of his ignorance of ,english4#bai ,in this same year1 #aedi1 ,denisot's engagement in the house of ,somerset came to an end rather abruptly1 probably on account of some misunderstanding with the duke4 ,he returned to ,france after spending three years in ,england1 and thence kept up a friendly correspondence with his former pupils4 ,on the death of ,queen ,margaret of ,navarre1 whom1 no doubt1 ,denisot had taught them to admire1 the sisters composed four hundred ,latin distichs in her honour1 and sent them to their former master1 who welcomed them with enthusiasm1 and published them in #aeej4 ,in the following year the verses appeared again1 accompanied by ,french1 ,italian1 and ,greek translations1 and verses from the pen of ,ronsard1 ,du ,bellay1 and other literary friends of ,denisot4#bbj ,it is a striking fact that before the ,pliade was fully known in ,france1 the fame of some of its members had reached ,england1 where a particular interest would be taken in this development of the work of the three princesses4 ,ronsard1 ,denisot's intimate friend1 wrote one of his earliest odes in honour of ,denisot's pupils1 in which he celebrates the intellectual union of ,france and ,england3 ,header3 ,,the ,,pl,,iade ,,in ,,england ,denisot se vante heur ,d'avoir oubli sa terre ,et passager demeur ,trois ans en ,angleterre4 4 4 4 4 les espritz ,d',angleterre et de la ,france ,bandez d'une ligue ont pris ,le fer contre l'ignorance1 ,et 7que7 nos ,roys se sont faitz ,d'ennemys amys parfaitz ,tuans la guerre cruelle ,par une paix mutuelle4 ,herberay des ,essarts1 the translator of the famous ,amadis1 wrote a letter in praise of the princesses1 which was printed at the beginning of ,margaret's tombeau4 ,with full justice has ,denisot been called the ambassador of the ,french ,renaissance in ,england4 ,,footnotes3 #acb ,it was1 however1 an ,english scholar1 ,richard ,mulcaster1 ,headmaster of ,merchant ,taylors' ,school 7#aefa7 and of ,st4 ,paul's ,school 7#aeif71 who boldly urged that the ,english language was a subject worthy of study by ,englishmen1 though this was not till #aehb1 when his ,elementarie was published4 #acc ,the ,second ,book of the ,travels of ,nicander ,nucius1 #aede1 ,camden ,society1 ,london1 #ahda1 p4 #ac4 #acd ,w4 ,b4 ,rye1 ,england as seen by ,foreigners1 ,london1 #ahfe1 passim4 #ace ,translation of ,sallust's ,bellum ,jugurthinum3 ,dedication to the ,duke of ,norfolk4 #acf ,remains1 ,parker ,society1 p4 #dgj4 ,quoted by ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,histoire littraire du peuple anglais1 ,paris1 #aijd1 p4 #hf1 n4 #c4 #acg ,the ,correspondence of ,sir ,philip ,sidney and ,hubert ,languet1 ed4 ,w4 ,a4 ,bradly1 ,boston1 #aiab1 pp4 #da and #aab4 #ach ,sidney ,papers1 ed4 ,a4 ,collins1 in ,letters and ,memorials of ,state1 #b vols41 ,london1 #agdf1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bhc-e4 #aci ,letters of ,descartes1 quoted by ,e4 ,j4 ,b4 ,rathery1 ,les ,relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la ,france et l',angleterre 4 4 4 ,paris1 #ahef4 #adj ,which provided the material for that bonnie bouncing book1 as ,ben ,jonson called it--,coryat's ,crudities3 ,hastily gobled up in ,five ,months' ,travells in ,france1 etc4 #afaa4 #ada ,rye1 op4 cit4 pp4 xxxv-xxxvii4 #adb ,l4 ,einstein1 ,the ,italian ,renaissance in ,england1 ,new ,york1 #aijg4 #adc ,the ,tudor group of distinguished linguists includes the names of many women4 ,the chronicler ,harrison remarks that it is a rare thing to hear of a courtier that has but his own language1 and to tell how many ladies are skilled in ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,italian is beyond his power 7,holinshed's ,chronicle1 #aehf1 i4 p4 #aif74 ,nicholas ,udal writes in the same strain in his dedication to ,queen ,katherine ,parr of his translation of ,erasmus's ,paraphrase of the ,gospels2 we are told that a great number of noble women at that time in ,england were given to the study of human sciences and of strange tongues2 and that it was a common thing to see young virgins so nouzled and trained in the study of letters that thei willingly set all other vain pastymes at nought for learnynge's sake4 ,amongst the most accomplished of such ,queens and ,ladies of high estate and progeny were ,queen ,katherine ,parr and ,lady ,jane ,grey4 ,mulcaster in his ,positions 7#aeha7 praises ,english ladies for their fondness of serious study1 and so does the ,italian teacher ,torriano in his ,italian reviv'd 7#afgc71 p4 #ii4 ,many examples of fluent linguists are found in ,ballard's ,memoirs of ,several ,ladies of ,great ,britain1 #bnd ed41 #agge4 #add ,elizabeth's command of foreign languages was constantly a subject of remark4 ,dr4 ,william ,turner in the dedication of his ,herbal 7#aefh7 to the queen1 addresses her thus3 ,as to your knowledge of ,latin and ,greek1 ,french1 ,italian1 and others also1 not only your own faythful subiectes1 beynge far from all suspicion of flattery1 bear witness1 but also strangers1 men of great learninge1 in their books set out in ,latin tonge1 give honourable testimonye4 ,best known of these learned observers was ,scaliger 7,scaligeriana1 ,cologne1 #afie1 p4 #acd74 ,similar eulogies in verse were left by ,french poets3 ,ronsard1 ,elegies1 ,mascarades et ,bergeries 7#aefa71 reproduced in ,le ,bocage royal 7#aefg72 ,jacques ,grvin1 ,chant du cygne2 ,du ,bartas1 ,second ,week2 and ,agrippa d',aubign2 also by ,john ,florio1 ,first ,frutes1 #aegh1 ch4 xiii4 #ade ,first ,frutes1 #aegh1 ch4 i4 #adf ,john ,eliote1 ,ortho-,epia ,gallica1 #aeif4 #adg ,merchant of ,venice1 ,act ,i4 ,scene #b4 #adh ,cp4 ,brunot1 ,histoire de la langue franaise1 ii4 pp4 #b sqq4 ,dallington in his ,view of ,france remarks on the same neglect4 ,in ,the ,abbot and the ,learned ,woman1 ,erasmus praises the latter for studying the classics and not1 as was usual1 confining herself to ,french 7,colloquia1 ,leiden1 #aeai74 #adi ,copy ,book of ,sir ,amias ,poulet's ,letters1 ,roxburghe ,club1 #ahff1 p4 #abi4 #aej ,the ,second ,book of the ,travels of ,nicander ,nucius1 ,camden ,soc41 #ahda1 p4 #ad4 #aea ,dialogue de l'ortografe et pronunciacion franoese departi en deus livres1 ,lyon1 #aeeh4 #aeb ,peiresc wrote in ,french to the scholars ,selden and ,camden1 who answered in ,latin4 ,other ,french scholars who maintained a correspondence with ,englishmen are de ,thou1 ,jrme ,bignon1 ,duchesne1 du ,plessis ,mornay1 ,h4 ,estienne1 ,hubert ,languet1 ,pibrac1 and the ,sainte-,marthe brothers4 #aec ,lettres missives de ,henri ,,iv1 #i tom41 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,for an example of ,elizabeth's ,french in her intercourse with her neighbours1 see ,rathery1 ,les ,relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la ,france et l',angleterre1 ,paris1 #ahef1 p4 #ca n42 ,unton ,correspondence1 ,roxburghe ,club1 #ahdg1 passim4 #aed ,see the ,calendars of ,state ,papers for the period4 #aee ,calendar of ,state ,papers1 ,domestic1 #aeie-ig1 p4 #cbh4 #aef ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 vol xiii4 pt4 i4 ,no4 #igg4 #aeg ,henry ,,vii4's mother1 the ,countess of ,richmond1 was also an accomplished ,french scholar2 she translated several works from the ,french1 and encouraged others to follow her example4 #aeh ,j4 ,p4 ,collier1 ,annals of the ,english ,stage1 #ahca1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dh1 #ea1 #ec4 #aei ,cp4 ,rye1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gf1 #gi4 #afj ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 ed4 ,brewer1 vol4 ii4 ,no4 #daa2 ,rawdon ,brown1 ,four ,years at the ,court of ,henry ,,viii41 #ahed1 vol4 i4 pp4 #gf-gi and #hf4 #afa ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 vol4 i4 p4 xxiii4 #afb ,songs1 ,ballads1 and ,instrumental ,pieces composed by ,king ,henry ,,viii41 ,oxford1 #aiab4 ,barclay says in his ,eclogues that ,french minstrels and singers were highly favoured at ,court4 ,jamieson1 ,life and ,writings of ,barclay1 #ahgd1 p4 #dd4 #afc ,je serai vous toujours et tant que je vivrai autre n'aimerai que vous4 #afd ,henry ,,viii41 ,act ,i4 ,scene #d4 #afe ,wolsey spoke ,latin well4 ,like ,charles ,,ii4 he considered it diplomatic to affect ignorance of ,french at times4 ,such is his advice to those who accompanied him on his embassy to ,france3 ,the nature of the ,frenchmen is such that at their first meeting they will be as familiar with you as if they had knowne you by long acquaintance1 and will commune with you in their ,french ,tongue as if you knew every word4 ,therefore use them in a kind manner1 and bee as familiar with them as they are with you3 if they speake to you in their natural tongue1 speake to them in ,english1 for if you understand not them1 no more shall they you4 ,puttenham1 in his ,arte of ,english ,poesie1 advises ambassadors and messengers not to use foreign languages of which they have not perfect command1 lest they commit blunders similar to that of the courtier who said of a ,french lady1 ,elle chevauche bien1--blunders which might have serious results in diplomatic transactions4 #aff ,the ,negociations of ,th4 ,wolsey1 ,the ,great ,cardinal of ,england1 containing his ,life and ,death4 ,composed by one of his own servants1 being his gentleman usher 7,g4 ,cavendish871 ,london1 #afda4 #afg ,negociations of ,th4 ,wolsey1 ut supra4 #afh ,m4 ,e4 ,a4 ,green1 ,lives of the ,princesses of ,england1 #ahdi-ahee1 v4 p4 #bj4 #afi ,green's ,letters of ,royal and ,illustrious ,ladies1 #ahdf4 ,see also ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #ast series1 vol4 i4 p4 #aae4 #agj ,life of ,anne ,boleyn1 in ,strickland's ,lives of the ,queens of ,england1 ,london1 #ahhd1 ii4 pp4 #agi1 #aha4 #aga ,ellis1 ,orig4 ,letters1 #bnd series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aa4 ,anne's ,french spelling is curious and suggests that1 like ,henry ,,viii41 she learnt ,french mainly by ear3 ,mons4 ,je antandue par vre lettre que aves envy que tout onnete feme quan je vindre la courte et ma vertisses que ,rene prendra la pein de devisser a vecc moy1 de quoy me regoy bien fort de pensser parler a vecc ung personne tante sage et onnete1 cela me ferra a voyr plus grante anvy de continuer a parler bene franssais4 #agb ,a ,french poem of the time1 preserved in ,,ms4 and quoted by ,rathery1 op4 cit4 p4 #ba1 celebrates ,anne's ,french accomplishments--,trait pour feue dame ,anne de ,boulant1 jadis royne d',angleterre1 l'an #aecc3 ,la tellement ses graces amenda ,que ne l'eussiez oncques juge ,angloise ,en ses fachons1 ains nave ,franhoise4 ,elle savoit bien danser et chanter1 ,et ses propos sagement agencer1 ,sonner du luth et d'autres instrumens ,pour divertir les tristes pensemens4 #agc ,pub41 with ,english translation1 in the ,harleian ,miscellany1 vol4 iii41 #agde1 pp4 #eb-fb4 #agd ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 xv4 #agi1 and xvi4 #ab4 #age ,ellis1 ,orig4 letters1 series #a1 vol4 ii4 p4 #abb4 #agf ,strickland1 ,lives of the ,queens1 #ahhd1 ii4 p4 #bii4 #agg ,this is the testimony of ,girolamo ,cordano1 a physician and astrologer of ,milan who was called upon to exercise his art on the young king of ,england in #aeeb4 ,rye1 ,england as seen by ,foreigners1 pp4 lxviii sqq4 #agh ,strickland1 op4 cit4 ii4 pp4 #dgg-h4 #agi ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 xvi4 ,no4 #abec4 #ahj ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #crd series1 ii4 p4 #bcf4 #aha ,one of ,elizabeth's ,italian masters was ,baptista ,castiglione1 a religious refugee in #aeeg4 ,elizabeth1 however1 had acquired some knowledge of ,italian before #aedd2 in that year she addressed a letter in ,italian to ,queen ,katharine ,parr 7printed in ,g4 ,howard's ,lady ,jane ,grey and her ,times1 #ahbb74 ,other ,italian letters of the queen are published in ,green's ,letters of ,royal and ,illustrious ,ladies1 #ahdf4 #ahb ,account of the ,venetian ambassador at the ,court of ,mary--,michel ,giovanni4 ,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #bff4 #ahc ,memoirs of his own ,life1 #aedi-ic1 ,bannatyne ,club1 #ahbg1 p4 #abe4 ,elizabeth's ,dutch he pronounces not gud1 and later says that neither the ,king of ,france nor the ,queen of ,england could speak ,dutch 7p4 #cda74 #ahd ,memoirs of his own ,life1 #aedi-ic1 ,bannatyne ,club1 #ahbg1 p4 #aag4 #ahe ,j4 ,nichols1 ,progresses of ,queen ,elizabeth1 #aghh-ahba1 i4 p4 x4 #ahf ,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #ab4 #ahg ,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #ajd4 #ahh ,the ,,ms4 was reproduced in facsimile in #ahic4 ,the prayers in ,french begin thus3 ,mon ,dieu et mon pere puis qu'il t'a pleu desployer les tresors de ta grande misericorde envers moy ta tres humble servante1 m'ayant de bon matin retire des profonds abismes de l'ignorance naturelle et des superstitions damnables pour me faire iouir de ce grand soleil de justice 4 4 4 etc4 #ahi ,lettres1 ,amsterdam1 #agbc1 liv4 i4 p4 #e4 #aij ,an account of the little that is known of ,andr's life is given in ,gairdner's ,memorials of ,henry ,,vii41 pp4 viii et seq4 #aia ,of foreign countries1 the ,netherlands seem to have come next to ,england in zeal for the study of ,french1 and ,germany takes the next place4 ,countries in which sister ,romance tongues were spoken1 ,italy and ,spain1 were apparently entirely dependent on practice for learning ,french4 #aib ,the printing was completed by ,robert ,coplande on the #bbnd ,march #aeba4 ,the book consists of sixteen leaves of the folio size of the time1 in black letter1 with signatures ,a-,b in sixes and ,c in fours4 ,there is a unique copy in the ,bodleian4 #aic ,bale1 ,scriptorum ,britanniae ,summarium1 #aedh1 p4 #gbc1 and ,pits1 ,relationes ,historicae de rebus ,anglicis1 #afai1 p4 #gde1 attribute to ,barclay a work called ,de pronuntiatione linguae gallicae4 ,this suggests that possibly the ,introductory was first written in ,latin4 #aid ,time after time he mentions the usages of different parts of the country1 as piecha for piea in certain districts2 jeo and ceo for je and ce in ,picard and ,gascon2 the writing of the names of dignitaries and officers in the plural instead of the singular1 as luy papes de ,rome4 #aie ,l',esclarcissement de la langue franoyse1 bk4 i4 ch4 xxxv4 #aif ,there is a boke which goeth about in this realme1 intitled ,the ,introductory to write and pronounce ,french1 compyled by ,alexander ,barclay4 ,i suppose it is sufficient to warne the lerner that ,i have red over that boke at length1 and what my opinion is therein it shall well apeare in my boke's self1 though ,i make thereof no further expresse mencion4 #aig ,thus the vowel a is sometimes a letter1 sometimes a word4 ,in the former case it is often sounded like ,english a2 when it is a word d should not be added4 ,this section of the work is reprinted in ,a4 ,j4 ,ellis's ,early ,english ,pronunciation1 ,early ,engl4 ,text ,soc41 #ahfi1 etc41 pt4 iii4 pp4 #hjd sqq4 #aih ,on the back of folio #e4 #aii ,howsoever the singular number end1 the plural number must end in s or z4 ,such is the rule for the formation of the plural4 ,as for the genders1 he gives a few isolated examples and converts them into rules4 #bjj ,on folio #hv4 #bja ,folios #i-ad4 ,the vocabulary begins with the letter ,m1 and after proceeding to the end of the alphabet1 resumes at the beginning--an arrangement probably due to some blunder on the part of the printer4 #bjb ,both deal with agricultural subjects2 the first gives the life of a grain of wheat1 and the second may explain itself3 ,dieu sauve la charue1 ,god save the ploughe1 ,et celui qui la mane4 ,and he the whiche it ledeth4 ,primierement hairois la terre1 ,firste ere the grounde1 ,apres semer le bl ou l'orge4 ,after sow the whete or barley4 ,les herces doivent venir apres1 ,the harrowes must come after1 ,le chaclir oster l'ordure4 ,the hoke to take away wedes1 ,en ,aoust le foyer ou faucher1 ,in ,august reap it or mowe it1 ,d'une faucille ou d'une faux4 ,there is no ,english rendering of the last line4 #bjc ,in the ,library of the ,marquis of ,bath4 #bjd ,the ,earl was born in #aeaf4 #bje ,ellis1 ,orig4 ,letters1 #ast series1 i4 pp4 #cda-dc4 #bjf ,description des royaulmes d',angleterre et d',escosse1 ,paris1 #aeeh4 #bjg ,c4 ,h4 and ,t4 ,cooper1 ,athenae ,cantabrigienses1 vol4 i41 #aheh1 p4 #aee4 #bjh ,list of ,denizations1 #aeji-afjc1 ,huguenot ,society ,publications ,,viii4 #bji ,athenae ,cantab4 ut supra4 #baj ,s4 ,r4 ,maitland1 ,list of some of the early printed books in the ,archiepiscopal ,library at ,lambeth1 #ahdc1 pp4 #bij et seq4 #baa 'a' also betokeneth 'have' or 'has1' when it cometh of this verbe in ,latin1 habeo1 as hereafter ye may see4 #bab ,sur toultes choses doibuit noter gentz ,englois que leur fault accustomer de pronuncer la derniere lettre du mot franois quelque mot que ce soit 7rime excepte7 ce que la langue engleshe ne permet1 car la ou l'anglois dit 'goode breade1' le franois diroit 'goode' iii sillebes et 'breade' iii sillebes4 #bac ,j4 ,a4 ,jacquot1 ,notice sur ,nicolas ,bourbon de ,vandoeuvre1 ,troyes et ,paris1 #aheg4 ,bourbon was born in #aejc1 and died in #aeej4 ,he went to ,paris in #aeca1 leaving behind him in his native town a reputation won by his ,latin verses4 ,on his return from ,england1 ,queen ,margaret of ,navarre entrusted to him the education of her daughter1 ,jeanne1 who was the mother of ,henry ,,iv4 #bad ,nicolai ,borbonii vandoperani ,lingonenis ,greek3 ,paidaggeion1 ,lugduni1 #aecf4 #bae ,j4 ,h4 ,marsden1 ,philomorus1 #bnd ed41 #ahgh1 p4 #bfa4 #baf ,clement ,jug1 ,nicolas ,denisot du ,mans1 #aeae-aeei1 ,paris and ,le ,mans1 #aijg4 #bag ,he also began his work as a secret agent in the service of ,france1 and it is said that ,calais was recovered by the ,french in #aeeh1 from a plan which ,denisot submitted to the ,duc de ,guise4 #bah ,there was a ,,ms4 copy of ,latin poems by ,denisot in the ,library of ,edward ,,vi4 7,nichols1 ,literary ,remains1 #aheg47 #bai ,j4 ,bonnet1 ,rcits du seizime sicle1 #ahfd1 p4 #cdh4 #bbj ,le ,tombeau de ,marguerite de ,navarre faict premierement en ,distiques latins par les trois soeurs1 ,princesses en ,angleterre3 ,depuis ,traduits1 en ,grec1 ,italien et ,franois par plusieurs des excellentz ,poetes de la ,france4 ,avecques plusieurs ,odes1 ,hymnes1 ,cantiques1 ,epitaphes sur le mesme subiect4 ,paris1 #aeea4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,french ,,tutors ,,at ,,court--,,giles ,,duwes--,,john ,,palsgrave--,,jean ,,bellemain ,the two most popular ,french tutors at the ,court of ,henry ,,viii4 were undoubtedly ,giles ,duwes and ,john ,palsgrave4 ,palsgrave is the only one of these early ,french tutors who is well known to-day as a writer on the ,french tongue4 ,he was a ,londoner1 and received his education at ,cambridge and ,paris4 ,giles ,duwes was a ,frenchman and seems to have enjoyed a greater popularity in his own day4 ,he had been teaching ,french at the ,english ,court for over ten years when ,palsgrave received his first appointment there1 as ,french tutor to the king's most dere and entierly beloved sister ,mary1 afterwards ,queen of ,france4 ,both teachers were protgs of ,henry ,,viii41 and taught in the royal family--,duwes was tutor to the king himself2 and both were authors of grammars of the ,french language4 ,that of ,palsgrave has been mentioned already4 ,it appeared in #aecj under the title of ,l',esclarcissement de la langue franoyse4 ,duwes's was not published till three years later approximately1 at the request of his pupil1 ,princess ,mary1 afterwards ,queen of ,england4 ,it was called ,an ,introductorie for to learne to rede1 to prononce and to speke ,french trewly1 compyled for the rigid high excellent and most vertuous ,lady ,mary of ,englande1 daughter to our most gracious soveraign1 ,lorde ,kyng ,henry the ,eight4#bba ,his treatise is a small quarto of #ajb leaves1 forming a striking contrast to ,palsgrave's enormous folio#bbb of over #ajjj pages4 ,the contents and style of the two books are as different as their size4 ,header3 ,,john ,,palsgrave',s ,,french ,,grammar ,like all the ,french grammarians of the time1 ,palsgrave opens his work with rules for the pronunciation1 and the whole of the first book is devoted to an elaborate study of this subject4 ,earlier writers had treated it very slightly1 if at all1 trusting that the student would find some opportunity of learning the sounds of the language by mixing with those who spoke it4 ,we are told#bbc that as a result there was no means of acquiring a good pronunciation1 save in early youth by practice and use for a year or two4 ,and it came to be supposed in a manner a thing impossible2 in so much that whereas there be hundreds in this realm1 which with a little labour and the aid of ,latin1 do so perfectly understand this tongue that they be able to translate at the first sight anything out of the ,french tongue into ours1 yet have they thought the thing so strange to leave the consonants unsounded whiche they saw written in such books as they studied1 that they have utterly neglected the ,frenchmen's manner of pronunciation1 and so read ,french as their fantasy or opinion did lead them and1 by that means1 perceiving in themselves a want and swerving from the truth1 which they wot not how to amend1 utterly leave to speak or exercise the language as a thing which they despair of4#bbd ,one of the chief difficulties of these early students then was the numerous consonants found in ,french words for etymological reasons1 and which were not pronounced4 ,other difficulties were found in the accentuation of vowel sounds4 ,the ,english were in the habit of placing the accent on the wrong syllable1 saying do,ucement instead of doucem,ent1 and of not giving the vowel its full and pure sound1 both mistakes being due to peculiarities of their native tongue4 ,we must leave that kind of reading and pronouncing if we will sound the ,french ,tongue aright1 says ,palsgrave1 for the ,french in their pronunciation do chiefly regard three things3 to be armonious in theyr speking1 to be brefe and sodayne in soundyng of theyr words1 avoydyng all manner of harshenesse in theyr pronunciation1 and thirdly to gyve every worde that they abyde and reste upon theyr most audible sounde4 ,there is something solemn about his assurance of the successful results to be attained by the study of his rules3 whereas nowe the very grounde and consyderation of the ,frenchmen in this behalf ones knowen1 it hath been proved by experience that it is but a senyghts labour1 or1 at the most1 a fournyghtes to lerne this poynt concernyng to theyr pronounciatyon an to be sure herof for ever4 ,palsgrave devotes attention to each letter of the alphabet in turn1 and seeks to elucidate the value of the sounds by reference to contemporary ,english or ,italian1 and by attempting to give the position of the vocal organs4#bbe ,a1 he says1 has two diverse sounds4 ,sometimes he is sounded as in ,english1 and sometimes like the diphthong au and a little in the nose4 ,the most usual pronunciation given it by the ,french1 is the same as those who speak the best ,english1 that is like the ,italian sound a1 or those of the ,english who sound the ,latin tongue aright4 ,when m or n follow the vowel it is pronounced as au and somewhat in the nose1 chambre being sounded chaumbre1 etc4 ,more general topics are also touched on--the accent1 the length of vowels1 and the intonation which is so brief1 so sudden and so hard4 ,in his second book1#bbf ,palsgrave treats what he calls the second difficulty of the ,french tongue--the accidence of the nine parts of speech4 ,throughout1 constant reference is made to the third book1 whiche is a very comment expositour unto my second4 ,this last book deals with the more syntactical side of the subject1 and was added on the model of ,theodore ,gaza's ,greek grammar4 ,it occupies by far the largest portion of the whole work1#bbg and besides giving elaborate and often obscure rules to govern every ,french inflexion1#bbh includes an ,english-,french alphabetical vocabulary which reaches the size of a dictionary4 ,this vocabulary is arranged according to the parts of speech1 and numerous phrases and idioms illustrative of different uses of the words are freely given4 ,header3 ,,the ,,introductorie ,,of ,,giles ,,duwes ,nothing like it in dimensions had yet appeared1 and1 contrary to custom1 the ,english is placed before the ,french4 ,duwes's manual1 on the other hand1 opens with an acrostich in ,french with an interlinear ,english translation containing the author's name--,giles ,duwes or de ,vadis1--followed by a short address in verse to the ,princess ,mary1 filleule a saincte ,marie 7also in ,french1 accompanied by an ,english interlinear version71 and lists of ,french words beginning with each of the letters of his royal pupil's name4 ,the grammar itself is written in ,english1 for ,duwes was one of the few ,frenchmen of the time who knew ,english2 neither ,bourbon nor ,denisot1 though they lived in ,england some years1 and taught ,french to ,english pupils1 knew our language2 and no doubt they helped to continue the long-standing relation between the teaching of ,latin and the teaching of ,french4 ,duwes's work is divided into two books1 the first of which is devoted to rules of grammar4 ,he dismisses the pronunciation with seven short and inadequate rules1 and proceeds to give his pupil a copious vocabulary of words and phrases1 in which the ,english word is printed over the ,french one4 ,the headings with which the earlier vocabularies have made us familiar are again utilized1 though with variety in detail1 and many passages are reminiscent of the mediaeval nomenclatures4 ,after his pupil has gained a knowledge of pronunciation1 and acquired a good vocabulary1 ,duwes proceeds to give him an insight into the grammar of the language4 ,he treats the parts of speech1 with the exception of the verb1 in a very summary fashion2 thus1 with regard to the gender of pronouns1 all he has to say is that those ending in a are feminine1 and those ending in on or e are masculine4 ,but there be certain names of the feminine1 which do require the pronouns masculine1 that must be accepted 7excepted71 as mon ame2 me and se be indifferent4 ,he devotes nearly the whole of his space to a lengthy and elaborate treatment of the ,french verb1 which he divides into two conjugations1 according as there is not or is an s before the termination -ons of the first person plural1 present indicative6 ,thus the forms aimons1 avons1 batons1 donons prove the verbs aimer1 avoir1 batir1 donner to belong to the first conjugation2 and similarly the forms baisons1 taisons1 etc41 indicate that these verbs belong to the second conjugation--an arrangement not at all conducive to lucidity4 ,a considerable part of his work is occupied by the conjugation of verbs of all sorts1 in a variety of forms and both negatively and interrogatively4 ,he usually adopts the practice1 frequent in modern text-books1 of attaching words to the verbs as he conjugates them1 and so providing them with a context4 ,thus he writes j'ai grand desir1 and not simply the verb form j'ai4 ,a knowledge of ,french verbs was1 in ,duwes's opinion1 the key to the knowledge of the ,french language4#bbi ,the second book occupies more than half the volume4 ,it contains practical exercises in the form of letters missive in prose and in rime1 also diverse communications by way of dialogue1 to receive a messenger from the emperor1 the ,french ,king or any other prince1 also other communications of the propriety of meat1 of love1 of peace1 of wars1 of the exposition of the mass1 and what man's soul is1 with the division of time and other conceits4 ,each exercise is provided with an interlinear ,english translation1 and all1 as may be gathered from their subject matter1 were in the first place written specially for the use of the ,princess ,mary4 ,they deal with the daily events of her life1 and1 though occasionally public affairs are touched on1 these exercises are of greatest interest in disclosing the affectionate relations existing between ,mary and her tutor4 ,whenever possible1 ,duwes introduces alternative phrases as well as variations of number and gender1 and this attention to his pupil's vocabulary and knowledge of the flexions often encumbers his sentences4 ,as for the ,english version1 it gives a word-for-word rendering of the ,french1 without regard to the natural order of words in an ,english sentence4 ,the methods of the two teachers seem to have been as different as their works4 ,everything tends to prove that ,duwes's manner of teaching was practical1 light1 and entertaining1 and at the same time efficient--a rare combination of good qualities4 ,header3 ,,his ,,method ,henry ,,viii4's skill in ,french has already been noticed1 and ,duwes's other pupils seem to have been equally accomplished4 ,in his opinion1 a good vocabulary and a thorough knowledge of the verbs were the two essentials in teaching ,french4 ,to learn ,french quickly1 he thinks1 the student must practise turning the verbs in all possible ways1 affirmatively1 negatively1 and interrogatively--a principle of repetition4 ,in this way he acquires fluency of speech and is able to make diverse and many sentences with one word1 and perconsequent come shortly to the ,french speach4 ,for instance1 thirty-six variations may be got in one tense1 by turning each person in six different ways1 that is to say1 the affirmative three ways1 and the negative likewise4 ,duwes reaches this large total by giving the following forms of each person3 ,i have1 have ,i81 why have ,i8 for the singular of affirmation1 ,i have not1 have ,i not81 why have ,i not8 for the singular of negation1 and so on with other persons and the corresponding plural forms4 ,he further counsels the student to practise #ajh similar variations in the same tense1 by means of the use of the pronouns me1 te1 se2 for the first person1 ,i have me1 ,i have thee1 ,i have him1 and we turn it1 we shall have1 ,have ,i me1 have ,i thee1 have ,i him4 ,then putting why before it we shall have1 ,why have ,i me1 etc41 and so on1 on lines exactly similar to the example for thirty-six variations4 ,apparently such exercises were the mainstay of his grammatical instruction1 for rules of grammar are reduced to a minimum4 ,practice held a higher place than theory in ,duwes's estimation1 and his attitude towards attempts to draw up rules for the ,french language was very sceptical2 to be complete1 the numbers of such rules would be infinite1 and1 what is more1 rules are of more use to the teacher than to the learner4 ,palsgrave1 on the contrary1 had a firm belief in the value and soundness of grammar rules4 ,he seems to have been the first to advocate the learning of ,french chiefly by means of grammar4 ,the earliest treatises had been intended more to correct the ,french of those who read them than to teach the language2 and though in later times the rules were intended to impart a knowledge of the language1 they were not put in the first place1 and it was always felt that they were very secondary to custom and the use of reading and speaking4 ,before ,palsgrave's grammar appeared1 declares his enthusiastic pupil ,andrew ,baynton1 ,englishmen did in a manner despair of learning ,french except by an importune and long continued exercise and that begun in young and tender age4 ,sir ,thomas ,elyot in ,the ,boke of the ,governour1 which appeared a year after ,palsgrave's grammar1 seems to regret this interference with long-standing custom1 by means of which ,french was brought into as many rules and figures and as long a grammar as is ,latin or ,greek4#bcj ,he was afraid that the sparkes of fervent desire of learnynge should be extincte with the burdone of grammar1 lyke as a lytell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small stickes3 so that it can never come to the principale logges where it shuld longe bourne in a great pleasaunt fire4 ,many years elapsed1 however1 before the deadening effect of too much grammar1 apprehended by ,elyot1 was felt in the teaching of ,french4 ,palsgrave's method of teaching1 therefore1 was the reverse of that of his fellow-worker1 although he professes a desire to induce his pupils not only to love their studies1 but to be merry over them4#bca ,it appears that he was fond of making his pupils learn rules by heart1#bcb while the dynamic of his method was translation from ,english into ,french--an exercise not very popular amongst teachers at this time4 ,so great was his faith in his rules that he felt that the student might1 with their aid1 even dispense with the assistance of a teacher4 ,by an attentive study of the first book the reader shal undouted attayne to the right and naturall pronunciation of this sayde tonge4 ,and he assures the student that by reading the general information in the introduction to his first two books1 and by learning by heart the three perfect verbs in his second book 7,je parle1 ,je convertis1 ,je fais1 representatives of the three conjugations into which ,palsgrave arranges ,french verbs7 and the three irregulars 7,j'ai1 ,je suis1 and ,je m'en vais71 he will know ,french tolerably well1 and be able1 with the help of the vocabulary in the third book1 to translate from ,english into ,french1 and so incontinente accustome hym to have theyr common speache2 and1 again using the vocabulary1 he will be able to read any ,french author by his own study1 without help or teacher1 if he knows the second book perfectly4 ,header3 ,,his ,,dialogues ,,in ,,french ,,and ,,english ,however1 he advises those who desire to attain perfection1 or to qualify themselves for foreign service1 to read and study the whole of the three books4 ,palsgrave seems to assign the priority to ,duwes by mentioning him as one of his immediate predecessors1 although ,duwes's work was not published until after ,palsgrave's4 ,yet it is improbable that the debt on either side was anything but trifling4 ,duwes had been teaching many years before we first hear of ,palsgrave4 ,as he taught he drew up grammatical rules for the use of his pupils2 and when he was tutor to the ,princess ,mary1 she requested him to collect together and publish the material he had used in teaching the king1 her father1 as well as other members of the royal family4#bcc ,according to ,palsgrave1 diverse noblemen supported the princess's request4 ,thus most of the rules published in ,duwes's grammar had been composed very many years before they were published1 for ,duwes had then been teaching for over thirty years4 ,and no doubt ,palsgrave1 who was also employed at ,court1 had opportunities of seeing them in manuscript4 ,as to the dialogues and other practical exercises1 they were all specially written for the use of the princess1 and so are of later date than most of the rules4 ,duwes had doubtless composed for the benefit of his earlier pupils similar exercises1 which remained in manuscript form and were lost4 ,some idea of the dates at which the dialogues were written and of the period during which ,duwes was engaged in teaching the princess may be gathered from references to topical events which occur in the text4 ,for instance1 mention is made of a peace newly proclaimed throughout the kingdoms of ,france and ,england1 which was1 no doubt1 that of #aebe1 when ,england joined with ,france to counteract the excessive power of ,spain4 ,we also find a somewhat vague reference to a possible marriage for the princess with a king or emperor1 and remember that it was in #aebe that negotiations for her marriage with ,charles ,v4 were broken off1 and others for an alliance with the ,french king1 ,francis ,i41 begun4 ,another circumstance points to this same period4 ,one of the dialogues takes place at ,tewkesbury ,park2 it was in #aebf that ,mary was created ,princess of ,wales1 and sent to ,ludlow to hold her ,court there1 and in ,november of the same year six of her ,council addressed a letter to ,wolsey from ,tewkesbury4 ,duwes is not mentioned by name in a list of the princess's household appointed on this occasion1 probably because he was already in her service2 and it is interesting to note that the ,countess of ,salisbury1 her lady governess1 had instructions without fatigacion or weariness to intende to her learninge of ,latine tongue and ,french1 as well as her music1 dancing and diet4#bcd ,in ,may #aebg1 ,mary had returned to ,london1 and took part in the festivities given at ,greenwich in honour of the ,french ambassadors who had come to ask for her hand on behalf of the ,french king's second son1 ,henry1 ,duke of ,orleans4 ,we may therefore conclude that ,duwes's grammar rules were composed at various dates from the beginning of the century1 and the dialogues probably between the years #aebd and #aebg4 ,palsgrave1 on the other hand1 began his great work when ,henry ,,viii4 appointed him ,french tutor to his sister ,mary1 the future ,queen of ,france1 in #aeab4 ,he had conceyved some lyttle hope and confidence by receiving such a noble charge1 and thought it a convenient occasion for showing his gratitude by means of his works4 ,several years later he completed two sondrie bookes on the subject1 which he offered in manuscript to his former pupil1 the ,dowager ,queen of ,france1 and her husband the ,duke of ,suffolk4 ,on their advice and encouragement he undertook to enlarge these and to add a third1 and present the whole to the king4 ,in #aebc1 ,palsgrave had planned the whole of the three books1 for in that year he made a contract with the printer1 ,richard ,pynson1 in which it is stipulated that the sayd ,richarde1 his executors and assignes shall imprint or cause to be imprynted on boke callyd 'lez lesclarcissement de la langue ,franoys1' contayning iii sondrye bokes1 where in is shewyd howe the saide tong schould be pronownsyd in reding and speking1 and allso syche gramaticall rules as concerne the perfection of the saide tong1 with ii vocabulistes1 oone begynnyng with ,english nownes and verbes expownded in frenshe1 and a general vocabulist contayning all the wordes off the frenshe tong expound in ,englishe4 ,pynson undertook to begin at once and to print every whole working day1 at the rate of a sheet a day1 interrupting the work for nothing save a royal order4 ,header3 ,,popularity ,,of ,,duwes ,the third book was not fully written when the first two passed into the hands of the printer1 as ,palsgrave constantly refers in it to the mistakes made already by the printer in his second book1--mistakes unavoidable in so newe and unaccustomed worke4 ,he also seems to have modified his plan for the vocabulary2 in that which actually appeared in the third book there is a separate ,english-,french dictionary for each part of speech--noun1 adjective1 verb1 adverb1 conjunction1 and interjection4 ,in the meantime1 ,pynson died1 and the book was completed by ,john ,hawkins1 this being the only known production of his press4 ,the two writers1 then1 were both engaged on their work for a great many years4 ,duwes was the first in the field1 but he wrote with no view to publication1 merely to satisfy the needs of his pupils4 ,palsgrave1 on the other hand1 from the very first intended to publish his work1 and had great ambitions4 ,although he no doubt saw some of ,duwes's manuscript1 his debt was of the slightest character1 if it can be called a debt at all4 ,the respective size of the two volumes is enough to prove this4 ,duwes's small treatise1 however1 seems to have enjoyed a greater popularity than that of ,palsgrave2#bce the latter did not reach a second edition1 whereas the former went through three in rapid succession4 ,this was no doubt largely due to its conciseness and practical nature1 which would appeal to the student1 discouraged at the sight of ,palsgrave's immense work4 ,the first edition 7as far as is known7 of ,duwes's ,introductorie must have appeared at least three years after ,palsgrave's ,esclarcissement4 ,the first two editions1 printed1 one by ,thomas ,godfray1 and the other by ,nicholas ,bourman for ,john ,reyns at the sign of the ,george in ,paul's ,churchyard1 were published during the years when ,anne ,boleyn was queen1 and after the birth of the ,princess ,elizabeth1 as they both contain a laude and prayse of the ,king1 ,queen ,anne1 and her daughter4 ,this leaves a period of under three years for the publication of the two editions1 seeing that ,elizabeth was born in ,september #aecc1 and ,anne was put to death on the #aith of ,may #aecf1 ,jane ,seymour becoming queen in her stead on the #bjth4 ,the third edition#bcf appeared after ,duwes's death in #aece1 as perhaps the second edition may have done also4 ,the dedication to ,anne is omitted1 and a new one inserted1 addressed to ,henry alone4 ,the second part is here said to be newly corrected and amended2 but it is difficult to find in what the corrections consist1 for1 with the exception of slight variations of spelling1 the edition is identical with the two earlier ones4 ,it was issued from the press of ,john ,waley1 who began to practise his trade as printer in about the year #aedf4bcg ,most probably1 then1 this edition appeared in the last months of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 7#aedg71 and was one of the earliest works issued from ,waley's press4 ,it is hardly likely that he would have inserted the laude and prayse of the king if the work had appeared after his ,majesty's death4 ,several reasons combine to explain how it was that ,palsgrave's work does not appear to have been as widely used as that of ,duwes4#bch ,while his book was still in the press1 alarming rumours as to its size began to circulate1 and caused the great demand there had been for the work previously to diminish noticeably4 ,some of ,palsgrave's pupils made efforts to stop the report1 one of whom was ,andrew ,baynton1 already mentioned1 a favourite courtier of ,henry ,,viii4 and vice-chamberlain to three of his queens4 ,the labour needed to master the book is not in proportion to his size6 he wrote indignantly to three distinguished fellow-students1 who helped him to contradict the rumour4 ,on the contrary1 he argues1 it may rather be thought too small2 it is as complete as can be expected when we consider that it is the first of its kind3 clerks have laboured for years at ,latin grammar and still find something new2 ,french grammar1 then1 cannot be expected to attain completeness in this first attempt4 ,but he that will seek1 may find and in a brief time attain to his utterest desire4 ,palsgrave deemed it wise to publish this letter as a prefatory notice to his grammar2 it may1 indeed1 have been written in the first place with that object in view4 ,header3 ,,sale ,,of ,,palsgrave',s ,,grammar ,he also judged it expedient to explain how students1 not wishing to study the whole1 might learn enough ,french to serve their purpose by selecting and learning certain sections of the grammar4#bci ,moreover1 ,palsgrave himself restricted the sale of his book4 ,on account of his great labours1 the ample largeness of the matter1 and the great difficulty of the enterprise1 as well as its great costs and charges 7for he had the work printed at his own expense71 he was anxious to keep his grammar for himself1 his friends1 and his pupils1 lest his profit by teaching the ,french tongue might be minished by the sale of the same to such persons as besides him were disposed to study the ,french tongue4 ,his chief aim was to keep his book out of the hands of rival teachers1 who might use it for their own ends4 ,yet this attitude conflicts strangely with ,palsgrave's generous declaration in his epistle to the king1 expressing the hope that by means of his poor labours on this occasion the frenche tongue may hereafter by others the more easely be taught1 and also be attayned unto by suche as for their tyme therof shal be desyrous4 ,nor was this the only precaution taken by ,palsgrave to ensure safety and fair dealing for his grammar4 ,he obtained from ,henry ,,viii41 to whom he dedicated the work1 a privilege for seven years1#bdj the king being greatly moved and stirred by due consideration of his said long time and great diligence about this good and very necessary purpose employed4 ,the fact that ,palsgrave altered his original contract with ,pynson twice#bda shows how careful he was in all his proceedings4 ,he wished to be sure of having complete control of the #gej copies which were printed4 ,he did not trust the sayd ,richarde further than he could help1 and intended to see that ,pynson used good faith in his dealings with him4 ,pynson was to give ,palsgrave six copies to present to the king and his friends4 ,the rest were to be left at ,pynson's house1 in a room of which ,palsgrave kept the key1 and to be sold only to such as ,palsgrave desired4 ,when ,pynson had paid himself1#bdb the remaining books were to be given to ,palsgrave1 either to take away or leave1 as he willed4 ,a striking example of the difficulty there was in obtaining ,palsgrave's grammar is illustrated by the case of ,stephen ,vaughan4 ,again and again he begged ,palsgrave to let him have a copy1 but ,palsgrave would not grant this favour at any price2 and it is easy to form an idea1 from ,vaughan's persistence1 of the great value attached to the grammar among serious students2 so great and unparalleled a work was credited with almost supernatural powers4 ,finally1 in despair1 ,vaughan wrote to his patron ,cromwell1 asking him to use his influence with the ,french teacher in obtaining this jewell4#bdc ,cromwell had received one of ,palsgrave's presentation copies1 and1 as a last resort1 ,vaughan begs him to let him have this4 ,it is to be hoped that the young man succeeded in getting a copy4 ,at any rate he seems to have made good progress in the ,french language4#bdd ,it is not surprising to find that the fashionable ,court tutors were personally acquainted with each other4 ,palsgrave seems to have had a great respect for ,duwes1 and to have set a high value on the opinions of that singular clerk4 ,he feels he cannot too much praise his judgment concerning the ,french ,tongue4 ,and he quotes ,duwes's authority on the subject of mean verbs1 a matter about which he had consulted him personally4 ,we thus see that ,palsgrave probably was more indebted to ,duwes in this direct way1 than by any help he received from such manuscripts as came into his hands4 ,maister ,gyles1 who was librarian to the king1 also showed ,palsgrave a very old text of the ,roman de la ,rose in the ,guildhall1 to shewe the difference betweene tholde ,romant tong and the right french tong4 ,the ,roman de la ,rose was a text frequently quoted by ,palsgrave in support and illustration of his rules4 ,thus ,palsgrave has nothing but praise for ,duwes1 and no doubt ,duwes took a friendly interest in his younger rival1 though he could not bring himself to excuse what seemed to him his presumption in attempting to write rules for a language not his own4 ,header3 ,,duwes ,,on ,,english ,,teachers ,,of ,,french ,like many ,frenchmen of the time1 ,duwes firmly believed that it was not possible to draw up anything like infallible rules for the ,french language1 and that ,englishmen should presume1 not only to teach it1 but to do this also1 appeared to him preposterous4 ,would it not seem strange1 he cries1 to see a ,frenchman endeavouring to teach the ,germans their own language8 ,why should it be considered less strange for ,englishmen to teach ,french and lay down rules and principles for the ,french language1 a thing very few of those who have the language by nature are able to do8 ,that these presumptuous ,englishmen may be well read1 and possess a good knowledge of ,french--au moins pour non estre natif du territoire et pais--does not alter the case2 for ,art1 though it follow ,nature closely1 can never overtake her4 ,duwes himself1 he tells us1 had been teaching his language for over thirty years1 he had searched and worked hard1 but had never been able to find these so-called infallible rules--for it is not possible to do so4 ,yet there are ,englishmen who claim to have done this great thing1 though they have been studying ,french for but a short time4 ,with ,greek and ,latin the matter is different4 ,the rules of these languages have grown up through the ages1 and are the common property of all nations4 ,this tirade against ,english writers on the ,french language is evidently aimed at ,palsgrave and his predecessors1 all those who since the beginning of ,henry's well-fortuned reign of this thing had written--but above all at ,palsgrave and his ambitious aspirations4 ,duwes's half-ironical assumption of humility as to the value of his own rules1 although the fruit of over thirty years' experience in teaching1 is probably meant as a rebuke to ,palsgrave1 who claimed to have reduced the ,french tongue under a rule and grammar certain1 and to have laid down rules certain and precepts grammatical like as the other three perfect tongues4 ,and when ,duwes expresses1 time after time1 his intention of avoiding all prolixity and 'super-fluity' of words1 we are also led to think that he is perhaps directing his remarks at ,palsgrave's wordy rules and the size of his work4 ,duwes may have been a little annoyed at being anticipated in publication by his younger rival4 ,but it is still more likely he resented1 as a ,frenchman1 that the honour of having first produced a great work on the ,french language should be generally ascribed to an ,englishman4 ,for ,palsgrave1 with very natural and just pride1 laid claim to this honour1 and was supported by his contemporaries4 ,andrew ,baynton1 in the letter already mentioned1 speaks of his master as being the first author of our nation or of the french mennes selfe that hath so farre waded in all maner thinges necessary to reduce that tong under rules certayne4 ,the ,french1 it is true1 were beginning to take some interest in their own language1 and a ,french writer of the time1 ,geoffrey ,tory of ,bourges1 had urged the necessity of reducing the ,french language to rules in his ,champ fleury 7#aebi74 ,would to ,god1 he cried1 that some noble soul would busy himself in drawing up and writing rules for our ,french tongue6#bde ,palsgrave was acquainted with ,tory's work1 and thought he had realized ,tory's ideal and done the thynge which by the testimony of the excellent clerke1 maister ,geffroy ,tory de ,bourges 7a late writer of the ,french nation7 in his boke entituled ,champ fleury1 was never yet amongst them of that contraes self hetherto so moche as ones effectually attempted4 ,leonard ,coxe1 the ,principal of ,reading ,college1 a popular philological writer of the time1 also connects the names of ,tory and ,palsgrave in some ,latin verses that were printed at the beginning of the grammar4 ,the short interval which elapsed between the appearance of the two volumes renders it impossible for ,palsgrave to have got his first suggestion from ,tory1 and makes it very improbable that ,tory had even the smallest influence on his work4#bdf ,tory had begun his work in #aebb4 ,before this date ,palsgrave had already completed two books of his ,grammar4 ,he notes1 however1 as a coincidence1 that ,tory and himself quote the same ,french authors4 ,header3 ,,pupils ,,of ,,duwes ,throughout his ,grammar1 ,palsgrave continually alludes to the authority of ,french authors1 for he studied ,french a great deal in books4 ,it would not indeed have been possible to produce so comprehensive a work in ,england without constant reference to ,french writers1 who1 owing to the spread of printing1 were becoming more and more accessible4 ,palsgrave refers most frequently to ,alain ,chartier and ,jean ,lemaire de ,belges1 while ,guillaume de ,lorris 7,roman de la ,rose71 ,octovian de ,st4 ,gelais1 ,jean ,meschinot1 ,guillaume ,alexis1 and ,froissart are all consulted and quoted--a list in which1 it will be noticed1 the name of no contemporary ,french poet figures4 ,palsgrave was not content with simply referring to his authorities2 he sought to awake an interest in ,french literature by quoting selections in verse and prose1 with guides for pronunciation4 ,apparently ,duwes's attack on ,palsgrave was only one of many4 ,much before this ,palsgrave had complained of unreasonable opposition from his contemporaries1 and the unpleasantness to which he had to submit4 ,one should not1 however1 attach too much importance to such complaints1 for they seem to have been more or less habitual among writers of the day4 ,duwes appears to have suffered in a similar way1 judging by the acrostic which closes his first book1 and contains an unusually vehement attack on the correcteurs et de toutes oeuvres repreveurs1 those grosses gens de rudes affections1 ivrognes bannis de vray sentement4 ,it is hard to imagine whence came such severe criticism2 probably from other ,french teachers1 but most certainly not from ,court circles1 where both these teachers enjoyed the greatest popularity4 ,nearly all the members of the royal family for two generations learnt ,french from ,duwes4 ,he counted among his pupils ,henry ,,viii4 when prince1 his elder brother ,arthur1 his sister ,margaret1 who became ,queen of ,scotland1 and his daughter ,mary1 afterwards ,queen of ,england1 besides many ,english noblemen4 ,there is also evidence that ,henry's favourite sister ,mary1 afterwards ,queen of ,france1 learnt the first principles of ,french from ,duwes before she became the pupil of ,palsgrave4 ,his favourite scholar1 however1 appears to have been the ,princess ,mary1 afterwards queen1 at whose request he published his observations on the ,french language4 ,when ,duwes began to teach her he was an old man1 and a little inclined to melancholy4 ,he was beginning to feel the effects of the ,english climate and complains bitterly of his chief enemies1 ,december and ,january3 ,par luy 7,decembre7 ay fait pleurs et soupirs mains1 ,ja ne sera que ne m'en remembre1 luy et ,janvier mont tollu ung membre qui me fera que tant que je vivray en grant doulleur doresavant iray2 pourquoy je crains qu'en grant melancolie1 en fin fauldra que j'en perde la vie4 ,gout1 his chief affliction1 often nailed him to his chair1 and prevented him from attending his pupil--a greater sorrow1 he says1 than to suffer sickness and danger4 ,on one occasion he was so ill that he feared he would not see the princess again1 and sent a letter1 asking pardon if ever he had rebuked her in his lessons4 ,his whole consolation lies in the hope that ,spring1 seeing him in such a piteous state1 will take pity on him4 ,mary seems to have returned fully the affection of her old master4 ,he was her almoner and treasurer1 and she playfully called him her adopted husband4 ,duwes spent a great deal of his time with his pupil1 and his adopted wife appears to have become impatient when his gout or any other reason kept him from her4 ,in one of the dialogues she is shown rebuking him for his absence one evening3 ,mary4 ,comment ,giles1 vous montrs bien qu'avs grant cure et soing de m'aprendre quand vous vous absents ainsy de moy4 ,gyles4 ,certes madame1 il me semble que suis continuellement ici4 ,mary4 ,voire1 et ou estis vous hier a soupper je vous prie4 ,gyles4 ,veritablement1 madame1 vous avez raison1 car je m'entroubliay ersoir a cause de compagnie et de communication4 ,mary4 ,je vous prie1 beau sire1 faictes nous paronniere de vostre communication1 car j'estime quelle estoit de quelque bon purpos4 ,gyles4 ,certes1 madame1 elle estoit de la paix1 laquelle 7come on disoit7 est proclame par tout ce royaume4 4 4 4 ,then master and pupil are pictured discussing at length the subject of peace4 ,love1 the nature of the soul1 and the meaning of the celebration of ,mass were other topics on which they had long conversations2 and they would accompany their supper--for the princess begged her master to dine with her as often as possible1 in order to talk ,french--by discourse on health and diet1 in the course of which ,duwes gave the princess much friendly advice4 ,header3 ,,queen ,,mary',s ,,french ,,studies ,his eloquence on the subject suggests that when he calls himself a doctor he means a doctor of medicine4 ,thus ,mary's practice in the language was not by any means limited to regular lessons1 and these lessons were always kept in close contact with her daily life4 ,she is taught how to receive a messenger from the king1 her father1 or from any foreign potentate1 in ,french1 or how to accept presents from noble friends4 ,duwes sometimes used his lessons as a means of conveying to ,mary messages from different members of her household4 ,lady ,maltravers exhorts her to study ,french seriously that reports of her ability may not be belied1 and that she may be able to speak ,french with the king her father1 and her future husband1 whether king or emperor2 and her carver1 ,john ap ,morgan1 writes to her when she is ill1 to express his hopes for her speedy recovery4 ,when ,duwes's gout prevented him from waiting on the princess1 he would send her a poem of his own composition1 in ,french with an interlinear ,english version--,duwes wrote singularly crude and inharmonious verses--which the princess learnt by heart by way of lesson4 ,or he would excuse his absence in a letter1 which1 he assures her1 will not be of small profit to her if she learns it4 ,such were the relations of ,duwes with his favourite pupil4 ,little else is known of his life beyond the fact that he taught ,french for nearly forty years in the highest ranks of ,english society4 ,he himself tells us that he was a ,frenchman1 and in all probability he was a native of ,picardy1 for his name is of ,picard origin1 and there are a few traces of picardisms in his work4 ,we also know that he was librarian to both ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii41#bdg and that in #aecc he was appointed a gentleman waiter in the ,princess ,mary's household1 and his wife one of the ladies-in-waiting2#bdh that1 curiously enough1 he was a student of alchemy and wrote a ,latin dialogue1 ,inter ,naturam et ,filium ,philosophiae1 dated from the library at ,richmond 7#aeba71 and dedicated to his friend ,n4 ,s4 ,p4 ,d42#bdi that he died in #aece1 about two years after the publication of his ,introductorie2 and that he was buried in the ,parish ,church of ,st4 ,olave in ,old ,jury1 where he was inscribed as servant to ,henry ,,vii4 and ,henry ,,viii41 clerke to their libraries1 and schoolmaster of the ,french ,tongue to ,prince ,arthur1 and to the ,ladie ,mary--a by no means complete list of his illustrious pupils4 ,among ,duwes's earliest pupils had been ,henry's sister ,mary1 afterwards ,queen of ,france4 ,this princess1 however1 was to continue her study of the language under ,john ,palsgrave1 and the first we hear of ,palsgrave as a teacher of ,french is on the occasion of his appointment by ,henry ,,viii4 as tutor to his sister1 probably towards the end of #aeab1 when negotiations for the princess's marriage with the ,prince of ,castile1 afterwards ,charles ,v41 were in progress4#bej ,and when at last it fell to the lot of the princess to marry1 not the emperor1 but the ,french king1 ,louis ,,xii41 in #aead1 ,palsgrave remained in her service1 and accompanied her to ,france in the capacity of almoner4 ,like the majority of her ,english followers1 he was soon dismissed from her service4 ,yet ,mary did not forget her former tutor4 ,from time to time she wrote to ,wolsey1 seeking to obtain preferment for him2#bea like many other men of his standing1 ,palsgrave was in ,holy ,orders1 and became later chaplain to the king4 ,in ,november #aead the ,queen of ,france wrote to ,wolsey to beg his favour on behalf of ,palsgrave that he may continue at school4#beb ,from this we may conclude that ,palsgrave was continuing the studies he had begun at an earlier date at the ,university of ,paris4 ,he calls himself gradu de ,paris in #aecj1 and no doubt also1 his work on the ,french language was making headway4 ,how long he remained in ,france is uncertain1 but we are told that on his return he was in great demand as a teacher of ,french and ,latin to the young ,english nobility and gentry4#bec ,sir ,thomas ,more1 writing to ,erasmus in #afag1 mentions that ,palsgrave is about to go to ,louvain to study there4 ,this second sojourn at a foreign university was not of long duration1 for ,erasmus1 in a letter dated ,july the same year1 informs ,tunstall that ,palsgrave had started for ,england4#bed ,palsgrave was soon to receive from the king a second important appointment as tutor4 ,header3 ,,palsgrave',s ,,pupils ,on the formation of the household of his natural son1 ,henry ,fitzroy1 ,duke of ,richmond1 in #aebe1 when his worldly jewel1 as ,henry called the young duke1 was made ,lieutenant-,general of the ,north1 the king entrusted ,palsgrave with the charge of bringing him up in virtue learning4#bee ,palsgrave was allowed three servants and an annual stipend of #ac3f3h4 ,he took great pains with his young pupil's education1 and the king seems to have approved of his method4#bef ,such was not the case with ,gregory ,cromwell1 who1 it appears1 shared the lessons of the duke4 ,when ,gregory went to ,cambridge under ,john ,cheking's care1 the latter wrote to ,cromwell that he had to unteach his charge all he had learnt1 and that if such be ,palsgrave's style of teaching1 he does not think he will ever make a scholar4#beg ,palsgrave declares that he suffered much1 when in the ,north1 from poverty and calumny4#beh ,his friend1 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 lent him money1 and ,palsgrave begged him to continue to help him to tread underfoot that horrible monster poverty4 ,he also petitions his constant patroness the ,dowager ,queen of ,france and her husband the ,duke of ,suffolk4 ,all he has to live by and pay his debts and maintain his poor mother is little more than #ej4bei ,among ,palsgrave's other pupils of note were ,thomas ,howard1 brother to the ,earl of ,surrey2 my ,lord ,gerald1 probably the brother of the fair ,geraldine1 the object of ,lord ,surrey's passionate sonnets2 ,charles ,blount1 son and heir of ,lord ,montjoie2 ,thomas ,arundel1 who later lost his head for conspiring with the ,duke of ,somerset against ,northumberland1 and ,andrew ,baynton1 who has been mentioned already3 all students of ,french1 who were acquainted with his book before it was published1 and knew his hole intente and consyderation therein1 and who called ,palsgrave our mayster with a certain amount of pride4 ,the year after the publication of his grammar1 ,palsgrave went to ,oxford1 where he was incorporated ,m4,a4 and took the degree of ,b4,d4#bfj ,he was1 however1 back in ,london in the following year1 taking pupils into his house and visiting others daily4 ,he had1 for instance1 promised to serve ,mr4 ,baynton and ,mr4 ,dominico in the house of the latter till ,candlemas4 ,of the pupils who were with him1 the best sped child for his age was ,william ,st4 ,loe1 afterwards ,sir ,william and captain of ,elizabeth's ,guard4 ,palsgrave seems to have suffered much from interruptions in his pupils' studies caused by visits to their mothers1 or by their leaving ,london on account of the unhealthiness of the city4 ,he writes to ,william ,st4 ,loe's father that if he takes his son away for either of these reasons the child will not recover this three years what he has lost in one1 and moreover he will have killed a schoolmaster1 for ,palsgrave vows he will never teach any more4 ,he also writes that after spending a little time at ,cambridge1 where he could take the degree of ,d4,d41 he intends to keep school in ,black ,friars1 and have with him ,mr4 ,st4 ,loe's son1 ,mr4 ,russell's son 7who is a good example of what results from interruption of studies by a visit home71 the younger brother of ,mr4 ,andrew ,baynton1 and ,mr4 ,norice's son1 of the ,privy ,chamber4#bfa ,at ,cambridge1 also1 he would be able to get an assistant1 as at present the strenuous and continuous application to teaching is ruining his health4 ,nothing else is known of ,palsgrave's teaching career4 ,he seems to have spent a good deal of time towards the end of his life at one or other of the rectories#bfb to which he was collated by ,archbishop ,cranmer1 and where1 no doubt1 he continued to receive pupils till the time of his death in #aeed4 ,palsgrave's great ,french ,grammar was not his only professional work4 ,he also published a text-book for the use of students of ,latin4 ,this was a ,latin comedy1 ,acolastus1#bfc which had made its way into ,english schools4 ,palsgrave added an ,english translation of his own1 and the whole appeared in #aedj1 with a dedication to the king4 ,he says it is a translation according to the method of teaching ,latin in grammar schools1 first word for word1 and then according to the sense4 ,header3 ,,edward ,,vi4',s ,,french ,,exercises ,palsgrave had also announced his intention of publishing a book of ,french proverbs2 he had written in his grammar3 ,there is no tongue more aboundante of adages or darke sentences comprehendyng great wysdome4 ,but of them ,i differ at this time to speake any more1 intendyng by ,goddes grace to make of thes adages a booke aparte4 ,there is1 however1 nothing to show that he ever realized this intention1 even partially4 ,another ,french teacher in the royal family was ,jean ,bellemain1 tutor to ,edward ,,vi4 ,edward refers to his ,french master in the passage in his diary#bfd in which he gives an account of his education4 ,speaking of himself in the third person1 he writes3 ,he was brought up until he came to six years old among the women4 ,at the sixth year of his age he was brought up in learning by master ,dr4 ,cox1 who was after his almoner1 and ,john ,chepe1 ,m4,a41 two well-learned men1 who sought to bring him up in learning of ,tongues1 of scripture1 philosophy and all liberal sciences3 also ,john ,belmaine1 ,french man1 did teach him the ,french language4 ,it appears from a letter of ,dr4 ,cox to ,secretary ,paget1 that the prince had his first lesson in ,french on ,october #a1 #aedf4bfe ,his teacher was a zealous ,protestant1 a friend and correspondent of ,calvin1 and he had probably some influence on the religious opinions of his pupil4 ,the three ,french exercises in the king's hand which are still in existence show that he made rapid progress in the language4#bff ,they all bear on religious subjects1 showing how carefully ,bellemain attracted the attention of his young pupil to this matter4 ,all were written after his accession to the throne 7#aedg71 and were dedicated to his uncle1 ,protector ,somerset4 ,the first two are very similar in composition4 ,edward made a collection of texts out of the ,bible in ,english1 bearing on two subjects1 ,idolatry and ,faith4 ,he then proceeded to turn these from ,english into ,french as an exercise in translation4 ,after they had been corrected by his master1 the king had them transcribed into a paper book--the first consisting of twenty pages1 the second of thirty-five--and sent them to the ,protector4#bfg ,the first was written when ,edward had been learning ,french for about a year 7in #aedg71 and the second shortly afterwards4 ,the third exercise is much longer than the two earlier ones1 and differs from them in being not a translation1 but a composition of ,edward's own in ,french4 ,it is entitled1 ,a l'encontre des abus du ,monde1 and was begun on ,december #ac1 #aedh1 and finished on ,march #ad of the following year1 so that its composition occupied ,edward for over three months4 ,the manuscript is corrected throughout by ,bellemain1 who makes the interesting entry at the end1 that the young king1 who was then not yet twelve1 had written the whole without the help of any living person4 ,bellemain seems to have been very proud of his pupil's performance2 he sent a copy of it to ,calvin as flowers whose fruit would be seen in due season4#bfh ,calvin in turn sent ,bellemain observations on the composition for him to transmit to his pupil1 and advised its publication1 which ,edward would not hear of4#bfi ,bellemain remarks that ,edward took great delight in ,calvin's works1 and from time to time the ,french tutor acted as a medium of communication between the two1 as in the case just mentioned4 ,calvin did not scruple to give the young monarch advice on religious subjects1#bgj while ,cranmer invited him to write to the young king4 ,bellemain himself made a translation of the ,english ,liturgy of #aeeb1 and sent it to ,calvin to have his opinion on it4#bga ,besides these three exercises1 two of ,edward's ,french letters have also survived4 ,one is addressed to ,queen ,katharine ,parr and the other to the ,princess ,elizabeth4 ,in the former he compliments the queen1 whom he more usually addressed in ,latin1 on her beautiful handwriting4#bgb ,header3 ,,jean ,,bellemain ,the other is to ,elizabeth1 who1 it appears1 had written to him in ,french1 inviting him to reply in the same language4 ,he takes her advice3 ,puisque vous a pleu me rescrire1 tres chere et bien ayme soeur1 je vous mercie de bien bon cuer1 et non seullement de vostre lettre1 mais aussy de vostre bonne exhortation et example1 laquelle1 ainsy que j'espere1 me servira d'esperon pour vous suivre en apprenant4 ,priant ,dieu vous avoir en sa garde4 ,de ,titenhanger1 #ah jour de decembre et l'an de nostre seigneur1 #aedh4--,vostre frere1 ,,edwardus4 ,,prince4 a ma treschere et bien ayme soeur ,elizabeth4#bgc ,we see from the date of this letter that ,edward had been learning ,french nearly three months when it was written4 ,bellemain's salary as ,french tutor to the king was #f3ab3d per quarter4 ,in #aedf he received an annuity of fifty marks for life2 in #aeej a lease for twenty-one years of the parsonages of ,minehead and ,cotcombe1 county ,somerset2 in #aeec a lease of the manor of ,winchfield in ,hampshire2#bgd and in #aeea a grant of letters of denization4#bge ,he stayed in ,england until the king's death in #aeec1 and was present at his funeral4 ,no doubt1 with his religious sympathies1 he would find the ,england of ,mary's time an uncongenial home1 and leave it at as early a date as possible4 ,bellemain did not compose any treatise on the ,french language4 ,he says that he had long nourished the hope of writing some rules for ,french pronunciation and orthography2 but he changed his mind1 thinking it mere folly to attempt to give rules for that which was not yet fixed and certain4 ,in a translation into ,french of the ,greek ,epistle of ,basil the ,great to ,st4 ,gregory upon solitary life1 which he dedicated to the ,princess ,elizabeth1#bgf he expresses his opinion upon the new style of ,french orthography1 then promoted by certain writers1 with whom he did not agree on most points4 ,these writers#bgg wished to make the orthography tally with the pronunciation and to discard the letters which are not pronounced2 they would thus change the spelling still used for the most part by scholars and courtiers1 and which in ,bellemain's opinion is preferable to that proposed by the so-called reformers4 ,he argues that an alteration of the spelling of ,french would necessitate a corresponding change in ,latin1 where the letters have the same sound and meaning1 a thing which appears ridiculous to the merest observer4 ,besides1 the derivative consonants are useful1 as they serve to distinguish words of identical sound but different meaning and derivation1 and to indicate the length of the preceding vowel4 ,on the other hand1 letters have been added by versifiers merely to suit their rimes1 and these writers have done more than any others to corrupt ,french orthography4 ,of what avail is it1 asks ,bellemain1 to compose rules on a subject so much in dispute8 ,for these reasons he abstained from increasing the number of works on the ,french language produced in ,england4 ,in the dedication to ,elizabeth of his translation of ,basil the ,great's ,epistle to ,st4 ,gregory1 ,bellemain shows that he was familiar with the books which the princess read1 and also expresses his desire that she will not let her ,french be corrupted by the so-called reformed orthography she may meet in some of these books4#bgh ,thus ,bellemain took an interest in ,elizabeth's ,french1 and it is highly probable that he was her tutor in that language4#bgi ,header3 ,,queen ,,elizabeth',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,french ,in the year #aedf1 when he began to teach ,edward ,french1 the ,princess ,elizabeth shared for some time her brother's studies4 ,it is said that they began with religious instruction in the morning1 and the rest of the forenoon1 breakfast alone excepted1 was devoted to the languages1 science1 and moral learning4 ,edward then went to his outdoor exercises and ,elizabeth to her lute or viol4#bhj ,no doubt1 then1 she received lessons from the ,french tutor until she left her brother in ,december4 ,elizabeth1 however1 had made considerable progress in the language some years before this date1 and before #aedd1 so that it is extremely likely that ,bellemain had been teaching her for several years before he was appointed ,french tutor to ,edward1 perhaps owing to his success with ,elizabeth4 ,at any rate there does not seem to be any trace of any other ,french tutor to the princess1 and the fact that he received an annuity of #ej for life suggests that he had already rendered some service in the royal family4 ,the scholar ,leland praised ,elizabeth's skill in ,french and ,latin when he saw her at ,ampthill with her brother1 and already in #aedd she had completed the first composition in which she exerted her early activity in the ,french language4 ,this was a translation of ,margaret of ,navarre's ,miroir de l'ame pecheresse1#bha which she called ,the ,miroir or ,glasse of the ,synneful ,soul1 and dedicated to ,queen ,katharine ,parr4#bhb ,it was published in #aefd under the title1 ,a godly meditacyon of the ,christian soule concerning a love towards ,god and ,hys ,christe1 compyled in ,frenche by ,lady ,margarete1 ,quene of ,naver1 and aptly translated into ,englysh by the right vertuous lady ,elizabeth1 daughter of our late ,soverayne ,kynge ,henri the ,,viii4#bhc ,the translation itself is not very good1 and the style is awkward4 ,but ,elizabeth was only eleven years old when she undertook it1 and observes apologetically that she joyned the sentences together as well as the capacite of 7her7 symple witte and small lerning coulde expende themselves4 ,in the following year 7#aede7 she translated some prayers and meditations written in ,english by the queen1 ,katharine ,parr1 into ,latin1 ,french1 and ,italian1 and dedicated them to her father4#bhd ,of greater interest is a little book the princess wrote in ,french1 and also offered to the king--a translation into ,french of the ,dialogus ,fidei of ,erasmus1 thus inscribed3 ,a ,treshaut ,trespuissant et ,redoubt ,prince ,henry ,,viii de ce nom1 ,roy d',angleterre1 de ,france et d',irlande1 dfenseur de la foy1 ,elizabeth sa ,treshumble fille rend salut et obedience4 ,this treatise1 composed before the death of the king in #aedg1bhe was preserved in the ,library at ,whitehall1 and often attracted the attention of foreign visitors in ,london4#bhf ,thus ,elizabeth was well accomplished in ,french before the reign of ,edward ,,vi4 ,it was while her brother was king that the great ,hebrew scholar1 ,antony ,rudolph ,chevallier1 commonly called ,monsieur ,antony1 was for a short time her tutor in ,french4 ,chevallier was a ,norman who had studied ,hebrew under ,vatable at ,paris1 and had been forced to take refuge in ,england on account of his religious opinions4 ,he studied at ,cambridge and lived for a year in the house of ,archbishop ,cranmer1#bhg who brought him to the notice of the young king 7then famous for his patronage of foreign scholars of the ,reform7 and of ,protector ,somerset1 who appointed him tutor to the ,princess ,elizabeth4#bhh ,on the death of ,edward ,,vi41 ,chevallier1 like ,bellemain1 left ,england4 ,he taught ,hebrew at ,strasburg and ,geneva1 where he came into contact with ,english student refugees under the reign of ,mary ,i41 and made the acquaintance of ,calvin4 ,he returned to ,england in the reign of ,elizabeth 7#aefh7 to solicit the queen's help for the ,french ,protestants4 ,he received a good welcome1 and in #aefi was made a lecturer in ,hebrew at ,cambridge1 where he was accounted second to none in the realme4 ,he returned to ,france before the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew 7#aegj71 and died as a result of the hardships he suffered in making his escape4 ,header3 ,,religious ,,opinions ,,of ,,french ,,tutors ,it is a curious fact that the religious opinions of the ,french tutors in ,henry ,,viii4's family were reflected in the reigns of their pupils--the ,protestant ,edward ,,vi41 the ,roman ,catholic ,mary1 and the ,protestant ,elizabeth4 ,both ,duwes and ,bellemain allowed the subject of religion to make its way into their lessons1 and they probably exercised some influence1 differing in degree1 on the religious convictions of their pupils4 ,,footnotes3 #bba ,first edition4 ,printed at ,london1 by ,th4 ,godfray1 c4 #aecd4 ,sig4 ,a-,ea in fours4 #bbb ,both these grammars were reprinted by ,gnin1 in the ,collection des documents indits sur l',histoire de ,france4 ,,ii4 ,histoire des lettres et sciences4 ,paris1 #aheb4 #bbc ,by ,andrew ,baynton1 in a letter prefixed to ,palsgrave's grammar4 #bbd ,palsgrave in his grammar4 #bbe ,both ,palsgrave's and ,duwes's observations on the pronunciation of ,french are utilized by ,m4 ,thurot3 ,de la prononciation franaise depuis le commencement du #af;e sicle d'aprs les tmoignages des grammairiens4 #b tom4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,for further treatment of ,palsgrave's grammar1 see ,a4 ,benoist1 ,de la syntaxe franaise entre ,palsgrave et ,vaugelas4 ,paris1 #ahgg4 #bbf ,the second book begins on folio xxxi4 and ends on folio lix4 ,in the third book the pagination begins anew3 folio #a to folio #dgc4 #bbg ,four hundred and seventy-three folios1 while the first and second books together occupy only fifty-nine folios4 #bbh ,the fulness1 originality1 and exhaustive character of the work may be illustrated by the treatment of such a point as the agreement of the past participle with its subject1 when used with the auxiliary avoir4 444 yet when the participle present followeth the tenses of ,je ay1 it is not ever generall that he shall remain unchaunged1 but 444 yf the tenses of ,je ay have a relatyve before them or governe an accusative case eyther of a pronoune or substantyve1 the participle for the most part shall agree with the sayd accusatyve cases in gendre and nombre1 and in such sentences not remayne unchaunged4 ,helas1 ,i have loved her1 helas je l'ay aime 444 etc4 #bbi ,duwes's plan is as comprehensive as ,palsgrave's1 as is seen by the following table3 ,in the first part shal be treated of rules1 that is to say1 howe the fyve vowelles must be pronounced in redynge frenche1 and what letters shal be left unsounde1 and the course thereof4 ,the second part shal be of nounes1 pronounes1 adverbes1 participles1 with verbes1 propositions1 and coniunctions4 ,also certayne rules for coniugation4 ,item fyve or syx maners of coniugations with one verbe4 ,item coniugations with two pronounes and with thre and finally combining or ioinyng #b verbes together4 #bcj ,the ,boke of the ,governour 444 ed4 ,h4 ,h4 ,s4 ,croft1 #ahhc1 vol4 i4 p4 #ee4 #bca ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 iv4 #ehjf4 #bcb ,ibid4 iv4 #defj4 #bcc 4 4 4 m'a comand et encharg de reduire et mectre en escript la maniere coment g'ay proced envers ses dictz progeniteurs et predecesseurs1 coe celle aussi y la quelle ie l'ay 7tellement quellement7 instruit et instruis iournellment4 4 4 4 #bcd ,privy purse expenses of the ,princess ,mary1 ed4 ,f4 ,madden1 #ahca1 pp4 xli-xliii4 #bce ,duwes avait d'une main leste et sure esquiss la petite grammaire de ,lhomond3 ,palsgrave avait laborieusement compil la grammaire des grammaires3 ,l'in-folio fut touff par l'in-#hvo4 ,cela se voit souvent dans la littrature o le quatrain de ,st4 ,aulaire triomphe de la ,pucelle de ,chapelain 7,gnin's ,introduction74 ,it seems an exaggeration to use the word touffer4 ,at any rate the victory was not final4 ,palsgrave's work is not forgotten to-day1 like that of ,duwes4 #bcf ,there are copies of all three editions in the ,bodleian4 ,the ,british ,museum contains one copy of ,bourman's edition1 and two of ,waley's 7the third74 ,gnin used ,godfray's edition in his reprint4 #bcg ,e4 ,g4 ,duff1 ,a ,century of the ,english ,book ,trade1 ,bibliog4 ,society1 #aije4 #bch ,there are1 however1 a larger number of ,palsgrave's one edition extant than of ,duwes's three4 ,this is1 no doubt1 because its size and value prevented it from being used with the lack of respect with which school-books are usually treated4 ,there is a copy of the ,esclarcissement in the ,bibliothque ,mazarine at ,paris2 two in the ,british ,museum2 one in the ,bodleian1 one in ,cambridge ,university ,library1 and one in the ,rylands ,library4 #bci ,supra1 p4 #ib4 #bdj ,dated ,september #b1 twenty-second year of his reign 7i4e4 #aecj74 #bda ,there were three drafts of the indenture with ,pynson1 ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 iii4 #cfhj1 iv4 #ci4 ,the first two were probably drawn up in #aebc4 ,the last is dated ,january #ah1 #aebd4 ,the first two were printed by ,dr4 ,furnivall for the ,philological ,society1 #ahfh4 ,the third draft is in ,cromwell's hand1 corrected by ,palsgrave4 ,there is a clause that ,pynson shall not print more than the given number--#gej--until that number is sold4 ,pynson seems to have printed only the first two parts of #ei leaves4 ,after this there comes a third part1 with a fresh numbering of leaves from #a to #dgc4 ,the printing was finished ,july #ah1 #aecj1 by ,j4 ,hawkins4 #bdb ,at the rate of #fs4 #h;d4 a ream4 #bdc ,ellis1 ,orig4 ,letters1 #crd series1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bad4 #bdd ,he found it useful in diplomatic service4 ,he writes to his patron3 ,i am well asseyed here and my little knowledge of ,french well exercised 7,brussels1 ,nov4 #bj1 #aech71 ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 xiii4 pt4 ii4 ,no4 #hhb4 #bde ,o devotz amateurs de bonnes lettres pleust a ,dieu que quelque noble coeur s'employast a mettre et ordonner par regle nostre langaige franois6 ,ce seroit moyen que maints milliers d'hommes se evertueroient a souvent user de belles et bonnes paroles4 ,s'il n'y est mis et ordonn on trouvera que de cinquante en cinquante ans la langue franoise pour la plus grande part sera change et pervertie 7folio #a1 verso74 ,tory sketched a plan of a great work on the language to which his ,champ fleury was intended only as an introduction4 #bdf ,gnin is 'certain' that the date given on the frontispiece of ,palsgrave's work is a year earlier than that on which it actually appeared4 ,he draws this conclusion from the date of the king's privilege1 twenty-second year of ,henry ,,viii41 who came to the throne in #aeji2 #i #bb #ca4 ,this leaves ,palsgrave a longer period to gather what he could from ,tory's work1 says ,gnin4 ,but the twenty-second year of the reign of ,henry ,,viii4 began in ,april #aecj1 and the printing of ,palsgrave's work was completed on the #ahth of ,july4 #bdg ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 i4 ,nos4 #eac and #cjid4 #bdh ,ibid4 vi4 ,no4 #aaii4 ,duwes also received numerous grants of money and licences to import ,gascon wine4 #bdi ,printed in ,theatrum ,chemicum1 ,ursel1 #afjb1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ie-abc1 and reprinted in ,j4 ,j4 ,manget's ,bibliotheca ,chemica1 ,geneva1 #agjb1 vol4 ii4 ,two copies of an ,english translation are in the ,bodleian 7,ashmole ,,mss474 ,see ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 #bej ,he is called schoolmaster to my ,lady ,princess of ,castile1 in the ,book of ,payments1 ,march #aeac1 ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ii4 ,no4 #adfj4 #bea ,ibid4 ii4 #bie4 #beb ,ibid4 i4 #eehb4 #bec ,bale1 ,britanniae ,scriptorum1 #aedh1 fol4 #bai4 #bed ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 ii4 pt4 #b1 #aajg4 #bee ,j4 ,g4 ,nichols1 ,memoir of the ,duke of ,richmond1 #ahee1 ,camden ,society1 ,miscellany1 iii4 pp4 xxiii-xxiv2 also ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 iv4 #ehjf1 and v4 #aeif1 #agic1 #bjfi1 #bjha4 #bef ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 iv4 #ehjf4 #beg ,ibid4 iv4 #defj3 ,letter dated ,july #bg1 #aebh4 #beh ,ibid4 iv4 #ehjf1 #ehjg4 #bei ,instructions for ,syr ,wm4 ,stevynson1 what he shall do for one ,john ,palsgrave with the ,frenche ,queenes ,grace and the ,duke of ,suffolk her espouse3 ibid4 v4 #ehjh4 #bfj ,wood1 ,athen4 ,oxon4 ed4 ,bliss1 i4 #aba4 #bfa ,letters and ,papers1 v4 #fba-fbb3 ,letter dated ,oct4 #ah1 #aecb4 #bfb ,palsgrave received ecclesiastical preferment from time to time4 ,amongst others1 he was collated to the prebend of ,portpoole in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral by ,bishop ,fitzjames in #aead1 and to the ,rectory of ,st4 ,dunstan-in-the-,east by ,cranmer in #aecc1 and to that of ,wadenhoe1 ,northamptonshire1 in #aede1 by the same ,archbishop4 7,thompson ,cooper in the ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog47 #bfc ,written by a ,dutch contemporary1 ,fullonius1 in #aebi4 #bfd ,j4 ,g4 ,nichols1 ,literary ,remains of ,edward ,,vi41 ,roxburghe ,club1 #aheg1 p4 #baj4 #bfe ,ibid4 p4 lxxviii4 #bff ,these have been printed by ,j4 ,g4 ,nichols in his ,literary ,remains1 p4 #add et seq4 ,the ,,ms4 of the first is at ,trin4 ,col4 ,cantab4 ,r #g1 #ca1 of the second in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit4 ,,ms4 #ijjj1 and of the third at ,biblio4 ,pub4 ,cantab4 ,dd #ab1 #ei1 and ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit4 #edfd4 ,nichols uses the text of the first of these4 #bfg ,apres avoir not en ma ,bible en ,anglois plusieurs sentences qui contredisent a toute ydolatrie1 a celle fin de m'apprendre et exercer en l'ecriture ,franoise1 je me suis amus a les translater en ladite langue ,franoise1 puis les ay fait rescrire en ce petit livret1 lequel de tres bon coeur je vous offre 7,literary ,remains 4441 p4 #add74 #bfh ,lettre indite de ,bellemain3 ,bulletin de la ,soc4 de l',hist4 du ,protestantisme ,franais1 vol4 xv41 #ahff1 pp4 #bjc-e4 #bfi ,it was1 however1 translated into ,english and published in #afha 7two copies in the ,brit4 ,mus471 and reprinted by ,rev4 ,j4 ,duncan in #ahaa 7no copy known71 and by the ,religious ,tract ,soc41 ,vol4 of ,writings of ,ed4 ,,vi41 etc4 #bgj ,calvin wrote to ,edward ,,vi4 in ,french3 ,c'est grand chose d'estre roy1 mesme d'un tel pays4 ,toutesfois je ne doubte pas que vous n'estimez sans comparaison mieux d'estre chrestien4 ,c'est doncq un privilege inestimable que ,dieu vous a faict1 ,sire1 que vous soiez roy chrestien1 voire que luy servez de lieutenant pour ordonner et maintenir le royaulme de ,j4 ,christ en ,angleterre 7,bulletin1 ut supra74 #bga ,there is a copy of this in ,brit4 ,mus4 ,royal ,,mss4 #bj1 ,a xiv4 #bgb ,ellis1 ,orig4 ,letters1 ser4 #a1 vol4 i4 p4 #acb1 and translated in ,halliwell's ,letters of the ,kings of ,england1 ii4 #cc4 #bgc ,j4 ,c4 ,nichols1 ,literary ,remains1 p4 #cb4 #bgd ,ibid4 p4 li4 #bge ,huguenot ,soc4 ,publications1 vol4 viii4 ad nom4 #bgf ,brit4 ,mus4 ,royal ,,mss4 #af1 ,e #a4 ,the whole consists of only eighteen small leaves1 of which five are occupied by the dedication4 ,no date is attached4 ,the dedication continues3 4 4 4 ,s'ainsy estoit 7,tresnoble et ,tresillustre ,dame7 que i'attendisse le temps auquel ie peusse trouver et inventer chose digne de presenter a vostre excellence1 certes1 madame1 i'estime que ce ne seroit de long temps3 car quelle chose est ce qu'on pourroit monstrer de nouveau a celle a qui rien n'est cach1 soit en langue grecque ou latine ou en la plus part des autres langues vulgaires de l',europe3 soit en la congnoissance des histoires ecrites en icelles ou en philosophie et autres liberales sciences4 ,puis donc qu'ainsy est que peu de livres antiques se peuent trouver que n'ayez leuz ou au moins desquels n'ayez ouy aucunement parler1 ioint aussy qu'estes maintenant comme en lieu solitaire1 ie vous vueil seulement ramentevoir une epistre de ,basile le grand que i'estime qu'avez autres fois leue3 en laquelle il recommande fort la vie solitaire ou au moins exempte des cures et solicitudes de ce monde3 et ce a intention de pouoir induire celuy a qui il l'envoioit a la contemplation de ,dieu et de la vie future3 qui sont les choses ausquelles devons le plus penser durant que sommes en ce monde comme estans les causes qui plus nous donnent occasion de bien vivre4 4 4 4 #bgg ,sylvius 7#aecj7 had proposed a new system of orthography based on etymology and pronunciation4 ,meigret1 however1 was the chief exponent of the reformers1 who sought to make orthography tally with pronunciation 7in his ,trait touchant le comun usage de l'escriture franoise1 #aedb and #aede1 and other works74 ,meigret was supported by ,peletier du ,mans 7,dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciation franoese1 #aedi7 and others1 and bitterly attacked by the opposing party4 ,the question1 once opened1 continued to be discussed until the decision of the ,academy 7founded #afdi7 settled the matter4 ,brunot1 op4 cit4 ii4 pp4 #ic sqq4 #bgh ,ie vous ay escrit ce petit avertissement de paour que paraventure1 en lisant tant de diversitz d'impressions comme pourriez faire en ceste langue1 ne sceussiez laquelle devriez suivre en ecrivant2 mais il sera bon de suivre la plus part des modernes qui s'accordent quant a cela4 #bgi ,stevenson1 ,cal4 of ,state ,papers1 foreign series1 #aeeh-i1 p4 xxv1 takes it for granted that ,bellemain was ,elizabeth's tutor in ,french4 #bhj ,strickland1 ,lives of the ,queens of ,england1 #ahhd3 ,life of ,elizabeth1 iii4 pp4 #i1 #ac4 #bha ,first printed at ,alenon1 #aeca4 #bhb ,this is at present in the ,bodleian ,library4 ,it has an embroidered cover1 probably by the princess herself4 ,see ,cyril ,davenport1 ,english ,embroidered ,bookbindings1 ,london1 #ahii1 p4 #cb4 ,it was reprinted in #ahig4 #bhc ,there are two copies of this rare little volume in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,another edition1 varying considerably from the first1 occurs in ,bentley's ,monuments of the ,nations1 iv41 ,london1 #aehb 7,stevenson1 ut supra1 p4 xxvi74 ,it was republished in #ahig4 #bhd ,see ,davenport1 ut supra1 p4 #cc4 ,the original is in the ,brit4 ,mus4 #bhe ,this little work appears to have been lost4 #bhf ,such as ,hentzer the ,german1 in #aeih2 ,justus ,zinzerling1 #afaj2 ,peter ,eisenburg the ,dane1 #afad4 ,see ,rye1 ,england as ,seen by ,foreigners1 pp4 #acc1 #aga1 #bfh1 #bhb4 #bhg ,d4 ,c4 ,a4 ,agnew1 ,protestant ,exiles from ,france 4441 #crd ed41 #ahhf1 vol4 i4 p4 #de4 #bhh ,haag1 ,la ,france ,protestante1 and ,cooper1 ,athen4 ,cant4 i4 #cjf4 ,agnew1 op4 cit41 does not mention that ,chevallier was tutor to ,elizabeth4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,religious ,,refugees ,,on ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,french ,,in ,,england--,,openings ,,for ,,them ,,as ,,teachers--,,demand ,,for ,,text-,,books--,,french ,,schools ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,scotland ,religion1 the question of all questions in the sixteenth century1 was destined1 incidentally1 to exercise a great influence on the teaching of ,french in ,england4 ,the conflicts resulting from the fierce hatreds aroused by the ,reformation compelled many ,protestants to seek asylum from the triumphant ,catholic reaction abroad1 and ,england was the land to which many of them fled4#bhi ,among these refugees were many who took upon themselves the task of teaching their native tongue to the ,english4 ,the second half of the sixteenth century was the time when this influence was most strongly felt1 although it is not altogether negligible in the years immediately preceding4 ,in ,france the ,reformation had at first been favourably received at ,court1 but in the third decade of the century persecution began to drive some ,protestants from their native land4 ,they made their way to ,england with some trepidation at this early date1#bij for ,henry ,,viii41 in spite of his breach with ,rome1 had but little sympathy with the ,protestants1 although he refused on several occasions to surrender fugitive heretics to the ,french king4#bia ,header3 ,,foreigners ,,in ,,england ,on the accession of ,edward ,,vi4 in #aedg1 however1 ,england became a more hospitable abode for the ,protestants1 driven from ,france in increasing numbers by the persecutions sanctioned by ,henry ,,ii41 whose reign coincided with that of ,edward4 ,when ,mary came to the throne all protection extended to these fugitives was withdrawn1 and we find many of their protectors fleeing in their turn to the ,church and ,christian congregation1 then dispersed in foreine realmes1 as to the safest bay4#bib ,the return of the ,english ,government to ,protestantism in the reign of ,elizabeth coincided with the period of increased persecution on the ,continent4 ,refugees arrived in great numbers1 not only ,huguenots from ,france1 but also subjects of ,philip ,,ii41 ,dutch1 ,flemings1 and ,walloons1 fleeing from the cruelties of ,alva4#bic ,these inhabitants of the ,low ,countries came to ,england in greater numbers than the ,huguenots4#bid ,many of them1 such as the ,walloons and ,burgundians1 spoke ,french2 and1 while the chief teachers of the time were drawn from the ,huguenots1 a large group of these ,french-speaking ,netherlanders also joined the profession4 ,to these two classes of ,french teachers must be added a third1 the ,roman ,catholics1 who formed the largest proportion of the foreigners in ,england4#bie ,the number of foreigners1 augmented by the arrival of the refugee ,dutch and ,french1 created a situation which required serious consideration4 ,these foreigners now formed a large fraction of the general population--probably about one in twenty of the inhabitants of ,london4#bif ,it became indispensable to keep some record of them1 especially as there was a danger that spies and ,roman ,catholic emissaries might enter the country under the guise of refugees1 and the overcrowding resulting from the arrival of so many aliens was becoming a serious matter4 ,in earlier reigns the names of strangers in ,london had been registered2 but in the time of ,elizabeth a census1 both numerical and religious1 was taken more systematically1 and at more and more frequent intervals4 ,in these returns of aliens dwelling in ,london1#big the names of many ,french teachers are preserved4 ,frequently their profession is stated1 and we are told what church they attended and whether or not they were denizens1 as well as the part of ,london in which they dwelt1 and1 in the lay subsidies1 the amount they had to pay towards the heavy taxes levied on strangers4 ,other names are preserved in the lists of the grants of letters of denization4#bih ,this grant made the precarious position of foreigners in ,england more secure4 ,denization became almost indispensable to any one wishing to exercise a craft or trade4 ,these letters gave the recipient much the same privileges as a native1 except that he was still subject to special taxation4#bii ,only those intending to settle in ,england would trouble to take out letters of denization2 and that many of these foreigners' stay in ,england was only temporary is shown by the fact that1 when the number of strangers was greatest1 as after the ,st4 ,bartholomew massacre1 there is no marked increase in the number of denizations granted4 ,means for registering the ,protestant section of the community of foreigners were provided through the ,dutch and ,french churches in ,london4#cjj ,in #aeej1 ,edward ,,vi4 had granted the dissolved monastery of the ,austin ,friars to the foreigners as a place of worship2 some months later1 owing to their increase in numbers1 they were allowed the use of another building--,st4 ,antony's ,hospital in ,threadneedle ,street4 ,the congregation was divided1 the ,dutch part remaining in the original church1 while the ,french and the ,walloons and other ,french-speaking refugees moved to ,threadneedle ,street4 ,both churches1 each with two pastors1#cja were under the control of a ,superintendent4 ,but when1 in the time of ,elizabeth1 the churches rose to new life1 after their suppression in the reign of ,mary1 the ,superintendent was replaced by the ,archbishop of ,canterbury4 ,header3 ,,reception ,,of ,,refugees ,,in ,,england ,this change1 however1 did not prevent the refugee congregations from enjoying many of their former liberties1 for in the time of ,elizabeth the ,archbishops1 who had themselves experienced the hardships of exile in the reign of ,mary1 took a particular interest in the cause of the refugees4 ,the ,english1 indeed1 complained1 not entirely without reason1 that the foreigners were allowed greater religious freedom than they themselves4 ,as ,french and ,dutch refugees settled in different parts of the country1 similar churches arose in these settlements4 ,by the end of the reign of ,elizabeth there were ,french-,walloon churches in existence at ,canterbury1 ,glastonbury1 ,sandwich1 ,southampton1 ,rye1 and ,norwich4 ,in #aeeb all strangers were ordered to repair either to their own church or to the ,english parish church4 ,these injunctions were renewed in the time of ,elizabeth and became a useful means of checking the number of refugees in ,london4 ,from time to time1 during this reign1 the ,archbishop requested the ministers of the foreign churches to send him a list of their communicants4 ,foreigners who did not attend any church were not allowed to apply for the privilege of letters of denization4 ,thus the aliens who arrived in ,england in such large numbers in the second part of the sixteenth century had many restrictions placed upon them1 especially if they were engaged in any craft or trade which might arouse the commercial jealousy of the ,english4 ,in the teaching profession such rivalry would not be felt to the same extent1 though it did actually exist4 ,in any circumstance1 however1 all the exiles had to endure the hatred and insults of the common people1 from which1 nearly two centuries later1 ,voltaire only escaped without injury thanks to his ready wit4 ,riots such as those of ,evil ,may ,day 7#aeag7 were directed mainly against foreign traders1 but all foreigners1 especially ,frenchmen1 were a continual butt for the insults of the mob4 ,nicander ,nucius remarks that the common people in ,england do not entertain one kindly sentiment towards the ,french4 ,ennemis du franois is one of the epithets applied to the ,english by ,de la ,porte in his collection of epithets 7,paris1 #aega7 on the different nations4 ,the ,french priest1 tienne ,perlin1 who was in ,england during the last two years of the reign of ,edward ,,vi41 and thoroughly hated the country1 calling it la peste d'un pays et ruine1 speaks bitterly of the contrast between the courteous reception the ,english receive in ,france1 and the greeting of the ,french in ,england with the cry1 ,french dogue3 it pleaseth me not that these churls being in their own country spit in our faces1 and they being in ,france are treated with honour1 as if they were little gods4#cjb ,all foreign visitors to ,england are at one in their complaints of the lack of courtesy among the people4 ,the great scholar ,casaubon says he was more insulted in ,london than he ever was in ,paris2 stones were thrown at his window day and night1 and once he was wounded in the street on his way to pay his respects at ,court4#cjc ,all these visitors1 nevertheless1 recognize that the ,english nobility and gentry and those in authority are replete with benevolence and good order1 and as courteous and affable as the people are uncivil4#cjd ,and thus we find foreigners1 especially refugees1 welcomed to chairs at the ,english universities1 and foreign students having their fees refunded on showing they had suffered for religion1 and receiving ecclesiastical preferment4#cje ,most of the chief families in the realm1 we are told1 received refugees into their midst4 ,laurence ,humphrey#cjf exhorts these noble families to fulfil the sacred duty of hospitality towards strangers1 especially religious exiles1 whose sufferings many of them had themselves experienced in the reign of ,mary1 and to provide them with necessary livings1 admit them to fellowships1 and allow them yearly stipends4 ,which well ,i wot1 the noblest ,prince ,edward of happy memory most liberally did both in ,london and either university1 whom some ,dukes1 ,nobles1 and ,bishops imitated1 chiefly the reverend ,father and late ,primate of ,england 444 ,thomas ,cranmer1 ,archbishop of ,canterbury4444 ,amongst the ,nobles not the least praise earned ,henry ,gray1 ,marquis of ,dorset1 and ,duke of ,suffolk now a noble citizen of ,heaven1 who liberally relieved many learned exiles4 ,the like may be said of many others4 ,cranmer had entertained at ,lambeth ,pierre ,alexandre and diverse other pious ,frenchmen1 including ,antony ,rudolph ,chevallier1 who was tutor to ,elizabeth for a short time4 ,header3 ,,tutors ,,in ,,private ,,families ,matthew ,parker1 his successor to the see in the time of ,elizabeth1 followed his example and declared it to be a ,christian duty to befriend these gentle and profitable strangers4 ,cecil1 ,walsingham1 and other dignitaries of the time also became their protectors1 and1 recognizing the advantages1 both intellectual and commercial1 which accrued to the country1 sought by all means to ward off the hostile measures demanded from time to time by the ,english bourgeoisie4 ,one ,french teacher of the time1 ,g4 de la ,mothe1 says that so great was the affection of the ,english nobility and gentry for the ,french that few of them were without a ,frenchman in their houses4 ,thus ,pierre ,baro1 a native of tampes and student of civil law who came to ,england at the time of the ,st4 ,bartholomew massacre1 was kindly entertained in the family of ,lord ,burghley1 who admitted him to eat at his own table4 ,subsequently he went to ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 and became ,lady ,margaret ,professor of ,divinity at that university on the recommendation of his patron1 besides being admitted to the degrees of ,bachelor and ,licentiate of ,civil ,law1 and ,doctor of ,divinity 7#aegf74cjg ,lord ,buckhurst had for a time in his house ,claude de ,sainliens or ,holyband1 the most popular ,french teacher of the time1 and several other strangers2 while ,sir ,nicholas ,throckmorton gave shelter to two ,burgundians1 one ,dutchman1 and four ,frenchmen1 whose names cannot be learned4#cjh ,in many instances we know that these refugees taught ,french when thus received into noble families1 and it is extremely probable that such was almost always the case1 for ,french was one of the chief studies of the higher classes of society and held an important place in the courtly education of the time4 ,this partiality for the language was called one of the rare vocations which distinguished the ,english nobility4 ,an idea of the intellectual accomplishments necessary to a young gentleman of the time may be gathered from the programme drawn up for ,gregory1 the son of ,mr4 ,secretary ,cromwell2#cji this comprises ,french1 ,latin1 writing1 playing at weapons1 casting of accounts1 pastimes of instruments4 ,wilson1 the author of the earliest treatise on rhetoric in ,english1#caj varies this scheme slightly2 he commends the gentleman for his skill in ,french1 or ,italian1 or cosmography1 ,laws1 ,histories of all countries1 gifts of inditing1 playing on instruments1 painting1 and drawing4 ,lord ,ossory1 ,duke of ,ormond1 for example1 rode very well1 was a good tennis-player1 fencer1 and dancer1 understood music and played well on the guitar and on the lute2 ,french he spoke elegantly1 while he read ,italian with ease--a careful and significant distinction between the two languages--and1 in addition1 he was a good historian and well versed in romances4#caa ,thus a place had to be assigned to ,french in the education of gentlemen4 ,thomas ,cranmer1#cab for instance1 wrote to ,cromwell in #aeci1 making suggestions for the establishment of a ,college in the ,cathedral ,church at ,canterbury1 to provide for the instruction of forty students in the tongues1 in sciences1 and in ,french--a proposal which came to nothing1 but is none the less important1 as being the first attempt to reinstate ,french in an educational institution4 ,in the sixteenth century the long-standing custom among gentlemen of sending their sons to the houses of noblemen for education was still practised to some extent1 and ,french was taught in these little communities4#cac ,the usual subjects of study were reading1 probably writing1 and languages1 chiefly ,latin and ,french4 ,sir ,thomas ,more and ,roger ,ascham were both educated in this way4 ,more1 at the age of three1 was sent to the house of ,john ,morton1 the chancellor1 where he learnt ,french1 ,latin1 ,greek1 and music4 ,ascham spent his early years in the house of ,sir ,humphrey ,wingfield1 who ever loved and used to have many children in his house4#cad ,sir ,henry ,wotton was pleased constantly to breed up one or more hopeful youths which he picked out of ,eton ,school1 and took into his own domestic care4#cae ,it was also customary for young peers to become royal wards4 ,in #aefa ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon devised a plan for their bringing up in virtue and learning which he submitted to ,cecil4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,education ,,of ,,gentry ,according to these articles1#caf the wards were to attend divine service at six in the morning1 then to study ,latin till eleven2 nothing is said of breakfast1 but an hour is allowed for dinner2 from noon till two o'clock they were to be with the music master1 from two to three with the ,french master1 and from three to five with the ,latin and ,greek masters4 ,the rest of the evening was devoted to prayers1 honest pastimes1 and music under the direction of a master4 ,no doubt ,cecil put this advice into practice4 ,some years later1 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert drew up an admirable scheme for the erection of an ,academy in ,london for the education of her majesty's wards1 and others1 the youth of ,nobility and ,gentlemen1 which was laid before the queen1 probably in #aegj4 ,although this scheme was never carried out1 it is of great interest as showing what were the subjects most likely to be taught4 ,gilbert's plan is very extensive4 ,french1 of course1 is included in the curriculum--also there shall be one ,teacher of the ,french tongue which shall be yearly allowed for the same #bf4 ,also he shall be allowed one usher1 of the yearly wage of #aj4 ,gilbert urges also the teaching of other modern languages--,italian1 to which he assigns about as large a place as to ,french1 and ,spanish and ,high ,dutch1 to which less importance is attached4#cag ,french1 then1 was a recognized part of the education of the nobility and gentry4 ,italian1 it will be noticed1 was also considered desirable1 but chiefly for reading purposes4#cah ,in the ,elizabethan era ,italian literature had perhaps more influence on ,english writers than that of ,france1 although it not infrequently reached ,england through a ,french medium4 ,but when the first enthusiasm of the early days of the ,renaissance had burnt itself out1 ,italian was not cultivated generally1 except by those specially interested in literature or by those who had special reasons for learning it4 ,nor was ,spanish much studied1 except for practical purposes and the government services2 ,richard ,perceval1 for instance1 put his excellent knowledge of the language at the disposal of ,lord ,burghley for the purpose of deciphering the packets containing the first intelligence of the ,armada4#cai ,neither language could be a dangerous rival to ,french1 which alone was studied generally1 and by ever-increasing numbers4 ,it was in private tuition that those ,frenchmen desirous of teaching their language1 or driven to do so by stress of circumstances1 would find the readiest opening and the largest demand for their services4 ,turning to the various registers of aliens1 the earliest notices we find of ,french tutors are in the grant of letters of denization for the year #aedd4cbj ,in that year one1 ,john ,verone1 a ,french and ,latin tutor to the children of ,william ,morris1 a gentleman usher to the king1 received the grant1 as did also a certain ,honorie ,ballier1 a ,frenchman who had been ten years in ,england1 and was engaged in teaching his language to the children of the ,lord ,admiral1 ,lord ,lisle1 ,duke of ,northumberland4 ,yet another teacher received the same privilege in this year--,john ,veron1 one of the eminentest preachers of the time1 and the author of various religious controversial works4 ,he gained considerable preferment in the ,anglican ,church1 and once preached before the queen at the ,cross in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1--a bold as well as an eloquent man1 and a perfect master of the ,english tongue4#cba ,in the earlier part of his life in ,england1 where he arrived about #aecf1 ,veron had been engaged in teaching gentlemen's children2 a task in which1 say his letters of denization 7#aedd71 he doth yet continue with intent ever so to persevere4 ,veron manifested his interest in the teaching of ,latin and ,french by publishing a ,latin1 ,french1 and ,english dictionary in #aeeb1 the first dictionary1 published in ,england1 in which a place is given to ,french4 ,it is based on the ,latin-,french ,dictionary of ,robert stienne1#cbb with the addition of a column in ,english1 and entitled ,dictionariolum puerorum tribus linguis ,latina1 ,anglica1 et ,gallica conscriptum cui anglicam interpretionem adjecit ,joannes ,veron4#cbc ,the impetus imparted to the teaching of ,french by the arrival of these large numbers of refugees naturally led to an increased production of books for teaching the language4 ,header3 ,,text-,,books ,,for ,,teaching ,,french ,nearly all the grammars written in the second half of the sixteenth century are the work of ,frenchmen1#cbd the ,english1 after their first initiative1 soon giving place to the ,french writers on the language1 although not without some protest4 ,some of these teachers no doubt made use of one or other of the grammars which had appeared in ,french2 many of them taught without any such help1 and a few were able to use one or other of the grammars which had already been published in ,england1 while yet others set to work to compile text-books of their own4 ,as many of them were1 or had been1 employed in noblemen's houses1 and had composed their grammars from material used in teaching in these noble families1 it was easy for most of them to find patrons for their works1#cbe and thus secure a greater measure of success by offering them to the public under the protection of some well-known and powerful name1 which would shadow these tender plants from the over violent rays of reproachful censurings4 ,to dedicate a grammar to some famous pupil1 with praise of his rare knowledge of ,french acquired by means of its contents and the excellent method employed by his tutor1 the author1 was a very good form of self-advertisement1 freely used by the ,french teachers of the time4 ,among patrons of ,french grammars were ,edward ,,vi4 and particularly ,elizabeth1 who is1 says one of these writers1 le vray port de retraite et asyle asseur de ceux qui1 faisans profession de l',evangile1 souffrent ores persecution soubs la ,tyrannie de l',antichrist2 another adds that she has des estrangers les coeurs a volont4 ,lord ,burghley1 ,sir ,henry ,wallop1 ,sir ,philip ,wharton1 and other influential men of the time also figure among the patrons of ,french teachers4 ,these ,french grammars which appeared in the second half of the sixteenth century are of a decidedly more popular kind than those of ,palsgrave and ,duwes1 and appeal to a larger public4 ,the earlier grammars were written for the special use of royalty and the highest ranks of the nobility4 ,barclay1 however1 differs from his rivals in having a wider aim2 his grammar is intended for the pleasure of all englysshe men as well gentylmen marchauntes1 as other common people that are not expert in the sayd langage4 ,palsgrave also1 by way of epilogue1 expresses the hope that the nobility of the realm and all other persons1 of whatever state and condition whatsoever1 may in their tender age1 by means of it the sooner acquire a knowledge of ,french by their great pains and study2 but it is clear that the size and price of his book1 not to mention the restrictions he placed on its sale1 would prevent it from fulfilling any such aim4 ,in this new series of ,french text-books there appeared nothing which could compare in importance with the great work of ,palsgrave2 they were all the hasty product of teachers1 and intended to meet a pressing practical demand4 ,the authors had not the time1 even if they had had the ability1 to produce any comprehensive study of the language1 and1 consequently1 their works are of more value as showing how ,french was taught in ,england1 and its popularity here1 than as a store of philological material for the historical grammarian4 ,rules of grammar are usually reduced to as small a compass as possible2 and the largest part of the volumes is occupied by dialogues in ,french and ,english1 which give lively and often dramatic pictures of contemporary family life1 and of the busy ,london streets of the time4 ,a place is also given to familiar phrases1 collections of proverbs1 and golden sayings4 ,the public to which such text-books appealed was wider1 including merchants and commoners1 as well as the gentry4 ,nor was the demand for tutors in the language confined to the higher classes4 ,at this time the great middle classes were rising to wealth and prominence1 and demanding a share in the intellectual distinctions of their social betters4 ,as for gentlemen1 they be made good cheap in ,england1 writes ,sir ,thomas ,smith1#cbf in reference to the democratic movement4 ,in this new class of ,englishman1 the teachers of ,french recruited a large number of their pupils4 ,and so the ,french teacher who visited a clientle of pupils became a familiar figure in the ,london of the later sixteenth century4 ,the numerous ,french-speaking inhabitants of ,london1 occupied in various trades and crafts in the city1 were1 so to speak1 his unconscious collaborators1 for the proportion of such foreigners in ,london was large enough to have some influence on the spread of the knowledge of ,french4 ,header3 ,,shakespeare',s ,,knowledge ,,of ,,french ,we have an instance of this indirect influence in the case of ,shakespeare4 ,from #aeih he lodged for about six years1 and possibly longer1 in the house of a ,huguenot1 one ,christopher ,montjoy1 who lived in ,silver ,street1 ,cripplegate#cbg--;a well-to-do neighbourhood1 and the resort of many foreigners4 ,montjoy was one of the ,french head-dressers who were in such demand at that time4 ,his wife1 daughter1 and also his apprentice1 ,stephen ,bellot1 formed the rest of the household1 with whom ,shakespeare seems to have lived on fairly intimate terms2 he acted as a mediator in arranging a marriage between ,montjoy's daughter and ,bellot1 and1 some years later1 was drawn into a family quarrel concerning a dowry which ,bellot claimed and ,montjoy refused to pay2 in #afab ,bellot took the matter into the ,court of ,requests1 and ,shakespeare was one of the witnesses summoned4 ,finally the matter was referred to the consistory of the ,french ,church1 which decided in ,bellot's favour4#cbh ,it was no doubt during his sojourn in the house of this ,huguenot family that he improved his knowledge of ,french1 of which he gives evidence in his works4#cbi ,the two plays in which he uses the language most freely--,henry ,v4 and ,the ,merry ,wives of ,windsor--were produced during the early time of his residence with ,montjoy1 whose name is given to a ,french ,herald in ,henry ,v4 ,in ,the ,merry ,wives the ,french physician1 ,doctor ,caius1 speaks a mixture of broken ,english and ,french1#ccj and in ,henry ,v4 ,french is introduced freely into a number of the scenes1#cca while one1 in which ,katharine of ,france receives a lesson in ,english from her ,french maid1 is entirely in ,french1 and is here quoted for convenience' sake3#ccb 7,enter ,katharine and ,alice47 ,kath4 ,alice1 tu as est en ,angleterre1 et tu parles bien le langage4 ,alice4 ,un peu1 madame4 ,kath4 ,je te prie1 m'enseignez2 il fault que j'apprenne parler4 ,comment appellez-vous la main en ,anglois8 ,alice4 ,la main8 elle est appelle de hand4 ,kath4 ,de hand4 ,et les doigts8 ,alice4 ,les doigts8 ma foy1 j'oublie les doigts2 mais je me soubviendra4 ,les doigts8 je pense y qu'ils sont appellez de fingres2 ouy1 de fingres4 ,kath4 ,la main1 de hand2 les doigts1 de fingres4 ,je pense que je suis le bon escholier4 ,j'ay gagn deux mots d',anglois vistement4 ,comment appellez-vous les ongles8 ,alice4 ,les ongles8 nous les appellons1 de nails4 ,kath4 ,de nails4 ,escoutez3 dites-moy1 si ie parle bien3 de hand1 de fingres1 et de nails4 ,alice4 ,c'est bien dict1 madame2 il est fort bon ,anglois4 ,kath4 ,dites-moi l'anglois pour le bras4 ,alice4 ,de arm1 madame4 ,kath4 ,et le coude4 ,alice4 ,d'elbow4 ,kath4 ,d'elbow4 ,je m'en fais la rptition de tous les mots que vous m'avez appris ds present4 ,alice4 ,il est trop difficile1 madame1 comme je pense4 ,kath4 ,excusez-moy1 ,alice2 escoutez3 de hand1 de fingre1 de nails1 de arm1 de bilbow4 ,alice4 ,de elbow1 madame4 ,kath4 ,o ,seigneur ,dieu6 je m'en oublie2 de elbow4 ,comment appelez-vous le col8 ,alice4 ,de nick1 madame4 ,kath4 ,de nick3 et le menton8 ,alice4 ,de chin4 ,kath4 ,de sin4 ,le col1 de nick3 le menton1 de sin4 ,alice4 ,ouy4 ,saulve vostre honneur1 en vrit vous prononcez les mots aussi droict que les natifs d',angleterre4 ,kath4 ,je ne doubte poinct d'apprendre1 par la grace ,dieu1 et en peu de temps4 ,alice4 ,n'avez vous pas desj oubli ce que je vous ay enseign8 ,kath4 ,non1 je rciteray a vous promptement4 ,de hand1 de fingre1 de mails-- ,alice4 ,de nails1 madame4 ,kath4 ,de nails1 de arme1 de ilbow4 ,alice4 ,saulve vostre honneur1 de elbow4 ,kath4 ,ainsi dis-je2 de elbow1 de nick1 et de sin3 comment appelez-vous le pied and la robbe8 ,alice4 ,de foot1 madame2 et de coun4 ,kath4 ,de foot1 et de coun8 ,o ,seigneur ,dieu6 ce sont mots de son maulvais1 corruptible1 gros1 et impudique1 et non pour les dames d'honneur d'user4 ,je ne vouldrois prononcer cez mots devant les ,seigneurs de ,france1 pour tout le monde4 ,il fault de foot1 et de coun1 neant-moins4 ,je reciteray une aultre fois ma leon ensemble3 de hand1 de fingre1 de nails1 de nick1 de sin1 de foot1 de coun4 ,alice4 ,excellent1 madame6 ,kath4 ,c'est assez pour une fois2 allons-nous disner4 ,it is not surprising1 remembering ,shakespeare's friendship with the ,huguenots1 to find him quoting from the ,genevan ,bible in the same play4#ccc ,header3 ,,french ,,neglected ,,in ,,grammar ,,schools ,when he composed it1 he must have had a strong inclination to write ,french1 as he sometimes uses the language rather inconsistently1 making the ,dauphin1 for instance1 speak ,french one moment and ,english the next4 ,on the whole1 ,shakespeare's ,french seems to have been fairly correct grammatically1 if not quite idiomatic4#ccd ,it contains just enough mistakes and anglicisms to make it extremely unlikely that he received help from any ,frenchman2 for example1 we find the ,princess ,katharine of ,france saying1 ,je suis semblable a les anges4 ,on other occasions1 when ,englishmen are speaking1 ,shakespeare purposely makes their ,french incorrect and clumsy4 ,that he could read ,french is shown by the fact that some of the originals on which he based his plays were not translated into ,english4#cce ,moreover1 he probably read ,montaigne in the original1 unless1 like ,cornwallis1 ,florio allowed him to see his translation in manuscript--a rather remote possibility1 as the ,french would be easier of access4 ,no doubt many others besides ,shakespeare owed a good deal of their knowledge of ,french to direct intercourse with ,frenchmen1 a means of improvement strongly advocated by the professional teachers of the time4 ,get you acquainted with some ,frenchman is their cry4 ,in addition to the refugees1 students or men belonging to no particular craft or profession who took up the teaching of their language on their arrival in ,england1 there were also professional schoolmasters--,french1 ,flemish1 and ,walloon4 ,many of the latter1 we may surmise1 were no doubt driven from their country by the edict issued by ,margaret1 ,duchess of ,parma1 in #aefg4 ,one clause was particularly directed against schoolmasters who might teach any error or false doctrine4 ,none of these teachers1 however1 would find any opening in the grammar schools1 which were then little nurseries of the ,latin tongue4 ,the memorizing of ,latin grammar1 with the study of rhetoric in the ,latin writers1 both in verse and prose1 formed almost the whole of the curriculum4#ccf ,in the books on education of the time the study of ,french was equally ignored4 ,these works1 however1 are mainly from the pen of pedants1 and have but little bearing on practical education4#ccg ,for them ,french was not a 'learned' tongue1 in spite of the efforts of ,palsgrave to secure its recognition as such4 ,but it is not difficult to reconcile the general prevalence of the study of ,french with its absence from the grammar schools4 ,at this time1 and throughout the seventeenth century1 there was a great division between scholastic education and social requirements4#cch ,the school and educational writers1 in refusing to recognize ,french1 held aloof from the social needs of the day3 non vitae sed scholae discimus2 and in retaining the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the ,middle ,ages they ignored the new spirit of nationalism which called modern languages into prominence4 ,the school had little1 if any1 effect in retarding the progress of ,french1 which came to be looked upon in the light of an 'extra1' to be studied privately and with the help of tutors4 ,many scholars of the public or grammar schools had a private tutor who would teach them ,french when occasion served4 ,such1 for instance1 was the case with ,sir ,philip ,sidney4 ,fulke ,grenville and ,sidney both entered ,shrewsbury ,school at the age of ten1 in the year #aefd4 ,two years later a letter of ,sir ,henry ,sidney informs us that he had received two letters from his son1 one in ,latin and the other in ,french1 whiche ,i take in good parte1 and will you to exercise that ,practice and ,learning often3 ,for that will stand you in most steade1 in that profession of lyf that you are born to live in4#cci ,apparently1 then1 ,sidney had received lessons in ,french either at home or out of school hours4 ,he had also1 in all probability1 had a ,french tutor before he went to ,shrewsbury4 ,french1 however1 was not entirely neglected in all schools4 ,as the grammar schools were ,latin schools1 there arose in the second half of the sixteenth century a considerable number of private ,french schools1 where this language received special attention4 ,header3 ,,private ,,french ,,schools ,the earliest of these owed their origin to the refugees1 both professional schoolmasters and others4 ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 the busy centre of city life1 was the quarter round which many of these schools were grouped4 ,there they were most likely to get a good clientle1 partly1 it may be1 among those boys attending ,st4 ,paul's ,school who desired1 like ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 to extend their studies4 ,in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 also1 lived the chief booksellers1 who generally seem to have cultivated friendly relations with ,french teachers1 especially those whose books they were commissioned to sell4 ,frequently they acted as agents for the teachers1 who in their grammars advise prospective pupils to inquire at the bookseller's4 ,and1 at this time1 when indications of address were given by reference to the nearest place of importance1 printers' signs are frequently used to locate the situation of ,french schools4 ,at least one of these schools seems to have been very well known1 for in #aeij the printer ,w4 ,wright1 senior1 gave as his address1 neare to the ,french ,school4#cdj ,all of them1 however1 did not owe their origin to the ,french refugees4 ,we hear1 for instance1 of a certain ,john ,love1 an ,englishman1 son of the steward of the ,jesuit college founded by the ,english ,catholics at ,douay1 who had a ,french school near ,st4 ,paul's1 at the end of the century4 ,but he was suspect1 as it was feared he might be an intelligenceer4#cda ,among the earliest1 however1 if not the first of these ,french schools1 was that of ,peter ,du ,ploich1 a ,frenchman1 and no doubt a refugee2 at any rate the text-book for teaching ,french which he published shows his strong sympathy with the ,protestants4 ,this was entitled ,a ,treatise in ,english and ,frenche right necessary and profitable for al young children1 and was first issued in about #aeec from the press of ,richard ,grafton1 who had privilege de l'imprimer seul4#cdb ,of this schoolmaster's life little is known4#cdc ,from his little ,french text-book1 right necessary to come to the knowledge of the same1 we learn that he kept his school at the sign of the ,rose in ,trinity ,street2 that he was married1 and probably received some of his pupils into his house2 and that he taught ,french1 ,latin1 and writing4 ,probably religious instruction also formed part of the curriculum1 as it did in the other schools of the time2 both ,henry ,,viii4 and ,edward ,,vi4 issued orders that the ,paternoster1 the ,ten ,commandments1 and the ,apostles' ,creed should be taught to children4#cdd ,not only ,du ,ploich but other ,french teachers of the time provided religious formularies in their books for teaching the language1 and in #aeei-aefj the printer ,william ,griffith received a licence to print a ,catechism in ,latin1 ,french1 and ,english4#cde ,the ,catechism1 ,litany1 ,suffrages1 and prayers occupy a large part of ,du ,ploich's ,treatise1 which is of quarto size1 and consists of about fifty leaves4#cdf ,all these formularies are given in both ,french and ,english1 arranged in two columns on each page4#cdg ,then come three familiar dialogues which constitute the third1 fourth1 and fifth chapters of the book4 ,the first of these gives us a lively picture of family life at the time4 ,from the street1 where we meet friends and are taught how to greet and address them1 we pass into the house1 where we are spectators of the family repast and of the arrival of the guests1 and hear conversation on many subjects in which ,du ,ploich finds an opportunity for self-advertisement by mentioning his school and address4 ,a child reads a passage from the ,new ,testament1 and the meal is preceded and followed by lengthy thanksgivings1 which1 however1 do not interfere with the joviality and conviviality of the host4 ,sir1 you make no good chere4 ,mons41 vous ne faictes pas bonne chere4 ,you say nothing4 ,vous ne dictes rien4 ,what sholde ,i say8 ,que diroys-ie8 ,i cannot speake frenche4 ,je ne sais pas parler franois4 ,i understande you not4 ,je ne vous entens pas4 ,o ,god1 what say you8 ,o ,dieu1 que dictes-vous8 ,you speake as well as ,i doo ,vous parlez aussy bien que je fais and better4 et mieus aussy4 ,pardon me4 ,pardonnez moy4 ,it pleaseth you to say so4 ,il vous plaist de dire ainsy 4 4 4 etc4 ,header3 ,,peter ,,du ,,ploich ,the next two dialogues deal with subjects characteristic of these books for teaching ,french--asking the way1 the arrival and entertainment at an inn1 and finally1 buying1 selling1 and bargaining--all topics useful for merchants and merchants' apprentices1 from whose ranks ,du ,ploich probably recruited a number of his pupils4 ,l'aprentif is the word he uses in speaking of his pupils1 though there is no proof to show that he employed it in any special sense4 ,then comes a fifth chapter containing the following headings3 ,pour demander le chemin1 ,aultre communication en chevauchant1 ,pour aller coucher1 ,pour soy descoucher1 and beginning thus3 ,sir1 we be oute of ,monsieur1 nous somes hors de our way4 nostre chemin4 ,we be not4 ,non sommes4 ,but we be4 ,si sommes4 ,we go well4 ,nous allons bien4 ,we doo not4 ,non faisons4 ,but we doo1 abyde4 ,si faisons1 attendez4 ,beholde there cometh a woman4 ,voyla une femme qui vient4 ,we will aske her ,nous voulons lui demander whiche is the way4 ou est le droict chemin4 ,good wife1 shew me ,m'amie1 monstre moy the ryghte way le droict chemin d'icy here hence to the nexte towne4 au prochain village4 ,streyghte before you4 ,tousiours devant vous4 ,upon whiche hande8 ,a quelle main8 ,on the lefte hande4 ,a la main gauche1 etc4 ,in the sixth chapter the merchants leave the inn in the early morning to transact their business3 ,wil we go see if we ,voulons nous aller veoir sy nous can bye some thyng8 pourrons acheter quelque chose8 ,that shold be wel done1 ,ce seroit bien faict1 but it is yet too tymely4 mais il est encore trop tempre4 ,by your licence it is tyme4 ,pardonnez moy il est temps4 ,have you any ,eglyshe cloth8 ,avez vous dez draps d',engleterre8 ,ye1 what colour4 ,ouy1 quelle couleur 4 4 4 etc4 ,at the end come the names of the figures1 necessary for such transactions1 and finally information and advice in verse form1 without any ,english rendering1 pour gens de finance3 ,toy qui est receveur du ,roy ,je te prie entens et me croy4 ,reoy avant que tu escripves1 ,escriptz avant que tu delivres1 ,de recevoir faitz diligence ,et fais tardifve delivrance4 ,en tes clers pas tant ne te fie ,que veoir te fais souvent oublie4 ,regarde souvent en ton papier ,quant1 quoy1 combien il fault payer4 ,prens lettres quy soyent vaillables1 ,aye parrolles amiables1 ,et soys diligent de compter4 ,ainsy pourras plus hault monter4 ,du ,ploich seems to have brought with him to ,england a ,genevan ,a ,b ,c1 or book of elementary instruction and prayers for children1 such as was common in ,france as well as in ,england4 ,the next section of his treatise treats of the ,french ,a ,b ,c in words identical with those of an ,a ,b ,c franois printed at ,geneva in #aeea4 ,this is followed by a few very slight rules in ,english1 which tell us not to pronounce the last letter of a ,french word1 except s1 t1 and p1 when the next word begins with a consonant2 to neglect a vowel at the end of a word when the following word begins with another vowel2 also that the accusative precedes the verb2 that after au1 ou1 i1 and eu1 l is not sounded2 that the consonants sp1 st1 and ct should not be separated in pronunciation2 and that the negative is formed by placing ne before the verb and pas or point after it4 ,to this scanty grammatical information1 which bears considerable resemblance to that contained in some previous works1#cdh the eighth and last chapter adds the conjugation of the two auxiliaries in ,latin1 ,english1 and ,french4 ,the treatise closes with a ,latin poem addressed to preceptor noster ,du ,ploich by ,john ,alexander1 one of his pupils1 and with a table of contents4 ,no doubt ,french was the basis of the whole of the instruction given by ,du ,ploich in his school4 ,his pupils learnt to write from this ,french text-book1 and memorized the ,latin verbs with the ,french verbs4 ,the fact that ,du ,ploich places his few grammar rules at the end of the work1 and after the practical reading-exercises1 shows what slight importance he attached to them4 ,he would1 we may assume1 refer his pupils to them as occasion arose1 but practical exercises and conversation formed the chief part of his lessons4 ,he made free use of ,english in explaining the meaning of the ,french1 and throughout his book he sacrifices the ,english phrase in order to render more closely the meaning of the ,french1 for which he duly apologizes3 that none blame or reprove this sayd translacion thus made in ,englishe because that it is a litle corrupt4 ,header3 ,,du ,,ploich',s ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,for the author hath done it for the better declaryng of the diversitie of one tounge to the other1 and it is turned almost worde for worde and lyne for lyne1 that it may be to his young scholars more easy and lyght4 ,du ,ploich was thoughtful for his young pupils4 ,a little at a time1 and that done well was his motto4 ,on this method1 he says1 the child will learn more in a week than he would do in two months by attempting a great deal at the beginning4 ,the master should repeat the lesson two or three times before allowing the child to say it1 and be ready to explain difficulties1 and not wait for the child to guess4 ,if not1 the pupil will lose patience and the little courage he possesses4 ,du ,ploich would have the verbs learnt on the plan already advocated on a larger scale by ,duwes1 that is1 he advises the student to practise them negatively and interrogatively as well as in the usual affirmative form4 ,some time later1 probably after ,du ,ploich's death1 or when he had left ,england1 there appeared another edition of his grammar4 ,this was printed by ,john ,kingston1 and finished on the fourteenth day of ,april #aegh4cdi ,an important change in the arrangement of the chapters distinguishes it from the edition of #aeec2 in the later edition the chapter on the alphabet and grammar is placed at the beginning1 although in both issues the chapter on the two auxiliaries closes the work4 ,kingston--for he was probably responsible for the change--thus yielded to the tendency1 which became stronger and stronger as time advanced1 of placing theoretical before practical instruction4 ,in addition to slight variations1 other differences between the two works are the omission of the verses for gens de finance1 and of the ,latin poem addressed to ,du ,ploich by one of his pupils4 ,the ,little ,treatise in ,english and ,french was not the only work produced by ,du ,ploich during his residence in ,england4 ,on its completion he turned his attention to the composition of a work on the estate of princes1 which he called a ,petit ,recueil tresutile et tresnecessaire de l',etat dez ,princes1 dez ,seigneurs temporelz et du commun peuple1 faict par ,pierre ,du ,ploych4#cej ,this ,recueil is written in ,french4 ,its subject matter is not of much interest1 but the ,latin verses with which it closes inform us that ,du ,ploich had a law degree 7,licentiatus ,legum74 ,he dedicated the manuscript1 which is not dated1 to the ,roy tres puissant ,eduard sixieme de ce nom1 who graciously received it and rewarded ,du ,ploich's industry by a generous gift4#cea ,this favourable reception encouraged the ,french teacher to present another work to his ,soverain lord and master in the course of the following year4 ,this second manuscript is shorter than the earlier ,recueil2#ceb it bears the title of ,petit ,recueil des homaiges1 honneurs et recognoissances deubz par les hommes a ,dieu le createur1 avec certaines prieres en la recognoissance de soy mesme4 ,at the end occurs a passage of some interest in which ,du ,ploich expresses his intention of providing the work1 unworthy as it is1 with an ,english translation1 as soon as he finds time and opportunity for such an undertaking1 for he has not ,english de nature4#cec ,this rendering1 he says1 will be mot pour mot et ligne pour ligne1 affin d'augmenter les couraiges des professeurs4 ,we may infer from this that he thought of having the work printed in ,french and ,english for the use of students4 ,a ,french school very similar to that of ,du ,ploich1 but of which we have more details1 was kept by ,claude de ,sainliens1 ,de ,sancto ,vinculo1 or1 as he anglicized it1 ,holyband4 ,a native of ,moulins and a ,huguenot1 ,holyband probably sought refuge in ,england from the persecutions4 ,in #aega he is said to have been in ,england seven years2#ced hence he must have begun his long career in ,london as a teacher of ,french in the year #aefd4 ,in #aeff he took out letters of denization4#cee ,holyband was not exactly a scholar1 but rather a man of broad interests1 sustained by extraordinary vitality1 and before he had been in ,england three years he had published two books for teaching ,french1 which became very popular1 and continued to be reprinted for nearly a century4 ,there is no extant copy of the earliest edition of the first of these1 but it appeared most probably in #aefe4 ,header3 ,,claude ,,holyband ,the earliest copy known is dated #aegc1 and bears the title1 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister1 wherin is most plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the ,french ,tongue4 ,the contents of this little book are of the kind which became characteristic of works for teaching ,french4 ,it opens with rules for pronunciation and grammar in ,english1 of little value or originality1 and purposely made as concise as possible4 ,these are followed by dialogues1 collections of proverbs1 golden sayings1 prayers1 and graces before meat1 and a large vocabulary4 ,the dialogues are by far the most interesting portion of the work4 ,like those of ,du ,ploich1 they show a close connexion between the teaching of ,french and the daily concerns of life4 ,they give us a picture of the busy ,london of the time1 and especially of ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 as well as lively family scenes1 together with the usual wayside and tavern conversation4 ,we see the boy setting off to school in the morning1 threading his way through the busy streets1 and again see him return to the hearty and hospitable family dinner1 during which he finds occasion to speak of his ,french studies4 ,these dialogues are given in ,french and ,english arranged on opposite pages4 ,their dramatic interest may be gathered from the opening passage1 where we listen to the servant hurrying the boy off to school3 ,hau ,franois1 levez vous et allez ,ho ,francis1 arise and go to a l'eschole3 vous serez battu1 schoole3 you shall be beaten1 car il est sept heures passes3 for it is past seven3 abillez vous vistement4 make you ready quickly4 ,dites voz prieres1 puis vous ,say your prayers1 then you aurez vostre desiuner3 shall have your breakfast3 sus1 remuez vous4 go to1 stirre4 ,marguerite1 baillez moy mes chausses4 ,margaret1 give me my hosen4 ,despeschez vous ie vous prie3 o est ,dispatch ,i pray you3 where is mon pourpoint8 apportez me iartieres my doublet8 bring my garters et mes souliers3 and my shoes3 donnez moy ce chausse-pied4 give me that shooing-horne4 ,que faites vous l8 ,what do you there8 que ne vous hastez vous8 why make you no haste8 ,prenez premierement une chemise blanche1 ,take first a cleane shirt1 car la vostre est trop sale3 for yours is too foule3 n'est elle pas8 is it not8 ,hastez vous donc1 ,make haste then1 car ie demeure trop4 for ,i do tarry too long4 ,elle est encore moite1 attendez un peu ,it is moist yet1 tarry a litle que ie la seiche au feu3 that ,i may drie it by the fire3 i'auray tost fait4 ,i will have soone done4 ,je ne sauroye tarder si longuement4 ,i cannot tarry so long4 ,allez vous en1 ie n'en veux point4 ,go your way1 ,i will none of it4 ,vostre mere me tancera ,your mother will chide me si vous allez a l'eschole if you go to school sans vostre chemise blanche4 without your clean shirt4 ,and after quarrelling with ,margaret1 and using rather bad language1 ,francis receives his parents' blessing1 and starts off to school4 ,unfortunately we are not spectators of his doings there4 ,whether ,holyband had opened his ,french school or not when he composed the ,french ,schoolemaister is uncertain2 but the school was evidently in full swing at the time his second work appeared1 about a year later1 in #aeff4 ,the contents of the new work1 ,the ,french ,littleton1 a most easie1 perfect1 and absolute way to learn the ,french tongue1 are much the same as those of the ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,there is1 however1 one important difference between the two works4 ,in the ,schoolemaister the rules precede the practical exercises1 but this order is reversed in the ,littleton4 ,in the first work ,holyband does not appear to have fully evolved his method of teaching ,french4 ,by the time he wrote the ,french ,littleton he was able to lay down principles1 based1 no doubt1 on experience1 and consequently he attached a higher value to the second of his works1 and used it himself in teaching4 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister was intended more for the use of private pupils4 ,it was described as a perfect way of learning ,french without any helpe of ,maister or teacher1#cef set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo studie privately in their own study or houses4 ,holyband himself does not seem to have given it much attention after its first appearance4 ,nevertheless it enjoyed as great a popularity and went through as many editions1 or nearly so1 as its author's more favoured work4 ,other ,french teachers made up for ,holyband's neglect by editing it themselves in the early seventeenth century4 ,so great indeed was its success that in #afjj a tax of #bj per cent was levied on each edition for the benefit of the poor4#ceg ,we may perhaps conclude from this that those who studied ,french privately were numerous4 ,the value of the ,french ,littleton is more educational2 it expounds all the favourite theories of its author4 ,the name is taken from the popular work on ,english law1 the text-book for all law-students1 ,littleton's ,tenures4 ,while the ,french ,schoolemaister was a small octavo1 the ,littleton was printed to the size of a tiny pocket-book1 in #afmo4 ,header3 ,,holyband',s ,,french ,,grammars ,first come practical exercises in the form of dialogues in ,french and ,english1#ceh but of less lively interest than those of the ,schoolemaister4 ,they deal1 however1 with the same subjects1#cei only1 as we read them we do not forget1 as we were inclined to do in the earlier book1 that we are reading exercises intended for school use4 ,then follow proverbs1 golden sayings1 prayers1 the creed1 the fifth chapter of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 a treatise on the iniquity of dancing 7,trait des ,danses71 and finally a vocabulary less comprehensive and of less value than that of the ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,the ,french ,littleton derives additional interest from the fact that in it ,holyband sets forth a new system for rendering the pronunciation of ,french easier to the ,english4 ,he realized the difficulties placed in their way by the many unsounded letters present in certain ,french words4 ,he had no desire1 however1 to join the extremists1 who advocated the omission of all such consonants in orthography as well as in pronunciation4 ,holyband considered such letters an essential part of the word1 and often a useful indication of the pronunciation of vowels and of the derivation4 ,he therefore proposed a compromise which he thought would please both parties3 he retains the unsounded letters1 but distinguishes them from those which were pronounced by placing a small cross below them1#cfj a device adopted in later editions of the ,french ,schoolemaister also4 ,a short quotation from the conversation for travellers and merchants will show how ,holyband applied his method3 ,monsieur ou pikez vous si bellement8 ,sir whither ride you so softly8 x ,a ,londres ,to ,london la foire de la ,berthelemy4 to ,barthelomews faire4 x ,je vay au ,landi ,paris1 je vay ,i go to ,landi to ,paris1 ,rouen4 to ,rouen4 ,et moy aussi3 allons ensemble3 ,and ,i also3 let us go together3 x je suy bien aise ,i am very glad d'avoir trouv compagnie4 to have found company4 ,allons de par ,dieu3 ,let us go in ,god's name3 x picquons un peu1 let us pricke a littell1 j'ay pour que nous ne venions pas l ,i fear we shall not come thither x x x de jour1 car le soleil by daylight3 the sunne x s'en va coucher4 goeth downe4 ,mais o logerons nous8 o est ,but where shall we lodge8 where is x x x le meilleur logis8 la meilleure the best lodging8 the best x hostelerie8 inne8 ,ne vous souciez pas de cela3 ,care you not for that3 it is x x c'est au grand march a l'enseigne at the great market1 at the sign x x de la fleur de lis1 vis vis of the flower ,deluce1 right over de la croix4 against the crosse4 ,je suy joyeux d'estre arriv1 car ,i am glad that ,i am arrived1 for x x certes g'ay bon appetit3 truly ,i have a good stomacke3 ,j'espre de faire ce soir ,i hope to make to-night x souper de marchant4 a marchauntes supper4 ,nous disons en nostre pais ,we say in our country1 x x que desiuner that hunters de chasseurs1 disner d'advocats1 breakefast1 lawyers dinner1 x x x souper de supper of marchants et collacion de moynes marchauntes1 and monkes drinking x x est is xx la meilleure chere qu'on sauroit the best cheere that one can x x faire1 make1 et pour vivre en epicurien4 and to live like an epicure4 x ,et on dit en nostre paroisse ,and they say in our parish x x que jeunes that young x medecins font les cymetieres phisitions make the churchardes x bossus crooked et vieux procureurs1 procs tortus3 and old attornies sutes to go awry1 x x mais au but on the contraire que jeunes procureurs et contrary that young lawyers1 x vieux medecins1 jeune chair1 olde phisitions1 young flesh1 x et vieil poisson sont les meilleurs4 and old fishe be the best4 x x x x x ,or bien1 irons nous acheter ,well shall we go and buy ce qu'il that whiche nous faut8 ,nous demourons trop4 we doe lack8 ,we tarie to long4 x x ,roland que ne te leves-tu8 ouvre ,roland1 why doest thou not rise8 x ouvre open la boutique3 est tu encore au lit8 the shop3 are you yet a bed8 x x ,tu aimes bien la plume3 si mon ,thou loveth the fethers well3 if my x maistre descend1 et qu'il ne treuve maister commeth downe and find not x x x la boutique ouverte1 the shop opened1 x il se courroucera4 he will be angry4 ,messieurs1 monsieur1 madame1 ,sirs1 sir1 my lady1 mesdames1 mademoiselle1 maistres1 gentlewoman1 que demandez vous8 que cerchez vous8 what lack you8 what seek you8 x x ,qu'acheteriez vous volontiers8 ,what would you buy willingly8444 x x ,the most interesting of the dialogues in the ,french ,littleton1 however1 is that in which we have a picture of ,holyband's school1 which was first opened in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard at the sign of ,lucrece--the shop of the printer ,thomas ,purfoote4 ,here we see children arriving for their lessons early in the morning1 each with his own books and other materials4 ,the schoolroom seems to have been a lively place2 the scholars are represented as fighting1 pulling each other's hair1 tearing their books1 and indulging in other pranks of the kind4 ,holyband sought to keep order by means of a birch1 and one of the many offences which called it into action was the speaking of ,english4 ,header3 ,,holyband',s ,,french ,,school ,in this little school of his1 ,holyband appears to have laboured at the task he set himself of leading the ,english nation comme par la main au cabinet de 7nostre7 langue franoyse1 under excellent conditions4 ,the whole atmosphere seems to have been ,french4 ,the curriculum1 however1 was not confined to this one language4 ,holyband had to safeguard his interests by instructing his pupils in the subjects taught in the ordinary ,english schools1 and so we find him teaching ,latin1 writing1 and counting1 as well as ,french1 and probably by means of ,french4 ,with some of his pupils ,holyband studied ,terence1 ,vergil1 ,horace1 the ,offices of ,cicero1 and with others1 ,cato1 the ,pueriles ,confabulatiunculae1 and ,latin grammar1 according to their capacity4 ,yet others learnt reading1 writing1 and ,french only4 ,morning school1 which closed with prayer at eleven1 was devoted chiefly to the study of ,latin4 ,the afternoon was given over entirely to ,french2 and it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that other scholars came then specially for instruction in ,french4 ,the pupils returned for afternoon work at mid-day1 and began by translating ,french into ,english and then retranslated the ,english back into ,french1 using1 we may be sure1 ,holyband's ,french ,littleton4 ,next came a little practice in vocabulary1 in which maister ,claude asked them the ,french for various ,english words4 ,grammar was not neglected1 but questions concerning it do not appear to have been invited until some difficulty in the text rendered it necessary4 ,the pupils were also required to decline various nouns and verbs which occurred in the text4 ,the auxiliaries they were expected to learn by heart4 ,not until five o'clock did the long ,french lesson draw to a close1 and then the scholars lit their torches or lanterns and set off home after being dismissed with evening prayers4 ,before their departure1 they received instructions to read the lesson for the following day six or seven times after supper4 ,by doing this1 their master assured them1 it would appear easy on the morrow1 and be learnt without effort4 ,holyband informs us that his charges were one shilling a week or fifty shillings a year4 ,he allows that this was more than the fees asked for in most schools1 but justifies the higher charge by the superior instruction imparted4 ,at any rate his school was very prosperous4 ,in #aefh1 when it had been in existence for at least two1 and perhaps three years1 we find him assisted by an usher1 one ,john ,henrycke1 said to be a ,frenchman4#cfa ,he was1 no doubt1 the ,jehan ,henry ,maistre d',eschole1 who wrote a dizain in praise of ,holyband's ,french ,schoolemaister 7#aegc71 where1 in rather questionable ,french1 he summoned the students of ,france to devote all their attention to ce poli et belle oeuvre1 and not to read ,des ravaudeurs le reste1 ,qui souloyent quelques regles escrire1 ,mais1 au vray indignes de les lire4 ,holyband1 as we have noticed1 was a very active and somewhat restless person1 never staying long in one place1 and it is difficult to follow him in his frequent changes of residence4 ,for a time he removed his school to ,lewisham1 then outside ,london4 ,here1 sometime before #aegc1 he had an interview with ,queen ,elizabeth1 who perhaps visited his school as she passed through the village1 for the head boy1 ,harry ,edmondes1 pronounced a discourse before ,her ,majesty4 ,in #aegf ,holyband had given up his ,french school1 and entered the ranks of ,french private tutors1 living in the house of a patron4 ,he was one of the aliens dwelling in ,salisbury ,court1 the residence of ,lord ,buckhurst1 and1 no doubt1 was engaged in teaching ,french to the younger children of his protector4 ,he had previously come into contact with this noble family1 and had probably received some assistance from this quarter on his arrival in ,england1 and may have taught ,french to the eldest son1 ,robert ,sackville1 now at ,oxford1#cfb to whom he dedicated both his early works4 ,when we first hear of ,holyband he was already married and had children4 ,his wife died probably before he went to ,salisbury ,court4 ,two years later he married an ,englishwoman1 ,anne ,smith1#cfc and had resumed his ,french school in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 but his address was now at the sign of the ,golden ,bell1 for the printer ,thomas ,purfoote had moved his sign to ,newgate ,market4 ,header3 ,,holyband',s ,,teaching ,,career ,here he remained for some time1 until #aeha at the earliest1 and probably somewhat later4 ,he also attended the ,french ,church4 ,at this period of his life he again turned his attention to writing on the ,french language1 and collecting together notes which he had no doubt compiled in past years4 ,in #aehj three new works on ,french appeared from his pen4 ,one was a ,treatise for ,declining ,verbs--a subject which he calls the second chiefest worke of the ,frenche tongue--written at the request of several gentlemen and merchants4 ,the book itself is of little value1 and did not by any means share the popularity of his earliest books4 ,still1 two other editions appeared1 one in #aeii and the other much later1 in #afda4 ,the second of these works1 dealing with ,french pronunciation on much the same lines as the ,french ,littleton1 was even less popular4 ,it was intended for the learned1 and consequently written in ,latin--,de ,pronuntiatione linguae gallicae4#cfd ,holyband was also becoming more ambitious in his dedications2 probably through ,lord ,buckhurst1 the queen's cousin on his mother's side1 he was able to dedicate his treatise ad illustrissimam simulque doctissimam ,elizabetham ,anglorum ,reginam4 ,at the end ,holyband added a dialogue in three different kinds of spelling--the new1 the old1 and his own--as well as a ,latin sermon on the ,resurrection4 ,a ,french-,english ,dictionary was the third of these works1 published in #aehj1 with the title3 ,the ,treasurie of the ,french ,tong1 ,teaching the way to varie all sorts of ,verbs1 ,enriched so plentifully with ,wordes and ,phrases 7for the benefit of the studious in that language71 as the like hath not before bin published4 ,many years later1 in #aeic1 ,holyband again gave proof of his deep interest in ,french lexicography by the publication of his ,dictionarie ,french and ,english1 published for the benefit of the studious in that language1 based on his earlier work1 but on a much larger scale4#cfe ,meanwhile he had had an opportunity to extend his knowledge and to refresh his mind by a long journey on the ,continent4 ,once more he had yielded to his love of change and movement1 and entered the service of another powerful patron1 ,lord ,zouche1 to whom he dedicated his dictionary of #aeic4 ,in the dedication we are told how he had undertaken a long1 lointain1 penible et dangereux voyage with his noble protector1 who was to him plutot pere ou baston de vieillesse que non pas maistre1 ,seigneur ou commandeur4 ,thus we may conclude that1 when ,lord ,zouche crossed to ,hamburg by sea in ,march #aehg1 intending to qualify himself for public service on the ,continent1 as well as to live cheaply1 ,holyband accompanied him1 and1 no doubt1 found many opportunities for serious study4 ,they proceeded to ,heidelberg1 where their names were inscribed on the matriculation register of the university in ,may4#cff ,zouche then travelled to ,frankfort1 ,basle 7#aehh71 ,altdorf 7#aeij71 and thence to ,vienna 7#aeia71 and on to ,verona1 returning to ,england in #aeic4cfg ,after the publication of this last of his works in #aeic1 we lose sight of ,holyband in his rle of teacher of ,french4 ,he was1 however1 still in ,england in #aeig1 when he dedicated a new edition of his ,french ,littleton to a new patron1 ,lord ,herbert of ,swansea4 ,thereafter he is not mentioned1 and subsequent editions of his most popular works--the ,schoolemaister and ,french ,littleton--were issued without his supervision4 ,probably he had returned to his native country1 for in the last of his published works he assumes the title of gentilhomme bourbonnais1 which suggests that he had come into the possession of some property in his native province1 where his name was still known in the seventeenth century4#cfh ,certain it is that he did not remain in ,england4 ,there is no further trace of his children1 of whom he had at least four4#cfi ,thus silently1 as if forgetful of his former habits1 he slipped out of sight after he had spent nearly forty years teaching his language in ,england4 ,he won the praise of the scholar ,richard ,mulcaster1 soon to be appointed ,head of ,st4 ,paul's ,school1 near which ,holyband had so long had his own modest establishment2 and the poet ,george ,gascoigne wrote a sonnet in his honour3 ,header3 ,,holyband',s ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,,french ,the pearl of price which ,englishmen have sought ,so farre abroade1 and cost them there so dere1 ,is now founde out within our country here1 ,and better cheape amongst us may be bought4 ,i mean the ,french that pearle of pleasant speech1 ,which some sought for1 and bought it with their lives1 ,with sicknesse some1 yea some with bolts and gives1 ,but all with payne this peerlesse pearle did seeke4 ,now ,holyband1 a friendly ,french indeede1 ,hath tane such paynes1 for everie ,english ease1 ,that here at home we may this language learne1 ,and for the price he craveth no more meede ,but thankfull harts to whome his pearles may please4 ,oh1 thank him then1 that so much thanke dothe earne4 ,holyband1 like his predecessor ,du ,ploich1 was an advocate of the practical teaching of languages4 ,a perfect knowledge of ,french1 in his eyes1 consisted in being able to read and pronounce the language accurately4 ,thus the first thing to be done by those desiring to study the language is to begin to read at once4 ,the learner must not entangle himself at the first brunte with rules2 but1 after he hath read them over1 let him take in hand the dialogues1 and as occasion requireth he shall examine the rules1 applying their use unto his purpose4#cgj ,he must first frame his tongue by reading them aloud1 noting carefully which letters are not pronounced1 looking for the reasons why they are lefte in the rules of pronunciation1 so that when he shall happen uppon other bookes printed without these caracters he may remember which letters ought to be uttered and which ought not4 ,in these rules#cga ,holyband endeavours to explain ,french sounds by comparison with ,english sounds4 ,his treatment of the letter a may be given as an example of his method4 ,sound our a1 he says1#cgb as you sound the first sillable in ,laurence1 or ,augustine in ,english4 ,when a is joined with in it loseth his sound1 or at the least it is very little heard3 as pain1 hautain4444 ,pronounce then as if they were written thus3 pin1 hautin4444 ,but if e followeth n1 then i goeth more towards n1 thus3 balaine1 semaine 4441 and then he proceeds to describe in like fashion the sounds of the diphthong ai4 ,his treatment of the sound gn is quaint and interesting4 ,when you find any word written with gn1 remember how you pronounce these ,english words1 onion1 minion1 companion1 and such like3 so melting g1 and touching smoothly the roofe of the mouth with the flat of the tongue1 say3 mignon1 oignon1 compagnon2 say then1 cam-pa-gne1 campa-gnie1 and not cam-pag-ne1 campag-nie1 separating g from n2 but rather sound them as if they were written thus in your ,english tongue1 campaine1 campanie4 ,such rules alone1 however1 were of little value in ,holyband's opinion1 and we cheerfully agree with him4 ,the reader must be very circumspect in his use of them1 and his teacher a very skilful ,frenchman1 or else all will go to wracke4 ,he seems to have thought that much more depended on the tutor than on rules4 ,no doubt he fully shared the opinion stated earlier by ,duwes1 that rules are of more use to the teacher than the learner4 ,oh how busie is this tongue1 he says of ,french1 and into what maze doth the learner enter which doth take it in hand3 therefore let his tutor be sevenfold skilfull4 ,we are prepared1 then1 to find ,holyband agreeing with ,henry ,,viii4's tutor on another point--the teaching of ,french and writing of ,french grammars by the ,english4 ,to him it appeared obvious that it is not the part of a stranger1 except he be learned and of a long continuance in ,france1 to give precepts concerning the pronunciation of the 7,french7 tongue3 yea neither of the best ,frenchmen1 be he never so learned or eloquent in the same1 except he hath practised the premises by teaching or otherwise by a long and diligent observation4 ,there can be no question of committing rules to memory2 they merely serve to throw light on the reading matter4 ,yet the practice of memorizing is not neglected4 ,there were two purposes for which it was called into use1 the verbs1 chiefly the two auxiliaries1 and vocabulary1 to which ,holyband attached much importance4 ,according to ,holyband himself1 his method had excellent results4 ,he was especially proud of the pronunciation of his pupils4 ,in teaching this he followed a plan which strikes the modern reader as curious1 but which had already been employed in an early sixteenth-century grammar1 that of the poet ,alexander ,barclay4 ,according to this plan he taught his scholars the main characteristics of the different dialects of ,france1 as well as the pure ,french in which they were encouraged to speak4 ,his reason for doing so was to put them on their guard against the variety of dialects1 chiefly ,picard and ,walloon1 spoken by the numerous refugees scattered all over ,london4 ,header3 ,,french ,,church ,,schools ,when new scholars came to his school from other ,french schools1 he assures us that on hearing them speak and pronounce any letter incorrectly1 his own pupils spie the faultes as soone as ,i1 yea they cannot abide it3 and which is more they will discerne whether the maister which taught them first was a ,burgonian1 a ,norman1 or a ,houyet4 ,the reading1 which ,holyband made the basis of his language teaching1 was always explained by means of ,english renderings4 ,in his dialogues he makes no attempt to retain the purity of the ,english phrase4 ,english for him was merely a vehicle for interpreting to his young scholars the meaning of the ,french1 for ,i do not pretend to teach them any other thing then the ,french tongue1 and so he begs his readers not to muse at the ,english of his book1 but to take the ,french with such goodwill as it is offered4 ,it will be noticed that on this point1 as on many others--placing the rules after the practical exercises1 for instance--,holyband resembles ,du ,ploich1 and no doubt he was acquainted with the ,treatise of his less well known fellow-teacher4 ,the points of resemblance between the dialogues of the two works are sufficient proof of this1 although ,du ,ploich's cannot compare with ,holyband's in interest4 ,another work which had some influence on his dialogues was the ,linguae ,latinae ,exercitatio of the great ,spanish scholar and educationist ,vives--a book containing ,latin dialogues1 dealing with the life of the schoolboy at home and at school1 at work and at play4 ,this was a very popular school-book in the sixteenth century1 and was most likely used by ,holyband in the ,latin lessons at his own school4 ,he also incorporated the ,latin dialogues of ,vives in a work which he called the ,campo di ,fior1 or flowery field of four languages1 ,italian1 ,latin1 ,french and ,english1 giving the dialogues in these four languages4 ,this work appeared in #aehc1 when he was probably still teaching in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4#cgc ,besides these ,french schools kept by private individuals1 there were others in connexion with the ,french churches4 ,after the foundation of the ,french ,church in ,threadneedle ,street1 other churches had arisen in different parts of the country4 ,the education of the children attending these institutions had to be seen to1 and very soon schools were established under the supervision of the churches themselves4#cgd ,although these schools were primarily intended for the instruction of the children of the refugees1 they also undertook to teach those who would wish to learn the ,french language4 ,just as some ,english attended the services of the ,french ,church1 so also some sent their children to the school associated with it4 ,and it must be remembered that to some ,englishmen the ,french ,church presented greater attractions than the ,english ,church did at that time2 for there naturally grew up a bond of sympathy between the ,protestant refugees and the ,english ,nonconformists1 many of whom sought in the ,french ,church1 with its ,genevan discipline1 a form of worship not sanctioned by the ,english ,church4 ,others attended these churches for the same reason as the ,italianate gentleman1 censured by ,roger ,ascham1#cge went to the ,italian ,church3 to heare the 7,french7 tongue naturally spoken1 not to heare ,god's doctrine trewly preached4 ,this was a practice strongly advocated by many of the ,french teachers of the time4 ,the number of ,englishmen of both kinds must have been considerable4 ,in #aegc ,elizabeth issued an ,order forbidding the ,french ,church to give communion to those ,english who1 by curiosity or dislike for their own ceremonies1 wished to receive it in the ,french ,church4 ,the church in ,threadneedle ,street took steps to limit the number of its ,english adherents4 ,these were required to produce evidence of a sober life1 and of loyalty to their own church1 before they were allowed to communicate4#cgf ,english names are not uncommon in the ,threadneedle ,street ,registers4 ,even members of the nobility stood as sponsors to the children of the ,french strangers1 for instance1 the ,marquis of ,hamilton1 the ,earl of ,pembroke1 and the ,countess of ,bedford1 in the year #afbd4cgg ,the ,french ,church at ,southampton also had numerous ,english members and communicants1#cgh while at ,canterbury a rule was made that all the ,english connected with the church should know ,french2 on one occasion1 a person was refused as a sponsor on account of his ignorance of that tongue4#cgi ,header3 ,,french ,,school ,,at ,,canterbury ,considering the esteem in which the ,french churches were held by many ,englishmen1 we may assume that some of the latter were glad to take advantage of the willingness of the ,french ,church to receive their children into its schools4 ,the refugees1 on their part1 did not always send their children to their own schools4 ,the sons of the wealthier strangers would go to the ,english grammar schools1 and thence1 in many cases1 to the ,university4#chj ,the subjects taught in these ,french church schools were1 no doubt1 much the same as those of the private ,french schools1 including religious instruction1 writing1 reading1 arithmetic1 and possibly music4 ,the curriculum appears to have been of quite an elementary nature4 ,as to the teachers1 they were required to be of sober life1 and members of the ,french ,church4 ,they had to be appointed by the minister and presented to the bishop4 ,they also were required to give the minister an account of the books they read to the children1 and of the methods followed1 and be willing to adopt the advice of their superiors sans rien entreprendre leur fantaisie4 ,further1 it was their duty to conduct the children to church on ,sunday for the catechism4#cha ,such were the regulations laid down in the second ,discipline1 drawn up on the restoration of the ,french ,church after the accession of ,elizabeth4 ,when this was revised some years later1 in #aehh1 a few changes were made4 ,the presentation to the bishop was dispensed with1 and the teachers were no longer obliged to conduct the children to the catechism3 they had only to prepare them to answer it4 ,and the ministers1 on their side1 were required to visit the schools1 accompanied by the elders and deacons1 at least four times a year2 their attention was specially called to those who teach languages4#chb ,the ,french teachers attached to the ,church at ,canterbury are those of whom we have most detailed information4 ,in one of the articles of a petition1 which the group of refugees there addressed to the city authorities1 in the reign of ,elizabeth1 they crave that permission may be given to the schoolmaster whom they have brought with them to teach both their own youth and also other children who desire to learn the ,french tongue4#chc ,their request appears to have been well received1 as a ,french church and school were established not long after4 ,among the names of the petitioners was that of ,vincent ,primont1 teacher of youth1 who seems to have been the first schoolmaster of this little community4 ,he was a refugee from ,normandy1 and arrived at ,rye in #aegb4chd ,to the office of schoolmaster1 which he held for many years1 was added that of ,reader to the congregation--a post he resigned in #aehd1 owing to some action of the consistory which did not meet with his approval4 ,the last mention we have of him1 as schoolmaster1 occurs in ,december #aehc1 when a member of the congregation was reproved for allowing his workmen to set a bad example to ,master ,vincent's scholars4 ,he probably filled his position for some time after this date4 ,in ,august #aeha1 however1 another teacher1 ,nicholas du ,buisson1 obtained permission to go from house to house to teach children1 and in #aehc received a small quarterly allowance for taking charge of the children at the services in the ,temple4#che ,the demand for teachers apparently increased considerably at this time2 in #aehb we hear of a third schoolmaster1 ,paul ,le ,pipre1 who had already been teaching for some time previous to this date4 ,le ,pipre several times took steps to defend his monopoly and prevent the admission of other schoolmasters4 ,in #aehb he opposed the application of ,jan ,roboem or ,jean ,robone1 who sought permission to hold school4 ,roboem1 who had been ,reader in the ,french ,protestant ,church at ,dieppe1 fled thence to ,rye in #aegb1 in company with his wife and two children4#chf ,he was in very poor estate on arriving at ,canterbury1 and the consistory of the ,french ,church at last prevailed on ,le ,pipre to agree to his admission1 promising him that if any disadvantage accrued to him thereby it should be remedied4 ,roboem was therefore told he might put his notice on the door of the ,temple--the usual form of advertisement--whenever he pleased4#chg ,he did not1 however1 keep it there long1 moving to ,london in the same year4 ,he is no doubt to be identified with the ,john ,robonin1 schoolmaster of the ,french tongue1 who was living in the ,warde of ,chepe1 and attending the ,french ,church1 at the end of #aehb4chh ,header3 ,,paul ,,le ,,pipre ,paul ,le ,pipre was again approached in #aehc with regard to the appointment of another schoolmaster1 probably a successor to ,robonin4 ,he was told that another teacher was necessary1 and that one had come forward1 a destitute refugee1 who wished for permission to teach in order to earn his living4 ,le ,pipre replied that he held to his agreement with the ,church1 namely that he could not leave without giving three months' notice4 ,ultimately it was decided that the aforesaid should not be permitted to keep school1 both on account of the agreement and because he was not as yet sufficiently known to be of the religion4 ,this teacher1 whose name is not given1 was1 however1 allowed to instruct certain married people1 and others grown up and over fourteen years of age who did not go to ,paul's school1 in consideration of his poverty4#chi ,paul ,le ,pipre retained the position he was so unwilling to share with a colleague1 for many years after this4 ,the last we hear of him is in ,september #aeig1 when he was censured by the consistory for holding school on ,sunday4 ,french schools likewise arose in other provincial towns1 where ,french ,churches had been established4 ,there were also1 it appears1 similar private schools1 with the primary object of teaching ,french to the ,english1 and unconnected with the churches4 ,at any rate1 ,french and ,walloon schoolmasters arrived in some of these towns4 ,at ,rye in #aegb1 for instance1 we come across ,nicholas ,curlew and ,martin ,martin1 fugitives from ,dieppe1#cij though probably1 like ,vincent ,primont and ,john ,robone1 they did not settle in the town4 ,at ,norwich1 in #aefh1 was a ,pierre de ,rieu of ,lille who had arrived ten months before1 and in #afbb ,francis ,boy and ,john ,cokele4#cia ,at ,dover1 in the same year1 ,francis ,rowland and ,nicholas ,rowsignoll1 both ,french schoolmasters1 had come out of ,france by reason of the late troubles yet continuing4#cib ,and lastly1 at ,southampton1 we hear in #aegf of ,nicholas ,chemin1 who1 in #aegh1 was refused communion at the church on account of his causing some disturbance in the congregation2 of a ,m4 ,du ,plantin1 dit ,antoine ,ylot1 in #aegf1 and of a ,pierre de la ,motte1 'mestre d'escolle1' in #aegg4cic ,no doubt most of these schoolmasters taught under the auspices of the ,french ,churches4 ,m4 ,du ,plantin was one of a large number of ministers who took refuge in ,england1 and his school was probably a ,french ,church school1 for seven of his young scholars are mentioned as communicants4 ,many ,french pastors like him1 no doubt1 took to the teaching profession during their stay in ,england1 their numbers being far in excess of the ministers needed in the churches4 ,the famous reformer1 ,john ,utenhove of ,ghent1 was in #aedi tutor to the son of a ,london gentleman4#cid ,valerand ,poullain1 a converted priest1 who1 after being pastor at ,strasburg1 came to ,england1 for a time held a similar post in the household of the ,earl of ,derby2#cie he afterwards became minister of the ,french ,church at ,glastonbury on the recommendation of ,utenhove4 ,another minister1 ,jean ,louveau1 ,sieur de la ,porte1 spent the time of exile from his ,church of ,roche ,bernard1 after the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 in teaching languages in ,london1 and there were many others in like case4#cif ,at ,southampton there was a ,french school of special interest4 ,its teacher1 like ,du ,plantin1 was a pastor1 though the school does not seem to have had any close connexion with the ,french ,church4 ,this schoolmaster and divine was the once famous ,dr4 ,adrian ,saravia1 a learned refugee from ,flanders4 ,he became later ,professor of ,divinity at ,leyden and an intimate friend of ,casaubon2 and when he took refuge in ,england for a second time in #aehg1 he enjoyed some ecclesiastical preferment1 and was one of the translators of the ,authorised ,version of the ,bible4#cig ,during his first sojourn in ,england1 however1 he was engaged on a more humble task4 ,he first arrived at ,southampton in about #aefg1cih after having been for some years headmaster of a grammar school in ,guernsey4 ,saravia's school at ,southampton was limited to sixteen or twenty youths of good family4 ,it was a rule that all the scholars should speak ,french4 ,any one who used ,english1 though only a word1 was obliged to wear a fool's cap at meals1 and continue to wear it until he caught another in the same fault4#cii ,header3 ,,french ,,school ,,at ,,southampton ,two ,englishmen1 who later became well known as translators1 acquired their knowledge of ,french in this school4 ,one was ,joshua ,sylvester1 famous for his translation of ,du ,bartas1 and the other ,robert ,ashley1 who turned ,louis le ,roy's ,de la ,vicissitude ou ,varit des choses de l'univers 7#aegi7 into ,english 7#aeid74 ,sylvester informs us that he learnt his ,french at ,saravia's school in three poor years1 at three times three years old2 ,i have never been in ,france1 he writes to his uncle1 ,william ,plumb1 whereby ,i might become so perfect4 ,elsewhere he expresses his affection for his master and his debt of gratitude to him3 ,my ,saravia1 to whose revered name ,mine owes the honour of ,du ,bartas' fame4 ,sylvester did not put his knowledge of ,french into practice only by translations into ,english4 ,he also wrote some original verses in ,french2 the sonnet with which he offered to ,james ,i4 his translation of the works of ,du ,bartas1 a poet for whom the king had a great admiration1 will show his skill in a difficult art3 ,voy1 sire1 ton ,saluste habill en ,anglois 7,anglois1 encore plus de coeur que de langage37 ,qui1 connaissant loyall ton ,royale hritage1 ,en ces beaux ,liz ,dorez au sceptre des ,gaulois 7,comme au vray souverain des vrays subjects franois71 ,cy tes pieds sacrez te fait ton sainct ,hommage 7,de ton ,heur et ,grandeur ternal temoinage74 ,miroir de touts ,heros1 miracle de tous ,roys1 ,voy 7sire7 ton ,saluste1 ou 7pour le moins7 son ombre1 ,ou l'ombre 7pour le moins7 de ses ,traicts plus divins ,qui1 ores trop noyrcis par mon pinceau trop sombre1 ,s'esclairciront aux ,raiz de tes yeux plus benins4 ,doncques d'oeil benin et d'un accueil auguste1 ,reoy ton cher ,bartas1 et ,voy1 sire1 ,saluste4#djj ,another of ,sylvester's contemporaries at ,saravia's school was ,sir ,thomas ,lake1#dja who became ,secretary of ,state in the reign of ,james ,i41 and is said to have read ,latin and ,french to ,queen ,elizabeth towards the end of her reign4 ,his ,french accent1 unlike that of his schoolfellows1 seems to have left much to be desired4 ,in #afab he incurred much ridicule by reading the ,french contract of marriage at the wedding of the ,princess ,elizabeth to the ,elector with a very bad accent4 ,saravia1 it seems1 encouraged his pupils to attend the ,french ,church4 ,two of their names occur in the registers of the ,church for the year #aegf1 viz4 ,nicholas ,essard and ,nicholas ,carye1 both probably ,englishmen4 ,saravia himself and his wife were also regular attenders2 in #aega and again in #aegf he stood godfather at baptisms4 ,the latest mention of him occurs in #aegg4 ,usually the descriptive title minister is added after his name4#djb ,he is mentioned in the town records under the year #aegf as ,master of the ,grammar ,school1 and in the following year the town paid #cfs4 for four yardes of broade cloth for a gowne for ,mr4 ,adrian ,saravia the schoolmaster at #is4 the yarde4#djc ,apparently he had abandoned his private school1 although it is very likely that he continued to take private pupils into his house1 and that the grammar school scholars had ample opportunity to learn ,french2 but it is hardly probable that he introduced the language into the grammar school curriculum1 where1 no doubt1 ,latin retained its usual supremacy4#djd ,thus we see that in the ,england of the sixteenth century ,french had no footing in the ordinary schools1 but was taught in a growing number of small private schools kept by ,frenchmen1 ,french-speaking refugees from the ,netherlands1 and sometimes by ,englishmen4 ,in ,scotland1 on the other hand1 ,french received more recognition in the grammar schools1 although it did not form part of the ordinary curriculum1 which was based on ,latin1 as in ,england4 ,yet in several schools its use was distinctly encouraged on lines which1 we may conclude1 were followed at ,southampton grammar school in ,saravia's time4 ,for instance1 the boys of ,aberdeen grammar school1 in the middle of the sixteenth century1 were enjoined to address each other in ,french1 while the use of the vernacular was forbidden4 ,in the famous grammar school of ,perth1 when ,john ,rowe1 the reformer1 was master there1 and many of the scholars boarded with him1 we are informed that as they spake nothing in the schoole and fields but ,latine so nothing was spoken in his house but ,french4 ,it is of interest to note that in this school ,french is put side by side with the ancient tongues1 as ,palsgrave had wished4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,scotland ,after meals a selection from the ,bible was read2 if from the ,old ,testament1 in ,hebrew1 if from the ,new ,testament1 in ,latin1 ,greek1 or ,french4#dje ,turning to the more elementary education1 we find ,french holding a still larger place in some of the parish schools of ,scotland1 where it was taught as part of the regular course by the side of ,latin4 ,an interesting account of one of these schools has been left by ,james ,melville1 in his diary4#djf ,he records that in #aeff1 at the age of seven1 he1 together with his elder brother1 was sent to a school kept by a kinsman1 minister at ,logie1 a few miles from ,montrose4 ,this guid1 lerned1 kind man attended to the children's education1 while his sister was a verie loving mother to them1 and to a guid number of gentle and honest mens berns of the country about1 who also were at the school4 ,ther we lerned1 he continues1 to reid the catechisme1 prayers and scripture1 to rehers the catechisme and prayers par coeur4444 ,we lerned ther the ,rudiments of the ,latin grammar1 with the vocables in ,latin and ,french1 also divers speitches in ,frenche1 with the reading and right pronunciation of that toung4 ,melville also assures us that his master had a verie guid and profitable form of resolving the authors1 and that he treated them grammaticallie1 bothe according to etymologie and syntaxe2 but1 unfortunately1 he gives us no further details on the teaching of ,french4 ,after spending five years at this school1 where1 he admits1 he learnt but little1 for his understanding was yet dark1 he went to the grammar school at ,montrose4 ,there1 although he had a ,french ,protestant refugee1 ,pierre de ,marsilliers1 to teach him ,greek1 he does not appear to have had occasion to continue his study of the ,french tongue4 ,in ,scotland1 as in ,england1 there were also special schools for teaching ,french4 ,for instance1 the ,french schoolmaster ,nicholas ,langlois1 or ,inglishe1 who came to ,england in #aefi1 and in #aega was installed in ,blackfriars1 ,london1 with his wife and two children1#djg moved to ,scotland in about #aegd4 ,he opened a ,french school in ,edinburgh1 which was subsidized by the ,town ,council1 and where he taught ,french1 arithmetic and accounts until the time of his death in #afaa4 ,the ,town ,council of ,aberdeen also showed itself favourable to ,french schools2 in #afce it granted to a certain ,alexander ,rolland a licence to teach a ,french school1 and allowed him for that effect to put up one brod or signe befoir his schoole door4 ,yet in spite of the fact that ,french received greater recognition in the schools of ,scotland than it did in those of ,england1 there is nothing to show that the same general interest was taken in the study of the language4 ,while in ,england large numbers of grammars and other text-books were published1 there is only one notice of the production of a similar work in ,scotland during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,this solitary work1 which a certain ,william ,nudrye received a licence to print in #aeei1djh was entitled ,ane ,a ,b ,c for ,scottes men to read the frenche toung1 with an exhortation to the nobles of ,scotland to favour their old friends4 ,the plea that ,french was learnt by the help of ,french grammars imported from ,france1 or on conversational methods1 or yet again in ,france by direct intercourse with ,frenchmen1 may be applied with as much force to ,england as to ,scotland1 though it is not improbable that in ,scotland such methods were relied on to a greater extent2 the friendly relations which existed between ,scotland and ,france from the thirteenth century onwards encouraged large numbers of ,scots to seek instruction in ,france1 just as it led some ,frenchmen to the ,scottish centres of learning4#dji ,french tutors were said to be as common in ,scotland as in ,england2 a ,spanish ambassador reported to ,ferdinand and ,isabella as early as #adih that there is a good deal of ,french education in ,scotland1 and many speak the ,french language4 ,yet the fact remains that while one small ,french ,a ,b ,c appears to have been the only work on the language issued in ,scotland1 there was a whole series of such works published in ,england4 ,,footnotes3 #bhi ,sources for the ,history of the ,persecutions3 ,l4 ,batiffol1 ,the ,century of the ,renaissance1 ,london1 #aiaf2 ,d4 ,c4 ,a4 ,agnew1 ,protestant ,exiles from ,france1 #crd ed41 #ahhf1 vol4 i42 ,j4 ,s4 ,burn1 ,the ,history of the ,french1 ,walloon1 ,dutch1 and other ,foreign ,protestant ,refugees settled in ,england1 ,london1 #ahdf2 ,s4 ,smiles1 ,the ,huguenots1 their ,settlements1 ,churches1 and ,industries in ,england and ,ireland1 ,london1 #ahfg4 #bij ,early refugees also came in small numbers from ,italy where the ,inquisition was established in #aedb2 and a few others from ,spain1 where it was set up in #aehh4 ,their arrival in ,england imparted some slight impetus to the study of their respective languages2 cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,the ,beginnings of the ,teaching of ,modern ,subjects in ,england1 ,london1 #aiji1 chapters xii4 and xiii4 #bia ,huguenot ,society ,publications1 xv41 #ahih2 ,f4 ,w4 ,cross1 ,history of the ,walloon and ,huguenot ,church at ,canterbury 7,introduction74 #bib ,l4 ,humphrey1 ,the ,nobles or of ,nobilitye1 ,london1 #aefc1 #bnd book4 #bic ,see ,a4 ,rahlenbeck1 ,les ,rfugis belges au #afme sicle en ,angleterre1 in the ,revue ,trimestrielle1 ,oct4 #ahfe4 #bid ,the following numbers show the proportion of the ,netherlanders to the ,french3 in #aefg1 #chch ,flemish to #eab ,french2 in #aehf1 #ebbe to #aaai4 #bie ,huguenot ,soc4 ,pub4 i41 #ahhg-hh2 ,o4 ,j4 ,w4 ,moens1 ,the ,walloons and their ,church at ,norwich1 ch4 ix4 #bif ,w4 ,besant1 ,london in the ,time of the ,tudors1 ,london1 #aijd1 pp4 #hj1 #bjj1 #bjc4 ,the population of ,london is taken as about #abj1jjj4 #big ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x41 #aijj-aijh1 #d parts4 #bih ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 viii41 #ahic3 ,letters of ,denization and ,acts of ,naturalisation for ,aliens in ,england1 #aeji-afjc1 ed4 ,w4 ,page4 #bii ,naturalization by ,act of ,parliament1 which gave additional rights1 such as that of succession to and bequeathment of real property1 was in general of more advantage to ,englishmen born abroad than to foreigners4 #cjj ,on the ,french churches in ,england1 see ,f4 de ,schickler1 ,les glises du refuge en ,angleterre1 #c tom41 ,paris1 #ahib4 #cja ,the first ministers appointed to the ,french church were ,franois ,prussel1 dit la ,rivire1 and ,richard ,vauville4 ,perlin visited the ,french church3 ,la prechoit un nomm maistre ,franoys homme blond1 et un autre nomm maistre ,richard1 homme ayant barbe noire 7,description des royaulmes d',angleterre et d',escosse1 ,paris1 #aeeh1 p4 #aa74 ,perlin was one of the few ,frenchmen who came to ,england at this time4 #cjb ,op4 cit4 p4 #aa4 ,perlin also says that the ,english tried several times to set fire to the ,french church4 #cjc ,see accounts in ,rye1 ,england as seen by ,foreigners4 #cjd ,this was naturally not without exceptions4 ,for instance1 ,sir ,nicholas ,bacon1 father of ,francis1 was noted for his support of the attempt to drive all the ,french from the country after the ,st4 ,bartholomew massacre 7,archaeologia1 xxxvi4 p4 #cci74 #cje ,f4 ,foster ,watson1 ,religious ,refugees and ,english ,education1 ,proceedings of the ,huguenot ,society1 ,london1 #aiaa4 #cjf ,the ,nobles or of ,nobilitye1 ut supra4 #cjg ,athenae ,cantab4 ii4 #bgd4 ,a certain ,l4 ,t4 attacked ,baro about a sermon of his on the text in the third chapter of the ,epistle to the ,romans1 twenty-eighth verse 7,brit4 ,mus4 ,catalogue74 #cjh ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 iii4 p4 #cfj4 #cji ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #ast series1 i4 pp4 #cda-c4 #caj ,arte of ,rhetorique 7#aeec71 ed4 ,g4 ,h4 ,mair1 #aiji1 p4 #ac4 #caa ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury's ,autobiography1 ed4 ,sir ,s4 ,lee 7#bnd ed4 #aijf71 p4 #cg1 n4 #cab ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 xiv4 pt4 ii4 ,no4 #fja2 and ,works1 ,parker ,society1 i4 p4 #cif4 #cac ,e4 ,j4 ,furnivall1 ,manners and ,meals in ,olden ,time1 pp4 ix et seq4 #cad ,ascham1 ,toxophilus1 quoted by ,nichols3 ,literary ,remains 4441 p4 xl4 #cae ,reliquiae ,wottoniae1 ,london1 #afeg 7,life of ,sir ,henry ,wotton71 n4p4 #caf ,j4 ,payne ,collier1 in ,archaeologia1 vol4 xxxvi4 pp4 #cci et seq4 #cag ,queene ,elizabeth's ,academy1 ed4 ,furnivall1 ,early ,english ,text ,society1 #ahfi4 #cah ,this purpose is expressly stated in the earliest grammar for teaching ,italian to the ,english1 dated #aeej3 ,the ,principal ,rules of ,italian ,grammar1 with a ,dictionary for the better ,understandynge of ,boccace1 ,petrarcha1 and ,dante 7also in #aefb and #aefg74 ,cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 chapter xii4 #cai ,cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 chapter xiii42 and ,j4 ,g4 ,underhill1 ,spanish ,literature in ,england of the ,tudors1 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 #cbj ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 viii43 ,list of ,denizations4 #cba ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #cbb ,thesaurus ,linguae ,latinae1 #aecb1 the first of ,latin-,french dictionaries4 #cbc ,printed by ,t4 ,wolfe4 #cbd ,the first ,french grammar for teaching ,french to the ,germans1 mentioned in ,stengel's ,chronologisches ,verzeichniss franzsischer ,grammatiken 7,oppeln1 #ahij71 was the work of a ,frenchman ,du ,vivier1 schoolmaster at ,cologne1 and was published in #aeff4 #cbe ,cp4 ,ph4 ,sheavyn1 ,the ,literary ,profession in the ,elizabethan ,age1 ,manchester1 #aiji1 chap4 i4 #cbf ,de ,republica ,anglorum1 ed4 ,l4 ,alston1 ,camb41 #aijf1 p4 #aci4 #cbg ,c4 ,w4 ,wallace1 ,new ,shakespeare ,discoveries1 ,harper's ,magazine1 #aiaj1 and ,university ,studies1 ,nebraska1 ,u4,s4,a42 ,sir ,s4 ,lee1 ,life of ,shakespeare 4441 new ed41 ,london1 #aiae1 pp4 #ag1 #bgf4 #cbh ,unfortunately the registers of the ,threadneedle ,street ,church1 previous to #afjj1 have been lost4 ,it would have been interesting to have found ,shakespeare brought into contact with this church by his ,huguenot friends4 #cbi ,a list of ,french words and phrases used by ,shakespeare is given in ,a4 ,schmidt's ,shakespeare ,lexicon1 #b vols41 ,berlin1 #aijb1 p4 #adbi4 #ccj ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #d2 ,act ,,ii4 ,sc4 #c2 and other ,scenes in which the ,doctor appears4 #cca ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #f2 ,act ,,iv4 ,sc4 #b1 ,sc4 #d1 ,sc4 #e2 ,act ,v4 ,sc4 #b4 #ccb ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #d4 #ccc ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #f4 ,the quotation from #b ,peter ii4 #bb bears closest resemblance to the edition of the ,bible issued at ,geneva1 #aeej2 ,h4 ,r4 ,d4 ,anders1 ,shakespeare's ,books1 ,berlin1 #aijd1 p4 #bjc4 #ccd ,often what appear to be mistakes to-day are due to change in pronunciation2 as when ,pistol takes the ,french soldier's bras 7'arm'7 for ,english 'brass1' a possibility at this period when the final s was still sounded 7,thurot1 ,prononciation franaise1 ii4 pp4 #ce-cf2 ,anders1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ej-ea47 #cce ,anders1 op4 cit4 p4 #ea et seq4 #ccf ,cp4 ,a4 ,f4 ,leach1 ,english ,grammar ,schools of the ,reformation1 #ahif3 ,f4 ,watson1 ,the ,english ,grammar ,schools up to #affj1 ,cambridge1 #aijh1 and ,the ,curriculum and ,text-,books of ,english ,schools in the ,first ,half of the ,seventeenth ,century1 ,bibliog4 ,soc41 #aijf4 #ccg ,the author of the ,institution of a ,gentleman1 #aeee and #aefj1 mentions the knowledge of tongues as necessary to gentlemen1 but he does not seem to have meant modern languages4 ,william ,kemp1 in his ,education of ,children in ,learning1 #aehh1 names the ancient tongues1 especially ,latin1 and other writers do the same4 ,for a list of similar works1 cp4 ,watt1 ,bibliotheca ,britannica1 under ,education4 #cch ,cp4 ,j4 ,w4 ,adamson1 ,pioneers in ,modern ,education1 ,cambridge1 #aije1 pp4 #agh sqq4 #cci ,sidney ,papers1 ed4 ,a4 ,collins2 ,letters and ,memorials of ,state1 vol4 i4 p4 #h4 #cdj ,e4 ,arber1 ,transcript of the ,registers of the ,company of ,stationers1 #aeed-afdj1 v4 p4 #afb4 #cda ,calendar of ,state ,papers1 ,domestic3 ,addenda1 #aehj-afbe1 p4 #dac4 #cdb ,handlists of ,books printed by ,london ,printers1 #aeja-ef1 ,bibliog4 ,soc41 #aiac3 ,grafton1 p4 #ac4 #cdc ,there is no trace of ,du ,ploich's name in any of the registers of aliens published by the ,hug4 ,soc4 ,the only trace of a name resembling his is that of ,peter de ,ploysse1 butcher1 in ,breadstreet ,ward 7,lay ,subsidies1 #aedi74 #cdd ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 pp4 #fi et seq4 #cde ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 i4 p4 #abf4 #cdf ,sig4 ,a-,n in fours4 #cdg ,french in ,roman type1 ,english in black letter4 #cdh ,especially the ,lambeth fragment1 and the ,introductorie of ,duwes4 #cdi ,sig4 ,a-,i in fours4 ,like the first edition1 this is preserved in a unique volume in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,the copy of ,kingston's edition is not complete1 wanting all before signature ,a#c4 #cej ,brit4 ,mus4 ,royal ,,mss4 #af1 ,e xxxvii41 #fc quarto leaves4 #cea ,edward had the ,,ms4 placed in his ,library4 ,nichols1 ,literary ,remains1 p4 cccxxxiv4 #ceb ,royal ,,mss4 #af1 ,e xxiii41 #bi quarto leaves4 #cec ,et je ne suis pas si presumptueux de vouloir dire que celuy livre je soye suffissant a translater du tout en englois1 a cause que je ne l'ay de nature4 ,mais a mon simple entendement1 ayant l'opportunit et le loisir1 l'ensuivray au plus pres que ie pourray4 #ced ,returns of ,aliens in ,london1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 #cee ,lists of ,denizations1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub41 ad nom4 7a ,sancto ,vinculo74 ,other details of his life are given in ,miss ,l4 ,e4 ,farrer's ,la vie et les oeuvres de ,claude de ,sainliens1 ,paris1 #aijg4 #cef ,yet in this work ,holyband refers several times to the necessity of having a good tutor4 #ceg ,farrer1 op4 cit4 p4 #ba4 #ceh ,as in the ,french ,schoolemaister1 ,french and ,english are arranged on opposite pages1 the ,french in ,roman characters1 and the ,english in black letter4 #cei ,des escholiers et l'eschole--,pour voyageurs--,du ,logis1 ,du ,poidz1 ,vendre et acheter1 ,pour marchans4 #cfj ,sylvius 7#aecj7 had placed a small vertical line over final unsounded consonants4 #cfa ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 iii4 p4 #djj4 ,the name ,john ,henricke occurs frequently in the registers of aliens4 ,there was a ,john ,henryke1 a ,dutchman1 who1 in #aefg1 was living in ,broadstreet ,ward1 and had been three weeks in ,england2 and1 in #aega1 in ,st4 ,mary ,alchurch ,parish1 when he is said to have been five years in ,england1 and to be a native of ,barowe in ,brabant and nineteen years old4 ,in #aehb one of the same name was living in ,blackfriars and had two servants 7,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt i4 p4 #cbb2 pt4 ii4 pp4 #ia1 #bec74 ,in #aegi a ,john ,hendricke from the dominion of the ,bishop of ,lige received letters of denization 7,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 viii4 ad nom474 ,it does not seem likely that ,holyband employed one of the ,walloons1 whose accent he taught his pupils to avoid4 #cfb ,foster1 ,alumni ,oxonienses1 ad nom4 #cfc ,farrer1 op4 cit4 p4 #a4 #cfd ,c4 ,livet1 ,la ,grammaire franaise et les grammairiens du #af;e sicle1 ,paris1 #ahei1 pp4 #ejj et seq4 #cfe ,for his sources1 etc41 see ,farrer1 op4 cit4 pp4 #gc et seq4 #cff ,schickler1 glises du ,refuge1 i4 p4 #ceh4 #cfg ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #cfh ,farrer1 op4 cit4 p4 #af4 ,miss ,farrer suggests that ,holyband was connected with the family of ,thuillier de ,saint ,lyens of ,moulins 7op4 cit4 pp4 #h1 #i74 #cfi ,latin poem in the ,campo di ,fior1 #aehc4 #cgj ,in the ,schoolemaister1 on the contrary1 the exercises follow the rules1 to the end that ,i may teache by experience and practice that which ,i have shewed by arte4 #cga ,the philological side of ,holyband's work has been fully treated by ,farrer1 op4 cit4 #cgb ,in the ,schoolemaister4 ,the rules of the ,french ,littleton are much the same1 only less quaintly worded4 #cgc ,holyband was the author of a work for teaching ,italian3 ,the ,italian ,schoolmaster1 #aehc1 and again in #aeia1 #aeig1 and #afjh4 #cgd ,schickler1 glises du ,refuge1 iii4 pp4 #afg-aga4 ,the members of the ,church attended to the interests of the schools1 and donations were made from time to time4 ,cp4 for instance1 ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #abc4 #cge ,the ,scholemaster1 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi1 p4 #hb4 #cgf ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #baa4 #cgg ,registers of ,threadneedle ,street1 ,london1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 ix4 #cgh ,registre de l'glise wallonne de ,southampton1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 iv41 #ahij4 ,in #aehd three baptisms were performed by ,mr4 ,hopkins1 an ,english minister4 #cgi ,registre de l'glise de ,cantorbry1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 v4 pt4 i41 #ahij4 #chj ,w4 ,j4 ,c4 ,moens 7,the ,walloons and their ,church at ,norwich1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 i41 #ahhg-h1 p4 #eh7 enumerates eighteen sons of strangers at ,norwich who went to the ,grammar ,school and thence to ,cambridge4 #cha ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #ajf4 #chb ,ibid4 p4 #cdf4 #chc ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bha2 ,f4 ,w4 ,cross1 ,history of the ,walloon and ,huguenot ,church at ,cantuar1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 xv41 #ahih1 p4 #ae4 #chd ,w4 ,j4 ,hardy1 ,foreign ,refugees at ,rye1 ,proceedings ,hug4 ,soc4 ii41 #ahhg-h1 p4 #egd4 #che ,cross1 op4 cit4 p4 #ec4 #chf ,hardy1 op4 cit4 p4 #egj 7cp4 ,durrant ,cooper1 ,refugees in ,sussex1 ,sussex ,archaeological ,collections1 xiii41 #ahfa74 ,the name is here written ,john ,robone4 #chg ,f4 ,w4 ,cross1 ut supra4 #chh ,cross1 ut supra2 ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bhc4 #chi ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 #cij ,hardy1 op4 cit4 p4 #egb4 #cia ,moens1 ,the ,walloons and their ,church at ,norwich2 ,w4 ,durrant ,cooper1 ,lists of ,foreign ,protestants and ,aliens resident in ,england1 #afah-afhh1 ,camden ,soc41 #ahfb4 #cib ,g4 ,h4 ,overend1 ,strangers at ,dover1 p4 #aff2 and ,d4 ,cooper1 ,lists of ,foreign ,protestants4 #cic ,registre de l'glise wallonne de ,southampton1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 iv4 #cid ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 #be4 #cie ,ibid4 i4 #ei4 #cif ,for example1 ,john ,veron1 ,j4 ,r4 ,chevallier1 mentioned above4 #cig ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #cih ,in #aefh letters of denization were granted him 7,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 viii41 ad nom474 #cii ,,ms4 ,memoir of ,robert ,ashley 7,sloane1 #baje72 cp4 ,sylvester's ,works1 ed4 ,grosart1 #ahhj1 i4 p4 x4 #djj ,works1 ed4 ,grosart1 i4 p4 #d4 ,see also i4 p4 lvii1 and ii4 pp4 #eb1 #cja1 #cbb4 #dja #aefg8-afcj4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #djb ,registre de l'glise wallonne de ,southampton1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 iv41 #ahij4 #djc ,j4 ,s4 ,davids1 ,history of ,southampton1 ,southampton1 #ahhc1 p4 #caa4 #djd ,another ,fleming1 ,thomas ,hylocomius1 a native of ,brabant1 was master of ,st4 ,alban's ,grammar ,school1 #aegj-aeif 7,watson1 ,protestant ,refugees1 pp4 #acg-aci74 ,but there is nothing to show that he encouraged the study of ,french4 #dje ,authorities for the use of ,french in ,scotch schools are3 ,j4 ,strong1 ,secondary ,education in ,scotland1 ,oxford1 #aiji1 pp4 #dd et seq41 #gf1 #adb2 ,t4 ,p4 ,young1 ,histoire de l'enseignement primaire et secondaire en cosse1 ,paris1 #aijg1 pp4 #ab et seq41 pp4 #fd et seq42 ,j4 ,grant1 ,burgh ,schools of ,scotland1 ,london and ,glasgow1 #ahgf1 pp4 #fd1 #djd2 ,f4 ,michel1 ,les cossais en ,france et les ,franais en cosse1 #ahfb1 ii4 p4 #gh4 #djf ,autobiography and ,diary of ,mr4 ,james ,melville1 minister of ,kilrenny and ,professor of ,theology in the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews1 ed4 ,r4 ,pitcairn 7,wodrow ,soc41 ,edinburgh1 #ahdb71 pp4 #af et seq4 #djg ,his daughter ,esther1 who married a ,scotch minister ,kello1 became famous for her calligraphy4 ,some of her work1 preserved in the ,bodleian1 was admired by ,hearne 7,collections and ,recollections1 ,oxf4 ,hist4 ,soc41 #ahhe1 i4 p4 #ch74 #djh ,d4 ,murray1 ,some ,early ,grammars1 etc41 in use in ,scotland1 in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,philos4 ,soc4 of ,glasgow1 xxxvii4 pp4 #bfg-h4 ,in the ,list of ,books printed in ,scotland before #agjj1 by ,h4 ,g4 ,aldis 7,edinburgh ,bibliog4 ,soc41 #aijd71 there is not one book on the ,french language amongst the #ciai titles recorded4 #dji ,pasquier1 ,letters1 ,amsterdam1 #agbc1 lib4 i4 p4 #e4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,huguenot ,,teachers ,,of ,,french--,,other ,,classes ,,of ,,french ,,teachers--,,rivalries ,,in ,,the ,,profession--,,the ,,dutch ,,and ,,english ,,teachers ,we have seen that some of the refugees who came to ,england as a result of the persecutions in ,france and the ,netherlands were professional schoolmasters2 others joined the profession on their arrival1 through force of circumstances1 or as a means of repaying hospitality4 ,the lot of such teachers varied considerably4 ,some lived and taught in gentlemen's families2 others thrived by waiting on a private aristocratic clientle2 others gained a more precarious livelihood under less powerful patronage2 and yet others opened private schools1 often with decided success4 ,many of these teachers#daj were denizens1 and had long teaching careers1 chiefly in ,london2 a certain ,abraham ,bushell1 for instance1 a native of ,rotchell1 had been a schoolmaster of the ,french tongue in ,london for twenty-two years in #afah1 during which time he had attended the ,french ,church4 ,many other ,french teachers were members of the ,french ,church1 which naturally1 seeing that it fostered a ,french school itself1 took a particular interest in the ,french schoolmasters generally4 ,thus in #aefj all ,french schoolmasters having schools in ,london were summoned before the consistory1 which was seeking to ascertain how many belonged to the ,church1 and also what book they used in teaching the children4 ,eight were ready to conform to the ,church and its discipline2#daa a ninth1 one ,gilles ,berail1 refused to conform1 on the plea that he attended the ,english parish church and understood ,english as well as ,french4 ,with the exception of ,holyband1 the chief ,huguenot teachers who gathered round ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard would seem to have been ,normans4 ,one of these was ,robert ,fontaine1 a friend of ,holyband4 ,he had a long and varied career in ,england as a teacher of ,french4 ,arriving in #aeej1 he remained in ,england during the reign of ,mary1 modifying his religious convictions to suit the exigencies of the time4 ,he returned to his former faith early in the reign of ,elizabeth1 and expressed contrition for his falling off to idolatry4#dab ,he attended the ,french ,church faithfully in the early time of its revival1 but he appears to have gone more frequently to the ,anglican ,church in later years1 and possibly his sympathies were more in that direction4 ,the favourite neighbourhood1 ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 was the scene of his activities1 and there he lived for many years with one of his countrymen1 ,mr4 ,bowry1 a purse-maker4 ,in #aega he had been living seventeen years in the vicinity of the ,cathedral1 and in #aehb1 the latest mention of him in the returns of aliens1 he was still in the same district1 and appears to have been very prosperous4 ,some of this group of ,normans added to their activities that of writing books for teaching ,french--an occupation for which ,fontaine1 presumably1 had not time or inclination4 ,one such author was ,jacques ,bellot1 a gentleman of the city of ,caen in ,normandie1 who came to ,england in #aegh1 or the end of #aegg1 probably driven from his native land by the persecutions4 ,he was received into the household of ,sir ,philip ,wharton1 third baron of that name1 and in a surprisingly short time produced a ,french ,grammar1 which he dedicated to his patron1 with an expression of his gratitude4 ,bellot1 it appears1 had already a considerable connexion4 ,his work is preceded by numerous commendatory poems1 after the fashion of the time4 ,the poet ,thomas ,newton of ,chester wrote two of these1 one in ,latin and the other in ,english1 laying stress on the debt due by his countrymen to these ,french grammarians3 ,header3 ,,jacques ,,bellot ,thankes therefore great and threefold thankes are due ,by right to those1 whose travaile1 toyle and penne ,dothe breake the yce for others to ensue1 ,by rules and practice for us ,englishmen1 ,an easye way1 a methode most in use ,amonge the ,learn'de t' enduce to knowledge sure4 ,other verses are written in ,french by ,john and ,william ,wroth1 no doubt two of the numerous sons of the politician ,sir ,thomas ,wroth4 ,this new work1 entitled ,the ,french ,grammar1 or ,an ,introduction orderly and ,methodically by ready rules1 playne preceptes and evident examples1 teachinge the ,french ,tongue1 differs from the popular books of ,holyband1 and also from most other ,french manuals1 in that it deals with grammar alone4 ,it opens with the usual observations on pronunciation4 ,each letter is taken in turn1 and the position of the organs necessary to produce it is given4 ,the author makes no attempt to compare the ,french sounds with the ,english equivalents4 ,he had probably not yet had time to master the intricacies of ,english pronunciation1 although the whole book is written in ,english2 and he also1 no doubt1 made free use of grammars written in ,france4 ,he tells us1 for instance1 that c ought to be pronounced with the tongue against the roof of the mouth1 and the mouth somewhat open2 that f is pronounced holding the nether lip against the upward teeth2 and that h is but aspiration1 which loseth his sound after e feminine1 and also after every consonant4 ,then1 after a few general observations and lists of numbers1 months1 and other familiar words1 we reach the second part of the ,grammar1 which deals with the eight parts of speech4 ,each is defined and commented on in turn4 ,the wording is often quaint2 for instance1 verbs are defined as words which be declined with ,modes and tenses1 and are betokenynge doing4 ,this second book treats of the accidence4 ,in the third we pass to the consideration of syntax with the following warning3 ,dire1 sy ay 7quoy qu'usage on en face7 ,n'est point parl en courtois et bien nay3 ,bien seant n'est aussy1 dire1 non ay3 ,sauf votre honneur1 ou bien sauf votre grace ,seroient trouvz de trop meilleure grace4 ,je ne l'ay fait1 est trop desordonn3 ,pardonnez moy1 seroit mieux ordonn1 ,car grand fureur douce parolle efface4 ,nous estions1 ,nous y pensons1 faut dire1 ,non1 ,j'estions1 on ne s'en fait que rire1 ,ne ,j'y pensons1 tout cela est repris4 ,les bons ,franois ne parlent point ainsy4 ,acunement pris ne doit estre aussy ,petit1 pour peu1 ny peu pour petit pris4 ,this part of the work is not extensive1 and consists of a miscellaneous collection of observations2 we are1 for instance1 told that the antecedent governs its relative1 that the adjective agrees with its noun1 and we are supplied also with rules for the gender and number1 the negative1 and so on4 ,to this ,bellot adds a fourth book1 which is perhaps the most curious part of the work4 ,it deals with ,french versification4 ,we are first favoured with a description of the structure of various forms of poems1 such as the chant royal1 the ballade1 the sonnet1 rondeau1 dixain1 and so on1 each accompanied by an example1 by way of illustration4 ,the various forms of rime are next described and exemplified2 and some of the complicated forms dear to the rhtoriqueurs find a place here4 ,this is followed by a description of the various kinds of metres1 again with examples2 and finally rhythm1 colour or lizire1 the caesura1 elision1 the coupe fminine1 and the use of the apostrophe are treated4 ,such is this little treatise on the ,french poeme1 which shows incidentally that ,bellot had not yet learned the lesson enforced by the ,pliade more than twenty years before he wrote4 ,what strikes one most1 perhaps1 in ,bellot's ,grammar is that he makes no attempt to deal with the difficulties which the ,french language presents to the ,english in particular4 ,no comparison of the two languages is instituted2 no emphasis is laid on points in which they differ4 ,were it not written in ,english1 it might be taken for a study of the language on the model of those produced in ,france4 ,considering that the work was published in the year of his arrival in ,england1 it seems almost certain that he had begun his study before his arrival1 and translated it himself1 or had it translated into ,english4 ,this would account for its unusual character4 ,bellot opens and closes his ,grammar with apologies4 ,he repudiates all claim to completeness1 and writes1 he says1 merely to provoke the learned to do better4 ,yet the worke is not so leane and voide of fruite1 but there is in it some taste4 ,the bee gathereth honey from the smallest flowers1 and so may the wise man from this small work4 ,some time after the publication of his ,grammar1 he joined the group of ,french teachers dwelling in the neighbourhood of ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,he was there in #aehb1 and made the acquaintance of ,holyband1 who had then resumed his ,french school in that locality4 ,in the following year he wrote a quatrain and a sonnet in praise of ,holyband's latest work1 the ,campo di ,fior 7#aehc73 ,goustez ,anglois1 ,gent bien heureuse1 ,les fleurs qu'en vostre ,isle argenteuse ,vous donne ,holybande pour un gage4 ,it is not certain how ,bellot employed his time there4 ,he may have had a school1 or have taught privately4 ,in any case he was a member of the ,french ,church1 and in the returns of aliens he calls himself a schoolmaster and a teacher of children4#dac ,but the title on which he is most insistent is that of gentleman4 ,he is a gentilhomme cadomois1 or a gentleman of ,caen1 and usually attaches the abbreviation ,g4,c4 to his name4 ,his attitude to the usual type of ,french teacher is distinctly supercilious4 ,he prided himself on belonging to the noblesse instruite et de ,savoir1 and had the reputation of teaching elegant ,french4 ,in #aehj he dedicated to no less a person than ,franois de ,valois1#dad brother to ,henry ,,iii41 a work for teaching ,english to foreigners4 ,like ,holyband1 he gave his book the title of ,schoolmaster3 ,maistre d',escole ,anglois pour les naturelz franois1 et autre estrangers qui ont la langue franoyse1 pour parvenir a la vraye prononciation de la langue ,angloise4#dae ,the work contains rules of pronunciation and grammar1 given in opposite columns in ,french and ,english2 it was evidently written in ,french in the first place1 and then somewhat carelessly translated into ,english1 for in the ,english column the illustrative examples are given in ,french4 ,this produces a curious effect1 and involves such statements as3 quand should be pronounced as ,houen 7when71 etc4 ,in the dedication he refers to his misfortune1 by which1 presumably1 he means his exile4#daf ,bellot was busily occupied in the production of other text-books also during his residence in ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,the ,maistre d',escole ,anglois appeared in ,january #aehj1 and in #aeha was followed by a third work1 in the form of a collection of moral dicta1 entitled ,le ,jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences1 avec le sens d'icelles1 recueillies de plusieurs autheurs1#dag and intended to be used as a reader4 ,it was published by the ,french refugee printer ,thomas ,vautrollier1 who1 at the same time1 issued a new edition of ,holyband's ,french ,littleton4 ,the works of the two friends were of the same size1 and are bound together in the copy preserved in the ,british ,museum4 ,holyband1 with his long-standing reputation1 may have been able to further ,bellot's interests4 ,in #aehj he had dedicated his ,latin work on ,french pronunciation to the queen1 and in the following year ,bellot obtained the same favour for his little work4 ,he accordingly opened his book with six ,french sonnets in honour of ,her ,majesty1 celebrating her generous reception of strangers1 not omitting to beg her protection for the garden3 ,reoy donc ce jardin3 te plaise a l'appuyer ,de ta faveur ,royalle3 et pren le jardinier ,en ta protection contre la gent hargneuse3 ,alors il tachera 7sans appouvrir la ,france7 ,l',angleterre enrichir d'oeuvres d'autre importance1 ,pour faonner l',anglois au ,franoys1 en son estre1 ,alors il chantera tes vertus en tout lieu4 4 4 4 ,the whole of the ,jardin is printed in ,french and ,english2 each maxim or saying is accompanied by explanations of the most difficult words1 by means of synonyms1 paraphrases1 and definitions1 as in the following example3 ,la memoire du prodigue est nulle4 ,of the prodigall ther is no memory4 ,prodigue est3-- ,prodigal is3-- un degasteur1 un rioteux et a wastefull1 a riotious and un excessif depenseur1 an outrageous spender1 un consomme-tout1 qui degaste a spendall that will lavishe et depense o il n'en est and spende where nul besoin et a l'endroit de it needeth not and upon whom qui n'en a besoin4 it needeth not4 ,memoire est3-- ,memory is3-- une souvenance1 une resconte pense1 a remembrance1 and having in minde1 une chose non mise en oubly4 a not forgetting4 ,le ,moral3-- ,the meaning3-- ,la renomme et fame du ,the prodigall mans fame and renown prodigue ne dure ny continue long endureth nor continueth temps3 si tost qu'il est mort not long2 as sone as he is gone et pass il est oubli and dead he is forgotten et hors de toute souvenance4 and out of all remembrance4 ,cicero en ,paradox dit3-- ,cicero in ,paradox saith3-- ,les prodigues employent et ,prodigall men employ and degastent leurs biens en wast their goods upon choses dont ils ne peuvent thinges whereof they can not laisser qu'une courte memoire leave but a short memory de eux1 ou point du tout4 of them1 or none at all4 ,header3 ,,normans ,,in ,,england ,it will be noticed that ,bellot had not fully mastered the ,english idiom1 although he had written an ,english grammar4 ,the rest of the beautiful flowers of vertue which he planted in his garden are similar in character and treatment4 ,he characteristically closes his little book with a prayer1 which he quaintly compares to a fence to keep the goats from harming the flowers4 ,in #aehc ,bellot was still living near ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,but after this date we lose all trace of him until #aehh1 when the printer ,robert ,robinson received a licence to print a booke intytuled a grammar in ,frenche and ,englishe1 the auttour is ,james ,bellot4#dah ,this second ,french ,grammar was known as ,the ,french ,methode4#dai ,to the numerous band of ,normans in ,england also belonged1 perhaps1 ,g4 ,de la ,mothe1 who wrote the letter ,n after his name4 ,de la ,mothe was another refugee for the sake of religion1 and he speaks with gratitude of the generous welcome he received in ,england4#dbj ,he tells us that the cruel civil wars in ,france had burnt the wings of his studies and ruined his fortune4#dba ,on his arrival in ,england1 he began his career as a teacher of ,french in the same way as many others2 he became a tutor in a noble family1 and shortly after produced a book for teaching ,french4 ,he was first appointed ,french tutor to the son of ,sir ,henry ,wallop1 ,lord ,chief ,justice of ,ireland and a prominent patron of the refugees1 on the return of his lordship to ,england in #aehi4 ,de la ,mothe was also received1 at some date before #aeib1 into the midst of another important ,english family1 the ,wenmans1 of ,thame ,park1 ,oxfordshire4 ,he taught ,french to the girls1 and early in #aeib1 if not before1 was at ,oxford with the eldest son1 ,richard ,wenman1#dbb afterwards ,sir ,richard1 and his brothers4 ,de la ,mothe had in the meantime written a ,french text-book which he called ,the ,french ,alphabet1 ,teaching in a very short time by a most easie way1 to pronounce ,french naturally1 to read it perfectly1 to unite it truly1 and to speak it accordingly1 ,together with a ,treasure of the ,french ,tongue4#dbc ,he divided it into two parts1 which he dedicated to each of his patrons--the first to ,sir ,henry ,wallop and the second to ,sir ,richard ,wenman's mother1 at whose request he had undertaken the work4 ,de la ,mothe acknowledges his debt of gratitude to both1 and also to the country which had received him so hospitably1 in terms which contain something more than the usual trite expressions4 ,the ,french ,alphabet was licensed to the printer ,richard ,field in #aeib1dbd but no copy of this earliest edition has been preserved4 ,field succeeded to ,vautrollier's successful business1 and in this same year showed his friendship for his fellow-townsman#dbe ,shakespeare1 by printing the first work he published1 ,venus and ,adonis4 ,it is of course pure conjecture to suggest that ,shakespeare saw and even read the little book printed by his friend4 ,whether this be so or not1 it was perhaps through ,field and his ,huguenot connexions--he had married ,vautrollier's widow--that ,shakespeare became acquainted with the family of ,christopher ,montjoy4 ,header3 ,g4 ,,de ,,la ,,mothe1 ,n4 ,a new edition of the ,alphabet appeared in #aeie1 from the press of ,edward ,alde4 ,at this date ,de la ,mothe had joined the group of teachers in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,he taught at the ,signe of the ,helmet1 and there you shall finde him ever willing to show you any favour or curtesie he may2 and most ready to endeavour himselfe to satisfie you in all that can be possible for hime to doe4 ,the ,sign of the ,helmet was the address of the bookseller ,thomas ,chard4#dbf ,any one desirous of becoming acquainted with the author for his better furtherance in the ,french tongue could also make enquiries at the ,sign of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist in ,fleet ,street1 beneath the ,conduit1 where lived the printer and bookseller ,hugh ,jackson1 commissioned to sell the book--further instances of the friendly relations between the ,french teachers and the printers and booksellers of the time1 through whom these teachers would1 no doubt1 get a large proportion of their clientle4 ,the ,huguenot sympathies of many of the printers1 such as ,vautrollier and ,field1 account in part for this cordial feeling4 ,after the #aeie edition of his work we hear nothing further of ,de la ,mothe4 ,although the name occurs frequently in the returns of aliens1 none can be identified with him4 ,he probably seized an early opportunity of returning to his native land4 ,his manual1 however1 did not disappear with him4 ,second in popularity only to the works of ,holyband in the sixteenth century1 it enjoyed numerous editions in the seventeenth4#dbg ,excepting the omission of ,de la ,mothe's advertisement1 all the later editions are identical4 ,they were issued from the press of ,field's successor1 ,george ,miller4#dbh ,it is difficult to understand how the #aeie edition came to be printed by ,edward ,alde1 though his work was evidently countenanced by ,de la ,mothe4 ,the ,french ,alphabet is a very practical little work4 ,it contains rules for pronunciation and familiar dialogues in the usual style4 ,the whole is given in ,french and ,english arranged on opposite pages4 ,his treatment of pronunciation is much the same as ,holyband's1 and he sometimes transcribes freely from his active contemporary's work4#dbi ,he explains the sounds chiefly by comparison with ,english1 giving the nearest equivalent to each letter4 ,after the letters he deals with the syllables and then the words4 ,the rules are arranged in the form of dialogues between master and pupil3 ,sir1 will it please you do me ,monsieur1 vous plaist il me faire so much favour 7or would tant de faveur 7ou voudriez you take the pain7 to vous prendre la peine7 de teach me to speak ,french8 m'apprendre a parler ,franois8 ,with all my heart1 if ,tres volontiers1 si vous you have a desire to it4 en avez envie4 ,i desire nothing more4 ,je ne desire rien plus4 ,if you desire it you ,si vous le desirez vous shall learn it quickly1 l'apprendez bien1 if you please to take s'il vous plaist de prendre some pain4 un peu de peine4 ,there is nothing though never so hard ,il n'y a rien si difficile but by labour it may be made easie4 qui par labeur ne soit facile4 ,you say true1 ,vous dites vray1 ,i believe you4 je vous en croy4 4 4 4 ,how do you pronounce ,comment prononcez vous the letter a8 la lettre a8 ,a is pronounced plaine and long as ,a se prononce ouvert et long comme this ,english word awe1 to be in awe1 ce mot ,anglois awe1 to be in awe1 as ma1 ta1 sa1 la1 comme ma1 ta1 sa1 la1 bat1 part1 blanc1 etc4 bat1 part1 blanc1 etc4 ,and the next lesson takes the following form3 ,header3 ,,his ,,french ,,alphabet ,sir1 can you say your lesson8 ,monsieur1 saves vous vostre leon8 ,have you learnt to pronounce your ,avs vous apprins a prononcer vos letters8 lettres8 ,yea1 as well as ,i can4 ,ouy1 le mieux qu'il m'est possible4 ,i have done nothing but study it ,je n'ay fait autre chose qu'estudier4 since you did heare me yesterday depuis que vous me feistes dire hier4 ,it is very well done1 ,c'est tresbien fait1 ,i am glad then4 i'en suis bien aise4 ,go to1 let me heare you how you do ,or aus1 que je voye comment vous pronounce4 prononcez4 ,i will1 ,i am content4 ,je le veux1 i'en suis content4 ,say then1 begin1 speak ,dites1 doncq1 commencez1 parlez aloud4 haut4 ,pronounce distinctly4 ,softly1 ,prononcez distinctement4 ,tout beau1 make no haste1 open your ne vous hastez point1 ouvrez la mouth4 bouche4 ,that is very well1 that is well ,voyla qui est bien1 cela est bien said4 dit4 ,repeat it once again4 ,repetez encore une fois derechef4 ,do ,i pronounce it well8 ,yea1 ,prononce-je bien8 ,ouy1 you pronounce well4 vous prononcez bien4 ,help me1 ,i pray you4 ,aydez moy1 je vous prie4 ,how do you pronounce that letter8 ,comment se prononce ceste lettre8 ,before we go any further ,devant que passer oultre you must il faut que vous pronounce perfectly your letters4 prononciez vos lettres parfaitement4 ,now that you can tell your letters ,maintenant que vous savez vos well1 lettres1 learne your syllables1 apprenez vos syllables1 say after me4 dictes aprs moy4 ,after dealing with the sounds of the ,french language1 ,de la ,mothe passes to more general considerations4 ,he touches on the much-discussed question of the reform of the orthography1 and expresses his strong disapproval of all attempts to make it tally with the pronunciation4 ,then he deals with the pronunciation of the ,law ,french of the ,english1#dcj which he puts down to such fanciful experiments4 ,lawyers write their ,french as they pronounce it1 and pronounce it as they write it1 so that it is now quite corrupt4 ,he next proceeds to give his pupils a short history of the chief ,romance tongues1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 and finally of the ,english language4 ,the remainder of the first part of the ,alphabet is occupied by short familiar dialogues on the usual subjects--greetings1 the weather1 the divisions of time1 buying and selling1 and the occurrences of daily life--as follows3 ,for to aske the way4 ,pour demander le chemin4 ,how many miles to ,london8 ,combien y a il d'icy ,londres8 ,ten leagues1 twenty miles4 ,dix lieues1 vingt mil4 ,what way must we keep8 ,quel chemin faut il tenir8 ,which is the shortest ,o est le plus court way to goe to ,rye8 chemin d'icy ,rye8 ,keepe alwayes the great way4 ,suyvez tousjours le grand chemin4 ,do not stray neither to the right ,ne vous fourvoyez ny dextre nor to the left hand4 ny sinestre4 ,what doe ,i owe you now8 ,combien vous doy-je maintenant8 ,two shillings4 ,here it is4 ,deux sols4 ,les voyl4 ,bring me my horse4 ,amenez moy mon cheval4 ,will you take horse8 ,vous plaist il monter cheval8 ,yea1 ,i hope ,i shall not alight ,ouy1 j'espere que je ne descendrez till ,i be come to ,london4 que je ne soys arriv ,londres4 ,god be with you4 ,farewell4 ,adieu4 ,bonne vie et longue4 ,at the end of these dialogues comes the second part of ,de la ,mothe's book1 entitled the ,treasure of the ,french ,tongue4 ,it consists of a collection of ,french and ,english proverbs and golden sayings1 diligently gathered and faithfully set in order after the ,alphabeticall manner1 for those that are desirous of the ,french tongue4 ,these early teachers of ,french were fond of such collections4 ,they usually included proverbs in their grammar books1 and ,palsgrave1 as we have seen1 hoped to publish a separate work on them4 ,his intention seems to have been first fully realised by ,de la ,mothe1 although ,holyband had included a smaller list in both his popular text-books4 ,from ,de la ,mothe's ,french ,alphabet1 more than from any other of these early works1 we can form a fairly adequate idea of the method of teaching ,french prevalent at the time4 ,much importance was attached to pronunciation and to reading1 which were made the first subject of study4 ,rules were felt to be desirable for learning the sounds1 but more stress was laid on the services of a good teacher2 for do not think1 says ,de la ,mothe1 that my book is by itself to make thee a good ,frenchman4 ,his own method was to make his pupils repeat the sounds after him4 ,he believed that the acquirement of a good pronunciation depended on a mastery of each separate sound in the language4 ,according to him1 any one who can pronounce each letter correctly must1 perforce1 enunciate words correctly1 and on the same plan1 sentences also2 a rather questionable theory this1 but we must remember that ,de la ,mothe took for granted the daily attendance of a ,french tutor4 ,the understanding of the language ,de la ,mothe regards as the second stage in the pupil's progress4 ,this he considers a natural consequence of a perfect command of the pronunciation and reading of the language4 ,lastly comes the speaking of the language1 which1 according to him1 results from understanding it4 ,de la ,mothe does not only expound his theories2 he also gives fairly detailed information as to how they may be put into practice4 ,after engaging a good teacher1 the student should learn to pronounce his letters and syllables perfectly4 ,then he may begin to read1 very slowly at first1 at the rate of from three to four lines a day1 or more or less according as your capacity can reach or your patience permit4 ,header3 ,,his ,,method ,,for ,,learning ,,french ,each word should be spelt four or five times1 and in the spelling and reading the pupil should not let passe any letter or syllable without bringing them to the trial of his rules4 ,when you can read truly and pronounce perfectly1 then go about to ,english it4 ,first translate the ,french passages into ,english1 with the help of the word for word translation provided1 then copy out the ,french into a book provided for the purpose1 close the ,alphabet and attempt to translate your copy into ,english at sight1 correcting the version by referring again to the ,alphabet4 ,next proceed to retranslate the ,english back into ,french on a similar method4 ,continue this order for a month1 every day repeating three or four times1 both your letters and your syllables1 and reading and ,englishing as many times your old from the beginning till your latter lesson4 444 ,being once able to reade and pronounce perfectly with your rules1 two or three leaves of your book1 at most1 ,i can assure you that there is not any ,french book though never so hard1 but you shall be able to reade it and pronounce it as truly as can be wished4 ,for in less than one leaf of your book1 all your rules are to be observed1 three or four times at least4 ,for there is not a word but in it is one or two rules to be noted4 ,when the learner has thus fully mastered the rules of pronunciation1 he may go forward speedily1 translating from ,english into ,french1 and from ,french into ,english1 and revising constantly4 ,this is the only ready way to learn to read and pronounce1 to write and speak ,french4 ,not a single day should be allowed to pass without exercises of this kind1 and you shall find in less than five or six weeks your labour and dilegence afford you much profit1 and advancement1 that you will wonder at it1 and much greater than ,i dare promise you4 ,those who have made some progress in the language1 ,de la ,mothe advises to make the acquaintance of some ,frenchman1 if possible1 to the end that you may practice with him by daily conference together1 in speech and talk1 what you have learned4 ,and if you be in place where the ,frenchmen have a ,church for themselves1 as they do in ,london1 get you a ,french ,bible or a ,new ,testament1 and every day go both to their lectures and ,sermons4 ,the one will confirm and strengthen your pronunciation1 and the other cause you to understand when one doth speak4 ,and1 finally1 if you wish to understand the hardest and most eloquent ,french1 and to speak it naturally1 you must not neglect reading1 but provide yourself with a ,french ,dictionary1 and the hardest book you can find1 and set about translating it1 on the method already described4 ,if the student will not take the pains to translate the book1 he should at least read it carefully1 and write out a list of the hardest words and of appropriate phrases to serve his turn1 either to speak or write when he has need of them4 ,although ,de la ,mothe makes no mention of grammar1 when he describes his method of teaching1 he did not consider it unnecessary4 ,indeed he declares it is not possible to speak ,french perfectly without such rules1 which he no doubt used for purposes of reference1 as he did the rules of pronunciation4 ,he even promises to produce shortly a ,french ,tutor1 that will teach you in so short and easie a way as may be1 both by the perfect knowledge of the parts of your speeches1 and syntaxe1 not only to speak perfectly1 but also to know if one doth not speak well1 to reprove him when he doth speak ill1 and to teach him to amend his bad speech3 a thing which yet before has never been taught4 ,the promise is great1 but the performance shall not be less if this be acceptable to you4 ,unfortunately this promise does not seem to have been kept4 ,that his ,alphabet did not prove acceptable cannot be the reason4 ,most probably ,de la ,mothe left ,england before he had time to show his gratitude to the ,english nobility by the production of this second book4 ,we have seen that these teachers of ,french did not always look upon each other as rivals4 ,bellot wrote verses in honour of ,holyband1 who was a friend of ,fontaine1 another of the group of ,french teachers in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,but such friendly relations were not general4 ,the teachers just mentioned belonged to what formed1 no doubt1 the highest rank of the profession4 ,bellot calls himself a gentilhomme1 and so does ,holyband2 and both refer to criticism and attacks upon them by other ,french teachers4#dca ,holyband calls attention to the unscrupulousness of many of them1 who take money in advance and do nothing to earn it2 and expresses his contempt for his critics--,frenchmen ignorant of ,english1 ,burgundians1 or ,englishmen who do not know ,french thoroughly4 ,header3 ,,friendships ,,and ,,rivalries ,the many ,french-speaking schoolmasters from the ,netherlands--chiefly ,walloons and ,burgundians--and the ,english teachers of ,french formed separate groups apart from the ,huguenots4 ,yet another group was recruited from the ranks of the ,roman ,catholics4 ,the ,burgundians1 who did not come from ,burgundy1 but from that portion of the ,netherlands which had been under the rule of the ,house of ,burgundy1 formed a very considerable proportion of the foreign population of ,london4 ,in #aefg there were only forty-four of them in ,london1 but by #aega their number had risen to four hundred and twenty-four--almost as many as the total number of ,french in the city4#dcb ,the ,walloons were still more numerous1 and no doubt outnumbered the ,french4 ,such instructors were an obstacle in the way of those desirous of raising the standard of the ,french taught in ,england4 ,against the peculiarities of the ,french spoken in the ,netherlands1 ,holyband is constantly warning his pupils4 ,you shall know them1 he says1 at the pronunciation of c1 as the proper mark of their language1 for they sound it as the ,english sh or the ,french ch1 saying shela for cela4#dcc ,warnings were also given against the barbarisms of the ,picard dialect4 ,of the many ,dutch teachers in ,london--an epithet which usually includes the ,flemings and ,walloons--it is impossible to say which actually taught ,french4#dcd ,apparently those who attended the ,french ,church taught that language2 a certain ,gouvert ,hawmells1 for example1 a native of ,antwerp1 who came to ,england in #aefh--;for religion--is specially mentioned as a teacher of the ,french language2 in #aega he was living with his family in the house of one ,thomas ,grimes in ,st4 ,margaret's parish4 ,he attended the ,french ,church and was not a denizen4#dce ,apparently his case was not an exceptional one4 ,what is more1 there were in ,london ,french schoolmistresses from the ,low ,countries4 ,marry ,lemaire1 by trade a ,french schoolmistress1 was a native of ,antwerp and came to ,england in #aegh2 for over forty years she kept school in ,southwick4 ,another ,french schoolmistress1 ,anness ,deger1 born in ,tournay1 came to ,england some ten years earlier1 and in #afah was still practising her trade in ,tenter ,abbey4 ,her qualifications were not of the first order2 in the ,register of ,aliens she was unable to sign her name1 for which she substituted a cross4 ,there was also a goodwife ,frances schoolmistress1 in ,popinjay ,alley1 mentioned in #aeih and #aeii1 but whether she taught ,french or not is not specified4 ,although the chief ,french teachers who were responsible for the manuals of the second half of the sixteenth century were ,huguenots1 it is extremely probable that ,roman ,catholic teachers were in the majority4 ,when a census of the foreigners dwelling in ,london was taken in #aefc1 only #gab out of a total of #decd had come to ,england on religious grounds4#dcf ,naturally the proportion of ,protestants greatly increased as the persecutions grew more severe1 until the passing of the ,edict of ,nantes in their favour in #aeih4 ,then it probably again decreased2 in the time of ,charles ,i4 there were at least five ,french papists to one ,french ,protestant4#dcg ,these ,roman ,catholic teachers were as a matter of course regarded as suspect by those in authority1 and ,jesuit priests teaching in noble ,english families1 or those conversant with them1 were carefully watched4#dch ,the suspicions aroused by the ,john ,love who had a ,french school in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard have already been noticed4 ,this feeling became particularly strong after the ,gunpowder ,plot 7#afje74 ,in the ,constitutions1 ,laws1 ,statutes1 ,decrees and ,ordinances of the ,bury ,st4 ,edmunds ,town ,council of #afjg an article was inserted to prevent the infectinge of youth in ,poperie by ,schoolmasters4#dci ,header3 ,,classes ,,of ,,french ,,teachers ,the constables of every ward in the borough had to certify the ,aldermen1 ,recorder1 and ,justices of the ,peace1 of the names of all persons that do keep any school for the teaching of youth to write1 read1 or understand the ,english1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,italian and ,spanish ,tongues1 upon pain to forfeit for every default #fs4 #h;d4 ,this notification had to be made quarterly4 ,others than the master or usher of the free grammar school1 wishing to teach any of these languages1 had to obtain special licence2 and any one sending his children to a school kept by a teacher who had no licence was liable to forfeit for every week the sum of #fs4 #h;d4 ,fear of proselytism was not the only incentive which aroused the animosity of certain sections of the ,english public4 ,many young ,englishmen received much of their education from ,french tutors1 frequently refugees1 who taught them the usual subjects as well as ,french4 ,one objection raised against them was that they corrupted their pupils' ,english if they spoke and wrote ,english themselves1 as they did almost without exception4 ,thus they pul downe with one hand more than they can build with the other1 wrote ,th4 ,morrice in #afai4ddj ,such complaints1 however1 cannot have been very general or have had much effect on the lot of ,french teachers4 ,a further attack was to come from another quarter4 ,in the early years of the sixteenth century1 as in the ,middle ,ages1 ,englishmen had held an important place in the ,french teaching profession4 ,they had been called to important positions as tutors1 and had written grammars of the language4 ,after the appearance of ,palsgrave's ,grammar1 however1 we hear no more of these ,english teachers of ,french1 driven into the background1 no doubt1 by the great invasion of ,french teachers4 ,probably ,duwes's earlier attack had helped either to turn public favour from the native teachers or to discourage them4 ,holyband1 too1 had endorsed the opinion of ,duwes somewhat later1 and expressed the little importance he attached to their criticisms4 ,to acquire the true ,french pronunciation and idiom1 he declares1 it is necessary to learn from a ,frenchman4 ,towards the end of the sixteenth century1 however1 an ,english teacher of ,french came forward1 and energetically took up the defence of his fellow-teachers of ,english birth4 ,this was ,john ,eliote1 a man of boisterous spirits and a lover of good wine--a taste which he had acquired in ,france1 where he had lived many years4 ,there1 if the dialogue he wrote for the help of students of ,french may be taken as autobiographical1 he had spent three years in the ,college of ,montagu at ,paris1 taught for a year in the ,collge des ,africains at ,orleans1 lived for ten months at ,lyons1 and spent a year amongst the ,benedictine monks4 ,on the murder of ,henri ,,iii4 in #aehi1 ,eliote returned to ,england1 strongly imbued with a love for the country in which he had lived so long4 ,surely for my part1 he writes1 ,france ,i love well1 ,frenchmen ,i hate not1 and unto you ,i sweare by ,s4 ,scobe cap de ,gascongne1 that ,i love a cup of new ,gascon or old ,orleans wine1 as well as the best ,french of you all4 ,which love1 you must know1 was engendered in the sweet soile of ,fraunce1 where ,i paissed like a bon companion1 with a steele at my girdle1 till the ,friars 7a canker of the cursed ,convent7 fell to drawing of naked knives1 and kild indeed the good ,king ,henrie of ,france1 the more the pitye4 ,since which time ,i retired myself among the merrie muses1 and by the worke of my pen and inke1 have dezinkhornifistibulated a fantasticall ,rapsody of dialoguisme1 to the end that ,i would not be found an idle drone among so many famous teachers and professors of noble languages1 who are very busy daily in devising and setting forth new bookes instructing our ,english gentry in this honourable citie of ,london4 ,this fantasticall rapsody was published in #aeic1 and entitled the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica4 ,eliot's ,fruits for the ,french enriched with a double new invention1 which teacheth to speake truly1 speedily1 voluably the ,french tongue4 ,pend for the practice1 pleasure and profit of all ,english gentlemen1 who will endevour by their owne paine1 study1 and diligence1 to attain the naturall accent1 the true pronunciation and swift and glib ,grace of this noble1 famous and courtly ,language4#dda ,it was dedicated to the young ,sir ,robert ,dudley1#ddb son of the famous ,earl of ,leicester1 whom ,eliote possibly instructed in the ,french tongue4 ,eliote had taken up the teaching of ,french1 that most ticklish of all tongues1 on his return to ,england1 and in his book he speaks of his long practice in learning and teaching the language4 ,he proceeds1 in the first place1 to make fun of the learned ,professors of the ,french ,tongue in the city of ,london4 ,header3 ,,english ,,teachers ,,of ,,french ,he burlesques the dedicatory epistles of his predecessors1 especially that of ,bellot1#ddc and declares he is fully aware that1 to be in the fashion1 he ought to dilate in some good speeches of the dignitie of the ,french tongue1 and then show what ease this book of mine shall bring to the learning of the ,french1 more than other bookes have done heretofore4 ,but he must first ask pardon for his presumption in writing on this subject4 ,do no blame me1 he says1 addressing the gentle doctors of ,gaule1 as he called them1 if because ,i would not be found a loyterer in mine own countrie1 amongst so many virtuously occupied1 ,i have put my pen to paper3 if ,i have bene busie1 labourd1 sweat1 dropt1 studied1 devised1 fought1 bought1 borrowed1 turned1 translated1 mined1 fined1 refined1 interlined1 glossed1 composed1 and taken intollerable toil to shew an easie entrance and introduction to my deare countrimen1 in your curious and courtesan ,french tongue1 to the end to advance them as much as may bee1 in the knowledge of all virtuous and noble qualities1 to the which they are all naturally adicted4 ,he is quite ready to have his book criticised as the work of an ,englishman1 and challenges these gentle doctors to be ready quickly to cavill at his booke4 ,i beseech you1 he continues1 heartily calumniate my doings with speede1 ,i request you humbly controll my method as soone as you may1 ,i earnestly entreat you hisse at my inventions1 ,i desire you to peruse my periodicall punctuations1 find fault with my pricks1 nicks1 and tricks1 prove them not worth a pin1 not a point1 not a pish3 argue me a fond1 foolish1 frivolous1 and phantasicall author1 and persuade every one that you meet1 that my booke is a false1 fained1 slight1 confused1 absurd1 barbarous1 lame1 imperfect1 single1 uncertaine1 childish1 piece of work1 and not able to teach and why so8 ,forsooth because it is not your owne but an ,englishman's doing4 ,faile you not to do so1 if you love me1 and would have me do the like for you another time4 ,while admitting that there may be a few good ,french teachers amongst the refugees1 he outlines a picture of the ordinary type which is far from flattering2 and we gather that he had himself studied ,french with several refugees4 ,he implies that the ,french teachers receive money in advance1 and then do nothing else but take their eases and1 as the renowned poet saith1 ,saulter1 dancer1 faire les tours1 ,boire vin blanc et vermeil1 ,et ne rien faire tous les jours ,que conter escuz au soleil4 ,mercurie the god of ,cunning1 and ,dis the ,father of ,french crowns are their deities4 ,they care nothing for the progress of their scholars2 all they do is to give them a short lesson of half an hour1 in which they read and construe about half a page of ,french4 ,they are equally indifferent to the troubled state of their country1 provided they themselves are comfortable and well provided with ,french wines4 ,messires1 what newes from ,france1 can you tell8 he asks them1 still warres1 warres4 ,a heavy hearing truly1 yet if you be in good health1 have many scholars1 get good store of crowns1 and drink good wine1 ,i doubt not but you shall do well1 and ,i desire the good ,god of ,heaven to continue it so still4 ,have they had a fruitful vintage in ,france this year1 or no8 me thinks our ,bordeaux wines are very deare1 and in good faith ,i am very sorry for it4 ,but they will be at a more reasonable reckoning1 if these same loftie ,leaguers would once crouch and come to some good composition 444 that we may safely fetch their deifying liquer1 which dieth quickly our flegmaticke faces into a pure sanguine complexion4 ,the style of the introduction is maintained throughout the rest of the book4 ,eliote says he wrote the whole in a merrie phantasicall vaine to confirme and stir up the wit and memorie of the learner1 and diversified it with a varietie of stories no lesse authenticall than the devices of ,lucian's dialogues4 ,he admits that he had turned over some ,french authors1 and where he espied any pretie example that might quicken the capacitie of the learner1 he presumed to make a peece of it flie this way1 to set together the frame of 7his7 fantasticall comedie 444 and out of every one 7he7 had some share for the better ornament of 7his7 worke4 ,eliote was well acquainted with ,french literature4 ,he considered ,marot the best poet1 and gave ,ronsard the second place only4 ,he also read ,du ,bartas1 ,belleau1 ,desportes1 and other sixteenth-century writers4 ,but most of his admiration was reserved for ,rabelais1 that merrie grig1 and it is clear that he modelled his style on that of the great ,french humorist4 ,like ,rabelais1 he occasionally affects a sort of gibberish1 coins words1 and1 like him also1 he strings words together and is fond of exaggeration4 ,numerous passages in the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica are reminiscent of famous incidents in ,gargantua and ,pantagruel4 ,like ,panurge1 he defends debts and debtors3 ,quoy6 ,debtes6 ,o chose rare et antiquaire4 ,il n'est bon chrestien qui ne doibt rien1 and1 in the style of ,rabelais1 he assures us that his book contains profound and deep mysteries1 444 and very worthie the reading1 and such as ,i thinke you have not had performed in any other book that is yet extant4444 ,doest thou see what a sea1 what a gulfe there is8 ,thou hadst need of ,theseus' thread to guide thee out of that ,labyrinth4 ,the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica forms a striking contrast to ,palsgrave's rather austere ,esclarcissement1 the last work on the ,french language composed by an ,englishman before that of ,eliote4 ,header3 ,,john ,,eliote ,the dialogues occupy nearly the whole volume4 ,the first few pages1 however1 contain a table of ,french sounds with their pseudo-,english equivalents4 ,the pronunciation was1 in ,eliote's opinion1 one of the chief difficulties of this difficult language1 deemed a jewel1 so dearly bought1 and so much desired by all2 and he considered that1 with the help of ,ramus and ,peletier for the pronunciation1 he had succeeded in reducing the gulf of difficulties into a small stream by sounding the ,french by our ,english alphabet4 ,he arranges his dialogues1 which he calls ,le parlement de ,babillards1 id est1 ,the ,parlaiment of ,prattlers1 into three groups4 ,the first of these consists of three long dialogues on the method of learning foreign languages1 on the excellence of writers in both ancient and modern tongues1 and on travel through the chief towns of ,europe4 ,the first dialogue ends with the quotation from ,du ,bartas in praise of ,queen ,elizabeth and her accomplishments1 accompanied by a translation in ,english verse by ,eliote himself4 ,the second part1 styled ,m4 ,eliote's first booke1 is of a much more elementary character than the one just described4 ,eliote had referred elsewhere to a work entitled ,the ,scholler1 in which he propounded a general method of learning and teaching all languages contrived by nature and art1 conformable to the precepts of ,aristotle4 ,this1 or part of it1 evidently formed the first part of the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica1 where it is separately paged4#ddd ,in his first and second books1 which thus form the second and third parts of the work1 he expounds his double new invention1 which teacheth ,englishmen to speake truly1 speedily and volubly the ,french tong4 ,the first part of this invention consists in placing by the side of the ,french and ,english a third column1 giving the ,french in pseudo-,english equivalents--the true pronunciation of each word wholly and certain little stripes 7called approches7 between the sillables that are to be spoken roundly and glib in one breath4 ,the twelve dialogues of ,eliote's first book are fairly simple in character1 and some of them were probably suggested by ,vives's ,exercitatio4 ,their subject matter does not differ much from earlier dialogues1 but their treatment is decidedly original4 ,the following quotation is taken from the first dialogue3 ,hau ,garcon ,ho ,garssoon ,what boy dors tu dortu slepeth thou vilain8 debout1 veelein8 deboo1 villain8 up1 debout1 ie te deboo1 ie te up1 ,i shall reveilleray tantost reue-lher tant-tot shall wake thee soon avec un bon baton4 tavec-keun boon batoon4 with a good cudgell4 ,je me leve1 monsieur4 ,ie me lveh moonseewr4 ,i rise sir4 ,quelle heure est-il8 ,qel-heur et-til8 ,what o'clock is it8 ,il est six heures4 ,il- see-zewres4 ,it is six o'clock4 ,donnez moy mes ,donn moe' mes ,give me my chausses de velours shossh de veloor my green velvet verd4 vert4 breeches4 ,lesquelles8 ,le-keles8 ,which8 ,c'est tout un2 mes ,set-toot-tewn2 mes ,it is all one2 my chausses rondes de shosseh roondeh de round red satin rouge4 4 4 4 sateen roz-eh4 4 4 4 satin ones1 etc4 ,there are twelve dialogues in all1 but only each alternate one is accompanied by this curious guide to pronunciation4#dde ,in the second book and third part the dialogues are longer and more numerous1 dealing with the different trades and occupations--les devis familiers des mesters fort delectables a lyre4 ,they do not1 however1 confine themselves to the characters usually introduced into similar dialogues2 besides the mercer1 the draper1 the shoemaker1 the innkeeper1 and so on1 we have the armourer1 the robber1 the debtor1 the apothecary1 and other characters which offer ample scope for treatment in the ,rabelaisian vein1 of which ,eliote was so fond4 ,some suggest that ,eliote was acquainted with ,holyband's works4 ,this book contains the second part of his double new invention4 ,the ,french and ,english are printed on opposite pages1 and in the margin the sounds of the most difficult ,french letters are indicated1 thus3 ai sound e ay sound e am sound ein aine sound eineh1 and so on4 ,this table he describes as ,mercurie's finger to direct thee in thy progress of learning1 and he repeats it on the margin of every pair of opposite pages4 ,header3 ,,the ,,ortho-,,epia ,,gallica ,after these twenty dialogues comes the ,conclusion of the parlaiment of prattlers1 which depicts a group of friends walking by the ,thames and ,st4 ,paul's1 prattling1 chatting1 and babbling4 ,the arrangement is the same as in the previous dialogues1 and the work closes with a quotation from ,du ,bartas's praise of ,france3 ,o mille et mille fois terre heureuse et fconde1 ,o perle de l',europe6 ,o ,paradis du monde6 ,france je te salue1 ,o mre des guerriers4 ,in his dialogue called ,the ,scholar1 incorporated in the first part of the ,ortho-,epia1 ,eliote explains his 'new' method of learning languages1 by nature and art4 ,by nature he means the acquirement of a vocabulary of all created things1 by use and common practice2 and by art the rules and precepts for combining these into sentences1 and also the authority of learned men4 ,such rules chiefly concern nouns1 verbs1 and pronunciation1 in which the greatest mystery of all languages consists4 ,thus1 although he gives no grammatical information in his ,ortho-,epia ,gallica1 he recognized its importance4 ,before introducing his pupils to the method of ,nature and ,art1 ,eliote would have them well grounded in nouns and verbs1 and able to translate dialogues1 comedies in verse1 and prose writings4 ,he attached much importance to translation from ,english into ,french1 just as ,palsgrave did4 ,he directs the student to make out the meaning of the ,french first by comparing it with the ,english column1 and then to cover over the ,french version1 and attempt to translate the ,english into ,french4 ,this ,i have learned by long experience to be the readiest way to attaine the knowledge of any language1 that we of ,englishmen make ,french1 and not of ,french learn ,english4 ,as to the theory of ,nature and ,art1 it seems to have been little more than the method1 common at the time1 of making practice the basis of the study of ,french1 and confirming this by rules as need for them arose4 ,in addition to the ,ortho-,epia ,gallica1#ddf ,eliote also wrote a ,survey or topographical description of ,france1 collected from sundry approved authors4 ,this was published in #aeib1 and dedicated to ,sir ,john ,pickering1 ,keeper of the ,privy ,seal4 ,he also translated from ,french into ,english#ddg a number of unimportant works1 mostly of topical interest1 one of them being dedicated to ,robert1 ,earl of ,essex4 ,little else is known of him1 except that he was born in ,warwickshire in #aefb1 and entered ,brasenose ,college1 ,oxford1 on the #abth of ,december #aehj1 at the age of eighteen years4#ddh ,he tells us that he held the degree of ,doctor of ,divinity1 but there is no record of his having taken any such degree there4 ,robert ,greene was among his friends1 and he wrote a sonnet in questionable ,french on ,greene's ,perimedes or the ,black ,smith1 with which it was published in #aehh4 ,these are all the details we possess concerning this amusing and striking figure among the ,french teachers of the sixteenth century4 ,,footnotes3 #daj ,the names of many have been lost1 owing to the incompleteness of the records1 or to the fact that no profession is indicated4 ,a few are known from other sources to have been schoolmasters or private tutors2 cp4 ,huguenot ,society ,publications1 vol4 x41 ,returns of ,aliens dwelling in ,london2 vols4 viii41 xviii41 ,letters of ,denization4 #daa ,evrard ,erail1 ,onias ,ganeur1 ,charles ,bod1 ,robert ,fontaine1 ,charles ,darvil d',arras1 ,jean ,vaquerie1 ,baudouin ,mason1 and ,adrian ,tresol 7,schickler1 glises du ,refuge1 i4 p4 #abd74 ,of these names only that of ,robert ,fontaine is found in the ,returns of ,aliens4 ,charles ,darvil and ,adrian ,tresol are again mentioned in connexion with the ,church in #aefd4 ,baudouin ,mason received letters of denization in #aefe1 and ,adrian ,tresol1 a ,netherlander1 in #aefb4 ,in #aega there were three other schoolmasters connected with the ,church3 ,adrian ,tressel1 ,john ,preste of ,rouen1 and ,nicolas ,langlois or ,inglish4 ,all these1 however1 are mentioned in the ,returns of ,aliens4 #dab ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #ahb4 #dac ,returns of ,aliens1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 ii4 pp4 #bbh1 #cce4 #dad ,duc d',alenon1 who died in #aehd4 #dae ,printed by ,henry ,dizlie for ,thomas ,purfoote4 ,reprinted by ,t4 ,spiro in the ,neudrucke frhneuenglischer ,grammatiken1 herausgegeben von ,r4 ,brotanek1 ,bd4 #g1 ,halle1 #aiab4 ,it contains #ge pages1 #hvo4 #daf ,bellot's name does not occur in the ,registers 7vol4 i41 ,lymington1 #aijh74 #dag #af1 pp4 #hj4 #dah ,stationers' ,register1 #aith ,february #aehh4 #dai ,hazlitt1 ,handbook1 #ahfg1 p4 #cf4 #dbj ,perhaps he was a member of the ,la ,motte ,fouqu family whose name became so closely connected with the ,protestant cause in ,france4 ,in #aeea ,ren ,la ,motte left ,saintonge and went to ,normandy1 where he died1 leaving two sons and three daughters4 ,cp4 ,crottet1 ,history of the ,reformed ,church in ,saintonge1 quoted by ,t4 ,f4 ,sanxay1 ,the ,sanxay ,family1 #aijg4 #dba ,estant donc refugi a l'ombre favorable du ,sceptre de sa serenissime majest1 qui est le vray port de retraicte et asyle asseur de ceux qui faisans profession de l',evangile souffrent ores persecution soubs la ,tyrannie de l',antichrist1 j'ay tasch de tout mon pouvoir de faire en sorte par mes labeurs que ceste noble ,nation qui maintenant nous sert de mere et de nourrice peust tirer quelque proffit d'iceux1 afin que par ce moyen je peusse eviter le vice enorme de l'ingratitude4 4 4 4 ,or entre toutes les belles et rares vertus dont la ,noblesse angloise se rend tant renomme par tout le monde1 admire des estrangiers1 et honore en son pays1 est l',estude des bonnes lettres1 et cognoissance des langues1 qui leur sont si familieres et communes qu'il s'en trouve peu parmi eux1 non seulement entre les ,seigneurs et ,gentilhommes1 qui n'en parlent trois ou quatre pour le moins1 mais aussi entre les ,dames et ,damoiselles1 exercise veritablement louable1 par lequel toute vertu s'honore et se rend immortelle et sans lequel nulle autre n'est parfait ni digne d'estre aucunement estim4 ,or c'est ce qui1 outre la singuliere affection que naturellement ils portent aux estrangers et la grande courtoisie dont ils ont a coustume de les traicter1 leur faict faire tant d'estat des ,franois1 si bien qu'il y en a fort peu qui n'en ait un avec soy4 #dbb ,who first went to ,oxford in #aehg4 ,foster1 ,alumni ,oxonienses1 ad nom4 #dbc ,containing the rarest ,sentences1 ,proverbs1 ,parables1 ,similies1 ,apothegmes and ,golden sayings of the most excellent ,french ,authors as well ,poets as ,orators4 #dbd ,arber1 ,register of the ,company of ,stationers1 ii4 #fad4 ,miss ,farrer in her book on ,holyband takes this entry1 l',alphabet ,franois avec le ,tresor de la langue franoise1 to refer to another edition of ,holyband's ,treasurie1 which1 she assumes1 was prevented and superseded by the publication of his dictionary in #aeib4 #dbe ,field was born at ,stratford in the same year as ,shakespeare2 cp4 ,s4 ,lee1 ,life of ,shakespeare1 pp4 #db et seq4 #dbf ,a ,dictionary of ,printers and ,booksellers1 #aeeg-afdj1 ,bibliog4 ,soc41 #aiaj3 ,index of ,london ,addresses4 #dbg #afbe1 #afca1 #afcc1 #afci1 #afdg4 #dbh ,in #afbf the work was made over to ,miller by ,field's widow4 ,arber1 ,transcript1 iv4 #aeg4 #dbi ,how closely1 may be judged by comparing the following selection with the description of ,holyband's rules on p4 #adb1 supra4 ,how do you pronounce g before n8 ,comment prononcez vous g devant n8 ,gn is hardly pronounced by ,gn se prononce difficilement par ,englishmen4 les ,anglois4 ,notwithstanding if they will take ,toutesfois s'ils veulent prendre heed garde how they do pronounce minion 444 comment ils prononcent minion1 onion1 companion1 it will be more easy for them to il leur sera plus ais de pronounce it3 for though we le prononcer3 car encore que nous do write the selfesame words escrivions ces mesmes mots with gn1 par gn1 neverthelesse there is small neantmoins il y a peu de difference between difference de their pronunciation and ours3 leur prononciation a la nostre3 let them take heed only seulement qu'ils prennent garde to sound g mettre g in the same syllable that n is1 en la mesme syllable que n1 and then they et ils shall not finde any hardnesse ne trouveront aucune difficult in his pronunciation1 en sa prononciation1 as mignon 444 mi-gnon4 comme mi-gnon4 4 4 4 #dcj ,et pourroit a bon droict estre compar a quelques vieilles masures d'un bastiment o il a tant creu de ronces et espines1 qu' grand peine il apert que jamais il y ait eu de maisons4 ,car devant qu'on eust trouv l'imprimerie1 on l'a tant de fois coppi1 et chaque crivain l'escrivant la fantaisie et ne retenant l'orthographe franoise1 que maintenant il semble qu'il n'y ait presque langage plus esloign du vray ,franois que ce ,franois de vos loix4 #dca ,bellot frequently refers to the gent hargneuse and the aiguillons envenimez des langues qui se plaisent detracter les oeuvres d'autruy et qui deprisent tout ce qui n'est tir de leurs boutiques1 iaoit que souvente fois leur estofe ne soit que biffes et hapelourdes4 #dcb ,returns of ,aliens1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 i4 pp4 xii1 xiv4 #dcc ,and again3 ,or vous noters qu'en tous les noms termins en ent1 t n'est pas exprim en la fin3 quant aux verbes1 il est prononc1 mais bien doucement3 donns vous donc garde d'ensuivre en ceci les ,bourgignons qui expriment leur t si fort que de deux syllabes ilz en font trois3 comme quand nous disons ils mangent 4 4 4 le ,walon dira2 ilz mangete4 ,and yet again3 ,sounde ch as sh in ,english3 you shall not follow in this the ,picard or ,bourgignions1 for they doo pronounce ch like k1 say kien for chien4 #dcd ,french was widely used in the ,spanish ,netherlands1 and there was hardly any opening for the teaching of any of the ,germanic languages in ,england at this early time1 when they were only learnt in exceptional cases4 ,there were no doubt a few such teachers1 here and there4 ,we are told that in ,london there be also teachers and professors of the ,holy or ,hebrew language1 of the ,caldean1 ,syriack or ,arabicke or ,tartary ,languages1 of the ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,french1 ,dutch and ,polish ,tongues4 ,and here be they which can speake the ,persian and the ,morisco1 and the ,turkish and the ,muscovian ,language1 and also the ,sclavonian tongue1 which passeth through seventeen nations4 ,and in divers other languages fit for ,ambassadors and ,orators1 and ,agents for ,merchants1 and for ,travaylors and necessarie for all commerce or ,negociation whatsoever4 ,buck1 ,the ,third ,universitie of ,england1 #afai1 ch4 xxxvii4 ,of ,languages4 ,the earliest work for teaching ,dutch to ,englishmen was probably the ,dutch ,tutor of #affj2 cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 ch4 xv4 ,john ,minsheu taught a number of languages in ,london1 and wrote a ,ductor in ,linguas 7#afag71 in eleven languages4 #dce ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 ii4 p4 #ha4 #dcf ,returns of ,aliens1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 x4 pt4 i4 p4 xi4 #dcg ,moens1 ,the ,walloons and their ,church at ,norwich1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 i4 p4 #ij4 #dch ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 ,addenda1 #aehj-afbe1 p4 #bid4 #dci ,victoria ,county ,histories3 ,suffolk1 ii4 p4 #cag4 #ddj ,apologie for ,schoolmasters4 #dda ,sm4 #dto1 pp4 #a-fj1 and #ag-agc4 ,printed by ,j4 ,wolfe4 ,licence dated #ah ,dec4 #aeib4 ,preface dated #ah ,april #aeic4 #ddb ,born #aegd2 at ,oxford in #aehh4 #ddc ,bellot1 in his quality of gentleman1 compares his labours to those of ,diogenes rolling his tub up and down a hill1 in order not to be idle while the ,corinthians were busy preparing to defend their city against ,philip of ,macedon4 ,eliote takes up the theme and turns it to ridicule4 #ddd ,the first part is paged from #a to #fj1 and has signatures ,a-,l in fours4 ,in ,eliote's first booke the pagination begins afresh at p4 #ag and continues to p4 #age at the end of the work3 it has signatures c-y in fours4 #dde ,palsgrave had accompanied his ,french quotations with similar indications3 ,au diziesme an de mon doulant exil ,avdiziemavndemoundoulauntezil4 #ddf ,he announces his intention of producing a book called ,de ,natura et ,arte ,linguae ,gallicae4 #ddg ,advice given by a ,catholike gentleman to the ,nobilitie ,commons of ,france1 ,lond41 #aehi2 ,newes sent unto the ,lady ,princesse of ,orange1 #aehi2 ,discourses of ,warre and single combat 444 from the ,french of ,b4 de ,loque1 #aeia4 #ddh ,foster1 ,alumni ,oxon41 ad nom4 ,,chapter ,v ,,methods ,,of ,,teaching ,,french--,,latin ,,and ,,french--,,french ,,and ,,english ,,dictionaries--,,study ,,of ,,french ,,literature ,eliote gives some information concerning the fees charged by ,french teachers in the later part of the sixteenth century4 ,he asserts that the usual charge was a shilling a week1#ddi but we are left in doubt as to how many lessons this entitled the student to4 ,he affirms1 probably not seriously1 that he would charge a gentleman #aj a year1 and a lord from #bj to #cj4 ,we are indebted to him also for an account1 very prejudiced1 no doubt1 of the usual method employed by ,french teachers generally4 ,this consisted1 according to him1 in reading a page of ,french and then translating it4 ,fortunately we are enabled1 by means of the ,french text-books that have come down to us1 to draw a fuller picture of the ,french lessons of the time4 ,it has been seen that as a rule these books contained four parts--rules of pronunciation1 rules of grammar1 reading exercises1 and a vocabulary4 ,they are generally written throughout in ,french and ,english 7in parallel columns#dej71 the reason of this being the importance attached to reading and to double translation1 from ,french into ,english and ,english into ,french4 ,in the ,english version the idiomatic phrase is sacrificed in order to give a more literal rendering of the ,french1 and also1 possibly1 because these ,frenchmen were incapable of writing any other4 ,as is to be expected1 translation from ,french into ,english was the more usual exercise4 ,translation from ,english into ,french1 however1 was by no means neglected1 and appears to have been recommended principally by ,english teachers of ,french1 and more especially by ,palsgrave and ,eliote4 ,edward ,,vi4's ,french exercises1 it will be remembered1 are translations from ,english into ,french1 or free composition in ,french4 ,in addition to reading and translating1 much importance was attached to pronunciation4 ,it was generally considered best to learn the sounds of the language by repetition after a teacher with a good accent2 but rules were thought necessary to confirm the knowledge thus acquired4 ,as to rules of grammar1 there was no question of learning the language by means of them4 ,a grammar was treated as a book of reference1 just as a dictionary4 ,thus the student usually learnt the pronunciation by reading the ,french aloud with his tutor1 referring to the rules of pronunciation whenever necessary1 and then translating and retranslating the dialogues1 grammar being supplied as the need for it was felt4 ,although these early teachers strictly limited the place of grammar1 they almost all agree in emphasizing its importance within the limits indicated4 ,grammar rules were reduced to a minimum4 ,attention was called to what were considered important general rules1 but those with numerous exceptions1 it is argued1 were better learnt by use and persistent reading1 so as not to weary with long discourses which would be necessary to explain things learnt better by practice than by rule4 ,the dialogue form in which almost all the reading material is given1 and the proverbs and familiar phrases1 show the importance attached to a practical and colloquial knowledge of the language4 ,the teaching of ,french was of a decidedly business-like nature1 and closely in touch with the concerns of life4 ,one of the chief reasons for this1 no doubt1 was that it was learnt for social or other immediate requirements4 ,the fact that ,french was not taught in the grammar schools undoubtedly assisted it to maintain its close connexion with practical life4 ,it is only about a century and a half later1 when ,french began to gain a foothold in these schools1 that it was taught more and more on grammatical lines1 and less and less as a living language4 ,latin1 although most of the school statutes of the time encourage the scholars to speak it1 was taught chiefly on grammatical lines4#dea ,the memorizing of ,latin grammar was a foremost subject even in the ,middle ,ages4#deb ,header3 ,,latin ,,and ,,french ,in the sixteenth century the ,latin grammar usually known as ,lily's was the prescribed national grammar1 with rules of accidence in ,english and of syntax in ,latin4#dec ,familiar dialogues in the style of those for ,french were also used1 the chief difference between the ,latin and ,french dialogues being that the ,latin are separate and complete works in themselves1 and are not1 as a rule1 provided with an ,english translation4 ,they were memorized as the grammar was4 ,from the dialogues1 or colloquies as they were called1 dealing with typical occurrences of life1 the ,latin scholar passed on to the reading of school authors--,cato1 ,cicero1 ,ovid1 ,virgil1 ,terence1 etc4#ded ,nor was vocabulary neglected1 for in the schools of the ,renaissance the practice of learning so many words a day1 prevalent in the ,middle ,ages1 was still in vogue4 ,it thus appears that the books generally used in teaching ,latin were not without some influence in determining the types of manuals employed for teaching ,french4 ,the practice of including religious formulae1 which we find in some books1 was sanctioned by their place in the national ,latin grammar1 while it is clear that the ,latin colloquia of the time had considerable influence on the ,french dialogues4 ,in the early sixteenth century the dialogues of the scholar ,vives1#dee who received honours at both ,oxford and ,cambridge during his short stay in ,england1 were much in vogue4 ,like the ,french dialogues of the time1 they kept closely in touch with the interests of the pupils and dealt with such topics as rising in the morning1 going to school1 returning home1 and children's play and meals1 and students' chatter4 ,similar works were the ,sententiae pueriles1#def a book for beginners1 first published at ,leipzig in #aedd1 and containing a collection of familiar phrases rather than dialogues1 and the ,pueriles ,confabulatiunculae by ,evaldus ,gallus4 ,in the second half of the sixteenth century two other manuals of conversation were added to those already in use in ,england3 the ,colloquia of ,mathurin ,cordier1 first published in ,latin in #aefd1 and ,castellion's ,sacred ,dialogues based on the ,scriptures1 printed in ,latin at ,basle1 in #aeee4deg ,with the text-books1 however1 all close resemblance between the teaching of ,latin in grammar schools and the teaching of ,french ends4 ,as we have seen1 reading1 pronunciation1 and conversation were the main concerns of the ,french student2 translation held a large place and grammar rules a subsidiary one4 ,the grammar-school boy1 on the contrary1 would first gain an elementary knowledge from rules written in ,english1 and memorize the vocabulary and phrases2 learn his ,latin grammar1 and then parse and construe#deh the usual school authors4#dei ,the sons of the aristocracy and well-to-do classes probably learnt by a more practical method1 as they were able to have private tutors1 who devoted all their time to providing the necessary atmosphere4 ,as late as #afjg1 when ,latin was less used colloquially1 the writer ,cleland1 a great advocate of the teaching of ,french1 condemns the practice of those parents who have their children brought up to speak ,latin only2 they neglect their mother tongue and the language of elegance1 ,french1 and soon forget their ,latin when once removed from their tutor's care4#dfj ,that such cases were the exception rather than the rule1 even in the early sixteenth century1 may be gathered from the two great educational writers of the time1 ,sir ,thomas ,elyot and ,roger ,ascham4 ,both the ,governour 7#aeca7 and the ,scholemaster are protests against the common school usage of placing grammar in the first place1 and a summons to base the study of the language on the reading of authors4 ,they believed with ,quintilian that ,longum et difficile iter est per praecepta1 breve et efficax per exempla4 ,colet in his ,aeditio had laid down the same principle1 to the effect that the reading of good books1 dyligent information of taught masters1 studious advertence and taking heed of learners1 hearing eloquent men speak1 and finally busy imitation with the tongue and pen1 more availeth shortly to get the true eloquent speech than all the tradition of rule and precepts of masters2 ,header3 ,,grammar ,,and ,,translation and he adds1 men spoke not ,latin because such rules were made1 but contrariwise because men spoke such ,latin1 upon that followed the rules and so were made4#dfa ,yet it seems that the force of tradition prevailed1 and that these precepts were only put into practice in exceptional cases4 ,it is striking to notice how close was the resemblance between the actual methods used by ,french teachers and those advocated by would-be reformers of the teaching of ,latin4 ,colet's words express almost exactly the sentiments and practice of ,holyband1 ,de la ,mothe1 and other ,french teachers2 and the same is true of ,elyot and ,ascham4 ,nothing can be more convenient1 writes ,elyot in referring to students of ,latin1 than by little and little to train and exercise them in the speaking of ,latin1 informing them to know first the names in ,latin of all the things that come in sight1 and to name all the parts of their bodies1 and giving them somewhat that they covert or desire in most gentle manner to teach them to ask it again in ,latin4 ,he even goes so far as to say that the pupil may as sone speake good latin on this method as he may do pure frenche1#dfb thereby showing that he probably derived suggestions from the prevalent methods of teaching ,french4 ,elyot1 however1 realized that the use of ,latin as a familiar tongue was not as practicable in schools as in many noble families1 where it might well happen that the pupil would have none other persons to serve him or keep hym company but suche as can speake ,latine elegantly4 ,how successful the sole use of ,latin could be in such circumstances is exemplified in the well-known case of ,montaigne4 ,ascham1 like ,elyot1 recognized the exceptional conditions required for such a method4 ,he believed the dailie use of speaking would be the best way of learning the language if the child could only hear it spoken perfectly1 but failing this he considered the practice dangerous4#dfc ,it is probable1 however1 that in the best ,french schools1 and certainly in that of ,holyband1 this ideal was realized in the case of ,french4 ,as regards the respective importance of reading and grammar1 the ,french teachers of the time appear to have put into practice the ideas of the reformers4 ,all agree that grammar rules should be as few as possible1 and be taught in connexion with reading4 ,the general method of ,french teachers was to refer to the rule as the need for it arose in reading4 ,ascham also pleads for the study of grammar1 so hardlie learned by the scholar in all common scholes1 along with authors2 and the educational reformer ,mulcaster1 in his ,elementarie of #aehb1 writes that grammar is best learnt by being applied to the matter1 and that the child's mind should not be clogged with rules4 ,elyot differs slightly from them in detail but not in principle4 ,he allows grammar to precede the study of authors1 provided it is reduced to the smallest possible amount4 ,grammar1 he says1 being but an introduction to the study of authors1 care should be taken not to detain the child too longe in that tedious labour1 for a gentyll wytte is there with some fatigate1 and hit in a maner mortifieth his corage before he cometh to the most swete and pleasant readinge of olde authors4#dfd ,both these views as regards grammar--that of ,ascham and ,mulcaster1 and that of ,elyot--were prevalent among ,french teachers of the time4 ,there are only small differences in detail2 the general principles are identical4 ,in the matter of translation1 most common and most commendable of all other exercises of youth1#dfe there is a striking resemblance between the method of double translation common among ,french teachers1 and the same method set out by ,ascham1 who marks the transition from oral to written methods of teaching ,latin4#dff ,in the case of ,de la ,mothe1 the resemblance is so clear and close that we are led to believe he was acquainted with the work of ,elizabeth's tutor1#dfg published in #aegj1 over twenty years before the ,french ,alphabet4 ,ascham's system consisted of the double translation of a model book1 and it is interesting to compare it with the method of ,de la ,mothe4 ,the pupil has first to parse and translate the ,latin into ,english2 after this the child must take a paper booke1 and sitting in some place where no man shall prompe him1 by him self1 let him translate into ,englisshe his former lesson4 ,header3 ,,books ,,in ,,french ,,and ,,english ,then showing it to his master1 let the master take from him his ,latin booke1 and pausing an houre1 at the least1 than let the childe translate his owne ,englishe into latin againe1 in an other paper booke4 ,and when this is done1 the master should compare it with the original ,latin1 and laie them both togither4#dfh ,there was thus much in common between the teaching of ,latin and the teaching of ,french4 ,the dialogues1 which form so important a feature in the ,french text-books of the time1 were certainly indebted to the ,latin ,colloquia1 although they also continue the tradition of the mediaeval ,french conversation-books4 ,the ,latin ,dialogues of ,vives had much influence on the ,french1 and ,holyband based one of his books1 the ,campo di ,fior1 on the ,exercitatio translated in ,french1 ,italian1 and ,english4 ,eliote also acknowledged his debt to the ,spanish scholar4 ,in other cases the debt was almost inevitable and probably unconscious2 for the ,french teachers1 who often taught ,latin as well1 would use such books daily1 and had moreover probably acquired their own knowledge of ,latin from them4 ,holyband1 we have seen1 read the ,sententiae pueriles with his pupils4 ,the importance attached to reading and double translation by teachers of ,french led to the appearance of a great number of books in ,french and ,english1 on the lines of ,bellot's ,jardin de ,vertu4 ,for instance1 part of the ,semaines of ,du ,bartas1 the most popular ,french poet in ,england in the sixteenth century1 was published in this form in #aeif1 and again in #afbe1 on the occasion of the marriage of ,charles ,i4 ,this translation is due to ,william ,l',isle of ,wilbraham1#dfi the pioneer in the study of ,anglo-,saxon1 who dedicated it in the first place to ,lord ,howard of ,effingham1 ,earl of ,nottingham1 ,lord ,admiral1 and subsequently to ,charles ,i4 ,it is entitled ,part of ,du ,bartas1 ,english and ,french1 and in his own kinde of verse1 so near the ,french ,englished1 as may teach ,englishmen ,french1 or a ,frenchman ,english4 ,sequitur ,victoria ,junctos1#dgj and consists of the first two days of the ,second ,week1 with the ,french and ,english arranged on opposite pages1 followed by an ,english translation of the commentary of ,simon ,goulart de ,senlis4 ,guy du ,faur1 ,sieur de ,pibrac1 was another ,french writer widely read in ,england1 and his ,quatrains were frequently commended by ,french teachers to their scholars4 ,they were translated into ,english verse by ,sylvester1 the translator of ,du ,bartas1 and published with the ,french original in #afje4 ,sylvester dedicated the quatrains to ,prince ,henry1 and the copy in the ,british ,museum contains an epigram in ,english in the handwriting of his brother1 afterwards ,charles ,i41 and a manuscript dedication to the younger prince in that of the translator4#dga ,the quatrains appeared again with the subsequent editions of ,sylvester's works4 ,about this time ,prince ,henry made ,sylvester a ,groom of his ,chamber1 and gave him a small pension of #bj a year4#dgb ,the story goes that the prince valued him so highly that he made him his first poet pensioner1 and it seems that ,sylvester took advantage of his position to encourage his royal patron's ,french studies4 ,many other works of the kind appeared in ,french and in ,english4#dgc ,the educational writer ,charles ,hoole tells us that masters frequently taught languages by using interlinearies1 not to speak of their construing the ,french and ,spanish ,bible by the help of an ,english one4#dgd ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 philosopher and gallant1 ambassador in ,france in the time of ,james ,i41 learnt ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 on this translation method1 whilst living in the ,university or at home4 ,he mastered them1 he assures us1 without the help of a tutor1 solely by means of ,latin or ,english books translated into those languages1 and of dictionaries4#dge ,header3 ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,dictionaries ,de la ,mothe advised his advanced pupils to read difficult ,french books with the help of a dictionary1 and there was some supply of works of this kind at the disposal of ,lord ,herbert and other students of the language4 ,it is true that the widespread use of books in both languages diminished the demand for such manuals1 which may not have been easy to acquire4 ,yet there was a considerable choice of such works4 ,holyband had produced two ,french-,english dictionaries1 in #aehj and #aeic respectively1 in which he referred to those which broke the ice before him4 ,there had appeared in #aega an anonymous ,dictionarie ,frenche and ,english1#dgf printed by ,henry ,bynneman for ,lucas ,harrison4 ,this work1 which does not confine itself to words only1 but includes phrases as well1 was no doubt known to ,holyband4 ,its author had probably drawn largely on an earlier dictionary1 already mentioned1 in which a place was given to ,french--the ,latin1 ,english1 and ,french ,dictionary of ,john ,veron 7#aeeb74 ,the inclusion of ,french in such a work is a striking testimony to the importance of ,french at that time4 ,but when a second edition of ,veron's dictionary was prepared by ,ralph ,waddington1 in #aege1 he of purpose thought good to leave out the ,french1 both because 7he7 saw it was not necessary for ,english students of ,latin1 as for that ,maister ,barret hath five years since set forth an alvearie sufficient to instruct those which are desirous to travel in th'understanding of the ,french ,tongue4 ,this alvearie appeared in #aegc1 two years after the ,french-,english dictionary printed for ,harrison4 ,it was entitled ,an alvearie or ,triple ,dictionarie in ,english1 ,latin and ,french1 very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three languages 444 and was dedicated to ,wm4 ,cecil1 ,lord ,burghley1 then ,chancellor of ,cambridge ,university4 ,baret had been teaching at ,cambridge for eighteen years pupils studious of the ,latin tongue1 and part of their daily task was to translate some piece of ,english into ,latin for the more speed and easie attayning of the same4 ,at last1 perceiving what great trouble it was to come runnying to 7him7 for every word they missed1#dgg he made them collect each day a number of ,latin words and phrases1 together with their ,english equivalents4 ,within a year or two they had gathered together a great volume of work1 to which1 for the apt similitude between the good scholers and diligent bees in gathering them wax and honey into their hive1 ,baret gave the title of ,alvearie4 ,at first he had no intention of publishing the work1 but when he went to ,london he was finally persuaded to do so1 and received help from many of his old pupils who were then at the ,inns of ,court1 and from several of the best scholars in various ,english schools4 ,how ,baret first thought of adding ,french to his dictionary is not known4 ,he owns that he did not trust his own skill in this matter1 although he had formerly travelled in divers countries beyond the seas both for languages and for learning2 but that he used the help of ,m4 ,chaloner and ,m4 ,claudius4 ,by ',m4 ,claudius1' ,baret possibly meant ,holyband1 who was often called ,maistre ,claude4 ,m4 ,chaloner may have been the author of the ,french-,english dictionary published by ,harrison in #aega4 ,according to the custom of the time1 ,baret's dictionary was preceded by a number of commendatory addresses1 one of which was by the head-master of ,merchant ,taylors' ,school1 ,richard ,mulcaster4 ,in the dictionary itself1 every ,english word is first explained1 and then its equivalent in ,latin and ,french given4 ,at the end are tables of the ,latin and ,french words placed after the order of the alphabet1 whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie4 ,and so as to turn them backwards againe into ,englishe when they reade any ,latin or ,french authors and doubt of any harde worde therein4 ,baret had gone to ,god in ,heavenlie seates before the close of #aehj1 when there appeared a posthumous second edition of the ,alvearie4 ,in this final form ,greek has a place by the side of the other languages1 and the title runs1 ,an ,alvearie or quadruple ,dictionarie containing four sundrie tongues1 namely1 ,english1 ,latine1 ,greeke1 and ,frenche1 newlie enriched with varietie of wordes1 phrases1 proverbs1 and divers lightsome observations of grammar4 ,but there is no table of the ,greek words1 as for the ,latin and ,french4 ,such was the third dictionary of ,french words which appeared before ,holyband's4#dgh ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,latin ,,dictionaries ,the place given to ,french in these early ,latin dictionaries is worthy of notice4 ,no doubt ,french first entered the schools in this indirect way4 ,both ,veron's and ,baret's works were used in schools2 and ,baret's dictionary is included in the list of books mentioned by ,charles ,hoole as being specially useful to schoolboys4#dgi ,there are at least two other school vocabularies in which ,french was introduced1 both due to the poet and compiler ,john ,higgins1 who is said to have been well read in classick authors1 and withall very well skilled in ,french4#dhj ,the first of his lexicographical works was a new and revised edition of ,huloet's ,dictionarie1#dha which occupied him two years4 ,it appeared in #aegb1dhb a year before ,baret's work4 ,higgins calls himself late student in ,oxforde1 and dedicates the volume to ,sir ,john ,peckham4 ,this edition by ,higgins is so much altered that it is almost a new work4 ,one of the chief changes was the addition of a ,french version to the ,latin and ,english1 by whiche you may finde the ,latin or ,french of anye ,englishe woorde you will4 ,for the ,french1 ,higgins seems to have drawn chiefly on the ,latin-,french dictionary of ,robert ,estienne1 which had already been published in ,french1 ,english1 and ,latin by ,jean ,veron1 in #aeeb4 ,higgins also acknowledges his debt to ,thierry1 whose ,french-,latin dictionary appeared twelve years later in #aefd4 ,there was a close relationship between ,french-,latin and ,french-,english dictionaries4 ,french is first found side by side with ,english1 in one of these ,french-,latin dictionaries--that of ,veron2 and in subsequent years the ,french-,english dictionaries are mostly based on one or other of the ,french-,latin lexicons4 ,those due to ,robert stienne and to ,thierry were probably the sources from which the author of the ,french-,english dictionary of #aega drew his material2 while ,holyband based his ,treasurie 7#aehj71 and his ,dictionary 7#aeic71 respectively1 on the augmented editions of ,thierry's work due to ,nicot1 which appeared in #aegc and #aehd4dhc ,the second lexicographical work of ,higgins1 published in #aehe1 was a translation1 entitled ,nomenclator or ,remembrancer of ,adrianus ,junius1 ,physician1 divided into two tomes4 ,it professed to supply the appropriate names and apt terms for all things under their convenient titles1 in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french1 and ,english4#dhd ,the ,english column was added by ,higgins4 ,thus by the end of the sixteenth century there had appeared in ,england three ,french-,english dictionaries1 and several others in which ,french found a place by the side of the classical languages4 ,and we may add to these the ,french-,latin dictionaries on which they were usually based1 for it seems extremely likely that those students of ,french who knew ,latin--and practically all of them would know this chief and first of school subjects--used the ,french-,latin lexicons as well1 in their study of ,french1 when other means were not available4 ,early in the seventeenth century1 in #afaa1 ,holyband's ,french dictionary of #aeic was succeeded by the celebrated ,french-,english dictionary of ,randle ,cotgrave1#dhe which occupies in the seventeenth century the place that ,palsgrave's ,esclarcissement does in the sixteenth among the works on the ,french language produced in ,england4 ,although ,cotgrave's work is on a much larger scale than ,holyband's1 and much superior to it1#dhf there is a close connexion between the two4 ,in the ,stationers' ,register ,cotgrave's is entered as a dictionary in ,french and ,english first collected by ,holyband1 and since augmented and altered by ,cotgrave4#dhg ,but the work which no doubt was of most help to ,cotgrave was another ,french-,latin dictionary1 ,aimar de ,ranconnet's ,tresor de la ,langue ,franoise1 revised by ,nicot 7#afjf74dhh ,he had1 moreover1 read all sorts of books1 old and new1 in all dialects1 where he found words not heard of for hundreds of years1 which he included in his book1 to be used or left as the reader thought fit4 ,j4 ,l',oiseau de ,tourval1#dhi a ,parisian1 and friend of ,cotgrave1 who wrote in ,french an epistle prefixed to the dictionary1 thought it advisable to assure the reader that none of these words were of ,cotgrave's invention1 observing at the same time that it would be well to revive some of these obsolete and provincial terms4 ,header3 ,,cotgrave',s ,,dictionary ,he also adds that ,cotgrave had sent to ,france in his eager search for words4 ,m4 ,beaulieu1 secretary to the ,british ambassador at ,paris1 was no doubt ,cotgrave's collaborator in this quest1 as ,cotgrave tells us elsewhere#dij that he had received valuable help from ,m4 ,beaulieu1 as well as from a certain ,mr4 ,limery4 ,cotgrave dedicated his dictionary to ,wm4 ,cecil1 ,lord ,burghley1 his very good ,lord and ,maister1 whose secretary he was4 ,he declares that he would have produced a more substantial work to offer to his patron had not his eyes failed him and forced him to spend much of their vigour on this bundle of words4 ,he also offered a copy to the eldest son of ,james ,i41 ,prince ,henry1 and received from him a gift of #aj4dia ,the price of the dictionary seems to have been #aas4 ,cotgrave sent two copies to ,m4 ,beaulieu at ,paris1 and wrote requesting payment of #bbs41 which they cost him2 for1 he says1 ,i have not been provident enough to reserve any of them and therefore am forced to be beholden for them to a base and mechanicall generation1 that suffers no respect to weigh down a private gain4#dib ,cotgrave's dictionary was much superior to anything of the sort which had yet appeared4 ,in addition to giving the meaning of each ,french word in ,english1 with an indication of its gender in the case of nouns1 and1 in the case of adjectives1 of the formation of the feminine form1 ,cotgrave supplied a collection of illustrative phrases1 idioms1 and proverbs4 ,at the end are found briefe directions for such as desire to learne the ,french tongue1 giving a succinct treatment of the pronunciation of the letters1 followed by a description of the various parts of speech4 ,this really remarkable work1 which is still of considerable utility to the modern student1 reigned supreme throughout the greater part of the seventeenth century4 ,a second edition was issued in #afcb1 when ,cotgrave was still alive4 ,the only change in this issue is the addition of a most copious ,dictionarie of the ,english set before the ,french by ,r4 ,s4 ,l4 ,this ,r4 ,s4 ,l4 was ,robert ,sherwood1 ,londoner1 who taught ,french and ,english in ,london1 and also had a ,french school for a time4 ,he gave his dictionary the title of ,dictionarie ,anglois et ,franois pour l'utilit de tous ceux qui sont desireux de deux langues1#dic and addressed it to the favorables lecteurs franois1 alemans et autres4 ,the ,english reader he advises to look for fuller information as to the gender of all ,french nouns1 and the conjugation of all ,french verbs in ,cotgrave's dictionary2 the small space to which he was limited did not allow him to provide such information4 ,like ,cotgrave1 ,sherwood closes with rules of grammar1 in the form of observations on ,english pronunciation and on the ,english verbs4 ,sherwood's work is the earliest of the ,english-,french dictionaries4 ,both ,baret and ,higgins had placed ,english before ,french1 and no doubt ,sherwood made use of their works1 as well as of ,english-,latin dictionaries4 ,baret1 however1 gives an indication of the greater demand there was for ,french-,english vocabularies1 by supplying a table of ,french words at the end of his work4 ,moreover1 the object of ,sherwood's lexicon was less to facilitate translation from ,english to ,french than to teach ,english to foreigners4 ,in #afej ,cotgrave's dictionary was issued in a revised and augmented edition by ,james ,howell1 the famous letter-writer4#did ,this edition is preceded by a lengthy essay on the ,french language1 tracing its growth from the earliest times1 and taken1 without acknowledgement1 from ,pasquier's ,recherches4 ,howell had already put much of the same matter in a series of letters addressed to the ,earl of ,clare in his ,epistolae ,ho-,elianae1#die and repeated it in his glossary of ,english1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 the ,lexicon ,tetraglotten 7#affj74 ,he quotes several examples of old ,french in both prose and verse1 and adds on his own account a praise of ,richelieu and the ,academy recently founded by the cardinal4 ,header3 ,,james ,,howell ,he also discusses the question as to where the best ,french was spoken--at the ,court1 among scholars at the ,university1 or lawyers at the ,courts of ,parliament--and is inclined to share the general opinion of the day1 which made the ,court the supreme arbiter in matters of language4 ,cotgrave1 it has been seen1 included all sorts of words in his dictionary4 ,howell thought it necessary to distinguish obsolete and provincial words1 and1 accordingly1 with the help of a noble and knowing ,french gentleman1 he marked such terms with a small cross4 ,he also initiated another change by placing the grammar before the dictionary instead of after it1 as ,cotgrave did3 for a dictionary which contains the whole bulk of a language to go before the grammar is to make the building precede the basis4 ,therefore it was held more consentaneous to reason1 and congruous to order that the grammar should be put here in the first place1 for ,art observes the method of ,nature to make us creep before we go4 ,he likewise made a few additions to ,cotgrave's rules1 and appended a dialogue in ,french and ,english1 consisting of some of the extraordinary and difficult criticall phrases which are meer ,gallicismes1 and pure idiomes of the ,french tongue2 and also a passage of ,french prose1 in the old spelling and also according to the reformed orthography introduced by the ,academy4 ,in #affj appeared another edition of ,cotgrave1 still further enlarged by ,howell4#dif ,some years previously copies of the edition of #afej1 with blank pages sown between the leaves1 had been sent by the printer to knowing persons1 true lovers of the ,french1 who were invited to enter on the blank pages any word they came across in their reading which was not in the dictionary2 by means of this plan several hundred additional words were gathered together1 many being new invented terms1 which the admired ,mons4 ,scudry1 and other late ,romancers have so happily publisht in their printed volumes4 ,after ,howell's death there appeared yet another issue of his edition of ,cotgrave1 in #afgc4dig ,the printer employed the same means to increase the number of words as had been so successfully adopted in #affj4 ,the appearance of ,french dictionaries naturally facilitated the reading of ,french literature1 which in its turn had much influence on the spread of the knowledge of the language4 ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 it has been seen1 gained his first knowledge of ,french by reading it with the help of a dictionary4 ,and1 in spite of the fact that ,french literature was widely read in translations1#dih there were many who preferred to read it in the original4 ,the number of ,french books in private libraries is enough to show this4 ,one translator of the time felt it necessary to apologize for offering an ,english version 7#afbg7 of the ,french ,knight ,lisander and his lady ,calista1 contrary to the fashion of the time1 which is all ,french4#dii ,further testimony is found in the many ,french books which were printed in ,england1#ejj in addition to the books in both ,french and ,english4 ,and many ,english writers of the time introduced ,french freely into their own ,english compositions4#eja ,almost all ,englishmen of education could read ,french1 and many1 no doubt1 learnt it as ,herbert did4 ,header3 ,,study ,,of ,,french ,,literature ,milton1 who differed from most of his countrymen in his decided preference for ,italian1 taught both languages to his two pupils and nephews1 ,edward and ,john ,philips1 on this method of reading4 ,for ,italian they read ,giovanni ,villani's ,history1 and for ,french a great part of ,pierre ,davity1 the famous geographer of ,france in his time4#ejb ,in fashionable circles the case was the same1 and ,french romances and collections of nouvelles were much in vogue4 ,lady ,brilliana ,harley1 for instance1 who later distinguished herself by defending her castle in ,herefordshire against the ,royalists1 spent much of her time reading ,french literature4 ,she wrote asking her son1 then at ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford 7#afch-i71 to send her books in ,french1 as she had rather reade any thinge in that tounge than in ,inglisch4#ejc ,she would even while away days of sickness by translating passages of ,calvin1 whom the ,english ,protestants1 yielding to the general prejudice in favour of all things ,french1 followed in preference to ,luther4 ,not infrequently1 moreover1 works in other languages were read in ,french versions1 just as such versions were frequently the medium of translation2 ,drummond of ,hawthornden read ,orlando ,furioso and the ,azolani of ,bembo in ,french1 as well as the works of the ,swiss theologian and follower of ,zwingli1 ,thomas ,erastus4#ejd ,among the most eager advocates of the reading of ,french literature were naturally the ,french teachers of the time4 ,one of the chief objections raised against ,holyband's system of distinguishing the unpronounced letters was that the student would be at a loss when he came to read ,french books4 ,holyband1 however1 protested that such was not the case1 and that the cavillation of these ignorantes who measure other men's wit according to their owne was in contradiction to his experience1 which daily showed him the contrary4 ,as to his reading1 ,holyband would first have the learner reade halfe a score chapters of the ,new ,testament1 because it was both easie and profitable3#eje then let him take in hand any of the works of ,monsieur de ,launay1 otherwise called ,pierre ,boaystuau1 as the best and the most elegant writer of our tongue4 ,his workes be le ,theatre du monde1 the tragicall histories1 the prodigious histories4 ,sleidan's commentaries in frenche be excellently translated4 ,philippe de ,commins1 when he is corrected is very profitable and wise4 ,the ,nouveau ,testament of de ,bze1 ,boiasteau's ,thtre du monde1 and ,sleidan's ,commentaries#ejf were all books well known in ,england1 and ,holyband himself prepared an edition of ,boiasteau4#ejg ,an additional reason1 according to him1 for retaining the unsounded consonants was to facilitate the reading of the older monuments of the ,french language4 ,he also advised the perusal of ,marot's works1 of the ,amadis of ,herberay des ,essarts1 of ,franois de ,belleforest's ,histoire ,universelle du monde1 of the ,vies et ,morales de ,plutarque1 in ,amyot's version1 and of the collection of stories1 on the plan of the ,decameron1 which its author1 ,jacques ,yver1 had entitled ,le ,printemps 7#aegb71ejh by way of contrast with his own name4 ,evidently ,holyband's choice of ,french literature was influenced to some extent by his religious sympathies4 ,it is curious that he makes no mention of ,ronsard1 who was much read in ,england1 and one of the favourite authors of the ,queen4 ,bellot in his ,grammar had similar if not identical ambitions4 ,he sought to enable his pupils to read the ,amadis of ,des ,essarts1 ,marot1 de ,bze1 du ,bellay's lyrics1 ,froissart1 ,ronsard1 ,collet#eji and ,jodelle racontans l'un l'amour et l'autre la guerre cruelle4 ,pibrac and ,du ,bartas have already been mentioned as favourite authors4 ,it was to encourage his pupils to take delight in the profound learning and flowing sweetness of the ,french poets1 especially the divine works of that matchlesse du ,bartas1 that a ,french teacher of the seventeenth century1 ,pierre ,erondell1 printed at the end of his book for teaching the language1 the ,new ,testament story of the ,centurion1 rendered by himself into ,french verse4 ,this poor work1 he quaintly writes1 will encourage learners to read better ones1 because everything is better known by his contrarye and the sweet sweeter1 after that the mouth hath tasted of the sharpe sower4 ,naturally writings of a religious character were much in favour with these teachers4 ,header3 ,,authors ,,usually ,,read ,holyband advised the reading of de ,bze's ,new ,testament1 and several times we hear of the ,french ,bible being printed in ,england4#eaj ,the ,liturgy in ,french#eaa was also printed1 and would be useful to ,english students of ,french attending the ,french ,church4 ,french teachers were not the only zealous advocates of the reading of ,french literature4 ,most of the writers on polite education of the time give similar advice1 although for different reasons4 ,for statesmen1 ,french authors are the best1 wrote ,francis ,osborne in his ,advice to a son1#eab and most fruitful in negociations1 and memoirs left by public ministers1 and by their secretaries published after their deaths4 ,cleland names the works of the many learned historiographers of ,france he would have the future diplomat and aspirant to the services of the ,state read3 ,engerrand of ,munstrellet1 ,philip of ,commines1 the ,lord of ,haillant1 who is both learned and profitable and pleasant in my conceit4 ,the ,commentaries of ,bellay and the ,inventorie of ,john ,serres1 newlie printed and worthie to be read1 both for the good and compendious compiling of the storie and also for the ,french eloquence wherin he floweth4 ,for militarie affairs1 yee maie read the ,lord of ,noue1 who is somwhat difficil for some men1 and also the ,commentaries of the ,l4 ,monluc1 which are good both for a young souldier1 and an old captaine4#eac ,bodin was another of the authors specially recommended4 ,sir ,philip ,sidney counsels his brother ,robert to read him with particular attention1 and ,james ,howell#ead includes him in a list of good ,french writers1 which varies slightly from that of ,cleland3 ,for the general history of ,france1 ,serres is one of the best1 and for the modern times1 d',aubigni1 ,pierre ,mathieu1 and du ,pleix3 for the politicall and martiall government du ,haillan1 ,de la ,noue1 ,bodin1 and the ,cabinet3 ,touching ,commines1 who was contemporary with ,machiavel1 'twas a witty speech of the last ,queen mother of ,france that he made more ,heretiques in policy than ,luther ever did in religion4 ,therefore he requires a reader of riper years4 ,,footnotes3 #ddi ,this was the fee charged by ,holyband in his ,french school4 #dej ,the interlinear arrangement used in the ,middle ,ages had been abandoned in all but a few exceptional cases4 ,these teachers no doubt agreed with the pedagogue ,john ,brinsley1 the chief exponent of the method of translation1 that interlinears were confusing because the eye catches the two languages simultaneously4 #dea ,f4 ,watson1 ,english ,grammar ,schools1 ,cambridge1 #aijh1 pp4 #cje sqq4 ,j4 ,e4 ,sandys1 ,education in ,shakespeare's ,england1 in ,shakespeare's ,england1 i4 pp4 #bca sqq4 #deb ,cp4 ,rashdall1 ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 ii4 p4 #fjc4 #dec ,article on ,lily in ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 and ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 pp4 #bdc sqq4 #ded ,cp4 ,w4 ,lilly's ,history of ,his ,life1 ,autobiographies1 ,i41 ,london1 #ahbh1 pp4 #ab1 #ac2 ,the ,autobiography of ,adam ,martindale1 ,chetham ,soc41 #ahde1 pp4 #ad1 #ae1 and similar diaries and memoirs4 #dee ,published at ,brabant1 #aech2 cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,tudor ,schoolboy ,life1 #aijh4 #def ,by ,leonard ,culman4 #deg ,less widely used were the ,dialogues of ,john ,posselius1 a ,german philosopher4 ,they treat of the school and the study of the classical tongues4 ,they were printed in ,london in ,latin and ,english in #afbe1 as ,dialogues conteyning all the most familiar and usefull words of the ,latin ,tongue4 #deh ,which took the form of translating3 ,for all your constructions in ,grammar ,scholes be nothing els but translations1 ,ascham1 ,the ,scholemaster 7#aegj71 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi1 p4 #ib4 #dei ,c4 ,hoole1 ,an advertisement touching 444 school books1 #afei4 #dfj ,institution of a young nobleman1 #afjg1 p4 #gh4 #dfa ,quoted by ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 p4 #bdf4 #dfb ,the ,boke named the ,governour1 ed4 ,crofts1 #ahhc1 i4 p4 #cc4 #dfc ,the ,scholemaster 7#aegj71 ed4 ,arber1 ,london1 #ahfi1 p4 #bh4 #dfd ,elyot1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #ed4 #dfe ,ascham1 op4 cit4 p4 #ib4 #dff ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 p4 #bfd4 ,much writing breedeth ready speaking1 was one of his precepts4 #dfg ,ascham himself got his ideas mainly from ,cicero 7,de ,oratore74 #dfh ,the ,scholemaster1 ed4 cit4 p4 #bf4 ,ascham also suggests the use of a third paper book1 in which a collection of the different forms of speech and phrases should be made from the material read4 #dfi #aegd8-afcg1 the second of the five sons of ,edmund ,lisle of ,tanbridge in ,surrey1 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #dgj ,this is the title of the #afbe edition1 printed by ,john ,hoviland4 ,that of #aeif was printed by ,l4 ,bollifant for ,r4 ,wilkins1 and entitled ,babilon a part of ,du ,bartas his second ,weeke 7,pyne1 ,list of ,books1 #ahgd-h1 i4 p4 #acb72 cp4 ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #ih 7,a ,booke called the ,colonyes of ,bartas with the commentarye of ,s4 ,g4 ,s4 englished and enlarged by ,wm4 ,l',isle1 #aeig74 #dga ,this is a copy bound separately from the rest of the #afje edition of ,sylvester's ,divine ,weekes1 with which it was issued4 #dgb ,s4 ,lee1 in ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 #dgc ,a long list may be compiled from the ,registers of the ,stationers' ,company4 ,j4 ,wolfe and ,r4 ,field1 both printers of ,french grammars1 received many licences to print books in ,french and ,english4 ,see also ,upham1 ,french ,influence in ,english ,literature1 ,new ,york1 #aijh 7,appendix ,i41 pp4 #dga-eje74 ,many of these works are on religious topics2 others belong to no particular category1 in the style of ,bellot's ,jardin de ,vertu2 many on topical subjects1 such as news-letters and pamphlets on the ,french wars1 were printed in ,french more to appeal to a larger public than to give instruction in the language4 #dgd ,an advertisement touching 444 school books1 #afei4 #dge ,autobiography1 ed4 ,s4 ,lee1 #bnd ed41 #aijf1 p4 #bc4 #dgf ,hazlitt1 ,bibliog4 ,collections1 iv4 #aaa4 ,in #aehd ,newbury and ,denham received licence to print the ,dictionary in ,french and ,english1 in #dto1 and all other dictionaries ,french and ,english in quarto1 ,stationers' ,register1 ii4 #dch4 #dgg ,knowing then of no other dictionary to help us1 but ,sir ,thomas ,eliot's ,librarie1 which was come out a little before4 #dgh ,on ,holyband's debts to these works see ,miss ,e4 ,farrer's ,la ,vie et les oeuvres de ,claude de ,sainliens1 pp4 #gj sqq4 #dgi ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 p4 #deh4 #dhj ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #dha ,abcedarium ,anglico-,latinum1 ,london1 #aeeb4 #dhb ,folio1 printed by ,thomas ,marshe4 #dhc ,farrer1 op4 cit4 p4 #gb4 #dhd ,first appeared at ,leyden in #aefg4 ,higgins' edition was printed for ,ralph ,newberie and ,henrie ,denham1 #hvo4 #dhe ,a ,dictionarie of the ,french and ,english ,tongues4 ,london1 printed by ,a4 ,islip1 #afaa1 folio4 #dhf ,cp4 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #aija1 v4 p4 #bdc4 #dhg ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #dcb4 #dhh ,farrer1 op4 cit4 p4 #hf4 #dhi ,himself a good linguist1 who translated some of ,james ,i4's compositions into ,french1 and was for many years in the service of the ,english ,foreign ,office2 cp4 ,s4 ,lee1 ,beginnings of ,french ,translations from the ,english4 ,transactions of the ,bibliog4 ,soc4 vii41 #aijh4 #dij ,in an autograph letter2 cp4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #dia ,rolls of expenses of ,prince ,henry1 ,revels at ,court1 ed4 ,p4 ,cunningham1 ,new ,shakespeare ,soc41 #ahdb 7,preface74 #dib ,harl4 ,,mss4 #gjjb1 quoted ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog4 ,at the end of one of the ,brit4 ,mus4 copies is the ,,ms4 inscription3 ,mr4 ,james ,winwood1 his book and sent him out of ,england by ,john ,more the #ahth ,may #afaa4 ,evidently ,cotgrave's work made its way rapidly into ,france4 #dic ,printed by ,adam ,islip1 #dto4 #did ,a ,french ,english ,dictionary1 compil'd by ,mr4 ,randle ,cotgrave1 with another in ,english and ,french4 ,whereunto are newly added the ,animadversions and ,supplements etc4 of ,james ,howell1 ,esquire4 ,london1 printed by ,w4 ,h4 for ,rd4 ,whitaker 444 #dto4 ,sherwood's dictionary was printed by ,susan ,islip4 #die ,ninth ed41 #agbf1 pp4 #dgj sqq4 #dif ,a ,french and ,english ,dictionary composed by ,mr4 ,randle ,cotgrave1 with another in ,english and ,french4 ,whereunto are added sundry animadversions with supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed2 with accurate castigations throughout the whole work1 and distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use4 ,together with a dialogue consisting of all gallicisms1 with additions of the most useful and significant proverbs1 with other refinements according to cardinall ,richelieu's late ,academy4 ,for the furtherance of the young learners1 and the advantage of all others that endeavour to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the ,french this work is exposed to publick4444 ,printed by ,wm4 ,hunt in ,pye ,corner4 #dig ,title same as in #affj4 ,printed for ,anthony ,dolle1 and are to be sold by ,th4 ,williams at the ,golden ,ball in ,hosier ,lane4 #dih ,many important literary productions in different languages came into ,england through the medium of a ,french version--for instance1 ,plutarch1 ,amadis1 the ,politics of ,aristotle4 ,cp4 ,upham1 ,french ,influence in ,english ,literature1 p4 #ac4 ,the influence of ,senecan tragedy reached ,england through the intermediary of the ,french ,seneca1 ,robert ,garnier 7,schelling1 ,elizabethan ,drama1 ii4 pp4 #e sqq4 and p4 #eab74 ,in #afab licence was granted ,n4 ,bulter to print an ,english translation from ,french of so popular a work as ,ovid's ,metamorphoses 7,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #dhi74 #dii ,the ,histoire tragi-comique de nostre temps sous les noms de ,lysandre et de ,caliste 7#afae7 was the work of d',audigier4 #ejj ,thus the ,prau des ,fleurs mesles1 contenant plusieurs et differentz discours of ,franois ,voilleret1 sieur de ,florizel1 was printed in ,london in #afjj 7871 and dedicated to the ,prince of ,wales4 ,in #afbj it was licensed to be printed in ,french and ,english1 provided the ,english translation be approved4 ,in #afai a ,french translation of ,bacon's ,essays was published at ,london1 and in #afbc ,field received a licence to print a ,french translation of ,camden's ,annals 7originally in ,latin7 by ,j4 ,bellequent1 avocat au ,parlement de ,paris 7,stationers' ,register1 iv4 #ajf74 #eja ,as did ,shakespeare 7cp4 ,schmidt1 ,shakespeare ,lexicon1 ,berlin1 #aijb1 vol4 ii47 and several of the lesser poets4 ,french refrains were also sometimes used1 as in ,greene's ,never too ,late 7,infida's song73 ,wilt thou let thy ,venus di1 ,n'oseres vous mon bel amy8 ,adon were unkinde say ,i1 ,je vous en prie1 pitie me3 ,n'oseres vous mon bel1 mon bel1 ,n'oseres vous1 mon bel amy8 ,see ,s4 ,lee1 ,french ,renaissance in ,england1 ,oxford1 #aiaj1 p4 #bdc4 ,sylvester even ventured to write poems in ,french4 #ejb ,lives of ,ed4 and ,john ,philips1 nephews of ,milton 7#afid71 reprinted by ,william ,godwin1 #ahae1 pp4 #cfb-c4 #ejc ,letters1 ,camden ,soc41 #ahed1 p4 #ac1 and passim4 #ejd ,upham1 op4 cit4 p4 #h4 #eje ,in #aeea the ,new ,testament and a ,book of ,prayers in ,french were printed by ,thomas ,gaultier4 ,handlist of ,books1 ,bibliographical ,society1 #aiac4 #ejf ,the ,german historian's commentary1 ,de ,statu religionis et reipublicae ,carolo ,quinto ,caesare1 appeared in ,latin in #aeee1 and in ,french in #aeeg4 #ejg ,le thtre du monde 4 4 4 revue et corrig par ,c4 de ,sainliens1 #aeie4 ,printed by ,george ,bishop and dedicated to the ,scotch ,ambassador1 ,jacques de ,betoun1 ,archevesque de ,glasco4 #ejh ,which was very popular4 ,it reached twelve editions before the end of the century4 #eji ,no doubt the poet ,claude ,collet4 #eaj ,cp4 ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #dfh4 ,another work of a religious nature was the ,catechisme ou instruction familiere sur les principaus points de la ,religion ,chrestienne 7par ,m4 ,dielincourt71 ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #daj4 #eaa ,stationers' ,register1 ii4 #dea1 #deb4 #eab #afef1 pp4 #ab-ac4 #eac ,institution of a young nobleman1 p4 #aeb4 #ead ,directions for forreine travel 7#afdb71 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi1 p4 #ba4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,french ,,at ,,the ,,universities ,the universities set the grammar schools the example by neglecting the study of ,french and other subjects necessary to a polite education4 ,even the limited encouragement given to the modern language at the universities during the ,middle ,ages no longer existed in the sixteenth century4 ,at this date ,latin reigned supreme at ,oxford and ,cambridge1 and its use was rigorously enforced4 ,the students were required to speak in ,latin at public places or otherwise incur the penalty contained in the statute regarding this point4#eae ,it is true that these regulations were not always obeyed2 ,fynes ,moryson says that scholars in the universities shun occasions of speaking ,latin4 ,but it was none the less the chief language cultivated at the universities1#eaf where no modern languages received official recognition4 ,the mediaeval custom of using ,french on various academic occasions had not1 however1 disappeared without leaving a few traces4 ,some of the ,french forms of procedure favoured in the ,middle ,ages1 probably owing to the influence of the ,university of ,paris1 were still in use at ,cambridge in the seventeenth century4 ,the books of two ,cambridge beadels1 ,beadel ,stokys 7c4 #aegj7 and ,beadel ,buck 7#affe71eag show that on several occasions these officials were instructed to use ,french during public ceremonies4 ,thus1 at the solemn exercise of determination1 one of the beadels gave thanks for the money he and his fellows received1 in the following terms3 ,header3 ,,french ,,and ,,italian ,,read ,noter ,determiners je vous remercie de le ,argent que vous avez donner a moy et a meis companiouns1 pourquoy je prie a ,dieu que il vous veuille donner tres bonne vie et en la ,fin la ,joye de ,paradise4 ,in similar ,stratford-atte-,bowe ,french they summoned the lecturers in the 'schools' to be present on commencement day3 ,nostre ,seigneur ,doctor1 une parolle sil vous ,plaist1 nostres ,peres de nostres ,seigneurs ,commencens vous prient que vous estes demayn a son commencement en l'glise de nostre ,dame4 ,and throughout the ceremonies#eah in ,arts and ,theology similar ,french formulae1 often interspersed with ,latin1 were frequently used1 though they had probably passed out of use by the beginning of the eighteenth century4 ,but even at that time the summons to dinner at ,new ,college still retained a trace of the old custom2 two choristers walked from the chapel door to the garden gate crying1 ,tempus est vocando1 mangez tous seigneurs4 ,yet modern languages were not entirely neglected by all university students4 ,gabriel ,harvey1 in an interesting letter to a certain ,mr4 ,wood1 says that the students of ,cambridge have deserted ,thomas ,aquinas and the whole rabblement of schoolmen for modern ,french and ,italian works such as ,commines and ,machiavell1 ,paradines in ,frenche1 ,plutarche in ,frenche1 and ,i know not how many outlandish braveryes of the same stamp4 ,you can not stepp into a schollars studye1 he adds1 but 7ten to on7 you shall litely finde open either ,bodin de ,republica or ,le ,royes exposition uppon ,aristotles ,politiques1 or some other like ,frenche or ,italian ,politique ,discourses4#eai ,thus we may safely conclude that ,french and to a less extent ,italian books were widely read at the universities4 ,no doubt1 those who learnt ,italian did so with the help of a dictionary or an ,english translation1 like ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury4 ,but there were additional opportunities for learning the more popular language4 ,french tutors and ,french grammars were not unknown at both ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,but it was at ,oxford that they were by far the more numerous4 ,the tutors taught ,french privately to those of the students who were willing to learn4 ,and ,holyband in dedicating his ,french ,schoolemaister 7#aegc7 to the young ,robert ,sackville1 then a student at ,oxford1 throws light on the attitude taken towards that language3 not that you shuld leave off your weightier and worthier studies in the ,universitie1 but when your mind is amazed and dazled with long readinge1 you may refresh and disport you in learninge this ,french tongue4 ,protestant refugees formed an important section of the little band of private ,french tutors at ,oxford4 ,many ,huguenots1 frequently scholars of distinction1 settled at the ,english centres of learning4 ,some were promoted to positions in the ,university1#ebj on which they had a very beneficial influence1 just as others received preferment in the ,english ,church4 ,the ,french tutors were among the humbler and more numerous exiles who taught privately1 as the seventeenth-century historian of the ,university1 ,anthony ,wood1 tells us4 ,apart from those who actually taught ,french1 the presence of considerable numbers of ,frenchmen#eba cannot have been without some indirect influence on the study of ,french at ,cambridge1 as well as at ,oxford4 ,in addition1 several ,french tutors accompanied their pupils to the ,university1 and spent some time with them there4 ,such1 no doubt1 was the case of ,peter ,du ,ploich who1 for some unknown reason1 was residing in ,barnard ,college 7now ,st4 ,john's71 ,oxford1 early in the second half of the sixteenth century4 ,another well-known ,french tutor1 ,g4 ,de la ,mothe1 accompanied his pupil ,richard ,wenman to ,oxford1 some time between #aehg and #aeib4 ,about ten years before1 we come across a famous ,protestant1 ,jean ,hotman1 sieur de ,villiers ,st4 ,paul1 resident at ,oxford with his pupils1 the sons of ,lord ,poulet1 ,english ambassador at ,paris2 while attending to the education of his charges he completed his own1 and received the degree of ,doctor4 ,subsequently he became secretary to ,leicester1 and was thus brought into contact with the ,english ,court4#ebb ,the younger ,pierre ,du ,moulin likewise remained with his pupil ,richard ,boyle when at ,oxford4#ebc ,header3 ,,french ,,grammars ,,printed ,,at ,,oxford ,among tutors who spent a short time at ,oxford1 and then joined the larger and more successful group of language teachers in ,london1 was ,john ,florio1#ebd well known as a writer of books for teaching ,italian1 and himself of ,italian parentage1 though born in ,london4 ,in about #aegf he became tutor for ,french and ,italian to ,emmanuel1 son of ,richard ,barnes1 ,bishop of ,durham1 and to several other ,oxford students4 ,he was1 we are told1 a very useful man in his profession4 ,shortly after1 he removed to ,london1 where he enjoyed favour at ,court4 ,of more importance1 however1 is the group of private tutors who settled at ,oxford1 found a clientle among the ,university students1 and frequently wrote and published ,french grammars for the use of their pupils4 ,there was evidently some demand for instruction in ,french at ,oxford early in the sixteenth century4 ,the bookseller ,john ,donne enters a book called ,frans and ,englis twice in the register of books he sold in #aebj2ebe this may have been either ,caxton's ,book in ,french and ,english1 or the similar collection of dialogues printed by ,pynson and ,wynkyn de ,worde in turn4 ,the first book for teaching ,french printed at ,oxford was due to a ,frenchman called ,pierre ,morlet1 a native of ,auteuil1 who taught ,french at ,oxford in the last decade of the sixteenth century4 ,his ,janitrix sive institutio ad perfectam linguae gallicae cognitionem acquirendum was issued from the press of ,joseph ,barnes in #aeif4ebf ,the dedication1 dated from ,broadgates ,hall the #eth of ,march of the same year1 is addressed to ,morlet's former pupil1 ,sir ,robert ,beal4 ,this rare little treatise contains a few observations on the pronunciation of the letters1 followed by a concise treatment of each part of speech in turn4 ,it is preceded by a number of commendatory verses in ,latin and ,greek1 tributes from ,morlet's pupils1 students of the various colleges4 ,morlet had previously prepared a revised edition of ,jean ,garnier's ,french grammar1 which was published at ,jena in #aeic1ebg no doubt before his coming to ,england4 ,as might be expected1 most of the early ,oxford ,french grammars1 written for the use of ,oxonians1 differ from those published at ,london in that they are composed in ,latin4 ,they differ further in containing no practical exercises and restricting their contents to rules of grammar4 ,all the ,french grammars published at ,oxford were not due to ,frenchmen4 ,in #aehd a ,spanish refugee1 ,antonio de ,corro1 resident at ,christ ,church1 after acting as minister of the ,spanish ,church in ,london1 had anticipated ,morlet by adding a few rules on ,french pronunciation and accidence to his ,spanish ,grammar1#ebh written in his own language4 ,this was subsequently translated into ,english in #aeij by ,j4 ,thorius1 also of ,christ ,church1 and printed in ,london as ,the ,spanish ,grammer with certaine ,rules teaching both the ,spanish and ,french tongues4 ,several grammars were likewise produced by ,englishmen resident at ,oxford1 and teaching the ,french language4 ,among others was ,john ,sanford1 or ,sandford1 chaplain of ,magdalen ,college1 and the author of the ,french grammar which succeeded ,morlet's4 ,sanford wrote in ,latin1 and entitled his work ,le ,guichet ,franois1 sive ,janicula et ,brevis ,introductio ad ,linguam ,gallicam4 ,it was published by ,joseph ,barnes in #afjd1ebi and dedicated to ,dr4 ,bond1 president of ,magdalen4 ,sanford compiled his observations on the pronunciation and parts of speech from the various ,french grammars published in both ,france and ,england2 he drew largely on ,morlet1 as well as ,bellot and ,holyband2 and made equally free with de ,bze1 ,pillot1 and ,ramus4 ,he varied his duties as chaplain by giving lessons in ,french4 ,in #afje he was teaching ,french to that hopefull young gentleman ,mr4 ,william ,grey1 son to the ,rt4 ,honourable ,arthur ,lord ,grey of ,wilton1 and found good contentement in his happy progresse therein4 ,called away temporarily by other duties1 ,sanford made an ,english translation of the ,latin work1 which he addressed to his young charge as a pledge of my duteous love towards your good deserts1 and as my substitute to supplie my absence1 being willing also for your sake to make a publicke use therof4 ,the ,janicula appeared in its new form1 much abridged as well as translated1 in #afje1 under the title of ,a ,briefe ,extract of the former ,latin ,grammar4#ecj ,it is significant that although this ,english translation was printed by ,barnes at ,oxford1 it was mainly intended for a ,london public1 and was to be sold in ,paules ,church ,yard at the signe of the ,crowne by ,simon ,waterson4 ,header3 ,,saltonstall ,,and ,,leighton ,sanford retained his position at ,magdalen for some years after the appearance of his grammars4 ,in about #afaj he was travelling abroad as chaplain to ,sir ,john ,digby1 whose acquaintance he had made when ,sir ,john was a student at ,balliol4#eca ,other well-known ,english teachers of ,french at ,oxford were ,wye ,saltonstall and ,henry ,leighton4 ,wye ,saltonstall came of a noble family in ,essex4 ,he was educated at ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1 where his descent and birth being improved by learning1 flatter'd him with a kinder fortune than afterwards he enjoyed his life being all ,tristia4 ,he is said to have then gone to ,gray's ,inn1 ,holborn1 without taking a degree at ,oxford1 and afterwards to have become a perfect master of ,french1 which he had acquired during his travels4 ,in #afbe he returned to ,oxford for purposes of study and converse with learned men4 ,there he taught ,latin and ,french1 and was still living in good repute in #afdj and after4#ecb ,henry ,leighton1 on the other hand1 had not so good a reputation at the ,university4 ,he is said to have been a man of debauched character1 and to have obtained the degree of ,m4,a4 in anything but a straightforward manner2 when ,charles ,i4 created more than seventy persons ,m4,a4 on the #ast of ,november #afdb1 ,leighton1 who then bore a commission in the king's army1 contrived to have the degree conferred on himself by presenting himself at dusk1 when the light was very low1 though his name was not on the list4 ,when the king's cause declined1 ,leighton1 who had received the greater part of his education in ,france1 and was an accomplished ,french scholar1 settled at ,oxford as a teacher of ,french1 and had a room in ,st4 ,john's ,college4 ,apparently he continued to teach ,french until #affi1 the year of his death4#ecc ,he was the author of a ,french grammar written in ,latin1 called ,linguae ,gallicae addiscendae regulae1 printed in #afei1ecd and again in #affb4 ,beginning with rules for the pronunciation of each letter1 the author passes to observations on the articles1 nouns1 pronouns1 and verbs2 he then returns to the pronunciation1 gives fuller rules for the more difficult sounds1 and closes with a list of irregular verbs4#ece ,leighton says he published his work at the request of his friends4 ,he dedicated it 7in ,french7 to ,henry ,o',brien1 baron of ,ibrecken1 only son of the ,earl of ,thomond1 expressing1 in words very like those used by ,holyband on a similar occasion1 the hope that this divertissement1 as he calls the grammar1 may help to while away time not occupied by more serious and important studies4 ,thus we see that the general attitude towards the study of ,french was still1 in the middle of the seventeenth century1 very much what it had been in the preceding century4 ,in the meantime other grammars had appeared from the pens of ,french sojourners at ,oxford4 ,one1 ,robert ,farrear1 a teacher of ,french1 wrote a grammar in ,english for the use of his pupils1 ,the ,brief ,direction to the ,french ,tongue1 printed at ,oxford in #afah4 ,nothing further is known of its author4 ,anthony ,wood#ecf informs us that in the title of the book ,farrear inscribed himself ,m4,a41 but whether he took that degree or was incorporated therein in ,oxford he could not discover4 ,the works on ,french which appeared at ,oxford were not all formal grammars of the type described4 ,pierre ,bense1 a native of ,paris1 who taught ,italian and ,spanish as well as ,french1 was the author of the ,analogo-,diaphora seu ,concordantia ,discrepans et ,discrepantia ,concordans trium linguarum ,gallicae1 ,italicae et ,hispanicae1 commended by ,edward ,leigh in his ,foelix ,consortium or a fit ,conjuncture of ,religion and ,learning 7#affc74 ,this comparison of the resemblances and differences in the grammar of the three languages is dedicated to the ,university of ,oxford1 and was printed at the author's own expense in #afcg4ecg ,as to ,bense himself we are told that he was partly bred in good letters at ,paris1 and then1 coming to ,england1 he went by letters commendatory to ,oxon where being kindly received and entertained1 became a sojourner there1 was entred into the public library1 and taught for several years the ,french1 ,italian and ,spanish tongues4 ,for the rest we must be content to add with ,wood3 ,what other things he hath written ,i know not1 nor any thing else of the author4#ech ,header3 ,,gabriel ,,du ,,gr,s ,as yet no ,french grammars had appeared at ,cambridge1 and ,french teachers do not seem to have made their presence felt there4#eci ,in #afca1 however1 one of the best known of this group of university ,french tutors arrived at ,cambridge--,gabriel ,du ,grs1 a native of ,saumur1 and a member of a good family from ,angers4 ,he arrived in ,england as a refugee on account of his ,protestant faith1 received a warm welcome at ,cambridge1 and taught ,french to several of the students in various colleges4#edj ,in the fifth year of his residence1 the liberality of his pupils enabled him to publish his ,breve et ,accuratum ,grammaticae ,gallicae compendium in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur 7#afcf71 a work on the same lines and of about the same dimensions as that of ,morlet4#eda ,it is preceded by ,latin verses addressed to the author by members of different colleges1 and is dedicated to the students of the ,university1 especially those engaged in the study of ,french4 ,this grammar of ,du ,grs appears to be the only work of its kind printed at ,cambridge before the eighteenth century4#edb ,shortly after its publication ,du ,grs joined the group of ,french tutors at ,oxford1#edc and this removal points to the more ready openings offered there to those of his profession4 ,when he published his ,dialogi ,gallico-,anglico-,latini#edd at ,oxford in #afci1 he was teaching ,french in that most illustrious and famous university4 ,these dialogues are dedicated to ,charles1 ,prince of ,wales4 ,twenty-one in number1 they deal with the usual familiar topics1 greetings and the ordinary civilities1 visiting and table talk1 the house and its contents1 man and the parts of his body1 wayfaring1 a journey to ,france1 and so forth1 many being of much interest on account of the light they throw on the customs of the time4 ,considerable space is devoted to instructions for writing letters4 ,a second edition appeared in #afeb1 enlarged with necessary rules for the pronunciation of the ,french tongue1 very profitable unto them that are desirous of it1 giving a pseudo-,english equivalent of the sound of each ,french letter1 and followed by a few general rules for reading ,french and a table of the auxiliary and regular verbs4 ,this little book1 which has more in common with the productions of the ,london teachers than with the ,oxford manuals1 enjoyed a greater popularity than those of ,du ,grs's rivals4 ,in #affj a third edition appeared1 without the additions found in the second4 ,he was also the author of an interesting little work in ,english on the ,duke of ,richelieu1#ede printed in ,london in #afdc4 ,probably ,du ,grs had removed to ,london at that date2 in the second edition of his grammar1 printed1 like the first1 by ,leonard ,lichfield at ,oxford1 he describes himself as late teacher of the same in ,oxford4 ,in his dialogues ,du ,grs gives some account of his ideas on the teaching of ,french3#edf ,commenons l'abc4 ,escusez moy4 ,entendez moy1 oyez moy1 prononcer les lettres4 ,remarquez bien comment je prononce les voyelles1 et principalement u1 car il est bien malais a prononcer vous autres mm4 les ,anglois1 comme aussi e entre les consonnes4 ,prononcez apres moy4 ,voil qui va bien4 ,prononce-je bien8 ,fort bien4 ,essayez encore une fois4 ,ce mechant u me donne bien de la peine4 ,il ne sauroit tant vous en donner que votre th ou ch nous en donne4 ,il est malais d'avoir la propriet de votre langue4 ,l'exercice et la lecture des bons autheurs vous apprendront avec le temps1 etc4 ,he agreed with most of the ,french teachers of the day in attaching much importance to conversational practice and reading4 ,he also recommended a certain amount of memorising and the study of grammar2 general rules and rules of syntax he considered indispensable2 but for pronunciation he thought practice of more avail than rules4 ,it is possible1 he admits1 to learn ,french by rote1 without any grammar rules4 ,but it is not the best way in his opinion4 ,without grammar rules the student cannot distinguish good ,french from bad1 nor can he translate1 write letters1 or read2 and reading1 thought ,du ,grs1 was an essential condition if the cultivation of ,french in ,england was to be maintained4 ,header3 ,,french ,,at ,,cambridge ,those who learn by ear are at a loss as soon as they no longer hear ,french spoken daily4 ,as for those who promise to teach ,french in a short time1 they are nothing but mountebanks4 ,du ,grs held that a man of moderate intellect could1 with hard work1 learn to understand an ordinary ,french author in three or four months4 ,he had had1 he declares1 some pupils at ,cambridge who learnt to read and speak fairly well in four months and others who learnt practically nothing in a whole year4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century the status of ,french at the universities had undergone no marked change4 ,at the time of the ,restoration1 a certain ,philemon ,fabri petitioned ,williamson for an appointment as ,professor of ,french eloquence at ,oxford1 he having held a similar situation at ,strasburg2 he supported his request by an address to the king in ,french verses1 entitled ,le ,pater ,noster des ,anglais au ,roi4 ,apparently ,fabri did not receive the desired position4#edg ,at ,cambridge we find still less encouragement given to the study of ,french than at ,oxford4 ,during the ,commonwealth1 ,guy ,le ,moyne1 formerly ,french tutor to ,charles ,i41 lived at ,cambridge1 and no doubt continued to teach ,french there1 as he had done in ,london and at ,court4#edh ,at the ,restoration he petitioned ,charles ,,ii4 to let him have the ,fellowship at ,pembroke ,hall reserved for ,frenchmen4#edi ,le ,moyne was then seventy-two years old1 and wished1 he said1 to end his days at ,cambridge4#eej ,at ,cambridge1 as at ,oxford1 there were also ,french tutors in charge of particular pupils4 ,many of these were ,french ,protestants4 ,thus the famous ,pierre ,du ,moulin1 arriving in ,england as a destitute refugee in #aehh1 was received into the service of the ,countess of ,rutland1 who sent him to ,cambridge as tutor to her son4 ,there he remained until #aeib1 continuing his own studies as well as attending to those of his young charge4 ,he thoroughly disliked his position1 and seized the first opportunity of leaving it4#eea ,we also hear of ,herbert ,palmer1 ,president of ,queen's ,college 7#afdd-dg71 who had learnt ,french almost as soon as he could speak1 and could preach in ,french as well as in ,english4#eeb ,he won considerable distinction as a college tutor1 but whether he placed his knowledge of ,french at the service of students1 as ,sanford and ,leighton did at ,oxford1 is not specified4 ,yet1 even at ,oxford1 the efforts of this band of ,french teachers were not on a large enough scale to have any very noticeable effect4 ,some gentlemen who1 like ,sanford's pupil1 ,william ,grey1 had gone to the ,university to make themselves fit for honourable imployments hereafter1 took advantage of such opportunities as there were of studying ,french4 ,thus ,henry ,smith1 while acting as tutor to ,mr4 ,clifford1 learnt ,french himself1 and wrote to ,williamson in that language4#eec ,and no doubt the ,french tutors found enough pupils among those who were drawn more towards the fashionable than the scholastic world4 ,but the inability of the young ,oxford student to speak ,french when in polite ,london circles was a subject of comment in the seventeenth century as the language became more and more widely cultivated4 ,to speak ,french was even considered incompatible with a university education1 to judge from this passage in one of ,farquhar's comedies3#eed ,sir ,h4 ,wildair4 ,canst thou danse1 child8 ,bantu4 ,oui1 monsieur4 ,lady ,lurewell4 ,heyday6 ,french too6 ,why1 sure1 sir1 you could never be bred at ,oxford6 ,to the same intent ,pepys relates#eee how an ,oxford scholar1 in a ,doctor of ,lawe's gowne1 whom he met at dinner at the ,spanish ambassador's1 sat like a fool for want of ,french1 though a gentle sort of scholar2 nor could he speak the ambassador's language1 but only ,latin1 which he spoke like an ,englishman4 ,pepys1 on the other hand1 was very pleased at the display he was able to make of his own ,french on this occasion4 ,the famous diarist was a competent judge1 and spoke and wrote the language with ease4 ,unfortunately we know nothing of how he acquired this knowledge1 beyond the fact that he had not been to ,france4#eef ,header3 ,,one-,,sidedness ,,of ,,university ,,education ,he often criticizes the ,french of those he meets1 and a certain ,dr4 ,pepys1 according to him1 spoke the worst ,french he had ever heard from one who had been beyond sea4 ,pepys's brother spoke ,french1 very plain and good1 and ,mrs4 ,pepys1 the daughter of a refugee ,huguenot1 was as familiar with that language as with ,english4#eeg ,thus the universities1 like the schools1 failed to keep in touch with practical life by their neglect of the broader education necessary to persons of quality and fashion4 ,at the ,inns of ,court1 where gentlemen usually spent some time on leaving the university1#eeh or where they sometimes went instead of to the university1#eei the state of things was somewhat better4 ,some knowledge of ,french was indispensable to those studying the law1 and the position of the ,inns1 almost all of them within the boundaries of the ward of ,farringdon ,without1 the favourite abode of the ,french teachers1 was such as to offer exceptional facilities for the study of the language4 ,when ,robert ,ashley was at the ,inner ,temple he studied ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,dutch1 as well as ,french4 ,we are told#efj that in earlier times knights1 barons1 and the greatest nobility of the kingdom often placed their children in those ,inns of ,court1 not so much to make the laws their study1 much less to live by the profession 444 but to form their manners and to preserve them from contagion of vice4 ,there1 could be found a sort of gymnasium or academy fit for persons of their station1 where they learn singing and all kinds of music1 dancing1 and other such accomplishments and ,diversions 444 as are suitable to their quality and such as are usually practiced at ,court4 ,french was1 without doubt1 one of these accomplishments4 ,towards the end of the seventeenth century the ,inns of ,court were still much in favour1 and gentlemen's sons could enjoy there good company and the innocent recreations of the town1 as well as improve themselves in the exercises4 ,clarendon calls the ,inns of ,court the suburbs of the ,court itself4 ,none the less1 the gentleman with a university education1 even when it was followed by residence at one of the ,inns of ,court1 was felt to be inadequately equipped4 ,almost invariably he sought on the ,continent the polite accomplishments and knowledge of languages1 which were necessary qualifications for high employment at ,court1 in the army1 and elsewhere4 ,travel came to be regarded as an especial part#efa of the education of a gentleman1 and as such occupies an important place in the educational treatises of the time4 ,the usual course advised for the sons of gentlemen was an early study of ,greek and ,latin1 followed by residence at one of the ,universities and at the ,inns of ,court1 and1 finally1 travel beyond seas for language and experience and the study of such arts as could not be easily acquired in ,england4 ,in some cases gentlemen were educated quite independently of the ,english schools and universities#efb--;at home with private tutors1 and in ,france4 ,lady ,brilliana ,harley1 for instance1 feared that her son would not find much good company at ,oxford4 ,i believe1 she wrote1 that theare are but feawe nobellmens sonne in ,oxford1 for now1 for the most part1 they send theaire sonnes into ,france when they are very yonge1 theaire to be breed4#efc ,,footnotes3 #eae ,j4 ,heywood1 ,cambridge ,statutes 7sixteenth century71 ,london1 #ahdj1 p4 #bfg4 #eaf ,cooper1 ,annals of ,cambridge1 #aheb1 iii4 p4 #dbi2 ,mullinger1 ,history of the ,university of ,cambridge1 iii4 p4 #cfh4 #eag ,printed in ,peacock's ,observations on the ,statutes of the ,university of ,cambridge1 #ahda 7,appendix74 #eah ,cp4 ,c4 ,wordsworth1 ,scholae ,academicae1 #ahgg1 pp4 #bji sqq4 #eai ,letter ,book of ,gabriel ,harvey 7#aegc-aehj71 ,camden ,soc41 #ahhd1 pp4 #gh-i4 ,the tutor of ,john ,hall1 author of the ,horae ,vacivae 7#afdf71 testified to his pupil's attainments in ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,italian literature4 ,mullinger1 ,history of the ,university of ,cambridge1 ii4 p4 #cea4 #ebj ,one1 ,jean ,verneuil1 became underlibrarian of the ,bodleian in #afbe4 ,cp4 ,schickler1 ,les glises du ,refuge1 i4 p4 #dbd2 ,foster ,watson1 ,religious ,refugees and ,english ,education1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,proceedings1 #aiaa2 ,agnew1 ,protestant ,exiles1 i4 ch4 v4 and pp4 #acg1 #adg1 #adh1 #aef1 #afc2 ii4 pp4 #bfj1 #bgd1 #chh2 ,smiles1 ,the ,huguenots1 ch4 xiv4 #eba ,there were also numerous ,french ,protestant students at the ,university of ,edinburgh2 cp4 ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cff4 #ebb ,schickler1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bdd4 #ebc ,wood1 ,fasti ,oxonienses 7,bliss71 ii4 #aie4 #ebd ,wood1 ,athenae ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #chj4 #ebe ,oxford ,historical ,society3 ,collectanea1 i41 #ahhe1 pp4 #gc sqq4 #ebf #hvo1 pp4 #ib4 #ebg ,e4 ,stengel1 ,chronologisches ,verzeichnis franzsischer ,grammatiken1 ,oppeln1 #ahij4 #ebh ,f4 ,madan1 ,oxford ,books1 #adfh-afdj1 #ahie-aiab1 i4 p4 #bb2 ii4 p4 #bd4 ,another ,spanish ,grammar1 by d',oyly1 had appeared at ,oxford in #aeij4 #ebi #dto1 #ba leaves4 #ecj ,printed by ,joseph ,barnes1 #dto1 #h leaves4 #eca ,he visited ,spain1 and wrote ,an ,entrance to the ,spanish ,tongue 7#afaa74 ,while at ,oxford he had composed ,an ,introduction to the ,italian ,tongue 7#afje74 ,cp4 ,wood1 ,athenae ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #dga2 ,c4 ,plummer1 ,elizabethan ,oxford1 ,ox4 ,hist4 ,soc41 #ahhg1 p4 xxviii2 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #ecb ,wood1 ,athen4 ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #fgf2 ,foster1 ,alumni ,oxon41 ad nom4 #ecc ,wood1 ,fasti ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #bi1 #cj2 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #ecd #ab1 pp4 #ca4 #ece ,in the copy in the ,cambridge ,univ4 ,library these are accompanied by a ,,ms4 translation into ,latin4 ,some additional rules in ,latin are written on the last blank leaf4 #ecf ,athenae ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #bgg4 #ecg ,printed by ,william ,turner1 #h1 pp4 #gb4 #ech ,athenae ,oxon4 7,bliss71 ii4 #fbd4 #eci ,valence1 ,french tutor to the ,earl of ,lincoln1 had studied at ,cambridge early in the sixteenth century4 #edj ,eandem linguam in celeberrima ,cantabrigiensi ,academia docens4 #eda ,sm4 #hvo1 pp4 #if4 #edb ,cp4 ,r4 ,bowes1 ,catalogue of ,books printed at ,cambridge1 #aeba-ahic4 #edc ,the statement of ,wood 7,athenae ,oxon4 iii4 #ahd71 that ,du ,grs had studied at ,oxford before going to ,cambridge1 is probably incorrect4 #edd #hvo1 pp4 #aie1 printed by ,leonard ,lichfield4 #ede ,jean ,arman ,du ,plessis1 ,duke of ,richelieu and ,peere of ,france his ,life1 etc41 followed by a translation1 out of the ,french copie1 of ,the ,will and ,legacies of the ,cardinall ,richelieu 444 together with certaine ,instructions which he left the ,french ,king4 ,also some remarkable passages that hath happened in ,france since the death of the said ,cardinall4 #edf ,he charged #ajs4 a month for an hour's lesson daily4 #edg ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affa-fb1 p4 #dci4 #edh ,le ,moyne also translated ,the ,articles of ,agreement between the ,king of ,france1 the ,parlaiment and ,parisians4 ,faithfully translated out of the ,french original copy4 ,london1 #afdi4 #edi ,in the ,middle ,ages1 ,pembroke ,college gave preference to ,frenchmen in the election of ,fellows2 cp4 supra1 p4 #f4 #eej ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affj-fa1 p4 #afb4 #eea ,autobiographie de ,pierre du ,moulin1 ,bulletin de la ,socit de l'histoire du ,protestantisme ,franais1 vii4 pp4 #cdc sqq4 #eeb ,mullinger1 ,history of the ,university of ,cambridge1 #aiaa1 iii4 p4 #cjj4 #eec ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afgj1 p4 #bge4 ,evelyn 7,diary1 ed4 ,wheatly1 #aijf1 ii4 p4 #cjf7 describes verses written in ,latin1 ,english1 and ,french by ,oxford students and added to ,newes from the dead1 an account of the restoration to life of one ,anne ,green1 executed at ,oxford1 #afej4 #eed ,sir ,harry ,wildair1 ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #b2 cp4 ,mockmode in the same dramatist's ,love and a ,bottle4 #eee ,diary1 #eth ,may #affi4 #eef ,he long looked forward to a journey there--a hope which was not fulfilled until his failing eyesight had compelled him to stop writing his diary4 #eeg ,she spent some time in ,france1 until her father ordered her back to ,england on account of her leaning towards ,roman ,catholicism4 ,many times she expressed a wish to go and live in ,france4 #eeh ,cp4 ,shakespeare1 #b ,henry ,,iv4 ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #b3 ,he's at ,oxford still1 is he not8 ,a' must then to the ,inns a' ,court shortly4 #eei ,higford 7,institution of a ,gentleman1 #affj1 p4 #eh7 blames those of his countrymen who neglect the ,inns of ,court4 #efj ,j4 ,fortescue1 ,de ,laudibus ,legum ,angliae 444 ,translated into ,english 444 with notes by ,selden1 new ed41 #agga1 p4 #agb4 #efa ,higford1 ,the ,institution of a ,gentleman1 #affj1 p4 #hh4 #efb ,perlin says of the ,english in the middle of the sixteenth century1 referring no doubt to the nobility3 ,ceux du pays ne courent gaire ou bien peu aux deux universits1 et ne se donnent point beaucoup aux lettres1 sinon qu' toute marchandise et toute vanit 7,description des royaulmes d',angleterre et d',escosse1 p4 #aa74 #efc ,letters 7#afch71 ,camden ,soc41 #ahed1 p4 #h4 ,nearly half a century later1 ,chancellor ,clarendon wrote3 ,i doubt our ,universities are defective in providing for those exercises and recreations1 which are necessary even to nourish and cherish their studies1 at least towards that accomplished education which persons of quality are designed to2 and it may be want of those ,ornaments that may prevail with many to send their sons abroad1 who since they cannot attain the lighter with the more serious ,breeding1 chuse the former which makes a present shew1 leaving the latter to be wrought out at leisure 7,miscellaneous ,works1 #agea1 p4 #cbf74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french ,,by ,,english ,,travellers ,,abroad ,one of the favourite methods of learning ,french was a sojourn in ,france4 ,to speak the language well a visit there was considered imperative1 and to speak it as one who had never been out of ,england#efd was synonymous with speaking it badly4 ,consequently a journey to ,france was common among the young gentry and nobility of the time4 ,moreover1 those who pursued their travels further1 and undertook the ,grand ,tour as many gentlemen did on leaving the university1 invariably visited ,france first1 and spent the greater part of their time there4 ,eighteen months in ,france1 nine or ten in ,italy1 five in ,germany and the ,low ,countries1 was considered a suitable division of a three years' tour4 ,most young ,englishmen of family and fortune spent some time on the ,continent4 ,sir ,francis ,walsingham1 said by one of his contemporaries to have been the most accomplished linguist of his day1#efe had acquired his proficiency abroad1 as had also ,lord ,burghley1 who wrote to ,walsingham from ,france in #aehc to report on his progress in the language4#eff ,both ministers in their turn were patrons to numerous young travellers in ,france4 ,a certain ,charles ,danvers wrote to ,walsingham from ,paris1 in ,french1 to show his progress and thank him for his favours4#efg ,and ,burghley gave one ,andrew ,bussy a monthly allowance of #e to enable him to study ,french at ,orleans1 where1 according to his own account1 he took great pains to make good progress so as to serve his patron the better on his return4#efh ,it was generally held that travel was useful to useful men1#efi and that peregrination well used was a very profitable school1 a running ,academy4#egj ,many young ,english gentlemen went to the ,french ,court in the train of an ambassador1#ega or with a private tutor2#egb ,henry ,,viii4 sent his natural son1 the ,duke of ,richmond1 ,palsgrave's pupil1 to the ,french ,court1 in the care of ,lord ,surrey the poet4 ,richard ,carew1 the friend of ,camden1 was sent to ,france with ,sir ,henry ,nevill1 ambassador to ,henri ,,iv41 and ,bacon visited ,paris in his early youth in the suite of the diplomat ,lord ,poulet4 ,the last-mentioned ambassador had several young ,englishmen in his charge4 ,of few1 however1 could he make so favourable a report as he did of the son of ,sir ,george ,speake3 ,i am not unacquainted with your son's doings in ,parris1 he wrote to ,sir ,george1 and cannot comend him inoughe unto you aswell for his dilligence in study as for his honest and quiett behaviour4 ,one of these young travellers1 a ,mr4 ,throckmorton1 he was particularly glad to be rid of2 the young man got the ,french tongue in good perfection1 we are informed1 but he was of flippant humour1 and before he left for ,england1 ,poulet told him his mind freely1 and forbade him to travel to ,italy1 as he intended to do later1 without the company of an honest and wyse man4 ,the ambassador had kept him and his man in food during the whole of his stay in ,paris1 and1 besides1 provided him with a horse1 which he had also kept att his chardges4#egc ,children too were often sent abroad for education4 ,thomas ,morrice1 in his ,apology for ,schoolmasters 7#afai71 commends the ancient and laudable custom of sending children abroad when they can understand ,latin perfectly2 for then they learn the romance languages all the more easily1 because the ,italian1 ,french and ,spanish borrow very many words of the said ,latin1 albeit they do chip1 chop and change divers letters and syllables therein4 ,header3 ,,english ,,gentry ,,at ,,the ,,french ,,court ,and ,thomas ,peacham#egd tells us in the early seventeenth century that as soon as a child shows any wildness or unruliness1 he is sent either to the ,court to act as a page or to ,france1 and sometimes to ,italy4 ,the number of ,english children in ,france was1 we may assume1 considerable2 and when the news of the terrible massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew reached ,england1 one of its most noticeable effects was to fill with concern and apprehension all parents who had children in ,france4 ,how fearfull and carefull the mothers and parents that be here be of such yong gentlemen as be there1 you may easely ges1 wrote ,elizabeth's secretary of state to ,sir ,francis ,walsingham1 the ,english ambassador at ,paris4#ege ,among these yong gentlemen was ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 then newly arrived at the ,french ,court1 whom ,walsingham himself sheltered in the ambassador's quarters during that awful night4 ,james ,basset1 the son of ,lord ,lisle1 deputy at ,calais for ,henry ,,viii41 was sent to ,paris in the autumn of #aecf to complete his education1 after having been for some time in the charge of a tutor in ,england4 ,there he went to school with a ,french priest1 whom he soon left for the ,college of ,navarre4 ,he appears to have attended the college daily1 and boarded with one ,guillaume le ,gras1 who1 in ,june #aecg1 wrote to ,lady ,lisle that her son would soon be able to speak ,french better than ,english4 ,i think when he goes to see you1 writes the ,frenchman to her ladyship who did not understand ,french1 he will need an interpreter to speak to you4 ,james himself wrote to tell his mother how he was progressing at the large and beautiful college of ,navarre1 with ,pierre du ,val his ,master and ,preceptor4#egf ,the following letter#egg giving details on the course pursued by a young ,english gentleman studying ,french in ,paris may no doubt be taken as fairly typical4 ,in the forenoone 444 two hours he spends in ,french1 one in reading1 the other in rendryng to his teacher some part of a ,latin author by word of mouth4444 ,in the afternoon 444 he retires himself into his chamber1 and there employs two other hours in reading over some ,latin author2 which done1 he translates some little part of it into ,french1 leaving his faults to be corrected the morrow following by his teacher4 ,after supper we take a brief survey of all4444 ,m4 ,ballendine apparently the teacher hath commended unto us ,paulus ,aemilius in ,french1 who writeth the history of the country4 ,his counsell we mean to follow4 ,girls also were occasionally sent to ,france for purposes of education4 ,two of ,james ,basset's young sisters1 ,anne and ,mary1 spent some time in that country4 ,to prevent their hindering each other's progress1 ,anne was committed to the care of a ,m4 and ,mme4 de ,ryon1 at ,pont de ,remy1 while ,mary was sent to ,abbeville to a ,m4 and ,mme4 de ,bours4 ,both girls wrote letters in ,french to their mother1 ,lady ,lisle1 and it appears that they had almost forgotten their mother tongue4 ,when ,anne returned to ,england1 where she became maid of honour to ,jane ,seymour1 she had to apologize to her mother for not being able to write in ,english1 for surely where your ,ladyship doth think that ,i can write ,english1 in very deed ,i cannot1 but that little that ,i can write is ,french1#egh and ,mary wrote to her sister ,philippa in ,french expressing her wish to spend an hour with her every day in order to teach her to speak ,french4 ,in ,france the two sisters acquired1 besides ,french1 the usual accomplishments befitting their sex--needlework1 and playing on the lute and virginals4#egi ,the traveller ,fynes ,moryson did not unreservedly approve of the custom of sending children of unripe yeeres to ,france2 howsoever they are more to be excused who send them with discreet ,tutors to guide them with whose eyes and judgments they may see and observe4444 ,children like ,parrots soone learne forraigne languages and sooner forget the same1 yea1 and their mother tongue also4 ,he relates how a familiar friend of his lately sent his sonne to ,paris1 who1 after two yeeres returning home1 refused to aske his father's blessing after the manner of ,england1 saying ce n'est pas la mode de ,france4#ehj ,milton in the same vein deplores the fact that his compatriots have need of the monsieurs of ,paris to take their hopeful youth into their slight and prodigal custodies and send them over back again transformed into mimics1 apes and kickshows4#eha ,header3 ,,english ,,children ,,in ,,france ,my countrymen in ,england1 wrote ,sir ,amias ,poulet from ,paris in #aegg1 would doe ,god and theire countreye good service if either they woulde provide scolemasters for theire children at home1 or else they woulde take better order of their educacion here1 where they are infected with all sortes of pollucions bothe ghostly and bodylie and find manie willinge scolemasters to teache theme to be badd subiects4#ehb ,nor were such sentiments confined to individual cases4 ,queen ,elizabeth was constantly making inquiries concerning her subjects beyond the seas generally1 often for political reasons or on account of her ,protestant fears of popery4 ,she found noe small inconvenience to growe into the realm by the number of children living abroad under colour of learning the languages4 ,in #aeie she ordered a list of such children to be sent to her with the names of their parents or guardians and tutors1#ehc and there were frequent examinations of subjects suspected of desiring to go abroad2 in #aeie the ,mayor of ,chester writes to ,burghley to know what he is to do with two boys1 aged fifteen and seventeen1 who have been brought before him on suspicion of intending to travel into ,france to learn the language1 and thence into ,spain4 ,the objections raised against the journey to ,france were few1 however1 in comparison with those alleged as regards ,italy4 ,italy held a place second only to ,france in the ,grand ,tour on the ,continent1 and in the early sixteenth century the first enthusiasm awakened by the ,renaissance attracted many ,englishmen there4 ,scholars1 such as ,linacre and ,colet1 set the example4 ,then others1 including most literary men of the time1 made their way as pilgrims to the centre of the revived learning1 passing through ,france on their way4#ehd ,soon the journey became largely a matter of fashion4 ,this rapid development of the custom of continental travel was looked upon as a danger in matters political and religious2 popish plots were suspected and foreign intrigues of all kinds feared4 ,in ,elizabeth's time leave to resort beyond seas for his better increase in learning1 and his knowledge of foreign languages#ehe was not freely granted to any who might apply4 ,lord ,burghley would often summon before him applicants for licences to travel1 and look carefully into their knowledge of their own country1#ehf and if this proved insufficient1 would advise them to improve it before attempting to study other countries4#ehg ,voluble were the protests against foreign travel which were made in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,france and above all ,italy were made responsible for all the vices of the ,english4 ,it was urged that trade and state negotiations were the only adequate reasons for travel abroad4 ,we are moted in an ,island1 because ,providence intended us to be shut off from other regions1 ,bishop ,joseph ,hall affirms1 in his ,quo ,vadis3 a juste censure of travel as it is commonly undertaken by gentlemen of our own nation 7#afag74 ,so strong were the prejudices of some of these critics that the grandfather of the royalist ,sir ,arthur ,capell wrote--in #afbb--;a pamphlet containing ,reasons against the travellinge of my grandchylde ,arthur ,capell into the parts beyond the sea1 in which he draws an alarming picture of the dangers of infection from popery1 and seeks to prove that the time could be much better spent at home4#ehh ,the chronicler ,harrison went so far as to assert that the custom would prove the ruin of ,england4#ehi ,and even the courtly ,lyly could write3 ,let not your mindes be carried away with vaine delights1 as travailing into farre and straunge countries1 wher you shall see more wickednesse then learn virtue and wit4#eij ,but it was ,italy much more than ,france that excited the fears of these alarmists4 ,there was a common saying at the time that an ,englishman ,italianate was a devil incarnate4 ,i was once in ,italy myself1 wrote ,roger ,ascham1#eia but ,i thank ,god my abode there was but nine dayes--in which he saw more wickedness than he had beheld during nine years in ,london4 ,suffer not thy sons to pass the ,alpes1 for they shall learn nothing there but ,pride1 ,blasphemy and ,atheism2 ,header3 ,,protests ,,against ,,foreign ,,travel and if by travelling they get a few broken ,languages1 that will profit them no more than to have the same meat served in divers dishes1 was the advice of ,lord ,burghley4#eib ,many were the precautions taken to prevent ,english subjects from travelling to ,rome of all places4 ,travellers who were suspected of such intentions or who had travelled abroad without permission were rigorously examined4 ,one such traveller confessed that he went to ,brittany and ,france to see the countries and learn the language1 but swore he had never been to ,rome or spoken to the papist ,cardinal ,allen4#eic ,many passports issued for the ,grand ,tour stipulated specifically that the traveller should not repair to ,rome4#eid ,george ,carleton gave expression to the general feeling when he wrote to his brother ,dudley1 afterwards ,lord ,dorchester3 ,i like your going to ,france much better than if you had gone to ,italy4#eie ,france is above all most needful for us to mark1 was the advice ,sir ,philip ,sidney sent to his brother ,robert on his travels4#eif ,sir ,john ,eliot gave similar injunctions to his sons4#eig ,france was1 he said1 a country full of noble instincts and versatile energy2 and what his own experience had been1 he recommended his sons to profit by4 ,some friend had warned them of possible dangers in ,france4 ,heed them not1 says ,eliot2 any hazard or adventure in ,france they will find repaid by such advantages of knowledge and experience as observation of the existing troubles there is sure to convey4 ,but he will not allow them even to enter ,spain2 and the ,italian territories of the ,church they must avoid as dangerous3 stagnant and deadly are the waters in the region of ,rome1 not clear and flowing for the health-seeking energies of man4 ,he thought1 however1 that some parts of ,italy might be visited with profit4 ,to attempt to learn the ,italian language before some knowledge of ,french had been acquired1 was not discreet4 ,besides it being less pleasant and more difficult to talk ,italian first1 he writes1 it was leaving the more necessary acquirement to be gained when there was1 perchance1 less leisure for it4 ,whereas by attaining some perfection in ,french1 and then moving onward1 what might be lost in ,italy of the first acquirement1 would be regained in ,france as their steps turned homeward4 ,not only were fears of ,roman ,catholicism and corrupt manners directed more specifically toward ,italy than ,france1 but the ,french language was considered a much more necessary acquirement than ,italian4 ,it was generally agreed that the country most requisite for the ,english to know was ,france1 in regard of neighbourhood1 of conformity in ,government in divers things and necessary intelligence of ,state4#eih4 ,french is the most useful of languages--the richest lading of the traveller next to experience--,italian and ,spanish not being so fruitful in learning1 remarks ,francis ,osborne in his ,advice to a ,son4#eii ,thus the main object of study of the traveller in ,france was usually the language itself1 and next to that the polite accomplishments4 ,those who continued their travels into ,italy were attracted chiefly by the country and its antiquities4 ,when ,addison was in ,france1 after a short stay in ,paris in #afiifjj he settled for nearly a year at ,blois to learn the language1 living in great seclusion1 studying1 and seeing no one but his teachers1 who would sup with him regularly4 ,in #agjj he returned to ,paris1 qualified to converse with ,boileau and ,malebranche4 ,but he spent his time in ,italy very differently1 living in fancy with the old ,latin poets1 taking ,horace as his guide from ,naples to ,rome1 and ,virgil on the return journey3 there was no question of settling down in a quiet town to study ,italian4 ,the experience of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury at the end of the sixteenth century and of ,evelyn in the middle of the seventeenth was of a similar nature4 ,though travellers continued to include ,italy in their tour1 the feeling in favour of ,france became stronger and stronger4 ,it reached its climax in the latter half of the seventeenth century1 when ,clarendon wrote3 ,what parts soever we propose to visit1 to which our curiosity usually invites us1 we can hardly avoid the setting our feet first in ,france4 ,and he invites travellers1 on returning there after visiting ,italy1 to stay in ,paris a year to unlearn the dark and affected reservation of ,italy4 ,header3 ,,the ,,travelling ,,tutor ,as for ,germany1 he thinks they have need to remain two years in ,france that they may entirely forget that they were ever in ,germany6#fja ,the sons of gentlemen setting out on the ,grand ,tour were usually accompanied by a governor or tutor1#fjb and the need for such a guide was generally recognized by writers on travel2 all urge the necessity of his being acquainted with the languages and customs of the countries to be visited4 ,that young men should ,travaile under some ,tutor or grave ,servant1 ,i allow well3 so that he be such a one that hath the language and hath been in the ,countrey before1 wrote ,bacon4 ,and if any one was not able or did not wish to be at the charges of keeping a ,governor abroad with his son1 he was advised#fjc to join with one or two more to help to bear the charges3 or else to send with him one well qualified to carry him over and settle him in one place or other of ,france1 or of other ,countries1 to be there with him #b or #c months1 leave him there after he hath set him in a good way1 and then come home4 ,we also gather from ,gailhard's ,the ,compleat ,gentleman that it was a custom with many in ,england to order ,travelling to their sons1 as ,emetick ,wine is by the ,physician prescribed to the ,patient1 that is when they know not what else to do1 and when schools1 ,universities1 ,inns of ,court1 and every other way hath been tried to no purpose3 then that nature which could not be tamed in none of these places1 is given to be minded by a ,gouvernor1 with many a woe to him4#fjd ,the suitable age for the ,grand ,tour1 as distinct from the shorter journey in ,france1 was the subject of much discussion4 ,it was usually undertaken between the ages of sixteen and twenty1 and occupied from three to five years4 ,some1 and among them ,locke1#fje agreed with ,gailhard in thinking that travel should not come at the end4 ,they argued that languages were more easily learnt at an earlier age1 and that children were then less difficult to manage4 ,others1 regarding travel as a necessary evil1#fjf held that1 at a later age1 travellers are less receptive of evil influences and the snares of popery4 ,this was the current opinion4 ,in many cases1 especially in later times1 the travelling tutor was a ,frenchman4 ,many ,englishmen1 however1 found in this capacity an opportunity for travel which they might not otherwise have had4 ,for example1 ,ben ,jonson visited ,paris in #afac as tutor to the son of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 and became better known there as a reveller than as a poet4#fjg ,in the same way ,ben ,jonson's friend1 the poet ,aurilian ,townsend1 accompanied ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury on his foreign tour in #afjh1 and was of much help to him on account of his fluent knowledge of ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4#fjh ,the time-serving politician ,sir ,john ,reresby travelled with a ,mr4 ,leech1 a divine and ,fellow of ,cambridge4#fji ,and the philosopher ,thomas ,hobbes spent as travelling tutor in the ,cavendish family many years which he calls the happiest time of his life4 ,he visited ,france1 ,germany1 and ,italy4 ,for a time he left the ,cavendishes to act as tutor to the son of ,sir ,gervase ,clifton1 with whom he remained eighteen months in ,paris4 ,it was while travelling with his pupils that ,hobbes became known in the philosophic circles of ,paris4#faj ,addison was offered a salary of #ajj to be tutor to the ,duke of ,somerset1 who desired him to be more of a companion than a ,governor1 but did not accept the offer4#faa ,in some cases the travelling tutor had several pupils4 ,thus ,mr4 ,cordell1 the friend of ,sir ,ralph ,verney1 was tutor to a party of ,englishmen4#fab ,on the other hand1 ,sir ,philip ,sidney travelled without a governor4 ,header3 ,,books ,,on ,,travel ,at ,frankfort1 in the house of the ,protestant printer ,andreas ,wechel1 he began his life-long friendship with the ,huguenot scholar ,hubert ,languet1 who1 to some degree1 supplied his needs4 ,languet1 however1 expresses his regret that ,sidney had no governor1 and when the young ,englishman continued his journey into ,italy they kept up a correspondence1 in the course of which ,languet sent ,sidney much good advice4 ,at his instigation ,sidney practised his ,french and ,latin by translating some of ,cicero's letters into ,french1 then from ,french into ,english1 and finally back into ,latin again1 by a sort of perpetual motion4#fac ,john ,evelyn the diarist also travelled without a governor1 while the eldest son of ,lord ,halifax first made the ,grand ,tour in the usual fashion1 and afterwards returned to his uncle1 ,henry ,savile1 ,english ambassador at ,paris1 without the encumbrance of a governor4 ,savile superintended his nephew's reading1 providing him with books on such subjects as political treaties and negotiations1 and warning him against nouvelles and other vain entretiens4#fad ,the practice of travelling abroad called forth many books on the subject1 often written by travellers desiring to place their experience at the service of others4 ,such books usually include indications of the routes to be followed and the places to be visited1 and sometimes advice as to the best way of studying abroad4 ,some1 such as those of ,coryat1 ,fynes ,moryson1 and ,purchas1#fae are descriptions of long journeys4 ,others deal more especially with the method of travel4#faf ,a few were written for the particular use of some traveller of high rank2 for instance1 when the ,earl of ,rutland set out on his travels in #aeif1 his cousin ,essex sent him letters of advice1 which circulated at ,court1 and were published as ,profitable ,instructions for ,travellers in #afcc4fag ,further information was supplied in the treatises on polite education4#fah ,the subject of travel was thus continually under consideration1 and the different books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which deal with this topic are of great interest4 ,robert ,dallington1 the author of an early guide to ,france1#fai thought it necessary1 seeing the few teachers there were in ,france1 to set downe a course of learninge4 ,i will presume to advise him1 he says of the traveller to ,france1 that the most compendious way of attaining the tongue is by booke4 ,i mean for the knowledge1 for as for the speaking he shall never attaine it but by continuall practize and conversation3 he shall therefore first learne his nownes and verbs by heart1 and specially the articles1 and their uses1 with the two words sum and habeo3 for in these consist the greatest observation of that part of speech4 ,he also urges the future traveller to engage a ,frenchman to assist him1 chiefly1 no doubt1 with reading and pronunciation4 ,this reader1 as ,dallington calls him1 shall not reade any booke of ,poetrie at first1 but some other kinde of stile1 and ,i thinke meetest some moderne comedie4 ,let his lecture consist more in questions and answers1 either of the one or the other1 then in the reader's continued speech1 for this is for the most part idle and fruitlesse3 by the other many errors and mistakings either in pronunciation or sense are reformed4 ,after three months he shall quit his lectures1 and use his ,maister only to walk with and discourse1 first the one and then the other3 for thus shal he observe the right use of the phrase in his ,reader1 heare his owne faults reproved and grow readie and prompt in his owne deliverie1 which1 with the right straine of the accent1 are the two hardest things in language4 ,he should also read much in private1 and to this reading he must adde a continuall talking and exercising of his speech with all sorts of people1 with boldnesse and much assurance in himselfe1 for ,i have often observed in others that nothing hath more prejudiced their profiting then their owne diffidence and distrust4 ,header3 ,a ,,method ,,of ,,travel ,to this ,i would have him adde an often writing1 either of matter of translation or of his owne invention1 where againe is requisite the ,reader's eye1 to censure and correct3 for who so cannot write the language he speaks1 ,i count he hath but halfe the language4 ,there1 then1 are the two onely meanes of obtaining a language1 speaking and writing1 but the first is the chiefest1 and therefore ,i must advertise the traveller of one thing which in other countries is a great hinderer thereof1 namely1 the often haunting and frequenting of our own ,countrimen1 whereof he must have a speciall care1#fbj neither to distaste them by a too much retirednesse#fba nor to hinder himselfe by too much familiaritie4 ,a few years later ,fynes ,moryson#fbb offered equally sound advice to the traveller for language4 ,goe directly to the best citie for the puritie of language1 he tells him1 and first labour to know the grammar rules1 that thy selfe mayst know whether thou speaketh right or no4 ,i meane not the curious search of those rules1 but at least so much as may make thee able to distinguish ,numbers1 ,cases1 and ,moodes4 ,moryson thought that by learning by ear alone students probably pronounced better1 but1 on the other hand1 with the help of rules1 they both speake and write pure language1 and never so forget it1 as they may not with small labour and practice recover it again4 ,the student1 he adds1 should make a collection of choice phrases1 that hee may speake and write more eloquently1 and let him use himselfe not to the translated formes of speech1 but to the proper phrases of the tongue4 ,for this purpose he should read many good books1 in which kind1 as also for the ,instruction of his soule1 ,i would commend unto him the ,holy ,scriptures1 but that among the ,papists they are not to be had in the vulgar tongue1 neither is the reading of them permitted to laymen4 ,therefore to this purpose he shall seeke out the best familiar epistles for his writing1 and ,i thinke no booke better for his ,discourse then ,amadis of ,gaule4444 ,in the third place ,i advise him to professe ,pythagoricall silence1 and to the end he may learne true pronunciation1 not to be attained but by long observation and practice1 that he for a time listen to others1 before he adventure to speake4 ,he should also avoid his fellow-countrymen1 and1 having observed these rules1 then let him hier some skilfull man to teach him and to reprove his errors1 not passing by any his least omission4 ,and let him not take it ill that any man should laugh at him1 for that will more stirre him up to endevour to learne the tongue more perfectly1 to which end he must converse with ,weomen1 children and the most talkative people2 and he must cast off all clownish bashfulnesse1 for no man is borne a ,master in any art4 ,i say not that he himselfe should rashly speake1 for in the beginning he shall easily take ill formes of speaking1 and hardly forget them once taken4 ,the learning of ,french in ,england before going abroad did not1 as a rule1 enter into the plan of writers on the subject of travelling4 ,moryson1 however1 realized that at the first step the ignorance of language doth much oppresse 7the traveller7 and hinder the fruite he should reape by his iourney4 ,and ,bacon went a step further when he wrote that he that travaileth into a ,country1 before he hath some entrance into the language1 goeth to schoole1 and not to travaile4444 ,if you will have a ,young ,man to put his ,travaile into a little ,roome1 and in a short time to gather much1 this you must doe4 ,first1 as was said1 he must have some ,entrance into the ,language before he goeth4 ,then he must have such a ,servant1 or ,tutor1 as knoweth the country4#fbc ,later writers usually agree that it would be of benefit to have something of the ,french#fbd before leaving ,england1 though it were only to understand something of it and be able to ask for necessary things1 or to have some grammatical instruction in the language1 as a preparation to speaking it4#fbe ,and indeed many travellers had some previous knowledge of ,french4 ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 for instance1 could manage a letter in ,french when he was at school at ,shrewsbury2 ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury had studied the language with the help of a dictionary2 ,sir ,john ,reresby1 at a later date1 had learnt ,french at a private school1 though1 like many students nowadays1 he could not speak the language on his arrival in ,france4 ,header3 ,,studies ,,previous ,,to ,,travel ,several went abroad to improve themselves in ,french1 and no doubt the phrase to learn the ,french tongue#fbf often meant to learn to speak it4 ,in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries1 however1 many of those who studied ,french seriously in ,england did not go to ,france4 ,among these were the ladies1 to whose skill ,mulcaster#fbg draws the attention of travellers1 as a proof that languages can be learnt as well at home as abroad2 and not a few of the younger sons of noblemen1#fbh as well as the prosperous middle class--the frequenters of the ,french schools in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 and the pupils of ,du ,ploich and ,holyband1 neither of whom makes any reference to the tour in ,france4 ,the common practice in the sixteenth century among young travellers was to proceed to ,france knowing no ,french4 ,they fully expected to learn the language there1 with no further exertion than living in the country4 ,they are constantly warned of the futility of such expectations4 ,dallington1 ,fynes ,moryson1 and others lay much emphasis on the necessity of some serious preliminary study of grammar and reading of good literature4 ,french teachers in ,england compared the poor results obtained in ,france by these leisurely methods with those achieved by their own efforts in ,england4 ,no doubt they found the practice of learning ,french by residence in ,france a serious rival to their own methods4 ,de la ,mothe1#fbi for instance1 declares he knows ,english ladies and gentlemen who have never left ,england and yet speak ,french incomparably better than others who have been in ,france three or four years trying to pick up the language by ear1 as most travellers do4 ,another ,french teacher#fcj writes3 ,i have knowne three ,gentlemen's sonnes1 although ,i say it that should not say it1 who can testify yet1 that in their return from ,france 7after they had remained foure yeares at ,paris1 spending a great deal of money7 perused my rules but six moneths and did confesse they reaped more good language in that short space ,i taught them then in all the time they spent in ,france4 ,and sundry others ,i have helped who never saw ,france1 and yet could talke1 read and write better language in one yeare than those who have bene at ,paris two yeares1 learning but the common phrase of the countrie1 shacking off a litle paines to learne the rules4 ,while holding that ,french could be better learnt in ,england with rules than in ,france without any such assistance1 the ,french teachers of ,london admitted that the language could perhaps be best learnt in ,france1 but only with the help of a good teacher and serious study1 as in ,england4 ,however1 there were hardly any language teachers in ,france1 according to them1 while in ,england it was easy to find many good ones4 ,dallington more specifically bewails the fact that the traveller finds a great scarcitie of such tutors1 and directs him to a certain ,m4 ,denison1 a ,canon of ,st4 ,croix in ,orleans1 after whom he may inquire1 except his good acquaintance or good fortune bring him to better4 ,there was indeed little provision for the serious study of ,french in ,france before the end of the sixteenth century4 ,most travellers1 we are told1 observed only for their owne use4 ,few ,frenchmen took up the teaching of their own language to foreigners as a profession1 and those who taught from time to time or merely upon occasion rarely proved successful4 ,yet the earliest grammars produced in ,france were intended largely for the use of foreigners4 ,special attention is paid to points which usually offered difficulty to foreigners1 such as the pronunciation and its divergencies from the orthography4#fca ,sylvius or ,du ,bois1 writing in ,latin1#fcb remarks that his principles may serve the ,english1 the ,italians and ,spaniards1 in short1 all foreigners2 no doubt those he had chiefly in mind were the numbers of ,english and other foreign students at the ,university of ,paris4 ,header3 ,,language ,,teachers ,,in ,,france ,when the earliest grammar written in ,french appeared1 its author1 ,louis ,meigret1#fcc sought to justify his use of the vernacular by suggesting that foreign students should first learn to understand ,french by speaking and reading good ,french literature1 instead of depending on ,latin for the first stages4 ,he had noticed the peculiarities of the ,english pronunciation of ,french1 especially the habit of misplacing the accent2 they raise the voice on the syllable an in ,angleterre1 while we raise it on the syllable ter3 so that ,french as spoken by the ,english is not easily understood in ,france4 ,from other grammarians foreigners always received some attention4 ,pillot#fcd and ,garnier#fce both wrote in ,latin with a special view to foreigners2 and ,peletier1#fcf who used ,french1 retains all the etymological consonants1 that strangers may find ,latin helpful in understanding ,french4 ,not before the end of the sixteenth century1 however1 do we hear of the first important language teacher in ,france--,charles ,maupas of ,blois1 a surgeon by profession1 who spent most of his life1 more than thirty years1 teaching ,french to many lords and gentlemen of divers nations who visited his native town4 ,he was well known to be a famous teacher of the ,french tongue to many of the ,english and ,dutch nobility and gentry4 ,for his ,english pupils ,maupas showed particular affection4#fcg ,and from them he received in turn numerous proofs of friendship4 ,among the ,englishmen who learnt ,french under his care was ,george ,villiers1 ,duke of ,buckingham1 who1 at about the age of eighteen1 travelled into ,france1 where he improved himself#fch well in the language for one that had so little grammatical foundation1 but more in the exercises of that ,nobility for the space of three years and yet came home in his naturall plight1 without affected formes 7the ordinary disease of ,travellers74#fci ,maupas bears stronger testimony to his pupil's attainments in the ,french language1 and some years later he gratefully dedicated to the ,duke his ,french grammar1 first issued publicly in #afah4 ,maupas's ,grammaire franoise contenant reigles tres certaines et adresse tres asseure a la nave connoissance et pur usage de nostre langue4 ,en faveur des estrangers qui en seront desireux1 was first privately printed in #afjg4fdj ,he had not originally intended it for publication4 ,the work grew out of the notes and observations he compiled in order to overcome his pupils' difficulties4 ,as these rules increased in number and importance1 many students began to make extracts from them2 others made copies of the whole1 a great and wearisome labour4 ,finally1 ,maupas1 touched by this keenness1 resolved to have a large number of copies printed4 ,he distributed these among his pupils and their friends1 till1 contrary to his expectation1 he found he had none left4 ,it was then that the first public edition was issued at ,lyons in #afah1 and was followed by six others1 which were not always authorized4 ,a ,latin edition also appeared in #afbc4 ,maupas insists on the necessity of employing a tutor4 ,let them come to me1 he says1 addressing foreigners desirous of learning ,french1 if it is convenient4#fda ,to learn the language by ear and use alone is impossible4 ,the small outlay required to engage a teacher saves much time and labour4 ,as to the grammar1 it should be read again and again1 and in time all difficulties will disappear2 it will be of great use even to those already advanced in ,french4 ,he undertook to teach and interpret the grammar in ,french itself1 without having recourse to the international language ,latin1 the usual medium of teaching ,french to travellers2 he tells us that many of his pupils were ignorant of ,latin1 and that the practice of interpreting the grammar in ,french had been adopted by many of his fellow-teachers in other towns4 ,the great advantage of this method was1 he thought1 that reading and pronunciation are learnt conjointly with grammar1 the phrases and style of the language together with its rules and precepts4 ,besides1 the student must read some book2 and a grammar was1 in his opinion1 preferable to the little comedies and dialogues usually resorted to for this purpose4 ,he did not1 however1 forget that some light reading was a greater incentive to the learner1 and in practice used both4 ,maupas died in #afbe1 when a new edition of his grammar was in preparation4 ,his son1 who assisted him in teaching1 saw the work through the press1 and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had bestowed on his father4 ,apparently the younger ,charles ,maupas continued to teach his father's clientle for some time4 ,header3 ,,charles ,,maupas ,,of ,,blois ,in #afbf he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter4 ,we are told vaguely that this comedy1 entitled ,les ,desguisez3 ,comedie ,franoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par ,charles ,maupas a ,bloys1 was the work of one of the beaux esprits of the period4#fdb ,maupas1 however1 only had one copy1 and knew not where to procure more4 ,he was induced to have it printed on seeing the great labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it for their own use4 ,for the benefit of students who had no tutor1 he added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words4 ,maupas's ,grammaire et syntaxe franoise is still looked on with respect4#fdc ,the reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no relations with the ,court1 then the supreme arbiter in matters of language4 ,but the grammar passed into oblivion in the course of time1 as more modern manuals took its place4 ,maupas's hope that it would be used by foreign students of ,french as long as the language was held in esteem was not to be fulfilled4 ,his ,grammar was superseded by that of ,antoine ,oudin--,grammaire ,franoise rapporte au langage du temps1 ,paris1 #afcb4 ,oudin's original intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor4 ,but as his work advanced he found force antiquailles and many mistakes1 besides much confusion1 repetition1 and pedantry4 ,he felt no compunction in telling the reader that he had enormously improved all he had borrowed from ,maupas--although he is careful to note that he has no intention of damaging his rival's reputation1 and is proud to share his opinion on several points4 ,he had a great advantage over ,maupas in having spent all his life in close connexion with the ,court2 his father1 ,csar1 had been interpreter to the ,french king1 and ,antoine succeeded him in that office4 ,he also appears to have had continual relations with foreigners1 and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them very considerable benefits4 ,his grammar was certainly much used by foreign students1 although it does not seem to have enjoyed as great a popularity in ,england as that of ,maupas4 ,oudin's ,curiositez ,franoises 7#afdj7 was also addressed aux estrangers1 and his aim was to show his gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction4#fdd ,l',eschole ,franoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs1 divise en deux livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements1 l'autre les parties de l'oraison 7,paris1 #afjd71 by ,jean ,baptiste du ,val1 avocat en ,parlement at ,paris and ,french tutor to ,marie de ,medicis1 was also intended partly for the use of foreigners4 ,he seeks to console foreign students coping with the difficulties of ,french pronunciation and orthography1 by assuring them that though the ,french themselves may be able to speak correctly1 they cannot prescribe rules on this score4 ,as for his grammar1 the student will learn more from it in two hours than from any other in two weeks4 ,he also takes up a supercilious attitude1 natural in one who exercised his profession in the precincts of the ,court1 towards anything that resembled a provincial accent2 better no teacher at all than one with a provincial accent4 ,among other grammars of similar purport is that of ,masset in ,french and ,latin1 ,exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue ,franoyse1 mis en ,latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers 7#afjf72fde and to the same category belongs also the ,praecepta gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem necessaria tum suevissima tum facillima 7#afjg71 by ,philippe ,garnier1 who1 after teaching ,french for many years in ,germany1 settled down at ,orleans1 his native town1 as a language tutor4#fdf ,another work widely used by travellers1 and well known in ,england1 was the ,nouvelle et ,parfaite ,grammaire ,franoise 7#afei7 of ,laurent ,chiflet1 the zealous ,jesuit and missionary1 which continued to be reprinted until the eighteenth century1 and enjoyed for many years the highest reputation among foreign students of ,french4 ,header3 ,,french ,,grammars ,,for ,,travellers ,the ,swiss ,muralt relates how he and a friend were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the ,palais1 the centre of the trade2 and how the bookseller answered them civilly and tried to find what they desired1 until his wife interfered1 crying1 ,ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils demandent8 ,donnez leur la grammaire de ,chiflet1 c'est l ce qu'il leur faut4#fdg ,chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students4 ,in the first place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading a short passage every day with a ,french master1 and the verbs most commonly in use committed to memory4 ,then the other parts of speech and the rules of syntax should be studied briefly2 but care should be taken not to neglect reading1 and to practise writing ,french1 in order to become familiar with the orthography4 ,one of his chief recommendations is to avoid learning isolated words2 words should always be presented in sentence form1 which is a means of learning their construction and of acquiring a good vocabulary at the same time4 ,the rest of the method consists in translating from ,latin or some other language into ,french1 and in conversing with a tutor who should correct bad grammar or pronunciation4 ,when once a fair knowledge of ,french is acquired1 it should be strengthened by reading and reflecting upon some good book every day4 ,such reading is the shortest way of learning the language perfectly4 ,excellence and fluency in speaking may be attained by repeating or reciting aloud the substance of what has been read4#fdh ,the acquisition of the ,french language was not the only ambition of the ,english gentleman abroad4 ,his aim was also to acquire those polite accomplishments in which the ,french excelled--dancing1 fencing1 riding1 and so on4 ,for this purpose he either frequented one of the courtly academies or engaged private tutors2 and every master of exercise1 it was felt1 served as a kind of language master4#fdi ,we are indebted to ,dallington#fej for an account of the cost of such a course abroad4 ,money1 he says1 is the soule of travell4 ,if he travel without a servant #hj sterling is a competent proportion1 except he learn to ride3 if he maintain both these charges1 he can be allowed no less than #aej3 and to allow above #bjj were superfluous and to his hurt4 ,the ordinary rate of his expense is #aj gold crowns a month his fencing1 as much his dancing1 no less his reading1 and #aj crowns monthly his riding except in the heat of the year4 ,the remainder of his #aej1 ,i allow him for apparell1 books1 travelling charges1 tennis play1 and other extraordinary expenses4 ,some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other of the ,french universities4 ,john ,palsgrave and ,john ,eliote1 the two best known ,english teachers of ,french in the sixteenth century1 had both followed this course4 ,palsgrave was a graduate of ,paris1 and ,john ,eliote1 after spending three years at the ,college of ,montague in ,paris1 taught for a year in the ,collge des ,africains at ,orleans4 ,the religious question had much influence in determining the plan of study in ,france4 ,the university towns of ,rheims and ,douay were the special resorts of ,english ,catholics4#fea ,on the suppression of the religious houses in ,england and the persecution of the ,english ,roman ,catholics1 ,english seminaries arose at ,paris1 ,louvain1 ,cambrai1 ,st4 ,omer1 ,arras1 and other centres in ,france4 ,english ,roman ,catholics flocked to the ,french universities and colleges1 and there is in existence a long list of ,english students who matriculated at the ,university of ,douay4 ,on the other hand1 the schools1#feb colleges1#fec and academies#fed founded by the ,huguenots offered many attractions to ,protestant ,england4 ,the colleges had much in common with the modern ,french lyce1 and the chief subjects taught were the classical languages4 ,they did not take boarders1 with the exception of that at ,metz1 and the students lived en pension with families in the town4 ,the same is true of the academies1 institutions of university standing4 ,they were eight in number1 and situated at ,nmes1 ,montpellier1 ,saumur1 ,montauban1 ,die1 ,sedan1 ,orthez 7in the principality of ,barn#fee71 and ,geneva4 ,some ,englishmen and many ,scotchmen#fef held positions in the ,protestant colleges and academies4 ,header3 ,,british ,,students ,,at ,,french ,,universities ,many ,english ,protestants1 during their enforced sojourn on the ,continent during the reign of ,mary1 took advantage of their exile to study at one or other of the ,protestant academies1 as well as to perfect their knowledge of ,french4 ,a great number flocked to ,geneva1 including the ,protestant author ,michael ,cope1 who frequently preached in ,french4#feg ,of the colleges1 that of ,nmes attracted a large number of foreigners4 ,montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was ,protestant4 ,among the academies in ,france1 ,saumur1 ,montauban1#feh and ,sedan were much frequented by ,english travellers4 ,saumur in particular quickly attained to celebrity2 its rapid growth may be partly accounted for by the fact that ,duplessis ,mornay1 ,governor of the town in #aehh1 naturally became a zealous patron of the ,academy4 ,three years after its foundation the number of foreign students was considerable1 and throughout the seventeenth century students from ,england1 ,scotland1 ,holland1 and ,switzerland thronged to the town4 ,the ,academy at ,geneva likewise was very popular4#fei ,though not ,french1 it was largely attended by ,french students1 who had some influence in raising the standard of the ,french spoken in the town1 which was rather unsatisfactory in the sixteenth century4 ,it greatly improved in the following century1 and when the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes 7#afhe71 which dealt the death-blow to the ,french ,protestant foundations1 drove many students to ,geneva1 their influence in all directions was still more strongly felt4 ,some years before1 in #afed1 the regents were enjoined to see to it that their pupils ne parlent savoyard et ne jurent ou diabloyent1 but in #afia ,poulain de la ,barre1 a doctor of the ,sorbonne1 could say that ,geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de ,france4#ffj ,the ,protestant academies usually consisted of faculties of ,arts and ,theology4 ,at ,geneva#ffa there were lectures in ,law1 ,theology1 ,philosophy1 ,philology1 and ,literature2 the teaching was chiefly in ,latin1 but sometimes in ,french4 ,at the end of the sixteenth century a riding school1 known as the ,mange de la ,courature1 on the same lines as the polite academies of ,france1 was started4 ,the instruction given at ,geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies4 ,nmes and ,montpellier1 for instance1 were mainly theological4#ffb ,of the many ,englishmen who went to ,geneva1 as to other ,protestant centres1 not all attended lectures at the ,academies4 ,some went merely to learn ,french1 the exercises and assurance of behaviour1 as the general belief in ,england was that they did so with less danger in the towns tempered by a ,calvinistic atmosphere4 ,among the ,englishmen who visited ,geneva in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century we find the names of ,henry ,withers1 ,roger ,manners1 fifth ,earl of ,rutland1 ,robert ,devereux1 third ,earl of ,essex1 the son of ,elizabeth's unfortunate favourite1 and others4 ,thomas ,bodley1 the celebrated founder of the ,oxford ,library1 followed all the courses at the ,university in #aeei4 ,it was considered a great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors2 ,anthony ,bacon1 the elder brother of the great ,bacon1 had the good fortune to be received into the house of de ,bze4 ,casaubon likewise received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town with a special recommendation to him4 ,these included the young ,henry ,wotton1 then on the long tour on the ,continent1 during which he acquired the remarkable knowledge of languages which qualified him for the position of ambassador which he subsequently occupied4 ,in #aeic ,wotton wrote to ,lord ,zouch3 ,here ,i am placed to my great contentment in the house of ,mr4 ,isaac ,casaubon1 a person of sober condition among the ,french4 ,the learned professor soon became very fond of ,wotton1 so far as to allow him to get into debt for his board and lodging1 and the young man left ,geneva without paying his debts1 leaving ,casaubon to face his numerous creditors in the town4 ,casaubon was in despair2 but fortunately the episode ended satisfactorily1 for ,wotton lived up to his character1 and paid his debts in full as soon as he was able4#ffc ,header3 ,,the ,,affected ,,traveller ,when later ,casaubon was at ,paris 7#afjj-afaj7 and his fame was widespread1 most travellers and scholars passing through the city seized any opportunity of visiting him4 ,coryat relates his visit to the great humanist as the experience he enjoyed above all others4 ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury was also among the ,english travellers received by ,casaubon into his house at this period4 ,and now coming to court1 writes ,lord ,herbert1 ,i obtained licence to go beyond sea1 taking with me for my companion ,mr4 ,aurilian ,townsend 444 and a man to wait in my chamber1 who spoke ,french1 two lacqueys and three horses4444 ,coming now to ,paris through the recommendation of the ,lord ,ambassador ,i was received to the house of that incomparable scholar ,isaac ,casaubon1 by whose learned conversation ,i much benefited myself4 ,sometimes also ,i went to the ,court of the ,french ,king ,henry ,,iv41 who1 upon information of me in the ,garden of the ,tuileries1 received me with much courtesy1 embracing me in his arms1 and holding me some while there4#ffd ,by the side of the serious traveller we are introduced to the frivolous type1 travelling merely as a matter of fashion4 ,these idle travellers1 as they were called1 were the cause of most of the objections raised against the journey to ,france and the longer tour on the ,continent--apart from questions of religion and politics4 ,few such travellers scaped bewitching passing over seas4#ffe ,when ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury arrived in ,paris he remarked on the great number of ,englishmen thronging about the ambassador's mansion4 ,they had1 most of them1 studied the language and fashions in some quiet provincial town1 such as ,orleans or ,blois1 and returned to ,paris full of affectations4 ,herbert draws a picture#fff of one such true accomplish'd cavalere3 ,now what he speaks are complimental speeches ,that never go off1 but below the breeches ,of him he doth salute1 while he doth wring ,and with some strange ,french words which he doth string1 ,windeth about the arms1 the legs and sides1 ,most serpent like1 of any man that bides ,his indirect approach4 ,many travellers did not follow ,moryson's advice to lay aside the spoone and forke of ,italy1 the affected gestures of ,france1 and all strange apparrell on their return to ,england4 ,their affectation of foreign languages and customs proved disagreeable to many of their countrymen4 ,the ,frenchified traveller and his untravelled imitators were known as beaux or mounsiers4 ,nash speaks of the dapper mounsieur pages of the ,court1 and ,shakespeare of the young gallants who charm the ladies with a ,french song and a fiddle1 and fill the ,court with quarrels1 talks1 and tailors4#ffg ,when the ,english nobles and gentlemen who had held official appointments at ,tournai returned to ,england1 after lingering some time at the ,french ,court1 the chronicler ,hall#ffh declares they were all ,french in eating1 drinking1 yea in ,french vices and brages1 so that all estates of ,england were by them laughed at4 ,the ,english beau thought it his duty to despise ,english ways1 fashions1 and speech1 and to ape and dote upon all things ,french3#ffi ,he struts about ,in cloak of fashion ,french4 ,his girdle1 purse1 ,and sword are ,french2 his hat is ,french2 ,his nether limbs are cased in ,french costume4 ,his shoes are ,french4 ,in short from top to toe ,he stands the ,frenchman4 ,above all1 he loves to display his sorry ,french and chide his ,french valet in public1 and if he speak ,though but three little words in ,french1 he swells ,and plumes himself on his proficiency4 ,and when his ,french fails him1 as it soon does1 he coins words for himself which he utters with widely gaping mouth1 and sound acute1 thinking to make the accent ,french3 ,with accent ,french he speaks the ,latin ,tongue1 ,with accent ,french the tongue of ,lombardy1 ,to ,spanish words he gives an accent ,french1 ,german he speaks with the same accent ,french1 ,all but the ,french itself4 ,the ,french he speaks ,with accent ,british4 ,thus the beau cannot be ranked among the genuine students of ,french4 ,would you believe when you this monsieur see ,that his whole body should speak ,french1 not he8 asks ,ben ,jonson4#fgj ,header3 ,,french-,,italianate ,,gentlemen ,we have a picture1 in ,glapthorne's ,the ,ladies' ,privilege1 of a travelled gallant who undertakes to teach ,french to a young gentleman desiring thereby to be for ever engallanted4 ,they confer on rudiments2 your ,french1 says the gallant1 is a thing easily gotten1 and when you have it1 as hard to shake off1 runnes in your blood1 as 'twere your mother language4 ,until you have enough of the language to sprinkle your ,english with it1 answer with a shrug1 or a nod1 or any foreign grimace4#fga ,the author of the ,treatyse of a galaunt bemoans the fact that ,englysshe men sholde be so blynde as to adopt the marde gere of the ,french4#fgb ,many were the outbursts of patriotic indignation roused by the affectation of the newly returned travellers1 who brought home a few smattering terms1 flattering garbes1 apish cringes1 foppish fancies1 foolish guises and disguises and vanities of neighbour nations4#fgc ,in the sixteenth century ,france was not exclusively responsible for the fopperies of the ,english beau1 who might often be described as ,french ,italianate4#fgd ,he spoke his own language with shame and lisping4#fge ,nothing will down but ,french1 ,italian and ,spanish4#fgf ,farewell1 ,monsieur ,traveller1 says ,rosalind to ,jacques1 look you lisp1 and wear strange suits2 disable all the benefits of your own country2 be out of love with your nativity1 and almost chide ,god for making you that countenance you are4#fgg ,the affected beau will wring his face round about as a man would stirre up a mustard pot and talke ,english through the teeth4#fgh ,he sprinkles his talk with overseas scraps4 ,he that cometh lately out of ,france will talke ,french-,english1 and never blush at the matter1 and another chops in with ,english ,italianated4#fgi ,and what profit has he from the journey on which he has gathered such evil fruit8 ,nothing but words1 and in this he exceeds his mother's parrot at home1 in that he can speak more and understands what he says4#fhj ,and this is often no more than to be able to call the king his lord with two or three ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish or such like terms4#fha ,his attire1 like his tongue1 speaks ,french and ,italian4#fhb ,he censures ,england's language and fashions by countenances and shrugs1 and will choke rather than confess beer a good drink4 ,in time the beau forgot what little he had learnt of ,italian1 and in the seventeenth century was generally known as the ,english monsieur1 or the gentleman la mode4 ,there were two very different attitudes towards the journey to ,france1 as there were two types of traveller1 the serious and the flippant4 ,the prejudiced and insular-minded asked with ,nash3#fhc ,what is there in ,france to be learned more than in ,england1 but falsehood in fellowship1 perfect slovenry1 to love no man but for my pleasure1 to swear ,ah par la mort ,dieu when a man's hands are scabbed4 ,but for the idle traveller 7,i mean not for the soldier71 ,i have known some that have continued there by the space of half a dozen years1 and when they come home1 they have hid a little weerish lean face under a broad hat1 kept a terrible coil in the dust in the street in their long cloaks of gray paper1 and spoke ,english strangely4 ,nought else have they profited by their travel1 save learned to distinguish the true ,bordeaux grape and know a cup of neat ,gascoigne wine from wine of ,orleans4 ,the opposite view is expressed in the message ,george ,herbert sent to his brother at ,paris3#fhd ,you live in a brave nation1 where except you wink1 you cannot but see many brave examples4 ,bee covetous then of all good which you see in ,frenchmen whether it be in knowledge or in fashion1 or in words2 play the good marchant in transporting ,french commodities to your own country4 ,,footnotes3 #efd ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 vol4 xvi4 ,no4 #bch4 #efe ,sir ,rt4 ,naunton1 ,fragmenta ,regalia1 #ahbd1 p4 #fi4 #eff ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom43 ,add41 #aehj-afbe1 p4 #ii4 #efg ,ibid4 p4 #aai4 ,a certain ,charles ,doyley wrote in similar terms from ,rouen4 #efh ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #aeie-ig1 p4 #bic4 #efi ,purchas ,pilgrimes1 #afbe4 #egj ,howell1 ,epistolae ,ho-,elianae4 #ega ,as did ,sir ,james ,melville 7,memoirs1 ,bannatyne ,club1 #ahbg1 p4 #ab71 to learn to play upon the lut1 and to writ ,frenche1 at the age of fourteen4 ,similarly1 ,barnaby ,fitzpatrick1 ,edward ,,vi4's youthful favourite and proxy for correction1 was sent to ,paris to study fashions and manners 7,nichols1 ,literary ,remains1 p4 lxx74 #egb ,the practice was also very common in ,scotland1 especially when the reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as schoolmasters4 ,gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to ,france in the care of what they considered suitable tutors4 ,the ,assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved4 ,see ,young1 ,histoire de l',enseignement en cosse1 p4 #eb4 #egc ,copy ,book of ,sir ,amias ,poulet's ,letters1 ,roxburghe ,club1 #ahff1 pp4 #af1 #bca4 #egd ,the ,compleat ,gentleman 7#afbb71 #aijf1 p4 #cc4 #ege ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #crd series1 iii4 #cgg4 #egf ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 vol4 viii4 #eag2 vol4 ix4 #ajhf2 vol4 xii4 pt4 i4 #igb1 etc4 #egg ,dated #afaj4 ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #bnd series1 iii4 #bcj4 #egh ,green1 ,letters of ,royal and ,illustrious ,ladies of ,great ,britain1 ,london1 #ahdf1 ii4 pp4 #bid et seq4 #egi ,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii4 vol4 xiii4 pt4 i4 #eab4 #ehj ,itinerary1 #afag1 pt4 iii4 bk4 i4 p4 #e4 #eha ,of ,education4 ,to ,master ,samuel ,hartlib4 #ehb ,copy ,book1 p4 #ij4 #ehc ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #aeih-afja1 p4 #afb2 and #afja-afjc1 p4 #bi4 ,in #aehj a list of some ,english subjects residing abroad was sent to the queen 7ibid41 ,addenda1 #aehj-afbe1 p4 #d47 #ehd ,greene left an account of his impressions of ,france and ,italy in his ,never too ,late 7,works1 ed4 ,grosart1 viii4 pp4 #bj sqq474 #ehe ,frequently the wording in passports 7,cal4 ,state ,papers74 #ehf ,there were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country4 ,what is it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home8 asks ,higford4 ,see also ,penton1 ,new ,instructions to the ,guardian1 #afid2 and ,f4 ,b4 ,b4 ,d41 ,education with ,respect to ,grammar ,schools and ,universities1 #agja4 #ehg ,ellis1 ,original ,letters 7#crd series1 iv4 p4 #df71 publishes one of the licences which had to be obtained4 #ehh ,reprinted by ,lady ,t4 ,lewis1 ,lives from the ,pictures in the ,clarendon ,galleries1 #aheb1 i4 p4 #bej4 #ehi ,description of ,britaine1 #aegg1 ,lib4 #c4 ch4 iv4 #eij ,euphues1 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfh1 p4 #aeb4 #eia ,scholemaster1 ed4 ,arber1 #ahgj1 p4 #hb4 ,mulcaster was also eloquent on the evil result of travel 7,positions1 #aeha74 #eib ,instructions for ,youth 4441 by ,sir ,w4 ,raleigh1 etc41 ,london1 #agbb1 p4 #ej4 #eic ,who founded the ,english seminary at ,douay4 #eid ,see entries in ,cal4 of ,state ,papers4 #eie ,march #be1 #afja 7,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afja-afjc1 p4 #ah74 #eif ,correspondence with ,hubert ,languet1 #aiab1 p4 #baf4 #eig ,letter dated ,september #a1 #afca 7,j4 ,forster1 ,sir ,john ,eliot1 a ,biography1 ,london1 #ahfd1 i4 pp4 #af1 #ag74 #eih ,j4 ,howell1 ,instructions for ,forreine ,travel1 #afdb 7ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi71 p4 #ai4 #eii #afef1 p4 #ajb4 #fjj ,spence's ,anecdotes1 #ahbj1 p4 #ahd2 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #fja ,a ,dialogue concerning ,education1 in ,miscellaneous ,works1 ,london1 #agea1 pp4 #cac et seq4 #fjb ,cp4 ,entries of ,passports1 in the ,cal4 ,state ,papers4 ,the necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the traveller was himself ignorant of languages 7,the ,gentleman's ,companion1 by a ,person of ,quality1 #afgb1 p4 #ee74 #fjc ,gailhard1 ,the ,compleat ,gentleman1 #afgh1 p4 #af4 #fjd ,gailhard1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ai1 #bj4 ,a gentleman1 he thinks1 should be sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course4 #fje ,some ,thoughts on ,education1 #afic4 #fjf ,walker1 ,of ,education1 especially of ,young ,gentlemen1 #afii1 #fth ed4 #fjg ,notes on ,ben ,jonson's ,conversations with ,william ,drummond of ,hawthornden 7#afai71 ,shakespeare ,soc41 #ahdb1 pp4 #ba1 #dg4 #fjh ,autobiography1 ed4 ,sir ,sidney ,lee 7#bnd ed41 #aijf71 p4 #ef4 #fji ,memoirs of ,sir ,john ,reresby1 ed4 ,j4 ,j4 ,cartwright1 #ahge1 p4 #bf4 #faj ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #faa ,addison was well acquainted with ,french literature and criticism4 ,he frequently quotes ,boileau1 ,racine1 ,corneille1 and also ,bouhours and ,lebossu4 ,his ,tragedy of ,cato is closely modelled on the ,french pattern4 ,see ,a4 ,beljame1 ,le ,public et les hommes de lettres en ,angleterre au #ah;e sicle1 #ahig1 p4 #caf4 #fab ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family1 #ahib1 iii4 p4 #cf4 #fac ,the ,correspondence of ,philip ,sidney and ,hubert ,languet1 ed4 ,w4 ,a4 ,bradly 7,boston1 #aiab71 p4 #bf4 #fad ,savile ,correspondence1 ,camden ,soc41 #aheh1 pp4 #acc1 #ach4 ,o4 ,walker1 in his ,of ,education1 differs from other writers in proposing that young gentlemen should travel without a governor4 #fae ,in the same category may be placed the ,traveiles of ,jerome ,turler1 a native of ,saxony1 whose work was translated into ,english in the year of its appearance 7#aege74 ,it was specially intended for the use of students4 #faf ,t4 ,palmer1 ,essay on the ,means of making our ,travels into ,forran ,countries more ,profitable and ,honourable1 #afjf2 ,t4 ,overbury1 ,observations in his ,travels1 #afji 7,france and the ,low ,countries74 ,william ,bourne's ,treasure for ,travellers 7,london1 #aegh7 has no bearing on travel from the language point of view4 ,of special interest are ,dallington's ,method for ,travell1 shewed by taking the ,view of ,france as it stoode in the ,yeare of our ,lorde #aeih1 ,london 7#afjf871 and his ,view of ,france1 ,london1 #afjd4 ,other works are ,a ,direction for ,english ,travellers1 licensed for printing in #afce 7,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 iv4 #cdc72 ,neal's ,direction to ,travel1 #afdc2 ,bacon's ,essay on ,travel1 #afbe2 ,howell's ,instructions for ,forreine ,travel1 #afbd4 #fag ,the versatile master of the ceremonies to ,charles ,i41 ,sir ,balthazar ,gerbier1 wrote his ,subsidium ,peregrinantibus or an ,assistance to a ,traveller in his convers with--#a4 ,hollanders4 #b4 ,germans4 #c4 ,venetians4 #d4 ,italians4 #e4 ,spaniards4 #f4 ,french 7#affe71 in the first place as a vade mecum for a princely traveller1 the unfortunate ,duke of ,monmouth4 ,it claimed to give directions for travel1 after the latest mode4 ,cp4 also ,a direction for travailers taken by ,sir ,j4 ,s4 7,sir ,john ,stradling7 out of 7the ,epistola de ,peregrinatione ,italica of7 ,j4 ,lipsius1 etc41 ,london4 #aeib4 #fah ,list in ,watt's ,bibliographia ,britannia1 #ahbd 7heading ,education72 and in ,cambridge ,history of ,english ,literature1 ix4 ch4 xv4 7,bibliography74 #fai ,method for ,travell1 #aeih1 and ,view of ,france1 #afjd4 #fbj ,the constant warnings against mixing with ,englishmen abroad show how numerous the latter must have been4 ,he that beyond seas frequents his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand--language1 wrote ,francis ,osborne in his ,advice to a ,son 7#afef74 #fba ,as did ,lord ,lincoln1 who sees no ,english1 rails at ,england1 and admires ,france4 #fbb ,itinerary1 #afag4 #fbc ,bacon1 ,essay on ,travel1 #afbe4 #fbd ,gailhard1 op4 cit4 p4 #dh4 #fbe ,s4 ,penton4 ,new ,instructions to the ,guardian1 #afid1 p4 #ajd4 #fbf ,cp4 ,entries of passports to ,france in the ,calendar of ,state ,papers4 #fbg ,positions1 #aeha4 #fbh ,it appears from a deleted note in the ,,ms4 of ,defoe's ,compleat ,english ,gentleman that travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons 7ed4 ,k4 ,blbring1 ,london1 #ahij74 #fbi ,french ,alphabet1 #aeib3 ,car la plus part de ceux qui vont en ,france apprennent par routine1 sans reigles1 et sans art1 de sorte qu'il leur est impossible d'apprendre1 sinon avec une grande longueur de temps4 ,au contraire ceux qui apprennent en ,angleterre1 s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode1 il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en bref4 ,d'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le franois qu'on apprend en ,france par routine4 ,car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons4 ,ceux qui apprennent du vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement 4 4 4 d'un franois corrompu4 ,au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres1 parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent3 or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont le plus pur et naif franois 7bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres72 il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement 7comme j'ay dict7 que les autres4 #fcj ,wodroeph1 ,spared houres of a souldier1 #afbc4 #fca ,livet1 ,la ,grammaire franaise et les grammairiens au #af;e sicle1 #ahei1 p4 #b4 #fcb ,in linguam gallicam ,isagoge1 #aeca4 #fcc ,le ,trait touchant le commun usage de l'escriture franoise1 #aedb1 #aede2 cp4 ,livet1 op4 cit4 pp4 #di sqq4 #fcd ,gallicae linguae institutio ,latino sermone conscripta 7#aeej1 #aeea1 #aeee1 #aeeh1 etc474 #fce ,institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae 7#aeeh1 #aehj1 #aeia1 #aeic74 #fcf ,dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion franoese1 departi en deus livres1 #aeee4 #fcg ,j'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise1 plus de biens et d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation ,angloise que de nul aultre4 #fch ,villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of ,french4 ,from the age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors4 #fci ,reliquiae ,wottonianae1 ,london1 #afeg1 p4 #gf4 #fdj #ab1 pp4 #chf4 #fda ,etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre1 ,employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin1 ,que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin1 ,viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre4 #fdb ,it differs from ,les ,desguisez1 a comedy written by ,godard in #aeid4 #fdc ,e4 ,winkler1 ,la ,doctrine grammaticale d'aprs ,maupas et ,oudin1 in ,beihefte zur ,zeitschrift fr romanische ,philologie1 ,heft #ch1 #aiab4 #fdd ,towards the end of his career1 ,oudin was appointed to teach ,louis ,,xiv4 ,spanish and ,italian2 he was the author of several manuals for teaching these languages1 and it is worthy of note that sometimes the ,german language is included4 #fde ,printed with ,nicot's edition of ,aimar de ,ranconnet's ,thresor de la langue franoyse1 ,paris1 #afjf4 #fdf ,garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues1 published in ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german in #afef4 #fdg ,lettres sur les ,anglais et sur les ,franais 7end of seventeenth century71 #agbe1 p4 #cje4 #fdh ,another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers was ,le vray orthographe franois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain1 correct et parfait a bien parler franois1 tres utile et necessaire tant aux franois qu'estrangers4 ,par le sieur de ,palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy4 #afjh4 #fdi ,gailhard1 op4 cit4 p4 #cc4 #fej ,method for ,travell1 #aeih4 #fea ,records of the ,english ,catholics1 i4 pp4 #bge et sqq42 ,f4 ,c4 ,petre1 ,english ,colleges and ,convents established on the ,continent 4441 ,norwich1 #ahdi2 ,g4 ,cardon1 ,la ,fondation de l',universit de ,douai1 ,paris1 #ahjb4 #feb ,cp4 p4 #cdc infra4 #fec ,cp4 account by ,m4 ,nicolas1 in ,bulletin de la socit de l',histoire du ,protestantisme ,franais1 iv4 pp4 #ejc sqq4 and pp4 #ehb sqq4 ,twenty-five such colleges are named4 #fed ,bulletin1 i4 p4 #cja2 ii4 pp4 #dc1 #cjc1 #ced sqq42 also articles in vols4 iii41 iv41 v41 vi41 ix41 and ,bourchenin's tudes sur les ,acadmies ,protestantes4 #fee ,suppressed as early as #afbj4 #fef ,driven from ,scotland1 in many cases1 by ,james ,i4's attempt to introduce the ,english ,liturgy into the ,scottish churches4 ,robert ,monteith1 author of the ,histoire des ,troubles de la ,grande ,bretagne1 was professor of philosophy at ,saumur for four years 7,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog474 #feg ,he composed in ,french ,a faithful and familiar exposition of ,ecclesiastes1 ,geneva1 #aeeg2 cp4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #feh ,cp4 ,nicolas1 ,histoire de l'ancienne ,acadmie de ,montauban1 ,montauban1 #ahhe4 #fei ,there was an early ,academy at ,lausanne which emigrated to ,geneva and assured the latter's success 7#aeei72 cp4 ,h4 ,vuilleumier1 ,l',acadmie de ,lausanne1 ,lausanne1 #ahia4 #ffj ,essai de remarques particulires sur la langue franoise pour la ville de ,genve1 #afia4 ,quoted by ,borgeaud1 ,histoire de l',universit de ,genve1 #aijj1 p4 #dde4 #ffa ,c4 ,borgeaud1 op4 cit4 #ffb ,they were united at ,nmes in #afag1 and finally suppressed in #afdd4 #ffc ,pattison1 ,isaac ,casaubon1 ,oxford1 #ahib1 pp4 #dj-db1 #aee4 ,on the ,english at ,geneva1 cp4 ibid4 p4 #bj4 #ffd ,autobiography1 ed4 ,sir ,s4 ,lee 7#bnd ed41 #aijf71 p4 #ef4 #ffe ,t4 ,scot1 ,philomythie1 ,london1 #afbb4 #fff ,satyra 7addressed to ,ben ,jonson71 #afjh4 ,poems of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 ed4 ,j4 ,churton ,collins1 ,london1 #ahha4 #ffg ,henry ,,viii41 ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #c4 #ffh ,a4 ,t4 ,thomson1 ,memoirs of the ,court of ,henry ,,viii41 ,london1 #ahbf1 i4 p4 #bei4 #ffi ,epigram by ,sir ,th4 ,more3 translated from ,latin by ,j4 ,h4 ,marsden1 ,philomorus1 #bnd ed41 #ahgh1 p4 #bbb4 #fgj ,english ,monsieur3 ,works1 ,london1 #ahge1 viii4 p4 #aij4 ,cp4 other satires and epigrams of the time3 ,hall1 ,satires1 lib4 iii4 satire #g2 ,skialetheia1 #aeih1 ,no4 #bg2 ,h4 ,parrot1 ,laquei1 #afac1 ,no4 #bjg2 ,scourge of ,villanie1 ed4 ,grosart1 #ahgi1 p4 #aeh4 #fga ,h4 ,glapthorne1 ,the ,ladies' ,privilege1 ,plays and ,poems1 #ahgd1 ii4 pp4 #ha sqq4 ,it was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to live like a king1 teaching tongues 7,t4 ,scot1 ,philomythie1 #afbb74 #fgb #aeaj8 ,colophon3 ,here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt4 ,emprinted at ,london in the ,flete ,st4 at the sygne of the sonne by ,wynkyn de ,worde4 ,alex4 ,barclay1 ,andrew ,borde1 ,skelton and others1 all satirize the mania for ,french fashions4 ,every opportunity of getting the latest ,french fashion was eagerly seized4 ,thus ,lady ,lisle1 wife of ,henry ,,viii4's deputy at ,calais1 constantly sent her friends in ,england articles of dress such as the ,french ladies wear 7,letters and ,papers of the ,reign of ,henry ,,viii41 i4 #chib74 ,moryson says the ,english are more light than the lightest ,french4 #fgc ,purchas1 ,pilgrimes1 #afbe4 #fgd ,sylvester1 ,lacrymae ,lacrymarum3 ,works 7ed4 ,grosart71 ii4 p4 #bgh4 #fge ,sir ,t4 ,overbury1 ,characters1 #afad3 ,the ,affected ,traveller4 #fgf ,george ,pettie1 ,civile ,conversation1 #aehf 7preface to translation of ,guazzo's work74 #fgg ,as ,you ,like ,it1 ,act ,,iv4 ,sc4 #a4 #fgh ,nash1 ,pierce ,pennilesse1 quoted by ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,the ,english ,novel in the ,time of ,shakespeare1 #ahii1 p4 #cbb4 #fgi ,wilson1 ,arte of ,rhetorique 7#aeec71 ed4 ,g4 ,h4 ,mair1 #aiji1 p4 #afb4 #fhj ,hall1 ,quo ,vadis1 #afag4 #fha ,humphrey1 ,the ,nobles or of ,nobilitye1 ,london1 #aefc4 #fhb ,overbury1 ,characters1 #afad4 #fhc ,the ,unfortunate ,traveller 7#aehg71 ,works1 ed4 ,mc,kerrow1 ii4 p4 #cjj4 #fhd ,letters 7#afah71 ed4 ,warner1 ,epistolary ,curiosities1 #ahah1 p4 #c4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french ,,among ,,merchants ,,and ,,soldiers ,merchants1 always a very important and influential class in ,england1 claim a place by the side of the higher classes as learners of ,french4 ,they were continually in need of foreign languages1 and ,french was certainly the most useful1 and1 for those trading with ,france and the ,netherlands1 quite indispensable4 ,as to their own language1 we are told that when ,english merchants were out of ,england it liketh them not1 and they do not use it4#fhe ,those sons of gentlemen and others who wished to engage in trade were usually apprenticed to merchants4 ,for instance1 ,sir ,william ,petty 7b4 #afbc7 first went to school where he got a smattering of ,latin and ,greek1 and1 at the age of twelve1 was bound apprentice to a sea captain4 ,at fifteen he went to ,caen in ,normandy aboard a merchant vessel1 and began to trade there with such success that he managed to maintain and educate himself4 ,he learnt ,french and perfected himself in ,latin1 and had enough ,greek to serve his turn4 ,thence he travelled to ,paris and studied anatomy4#fhf ,sylvester1 no doubt1 had many opportunities of putting to the test the ,french he first learnt in ,saravia's school when later in life he became a merchant adventurer4 ,it appears that many merchants belonged to the class of travellers who picked up the language abroad by mixing with those who spoke it4 ,fynes ,moryson accuses merchants1 women1 and children of neglecting any serious study of languages and rushing into rash practice4 ,they doe many times1 he admits1 pronounce the tongue and speake common speeches more gracefully than others1 but they seldome write the tongue well1 and alwaies forget it in short time1 wanting the practice4 ,the many practical little manuals of conversation which had appeared in the ,middle ,ages1 and the litle pages set in print without rules or precepts which succeeded them1 would certainly encourage this rushing into rash practice2 such1 indeed1 was their aim4 ,the majority of merchants acquired their ,french1 we may be sure1 either by the help of such little handbooks1 intended to be learnt by heart1 or simply by ear4 ,dialogues for merchants are provided in almost all ,french text-books of the time1 giving phrases for buying and selling and enquiring the way4 ,barclay describes his grammar 7#aeba7 as particularly useful to merchants4 ,there was1 moreover1 a very popular little book specially intended for that class--,a plaine pathway to the ,french ,tongue1 very profitable for ,marchants and also all other which desire the same1 aptly devided into nineteen chapters1 which appeared first in #aege1 and in at least one1#fhg and probably several other editions4#fhh ,the aim of the book would explain how it has come about that only one copy has survived the wear and tear of the demands made upon it4 ,again ,james ,howell dedicated his edition of ,cotgrave's dictionary 7#afej7 to the nobility and gentry1 and to the merchant adventurers as well ,english as the worthy company of ,dutch here resident and others to whom the language is necessary for commerce and foren correspondence4 ,books such as those of ,holyband and ,du ,ploich were written for the use of the middle class1 and1 no doubt1 for merchants also2 and a later writer1 ,john ,wodroeph1 describes his collection of common phrases as more profitable for the merchants than for the loathsome curtier who cannot digest such coarse meats4 ,dutch merchants are mentioned by ,howell in the dedication of ,cotgrave's dictionary1 and the close relations1 existing between ,england and the ,netherlands in the time of ,elizabeth1 possibly account for the fact that the ,netherlanders took some part in instructing the ,english1 chiefly merchants1 in the ,french tongue4 ,it has already been seen how unfavourably the ,huguenot teachers in ,england criticized their fellow-teachers of ,french from the ,low ,countries1 and we are not surprised to find that the latter contented themselves with teaching the language orally1 and avoided the risk of committing their views to paper4 ,header3 ,,french ,,text-,,books ,,for ,,merchants ,in the ,netherlands1 however1 no such compunction was felt1 and some manuals composed there made their way to ,england4 ,at an early date one was reprinted in ,london4 ,holyband1 the chief of the group of ,huguenot teachers1 was quickly up in arms against it4 ,je ne diray rien1 he writes in #aegc1 d'un nouveau livre venu d',anvers1 et dernierement imprim ,londres1 cause que1 ne gardant ryme ne raison1 soit en son parler1 phrase1 orthographe1 maniere de converser et communiquer entre gens d'estat2 et cependant qu'il pindarise en son iargon il monstre de quel cru il est sorti1 que si nos chartiers d',orleans1 ,bourges ou de ,bloys avoyent oui gazouiller l'autheur d'icelluy1 ilz le renvoyeroient bailler entre ses geais1 apres luy avoir donn cinquante coups de leur fouet sur ses chines4 ,let this writer teach his jargon to the ,flemings1 the ,burgundians1 and the people of ,hainault2 it is a true saying that a good ,burgundian was never a good ,frenchman4 ,lesquelles choses consideres1 concludes the irate ,holyband1 i'espere que l'autheur de ce beau livre ne nous contraindra point de manger ses glands1 ayans trouv le pur froment4 ,what was this book newly come from ,antwerp8 ,probably an edition of a very popular collection of phrases and conversations1 written originally in ,french and ,flemish in the early years of the sixteenth century1 by a schoolmaster of ,antwerp1 ,noel de ,barlement or ,barlaiment4#fhi ,by the middle of the century the work had appeared in four languages4 ,in #aeef it was printed at ,louvain in ,flemish1 ,french1 ,latin1 and ,spanish1 and in #aefe it appeared at ,antwerp in ,flemish1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4 ,in #aeeg a ,london printer1 ,edward ,sutton1 received licence to print a boke intituled ,italian1 ,frynshe1 ,englesshe and ,laten1#fij and in #aefh a boke intituled ,frynsche1 ,englysshe and ,duche was licensed to ,john ,alde4#fia ,both of these volumes1 we may safely conclude1 were adaptations of the ,flemish handbook1 and either may have been the book from ,anvers reviled by ,holyband4 ,another ,english edition of the work was issued in #aegh1 a few years after ,holyband's attack1 by ,george ,bishop1 who received licence to print a ,dictionarie colloques ou dialogues en quattre langues1 ,fflamen1 ,ffranoys1 ,espaignol et ,italien1 with the ,englishe to be added thereto4#fib ,this vocabulary of ,barlement probably enjoyed considerable popularity in ,england in its foreign editions also4 ,it was widely used by ,english merchants and travellers after it had been adapted to their use by the addition of ,english to its columns2 and they would1 no doubt1 bring copies back with them from the ,netherlands4 ,the earliest edition in which ,english has a place was probably that of #aegf1 entitled ,colloques or ,dialogues avec un ,dictionaire en six langues1 ,flamen1 ,anglois1 ,alleman1 ,franois1 ,espagnol et ,italien4 ,tres util a tous ,marchands ou autres de quelque estat qu'ils soyent1 le tout avec grande diligence et labeur corrig et mis ensemble4 ,a ,anvers #aegf4 ,by the end of the century a seventh and finally an eighth language were added4 ,there are copies of two further editions of the work issued in ,england in the first half of the seventeenth century4 ,the first included four languages and appeared in #afcg1 under the title of ,the ,english ,french,latine ,dutch ,scholemaster or an introduction to teach young ,gentlemen and ,merchants to travell or trade4 ,being the only helpe to attaine to those languages4 ,it was printed for ,michael ,sparke1 who issued another edition in eight languages in #afci as ,new ,dialogues or colloquies or a little ,dictionary of eight languages4 ,a ,booke very necessary for all those that study these tongues either at home or abroad1 now perfected and made fit for travellers1 young merchants and seamen1 especially those that desire to attain to the use of the ,tongues4 ,michael ,sparke recommends the convenience of this portable little volume3 ,and if parents use to send their children beyond the sea to learne the language and to gaine the learning of forraine nations1 judge what may be said of the benefit of this booke 7,i had almost said of the necessity of it7 which being read doth by daily experience furnish the ,reader with a full and perfect knowledge of divers tongues4 ,he also tells you in your eare that since the worke has been published in ,england and the ,netherlands1 not so perfect an edition has appeared4 ,turning to the contents of the little handbook1 we are at once struck by the close resemblance between its dialogues and those of the ,french text-books produced in ,england--still further evidence of the use of the book in our country4 ,header3 ,,the ,,dialogues ,,of ,,barlement ,its contents1 which in all the varied forms in which it appeared are fundamentally the same1 are divided into two parts4 ,the first consists of four chapters1 and opens with table talk very similar to that of the ,english-,french dialogues1 especially those of ,du ,ploich4 ,there is a passage1 for example1 in which the schoolboy speaks of his school1 found in varying form in several of the early manuals produced in ,england3 ,peter is that your son8 ,pierre est cela vostre filz8 ,ye it is my sonne4 ,ouy c'est mon filz4 ,it is a goodly child4 ,c'est un bel enfant4 ,god let him alwayes ,dieu le laisse tousiours prosper in vertue4 prosperer en bien4 ,i thanke you cousen4 ,je vous remercie cousin4 ,doth he not goe to schoole8 ,ne va-il point a l'escole8 ,yes1 he learneth to speake ,french4 ,ouy1 il apprend a parler ,franois4 ,doth he8 ,fait-il8 ,it is very well done4 ,c'est tres bien fait4 ,john can you ,jean savez vous bien speake good ,french8 parler franois8 ,not very well1 cousen1 ,ne point fort bien1 mon cousin1 but ,i learne4 mais ie l'apprends4 ,where go you to schoole8 ,ou allez vous a l'escole8 ,in the ,lombarde ,street4 ,en la rue de ,lombarts4 ,have you gone ,avez vous longuement long to schoole8 all l'escole8 ,about halfe a yeare4 ,environ un demy an4 ,learn you also to write8 ,apprenez vous aussi a escrire8 ,yea1 cousen4 ,ouy1 mon cousin4 ,that is well done1 ,c'est bien fait1 learne alwayes well4 apprenez tousiours4 ,well cousen1 if it please ,god4 ,bien mon cousin1 s'il plait a ,dieu4 ,the second chapter deals with buying and selling2 the third with counting1 demanding payment of debts1 and so on2 and the fourth gives specimens of commercial letters and documents4 ,the second part contains an alphabetical vocabulary of common words1 followed by directions for reading and speaking ,french1 in the guise of a slight grammar4 ,a few rules for pronunciation and the different parts of speech are accompanied by advice to seek fuller information in other ,french grammars4 ,then come a few rules for the other languages--,italian1 ,spanish1 and ,flemish4 ,so popular was this handbook in ,england that it was reprinted without much alteration1 and no modernization1 at the beginning of the nineteenth century3 ,the ,dialogues in six languages ,latin1 ,french1 ,german1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,english1 appeared at ,shrewsbury in #ahjh4 ,we are informed that this book contains common forms of speach1 one being a literal translation of the other1 and as near as the idiom of the language will bear1 so that they correspond almost word for word1 and will be found extremely useful for beginners4 ,the second part of the work1 although mentioned in the table of contents1 is omitted4 ,a similar polyglot manual1 which was probably less well known in ,england1 was the ,vocabulaire de six langues1 ,latin1 ,franois1 ,espagniol1 ,italien1 ,anglois et ,aleman1 printed at ,venice1 probably in #aedj--;an enlarged edition of a vocabulary in five languages 7,antwerp1 #aecd1 and ,venice1 #aecg7 in which ,english had no place4 ,this handbook passed through several other editions1#fic and no doubt became fairly well known in ,england through the intermediary of the numerous ,italian merchants who came to ,london1 and the ,english traders and travellers visiting ,italy2 editions which appeared at ,rouen in #afaa and #afbe would also be easily obtainable4 ,the dictionary is described as a very useful vocabulary for those who wish to learn without going to school--artisans1 women1 and especially merchants4 ,the first part consists of a vocabulary1 arranged under fifty-five headings1 dealing with the usual subjects1 beginning with the heavens2 the second contains a list of verbs1 nouns1 adjectives1 adverbs1 and pronouns1 together with a collection of phrases and idioms4 ,the interesting dialogue of the ,flemish vocabulary is lacking4 ,in the second half of the sixteenth century there lived at ,antwerp a language master1 ,gabriel ,meurier1 who counted many ,english among his pupils4 ,meurier was a native of ,avesnes in ,hainault1 where he was born in about #aecj4 ,but for many years he taught languages--,french1 ,spanish1 ,flemish1 and ,italian--at ,antwerp1 which had by this time supplanted ,bruges as the chief trading centre of the ,low ,countries4 ,his pupils were largely merchants1 and his first work on the language1 the ,grammaire franoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte ,langue1 #aeeg1fid was dedicated to ,messeigneurs et ,maistres1 les gouverneurs et marchans ,anglois4 ,header3 ,,gabriel ,,meurier ,in #aefc was issued at ,antwerp another work specially for the use of the ,english--,familiare communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the ,inglishe nation desirous and nedinge the ffrench language1 dedicated to his most honoured lord1 ,john ,marsh1 governor of the ,english nation1 and intended for the use of ,marchands1 ,facteurs1 ,apprentifs1 and others of the ,english nation4 ,these dialogues on subjects specially useful to merchants are divided into seventeen chapters1 giving familiar talk for the members of the different trades with lists of their merchandise1 directions for travellers1 the names of different artisans and tradesmen1 instructions for collecting debts1 receiving money and writing receipts4 ,meurier teaches his pupils the words used daily by merchants at the ,exchange1 and then the degrees of kinship1 numbers1 coins1 the days and feast days1 the parts of the body and clothing1 food and table talk1 and1 finally1 commercial notes and letters4#fie ,another edition of the book was published at ,rouen in #afda1 being intended1 in this case1 to teach both ,french and ,english4 ,the title given to it was ,a treatise for to learne to speake ,frenshe and ,englishe together with a form of making letters1 indentures1 and obligations1 quittances1 letters of exchange1 verie necessarie for all ,marchants that do occupy trade or marchandise4 ,meurier also composed numerous other books which have no direct bearing on the teaching of ,french to ,englishmen4 ,they were almost all written for the use of merchants1 whom they sought to instruct in ,french and ,flemish1 and sometimes in ,spanish and ,italian as well4 ,that the ,english were always in the author's mind is shown by the fact that he sometimes explains pronunciation by comparison with ,english sounds4 ,he also did important lexicographical work4 ,he prepared ,french-,flemish vocabularies in #aefb and #aeff1 and in #aehd his ,french-,flemish ,dictionary was published at ,anvers4 ,this dictionary is said to have been one of the sources which helped ,cotgrave to compile his famous work1 and ,meurier seems to have outdone the later writer in collecting rare and obsolete words4#fif ,there were thus many faculties for learning ,french in the ,netherlands4 ,francis ,osborne wrote regarding the study of ,french abroad3#fig for the place ,i say ,france1 if you have a purse1 else some town in the ,netherlands or ,flanders1 that is wholesome and safe3 where the ,french may be attained with little more difficulty then at ,paris1 neither are the humours of the people so very remote from your owne4 ,thus the ,netherlanders taught ,french to the ,english both in their own country#fih and in ,england4 ,the connexion was a long-standing one4 ,caxton had taken his ,french and ,english ,dialogues from a ,flemish text-book1 and in later times1 as has been seen1 ,flemish works were published in ,england1 and had some influence on the dialogues of the ,english manuals of ,french4 ,the debt1 however1 was not all on one side4 ,holyband's ,french ,schoolemaister1 for instance1 was adapted to the use of ,flemings and printed at ,rotterdam in #afjf1fii and in #afdg was published at the end of the ,grammaire flamende et franoise 7,rouen7 of ,jan ,louis d',arsy4 ,moreover1 the grammar of the seventeenth-century ,french teacher whose popularity equalled that of ,holyband in the sixteenth century--,claude ,mauger--was published in the ,low ,countries at the same time as in ,england4 ,another link between the teaching of ,french in the ,netherlands and in ,england is found in the book by ,john ,wodroeph--an interesting figure among teachers of ,french4 ,he spent many years in the ,netherlands1 and in his ,french text-book he adapted what he called his court and country dialogues from some ,french-,flemish ones written for the instruction of the ,court of ,nassau in the former language4 ,writing of the importance of a knowledge of ,french1 he emphasises its usefulness to the nobility4 ,but1 he adds1 it is still more profitable to merchants1 for1 excepting ,latin1 it is the most widely used language in ,christendom1 and1 si j'osoye dire1 much more useful4 ,wodroeph was a soldier1 and soldiers1 like merchants1 gave much impetus to the study of ,french4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,military ,,circles ,in ,barlement's book of dialogues1 soldiers are ranked with merchants1 travellers1 and courtiers as those to whom the knowledge of languages is most necessary3 soit que quelcun face merchandise ou qu'il hante la court1 ou qu'il suive la guerre1 ou qu'il aille par villes et champs4 ,the wars raging almost incessantly in ,france and the ,low ,countries attracted numbers of ,englishmen4 ,the army was an opening for younger sons1 and so ,some to the wars to try their fortunes there4 ,judging from the epigrams and satires of the time1 the swaggering gallant home from the wars was a familiar figure in ,london4 ,this sworded and martial beau is ,he that salutes each gallant he doth meete ,with farewell sweet captaine fond heart adieu2 one who hath served long in ,france1 ,and is returned filthy full of ,french1 and who1 at night when leaving the inn1 thinking still he had been sentinell of warlike ,brill1 crys out que va la8 ,zounds que8 and stabs the drawer with his ,syringe straw4#gjj ,those who were moved by the spirit of adventure and liked the picturesque crowded to the camp of ,henry ,,iv4 of ,france who counted many admirers in this country4 ,one of these1 ,dudley ,carleton1 afterwards ,lord ,dorchester1 writes from the king's camp in #aeif that he is busy studying ,french1 though ,mars leaves little room for ,mercury4 ,later he perfected his knowledge by studying at ,paris1 and wrote thence to ,john ,chamberlain1 the letter writer1 to tell him how one ,sir ,john ,brooke1 with ,coppinger1 a ,kentish gentleman1 lately come to learn the language1 are the logs in our ,french school4#gja ,unfortunately we have no more details of this little group of ,englishmen studying ,french at ,paris4 ,one of the ,englishmen who served in ,normandy in #aeia with the troops sent by ,queen ,elizabeth to help ,henry ,,iv4 against the ,league kept a daily journal from the #acth of ,august till the #bdth of ,december following4#gjb ,this soldier1 ,sir ,thomas ,coningsby1 a friend of ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 acted as muster master to the ,english detachment1 and was in frequent intercourse with ,henry before ,rouen4 ,an interesting example of how the army and service abroad offered opportunities for the study of ,french is found in the memoirs of the ,verney family4 ,the three younger sons of ,sir ,edmund ,verney 7#aeij-afdb7 all became soldiers4 ,tom took service in the army of ,france1 while ,edmund 7#afaf-afdi71 after studying at ,oxford1 joined the army of the ,states in ,flanders 7#afdj74 ,when in winter quarters at ,utrecht1 he made up for his former idleness1 and studied for seven or eight hours a day for many months to improve his knowledge of ,french and ,latin4 ,his ,frenchman1 he writes to tell his father1 is the same that was ,sir ,humphry ,sidenham's2 he warrants ,i shall speak it perfectly before we draw into the field1 and truly1 ,i am confident ,i shall4#gjc ,he was reading ,plutarch's ,lives in ,french4 ,edmund was soon after killed in the ,civil ,war4 ,his younger brother1 ,harry1 was intended from his youth for a soldier1 and early sent to ,paris to study ,french4 ,there he seems to have spoilt his ,english without making any very rapid progress in ,french1 for ,french grammar had a powerful rival in horses and dogs--his chief interest in life4 ,pleade for me in my behalfe to my father1 he implores his eldest brother1 if ,i have not write in french so well as he expects1 but howsoever1 ,i presume a line to testifie some little knowledge in the same1 and hope in time to expresse myselfe more radier1 as the old proverbe is 444 il fault du temps pour apprendre4 ,harry ,verney later took part in the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and was present at the recapture of ,breda by the ,prince of ,orange in #afcg4gjd ,it was during the ,thirty ,years' ,war also that ,john ,wodroeph served in the ,netherlands4 ,he tells us in #afbc that he had been following the uncertaine warres for these seven years past4 ,during this period of service1 by the spared dayes and houres of 7his7 watch and guarde1 he composed a book for teaching ,french1 to which he gave the title of ,the ,spared ,houres of a ,souldier in his travells or ,the true ,marrowe of the ,french tongue4 ,it was printed at ,dort1 near ,rotterdam1 in #afbc1 and dedicated to the ,prince of ,wales1 afterwards ,charles ,i4 ,wodroeph was a gentleman1 and we gather from the interest he shows in ,scotland that he hailed from that country4 ,header3 ,,john ,,wodroeph ,at both the beginning and the end of his book are several poems of all sorts dedicated to courtiers who had followed ,james from ,scotland to ,england--the ,duke of ,lennox1 ,earl ,ramsey1 ,james1 ,lord of ,hay1 and others4 ,he also addresses the ,elector ,palatine and his queen1 ,elizabeth1 ,james ,i4's daughter4 ,many other poems1 some in ,french and some in ,english1 are written in honour of the ,lords of the ,states-,general and of sundry ,flemish gentlemen4 ,all these give this work1 written in the midst of the ,british army abroad1 a strong local colour4 ,in addition1 ,wodroeph wrote poems to celebrate the virtues and learning of numerous ,scottish and ,english officers--,colonel ,william ,brog1 ,colonel ,robert ,henderson1 ,captain ,roger ,orme1 ,captain ,edwards1 ,captain ,drummond1 and ,john ,monteith1 his very kind captain4 ,to many of these and other sons of gentlemen ,wodroeph had taught ,french1 when his military duties permitted1 and he mentions ,captain ,drummond as being among his most enthusiastic pupils4 ,he also addresses lines to his very good friend ,john ,cameron1 the ,scotch theologian and the minister of the ,french ,church at ,bordeaux1 one of the many ,scotchmen who held important scholastic positions in ,france4 ,these verses must have been written between #afjh and #afag1 the period when ,cameron was at ,bordeaux4 ,later ,cameron became professor of divinity at ,saumur and ,montauban4 ,he spoke ,french with unusual purity1 and also wrote some of his theological treatises in ,french4#gje ,apart from its martial atmosphere1 this curious volume has also a strong ,calvinistic flavour1 another indication of ,wodroeph's ,scottish sympathies4 ,he wrote many godly songs in ,french1 to be sung to various psalm tunes1 and even introduced the spirit into his grammar itself4 ,his verbs are truly formed and constructed after the order of ,geneva1 which retaineth alwaies entirely the true marrow1 method and rules of verbs1 or any other part of speech1 both in their ,bibles1 ,psalms1 and other godly books3 forsaking all new corruptions1 of poets1 and other vaine toyes1 threatening to deface the old authority of the ,orthographie4 ,moreover1 a godly gentleman1 maister ,john ,douglas1 minister of the ,word of ,god to the ,english and ,scotch troopers within ,utrecht1 persuaded him to undertake the translation into ,french of ,sir ,william ,alexander's ,doomesday1 which at this date embraced four books or houres1 subsequently extended to twelve4 ,doomesday1 thought ,wodroeph1 would be greatly liked of in ,france1 yea1 even as well as a second ,du ,bartas4 ,he was1 however1 unable to complete his task1 finding the style so excellent and so high1 and also somewhat harsh1 to agree with ,french verse1 because that our ,english tongue 7and chiefly by this extraordinary poet7 can affoorde more sense and matter with ten of its syllables than ever ,i have been able to construe with twelve or thirteen of the ,french4 ,therefore ,i was constrained to leave it off1 partly for want of tyme and commoditie1 and partly that it was so constrained4 ,the one ',houre' he completed was included in his book1 with an apology and the expression of the hope that any kind ,french poet would end out the rest1 and also help these few rude lines which are translated in haste out of his week and shallow braine4 ,wodroeph wrote ,french1 both verse and prose1 with remarkable ease4 ,in addition to the poems already mentioned1 there are many others scattered through his works4 ,one of these1 ,chanson ,spirituelle de la vie des vertueux hommes1 is written to the tune of ,desportes' song1 ,o nuit1 jalouse nuit1 contre moy conjure4 ,he tells us that whenever possible he used ,french in correspondence in preference to ,english4 ,he spoke the language with equal fluency1 and assures us that he did so with greater facility than ,english4 ,he had not acquired this mastery of the language without much study1 but by many cold winter nights sitting at it1 and by much practice4 ,he appears to have been fairly widely read in ,french literature1 and shared the admiration felt by many of his countrymen for ,du ,bartas and the ,quatrains of ,pibrac4 ,thus ,wodroeph was perfectly conscious of the many difficulties offered by the ,french language1 and censured in strong terms those who pretend to teach it in a short space of time4 ,i have shamefully heard say a teacher 7in my tyme7 that he could give rules1 that any might read and write and understand the ,french language in six weeks4 ,o what a weake ground should hee build therein6 ,yea not in sixteene months1 hee and his gentle teaching6 ,unlesse he dazell his eyes much1 and straine his memory out of her limits4 ,header3 ,,method ,,of ,,study ,at an earlier date1 ,holyband had deplored the existence of the many thornie and inepte bookes claiming to give a knowledge of the language1 and ,wodroeph1 in his turn1 shows the small esteem in which he held the many small wares by which it is impossible to prove a good speaker4 ,he had seen very many treatises on verbs1 confused 7for want of space71 confusing those who read them1 and so many pamphlets and books making believe by wordes rather than by effects that the ,french tongue can be truly learned by the same4 ,no doubt most of these little pamphlets are among the many school-books of which all trace has been lost4 ,there is1 however1 mention of one1 ,a shorte method for the ,declyning of ,ffrench ,verbes1 by ,j4 ,s41 licensed in #afbc to the printer1 ,richard ,field4#gjf ,wodroeph1 therefore1 earnestly begs the student of ,french not to fancy he can spare the marrow of his famous braines and pick ,french up by ear alone1 as many seek to do4 ,he must1 on the contrary1 be prepared to storm the citadel of grammar1 and do as the valiant captaine1 that is to say1 besiege the strongest houldes which commande over the lesser and weaker sort4 ,loving ,reader1 he writes1 if ,i could persuade thee to believe what profit the diligent and serious ,man doth reape learning the true methode of ,french ,tongue and what advantage he gaineth above him who thinketh to obtaine the said ,tongue by the eare only3 truly thou wouldest use thine earnest diligence and celeritie perusing these rules4 ,otherwise learners will speak scurvily1 harshly and painfully1 that they make the ,frenches take their sport at them1 even as the ,english do at the ,welshes 444 taking sometyme the male for the female1 and the hand for the foote2 applying to the woman that which should apply to the man3 and to the leg which ought apply to the arme3 as la garon1 le femme1 ma sieur1 and mon dame3 444 ,o what language this is in the eares of the ,frenches6 ,i think truely it should make ,pre ,coton him selfe to laugh at it1 who said in a sermon 7the ,king and ,queen present71 that hee had neither sinned nor laughed in fiftene yeares tyme1 yea and any man else4 ,verbs are a special difficulty1 and there be many that can never speake true ,french for lack of knowing their methode4 ,for where it ought to be spoken thus3 ,il y eut or il y avait un homme l1 some will say il fut1 il estoit un homme l4 ,fine ,french6 ,and so will the ignorant speake through all the moodes and tenses1 whereat the ,frenches take often their sport4 ,thus those who have learnt no grammar go wallowing in the painefull and muddy mire of confused and backward broyles1 doubting and fearing 7without any assurance7 what words to speak first in framing their phrases4 ,but ,wodroeph1 in spite of the great emphasis he laid on the study of rules1 fully recognizes the importance and value of practice4 ,i do not meene 7for all this71 he writes1 to condemne common practice of the tongue by the eare1 but do praise both wayes2 esteeming 7nevertheless7 the method of the rules for the better and surer way1 as ,i have certainlie found 7and many others71 by myne owne experience practicing them bothe4 ,certes il vous faut parler tousiours1 he says1 soit-il ou en bien ou en mal4 ,to make progress il vous faut frequenter1 hanter1 accoynter1 accoster1 discourir1 babiller1 caquetter1 baiser1 lecher1 parler hardiment et discretement1 aymer1 rire1 gausser1 jouer1 vous rejouir1 et jouir de leurs bonnes faveurs et graces3 et principalement s compagnies honestes3 asavoir1 parmi les seigneurs et ,dames1 ,damoiselles honestes1 pudiques matrones1 femmes et filles de vertu et d'honneur2 captaines et dignes chefs de guerre1 l o il y a tousiours quelque chose a esplucher1 si c'est de leurs prouesses1 entreprises1 ou de leurs faicts heroiques et memorables 4 4 4 sans vous esbahir pour le bruit non plus que fait le bon cheval de trompette4 ,wodroeph doubtless based his advice on his own experience4 ,moreover1 a bold and enterprising spirit has much to do with the successful study of ,french3 si vous n'estes hardi prompt1 diligent1 et vigilent1 vous n'apprendrez pas la langue franoise par songe 4 4 4 mais cela vient par grande peine1 diligence et priere a ,dieu4 ,certes1 4 4 4 si un homme estoit mari a une femme franoise 4 4 4 il me semble qu'il apprendroit plustost en disant1 ,mme1 ou m'amie1 permettez moy que ie vous recerche en tout honeur et mariage 4 4 4 a celle fin de vous faire ma chere moiti1 et fidele espouse3 que par ce moyen1 ie puisse et avoir vostre alliance et apprendre vostre language1 autrement1 madame1 il me cousteroit beaucoup plus de temps1 de peine et de mes moyens4 ,wodroeph's book for teaching ,french is one of the most comprehensive4 ,he assures the student that it lacks nothing to make him a perfect ,frenchman but the birth and delygence though he never read any other4 ,it fills more than five hundred folio pages4 ,header3 ,,the ,,spared ,,houres ,,of ,a ,,souldier ,putting his theories into practice1 he begins with rules of pronunciation and grammar1 set downe by ,god's helpe as ,i have practiced in my time and by the tracke of best ,authours1 which have professed this tongue heretofore4 ,his debt to ,holyband makes it evident that he ranked the popular sixteenth-century teacher among these4 ,he would have the student pay special attention to three things3 first the pronunciation1 which1 as was usual1 he bases on comparison with ,english sounds2 then the genders1 learning every noun with its article to lead to the same in right gender2 and1 finally1 and most important of all1 the verbs1 which should be committed to memory4 ,in his grammar he follows the usual order1 treating each part of speech in turn4 ,he endeavours to avoid all superfluous rules1 fearing the loathsomeness of the unlearned4 ,the rules occupy about a hundred pages4 ,then follows a most comprehensive collection of practical exercises1 intended for all sorts and conditions--courtiers1 merchants1 and the middle classes1 the learned and the unlearned4 ,the dialogues are accompanied by a verbatim ,english translation4 ,in the introductory ones the reader is referred to the margin for the pronunciation of the most difficult words1 where it is given in ,english spelling4 ,the true ,english phrase is added in the footnote where necessary4 ,wodroeph was strongly in favour of sacrificing if need be the purity of the ,english for the sake of rendering the meaning of the ,french clearer4 ,he did not pretend1 he says1 to teach his countrymen their own ornate ,english4 ,verbatim1 therefore1 sometimes must be had1 because it is requisite that it should not always be closed up in a phrase1 but showed bare1 as it fals very often3 then 7nil thou wilt thou7 thou must have a coat to cover it1 that is to say his true signification1 or else thou must leave it1 and run to the ,dictionarie1 and dazle thy eyes there awhile1 and be even so wise as thou wast before2 for sometymes they are not to be found at all in it1 and sometymes it will fall in some tense of some mood which no ,dictionarie can yield3 yea even thousands4 ,the first section of the dialogues1 that accompanied by the guides to pronunciation1 deals with familiar subjects1 more useful than elegant and more profitable for the middle classes and merchants than for the loathsome courtier4 ,thou hast in this ,booke all household stuffe and other pretty necessary words meete for thy dailie use in this tongue4 ,also an ,introduction to frame all common and ordinarie phrases pertaining to a house3 as of victuals1 dressing1 voyaging through the land4 ,also the partes and cloathing of a ,man1 his body1 all in remarkable phrases2 whereof ,i will shew thee vively1 yea every ,member1 from the crowne of the ,head unto the ,foot4 ,though ,wodroeph's dialogues are on a much larger scale than usual in ,french manuals1 they treat of much the same topics4 ,he advises the student to read this first set of dialogues several times1 as much to get a good foundation of common talk1 as to learn the pronunciation by means of the guides provided4 ,they are followed by lists of common phrases to be learnt by heart1 every day one or two1 for ordinarie use1 and to facilitate an early use of ,french in conversation1 and also by ,french idioms very necessary for ,translations of this tongue into any other4 ,after about sixty pages of this introductory matter we pass to what ,wodroeph calls ,the first booke of familie ,dialogues1 wherein is treated of all kinds of common necessary phrases as well for the use of the fields1 labourage and contries1 as for all sortes of home affaires for a house--all accompanied by a verbatim ,english translation4 ,these dialogues comprise conversations between members of most ranks of society1 from a king and queen1 ladies and gentlemen1 to family scenes1 and discussions between various tradesmen and peasants1 not forgetting the schoolmaster and his pupil and the military officer and his subordinates2 for1 whenever occasion arises1 ,wodroeph introduces military talk4 ,this section of the work closes with a list of the proper terms in which to address the higher and lower classes4 ,next come the dialogues taken from ,le verger des ,colloques recratifs1 offered by a ,walloon to ,prince ,henry of ,nassau1 for his furtherance in the same tongue in his younger years4 ,wodroeph claims to have purified this book1 written in scurvie ,wallons language4 ,it had already been adapted to the instruction of the ,english in the ,italian language1 by ,john ,florio in his ,second ,frutes4 ,these dialogues are naturally more of the courtly type1 and are concerned with the daily occurrences of the life of a gentleman4 ,they are followed by ,the ,springwell of ,honour and ,vertue1 a collection of moral sayings and counsels1 composed both by ancient and moderne philosophers not only for the benefit of the corrupted youth1 but also for all folkes1 of all qualities1 and chiefly for the yong gentilitie4 ,header3 ,,end ,,of ,,wodroeph',s ,,career ,wodroeph explains how this collection came to have a place in his book3 being once invited to supper of a worthy and virtuous gentleman 7one who had showed me much favour for clearing his eldest sone of some doubts of the ,french tongue71 ,i saw that hee 7his owne selfe7 did copie some ,theames out of this same ,worke 444 for to instruct one of his children being 7for that present7 at the ,french schoole2 ,i entreated him to lend it me for a ,tyme1 who did it willingly until ,i had viewed it1 and corrected the ,french and read it all out4 ,the ,springwell is divided into three bookes3 the first deals with the means of acquiring ,honour and ,vertue2 the second with the old subject of the six or1 as ,shakespeare has it1 seven ages of man2 and the third with the worship of ,god and our duty to our neighbours4 ,after sundry poems1 addressed to ,english1 ,scottish1 and ,flemish gentlemen1 and the translation of ,sir ,william ,alexander's ,first ,hour1 given in both ,french and ,english1 come directions for writing letters1 with thirty-six epistles in ,french and ,english1 and themes gathered out of ,french authors for the use of some of his pupils1 before ,i made them frame any letters3 very profitable to begin with and out of the best and purest ,french4 ,finally we have the usual proverbs1 so much in favour at this period1 picked from those of the learned ,mathurin ,cordier1 and sundry other ,authours and writers4 ,the work closes with a ,thankesgiving 7of the ,authour7 unto ,god for his helpe in the finishing of this worke1 and the quotation of ,wodroeph's device--,vers ,dieu c'est le meilleur4 ,in #afbe a second edition of this curious volume appeared in ,london1 under the title of ,the ,marrow of the ,french ,tongue4 ,this edition is said to be revised and purged of much gross ,english which had made its way into the former edition1 printed abroad4 ,it is considerably abridged1 and lacks the living interest of the ,dort edition4 ,the actual instructions for the ,french tongue remain intact1 but all the little chatty autobiographical scraps1 and observations to the ,loving ,reader1 as well as the addresses to officers1 which gave such a characteristic personal touch to the earlier edition1 are here omitted1 and the work is about one hundred and seventy pages shorter4 ,the dedication to ,charles ,stuart1 now newly crowned ,charles ,i41 still stands4 ,wodroeph had no doubt returned to ,england1 where he was known to several of the prominent men of the time4 ,in #afbc he had mentioned favours received from ,james1 ,lord of ,hay1 at ,hampton ,court1 sixteen years before4 ,we may presume that he continued to teach ,french among the higher classes of society after his return1 though there does not appear to be any further trace of him4 ,,footnotes3 #fhe ,florio1 ,first ,frutes1 #aegh4 #fhf ,j4 ,aubrey1 ,brief ,lives 7ed4 ,a4 ,clark1 ,oxford1 #ahih71 ii4 p4 #adj4 #fhg ,a fragment of one leaf1 the title page1 leaving no date2 ,british ,museum1 ,harl4 ,,mss4 #eicf4 #fhh ,arber1 ,transcript of the ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 #dac2 iv4 #aeb and #dei4 #fhi ,vocabulaire de nouveau ordonn et derechief recorig pour aprendre legierement a bien lire1 escripre1 et parler franoys et flameng1 ,anvers1 #aeaa 7,e4 ,stengel1 ,chronologisches ,verzeichnis1 p4 #bb n42 and ,michelant1 ,livre des ,mestiers1 ,introduction74 #fij ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 i4 #cdc4 #fia ,ibid4 i4 #chi4 #fib ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 ii4 #cch4 #fic ,cp4 ,ch4 ,beaulieux1 ,liste de ,dictionnaires1 ,lexicographes et vocabulaires franais antrieurs au ,thrsor de ,nicot 7#afjf71 in ,mlanges de ,philologie offerts ,ferdinand ,brunot1 ,paris1 #aijd4 #fid ,cp4 ,e4 ,stengel1 ber einige seltene franzsische ,grammatiken1 in ,mlanges de ,philologie romane ddis ,carl ,wahlund4 ,macon1 #ahif1 pp4 #aha sqq4 #fie ,of similar import1 no doubt1 were the ,boke of ,copyes ,englesshe1 ,ffrynshe and ,italion1 licensed to ,vautrollier in #aefi-gj 7,stationers' ,register1 i4 #dag72 and the ,bills of ,lading ,english1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,dutch1 licensed to ,master ,bourne in #afcf 7ibid4 iv4 #cfd74 #fif ,h4 ,vaganey1 ,le ,vocabulaire franais du seizime sicle1 ,paris1 #aijf1 pp4 #b sqq4 #fig ,advice to a ,son1 #afef1 p4 #hc4 #fih ,cp4 ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afff-fg1 pp4 #eg1 #ajd4 ,at a later date ,a4 de la ,barre1 a schoolmaster of ,leyden1 published a ,methode ou ,instruction nouvelle pour les etrangers qui desirent apprendre la manire de composer ou crire a la mode du temps et scavoir la vraye prononciation de la langue franoise1 ,leyden1 #afdb4 ,in #afdd he issued1 also at ,leyden1 a book probably intended as reading material for his pupils1 and called ,les ,leons publiques du sieur de la ,barre1 prises sur les questions curieuses et problematiques des plus beaux esprits de ce temps4 #fii ,farrer1 ,la ,vie et les oeuvres de ,claude de ,sainliens1 ,bibliography4 #gjj ,g4 ,s4 ,rowlands1 ,the ,letting of ,humour's blood in the ,head-,vaine 7#afjj74 ,edinburgh1 #ahad4 #gja ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #aeie-ig1 p4 #agc2 #afja-afjc1 pp4 #ah1 #aaa4 #gjb ,printed in the ,camden ,miscellany1 vol4 i41 #ahdg1 pp4 #fe sqq4 #gjc ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family1 i4 #aga4 #gjd ,during the ,commonwealth there were many ,english troops in the service of ,france1 and the ,duke of ,york1 afterwards ,james ,,ii41 spent much of his first exile in serving under ,turenne4 #gje ,cp4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 ,an ,englishman1 ,gilbert ,primrose1 was for a time minister at ,bordeaux 7till #afbc71 and afterwards of the ,threadneedle ,street ,church1 ,london 7,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog474 #gjf ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 iv4 #ajj4 ,,part ,,iii ,,stuart ,,times ,,chapter ,i ,,french ,,at ,,the ,,courts ,,of ,,james ,i4 ,,and ,,charles ,i4--,,french ,,studied ,,by ,,the ,,ladies--,,french ,,players ,,in ,,london--,,english ,,generally ,,ignored ,,by ,,foreigners ,the coming of the ,stuarts strengthened considerably the connexion between ,france and ,england4 ,french was widely used at the ,court of ,james ,i4 ,the ,king himself does not appear to have been well acquainted with other foreign languages than ,french and ,latin1 both of which he employed freely in conversation#gjg and correspondence4#gjh ,in one or other of these tongues he conversed with the learned foreigners he loved to gather at his ,court1 such as ,isaac ,casaubon#gji and the famous ,protestant preacher1 ,pierre ,du ,moulin1 minister of ,charenton4 ,the latter has left an account#gaj of the warm welcome he received from the ,english monarch2 he tells us that at meal times he usually stood behind ,his ,majesty's chair and conversed with him4 ,james requested ,du ,moulin to write an answer to ,cardinal ,du ,perron's pamphlet concerning the power of the ,pope over monarchs1 in which he had been attacked4 ,du ,moulin complied1 and his work was printed at ,london in #afae as the ,declaration du ,srnissme ,roy ,jacques ,i4 ,he also preached in ,french before ,james at the ,chapel ,royal at ,greenwich1 and received marks of distinction from the ,university of ,cambridge1 which conferred the degree of ,d4,d4 upon him4#gaa ,an idea of the extent to which ,french was used in intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners may be gathered from the ,finetti ,philoxenus1 a series of observations by ,sir ,john ,finett1 knight and master of the ceremonies to the two first ,stuart kings of ,england1 touching the reception and precedence1 treatment and audience of foreign ambassadors4 ,the ,french language was making important progress at this time1 and ,latin was rapidly losing ground4 ,james was the last king of ,england to employ ,latin in familiar conversation1 and this is partly accounted for by his pedantic turn of mind4 ,the spread of the use of ,french in ,england was hastened too by its growing popularity all over ,europe4 ,the ,flemish ,mellema1 in his ,flemish-,french ,dictionary of #aeia1 says ,french is used everywhere in ,europe and the ,east4#gab ,to be unacquainted with ,french was accounted a great deficiency in a gentleman4 ,it was said of the language that qui langue a jusqu' ,rome va1#gac and in ,england the general conviction was that ,no nobleman1 gentleman1 soldier1 or man of action in business between ,nation and ,nation can well be without it4#gad ,james seems to have acquired his knowledge of ,french chiefly by means of intercourse with the many ,frenchmen at the ,scottish ,court1 one of whom1 ,jrme ,grelot1 was among the young noblemen who shared his studies4#gae ,he also read much ,french literature1 however1 and later took a great interest in the language studies of his children4 ,they were constantly required to send him letters in ,french and ,latin to allow him to judge of their progress4 ,sir1 wrote the ,princess ,elizabeth1 afterwards ,queen of ,bohemia1 ,l'esperance que j'ay de vous voir bien tost et d'avoir l'honneur de recepvoir voz commandemens m'empeschera de vous faire ma lettre plus longue que pour baiser tres humblement les mains de vostre ,majest4#gaf ,the king's eldest son1 ,henry1 made acquaintance with ,french at a very early age4 ,in #afjj1 when only seven years old1 he addressed a letter in ,french to the ,states-,general of ,holland4 ,he calls this epistle les primices de nostre main1#gag and probably received some help in its composition4 ,he also wrote in ,french to ,henry ,,iv41 who had recommended to him his riding master1 ,m4 ,st4 ,antoine1#gah and to the ,dauphin1 offering him two bidets4#gai ,header3 ,,french ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,stuart ,,family ,at this time many of the riding-masters in ,england were ,italians1 but almost all the dancing-masters were ,frenchmen4#gbj ,the young prince1 however1 had a ,french master for both these exercises4#gba ,one of his language masters was ,john ,florio1 best known by his translation of ,montaigne's ,essais1 published in #afjj1 who taught both ,french and ,italian and was the author of several books for teaching the latter4 ,florio had spent many of his earlier years at ,oxford1 and at the beginning of the seventeenth century was in ,london1 teaching languages1 and well acquainted with many of the chief men of the day4 ,it is uncertain at what date he became tutor to ,prince ,henry1#gbb but in #afjc he was appointed ,reader in ,italian to ,queen ,anne1 and in the following year ,gentleman extraordinary and ,groom of the ,privy ,chamber4 ,his royal pupil was a great lover of ,pibrac's ,quatrains1 popular among teachers of ,french4 ,the prince wrote to his mother in #afjd1 sending her a copy of one of the quatrains1 and telling her that if she likes he will undertake to learn the whole by heart before the end of the year2 and1 in reminding his father of a promise to give ecclesiastical preferment to his tutor1 ,mr4 ,adam ,newton1 he quotes one of them as appropriate3#gbc ,tu ne saurois d'assez ample salaire ,recompenser celui qui t'a soign ,en ton enfance et qui t'a enseign ,a bien parler et sur tout a bien faire4 ,prince ,charles1 afterwards ,charles ,i41 seems to have been the most accomplished of ,james's family in so far as ,french is concerned4 ,he was able to carry on a conversation in it with his father and the ,duke ,john ,ernest of ,saxe-,weimar when he was thirteen years old4#gbd ,evidence of his fluency is provided by the well-known episode of his visit to ,spain to see the ,infanta4 ,the ,queen of ,spain1 daughter of ,henry ,,iv4 and sister of ,henrietta ,maria1 was delighted when the ,english prince1 on his arrival at the ,spanish ,court1 addressed her in her native idiom4 ,she warned him not to speak to her again without permission1 as it was customary to poison all gentlemen suspected of gallantry towards the ,queen of ,spain4 ,she managed to obtain leave to speak with ,charles1 however1 and had a long conversation with him in her box at the theatre1 in the course of which1 it is said1 she confided to him her desire for his marriage with her sister4#gbe ,when ,charles married ,henrietta she was quite ignorant of ,english1 and his knowledge of ,french was again put to the test4 ,he was also called upon to employ ,french with his mother-in-law1 ,marie de ,medecis1 during her stay in ,england4 ,his letters to her show how accomplished a writer of ,french he was4 ,he possessed a more elegant style than his ,french wife1 thanks largely to ,guy ,le ,moyne1#gbf who was also ,french tutor to the ,duke of ,buckingham#gbg and other members of the nobility4 ,among the ,french masters employed in the family of ,charles ,i4 was ,peter ,massonnet1 a native of ,geneva1 who attended the princes1 ,charles 7,,ii47 and ,james 7,,ii471 in the capacity of sub-tutor1 writing-master1 and ,french teacher4 ,we have no details as to how he taught them1 nor do we know if ,charles learnt from one or other of the ,french manuals which had been dedicated to him4 ,massonnet received a salary and pension from ,charles ,i41 in whose service he remained for thirty-two years1 first as ,french tutor to his children and then1 in the time of his adversity1 as clerk to the ,patents1 and ,foreign ,secretary4 ,during the ,commonwealth he spent some time at ,oxford1 and was created ,d4,med4 on the #ith of ,april #afdh1 being described as second or under tutor to ,james1 ,duke of ,york4#gbh ,at the time of the ,restoration ,massonnet was in a very destitute condition4 ,his pension had not been paid during the troubled period of the ,civil ,wars and the ,commonwealth1 and to crown all he was outlawed for debt4 ,he had to petition ,charles ,,ii41 his former pupil1 several times for the payment of his salary and arrears before his appeal had any real effect4 ,from time to time he received instalments1 but in #affh he was still the saddest object of pity of all the king's servants1 and ready to perish4#gbi ,header3 ,,french ,,tutors ,,at ,,court ,in #afcc ,sir ,robert le ,grys1 ,groom of the ,chamber to ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i41#gcj offered his services as tutor to ,prince ,charles 7,,ii471 then three years old4 ,he undertook to make ,latin the prince's mother tongue by the age of seven1 using an easy method1 not dogging his memory with pedantic rules1 after the usual fashion4 ,french was to be the language first studied1 and ,italian and ,spanish also entered the programme4#gca ,what sort of reception these proposals met with is not known1 but in ,may of the same year ,sir ,robert was granted the office of captain of the ,castle of ,st4 ,mewes for life4#gcb ,another tutor1 named ,lovell1 taught ,french and ,latin to two of ,charles ,i4's children during the ,civil ,war4 ,he was employed at ,penhurst by the ,countess of ,leicester1 to whose care the children had been committed4#gcc ,ladies were among the most eager lovers of the ,french language at the ,court of the early ,stuarts1 and were noted for their proficiency in that tongue4 ,we hear that wealthy ladies go to ,court1 and there learn to be at charge to teach the paraquetoes ,french4#gcd ,not only was he that could not parlee not considered a gentleman1 but the ladies had to talk ,french if they wished to play a part at ,court4 ,french had entirely supplanted ,euphuism1 the high-flown1 bombastic speech which had held sway in polite circles after the appearance of ,lyly's ,euphues in #aegi4 ,now a lady at ,court who speaks no ,french1 wrote ,th4 ,blount in #afbc1gce is as little regarded as she who did not parley euphuisme in the earlier days4 ,girls1 to be considered well brought up1 had to speak ,french naturally at fifteen1 and be turned to ,spanish and ,italian half a year later4#gcf ,it is improbable that ,spanish was learnt in any but a few exceptional cases4 ,italian1 however1 was fairly widely learnt for purposes of reading as we may conclude from the title of a book printed at ,london in #aeih by ,adam ,islip--,the ,necessary1 ,fit and ,convenient ,education of a young ,gentlewoman1 ,italian1 ,french1 and ,english4#gcg ,john ,evelyn's favourite daughter1 ,mary1 was as familiarly acquainted with ,french as with ,english4 ,her knowledge of ,italian was limited and characteristic of the general attitude taken up towards that language2 she understood it1 and was able to render a laudable account of what she read and observed4 ,his other daughter1 ,susanna1 was also a good ,french scholar1 but apparently knew no ,italian1 though she had read most of the ,greek and ,roman authors4 ,sir ,ralph ,verney1 who dissuaded women from deep study1 recognised that ,french was indispensable1 and encouraged them to read ,french romances especially4 ,while ,italian was sometimes read1 ,french was almost always spoken in polite circles4 ,milton's avowed preference for ,italian forms a noticeable exception to the general rule1 and even he acquired some knowledge of ,french at an early age4#gch ,there were also many more facilities for learning ,french than there were for ,italian4 ,it is certain--some of the dialogues of the ,french text-books prove it--that many ladies picked up a conversational knowledge of the language from their ,french maids4 ,this was how the young daughters of ,lord ,strafford acquired their knowledge1 as we see from the following account of their progress which he sent to their grandmother3 ,nan1 ,i think1 speaks ,french prettily 444 the other 7,arabella7 also speaks1 but her maid1 being of ,guernsey1 her accent is not good4#gci ,women1 however1 had had at all times no small influence on the production of ,french text-books4 ,one of the first written in ,england1 the ,treatyz of ,walter de ,bibbesworth1 was composed in the first place for the use of ,lady ,dionysia de ,mounchensy4 ,header3 ,,ladies ,,study ,,french ,the two chief grammars of the early sixteenth century1 the ,introductorie of ,duwes and the ,esclarcissement of ,palsgrave1 both owed their origin to royal princesses1 and early in the seventeenth century there appeared a grammar written specifically to enable women to match old ,holliband and parlee out their part with men--,the ,french ,garden for ,english ,ladyes and gentlewomen to walke in1 or a ,summer dayes labour1 by ,peter ,erondell or ,arundell1 a native of ,normandy1 and one of the group of refugee ,huguenots1 who taught the ,french language in ,london4 ,erondell informs us he had long felt the urgent need of such a book in his own teaching experience4 ,it is to be wondered1 he writes1 that among so many which 7and some very sufficiently7 have written principles concerning our ,french ,tongue 7making the dialogues of divers kinds71 not one hath set forth any respecting or belonging properly to women1 except in the ,french ,alphabet1#gdj but as good never a whit as never the better2 not that ,i finde faulte with it1 but it is so little1 as not to contayne scarce a whole page1 so that it is to be esteemed almost as nothing4 ,i knowe not where to attribute the cause1 unles it be to forgetfulnes in them that have written of it4 ,for seeing that our tongue is called ,lingua ,mulierum1 and that the ,english ladyes and gentlewomen are studious and of a pregnant spirits1 quicke concertes and ingeniositie1 as any other country whatsoever1 me thinketh it had been a verie worthie and specious subject for a good writer to employ his ,pen4 ,accordingly ,erondell undertook to break the yce first1 as he puts it4 ,he opens his ,garden with some rules of pronunciation in ,english1 as a gate through the which wee must 7and without the which we cannot7 enter into our ,french ,garden4 ,he acknowledges that he has selected these rules out of them which have written thereof4 ,many are taken from ,de la ,mothe's ,french ,alphabet1 and ,holyband1 as well as ,bellot1 are also reckoned amongst those which have written best of it4 ,on one point1 however1 ,erondell claims to make an observation never noted before in any book4 ,this had to do with the change in pronunciation of the diphthong oi4#gda ,whereas our countrymen were wonte to pronounce these words connoistre 444 as it is written by oi or oy2 now since fewe yeeres they pronounce it as if it were written thus1 contre4 ,erondell reduces the grammar rules to the smallest possible number4 ,he wishes the student to learn by heart the first two verbs avoir and estre1 and for the rest to help him selfe by the treatise that ,m4 ,holliband made thereof1#gdb as being the best 7,french and ,english7 that ,i have yet seen1 notwithstanding it is not amisse to make you knowe our persons and the number of our conjugations1 which ,m4 ,bellot1 in his ,french ,guide1#gdc saith to be sixe1 and ,i can number no more4 ,in dealing with grammar1 ,erondell claims to correct a gross error common in ,england--the use of de for the preposition from before a masculine noun preceded by le2 because that in ,english it is said 444 ,i come from the country1 so the ,english students do commonly say1 insteade of ,je viens du pays1 444 ,je viens de le pays4444 ,but why should ,i finde faulte in the ,english students1 says ,erondell1 whereas ,i my selfe have heard the ,french teachers 7,i mean of our language7 commit commonly that error8 ,erondell's grammar rules occupy but ten pages4 ,they contain a few observations on the gender and number of nouns1 on verbs1 notes on du1 au1 de la1 a la1 en1 y1 and on the negative and degrees of comparison4 ,he considers that the rules usually contained in ,french text-books are too many4 ,except for a few indispensable rules1 without the which our language can never be intelligiblie spoken1 the rest are rather a trouble and discouragement to the student then any furtherance4 ,he compiled his book for them of judgement and capacity only1 which may far sooner attaine to the perfect knowledge of our tongue1 by reason of cutting off those over-many rules1 wherein the student was overmuch entangled4 ,his first idea1 indeed1 had been to make a set of dialogues for women without any rules1 but he realised that to do this would have been like building a house without a doore2 and so1 the gate being wider open1 they may walke in who will4 ,gentlemen also may find some flowers to please them1 and the garden is an arbour for the child3 ,who with the busie mother now and then ,may prattle of each point1 in phrases milde ,the witty ,boies1 of bookes of sport and play1 ,the pretty lasses of their worke all day4 ,the dialogues1 thirteen in number1 and all of considerable length1 form the main part of the work4 ,as usual they are in ,french and ,english1 and1 in addition1 the pronunciation of the more difficult ,french words is given in ,english spelling in the margin4 ,header3 ,,peter ,,erondell ,they deal with the events in the daily life of a lady1 from her rising in the morning till bed-time4 ,the first portrays the lady1 who is of a rather pedantic turn of mind1 rising and dressing4 ,the second introduces her two daughters and their ,french governess4 ,there is much talk on the education of children1 and we are spectators of the ,french tutor's 7,erondell7 arrival and of the ,french lesson1 which forms the fourth dialogue4 ,each of the two girls in turn reads in ,french and then translates4 ,the more advanced is given some ,english to translate into ,french1 and the beginner is asked to conjugate certain ,french verbs4 ,this is how the lesson opens3 ,sister ,charlotte ,i pray you goe1 ,ma soeur ,charlotte1 ,je vous prie fetch our bookes1 bring our allez querir nos livres1 apportez ,french ,garden1 and all our nostre jardin ,francois1 et tous other bookes3 nos aultres livres3 now in the name of ,god let us begin4 or a commenons au nom de ,dieu4 ,mistres ,fleurimond read first3 ,mlle4 ,f4 lisez premierement3 speake somewhat louder parlez un peu plus haut to th' end ,i may heare afin que j'oye if you pronounce well3 si vous prononcez bien3 say that worde againe4 dites ce mot la derechef4 ,wherefore do you sounde ,pourquoy prononcez vous that s8 cette s la8 ,doe you not knowe that it must be ne savez vous pas qu'il la faut left8 ,well1 it is well said1 laisser8 ,et bien1 c'est bien dit1 read with more facilitie1 lisez avec plus de facilit1 without taking such paines4 sans tant vous peiner4 ,construe me that1 what is that8 ,traduisez moy cela1 qu'est cela8 ,do you understand that8 tell me ,entendez vous cela8 dites m'en the signification in ,english--,truly la signification en ,anglois--,certes ,sir ,i cannot tell it1 ,mons4 je ne le scauroye dire1 ,i understand it not1 je ne l'entend point1 ,i beseech you tell it me1 je vous supplie de me le dire1 and ,i will remember it against et je le retiendray pour une another time--,give me your paper autre fois--,baillez moy vostre and ,i will write it1 to th' end papier et ie l'escripray1 afin you forget it not 444 etc4 que vous ne l'oubliez4 4 4 4 ,at the end of her lesson1 ,florimond has to point out her younger sister's mistakes2 for1 says ,erondell1 in teaching others1 one learns oneself4 ,his rule for learning to read was1 observe your rules and read as you do in ,english--a method which explains his system of guides to pronunciation4 ,from the dialogues the student passes to the reading of ,french literature4 ,the girls' ,french tutor came between seven and eight in the morning1 the dancing-master at nine1 the singing-master at ten1 and another music-master at four in the afternoon4 ,in the following dialogues the lady visits first the nursery1 and next her sons and their tutors4 ,she is then pictured receiving guests1 going out shopping1 presiding at the dinner-table1#gdd and taking part in the conversation4 ,finally1 in the evening1 the company take a walk by the ,thames1 and the thirteenth and last dialogue treateth of going to bed1 prayers 7including the ,creed71 and night-clothes4 ,in order to give students an introduction to ,french verse as well as prose1 ,erondell adds to his book the story of the ,centurion in the ,new ,testament put into ,french verse by himself4 ,he does not provide any ,english translation1 and considers that the pupil who has progressed so far in the study of the language can very well do without it4 ,for the same reason he here omits1 as he does in the last dialogue also1 the guides to pronunciation4 ,for a time ,erondell had been tutor in the ,barkley family1 and dedicated the ,garden to the ,lady ,elizabeth ,barkley1 with an expression of his gratitude for the many favours he had received from her4 ,the verses on the ,centurion are dedicated to ,thomas ,norton1 of ,norwood1 whom he calls his trs intime et trs honor amy4 ,as was usual at this time1 ,erondell's book is preceded by commendatory poems1 including lines by ,william ,herbert1 author of ,cadwallader1 and by ,nicholas ,breton4 ,there is also a sonnet by the ,sieur de ,mont ,chrestien1 ,gentilhomme franois1 possibly the famous ,antoine de ,montchrtien1 who in about #afje was forced to leave ,france on account of a duel1 and visited both ,england and ,holland4 ,erondell appears to have been many years in ,england before he produced his ,garden4 ,at this date he had a large clientle1 including many honourable ladies and gentlemen of great worth and worship4 ,in about #afac he engaged an assistant to help him1 one ,john ,fabre1 a ,frenchman1 born in the precinct of ,guyand1 a town of ,turnon2 in #afah ,fabre was still professeing the teaching of the ,french tongue with ,mr4 ,peter ,arundell4#gde ,in addition to compiling the ,french ,garden1 ,erondelle prepared four new editions of ,holyband's ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,although they are said to be newly corrected and emended by ,p4 ,erondell1 he made no noticeable changes4 ,the first of these editions appeared in #afjf1 and the others in #afab1 #afae1 and #afai4 ,this last date is the latest at which we hear of him4 ,header3 ,,erondell',s ,,works ,the earliest notice we have of ,erondell is found in #aehf1 when he published a ,declaration and ,catholic ,exhortation to all ,christian ,princes to succour the ,church of ,god and ,realme of ,france1#gdf faithfully translated out of ,french1 and printed side by side with the original--another of the many similar pamphlets in ,french and ,english4 ,he had thus been in ,england at least twenty years when his book for teaching ,french was published1 and its tardy appearance led one of his admirers to ask3 ,swift ,erondell1 why hast thou been so slowe ,whose nature is to bring the summer in8 ,in earlier years ,erondell had no doubt made use of ,holyband's works2 he evinces a high esteem for the sixteenth-century teacher1 and shows intimate acquaintance with his ,schoolemaister and his ,treatise on ,verbs4 ,it is an interesting fact that until the middle of the seventeenth century and probably much later ,holyband's sixteenth-century ,french was still being taught in ,england2 as late as #afgg the ,french ,schoolemaister was among the books advertised for sale by ,thomas ,passenger at the sign of the ,three ,bibles on ,london ,bridge4#gdg ,the great changes taking place in the evolution of the ,french language reached ,england but slowly4 ,erondell translated another ,french work into ,english4#gdh ,one day ,richard ,hakluyt1 the geographer1 brought him the whole volume of the ,navigations of the ,french ,nation to the ,west ,indies to translate4 ,from this ,erondell selected the ,nova ,francia1 or the ,description of that part of ,new ,france1 which is one continent with ,virginia1 described in the three late voyages 444 made by ,m4 de ,monto1 ,m4 du ,pont ,grave1 and ,m4 de ,poutrincourt1 into the countries called by the ,french men ,la ,cadre1 lying to the southwest of ,cape ,breton 4441 which was published in #afji and dedicated to the ,bright ,starre of the ,north1 ,henry1 ,prince of ,great ,britaine4 ,the arrival of the ,french ,queen of ,england1 ,henrietta ,maria1 in #afbe1 gave further stimulus to the already strong ,french influence at the ,court4 ,when she came she knew no ,english1 and for many years after her arrival waywardly refused to study the language4 ,her numerous suite of ,french ladies and gentlemen1 including ,mme4 ,georges1 the ,duc and ,duchesse de ,chevreuse1 and ,pre ,sancy1 shared her ignorance1 as indeed did practically all foreigners4 ,the ,english ,court was thus called upon to exercise its ,french to the uttermost4 ,the small ,french colony in ,london managed to make itself very unpopular1 not only with the ,king but also with the whole ,court4 ,their ignorance of ,english and ,english ways caused them to commit blunders which prejudiced people against them4 ,such was the case when ,henrietta and her suite strolled1 chattering and making a great noise1 through an assembly of ,english people listening to a sermon4 ,the preacher asked if he must stop1 but no notice was taken1 and soon the whole retinue returned in the same fashion1 evidently not understanding a word of what was going on4#gdi ,within a year of their arrival1 however1 most of the ,french attendants were dismissed4 ,four years after the arrival of the ,french queen1 who had a passion for the theatre1 a ,french company arrived in ,london and acted before an ,english audience4#gej ,they first played a farce at ,blackfriars on the #agth of ,november1 but did not meet with much success1 being hissed1 hooted1 and pipinpelted4 ,this hostile reception was partly due to the fact that women#gea took part in the acting--a thing hitherto unknown in ,england--and partly because the play was a lascivious and unchaste comedye1 and the company was formed of certain vagrant ,french players who had beene expelled from their owne country4 ,no wonder that they gave just offence to all vertuous and well disposed persons in the town4 ,yet the ,french actors were not discouraged4 ,they waited a fortnight1 and then obtained a licence to play at the ,red ,bull4 ,this second attempt does not appear to have been more successful than the first4 ,after some three weeks had elapsed1 however1 the company decided to make a last effort4 ,this time they acted at the ,fortune1 but with so little success1 that the ,master of the ,revels refunded them half his fee in respect of their ill-fortune4 ,the failure of the venture was due largely to its novelty1 and the popular dislike of the ,french4 ,header3 ,,french ,,players ,,in ,,london ,though we are told that there was a great resort to the ,french plays1#geb apparently people went more for the sake of rioting than for the pleasure of hearing the ,french plays4 ,the stormy reception of #afbi did not1 however1 hinder other ,french actors from coming to our country4 ,in #afce a new company arrived1 this time under the special patronage of the ,queen4#gec ,they first played before ,her ,majesty1 who recommended them to the ,king4 ,through his influence they were allowed the use of the ,cockpit ,theatre in ,whitehall4 ,there1 on the #agth of ,february1 they presented a ,french comedy called ,mlise--either ,corneille's ,mlite1 or more probably ,du ,rocher's comic pastoral1 ,la ,mlize1 ou les ,princes ,reconnus4#ged ,the ,king1 ,queen1 and ,court were present4 ,the acting met with approval and the players received #aj4 ,there was no repetition of the riotous behaviour which had characterised the performances of #afbi1 probably because there were no women in the company1 and also because the players were specially patronised by the ,court and the aristocracy4 ,a few days after the ,king gave orders to the ,master of the ,revels1 ,sir ,henry ,herbert1 brother of ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury1 that the ,french company should be allowed to act at ,drury ,lane ,theatre on the two sermon days of each week during ,lent1 and through the whole of ,passion week1 when they would avoid rivalry with ,beeston's ,english players1 who did not perform on those days4 ,sir ,henry ,herbert1 himself a good ,french scholar1 tells us he did all these courtesies to the ,french gratis1 wishing to render the ,queen his mistress an acceptable service4 ,the ,french actors now enjoyed increasing popularity4 ,when1 at the end of ,lent1 they had to relinquish the ,cockpit1 ,drury ,lane1 to the ,english players1 their services were still in demand4 ,on ,easter ,monday they acted before the ,court in a play called ,le ,trompeur puny1 no doubt the tragi-comedy of that name by ,georges de ,scudry4#gee ,their success was even greater than on the occasion of the ,court performance of ,mlise1 and on the #afth of ,april following1 they presented ,alcimedor1#gef under the same circumstances1 and with good approbation4 ,these three plays acted at the ,court are the only part of their repertoire that is named in the record of the ,master of the ,revels4 ,on the #ajth of ,may they received #cj for three plays acted at the ,cockpit1 probably that in ,whitehall1 where they first acted ,mlise before the ,court1 nearly four months earlier1 and not the ,cockpit1 ,drury ,lane1 where they had played during ,lent4 ,the question now arose of providing the ,french players with a special theatre of their own4 ,arrangements were made for converting part of the ,riding ,school in ,drury ,lane into a play-house1 and on the #ahth of ,april the ,king signified to ,sir ,henry ,herbert his royal pleasure that the ,french comedians should erect a stage1 scaffolds and seats1 and all other accommodations4 ,on the #eth of ,may following a warrant was granted to ,josias d',aunay and ,hurfries de ,lau 7so ,sir ,herbert spells their names7#geg and others1 empowering them to act at the new theatre during pleasure4 ,how long the ,french company1 whose director was ,josias ,floridor1 continued to act in ,london is not known4 ,but it is a striking fact that in #afce there was a regular ,french theatre established in the city1 and its presence must have had considerable effect4 ,the ,french company under ,floridor again appeared before the ,court1 in ,december #afce2 we do not know what they played1 beyond the fact that it was a tragedy4 ,on the twenty-first of the same month1 the ,pastoral of ,florimne was acted in ,french at ,whitehall by the ,french ladies who attended the ,queen4 ,the ,king1 the ,queen1 ,prince ,charles1 and the ,elector ,palatine1 were present1 and the performance was a great success4 ,the ,queen did not persist in her obstinate refusal to learn ,english4 ,when she had been in the country about seven years1 she began to study the language seriously4 ,mr4 ,wingate was her tutor1 and her love of the theatre was put to practical use by the performance of long masques and pastorals in ,english in which she took part4 ,it is not surprising that ,henrietta ,maria was ignorant of ,english1 for our language was practically unknown in ,france in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,header3 ,,english ,,ignored ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,italian and ,spanish were the fashionable modern foreign languages in ,france4 ,english was either entirely ignored or regarded as barbarous1 and since ,french was widely spoken at the ,english ,court1 and ,latin was used by scholars1 the need for it was not felt4#geh ,no foreign ambassador ever knew ,english4 ,of the ,frenchmen who visited ,england1#gei only a few learnt the language4 ,chief among these were the ,french teachers1 the pioneers among ,frenchmen in the study of the ,english tongue4 ,of individuals1 the ,sieur de la ,hoquette1 man of letters and traveller1 is said to have visited ,england to see ,bacon1 and learnt ,english in order to read the ,chancellor's works in the original4 ,he discussed ,bacon's works and ,english novels with ,j4 ,bignon1 and was surprised to find that scholar acquainted with them4 ,jean ,doujat also knew ,english1 as did ,la ,mothe le ,vayer1 who married a ,scotchwoman1 and also perhaps ,regnier ,desmarais1 who draws a few comparisons with it in his grammar4#gfj ,but these were isolated exceptions4 ,among the languages in which ,panurge addresses ,pantagruel on their first meeting1 ,english has a place1 but is hardly recognisable in its ,scottish dress4#gfa ,and the ,marchal de ,villars relates in his memoirs#gfb that the ,duc de la ,fert1 quand il avait un peu bu1 would break out in ,english to the great astonishment and amusement of all who were present4 ,there is a tradition that ,corneille kept a copy of the ,english translation of the ,cid1 which he showed to his friends as a curiosity4 ,yet the general ignorance of ,english outside ,england did not discourage ,english actors from making professional tours abroad4 ,they seem to have enjoyed considerable popularity in ,germany and the ,low ,countries1#gfc where they played at first in ,english4 ,no doubt dancing1 mimicry1 and music had much to do with their success1 and the clown probably took advantage of his position to offer interpretations from time to time4 ,however1 the actors soon learnt some ,german by mixing with ,german actors4 ,a band of ,english acrobats had performed at ,paris in #aehc4 ,some years later1 in #aeih1 a troupe of ,english comedians hired the ,htel de ,bourgogne1#gfd the only theatre in ,paris1 from the ,confrrie de la ,passion1 who usually played there4 ,the ,english actors1 at whose head was one ,jehan ,sehais1 got into trouble for playing outside the ,htel1 contrary to the privileges of the ,confrrie1 and had to pay an indemnity4 ,how much these actors made use of their language for attracting an audience is not certain4 ,at a somewhat later date1 another company played at ,fontainebleau before ,henry ,,iv4 and his son1 afterwards ,louis ,,xiii4 ,the wild dramas acted by the ,english players seem to have made a great impression on the young prince1 who afterwards would amuse himself by dressing as a comedian and crying in a very loud voice1 ,toph1 toph1 milord6 pacing about with great strides in the fashion of the ,english actors4#gfe ,but it is highly probable that these few words were all the ,english the future king of ,france could muster4 ,like the language1 ,english literature was generally ignored in ,france4 ,those men of letters who wrote ,latin--,more1 ,camden1 ,selden1 etc4--were known under their ,latin names4 ,in the early years of the seventeenth century1 however1#gff the ,french began to take an interest in ,english literature1 and a few translations of prose works appeared1 though ,english poetry and drama remained unnoticed4 ,the first ,french version of an ,english work was that of ,bishop ,hall's ,characters of ,vertues and ,vices which appeared in #afaj1 and again in #afab and #afai1 and may have had some influence on ,la ,bruyre's ,caractres4 ,header3 ,,neglect ,,of ,,english ,it is also interesting to note that this enterprising translator was no other than ,j4 ,l',oiseau de ,tourval1 ,parisien1 who wrote so enthusiastically of ,cotgrave's dictionary1 which appeared in the following year 7#afaa74gfg ,in the course of the next twenty years about a score of other translations saw the light1 including versions of ,greene's ,pandosta 7#afae71 of ,sidney's ,arcadia1 and of ,bacon's ,essays4 ,the translation of the ,arcadia was the subject of a violent literary quarrel4 ,two versions came out at the same time1 and both claimed priority4 ,one was due to ,j4 ,baudouin1 who had lived two years in ,england learning the language4 ,he was also responsible for the translation of ,bacon4#gfh ,his rival was one ,mlle4 ,chappelain4 ,english is a language that will do you good in ,england1 but past ,dover it is worth nothing1 wrote ,john ,florio the language teacher1 in his ,first ,frutes 7#aegh74 ,and more than half a century later ,english was still despised in foreign countries4 ,while ,french was of use in all furthest parts of ,europe1 ,english still served but in the ,brittaine lland1#gfi and even there did not receive due homage4 ,english1 we are told by an indignant upholder of the claims of our language1#ggj was left for him who drives the plough2 all the scholars1 all the courtiers you passed in the street1 were good scholars in foreign tongues2 many of them chatted ,french as glibly as parrots1 but could not write a single ,english line without a solecism4 ,but in the meantime the study of ,english had had its advocates4#gga ,richard ,mulcaster has already been mentioned as the first ,englishman who emphatically urged that ,english should be studied as thoroughly as foreign languages4 ,what reason is it1 he asked1 to be acquainted abrode and a stranger at home8 to know foreign things by rule1 and our own but by rote8 ,if all other men had been so affected1 to make much of the foren and set light by their own1 we should never by comparing have discerned the better4 ,they proined their own speche1 both to please themselves and to set us on edge4 ,this was in #aehb4 ,scholars took up the defence of the claims of ,english against ,french1 just as they did the claims of ,latin4 ,camden seeks to prove that ,english contains as many ,greek words as ,french1#ggb and so is as worthy of respect4 ,and ,osborne1 in his ,advice to a ,son1 tells the young diplomat to employ an interpreter in his dealings with these foreigners who refused to recognize the value of ,english1 it being too much an honouring of their ,tongue1 and undervaluing of your owne1 to propose yourself a master therein1 especially since they scorn to learn yours4 ,there were1 however1 a few facilities for learning ,english at the disposal of foreigners1 in addition to residence in ,england4 ,the marriage of ,charles ,i4 with ,henrietta ,maria had been hailed both in ,france and ,england by books which taught the languages of the two countries conjointly1 and so strengthened the new bond between them4 ,in ,england appeared a new edition of ,du ,bartas1 in ,french and ,english1 for teaching an ,englishman ,french1 or a ,frenchman ,english4 ,wodroeph's ,marrow of the ,french ,tongue 7#afbe71 which saw the light at the same time1 was said to be aussi utile pour le ,franois d'apprendre l',anglois que pour l',anglois d'apprendre le ,franois1 though only the dialogues in ,french and ,english could serve this purpose1 as1 indeed1 they might in any other ,french text-book4#ggc ,this notice is evidently added merely as a concession to topical events2 it had not figured in the earlier edition 7#afbc74 ,in ,france1 on the other hand1 was published a work in which ,english was treated more seriously4 ,this was a ,grammaire ,angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise4 ,qui peut aussi aider aux ,anglois pour apprendre la langue ,franoise3 ,alphabet ,anglois contenant la pronunciation des lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons1 dedicated to ,henrietta ,maria1 and probably arranged by one of the professors of the ,collge de ,navarre1 from which it is dated4 ,we are informed that the princess1 and those intending to accompany her to her new home1 studied ,english daily4 ,these lessons1 if they were really given1 were no doubt a matter of form1 and we may judge from the results that they were not taken seriously4 ,header3 ,,english ,,grammars ,this grammar issued in #afbe was not original2 it had appeared at ,rouen in #aeie1ggd and before that date there had been several other editions4 ,the #aeie edition was enlarged and corrected by a certain ,e4 ,a41 who1 for about ten years previously1 had spent much of his time translating ,french pamphlets on topical events and similar works from ,french into ,english4#gge ,e4 ,a41 who was probably the original compiler of the work1 dedicated it to ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,he says he had collected the material from different authors in the leisure time allowed him by his studies4 ,in its contents the work resembles the usual ,french manuals produced in ,england4 ,it opens with rules for the pronunciation of ,english1 followed by grammar rules for the same language1 all given in ,french and ,english4 ,then come the dialogues1 taken textually and without acknowledgement from ,holyband's ,french ,littleton1 and one dialogue specially for courtiers1 which may have been original4#ggf ,the book closes with the vocabulary of ,holyband's ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,the grammatical part of the work is also taken from one of the productions of the ,french teachers in ,england--the ,maistre d'escole anglais 7#aehj71 written by ,jacques ,bellot for teaching ,english to foreigners in ,england and dedicated to a member of the royal family of ,france4 ,bellot protests against the general neglect of the ,english language1 rich enough in his opinion to rank with the most famous living tongues4 ,he claims to be the first to draw up precepts for teaching it4 ,there is little exaggeration in ,bellot's claim1 for hardly any works on ,english had as yet been written1 and these were chiefly treatises on the orthography1 more scholastic than pedagogic in intention4#ggg ,at the close of the year in which ,bellot's work was published1 however1 appeared the first work on ,english by an ,englishman1 designed to give instruction to foreigners as well as his own countrymen4 ,this was ,william ,bullocker's ,booke at large for the ,amendment of ,orthographie for ,english ,speech1 to which was added a ruled grammar 444 for the same speech to no small commoditie of the ,english ,nation1 not only to come to easie1 speedie and perfect use of our owne language1 but also to their easie and speedie and readie entrance into the secrets of other ,languages1 and easie and speedie pathway to all strangers1 to use our language1 heretofore very hard unto them4 ,two years later came ,mulcaster's ,elementarie1 urging the claims of the vernacular1 and expounding his method for teaching it4 ,other grammars followed1 some in ,latin1 some in ,english1#ggh but in hardly any of them is any attention paid to foreigners--a striking contrast with those published in ,france1 in which foreigners were always an important consideration4 ,in #afcb1 however1 appeared ,sherwood's ,english-,french ,dictionary1 of which1 it is said1 the ,french were great buyers4 ,towards the middle of the seventeenth century foreigners received more and more attention in such books1 as ,english became better known4 ,simon ,daines's ,orthoepia anglicana1#ggi for instance1 intended for the use of both natives and foreigners1 was published in #afdj1 as was also ,the ,english grammar made by ,ben ,jonson for the benefit of all strangers out of his observation of the ,english language now spoken and in use4#ghj ,ben ,jonson had made a collection of grammars1 and he speaks of a most ancient work written in the ,saxon tongue and character4 ,the profit of grammar is great to strangers1 who have to live in communication and commerce with us1 he wrote1 and it is honourable to ourselves4 ,in #afdd another work of like aim was issued under one of the usual florid titles affected at that time3 ,the ,english ,primrose far surpassing others of this kind that ever grew in any ,english garden4 ,it professed to teach the true spelling1 reading and writing of ,english1 and was planted by ,richard ,hodges1 schoolmaster in ,southwark1 for the exceeding great benefit both of his own countrymen and strangers4 ,similarly ,j4 ,wharton's grammar of #afee claimed to be the most certain guide that ever yet was extant for strangers that desire to learn our language4 ,header3 ,,english ,,grammars ,,for ,,foreigners ,thus travellers to ,england would find some provision for learning ,english4 ,in the early seventeenth century several ,french teachers in ,london undertook to teach ,english to foreigners1 and these were the earliest professional teachers of the language4 ,they had all learnt ,english after their arrival in the country on very practical methods1 an experience which must have reacted on their methods of teaching ,french4 ,most of them wrote ,english with ease1 if not always idiomatically4 ,as time advanced1 especially in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 they composed several ,english grammars for teaching the language to their pupils4 ,merchants as well as ,french teachers were pioneers in advancing the study of ,english by foreigners4 ,in #afbb ,george ,mason1 one of the merchants in ,london skilled in the ,french tongue1 wrote a ,grammaire ,angloise1 contenant reigles bien exactes et certaines de la ,prononciation1 ,orthographie et construction de nostre langue1 en faveur des estrangers qui en sont desireux1 but especially1 he tells us1 for the use of noz franois tant a leur arrive en ce pais1 que en leur demeure en iceluy4 ,this ,english grammar#gha is written in ,french1 and gives rules for pronunciation and the parts of speech4 ,it is followed by dialogues#ghb in ,french and ,english1 in the usual style1 bearing much resemblance to the ,latin colloquies and the dialogues of ,de la ,mothe's ,french ,alphabet4 ,a new edition was issued at ,london in #afcc4 ,the earliest conversation books in ,french and ,english printed by ,caxton1 ,wynkyn de ,worde1 and ,pynson are called books for teaching ,english as well as ,french4 ,they were indeed equally adapted for either language1 but it is very improbable that at this early date even the most enterprising merchants learnt ,english4 ,yet the first foreigners to recognize the importance of ,english were merchants4 ,english was given a place by the side of ,latin1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german in the edition of the polyglot dictionary for the use of merchants and travellers1 printed at ,venice in #aedj1ghc and at a later date in the polyglot collection of dialogues which developed from the ,french and ,flemish dialogues of ,noel de ,barlement2 not1 however1 till #aegf1 when the book had been in vogue for about three-quarters of a century4 ,gabriel ,meurier1 schoolmaster of ,antwerp1 who taught ,french to many of the numerous ,english merchants always in the town1 was acquainted with our language1 but does not appear to have had any opening for teaching it1 as he did ,french1 ,flemish1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4 ,at a later date1 however1 we find an ,englishman gaining his livelihood by teaching his own language in the ,netherlands4 ,in #afdf he published at ,amsterdam ,the ,english schole-master2 or certaine rules and helpes1 whereby the natives of the ,netherlands may be in a short time1 taught to read1 understand and speake the ,english tongue1 by the helpe whereof the ,english may be better instructed in the knowledge of the ,dutch tongue1 than by any vocabulars1 or other ,dutch and ,english ,books1 which hitherto they may have had for that purpose4 ,this work contains an ,english grammar1 followed by selections from the ,scriptures1 moral and familiar sayings1 proverbs1 dialogues1 letters in ,english and ,dutch4 ,the ,vocabulars to which he refers furnished him with most of his dialogues4 ,a new edition appeared in #afeh4 ,rouen1 ever a busy centre for merchants1 was the place where provision for teaching ,english was first made in ,france4 ,editions of the polyglot dictionary1 which included ,english in the edition of ,venice in #aedj1 were printed at ,rouen in #afaa and #afbe1 and again at ,paris in #afca4 ,the #aeie edition of ,e4 ,a4's ,english grammar appeared at ,rouen1 as had probably the earlier editions4 ,this compilation of the ,english grammar of ,bellot and the dialogues of ,holyband was in vogue for a very long time4 ,in addition to the ,paris issue on the occasion of the marriage of ,henrietta ,maria with ,charles ,i4 7#afbe71 editions appeared at ,rouen in #afci1 #affh1 #afgj1 #afgi1 and most probably at other dates also2 another was issued at ,london1 #afgg4 ,perhaps the first book for teaching ,english printed in ,france was a ,traict pour apprendre a parler ,franoys et ,anglois1 published at ,rouen in #aeec1 apparently an early edition of ,meurier's work1 printed at ,rouen in #aefc as a ,trait pour apprendre a parler franois et anglois1 ensemble faire missives1 obligations1 etc41 and again at ,rouen in #afda4 ,it was long before ,english won recognition from foreigners other than merchants4 ,not until the eighteenth century was it learnt for the sake of its literature1 and as a means of intercourse with the people who spoke it4 ,this state of things made it incumbent on ,englishmen to equip themselves with some foreign tongue1 and they naturally chose ,french1 the most universal language at that time4 ,,footnotes3 #gjg ,see accounts in ,rye1 ,england as seen by ,foreigners4 #gjh ,j4 ,o4 ,halliwell1 ,letters of the ,kings of ,england1 ,london1 #ahdf4 #gji ,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #aec4 #gaj ,autobiographie1 ,bull4 de la ,soc4 de l',hist4 du ,protestantisme ,franais1 vii4 pp4 #cdc sqq4 #gaa ,another famous ,frenchman at the ,court of ,james ,i4 was ,theodore ,mayerne the ,court ,doctor 7cp4 ,table ,talk of ,bishop ,hurd1 ,ox4 ,hist4 ,soc4 ,collectanea1 ser4 #b1 p4 #cij72 also ,jean de ,schelandre and ,montchrtien among men of letters4 ,james refused to give audience to the poet ,thophile de ,viau1 exiled for his daring satires4 ,boisrobert1 ,st4 ,amant1 ,voiture1 likewise visited ,england at this period4 #gab ,thurot1 ,prononciation franaise1 i4 p4 xiv4 #gac ,gerbier1 ,interpreter of the ,academy1 #afdh4 #gad ,aufeild3 ,translation of ,maupas's ,grammar1 #afcd4 #gae ,young1 ,l',enseignement en cosse1 p4 #gh4 #gaf ,ellis1 ,original ,letters1 #ast series1 iii4 #hi4 #gag ,t4 ,birch1 ,life of ,henry ,prince of ,wales1 ,london1 #agfj1 p4 #bj4 #gah ,on ,henry's death1 ,st4 ,antoine became equerry to his brother ,charles 7,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #bec74 #gai ,ellis1 ,orig4 ,letters1 ser4 #a1 iii4 #ie4 #gbj ,the ,french fashion of dancing is most in request with us 7,dallington1 ,method for ,travell1 #aeih74 #gba ,his dancing-master was a ,m4 du ,caus4 ,there were other ,frenchmen in his service4 ,cp4 ,roll of ,expenses of ,prince ,henry1 ,revels at ,court1 ed4 ,p4 ,cunningham1 ,new ,sk4 ,soc41 #ahdb4 #gbb ,j4 ,aubrey1 ,brief ,lives1 ed4 ,clark1 #ahih1 i4 p4 #bed2 ,wood1 ,athen4 ,oxon4 7,bliss74 #gbc ,t4 ,birch1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ch1 #ff1 #fg4 #gbd ,rye1 op4 cit4 p4 #aee4 #gbe ,mmoires de ,madame de ,motteville1 in ,petitot et ,monmerqu1 ,collection des ,mmoires relatifs l',histoire de ,france1 tom4 #cg1 #ahbd1 pp4 #abb-c4 #gbf ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 #affj-fa1 p4 #afb2 cp4 p4 #bjg1 supra4 #gbg ,probably the second ,duke1 whom ,charles1 out of friendship for his father1 the first ,duke1 brought up in his own family4 #gbh ,foster1 ,alumni ,oxon41 ad nom4 #gbi ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affc-fd1 pp4 #chd1 #ebf1 #ebg2 #affh-fi1 p4 #abi2 ,shaw1 ,calendar of ,treasury ,books1 #affg-fh1 pp4 #cdf1 #cfe1 #fbj4 #gcj ,he received the order of knighthood from ,charles ,i4 in #afbi4 #gca ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 #afcc1 p4 #cdi4 #gcb ,le ,grys translated several works from ,latin into ,english4 ,he died early in #afce2 cp4 ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #gcc ,e4 ,godfrey1 ,english ,children in ,olden ,time1 ,new ,york1 #aijg1 p4 #acc4 #gcd ,davenant1 ,the ,wits1 ,act ,,ii42 cp4 ,upham1 ,french ,influence in ,english ,literature1 p4 #g4 #gce ,preface to ,lyly's ,euphues1 #afbc4 #gcf ,t4 ,middleton1 ,more ,dissemblers among ,women1 ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #d2 cp4 ,upham1 op4 cit4 p4 #f4 #gcg ,watt1 ,bibliotheca ,britannica1 #ahbd1 ad nom4 #gch ,probably before he left school 7,masson1 ,life of ,milton1 #ahge1 i4 p4 #eg74 #gci ,e4 ,godfrey1 op4 cit4 p4 #agh4 #gdj ,de la ,mothe devoted a short chapter to enumerating women's clothing4 #gda ,thurot1 ,prononciation franaise1 pp4 #cgd1 #cgf4 #gdb ,treatise for ,declining ,french ,verbs1 #aehj1 #aeii1 and #afda4 #gdc ,perhaps this is ,bellot's ,french ,methode of #aehh1 of which there is no copy in the ,british ,museum1 the ,bodleian1 or ,cambridge ,university ,library4 ,there is no trace of his having written a third grammar called the ,french ,guide2 in his ,french ,grammar of #aegh the verbs are arranged in five conjugations4 #gdd ,this section in particular bears a close resemblance to the ,exercitatio of ,vives4 ,see ,dialogue #ag1 in ,f4 ,watson's ,tudor ,schoolboy ,life4 #gde ,in ,broad ,street ,ward2 see ,cooper1 ,list of ,aliens1 ,camden ,soc41 #ahfb2 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub41 x4 ,pt4 iii4 p4 #ahg4 #gdf ,lambeth ,library1 #hvo1 ,b-,e in fours4 ,hazlitt1 ,bibliog4 ,collections and ,notes1 ii4 #bjf4 #gdg ,it is included in almost all the ,sale ,catalogues of private libraries at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century4 #gdh ,erondell was probably also responsible for numerous other translations from ,french into ,english2 cp4 p4 #bgg1 note #b1 infra4 #gdi ,strickland1 ,lives of the ,queens of ,england1 #ahhd1 iv4 p4 #afj4 #gej ,j4 ,payne ,collier1 ,history of ,english ,dramatic ,poetry1 and ,annals of the ,stage1 #ahgi1 i4 pp4 #dea sqq42 ,f4 ,g4 ,fleay1 ,a ,chronicle ,history of the ,english ,stage1 #ahij1 p4 #ccd4 #gea ,not women but monsters1 wrote the ,puritan ,prynne in his ,histriomastrix1 #afcc1 p4 #aad4 #geb ,prynne1 op4 cit4 p4 #bae4 #gec ,payne ,collier1 op4 cit4 ii4 pp4 #b sqq42 ,fleay1 op4 cit4 p4 #cci4 #ged ,the former was first acted in ,france in #afbi and the latter in #afcc2 cf4 ,upham1 ,french ,influence in ,english ,literature1 p4 #cgc4 #gee ,scudry's work is in verse2 a king and queen of ,england figure among the characters4 ,it was first performed in ,france in #afca4 #gef ,probably a tragi-comedy by ,du ,ryer1 acted in #afcd2 ,upham1 op4 cit4 p4 #cgc4 #geg ,diary1 reprinted3 ,malone's ,historical ,account of the ,english ,stage1 in an edition of ,shakespeare's works1 completed by ,boswell1 #ahba1 iii4 pp4 #abj1 #abb4 ,herbert makes many of his entries in ,french4 #geh ,meurier1 ,communications familires1 #aefc4 #gei ,while the ,english visited ,france in great numbers1 very few ,frenchmen came to ,england1 except those engaged on diplomatic missions1 or exiles4 ,thus1 ,ronsard1 ,jacques ,grvin1 ,brantme1 ,bodin1 in the sixteenth century2 ,schelandre1 d',assoucy1 ,boisrobert1 ,le ,pays1 ,pavillon1 ,voiture1 ,malleville1 and a few others in the early seventeenth century1 spent a short time in ,england4 ,among scholars1 ,peiresc1 ,henri ,estienne1 ,justel1 ,bochart1 and ,casaubon visited our country4 ,st4 ,amant was twice in ,england1 and on the occasion of his second visit wrote a satirical poem1 ,albion1 in which he gave vent to his dislike of the people and the country 7,oeuvres1 ed4 ,livet1 #ahee1 vol4 ii474 ,guide-books to ,england were few1 and far from giving a good impression of the country4 ,see ,jusserand1 ,shakespeare in ,france1 pp4 #h1 #abi4 #gfj ,rathery1 ,relations sociales et intellectuelles entre la ,france et l',angleterre1 pp4 #bb-bc1 #dh sqq4 #gfa ,lord ghest tholb be sua virtiuff be intelligence1 aff yi body schal biff be naturall rehutht tholb suld of me pety have for natur 444 7,oeuvres de ,rabelais1 ed4 ,c4 ,marty ,laveaux1 i4 #bfa74 #gfb ,petitot et ,monmerqu1 ,collection des ,mmoires1 tom4 #fh1 ,paris1 #ahbh4 #gfc ,a4 ,cohn1 ,shakespeare in ,germany in the ,sixteenth and ,seventeenth ,centuries1 ,london1 #ahfe1 pp4 xxviii1 cxxxiv1 cxxxv4 #gfd ,jusserand1 ,shakespeare in ,france1 #ahii1 pp4 #ea sqq42 ,e4 ,souli1 ,recherches sur ,molire1 ,paris1 #ahfc1 p4 #aec4 #gfe ,journal de ,jean ,hervard sur l'enfance et la jeunesse de ,louis ,,xiii1 #afja-bh1 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,quoted by ,jusserand1 op4 cit4 p4 #eg n4 ,one of ,louis's tutors was an ,englishman1 ,richard ,smith4 #gff ,s4 ,lee1 ,the ,beginnings of ,french ,translations from the ,english1 ,proceedings of the ,bibliog4 ,soc4 viii41 #aijg1 pp4 #he-aab4 #gfg ,tourval was for long engaged on turning ,james ,i4's compositions into ,french1 and complains of not receiving any reward nor even his expenses4 #gfh ,he also translated ,godwin's ,man in the ,moon1 #afdh1 which had some influence on ,cyrano de ,bergerac4 ,he was probably the ,jean ,baudouin who studied at ,edinburgh in #aeig4 #gfi ,gerbier1 ,interpreter of the ,academy1 #afdh4 #ggj ,t4 ,b4 ,squire1 in ,simon ,daines's ,orthoepia ,anglicana1 reprinted by ,r4 ,brotanek in ,neudrucke frhneuenglischer ,grammatiken1 ,bd4 iii41 #aijh4 #gga ,by the end of the sixteenth century it was quite a usual thing for learned subjects to be treated in ,english4 ,ascham apologised for using ,english in his ,toxophilus 7#aede71 but in his ,scholemaster 7#aegj7 he used it as a matter of course4 #ggb ,jusserand1 ,histoire littraire du peuple anglais1 #aijd1 p4 #caf4 #ggc ,florio makes the same claim in his ,first ,frutes for teaching ,italian and ,english4 #ggd ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la ,langue angloise et franoise4 ,a ,rouen1 chez la veuve ,oursel1 #aeie1 #hvo4 ,the ,brit4 ,mus4 copy contains ,,ms4 notes of a ,french student4 #gge ,in #aehf he translated three letters of ,henry of ,navarre1 and in following years a continuous series of similar works2 in #aehg the ,politicke and ,militarie ,discourse of ,la ,noue2 in #aehh the ,discourse concerning the right which the ,house of ,guise have to the crown of ,france1 etc4 ,his latest translation appears to have been ,louis ,,xiii4's ,declaration upon his ,edicts for ,combats1 #afac4 ,this ,e4 ,a4 may have been identical with ,erondell 7or1 as sometimes written1 ,arundel71 who gives his name as ,p4 ,erondell 7,e4 ,a47 in his translation of the ,declaration and ,catholic exhortation 7#aehf74 #ggf ,it bears a strong resemblance to the first dialogue in ,erondell's ,french ,garden4 #ggg ,such as the works of ,sir ,thomas ,smith1 ,john ,cheke1 ,john ,hart1 all of which appeared before #aehj4 #ggh ,by ,p4 ,greenwood 7#aeid71 ,ed4 ,coote 7#aeif71 ,a4 ,gill 7#afai71 ,j4 ,herves 7#afbd71 ,ch4 ,butler 7#afcc74 ,some are reprinted by ,brotanek1 op4 cit42 cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 chap4 i4 #ggi ,reprinted by ,brotanek1 op4 cit4 vol4 iii41 #aijh4 #ghj ,works1 #ahge1 vol4 ix4 pp4 #bbi sqq4 #gha ,reprinted by ,r4 ,brotanek1 op4 cit4 ,heft i41 #aije1 pp4 #aje4 #ghb ,pp4 #fj sqq4 #ghc ,it had no place in the earlier editions of #aecd and #aecg4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,french ,,grammars--,,books ,,for ,,teaching ,,latin ,,and ,,french--,,french ,,in ,,private ,,institutions ,one of the most noted teachers of ,english as well as of ,french was ,robert ,sherwood1 who in #afcb completed his ,english-,french ,dictionary which was appended to the new edition of ,cotgrave's work issued in that year4#ghd ,sherwood was born in ,norfolk1#ghe although he later called himself a ,londoner4 ,in ,july #afbb he entered ,corpus ,christi ,college1 ,cambridge1 and graduated ,b4,a4 in #afbf4 ,he then moved to ,london and opened a language school in ,st4 ,sepulchre's ,churchyard1 where he continued to teach for many years4 ,he also taught ,english to many ,french1 ,german1 ,danish1 and ,flemish nobles and gentlemen who visited ,london4 ,to these distinguished visitors he dedicated his dictionary in #afcb1 as well as the second edition of his ,french grammar in #afcd1 expressing the hope that he would soon be able to produce an ,english grammar toute entire1 for only the practical exercises in ,french and ,english could be of use to them in their study of ,english4 ,his ,french grammar was intended for the furtherance and practice of gentlemen1 scollers and others desirous of the said language4 ,we gather that ,sherwood's school was limited entirely to the higher classes1 and was very different from ,holyband's noisy and bustling establishment4 ,the first edition of ,sherwood's ,french ,tutour1 as he called his grammar1 saw the light in #afbe1ghf just before he graduated at ,cambridge4 ,he had probably worked at it as well as at his dictionary during his residence there1 and appears to have taught ,french to private pupils4 ,how he first acquired his knowledge of ,french1 we do not know4 ,he may have spent some years in ,france before going to ,cambridge1 since he would not find much opportunity of studying the language there4 ,his work is little more than a translation of selections from the ,french grammar of ,charles ,maupas of ,blois 7#afbe74 ,perhaps he studied the language with ,maupas himself1 of whom he speaks with great respect4 ,in parts of his grammar1 however1 ,sherwood drew on his own long experience in teaching ,french4 ,the second edition of the ,french ,tutour 7#afcd7 is said to be carefully corrected and enlarged4 ,in it ,sherwood follows the usual order of treatment4 ,first come rules of pronunciation1 then of grammar1 which show the nature and use of the ,articles1 a thing of no small importance in this language3 also the way to find out the gender of all nounes3 the conjugation of all the verbs regular and irregular2 and after which followeth a list of most of the indeclinable parts 7which commonly do much hinder learners7 ,alphabetically ,englished2 with a most ample syntax of all the parts of speech4 ,this section closes with an alphabetical index interpreting such nounes and verbes as are unenglished in the grammar4 ,the practical exercises are in the form of three dialogues and a touch of ,french compliments1 in ,french and ,english1 arranged in two parallel columns on a page4 ,the first deals with familiar talk by the wayside1 depicting travellers on their road to ,london1 and1 on their arrival1 taking lodgings at the ,black ,swan in ,holborn1 doing their shopping1 and taking their evening meal4 ,the other two dialogues treat of less familiar subjects2 and1 on the whole1 ,sherwood's book was not of a popular kind1 but was intended for the learned4 ,one describes the exercises and studies of the nobility1 dancing1 riding1 fencing1 hunting1 geography1 cosmography1 and so forth2 and the other turns on the subject of travel in foreign countries1 in which ,sherwood emphasizes the necessity for the traveller of some good and fundamental beginning in the language of the country whither he goeth4 ,the ,tutour closes with a selection of ,french compliments from the book of ,m4 ,l4 ,miche on ,french courtesy1 to which ,sherwood added an ,english version4 ,another ,englishman also ventured in the early years of the seventeenth century to write on the ,french language--,william ,colson1 who called himself a ,professor of ,literal and ,liberal ,sciences4 ,he had spent many years abroad as ,header3 ,,william ,,colson travelling companion to young ,english gentlemen1 as well learning as teaching such laudable arts and qualities as are most fitting for a gentleman's exercise4 ,seemingly he spent some time in the ,low ,countries1 and he may have found his pupils among the ,english troops serving there1 as in #afjc he published at ,lige a book in ,french on arithmetic which also provides military information4 ,before #afab he had returned to ,london1 where he composed a similar work in ,english1 dedicated to the ,lords of the ,privy ,council4#ghg ,he tells us that on his return from his travels he wrote certaine litteral workes1 mostly on the teaching of languages1 and like an earlier ,english writer1 ,john ,eliote1 evolved a special method which he called arte locall or the arte of memorie4 ,he expounds his method1 which is very vague and obscure in its application1 in one of his ,french text-books which appeared in ,london in #afbj and was called ,the ,first ,part of the ,french grammar1 ,artificially ,deduced1 into ,tables by ,arte ,locall1 called the ,arte of ,memorie4 ,colson desired to reconcile the old orthography with the new1 as ,holyband had done earlier1 by means of a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters1 and of a triple distinction of characters1 ,roman1 ,italian1 and ,english4 ,roman type was to stand for the proper pronunciation1 that is1 letters which are pronounced as they are written2 the ,italian for the improper1 that is1 letters which are not given their usual pronunciation2 and finally the letters written but not sounded were to be printed in black letter4 ,in his reformed alphabet he divides the letters into seven vowels and eighteen consonants1 and subdivides the consonants into semivowels and mutes4 ,he gives each letter its usual name1 and then its special name according to his own scheme1 as follows3 ,a ,e' ,e ,o ,i ,y ,v ,h ,s ,z ,x ,i ,l ,r ,n ,m a e o i y u h s z x i l r n m proper names speciall names he s z x i l r n m _/ _/ ,aspiration #h semivowels ,f ,b ,p 3 ,d ,t ,g ,k ,c ,q f b p 3 d t g k c q f b p 3 d t g k c q _/ #aj mutes _/ #g vowels #ah consonants _/ ,elements and ,letters ,and all the said ,alphabet is briefly contained in these five artificiall words to be learnt by heart3--,haeiou--sezexeie--lereneme--fee bepe-- detegeke4 ,after treating of the letters1 ,colson proceeds to deal with the other three chief parts of grammar--the sillible1 the diction1 and the locution 7the last two dealing with accidence and syntax respectively7 in a similarly intricate and obscure style4 ,it is difficult to imagine what can have been his reasons for his scheme of complicated divisions and sub-divisions1 more like a puzzle than anything else4 ,yet he appears to have been serious1 and assures us that once his reformed alphabet is mastered the perfect pronunciation1 reading1 and writing of the ,french tongue is gotten in the space of one month or thereabouts4 ,it is not surprising that his attempted reform passed quite unheeded4 ,this ,first ,part of the ,french grammar1 which is dedicated to the ,worshippfull1 worthie and vertuous gentleman1 ,m4 ,emanuel ,giffard1 ,esquire1 seems to be the only one of ,colson's works on the ,french language which has survived4 ,at its close is a large folding sheet1 containing the table of his reformed alphabet1 dedicated to ,sir ,michael ,stanhope and ,sir ,william ,cornwallis by their affectionate servant4 ,the date is #afac4 ,colson informs us that he had also compiled a ,french grammar divided into four parts1 after a new method4 ,he likewise refers to all his bookes tending to the instruction of the ,french tongue1 such as his booke of the declination of nouns1 and conjugation of ,verbes1 and his three repertories of the ,english1 ,french1 and ,latine tongues1 compounded by arte locall for aiding the memorie in learning most speedily the words of the foresaide tongues by heart in halfe time3 his ,repertoire of all syllables in general and of all ,french words in particular containing the ,art to learn them easily by heart in verie short time and with little labour to the great contentment of him which is desirous of the ,french tongue1 all reduced into ,tables by ,art ,locall as before said3 and other works of ours shortly to be printed tending to the knowledge of the foresaid tongues1 in which works is set downe by ,art and order local 7called the ,art of ,memory7 most easy and brief rules to learne the foresaid bookes by heart4 ,most of these1 no doubt1 were short pamphlets1 perhaps in the shape of the large folding sheet inserted at the end of the ,grammar of #afbj1 and so stood but little chance of survival4 ,at this same period the popular ,french grammar of ,charles ,maupas1 well known to many travellers to ,france1 was translated into ,english by ,william ,aufeild and published in #afcd4 ,header3 ,,william ,,aufeild ,maupas's grammar1 first printed at ,blois in #afjg1 had won a considerable reputation in ,england1 and was not without noticeable influence on the ,french grammars published in ,london4 ,sherwood1 who had made free use of ,maupas1 praised him very highly4 ,james ,howell1 in his edition of ,cotgrave's ,dictionary1 advises students to seek fuller grammatical information in ,maupas's ,grammar1 the exactest and most scholarlike of all4 ,william ,aufeild1 the translator of the book--the best instructions for that language by the consent of all that know the book1 that were ever written--considers that it excels all the ,french grammars ever produced in ,england3 all of them put together do not teach half so well the idiom of the ,french tongue as this one doth4 ,we are assured that the work was in great demand when it first appeared in ,england1 and that a great number of the nobility and gentry were commonly taught by means of it4 ,finding that the fact that it was written in ,french was a great drawback1 as it could only be used by those who already understood ,french1 ,aufeild decided to translate it into ,english1 and dedicated his work to the young ,duke of ,buckingham1#ghh son of the duke to whom ,maupas had offered the original4 ,aufeild tells that he had been studying ,french for ten years when he undertook his task4 ,he called the translation ,a ,french grammar and ,syntaxe1 contayning most exact and certaine ,rules for the pronunciation1 ,orthography1 construction and use of the ,french language4#ghi ,to adapt the work to the use of the ,english1 the translator placed a small cross under letters not pronounced in the ,french word1 thus adopting ,holyband's plan4 ,these letters were also printed in a different type1 that better notice might be taken of them4 ,he also endeavours to give the sounds of the ,french alphabet in ,english spelling1 so that if the student pronounce the one like an ,englishman1 he must needs pronounce the same sounds1 written after the ,french manner1 like a ,frenchman4 ,this1 he says1 is the only invention which he claims as his own in the whole work4 ,the examples as well as the text1 are englished to save the reader so many lookings in his ,dictionary2 and the word to which the rule has special reference is printed in different type from the rest of the example4 ,occasionally the text is expanded by additional explanations1 included in parentheses4 ,aufeild advises the student of ,french to read the whole grammar through first1 in order to get a general notion of the language4 ,it is vain1 he argues1 to begin learning rules for the pronunciation of a language of which you are totally ignorant4 ,especially is this so in the case of the unlearned1 that is1 those unacquainted with ,latin grammar4 ,for instance1 you shall find that in all the third persons plural of verbes ending in -ent1 n is not pronounced1 and so on4 ,now1 unless a man can distinguish an adverbe from a verbe1 he says1 or till he know how the plurall number is made of the singular how shall he know 444 when to leave out n before t8 ,in my opinion1 he adds1 it is but a dull and wearisome thing for a man to take a great deale of paines1 in learning to pronounce what he understandeth not4 ,clearly his ideal was a preliminary grounding in the general principles of grammar4 ,when you have a general knowledge of the whole language you may begin at the pronunciation and so goe through it againe in order as it lieth4 ,in the second reading the student should take into account the less important rules which are omitted in the first perusal4 ,aufeild's final piece of advice is at variance with the general practice among teachers of the time4 ,he would have the pupil postpone all attempts at speaking the language until the last stages3 be not too greedy1 he warns the reader1 to be thought a speaker of ,french before you are sure you understand what you read4 ,the best known teacher of ,italian in the seventeenth century1 ,torriano1 was of the same opinion3 for the avoiding of a vulgar error or fault very predominant in many1 namely of being over hasty to be speaking of a language1 before it be well understood1 ,i thought not amiss to produce the quotation of one ,mr4 ,wm4 ,aufeild4444 ,i jump with him that they who are last at speaking speak the best and surest and so much ,i find by my experience among my scholars4#gij ,many years before1 ,roger ,ascham had expressed the same view with regard to the teaching of ,latin4 ,header3 ,,aufeild',s ,,advice ,,to ,,students ,he admitted that the dailie use of speaking was the best method1 but only provided the learner could always hear the language spoken correctly and avoid the habit of the evil choice of words1 and crooked forming of sentences2 but as it is1 loquendo male loqui discunt1 and he advises the postponement of speaking until some progress had been made4#gia ,considering ,aufeild's ideas as to the speaking of ,french1 we quite expect to find him condemning attempts to pick up the language without the help of rules2 for if with ,rules1 you shall be often at a loss1 certainly you shall stick at every word without them4 ,it may be that they which take another way1 may speake more words in halfe a yeare then you shall in twelve month2 but in a year's space you may1 with diligence and industry1 speake better 7and after a while more7 than another shall doe all his life time1 unless there be a vast disparity between your abilities of mind4 ,his attitude as to the respective importance of grammatical study and its practical application was not in keeping with that of ,maupas1 of whom he said1 ,i know not whom you can equal to him4 ,maupas had written his grammar in ,french instead of the international language1 ,latin1 because he advocated the study of the grammar in the ,french language itself2 he taught reading and pronunciation by means of reading the grammar in ,french4 ,aufeild1 on the contrary1 considered it a drawback that when ,english students travelled into ,france they had to learn enough ,french to converse with their teachers before they could learn of their teachers how to converse with others4 ,this was the reason which induced him to translate the grammar1 although in doing so he1 no doubt unconsciously1 set at nought ,maupas's principal reason for writing it in ,french4 ,we know of no other ,french grammar produced in ,france which was specially favoured by ,english learners of ,french4 ,but no doubt many ,englishmen1 besides those who travelled1 studied from ,french grammars4 ,english travellers returning from ,france would1 no doubt1 bring back grammars which might also arrive through other channels4 ,even in the time of ,elizabeth foreign books had been freely imported into ,england1 and the foreign trade of the stationers of ,london was very extensive4 ,that the early ,french grammars were known in ,england is shown by their influence on those produced in ,england1 although in many cases this is more readily explained by the circumstance that they were the work of ,frenchmen newly arrived from ,france4 ,however1 it is not likely that these ,french grammars were ever widely used in ,england for learning the language1 when books in ,english were ready to hand and easier to use4 ,in ,scotland1 on the other hand1 where such books were not in existence1 they were probably more widely employed4 ,both countries1 ,scotland in particular1 made free use of foreign text-books for the teaching of ,latin2 but the case is hardly the same for the international language4 ,in the meantime the production of ,french grammars in ,england continued uninterruptedly4 ,the ,flower de ,luce planted in ,england was the title of a grammar which appeared in #afai4 ,this work was due to one ,laur ,du ,terme1 of whom nothing is known beyond the fact that he was a ,frenchman and a protg of ,bacon1 then ,lord ,chancellor4 ,du ,terme had evidently been in ,england long enough to acquire some knowledge of ,english1 in which he wrote his grammar4 ,after imploring his patron to water his 'flower' with a few drops of favourable approbation1 he proceeds to address the gentle reader in these words3 ,looke not in this ,treatise1 for any eloquent words1 nor polished sentences1 for ,i doe not go about to begge any favour nor insinuate into any man's love by coloured and misticall phrases4#gib ,neither do ,i intend to teach my masters1 but in requitall of your kind curtesie in teaching mee this little ,english ,i have1 do in the same set downe suche precepts as ,i find best for the pronouncing1 understanding1 and speaking of the ,french tongue4 ,these precepts he selected from other grammars used by many both teachers and learners1 yet ,i presume this will be as agreeable as any were yet1 and in brief containing more than ever ,i saw yet in ,english4 ,the pronunciation is explained by comparison with ,english sounds1 and then each part of speech is treated in turn2 constant analogies with ,latin occur1 and he also gives a list of ,french suffixes with their ,latin roots1 and endeavours to introduce the ,latin gerund and supine into ,french grammar1 not being of those who sought to delatinize ,french grammar4 ,for the verbs he refers the student to the rules given by ,cotgrave at the end of his dictionary1 very profitable for every learner to reade1 where they are arranged in four conjugations1 while some authors make three1 some five1 some six1 and little enough for the understanding of all the verbs4 ,header3 ,,laur ,,du ,,terme ,he makes no claim to completeness--and if by chance ,i have applied a rule instead of an exception or an exception instead of a rule1 the teacher may easily mend it1 and your courteous censure in reciprocall of the good-will ,i beare unto you ,i hope will excuse it4 ,reade it over1 but not slightly1 consider every rule and way every word in it4 ,du ,terme's aim in his rules is to be brief and plain4 ,he desired them to be regarded in the light of a reference book4 ,the student was to begin to read from the very first4 ,the ,flower de ,luce does not provide the usual stock of reading-exercises1 and ,du ,terme advises the student to use any good ,french author he likes best2 and what word soever he goes about to reade1 let him looke upon his ,rules concerning the pronunciation of the letters1 how they are pronounced in several places1 first the vowell1 then what consonants are before and after1 and1 having compared and brought all the ,rules concerning those letters together1 he shall easily finde the true pronunciation of any word4 ,the sounds of the language should be thoroughly mastered at the outset3 ,bestow rather five days in learning five vowels1 then to learne and passe them over in a day1 as being the chief and only ground of all the rest1 without the which you shall loose your labour1 not being able to pronounce one diphthongue unless you pronounce the vowels well1 perfectly1 neatly and distinctly1 without confounding one with another4 ,the which case you must observe in the consonants4 ,for the proper understanding of the matter read1 he recommends the use of some bookes that are both ,english and ,french1 as the ,bible1 the ,testament1 and many others that are very common in ,england4 ,he admits that this method is slow and difficult at first1 yet notwithstanding1 after a little labour1 will prove exceeding easie1 as by experience hath been tryed3 in so much as some have learned perfectly to reade and understande the most part in less than the quarter of a year1 onely applying themselves unto it one hour and a half in a day4 ,paul ,cougneau or ,cogneau1 another ,french teacher of ,london1 also wrote a ,french grammar at this period4 ,he called it ,a sure ,guide to the ,french tongue1 and published it in #afce4 ,cogneau had no mean opinion of his book4 ,it hath in some things a peculiar way1 not commonly traced by others1 he tells us4 ,in the beginning are rules of pronunciation1 then for the declension of articles1 nouns and pronouns1 and in the end the conjugation of diverse verbs1 both personal and impersonal 444 and throughout the whole book there is so great a multiplicity of various phrases congested as no one book for the bulk contains more4 ,all which besides are set forth with plainness as fit it for the capacity even of the meanest4 ,much pains hath been employed about it1 and ,i hope not without great benefit and profit in the right use of it1 and consequently not unworthy of the kind acceptance which ,i heartily wish4 ,but the work has little value or originality1 in spite of its interest to the modern reader4 ,the rules occupy thirty pages only4 ,they are taken mainly from ,holyband and ,de la ,mothe4 ,the nouns1 articles1 and pronouns receive very meagre treatment1 but the auxiliaries and verbs1 the regular and a few irregular verbs1 are fully conjugated at the end of the book1 being arranged in sentence form1 as in many modern text-books3 ,j'ay bien dormi ceste nuit4 ,tu as trop mang4 ,il a trop bu1 etc4 ,the practical exercises1 which fill the next three hundred pages1 reproduce the dialogues of the same sixteenth-century writers--the only two who retained their popularity in the seventeenth4 ,the exercises of the ,french ,schoolemaister1 the ,french ,littleton1 and the ,french ,alphabet are all repeated without any acknowledgement4 ,like ,du ,terme1 ,cogneau attached much importance to pronunciation and reading4 ,he held that pronunciation was best learnt with the help of a teacher1 and that rules were not of much use in this case4 ,i have observed1 he writes1 how many of my countrymen have taken great pains and labour to show the ,english how to pronounce the ,french letters1 by letters2 but these men labour in vain3 for ,i know that the true pronunciation of any tongue whatsoever cannot be taught so3 nor none can learn it so2 ,i mean1 to speak it well and truly as it ought to be3 to learn to understand it by such rules1 one may in time and with great pains1 but1 as ,i have said1 never to speak it well and perfectly1 without he be taught by some master4 ,i say not that the rules are unprofitable1 no1 for they are very profitable being well used1 and the learner being well directed to understand them aright2 but1 as ,i have said1 so ,i say still1 that whosoever will learn this noble and famous tongue1 must chuse one that can speak good ,french1 and one that hath a good method in teaching1 and the first thing to learn of him must be to pronounce perfectly our #bb letters1 and give every one its due sound and pronunciation4 ,the student should undertake nothing until he has mastered the sounds of the letters and syllables4 ,header3 ,,paul ,,cogneau ,then he may pass to the reading1 and in that reading learn to spell perfectly1 for it is that which will perfect thee1 so that thou wilt be able to correct many ,frenchmen both in their speaking and writing1 if thou wilt take pains to learn it perfectly and be as perfect in it as in thy native tongue4 ,if thou dost mark well what ,i have said1 and do it1 and if thou hast a good teacher1 thou maiest learn the ,french tongue easily in a year4 ,cogneau gives his grammar rules in both ,french and ,english1 and evidently intended them to form part of the reading material on which the student was to begin as soon as he had mastered the ,french sounds4 ,from these he proceeds to the dialogues4 ,thou must learn this book perfectly1 to read the ,french in ,english and also the ,english in ,french perfectly1 and ,i durst warrant that whosoever shall learn this book perfectly will be a perfect ,frenchman1 and shall be able both to speak and write the ,french tongue much better than the most part of ,frenchmen4 ,the only differences1 then1 between the methods advocated by ,laur ,du ,terme and ,cogneau are that the first would have the student learn the pronunciation by reading1 and the second from the lips of a master before the student begins to read2 and that ,cogneau adopts the method of double translation1 so strongly urged by ,de la ,mothe1 while ,du ,terme mentions only translation of ,french into ,english4 ,in fact1 ,cogneau's method was probably suggested by the sixteenth-century teachers4 ,cogneau's ,guide was in vogue for a number of years4 ,in #afeh a ,french teacher1 ,guillaume ,herbert1 who appears to have had no mean opinion of his own abilities1 edited the fourth edition4 ,he describes the earlier form of the work as a blind guide rather than a sure one1 but now that it has been revised by him both masters and scholars may with more confidence venture upon it as the most correct book now extant of this kind and in these tongues1 and ,i dare promise them that if ,i live to see and oversee the next edition1 ,i will so purge and order it that every reader may 7if ingenious and ingenuous7 give it deservedly the name of a ,sure ,guide4 ,it is difficult to see in what the improvements he boasts of consist1 for his is little more than a reprint of the earlier editions4 ,with ,herbert's edition the popularity of the ,sure ,guide came to an end1 no doubt owing to the appearance of more recent works4 ,william ,aufeild complained1 not without reason1 that most professors teach only what other men have set downe to their hand in ,english many years agoe1 and it is undeniable that several of the sixteenth-century ,french grammars continued to be used in ,england as late as the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,holyband was specially in favour1 and so was ,de la ,mothe4 ,peter ,erondell1 it has been seen1 prepared new editions of the ,french ,schoolemaister in #afjf1 #afab1 #afae1 and #afai4 ,another ,french professor1 ,james ,giffard1 was responsible for other editions in #afca1 #afcf1 #afda1 #afdi1 #afee1 and it appears to have been printed again in #affh2 this ,giffard was probably the ,jacques ,giffard who attended the ,threadneedle ,street ,church2#gic he is said to have been a native of the isle of ,sark1 and in #afdj he married ,elizabeth ,guilbert of ,guernsey4 ,editions of the ,french ,littleton saw the light in #afjb1 #afjg1 #afbe1 #afcj1 #afcc1 and #afci4 ,none of these editions contains any very noticeable alterations4 ,the new editions of ,de la ,mothe's ,french ,alphabet 7#afbe1 #afca1 #afcc1 #afci1 and #afdg7 are merely reprints of the first edition of #aeib4 ,thus it came about that the ,french of the sixteenth century was still taught in ,england in the seventeenth1 regardless of the great changes which had been accomplished in the language in the meantime4 ,the first half of the seventeenth century was also a period during which ,french began to receive greater recognition in the educational world4 ,latin1 it is true1 retained its supremacy in the grammar school2 but it is significant that a considerable number of ,latin school-books were adapted to teaching ,french1 and helped to swell the number of such manuals at the service of students4 ,thus ,french gained a place by the side of ,latin1 and some went so far as to question the supremacy of ,latin as the learned tongue of ,europe4 ,in #afai ,thomas ,morrice#gid deemed it necessary to refute the error of those of his countrymen who placed ,french before ,latin--a most absurd paradox in his opinion1 for ,french was never reckoned a learned tongue2 it belongs by right to one country alone1 where the people themselves learn ,latin4 ,such protests had little effect4 ,in the first years of the century we have the earliest recognition of ,french as distinct from other modern languages1 at the hands of a writer on education2 ,header3 ,,french ,,makes ,,headway ,j4 ,cleland held that a young gentleman's tutor should be skilled in the ,french as well as the ,latin tongue1 because it is most used now universallie1#gie and that the student1 after translating ,english into ,latin1 should proceed to turn his ,latin into ,french1 that he may profit in both the ,tongues together4#gif ,it was indeed by no means uncommon for ,french and ,english tutors to give instruction in both these tongues4 ,denisot1 ,palsgrave1 ,holyband1 and many other ,french teachers had done so4 ,joseph ,rutter1 tutor to the son of the ,earl of ,dorset1 at whose request he translated the ,cid into ,english1 is said to have made his pupil his collaborator in this task1 and probably taught him ,french as well as ,latin1 and his case does not appear to have been exceptional4 ,evelyn1 the diarist1 learnt the rudiments of ,latin from a ,frenchman named ,citolin1 and probably picked up some ,french at the same time2 travel abroad and his marriage with the daughter of ,sir ,richard ,browne1 ,english ambassador at ,paris1 who from her youth upwards had lived in ,france1 gave him opportunities for improving his knowledge of the language1 in which he was soon able to converse with ease4#gig ,evelyn's son ,richard also studied the two languages together2 when he died in #afeh1 at the early age of five1 he was able to say the catechism and pronounce ,english1 ,latin1 and ,french accurately1 also to read an script1 to decline nouns and conjugate all regular and most of the irregular verbs4 ,he had likewise learn'd ,pueriles1 got by heart almost the entire vocabulary of ,latine and ,french primitives and words1 and could make congruous syntax1 turne ,english into ,latine and vice versa1 construe and prove what he read1 and did the government and use of relatives1 verbs1 substantives1 elipses1 and many figures and tropes1 and made a considerable progress in ,comenius's ,janua1 began himself to write legibly1 and had a strong passion for ,greek4#gih ,the manuals for teaching ,latin and ,french together1 either ,latin school-books with ,french added1 or works specially written for giving instruction in the two languages1 probably resulted from this connexion4 ,at an early date ,french had found a place in several ,latin dictionaries4#gii ,soon afterwards it made its way into some of the ,latin ,colloquia and school authors4 ,in #aeia the printer ,john ,wyndet received a licence to print the dialogues of ,corderius in ,french and ,english4#hjj ,there is also a notice of an edition of ,castellion's ,sacred ,dialogues in the same two languages4#hja ,aesop's ,fables were printed in ,english1 ,french1 and ,latin in #affe1 with the purpose of rendering the acquisition of these languages easier for young gentlemen and ladies2 each fable is accompanied by an illustration due to ,francis ,barlow1 and followed by a moral reflection4 ,thomas ,philpott was responsible for the ,english version1 and ,robert ,codrington1 ,m4,a41 a versatile translator of the time1 for the ,latin and ,french4 ,at least two other editions appeared in #afhg and #agjc4 ,another favourite author was published in the same three languages at a later date--the ,thoughts of ,cicero 444 on 7#a7 ,religion1 and 7#b7 ,man4444 ,published in ,latin and ,french by the ,abb ,olivet1 to which is now added an ,english translation1 with notes 7by ,a4 ,wishart7 7#agej and #aggc74 ,of these few examples of ,latin and ,french text-books1 two are known only by hearsay4 ,it is likely that others1 adapted to the same purpose1 have disappeared without leaving any trace at all2 as such school-books were usually printed with a privilege1 their names are not preserved in the registers of the ,company of ,stationers4 ,little wonder that such manuals1 subjected to the double wear and tear of teaching both ,latin and ,french1 have been entirely lost4 ,the one volume which has come down to us is ,aesop's ,fables in ,french1 ,latin1 and ,english1 and its survival is explained by the elaborate and costly form in which it was issued4 ,in #afag was published the ,janua ,linguarum ,quadralinguis of ,jean ,barbier1 a ,parisian4 ,the work1 originally written in ,spanish and ,latin 7#afaa7 for the use of ,spaniards1 was in time adapted to teaching ,latin and incidentally ,spanish to the ,english1 by the addition of an ,english translation in #afae4 ,the fact that ,french was added two years later by ,barbier is not without significance4 ,foremost among books for teaching ,french and ,latin together1 however1 was the famous ,janua ,linguarum of ,comenius1 from which ,evelyn's son learnt his ,latin1 and presumably his ,french also4 ,it was printed in ,england in ,english1 ,french1 and ,latin1 in the very year in which it had first come out at ,leszna in ,latin and ,german 7#afca74 ,header3 ,,books ,,for ,,teaching ,,latin ,,and ,,french ,in this form it was given the title of ,porta ,linguarum trilinguis reserata et aperta1 or the ,gate of ,tongues unlocked and opened4 ,the ,janua contains a thousand sentences1 dealing with subjects encyclopaedic in plan1 beginning with the origin of the world1 and ending with death1 providence1 and the angels4 ,the intervening chapters treat of the earth and its elements1 animals1 man1 his life1 education1 occupations1 afflictions1 social institutions1 and moral qualities4 ,j4 ,a4 ,anchoran1 ,licentiate in ,divinity1 a friend of ,robert ,codrington and apparently a ,frenchman1 was responsible for the edition of the ,porta ,linguarum in ,english1 ,french1 and ,latin4 ,he declares he prepared it in behalf of the young ,prince ,charles 7,,ii471 then about a year old1 and of ,british1 ,french and ,irish youth4 ,his efforts proved successful2 there were two issues of the work in #afca1 and other editions appeared in #afcc1 #afcg1 and #afci4 ,with the second and following editions was bound an index to the ,french and ,latin words contained in the ,porta ,linguarum1 entitled3 ,clavis ad ,portam or a ,key fitted to open the gates of tongues wherein you may readily find the ,latine and ,french for any ,english word1 necessary for all young scholars4 ,it was dedicated to the schoolmasters and ushers of ,england1 and printed at ,oxford1 being the work of ,wye ,saltonstall1 teacher of ,latin and ,french in that ,university4 ,yet another brief treatise was commonly bound with the #afcc edition of the ,porta ,linguarum--,the ,pathway to the ,gate of ,tongues1 being the first ,instruction for little children1 intended as an introduction to ,comenius1 but chiefly to give instruction in ,french4 ,it was due to one of the ,french teachers in ,london1 ,jean de ,grave1 no doubt the son of the ,jean de ,grave natif d',amsterdam who came to ,england in the early years of the seventeenth century and died some time before #afab4 ,de ,grave was a member of the ,french ,church1 and in #afae was twice threatened with expulsion owing to his sympathy with the ,brownists2 but he saved the situation by recanting4#hjb ,de ,grave's ,pathway to ,comenius opens with a table of the numbers1 the catechism1 graces1 and prayers1 all given in ,latin1 ,english1 and ,french4 ,the main section gives the conjugation of the four regular verbs 7j'aime1 je bastis1 je voy1 je li7 and of aller1 avoir1 estre1 il faut and on aime1 in ,french accompanied by ,english and ,latin equivalents in parallel columns4 ,de ,grave makes a point of omitting all the compound tenses usually introduced into ,french verbs on the model of the ,latin ones1 as such forms can only be expressed by means of paraphrases or of the verbs avoir and estre2 thus ,french rather than ,latin was in the author's mind3 ,or m'a sembl qu'il ne fallait pas charger au commencement la memoire des petits enfants de choses desquelles le maistre diligent et industrieux1 pourveu qu'il soit homme lettr et bien entendu en la grammaire franoise1 pourra instiller peu peu en leur esprit1 plus par diligente pratique que par cette facheuse et prolixe circonlocution qui n'apporte aucun profit4 ,he agreed with most of the ,french teachers of the time that few rules and much practice under the guidance of a good master1 was the best way of learning ,french4 ,in the first half of the seventeenth century also1 the private institutions in which ,french had a place increased considerably in number1 especially during the latter years of the reign of ,charles ,i4 and the ,commonwealth4 ,there were several projects1 of which a few were actually realized for a time1 for founding academies in ,england on the model of those in ,france4 ,their aim was to provide instruction in modern languages and polite accomplishments1 in order to counterbalance the one-sidedness of the ,universities1 and save parents the expense of sending their children abroad1 and protect the latter from the dangers to which they might be exposed in foreign countries4 ,in #afce the accomplished courtier ,sir ,francis ,kynaston founded the ,museum ,minervae at his house in ,bedford ,square1 ,covent ,garden4 ,latin1 ,french1 and ,italian were the chief languages of the curriculum4 ,no foreigner was allowed to act as either regent or professor4 ,a regulation stipulated that noe ,gentleman shall speak in the forenoon to the ,regent about any businesse1 but either in ,italian1 ,french1 or ,latin2 but if any gentleman be deficient in all these languages1 then shall he deale with some professour or other to speak unto the regent for him in the morning1 but in the afternoon free accesse shall be granted to all that have any occasion to conferre with him4#hjc ,a certain ,michael ,mason was the professor of languages4 ,the ,academy was short-lived1 and probably did not survive its founder1 who died at the beginning of the ,civil ,war4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,private ,,academies ,on the #aith of ,july #afdi1 another ,academy of similar nature but wider scope was opened by the adventurous ,sir ,balthazar ,gerbier in his house at ,bethnal ,green4 ,in #afdh he published a prospectus1 which appeared in several different forms1 announcing to all fathers of noble families and lovers of vertue that ,sir ,balthazar ,gerbier1 knight1 erects an ,academy wherein forraigne ,languages1 ,sciences and all noble exercises shall be taught 444 whereunto shall serve several treatises set forth by the said ,sir ,b4 ,g4 in the ,forraigne languages aforesaid1 the ,english tongue being joyned thereunto 444 whiche ,treatises shall be continually at ,mistresse ,allen's ,shop at the signe of the crown in ,pope's head ,alley neere the olde ,exchange1 ,london4 ,gerbier's intention was to teach the sciences and languages simultaneously1 and by means of each other4 ,french seems to have been the only foreign language which received special treatment at his hands4 ,he was the author of ,an ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue1 a work of very slight value1 treating of the pronunciation and parts of speech and followed by a lengthy and wearisome dialogue between three travellers4 ,carrying out his expressed aim1 he wrote several pamphlets on the subjects of polite education in ,french accompanied by a literal ,english translation4#hjd ,every ,saturday afternoon a public lesson was read in the ,academy1 as well concerning the grounds and rules of the aforesaid languages1 as touching the sciences and exercises1 which will give much satisfaction to all ,fathers of noble families and lovers of vertue4 ,there was also an open lecture by which the deserving poor were to be instructed gratis1 on due recommendation4 ,gerbier is also said#hje to have started an ,academy for languages at ,whitehall4 ,none of his efforts1 however1 met with much response4 ,the private ,academy as such was an institution which never really took root in ,england4 ,moreover1 ,gerbier was not a gifted man4 ,the works he wrote for use in his ,academy have very little value1 and his lectures were severely criticised4 ,walpole calls one of them1 typical of the rest1 a most trifling superficial rhapsody4 ,several other schemes#hjf for courtly academies were never realised at all4 ,such were those of ,prince ,henry1 son of ,james ,i41 and of ,lord ,admiral ,buckingham4 ,a play of the ,commonwealth period1 ,brome's ,new ,academy 7#afeh71 gives an amusing picture of one of these institutions and introduces us to a group of pushing ,french men and women who profess inter alia to teach the ,french ,tongue with great alacrity4 ,private schools1 on the contrary1 were better patronised4 ,there were undoubtedly numerous ,french schools in the style of those of the sixteenth century2 ,wodroeph refers to one1 without giving any details1 and the language school kept by ,sherwood was well known4 ,in many instances also ,french found a place in other private schools alongside the more usual studies4 ,sir ,john ,reresby1 for example1 was sent at the age of fifteen to a school at ,enfield ,chase1 where he was instructed in ,latin1 ,french1 writing1 and dancing4 ,there he stayed two years and came to a very passable proficiency in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french1 and rhetoric4#hjg ,the elder brother of ,thomas ,ellwood1 ,milton's amanuensis1 also learnt ,french and ,latin at a private school at ,hadley1 near ,barnet in ,hertfordshire1 before going with ,thomas to learn ,latin and some ,greek at the free school of ,thame4#hjh ,such schools seem to have been relatively numerous at the time of the ,commonwealth4 ,one was kept by ,edward ,wolley1 ,d4,d4 of ,oxford1 who had been domestic chaplain to ,charles ,i41 and taken refuge in ,france on his sovereign's death4 ,after spending seven years abroad as chaplain to ,charles ,,ii4 in exile1 he returned to ,england and opened a school at ,hammersmith4 ,in #afed the ,protector issued stringent orders against scholemasters who are or shall be ,ignorant1 ,scandalous1 ,insufficient or ,negligent4 ,many royalists were affected1 and it was no doubt as a result of this measure that in #afee ,wolley had to petition ,cromwell to allow him to continue his painful employment of instructing youth in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,french1 and other commendable exercises4 ,he pleads that since his return from ,france he has demeaned himself irreproachably1 and that he causes the ,holy ,scriptures to be read and religious duties to be daily used in his school1 and takes the children to church on ,sunday2 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,private ,,schools moreover they have always spoken with honour and reverence of his ,highness4#hji ,among the few royalist and episcopal schoolmasters who were not affected by the measure of #afed was ,samuel ,turberville1 a very good schoolmaster1 who kept school in ,kensington4 ,sir ,ralph ,verney's second son ,jack1 afterwards apprenticed to a merchant1 spent three years there 7#afef-ei71 and ,turberville commends his amendement in writing1 the mastery of his grammar and an indifferent ,latin author1 his preservation of the ffrench1 and the command of his ,violl4#haj ,sir ,ralph ,verney's son had previously acquired ,french in ,france1 and wrote it fluently though not always correctly4#haa ,his fellow-pupils1 we are told1 called him the young mounseer4 ,there were also numerous schools for young ladies and gentlewomen in and about ,london and elsewhere4 ,one ,french teacher1 ,paul ,festeau1 advertises the ,french boarding-school of ,monsieur de la ,mare at ,marylebone1 where girls were taught to write1 to read1 to speak ,french1 to sing1 to dance1 to play on the guitar and the spinette4#hab ,m4 de la ,mare was a ,protestant1 and a reader at the ,french ,church4 ,his wife was a good mother to the girls1 we are told1 and his daughter spoke ,french with much elegance4 ,another ,french teacher1 ,pierre ,berault1 mentions the pension for young ladies kept by his friend ,m4 ,papillon in ,charles ,street1 near ,st4 ,james's ,square4 ,french1 writing1 singing1 dancing1 and designing were the subjects of study4 ,in other cases schools for girls and young ladies were attended by a visiting ,french master4 ,the most popular ,french teacher of the time1 ,claude ,mauger of ,blois1 was employed for some time after his arrival in ,england as ,french teacher to the young ladies of ,mrs4 ,kilvert's once famous ,academy4 ,this practice became more and more widespread as the seventeenth century advanced1 and was very common in the eighteenth century1 as it still is nowadays4 ,,footnotes3 #ghd ,see p4 #aia1 supra4 #ghe ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #ghf ,catalogue of ,books of some learned ,men deceased1 #afgh4 ,it was licensed to the printer ,humphrey ,lownes on #crd ,january #afbe 7,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 iv4 #acc74 #ghg ,general ,treasury of ,accounts1 ,london1 #afab4 #ghh ,guy ,le ,moyne was probably his ,french tutor2 cp4 p4 #bfb1 supra4 #ghi ,written in ,france by ,charles ,maupas of ,bloys4 ,translated into ,english with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us ,english1 together with a preface and an introduction wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better understanding of it4 #gij ,italian reviv'd1 #afgc4 #gia ,the ,scholemaster1 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi1 p4 #bh2 cp4 p4 #ahb1 supra4 #gib ,is this a reference to ,eliote's ,ortho-,epia ,gallica8 #gic ,threadneedle ,street ,french ,church ,registers1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 xiii4 ,pts4 i4 and ii4 ,the earliest mention of ,giffard occurs in #afbi1 and the latest in #afdi4 #gid ,apologie for ,schoolmasters4 #gie ,cleland1 ,institution of a young nobleman1 #afjg1 pp4 #bh-bi4 #gif ,ibid4 p4 #hj4 #gig ,his first literary attempt was a translation 7#afdh7 from the ,french of ,la ,mothe le ,vayer's essay on ,liberty and ,servitude4 #gih ,diary1 ,january #bg1 #afeh4 #gii ,cp4 pp4 #ahg sqq41 supra4 #hjj ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 ii4 #egf2 iii4 #dff4 ,an edition in ,french and ,latin was printed in ,london as late as the eighteenth century4 #hja ,r4 ,clavell1 ,catalogue of ,books printed in ,london1 #afff-afhj4 #hjb ,schickler1 glises du ,refuge1 i4 #dji4 ,his name occurs frequently in the ,threadneedle ,street ,church ,registers1 ,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 ix4 and xiii4 #hjc ,the ,constitution of the ,museum ,minervae1 #afcf4 ,charles ,i4 granted #ajj from the ,treasury1 and ,kynaston himself provided books and other material4 #hjd ,the ,interpreter of the ,academy for forrain languages and all noble sciences and exercises1 #afdh4 #hje ,pepys1 ,diary1 ed4 ,wheatley1 iv4 p4 #adh n4 #hjf ,oxford ,historical ,soc41 #ahhe1 ,collectanea1 series #a1 pt4 vi4 pp4 #bga sqq4 ,john ,dury proposes a special class of schools for languages1 which should teach the classics to those desiring learning1 and modern languages to those intended for commerce 7,reformed ,school1 #afej1 quoted by ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 p4 xxvii74 #hjg ,memoirs of ,sir ,john ,reresby1 #ahge1 p4 #bb2 and ,memoirs and ,travels1 ed4 ,a4 ,ivatt1 ,london1 #aijd1 p4 xv4 #hjh ,ellwood's ,autobiography1 ,london1 #agad1 p4 #d4 #hji ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afee-ef1 p4 #gf4 ,on the ,restoration1 ,wolley enjoyed ecclesiastical preferment1 and finally became ,bishop of ,clonfert4 ,he published an ,english translation from the ,french of ,scudry's ,curia ,politiae1 in #aedf1 and other works in ,english1 of no special interest4 ,see ,dict4 ,nat4 ,biog41 ad nom4 #haj ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family1 iii4 p4 #cfa4 #haa ,he usually wrote home in ,french4 ,in the following extract he asks for a taper1 then in fashion among his school-mates3 ,je vous prie de m'anvoier de la chandelle de cirre entortille1 car tous les garons en ont pour brullay 7sic7 et moy ie n'en ay point pour moy4 #hab ,two parents discuss the school in a dialogue3 ,o allez vous8 ,whither are you going8 ,je m'en vais voir ma fille4 ,i am going to see my daughter4 ,en quel lieu8 ,in what place8 ,a ,maribone4 ,at ,maribone4 ,que fait elle l8 ,what doth she do there8 ,comment1 ne savez vous pas ,what1 do you not know that ,i que je l'ay mise en pension8 have put her at a ,boording school8 ,chez qui8 ,with whom8 ,chez un nomm ,mons4 de la ,at one ,mons4 de la ,mare that ,mare qui tient escole ,franoise4 keeps a ,french school4 ,vrayement1 je n'en savois rien4 ,truly1 ,i did not know it4 ,qu'apprend elle l8 ,what does she learn there8 ,elle apprend crire1 lire1 ,she learns to write1 to read1 parler franois1 chanter1 to speak ,french1 to sing1 danser1 jouer de la guitare1 to dance1 to play on the guitar1 et de l'pinette4 and the spinette4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,little ,,blois ,,in ,,london ,in the second half of the seventeenth century we come across a band of ,french teachers in ,london1 which corresponds1 in importance1 to that which grouped itself round ,claude ,holyband in the vicinity of ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard at the same period in the sixteenth century4 ,at its head was ,claude ,mauger1 a native of ,blois4 ,mauger had as long a teaching experience in ,london as ,holyband2 he arrived in about #afej1 and we do not hear the last of him till the first decade of the next century4 ,he was forced to quit his native town by intestine distempers1 probably an allusion to the persecutions which broke out there in the middle of the century4 ,he appears to have been a ,huguenot4 ,before coming to ,england he had been a student at ,orleans1 and for seven years had taught ,french to travellers1 the flowre of all ,europe1 at ,blois1#hac where some years previously ,maupas had laboured at the same task2 among his pupils was ,gustavus ,adolphus1 ,prince of ,mecklenburg4 ,on arriving in ,england1 ,mauger exercised the same profession4 ,and several others1 driven from ,blois like himself1 gathered around him as friends1 admirers1 and fellow-workers4 ,among these1 he tells us1 he reckons ,master ,penson and ,master ,festeau as specially good masters of language4 ,of ,penson nothing is known1 save that he wrote some lines addressed to ,mauger's critics4 ,festeau1 however1 is mentioned elsewhere by ,mauger with high commendation1 and the two seem to have been close friends4 ,he came to ,england about the same time as ,mauger1 and may have accompanied him4 ,these members of the ,little ,blois in ,london prided themselves on teaching the accent of ,blois1 where the true tone of the ,french tongue is found1 by the unanimous consent of all ,frenchmen4 ,the accent of ,blois had already been recommended by some of the earlier ,french teachers4 ,charles ,maupas was its foremost champion4 ,fate had been very unkind to him before his arrival in ,england1 ,mauger tells us4 ,but he soon forgot his sorrows in his busy and successful life in ,london4 ,pupils flocked to him1 and1 as we saw1 he was called upon by ,mrs4 ,margaret ,kilvert to teach ,french in her ,academy for young gentlewomen--a place1 according to him1 which needs nothing1 only a name worthy to expresse its excellency4 ,at the same time he was busy writing a ,french grammar1 which appeared in #afec1 and was dedicated to ,mrs4 ,kilvert--,the ,true ,advancement of the ,french ,tongue1 or a ,new ,method and more easie directions for the attaining of it than ever yet have been published1 preceded by verses addressed to no less than fifty of his lady pupils4 ,it does not differ materially as regards its contents from previous works of the kind and had apparently been first written in ,french1 for ,mauger says his work hath now put on a language to which it was before a stranger4 ,rules of grammar and pronunciation occupy the first hundred and twenty pages1 and the remaining half of the book comprises reading exercises in ,french and ,english1 and a vocabulary4 ,the sound of each letter is explained1 then the declinable parts are treated in turn1 and followed by a few scattered rules of syntax4 ,the whole is a little incoherent1 and lacks order4 ,mauger was evidently acquainted with the work of his fellow-townsman ,charles ,maupas4 ,the second section of ,mauger's grammar begins with lists of anglicisms to be avoided1#had and then of certaine francisms1 or ,french idioms1 and of familiar ,french phrases for common use4 ,the dialogues turn chiefly on the study of ,french1 and include discussions between students of ,french1 talk of travel in ,france1 and polite and gallant conversations between ,french and ,english ladies and gentlemen4 ,considering ,mauger's many women pupils1 it is not surprising to find a considerable part of his book devoted to them3 two ladies discuss ,french and their ,french teacher1 criticise the ,french accent of their friends1 or receive visits or lessons from their ,french1 music1 or dancing masters4 ,header3 ,,claude ,,mauger ,and as the two latter1 especially the dancing-master1 were usually ,french1 they did much to assist the language tutor4 ,french maids are also often introduced1 and represented as instructing their mistresses in the ,french language as well as in ,french fashions4 ,it is no doubt ,mrs4 ,kilvert's ,academy that is referred to in the following dialogue3 ,mon pre1 je vous prie1 donns moy ,i pray1 ,father1 give me vostre bndiction4 your blessing4 ,ma fille1 soys la bien revenue4 ,daughter1 you are welcome home4 ,comment se porte ,how does ,mme4 votre ,matresse8 your mistress8 ,mons4 elle se porte bien4 ,she is very well1 ,sir4 ,n'avs vous point oubli votre ,have you not forgot your ,anglois8 ,english quite8 ,non1 mon pre4 ,no1 sir4 ,je croy que vous parls extrmement ,i suppose you speak ,french bien4 excellently well by this time8 ,j'entends beaucoup mieux que ,i understand it better than je ne parle4 ,i can speak it4 ,laquelle est la plus savante de vous ,which of you two is the best deux8 proficient8 ,c'est ma soeur4--,je ne pense pas4 ,my sister1 ,sir4--,i don't believe that4 ,expliqus moy ce livre l en ,render me some of that book back ,franois4 into ,french4 ,que signifie cela en ,franois8 ,what's that in ,french8 ,entends vous cette sentence l8 ,do you understand that sentence8 ,ouy1 ,mons4 ,yes1 ,sir4 ,vous avez bien profit4 4 4 4 ,you have made good proficiency4444 ,savez vous travailler en ouvrages8 ,have you learnt any needlework there8 ,vostre luth n'est pas d'accord4 4 4 4 ,your lute is out of tune4444 ,et vous1 ma fille1 vous ne dites ,but you1 daughter1 have you rien8 nothing to say8 ,j'attendois vos ordres4 ,i expect your commands4 ,qu'avez vous appris8 ,what have you learnt8 ,approchez vous de moy4 ,come nearer to me4 ,dancs une courante4 ,dance me a ,courante4 ,in another dialogue a ,french gentleman compliments an ,english lady on her ,french3 ,o avs vous appris parler ,franois1 ,mademoiselle8 ,monsieur1 je ne parle pas1 je ne fais que bgayer4 ,je vous proteste que d'abord j'ay creu que vous fussis ,franoise4 ,il est impossible une ,angloise de possder vostre langue4 ,vous m'excusers1 il s'en trouve beaucoup4 ,j'eus l'honneur il y a quelque temps d'entretenir une ,dame qui parle aussi nettement qu'une ,franoise4 ,je voy que vous avez inclination pour le ,franois4 ,fort grande4 ,vous avez l'accent fort pur et net4 ,de qui apprens vous8 ,d'un ,franois nouvellement arriv qui est de ,blois4 ,il est vray que la puret du langage se trouve l1 non pas seulement l'accent1 mais la vraye phrase4 ,tout le monde le dit4 ,vostre langue est fort difficile4 ,je voudrois parler aussi bien que vous4 ,there is only one dialogue on a subject usually contained in ,french manuals--phrases for buying and selling4 ,the vocabulary1 which closes the book1 is of a more usual kind4 ,it is arranged under headings1 beginning with the ,godhead and ending with a list of things necessary in a house4 ,this book of ,mauger's enjoyed a greater and longer-lived popularity than any that had yet appeared4 ,edition followed edition until the end of the first decade of the eighteenth century1 and it continued to be plagiarised for another fifty years4 ,its success can hardly have been due to the scholastic value of its rules1 which are few and confused1 but rather to its practical nature and lively dialogues4 ,mauger constantly revised his grammar2 of the earliest editions1 no two are identical4 ,in each case he wrote new dedications1 new addresses to the reader1 new dialogues1 and varied the form of the grammar rules4 ,the second edition is much more typical than the first4 ,mauger had been ill in #afec1 and had not been able to correct the proofs himself4 ,this task he entrusted to a friend 7perhaps ,festeau71 who betrayed his expectation1 and corrected it not exactly4 ,he was likewise unable to add the ,english column to the dialogues1 a task which was undertaken by the corrector of the press4 ,in the case of the second edition1 however1 he attended three times a day at the ,presse1 that he might correct it according to the expectation of those who will honour it with their reading4 ,he called it ,mr4 ,mauger's ,french ,grammar1 and this was the title under which it continued to be published4 ,mauger dedicated the second edition to ,colonel ,bullar1 mentioning the many favours heaped upon him by that officer4 ,he again addresses ,french verses to numerous ,english ladies1 his pupils4 ,the grammar rules are much the same2 the chief change in this part is the addition of a ,latin translation to the ,english1 for to render it generally useful to strangers visiting ,london1 which is this day accounted one of the most glorious cities of the world4 ,that ,mauger provided for the teaching of ,french to foreign visitors to ,england shows how important a place the study of the language held in our country1 and we know that he numbered a few foreigners among his many students of the language4 ,in this second edition he attempted1 as ,holyband had done before him1 to adapt the orthography to the pronunciation1 but without success4 ,header3 ,,mauger',s ,,french ,,grammar ,i had thought1 he writes1 for your greater advantage1 to have fitted the writing to the pronunciation1 but having found that ,i could not do so1 without an absolute totall subverting of the foundations of the language1 ,i had rather teach you to read and speak together than to show you how to speak without being able to read1 or to read without knowing how to speak4 ,they might say nevertheless that it would prevent many difficultyes if we did write as we speak4 ,mauger decided to follow the rules of the ,french ,academy1 instead of his own caprichio which would teach you to speak ,french without being able to read any other book than that ,i should present you with3 for our language1 he said1 which is so highly esteemed by all strangers for its noble etymologies of ,greeke and ,latine1 will not suffer itself to be so dismembered by the ignorance of those which profess it1 not having one letter which doth not distinguish one word from another1 the singular number from the plurall1 the masculine gender from the foeminine1 or which makes not a syllable long or short4 ,the dialogues are new1 but very similar to those of the first edition1 the chief change being the introduction of a long and exact account of the state of ,france1 ecclesiastical1 civil1 and military as it flourisheth at present under ,king ,louis ,,xiv41 which was brought up to date in each subsequent edition4 ,in following years the dialogues become more numerous2 they number eighty in the sixth edition 7#afgj74 ,each new issue promises additions1 of the last concern to the reader4 ,a new feature in the sixth and seventh editions is a versified rendering of the grammar rules1 entitled ,le ,parterre de la langue franoise4 ,the verses were written at the request of the ,duke of ,mecklenburg1 his former pupil1 and arranged in the form of a dialogue between ,mauger and the ,duke1 who first addresses his master3 ,le ,langage franois est si plein de merveilles ,que ses charmans appas1 ravissans nos oreilles1 ,nous jettent sur vos bords pour gouster ses douceurs1 ,et pour en admirer les beautz et les fleurs4 ,mais1 pour nous l'acqurir il faut tant d'artifice1 ,qu'en ses difficults il estreint nos delices1 ,estouffe nos desseins1 traverse le plaisir ,qui flatoit nostre espoir d'y pouvoir russir4 ,les articles de la1 de1 du1 sont difficiles4 ,si vous ne les monstrez par vos reigles utiles1 ,ils nous font bgayer presques tous momens1 ,et ternissent l'clat de nos raisonnemens4 ,and ,mauger answers him with an invitation to take what he will from the parterre4 ,additional matter was introduced in #afgc in the shape of short rules for the pronunciation of ,english1 which in the following editions were developed into a short ,english grammar1 written in ,french dialogues4 ,later ,mauger modified the arrangement of his ,french grammar rules1 giving them in parallel columns of ,french and ,english1 in the form of question and answer4 ,the section dealing with the parts of speech is recast in the form of a conversation between a ,french master and his lady pupil4 ,as to the dialogues1 which are all modish--there is not a word in them but is elegant--they were divided into two categories1 one elementary and the other advanced4 ,in the twelfth edition1 for instance1 we have forty-six dialogues1 in the style of those of the earlier editions1 and then ten longer and more difficult ones4 ,mauger made hardly any changes in the issues that followed the twelfth1 and in this shape it passed down to the eighteenth century4 ,in the course of its development it had grown to nearly twice its original size4 ,mauger's popularity as a teacher of ,french grew apace with his grammar4 ,the commendatory poems1 one by ,john ,busby1 which are prefixed to the first two editions1 show that even at that early date he was held in high esteem by many influential ,englishmen2 and each new edition was offered to some new patron4 ,mauger also published a collection of letters in ,french and ,english1 which he considered a great help to the learner of the ,french tongue1 for those who understand it with the help of the ,english1 are capable of explaining afterwards any ,french author1 being written on several subjects4 ,the ,lettres ,franoises et ,angloises de ,claude ,mauger sur ,toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres were dedicated to ,sir ,william ,pulteney4 ,they were first issued in #afga1 and again in #afgf1 with the addition of fifty letters4 ,many are addressed to gentlemen of note who had been his students at ,blois1 and continued to correspond with him for the purpose of practice in ,french4 ,puisque vous dsirez que je continue vous crire des ,lettres ,franoises1 he wrote to the ,count of ,praghen in #affh1 pour vous exercer en cette langue qui est tant usite dans toutes les cours de l',europe1 je reois vos ordres avec joye4 ,others are addressed to pupils in ,london1 including some of his large clientle of ladies4 ,header3 ,,mauger',s ,,french ,,and ,,english ,,letters ,for instance1 he writes to a certain ,mrs4 ,gregorie3 ,ayant ou dire que vous estes alle a la campagne pour quinze jours1 durant cette belle saison en laquele la nature dploye ce qu'elle a de plus beau1 j'ay pris la hardiesse de vous crire cette lettre en ,franois pour vous exercer en cette langue que vous apprenez avec tant de diligence4 ,je suis bien aise que vous vous y adonniez si bien1 car1 comme vous avez la mmoire admirable1 vous en viendriez bien tost bout4 ,he seems to have made a regular practice of exercising his pupils' ,french by writing to them in the language4#hae ,among his young ,english pupils was ,william ,penn1 the ,quaker1 to whom he wrote a letter dated #afgj3 ,je n'entendrois pas bien mes interests si ,dieu m'ayant fait si heureux de vous monstrer le ,franois que vous apprenez si bien1 je n'en tmoignois de la joye1 en faisant voir tout le ,monde1 que l'honneur que vous me faites de vous servir de moy1 pour vous l'acqurir est tres grand4 ,en effet monsieur1 n'est-ce pas un bon-heur8 ,car je perdrois mon credit si ,dieu ne me suscitoit de tems en tems des personnes comme vous1 qui par leur diligence et capacit avec l'aide de ma mthode le soutiennent4 4 4 4 ,j'ay bien de la satisfaction qu'elle i4e4 l',angleterre sache que vous m'avez choisy pour vous donner la connaissance d'une langue qui vous manquoit1 qui est si estime1 et si usite par toute la ,terre4 ,terre4 4 4 4 ,whether these letters were ever actually sent to his pupils is a question of some uncertainty1 which we are inclined to answer in the affirmative4 ,in any case1 they provided him with an excellent opportunity of advertising himself by calling attention to some of his well-known pupils4 ,many were addressed to friends in ,france1 where he seems to have had a very good connexion4 ,he closes his collection with a short selection of commercial letters4 ,mauger was the author of several other short works--a ,livre d',histoires curieuses du ,temps1 destined for his pupils' reading2 a ,tableau du jugement universal 7#afge71 which sold so well that there were very few copies left at the end of the year2 and a ,latin poem of one hundred and four lines1 entitled ,oliva ,pacis1 celebrating the declaration of peace between ,louis ,x4 of ,france and ,philip ,,ii4 ,besides many influential friends1 he seems to have had several relatives in ,london4#haf ,one of these was a ,master ,keyser1 his brother-in-law1 a ,dutch gentleman and painter1 who lived in ,long ,aker between the ,maidenhead and the ,three ,tuns ,tavern1 and acted as a sort of agent for ,claude4 ,mauger himself lived in ,great ,queen ,street1 over against ,well's ,street1 next door to the strong water shop1 in #afgj4 ,before #afgc he had moved to within two doors of ,master ,longland1 a ,farrier in ,little ,queen ,st41 over against the ,guy of ,warwick near the ,king's ,gate in ,holborn2 and in #afgf to ,shandois ,street1 over against the ,three ,elmes1 at ,master ,saint ,andr's4 ,it was probably about the year #afgj that he began to teach ,english to foreigners visiting ,england4 ,he had the honour of helping a little to the ,english tongue both the ,french ambassadors1 ,ladyes1 ambassadresses and several great ,lords1 who come daily from the court of ,france to the court of ,england4 ,with many of these he had much familiar intercourse1 and it was at their request that he wrote his rules for the ,english language4 ,one of his letters is addressed to the sharp-witted ,courtin1 and others to the ,marquis de ,sande and ,monseigneur ,colbert's surgeon4 ,some of the numerous ,french nobility1 who come daily from the court of ,france to the court of ,england1 attracted by the gay and ,frenchified court of ,charles ,,ii41 also studied ,english under ,mauger4 ,he describes his method of teaching as discursive1 avec raisonnement4 ,practice and reading are the chief exercises4 ,in one of his dialogues a lady pupil describes her ,french lesson2#hag it consisted in reading1 with special attention to the pronunciation1 and telling a story in ,french1 no doubt a repetition of the matter read4 ,for the pronunciation1 ,mauger considered the living voice of a master better than all that can be set down in writing2 but none the less he provided rules for acquiring the true accent of ,blois4 ,he took little interest in grammar1 but fully realized the necessity of guiding rules2 some man perhaps1 he writes1 will answer me that he speaketh his naturall tongue well enough1 without all these rules4 ,i confesse he may speak reasonably well1 because it is a natural thing for him to do4 ,but you needs must confesse that a ,latine schollar1 who hath been acquainted with all such rules of grammar1 speaketh better than such a one4 ,mauger would have the student first master his rules1 and then begin by all means to read1 pour joindre la pratique la speculation des rgles4 ,header3 ,,mauger',s ,,method ,,of ,,teaching ,he no doubt intended the student to attempt to speak at the outset with the guidance of a ,french master1 whom he held absolutely indispensable4 ,the following talk between two students throws light on the practical methods advocated3 ,apprenez-vous encore le franois8 ,do you learn ,french still8 ,ouy1 je n'y suis pas encore parfait4 ,yes1 ,i am not yet perfect in it4 ,et moi je continue aussi4 ,and ,i continue also4 ,je commence l'entendre4 ,i begin to understand it4 ,j'entens tout ce que je lis4 ,i understand all ,i read4 ,avez vous un valet de pi franois8 ,have you a ,french foot boy8 ,ouy1 monsieur4 ,yes1 ,sir4 ,l'entendez-vous bien8 ,do you understand him well8 ,fort bien4 ,very well4 ,quel ,autheur lisez vous8 ,what author do you read8 ,je lis l',histoire de ,france4 ,i read the ,french ,history4 ,l'avez-vous lee8 ,have you read it8 ,je l'ay lee en ,anglois4 ,i have read it in ,english4 ,je l'acheteray4 ,i will buy it4 ,ou la pourray-je trouver8 ,where shall ,i find it8 ,partout4 ,everywhere4 ,avez-vous lee l',illustre ,have you read the ,illustrious ,parisienne8 ,parisien8 ,allez-vous au sermon8 ,do you go to sermon8 ,ouy1 ,monsieur4 ,yes1 ,sir4 ,qui est-ce qui prche8 ,who preaches8 ,c'est un habile homme4 ',tis an able man4 ,avez-vous le ,dictionnaire de ,mige8#hah ,have you ,mige's ,dictionary8 ,ouy1 je l'ay4 ,yes1 ,i have it4 ,voulez-vous me le prter8 ,will you lend it me8 ,il est votre service4 ,it is at your service4 ,je vous remercie4 ,i thank you4 ,la langue franoise n'est-elle pas ,is not the ,french tongue belle8 fine8 ,je l'aime fort4 ,i love it extreamly4 ,elle est fort la mode4 ',tis very modish4 ,my dialogues1 writes ,mauger1 are so useful and so fit to learn to speak1 that one may easily attain the ,french tongue by the assistance of a ,master1 if he will take a little pains on his side4 ,he also advises his pupils to read the lengthy heroical romances so popular at the time--,l',astre1 and the enormous folios of ,de ,gomberville1 ,la ,calprende1 ,mlle4 de ,scudry1 and other romances of the same type--as well as the works of ,corneille1 ,balzac1 and ,le ,grand4 ,with ,antoine le ,grand1 ,mauger claims personal acquaintance1 and recommends his works with special emphasis1 giving his pupils notice of a book newly published by him3 ,there is a ,french book newly printed at ,paris called ,l',epicure spirituel1 written in good ,french by ,m4 ,antony le ,grand1 ,author of ,l',homme sans passions4 ,you may have it at ,mr4 ,martyn's shop ,mauger's publisher at the sign of the ,bell in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard4 ,he also advocates1 for purposes of translation1 the reading of the ,bible and ,common ,prayers in ,french1 books specially suitable owing to the ease with which ,english renderings could be found2 and adds further that at ,mr4 ,bentley's shop1 in ,russel ,st4 in ,covent ,garden1 you may be furnished with ,french ,bibles1 ,french ,common ,prayers1 ,french ,testaments1 and ,french ,psalms4 ,these would be of special use to his own students1 as he encouraged them to frequent the ,french ,church for the benefit of hearing the language4 ,as for ,mauger himself1 although he appears to have professed the ,protestant religion and to have come first to ,england as a refugee for the sake of his principles1 he does not seem to have given much attention to religious matters4 ,neither does he manifest any particular interest in the ,french ,church1#hai other than as an excellent place for his pupils to accustom themselves to the sounds of the ,french language4 ,after he had spent some thirty years in ,england we find him moving to ,paris1 where he was constantly with some of the ablest gentlemen of ,port ,royal1 who assured him that his ,french ,grammar and his ,letters in ,french and ,english were in their library4 ,this break in ,mauger's long teaching career in ,england occurred some time about #afhj1 after the appearance of the eighth edition of his grammar in #afgi4 ,he now took up his residence in the fashionable quarter of ,paris1 usually frequented by foreigners1 the ,faubourg ,st4 ,germain1 where he taught ,french to ,english travellers1 and ,english to any one wishing to learn it4 ,this change of abode modified his exclusive attitude towards the ,blois accent4 ,at an earlier date he had acknowledged that after ,blois the best pronunciation is got at ,orleans1 ,saumur1 ,tours1 and the ,court1 and in #afgf he writes1 ,je suys exactement le plus beau stile de la ,cour1 and tells us that he had daily intercourse with ,french courtiers tant ambassadeurs qu'autres grands seigneurs1 qui j'ay aussi l'honneur de monstrer la langue angloise4 ,he also read all the latest books1 and carried on a correspondence with learned men in ,paris1 among others ,antoine le ,grand4 ,but in the same year that he was praising the ,french of ,paris1 he wrote1 encouraging a noble ,englishman to take up the study of ,french in ,england3 ,header3 ,,mauger ,,in ,,paris ,si vos affaires ne vous permettent pas d'aller ,paris1 pour vous y adonner1 de quoy vous souciez-vous si vous avez ,blois dans ,londres qui est la source8 ,en effet sa prononciation ne change jamais3 de plus cause du commerce qu'il y a entre les deux cours1 l'une communique l'autre sa puret4 ,et je dy assurment qu'il y a icy quantit de personnes qui parlent aussi bien la mode qu'au ,faubourg ,saint ,germain4 ,et comme les fonteines font couler leurs eaux bien loin par de bons canaux sans se corrompre1 vous trouverez des ,matres en cette ville qui vous enseigneront aussi purement que sur les lieux4 ,however1 when he had himself spent two years in ,paris1 he gave up praising the merits of ,blois1 and always describes himself as late professor of languages at ,paris1 which he now called the centre of the purity of the ,french ,tongue1 where the true ,french phrase is to be found4 ,from this time on his grammar claims to contain everything that can be desired in order to learn ,french as spoken at the ,court of ,france1 and all the improvements of that ,famous ,language as it is now flourishing at the ,court of ,france4 ,during his stay at ,paris1 which extended from about #afhj to #afhh1 the popularity of his grammar in ,england did not diminish4 ,four editions were printed in ,london after having been corrected by himself at ,paris--the ninth1 tenth1 eleventh1 and twelfth4 ,the last was dedicated to the young ,earl of ,salisbury1 who had studied ,french with ,mauger when on the usual continental tour4 ,three motives1 he states1 induced him to return to ,england1 after having gathered the finest flowers of the ,french tongue at ,paris to enrich my workes withall for the better satisfaction of those that learn it3 ,the first the extream love which ,i bear to this generous country1#hbj that has obliged me so much as to approve so generally of my books1 that for her sake they are received very well beyond ,sea1 and especially in ,france4 ,the second1 to correct the thirteenth edition my self exactly1 many faults of printing having crept into the four last editions which were ,printed here in my absence though ,i corrected them at ,paris4 ,the third to see my relations and friends4 ,after his return to ,england1 he composed his ,book of ,curious stories of the ,times in ,french and ,english for the use of his pupils4 ,the new editions of his grammar1 however1 are identical with the thirteenth1 which itself bears very great resemblance to the twelfth issued while ,mauger was still at ,paris4 ,how many years he continued to superintend the new issues of his grammar is not certain2 the nineteenth edition of #agjb is the last described as corrected and enlarged by the ,author4 ,again and again he refers to the popularity of his book in ,england1 and the unexpressible courtesies he received at the hands of his ,english patrons4 ,this grammar sells so well1 he wrote in the sixth edition 7#afgj71 as you may see1 being printed so often1 and many thousands every time1 that ,i cannot but acknowledge the kindness of this generous nation towards me in raising its credit both at home and abroad1 in so much that other ,nations1 following the general approbation concerning it of so wise a people1 use it as commonly everywhere beyond the ,sea1 as they do here in ,london1 and in all the dominions of his majesty of ,great ,britain4 ,it was also looked on with much favour in ,france4 ,in #afhi a ,french edition1 called the thirteenth1 was printed at ,bordeaux4 ,but it was in the ,netherlands that the grammar received almost as warm a welcome as in ,england4 ,the book thus forms another link between the study of ,french in ,england and the ,low ,countries4 ,in #afic this ,dutch edition of the grammar was issued for the thirteenth time1 and in #agjg for the fifteenth1 both at the ,hague4 ,it was usually published with an ,english grammar of more importance than the short one added by ,mauger to the ,english editions--that of ,festeau1 ,mauger's friend and fellow-townsman4 ,their combined work was known as the ,nouvelle double grammaire ,franoise-,angloise et ,angloise-,franoise par messieurs ,claude ,mauger et ,paul ,festeau1 ,professeurs de ,langues ,paris et ,londres4 ,the two grammars are followed by ,mauger's dialogues and a collection of twenty-one plaisantes et facetieuses ,histoires pour rire1 in ,french and ,english1 entitled l',ecole pour rire4 ,the growing popularity of ,english from the beginning of the reign of ,william of ,orange1 the editor tells us in #afic1 induced him to add the ,english grammar to the ,french grammar of ,mauger1 and he chose ,festeau's because it was in as high favour for learning ,english as ,mauger's was for learning ,french4 ,header3 ,,paul ,,festeau ,paul ,festeau was the author of a ,french as well as an ,english grammar1#hba and1 like ,mauger1 he taught ,english to foreign visitors in ,london1 as well as ,french to ,english people4 ,indeed his career bears a close resemblance to that of ,mauger1 of whom he seems to have been a sort of protg4 ,like ,mauger he had taught at ,blois1 and the two teachers probably came to ,england together2 at any rate they arrived at much the same time4 ,he enjoyed a greater popularity than ,mauger as a teacher of ,english1 and was also looked upon with respect as a teacher of ,french4#hbb ,festeau's ,french ,grammar1 first published in #affg1 occupies an important second place among the ,french text-books produced in the third quarter of the seventeenth century4 ,it was dedicated to ,colonel ,russel1 of the ,king's ,guard1 who had learnt ,french under ,festeau's guidance4 ,as a grammar it is fuller and more clearly arranged than ,mauger's1 and1 in main outline1 there is much similarity between the two4 ,the rules1 which occupy the first two hundred pages1 are written in ,english and provide information on pronunciation and on each part of speech in turn4 ,each is accompanied by a considerable number of illustrative examples1 which1 ,festeau thought1 were of great help in impressing the rule on the memory1 and of more use than dialogues4 ,he also included dialogues in his work1 and was attacked on account of their prolixity4 ,he argued1 in reply1 that if the reader pleases to consider the store of phrases in the body of the ,work amongst the ,rules which do contain near two hundred pages1 he will very well apprehend that1 when a scholar hath learnt all these ,phrases without book in learning the rules1 he needs not at all burden his memory with many dialogues3 for 444 ,i have found by experience that those who have learned them were able afterwards to translate ,french into ,english1 with the aid of a dictionary and ,i do maintain that it is not necessary to learn such abondance of ,dialogue by heart1 it is enough to read and ,english them1 and next to that to explain them from ,english into ,french1 and so doing the words and phrases do insensibly make an impression in the memory and the discreet scholar goeth forward with a great deal of ease4 ,as for young children ,i yield that it is good they should continue the ,dialogues3 but after they have learned short phrases1 they must of necessity learn long ones1 otherwise they could never attain to the capacity of joyning words together4 ,beside when a master doth teach his scholar1 he must not ask him a whole long phrase at once1 he must divide it in parts according to the distinction of points4 ,as for instance1 if ,i will ask this long phrase of a child ,quand on a gaign une fois le jeu attire insensiblement en esperance de gaigner davantage 4 ,i will ask it him at three several times4 ,festeau gives the pupil the ,english in three separate phrases1 and requires him to give the ,french rendering4 ,them that will take the pains to peruse it1 to use ,festeau's own words in describing his grammar1 will observe a very new method1 clear and intelligible ,rules to the least capacities1 fine remarks upon all the parts of speech and particularly upon the gender of nouns1 and the use of moods and tenses4 ,they will find the difficulties of the particles1 en1 on1 and que explained1 which give commonly so much trouble to the learner1 they will see the use and good order of impersonal verbs1 as well active as passive1 likewise also of the reciprocal and reflected verbs4 ,finally they will see familiar dialogues on divers sorts of subjects1 very useful and profitable for them that desire to speak properly3 no barbarous kind of words and phrases as are found in some other grammars1 by reason that the ,author professes to speak and to write his own language well4 ,a vocabulary of thirty pages1 in the style of ,mauger's1 and rules for the accents and the length of the vowels fill the rest of the volume4 ,this was how the work stood in the third edition1 which1 ,festeau explains1 might rightly be said the fourth1 seeing that there was fifteen hundred copies drawn off the second edition1 and two thousand of this1 whereas they use to draw but a thousand at most3 and considering the time it first came out1 it seems that it sells pretty well4 ,if some other former grammars have had more editions1 it cannot be inferred thence that this comes short of them3 we can buy nothing at market but what is to be sold1 and when this hath been in the light as long1 no doubt but 7especially being better known7 it may have as many editions4 ,header3 ,,pierre ,,lain ,possibly he was referring to ,mauger's popularity1 and the two friends may have become rivals during the latter part of their stay in ,england4 ,on similar grounds he claimed that the sixth edition might be called the tenth1 as two thousand copies were drawn of the four last editions4 ,mauger1 however1 states that many thousand copies of his grammar were drawn at every edition4 ,by this time ,festeau's grammar had acquired a considerable reputation4 ,the approbation that it hath received1 he writes1 of the most learned of the nation1 who have esteemed it the neatest1 the easiest and most correct1 is not a small advantage to it3 ,it is that which hath encouraged me to bring it to a better perfection4 ,there is1 however1 very little difference between the half score or so editions which were issued4 ,like ,mauger1 ,festeau soon began to modify his attitude towards the ,blois accent4 ,in #afgi1 while still advertising himself proudly as a native of ,blois1 where the true tone of the ,french ,tongue is found by the unanimous consent of all ,frenchmen1 he claims to teach the ,elegancy and ,purity of the ,french ,tongue as it is now spoken at the ,court of ,france4 ,however1 it is uncertain whether ,festeau went to ,paris or not4 ,at the time when he first wrote of ,court ,french he was teaching in ,london1 and we are informed that if any gentleman have occasion for the author of this grammar1 his ,lodging is in the ,strand near ,st4 ,clement's1 at ,mr4 ,john ,king's house1 at the sign of the wounded heart4 ,he was still there in #afic4 ,in #afge we see him requesting any gentleman or others desiring to speak with him to inquire for him in ,haughton ,street1 next door to the ,joyner's ,arms1 near ,claire ,market1 or at ,mr4 ,loundes1 his bookseller and publisher4 ,at about this time he began to teach mathematics as well as1 and by means of ,french2 he was prepared to instruct gentlemen in all its branches4 ,it was at the request of several gentlemen1 with whom he did often discourse of the same in ,french1 that he added to the fourth edition of his grammar a long dialogue covering the whole field of mathematics1 and giving a clear and fair idea thereof4 ,another ,french tutor who flourished at the same time as ,mauger1 and who wrote a ,french grammar which1 like his1 appeared during the ,commonwealth1 was ,peter ,lain4 ,lain is not very communicative as regards himself2 he does not even tell us from what part of ,france he came4 ,all we know of him is that he was a protg of ,robert ,paston1 to whom he dedicated his book1 and who1 no doubt1 had been his pupil for ,french4 ,of his grammar he writes1 ,i here expose to thy view a work which might rather be counted an ,errata than a book--a state of things for which both himself and the printer were to blame4 ,for his part1 he says1 he does not write for the sake of seeing his name in print1 or because he fancies he excels others4 ,i rather count myself inferior to the least of them4 ,but the urgent importunities of some persons whom ,i have had1 and still have the honour to inform in ,french1 have made me undertake it to satisfie their desires1 and my gratitude4 ,his sympathy with the ,protestants emerges clearly from the contents of his grammar4 ,apparently he did not belong to the ,blois group4 ,he differs from them in adopting the new orthography in which many of the unsounded letters were omitted4 ,it was a pity to spoil the purity and elegance of the pronunciation by the old orthography1 he thought2 moreover the clear resemblance between the orthography and the pronunciation renders the language easier to foreigners2 seeing that we both write and speak any vulgar ,tongue to be understood and to entertain ,society1 it is in my judgement1 not only convenient but even necessary to bring as near a conformity betwixt the ,tongue and the ,pen1 as may without prejudice to the material grounds of our language1 afford all the facility that is possible to those that are strangers to it4 ,it is curious to recall that ,peletier1 and other earlier writers1 had1 on the contrary1 retained the etymological consonants of the old orthography1 with the idea that the foreigner's ,latin would thereby be of greater service to him4 ,lain's ,compendious ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue1 teaching with much ease1 facility and delight1 how to attain briefly and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof1 is very similar to ,mauger's grammar in the distribution of the matter4 ,rules for the pronunciation1 which as usual are briefly explained by means of comparison with ,english sounds1 are followed by observations on each part of speech in turn2#hbc finally come familiar phrases to be used at the first learning of ,french1 ten long dialogues1 and a vocabulary1 all in ,french and ,english4 ,header3 ,,lain',s ,,dialogues ,the book closes with what ,lain calls an alphabetical rule for the true and modern orthography of that ,french now spoken1 being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed--an alphabetical list of words4 ,the grammatical section of the work is written in ,english4 ,in the dialogues he purposely adapts the ,english to the ,french phrase4 ,i have been more careful1 he explains1 in the whole course of the treatise1 to observe the ,french1 then the ,english phrase3 to the end ,i might make its signification more intelligible1 to vary less from the sense1 and to afford most delight and more facility to the learner4 ,according to him1 the first thing to be learned by the student of ,french are the sounds of the language4 ,he should commit to memory as many of the familiar phrases as he can easily retain1 and from them pass to the dialogical discourses4 ,their substance is much the same as in ,mauger--polite and gallant conversations mainly between students of ,french1 talk and guidance for travellers in ,france1 etc4 ,the following specimen is from a dialogue between an ,english gentleman and his language master3 ,quel beau livre est-ce l8 ,what fine book is that8 ,mons41 c'est le romant comique4 ,sir1 it is the comic romance4 ,qui en est l'autheur8 ,who is the author of it8 ,mons4 ,c'est ,mons4 ,scarron4 ,sir1 it is ,mr4 ,scarron4 ,est-il fort clbre8 ,is he very famed8 ,est il fort estim8 ,is he much esteemed8 ,mons41 c'est un esprit sublime et ,sir1 it is a sublime and transcendant4 transcendant wit4 ,de quoi traite cet ouvrage8 ,what doth this work deal on8 ,mons41 il n'est plein que ,sir1 it is full but de drolleries facesieuses4 4 4 4 of pleasant drolleries4444 ,lisons un peu3 faites moi ,let us read a little3 do me la faveur de m'antandre the favour to understand me lire4 read4 ,prononcez hardiment2 ,pronounce boldly2 ,observez vos accents4 ,observe your accents4 ,ne prenez point de mauvaise habitude4 ,take no ill habit4 ,liss distinctement4 ,read distinctly4 ,vou lisez trop vte4 ,you read too fast4 ,notre langue est ennemi de la ,our tongue is enemy to prcipitation4 precipitation4 ,lain evidently intended that the dialogues1 at least some of them1 should be committed to memory1 as well as read and translated2 after that1 he continues1 as his sufficiency shall permit1 he may proceed to ,reading any ,histories1 among which the ,holy ,writ ought to have the pre-eminence1 had not divine ,providence1 and the ,eternal ,spirit that dictated it1 purposely rejected the affected smoothness and polishedness of the style4 ,we recall1 as we reflect on this strange reason for rejecting the ,holy ,scriptures as reading material1 the unenviable reputation the refugees themselves had as regards literary style4 ,as the ,bible is left us for divine study only1 ,lain advises his pupils to make use of moral histories for purposes of reading4 ,many1 he says1 have been produced of late years4 ,nor did he limit his pupils' choice to these2 he encouraged them to read the heroic romances so popular at the time--,artamne ou le grand ,cyrus and ,cllie by ,mlle4 de ,scudry1 ,cassandre and ,cloptre by ,la ,calprende2 also the ,posies spirituelles of ,corneille1 the commentaries of ,caesar in ,french1 and ,scarron's ,roman comique4 ,lighter fare could be found in the ,gazette franoise4 ,,footnotes3 #hac ,which city1 lying in the very middle of ,france1 is the most famous for the true pronunciation of the language4 #had ,what are you doing8 ,you must not render this in ,french1 qu'estes vous en faisant8 but thus1 ,que faites-vous8 444 and so on4 #hae ,the practice was a common one at the time4 ,thus ,sir ,charles ,cotterel wrote in ,italian to ,mrs4 ,katherine ,philipps1 who thanks him for the care he takes to improve her in ,italian by writing to her in that language4 ,letter of ,april #ab1 #affb1 in ,letters of ,orinda to ,poliarchus1 #agje4 #haf ,one of his letters 7,no4 #ah7 is addressed to ,adrien ,mauger 7#afge71 ,bachelor of ,divinity1 ,claude's nephew1 whom he calls the head of the family1 and who apparently lived at ,blois4 #hag ,his fee was #djs4 a month1 for three lessons a week4 #hah ,cp4 p4 #chc1 infra4 #hai ,the names ,mauger and ,maugier occur frequently in the ,registers of the ,threadneedle ,street ,church1 but none can be connected with ,claude4 #hbj ,l',angleterre que j'aime infiniment1 he writes in his twelfth edition4 #hba ,the first edition appeared in #afgb4 ,the second edition was advertised in #afgh 7,arber1 ,term ,catalogues1 i4 #cbc74 #hbb ,de tous les professeurs de la langue franoyse1 ,festeau c'est de toi seul dont je fais plus de cas4 ,si tu es loquent dans nostre langue angloise1 ,dans la tienne1 pourquoy ne le serois-tu pas8 ,thus wrote one of his pupils1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,hume1 probably the famous statesman and ,covenanter4 #hbc ,pp4 #dh-acj4 ,lain retains the usual six ,latin cases2 the verbs are divided into four conjugations2 the indeclinables are given in lists4 ,a vocabulary of nouns which have two meanings according as they are masculine or feminine is included4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,french ,,teaching ,,profession ,,and ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,the ,,language ,from their very first appearance the voluminous ,french romances of the time enjoyed great popularity in ,england1#hbd partly1 perhaps1 on account of the lack of a supply of similar works in the vernacular4 ,several ,english translations appeared1 but many preferred to read them in the original4 ,their importance in the eyes of the ,french teachers may also have increased their vogue4 ,they were especially affected by ,charles ,i42 and when on the eve of his death1 he was distributing a few of his favourite possessions among his friends1 he left the volumes of ,la ,calprende's ,cassandre to the ,earl of ,lindsey4#hbe ,later on1 ,pope describing1 in his ,rape of the ,lock1 the adventurous baron in quest of the much-coveted lock1 pictures him imploring ,love for help1 and declares he to ,love an altar built ,of twelve vast ,french ,romances neatly gilt4 ,among the most eager readers of ,french romances was ,dorothy ,osborne4 ,we are enabled to trace part of her course in reading from the charming letters she wrote to ,sir ,william ,temple1 her future husband4 ,they are full of references to things ,french1 and replete with ,french words2 she uses ,english words in a ,french sense3 injury with her means insult2 and she writes to explain that when she said maliciously she really meant a ,french malice1 which you know does not signify the same thing as an ,english one4 ,a little note sent to ,temple when she was in ,london1 shortly before their marriage1 evidently in answer to one from him1 may be quoted as a specimen of her ,french1 and her total disregard of spelling and grammar3 ,je n'ay guere plus dormie que vous et mes songes n'ont pas estres moins confuse1 au rest une bande de violons que sont venue jouer sous ma fennestre m'ont tourments de tel faon que je doubt fort si je pourrois jamais les souffrire encore2 je ne suis pourtant pas en fort mauvaise humeur et je m'en voy ausi tost que je serai habille voire ce qu'il est posible de faire pour vostre satisfaction2 apres je viendr vous rendre conte de nos affairs et quoy qu'il en sera vous ne saurois jamais doubt que je ne vous ayme plus que toutes les choses du monde4#hbf ,the ,french romances were ,dorothy's constant companions1 and her letters are full of criticisms of and references to her favourite passages4 ,she sent the volumes to ,temple by instalments1#hbg as she finished them1 pressing him for his opinion4 ,le ,grand ,cyrus seems to have been her favourite4 ,she had also a great admiration for ,ibraham ou l',illustre ,bassa1 which1 like ,polexandre et ,cloptre and the four volumes of ,prazimne1 was her old acquaintance4 ,parthenissa1 the ,english romance in the ,french style by ,lord ,broghill1 did not meet with her approval4 ,but1 she confides to ,temple1 perhaps ,i like it worse for having a piece of ,cyrus by me that ,i am highly pleased with1 and that ,i would fain have you read4 ,i'll send it you4 ,as for the ,english translations of her favourites1 she had no patience with them4 ,they are written in a language half ,french and half ,english1 and so changed that ,dorothy1 their old friend1 hardly recognizes them in this strange garb4 ,french romances were not the only ,french interest ,dorothy ,osborne and ,temple had in common4 ,they had first become acquainted while travelling to ,france1 the ,osbornes on their way to join their father at ,st4 ,malo1 and ,temple setting out on the usual tour4 ,temple1 apparently1 lingered with his new friends in ,france1 until his father1 hearing of this1 ordered him to ,paris4#hbh ,there he evidently acquired the knowledge of ,french which ,dorothy playfully declares a necessary qualification for her husband3 for she could not marry one who speaks the ,french he has picked up out of the old ,laws2 ,header3 ,,pepys',s ,,french ,,books or1 the other extreme1 the travelled monsieur whose head is all feather inside and out1 that can talk of nothing but dances and duels1 and has courage enough to wear slashes when every one else dies with cold to see him4#hbi ,another instance of the popularity of these romances and other ,french writings is found in ,pepys's ,diary4#hcj ,both ,pepys and more particularly his wife1 who was the daughter of a ,french refugee1 were great readers of the romances4 ,pepys himself seems to have found them a little tiresome1 and relates how on a certain occasion ,mrs4 ,pepys wearied him by telling him long stories out of the ,grand ,cyrus1 and how he hurt her feelings by checking her outpourings4 ,she would sit up till past midnight reading ,cyrus or ,polexandre4 ,he would often stop at his bookseller's to buy ,french books for his wife1 including ,l',illustre ,bassa in four volumes1 and ,cassandre4 ,one evening she read to him the epistle of ,cassandre1 which he pronounced very good indeed4 ,when they went to see ,dryden's ,evening ,love1 or the ,mock ,astrologer1 ,mrs4 ,pepys recognized at once its debt to ,l',illustre ,bassa1 and on the following afternoon she read in the ,l',illustre ,bassa the plot of yesterday's play1 which is exactly the same4 ,his ,french books seem to have been a great source of interest to ,pepys1 and to have served him on many occasions4 ,being ill1 taking physique all day1 he beguiled the time by reading little ,french romances4 ,he appears to have been particularly attracted by ,sorbire's ,voyage en ,angleterre1 which on its appearance caused some indignation at the ,english ,court4 ,pepys read the book in the year of its publication 7#affd74hca ,unfortunately he has not left us a very full account of the other ,french books he knew4 ,however1 on the #ast ,may #afff1 he writes that he went by water to ,redriffe1 reading a new ,french book my ,lord ,bruncker did give me to-day1 ,l',histoire ,amoureuse des ,gaules by the ,comte de ,bussy1 being a pretty libel against the amours of the ,court of ,france4 ,another volume which pleased ,pepys was a pretty work1 ,la ,nouvelle allgorique1 upon the strife between rhetorique and its enemies1 very pleasant4 ,his choice of ,french literature was wide1 ranging from ,du ,bartas1 which he judged very fine as anything he had seen1 to ,helot's idle roguish book1 ,l',eschole des ,filles1 which he burnt1 that it might not stand in the list of books1 nor among them to disgrace them if it be found4#hcb ,at both ,allestry's and ,martin's1 ,pepys's booksellers1 there was a great variety of ,french and foreign books1 which often tempted him4 ,to my new bookseller's1 ,martin's1 he writes on the #ajth ,january #affg-h1 and there did meet with ,fournier the ,frenchman1 that hath wrote of the sea and navigation1#hcc and ,i could not but buy him4 ,he was much interested in ,french treatises on music1#hcd and sent to ,france for ,mersenne's ,l',harmonie ,universelle1 which he could not get at his bookseller's4 ,pepys's friend1 ,william ,batelier1 brought him one or two printed musick books of songs#hce from ,france1 among other ,french books4 ,home1 he again notes1 on the #bfth ,january #affh1 and there ,i find ,will ,batelier hath also sent the books which ,i made him bring me out of ,france1 among others ,l',estat de ,france1 ,marnix1 etc41#hcf to my great content1 and so ,i was well pleased with them and shall take a time to look them over 444 but my eyes are now too much out of tune to look upon them with any pleasure4 ,and when his failing eyesight prevented him from reading with ease1 his wife1 ,batelier1 and his brother-in-law1 ,balty ,st4 ,michel1 would read to him in ,french as well as in ,english4 ,he got ,balty to read to him out of ,sorbire's ,voyage en ,angleterre1 and under the date the #cjth of ,january #affh-i we find this entry3 ,i spent all the afternoon with my wife and ,will ,batelier talking1 and then making them read1 and particularly made an end of ,mr4 ,boyle's ,book of ,formes1 which ,i am glad to have over1 and then fell to read a ,french discourse which he hath brought over with him for me4 ,header3 ,,polite ,,conversation ,,fashionable ,no doubt the polite ,french literature which the ,french teachers recommended so strongly to their pupils had some influence on the character of the dialogues which form part of their manuals4 ,mauger1 ,festeau1 and ,lain all include polite conversations in their dialogues1 and leave the old familiar subjects of buying and selling1 wayside and tavern talk4 ,polite conversation was the fashion1 and coteries for fostering it grew up in ,england on the model of those in ,france4 ,mrs4 ,katherine ,philipps1 generally known as the matchless ,orinda1 is perhaps the most prominent of the ladies who tried1 without any permanent success it is true1 to introduce the refinements of the ,french salons into ,england4#hcg ,each member of the ,society of ,friendship she gathered round her assumed fanciful names in the style of those affected by the adherents of the ,parisian salons4 ,orinda was of course a great reader of ,french literature1 and knew ,french perfectly4 ,she is chiefly remembered for her translations of some of ,corneille's plays into ,english4#hch ,french books of conversation1 such as ,mlle4 de ,scudry's ,conversations sur divers sujets#hci or the similar volume by ,clerombault1 which was rendered into ,english by a person of honour #afgb1 also give some clue to the tastes and tendencies of the time1 though they had no direct influence on the dialogues specially written for students of ,french4 ,but1 like them1 they turn on such subjects as the pleasures1 the passions1 the soul1 love1 beauty1 merit1 and so forth4 ,thus the ,french teachers of the time1 in introducing a new style into their dialogues1 undoubtedly yielded1 to some extent at all events1 to the tastes of their numerous lady pupils4 ,a large proportion of ,mauger's pupils were ladies4 ,he praised their accent1 and considered it clearer and more correct than that of their brothers4 ,and in the later editions of his treatise the grammar rules are given in the form of a conversation between a lady and her ,french master4 ,another ,french teacher of the time1 the author of a collection of dialogues in which the new style is the dominating feature1 also shows a decided preference for his lady pupils4 ,this writer was ,william or ,guillaume ,herbert1 the author of the ,french and ,english dialogues in a more exact and delightful method then any yet extant4 ,the thirty-four dialogues contained in this collection are all1 with the exception of the first which is autobiographical1 written in the prcieux style1 full of points and conceits1#hdj and all1 with the same exception1 are very alike and a little wearisome4 ,herbert says he does not write for every one1 but for les plus subtils4 ,and in his first dialogue1 which gives a free account of his condition and opinions1 he proceeds to ridicule the traditional style of the ,french and ,english dialogues4 ,a stranger addresses a friend of the author3 ,pourquoi ne parle-t-il point de vendre et d'acheter8 ,parce qu'il n'a rien vendre et que fort peu d'argent pour acheter2 et que les autres faiseurs de livres ,franois en ce pais ont tout vendu et tout achet avant qu'il allt au march4 ,pourquoi ne dit-il rien du ,manger et du ,boire8 ,pour tant qu'il y prend fort peu de plaisir1 faute d'apptit1 et que quelques-uns de ceux qui l'ont precd l'ont fait pour lui1 nommant fidlement toutes les viandes qu'ils ont portes la table de leurs matres4 ,qui lche les plats1 en peut bien parler4 ,pourquoi ne parle-t-il point des ,habits1 et de ,la ,mode1 du ,lever et du ,coucher1 de la ,chambre et du ,lit8 ,parce que nos matres1 qui ont t valets de chambre ou laquais1 lui ont pargn ce travail1 comme leur tant plus propre qu' lui4 ,pourquoi se tait-il des ,merciers1 des ,tailleurs et des ,cordonniers8 ,parce qu'ils aiment mieux argent contant que des paroles et que n'tant point dans leurs livres il ne se souvient gure d'eux et s'en soucie encore moins4 ,pourquoi laisse-t-il les ,ministres1 les ,mdecins et les ,jurisconsultes1 sans faire attention d'eux8 ,parce qu'ils ont assez d'esprit pour ne s'oublier pas3 et assez de langue pour parler pour eux-mmes4 ,et toutefois il en parle la drobe1 sans leur donner un discours part1 quoiqu'il honore ces professions-l1 et aime fort passionment plusieurs personnes de ces trois tats1 pour leurs rares mrites4 ,n'a-t-il rien des ,apoticaires1 des ,chirurgiens et des ,barbiers8 ,pas un seul mot1 monsieur1 parce qu'il se sert rarement des premiers1 et que1 par la grce de ,dieu1 il n'a ni playes ni ulcres ni vrole pour les seconds1 et que1 les derniers le tenant la gorge1 il n'oseroit parler4 ,il pourroit dire quelque chose des ,parens et des ,alliz4 ,qu'en diroit-il1 les siens lui tant si peu courtois8 ,s'il parloit d'eux1 ce seroit moyen de renouveler ses douleurs4 ,header3 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,teaching ,,profession ,herbert1 it will be seen1 had not a very high opinion of the social origin or ability of the majority of his fellow-teachers4 ,he was a very unwilling member of the profession4 ,he does not style himself ,professor of the ,french ,language on the title-page of his dialogues1 although he taught both in his house and away from home1 because few people care to boast of their cross1 and his cross was--to be reduced to belong to a profession que tant de valets1 de mcaniques1 et d'ignorants rendent tous les jours mprisable4 ,he draws a far from flattering picture of the common sort of ,french teacher4 ,he is a brouillon1 a shuffling fellow1 who boasts1 dresses well1 and intrudes everywhere1 cringing and offering his services at a cheaper price than the genuine teachers4 ,he can hardly write seven or eight lines of ,french correctly4 ,yet men such as this1 says ,herbert1 pass for first-class teachers1 and some take upon themselves to correct and write books4 ,what is more1 they count many pupils1 even among the nobility4 ,yet another cause of annoyance to ,herbert was what seemed to him the presumption of the ,blois fraternity4 ,it is the fashion1 he remarks scornfully1 to say you come from ,blois4 ,and you do so if you happen to come from ,normandy4 ,he is not ashamed of his province1 though he takes good care not to advertise it needlessly2 ,brittany 7of which he was evidently a native7 is better than ,blois1 according to him4 ,thus we may conclude that ,herbert was one of the 'enemies' to whom members of the ,blois group frequently allude4 ,festeau refers to them as being ignorant and envious persons1 while ,mauger describes them foaming with envy and jealousy1 and trying to harm him in the eyes of his pupils1 as well as casting aspersions on his grammar2#hda but he did not regard what they said1 ,england having raised his grammar so high that their envy cannot reach to it4 ,and ,mauger goes on to censure a certain section of the ,french teaching profession1 broken ,frenchmen1 who make their pupils speak rapidly1 but not distinctly4 ,have a speciall care1 he exclaims1 that you have not to do with those that are not true ,frenchmen as your ,normans or ,gascons4 ,i confesse that a ,norman that is a man of some quality or one that hath seen the world or that is a good scholar may possibly have the right accent1 but any other that hath not such parts can never give the true accent4 ,herbert retorted that the ,blois clique tried to persuade every one that ,bretons and ,normans cannot speak correct ,french4 ,he naturally resented such assertions1 and was not himself nearly so exclusive in the list of those who were not good ,frenchmen4 ,he merely states that the ,english are greatly mistaken in their estimation of the ,french living here1 considering as such all those that speak their tongue1 so that the high ,germans1 ,switzers of the ,french tongue1 ,danes1 ,swedes1 ,dutch1 ,walloons1 and those of ,geneva pass for good ,french in the opinion of many1 although in truth there are not here two naturall ,french 'mongst ten1 which are taken for such1 and who for their profit would gladly go for such4 ,there was every need1 thought ,herbert1 of protecting the profession from these incompetent teachers4 ,before a tutor is engaged he should be made to translate a passage from a good author from ,english into ,french1 and then from ,french into ,english1 and both the pieces should be examined by competent judges of both languages2 for1 according to him1 a teacher must know ,english1 or some other language with which the scholar is acquainted1 such as ,latin1 so that there may be some foundation on which to build the new edifice4 ,beyond the importance he attached to translation1 we know little of ,herbert's ideas on the teaching of ,french4 ,he devotes more space to criticizing the teachers4 ,he does tell us1 however1 that ,french orthography is best learnt by transcribing ,french passages1 by which operation it impresses itself on the mind without effort4 ,he was also an advocate of much and careful reading4 ,grammatical rules he considered necessary1 and he had intended to publish a grammar together with his dialogues1 but he was prevented from doing so by illness4 ,he hoped1 however1 to issue it a few months later1 but apparently he was again prevented from carrying out his design4 ,header3 ,,guillaume ,,herbert ,yet two years after the appearance of his dialogues he published another work but of quite a different character--,considerations on the behalf of ,foreiners which reside in ,england1 and of the ,english who are out of their own country1 to allay the tempest which is too often raised in the minds of the vulgar sort1 and to sweeten the bitterness of a bilious or cholerick humour against strangers1 in which he showed that of all the ,nations of ,europe1 the ,english and ,french should love one another best1 as well for their vicinity as for the great commerce that is 'mongst them in time of peace1 and for their consanguinitie1 there being in this country thousands of families which are descended from the ,french1 and as many or more in ,france whose progenitours are ,english4 ,these 'considerations1' twenty in number1 are mainly a plea in favour of the foreign churches in ,england and of the liberty of aliens to trade and work in this country1 with an allusion to the good usage of neighbouring ,nations towards the ,english fugitives of ,mary's reign4 ,they are dated from the ,charterhouse1 ,june #affb1 and appear to have been the only work ,herbert published after his ,dialogues4 ,he had1 however1 previously shown his interest in the teaching of ,french by editing in #afeh the fourth edition of ,cogneau's ,sure ,guide to the ,french ,tongue1#hdb which consisted largely of the style of dialogue which he ridiculed at a later date4 ,herbert had had a long career in ,england before we first hear of him as a teacher of ,french4 ,he had composed treatises in ,french and in ,english1 both of which he wrote with equal facility4 ,his language gives no clue to his nationality1 but1 as we saw1 we may conclude from his autobiographical dialogue that he was a native of ,brittany4 ,he was1 no doubt1 the ,william ,herbert1 native of ,france1 who received a grant of letters of denization in #afcf4 ,at that date he was living at ,pointington1 ,somerset1 and was married to an ,englishwoman1 ,frances ,sedgwicke4 ,in the previous year he had prepared for the press a work in ,french called ,la ,mallette de ,david4#hdc ,how he spent his time in ,pointington is not clear1 but in #afdj he was tutor to the sons of ,montague ,bertie1 second ,earl of ,lindsey4 ,on the death of his wife in #afde he moved to ,london1 and published a number of devotional works in ,english1 which he had composed at ,pointington1 chiefly for the benefit of his wife and children4 ,he refers to the unfavourable reception of these compositions in his ,french and ,english dialogues1 which he hoped would meet with a better fate4 ,herbert also took a great interest in the foreign churches of ,london4 ,he dedicated his ,quadripartit ,devotion of #afdh to the learned1 pious1 and reverend ,pastors1 ,elders1 and ,deacons of all the ,french and ,dutch congregations in ,england4 ,at a later date he published a biting pamphlet against a ,french ,pastor1 ,jean ,despagne1--the ,rponse aux ,questions de ,mr4 ,despagne adresses l',eglise ,franoise de ,londres 7#afeg71 accusing le ridicule ,despagne of blasphemy and immorality1 as well as criticising his ,french4 ,in this work ,herbert agrees with ,lain in omitting a number of superfluous letters1 with the intention of facilitating reading for foreigners1 though he was opposed to too many changes1 for fear of offending the partisans of the old orthography4 ,the ,dialogues and the ,considerations in behalf of ,strangers were the two works issued subsequently to the attack on ,despagne1 and with them ends all we know of the career of ,herbert1 critic of the ,french teaching profession1 and earliest advocate of the registration of teachers4 ,the ,jean ,despagne attacked so bitterly by ,herbert was none the less a welcome guest in this country1 and was the only truly ,french minister in ,london during the ,commonwealth4 ,english as well as ,french1 attracted by his excellent sermons1 gathered round him4 ,thus he co-operated in a sense1 and no doubt unconsciously1 with ,mauger and the other ,french teachers of the time1 who were busy encouraging their pupils to attend the ,french church4 ,despagne was minister1 not of the old church of ,threadneedle ,street1 but of a new congregation in ,westminster1 which met at first in ,durham ,house in the ,strand1 and when that was pulled down1 at the chapel in ,somerset ,house 7#afec74hdd ,he held aloof from the older church1 and went so far as to criticise ,calvin4 ,he was attacked and accused of schism1 but was protected by his powerful patrons1 chief among whom was the ,earl of ,pembroke4 ,an important group of the royalist ,english nobility and gentry found in ,despagne a means of satisfying their religious needs when the ,anglican church was in abeyance4 ,among them was the diarist ,john ,evelyn1 who heard ,despagne preach in the ,savoy church4 ,header3 ,,the ,,french ,,churches ,another adherent1 and a very faithful one1 was a certain ,henry ,brown1 who1 in his ,english translation of one of ,despagne's works1#hde speaks of the great resort of the ,english nobility and gentry to the excellent sermons and ,doctrines of the ,french pastor4 ,many continued to attend after the ,restoration1 ,evelyn among others2 as late as #afgj he remarks that a 'stranger' preached at the ,savoy ,french church1 the liturgie of the ,church of ,england being now used altogether1 as translated into ,french by ,dr4 ,durell4 ,the ,savoy church had been authorized by ,charles ,,ii4 at the ,restoration on condition that the ,english ,liturgy in ,french should be used4 ,the ,threadneedle ,street church1 on the contrary1 continued to use the ,calvinistic 'discipline1' and regarded with jealousy and suspicion the church rising in ,westminster4 ,it refused all co-operation1 and endeavoured to bring about the suppression of the new church4 ,the ,savoy church benefited on account of its situation in the fashionable residential quarter1 while ,threadneedle ,street was away in the city4 ,consequently many members of the ,english aristocracy and gentry continued to frequent the ,westminster church even after the ,restoration4 ,the use of the ,anglican ,liturgy was no doubt an additional attraction4 ,when service was opened there in #affa1 by ,j4 ,durel1#hdf among the ,english present were the ,duke and ,duchess of ,ormond1 the ,countess of ,derby and her daughters1 the ,earl of ,stafford1 and the ,dukes of ,newcastle and ,devonshire4 ,indeed the ,english gentry seem to have occupied the attention of the ,french churches just as much as the refugees themselves4 ,the ,threadneedle ,street church felt the advantages of its ,westminster rival in this respect1 and at the ,restoration1 offered to establish a ,french ,sabbath ,lecture at ,westminster for those of the ,english gentry and ,french ,protestants who found ,threadneedle ,street too remote1 hoping by this means to prevent division by having a separate church there4#hdg ,the ,threadneedle ,street church1 however1 was not without its ,english adherents4 ,pepys went from time to time to both ,french churches1 but more frequently to ,threadneedle ,street1 as far as can be gathered from his diary1 where he does not always specify which of the churches is meant4 ,at last ,i rose1 he writes on the #bhth ,september #affb1 and with ,tom to the ,french church at the ,savoy1 where ,i never was before2 a pretty place it is2 and there they have the ,common ,prayer ,book read in ,french1 and which ,i never saw before1 the minister do preach with his hat off1 ,i suppose in further conformity with our ,church4 ,pepys as a rule went to the ,anglican church in the morning1 and to the ,french in the afternoon4 ,he usually has a very good word for the sermon1 though on one occasion it was so tedious and long that they were fain to light candles to baptize the children by4 ,there were also services held at the ,french ambassador's1 which many of the nobility attended1 as well as ,french sermons at ,court from time to time4 ,evelyn was present on one of these occasions3 ,at ,st4 ,james's chapel preached1 or rather harangued1 the famous orator1 ,monsieur ,morus1 in ,french4 ,there were present the ,king1 the ,duke1 the ,french ambassador ,lord ,aubigny1 the ,earl of ,bristol1 and a world of ,roman ,catholics1 drawn thither to hear this eloquent ,protestant4 ,this was on the #abth of ,january #affb4 ,at a much later date1 ,september #afhe1 he heard another ,frenchman1 who preached before the ,king and ,queene in that splendid chapell next ,st4 ,george's ,hall4 ,it appears therefore that the practice1 common among ,french teachers1 of urging their pupils to go to the ,french church1 met with some response1 as did their advice as regards the reading of ,french literature4 ,on both these points the teachers of the middle of the seventeenth century are at one with those of the sixteenth1 and1 as a general rule1 there is very little difference between the methods used in the two centuries4 ,reading remained the basis of the teaching2 dialogues were committed to memory and translated into ,english1 less importance being attached to retranslation into ,french in later times4 ,as for pronunciation1 the teachers of the seventeenth century realised the inadequacy of teaching it by comparison with ,english sounds2 they laid all the more emphasis on the services of a good tutor1 continuing1 none the less1 to supply certain rules1 though not without a warning4 ,as time went on1 more importance was attached to the grammar1 which1 though still limited in theory to essential general rules1 was often studied in the first place1 and not left till need for it arose in practice4 ,the general opinion is thus expressed by ,james ,howell3 ,what foundations are to material fabriques the same is grammar to a language4 ,header3 ,,french ,,by ,,grammar ,,and ,,rote ,if the foundation be not well laid1 'twill be but a poor tottring superstructure2 if grammatical rules go not before1 there is no language can be had in perfection4 ,yet there are no precepts so punctuall1 but much must be left to observation1 which is the grand ,mistresse that guides and improves the understanding in the research and poursute of all humane knowledge1 ,quod deficit in praecepto1 suppleat observatio4 ,students who learnt on this method1 called a combination of grammar and rote1 would read aloud with their tutor1 chiefly for practice in pronunciation2 study the principal grammar rules and commit to memory the vocabulary of familiar phrases1 and a few short dialogues2 read and translate#hdh ,french dialogues1 and then pass to the favourite ,french authors2 sometimes they would translate from ,english into ,french1 or write ,french letters2 finally they would converse as much as possible with their tutor1 repeat stories they had read in ,french1 and seize every opportunity of speaking the language and hearing it spoken4 ,such was the method employed by the more serious ,french teachers of the time4 ,there were1 however1 others1 and apparently very many1 who taught by rote alone without any grammar rules--a common method of learning modern languages4 ,in ,england1 the ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,italian ,languages are not the languages of our country1 and spoke only by few ,persons1 yet 'tis evident they are taught in ,london1 and several other places in the ,kingdom1 purely by conversation4 ,for it is well known1 argues a writer on education1#hdi that there are ,grammars writ for the ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish languages1 and yet notwithstanding1 these ,languages are learned by ,conversation 444 little children1 who know not what ,grammar means1 are bred up to speak foreign languages fluently and correctly4444 ,there are some indeed1 in ,england that teach ,modern ,languages by ,grammar4 ,but this is not at all necessary1 as is unanswerably evident from those ,persons who perfectly learn them without it4 ,however1 those who reach the ,modern ,languages by ,grammar only teach their scholars so much of it as to know how to decline ,nouns and ,verbs and understand some few rules4 ,for as for the ,languages themselves1 they are generally taught not by ,books but ,conversation1 which is found by experience to be much the readiest1 easiest1 and best ,method of teaching them4444 ,some by great application have learn'd ,french or ,italian in half a year's time by conversation1 and indeed any foreign ,tongue is ordinarily taught in a year or a year and a half4 ,and such as are two years in learning any of them are accounted either very negligent or else very incapable of retaining them4444 ,men who know little or nothing of ,french1 ,italian1 or ,spanish1 quickly learn any one of these languages only by going twice or thrice a week to a club where they are obliged to speak it4 ,how common such practical methods of learning ,french were may be gathered from the fact that the few memoirs and similar writings which give any detail on the subject invariably mention them4 ,for instance1 the mother of ,mrs4 ,hutchinson1 the wife of the regicide and ,governor of ,nottingham1 was sent to board in the house of a refugee minister in order to learn ,french4#hej ,as to ,mrs4 ,hutchinson herself1 she had a ,french nurse1 and was taught to speak ,english and ,french together4#hea ,others had tutors4 ,thus the mother of ,lady ,anne ,halkett1 the royalist and writer on religious subjects1 paid masters to teach ,lady ,anne and her sister to write1 speak ,french1 play on the lute and virginals and dance2#heb and ,margaret ,cavendish1 ,duchess of ,newcastle1 held up by ,mrs4 ,makin as an example to all ingenious and ,vertuous ,ladies1 also had tutors for the polite accomplishments1 and refers to her language lessons as prating4#hec ,she acquired a good knowledge of ,french1 became attendant to ,queen ,henrietta ,maria1 and accompanied her in her exile in ,france4 ,header3 ,,french ,,by ,,conversation ,an example of the opportunities of acquiring a knowledge of ,french1 in any leisure hour1 as ,milton said of ,italian1 is found in the ,letters of ,robert ,loveday1 the translator of part of ,la ,calprende's ,cloptre4 ,loveday lived during the ,commonwealth as a dependent in the house of ,lady ,clinton at ,nottingham1 where1 he says1 ,french was familiarly spoken by the best sort of the family4#hed ,he therefore had every opportunity of learning the language1 and was much helped by an old ,italian gentleman1 skilled in ,french1 who was living in the house on the same footing as himself4 ,as a result of his application he was able to translate several ,french works into ,english in those empty spaces of time which were left by those that command me at my disposall4 ,he procured a copy of ,cotgrave's dictionary and asked a friend in ,london to make enquiries at the booksellers if there was any new ,french book of indifferent volume that was worth the translating and not enterprised by any other4#hee ,loveday hoped by this means to give larger scope to 7his7 narrow condition at ,nottingham4 ,one of his first enterprises was the translation of a mad fantastick ,dream he met with in ,sorel's ,francion1 which he sent to his brother2 but his chief work was a rendering of the first three parts of ,cloptre1 which was hardly of the indifferent size he writes of4 ,the several parts appeared in #afeb1 #afed1 and #afee respectively1 under the title of ,hymen's ,praeludia1 or ,love's ,masterpiece1 and were dedicated to his ever-honoured lady ,lady ,clinton4 ,in the complete version1 the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth parts are also ascribed to ,loveday4 ,thus practical methods gained a firm hold in the teaching of ,french2 when grammar was studied1 it was within limited boundaries1 and only so far as desirable for practical purposes4 ,in the teaching of ,latin1 on the other hand1 more and more importance was attached to the study of grammar1 which took the foremost place1 literature being regarded as little more than a collection of illustrative examples of the rules4#hef ,grammar had become a full swolen and overflowing stream1 which1 by a strong hand1 arrogates to itself 7and hath well-nigh gotten7 the whole traffic in learning1 especially of languages4#heg ,the use of the ,grammar and reading books in ,latin alone was another practice which engaged the attention of the reformers4#heh ,a book altogether in ,latin is a mere ,barbarian to our children1 wrote ,charles ,hoole1#hei who published many of the popular ,latin school-books with ,english translations1 in the style of those which are always present in the ,french text-books4 ,his opinion was that no language is more readily got than by familiar discourse in it1 and ability therein is in no way sooner gained then by comparing the tongue we learn with that we know1 and asking how they call this or how they say that in another language1 which we are able to express in our own4 ,a writer of the time#hfj thus describes that wild goose chase usually led3 ordinarily boys learn a leaf or two of the ,pueriles1 twenty pages of ,corderius1 a part of ,esop's ,fables1 a piece of ,tullie1 a little of ,ovid1 a remnant of ,virgil1 ,terence1 etc4 444 to read the accidence1 to get it without book1 is ordinarily the work of one whole year4 ,to construe the ,grammar and to get it without book is at least the task of two years more1 and then1 it may be1 it is little understood until a year or two more is spent in making plain ,latin 444 when it is all done1 besides declining nouns and forming verbs and getting a few words1 there is very little advantage to the child4 ,and a ,french teacher1#hfa writing at about the same time1 has left a very similar picture4 ,header3 ,,grammatical ,,study ,,of ,,languages ,he describes how the child slaves till the age of fifteen or sixteen1 forced to learn against his will a little ,latin and ,greek1 with little result after seven or eight years of hardship4 ,not #aj per cent really know either2 they are buried under a fatras of words and rules1 which stun the memory and overturn the judgment1 and all under the rule of the rod4 ,such is the learning of a foreign language by grammar4 ,the feeling of dissatisfaction with the usual method of teaching ,latin in grammar schools1 however1 seems to have been general in the seventeenth century1 and many were the protests and appeals for reform4 ,no man can run speedily to the mark of languages that is shackled and ingiv'd with grammar precepts1 wrote ,joseph ,webbe1#hfb who draws a careful distinction between the grammar-,latin thus acquired and what he calls ,latin-,latin1#hfc that is1 ,such as the best approved authors wrote and left us in their books and monuments of use and custom1 as distinct from that ,latin which we now make by grammar rules1 and their collection out of that custom and those authors was to make us write and speak such ,latin as that custom and those authors did1 which was ,latin-,latin1 but it succeeded not4 ,consequently there arose a belief that practice--in speaking1 reading1 and writing the language--should take its place by the side of grammar4 ,writers pleaded1 in the style of ,elyot and ,ascham1 for the teaching of ,latin on more practical lines1 quoting ,montaigne's experience4#hfd ,thomas ,grantham#hfe opened a private school1 in which he sought to deliver youth from their great captivity and the hardship and uselessness of learning grammar word for word without book and in ,latin1 which the boy does not understand1 just as if a man should teach one an art in ,french when he understands not ,french4 ,grantham1 on the contrary1 taught his scholars to understand the rules first1 and by repeatedly applying them they came to know them without book1 whether they would or no4 ,similar was the method of the ,french teachers1 who often carried the idea further1 and taught their pupils the rules as need for them arose in practice4 ,john ,webster thus puts the case for and against learning by rule4 ,as for grammar1 he says1#hff which hath been invented for the more certain and facile teaching and obtaining of languages1 it is very controvertible whether it perform the same in the surest1 easiest and shortest way or not1 since hundreds speak their mother tongue and other languages very perfectly1 use them readily1 and understand them excellent well1 and yet never knew or were taught any grammar rules1 nor followed the wayes of ,conjugations and ,declensions1 ,noun or ,verb4 ,and it is sufficiently known that many men1 by their own industry1 without the method or rules of grammar1 have gotten a competent understanding in divers languages3 and many unletter'd persons will1 by use and exercise1 without ,grammar rules1 learn to speak and understand some languages in far shorter time than any do learn them by method and rule1 as is clearly manifest by those that travel4444 ,and again1 if we conceive that languages learnt by use and exercise render men ready and expert in the understanding and speaking of them1 without any aggravating or pushing the intellect and memory1 when that which is gotten by rule and method1 when we come to use and speak it1 doth exceedingly rack and excruciate the intellect and memory3 which are forced at the same time1 not only to find fit words agreeable to the present matter discoursed of1 and to put them into a good ,rhetorical order1 but must at the same instant of speaking1 collect all the numerous rules of number1 case 444 as into one centre1 where so many rayes are united and yet not confounded1 which must needs be very perplexive and gravaminous to memorative faculty3 and therefore none that attains languages by grammar do ever come to speak and understand them perfectly and readily1 until they come to a perfect habit in the exercitation of them1 and so thereby come to lose and leave the use of those many and intricate rules1 which have cost us so many pains to attain to them1 and so to justifie the saying that we do but discere dediscenda4 ,those who learn by use and exercitation1 on the other hand1 acquire languages more quickly and with better results4 ,if the study of grammar is insisted on1 it should be made very brief4 ,the indeclinables require no rules1 but are learnt by use4 ,header3 ,,locke ,,on ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,french ,of the declinables the only ones that present any difficulties are the noun and the verb1 regular and irregular4 ,as to the irregulars1 they are best learnt by use1 as rules only render the way more perplexed and tedious4 ,and the way of the regulars is facile and brief1 being but one rule for all4 ,many others wrote in a similar strain1#hfg advocating the teaching of ,latin on lines widely used in the teaching of ,french4 ,several actually specified the modern language1 which was first mentioned in books on education in this connexion4 ,thomas ,grantham1 in his ,brain ,breaker's ,breaker 7#afdd71 points out that many young gentlemen and ladies learn to speak ,french in half a year without grammar1 and argues that the same purpose could be achieved with ,latin and ,greek in a twelvemonth4 ,similarly ,george ,snell argued that ,latin might be learnt in as short a time as a ,monsieur can teach ,french1#hfh for the pronunciation1 so great a task in learning the living tongue1 is of no importance in the dead language4 ,at a somewhat later date1 when ,french had made more headway in the scholastic world1 ,locke plainly states that people are accustomed to the right way of teaching ,french1 which is by talking it into children by constant conversation1 and not by ,grammatical ,rules1#hfi and proposes that the same method should be applied to ,latin4 ,when we so often see a ,frenchwoman teach an ,english girl to speak and read ,french perfectly in a year or two1 without any rule of grammar1 or anything else but prattling to her1 ,i cannot but wonder how gentlemen have overseen this way for their sons1 and thought them more dull and incapable than their daughters4#hgj ,elsewhere ,locke again draws comparisons between the teaching of ,latin and that of ,french1#hga and a ,french teacher of the early part of the eighteenth century recognized the importance of this tribute when he published a grammar intended to confirm the knowledge acquired by practice4#hgb ,yet all these proposals and protests do not seem to have had much effect on the teaching of ,latin4 ,in a few cases1 however1 experiments were attempted1 usually in connexion with ,french4 ,several were made with the ,janua of ,comenius1 which had early been adapted to the teaching of ,french as well as ,latin4 ,the theories of ,comenius himself had no doubt inspired the ,english reformers4 ,he had written that rules are thorns to the understanding1 that no one ever mastered a language by precept alone1 though it is often done by practice2 rules1 however1 should not be entirely discarded4#hgc ,j4 ,t4 ,philipps1 who was later tutor to the ,duke of ,cumberland1 son of ,george ,,ii41 relates#hgd how he taught both ,latin and ,french on practical lines with the help of ,comenius4 ,his pupil first got a good notion of the ,latin tongue by studying the verbs and nouns1 and then learning the ,latin column of the ,janua ,linguarum4 ,i likewise at som leisure ,hours1 continues ,philipps1 taught him to read ,french and when he had good the pronunciation1 he labour'd for some time1 as he did before in the ,latin1 to make himself ,master of the ,french ,verbs and ,nouns1 and then began to learn the sentences in another column of the ,janua ,linguarum1 which1 by the assistance of the ,latin1 he mastered in a very short time4 ,so that before the end of the first year1 he could read ,fontaine's ,fables from ,french into ,english1 and give me an account of the ,french ,minister's text which he heard1 and part of the sermon2 ,header3 ,,languages ,,learnt ,,without ,,grammar for ,i charg'd him never to miss the ,french ,church1 that he might the better accustom himself to the true ,accent of that ,tongue4444 ,i spent an hour every ,sunday ,morning all the time the ,boy was with me1 to read over several short ,catechisms or systems in ,divinity both in ,french and ,latin4#hge ,the learned ,mrs4 ,bathsua ,makin1 who had been governess to the daughters of ,charles ,i41 and later kept a school at ,tottenham ,high ,cross1 also advocated the use of the ,janua ,linguarum for learning ,latin and ,french4 ,the young ladies of her school learnt ten ,latin sentences of the ,janua a day thoroughly1 spending but six hours a day in their books4 ,by the end of six months they had a fair knowledge of the language1 and turned to ,french3 ,if the ,latin tongue may be learnt in #f months1 where most of the words are new1 then the ,french may be learnt in three1 by one that understands ,latin and ,english1 because there is not above one word of ten of the ,french ,tongue1 that may not fairly1 without force1 be reduced to the ,latin or ,english4#hgf ,we are also told#hgg of a boy of seven who spoke ,latin1 ,french1 and ,english with equal facility1 by reason that his father talked to him in nothing but ,latin1 and his mother1 who was a ,frenchwoman1 in nothing but ,french1 and the rest of the family in nothing but ,english4 ,and the ,rev4 ,henry ,wotton of ,corpus ,christi1 ,cambridge1 has left an account of how1 when he undertook the education of his son1 leaving off the ,accidence in that ,method that ordinarily children are trained up in1 7he7 immediately thought with 7him7self to make an experiment whether children of his years might not be taught the ,latin ,tongue as ordinarily children are taught the ,french and ,italian1 and without the torture of grammar1 to make them1 by reading a ,latin book1 to understand ,nouns and ,verbs1 ,declensions and ,moods1 and that without the vast circuit1 that ordinarily takes up #c or #d years1 as preparatory to read any ,latin author4#hgh ,evelyn bears witness to the success of ,wotton's experiment4 ,he saw the young ,william ,wotton in ,london at the age of eleven1 and pronounced him a miracle4#hgi ,to ,evelyn also we are indebted for an account of another case of similar precocity due to the same method4 ,he relates how he and ,pepys saw a child of twelve1 the son of one ,dr4 ,clench1 who was perfect in the ,latine authors1 spake ,french naturally1 and possessed amazing knowledge4 ,his tutor was a ,frenchman1 who had not troubled him to learn even the rules of grammar by heart1 but merely read to him1 first in ,french1 and then in ,latin4#hhj ,in no case1 however1 was the contrast between the prevalent methods of teaching ,latin and ,french so marked as in the learning of ,latin in ,grammar ,schools1 and of ,french in ,france by rote or with the help of a few general grammar rules2 the older the student1 the more necessary were grammar rules considered4 ,richard ,carew1 for instance1 was struck by the fact that he learnt more ,french without rules in three-quarters of a year in ,france than he had learnt ,latin in more than thirteen years' strenuous study of grammar4 ,he had gone to ,france on leaving the university4 ,on his arrival he was at a loss for words1 knowing nothing of the language2 but after a short stay1 spent in the midst of ,french people1 talking and reading nothing but ,french1 he surmounted the difficulties of the language with surprising ease1 and wished students of ,latin to benefit by his experience4#hha ,the two languages1 indeed1 were not infrequently studied together by the considerable number of ,english children who were sent to ,france for purposes of education4 ,,footnotes3 #hbd ,it is most astonishing that there ever could have been people idle enough to write and read such endless heaps of the same stuff4 ,it was1 however1 the occupation of thousands in the last century1 and is still the private though disavowed amusement of young girls and sentimental ladies1 wrote ,chesterfield in the eighteenth century 7,letters to his ,son1 #aggd1 p4 #bdb74 ,even ,johnson read and enjoyed these lengthy romances4 #hbe ,jusserand1 ,the ,english ,novel in the ,time of ,shakespeare1 p4 #cha4 #hbf ,letters from ,dorothy ,osborne to ,sir ,wm4 ,temple1 #afeb-ed1 ,london1 #ahhh1 p4 #cah4 #hbg ,he in turn passed them on to ,lady ,diana ,rich4 #hbh ,t4 ,p4 ,courtney1 ,memoirs of the ,life1 ,works and ,correspondence of ,sir ,wm4 ,temple1 ,london1 #ahcf1 i4 p4 #e4 #hbi ,letters1 p4 #agb2 ep4 ,goldsmith1 ,essay on the ,use of ,language3 ,if again you are obliged to wear a flimsy stuff in the midst of winter1 be the first to remark that stuffs are very much worn at ,paris4 #hcj ,pepys used ,cotgrave's ,dictionary2 ,diary1 ,february #bf1 #affj-a4 #hca ,this book was very widely read in ,england4 ,but there does not seem to have been an ,english translation of it before #agji 7,pepys's ,diary1 ,oct4 #ac1 #affd1 ed4 ,wheatley1 #aijd74 #hcb ,diary1 ,jan4 #ac1 ,feb4 #h and #i1 #affg-h4 #hcc ,l',hydrographie contenant la thorie et la pratique de toutes les parties de la navigation1 #afdc4 #hcd ,he read ,descartes's ,musicae ,compendium1 but did not think much of it4 #hce ,pepys relates how one evening ,penn and he fell to discoursing about some words in a ,french song ,mrs4 ,pepys was singing--,d'un air tout interdict3 wherein ,i laid twenty to one against him1 which he would not agree to with me1 though ,i know myself in the right as to the sense of the word1 and almost angry we were1 and were an houre and more upon the dispute1 till at last broke up not satisfied1 and so home4 #hcf ,les ,rsolutions ,politiques ou ,maximes d'tat1 par ,jean de ,marnix1 ,baron de ,potes1 ,bruxelles1 #afab4 #hcg ,cp4 ,e4 ,gosse1 ,seventeenth ,century ,studies1 #ahig2 ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,the ,english ,novel in the ,time of ,shakespeare1 p4 #cgc4 #hch ,d4 ,canfield1 ,corneille and ,racine in ,england1 #aijd4 ,how common was the presence of ,frenchmen in ,english families of high standing may be gathered from ,orinda's statement that one1 ,legrand1 a ,frenchman belonging to the ,duchess of ,ormond1 has by her order set the fourth song in ,pompey to music1 and a ,frenchman of my ,lord ,orrery's the second 7,letters of ,orinda to ,poliarchus1 ,london1 #agje1 ,letter dated ,jan4 #ca1 #affc74 #hci ,fifth ed41 ,amsterdam1 #afhf4 ,translated into ,english by ,f4 ,spence1 ,london1 #afhc4 ,queen ,henrietta ,maria had done much to foster the spirit of the ,astre and the ,htel de ,rambouillet in ,england3 cp4 ,j4 ,b4 ,fletcher1 ,prcieuses at the ,court of ,charles ,i41 in the ,journal of ,comparative ,philology1 vol4 i4 #aijc4 #hdj ,between ladies and cavaliers4 ,herbert explains that by cavalier he means galant homme4 ,here is a specimen of their style3 ,cavalier3 ,la voil1 je la vois4--,dame3 ,que voyez-vous1 mons48--,je vois la ,gloire du beau sexe1 l',ornement de ce sicle1 et l',objet de mes affections4--,vous voyez ici bien des choses4--,toutes ces choses sont en une4--,c'est donc une merveille4--,dites1 ma chre ,dame1 la merveille des merveilles4--,je le pourrois dire aprs vous1 car votre bel esprit ne se sauroit tromper4--,il se peut bien tromper1 mais non pas en ceci4--,je veux qu'il soit infaillible en ceci3 il faut pourtant que je voye cette ,gloire1 cet ,ornement et cet ,objet1 pour en pouvoir juger4--,vous ne les sauriez voir que par rflexion4--,je ne vous entens pas4--,approchez-vous de ce miroir1 et vous verrez ce que je dis4 ,qu'y voyez-vous1 ma ,belle8--,je vous y vois1 monsieur4--,voil une belle rponse4--,belle ou laide1 elle est vraye4--,elle l'est effectivement3 mais n'y voyez-vous rien que moi8--,je m'y vois aussi bien que vous4--,vous voyez donc cette illustre merveille1 etc4 #hda ,il y a des particuliers qui ne sont pas dans mes intrts1 qui les 7i4e4 his works7 dcrient hautement1 non pas tant par malice que par jalousie1 quelques-uns tant des personnes intresses qui sont de ma profession1 ou des critiques ignorans qui trouvent redire tout ce que les autres font1 pour faire parotre ce qu'ils n'ont point1 s'imaginant qu'on les prend pour des hommes d'esprit1 quand on les entend reprendre les choses les mieux faites4 #hdb ,see p4 #bij1 supra4 #hdc ,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 iv4 #ccc4 #hdd ,schickler1 glises du ,refuge1 ii4 pp4 #adh-i1 and #aec4 ,despagne became a denizen in #afee 7,hug4 ,soc4 ,pub4 xviii474 ,cp4 also ,haag1 ,la ,france protestante1 ad nom41 and the ,bulletin de la socit de l',histoire du ,protestantisme franais1 viii4 pp4 #cfi et seq4 ,he died in #afeh4 #hde ,harmony of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 #afhb1 ,brown's preface4 #hdf ,schickler1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bbd4 #hdg ,cal4 of ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affj-fa1 p4 #bgg4 #hdh ,that translation was not always the means of interpretation is shown by the following passage from ,mauger2 a stranger questions one of his pupils3 ,entendez-vous tout ce que vous liss8 ,j'en entends une partie4 ,entendez-vous bien le sens8 ,fort bien1 monsieur4 ,probably ,french was not 'construed' word for word1 as ,latin was1 the clause1 on the contrary1 being made the starting-point4 ,construing word for word is impossible in any language1 wrote ,joseph ,webbe in his ,petition to the ,high ,court of ,parliament1 quoting as an example the barbarous ,english of the ,frenchman1 ',i you pray1 sir1' for ,je vous prie1 monsieur4 #hdi ,an ,essay on ,education1 ,london1 #agaa4 #hej ,memoirs of the ,life of ,colonel ,hutchinson1 ed4 ,c4 ,h4 ,firth1 ,london4 #ahhe1 i4 p4 #af4 #hea ,ibid4 p4 #bc4 #heb ,autobiography of ,lady ,anne ,halkett1 #afbb-afii1 #agja1 ,camden ,society1 #ahge1 p4 #b4 #hec ,the ,lives of ,wm41 ,duke of ,newcastle and of his wife ,margaret 444 written by the thrice noble and illustrious princess ,margaret1 ,duchess of ,newcastle1 ed4 ,m4 ,a4 ,lower1 #ahgb1 p4 #bga4 #hed ,loveday's ,letters1 ,domestick and forrain to several persons 4441 ,london1 #afei1 p4 #ca4 #hee ,letters1 p4 #aje4 ,cp4 also pp4 #bf1 #dg1 #gi1 #ace1 etc4 ,it is evident from the letter of ,dorothy ,osborne quoted above1 p4 #cbj1 that she had learnt ,french chiefly by ear4 ,several of the inaccuracies1 such as the use of the past participle for the infinitive1 would not be noticeable in pronunciation4 #hef ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 pp4 #bgf sqq4 #heg ,j4 ,webbe1 ,an ,appeale to ,truth in the ,controversie between ,art and ,verse about the best and most expedient course in languages1 #afbb4 #heh ,there was a strong feeling at this period in favour of a freer use of ,english in the teaching of ,latin1 chiefly on account of the time such a course would save4 ,thus ,milton recognized the mistake of spending a great number of years in learning one language making two labours of one by learning first the accidence1 then the grammar in ,latin1 ere the language of those rules be understood4 ,the remedy1 he thought1 was the use of a grammar in ,english 7,a4 ,f4 ,leach1 ,milton as ,schoolboy and ,schoolmaster1 ,proceedings of the ,british ,academy1 iii4 #aijh74 ,snell 7,right ,teaching of ,useful ,knowledge1 #afdi71 ,mrs4 ,makin or ,m4 ,lewis 787 7,essay to ,revive the ,antient ,education of ,gentlewomen1 #afga71 and others also argued that ,english should be the groundwork of the teaching of ,latin4 ,most of the ,english grammars produced in the seventeenth century claim to be useful to scholars as an introduction to the rudiments of ,latin2 and it was on this footing1 no doubt1 that ,english grammar first made its way into the schools4 ,chief among these1 perhaps1 was ,j4 ,poole's ,english ,accidence for attaining more speedily the ,latin ,tongue1 so that every young child1 as soon as he can read ,english1 may by it turn any sentence into ,latin4 ,published by ,authority1 and commended as generally necessary to be made use of in all schooles of this commonwealth1 ,london1 #afee4 ,for a list of ,english grammars cp4 ,f4 ,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 chap4 i4 ,lily's ,grammar came to be almost always used with the ,english rendering by ,wm4 ,hume4 ,cp4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 p4 #bif4 #hei ,an advertisement 444 touching school books1 #afei4 #hfj ,an ,essay to ,revive the ,antient ,education of ,gentlewomen1 ,london1 #afgc 7by ,mrs4 ,makin or ,mark ,lewis74 #hfa ,g4 ,mige1 ,a ,new ,french ,grammar1 #afgh1 p4 #cgg4 #hfb ,appeale to ,truth1 #afbb1 p4 #da4 #hfc ,petition to the ,high ,court of ,parliament1 in behalf of auncient and authentique ,authours1 for the universall and perpetuall good of every man1 #afbc4 #hfd ,essais1 liv4 i41 ch4 xxv4 #hfe ,cp4 ,the ,brain ,breaker's ,breaker1 or the ,apologie of ,th4 ,grantham for his ,method of ,teaching1 #afdd4 #hff ,the ,examination of ,academies1 wherein is discussed 444 the ,matter1 ,method and ,customes of ,academick and ,scholastick ,learning1 and the insufficiency thereof discovered and laid open1 #afec1 p4 #ba4 #hfg ,thus ,sir ,wm4 ,petty1 in his ,advice to ,s4 ,hartlib for the advancement of some particular parts of learning 7#afdh71 argues that languages should be taught by incomparably more easy wayes then are now usuall4 ,an anonymous ,lover of his ,nation proposed that children should learn ,latin as they do ,english1 by having no other language within their hearing for two years2 and similarly with other languages 7,watson1 ,modern ,subjects1 p4 #dhb74 ,ch4 ,hoole1 teacher at a private grammar school in ,london1 also proposes that ,latin should be learnt by speaking and hearing it spoken1 and attributes the unsatisfactory knowledge of the language to the too frequent use of ,english in schools 7,new ,discoverie of the old art of ,teaching ,schooll1 #affj74 ,the ,french teacher ,mige suggests that ,latin should be taught in special schools1 on the same lines as ,french was taught in the ,french ones 7,french ,grammar1 #afgh74 ,in #afhe was published ,the ,way of ,teaching the ,latin ,tongue by use to those that have already learn'd their ,mother ,tongue2 and in #affi had appeared a work translated from the ,french1 called ,an ,examen of the ,way of ,teaching the ,latine ,tongue to little children by use alone4 ,among other publications of similar import are3 ,an ,essay on ,education1 showing how ,latin1 ,greek1 and other ,languages may be learn'd more easily1 quickly and perfectly than they commonly are1 #agaa2 and ,an ,essay upon the education of youth in ,grammar ,schools in which the ,vulgar ,method of ,teaching is examined1 and a new one proposed for the more easy and speedy training up of ,youth1 to the knowledge of the ,learned ,languages 4441 by ,j4 ,clarke1 ,master of the ,public ,grammar ,school in ,hull 7,london1 #agbj74 #hfh ,right ,teaching of ,useful ,knowledge to fit scholars for some honest ,profession1 ,london1 #afdi1 p4 #ahf4 #hfi ,locke1 ,some thoughts concerning ,education 7#afic71 ed4 ,j4 ,w4 ,adamson1 in ,educational ,writings of ,locke1 ,london1 #aiab1 p4 #abe4 #hgj ,op4 cit4 p4 #abg4 #hga ,why does the ,learning of ,latin and ,greek need the rod1 when ,french and ,italian need it not8 7op4 cit4 p4 #fi74 ,and again1 ,those who teach any of the modern languages with success never amuse their scholars to make speeches or verses either in ,french or ,italian1 their business being language barely and not invention 7op4 cit4 p4 #ga74 #hgb ,j4 ,palairet1 ,new ,royal ,french ,grammar1 ,the ,hague1 #agch4 #hgc ,languages1 he held1 were best learnt by rules of a simple nature1 comparison of the points of difference and resemblance between the known and unknown language1 and exercises on familiar subjects4 #hgd ,a compendious way of teaching ,ancient and ,modern ,languages 4441 #bnd edition1 ,london1 #agbc1 pp4 #de et seq4 #hge ,he would then learn ,italian and ,spanish on the same plan4 #hgf ,an ,essay to ,revive the ,antient ,education of ,gentlewomen 4441 #afgc4 #hgg ,essay on ,education1 #agaa4 ,the case of ,queen ,elizabeth1 who is said to have learnt only one or two ,latin rules1 is also quoted4 #hgh ,an ,essay on the education of children in the first rudiments of learning1 together with a narrative of what knowledge ,wm4 ,wotton1 a child of #f years of age1 had attained unto upon the ,improvement of those ,rudiments in the ,latin1 ,greek and ,hebrew ,tongues4 ,reprinted1 ,london1 #agec1 p4 #ch4 #hgi ,diary1 ,july #f1 #afgi4 #hhj ,ibid41 ,jan4 #bg1 #afhh4 #hha ,for this purpose he wrote ,the ,true and readie way to learne the ,latin ,tongue1 expressed in an answer to the ,question whether the ordinary way of teaching ,latin by ,rules of ,grammar be best1 #afed4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,tour ,,in ,,france ,and now methinks ,i see a youth advance ,ready prepared to make the tour of ,france4 ,satire against the ,french1 #afia4 ,when1 in the middle of the seventeenth century1 ,england was torn in twain by civil war and party quarrels1 even the ,puritans willingly sent their children to be brought up in ,france4 ,it was at this period that ,thomas ,grantham1 a severe critic of the usual method of teaching ,latin in ,grammar ,schools1#hhb wrote this significant passage3 ,let a boy of seven or eight years of age be sent out of ,england into ,france3 he shall learn in a twelvemonth or less to write and speak the ,french tongue readily1 although he keep much company with ,english1 read many ,english books1 and write many ,english letters home1 and all this with pleasure and delight4 ,the number of ,english children in ,france at this period was considerable4#hhc ,at ,st4 ,malo1 for instance1 when proceedings were taken against the ,english in the town1 the chief victims were the ,english boys sent to learn ,french4#hhd ,the memoirs of the ,verney family afford a detailed picture of one of the numerous families of royalist sympathies1 cut off from ,english public school and university life1 and brought up in ,france4 ,sir ,ralph ,verney had taken the side of ,parliament in the long struggle1 but in #afdc went into voluntary exile in ,france rather than sign the ,covenant4 ,he settled at ,blois with his family1 and procured ,french tutors for his boys4 ,apparently he had some trouble at first1 one of the tutors being dismissed for drinking1 lying and seeking to proselytise4 ,finally the education of the boys was entrusted to the ,protestant pastor1 ,m4 ,testard1 who received foreign pupils4 ,the young students worked hard at ,latin and ,french under the minister's supervision4 ,testard reported of ,edmund1 the elder1 ,il fait merveille4 4 4 4 ,je luy raconte une histoire en franais1 il me la rend extempore en ,latin4#hhe ,and one day ,mme4 ,testard found the young ,john hard at work in bed in the early morning with two books in ,french and ,latin4 ,the children wrote in ,french to their mother when she was absent in ,england making valiant and finally successful attempts to get the sequestration taken off ,sir ,ralph's estate4 ,and when1 after her death1 ,sir ,ralph sought to divert his mind by travelling in ,italy1 ,edmund1#hhf then aged thirteen1 wrote this letter--which shows clearly the dangers of a purely oral method3 ,plust ,dieu qu'il vous donnast la pense de retourner ,blois4 ,les jours me semblent des annes tant il m'ennuye d'ettre icy comme dans un desert de solitude2 car quoy est cequi me peut desormais plaire dans cette ville1 comment est ceque cette lumiere de la vie1 et cette respiration de l'air me peuvent-elle estre agreeables1 puisqu'y ayant perdu cequi m'estoit le plus au ,monde et qu'il m'interesse plus q'une seule personne dont je suis priv de l'honneur de sa presence1 au reste1 graces a ,dieu1 nous nous porte fort bien et pourcequi et de moy je vous asseure que je ne manqueray jamais mon devoir1 c'espourquoy finissant je demeure et demeureray aternellement1 ,votre tres humble et fidel fils1 ,,edmond ,,verney4 ,sir ,ralph had also in his charge two girls1 his young cousins1 whom their mother had entrusted to him3 ,sweet nephew1 ,i have after ,a long debate with my selfe sent my tow gurles where ,i shall desier youre care of them1 that they may be tought what is fite for them as the reding of the french tong1 and to singe1 and to dance and to right and to playe of the gittar4#hhg ,sir ,ralph regarded ,france as the fittest place to breed up youth4 ,header3 ,,sir ,,ralph ,,verney',s ,,views ,i wish peace in ,france for my children's sake1 he wrote to ,m4 ,du ,val1 a ,french tutor4 ,after bringing up his own family there1 he would have liked to send his grandchildren to ,france with a sober and discreet governor1 rather than to any school in ,england2 but his son ,edmund thought the advantage of learning to speak ,french fluently did not compensate for the loss of ,english public school life1 which he himself had never enjoyed4 ,sir ,ralph soon became a versatile source of information to parents desiring details of the cost of living and education in ,france4 ,he considered #bjj a year a proper allowance for an ,english youth to be boarded in a good ,french family1 and that homes in which there were children were best1 on account of the continual prattle of the young inmates4 ,the families of ,french pastors were naturally preferred2 and as the pastors were in the habit of taking ,french pupils also1#hhh no doubt the young ,english boys found suitable companions4 ,the ,protestant schools1#hhi established wherever possible by the ,french reformers in the vicinity of their churches1 were also in favour with ,english parents4 ,these schools1 in which the subjects usually taught were reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and the catechism1 were for obvious reasons looked on with suspicion by the ,government2 one by one they were dispersed1 especially when the feeling against the ,protestants became more acute towards the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,thus the schools of ,rouen were closed in #afdj2 and shortly afterwards ,sir ,ralph ,verney wrote1 in reply to an inquiry about a school1 that ,rouen is a very unfit place1 as no ,protestant masters are allowed to keep school there2 moreover1 living is dear in the town1 and the accent of the inhabitants bad4 ,in some cases1 when the schools had been closed or converted into ,jesuit establishments1 the ejected schoolmasters gave private lessons1 or received a few pensionnaires in their homes4 ,even this was forbidden in #afhc4 ,and two years later the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes dealt the severest blow of all4 ,regarding the ,protestant ,academies1#hij ,sir ,ralph sent the following report to his friends in ,england3 ,there are divers ,universities at ,sedan1 ,saumur1 ,geneva and other fine places1 as ,i am told at noe unreasonable rate1 and not only ,protestant schoolmasters1 but whole colleges of ,protestants4#hia ,many young ,englishmen were sent to one or other of these towns1 either to attend lectures at the ,academies1 or1 more often1 to study ,french and the exercises privately1 in a ,protestant atmosphere4 ,sir ,orlando ,bridgman1 a friend of ,sir ,ralph ,verney1 after letting his son study with two other ,english boys under a ,m4 ,cordell at ,blois1 intended to send him either to ,saumur or ,poitiers1 then to ,paris1 and so to the ,inns of ,court1#hib and ,sir ,thomas ,cotton sent his sons to ,saumur to perfect themselves in ,french4#hic ,in the middle of the seventeenth century1 ,sir ,joseph ,williamson1 the future statesman and diplomat of the reign of ,charles ,,ii41 was living at ,saumur with several young ,englishmen in his care4#hid ,after graduating at ,oxford1 he had left ,england in the capacity of tutor to a young man of quality1 possibly one of the sons of the ,marquis of ,ormonde4 ,at ,saumur1 ,williamson kept a book of notes relating to the studies of his pupils and containing the letters which he wrote to their parents in answer to inquiries concerning their progress4 ,he and his pupils lived en pension in a private house in the town1 with very civil company1--the best way to get the language which is much desired4 ,on the whole ,williamson's pupils do not seem to have made as rapid progress as either he himself or their parents desired4 ,one anxious father writes to ask ,williamson to let his son practise writing ,french daily2 another exhorts his son to devote himself seriously to learning ,french by reading good authors and conversing4 ,the ,academies of ,montauban and ,sedan1 though they never attained a popularity equal to that of ,saumur1 were not neglected1 and attracted many foreign students4 ,the ,academy at ,montauban was moved to ,puy ,laurens in #afei1 where it remained until its suppression at the time of the ,revocation4 ,in #afgh ,henry ,savile1 ,english ambassador at ,paris1 informed his brother1 ,lord ,halifax1 that there are only two ,protestant ,universities in ,france1 at ,saumur and ,puy ,laurens1 and that of these ,saumur is beyond dispute the better4#hie ,header3 ,,travellers ,,at ,,french ,,universities ,from this we see that these two ,academies were then the best known2#hif no doubt the rest1 which had never been quite so popular1 were much enfeebled by the hostile edicts which preceded the ,revocation4 ,lord ,halifax at first intended to send his sons to the ,college at ,chastillon4 ,savile1 however1 stopped them when they arrived at ,paris1 as he had heard that the only teaching given at the ,college was reading1 writing1 and the catechism--the curriculum of the ,protestant schools4 ,in the end the boys were sent with their governor to the ,academy at ,geneva4 ,on their return to ,england in #afha1 one of them went to complete his education at the ,university and the other to the academy which was opened that year by the ,frenchman ,m4 ,foubert1 who had set up as a teacher of the exercises in ,london4 ,other travellers spent some time at one of the ,french ,universities4 ,the ,university of ,paris usually counted a considerable number of ,english among its students1 and ,clarendon tells us that those who have been there mingle gracefully in all companies4 ,the ,universities of ,bordeaux1 ,poitiers1 and ,montpellier were also favourite resorts4 ,montpellier particularly1 with its gentle salutiferous air1 attracted those suffering from the national complaint4#hig ,when ,will ,allestry was there in #affh1 he spent the greater part of his time learning ,french1 and what leisure he had he employed in studying the ,institutions4#hih ,orleans1 famous for the study of law1 was also much patronised4 ,the custom of studying in ,french ,universities1 however1 did not meet with general approval in ,england4 ,sir ,balthazar ,gerbier pronounced it no less than abusing the ,universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge and the famous free schools of this realme to withdraw from them the sons of ,noble families and those that are lovers of vertue4 ,the same opinion is voiced by ,samuel ,penton1 ,master of ,exeter ,hall1 ,oxford1 who did not omit even the ,protestant ,academies from his condemnation4 ,the strangeness of ,new ,faces1 ,language1 ,manners and ,studies may prove perhaps uneasie1 and then their great want of discipline to confine him to ,prayers1 ,exercises and ,meals is dangerous3 all he will have to do is to keep in touch with a ,lecturer1 and what is learned from him1 most young ,gentlemen are so civil as to leave behind them when they return4#hii ,the governors who usually accompanied young travellers1 especially those of high birth1 were not infrequently ,frenchmen4 ,we are told that it was a rare sight to see a young ,english nobleman at a foreign court with a governor of his own nation1#ijj though some preferred an ,english governor1 and cautioned travellers against foreign tutors4 ,samuel ,penton warns us that if the young traveller is committed1 for cheapness or curiosity1 to a foreigner instead of an ,english governor1 there are some in the world who without a fee will tell you what that is like to come to4#ija ,one of the ,english governors1 ,j4 ,gailhard1 who was tutor abroad to several of the nobility and gentry1 including the ,earl of ,huntingdon1 ,lord ,hastings1 and ,sir ,thomas ,grosvenor1 lays down a method of travel which is of special interest1 as it is the one which he followed with his own pupils4#ijb ,his view was that1 if possible1 the traveller should have some knowledge of ,french before setting out on his travels4 ,the first thing he should do on arriving at ,paris is to go to the famous ,protestant temple at ,charenton1 and there give thanks for his safe journey so far--whether he understand ,french or not4 ,he will do well to make but a short stay at ,paris1 where his progress will be hindered by the great number of his countrymen there4 ,the best places to reside in are the towns along the valley of the ,loire1 where there are plenty of good masters to be had4 ,perhaps ,angers is the best4 ,the student is further urged to keep a diary1 and talk as much as possible--with speaking we learn to speak4 ,the masters for the riding and fencing exercises1 dancing and music1 are to be looked upon as so many additional language teachers4 ,although of ten words he could not speak two right1 yet let him not be ashamed and discouraged at it3 for it is not to be expected he should be a ,master before he hath been a scholar4 ,the language master should teach his pupil to read1 write and spell correctly1 and to speak properly4 ,header3 ,,guide-,,books ,,for ,,travellers ,the material for reading must be carefully chosen2 romances1 such as those of ,scudry1 are often dangerous2 it is better to use books which give instruction in such subjects as history1 morality1 and politics4 ,every evening there should be a repetition of what has been learnt during the day4 ,gailhard also draws attention to the necessity of respecting and observing the customs of the places visited3 ,here in ,england1 the manner is for the master of the ,house to go in before a stranger1 this would pass for a great incivility in ,france2 so here the ,lady or ,mistress of the ,house uses to sit at the upper end of the ,table1 which in ,france is given to ,strangers4 ,so if we be many in a company we make no scruple to drink all out of a glass1 or a ,tankard1 which they are not used to do1 and if a servant would offer to give them a glass before it was washed every time they drink1 they would be angry at it4 ,here when a man is sneezing we say nothing to him1 but there they would look upon't as a want of civility4 ,again1 we in ,england upon a journey1 use to ask one another how we do1 but in ,france they do no such thing--amongst them that question would answer to this1 'what aileth you that you look so ill8' ,the attitude of the ,french teachers in ,england towards the foreign tour gradually changed4 ,they no longer saw in it a rival institution1 depriving them of many of their pupils1 but1 on the contrary1 a means of giving the finishing touch to the results of their own efforts in ,england4 ,all strongly advise their pupils to go to ,france1 and most of them add directions for travel in their text-books4#ijc ,mauger's dialogues include most exact instructions for travel1 very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into ,france1 and ,lain's grammar is enriched with choice dialogues useful for persons of quality that intend to travel into ,france1 leading them as by the hand to the most noted and principal places of the kingdom4 ,as the tour in ,france increased in popularity1 the directions furnished by ,french teachers were supplemented by guide-books properly so called2 towards the end of the seventeenth century books such as ,the ,present ,state of ,france and ,the ,description of ,paris were to be had at every bookseller's in ,london4#ijd ,as early as #afjd ,sir ,robert ,dallington had written his ,view of ,france1 in which he refers to a book called the ,french ,guide1 which undertaketh to resemble eche countrie to some other thing1 as ,bretaigne to a horse-shoe1 ,picardy to a ,neat's toung etc41 which are but idle and disproportioned comparisons4 ,peter ,heylyn1 chaplain at the ,courts of ,charles ,i4 and ,charles ,,ii41 was the author of two popular books of this type3 ,france painted to the ,life by a learned and impartial ,hand1#ije and ,a ,full relation of two ,journeys1 the one in the mainland of ,france1 the other in some of the adjacent ,islands4#ijf ,some of these guides are descriptions of the country1 others are relations of journeys made there2 to the first category belongs ,a ,description of ,france in its several governments by ,j4 ,s4 ,gent 7#afib71 and to the second1 ,a ,journey to ,paris in the year #afih by ,dr4 ,martin ,lister4 ,some include advice as to the course of study to be followed4 ,and as ,italy was still frequently included in the tour1 travellers were sometimes supplied with information regarding that country4#ijg ,so popular did the tour in ,france become in the seventeenth century that guide-books for travellers were produced on the spot4 ,the earliest ,french books of this kind had not been specially designed for the use of foreign visitors2 they were as a rule descriptions of the towns and their geographical positions1 or notices on their history and antiquities4#ijh ,in time1 however1 they assumed a character more particularly adapted to strangers4#iji ,header3 ,,routes ,,usually ,,followed ,one of the best known and most popular was ,le ,voyage de ,france1 dress pour l'instruction et commodit tant des ,franais que des trangers1 first published in #afci4 ,the author1 ,c4 de ,varennes1 gives directions for the study of ,french4 ,he thinks ,oudin's ,grammar the most profitable1 on account of the manner in which it deals with the chief difficulties of foreigners1 and ,paris and ,orleans the best towns for study4 ,for the rest1 the help of a tutor should be enlisted1 and the student should converse as much as possible with children1 and with persons of learning and ability2 he should also read widely1 preferably dialogues in familiar style and the latest novels2 and write ,french1 for which exercise he will find much help in the ,secrtaire de la ,cour and the ,secrtaire la mode1#iaj collections of letters and compliments1 which1 we may say incidentally1 enjoyed a popularity greatly exceeding their merit4 ,the short tour in ,france grew in popularity as the seventeenth century advanced1 and many were content to spend the whole of their sojourn abroad there1 without undertaking the longer continental tour4 ,others went to ,france to prepare themselves for the longer tour4 ,naturally the tour in ,france alone engaged the attention of ,french teachers4 ,we are told that the cost of a tour of three months need not be more than #ej4 ,if you take a friend with you 'twill make you miss a thousand opportunities of following your end3 you go to get ,french1 and it would be best if you could avoid making an acquaintance with any ,englishman there4 ,to converse with their learned men will be beside your purpose too1 if you go for so short a time3 they talk the worst for conversation and you had rather be with the ladies4#iaa ,the chief routes which ,french masters in ,england advised their pupils to take were those from ,dover to ,boulogne and from ,rye to ,dieppe1 whence it was usual to proceed through ,rouen to ,paris4#iab ,locke1 for instance1 landed at ,boulogne when on his way to the ,south of ,france2 thence he made his way to ,paris1 chiefly on foot4#iac ,if ,paris be heaven 7for the ,french with their usual justice1 extol it above all things on earth71 he writes after a night spent at ,poy1 ,poy certainly is purgatory on the way to it4 ,his impressions of ,tilliard were more favourable3 ,good mutton1 and a good supper1 clean linen of the country1 and a pretty girl to lay it 7who was an angel compared with the fiends of ,poy7 made us some amends for the past night's suffering4 ,it was on the same route to ,paris that the ,norman ,claude du ,val1 afterwards notorious on the ,english highways1 first came into contact with the ,english as he was journeying to ,paris to try his fortune there4 ,at ,rouen he met a band of young ,englishmen on their way to ,paris with their governors1 to learn the exercises and to fit themselves to go a-wooing at their return home2 who were infinitely ambitious of his company1 not doubting but in those two days' travel 7from ,rouen to ,paris7 they should pump many considerable things out of him1 both as to the language and customs of ,france3 and upon that account they did willingly defray his charges4 ,when the young ,englishmen arrived at ,paris and settled in the usual quarter1 the ,faubourg ,st4 ,germain1 ,du ,val attached himself to their service1 and betook himself to ,england on the ,restoration1 which drained ,paris of many of its ,english inhabitants4#iad ,many travellers1 however1 agreed with the ,french teachers that ,paris was not a suitable place for serious study of ,french1 both on account of the many distractions it offered and of the great number of ,english people resident there4 ,it therefore became customary with the more serious-minded to retire for a time to some quiet provincial town where the accent was good4 ,the ,french teacher ,wodroeph tells us as much3 ,mais1 ,monsieur1 je vois bien que vous estes estranger et vous allez la cour ,paris pour y apprendre nostre langue franoise4 ,mais mieux il vous vaut d'aller ,orleans plustost que d'y aller pour hanter la cour et baiser les ,dames et ,damoiselles4 4 4 4 ,parquoy je vous conseille mieux vous en esloigner et d'aller ,orleans l o vous apprendrez la vraye methode de la langue vulgaire4#iae ,the towns in the valley of the ,loire were favourite resorts for purposes of study4#iaf ,orleans1 ,blois1 and ,saumur seem to have been the most popular4 ,header3 ,,loire ,,towns ,,favoured ,for instance1 ,james ,howell1 after spending some time in ,paris1 where he lodged near the ,bastille--the part furthest off from the quarters where the ,english resort1 for he wished to go on to get a little language#iag as soon as he could--went to ,orleans to study ,french2 he describes it as the most charming town on the ,loire1 and the best to learn the language in the purity4 ,the town was never without a great abundance of strangers4#iah ,the fame of ,blois and its teachers was widespread2 and ,bourges1 ,tours1 ,angers1 and ,caen were noted for the purity of their ,french4 ,saumur and other towns in which the ,protestants were powerful were also much frequented4 ,john ,malpet1 afterwards ,principal of ,gloucester ,hall1 ,oxford1 spent two years in ,france with his pupil1 ,lord ,falkland1 visiting ,orleans1 ,blois1 and ,saumur4#iai ,john ,evelyn visited ,paris1 ,blois1 ,orleans1 and ,lyons1 and finally settled at ,tours1 where he engaged a ,french master and studied the language diligently for nineteen weeks4 ,while studying in one or other of these towns1 ,english travellers usually lodged in hotels1 auberges1 or pensions1#ibj and sometimes with ,french families4 ,one of their chief difficulties appears to have been to avoid their fellow-countrymen in such places4 ,gabriel ,du ,grs suggests that when ,english students are thus thrown together they should come to an agreement that any one who spoke his native tongue should pay a fine4 ,a further though less serious impediment was the speaking of ,latin1 still considered necessary to the traveller by scholars such as ,john ,brinsley4#iba ,for this reason travellers for language are advised to frequent the company of women and children1 and polite society1 rather than that of scholars4 ,it is a great inconvenience1 observes ,du ,grs1 if your landlord can speak ,latin4 ,the majority of travellers1 however1 do not appear to have experienced any embarrassment in this respect2 on the contrary1 those with little previous knowledge of ,french found their ,latin of use in their first ,french lessons if they studied the language grammatically with a master4 ,french teachers in ,england usually recommended suitable pensions to their students4 ,gabriel ,du ,grs1 for instance1 gives a list of such lodgings at ,saumur1 his native town2 ,mauger1 of those of ,blois1 ,orleans1 and other towns in the ,loire valley4#ibb ,in like manner they addressed their pupils to recommendable academies for instruction in the polite accomplishments and military exercises4 ,however1 for the most part they advised their pupils to go to private masters1 who would attend to their ,french as well as the exercises4 ,the house of ,m4 ,doux1 who had a riding school at ,blois1 was considered a particularly appropriate residence for those desiring to learn ,french1 on account of his daughters1 who spoke wondrously well1 as was also that of a certain ,m4 ,dechauss1 who kept an academy for teaching young gentlemen to ride4 ,what is more1 ,french teachers in ,england1 no longer regarding their fellow-workers in ,france as rivals but rather as collaborators1 as we have seen1 not infrequently entertained friendly relations with them1 and even went so far as to direct pupils to them4 ,claude ,mauger1 for instance1 sent as many of his pupils as possible to ,m4 ,gaudrey at ,paris1 the author of verses in praise of ,mauger's ,tableau du ,jugement ,universel4 ,this change of attitude is probably explained by the fact that in the seventeenth century ,french was studied more seriously in ,england than in the sixteenth century2 and students on their arrival in ,france had often had preliminary instruction under the care of a ,french tutor in ,england2 ,clarendon significantly states that in ,france we quickly renew the acquaintance we have had with the language by the practice and custom of speaking it4 ,students going abroad for purposes of study are therefore addressed to ,m4 ,nicolas1 an excellent master at ,paris1 ,m4 le ,fvre1 an avocat en parlement at ,orleans1 and others4 ,we are also informed that abbs were fond of teaching their language to strangers1 especially the ,english4#ibc ,moreover1 several ,french teachers in ,england had previously exercised their profession in ,france4 ,the most popular of all1 ,claude ,mauger1 had spent seven years teaching ,french at ,blois4 ,header3 ,,french ,,grammars ,,for ,,travellers ,many years later1 when he had made his reputation as a successful teacher of ,french in ,london1 he went for a time to ,paris1 where he settled in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,germain1 and was busily occupied in teaching ,french to travellers1 among others to the ,earl of ,salisbury4 ,he also tells us that his books were very popular in ,france1 and used by the great majority of ,english students there4 ,several of the ,french teachers in ,france wrote books for the use of their pupils4 ,mauger himself quotes the authority of all ,french ,grammarians that are ,professors in ,france for the teaching of travellers the language4 ,yet in the seventeenth century1 when the ,french language became one of the chief preoccupations of polite society as well as of scholars1 many grammars paid no attention to teaching the language to foreigners4 ,there were1 however1 several well-known teachers of languages at ,paris who wrote grammars specially for their use4 ,alcide de ,st4 ,maurice1 the author of the ,guide fidelle des estrangers dans le voyage de ,france 7#afgb71 composed a grammar called ,remarques sur les principales difficultez de la langue franoise 7#afgd71 which has little value1 and is compiled chiefly from ,vaugelas and ,mnage4 ,his chief aim was to overcome the usual difficulties--pronunciation and orthography4 ,several years previously he had written a collection of short stories inspired by the ,decameron4 ,the ,fleurs1 ,fleurettes et passetemps ou les divers caractres de l'amour honneste1 as he called them1 were published at ,paris in #afff1 and were no doubt intended as reading matter for his pupils4 ,a work called the ,nova ,grammatica ,gallica1 written in ,latin and ,french for the use of foreigners1 appeared at ,paris in #afgh4 ,it is mainly compiled from ,chiflet and other ,french grammarians4 ,a certain ,m4 ,mauconduy was responsible for the grammar1 which was on much the same lines as that of ,maupas4 ,the ,french theologian ,m4 de ,saint-,amour1 of the ,sorbonne1 addressed several foreigners to ,mauconduy1 who issued for their use daily feuillets volants1 containing remarks on the language4 ,his pupils made rapid progress1 and usually knew ,french fairly well in three months1 we are told4 ,another of these teachers1 ,denys ,vairasse d',allais1#ibd lived1 like ,mauger1 in the ,faubourg ,st4 ,germain1 and like him taught ,english as well as ,french4 ,he had spent some time in ,england in his youth1 and perhaps taught ,french there4 ,he also corresponded with ,pepys1 the famous diarist4 ,vairasse had a particular affection for his ,english pupils1 and they appear to have been in the majority4 ,he was a strong advocate of the study of grammar1 and condemned attempts to learn ,french by imitation alone4 ,his ,grammaire ,mthodique contenant en abrg les principes de cet art et les regles les plus necessaires de la langue franoise dans un ordre claire et naturelle appeared at ,paris in #afhb4ibe ,in it he criticizes severely all the ,french grammars for the use of strangers produced either in ,france or in foreign countries4 ,shortly afterwards the grammar was abridged and translated into ,english as ,a ,short and ,methodical ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue composed for the particular benefit of the ,english1 printed at ,paris in #afhc4 ,this ,french grammar published in ,english at ,paris is a striking testimony to the importance of the ,english as students of ,french4 ,ren ,milleran1 like ,vairasse d',allais1 taught ,english as well as ,french4 ,he was a native of ,saumur1 but spent most of his life at ,paris teaching languages1 and for a time acted as interpreter to the king4 ,he composed for the use of his pupils a ,french grammar entitled ,la ,nouvelle ,grammaire ,franoise1 avec le ,latin cot des exemples devise en deux parties 7,marseilles1 #afib71 which is no doubt a first edition of his ,les deux ,gramaires ,fransaizes 7,marseilles1 #afid71 in which he expounds his new system of orthography4 ,his collection of letters1 ,lettres ,familieres ,galantes et autres sur toutes sortes de sujets1 avec leurs responses1 of which the third edition appeared in #agjj1 enjoyed a great popularity1 like most similar collections at this time3 successive editions appeared right into the eighteenth century4 ,this1 he says1 was the first work which won for him the favour of so many foreign noblemen4 ,his method was to give the students copies of the letters in either ,latin or their own language1 and to let them translate them into ,french4 ,he announced an edition of the letters with ,english1 ,german1 and ,latin translations for the use of his pupils1 but it does not appear to have been published4 ,like most writers connected with the ,court1 ,milleran calls attention to the purity of his style1 and announces that no other books give such exact rules for the language of the ,court4 ,a special feature of his work was the selection of letters by members of the ,french ,academy4 ,header3 ,,howell',s ,,advice ,,to ,,travellers ,nor was the more familiar side neglected3 there are numerous letters to and from students of ,french1 reporting on their progress in the language1 with mutual congratulations on improvement in style1 etc4 ,it is said of ,milleran's compositions that their chief merit is their scarcity1 and few will agree with ,de ,linire1 the satirist and enemy of ,boileau1 who wrote in praise of ,milleran3 ,cet homme en sa ,grammaire tale ,autant de savoir que ,varron1 ,et dans ses ,lettres il gale ,balzac1 ,voiture et ,cicron4 ,not a few ,english travellers dispensed with the services of a tutor in ,france4 ,among these was ,james ,howell1 who studied ,french at ,paris1 ,orleans1 and ,poissy1 where he endangered his health by too close application2 he acted for a time as travelling tutor to the son of ,baron ,altham4 ,he put his knowledge of ,french to the test by translating his own first literary production1 ,dodona's ,grove4 ,this1 he says1 he submitted to the new ,acadmie des beaux esprits1 founded by ,richelieu1 which gave it a public expression of approbation4#ibf ,the translation was printed at ,paris in #afda under the title of ,dendrologie ou la ,fort de ,dodone4 ,howell left instructions for travellers1 based on his own experience of study abroad1 and typical of the theories current at the time4 ,he advises#ibg the student who has settled in some quiet town to choose a room looking on to the street1 to take in the common cry and language2 to keep a diary during the day1 and in the evening to write an essay from this material1 for the penne maketh the deepest furrowes1 and doth fertilize and enrich the memory more than anything else4 ,he should avoid the company of his countrymen1 the greatest bane of ,english ,gentlemen abroad1 and frequent cafs and ordinaries1#ibh and engage a ,french page-boy to parley and chide withal1 whereof he shall have occasion enough4#ibi ,howell strongly felt the necessity of travelling in ,france at an early age in order to gain a good pronunciation1 hardly overcome by one who has past the minority 444 the ,french tongue by reason of the huge difference betwixt their writing and speaking will put one often into fits of despair and passion4 ,he draws a grotesque picture of some of the riper plants who overact themselves1 for while they labour to trencher le mot1 to cut the word as they say1 and speake like naturall ,frenchmen1 and to get the true genuine tone 444 they fall a lisping and mincing1 and so distort and strain their mouths and voyce so that they render themselves fantastique and ridiculous3 let it be sufficient for one of riper years to speak ,french intelligibly1 roundly1 and congruously1 without such forced affectation4 ,it is equally important to avoid bashfulness in speaking3 whatsoever it is1 let it come forth confidently whether true or false sintaxis2 for a bold vivacious spirit hath a very great advantage in attaining the ,french1 or indeed any other language4 ,the student will also do well to repair sometimes to the ,courts of pleading and to the ,publique ,schools4 ,for in ,france they presently fall from the ,latine to dispute in the vulgar tongue4 ,he should also combine the study of grammar--that of ,maupas is the best--with his practical exercises1 and begin a course of reading1 making notes as he goes on4 ,the most suitable books are those dealing with the history of ,france1 such as ,serres and ,d',aubign4 ,much judgment is needed in the choice of books on other subjects1 especially when there is such a confusion of them as in ,france1 which1 as ,africk1 produceth always something new1 for ,i never knew week pass in ,paris1 but it brought forth some new kinds of authors3 but let him take heed of tumultuary and disjointed ,authors1 as well as of the frivolous and pedantique4 ,however1 there be some ,french poets will affoord excellent entertainment specially ,du ,bartas1 and 'twere not amisse to give a slight salute to ,ronsard and ,desportes1 and the late ,thophile4#icj ,and touching poets1 they must be used like flowers1 some must only be smelt into1 but some are good to be thrown into a limbique to be ,distilled4 ,the student is likewise admonished to make a collection of ,french proverbs1 and translate from ,english into ,french--the most difficult task in learning the language1 for to translate another tongue into ,english is not hard or profitable4 ,header3 ,,usual ,,course ,finally1 for ,sundayes and ,holydayes1 there bee many ,treasuries of ,devotion in the ,french ,tongue1 full of patheticall ejaculations1 and ,heavenly raptures1 and his closet must not be without some of these4444 ,peter du ,moulin hath many fine pieces to this purpose1 du ,plessis1 ,allencour and others4 ,and let him be conversant with such bookes only on ,sundayes and not mingle humane studies with them4 ,his closet must be his ,rendez-vous whensoever hee is surprized with any fit of perverseness1 as thoughts of ,country or ,kindred will often affect one4 ,having acquired some knowledge of ,french in this retirement1 hee may then adventure upon ,paris1 and the ,court1 and visit ,ambassadours1 and go in the train of some young nobleman4 ,in addition he should enter into the life of the town1 read the weekly gazettes and newspapers1 and it were not amisse for him to spend some time in the ,new ,academy1 erected lately by the ,french ,cardinall ,richelieu1 where all the sciences are read in the ,french tongue which is done of purpose to refine and enrich the ,language4 ,he may also frequent one of the divers ,academies in ,paris1 for private gentlemen and cadets4 ,it was also customary to make either the ,grand or the ,petit ,tour of ,france1 after the period of studious retirement4 ,the ,grand ,tour included ,lyons1 ,marseilles1 ,toulouse1 ,bordeaux1 and ,paris2 the ,petit ,tour1 ,paris1 ,tours1 and ,poitiers4#ica ,paris1 we can guess1 was the chief attraction to most young ,englishmen of family and fortune4 ,dryden thus describes the education of a young gentleman of fashion3#icb ,your father sent you into ,france at twelve years old1 bred you up at ,paris1 first at a college and then at an ,academy4 ,much importance was attached to a course of study at the ,university there1 and many recognized the advantages gained therefrom4 ,but on the other hand there were not a few complaints of the dangers of lack of discipline and the company of dissolute scholars1 and still more1 of the neglect of all serious study4 ,clarendon#icc assures us that many ,english travellers never saw the ,university nor knew in what part of ,paris it stood2 but dedicate all that precious season only to ,dancing and other exercises1 which is horribly to misspend it2 with the result that when such a traveller returns to ,england1 all his learning consists in wearing his clothes well1 and he has at least one ,french fellow to wait upon him and comb his periwig4 ,he is a most accomplish'd ,harlequin3#icd ,drest in a tawdrey suit1 at ,paris made1 ,for which he more than twice the value paid4 ,french his attendants1 ,french alone his mouth ,can speak1 his native language is uncouth4 ,if to the ladies he doth make advance1 ,his very looks must have the air of ,france4 ,such being the case1 ,admiral ,penn thought well to send his son ,william to ,france#ice in the hope that the brilliant life there would make him forget the ,quaker sympathies formed at ,oxford4#icf ,the plan succeeded for the time being2 ,penn returned a most modish person1 a fine ,gentleman1 with all the latest ,french fashions1 and ,pepys#icg reports that he perceived something of learning he hath got1 but a great deale1 if not too much of the vanity of the ,french garbe and affected manner of speech and gait4 ,i fear all real profit he hath made of his travel will signify little4 ,no doubt many raw young travellers did waste their time abroad in gallantry1 ignorant for the most part of foreign languages1 and no recommendation to their own country4#ich ,costeker in ,the ,compleat ,education of a ,young ,nobleman pictures what the young traveller abroad often is1 and what he might be4 ,to begin with1 the utmost of his thoughts and ideas are confined to the more fashionable part of dress4 ,then1 according to custom1 our ,beau is designed to ,travel2 the ,tour proposed is to ,france1 ,italy and ,spain4 ,were ,i to act the part of an impartial ,inquisitor ,i would ask for what8 ,why1 most undoubtedly1 ,i might expect to be answered1 to see the ,world again and perfect his ,studies1 and by that means compleat the fine ,gentleman4 ,thus equiped with a fine ,estate1 little ,learning1 and less ,sense1 and intirely ignorant of all ,languages but his own1 he launches into a foreign ,nation1 without the least knowledge of his own1 where the sharpers will find him out1 discover his ,intellects1 and make the most of him2 they besiege him with fulsome ,adulation1 against which his feminine refined ,understanding is too weak to resist4 ,header3 ,,sir ,,john ,,reresby ,,in ,,france ,i will not dwell long upon the subject of his stay there1 supposing he has made his ,tour1 and seen all the most remarkable and wondrous curiosities of those ,nations1 he returns a little better than he went1 except for smattering a little of the tongues1 and can give us but as bad and imperfect an ,account of their nation as he was capable of giving them of ours2 all the ,advantage he brings from thence is their ,modes and ,vices 444 the incommoding a ,french ,peruke unmans the ,bow at once4#ici ,and next to himself he loves best anyone who will call him a ,bel ,esprit4 ,how different a picture from that of the traveller which is painted as a model to young ,englishmen3 at the age of twenty he goes abroad for two years1 after having acquired a true knowledge of his own nation and made himself master of ,french and ,latin4 ,he is capable of learning more in a month than another ignorant of languages can in twelve4 ,i am confident were all our young ,noblemen educated in this manner the ,french ,court would no longer bee esteem'd the ,residence of ,politeness and ,belles ,lettres but must then yield to the ,british one in many degrees1 by reason our young ,gentlemen would not only be perfect ,masters in their exterior but intellectual ,perfections1 and ,england will then be fam'd for the ,excellency of ,manners and ,politeness as it is now for the incomparable ,beauty of the ,ladies4#idj ,sir ,john ,reresby's account of how he spent his time abroad may be given as a fairly typical example4#ida ,he went to ,france1 in company with ,mr4 ,leech1 his governor1 in #afed4 ,they travelled from ,rye to ,dieppe1 and thence to ,paris1 passing through ,rouen4 ,their stay at ,paris was very short1 as ,reresby found the great resort of his countrymen there a great prevention to learning the language4 ,i stayed no longer in ,paris1 he tells us1 than to get my clothes1 and to receive my bills of exchange1 and so went to live in a pension or boarding house at ,blois4444 ,i employed my time here in learning the language1 the guitar and dancing1 till ,july1 and then1 there having been some likelihood of a quarrel between me and a ,dutch gentleman in the same house1 my governour prevailed with me to go and live at ,saumur#idb4444 ,at ,saumur in addition to the exercises ,i learnt at ,blois1 ,i learned to fence1 and to play of the lute4 ,besides that ,i studied philosophy and the mathematicks1 with my governor1 who read lectures of each to me every other day4 ,after eight months' stay ,i had got so much of the language to be able to converse with some ladies of the town1 especially the daughters of one ,m4 du ,plessis4444 ,in the month of ,april ,i began to make the little tour or circuit of ,france1 and returned to ,saumur after some six weeks' absence4 ,in ,july1 ,i went 7desirous to avoid much ,english company resident at ,saumur7 to ,le ,mans1 the capital town of ,mayence1 with the two ,mr4 ,leeches and one ,mr4 ,butler4 ,we lodged1 and were in pension at the parson's or minister's house2 there were there no strangers4 ,there were several ,french persons of quality that lived there at that time1 as the ,marquis de ,cogne's widow1 the ,marquis de ,verdun1 and several others1 who made us partakers of the pastimes and diversions of the place4 ,all that winter few weeks did pass1 that there were not balls three times at the least1 and we had the freer access by reason that the women were more numerous than the men4 ,i stayed there till ,april #afef1 and then returned to ,saumur with my ,governor alone4 ,after staying there for some time1 ,reresby dismissed his governor and made a tour in ,italy4 ,,footnotes3 #hhb ,discourse in derision of the ,teaching in ,free ,schools1 #afdd4 #hhc ,one ,john ,gifford1 for instance1 obtained permission to spend seven years in ,france in order to educate his family there 7,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afbc-be1 p4 #bhb74 ,mr4 ,storey sent his grandson ,starky to ,france to learn the language 7ibid41 #afdi-ej1 p4 #ece74 #hhd ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #afed1 p4 #dbg4 ,care was taken to prevent ,english students abroad from going to ,roman ,catholics2 in #affa ,francis ,cottington made a successful application for the remission of a forfeiture he incurred by going to ,paris without a licence and living three months in the house of a ,papist 7,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affa-fb1 p4 #eff74 #hhe ,memoirs of the ,verney ,family1 i4 pp4 #dgg1 #dig4 #hhf ,among the books he read were ,monluc's ,commentaires1 the ,secrtaire la mode1 and the ,secrtaire de la cour 7,memoirs of the ,verney ,family1 iii4 p4 #hj74 #hhg ,memoirs1 iii4 p4 #ff4 #hhh ,an ,edict of #afhc restricted the number of such pupils allowed to ,french pastors to two4 #hhi ,an account of the schools of the ,french ,protestants is given by ,m4 ,nicolas in the ,bulletin de l',histoire du ,protestantisme franais1 vol4 iv4 pp4 #dig et seq4 #hij ,cp4 pp4 #bcc sqq41 supra4 ,the names of many famous families are found in the registers of ,geneva ,university--the ,pembrokes1 ,montagus1 ,cavendishes1 ,cecils1 etc4 ,borgeaud1 ,l',acadmie de ,genve1 p4 #ddb4 #hia ,memoirs1 i4 p4 #ceh4 #hib ,verney ,memoirs1 vol4 i4 p4 #ceh4 #hic ,cal4 of ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affa-fb1 p4 #bhc4 #hid ,ibid41 #afef-ef1 pp4 #ahb1 #ahh1 #bha1 #bhh1 #caf4 #hie ,savile ,correspondence1 ,camden ,society1 #aheh1 pp4 #hj1 #ga sqq41 #bbh4 #hif ,when the ,academy of ,saumur was suppressed in #afhd1 the town lost about two-thirds of its inhabitants4 #hig ,locke was one of those who went to the ,south of ,france carrying a cough with him2 cp4 his ,journal in ,king1 ,life of ,locke 444 with ,extracts from his 444 ,journal1 #ahcj1 i4 pp4 #hf sqq41 ,nov4 #afge-,march #afgi4 #hih ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affg-fh1 p4 #fi4 #hii ,new ,instructions to the ,guardian1 #afid1 p4 #aja4 #ijj ,cooper1 ,annals of ,cambridge1 iv4 #ahd4 #ija ,new ,instructions to the ,guardian1 #afid1 p4 #aja4 #ijb ,the ,compleat ,gentleman or ,directions for the ,education of ,youth as to their breeding at home and ,travelling ,abroad1 #afhg1 pp4 #cc sqq4 #ijc ,eliote seems to have been the first to have described the ,grand ,tour--in his grammar1 ,ortho-,epia ,gallica 7#aeic74 ,sherwood followed his example in #afbe4 ,after the middle of the century such dialogues assume a more educational and guide-like and less descriptive form4 #ijd ,lister1 ,a ,journey to ,paris in the year #afih1 p4 #b4 ,lister had previously visited ,france in about #affh4 ,in #afih he visited the aged ,mlle4 de ,scudry and the ,daciers1 and frequented the ,french theatres4 #ije ,second edition1 #afeg4 #ijf ,london1 #afef4 ,another edition appeared in #afgc1 entitled ,the ,voyage of ,france1 or a compleat ,journey through ,france4 #ijg ,as in ,a ,tour in ,france and ,italy made by an ,english ,gentleman 7,j4 ,clenchy71 #afge and #afgf1 reprinted in ,a ,collection of ,voyages1 #agde1 vol4 i42 and ,remarks on the ,grand ,tour of ,france and ,italy lately performed by a person of quality 7,w4 ,bromley71 #afib and #afic 7when it was entitled ,remarks made in ,travels through ,france and ,italy with many public inscriptions4 ,lately undertaken by a ,person of ,quality74 ,cp4 pp4 #bbj sqq41 supra4 #ijh ,for instance3 ,le ,guide des chemins pour aller et venir par tous les pays et contres du ,royaume de ,france 4 4 4 par ,c4 ,estienne1 ,paris1 #aeeb1 #aeec2 ,lyons1 #aeef4 ,les ,antiquitez et ,recherches des ,villes1 chasteaux1 et places plus remarquables de toute la ,france1 #f;e d41 #afca4 ,l4 ,coulon1 ,le fidle conducteur pour le voyage de ,france montrant exactement les ,routes et choses remarquables qui se trouvent en chaque ville1 et les distances d'icelles avec un dnombrement des ,batailles qui s'y sont donnes1 ,paris1 #afed4 #iji ,as ,le ,guide ,fidelle des trangers dans le voyage de ,france1 ,paris1 #afgb 7by ,aloide de ,st4 ,maurice72 ,les ,dlices de la ,france ou description des provinces et villes capitales d'icelles1 ,leyde1 #afhe2 ,le ,gentilhomme tranger voyageant en ,france1 par le baron ,g4,d4,n41 #afii--;borrowed1 without acknowledgement1 from ,le ,guide ,fidelle of #afgb4 ,cp4 ,a4 ,babeau1 ,les ,voyageurs en ,france depuis la ,renaissance jusqu' la ,rvolution1 ,paris1 #ahhe1 chapter v4 #iaj ,by ,la ,serre4 ,the former1 which first appeared in #afbe1 went through fifty editions4 #iaa ,lockier1 in ,spense's ,anecdotes1 #ahbj1 p4 #ge4 #iab ,journal1 p4 #hi4 #iac ,riding on horseback was the more usual mode of travelling1 the horses being hired from town to town2 cp4 ,locke's ,journal1 p4 #adi4 ,wherever possible1 travellers went from one town to another by water--as from one of the ,loire towns to another4 #iad ,the ,memoirs of ,m4 du ,val 444 intended as a severe reflexion on the too great fondness of ,english ladies towards ,french valets which at that time was a common complaint1 ,london1 #afgj1 ,harleian ,miscellany1 iii4 p4 #cjh4 #iae ,spared ,houres of a ,souldier1 #afbc4 #iaf ,moryson mentions ,orleans as a good town2 ,edward ,leigh1 ,blois and ,orleans 7,foelix ,consortium1 #affc72 ,evelyn1 ,blois and ,bourges2 ,lookier1 ,orleans and ,caen4 #iag ,epistolae ,ho-,elianae1 #ith ed41 #agbf1 p4 #ch4 #iah ,heylyn1 ,voyage of ,france1 #afgc1 p4 #bid4 #iai ,he kept a diary in ,latin 7#afdh-ej72 cf4 ,wood1 ,athenae ,oxon4 7,bliss71 iii4 #ija4 #ibj ,gailhard1 ,the ,compleat ,gentleman1 #afgh4 #iba ,who1 in his ,ludus ,literarius1 urges boys to practise speaking ,latin to fit them if they shall go beyond the seas1 as ,gentlemen who go to travel1 ,factors for merchants1 and the like4 #ibb ,he tells us that at ,rouen the ,english usually went to an inn kept by a certain ,mr4 ,madde2 at ,dieppe1 ,madame ,godard's house was very popular2 at ,paris1 the best hotel was the ,ville de ,venize4 ,at ,orleans1 good lodging was found at the ,croix ,blanche1 kept by one ,m4 ,richard1 and at the house of ,m4 ,marishall ,laisn4 #ibc ,j4 ,rutledge1 ,mmoire sur le caractre1 et les moeurs des ,franais compars ceux des ,anglais1 #aggf1 p4 #ee4 #ibd ,vairasse was born c4 #afcj1 probably at ,allais4 #ibe ,another grammar of similar intent was that of ,ruau1 ,la vraie methode d'enseigner la langue franoise aux estrangers explique en ,latin1 ,paris1 #afhg4 #ibf ,epistolae ,ho-,elianae1 #ith ed41 #agbf1 p4 #bhc4 #ibg ,instructions for forreine travel1 #afdb1 ed4 ,arber1 #ahfi1 pp4 #ai sqq4 #ibh ,bacon had many years before advised the traveller to keep a diary3 and further let him sequester himself from the company of his countrymen1 and diet in such places where there is a good company of the nation where he travaileth 7,essay on ,travel74 #ibi ,a ,huguenot boy of about sixteen was considered a suitable valet 7,lain1 ,french ,grammar1 #afej74 #icj ,i4e4 ,thophile de ,viau4 #ica ,st4 ,maurice1 ,guide ,fidelle1 #afgb4 #icb ,limberman or the ,kind ,keeper1 ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #a4 #icc ,on ,education4 ,miscellaneous ,works1 #agea1 pp4 #cbb-c4 #icd ,satire against the ,french1 #afia4 #ice ,webb1 ,the ,penns and ,penningtons of the ,seventeenth ,century in their ,domestic and ,religious ,life1 #ahfg1 p4 #aed4 #icf ,gibbon1 on the contrary1 was sent to the house of a pastor of ,lausanne1 in the hope that he would abjure the doctrines of ,roman ,catholicism1 which he had affected at the same ,university4 #icg ,diary1 ,august #bf and #bg1 #affd2 ,august #cj1 #affd4 #ich ,d4 ,fordyce1 ,dialogues on ,education1 #agde1 i4 p4 #dag4 #ici ,the ,compleat ,education of a ,young ,nobleman1 #agbc1 pp4 #ac and #ad4 #idj ,costeker1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ej-ea4 #ida ,memoirs of ,sir ,john ,reresby1 #afcd-afhi1 ,london1 #ahge1 pp4 #bf sqq41 and ,memoirs and ,travels of ,sir ,john ,reresby1 ,london1 #aijd1 p4 #ba4 #idb ,travelling by boat on the ,loire1 as was usual1 and passing by ,tours4 ,they were accompanied by a band of ,french men and women who1 says ,reresby1 tried to make the journey more pleasant by singing1 and made it less so4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,gallomania ,,after ,,the ,,restoration ,the ,french teachers of ,london at the time of the ,restoration1 chief amongst whom were ,claude ,mauger1 ,paul ,festeau1 ,pierre ,lain1 and ,guillaume ,herbert1 all urged students to travel in ,france as a means of completing the knowledge of ,french acquired in ,england2 yet at the same time they naturally and in their own interests lay emphasis on the facilities for learning the language in ,england1 especially after the ,restoration1 when1 to use ,mauger's words1 there was a little ,france in ,london1 as well as a little ,england in ,paris2 there being so great a correspondence between the two ,courts of ,england and ,france that we see here continually the ,lords of the latter1 as they see at ,paris persons of quality of the former1 besides an infinity of others going and coming from thence4 ,this indeed was the period in which ,francomania reached its height in ,england4 ,during the ,commonwealth the ,english ,court and many of the nobility and gentry had sojourned in ,france1 and returned thence imbued with admiration for everything ,french4 ,this admiration was intensified by the universal popularity of the ,french language and ,french fashions4 ,gentlemen from all parts of ,europe repaired to ,france to learn the language and frenchify their manners4 ,france was the country to which ,english gentlemen resorted to get their breeding2 and the ,chancellor ,clarendon held that their manners were much improved by the contact4 ,on the other hand1 ,french men and women of the same class came to the ,english ,court in larger numbers than ever before4 ,some returned with their ,english friends at the ,restoration4 ,others followed later1 for the ,english ,court offered more attractions to pleasure-seekers than did the ,french ,court1 now under the influence of ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,the indignation and dismay aroused in ,france by the execution of ,charles ,i4#idc made the welcome offered to the royalist emigrants all the warmer in the first instance4 ,we are told that ,paris1 and indeed all ,france1 was full of loyal fugitives4#idd ,the exiled ,english ,court was sheltered at the ,louvre and the ,palais ,royal in turn4#ide ,the queen arrived in her native land in #afdd1 and shortly afterwards came ,prince ,charles1 then about sixteen years old1 and ,james1 the young ,duke of ,york4 ,mlle4 de ,montpensier1 the grand-daughter of ,henry ,,iv41 remarks on the ,french of the two young princes4 ,james1 she thought1 spoke the language with ease1 and very well indeed1 and ,mademoiselle was no lenient critic4#idf ,but ,charles had not drawn as much profit from the lessons received in ,england4#idg ,he found the pronunciation an almost insuperable difficulty1 stammered and hesitated1 and during the early part of his stay remained almost mute for want of words4 ,mademoiselle says he could not utter one intelligible sentence in ,french1 though he understood all she said to him4 ,charles1 however1 soon felt the benefit of his sojourn abroad4 ,when he returned to ,france from ,holland in #afdh1 he had already made much progress and answered the ,french king readily in ,french1 when that monarch inquired about the horses and dogs of the ,prince of ,orange4 ,he was ready enough to talk of hunting in ,french1 but when the queen wished to know about the progress of his affairs1 and to talk of serious matters1 he excused himself1 declaring he could not speak ,french4#idh ,he would also sit silent for long periods in ,mlle4 de ,montpensier's presence1 and only ventured to convey his compliments to her through ,lord ,jermyn1 one of the chief counsellors of ,charles ,i41 who remained in the service of the queen during her exile in ,france4 ,header3 ,,the ,,english ,,court ,,in ,,france ,but the princess was delighted to see a great improvement in his speaking of the language at the time of his return from the expedition into ,scotland1 and the fatal battle of ,worcester4 ,he forgot his shyness and spoke ,french well1 relating to her the thrilling story of his escape1 and how he was furieusement ennuy in ,scotland1 where they think it a sin to listen to a violin4 ,he was also able to make the princess very pretty compliments in ,french1 and on these occasions1 she remarks1 he spoke the language particularly well4#idi ,charles is even said to have gone incognito to several ,french reformed churches during his stay in ,france4 ,the presence of ,cromwell's ambassador prevented his going to the famous church of ,charenton1 but he went to others4 ,on one occasion he listened to the sermon in the ,protestant church of ,la ,rochelle1 in company with the ,duke of ,ormond1 and expressed his satisfaction to one or two of the congregation to whom he revealed his identity4#iej ,many other ,englishmen improved their ,french during their enforced stay on the ,continent4 ,most of the high officials of the ,court of ,charles ,i41 the courtiers1 nobles1 and gentlemen round the king1 spent the greater part of the interregnum in ,paris1 although some of them were disturbed by the ,french understanding with ,cromwell in #afef4 ,john ,evelyn#iea enumerates most of the distinguished ,englishmen he met in ,france1#ieb and remarks on the number of ,french courtiers who paid their respects to the king 7,charles ,,ii472 he himself kissed ,his ,majesty's hand at ,st4 ,germain's4 ,french courtiers had free intercourse with the ,english at concerts1 festivals1 and other entertainments4#iec ,they also met at the ,academies so fashionable at the time4 ,on the #acth ,march #afej1 for instance1 ,evelyn witnessed a triumph in ,mr4 ,del ,campo's ,academy1 where divers of the ,french and ,english noblesse1 especially my ,lord of ,ossory1 and ,richard1 sons to the ,marquis of ,ormond 7afterwards ,duke71 did their exercises on horseback in noble equipage before a world of spectators and great persons1 men and ladies4 ,and again1 on the #bdth of ,may1 he writes1 we were invited by the ,noble ,academies to a running1 where were many brave horses1 gallants and ladies1 my ,lord ,stanhope entertaining us with a collation4 ,the king's brother1 the young ,duke of ,gloucester1 set the example by daily attending one of these academies4 ,sir ,john ,reresby1 that time-serving politician1 has also left an account of his journey in ,france during the ,commonwealth4 ,on his arrival at ,paris in #afed he saw the king1 the ,duke of ,york1 and ,prince ,rupert playing at billiards in the ,palais ,royal2 but was incognito1 it being crime sufficient the waiting upon ,his ,majesty to have caused the sequestration of his estates4#ied ,reresby was again in ,france in #afei1 and was well received by ,henrietta ,maria4 ,almost alone of the ,english exiles1 ,sir ,edward ,hyde1 the ,chancellor1 who found the discomforts of the exiled ,court very great1 failed to become a fluent speaker of ,french1 chiefly because he was unable to overcome the difficulties of the pronunciation4 ,after the ,restoration he was the one high official of the ,english ,court who did not speak the language with fluency4 ,it was not till the time of his exile in ,france1 after his disgrace in #affh1 that he mastered the language sufficiently to read its literature2 but he still found many inconveniences in speaking it4#iee ,men of letters formed a considerable section of the ,english colony in ,france4 ,waller1 ,denham1 ,cowley1 ,davenant1 ,hobbes1 ,killigrew1 ,shirley1 ,fanshawe1 ,crashaw1 etc41 and later ,roscommon1 ,rochester1 ,buckingham1 ,wycherley1 ,vanbrugh1 and others lived in ,france1 and some mixed freely in ,french literary circles1 then centring round the ,htel de ,rambouillet1 and such names as those of ,malherbe1 ,vaugelas1 ,corneille1 ,bossuet1 ,scudry1 ,la ,calprende4 ,english literature of the ,restoration gives ample proof of their familiarity with both the language and literature of their hosts4#ief ,waller1 for instance1 after spending some time at ,rouen1 moved to ,paris1 where he lived in great splendour and hospitality4#ieg ,header3 ,,english ,,men ,,of ,,letters ,,in ,,france ,cowley1 who had followed the queen to ,paris1 became secretary to ,lord ,jermyn1 afterwards ,earl of ,st4 ,albans1 and deciphered the letters which passed between the king and queen of ,england4 ,the dramatist ,davenant was twice in ,france1 where he remained several years on his second visit4 ,hobbes1 who for many years acted as a travelling tutor1 made his mark in the philosophic circles of ,paris1 and knew ,mersenne1 ,sorbire1 and ,gassendi4 ,he fled to ,paris during the civil wars1 and for a time was engaged in teaching arithmetic to the ,prince of ,wales4#ieh ,among the many children sent to ,france for education during the ,civil ,war and ,commonwealth were several future literary men4 ,both ,vanbrugh and ,wycherley were brought up in this way4 ,at the age of fifteen ,wycherley was sent for education to the ,western parts of ,france1 either to ,saintonges or the ,angoumois4 ,his abode there was either upon the ,banks of the ,charente1 or very little remov'd from it4 ,and he had there the ,happiness to be in the neighbourhood of one of the most accomplish'd ,ladies of the ,court of ,france1 ,mme4 de ,montausier1 whom ,voiture has made famous by several very ingenious letters1 the most of which were writ to her when she was a ,maid1 and call'd ,mlle4 de ,rambouillet4 ,i have heard ,mr4 ,wycherley say he was often admitted to the ,conversation of that lady1 who us'd to call him the ,little ,hugenot3 and that young as he was1 he was equally pleased with the ,beauty of her ,mind1 and with the ,graces of her person4#iei ,one of the young royalists who received his education in ,france during the ,commonwealth so completely mastered the ,french language that he gained an important place among ,french men of letters3 the famous ,anthony ,hamilton1 the author of short stories in ,french#ifj--masterpieces in the light vein#ifa--;and of the well-known life of his gallant brother-in-law1 the ,comte de ,grammont1 which gives a vivid picture of the life at the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 ,hamilton has been placed second only to ,voltaire as a representative of the esprit franais4#ifb ,at the ,restoration1 ,hamilton returned to ,england with the rest of the ,english emigrants1 together with a considerable number of ,frenchmen who had attached themselves to the ,english ,court4 ,he was followed two years later by the hero of his ,mmoires1#ifc the ,comte de ,grammont1 who pronounced the ,english ,court so like that of ,france in manners and conversation that he could hardly realize he was in another country4#ifd ,french was the language freely used by the ,english emigrants on their return to ,london1 and by others in imitation of them4 ,french is the most in use1 wrote ,william ,higford in the year of the ,restoration1 a most sweet tongue called the ,woman's tongue1 and as ,i think for the address from the servant to the mistress1 and from the servant to the soveraigne1 there is no sweeter nor more civil4#ife ,the use of the ,french language was spreading all over ,europe1 but nowhere was it so popular as in ,england3 indeed it is most alamode and best pleases the ladies and we cannot deny but ,messieurs of ,france are excellent wits4#iff ,the presence of so many of these messieurs in ,london intensified the already strong ,french atmosphere4 ,several famous names occur in the list of ,french ladies and gentlemen who took up their abode in ,england at this time4 ,shortly before ,de ,grammont1 ,st4 ,evremond had arrived in ,england1 where he spent over thirty years1 and died in #agjc4 ,both played important parts in the social life of the time4 ,de ,grammont especially was very popular4 ,header3 ,,french ,,courtiers ,,in ,,london ,he received a warm welcome at ,court1 where he met many old friends and was overwhelmed with hospitality2 to make an engagement with him it was necessary to see him a fortnight beforehand4 ,he himself added to the ,court festivities by giving ,french entertainments in the ,parisian style4 ,at the numerous festivities held in honour of ,de ,grammont1 ,st4 ,evremond#ifg was almost invariably one of the guests4 ,he soon became the centre of a coterie1 half ,english and half ,french1 including his literary companion the ,dutchman ,vossius1 ,canon of ,windsor1 the ,french doctor ,le ,fvre1 professor of chemistry to ,charles ,,ii41#ifh and the learned ,huguenot ,henri ,justel1 who had charge of the royal library at ,st4 ,james's4 ,what contributed most to reconcile ,st4 ,evremond to his life in ,england1 however1 was the arrival of ,hortense ,mancini1 ,duchesse de ,mazarin1 niece of the cardinal4 ,the ,french ambassador ,courtin said ,england was the refuge of ,french wives who had quarrelled with their husbands1 and the ,duchesse was one of these4#ifi ,in her salon ,st4 ,evremond met the most distinguished ,englishmen and foreign ministers of the day4 ,he saw her daily1 and she inspired much of his best work4 ,there1 too1 met ,french ,catholics1 ,huguenots1 and ,englishmen1 free from all religious prejudice1 and talked of the subjects which interested them most4 ,another of ,mazarin's nieces1 the ,duchesse de ,bouillon1#igj was also in ,london for a time1 and received in her salon ,waller1 ,st4 ,evremond1 and others2 at one time there was a possibility of ,la ,fontaine joining her circle4 ,la ,fontaine seems to have felt some interest in ,england and the ,english1 who1 he says1 pensent profondment2 ,leur esprit1 en cela1 suit leur temprament1 ,creusant dans les sujets1 et forts d'expriences1 ,ils tendent partout l'empire des sciences4 ,to ,mrs4 ,harvey1 sister of ,lord ,montagu and friend of the ,duchess of ,mazarin1 he dedicated his fable ,le ,renard ,anglais4 ,both ,st4 ,evremond and the ,duchess of ,mazarin ended their days in ,england4#iga ,st4 ,evremond enjoyed the favour of three ,english kings4 ,charles ,,ii4 gave him a pension1 and when ,william ,,iii4 dined with one of his courtiers1 he is said to have always stipulated that the ,french writer should be of the party1 as he took great delight in his conversation4 ,though ,st4 ,evremond received permission in #afhi to return to his native land1 he did not avail himself of the offer1 preferring to remain in the midst of his ,english friends1 who were accustomed to his ways and manners and his peculiarities4#igb ,but during the whole of his thirty years' stay in ,england he made no attempt to speak ,english4 ,french was the language in which he and the rest of his countrymen carried on their daily intercourse with their hosts4 ,pepys also refers frequently to the ,frenchmen he met in ,london4#igc ,on one occasion at the ,cockpit his attention was diverted from the stage by a group of loquacious ,frenchmen in a box1 who1 not understanding ,english1 were amusing themselves by asking a pretty lady1 who knew both languages1 what the actors said4 ,lord6 what sport they made6 says ,pepys4 ,on another occasion at ,whitehall he met a very communicative ,frenchman with one eye1 who shared a coach with him1 and told him the history of his own life without asking4 ,covent ,garden1 we are told1 was the favourite resort of the ,french residents1 nearer the ,court1 than the ,exchange4#igd ,their presence1 however1 was not confined to ,court circles2 for the ,french were beginning to take an interest in ,england and to visit the country1#ige although1 as yet1 their curiosity had not extended to the language4 ,in a few cases ,english was studied4 ,mauger even tells us that several of his contemporaries learnt it in ,france4 ,it is certain that some employed the services of the ,french teachers of ,london1 who were willing to teach their newly acquired language to their countrymen2 for this purpose the practice of attaching ,english grammars to ,french ones--a combination first instituted by ,mauger1 who urged the ,french and ,english to avail themselves of this opportunity of exchanging lessons--became more and more common as the seventeenth century drew to its close4 ,header3 ,,french ,,valets ,,and ,,femmes ,,de ,,chambre ,in the meanwhile guide-books#igf and relations of travel in ,england appeared4 ,the writer of one of these1 ,m4 ,payen1#igg remarks on the great number of strangers1 especially ,frenchmen1 in ,london4#igh ,at the time of the ,restoration1 however1 the chief significance of their presence lies in the need they created for the ,english to speak ,french4 ,the great demand for everything ,french1 including the language1 offered an opening for many ,frenchmen in ,london2 for all the men and women of fashion were not in the position of ,de ,grammont1 who sent his valet1 ,thermes1 to ,france every week to bring back the latest fashions from ,paris4 ,nothing will go down with the town now1 writes a contemporary author1 but ,french fashions1 ,french dancing1 ,french songs1 ,french servants1 ,french wines1 ,french kickshaws1 and now and then ,french sawce come in among them1 and so no doubt but ,french doctors may be in esteem too4#igi ,in almost every book written at the time there is some reference to the mania for ,french fashions4 ,and some time later the ,abb ,le ,blanc relates how1 on one occasion in ,england1 a self-satisfied ,englishman taunted him thus3 ,il faut que votre pays soit bien pauvre1 puisque tant de gens sont obligs de le quitter pour chercher vivre en celui-ci4 ,c'est vous qui nous fournissez de ,matres danser1 de ,perruquiers1 de ,tailleurs1 et de ,valets de chambre3 et nous vous devons cette justice1 pour la ,frisure ou pour le ,menuet1 les ,franois l'emportent sur toutes les autres ,nations4 ,je ne comprens pas comment on aime si fort la ,danse dans un ,pays o l'on a si peu sujet de rire4 ,n'est-il pas triste1 par exemple1 de ne cultiver vos ,vignes que pour nous8#ihj ,regarding the ,french valets and femmes de chambre in ,london1 the ,abb writes3 ,il n'est pas tonnant que l'on trouve en ,angleterre tant de ,domestiques ,franois4 ,a ,londres on se plat parler notre ,langue1 on copie nos usages1 on imite nos moeurs3 ils entretiennent du moins dans nos manires ceux qui les aiment3 et les ,anglois les payent proportion de l'utilit qu'ils en retirent4#iha ,we are told that the ,french lackey was as mischievous all the year as a ,london apprentice on ,shrove ,tuesday2#ihb yet he was indispensable3 ,his ,lordship's ,valet must be bred in ,france1 ,or else he is a clown without ,pretence3 ,the ,english ,blockheads are in dress so coarse1 ,they're fit for nothing but to rub a horse4 ,her ,ladyship's ill manner'd or ill bred1 ,whose ,woman ,confident or ,chamber ,maid1 ,did not in ,france suck in her first breath'd ,air1 ,or did not gain her education there4#ihc ,french cooks were also in great demand1 and it was a point of gentility to dine at one of the ,french ordinaries4 ,thus ,briske1 in ,shadwell's ,humourists1 is condemned as a fellow that never wore a noble or polite garniture1 or a white periwig1 one that has not a bit of interest at ,chatelin's1 or ever ate a good fricacy1 sup1 or ragoust in his life2 for now1 like the ,french we dress1 like ,frenchmen eat4 ,substantial beef is boil'd in vain1 and our boards are profaned with fricassee3#ihd ,our cooks in dressing have no skill at all1 ,french cooks are only of the modish stamp4 ,pepys did not care for the new ,french restaurants4 ,at the most popular1 ,chatelin's1#ihe he says1 they serve a damned base dinner at the charge of #hs4 #f;d4 ,he preferred the old ,english ordinaries where ,english food was given a ,french name4 ,yet he admits that at the ,french houses the table is covered and the glasses clean1 all in the ,french manner2 and when he dined with his patrons of the ,admiralty1 he usually was given a fine ,french dinner4#ihf ,header3 ,,the ,,french ,,tailor ,as to the ,french dancing-master1 he is a very ,paladin of ,france when he comes into ,england once1 where he has the ,regimen of the ,ladies leges and is the sole ,pedagoge of their feet1 teaching them the ,french ,language1 as well as the ,french ,pace4#ihg ,french music was also the vogue4 ,we are told that during the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 all musick affected by the beau mond ran in the ffrench way4#ihh ,john ,bannester1 the first violin to the king1 is said to have lost his post#ihi for having upheld1 within the hearing of ,his ,majesty1 that the ,english musicians were superior to the ,french4 ,soon after the ,restoration1 ,charles on one occasion gave great umbrage to the ,english musicians by making them stop their performance and bidding the ,french music play instead4 ,in the same way the ,french tailor is the ,king of ,fashions and ,emperor of the ,mode1 not onely in ,france1 but most of its ,neighboring ,nations1 and his ,laws are received where the ,king of ,france's will not pass2#iij and thus the ,french ,now give us laws for pantalons1 ,the length of breeches and the gathers1 ,port-cannons1 periwigs and feathers4#iia ,there was a ,french peddling woman at ,court1 ,mlle4 ,le ,boord1 who us'd to bring peticoates1 and fanns and baubles out of ,france to the ,ladys1#iib and whose opinion had great weight4 ,de ,grammont won the favour of the ,english ladies by having ,french trinkets sent them from ,france4 ,let the fashion be ,french1 'tis no matter what the cloth be4#iic ,travellers from ,france were beset with questions as to the latest mode4 ,some devotees were said to receive weekly letters from ,france providing information on this subject4#iid ,at one moment ,charles protested against the rage for ,french fashions by adopting a simple garment after the ,persian style1 which was first worn at ,court on the #ahth ,october #afff4 ,divers gentlemen went so far as to wager that ,his ,majesty would not persist in this change2 and when ,louis ,,xiv4 retorted by ordering his pages to be attired in the same ,persian garb1 ,charles withdrew4 ,it was a comely and manly attire1 writes ,evelyn1 too good to hold1 it being impossible for us in good earnest to leave the ,monsieurs' vanities long4#iie ,francomania indeed was carried to extremes3 ,and as some pupils have been known ,in time to put their tutors down1 ,so ours are often found t'ave got ,more tricks than ever they were taught4#iif ,we are told of an ,english captain that threw up his commission because his company would not exercise after the ,french ,discipline4#iig ,dryden even accuses the ,french of influencing the course of ,english politics3#iih ,the ,holy ,league ,begot our ,cov'nant2 ,guisards got ,whig1 ,whate'er our hot-brain'd sheriffs did advance1 ,was like our fashions1 first produced in ,france1 ,and when worn out1 well scourg'd and bannish'd there4 ,sent over1 like their godly ,beggars1 here4 ,a ,french patent was said to authorize any crime4#iii ,now what a ,devil 'tis should make us so dote on these ,french1 says ,flecknoe1#ajjj and another writer adds3#ajja ,our native speech we must forget e'er long ,to learn the ,french that much more modish ,tongue4 ,their language smoother is1 hath pretty ,aires1 ,but ours is ,gothick if compar'd with theirs4 ,the ,french by arts of smooth insinuation ,are now become the ,darlings of the ,nation4 ,header3 ,,french ,,spoken ,,at ,,court ,the example was set at ,court1 where ,french was commonly in use1 and where to be able to speak it well was a necessity and proof of good breeding4 ,mark then1 ,i makes 'em both speak ,french to show their breeding1 says the author ,boyes of his two kings in ,buckingham's ,rehearsal4#ajjb ,sir ,john ,reresby first attracted notice at ,court by his fluent ,french4 ,it was this summer1 he writes in #affa1 that the ,duke of ,york first took any particular notice of me4 ,i happened to be in discourse with the ,french ,ambassador and some other gentlemen of his nation1 in the presence at ,whitehall1 and the ,duke joined us1 he being a great lover of the ,french tongue and kind to those who spoke it4 ,the next night he talked with me a long while as he was at supper with the king4#ajjc ,and ,reresby1 with a keen eye for his own advancement1 took advantage of this to secure the patronage of the ,duke4 ,he also tells us that the ,king1 ,duke1 and ,french ambassador were very often merry and intimate together at ,louise de ,kerouaille's 7now ,duchess of ,portsmouth7 lodgings1#ajjd where ,french alone would be used1 for it was an unknown thing for a ,french ambassador to speak ,english4 ,there was not a courtier#ajje who did not speak ,french with ease1 ,clarendon alone excepted4 ,the ladies of the ,court were equally well versed in the language4 ,when ,de ,grammont1 who had made the acquaintance of most of the courtiers in ,france1 came to make that of the ladies1 he needed no interpreter1 for all knew ,french--assez pour s'expliquer et toutes entendaient le franois assez bien pour ce qu'on avait leur dire4#ajjf ,amongst them was ,miss ,hamilton1 ,anthony's sister1 who became ,de ,grammont's wife1#ajjg and was much admired at the ,court of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the accomplishments of ,miss ,stuart may be quoted as typical of the rest3 elle avoit de la grce1 dansoit bien1 parloit franois mieux que sa langue naturelle3 elle toit polie1 possdoit cet air de parure aprs lequel on court et qu'on n'attrappe gures moins de l'avoir pris en ,france ds sa jeunesse4#ajjh ,the least gifted lady of the ,court was ,miss ,blake1 who n'entendoit presque point le franois4 ,when the ,countess of ,berkshire recommended one of her near relatives as one of the queen's dressers1 the fact that she had been twelve years in ,france1 and could speak ,french exceedingly well1 was mentioned as her chief qualification4#ajji ,the ,portuguese queen#ajaj was indeed out of place in her ,frenchified ,court4 ,she could not speak ,french1 and ,spanish was her means of intercourse with ,charles ,,ii4 and the ,duke of ,york1 who both spoke this language fairly well1 and were able to act as interpreters between their ,french mother and the young queen4 ,catherine's ,portuguese attire was the subject of much amusement1 and her efforts to induce the ladies of the ,court to adopt it were of no avail4 ,james ,,ii41 when he was an exile in ,france for the second time1 told the nuns of ,chaillot that she had endeavoured to prevail on ,king ,charles to use his influence with them3 but the ladies dressed in the ,french fashions and would not hear of any other1 constantly sending artificers and dressmakers to ,paris to import the newest modes1 as they do to this very day4#ajaa ,the country ladies caught the fashion as it was going out in ,london4#ajab ,in many cases the passion for all things ,french became a mania with the ladies1 as is frequently pictured in the drama of the time4#ajac ,a ,frenchified lady would have a ,french maid1 born and bred in ,france1 who could speak ,english but brokenly1 with whom she would talk a mixture of broken ,french and ,english2 while many a one like ,melantha of ,dryden's ,marriage -la-mode1#ajad doted on any new ,french word3 as fast as any bullion comes out of ,france1 she coins it into ,english1 and runs mad in new ,french words4#ajae ,header3 ,,the ,,frenchified ,,lady ,she importunes those returned from the tour in ,france1 or who have correspondence with ,parisians1 to know the latest words used in ,paris4 ,her maid supplies her daily with a store of ,french words3 ,melantha4 444 ,you sot you1 come produce your ,morning's work4444 ,o1 my ,venus6 #ad or #ae words to serve me a whole day6 ,let me die1 at this rate ,i cannot last till night6 ,come read your words4444 ,philotis4 ,sottises4 ,melantha4 ,sottises1 bon4 ,that's an excellent word to begin withal3 as for example1 he or she said a thousand sottises to me4 ,proceed4 ,philotis4 ,figure3 as what a ,figure of a man is there6 ,nave and ,navet4 ,melantha4 ,nave6 as how8 ,philotis4 ,speaking of a thing that was naturally said3 it was so nave4 ,or such an innocent piece of simplicity3 'twas such a ,navet4 ,and as ,melantha becomes excited with her new acquisitions1 she bestows gifts on her maid at each new word4 ,a new catechism#ajaf for the ladies was invented on these lines3 --,of what ,nation are you8 --,english by birth3 my education la mode de ,france4 --,who confirms you8 --,mademoiselle the ,french ,mantua maker4 ,we are told that the ,frenchified lady was educated in a ,french boarding-school1 by a ,french dancing master1 a ,french singing master1 and a ,french waiting woman4 ,before ,i could speak ,english plain1 she tells us1 ,i was taught to jabber ,french3 and learnt to dance before ,i could go3 in short ,i danced ,french dances at #h1 sang ,french at #aj1 spoke it at #ac1 and before #ae could talk nothing else4 ,among the gentlemen la mode1 to speak ,french like a magpie was also the fashion3 ,we shortly must our native speech forget ,and every man appear a ,french coquett4 ,upon the ,tongue our ,english sounds not well1 ,but--oh1 monsieur1 la langue franoise est belle2#ajag wrote a satirist of the time4 ,and so the ,francomaniacs1 designated as beaux or ,english monsieurs1 became the subject for satire and ridicule4 ,their ,french was often not of a very high standard4 ,pepys met one of the monsieurs1 full of his ,french1 and pronounced it not very good4 ,many1 no doubt1 had to be content t' adorn their ,english with ,french scraps4 ,and while they idly think t' enrich1 ,adulterate their native speech3 ,for1 though to smatter ends of ,greek ,or ,latin be the rhetorique ,of pedants counted and vainglorious1 ,to smatter ,french is meritorious1 ,and to forget their mother tongue ,or purposely to speak it wrong4#ajah ,butler says that 'tis as ill breeding now to speak good ,englis1 as to wrote good ,englis1#ajai good sense or a good hand1 and not to be able to swear a ,french oath1 nor use the polite ,french word in conversation1 debarred one from polite society4 ,the town spark or beau garzion is frequently introduced in the comedies of the time4 ,not being master of his own language1 he intermingles it with scraps of ,french that the ladies may take him for a man of parts and a true linguist4#ajbj ,such is ,sir ,foppington1 who walks with one eye hidden under his hat1 with a toothpick in prominence1 and a cane dangling at his button2#ajba and ,sir ,novelty ,fashion1 who prefers the title of ,beau to that of ,right ,honourable2#ajbb and the ,monsieur of ,paris of ,wycherley's ,gentleman ,dancing ,master1 mightily affected with ,french ,language and ,fashions1 preferring the company of a ,french valet to that of an ,english squire1 and talking agreeable ill ,englis4 ,etherege's ,sir ,fopling ,flutter#ajbc presents us with a telling picture of what was considered good breeding and wit at the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 ,header3 ,,the ,,english ,,monsieur ,sir ,fopling is a fine undertaking ,french fop1 arrived piping hot from ,paris1 bent on imitating the people of quality in ,france and on speaking a mixture of ,french and ,english4 ,his head stands for the most part on one side1 and his looks are more languishing than a lady's when she lolls at stretch in her coach1 or leans her head carelessly against the side of a box in the playhouse4 ,he judges everything according to what is done at ,paris1 and ,english music and dancing make him shudder4 ,and as it was la mode to be ,attended by a young petit garon ,who from his cradle was an arch ,fripon1#ajbd he walks about with a train of ,french valets4 ,mr4 ,frenchlove of ,james ,howard's ,english ,monsieur 7#afgd7 is likewise a ,frenchman in his second nature1 that is in his fashion1 discourse and clothes2 he cannot discover a divertissement in the whole of ,london1 but finds some comfort that in this vast beef-eating city1 a ,french house may be found to eat at4 ,the ,french ordinaries held an important place in the daily round of the beau4 ,his toilet occupied the whole of the early part of the day4 ,he would then go to the ,french ordinary1#ajbe where he boasts of his travels to the untravelled company1 and if they receive this well1 plies them with more such stuff1 as how he1 simple fellow as he seems to be1 had interpreted between the ,french ,king and the ,emperor4 ,or1 if his accomplishments will not stand this strain1 flings some fragments of ,french or small parcels of ,italian about the table4#ajbf ,he may then take the promenade or ,tour la ,mode1 where he salutes with bon meen1 and has a hundred jolly rancounters on the way4#ajbg ,he usually ended his day at the play4 ,and here again he would find the desired ,french atmosphere4 ,many translations or adaptations of ,french plays were acted1#ajbh and the ,english drama of the period is so full of ,french words and phrases that it is hardly intelligible to any one without a good knowledge of ,french4#ajbi ,the ,frenchified ,gallants and ,ladies1 the ,french ,valets1 and other ,french characters introduced so freely into the plays1 offered ample opportunity for the use of ,french words4#ajcj ,dryden1 alone1 is responsible for the introduction of more than a hundred such words4#ajca ,as literature was fashionable at the time1 most of the dramatic authors were themselves gentlemen la mode with strong ,french tastes4 ,sedley1 for instance1 had a great reputation in the world of fashion4 ,wycherley and ,vanbrugh had both been educated in ,france4 ,etherege had probably resided many years in ,paris4 ,cibber1 who always played the part of the fop in his own plays1 went twice to ,france specially to study the airs and graces of the ,french petit-matre1--at no better place1 however1 than a table d',auberge1 the ,abb ,le ,blanc tells us3#ajcb ,il faut lui pardonner ses erreurs sur ses modles1 il n'toit porte d'en voir d'autres3 si mme il n'a pas aussi bien imit ceux-ci que les ,anglois se le sont persuad1 je n'en suis pas surpris3 il m'a avou de bonne foi qu'il n'entend pas assez notre langue pour suivre la conversation4 ,it is unlikely1 however1 that ,cibber's ,french was as scanty as the abb reports4 ,at any rate his daughter ,charlotte1 afterwards ,mrs4 ,clarke1 tells us that she understood the alphabet in ,french before she was able to speak ,english4#ajcc ,the prologues and epilogues of the ,restoration plays are frequently addressed to the gallants1 and often in a language which would appeal to them2 for instance1 a ,french ,marquis speaks the epilogue in ,farquhar's ,constant ,couple3 444 ,vat have you ,english1 dat you call your own1 ,vat have you of grand plaisir in dis towne1 ,vidout it come from ,france1 dat will go down8 ,picquet1 basset3 your vin1 your dress1 your dance1 ',tis all1 you zee1 tout -la-mode de ,france4 ,header3 ,,french ,,plays ,,in ,,london ,the ,francomaniacs of the time would find still more to their taste at the ,french play4 ,during nearly twenty years after the ,restoration1 ,london was hardly ever without a company of ,french players4 ,the beaux and gallants flocked to see a troop of frisking monsieurs1 and cry ,ben and keep time to the cadence of the ,french verses3#ajcd ,old ,english authors vanish and give place ,to these new conquerors of the ,norman race1 wrote ,dryden1 protesting against the caprice of the town for the ,french comedians2 and he adds elsewhere3#ajce ,a brisk ,french troop is grown your dear delight1 ,who with broad bloody bills1 call you each day1 ,to laugh and break your buttons at their play4 ,there was a great rush to the ,french plays1 both tragedies and comedies4 ,valets went hours in advance to reserve a place for their masters4 ,there is no need1 says ,dryden1 to seek far for the reason of their popularity1--they are ,french1 and that is enough4 ,people go to show their breeding and try to laugh at the right moment4 ,the ,english dramatist insinuates that the comedians let in their own countrymen free of charge that they might lead the applause1 and give the cue to the ladies4 ,the ,english ,court and its followers had evidently acquired a taste for ,french plays during their sojourn abroad4 ,immediately after the ,restoration a ,french company settled in ,london1 and the king became their special patron and protector4 ,in #affa he made a grant of #cjj to ,jean ,channoveau to be distributed among the ,french comedians1#ajcf and in #affc they obtained permission to bring from ,france their stage decorations and scenery4 ,it seems to have always been the king's pleasure that the clothes1 vestments1 scenes1 and other ornaments proper for and directly designed for their own use about the stage should be imported customs free4#ajcg ,the earliest troupe of ,french actors1 under ,jean ,channoveau1 acted at the ,cockpit in ,drury ,lane2 and there1 on the #cjth ,august #affa1 ,pepys took his wife to see a ,french comedy4 ,he carried away a very bad impression of the play1 describing it as ill done1 the scenes and company and everything else so nasty and out of order and poor1 that 7he7 was sick all the while in 7his7 mind to be there4 ,he vented his ill humour on a friend of ,mrs4 ,pepys whom she had met in ,france2 and that done1 there being nothing pleasant but the foolery of the farce1 we went home4 ,french comedies were also acted at ,court4 ,evelyn1 who went very little to the theatre1 witnessed one of these on the #afth ,december #affb1 but makes no observation on it4 ,in the ,playhouse to be let of ,davenant1 who directed the ,duke's company playing at ,dorset ,gardens1#ajch figures a ,frenchman who has brought over a troupe of his countrymen to act a farce4 ,the ,french actor ,bellerose is said to have made a fortune by playing in ,london4#ajci ,another of these actors who ventured to ,london was ,henri ,pitel1 sieur de ,longchamp1 who came in #afgf with his wife and two daughters4#ajdj ,he stayed nearly two years in ,england1 and shone at the ,court of ,charles ,,ii4 ,charles himself is said not to have missed one of the ,french plays1#ajda at which his mistress1 ,louise de ,kerouaille1 ,duchess of ,portsmouth1 ,mme4 ,mazarin1 the ,french ambassador1 and many courtiers were always present4 ,in #afhd the ,prince's ,french players were again expected in ,england1#ajdb no doubt the same troupe1 directed by ,pitel and known as ,les comdiens de son ,altesse srnissime ,m4 le ,prince4 ,,footnotes3 #idc ,expressed in the ,lettres of ,guy ,patin1 and numerous pamphlets published at the time4 #idd ,evelyn1 ,diary1 ,sept4 #a1 #afej4 #ide ,in the ,journal de voyage de deux jeunes ,hollandais ,paris1 #afef-eh 7ed4 ,a4 ,p4 ,faugre1 #bnd ed41 ,paris1 #ahii71 there is some information concerning the exiled ,court4 ,the teacher ,lain mentions a lady in the suite of the exiled queen in his ,dialogues4 #idf ,mmoires1 #d vols41 ,paris1 #ahei1 i4 pp4 #ajb1 #acg1 #bbe1 etc4 #idg ,supra1 pp4 #bfb sqq4 #idh ,after the ,restoration he would also try to get out of a difficult situation on the same plea4 ,he talked ,french freely to ,mlle4 de ,kerouaille4 ,however1 when the ,french ,ambassador1 ,courtin1 wished to discuss with him the negotiations with the ,dutch1 he excused himself on the ground that he had forgotten nearly all his ,french since his return to ,england1 and asked for delay to reflect on anything proposed in that language4 ,he offered the same excuse for his ,council1 but ,courtin retorted that many of them spoke ,french as well as ,english4 ,cp4 ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,a ,french ,ambassador at the ,court of ,charles ,,ii41 ,london1 #ahib1 p4 #adc4 #idi ,il me disoit des douceurs1 ce que m'ont dit les gens qui nous coutoient et parloit si bien franois1 en tenant ces propos-l1 qu'il n'y a personne qui ne doive convenir que l',amour toit plutt franois que de toute autre nation4 ,car1 quand le roi parloit sa langue 7la langue de l'amour7 il oublioit la sienne et n'en perdoit l'accent qu'avec moi3 car les autres ne l'entendirent pas si bien 7,mmoires1 ed4 cit4 i4 p4 #cbb74 #iej ,lettre de ,m4 de ,l',angle un de ses amis touchant la religion du srnissime roy d',angleterre1 ,geneva81 #affj1 p4 #ah4 #iea ,evelyn was in ,france in #afdc1 on his way to study anatomy at ,padua1 and again in #afdf-g on his return1 and yet again in #afdi4 #ieb ,lord ,high ,treasurer ,cottington1 ,sir ,ed4 ,hyde1 etc42 cp4 ,diary1 ,aug4 #a and #ah1 ,sept4 #g1 #ab1 #ac1 ,oct4 #b1 #g1 #afdi1 etc4 #iec ,thus the ,king invited the ,prince of ,cond to supper at ,st4 ,cloud 444 where ,i saw a famous 7tennis7 match betwixt ,mons4 ,saumaurs and ,colonel ,cooke1 and so returned to ,paris4 ,evelyn1 ,diary1 ,sept4 #ac1 #afdi4 #ied ,memoirs of ,sir ,john ,reresby of ,thribergh1 ,bart41 ,m4,p4 for ,york1 etc41 #afcd-afhi1 ed4 ,j4 ,j4 ,cartwright1 ,london1 #ahge1 pp4 #bf1 #db 7cp4 pp4 #cei sqq41 supra74 #iee ,sir ,henry ,craike1 ,life of ,edward1 ,earl of ,clarendon1 #aiaa1 ii4 pp4 #cba sqq4 #ief ,w4 ,harvey-,jellie1 ,les ,sources du ,thtre anglais l'poque de la ,restauration1 ,paris1 #aijf1 pp4 #cg sqq4 #ieg ,evelyn visited ,waller several times4 #ieh ,evelyn met ,hobbes at ,paris in ,september #afej4 #iei ,dennis1 ,original ,letters1 familiar1 moral and critical1 ,london1 #agbc1 i4 p4 #bae4 ,at a later date he was again in ,france for reasons of health4 ,the king gave him #ejj to pay the expenses of a journey to the ,south of ,france4 ,he was at ,montpellier from the winter of #afgh to the spring of #afgi4 #ifj 4 4 4 cette langue dont il savait toutes les plus dlicates ressources en grce1 en malice plaisante et en ironie4 ,cf4 ,sayous1 ,histoire de la littrature franaise l'tranger4 #ifa ,hamilton dans le conte 7says ,sayous1 op4 cit47 l'emporte sur ,voltaire qui eut t le premier1 si au lieu de se jeter dans les allgories philosophiques il s'tait abandonn1 comme notre cossais1 au plaisir plus innocent de laisser courir son imagination et sa plume4 #ifb ,the ,scotch ,chevalier de ,ramsay 7#afhf-agdc71 the friend of ,fnelon1 also wrote ,french with remarkable purity4 ,his best known work is ,les ,voyages de ,cyrus avec un discours sur la mythologie 7,paris1 #agbg2 ,london1 #agcj74 ,at a later date ,thomas ,hales 7#agdj8-aghj71 known as d',hle1 d',hell1 or ,dell1 a ,french dramatist of ,english birth1 also made himself a name in ,french literature 7,sylvain van de ,weyer1 ,les ,anglais qui ont crit en franais1 ,miscellanies1 ,philobiblon ,soc41 #ahed1 vol4 i474 #ifc ,hamilton1 ,mmoires du ,comte de ,grammont4 ,histoire amoureuse de la ,cour de ,charles ,,ii1 ed4 ,b4 ,pifteau1 ,paris1 #ahgf1 ,preface4 ,voltaire often quoted the beginning of ,le ,blier as a model of style4 #ifd ,il trouvoit si peu de diffrence aux manires et la conversation de ceux qu'il voyoit le plus souvent1 qu'il ne lui paroissoit pas qu'il eut chang de pais4 ,tout ce qui peut occuper un homme de son humeur s'offroit partout aux divers penchans qui l'entrainoient1 come si les plaisirs de la cour de ,france l'eussent quitt pour l'accompagner dans son exil 7,mmoires1 ed4 cit4 p4 #hc74 ,grammont had been banished from the ,french ,court on account of a presumptuous love affair4 #ife ,institution of a ,gentleman1 ,london1 #affj1 p4 #hh4 ,the book first appeared as ,institutions1 or ,advice to his ,grandson1 in #afeh4 #iff ,j4 ,smith1 ,grammatica ,quadralinguis1 #afgd4 #ifg ,sayous1 op4 cit4 ii4 ch4 iv4 #ifh ,evelyn once accompanied ,his ,majesty to ,m4 ,favre to see his preparation for the composition of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's rare cordial1 when the chemist made a learned discourse in ,french on the nature of each ingredient4 #ifi ,revue ,historique1 xxix41 ,sept4-,oct4 #ahhe1 p4 #be4 #igj ,j4 ,j4 ,jusserand1 ,shakespeare in ,france1 ,london1 #ahii1 pp4 #acb1 #ace1 #acf4 ,mme4 d',aulnoy1 the fairy-tale writer and authoress of the ,mmoires de la cour d',angleterre1 was also among the ,french ladies in ,london at this time4 #iga ,st4 ,evremond was buried at ,westminster at the age of ninety-one4 ,the ,duchess died at ,chelsea in #afii4 #igb ,in a letter to ,justel he spoke of the ,thames as nostre ,thamise4 #igc ,evelyn's ,diary1 likewise1 is full of mentions of meetings with ,frenchmen4 #igd ,sorbire1 ,relation d'un voyage en ,angleterre 4 4 41 ,paris1 #affd1 p4 #cb4 #ige ,cp4 ,ch4 ,bastide1 ,anglais et ,franais du #ag;e sicle1 ,paris1 #aiab4 #igf ,jusserand1 ,shakespeare in ,france1 p4 #acf1 note #b4 #igg ,les ,voyages de ,m4 ,payen1 ,paris1 #affg4 #igh ,mauger calls ,london une des merveilles du monde4 ,on y vient de tous ctez1 pour admirer sa magnificence4 #igi ,the ,ladies' ,catechism1 #agjc4 #ihj ,j4 ,b4 ,le ,blanc1 ,lettres d'un ,franais1 ,la ,haye1 #agde1 iii4 p4 #fg4 #iha ,ibid4 i4 p4 #ade4 ,mrs4 ,pepys assisted ,lady ,sandwich to find a ,french maid 7,diary1 ,nov4 #ae1 #affj71 and was herself very desirous of one4 ,the prejudiced ,rutledge writes nearly a century later3 ,as the lower classes of the ,french are so completely qualified for ,domestics1 it is not surprising that such numerous colonies of ,french valets de chambre1 cooks and footmen are planted all over ,europe3 and that the nobility and fashionable people of so many countries shew an avowed ,propensity to ,prefer them even to their fellow natives 7,account of the ,character and ,manners of the ,french1 #aggj1 pt4 ii4 p4 #agb74 #ihb ,flecknoe1 ,characters 444 7#affe71 ,london1 #afgc1 p4 #h4 ,they 7the ,french7 have gained so much influence over the ,english ,fops that they furnish them with their ,french ,puppydogs for ,valets de ,chambre 7,french ,conjuror1 #afgh74 ,addison 7,spectator1 ,no4 #de7 says he remembers the time when some well-bred ,englishwomen kept a valet de chambre because1 forsooth1 they were more handy than one of their own sex4 #ihc ,satire on the ,french1 #afia4 ,reprinted as the ,baboon la ,mode1 #agja4 #ihd ,satirical ,reflections1 #agjg1 #crd pt4 #ihe ,cp4 ,wycherley1 ,country ,wife1 ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #a4 #ihf ,diary1 ,oct #ai1 #affc2 ,may #cj1 #affe2 ,may #ab1 #affg2 ,feb4 #ah1 ,march #ac and #bf1 #affh4 #ihg ,flecknoe1 ,characters1 p4 #ab4 ,pepys describes a ,french dance at ,court 7,diary1 ,nov4 #ae1 #afff71 which was not extraordinarily pleasing4 ,he much admired the dancing of the young ,princess ,mary1 taught by a ,frenchman 7,diary1 ,march #b1 #affi74 ,the matres d'armes were often ,italians and ,spaniards4 ,there were protests against the ,french and ,italian singing and dancing taught by the dregs of ,italy and ,france 7,satirical ,reflections1 #agjg74 #ihh ,pepys's ,diary1 ed4 ,h4 ,b4 ,wheatley1 v4 p4 #ccb1 note1 and vi4 p4 #ahg4 #ihi ,a ,frenchman was appointed in his place2 cp4 ,cal4 of ,state ,papers1 #affj-fa1 p4 #g2 #affc-fd1 pp4 #bad1 #fjg4 ,children were sent to ,france to learn music4 ,pepys did not like the ,french airs 7,diary1 ,july #bg1 #affa2 ,june #ah1 #afff74 #iij ,flecknoe1 ,characters1 p4 #dh4 ,french gardeners 7,cal4 ,state ,papers1 #affa-fb1 pp4 #age1 #bid7 and ,french barbers were also in favour4 ,pepys went to the ,french pewterer's 7,march #ac1 #affg-h74 #iia ,s4 ,butler1 ,hudibras4 #iib ,evelyn1 ,diary1 ,march #afga4 #iic ,vincent1 ,young ,gallants' ,academy1 #afgd4 #iid ,cp4 ,sedley1 ,mulberry ,garden 7,sir ,j4 ,everyoung3 ,which is the most la mode right revered spark8 points or laces8 girdle or shoulder belts8 ,what say your letters out of ,france874 ,there is hardly a comedy of the time without some such references to ,french fashions2 cp4 ,etherege1 ,sir ,fopling ,flutter2 ,shadwell1 ,humours of the ,army1 etc4 #iie ,evelyn1 ,diary1 ,oct4 #ah1 #afff4 ,evelyn had himself written a pamphlet called ,tyrannus or the ,mode1 an invective against our overmuch affecting of ,french fashion1 in which he praised the comeliness and usefulness of the ,persian style of clothing4 ,this he had presented to the king3 ,i do not impute to this discourse the change whiche soone happen'd1 but it was an identity that ,i could not but take notice of 7,diary1 ,oct4 #ah and #cj1 #afff74 #iif ,butler1 ,satire on our ridiculous imitation of the ,french2 ,a l'tranger on prend plaisir enchrir sur toutes les ,nouveautez qui leur viennent de ,france4 4 4 4 ,muralt 7,lettres1 #agbe74 #iig ,french ,conjuror1 #afgh4 #iih ,duc de ,guise1 ,prologue2 cp4 ,prologue to ,albion and ,albanius3 ,then 'tis the mode of ,france without whose ,rules ,none must presume to set up here as fools4 #iii ,french money was said to be most successful in bribes4 ,farquhar1 ,constant ,couple1 iv4 #b4 #ajjj ,flecknoe1 ,characters1 p4 #ab4 #ajja ,satire against the ,french1 #afia4 #ajjb ,acted #afga2 ,act ,,ii4 ,sc4 #b4 #ajjc ,mmoires1 ed4 cit4 pp4 #ea-eb4 #ajjd ,ibid4 p4 #adc4 #ajje ,lord ,rutherford1 for instance1 begs pardon for his ,english1 being more accustomed to the ,french tongue 7,cal4 of ,state ,papers1 #affa-fb1 p4 #d74 #ajjf ,hamilton1 op4 cit4 p4 #hb4 #ajjg ,the story goes that ,grammont was leaving ,england without marrying ,miss ,hamilton1 when her brother overtook him and told him he had forgotten something1 whereat he realized his oversight and returned to repair it4 ,it is said that this incident supplied ,molire with the subject of his ,mariage forc4 #ajjh ,hamilton1 op4 cit4 p4 #hb4 #ajji ,cal4 ,state ,papers1 ,dom41 #affa-fb1 p4 #bh4 #ajaj ,two grammars for teaching ,portuguese greeted the new queen4 ,one was a ,portuguese ,grammar in ,french and ,english by ,mr4 ,la ,mollire1 a ,french gentleman1 #affb 7,register of the ,company of ,stationers1 ii4 #cjg72 and the other1 ,j4 ,howell's ,grammar for the ,spanish or ,castilian tongue with some special remarks on the ,portuguese ,dialect1 with a description of ,spain and ,portugal by way of guide4 ,it was dedicated to the queen4 #ajaa ,fragment of the ,journal of the ,convent of ,chaillot1 in the secret archives of ,france1 ,htel de ,soubise4 ,quoted by ,strickland in ,lives of the ,queens1 #ahhh1 iv4 p4 #chc4 #ajab ,cp4 ,sedley1 ,mulberry ,garden4 #ajac ,such as ,lady ,lurewell of ,farquhar's ,constant ,couple2 ,lady ,fanciful in ,vanbrugh's ,provoked ,wife2 ,brome's ,damoiselle 7#afec72 or ,mrs4 ,rich in ,the ,beau ,defeated 7#agjj874 #ajad ,the ,frenchified ,lady never in ,paris was the name given her by ,henry ,dell in his play1 based on ,dryden's and printed #ageg and #agfa4 #ajae ,there is a book called ,the ,art of ,affectation teaching ladies to speak in a silly soft tone of voice and use all the foolish ,french words which will infallibly make your person and conversation charming 7,etherege1 ,sir ,fopling ,flutter74 #ajaf ,the ,ladies' ,catechism1 #agjc8 #ajag ,satire against the ,french1 #afia1 p4 #ad4 #ajah ,satire on our ridiculous imitation of the ,french2 ,chalmers1 ,english ,poets1 viii4 p4 #bjf4 #ajai ,cp4 ,swift1 ,poem written in a ,lady's ,ivory ,table ,book 7#afih73 ,here you may read1 ,here in beau-spelling--tru tel deth4 #ajbj ,character of the ,beau1 #afif4 #ajba ,cibber1 ,careless ,husband1 ,act ,i4 ,sc4 #a4 #ajbb ,cibber1 ,love's last shift or the ,fool in fashion4 ,sedley's ,sir ,charles ,everyoung1 ,ned ,estridge1 and ,harry ,modish are all most accomplished monsieurs1 as are ,clodis in ,cibber's ,love ,makes a ,man or the ,fop's ,fortune2 ,sir ,harry ,wildair in ,farquhar's play of that name2 ,lord ,foppington of ,vanbrugh's ,relapse or ,virtue in ,danger2 ,bull ,junior in ,dennis's ,a ,plot and no ,plot2 ,clencher1 senior1 the ,prentice turned ,beau in ,farquhar's ,constant ,couple2 ,mrs4 ,behn's ,sir ,timothy ,tawdry2 ,crowne's ,sir ,courtly ,nice1 etc4 ,in #afig appeared a work called ,the ,compleat ,beau4 #ajbc ,sir ,fopling ,flutter or the ,man of ,mode1 #afgf4 ,supposed to be a portrait of the then notorious ,beau ,hewitt4 #ajbd ,satire against the ,french1 #afia4 #ajbe ,character of the ,beau1 #afia4 ,most of the accomplished monsieurs frequented the ,french houses 7,sedley1 ,mulberry ,garden74 ,act ,,ii4 ,sc4 #b of ,wycherley's ,love in a ,wood1 and ,act ,,ii4 ,sc4 #b of his ,gentleman ,dancing ,master1 both take place in a ,french house4 ,cp4 ,character of the ,town ,gallant1 #afge4 #ajbf ,vincent1 ,young ,gallants' ,academy1 #afgd1 p4 #dd4 #ajbg ,flecknoe1 ,characters1 #afgc4 ,the #affe edition of his ,aenigmatical ,characters 4441 #affe1 contains a description in ,french of the ,tour la ,mode3 4 4 4 ,c'est une bataille bien range o l'on ne tire que des coups d',oeillades1 et o les premiers ayant fait leur descharge1 ilz s'en vont pour donner place aux autres 4 4 41 etc4 7p4 #ba74 #ajbh ,charles ,,ii4 openly avowed his preference for the ,french drama4 ,dryden wrote his ,essay of ,dramatic ,poesy1 to vindicate the ,honour of our ,english writers from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the ,french before them4 ,pepys saw many of the ,french plays acted in ,english4 ,cp4 ,h4 ,mc,afee1 ,pepys on the ,restoration ,stage 4441 ,yale ,univ4 ,press1 #aiaf4 #ajbi ,a4 ,beljame1 ,le ,public et les hommes de lettres au #ah;e sicle1 ,paris1 #ahig1 p4 #aci4 #ajcj ,as in ,etherege's ,comical ,revenge or ,love in a ,tub1 ,sir ,fopling ,flutter1 and the plays of ,cibber1 ,vanbrugh1 ,mrs4 ,behn1 ,shadwell1 ,farquhar1 ,wycherley1 etc42 ,the ,french ,conjuror1 #afgh2 ,the ,beau ,defeated1 #agjj81 etc4 #ajca ,a4 ,beljame1 ,quae e ,gallicis verbis in ,anglicam linguam ,johannes ,dryden introduxerit1 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,on ,french influence in ,restoration ,drama1 see ,charlanne1 ,l',influence franaise en ,angleterre1 pp4 #fd sqq4 #ajcb ,lettre ,m4 de la ,chausse3 ,lettres1 #agde1 ii4 p4 #bdj4 #ajcc ,narrative of her ,life1 written by ,herself1 pub4 in series of ,autobiographies1 ,london1 #ahbf1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ab4 ,most of the writers of the time were able to write some ,french4 ,flecknoe1 for instance1 wrote some of his ,characters in the language1 and wrote a ,french dedication of his ,poems 7#afeb71 la plus excellente de son sexe4 #ajcd ,dryden1 ,prologue spoken at the opening of the new house1 #bf ,march1 #afgd1 ,works1 ed4 ,scott and ,saintsbury1 x4 p4 #cbj4 #ajce ,prologue to ,arviragus and ,phihera by ,l4 ,carlell1 revival1 ,works1 x4 #dje4 #ajcf ,shaw1 ,calendar of ,treasury ,books1 #affj-fg1 p4 #caa4 #ajcg ,ibid41 #afgb-ge1 pp4 #ad1 #bd1 #bi1 etc42 #afgg-gh 7vol4 v471 pp4 #fib1 #hjc2 #afhd 7vol4 vii471 p4 #addd4 #ajch ,charles had granted two privileges3 one to ,henry ,killigrew1 who directed the ,king's company acting at ,drury ,lane1 and the other to ,sir ,william ,davenant1 who directed the ,duke's company4 ,the rival companies united in #afhb4 #ajci ,chardon1 ,la troupe du roman comique dvoile et les comdiens de la campagne au #ag;e sicle1 ,le ,mans1 #ahgf1 p4 #dg4 #ajdj ,chardon1 op4 cit4 p4 #ih4 #ajda ,revue ,historique1 xxix41 ,sept4-,oct4 #aheh1 p4 #bc4 #ajdb ,historical ,,mss4 ,commission ,reports1 v4 p4 #ahf4 ,french dancers and singers also attracted the ,english from the performances of their own actors2 cp4 ,cibber1 ,epilogue to ,the ,careless ,husband1 and ,farquhar1 ,preface to ,the ,inconstant4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,french ,,and ,,its ,,popularity ,,after ,,the ,,restoration ,in the meantime ,french grammars were being published in ,england in considerable numbers4#ajdc ,so plentiful were they that there was scarce anything to be seen anywhere but ,french grammars4 ,the manuals of ,mauger and ,festeau were still in vogue1 and that of ,mauger was frequently reedited4 ,among new grammarians figures the tutor to the children of the ,duke of ,york 7,james ,,ii471 ,pierre de ,lain1 who may possibly have been identical with the ,pierre ,lain who published a grammar in #afee4ajdd ,his ,french grammar1 written in the first place for the ,lady ,mary 7afterwards ,mary ,,ii471 was published in #affg1ajde when the princess was about five years old4 ,it was subsequently placed at the service of the ,lady ,anne1 afterwards queen1 and a second edition appeared in #afgg1 with the title3 ,the ,princely ,way to the ,french ,tongue as it was first compiled for the use of her ,highness the ,lady ,mary and since taught her royal sister the ,lady ,anne etc4 by ,p4 ,d4 ,l4 ,tutor for the ,french to both their ,highnesses4#ajdf ,before you begin anything of ,letters or rules1 says ,lain1 you may ,learn how to call in ,french these few things following4 ,ma ,tte1 say maw tate my ,head ,mes ,cheveuz1 say maysheveu my ,hair1 and so on for the parts of the body1 the numbers1 days1 and months1 with similar guides to pronunciation4 ,he then proceeds to treat of the sounds of letters and syllables1 based on comparison with ,english4 ,these rules occupy less than a fifth of the book2 the remainder contains practical exercises4 ,first come familiar phrases and dialogues1 strongly religious in tone1 including prayers1 the catechism1 commandments1 etc41 and conversation specially suited to royal princesses4 ,a chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue is followed by rules of grammar1 likewise in dialogue form4 ,lastly come the ,fables of ,aesop put into burlesque ,french for the use of her ,highness the ,lady ,mary when a child1 and models of letters suitable for children1 and accompanied by answers4 ,in later years ,lain spent some time at ,paris as secretary#ajdg to ,sir ,henry ,savile1 the ,english envoy at the ,french ,court1 who did so much to prepare a favourable reception in ,england for the refugees at the time of the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4#ajdh ,lain was the first teacher to receive a grant of letters of denization under the ,order in ,council of the #bhth ,july #afha4ajdi ,shortly afterwards the same privilege was bestowed on ,francis ,cheneau1 whose ,french ,grammar1 enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the ,french tongue in a short time1 was licensed for printing in #afhd4ajej ,for many years ,cheneau continued to teach ,french1 and in time added ,latin1 ,english1 and ,italian to his repertory4 ,he describes himself as a native of ,paris1 formerly slave and ,governor of the ,isles of ,nacsia and ,paros in the ,archipelago4 ,at the time of the appearance of his second work on the ,french language1 in #agaf1 he was living in his ,house in ,old ,fish ,st4 next door to the ,faulcon in ,london1 where could be seen his short grammars for ,latin1 ,italian1 and ,english4 ,the most versatile compiler of ,french manuals at this period was ,guy ,mige1 a native of ,lausanne1 who came to ,england at the time of the ,restoration4 ,for two years he was employed in the household of ,lord ,elgin1 and was then appointed under-secretary to the ,earl of ,carlisle1 ambassador extraordinary to ,russia1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,after spending three years abroad with the embassy1 he travelled in ,france on his own account from #affe till #affh1 preparing a ,relation of the ,three ,embassies in which he had taken part4 ,header3 ,,the ,,dictionaries ,,of ,,guy ,,mi,,ge ,his book was published in #affi1 on his return to ,london4 ,he then settled in ,england as a teacher of ,french and geography1 and wrote many works for teaching the language4 ,the first was ,a ,new ,dictionary ,french and ,english and ,english and ,french 7#afgg71 dedicated to ,charles ,lennox1 ,duke of ,richmond4 ,as usual1 this ,french-,english ,dictionary is based on a ,french-,latin one--in this case that of ,pomey4 ,mige was also closely acquainted with ,howell's edition of ,cotgrave's dictionary1 last published in #afgj2 but he held it very defective in retaining so many obsolete words1 and in not being adapted to the present use and modern orthography--which indeed is highly pretended to in the last edition thereof1 but so performed that the title runs away with all the credit of it4 ,he looked upon ,cotgrave as a good help indeed for reading of old ,french books 7a thing which few people mind74 ,for his own part1 his design was to teach the latest ,court ,french1 and he made a point of omitting all the provincial and obsolete words ,cotgrave had searched out so carefully1 words that offend the eyes and grate the ears1 but the ,rubbish of the ,french ,tongue4 ,to season the naturall dulness of the work he included many proverbs1 descriptions1 and observations in both the ,english and ,french parts4 ,considering that the way to understand the bottom of a language is to learn how the derivatives are formed from their primitives and the compounds from their simples1#ajea he arranged all the derivatives after their respective primitives2 that nothing might be wanting1 however1 he placed them in their alphabetic order also1 with a reference to the necessary primitive4 ,mige's innovation in excluding all obsolete terms from his dictionary raised such a storm at its first appearance#ajeb that he felt himself bound to yield to public opinion by making a separate collection of such words1 which he called ,a ,dictionary of barbarous ,french or ,a ,collection1 by way of ,alphabet1 of ,obsolete1 ,provincial1 misspelt1 and ,made ,words in ,french1 taken out of ,cotgrave's dictionary with some additions4 ,it was1 he said1 performed for the satisfaction of such as read old ,french4 ,by the time of its publication in #afgi1 however1 the storm raised by his first work had died away4 ,mige continued his lexicographical labours4 ,in #afhd appeared ,a ,short ,french ,dictionary ,english and ,french1 with another in ,french and ,english1 a work of no ambitious aims1 containing a list of words pure and simple1 with no descriptions or observations1 intended for beginners1 travellers1 and those who could not afford the price of the larger one1 and1 above all1 for foreigners reading ,english4 ,the ,english were too eager and advanced in the study of ,french to find much help in so slight a work1 but foreigners evidently adopted the dictionary2 editions appeared at the ,hague in #afia1 #agja 7the fifth71 and #agjc2ajec another was issued at ,rotterdam as late as #agbh4 ,for the use of ,english students and those desiring to study either language more thoroughly1 ,mige prepared1 during many years of hard work1 an enlarged edition of his first ,french dictionary of #afgg1 which1 he tells us1 was compiled under great disadvantages2 the ,publick was in haste for a ,french ,dictionary1 and they had it accordingly1 hurried from the design to the composition1 and from under my pen to the press4 ,the new work1 on a much larger scale1 was known as ,the ,great ,french ,dictionary1 in two parts1 and published in #afhh1 eleven years after the appearance of its nucleus1 the ,new ,french ,dictionary 7#afgg74 ,it gives words according to both their old and modern orthography1 by which means the reader is fitted for any sort of ,french book1 and1 writes ,mige1 although ,i am not fond of obsolete and barbarous words1 yet ,i thought fit to intersperse the most remarkable of them1 lest they should be missed by such as read old ,books4 ,each word is accompanied by explanations1 proverbs1 phrases1 and as the first part does1 here and there1 give a prospect into the constitution of the kingdom of ,france1 so the second does afford to foreiners what they have hitherto very much wanted1 to wit1 an ,insight into the ,constitution of ,england4444 ,in the ,great ,dictionary ,mige abandoned his plan of arranging the derivatives under their primitives1 because it had made his former work swarm with uneasy references2 he followed the alphabetical order strictly1 but in such a manner that1 where a derivative is remote from its primitive1 ,i show its extraction within a ,parenthesis4 ,header3 ,,mi,,ge',s ,,french ,,grammars ,each of the two sections of the ,great ,dictionary is preceded by a grammar of the language concerned4 ,first comes the ,grounds of the ,french ,tongue1 before the ,french-,english ,dictionary1 and then a ,mthode abrge pour apprendre l',anglois4 ,this ,french grammar was a reprint of one of those which ,mige had compiled while working at his dictionaries4 ,in #afhd ,mige tells us that he had put forth two ,french grammars1 both of them well approved by all unprejudiced persons4 ,the one is short and concise1 fitted for all sorts of learners1 but especially new beginners2 the other is a large and complete piece1 giving a curious and full account of the ,french ,tongue4 ,to this is annexed a copious vocabulary and a long ,train of useful ,dialogues4 ,the more advanced of these grammars was the first to appear1 being published in #afgh under the title of ,a ,new ,french ,grammar1 or a ,new ,method for learning the ,french ,tongue4 ,after dealing with pronunciation1 he passes to the accidence and syntax1 with special attention to his favourite theory of the importance of a knowledge of primitives and derivatives4 ,he is much indebted to the grammars of ,vaugelas and ,chiflet1 especially in his observations on letter-writing1 on repetition of words1 and on style4 ,the second half of the book contains a vocabulary1 arranged under the usual headings1 and familiar dialogues1 without which he dare not offer the work to a public so well convinced of their ,usefulness1 as to the speaking part of a ,language2 therefore1 though it were something against the grain1 he included such exercises1 exceeding even ,mr4 ,mauger's in number4 ,the one hundred and fifteen familiar dialogues are followed by four more advanced ones in ,french alone1 for proficient learners to turn into ,english4 ,the first deals with the education of children1 and the others with geography1 a subject ,mige taught in either ,french or ,english as might be most convenient4 ,the elementary grammar had been issued about #afhbajed as ,a short and easie ,french ,grammar fitted for all sorts of learners2 according to the present use and modern orthography of the ,french with some ,reflections on the ancient use thereof4 ,in #afhb the vocabulary and dialogues of the earlier grammar were1 each of them1 issued separately1 probably to facilitate their use with this second grammar4 ,in #afhg appeared the ,grounds of the ,french ,tongue or a new ,french ,grammar1#ajee which ,mige incorporated in his ,great ,french ,dictionary in the following year4 ,in general outline its contents resemble those of the grammar which had appeared ten years before4 ,it is1 however1 an entirely new work4 ,most of the rules differ1#ajef and the vocabulary and dialogues are new4 ,he breaks away from the old tradition of introducing the ,latin declension of nouns into ,french grammars4#ajeg ,the ,grounds of the ,french ,tongue is about a hundred pages shorter than the grammar of #afgh1 and on the whole it is less interesting from the point of view of the student of ,french4 ,the second part1 called the ,nouvelle ,nomenclature ,franoise et ,angloise1 which might be obtained apart from the grammar1 had originally appeared in #afhe as part of ,mige's ,nouvelle mthode pour apprendre l',anglois4#ajeh ,consequently the dialogues are more suited to the student of ,english than to the student of ,french1 as they deal chiefly with life in ,england and the impressions of a ,frenchman in ,london1 including an account of the coffee-houses1 the penny post1 the churches1 ,english food and drink1 and so forth4 ,lastly1 in about #afih1ajei appeared ,mige's last and best ,french ,grammar1 or a new ,method to learn ,french1 containing the ,quintessence of all other ,grammars1 with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language4 ,a second edition was issued in #agje4 ,the work was based on his first grammar 7#afgh71 which thus benefited by his long experience as a writer on the ,french language and teacher of that tongue4 ,mige held that ,french was best learnt by a combination of the methods of rote and grammar1 either being insufficient without the other2 as for attempting to learn foreign languages at home by rote1 'tis properly building in the air4 ,header3 ,,best ,,method ,,of ,,study ,for whatever progress one makes that way1 unless he sticks constantly to it1 the ,language steals away from him1 and1 like a ,building without a foundation1 it falls insensibly4 ,englishmen who learn ,french by ear in ,france soon find the fluency of which they are so proud slipping away from them after their return to ,england2#ajfj and even ,frenchmen who have never studied their language grammatically begin to lose the purity of phrase after they have been some time in ,england4 ,accordingly a great care ought to be taken to pitch upon the best sort of ,grammar and to make choice of a skilful ,master4 ,now a skilful master must be first such a one as can speak the true modern ,french3 ,a ,thing few people can boast of1 besides courtiers and scholars1 so nice a language it is4 ,therefore the student should not waste his time1 as many do1 with the common sort of teachers1 who speak1 for the most part1 but a corrupt and provincial ,french1 and yet are patronized by many4 ,in the second place1 the teacher should be a man of some learning2 and in the third1 he should have some skill in the ,english tongue1 not that he should use much ,english with his scholars1#ajfa but because1 without it1 'tis impossible he can teach by the grammar1 or explain the true meaning of words4 ,lastly1 he should himself be thoroughly acquainted with the grammar1 and be able to find out what should be learnt by rote1 what by heart1 and what passages need not at all be learnt4 ,but1 when all is done1 there is an art in teaching not to be found amongst all men of knowledge4 ,thus the right use of a grammar depends much on the skill and judgement of the teacher4 ,mige declares against overburdening the memory with abstruse and difficult rules4 ,in most cases it is enough if the learner understands the rule2 there is no need to confine him to the author's words or to make him learn long lists of exceptions4 ,the best thing to exercise his memory in1 besides the general and most necessary rules1 is to learn a good store of words with their signification4 ,and then1 whether he comes to read ,french1 or to hear it spoke1 one word doth so help another1 that by degrees1 he will find out the meaning4 ,as for the dialogues1 only a few1 and those of a familiar type1 should be learnt without book4 ,an analysis is the best use they can be put to1 but some teachers will find it too hard a task4 ,the best way1 therefore1 is to lay a good foundation with grammar rules1 and to raise the ,superstructure by ,practice2 the more adventurous the learner is in speaking ,french the better4 ,if1 however1 one be so very averse from ,grammar rules as to look upon them as so many ,bug bears1 my opinion is that he may begin by ,rote1 provided he make good at last his ,proficiency that ,way1 with the help of a choice ,grammar4 ,and then the ,rules will appear to him very plain1 easy and delectable4 ,in #afgh ,mige was receiving pupils for ,french and geography at his lodging in ,penton ,street1 ,leicester ,square1 and we are told that in #afic he was taking in pensionnaires in ,dean's ,yard1 near ,westminster ,abbey4 ,towards the end of his teaching career in ,england he appears to have been on very friendly terms with another teacher of ,french1 ,francesco ,casparo ,colsoni1 an ,italian minister1 who also taught ,italian and ,english4 ,colsoni wrote a book for teaching the three languages1#ajfb called ,the ,new ,trismagister 7#afhh71 in which he drew freely from the works of ,mauger1 ,festeau1 and his friend ,mige4 ,in the meantime other manuals appeared1 including a translation of a grammar which was first published at ,paris in #afgbajfc--;,a ,french ,grammar1 teaching the knowledge of that language4444 ,published by the ,academy for the reformation of the ,french ,tongue 7#afgd71 printed in parallel columns of ,english and the original ,french4 ,a ,very easie ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue was published in about #afgc1 which claimed to be proper for all persons who have bad memories4 ,a certain ,john ,smith1 ,m4,a41 ,j4 ,g4 ,d',abadie1 formerly of the ,royal ,musketeers and for a time teacher of ,french at ,oxford1 ,jacob ,villiers1 who had a ,french school at ,nottingham1 and ,jean de ,kerhuel1 a ,french minister1#ajfd all published grammars at about the same time4#ajfe ,header3 ,,pierre ,,berault ,among the more interesting ,french teachers of the period is ,pierre ,berault1 a ,french monk who was converted to ,protestantism when he was on the point of setting out for ,england to work among the refugees as a ,jesuit emissary4#ajff ,on the #bnd of ,april #afga he abjured all the errors of the ,church of ,rome in the ,french ,church of the ,savoy1 ,london1 and subsequently devoted himself to teaching ,french4 ,until nearly the end of the century he lived in various parts of ,london1 waiting upon any ,gentlemen or ,gentlewomen who have a mind to learn ,french1 and using1 according to his own account1 a very sound method4 ,at the same time he was busy with his pen4 ,he began with a compilation setting forth his religious principles1#ajfg and with books on moral and religious subjects1 in ,french and ,english for the benefit of learners4#ajfh ,later he wrote ,a ,new1 plain1 short and compleat ,french and ,english grammar 7#afhh71 which had an extraordinary sale and reception1 and passed through numerous editions4 ,berault's motto as regards the teaching of ,french was omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci1--a fit combination of grammar rules and practical exercises4 ,the grammar1 which occupies less than half the book1 begins with an explanation of grammatical terms for the benefit of those ignorant of ,latin2 it then deals shortly with the pronunciation and the declinable parts of speech2#ajfi lastly come a few rules of syntax and short vocabularies of the indeclinables4 ,the reading exercises open with the catechism1 creeds1 commandments1 and prayers4 ,the dialogues1 accompanied1 contrary to custom1 by an interlinear translation1 are at first very simple1 and arranged in syllables for the benefit of beginners1 but they become more difficult4 ,the following is a dialogue between a ,french tutor and his scholar3 ,good morrow1 ,sir1 how do you do8 ,bonjour1 ,monsieur1 comment vous portez vous8 ,very well to serve you4 ,fort bien pour vous servir4 ,do you teach the ,french tongue8 ,enseignez-vous la langue ,franoise8 ,yes sir1 and the ,latin also4 ,ouy1 monsieur1 et aussi la ,latine4 ,will you teach me these two tongues8 ,voulez vous m'enseigner ces deux langues8 ,i will do it willingly4 ,je le feray volontiers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what method do you hold8 ,quel mthode voulez-vous tenir8 ,because you understand ,latin ,parce que vous entendez la langue ,latine ,i will begin by the pronunciation ,je commenceray par la prononciation ,which you can learn in two lessons4 ,que vous pouvez apprendre en deux leons4 ,then ,i will teach you the nouns1 ,puis je vous enseigneray les noms1 ,pronouns1 verbs and other parts of speech4 ,pronoms1 verbes et autres parties d'oraison4 ,and afterwards the rules of syntax4 ,et ensuite les rgles de ,composition4 ,how long will ,i be in learning all that8 ,combien seray-je apprendre tout cela8 ,but little time if you will follow me4 ,peu de temps si vous voulez me suivre4 ,berault added a selection of ,cordier's ,colloquies in ,french and ,english to his work1 as well as the usual proverbs1 idioms and polite letters1 and a vocabulary4 ,the letters have no ,english translation1 ,berault believing that whoso will peruse this grammar1 he will not only be able to explain them but any other ,french book whatsoever4 ,accordingly he supplied a list of what he considered suitable modern ,french books1 all of which could be obtained from one or other of the ,french booksellers in ,london4 ,in the second half of the seventeenth century the position of the ,french language in ,england was further strengthened by its growing popularity all over ,europe4 ,i have visited1 wrote the dramatist ,chappuzeau in #afgd1ajgj every part of ,christendom with care4 ,header3 ,,french ,,and ,,latin ,it has been easy for me to observe that to-day a prince with only the ,french language which has spread everywhere1 has the same advantages that ,mithridates had with twenty-two4 ,the ,french language was regarded as one of the chiefest qualifications of accomplished persons1 and the common language of all well-bred people1 and the most generally used in the commerce of civil life4 ,bayle states that in many parts of ,europe there were people who spoke and wrote ,french as purely as the ,french themselves1 and that in many foreign towns all the men and women of quality and many of the common people spoke ,french with ease4 ,writers of the time are unanimous in describing ,french as the universal language2 and most ,french teachers write in the style of ,guy ,mige to the effect that the ,french tongue is in a manner grown universal in ,europe 444 and of all the parts of ,europe next to ,france none is more fond of it than ,england4 ,thus1 in the second half of the seventeenth century1 ,french was in a position to dispute its ground with ,latin4 ,france herself set the example4 ,french was the language used at ,court1 while ,latin was used only by scholars4 ,significant it is that in #afgf ,louis ,,xiv41 in consequence of ,charpentier's ,dfense de la langue franoise pour l'inscription de l'arc de ,triomphe1 replaced the ,latin inscriptions on his triumphal arches by others in ,french4 ,replying to ,charpentier's essay1 a ,jesuit1 ,p4 ,lucus1 wrote a treatise in defence of ,latin4#ajga ,charpentier retorted by two laboured volumes1 ,de l'excellence de la langue franoise 7#afhc71 and finally won the day4 ,in this he refers to the universality of ,french1 and draws attention to the advantages which would result to science if it were studied in that language4 ,the long ,quarrel of the ,ancients and ,moderns1 which first reached ,england from ,france1 also shows the spirit of the times4 ,and ,bayle asserts as evidence of the supremacy of ,french that3 ,veut-on qu'un libelle courre bien le monde1 aussitt on le traduit en franois1 lors mme que l'original est en ,latin3 tant il est vrai que le latin n'est pas si commun en ,europe aujourd'hui que la ,langue franoise4#ajgb ,in ,england ,french had long been a rival to ,latin as the most commonly used foreign tongue1 and after the ,restoration it was generally recognized1 among courtiers1 men of fashion1 ministers of state1 and diplomats1 as the more convenient means of intercourse4 ,only scholars and the universities continued to uphold the traditional supremacy of the ,latin tongue1 and even at the universities ,latin had passed out of colloquial use before the ,restoration1 though still used in disputations and other prescribed exercises4#ajgc ,the victory of ,french in the world of fashion was an easy one4 ,it had long since chased ,latin from the gallant's head1 declares ,sedley1#ajgd and ,ravenscroft in his prologue to the ,english ,lawyer1#ajge in which a jargon made up of ,latin and ,english predominates1 thus addresses the gallants3 ,gallants1 pray what do you doe here to-day8 ,which of you understands a ,latine play8444 ,this age defies th' accomplishments of ,schools1 ,the ,town breeds ,wits1 the ,colleges make ,fools4 ,samuel ,vincent1#ajgf instructing the gallant how to behave at an ordinary1 warns him to beware how 7he7 speaks any ,latin there3 your ordinaries most commonly have no more to do with ,latin1 than a desparate town or ,garrison hath4#ajgg ,latin also lost what ground it held as the official language4 ,milton had been ,latin secretary during the ,commonwealth1 but after the ,restoration ,french was the language used4 ,since ,latin hath ceased to be a ,language1 if ever it was any1 which ,i am not sure of1 at least in this present age1 wrote ,lord ,chancellor ,clarendon1#ajgh the ,french is almost naturalised through ,europe1 and understood and spoken in all the ,northern ,courts and hath nearly driven the ,dutch out of its own country1 and almost sides the ,italian in the ,eastern ,parts1 where it was scarce known in the last ,age4 ,french1 therefore1 had little to fear from ,latin as the language of intercourse with ambassadors and other foreigners in ,england2 and still less from ,english1 which was not to receive any recognition at the hands of foreigners for years to come4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,the ,,scholastic ,,world ,considering the almost universal popularity of ,french1 and the general neglect of ,english1 most ,englishmen were obliged to agree with ,clarendon that it was too late sullenly to affect an ignorance of that language because the ,french will not take the ,pains to understand ours1 and we may gain much by being conversant in theirs4 ,he adds it would be a great ,dishonour to the court if1 when ,ambassadors come thither from ,neighbour ,princes1 no body were able to treat with them1 or converse with those who accompany them in no other language but ,english1 of which not one of them understand one word2 not to mention how the king shall be supplied with ,ministers1 or ,secretaries of ,state1 or with ,persons fit to be sent ,ambassadors abroad1 if those who aspire to such rank are not acquainted with the necessary foreign language4 ,before the ,restoration1 ,french1 in spite of the important place it held in the world of polite education1 had received very little recognition at the hands of educational writers4 ,cleland alone1 in his ,institution of a ,nobleman 7#afjg71 had treated it seriously4 ,after #affj1 however1 its widespread use and popularity rendered this omission no longer possible1 and at this time occurs a break in the tradition of classical scholarship4#ajgi ,the case for ,french was put most forcibly and with greatest effect by ,locke in his ,thoughts on ,education4 ,referring to the young scholar1 he writes3 ,as soon as he can speak ,english1 'tis time for him to learn some other ,language4 ,this no body doubts of1 when ,french is proposed 444 because ,french is a living language1 and to be used more in speaking1 that should be first learned1 that the yet pliant ,organs of ,speech might be accustomed to a due formation of those sounds and he get the habit of pronouncing ,french well1 which is the harder to be done the longer it is delay'd4 ,when he can speak ,french well1 7which on conversational methods is usually in a year or two71 he should proceed to ,latin4#ajhj ,for the same reasons ,clarendon would have ,french learnt first1 by rote1 without the ,formality or ,method of grammar4#ajha ,even in the world of scholarship the traditional deference shown to ancient learning received some check1 and the educational value of the ancient languages was called in question4 ,some believed that a gentleman might become learned by the only assistance of modern languages4 ,evelyn wrote a discourse on the subject at the request of ,sir ,samuel ,tuke for the ,duke of ,norfolk2 unfortunately it was lost1 to his griefe#ajhb and ours4 ,it contained1 he told ,pepys1 a list of ,authors and a method of reading them to advantage 444 nor was he without some purpose of one day publishing it1 because 'twas written with a vertuous designe of provoking our court fopps and for encouragement of illustrious persons who have leisure and inclinations to cultivate their minds beyond a farce1 a horse1 a whore and a dog1 which1 with very little more are the confines of the knowledge and discourse of most of our fine gentlemen and beaux4 ,learning1 he felt1 would assume a more attractive form in the eyes of the majority1 if it were attained through modern languages4 ,defoe likewise thought ,latin and ,greek were not indispensable to scholarship1 and considered it a pity to lock up all learning in the dead languages4#ajhc ,hobbes even went so far as to suggest in his ,behemoth 7c4 #affh7 that it would be well to substitute ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,italian for ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew at the universities4 ,others recommended that the classics should be read in ,french translations1 and it is probable that men of fashion at the time read them in this form1 if at all4 ,sedley implies that to read ,terence in ,latin was a mark of ill-breeding4#ajhd ,the fashionable ,etherege1 who knew neither ,latin nor ,greek1 had a large number of ,french translations of classical plays amongst his books4#ajhe ,and at a somewhat later date the ,abb ,le ,blanc remarks#ajhf that the ,english have become so fond of ,french that they prefer to read even ,cicero in that language4 ,he writes to tell ,olivet how eagerly his translations are received in ,england4 ,celle des ,tusculanes que vous venez de publier de concert avec ,m4 ,le ,pre ,bouhour a t gote en ,angleterre de tous ceux qui sont en tat de juger des ,beauts de l',original et de la fidlit avec laquelle chacun de vous les a rendues4 ,the readiness with which the ,english read ,french books also attracted the ,abb's attention4#ajhg ,header3 ,,proposals ,,for ,,reformed ,,schools ,it was no new thing for ,french literature to be widely appreciated in ,england4 ,but before the ,restoration it had received but little recognition as a profitable subject of study1 except for students of statecraft and military tactics4 ,in #afgc1 however1 one writer#ajhh takes a new step in stating that all learning is now in ,french1 and goes on to say that if it were in ,english those dead languages would be of little use1 only in reference to the scriptures4 ,similarly ,mary ,astell1 the author of ,a ,serious ,proposal to the ,ladies 7#afid71 urges the ladies1 who most of them know ,french1 to study ,french ,philosophy1 ,descartes and ,malebranche1 rather than restrict themselves to idle novels and romances4 ,and when ,locke was in ,paris in #afgg he bought the best class-books and manuals in ,french and ,latin for the use of ,lord ,shaftesbury's grandson4 ,the many ,english gentlemen who had ,french tutors were frequently taught not only the ,french language1 but other subjects from ,french text-books4 ,there were1 moreover1 several proposals for reformed schools1#ajhi in which ,french was given a place by the side of ,latin4 ,in the ideal school as pictured by ,clarendon1 the master is well acquainted with the ,french language2 and those that teach the exercises are ,frenchmen1 both that the scholars may be accustomed to that language1 and retain what they are supposed to have learnt before1 and because they do teach all ,exercises best4#ajij ,thomas ,tryon1 the ,pythagorean1 proposed a school in which there was to be a tutor for ,french and ,latin1 or one for each language1 and a music master4#ajia ,the scholars should begin at an early age1 and nothing but ,french and ,latin be spoken in their hearing4 ,the school should stand apart1 so that the pupils have no intercourse with wild children4 ,in about a year they learn ,french and ,latin by conversation1 and then other subjects with the help of these languages4 ,newcomers soon pick up a colloquial knowledge of the language by mixing with their schoolfellows4 ,when they speak the languages perfectly1 then is the time1 says ,tryon1 to study the grammar2 for to speak is one thing1 and the ,art or ,reason of speaking is another4 ,the first must be done by ,imitation and ,practice1 the other is the ,work of time1 and must be improved by degrees4 ,they that learn the ,art of speaking before they can speak invert the true ,method 444 for the ,reason and ,philosophy of speaking is a great ,art and the work of ,time1 and not at all to be taught to children4 ,before studying rules the learners should not only speak1 but read perfectly4 ,after learning the letters they should read daily for two or three hours1 in any book that treats of ,temperance and ,vertue4 ,notwithstanding the increased importance attached to ,french in all spheres1 the modern language received no status in the grammar schools1 where the sole aim pursued was to make good ,latin and ,greek scholars and minute philosophers4#ajib ,on the other hand1 the private institutions in which the language was taught naturally increased very greatly in number4 ,many ,huguenot refugees opened schools in and about ,london1 and one ,french observer was struck by their number4#ajic ,some arose in provincial towns4 ,at ,nottingham1 for instance1 an ,englishman1 ,jacob ,villiers1 had a school of some importance4 ,villiers himself was a well-known citizen4 ,his name appears in the ,charter of #afhb as one of the chief councillors of the town2 and he was one of the council of eighteen who were displaced by an order of the ,privy ,council of #ajth ,february #afhh4ajid ,he was described on his gravestone in ,st4 ,mary's ,churchyard as a descendant of a collateral branch of the family of the great favourite of ,james ,i4 and ,charles ,i4 ,the family continued still in ,nottingham in the middle of the eighteenth century4#ajie ,villiers's ,french school was flourishing some years before the first mention of him as a public character4 ,header3 ,,french ,,school ,,at ,,nottingham ,he had acquired his knowledge of ,french abroad1 having travelled for many years in ,france#ajif and ,germany1 where he gave ,english lessons and received favours from the ,prince ,elector ,palatine1 elder brother of ,prince ,rupert4 ,it was no doubt after his return that he opened his school for gentlemen and ladies4 ,he also completed a book on the ,french and ,english languages1 which was published in ,london in #afhj1 to gratify the ladies and gentlemen his scholars1 and all such who have a mind so to be4 ,his chief aim was to encourage the ,french and ,english to learn each other's language by pointing out the close affinity between them4 ,the ,vocabularium ,analogicum1 or the ,englishman speaking ,french1 and the ,frenchman speaking ,english1 ,plainly shewing the nearness or affinity betwixt the ,english1 ,french and ,latin1#ajig contains a vocabulary of similar words in the three languages--a verbal eccho repeating words thrice and that without any considerable variation--which occupies the main part of the work4#ajih ,it is preceded by rules for pronouncing ,french1 taken1 without acknowledgement1 chiefly from ,wodroeph1 and followed by selections from ,pierre de ,lain's ,royal ,french ,grammar of #affg4 ,learners of ,french are advised to master the pronunciation first1 and to engage a ,french master4 ,a collection of familiar phrases and commendatory and other ,french verses1 some of them also taken from ,wodroeph1 close the volume4 ,several schools or academies in which young ladies studied ,french1 as well as philosophy and other serious subjects1 were started at this time1 such as that kept by ,mrs4 ,bathsua ,makin1 a learned ,englishwoman of the day1 who for some time was governess to the daughters of ,charles ,i4 ,subsequently she opened a school for gentlewomen1 first at ,putney 7#afdi7 and afterwards at ,tottenham ,high ,cross1 where1 by the blessing of ,god1 ,gentlewomen may be instructed in the ,principles of ,religion1 and in all manner of sober and vertuous education4 ,more particularly in all things ordinarily taught in other schools as works of all sorts1 dancing1 musick1 singing etc4 ,half their time was employed in acquiring these arts and the other half in learning the ,latin and ,french tongues4 ,gentlewomen of eight or nine years old1 that can read well1 may be instructed in a year or two1 according to their parts1 in the ,latin and ,french tongues1 by such plain and short rules1 accommodated to the grammar of the ,english ,tongue1 that they may easily keep what they have learned1 and recover what they shall lose4 ,those wishing to pursue their studies further could learn other languages1 ,greek1 ,hebrew1 ,italian1 or ,spanish1 or could study astronomy1 geography1 and other subjects4 ,the usual fee was #bj a year1 but more was charged if the pupil made good progress4 ,parents were advised to apply for details at ,mr4 ,mason's ,coffee ,house in ,cornhill1 near the ,royal ,exchange1 on ,tuesday1 or on ,thursdays at the ,bolt and ,tun in ,fleet ,street1 from three to six in the afternoon4#ajii ,mary ,astell1 another learned ,englishwoman1 to whom we have already alluded1 came forward with a proposal advocating a scheme of study for women1 in the retirement of an establishment more academic than monastic4 ,she urges her sex to study rhetoric1 logic1 and philosophy1 and1 as most of them know ,french1 to read ,descartes and ,malebranche1 and not idle novels and romances4 ,the project ultimately fell to the ground1 however1 chiefly on account of the opposition of ,bishop ,burnet1 who condemned it as a popish design4 ,shortly afterwards ,defoe1 who would deny women no sort of learning1 proposed an academy for women1#aajj in which they should be taught all sorts of breeding suitable to both their genius and their quality1 and in particular music and dancing1 which it would be cruelty to bar the sex of1 because they are their darlings3 but besides this they should be taught languages1 as particularly ,french and ,italian2 and ,i would venture the injury of giving a woman more tongues than one4 ,as to reading1 history is the best subject4 ,there are traces of other academies in which modern languages and the exercises were the chief studies4#aaja ,at the end of ,musick or a ,parley of ,instruments1 a musical entertainment performed by the students of one of these academies1 is an advertisement of the curriculum2 instruction in ,french and ,italian was given by foreigners1 and mathematics1 music1 and the exercises received attention4 ,header3 ,,french ,,in ,,private ,,institutions ,mark ,lewis1 the friend of ,mrs4 ,makin1#aajb taught like her in a school or gymnasium at ,tottenham ,high ,cross1 where any person1 whether young or old1 as their ,quality is1 may be perfected in the ,tongues by constant conversation4 ,the school flourished about #afgj1 and there was then an apartment for ,french1 while ,italian and ,spanish were to receive attention hereafter4#aajc ,lewis's method of teaching so pleased the ,earl of ,anglesey1 then ,lord ,privy ,seal1 that he sent his grandsons to the school1 and enabled ,lewis to secure letters patent for his method4 ,a similar academy was kept by a certain ,mr4 ,banister in ,chancery ,lane near the ,pump4 ,there was a wide choice of studies1 including ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,french1 for the languages1 and the usual exercises4 ,any person that desired could be accommodated in ,mr4 ,banister's house with diet and lodging at reasonable ,rates1 444 or they may come thither at set times and be ,instructed in the things before mentioned4 ,the academy kept by ,thomas ,watts in ,little ,tower ,street differed from the majority in aiming at qualifying young gentlemen for business4 ,writing1 arithmetic1 and merchants' accounts were taught1 as well as mathematics and experimental philosophy3 a master resident in the house gave lessons in ,french1 a language absolutely necessary to business men1 and so far universal that the place is not known where 'tis not spoken4 ,accordingly it received special attention2 and as a just notion of grammar1 so the opportunity of frequent conversation1 is absolutely necessary1 if one would ever arrive at any ,perfection in this ,language1 ,watts1 therefore1 not only fix'd on a ,master capable of doing the first1 but entertained him constantly in his house1 where all those young gentlemen that learn ,french are obliged always to speak it1 and have their master daily to converse with4#aajd ,some academies confined themselves chiefly to the exercises4 ,but even then the atmosphere was ,french4 ,such was the academy opened in ,london in #afhb by ,m4 ,foubert1 a ,frenchman lately come from ,paris4 ,he was helped by a royal grant1 and seems to have been fairly successful4 ,on his arrival his goods were delivered at the house of ,m4 ,lain1#aaje probably the ,french teacher of that name4 ,as time went on such schools became more and more numerous and the demand for instruction in ,french increased4 ,the language was no longer limited chiefly to certain classes3 the gentry1 merchants1 soldiers1 and others requiring it for practical purposes4 ,it came to be regarded as a necessary part of a liberal education4 ,the ever-growing call for teachers of ,french was met by the great invasion of ,protestant refugees caused by the renewal of the fierce persecutions which culminated in the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe4 ,the reception of the fugitives was doubtful under ,james ,,ii41 who looked upon them with disfavour1 but could not1 for political reasons1 refuse them hospitality4 ,with the advent of ,william of ,orange in #afhi1 however1 their position was assured1 and they became ardent supporters of the new monarch4 ,they arrived in such multitudes1 says a contemporary1 that it was impossible to calculate their number2 there was hardly an ,english family of standing in which one or more refugees did not find a home--often a permanent one4 ,from this time dates a new period in the teaching of ,french in ,england1 dominated by the influence of these refugees1 from whose ranks the chief tutors and schoolmasters were recruited1 and whose ,french grammars and manuals continued1 in some cases1 to be used till the end of the eighteenth century1 and even later4 ,,footnotes3 #ajdc ,a play called ,the ,french ,schoolmaster appeared in #affb 7,fleay1 ,chronicle of ,english ,drama1 #ahia1 ii4 p4 #cch74 #ajdd ,there are1 however1 no points of resemblance between that work and the grammar which appeared about twelve years later4 #ajde ,catalogue of the ,library of ,dean ,smallwood1 #afhd4 #ajdf ,cp4 ,arber1 ,term ,catalogues1 i4 #bfi4 ,anne was three years younger than ,mary4 #ajdg ,schickler1 ,les glises du ,refuge1 ii4 p4 #caa4 #ajdh ,savile ,correspondence1 ,camden ,society1 #ahef1 passim4 #ajdi ,huguenot ,society ,publications1 xviii4 p4 #ach4 #ajej ,stationers' ,register1 iii4 p4 #bgg4 #ajea ,such was also the opinion of ,j4 ,minsheu1 author of the ,ductor in ,linguas 7#afag73 ,i have always found that the true knowledge and sure holding of them in our memories1 consisted in the knowing of them by their causes1 originalls and etymologies1 that is by their reasons and derivations4 #ajeb ,his work suffered in having to strive against ,cotgrave's long settled reputation4 #ajec ,the third edition appeared1 like the first1 at ,london1 #afij4 #ajed ,arber1 ,term ,catalogues1 i4 #dgg4 #ajee #hvo3 pp4 #afh1 #adb4 ,printed for ,th4 ,bassett4444 #ajef ,for instance1 that for the gender of nouns1 in #afgh1 states that those ending in e or x are masculine1 and the rest feminine2 in #afhg1 those ending in e and ion are feminine and the rest masculine2 in both cases long lists of exceptions are given4 #ajeg ,to follow the old road ,i should now decline a noun or two with these articles1 and six cases to be sure1 to wit1 the nominative1 accusative1 dative1 vocative1 and ablative1 whether our language can afford them or not4 ,but why should ,i perplex the learned with so improper and needless a thing8 ,for the distinction of cases is come from the variable termination of one and the same noun4 ,a thing incident 7,i confess7 to the ,latine tongue1 but not to our vulgar speech4 #ajeh ,a second edition of ,mige's ,english ,grammar appeared in #afia4 #ajei ,arber1 ,term ,catalogues1 iii4 #fg1 #dhg4 #ajfj ,but if they have been grounded in the principles before travelling1 they make quicker progress1 and do not lose their knowledge4 #ajfa ,car il n'y a rien de tel pour apprendre une langue que de l'entendre parler4 #ajfb ,later he added rules for ,spanish to his work4 ,colsoni also wrote ,le ,guide de ,londres pour les ,estrangers 7#ast edition1 #afic71 and several works chiefly on topical subjects1 of little interest4 ,in #afid his ,guide was followed by ,richard ,baldwin's ,booke for ,strangers4 #ajfc ,and again in #afgi4 #ajfd ,who translated one of ,tillotson's sermons into ,french 7#afgc74 #ajfe ,see ,bibliography4 #ajff ,schickler1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bhb4 #ajfg ,the ,church of ,rome evidently proved ,heretick 7#afhj72 ,the ,church of ,england evidently proved the holy catholick ,church 7#afhb74 ,towards the end of his career he wrote a ,discourse of the ,trinitie 444 etc4 7#agjj74 ,berault calls himself a ,french minister1 and he served as chaplain on several of ,his ,majesty's ships during the war with ,france at the end of the century4 #ajfh ,le ,vritable et assur ,chemin du ,ciel en ,franois et en ,anglois 7#afha71 and the ,bouquet ou un ,amas de plusieurs veritez ,thologiques 7#afhe71 dedicated to ,anne ,stuart1 afterwards queen4 #ajfi ,berault is behind the times in retaining most of the ,latin cases and tenses4 ,his grammar1 on the whole1 is fuller and more detailed than most of its kind4 #ajgj ,le ,thtre franois 7#afgd74 ed4 ,monval1 #ahgf1 p4 #fb4 ,jean ,blaeu1 in translating from ,english into ,french ,ed4 ,chamberlain's ,present ,state of ,england 7#affi71 states3 ,je ne l'ay pas sitost veu en ,anglois que j'ay jug qu'il mritoit de paroistre dans la langue franoise1 comme estant plus universelle dans la chrestient qu'aucune autre 7#afga74 ,jusserand1 ,shakespeare in ,france1 p4 #bj1 note4 #ajga ,de monumentis publicis latine inscribendis4 ,goujet1 ,bibliothque franoise 7#agdj-ef71 i4 p4 #ac4 #ajgb ,bayle1 ,oeuvres1 iv4 p4 #aij1 quoted by ,charlanne1 ,l',influence franaise en ,angleterre1 pt4 ii4 p4 #bjb4 #ajgc ,f4 ,watson1 ,grammar ,schools1 p4 #cab4 #ajgd ,epilogue to ,bellamira4 #ajge ,london1 #afgh4 #ajgf ,young ,gallants' ,academy1 #afgd1 p4 #dd4 #ajgg ,a little later ,swift wrote that the current opinion prevails that the study of ,latin and ,greek is loss of time4444 7,works1 #ahda1 ii4 p4 #bia74 #ajgh ,a ,dialogue 444 concerning ,education1 ,miscellaneous ,works1 ,london1 #agea1 p4 #cch4 #ajgi ,even the universities had to give some recognition to the modern language4 ,a ,professorship of ,modern ,history and ,modern ,languages was founded at both universities in #agbd4 ,cp4 ,cooper1 ,annals of ,cambridge1 iv4 #abh4 #ajhj ,some ,thoughts1 ,educational ,writings of ,locke1 #aiab1 p4 #abe4 #ajha ,the same opinions are voiced by later writers1 such as ,costeker1 ,education of a ,young ,nobleman1 #agbc1 p4 #ah2 and the author of a pamphlet ,on ,education1 #agcd4 #ajhb ,evelyn1 ,diary1 ,dec4 #f1 #afha4 #ajhc ,the ,compleat ,gentleman 7#agbh71 ed4 ,k4 ,d4 ,blbring1 #ahij4 #ajhd ,epilogue to ,bellamira4 #ajhe ,works1 ed4 ,a4 ,wilson1 ,verity1 ,london1 #ahhh1 ,preface4 #ajhf ,le ,blanc1 ,lettres d'un ,franais1 la ,haye1 #agde1 ii4 p4 #a4 #ajhg ,he tells ,maupertuis of the great success of his ,de la ,figure de la ,terre 7#agch7 in ,england1 where it was awaited with impatience and received with acclamation 7,lettres1 ii4 #bdd74 #ajhh ,an ,essay to revive the antient ,education of ,gentlewomen 7,mrs4 ,makin or ,mark ,lewis74 #ajhi ,french no doubt often reached grammar school boys indirectly4 ,thus ,charles ,hoole in #affj 7,a ,new ,discoverie of the old ,art of ,teaching ,school7 recommends the ,dialogues of ,du ,grs for their private reading2 perhaps1 however1 he was thinking more of the ,latin than of the ,french part4 #ajij ,miscellaneous ,works1 #agea1 pp4 #cbj-a4 #ajia ,a ,new ,method of ,educating ,children 4441 #afie4 #ajib ,th4 ,sheridan1 ,plan of ,education1 #agfi1 p4 #db4 #ajic ,m4 ,misson1 ,mmoires et ,observations d'un voyageur en ,angleterre1 la ,haye1 #afih1 p4 #ii4 #ajid ,information supplied by ,j4 ,potter ,briscoe1 ,esq41 of ,nottingham4 #ajie ,c4 ,deering1 ,an ,historical ,account of the ancient and present ,state of the ,town of ,nottingham1 ,nottingham1 #agea1 p4 #cb4 #ajif ,he remarks on the desire to learn ,english expressed by several ,french persons he met1 chiefly ,huguenots4 #ajig ,printed by ,j4 ,d4 for ,jonathan ,robinson at the ,golden ,lion1 and ,george ,wells1 at the ,sun in ,paul's ,churchyard4 #hvo1 pp4 #bbd4 #ajih ,pp4 #ag-acb4 #ajii ,an ,essay to revive the ,antient ,education of ,gentlewomen 4441 ,london1 #afgc4 #aajj ,essay on ,projects 7#afig71 ,london1 #ahhg1 pp4 #afd sqq4 #aaja ,cp4 ,loveday1 ,letters1 #afci1 p4 #agh4 #aajb ,lewis also interviewed parents any ,thursday in the afternoon between three and six o'clock1 at the ,bolt and ,tun in ,fleet ,street4 #aajc ,model for a school for the better education of ,youth1 and ,advertisement at the end of his ,plan and ,short ,rules for pointing periods 444 7c4 #afgj74 #aajd ,advertisement in ,an ,essay on the ,proper ,method for forming the ,man of ,business1 #dth ed41 #agbb1 pp4 #dd-de4 #aaje ,calendar of ,state ,papers1 ,treasury ,books1 #afgi-hj1 pp4 #acb1 #adj4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,i ,,chronological ,,list ,,of ,,manuals ,,and ,,grammars ,,for ,,teaching ,,french ,,to ,,the ,,english ,i ,the ,middle ,ages ,a4 ,manuscripts 99 ,indicates that there are also other manuscripts of later date4 ,henry ,,iii4 7#abaf-abgb73 c4 #abej ,short ,treatise on ,french ,verbs 7,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 ,r4 #c1 #ef74 ,edward ,i4 7#abgb-acjg73 99 ,le treytyz ke moun sire ,gautier de ,bibelesworthe fist a ma dame ,dionisie de ,mounchensy pur aprise de langwage 7ed4 ,t4 ,wright1 ,volume of ,vocabularies1 #aheg74 99 ,tractatus ,orthographiae of ,t4 ,h4 ,parisii ,studentis 7ed4 ,m4 ,k4 ,pope1 ,modern ,language ,review1 ,april #aiaj74 c4 #acjj 99 ,orthographia ,gallica 7ed4 ,j4 ,strzinger1 ,altfranzsische ,bibliothek1 viii41 ,heilbronn1 #ahhd74 ,edward ,,ii4 and ,edward ,,iii4 7#acjg-acgg73 ,commentaries in ,french on the ,orthographia ,gallica 7ed4 ,strzinger1 ut supra74 ,epistolaries1 or ,collections of model letters 7,,mss4 ,harl4 #diga1 ,harl4 #cihh1 ,addit4 #aggaf ,brit4 ,mus42 ,ee #d1 #bj1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr42 ,b #ad4 #ci1 #dj1 ,trinity ,col4 ,camb42 #ahb1 ,all ,souls1 ,oxon42 #ahh1 ,magdalen ,col474 ,cartularies1 or ,collections of ,bills1 ,indentures1 etc4 7,harl4 #diga2 ,ee #d1 #bj1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr42 ,addit4 #aggaf74 ,undated ,vocabularies and ,verb ,tables and ,fragments on ,grammar 7,ee #d1 #bj1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr42 ,harl4 #diga1 ,addit4 #aggaf1 ,brit4 ,mus42 #ahh1 ,magdalen ,col41 ,oxon474 c4 #acdj ,nominale sive ,verbale in ,gallicis cum expositione eiusdem in ,anglicis 7ed4 ,skeat1 ,transactions of the ,philological ,soc41 #aijc-aijf74 ,richard ,,ii4 7#acgg-acii73 ,tractatus ,orthographiae of ,coyfurelly1 ,doctor in ,law of ,orleans 7ed4 ,stengel1 ,zeitschrift fr neufranzsische ,sprache und ,literatur1 vol4 i41 #ahgh74 #acif 99 ,maniere de ,language 7ed4 ,p4 ,meyer1 ,revue critique1 #ahgc74 #acii ,petit ,livre pour enseigner les enfanz de leur entreparler comun francois 7ed4 ,stengel1 op4 cit474 c4 #adji ,donait francois pur briefment entroduyr les ,anglois et la droit language de ,paris et de pais la d'entour fait aus despenses de ,johan ,barton par pluseurs bons clercs du language avandite 7ed4 ,stengel1 op4 cit474 ,conjugation of ,verbs1 by ,r4 ,dove4 ,le ,donait soloum douce franceis de ,paris 7,sloane ,,mss4 #eac74 c4 #adae ,liber ,donati 7,,mss4 ,dd #ab1 #bc1 ,gg #f1 #dd1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr42 ,addit4 #aggaf ,brit4 ,mus474 ,femina4 ,liber iste vocatur ,femina1 quia sicut ,femina docet infantemloqui maternam1 sic docet iste liber iuvenes rethorice loqui ,gallicum prout infra patebit 7ed4 ,w4 ,a4 ,wright1 ,roxburghe ,club1 #aijg74 #adae ,maniere de ,language 7ed4 ,p4 ,meyer1 ,romania1 xxxii41 #aijc74 ,john ,lydgate1 ,praeceptiones linguae gallicae1 li4 #a4 7,bale1 ,scriptores ,britanniae1 fol4 #bjc47 c4 #aejj8 ,dialogues in ,french and ,english 7,,ms4 ,ii4 #f1 #ag1 ,camb4 ,univ4 ,libr474 ,b4 ,printed ,books c4 #adhc ,tres bonne doctrine pour aprendre briefment francoys et engloys4 ,printed by ,william ,caxton4 ,b4,l4 #dto4 7,ed4 ,h4 ,bradley1 ,early ,english ,text ,society1 extra series1 lxxix41 #aijj47 ,another edition4 ,fragment of one leaf in the ,bodleian4 c4 #adib8 ,here is a good boke to lerne to speke ,french4 ,b4,l4 #dto4 ,colophon3 ,per me ,richardum ,pynson4 c4 #adih8 ,here beginneth a ,lytell treatyse for to lerne ,englisshe and ,frensshe4 ,b4,l4 #dto4 ,colophon3 ,here endeth a lytyll treatyse for to lerne ,englysshe and ,frensshe4 ,emprinted at ,westmynster by my ,wynken de ,worde4 ,another edition4 ,fragment of one leaf in the ,british ,museum4 ,b4,l4 #dto4 ,,ii ,,tudor ,,and ,,stuart ,,times #aeba ,,barclay4 ,the introductorie to wryte and to pronounce frenche4 8 ,,valence4 ,introductions in frensche4444 #aebh ,fragment of grammar in ,lambeth ,library4 #aecj ,,palsgrave4 ,lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse4 c4 #aecd ,,duwes4 ,an introductorie for to lerne 444 french trewly4 c4 #aece ,,duwes4 ,an introductorie for to lerne 444 french trewly4 c4 #aedg ,,duwes4 ,an introductorie for to lerne 444 french trewly4 #aeeb ,,veron4 ,dictionariolum puerorum4444 #aeec8 ,,du ,,ploich4 ,a ,treatise in ,english and ,frenche4444 #aeec8 ,traict pour apprendre a parler franoys et angloys4 #aeeg ,g4 ,,meurier4 ,la ,grammaire ,franoise4 4 4 4 #aeeg 7,,barlement47 ,a ,boke intituled ,italion1 ,frynsshe1 ,englysshe ,latin4 #aeei ,ane ,a4,b4,c4 for ,scottes men to read the frenche toung4444 #aefc ,,meurier4 ,communications familieres4 #aefe ,,holyband4 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister4 #aeff ,,holyband4 ,the ,french ,littleton4 #aefh 7,,barlement47 ,a ,boke intituled ,ffrynshe1 ,englysshe and ,duche4 #aega ,a ,dictionarie french and english4 #aegb ,,higgins4 ,huloets dictionarie 444 the ,french thereunto annexed4 #aegc ,,holyband4 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister4 #aegd ,,baret4 ,an ,alvearie 444 in ,englishe1 ,latin and ,french4 #aege 99 ,a plaine pathway to the ,french ,tongue4 #aegf ,,ledoyen ,,de ,,la ,,pichonnaye4 ,a ,plaine ,treatise to larne 444 ,french4 #aegh ,,bellot4 ,the ,french ,grammer4 #aegh ,,du ,,ploich4 ,a ,treatise in ,english and ,frenche1 new ed4 #aegh ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #aegh 7,,barlement47 ,dictionaire 4 4 4 en quattre ,langues4 8 ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #aehj ,,holyband4 ,a ,treatise for ,declining of ,verbs4 #aehj ,,holyband4 ,de ,pronuntiatione ,linguae ,gallicae4 #aehj ,,holyband4 ,the ,treasurie of the ,french ,tong4 #aeha ,,baret4 ,alvearie 444 ,new ed4 #aeha ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #aeha ,,bellot4 ,le ,jardin de ,vertu4 #aehb ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #aehc ,,holyband4 ,campo di ,fior4 #aehe ,,higgins4 ,the ,nomenclator or ,remembrancer of ,adrianus ,junius4 #aehh ,,bellot4 ,the ,french ,methode4 8 ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #aeij ,,de ,,corro4 ,the ,spanish ,grammer with certeine ,rules teaching 444 ,french4 #aeia ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #aeia ,,corderius4 ,dialogues in ,french and ,english4 #aeib ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,the ,french ,alphabet4 #aeic ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #aeic ,,holyband4 ,a ,dictionarie ,french and ,english4 #aeic ,,eliote4 ,ortho-,epia ,gallica4 #aeie ,e4 ,a4 ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise4 #aeie ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #aeif ,,morlet4 ,janitrix 444 ad perfectam ,linguae ,gallicae cognitionem4 #aeig ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #aeih ,the ,necessary 444 ,education of a ,young ,gentlewoman1 ,italian1 ,french and ,english4 #aeii ,,holyband4 ,a ,treatise for ,declining of ,verbs4 #afjb ,a ,short ,syntaxis of the ,french ,tongue4 #afjb ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afjd ,,sanford4 ,le ,guichet ,franois4 #afje ,,sanford4 ,a ,briefe ,extract of the former grammar 444 in ,english4 #afje ,,erondell4 ,the ,french ,garden4 #afjf ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afjg ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afaa ,,cotgrave4 ,a ,dictionarie of the ,french and ,english ,tongues4 #afab ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afae ,the ,declining of ,frenche ,verbes 7,,holyband874 #afae ,the ,french ,a4,b4,c4 #afae ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afag ,,jean ,,barbier4 ,janua ,linguarum ,quadralinguis4 #afah ,,farrear4 ,a ,brief ,direction to the ,french ,tongue4 #afai ,,laur ,,du ,,terme4 ,the ,flower de ,luce4 #afai ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afbj ,,colson4 ,the ,first ,part of the ,french ,grammar4 #afbc ,,wodroeph4 ,the spared ,houres of a souldier in his ,travels4 #afbc ,j4 ,s4 ,a ,shorte ,method for the ,declyning of ,ffrench ,verbes4 #afbe ,,sherwood4 ,the ,french ,tutour4 #afbe ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afbe ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #afbe ,,wodroeph4 ,the ,true ,marrow of the ,french ,tongue4 #afbe ,l',,isle4 ,part of ,du ,bartas1 ,french and ,english4 #afbe ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise4 #afcj ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afca ,,anchoran4 ,comenius's ,janua ,linguarum4 #afca ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afca ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #afcb ,,cotgrave4 ,french-,english ,dictionary1 with ,,sherwood',s ,english-,french ,dictionary4 #afcc ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afcc ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #afcc ,,anchoran4 ,comenius's ,janua ,linguarum4 #afcc ,,saltonstall4 ,clavis ad ,portam4 #afcc ,,de ,,grave4 ,the ,pathway to the ,gate of ,tongues4 #afcd ,,sherwood4 ,the ,french ,tutour1 #bnd ed4 #afcd ,,aufeild4 ,a ,french ,grammar and ,syntaxe4 #afce ,,cogneau4 ,a ,sure ,guide to the ,french ,tongue4 #afcf ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afcf ,,du ,,gr,s4 ,breve et accuratum grammaticae gallicae ,compendium4 #afcg 7,,barlement47 ,the ,english1 ,latine1 ,french1 ,dutch ,scholemaster4 #afcg ,,bense4 ,analogo ,diaphora 444 trium ,linguarum1 ,gallicae1 ,hispanicae et ,italicae4 #afcg ,,anchoran4 ,comenius's ,janua4 #afci ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #afci ,,holyband4 ,french ,littleton4 #afci ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise4 #afci ,,du ,,gr,s4 ,dialogi ,gallico-,anglico-,latini4 #afci ,,anchoran4 ,comenius's ,janua4 #afci 7,,barlement47 ,new ,dialogues or ,colloquies 444 #afda ,,meurier4 ,a treatise for to learne to speake ,frenshe and ,englishe4 #afda ,,holyband4 ,treatise for ,declining of ,french ,verbs4 #afda ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afdc ,,gostlin4 ,aurisodinae ,linguae ,gallicae4 #afde ,,cogneau4 ,sure ,guide 444 #afdg ,,de ,,la ,,mothe4 ,french ,alphabet4 #afdh ,,gerbier4 ,an ,introduction of the ,french ,tongue4 #afdi ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afej ,,cotgrave4 ,french ,dictionary4 #afea ,,cogneau4 ,sure ,guide4 #afeb ,,du ,,gr,s4 ,dialogi 444 #afec ,,mauger4 ,true ,advancement of the ,french ,tongue4 #afee ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #afee ,,lain4 ,a ,compendious ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue4 #afef ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar1 #bnd ed4 #afeh ,,cogneau4 ,sure ,guide4 #afeh ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar1 #crd ed4 #afei ,,leighton4 ,linguae ,gallicae addiscendae ,regulae4 #affj ,,du ,,gr,s4 ,dialogi 444 #affj ,,cotgrave4 ,dictionary4 #affj ,,herbert4 ,french and ,english ,dialogues4 #affj ,,howell4 ,lexicon ,tetraglotton4 #affb ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar1 #dth ed4 #affb ,,leighton4 444 ,regul4 #afff sop's ,fables in ,english1 ,french and ,latine4 8 ,castellion's ,sacred ,dialogues 444 ,french and ,english4 #affg ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar1 #eth ed4 #affg ,,festeau4 ,french ,grammar4 #affg ,,de ,,lain4 ,princely ,way to the ,french ,tongue4 #affh ,,holyband4 ,french ,schoolemaister4 #affh ,grammaire ,franoise et ,angloise4 #affh ,grammaire ,franoise et ,angloise4 #afgj ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #fth ed4 #afga ,,mauger4 ,lettres franoises et angloises4 #afga ,,festeau4 ,grammar1 #bnd ed4 #afgc ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #gth ed4 #afgc ,,cotgrave4 ,dictionary4 #afgd ,a ,french ,grammar 444 ,published by the ,academy4 #afgd ,,smith4 ,grammatica ,quadralinguis4 #afgd ,a very easie ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue4 #afge ,,festeau4 ,grammar1 #crd ed4 #afgf ,d',,abadie4 ,a ,new ,french ,grammar4 #afgf ,,mauger4 ,grammar 7the ,english edition74 #afgf ,,mauger4 ,lettres1 #bnd ed4 #afgg ,,de ,,lain4 ,princely ,way1 #bnd ed4 #afgg ,grammaire franoise et angloise4 #afgg ,,mi,,ge4 ,a ,new ,dictionary1 ,french and ,english4 #afgh ,,mi,,ge4 ,a ,new ,french ,grammar4 #afgi ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #hth ed4 #afgi ,,festeau4 ,grammar1 #dth ed4 #afgi ,grammaire ,franoise et ,angloise4 #afgi ,,mi,,ge4 ,dictionary of ,barbarous ,french4 #afhj ,,villiers4 ,vocabularium ,analogicum4 #afha ,,berault4 ,chemin du ,ciel4 #afhb ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #ajth ed4 #afhb ,,mi,,ge4 ,short and ,easie ,french ,grammar4 #afhc ,,vairesse ,d',,allais4 ,short and ,methodical ,introduction4 #afhd ,,mi,,ge4 ,a ,short ,french ,dictionary4 #afhd ,,kerhuel4 ,grammaire ,franoise4 #afhd ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #aath ed4 #afhd ,,cheneau4 ,french ,grammar4 #afhe ,,festeau4 ,grammar1 #eth ed4 #afhe ,,berault4 ,bouquet 4 4 4 de ,plusieurs ,veritez ,theologiques4 #afhf ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #abth ed4 #afhg sop's ,fables in ,english1 ,french and ,latine4 #afhg ,,mi,,ge4 ,grounds of the ,french ,tongue4 #afhh ,,mi,,ge4 ,great ,french ,dictionary4 #afhh ,,berault4 ,new 444 ,french and ,english ,grammar4 #afhh ,,colsoni4 ,the ,new ,trismagister4 #afhi ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #acth ed4 #afij ,,mi,,ge4 ,short ,french ,dictionary1 #crd ed4 #afij ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #adth ed4 #afij ,,colsoni4 ,a new ,grammar of three languages4 #afia ,,mi,,ge4 ,short ,french ,dictionary4 #afia ,,berault4 ,grammar1 #bnd ed4 c4 #afia ,,lane4 ,french ,grammar4 8 ,,grolleau4 ,compleat ,french ,tutor4 #afic ,,festeau4 ,grammar1 #fth ed4 #afic ,,berault4 ,grammar1 #crd ed4 #afic ,eloquent ,master of ,languages4 #afid ,,boyer4 ,compleat ,french ,master4 #afid ,,mauger4 ,grammar1 #afth ed4 #afie ,,colsoni4 ,new and ,accurate ,grammar new edition4 #afih ,,mi,,ge4 ,last and ,best ,french ,grammar4 #afih ,,berault4 ,french and ,english ,grammar4 #afih ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar4 #afii ,,mauger4 ,french ,grammar new edition4 #afii ,,boyer4 ,french ,master1 #bnd ed4 8 ,,vaslet4 ,nomenclator ,trilinguis4 #afii ,,boyer4 ,royal ,french ,dictionary4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,bibliography1 ,,arranged ,,alphabetically1 ,,of ,,manuals ,,for ,,teaching ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,to ,,the ,,english1 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,stuart ,,period ,a41 ,e43 ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise pour facilement et promptement aprendre la langue ,angloise et ,franoise4 ,rev et corrige tout de nouveau d'une quantit de fautes qui toient aux prcdentes impressions par ,e4 ,a4 ,augmente en cette dernire dition d'un vocabulaire ,anglois et ,franois4 ,rouen1 #aeie4 ,cp4 sub ,anonymous ,works1 ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise4 ,,sop3 ,cp4 ,,codrington4 ,,anchoran1 ,j4 ,a43 ,porta ,linguarum ,trilinguis reserata et aperta1 sive seminarium linguarum et scientiarum omnium1 hoc est compendiaria ,latinam1 ,anglicam1 ,gallicam 7et quamvis aliam7 ,linguam una cum artium et scientiarum fundamentis sesquianni spatio ad summum docendi et perdiscendi methodus sub titulis centum periodis mille comprehensa4 ,the ,gate of ,tongues unlocked and opened4444 ,london1 ,george ,millar for ,michael ,sparke1 #afca4 ,another issue1 ,george ,millar for the ,author1 #afca4 ,another ed43 ,porta linguarum 444 ,j4 ,a4 ,anchorani 444 ,th4 ,cotes sumptibus ,m4 ,sparke1 #afcc4 #crd ed4 ,anna ,griffin sumptibus ,m4 ,sparke4 ,london1 #afcg4 #dth ed4 ,e4 ,griffin for ,m4 ,sparke1 #afci4 ,,anonymous ,,works 7,arranged chronologically73 ,de la ,prosodie1 etc4 7,fragment in the ,lambeth ,library dated #aebh47 7,,barlement47 ,a boke intituled ,italion1 ,frynsshe1 ,englysshe and ,laten4 ,london1 ,ed4 ,sutton1 #aeeg4 ,another ed43 ,a ,boke intituled ,ffrynsshe1 ,englysshe and ,duche4 ,london1 ,john ,alde1 #aefi4 ,another ed43 ,dictionaire1 ,colloques ou ,dialogues en ,quattre langues1 ,flamen1 ,ffranoys1 ,espaignel et ,italien1 with the ,englishe to be added thereto4 ,george ,bishop1 #aegh4 ,another ed43 ,the ,english,french ,latine ,dutch ,scholemaster1 or an ,introduction to teach young ,gentlemen and ,merchants to travell or trade4 ,being the only helpe to attaine to those ,languages4 ,london1 for ,michael ,sparke1 #afcg4 ,another ed43 ,new ,dialogues or ,colloquies and a little ,dictionary of eight ,languages4 ,a ,booke very necessary for all those that study these tongues either at home or abroad1 now perfected and made fit for travellers1 young merchants and seamen1 especially those that desire to attain to the use of the tongues4 ,london1 ,printed for ,michael ,sparke1 #afci4 ,ane ,a1 ,b1 ,c for ,scottes men to read the frenche toung with ane exhortatioun to the noblis of ,scotland to favour thair ald friendis4 ,licensed to ,wm4 ,nudrye1 #aeei4 ,a ,dictionarie french and english4 #aega4 ,col43 ,imprinted at ,london by ,henry ,bynneman for ,lucus ,harrison4 ,an4 #aegj4aajf ,a plaine pathway to the ,french ,tongue1 very profitable for ,marchants and also all other which desire the same1 aptly devided into nineteen chapters4 ,the contents whereof appear in the next ,page4 ,printed in ,london by ,thomas ,east1 #aege4 ,another ed4 ,newly corrected4 ,london1 by ,th4 ,east 7date unknown74 ,corderius4 ,dialogues in ,french and ,english4 ,john ,wyndet1 #aeia4 ,grammaire ,angloise et ,franoise 4 4 4 ,rev et corrige 4 4 4 par ,e4 ,a4 7q4v4 sub ,a41 ,e47 ,another ed43 ,grammaire ,angloise pour facilement et promptement apprendre la langue angloise4 ,qui peut aussi aider aux ,anglois pour apprendre la langue ,franoise4 ,alphabet anglois contenant la prononciation des ,lettres avec les declinaisons et conjugaisons4 ,paris1 #afbe4 ,another ed4 ,rouen1 #afci4 ,another ed4 ,rouen1 #affb4 ,another ed4 ,rouen1 #afgj4 ,another edition4 ,london1 #afgg4 ,the ,necessary1 fit and convenient ,education of a young ,gentlewoman1 ,italian1 ,french and ,english4 ,adam ,islip1 #aeih4 ,a ,short ,syntaxis in the ,french ,tongue4 #ab4 ,london1 #afjb4 ,the ,french ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,licensed to ,rd4 ,field1 #afae4 ,the ,declining of ,frenche ,verbes4 ,rd4 ,field1 #afae 7another edition of ,holyband's ,treatise for declining of ,verbs874 7,sbastien ,chteillon47 ,sacred ,dialogues translated out of ,latin into ,french and ,english for the benefit of youth4 ,sold by ,r4 ,hom and ,j4 ,sims4 7,date unknown1 between #afff and #affh87 ,a ,french ,grammar ,teaching the knowledge of that language1 how to read and write it perfectly without any other precedent ,study than to have learnt to ,read only4 ,published by the ,academy for ,reformation of the ,french ,tongue4 ,london4 ,printed by ,w4 ,g4 for ,wm4 ,copper at the sign of the ,pelican in ,little ,britain1 #afgd4 ,a very easie ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue1 or ,a very brief ,grammar1 proper for all persons who have bad memories4 ,containing all the principal grounds for the more speedy practice of discourse4 ,also many peculiar phrases2 with a very useful ,dialogue for young factors4 #hvo4 ,sold by ,j4 ,sims at the ,king's ,head in ,cornhill1 c4 #afgc4 ,,aufeild1 ,,william3 ,a ,french ,grammar and ,syntaxe contayning most exact and certaine rules for the pronunciation1 orthography1 construction and use of the ,french ,language4 ,written in ,french by ,charles ,maupas1 of ,bloys4 ,translated into ,english with additions and explications peculiarly useful to us ,english2 together with a preface and an ,introduction wherein are contained divers necessary instructions for the better understanding of it1 by ,w4 ,a4 ,london1 printed for ,rich4 ,mynne1 dwelling in little ,britaine at the signe of ,st4 ,paul1 #afcd4 ,,barbier1 ,,jean3 ,janua ,linguarum ,quadralinguis1 or ,the ,gate to the ,latine1 ,english1 ,frenche and ,spanish ,tongues4 ,london1 #afag4aajg ,,barclay1 ,,alexander3 ,here begynneth the introductory to wryte and to pronounce frenche1 compyled by ,alexander ,barclay1 compendiously at the commandement of the right hye excellent and myghty prynce ,thomas1 duke of ,northfolke4 ,col4 ,imprynted at ,london in the ,flete strete at the sygne of the rose ,garlande by ,robert ,coplande1 #aeba1 the yere of our lord ,,mcccccxxi ye ,,xxii day of ,marche4 ,,baret1 ,,john3 ,an ,alvearie or triple ,dictionarie in ,englishe1 ,latin1 and ,french4 ,very profitable for all such as be desirous of any of those three languages4 ,also by the two tables at the ende of this booke they may contrariwise finde the most necessarie ,latin or ,french words1 placed after the order of an ,alphabet1 whatsoever are to be found in any other ,dictionarie4 ,and so to turne them backwardes againe into ,englishe when they reade any ,latin or ,french authors and doubt of any harde worde therein4 ,london1 ,henry ,denham1 #aegd4 ,a new edition3 ,an ,alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing four sundrie tongues1 namelie1 ,englishe1 ,latine1 ,greeke and ,frenche4 ,newlie enriched with a varietie of wordes1 phrases1 proverbs and divers lightsome observations of ,grammar4 ,by the ,tables you may contrariwise finde out the most necessarie wordes placed after the ,alphabet1 whatsoever are to be found in any other dictionarie4 ,which ,tables also serving for lexicons1 to lead the learner unto the ,english of such hard wordes as are often read in ,authors1 being faithfullie examined1 are truelie numbered4 ,verie profitable for such as be desirous of anie of those languages4 ,london1 ,henry ,denham1 #aeha4 ,,barlement4 ,cp4 ,entry under ,anonymous ,works4 ,,bellot1 ,,jacques3 ,the ,french ,grammer1 or an ,introduction orderly and ,methodically1 by ready rules1 playne preceptes and evident examples1 teachinge the ,frenche ,tongue3 ,made and very commodiously set forth for their sakes that desire to attayne the ,perfecte knowledge of the same ,language1 by ,james ,bellot1 ,gentleman of ,caen in ,normandy4 ,imprinted at ,london in ,fleet ,street by ,th4 ,marshe1 #aegh4 ,le jardin de vertu et bonnes moeurs1 plain de plusieurs belles fleurs et riches sentences avec le sens d'icelles recueillies de plusieurs autheurs1 et mises en lumiere par ,j4 ,b4 gent4 ,cadomois4 ,imprim ,londres par ,th4 ,vautrollier1 #aeha4 ,the ,french ,methode4 ,london1 #aehh4 ,,bense1 ,,pierre3 ,analogo ,diaphora seu ,concordantia ,discrepans et ,discrepantia ,concordans trium linguarum ,gallicae1 ,hispanicae et ,italicae4 ,unde innotescat1 quantum quaque a ,romanae linguae1 unde ortum duxere1 idiomate deflexerit2 earum quoque ratio et natura dilucide et succinte delineantur4 ,oper et studio ,petri ,bense1 ,parisini1 apud ,oxon4 has linguas profitentis4 ,oxoniae4 ,excudebat ,guilielmus ,turner impensis authoris1 #afcg4 ,,berault1 ,,pierre3 ,a new1 plain1 short and compleat ,french and ,english ,grammar4 ,wherby the learner may attain in few months to speak and write ,french correctly as they do now in the ,court of ,france1 and wherein all that is dark1 superfluous and deficient in other grammars is plain1 short and methodically supplied4 ,also very useful to strangers that are desirous to learn the ,english tongue3 for whose sake is added a short but very exact ,english ,grammar4 ,omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulce4 ,london1 #afhh4 ,second edition1 c4 #afia4 ,third edition1 with additions1 #afic4 ,fourth edition1 #agjj4 ,another edition3 ,a ,new and ,compleat ,french and ,english ,grammar1 plainly showing the shortest and easiest way to understand1 speak1 and write spedily those ,languages1 but especially the ,french4 ,containing above twenty pleasant and useful ,dialogues translated into ,english by ,sir ,r4 ,l',estrange1 and here rendered into ,french with several others1 almost word for word4 ,to which is added a short but exact ,english ,grammar4 ,also a ,french and ,english ,dictionary1 where the parts of speech are ranged separately4 ,comprehending all that's necessary for any ,persons that have a desire to learn either ,language1 by ,peter ,berault1 ,french ,minister1 lately chaplain of ,her ,majesty's ships ,kent1 ,victory1 ,scarborough1 and ,dunkirk4 ,london1 #agjg4 ,le ,vritable et assur chemin du ciel en ,franois et en ,anglois4 ,london1 #afhj4 ,bouquet ou un amas de plusieurs veritez thologiques propres pour instruire toutes sortes de personnes1 particulierement pour consoler une ame dans ses ,troubles4 ,london1 #afhe4 ,,beyer1 ,,guillaume3 ,la vraye instruction des trois langues la ,franoise1 l',angloise et la ,flamende4 ,propose en des rgles fondamentales et succinctes4 ,un assemblage des mots les plus usits1 et des colloques utiles et rcratifs2 o hormis d'autres discours curieus1 le gouvernement de la ,france se rduit4 ,historiquement et ,politiquement mise en trois langues4 ,seconde ed4 augmente4 ,dordrecht1 #afha4 7,date of first edition unknown47 ,,ch,,teillon 7or ,,castellion71 ,s4 ,cp4 entry under ,anonymous ,works4 ,,cheneau1 ,,fran,,ois3 ,francis ,cheneau's ,french ,grammar1 enrich'd with a compendious and easie way to learne the ,french ,tongue in a very short time4 ,licensed to ,ch4 ,mearne1 c4 #afhd4 ,the ,perfect ,french ,master teaching in less than a month to turn any ,english into ,french by ,rule and ,figure1 ,alphabetically1 in a ,method hitherto altogether unknown in ,europe4 ,with the regular and irregular ,verbs4 ,by ,mr4 ,cheneau of ,paris1 ,professor of the ,latin1 ,english1 ,french1 ,italian ,tongues1 formerly slave and ,governor of the ,isles of ,nacsia and ,paros in the ,archipelago1 now living in his house in ,old ,fish ,st4 next door to the ,faulcon in ,london4 ,where may be seen his short grammars for all these tongues1 after the same way4 ,w4 ,botham for the author4 ,london1 #agaf4 ,,codrington1 ,,robert3 sop's ,fables1 ,with his life in ,english1 ,french and ,latine4 ,the ,english by ,tho4 ,philipott1 ,esq41 the ,french and ,latine by ,rob4 ,codrington1 ,m4,a4 ,illustrated with one hundred and ten sculptures4 ,by ,francis ,barlow1 and are to be sold at his ,house1 ,the ,golden ,eagle in ,new ,street near ,shoe ,lane1 #affe-f4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afhg4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #agjc4 ,,cogneau1 ,,paul3 ,a ,sure ,guide to the ,french ,tongue1 teaching by a most easy way to pronounce it naturally1 to reade it perfectly1 write it truly and speke it readily4 ,together with the ,verbes personal and impersonal and useful sentences added to some of them1 most profitable for all sorts of people to learn4 ,painfully gathered and set in order after the alphabetical way1 for the better benefit of those that are desirous to learn the ,french1 by me ,paul ,cogneau4 ,london1 #afce4 ,another ed4 ,london #afde4 ,another ed4 ,london #afea4 ,fourth ed41 exactly corrected1 much amplified1 and better ordered4 7,by ,wm4 ,herbert1 q4v47 ,london1 #afeh4 ,,colson1 ,,william3 ,the ,first ,part of the ,french ,grammar1 ,artificially reduced into ,tables by ,arte locall1 called the ,arte of ,memorie4 ,contayning 7after an extraordinary and most easy method7 the ,pronunciation and ,orthographie of the ,french ,tongue according to the new manner of writing1 without changing the originall or old1 for the understanding of both by a reformed alphabet of twenty-six letters and by a triple distinction of characters 7,roman1 ,italian and ,english7 representing unto the eye three sorts of pronunciation distinguished by them4 ,proper1 signified by a ,roman character3 ,improper1 noted by an ,italian3 and superfluous1 marked by an ,english4444 ,and as most amply is declared in the explication of the foresaid reformed alphabet1 and letters in it otherwise ordered1 and named then heretofore1 and two otherwise shaped 444 for j and v consonants4 ,in which is taught1 the universall knowledge of the four materiall parts of ,grammar 444 for the better understanding of the rules of the triple pronunciation aforesaid4 ,also the ,artificiall and generall declination terminative of ,nounes and ,verbes4 ,lately compiled by ,william ,colson of ,london1 ,professor of ,litterall and ,liberall ,sciences4 ,london1 ,printed by ,w4 ,stansby1 #afbj4 ,,colsoni1 ,,francisco ,,casparo3 ,the ,new ,trismagister4 ,or the ,new ,teacher of three ,languages by whom an ,italian1 an ,english and a ,french ,gentleman may learn to discourse together1 each in their several languages3 in four parts4 7,i47 ,the ,italian learns to speak ,english4 7,,ii47 ,the ,english and ,italian ,gentlemen learn to speak ,french4 7,,iii47 ,the ,french and the ,english ,gentlemen learn to speak ,italian4 7,,iv47 ,the ,frenchman learns to speak ,english4 #afhh4 ,another edition3 ,a ,new and ,accurate ,grammar whereby ,french and ,italian1 the ,spaniard and the ,portuguese may learn to speak ,english well1 with rules for the learning of ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4 ,nouvelle et curieuse ,grammaire par laquelle4 4 4 4 ,par ,f4 ,colsoni1 ,m47,a74 et ,maitre des dites ,langues demeurant dans ,falcon ,court en ,lothbury4 #hvo4 ,printed for ,s4 ,manship at the ,ship in ,cornhill1 c4 #afie4 ,,comenius4 ,cf4 entry under ,anonymous ,works4 ,,corderius4 ,cf4 entry under ,anonymous ,works4 ,,corro1 ,,antonio ,,de3 ,the ,spanish ,grammer1 with certeine ,rules teaching both the ,spanish and ,french tongues4 ,by which they that have some knowledge in the ,french tongue may the easier attaine to the ,spanish1 and likewise they that have the ,spanish with more facilitie learne the ,french3 and they that are acquainted with neither of them1 learne either or both4 ,made in ,spanish by ,m4 ,anthonie de ,corro1 translated by ,john ,thorius1 ,graduate in ,oxeford4 ,london1 #aeij4 ,,cotgrave1 ,,randle3 ,a ,dictionarie of the ,french and ,english ,tongues1 compiled by ,randle ,cotgrave4 ,london1 #afaa4 ,another ed4 444 ,whereunto is also annexed a most copious dictionary of the ,english set before the ,french1 by ,r4 ,s4 ,l4 7,robert ,sherwood1 ,londoner1 q4v47 ,london1 #afcb4 ,another ed4 444 ,whereunto are newly added the animadversions and ,supplements of ,james ,howell1 ,esquire4 ,inter ,eruditos ,cathedram habeat ,polyglottes4 ,london1 #afej4 ,another ed4 444 ,whereunto are added sundry ,animadversions1 with supplements of many hundreds of words never before printed3 with accurate castigations throughout the whole work1 and distinctions of the obsolete words from those that are now in use4 ,together with a large ,grammar1 a dialogue consisting of all ,gallicisms1 with additions of the most significant proverbs1 with other refinements according to ,cardinal ,richelieu's late ,academy4 ,for the furtherance of young learners1 and the advantage of all others that endeavour to arrive to the most exact knowledge of the ,french ,language1 this work is exposed to publick1 by ,james ,howell1 ,esqr4 ,london1 #affj4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afgc4 ,d',,abadie1 ,j4,g43 ,a new ,french ,grammar1 containing at large the principles of that tongue1 or the most exact rules1 criticall observations1 and fit examples for teaching with a good method and attaining the ,french ,tongue as the ,witts or the ,gentlemen of the ,french ,academy speak and pronounce it at this present time4 ,composed for the use of the ,english gentry by ,j4,g4 d',abadie1 ,esq4 ,oxford1 ,printed by ,h4 ,hall1 ,printer to the ,university1 for ,j4 ,crosby1 #afgf4 ,,de ,,grave1 ,,jean3 ,the ,pathway to the ,gate of ,tongues1 being the first instruction for little children1 with ,a short manner to conjugate ,french ,verbes4 ,ordered and made ,latine1 ,french and ,english by ,jean de ,grave1 ,professor of the ,french ,tongue in the ,city of ,london4 ,oxford1 #afcc4 7,bound with second ed4 of ,comenius's ,porta ,linguarum4 ,london1 #afcc47 ,,de ,,la ,,mothe1 ,n41 ,g43 ,the ,french ,alphabet1 teaching in a very short time1 and by a most easie way1 to pronounce ,french naturally1 to read it perfectly1 to write it truly and to speak it accordingly4 ,together with the treasure of the ,french tongue1 containing the rarest sentences1 proverbs1 parobles1 similies1 apothegmes1 and ,golden sayings of the most excellent ,french ,authors1 as well ,poets as ,oratours4 ,the one diligently compiled and the other painfully gathered and set in order1 after the alphabetical maner1 for the benefit of those that are desirous of the ,french tong4 ,printed by ,e4 ,alde1 and are to be solde by ,h4 ,jackson1 dwelling in ,fleet ,street1 beneath the ,conduit at the sign of ,st4 ,john ,evangelist1 #aeie4 ,first edition4 ,london1 ,richard ,field1 #aeib 7no copy known74 ,another edition4 ,london1 ,geo4 ,miller1 #afbe4 ,another edition4 ,london1 ,geo4 ,miller1 #afca4 ,another edition4 ,london1 ,geo4 ,miller1 #afcc4 ,another edition4 ,london1 ,geo4 ,miller1 #afci4 ,another edition4 ,london1 ,a4 ,miller1 #afdg4 ,,de ,,la ,,pichonnaye1 ,,ledoyen3 ,a ,plaine ,treatise to larne in a shorte space of the ,french ,tongue4 ,london1 ,h4 ,denham1 #aegf4 ,,de ,,sainliens1 ,,claude4 ,cf4 ,,holyband4 ,,du ,,gr,s1 ,,gabriel3 ,breve et ,accuratum grammaticae ,gallicae ,compendium in quo superflua rescinduntur et necessaria non omittuntur1 per ,gabrielem du ,grs1 ,gallum1 eandem linguam in celeberrima ,cantabrigiensi ,academia edocentem4 ,cantabrigiae4 ,impensis ,authoris amicorum grati4 #afcf4 ,dialogi ,gallico-,anglico-,latini1 per ,gabrielem ,dugrs ,linguam ,gallicam in illustrissima et famosissima ,oxoniensi ,academia 7haud ita pridem privatim7 edocentem4 ,oxoniae1 ,l4 ,lichfield1 #afci4 ,editio secunda1 priori emendatior4 ,oxoniae1 #afeb4 ,editio tertia4 ,oxoniae1 #affj4 ,,du ,,ploich1 ,,pierre3 ,a ,treatise in ,english and ,frenche right necessary and proffitable for al young children 7the contentes whereof apere in a table at the ende of this boke71 made by ,peter du ,ploiche1 teacher of the same dwelling in ,trinitie lane at the signe of the ,rose4 ,richard ,grafton1 #aeec8 ,another ed4 ,imprim ,londre par ,jean ,kingston1 ,la xiiii4 ,auvril1 #aegh4 ,,du ,,terme1 ,,laur3 ,the ,flower de ,luce1 planted in ,england1 or a short ,treatise and brieffe compendium wherein is contained the true and lively pronunciation and understanding of the ,french tongue4 ,compiled by ,laur du ,terme1 ,teacher of the same4 ,london1 ,printed by ,nicholas ,okes1 #afai4 ,,duwes1 ,,giles3 ,an ,introductorie for to lerne to rede1 to pronounce1 and to speke ,frenche trewly1 compyled for the right high excellent and most vertuous lady1 the lady ,mary of ,englande1 daughter to our most gracious soverayn ,lorde ,kyng ,henry the ,eight4 ,printed at ,london by ,thomas ,godfray1 cum privilegio a rege indulto1 #aecc8 ,another ed4 ,printed at ,london by ,nicolas ,bourman for ,john ,reyns in ,paules churchyarde at the signe of the ,george4 #aecd8 ,another ed41 newly corrected and amended4 ,printed by ,john ,waley1 #aedf8 ,,eliote1 ,,john3 ,ortho-,epia ,gallica4 ,eliot's ,fruits for the ,french4 ,enterlaced with a double new invention1 which teacheth to speke truely1 speedily and volubly the ,french ,tongue4 ,pend for the practice1 pleasure and profit of all ,english ,gentlemen who will endevour by their owne paine1 studie and dilligence to attaine the naturall accent1 the true pronunciation1 and swift and glib ,grace of that noble1 famous and courtly ,language4 ,natura et ,arte4 ,london1 ,printed by ,john ,wolfe1 #aeic4 ,,erondell1 ,,pierre3 ,the ,french ,garden for ,english ,ladyes and ,gentlewomen to walke in or a sommer dayes labour4 ,being an instruction for the attayning unto of the ,french tongue3 wherein for the practise thereof are framed thirteene dialogues in ,french and ,english1 concerning divers matters1 from the rising in the morning till ,bedtime4 ,also the ,historie of the ,centurion mencioned in the ,gospell3 in ,french ,verses4 ,which is an easier and shorter ,methode then hath beene yet set forth to bring the lovers of the ,french tongue to the perfection of the same4 ,by ,peter ,erondell1 ,professor of the same language4 ,london1 ,printed for ,ed4 ,white1 #afje4 ,cf4 ,,holyband1 ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,,farrear1 ,,robert3 ,a brief ,direction to the ,french ,tongue4 ,oxford1 #afah4 ,,festeau1 ,,paul3 ,a new and ,easie ,french ,grammar1 or a ,compendious way how to ,read1 ,speak and ,write ,french exactly1 very necessary for all ,persons whatsoever4 ,with variety of ,dialogues4 ,whereunto is added a ,nomenclature ,english and ,french4 ,london4 ,printed for ,th4 ,thornycroft and are to be sold at the ,eagle and ,child near ,worcester ,house in the ,strand1 #affg4 ,second ed41 c4 #afga4 ,another ed43 ,paul ,festeau's ,french ,grammar1 being the newest and exactest ,method now extant for the attaining to the purity of the ,french ,tongue4 ,augmented and enriched with several choice and new dialogues4444 ,the third ed41 ,diligently corrected1 amended and much enlarged with the ,rules of the ,accent1 by the ,author1 ,native of ,blois1 and now ,professor of the ,french ,tongue in ,london4 ,london1 #afge4 ,another ed43 ,paul ,festeau's ,french ,grammar being the newest and exactest method 444 for the attaining of the ,elegancy and ,purity of the ,french ,tongue as it is now spoken at the ,court of ,france4 ,augmented and enriched with several choice and new ,dialogues1 furnished with rich phrases1 proverbs and sentences1 profitable and necessary for all persons4 ,together with a ,nomenclature ,english and ,french1 and the ,rules of ,quantity4 ,the fourth ed41 ,diligently corrected1 amended and very much enlarged by the author1 native of ,blois1 a city in ,france where the true tone of the ,french tongue is found by the ,unanimous consent of all ,frenchmen4 ,london1 #afgi4 ,fifth ed4 #afhe4 ,another ed41 c4 #afhh4 ,another ed4 #afic4 ,another ed41 c4 #afii4 ,another ed41 corrected and enlarged by the author1 c4 #agja4 ,,gerbier1 ,,sir ,,balthazar3 ,an ,introduction of the ,french tongue1 7in7 ,the ,interpreter of the ,academie for forrain languages and all noble sciences and exercises4 ,the first part4 ,london1 #afdh4 ,,giffard1 ,,james4 ,cf4 ,,holyband1 ,french ,schoolemaister4 ,,gostlin3 ,aurisodinae linguae ,gallicae4 #hvo4 ,london1 #afdc4 ,,grave4 ,cf4 ,,de ,,grave4 ,,grolleau3 ,grolleau's ,compleat ,french ,tutor4 7,date unknown1 some time after #afhe47 ,,herbert1 ,,william3 ,french and ,english ,dialogues4 ,in a more exact and delightful method then any yet extant4 ,london1 #affj4 ,cf4 ,,cogneau4 ,,higgins1 ,,john3 ,huloet's ,dictionarie1 corrected and amended and set in order and enlarged with many names of men1 townes1 beastes1 foules1 fishes1 trees1 shrubbes1 herbes1 fruites1 places1 instrumentes1 etc4 ,in eche place fit phrases gathered out of the best ,latin authors4 ,also the ,french thereunto annexed1 by which you may finde the ,latin or ,frenche of anye ,englishe woorde you will4 ,by ,john ,higgins1 late student in ,oxeforde4 ,londoni1 in aedibus ,thomae ,marshij1 anno #aegb4 ,the ,nomenclator or ,remembrancer of ,adrianus ,junius1 ,physician1 divided into two ,tomes1 conteining proper names1 and apt termes for all thinges under their convenient ,titles1 which within a few leaves doe follow4 ,written by the said ,adrianus ,junius in ,latine1 ,greek1 ,french1 and other forrein tongues1 and now in ,english by ,john ,higgins4 ,with a full supplie of all such words as the last inlarged edition affoorded2 and a dictional index1 conteining above #adjj principall words with their numbers directly leading to their interpretations4 ,of special use for all scholars and learners of the same languages4 ,london1 #aehe4 ,,holyband1 ,,claude1 or ,,de ,,sainliens3 ,the ,french ,schoolemaistr1 wherein is most plainlie shewed the true and most perfect way of pronouncinge of the ,french tongue1 without any helpe of ,maister or ,teacher3 set foorthe for the furtherance of all those whiche doo studie privately in their owne study or houses3 ,unto the which is annexed a ,vocabularie for al such woordes as bee used in common talkes3 by ,m4 ,claudius ,hollybande1 professor of the ,latin1 ,french and ,englishe tongues4 ,imprinted at ,london1 by ,william ,how for ,abraham ,veale1 #aegc4 ,first ed4 #aefe 7no copy known74 ,another ed4 7,date unknown2 after #aehj47 ,another ed43 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister of ,claudius ,hollybande4 ,newly corrected4444 ,london1 #aehb4 ,another ed4 ,newly corrected by ,c4 ,hollyband4 ,london4 7,date unknown47 ,another ed43 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister1 wherein is most plainely shewed the true and perfect way of pronouncing the ,french tongue1 to the furtherance of all those which would gladly learne it4 ,first collected by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h41 and now newly corrected and amended by ,p4 ,erondelle1 ,professor of the said tongue4 ,london1 #afjf4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afab4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afae4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afai4 ,another ed43 ,the ,french ,schoolemaister4444 ,first collected by ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 444 and now 444 corrected 444 by ,james ,giffard4 ,london1 #afca4 ,another ed4 444 newly corrected and amended by ,james ,giffard1 ,professor of the said tongue4 ,london1 #afcf4 ,another ed4 444 new corrected1 amended and much enlarged1 with severall quaint ,proverbes and other necessary rules1 by ,james ,giffard1 ,professor of the said ,tongue4 ,london1 #afda4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afdi4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afee4 ,another ed43 ,the ,french ,schoolmaster teaching easily that language4 ,london1 #affh4 ,the ,french ,littelton1 ,a most easie1 perfect and absolute way to learne the ,frenche tongue4 ,newly set forth by ,claude ,holliband1 teaching in ,paules ,churchyarde by the signe of the ,lucrece4 ,let the reader peruse the epistle to his owne instruction4 ,imprinted by ,t4 ,vautrollier3 ,london1 #aeff4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #aegh4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #aegi4 ,another ed43 ,set forth by ,claudius ,holliband1 teaching in ,pauls ,churchyard at the sign of the ,golden ,ball4 ,london1 #aeha4 ,another ed4 444 ,london1 #aeia4 ,another ed4 444 by ,claudius ,holliband1 ,gentilhomme ,bourbonnois4 ,london1 #aeic4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #aeig4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afjb4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afjg4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afji4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afbe4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afcj4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afcc4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afci4 ,a ,treatise for ,declining of ,verbs which may be called the second chiefest worke of the frenche tongue3 ,set forthe by ,claudius ,hollyband1 teaching at the signe of the ,golden ,ball in ,paules ,church ,yarde4 ,london1 #aehj4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #aeii4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afda4 ,de ,pronuntiatione4 ,claudii a ,sancto ,vinculo de pronuntiatione lingu ,gallic libri duo4 ,ad illustrissimam simulq doctissimam ,elizabetham ,anglorum ,reginam4 ,t4 ,vautrollerius2 ,londoni4 #aehj4 ,the ,treasurie of the ,french ,tong3 teaching the waye to varie all sortes of verbes4 ,enriched so plentifully with wordes and phrases 7for the benefit of the studious in that language7 as the like hath not before bin published4 ,gathered and set forth by ,c4 ,hollyband4 ,for the better understanding of the order of the dictionarie peruse the ,preface to the reader4 ,london1 #aehj4 ,campo di ,fior1 or the ,flowery ,field of four languages1 ,italian1 ,latin1 ,french and ,english4 ,london1 #aehc4 ,a ,dictionarie ,french and ,english4 ,published for the benefite of the studious in that language4 ,gathered and set forth by ,claudius ,hollyband4 ,london1 #aeic4 ,,howell1 ,,james3 ,lexicon ,tetraglotton1 and ,english1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish ,dictionary4 ,whereunto is adjoined a large nomenclature of the proper terms 7in all four7 belonging to several arts and sciences1 to recreations1 to professions both liberal and mechanick etc4 ,divided into fifty-two sections4 ,with another ,vocabulary of the choicest ,proverbs4444 ,london4 ,printed by ,j4 ,g4 for ,cornelius ,bee at the ,king's ,arms in ,little ,brittaine1 #affj4 ,cf4 ,,cotgrave4 ,,huloet4 ,cf4 ,,higgins4 ,,kerhuel1 ,,jean ,,de3 ,grammaire ,franoise1 compose par ,jean de ,kerhuel1 ,professeur de la ditte ,langue4 ,a ,french ,grammar4444 #hvo4 ,printed for ,j4 ,wickins at the ,miter in ,fleet ,street1 #afhd4 ,,lain1 ,,pierre3 ,a compendious ,introduction to the ,french ,tongue4 ,teaching with much ease1 facility and delight1 how to attain and most exactly to the true and modern pronunciation thereof4 ,illustrated with several elegant expressions and choice ,dialogues1 useful for persons of ,quality that intend to travel into ,france1 leading them1 as by the hand1 to the most noted and principal places of that ,kingdom4 ,whereunto is annexed an alphabetical ,rule for the true and modern orthography of that ,french now spoken1 being a catalogue of very necessary words never before printed4 ,by ,peter ,lain1 a teacher of the said tongue now in ,london4 ,london4 ,printed by ,t4 ,n4 for ,anthony ,williamson at the ,queen's ,arms in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 near the ,west ,end4 #afee4 ,,lain1 ,,pierre ,,de3 ,the ,princely way to the ,french ,tongue1 as it was first compiled for the use of her ,highness the ,lady ,mary and since taught her royal sister the ,lady ,anne4 ,to which is added a ,chronological abridgement of the sacred scriptures by way of dialogue4 ,together with a longer explication of the ,french ,grammar1 ,choice fables of sop in ,burlesque ,french1 and lastly some models of letters ,french and ,english1 by ,p4,d4,l4 #bnd ed4 ,london4 ,printed by ,j4 ,macock for ,h4 ,herrington etc41 #afgg4 ,first ed4 #affg4 7,no copy known47 ,,leighton1 ,,henry3 ,lingu ,gallic addiscend regul4 ,collect opera et industria ,h4 ,leighton1 ,a4,m4 ,hanc linguam in celeberrima ,academia ,oxoniensi edocentis4 ,oxoniae1 #afei4 ,another ed4 #affb4 ,,lisle ,,of ,,wilbraham1 ,,wm43 ,part of ,du ,bartas1 ,english and ,french1 and in his owne kinde of verse1 so near the ,french ,englished1 as may teach an ,englishman ,french1 or a ,frenchman ,english4 ,sequitur ,victoria ,junctos4 ,by ,wm4 ,l'isle of ,wilburgham1 ,esquier for the ,king's ,body4 ,london4 ,printed by ,john ,hoviland1 #afbe4 ,,mauger1 ,,claude3 ,the true advancement of the ,french ,tongue1 or ,a new ,method1 and more easie directions for the attaining of it1 then ever yet have been published4 ,whereunto are added many choice and select dialogues1 containing not onely familiar discourses1 but most exact ,instructions for ,travell1 in a most elegant style and phrase1 very useful and necessary for all gentlemen that intend to travel into ,france4 ,also a chapter of ,anglicismes1 wherein those errors which the ,english usually commit in speaking ,french are demonstrated and corrected4 ,by ,claudius ,mauger1 late professor of the ,french ,tongue at ,blois1 and now teacher of the said ,tongue here in ,london4 ,london4 ,printed by ,tho4 ,roycroft for ,j4 ,martin and ,j4 ,allestry at the ,bell in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 #afec4 ,another ed43 ,mr4 ,mauger's ,french ,grammar4 ,enriched with severall choise ,dialogues containing an exact account of the ,state of ,france1 ,ecclesiastical1 civil1 and ,military1 as it flourisheth at present under ,king ,louis the xivth4 ,also a chapter of ,anglicisims1 with instructions for travellers into ,france4 ,the second edition1 enlarged and most exactly corrected by the ,authour1 late professor at ,blois4 ,london4 ,printed by ,r4 ,d4 for ,john ,martin and ,j4 ,allestree at the ,bell in ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 #afef4 ,third ed4 ,london1 #afeh4 ,another ed4 444 enriched with #ej new short dialogues4 ,containing for the most part an exact account of ,england's ,triumphs1 with the state of ,france 444 as it flourisheth now since ,cardinal ,mazarin's death4 ,with a most curious and most ingenious addition of #gjj ,french verses upon the rules4 ,also a ,chapter of ,anglicisms1 with instructions for ,travellers into ,france4 ,fourth ed4 ,exactly corrected1 enlarged and perused by the great care and diligence of the author1 late publick ,professor of ,blois1 in ,france1 for all ,travellers4 ,london4 ,printed for ,john ,martin 444 #affb4 ,fifth ed4 ,london1 #affg4 ,another ed4 444 ,enlarged and ,enriched with #hj new dialogues1 both familiar and high with compliments1 and the exact pronunciation4 ,all digested in a most admirable order1 with the ,state of ,france4444 ,also a chapter of ,anglicisms and ,francisms4 ,with #gjj ,french verses containing all the rules of the ,french ,tongue4 ,as likewise the ,generall ,rules of the ,english ,pronunciation4 ,sixth ed4 ,exactly corrected by the author4444 ,london4 ,printed for ,j4 ,martin at the sign of the bell1 and ,james ,allestry at the ,rose and ,crown in ,paul's ,churchyard1 #afgj4 ,another ed43 ,la ,grammaire franoise de ,claude ,mauger explique en ,anglois1 ,latin et en ,franois1 enrichie de regles plus courtes et plus substantielles qu'auparavant1 comme du regime des verbes1 de la conjugaison de tous les irreguliers par toutes leurs personnes1 d'un ,trait de l'accent etc4 ,et la fin1 d'un abrg des regles generales de la ,langue ,angloise1 en dialogues franois1 outre ce qui toit dans la sixime dition4 ,la #g;e4 d4 ,reveue et corrige par l'autheur 4 4 4 ,londres4 ,londres4 ,imprime par ,t4 ,roycroft pour ,jean ,martin et se vendent l'enseigne de la cloche au cymitire de ,sainct ,paul4 #afgc4 ,claudius ,mauger's ,french ,grammar1 etc4 ,another ed41 with additions3 ,the ,english ,edition4 ,london1 ,printed by ,john ,martyn1 c4 #afgf4 ,eighth ed4 ,londres1 ,j4 ,martyn1 #afgi4 ,tenth ed4 ,corrected by the author1 now professor of the ,languages at ,paris4 ,london1 #afhb4 ,eleventh ed4 ,london1 ,t4 ,harrison1 c4 #afhc4 ,twelfth ed4 4 4 4 avec des augmentations de ,mots la ,mode d'une nouvelle ,methode et de tout ce qu'on peut souhaiter pour s'acquirir ce beau ,language comme on le parle present la cour de ,france4 ,o on voit un ordre extraordinaire et methodique pour l'acquisition de cette langue1 savoir1 une trs parfaite pronuntiation1 la conjugaison de tous les ,verbes irreguliers1 des ,regles courtes et substantielles1 ausquelles sont ajoutez un ,vocabulaire et une nouvelle ,grammaire ,angloise pour l'utilit de tant d'estrangers qui ont envie de l'apprendre4 ,la douzime dition exactement corrige par l'autheur present ,professeur des ,langues ,paris4 ,londres4 ,r4 ,e4 pour ,r4 ,bently et ,s4 ,magnes demeurant dans ,russel ,st4 au ,covent ,gardin4 #afhf4 ,thirteenth ed4 444 ,corrected by the author1 late at ,paris and now at ,london4 ,london1 #afhh4 ,fourteenth ed4 444 ,corrected and ,enlarged by the author4 ,london4 ,sold by ,t4 ,guy at the ,oxford ,arms in ,lombard ,street4 #afij4 ,sixteenth ed4 444 exactly corrected and ,enlarged by the ,authour4 ,late ,professor of the ,languages at ,paris4 ,london4 ,r4 ,e4 for ,r4 ,bently in ,russel ,st4 in ,covent ,gardin1 #afid4 ,eighteenth ed4 444 corrected and enlarged by the author4 ,london1 for ,t4 ,guy1 #afih4 ,nineteenth ed4 444 corrected and enlarged by the ,author1 late professor of the ,languages at ,paris4 ,london1 ,r4 ,wellington1 #agjb4 ,twentieth ed4 444 ,faithfully corrected from all the errors in the former by a ,french ,minister4 ,london1 ,r4 ,wellington1 #agje4 ,twenty-first ed4 444 with additions4 ,london1 ,r4 ,wellington1 #agji4 ,mauger's ,letters4 ,written upon several subjects1 faithfully translated into ,english1 for the greater facility of those who have a desire to learn the ,french ,tongue4 ,corrected and ,revised by the author1 formerly professor of ,french at ,bloys1 now at ,london4 ,london1 #afga4 ,another ed43 ,lettres ,franoises et ,angloises de ,claud ,mauger sur ,toutes sortes de sujets grands et mediocres avec augmentation de #ej lettres nouvelles1 dont il y en a plusieurs sur les dernires et grandes ,revolutions de l',europe4 ,trs exactement corrige1 polies et crites1 dans le plus nouveau stile de la cour1 dans lesquelles la puret et l'lgance des deux langues s'accordent mieux qu'auparavant4 ,trs utiles ceux qui aspirent au beau language1 et sont curieux de savoir de quelle manire ils doivent parler aux personnes de quelque qualit qu'elles soient4 ,outre ,quantit de ,billets la fin du ,livre1 qui sont trs necessaires pour le commerce4 ,la seconde dition4 ,londres1 imprime par ,tho4 ,roycroft et se vendent chez ,samuel ,lowndes vis vis de l',hostel d',exeter dans la ,strand4 #afgf4 ,,meurier1 ,,gabriel3 ,la ,grammaire ,franoise contenante plusieurs belles reigles propres et necessaires pour ceulx qui desirent apprendre la dicte langue par ,gabriel ,meurier4 4 4 4 ,anvers1 #aeeg4 ,traict pour apprendre a parler ,franoys et ,angloys4 ,rouen1 ,etienne ,colas1 #aeec4 ,communications familieres non moins propres que tresutiles a la nation ,angloise desireuse et diseteuse du langage ,franois1 par ,g4 ,meurier4 ,familiare ,communications no leasse proppre then verrie proffytable to the ,inglis nation desirous and nedinge the ffrenche language1 by ,gabriel ,meurier4 ,en ,anvers4 4 4 4 ,chez ,pierre de ,keerberghe sus le ,cemitiere nostre ,dame a la ,croix d'or4 #aefc4 ,another ed43 ,trait pour apprendre a parler ,franois et ,anglois3 ensemble un ,formulaire de faire missives1 obligations1 ,quittances1 ,lettres de ,change1 necessaire a tous marchands qui veulent trafiquer4 ,a ,treatise for to learne to speake ,frenshe and ,englische1 together with a form of making letters1 indentures1 and obligations1 quittances1 letters of exchange1 verie necessarie for all ,marchants that do occupy trade of ,marchandise4 ,a ,rouen1 chez ,jacques ,caillou1 tenant sa boutique dans la ,court du ,palais4 #afda4 ,,mi,,ge1 ,,guy3 ,a ,new ,dictionary ,french and ,english with another ,english and ,french according to the present use and modern orthography of the ,french1 inrich'd with new words1 choice phrases and apposite proverbs4 ,digested into a most accurate method and contrived for the use of both ,english and ,foreiners1 by ,guy ,mige1 ,gent4 ,london4 ,printed by ,t4 ,dawks for ,t4 ,basset at the ,george near ,clifford's ,inn in ,fleet ,street1 #afgg4 ,a ,new ,french ,grammar or a ,new ,method for learning of the ,french ,tongue4 ,to which are added for a help to young beginners a large vocabulary1 and a store of familiar ,dialogues1 besides ,four curious discourses of ,cosmography in ,french for proficient learners to turn into ,english4 ,by ,guy ,mige1 ,gent41 author of the ,new ,french ,dictionary1 professor of the ,french ,tongue and of ,geography4 ,london4 ,th4 ,basset4444 #afgh4 ,a ,dictionary of ,barbarous ,french or a ,collection by ,way of ,alphabet of ,obsolete1 ,provincial1 ,misspelt and ,made ,words in ,french4 ,taken out of ,cotgrave's ,dictionary with some additions4 ,a work much desired and now performed for the satisfaction of such as read old ,french4 ,by ,guy ,mige1 ,gent41 author of the ,new ,french ,dictionary4 ,london1 for ,th4 ,basset1 #afgi4aajh ,a ,short and ,easie ,french ,grammar1 fitted for all sorts of learners3 according to the present use and modern orthography of the ,french1 with some ,reflections on the ancient use thereof4 ,london1 ,th4 ,basset1 #afhb4 ,a ,large ,vocabulary ,english and ,french for the use of such as learn ,french or ,english4 ,london1 ,th4 ,basset1 #afhb4 ,one ,hundred and ,fifteen ,dialogues ,french and ,english fitted for the use of learners4 ,london1 ,th4 ,basset1 #afhb4 ,a ,short ,french ,dictionary1 ,english and ,french with another in ,french and ,english1 according to the present use and modern orthography1 by ,guy ,mige1 ,gent4 ,london1 for ,th4 ,basset1 #afhd4 ,another ed4 ,london1 #afij4 ,another ed4 ,the ,hague1 #afia4 ,fifth ed4 ,the ,hague1 #agja4 ,another ed4 #agjc4 ,another ed4 ,rotterdam1 #agbh4 ,the ,grounds of the ,french ,tongue1 or a new ,french ,grammar according to the present use and modern orthography4 ,digested into an easy1 short and accurate ,method with a ,vocabulary and ,dialogues4 ,london1 for ,th4 ,basset1 #afhg4 ,the ,great ,french ,dictionary in two parts4 ,the first part ,french and ,english4 ,the second ,english and ,french4 ,according to the ancient and modern orthography3 wherein each language is set forth in its greatest latitude4 ,the various senses of words both proper and figurative are orderly digested1 and illustrated with apposite phrases and proverbs4 ,the hard words explained3 and the proprieties adjusted4 ,to which are prefixed the ,grounds of both ,languages in two ,discourses1 the one ,english1 the other ,french1 by ,guy ,mige1 ,gent4 ,london1 for ,th4 ,basset1 #afhh4 ,mige's last and best ,french ,grammar1 or a new ,method to learn ,french1 containing the ,quintessence of all other ,grammars1 with such plain and easie rules as will make one speedily perfect in that famous language4444 ,london1 ,w4 ,freeman and ,a4 ,roper1 #afih4 ,another ed41 the second4 ,london1 ,j4 ,freeman1 #agje4 ,,morlet1 ,,pierre3 ,janitrix sive ,institutio ad perfectam linguae ,gallicae cognitionem acquirendam4 ,authore ,petro ,morleto ,gallo4 ,oxoniae1 excudebat ,josephus ,barnesius1 #aeif4 ,,palsgrave1 ,,john3 ,lesclarcissement de la langue francoyse compose par maistre ,jehan ,palsgrave ,angloys natyf de ,londres et gradue de ,paris4 #aecj4 ,col4 ,the printing fynysshed by ,johan ,hawkyns1 the xviii daye of ,july4 ,the yere of our lorde ,god ,m4,c4,c4,c4,c4,c4 and ,,xxx4 ,s41 ,j43 ,a short method for the ,declyning of ,ffrench ,verbes etc41 by ,j4 ,s41 c4 #afbc4 ,,saltonstall1 ,,wye3 ,clavis ad ,portam1 or a key fitted to the gates of tongues4 ,wherein you may readily find the ,latine and ,french for any ,english word1 necessary for all young schollers4 ,oxford8 ,printed by ,wm4 ,turner1 #afcd4 7,bound with the #afcc edition--,london--of ,anchoran's ,comenius47 ,,sanford1 ,,john3 ,le ,guichet ,franois4 ,sive janicula et brevis introductio ad linguam ,gallicam4 ,oxoniae4 ,excudebat ,josephus ,barnesius1 #afjd4 ,a briefe extract of the former ,latin ,grammar1 done into ,english for the easier instruction of the ,learner4 ,at ,oxford4 ,printed by ,joseph ,barnes1 and are to be sold in ,paules ,churchyard at the signe of the ,crowne by ,simon ,waterson4 #afje4 ,,sherwood1 ,,robert3 ,the ,frenche ,tutour1 ,london1 ,humphrey ,lownes1 #afbe 7no copy known74 ,the ,french ,tutour by way of grammar exactly and fully ,teaching all the most necessary ,rules for the attaining of the ,french tongue1 whereunto are also annexed three ,dialogues2 and a touch of ,french compliments all for the furtherance of ,gentlemen1 ,schollers and others desirous of the said language4 ,second ed4 carefully corrected and enlarged by ,robert ,sherwood1 ,londoner4 ,london1 ,printed by ,robert ,young1 #afcd4 ,dictionnaire ,anglois-,franois4 #afcb4 ,cf4 ,,cotgrave4 ,,smith1 ,j43 ,grammatica ,quadrilinguis1 or brief ,instructions for the ,french1 ,italian1 ,spanish and ,english ,tongues1 with the ,proverbs of each ,language fitted for those who desire to perfect themselves therein4 ,by ,j4 ,smith1 ,m4,a4 ,printed for ,j4 ,clarke at the ,star1 in ,little ,britain1 and ,j4 ,lutton at the ,anchor in ,poutry4 ,london1 #afgd4 ,,thorius1 ,j4 ,cf4 ,,corro4 ,,vairasse ,d',,allais1 ,,denys3 ,a short and methodical introduction to the ,french tongue1 composed for the particular benefit and use of the ,english4 ,paris1 #afhc4 ,,valence1 ,,pierre3 ,introductions in ,frensche for ,henry the ,yonge ,erle of ,lyncoln 7childe of greate esperaunce71 sonne of the most noble and excellente pryncesse ,mary 7by the grace of ,god queene of ,france etc474 ,no date or place4 ,,veron1 ,,john3 ,dictionariolum puerorum1 tribus linguis1 ,latina1 ,anglica et ,gallica conscriptum4 ,latino gallicum nuper ediderat ,rob4 ,stephanus ,parisiis1 cui ,anglicam interpretationem adiecit ,joannes ,veron4 ,london1 ,john ,wolfe1 #aeeb4 ,,villiers1 ,,jacob3 ,vocabularium ,analogicum1 or the ,englishman speaking ,french1 and the ,frenchman speaking ,english4 ,plainly showing the nearness or affinity betwixt the ,english1 ,french and ,latin4 ,alphabetically digested4 ,with new and easy directions for the attaining of the ,french tongue1 comprehended in rules of pronouncing1 rules of accenting and the like4 ,to which is added the explanation of ,mounsieur de ,lain's ,french ,grammar by way of dialogue set forth for the special use and encouragement of such as desire to be proficients in the same language4 ,the like not extant4 ,by ,jacob ,villiers1 ,master of a ,french ,school in ,nottingham4 ,london1 printed by ,j4 ,d4 for ,jonathan ,robinson1 at the ,golden ,lion1 and ,george ,wells1 at the ,sun in ,st4 ,paul's ,church yard1 #afhj4 ,,wodroeph1 ,,john3 ,the spared houres of a souldier in his travels1 or ,the true marrowe of the ,french ,tongue1 wherein is truly treated 7by ordre7 the nine parts of speech1 together with two rare and excellent bookes of ,dialogues1 the one presented to that illustrious prince ,count ,henry of ,nassau1 in his younger yeares for his ,furtherance in this tongue1 newly reviewed and put in pure ,french ,phrase 7easie and delightfull7 from point to point2 and the other formed and made 7since7 by the ,authour himselfe4 ,added yet an excellent worke1 very profitable for all the ages of man1 called the ,springwell of ,honour and ,vertue1 gathered together very carefully1 both by ancient and ,moderne ,philosophers of our ,tyme4 ,with many ,godly songs1 sonets1 ,theames1 ,letters missives1 and sentences proverbiales3 so orderly1 plain and pertinent1 as hath not 7formerly7 beene seene in the most famous ,ile of great ,britaine4 ,by ,john ,wodroephe1 ,gent4 ,les ,heures de relasche4 4 4 4 ,imprim ,dort1 ,par ,nicolas ,vincentz1 ,pour ,george ,waters1 ,marchant ,libraire1 demeurant prs le ,march au ,poisson1 l',enseigne des ,manchettes dores4 #afbc4 ,second edition3 ,the ,marrow of the ,french ,tongue1 containing3 #a4 ,rules for the true pronunciation of every letter as it is written or spoken4 #b4 ,an exact ,grammar containing the nine parts of speech of the ,french ,tongue4 #c4 ,dialogues on ,french and ,english1 fitted for all kind of discourse for courtiers1 citizens1 and countrymen1 in their affairs at home or travelling abroad4 ,with variety of other helps to the learner as ,phrases1 ,letters missive1 sentences1 proverbes1 ,theames1 and in both languages4 ,so exactly collected and compiled by the great paines and industry of ,m4 ,john ,wodroephe1 that the meanest capacity either ,french or ,englishman1 that can but reade1 may in a short time by his owne industry without the helpe of any ,teacher attaine to the perfection of both languages4 ,ce livre est aussi utile pour le ,franois d'apprendre l',anglois que pour l',anglois d'apprendre le ,franois4 ,the second edition4 ,reviewed and purged of much gross ,english1 and divers errors committed in the former edition printed at ,dort4 ,london4 ,printed for ,rd4 ,meighen at the signe of the ,leg in the ,strand1 and in ,st4 ,dunstan's ,churchyard in ,fleet ,street1 #afbe4 ,,footnotes3 #aajf ,licensed to ,harrison 7,arber1 ,stationers' ,register1 i4 #cfd72 assigned over to ,th4 ,woodcock by ,harrison's widow1 #aegh 7ibid4 ii4 #cca74 #aajg ,based on ,bathe's ,janua ,linguarum in ,latin and ,spanish1 #afaa4 #aajh ,sometimes bound with the ,dictionary of #afgg4 ,,index ,the names of those who taught ,french or wrote ,french grammars are marked with an asterisk4 99,a41 ,e41 #bgg1 #bhj 99,abadie1 ,j4 ,g4 d'1 #chh ,a ,b ,c of ,geneva1 #acb ,a ,b ,c for ,scottes men1 #aed ,acadmie franaise1 #aaj n41 #aib1 #aic1 #cje1 #ced1 #cee1 #ceg1 #chh ,academies1 #abj sq41 #bca1 #bif sq41 #cde1 #cig sq42 academies in ,france1 #ceb1 #ceg1 #cfc sq42 ,protestant academies in ,france1 #bcb sq41 #cdc sq4 ,addison1 ,joseph1 #bah1 #bbj1 #cgj n4 ,aesop1 in ,french1 #bid1 #chb ,aimar de ,ranconnet1 #aij1 #bcj n4 ,alexander1 ,sir ,wm41 #bej1 #bee ,alexandre1 ,pierre1 #aah ,alexis1 ,guillaume1 #aja ,allen1 ,cardinal1 #bag ,amadis de ,gaule1 #he1 #aid n41 #aif1 #bbc ,amyot1 ,jacques1 #aif1 #aii 99,anchoran1 ,j4 ,a41 #bie ,ancients and ,moderns1 quarrel of1 #cia 99,andr1 ,bernard1 #fh1 #ge1 #gf ,angers1 #bje1 #cdf1 #cea ,anglo-,french1 #ah sq41 #bf ,anne1 ,queen of ,england1 #cha1 #chi n4 ,anne of ,cleves1 #gb ,anvers1 #bda sq41 #bdd1 #bde1 #bgi ,arithmetic1 #aci1 #aed1 #cii ,ascham1 ,roger1 #fd1 #gc1 #abj1 #adf1 #ahb1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #baf1 #bge n41 #bhf1 #cce ,ashley1 ,robert1 #aea1 #abi ,astell1 ,mary1 #cie1 #cih ,aubign1 ,agrippa d'1 #fe n41 #aig1 #cef 99,aufeild1 ,wm41 #bfj n41 #bhd sq41 #bib ,aulnoy1 ,mme4 d'1 #cfg n4 ,auteuil1 #bja ,bacon1 ,anthony1 #bcd ,bacon1 ,francis1 #ff1 #aah n41 #aid n41 #bab1 #bai1 #bba n41 #bbd1 #bgc1 #bge1 #bhh1 #cee n4 ,bacon1 ,nicholas1 #aah n41 #abj ,balzac1 ,guez de1 #cji1 #cee ,banister's ,academy1 #cii 99,barbier1 ,jean1 #bid 99,barclay1 ,alexander1 #d1 #cd1 #fb1 #fe1 #fi n41 #gg sq41 #abc1 #add1 #bcg1 #bdj 99,baret1 ,james1 #ahg sq41 #ahi1 #aib ,barkley1 ,lady ,elizabeth1 #bfh 99,barlement1 ,noel de1 #bda sq41 #bdf1 #bgi ,baro1 ,pierre1 #aai 99,barton1 ,jehan1 #bg n41 #cb sq41 #ch1 #gh ,basset1 ,james1 #bac1 #bad 99,baudouin1 ,jean1 #bge ,bayle1 ,pierre1 #cia ,baynton1 ,andrew1 #hg n41 #ia1 #if1 #ajj1 #aje1 #ajf ,beal1 ,sir ,robert1 #bja ,beau1 ,character of the1 #cgf n41 #cgg n4 ,beau1 ,the ,compleat1 #cgf ,beau1 ,the ,defeated1 #cgd n41 #cgh n4 ,beaux1 #bce sq41 #bdg1 #cba1 #ceg sq41 #cgj n41 #cge sq41 #cgh1 #cid ,belleau1 ,remi1 #agd ,belleforest1 ,franois de1 #aif 99,bellemain1 ,jean1 #ajg sq41 #aab1 #aac ,bellerose1 #chj 99,bellot1 ,jacques1 #aef sq41 #afh1 #agb1 #ahe1 #ahf n41 #aif1 #bjb1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bgg1 #bhj 99,bense1 ,pierre1 #bjd 99,berail1 ,gilles1 #aef 99,berault1 ,pierre1 #cjj1 #chh sq4 ,bze1 ,thodore de1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjb1 #bcd 99,bibbesworth1 ,walter de1 #aa sq41 #af1 #bh1 #ch1 #dj1 #bfd ,bignon1 ,jrme1 #ff n41 #bgc ,blois1 #bah1 #bbg sq41 #bce1 #bda1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #cja sq41 #cbe1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cej1 #cea1 #ceb1 #cei ,blount1 ,th41 #bfc 99,bod1 ,charles1 #aee n4 ,bodin1 ,jean1 #aig1 #aii4 #bgc n4 ,bodley1 ,sir ,th41 #bcd ,boiasteau1 ,pierre1 #aie1 #aif ,boileau1 #bah1 #bbj n41 #cee ,boisrobert1 #bei n41 #bgc n4 ,boleyn1 ,anne1 #ga1 #gb1 #hc1 #ie ,booksellers and ,french teachers1 #abi1 #ach1 #afc ,bossuet1 #cfd ,bouhours1 le ,pre1 #bbj n41 #cid ,bouillon1 ,duchesse de1 #cfg 99,bourbon1 ,nicolas1 #hc1 #hi ,bourges1 #bda1 #cea 99,boy1 ,francis1 #adi ,boyle1 ,richard1 #bjj ,bozon1 ,nicolas1 #h n4 ,brantme1 #bgc n4 ,bretons3 teach ,french1 #cbe1 #cbf ,brinsley1 ,john1 #agi n41 #cea ,brome1 ,rd41 #bih1 #cgd n4 ,buck ,third ,universitie1 #afi n4 ,buckingham1 ,george ,villiers1 first ,duke1 #bbg1 #bfb1 #bhe1 #bih1 #cif2 second ,duke1 #cfd1 #cgc ,bullar1 ,colonel1 #cjd ,burghley1 ,wm4 ,cecil1 ,lord1 #aai1 #aba1 #abc1 #ahg1 #aia1 #baa1 #bae1 #bag ,burgundians1 #aae1 #aai1 #ade1 #afh sq41 #bda ,busby1 ,john1 #cjf 99,bushell1 ,abraham1 #aee ,bussy1 le 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#bje1 #bjg1 #bfb1 #bfc1 #bgb1 #bie1 #bih1 #cjh1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cdd1 #cdh1 #cfb sq41 #cff1 #cfg1 #cfh1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cgf1 #cgg n41 #chj ,charpentier1 #cia ,chartier1 ,alain1 #aja ,chaucer1 ,geoffrey1 #ah1 #ai ,cheking1 ,john1 #aje 99,chemin1 ,nicholas1 #adi 99,cheneau1 ,francis1 #chb ,chesterfield1 ,lord1 #cai n4 99,chevallier1 ,a4 ,r41 #aab1 #aai1 #aej n4 99,chiflet1 ,laurent1 #bcj sq41 #cec1 #che ,children and study of ,french1 #ab1 #cb1 #ch sq41 #eb1 #ee1 #bab sq41 #bci1 #bdb1 #bie sq41 #cca1 #cch sq41 #cdj1 #cda sq41 #ceg1 #cfe1 #cga n41 #chb1 #cie ,church1 use of ,french in the1 #bd ,churches3 foreign1 in ,england3 ,dutch1 #aaf sq42 ,french1 #aaf sq41 #ade sq41 #aea1 #aee sq41 #aei1 #afg1 #afi1 #bie1 #bii1 #cji1 #caj1 #cbh sq41 #cci1 #chi2 ,italian1 #adf2 ,walloon1 #aag2 ,protestant1 in ,france1 #cfc4 ,see ,charenton ,cibber1 ,colley1 #cgf n41 #cgh1 #chj n4 ,clarendon1 ,ed4 ,hyde1 ,earl of1 #bji1 #baj n41 #bah1 #cde1 #ceb1 #ceg1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cgc1 #cib1 #cic1 #cie ,cleland1 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#bei1 #bfj1 #bfb1 #bii n41 #cai sq41 #cdb1 #cec 99,corro1 ,antonio de1 #bjb ,coryat1 ,tom1 #fc1 #bba1 #bce ,cosmo ,,iii4 of ,tuscany1 #fc ,costeker1 ,j4 ,l41 #ceh1 #cic 99,cotgrave1 ,randle1 #aij sq41 #bdj1 #bde1 #bge1 #bha1 #bhe1 #bhh1 #cba n41 #ccc1 #chc ,cotterel1 ,sir ,ch41 #cjg n4 ,courtesy book1 #dg1 #eb ,courtin1 ,french ambassador1 #cjh1 #cfb n41 #cfg ,cowley1 #cfd1 #cfe ,coxe1 ,leonard1 #ajj 99,coyfurelly1 ,canon1 #aj1 #ce1 #ch ,cranmer1 #hc1 #aab1 #aah1 #abj ,cromwell1 ,secretary1 #ha1 #hc1 #ih1 #aje1 #aai1 #abj ,cromwell1 ,gregory1 #hj1 #aje1 #aai 99,curlew1 ,nicholas1 #adi ,daines1 ,simon1 #bge n41 #bgh ,dallington1 ,sir ,rt41 #fe n41 #bba n41 #bbb sq41 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bca1 #bfa n41 #cdh ,dancing1 #id1 #acg1 #bji1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bfa1 #bfg1 #bhb1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjc1 #ccb1 #cdb1 #cdf1 #ceg1 #cei1 #cfi1 #cga1 #cig1 #cih ,dancing-master3 ,french1 #cfi1 #cgj1 #cge1 #cgf ,danneau1 ,lambert1 #gg 99,darvil d',arras1 ,ch41 #aee n4 ,davenant1 ,sir ,wm41 #bfc n41 #cfd1 #cfe1 #chj ,defoe1 ,daniel1 #bbe n41 #cid1 #cih 99,deger1 ,anness1 #agj 99,de la ,barre1 #bdf n4 99,de la ,mare1 #bii 99,de la ,mothe1 ,g41 #aai1 #afa sq41 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #bjj1 #bbe1 #bfe1 #bgi1 #bij1 #bia1 #bib ,de la ,porte3 epithets1 #aag 99,denisot1 ,nicolas1 #hc sq41 #hi1 #bic ,descartes1 #cie1 #cih ,despagne1 ,jean1 #cbh1 #cbi ,desportes1 #agd1 #bej1 #cef ,dialects1 ,french1 #bg1 #bh1 #ed1 #add1 #ade1 #afi1 #bda1 #cbf ,dialogues3 ,french1 #cf sq41 #dc sq41 #dh sq41 #ic1 #ajb1 #abd1 #acj sq41 #ace1 #acg sq41 #afd sq41 #agf1 #aic1 #bjf1 #bda sq41 #bed1 #bfg1 #bhb1 #bia1 #bid1 #bii n41 #cjb sq41 #cje1 #cji1 #cac sq41 #cag1 #cbd1 #cdg1 #cdi1 #che1 #chf1 #chi2 ,latin1 #ade1 #aha1 #ahe1 #bid ,dictionaries3 ,french and ,english1 #ie1 #abb1 #ada1 #afh1 #ahg sq41 #aib1 #aii1 #bec1 #bha1 #chc sq42 ,latin1 influence on ,french1 #abb1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bic1 #chc ,digby1 ,sir ,john1 #bjc ,diplomacy3 use of ,french in1 #g1 #bb1 #bc1 #fe1 #fg1 #gj n41 #afi n41 #bfj1 #cib1 #cic ,doctors1 ,french1 #bei n41 #cfi 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edition of the complete works of a ,french poet of the time of ,philippe ,auguste4444 ,if we mistake not1 this edition is the first old ,french text published in ,england having no immediate bearing upon ,english history4 ,there have been some such texts published 444 elsewhere1 but none1 ,i believe1 of this importance1 nor any edited with this degree of thoroughness or this wealth of illustrative commentary4--,professor ,t4 ,a4 ,,jenkins1 ,chicago1 in ,modern ,philology4 ,no4 ,,ii4 ,,oeuvres ,,po,,tiques ,,de ,,jean ,,de ,,lingendes ,edited by ,e4 ,t4 ,,griffiths1 ,m4,a41 ,late ,lecturer in ,french ,language and ,literature in the ,university of ,manchester4 ,crown #hvo4 ,cloth4 #fs4 net4 ,cette rimpression fait honneur aux publications de l',universit de ,manchester1 et l'excution typographique mrite les mmes loges que l'information savante de l'diteur4--,l4 ,,roustan in ,revue critique d'histoire et de littrature4 ,no4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,and ,,cultivation ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,language ,,in ,,england ,,during ,,tudor ,,and ,,stuart ,,times1 ,,with ,,an ,,introductory ,,chapter ,,on ,,the ,,preceding ,,period ,by ,,kathleen ,,lambley1 ,m4,a41 ,sometime ,assistant ,lecturer in ,french in the ,university of ,manchester2 ,lecturer in ,french in the ,university of ,durham4 #ads4 net4 ,,the ,,manchester ,,university ,,press #ab ,,lime ,,grove1 ,,oxford ,,road ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,company ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,etc4 ,,modern ,,language ,,texts ,,french ,,series ,,rousseau4 ,,du ,,contrat ,,social4 ,edited by ,emeritus ,professor ,c4 ,e4 ,,vaughan1 ,m4,a4 ,paper1 #es4 net2 cloth1 #fs4 net4 ,,alfred ,,de ,,vigny4 ,,po,,mes ,,choisis4 ,edited by ,e4 ,,allison ,,peers1 ,m4,a4 ,paper1 #cs4 #f;d4 net2 cloth1 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,pascal4 ,,lettres ,,provinciales4 ,edited by ,h4 ,f4 ,,stewart1 ,d4,d4 ,paper1 #gs4 #f;d4 net2 cloth1 #hs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper4 #bas4 net4 ,b4 ,,constant4 ,,adolphe4 ,edited by ,professor ,g4 ,,rudler1 ,d4 s ,l4 ,paper1 #fs4 net2 cloth1 #gs4 #f;d4 net4 ,also an edition de luxe on hand-made paper4 #bas4 net4 ,,le ,,myst,,re ,d',,adam4 ,edited by ,professor ,,paul ,,studer1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,litt4 ,paper1 #ds4 #f;d4 net2 cloth1 #es4 #f;d4 net4 ,,aucassin ,,et ,,nicolete4 7,third edition47 ,edited by ,f4 ,w4 ,,bourdillon1 ,m4,a4 ,paper1 #ds4 #f;d4 net2 cloth #es4 #f;d4 net4 ,a4 ,,dumas pre4 ,,henri ,,iii4 ,edited by ,j4 ,g4 ,,anderson1 ,b4,a4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,paul-,,louis ,,courier4 ,a ,,selection ,,from ,,the ,,works4 ,edited by ,professor ,e4 ,,weekley1 ,m4,a4 ,paper1 #es4 net2 cloth1 #fs4 net4 ,p4 ,,corneille4 ,,la ,,galerie ,,du ,,palais4 ,edited by ,professor ,t4 ,b4 ,,rudmose-,,brown1 ,m4,a4 ,in the ,press4 ,e4 ,,verhaeren4 ,,selections ,,from ,,the ,,poems4 ,edited by ,dr4 ,f4 ,,poldermann4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,lamartine4 ,a ,,selection ,,from ,,the ,,poems4 ,edited by ,professor ,a4 ,,barbier1 ,l4 s ,l4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,guibert ,d',,andrenas4 ,a ,,chanson ,,de ,,geste ,,of ,,the ,,cycle ,,de ,,guillaume4 ,edited by ,,jessie ,,crosland1 ,m4,a4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,montaigne4 ,a ,,selection ,,from ,,the ,,essays4 ,edited by ,a4 ,,tilley1 ,m4,a41 ,d4,litt4 ,in ,preparation4 ,,english ,,series ,,edward ,,young4 ,,conjectures ,,on ,,original ,,composition4 ,edited by ,professor ,,edith ,j4 ,,morley4 #ds4 #f;d4 net4 ,,the ,,anglo-,,saxon ,,chronicle4 ,edited by ,e4 ,,classen1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,in the ,press4 ,,warton',s ,,essay ,,on ,,pope4 ,edited by ,professor ,,edith ,j4 ,,morley4 ,in the ,press4 ,,german ,,series ,,goethe4 ,,torquato ,,tasso4 ,edited by ,professor ,j4 ,g4 ,,robertson1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,paper1 #ds4 net2 cloth1 #es4 net4 ,,heine4 ,,buch ,,der ,,lieder4 ,edited by ,,john ,,lees1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4,d4 ,in the ,press4 ,,the ,,manchester ,,university ,,press #ab ,,lime ,,grove1 ,,oxford ,,road ,,longmans1 ,,green ,,company ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,etc4 ,transcriber's notes3 ,corrections3 ,lord ,burghly which appears from p4 #baa to p4 #bag was normalised to ,lord ,burghley as elsewhere in the book4 ,the first line indicates the page or the note number and original text1 the second the corrected text4 p4 x3 ,travelers at the ,french ,universities ,travellers at the ,french ,universities4 p4 #cg3 il dira tout courtoisenent il dira tout courtoisement4 p4 #ci3 le roy d',angliterre est ost le roy d',angleterre est ost4 p4 #ci3 ,maris1 oy1 il y avoit tant de presse ,marie1 oy1 il y avoit tant de presse4 p4 #afj3 a wastefull1 a riotious and and an outrageous spender a wastefull1 a riotious and an outrageous spender4 p4 #aff3 deligently gathered and faithfully set diligently gathered and faithfully set4 p4 #agf3 ,qe-heur et-til8 ,qel-heur et-til8 p4 #bcg3 a thing easily gotton a thing easily gotten4 p4 #bci3 ,for instance ,sir ,willam ,petty ,for instance ,sir ,william ,petty4 p4 #bda3 ,lesquelles choses considereres ,lesquelles choses consideres4 p4 #beb3 de leurs prouesses1 entreprinses de leurs prouesses1 entreprises4 p4 #cih3 accomodated to the grammar accommodated to the grammar4 p4 #daa3 ,qui peut aissi ,qui peut aussi4 p4 #dad3 of ,nacsia and ,paros in the ,archipeligo of ,nacsia and ,paros in the ,archipelago4 p4 #dad3 ou hormis d'autres discours curieus o hormis d'autres discours curieus4 p4 #dbc3 se vendent a l'enseigne se vendent l'enseigne4 n4 #abf3 ,e4 ,j4 ,furnival ,e4 ,j4 ,furnivall4 n4 #dcc3 the ,picard or ,bourgonions the ,picard or ,bourgignions4 n4 #fga3 ,h4 ,glapthorne1 ,the ,ladies ,privilege ,h4 ,glapthorne1 ,the ,ladies' ,privilege4 ,errata list3 p4 #da3 pernes should be prenez 7,sir pernes le hanappe74 p4 #dc3 comnencier should be commencier 7,veul comnencier74 p4 #ib1 n4 #bcj3 ,the ,boke of the ,governour appears as ,the ,boke named the ,governour in n4 #dfb4 p4 #ajd3 ,sir ,thomas ,more1 writing to ,erasmus in #afag should be ,sir ,thomas ,more1 writing to ,erasmus in #aeag4 p4 #acg-ach3 the small cross below the unsounded letters in the quotation does not always correspond to modern pronunciation4 ,the original has been retained4 p4 #bhc1 n4 #cfa3 ,lige should be ,lige4 p4 #bic3 to read an script should be to read a script4 n4 #abf1 #cac3 ,author ,e4 ,j4 ,furnivall should be ,f4 ,j4 ,furnivall4 n4 #bgf3 congnoissance should be cognoissance 7la congnoissance des histoires74