,the ,great ,educators ,edited by ,,nicholas ,,murray ,,butler ,,aristotle ,,and ,,ancient ,,educational ,,ideals ,,by ,,thomas ,,davidson ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #ahib ,,copyright1 #ahib1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons4 ,,preface ,in undertaking to treat of ,aristotle as the expounder of ancient educational ideas1 ,i might1 with ,kapp's ,aristoteles' ,staatspaedagogik before me1 have made my task an easy one4 ,i might simply have presented in an orderly way and with a little commentary1 what is to be found on the subject of education in his various works--,politics1 ,ethics1 ,rhetoric1 ,poetics1 etc4 ,i had two reasons1 however1 for not adopting this course3 7#a7 that this work had been done1 better than ,i could do it1 in the treatise referred to1 and 7#b7 that a mere restatement of what ,aristotle says on education would hardly have shown his relation to ancient pedagogy as a whole4 ,i therefore judged it better1 by tracing briefly the whole history of ,greek education up to ,aristotle and down from ,aristotle1 to show the past which conditioned his theories and the future which was conditioned by them4 ,only thus1 it seemed to me1 could his teachings be seen in their proper light4 ,and ,i have found that this method has many advantages1 of which ,i may mention one4 ,it has enabled me to show the close connection that existed at all times between ,greek education and ,greek social and political life1 and to present the one as the reflection of the other4 ,and this is no small advantage1 since it is just from its relation to the whole of life that ,greek education derives its chief interest for us4 ,we can never1 indeed1 return to the purely political education of the ,greeks2 they themselves had to abandon that1 and1 since then1 ,a boundless hope has passed across the earth-- a hope which gives our education a meaning and a scope far wider than any that the ,state aims at2 but in these days1 when the ,state and the institution which embodies that hope are contending for the right to educate1 it cannot but aid us in settling their respective claims1 to follow the process by which they came to have distinct claims at all1 and to see just what these mean4 ,this process1 the method which ,i have followed has1 ,i hope1 enabled me1 in some degree1 to bring into clearness4 ,this1 at all events1 has been one of my chief aims4 ,in treating of the details of ,greek educational practice1 ,i have been guided by a desire to present only1 or mainly1 those which contribute to make up the complete picture4 ,for this reason ,i have omitted all reference to the training for the ,olympic and other games1 this 7so it seems to me7 being no essential part of the system4 ,it would have been easy for me to give my book a learned appearance1 by checkering its pages with references to ancient authors1 or quotations1 in the original1 from them2 but this has seemed to me both unnecessary and unprofitable in a work intended for the general public4 ,i have1 therefore1 preferred to place at the heads of the different chapters1 in ,english mostly1 such quotations as seemed to express1 in the most striking way1 the spirit of the different periods and theories of ,greek education4 ,taken together1 ,i believe these quotations will be found to present a fairly definite outline of the whole subject4 ,in conclusion1 ,i would say that1 though ,i have used a few modern works1 such as those of ,kapp and ,grasberger1 ,i have done so almost solely for the sake of finding references4 ,in regard to every point ,i believe ,i have turned to the original sources4 ,if1 therefore1 my conclusions on certain points differ from those of writers of note who have preceded me1 ,i can only say that ,i have tried to do my best with the original materials before me4 ,i am far from flattering myself that ,i have reached the truth in every case1 and shall be very grateful for corrections1 in whatever spirit they may be offered2 but ,i trust that ,i have been able to present in their essential features1 the ancient ideals of education4 ,,thomas ,,davidson4 ,glenmore1 ,keene1 ,essex ,co41 ,n4,y4 ,october1 #ahia4 ,,contents ,,book ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,character and ,ideal of ,greek ,education #c ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,branches of ,greek ,education #f ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,conditions of ,education #i ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,subjects of ,education #ab ,,chapter ,v4 ,education as ,influenced by ,time1 ,place1 and ,circumstances #ae ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,epochs in ,greek ,education #bf ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,hellenic ,,period 7,b4,c4 #ggf-cch74 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,old ,,education 7,b4,c4 #ggf-dhj74 ,,chapter ,i4 ,education for ,work and ,leisure #cc ,,chapter ,,ii4 olian or ,theban ,education #ch ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,dorian or ,spartan ,education #da ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,pythagoras #eb ,,chapter ,v4 ,ionian or ,athenian ,education #fj 7#a7 ,family ,education #fd 7#b7 ,school ,education #fg 77 ,musical 7and ,literary7 ,education #gb 77 ,gymnastics1 or ,bodily ,training #gg 77 ,dancing #hb 7#c7 ,college ,education #he 7#d7 ,university ,education #ij ,,part ,,ii4 ,,the ,,new ,,education 7,b4,c4 #dhj-cch74 ,,chapter ,i4 ,individualism and ,philosophy #ic ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,xenophon #aad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,plato #acc ,,book ,,iii4 ,,aristotle 7,b4,c4 #chd-cbb74 ,,chapter ,i4 ,his ,life and ,works #aec ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,his ,philosophy #afa ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,his ,theory of the ,state #aff ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,his ,pedagogical ,state #agb ,,chapter ,v4 ,education during the first ,seven ,years #ahd ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,education from ,seven ,to ,twenty-one #ahh ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,education after ,twenty-one #bjj ,,book ,,iv4 ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,period 7,b4,c4 #cch-;,a4,d4 #cac74 ,,chapter ,i4 ,from ,ethnic to ,cosmopolitan ,life #bje ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,quintilian and ,rhetorical ,education #bad ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,plotinus and ,philosophic ,education #bbe ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,conclusion #bca ,,appendix4 ,the ,seven ,liberal ,arts #bci ,,bibliography #bdi ,,index #bec ,,book ,i ,,introductory ,,errata4 ,page #ai1 line #e from below1 insert #ajb4 #ec1 #f #acc4 #aha1 #ad for and read or4 #bej1 #aa ,watsno read ,watson4 ,,aristotle ,,chapter ,i ,,character ,,and ,,ideal ,,of ,,greek ,,education ,nothing in excess6--,solon4 ,no citizen has a right to consider himself as belonging to himself2 but all ought to regard themselves as belonging to the ,state1 inasmuch as each is a part of the ,state2 and care for the part naturally looks to care for the whole4--,aristotle4 ,greek life1 in all its manifestations1 was dominated by a single idea1 and that an sthetic one4 ,this idea1 which worked sometimes consciously1 sometimes unconsciously1 was ,,proportion4 ,the ,greek term for this 7,logos7 not only came to designate the incarnate ,word of ,religion1 but has also supplied many modern languages with a name for the ,science of ,manifested ,reason--,logic4 ,to the ,greek1 indeed1 ,reason always meant ratio1 proportion2 and a rational life meant to him a life of which all the parts1 internal and external1 stood to each other in just proportion4 ,such proportion was threefold2 first1 between the different parts of the individual human being2 second1 between the individual and his fellows in a social whole2 third1 between the human1 as such1 and the overruling divine4 ,the realization of this threefold harmony in the individual was called by the ,greeks ,,worth 71 usually1 but incorrectly1 rendered ,virtue74 ,there has come down to us1 from the pen of ,aristotle1 in whom all that was implicit in ,hellenism became explicit1 a portion of a pan addressed to this ideal4 ,it may be fitly inserted here1 in a literal translation4 ,,to ,,worth4 ,o ,worth6 stern taskmistress of human kind1 ,life's noblest prize3 ,o ,virgin6 for thy beauty's sake ,it is an envied lot in ,hellas even to die1 ,and suffer toils devouring1 unassuaged-- ,so well dost thou direct the spirit ,to fruit immortal1 better than gold ,and parents and soft-eyed sleep4 ,for thy cause ,jove-born ,hercules and ,leda's sons ,much underwent1 by deeds ,thy power proclaiming4 ,for love of thee ,achilles and ,ajax to ,hades' halls went down4 ,for thy dear beauty's sake ,atarneus' nursling too widowed the glances of the sun4 ,therefore1 as one renowned for deeds and deathless1 him the ,muses shall exalt1 ,the daughters of ,memory1 exalting so the glory of ,stranger-guarding ,jove1 and the honor of friendship firm4 ,with regard to this ideal1 four things are especially noteworthy2 first1 that it took an exhaustive survey of man's nature and relations2 second1 that it called for strong1 persistent1 heroic effort2 third1 that it tended to sink the individual in the social whole and the universal order2 fourth1 that its aim was1 on the whole1 a static perfection4 ,the first two were merits2 the second two1 demerits4 ,the first merit prevented the ,greeks from pursuing one-sided systems of education2 the second1 from trying to turn education into a means of amusement4 ,aristotle says distinctly1 ,education ought certainly not to be turned into a means of amusement2 for young people are not playing when they are learning1 since all learning is accompanied with pain4 ,the first demerit was prejudicial to individual liberty1 and therefore obstructive of the highest human development2 the second encouraged ,utopian dreams1 which1 being always of static conditions1 undisturbed by the toils and throes essential to progress1 tend to produce impatience of that slow advance whereby alone man arrives at enduring results4 ,to this tendency we owe such works as ,plato's ,republic and ,xenophon's ,education of ,cyrus4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,branches ,,of ,,greek ,,education ,with thee the aged car-borne ,peleus sent me on the day whereon from ,phthia to ,agamemnon he sent thee1 a mere boy1 not yet acquainted with mutual war or councils1 in which men rise to distinction--for this end he sent me forth to teach thee all these things1 to be a speaker of words and a doer of deeds4--7,phnix in7 ,homer4 ,above all and by every means we provide that our citizens shall have good souls and strong bodies4--,lucian4 ,life is the original school--life1 domestic and social4 ,all other schools merely exercise functions delegated by the family and by society1 and it is not until the latter has reached such a state of complication as to necessitate a division of labor that special schools exist4 ,among the ,homeric ,greeks we find no mention of schools1 and the only person recorded as having had a tutor is ,achilles1 who was sent away from home so early in life as to be deprived of that education which he would naturally have received from his father4 ,in what that education consisted1 we learn from the first quotation at the head of this chapter4 ,it consisted in such training as would make the pupil a speaker of words and a doer of deeds--a man eloquent and persuasive in council1 and brave and resolute on the field of battle4 ,for these ends he required1 as ,lucian says1 a good soul and a strong body4 ,these expressions mark the two great divisions into which ,greek education at all periods fell--,,mental ,,education and ,,physical ,,education--as well as their original aims1 viz4 goodness 7that is1 bravery7 of soul and strength of body4 ,as time went on1 these aims underwent considerable changes1 and consequently the means for attaining them considerable modifications and extensions4 ,physical education aimed more and more at beauty and grace1 instead of strength1 while mental education1 in its effort to extend itself to all the powers of the mind1 divided itself into literary and musical education4 ,as we have seen1 the ,greeks aimed at developing all the powers of the human being in due proportion and harmony4 ,but1 in course of time1 they discovered that the human creature comes into the world with his powers1 not only undeveloped1 but already disordered and inharmonious2 that not only do the germs of manhood require to be carefully watched and tended1 but also that the ground in which they are to grow must be cleared from an overgrowth of choking weeds1 before education can be undertaken with any hope of success4 ,this clearing process was called by the later ,greeks ,katharsis1 or ,purgation1 and played an ever-increasing part in their pedagogical systems4 ,it was supposed to do for man's emotional nature what ,medicine undertook to do for his body4 ,the means employed were mainly music and the kindred arts1 which the ancients believed to exert what we should now call a dmonic effect upon the soul1 drawing off the exciting causes of disturbing passion1 and leaving it in complete possession of itself4 ,it would hardly be too much to say that the power to exert this purgative influence on the soul was regarded by the ancients as the chief function and end of the ,fine ,arts4 ,such was certainly ,aristotle's opinion4 ,when purgation and the twofold education of body and mind had produced their perfect work1 the result was what the ,greeks called ,kalokagathia 77 that is1 ,fair-and-,goodness4 ,either half of this ideal was named 7aret71 ,worth or ,excellence4 ,we are expressly told by ,aristotle 7,categories1 chap4 viii47 that the adjective to is 7spoudaios71 a word which we usually render into ,english by earnest4 ,and we do so with reason2 for to the ,greek1 ,excellence or ,worth meant1 above all1 earnestness1 genuineness1 truthfulness1 thoroughness1 absence of frivolity4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,conditions ,,of ,,education ,some hold that men become good by nature1 others by training1 others by instruction4 ,the part that is due to nature obviously does not depend upon us1 but is imparted through certain divine causes to the truly fortunate4--,aristotle4 ,it is not merely begetting that makes the father1 but also the imparting of a noble education4--,john ,chrysostom4 ,there are two sorts of education1 the one divine1 the other human4 ,the divine is great and strong and easy2 the human small and weak and beset with many dangers and delusions4 ,nevertheless1 the latter must be added to the former1 if a right result is to be reached4--,dion ,chrysostom4 ,the same thing that we are wont to assert regarding the arts and sciences1 may be asserted regarding moral worth1 viz4 that the production of a completely just character demands three conditions--nature1 reason1 and habit4 ,by reason ,i mean instruction1 by habit1 training4444 ,nature without instruction is blind2 instruction without nature1 helpless2 exercise 7training7 without both1 aimless4--,plutarch4 ,to the realization of their ideal in any individual the ,greeks conceived three conditions to be necessary1 7#a7 a noble nature1 7#b7 persistent exercise or training in right action1 7#c7 careful instruction4 ,if any one of these was lacking1 the highest result could not be attained4 7#a7 ,to be well or nobly born was regarded by the ,greeks as one of the best gifts of the gods4 ,aristotle defines noble birth as ancient wealth and worth1 and this fairly enough expresses the ,greek view generally4 ,naturally enough1 therefore1 the ,greek in marrying looked above all things to the chances of a worthy offspring4 ,indeed1 it may be fairly said that the purpose of the ,greek in marriage was1 not so much to secure a helpmeet for himself as to find a worthy mother for his children4 ,in ,greece1 as everywhere else in the ancient world1 marriage was looked upon solely as an arrangement for the procreation and rearing of offspring4 ,the romantic1 pathological love-element1 which plays so important a part in modern match-making1 was almost entirely absent among the ,greeks4 ,what love there was1 assumed either the noble form of enthusiastic friendship or the base one of free lust4 ,in spite of this1 and of the fact that woman was regarded as a means and not as an end1 the relations between ,greek husbands and wives were very often such as to render the family a school of virtue for the children4 ,they were noble1 sweet1 and strong1--all the more so1 it should seem1 that they were based1 not upon a delusive sentimentality1 but upon reason and a sense of reciprocal duty4 7#b7 ,the value of exercise1 practice1 habituation1 seems to have been far better understood by the ancients than by the moderns4 ,whatever a man has to do1 be it speaking1 swimming1 playing1 or fighting1 he can learn only by doing it2 this was a universally accepted maxim4 ,the modern habit of trying to teach languages and virtues by rules1 not preceded by extensive practice1 would have seemed to the ancients as absurd as the notion that a man could learn to swim before going into the water4 ,practice first2 theory afterwards3 do the deed1 and ye shall know of the doctrine--so said ancient ,wisdom1 to which the notion that children should not be called upon to perform any act1 or submit to any restriction1 without having the grounds thereof explained to them1 would have seemed the complete inversion of all scientific method4 ,it was by insisting upon a certain practice in children1 on the ground of simple authority1 that the ancients sought to inculcate the virtues of reverence for experience and worth1 and respect for law4 7#c7 ,the work begun by nature1 and continued by habit or exercise1 was completed and crowned by instruction4 ,this had1 according to the ,greek1 two functions1 7a7 to make action free1 by making it rational1 7b7 to make possible an advance to original action4 ,nature and habit left men thralls1 governed by instincts and prescriptions2 instruction1 revelation of the grounds of action1 set them free4 ,such freedom1 based on insight1 was to the thinkers of ,greece the realization of manhood1 or rather1 of the divine in man4 ,the truth shall make you free--no one understood this better than they4 ,hence1 with all their steady insistence upon practice in education1 they never regarded it as the ultimate end1 or as any end at all1 except when guided by insight1 the fruit of instruction4 ,a practicality leading to no widening of the spiritual horizon1 to no freeing insight1 was to them illiberal1 slavish1 paltry--banausic1 they said1--degrading both to body and soul4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,subjects ,,for ,,education ,it is right that ,greeks should rule over barbarians1 but not barbarians over ,greeks2 for those are slaves1 but these are free men4--,euripides4 ,barbarian and slave are by nature the same4--,aristotle4 ,nature endeavors to make the bodies of freemen and slaves different2 the latter strong for necessary use1 the former erect and useless for such operations1 but useful for political life4444 ,it is evident1 then1 that by nature some men are free1 others slaves1 and that1 in the case of the latter1 slavery is both beneficial and just4--,id4 ,instruction1 though it plainly has power to direct and stimulate the generous among the young 444 is as plainly powerless to turn the mass of men to nobility and goodness 7,kalokagathia74 ,for it is not in their nature to be guided by reverence1 but by fear1 nor to abstain from low things because they are disgraceful1 but 7only7 because they entail punishment4--,id4 ,in thinking of ,greek education as furnishing a possible model for us moderns1 there is one point which it is important to bear in mind3 ,greek education was intended only for the few1 for the wealthy and well-born4 ,upon all others1 upon slaves1 barbarians1 the working and trading classes1 and generally upon all persons spending their lives in pursuit of wealth or any private ends whatsoever1 it would have seemed to be thrown away4 ,even well-born women were generally excluded from most of its benefits4 ,the subjects of education were the sons of full citizens1 themselves preparing to be full citizens1 and to exercise all the functions of such4 ,the duties of such persons were completely summed up under two heads1 duties to the family and duties to the ,state1 or1 as the ,greeks said1 conomic and political duties4 ,the free citizen not only acknowledged no other duties besides these1 but he looked down upon persons who sought occupation in any other sphere4 conomy and ,politics1 however1 were very comprehensive terms4 ,the former included the three relations of husband to wife1 father to children1 and master to slaves and property2 the latter1 three public functions1 legislative1 administrative1 and judiciary4 ,all occupations not included under these six heads the free citizen left to slaves or resident foreigners4 ,money-making1 in the modern sense1 he despised1 and1 if he devoted himself to art or philosophy1 he did so only for the benefit of the ,state4 ,if he improved the patrimony which was the condition of his free citizenship1 he did so1 not by chaffering or money-lending1 but by judicious management1 and by kindly1 but firm1 treatment of his slaves4 ,if he performed any great artistic service to the ,state--for example1 if he wrote a tragedy for a ,state religious festival 7and plays were never written for any other purpose7--the only reward he looked forward to was a crown of olive or laurel and the respect of his fellow-citizens4 ,the ,greeks divided mankind1 in all the relations of life1 into two distinct classes1 a governing and a governed1 and considered the former alone as the subject of education2 the latter being a mere instrument in its hands4 ,the governing class required education in order that it might govern itself and the other class1 in accordance with reason and justice2 that other1 receiving its guidance from the governing class1 required no education1 or only such as would enable it to obey4 ,it followed that the duty of the governing class was to govern2 of the governed1 to obey4 ,only in this correlation of duties did each class find its usefulness and satisfaction4 ,any attempt to disturb or invert this correlation was a wilful running in the teeth of the laws of nature1 a rebellion against the divine order of things4 ,as husband1 father1 master in the family1 and as legislator1 officer1 judge in the ,state1 each member of the governing class found his proper range of activities2 and he did wrong1 degrading himself to the level of the serving class1 if he sought any other4 ,this view1 in a more or less conscious form1 pervades the whole ancient world1 conditioning all its notions and theories of education2 and ,paul the ,apostle only echoed it when he said to wives3 ,wives1 be in subjection to your own husbands as to the ,lord2 to children3 ,children1 obey your parents in the ,lord3 for this is right2 and to slaves3 ,slaves1 be obedient unto them that according to the flesh are your masters with fear and trembling1 in singleness of heart1 as unto ,christ4 ,,chapter ,v ,,education ,,as ,,influenced ,,by ,,time1 ,,place1 ,,and ,,circumstances ,the peculiar character of each form of government is what establishes it at the beginning and what usually preserves it4444 ,since the whole ,state has but one end1 it is plainly necessary that there should be one education for all the citizens4--,aristotle4 ,education among the ,greeks1 as among every other progressive people1 varied with times and circumstances4 ,the education of the ,homeric ,greeks was not that of the ,athenians in the days of ,aristotle1 nor the latter the same as the education of the contemporary ,spartans or ,thebans4 ,moreover1 the education actually imparted was not the same as that demanded or recommended by philosophers and writers on pedagogics4 ,it is true that the aim was always the same2 ,worth1 ,excellence1 ,fair-and-,goodness 71 72 but this was differently conceived and differently striven after at different times and in different places4 ,among the ,homeric ,greeks1 as we have seen1 education1 being purely practical1 aiming only at making its subject a speaker of words and a doer of deeds1 was acquired in the actual intercourse and struggles of life4 ,the simple conditions of their existence demanded no other education and1 consequently1 no special educational institutions4 ,these conditions1 as described by ,homer1 though by no means barbarous1 are primitive4 ,nomadism has long been left behind and the later village-communities have been mostly merged in walled towns1 generally situated at some distance from the shore1 on or near a hill1 whose summit forms a citadel for refuge in cases of danger4 ,even in the most advanced of these towns1 however1 the type of civilization is still largely patriarchal4 ,the government is in the hands of chiefs or kings 77 claiming to be born and bred of ,jove1 as1 indeed1 in a sense1 they were1 since they ruled quite as much by right of personal worth1 which more than anything is due to the grace of ,god1 as by hereditary title4 ,worth in those days consisted in physical strength1 courage1 beauty1 judgment1 and power to address an assembly1 and any king proving deficient in these qualities would soon have found his position insecure1 or been compelled to fortify it by lawless tyranny4 ,the functions devolving upon the king were mainly three1 those of judge1 military commander1 and priest4 ,the first required judgment and ready speech2 the second1 strength and intelligent courage2 the third1 personal beauty and dignity4 ,though the kings were allowed to exercise great power1 this was not irresponsible or arbitrary4 ,on the contrary1 it was compatible with great public freedom in speech and action4 ,slavery existed only to a limited extent and in a mild form4 ,all free heads of families1 however poor1 had a right to attend the popular assembly1 which the king consulted on all important matters1 and at which the frest discussion was allowed4 ,when the kings exercised judicial power1 they did so in accordance with certain themistes or laws1 held to have originated with ,zeus1 and not according to their own caprice4 ,as there was little commerce in those days1 the inhabitants of the ancient cities1 when not engaged in warfare1 devoted themselves chiefly to agriculture1 cattle-raising1 and the useful arts4 ,in these even the kings thought it no shame to engage4 ,we find ,paris helping to build his own palace1 ,odysseus constructing his own bed1 ,lycaon cutting wood to make chariot-rails1 and so on4 ,similarly1 we find ,helen and other princesses spinning and weaving1 while ,nausicaa1 the daughter of the ,phacian king1 washes the clothes of the family4 ,in such a primitive society1 unacquainted with letters1 the higher education found but few aspirants4 ,the only persons of scientific pretensions mentioned by ,homer are the physicians 7who are likewise surgeons7 and the soothsayers4 ,the former are highly appreciated1 and are always chiefs4 ,the soothsayers are the exponents of divine omens to the community1 and occupy a kind of official position1 like the ,hebrew prophets4 ,no artists1 strictly speaking1 are mentioned by ,homer1 except the bard1 and he is much honored1 as historian1 teacher1 and inspirer4 ,we find1 indeed1 that ,achilles and ,paris are proficients in music2 but such cases seem exceptional4 ,of artisans1 several are mentioned--the worker in wood1 the worker in horn and ivory1 the potter 7who uses the wheel71 and so on4 ,the existence of others is implied--the weaver1 the mason1 the metal-worker1 etc4 ,if there were no special schools in the heroic age1 life was so lived as to be an excellent school4 ,then1 as at all other times1 it was extremely social1 far more so than our modern life4 ,this was due chiefly to three causes1 7#a7 the smallness of the states1 which made it possible for every citizen to know1 and to feel his solidarity with1 every other1 7#b7 the absence of titles and formalities1 which had not yet been introduced from the ,east1 7#c7 the fact that the people1 especially the men1 spent the greater part of the day in the open air1--in the streets and agora1--and so were continually rubbing against each other4 ,this sociality had much to do with the shaping of the ,greek character1 the salient elements of which are thus enumerated by ,zeller1 the historian of ,greek philosophy3 ,a strong sense of freedom1 combined with a rare susceptibility to proportion1 form1 and order1 a keen relish for companionship in life and action1 a social tendency which compelled the individual to combine with others1 to submit to the general will1 to follow the traditions of his family and his community4 ,between the simple social condition described by ,homer and that for which ,aristotle wrote1 there intervened a period of at least six hundred years4 ,during that time many great changes took place in the social and political life of the ,greeks1 demanding corresponding changes in education4 ,these changes were due to several causes1 7#a7 the natural human tendency toward freedom1 7#b7 the influence of foreign nations1 7#c7 the development of commerce1 7#d7 the introduction of letters1 7#e7 the rise of philosophy1 7#f7 the ,persian ,wars4 ,though all these are closely interwoven with each other1 there can be no harm in treating them separately4 7#a7 ,the tendency toward freedom1 so essentially characteristic of human nature1 was especially so of the nature of the ,greeks4 ,among them it rapidly manifested itself in an ordered series of political forms1 beginning with patriarchalism1 and ending variously in the various states and races4 ,there is1 indeed1 hardly a single form of political life that was not realized among the ,greeks at some time or place4 ,it was this that made it possible for ,aristotle to write a work on ,politics which1 in the words of a recent political writer1 has remained for two thousand years one of the purest sources of political wisdom4 ,the varied and changeful political life of the ,greeks was in itself a great education4 ,it made them aware of the principles1 political and ethical1 upon which society rests1 and rendered necessary a faculty of clear and ready expression1 which reacted most favorably upon their intellectual and sthetic faculties4 ,it was in the school of practical politics that the ,greeks acquired their rhetoric2 and ,aristotle1 in his treatise on ,poetry1 tells us that1 while the older poets made their characters talk like statesmen1 the later ones made theirs talk like rhetoricians4 ,not only1 indeed1 did political life react upon the drama1 but1 in developing rhetoric1 it drew attention to language and led to the sciences of grammar and logic1 both of which were thus called into existence by real social needs 7see p4 #ajb74 7#b7 ,greece1 lying1 as it did1 between three continents1 and in the thoroughfare of the ancient nations1 could hardly fail to be visited by many different races1 or1 considering its beauty and commercial advantages1 to be coveted by them4 ,from this followed two consequences1 7a7 that the ,greeks were a very mixed race1 7b7 that they were1 from the first and at all times1 in manifold contact with foreign peoples4 ,that they were a mixed race1 is attested alike by their language1 their mythology1 and their legends4 ,that they were in close and continual communication with foreign peoples1 is rendered evident by their alphabet1 their art1 and the direct statements of their historians4 ,although it is true that the ,greeks1 especially after the ,persian ,wars1 regarded themselves as a superior and chosen people1 calling all others barbarians1 and considering them as fit only to be slaves1 it is not the less true that hardly one of all the arts and sciences which they ultimately carried to a high degree of perfection had its origin in ,greece proper4 ,all appear first in the colonies settled among barbarians1--in ,egypt1 ,asia ,minor1 ,thrace1 ,crete1 ,sicily1 or ,italy4 ,architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 poetry--epic1 lyric1 dramatic--music1 history1 politics1 philosophy1 were all borrowed1 transformed1 and1 with the exception perhaps of tragedy and painting1 carried to a high degree of excellence in the colonies1 before they were transplanted to the mother-country4 ,it is beyond any doubt that even the ,homeric legends are of barbarian origin1 though from what people they were borrowed is uncertain4 ,it was the plasticity and versatility of their character1 due in part to their mixed blood1 that1 by enabling them to appropriate and assimilate the arts and sciences of their neighbors1 raised the ,greeks to a new plane of civilization and made them the initiators of a new epoch in history1 the epoch of life according to reason4 ,sir ,henry ,sumner ,maine says1 ,except the blind forces of ,nature1 nothing moves in this world which is not ,greek in its origin4 7#c7 ,it was chiefly through commerce that the arts and sciences borrowed by the colonial ,greeks found their way into ,greece proper4 ,that foreign art-objects were introduced into it at an early period1 is rendered certain by the recent discoveries at ,mycen1 ,sparta1 and other places1 as well as by statements in the ,homeric poems4 ,that these were followed later by artists1 bringing with them foreign art-processes and appliances1 is equally certain4 ,the earliest sculptors whose names are known to us1 ,dipnis and ,scyllis1 were natives of ,crete1 settled in ,sicyon2 and the earliest poetic guild of which we have any mention is that of the ,homerid in the island of ,chios4 ,but1 besides introducing art and artists into ,greece1 commerce tended to educate the ,greeks in other ways4 ,it made them acquainted with foreign manners and luxuries1 and forced them to learn the arts of navigation1 ship-building and exchange1 which again rendered necessary an acquaintance with arithmetic and the art of writing4 ,and this leads us to 7#d7 ,the ,introduction of ,letters4 ,this event1 the date of which is uncertain1 not only exercised a most furthering influence on the arts and sciences1 but gave rise to a new branch of education4 ,letters were probably first used for diplomatic and trade purposes1 then for inscriptions1 and last of all for the perpetuation of literary productions4 ,so much of a change did they effect in ,greek education that even in the best times the whole of the literary and scientific education was called simply letters 774 ,as late as the time of ,plato letters seem to have been considered a part of ,music1 and to have been taught by the same teacher as the latter2 but ,aristotle already distinguishes the two4 ,it is extremely probable that the introduction of letters was the immediate cause of the establishment of schools for youth2 for we find no mention of them prior to that event4 7#e7 ,the introduction of letters was closely followed by the rise of ,philosophy1 or the reflective spirit4 ,up to about the year #fjj ,b4,c41 the ,greeks1 like the rest of the world1 lived by habit1 tradition1 and prescription1 handed on1 with little or no criticism1 from generation to generation4 ,their ideal world was shaped by the works of ,homer and ,hesiod4 ,hesiod is the teacher of most1 says ,heraclitus4 ,about the date named1 however1 society having advanced to a condition of organization which made possible a leisure class1 there begins to appear a new spirit1 destined to revolutionize1 not only ,greece1 but the whole world4 ,armed with a what8 a which8 a why8 and a wherefore8 it no longer blindly accepts the world of nature and man1 but calls upon it to give an account of itself4 ,science1 philosophy1 and art are the result4 ,at first the new spirit turns to nature with a what82 but1 gradually discovering that the answer to this brings no complete explanation of the world1 it propounds its other questions4 ,it thus arrives at a consciousness of four distinguishable elements in the constitution of things1--four causes 71 71 as they were termed1--7#a7 matter1 7#b7 form1 7#c7 efficiency1 7#d7 end or aim4 ,at the same time1 and by the same process1 it is forced to a recognition of the presence of reason 77 and intelligence 77 in the world1 since form1 efficiency1 and aim all presuppose both4 ,it is thus compelled to turn from nature to man1 and man's mind1 as the highest known expression of reason and intelligence1 and to devote itself to the consideration of spirit1 as alone promising any true explanation of the world4 ,the process is a slow and difficult one1 and the history of it is the history of ,greek science1 philosophy1 and art4 ,before the rise of philosophy1 the teacher of the people had been the rhapsode1 or public reciter2 after that event he gradually gives place to the sophist 71 one who makes wise71 or1 as he later with more modesty calls himself1 the philosopher 71 lover of wisdom74 ,the history of ,greece for centuries is1 on its inner side1 a history of the struggle between what the rhapsode represents and what the philosopher represents1 between popular tradition and common sense on the one hand1 and individual opinion and philosophy on the other4 ,the transition from the first to the second of these mental conditions was accomplished for the world1 once for all1 by the ,greeks1 and the turning-point in the process is marked by 7#f7 ,the ,persian ,wars 7,b4,c4 #dij-dgi74 ,the victories gained in these at ,marathon1 ,salamis1 and ,plat1 victories the most brilliant that history records1 exerted a most powerful influence upon the thought and life of the ,greeks4 ,the consciousness of having1 with their small numbers1 over and over again1 both by land and by sea1 discomfited and crushed the countless hosts of an empire which for generations had threatened their peace and liberty1 made them at once feel the superiority of their own characters and civil institutions to those of the ,persians1 and draw a clear line of demarcation between ,greek and barbarian4 ,from this point on1 they felt themselves to be a chosen people1 a nation destined by the gods to rule all others4 ,the soul of ,greece had conquered the bulk of ,persia4 ,persia was bulk and body2 ,greece was soul and spirit4 ,this conviction appears at once in all the departments of ,greek life4 ,in the sphere of art we may instance the ,prometheia of schylus and the ,parthenon4 ,in the former1 what does the conflict between ,zeus and ,prometheus mean but the conflict between ,greek spirituality1 intellect1 and freedom1 on the one hand1 and barbarian materiality1 instinct1 and thraldom or necessity1 on the other8 ,and what is the latter but a matchless pan in stone to ,divine ,wisdom1 as the conqueror of brute force8 ,in the sphere of thought1 we find ,parmenides1 ,anaxagoras and1 above all1 ,socrates 7born ten years after the second ,persian ,war71 turning consciously to the study of spirit4 ,to be and to think are the same thing1 says the first of these3 ,all things were confused2 then ,mind came and reduced them to order1 says the second2 ,know thyself is the chosen motto of the third4 ,in the political sphere we find the ,athenians trying to make the ,state an instrument of intelligence and virtue1 and insisting upon education as a means thereto4 ,other and less desirable results followed from the ,persian ,wars2 but these can be better stated and estimated in another connection4 ,such were the chief causes that contributed to transform the simple patriarchal ,state of the ,homeric ,greeks1 with its purely practical education at home and in the field1 into the free polity of the ,greeks of the days of ,miltiades1 ,themistocles1 and schylus1 with its complicated institutions and manifold education4 ,it has seemed better to enumerate these causes than to try to trace the steps of the transformation itself4 ,indeed this would have been a hopeless task1 owing to the lack of historical data4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,epochs ,,in ,,greek ,,education ,when they 7our ancestors7 began to enjoy leisure for thought1 as the result of easy circumstances1 and to cherish more exalted ideas with respect to worth1 and especially when1 in the period before and after the ,persian ,wars1 they came to entertain a high opinion of themselves1 on account of their achievements1 they pursued all kinds of education1 making no distinction1 but beating about generally4--,aristotle4 ,in treating of ,greek education subsequent to the introduction of letters and the establishment of schools1 we shall be obliged1 in the interest of clearness1 to make three distinctions3-- 7#a7 ,between the educational systems of different periods4 7#b7 ,between the educational systems of different peoples and states4 7#c7 ,between the education actually imparted in the various states1 and that recommended by theorists or philosophers4 ,in pursuance of the first1 it will be convenient first to distinguish two main periods1 the ,hellenic1 and the ,hellenistic1 and then to subdivide these into minor periods4 ,i4 ,the ,hellenic ,period 7#ggf-cch ,b4,c474 ,this includes1 roughly speaking1 the whole historic life of free ,greece1 from the date of the first ,olympiad to that of the absorption of ,greece into the ,macedonian ,empire4 ,it naturally subdivides itself into two periods1 7a7 #ggf-dej2 7b7 #dej-cch4 7a7 ,that of the ,old ,education1 authoritative and puritanical1 whose aim was the training of good citizens1 god-fearing1 law-abiding1 patriotic1 and brave4 7b7 ,that of the ,new ,education1 rationalistic and liberal1 whose aim was the training of formidable individuals1 self-centred1 law-despising1 time-serving1 and cunning4 ,it is in the struggle between the two systems1 and in the practical triumph of the latter1 that ,greece loses her moral fibre2 so that her citizens1 weakened through sundering selfishness1 fall an easy prey to the foreign invader4 ,,ii4 ,the ,hellenistic ,period 7#cch ,b4,c4-#cac ,a4,d474 ,this extends from the ,battle of ,chronea1 in which ,greece lost her independence1 to the definitive triumph of ,christianity1 which brought a new ideal and a new spirit into life and education4 ,it naturally subdivides itself into two periods1 7a7 ,b4,c4 #cch-adf2 7b7 ,b4,c4 #adf-;,a4,d4 #cac4 7a7 ,the ,macedonian ,period1 during which ,macedonian influence prevailed1 and ,greek thought and education1 absorbing foreign1 chiefly ,oriental1 elements1 tended toward an encyclopdic cosmopolitanism4 ,during this period1 ,alexandria is the centre of ,greek influence4 7b7 ,the ,roman ,period1 during which1 as ,horace says1 ,captive ,greece took captive her rude conqueror1 and ,rome became1 alongside ,alexandria1 a diffusive centre of ,greek thought1 art1 and education4 ,between the two great periods1 the ,hellenic and the ,hellenistic1 stands the man who draws up the testament of the former and outlines the programme of the latter1 the ,macedonian ,greek1 ,aristotle4 ,our second distinction will lead us to treat separately1 in the ,hellenic period1 the educational system of the three ,greek races1 7#a7 the olic1 7#b7 the ,doric1 7#c7 the ,ionic1 the first having its chief centre at ,thebes1 the second at ,sparta1 the third at ,athens4 ,for an account of the education of the first our data are but meagre2 with the main features of ,spartan and ,athenian education we are well acquainted4 ,in education1 as in everything1 ,sparta was conservative1 socialistic1 and aristocratic1 while ,athens tended to liberalism1 individualism1 and democracy4 ,hence ,sparta clung desperately to the ,old ,education1 and almost closed her doors against art1 letters1 and philosophy1 while ,athens1 dragged into the ,new ,education1 became the home of all these4 ,it must always be borne in mind that1 in favoring individualism and the ,new ,education1 ,athens was abandoning the ,hellenic ideal1 and paving the way for the cosmopolitanism of the ,hellenistic period4 ,in this latter1 we shall have to distinguish between the educational systems of ,athens1 ,alexandria1 and ,rome4 ,our third distinction is that between individual theory and popular practice4 ,in all epochs of their history the ,greek states produced men who strove to realize in thought and imagination the ideal of their people1 and to exhibit it as an aim1 an encouragement1 and an inspiration1 in contrast with the imperfect actual4 ,in more than one case this ideal modified the education of the following periods4 ,of course1 such theories did not arise until practice was compelled to defend itself by producing sanctions1 either in religion or in reason1 and it may perhaps be affirmed that the aim of them all was to discover such sanctions for the ,greek ideal4 ,among the many educational theorists of ,greece1 there are six who especially deserve to be considered3 7#a7 ,pythagoras1 who in ,southern ,italy sought to graft on the ,doric ideal a half-mystical1 half-ethical theology1 and a mathematical theory of the physical world2 7#b7 ,xenophon1 who sought to secure the same ideal by connecting it with a monarchical form of government2 7#c7 ,plato1 who sought to elevate it1 and find a sanction for it in his theory of super-sensuous ideas2 7#d7 ,,aristotle1 who presented in all its fulness the ,hellenic ideal1 and sought to find sanctions for it in history1 social well-being1 and the promise of a higher life2 7#e7 ,quintilian1 who1 in ,rome1 embodies the rhetorical or worldly education of the ,hellenistic period2 and 7#f7 ,plotinus1 who presents an ideal of philosophical or other-worldly education1 and paves the way for the triumph of ,christian dogma4 ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,hellenic ,,period 7,b4,c4 #ggf-cch7 ,,part ,i ,,the ,,old ,,education 7,b4,c4 #ggf-dhj7 ,,chapter ,i ,,education ,,for ,,work ,,and ,,for ,,leisure ,when we consider the different arts that have been discovered1 and distinguish between those which relate to the necessary conditions of life and those which contribute to the free enjoyment of it 771 we always consider the man who is acquainted with the latter wiser than him who is acquainted with the former1 for the reason that the sciences of the latter have no reference to use4 ,hence it was only when all the necessary conditions of life had been attained that those arts were discovered which have no reference either to pleasure or to the common needs of life2 and this took place first in those countries where men enjoyed leisure4--,aristotle4 ,the free life of ,god is such as are our brief best moments4--,id4 ,it is not fitting that the free enjoyment of life should be permitted to boys or to young persons2 for the crown of perfection belongs not to the imperfect4--,id4 ,obviously1 the free enjoyment of life demands not only the noble but also the pleasant2 for happiness consists of these too4--,id4 ,among the ,homeric ,greeks1 whose life was almost entirely devoted to practical pursuits1 education was mainly practical1 aiming to produce a speaker of words and a doer of deeds4 ,as civilization advanced1 and higher political forms were evolved1 certain classes of men found themselves blessed with leisure which they were not inclined to devote to mere play4 ,in order to make a worthy use of this leisure1 they required a certain training in those arts which were regarded as befitting a free man4 ,education1 accordingly1 in some states1 widened its scope1 to include those accomplishments1 which enable men to fill their hours of freedom with refined and gracious enjoyment--music and letters4 ,music1 indeed1 had been cultivated long before1 not only by professional bards1 but even by princes1 like ,achilles and ,paris2 this1 however1 was for the sake of amusement and recreation rather than of the free enjoyment of life4 ,it had been regarded as a means1 not as an end4 ,we must be careful1 in our study of ,greek life and education1 not to confound play and recreation1 which are for the sake of work1 with the free enjoyment of life1 which is an end in itself1 and to which all work is but a means4 ,enjoyment is the end4 ,we shall see1 as we proceed1 to what momentous results this distinction leads1 how it governs not only all education but all the institutions of life1 and how it finally contributes to break up the whole civilization which it determines4 ,it may fairly be said that ,greece perished because she placed the end of life in individual sthetic enjoyment1 possible only for a few and regarding only the few4 ,in historic ,greece1 music came to be an essential part of the education of every free man4 ,even free women learnt it4 ,along with music went poetry1 and when this came to be written down1 it was termed letters4 ,as every free man came to be his own minstrel and his own rhapsode1 the professional minstrel and rhapsode disappeared1 and the ,homeric poems even1 in order to be preserved from oblivion1 were committed to writing by an enlightened tyrant--,pisistratus4 ,the first portion of the ,greek people that attained a degree of civilization demanding an education for hours of leisure1 was the olian race1 and particularly the ,asiatic portion of it4 ,accordingly we find that all the earliest musicians and poets1 didactic and lyric1 are olians--,hesiod1 ,terpander1 ,arion1 ,alcus1 ,sappho1 ,pittacus1 etc4 ,lesbos seems to have taken the lead in this higher education4 ,the last five names all belong to that island1 which produced also the earliest ,greek historian and prose-writer--,hellanicus4 ,but the olians1 though earliest in the field1 were soon outstripped by the other two races1 the ,doric and the ,ionic4 olian education and culture never advanced beyond music and lyric poetry4 ,it knew no drama1 science1 or philosophy4 ,the olians were followed1 almost simultaneously1 by the ,dorians and ,ionians1 who pursued two widely divergent directions4 ,the former borrowed the lyric education and culture of the olians1 and produced several lyric poets of distinguished merit--,tyrtus1 ,alcman1 ,ibycus1 ,stesichorus3 nay1 they even advanced far enough to take the first steps in science1 philosophy1 and dramatic poetry4 ,pythagoras1 ,epicharmus1 ,sophron1 ,xenarchus1 and ,susarion were all ,dorians4 ,but the progress of the race was retarded and finally checked by rigid political institutions of a socialistic character1 which1 by suppressing individual initiative1 reduced the whole to immobility4 ,the ,ionians1 on the contrary1 borrowing freely from both olians and ,dorians1 and evolving ever freer and freer institutions1 carried education and culture to a point which has never been passed1 and rarely1 if ever1 reached1 in the history of our race4 ,and when they ceased to grow1 and decay set in1 this was due to exactly the opposite cause to that which stunted them among the ,dorians2 namely1 to excessive individualism1 misnamed liberty4 ,individualism ruined ,athens4 ,although education assumed different forms among different portions of the ,greek race1 there are certain features that seem to have been common to all these forms during the epoch of the ,old ,education4 ,two of these deserve attention4 ,first4 ,education was everywhere a branch of statecraft1 and the ,state itself was only the highest educational institution4 ,this was equally true whether the schools were public1 as at ,sparta1 or private1 as at ,athens4 ,everywhere citizenship was a degree1 conferred only upon sons of free citizens1 after a satisfactory examination 774 ,second4 ,the stages or grades of education were everywhere the same1 although their limits were not everywhere marked by the same number of years4 ,the first1 extending usually from birth to the end of the seventh year1 was that of home education2 the second1 extending from the beginning of the eighth year to the end of the sixteenth or1 perhaps oftener1 the eighteenth year1 was that of school education2 the third1 extending from the beginning of the seventeenth or nineteenth year to the end of the twentieth 7in ,sparta of the thirtieth71 was that of college education1 or education for the duties of citizenship2 the fourth1 including the remainder of life1 was that of university education1 or education through the ,state1 which then was the only university4 ,at the beginning of the third period1 the young men took their first ,state examination1 and if they passed it successfully1 they received the degree of ,cadet or ,citizen-novice 772 but it was only at the beginning of the fourth period1 and after they had passed a second examination 7 71 that they received the degree of ,man and ,citizen and were permitted to exercise all the functions of freemen4 ,the ,state then became1 in a very real sense1 their ,alma ,mater4 ,in most states1 this graded education fell only to the lot of males1 the education of females stopping short with the first grade1 the family1 which was regarded as their only sphere4 ,it was otherwise at ,sparta1 ,teos1 and apparently among the olians generally4 ,as a consequence it is only among the olians and ,dorians that any poetesses of note appear--,sappho1 ,corinna1 ,telesilla1 etc4 ,although1 however1 woman's sphere was the family1 and she was considered to have done her duty when she worthily filled the place of wife1 mother1 and mistress1 there was nothing to prevent her from acquiring the higher education1 if she chose to do so4 ,that she did not often so choose1 seems true2 still there are examples of learned women even among the ,athenians4 ,the daughter of ,thucydides is said to have continued his history after his death1 and1 whether the statement be true or not1 the fact that it was made shows that the ability to write history was not regarded as impossible or surprising in a woman4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,olian ,,or ,,theban ,,education ,hesiod is the teacher of most4--,heraclitus4 ,when thou art dead1 thou shalt lie in the earth4 ,not even the memory of thee shall be ,thenceforward nor forever2 for thou hast ,no share in the ,pierian roses2 but ,ev'n in the halls of ,hades thou shalt flit1 ,a frightened shadow1 with the shadowy dead4 --,sappho 7to an uneducated woman74 ,what rustic hoyden ever charms the soul1 ,that round her ankles cannot kilt her coats8--,id4 ,the olians appear to have been the earliest of the ,greek races to make any considerable advance in culture4 ,their claim to ,homer can hardly be sustained2 but they certainly produced ,hesiod1 most of the greater lyric poets and poetesses1 and the first historian4 ,for a time they bade fair to lead the culture of ,greece4 ,but the promise was not fulfilled4 ,during the palmy period of ,greek history1 they were not only the most uncultured and uncouth of the ,greeks1 but they even prided themselves upon their boorishness of speech and manner1 and derided culture4 ,in the glorious struggle in which ,greece maintained the cause of culture and freedom against ,persia1 ,thebes1 then the chief centre of olianism1 sided with the barbarian1 as1 indeed1 was natural4 ,theban education was1 of course1 a reflex of the character of the ,theban and1 indeed1 of the ,botian1 people4 ,its main divisions were those of ,greek education generally1--,gymnastics and ,music2 but the former was learnt solely for athletic purposes1 and the latter mainly for use at banquets and drinking-bouts1 in which the ,botians found their chief delight4 ,letters were studied as little as at ,sparta 7see p4 #dg71 and the language of the people remained harsh and unmusical4 ,of higher education there was hardly a trace4 ,the sophists passed ,botia by4 ,even ,pindar1 who was by birth a ,theban1 and a sincerely patriotic one1 sought and found recognition anywhere rather than among his own people4 ,he did not even write in their dialect4 ,the reason for this backwardness on the part of the ,botian olians lay in the fact that they lived1 as a conquering race1 in the midst of a people superior to them in every respect save strength1 and could maintain their ascendency only by brute force4 ,when this failed1 and the conquered race1 which had never forgotten ,cadmus and its ancient traditions1 came to the front1 education and culture found their way even to ,thebes4 ,it was due to this change in political conditions that a ,pindar could arise1 and it was doubtless the demand for culture consequent thereupon that induced certain members of the scattered ,pythagorean school 7see p4 #ed7 to seek refuge in ,thebes and there devote themselves to teaching4 ,among these were ,philolaus#a and ,lysis1 the latter of whom was probably the author of the famous ,golden ,words 7see p4 #eg74 ,but he has a better claim to fame than this2 for he was the teacher of the bravest and most lovable man that ,greece ever produced--,epaminondas4 ,if any enthusiastic believer in the power of education desire to fortify his cause by means of a brilliant example1 he will find none superior to ,epaminondas2 for there can hardly be any question that it was the earnest1 systematic1 religious1 and moral ,pythagorean training which he received from the aged ,lysis1 whom he treated as a father1 that made him what he was1 and enabled him to do what he did1--which was nothing less than to place ,thebes at the head of ,greece4 ,thebes rose and fell with ,epaminondas4 ,but that was not all4 ,it was the example of ,epaminondas that kindled the ambition of ,philip of ,macedon1 who was educated under his eye1 and of his far more famous son1 ,alexander1 who made all ,greece a province of his empire4 ,pythagoras1 ,lysis1 ,epaminondas1 ,philip1 ,alexander--in five brief generations an earnest teacher conquers a world6 ,from the time of ,epaminondas on1 ,thebes followed the ordinary course of ,greek education4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,dorian ,,or ,,spartan ,,education ,go1 tell at ,sparta1 thou that passest by1 ,that here1 obedient to her laws1 we lie4 --,simonides 7,epitaph on the ,three ,hundred who fell at ,thermopyl74 ,this is a matter for which the ,lacedmonians deserve approbation3 they are extremely solicitous about the education of their youth and make it a public function4--,aristotle4 ,the ,lacedmonians impart to their children the look of wild beasts1 through the severity of the exercises to which they subject them1 their notion being that such training is especially calculated to heighten courage4--,id4 ,these are so far behind in education and philosophy that they do not learn even letters4--,isocrates4 ,,old ,,men4 ,we were once strong men 7youths74 ,,men4 ,and we are2 if you will1 behold4 ,,boys4 ,and we shall be far superior4--,spartan ,choric ,anthem4 ,they asked no clarion's voice to fire ,their souls with an impulse high3 ,but the ,dorian reed and the ,spartan lyre ,for the sons of liberty6 ,so moved they calmly to their field1 ,thence never to return1 ,save bearing back the ,spartan shield1 ,or on it proudly borne6--,hemans4 ,there was a law that the cadets should present themselves naked in public before the ephors every ten days2 and1 if they were well knit and strong1 and looked as if they had been carved and hammered into shape by gymnastics1 they were praised2 but if their limbs showed any flabbiness or softness1 any little swelling or suspicion of adipose matter due to laziness1 they were flogged and justiced there and then4 ,the ephors1 moreover1 subjected their clothing every day to a strict examination1 to see that everything was up to the mark4 ,no cooks were permitted in ,lacedmon but flesh-cooks4 ,a cook who knew anything else was driven out of ,sparta1 as physic for invalids4--lian4 ,every rational system of education is determined by some aim or ideal more or less consciously set up4 ,that of the ,dorians1 and particularly of the ,spartans1 may be expressed in one word--,,strength1 which1 in the individual1 took the form of physical endurance1 in the ,state1 that of self-sufficiency 774 ,a self-sufficient ,state1 furnishing a field for all the activities and aspirations of all its citizens1 and demanding their strongest and most devoted exertions--such is the ,dorian ideal4 ,it is easy to see what virtues ,dorian education would seek to develop--physical strength1 bravery1 and obedience to the laws of the ,state4 ,among the ,dorians the human being is entirely absorbed in the citizen4 ,the ,state is all in all4 ,the ,dorian ideal realized itself chiefly in two places1 ,crete and ,sparta4 ,both these were repeatedly held up in ancient times as models of well-governed states1 and even ,plato puts the substance of his ,laws into the mouth of a ,cretan4 ,about the details of ,cretan education we are but poorly informed4 ,two things1 however1 we know3 7#a7 that ,lycurgus1 the reputed founder of ,spartan education1 was held to have drawn many of his ideas from ,crete1 and 7#b7 that the final result of ,cretan education--and the same is true of all education that merges the man in the citizen--was1 in spite of its strictness1 demoralizing4 ,the character of the people was summed up by their poet ,epimenides1 a contemporary of ,solon's1 in a famous line quoted by ,st4 ,paul1 ,the ,cretans are always liars1 evil beasts1 lazy bellies4 ,with regard to ,spartan education our information is much greater1 and we may therefore select it as the type of ,dorian education generally4 ,the ,peloponnesian ,dorians having1 through contact with the more civilized peoples whom they conquered1 lost much of that rigorous discipline and unquestioning loyalty which made them formidable1 were1 in the ninth century ,b4,c41 becoming disorganized1 so that in two of the ,dorian states they were assimilated by the native population1 the ,argives and the ,messenians4 ,the same process was rapidly going on in the third state1 ,lacedmon1 when ,lycurgus1 fired with patriotic zeal1 resolved to put an end to it1 by restoring among his people the old ,dorian military discipline4 ,to prepare himself for this task1 he visited ,crete and studied its institutions4 ,on his return he persuaded his countrymen to submit to a ,constitution1 which ever afterwards went by his name4 ,this constitution included a scheme of education1 whose aim was a thorough training of the whole of the free citizens1 both male and female1 7#a7 in physical endurance1 and 7#b7 in complete subordination to the ,state4 ,the former was sought to be imparted by means of a rigorous and often cruel1 system of gymnastics2 the latter1 through choric music and dancing1 including military drill4 ,spartan education1 therefore1 was confined to two branches1 ,gymnastics and ,music4 ,instruction in letters was confined to the merest elements4 ,sparta accordingly never produced a poet1 an historian1 an artist1 or a philosopher of any note4 ,even the arrangers of her choruses were foreigners--,tyrtus1 ,terpander1 ,arion1 ,alcman1 ,thaletas1 ,stesichorus4 ,as ,spartan education was nothing more or less than a training for ,spartan citizenship1 we must preface our account of it by a few words on the ,spartan ,state4 ,the government of ,sparta was in the hands of a closed aristocracy1 whose sole aim was the maintenance of its own supremacy1 as against 7#a7 foreign enemies1 7#b7 ,perioikoi1 or disfranchised native citizens1 7#c7 ,helots1 or native serfs4 ,to secure this1 it formed itself into a standing army1 with a strict military organization4 ,sparta1 its one abode1 was a camp2 all free inhabitants were soldiers4 ,though they were compelled to marry1 the city contained no homes4 ,the men and1 from the close of their seventh year1 the boys1 lived in barracks and ate at public tables 7,phiditia74 ,the women had but one recognized function1 that of furnishing the ,state with citizens1 and were educated solely with a view to this4 ,no other virtue was expected of them4 ,aristotle tells us that they lived in every kind of profligacy and in luxury4 ,polyandry was common1 and1 when a woman lost all her husbands1 she was often compelled to enter into relations with slaves1 in order that she might not fail in her political duty4 ,among a people organized on the basis of brute force1 it were vain to look for any of the finer traits of human nature--gentleness1 tenderness1 sympathy1 pity1 mercy4 ,the mercilessness and cruelty of the ,spartans were proverbial4 ,perioikoi and ,helots incurring the displeasure or suspicion of the authorities were secretly put to death1 without even the form of a trial4 ,a striking instance of such cruelty is recorded by ,thucydides4 ,the facts are thus stated by ,grote 7,history of ,greece1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #cgf-g73 ,it was in the eighth year of the ,peloponnesian ,war1 after the ,helots had been called upon for signal military efforts in various ways1 444 that the ephors felt especially apprehensive of an outbreak4 ,anxious to single out the most forward and daring ,helots1 as men from whom they had most to dread1 they issued proclamation that every member of that class who had rendered distinguished services should make his claim known at ,sparta1 promising liberty to the most deserving4 ,a large number of ,helots came forward to claim the boon3 not less than two thousand of them were approved1 formally manumitted1 and led in solemn procession round the temples1 with garlands on their heads1 as an inauguration to their coming life of freedom4 ,but the treacherous garland only marked them out as victims for sacrifice3 every man of them forthwith disappeared2 the manner of their death was an untold mystery4 ,spartan education was entirely conducted by the ,state1 at the expense of the ,state1 and for the ends of the ,state4 ,it differed in this respect from nearly every other system of ,greek education4 ,it was divided into four periods1 corresponding respectively to childhood1 boyhood1 youth1 and manhood4 7a7 ,,childhood4--,as soon as the ,spartan child came into the world1 the ,state1 through officers appointed for that purpose1 sent to examine it4 ,if it seemed vigorous1 and showed no bodily defect1 it was permitted to live1 and forthwith adopted by the ,state2 otherwise it was carried to the mountains and thrown over a precipice4 ,the children accepted by the ,state were for the next seven years left in charge of their mothers1 but1 doubtless1 still under ,state surveillance4 ,just how they were trained during these years1 we do not know4 ,we can only guess that they underwent very much the same process as other ,greek children1 any difference being in the direction of rigor4 ,as the details of ,greek education generally will be dealt with under the head of ,athens1 they may be omitted here4 7b7 ,,boyhood4--,on completing his seventh year1 the ,spartan boy was transferred from his mother's house and care to a public barracks and the direct tuition of the ,state4 ,although the boys were in charge of a special officer 771 who divided them into squads and companies1 and arranged their exercises for them1 they were nevertheless taught to regard every grown man as a teacher1 and every such man was expected to correct them promptly and rigorously1 whenever he saw them doing wrong4 ,at the same time1 every boy was expected to form an intimate connection with some one man1 who then1 to a large extent1 became responsible for his conduct2 and1 though the choice in this matter rested with the parties concerned1 it was considered a disgrace in a man1 no less than in a boy1 to be without such connection4 ,though this arrangement1 it is said1 often led to lamentable abuses1 there can be no doubt that it admirably served the purposes of ,sparta4 ,it furnished every boy with a tutor1 who1 under the circumstances1 could hardly fail to treat him kindly1 and who was interested in making him surpass all other boys in courage and endurance4 ,this friendly influence of teacher on pupil was something in which the ,greeks at all times strongly believed1 and which formed an important force in all their education4 ,in ,sparta1 as in ,crete and ,thebes1 it was legally recognized4 ,one of the duties of ,spartan inspirer 7 or 71 as he was called1 was to teach his young friend 77 to demean himself properly on all occasions1 and to hold his tongue except when he had something very important to say4 ,in this way it was that the young ,spartans received their moral education1 and acquired that effective brevity of speech which to this day we call laconic4 ,the formal education of ,spartan boys consisted mainly of gymnastics1 music1 choric dancing1 and larceny4 ,their literary education was confined to a little reading1 writing1 and finger-arithmetic2 everything beyond this was proscribed4 ,and the reasons for this proscription are not difficult to discover4 ,sparta staked everything upon her political strength1 and this involved two things1 7#a7 equality among her free citizens1 and 7#b7 absolute devotion on their part to her interest1 both of which the higher education would have rendered impossible4 ,education establishes among men distinctions of worth quite other than military1 and gives them individual interests distinct from those of the ,state4 ,it was the same reason that induced ,rome1 during the best period of her history1 to exclude her citizens from all higher education1 which is essentially individual and cosmopolitan4 ,the education of the ,spartan boys was conducted mostly in the open air and in public1 so that they were continually exposed to the cheers or scoffs of critical spectators1 to whom their performances were a continual amusement of the nature of a cock-fight4 ,whether the different inspirers betted on their own boys may be doubtful2 but they certainly used every effort to make them win in any and every contest1 and the inspirer of a winning boy was an envied man4 ,the result was that many boys lost their lives amid cheers1 rather than incur the disgrace of being beaten4 ,inasmuch as the sole purpose of gymnastics was strength and endurance2 of dancing1 order2 and of music1 martial inspiration1 it is easy to see what forms these studies necessarily assumed2 and we need only stop to remark that ,dorian music received the unqualified approbation of all the great educational writers of antiquity1--even of ,aristotle1 who had only words of condemnation for ,spartan gymnastics4 ,there was only one branch of ,spartan school-education that was not conducted in public1 and that was larceny4 ,the purpose of this curious discipline was to enable its subjects to act1 on occasion1 as detectives and assassins among the ever discontented and rebellious ,helots4 ,how successful it was1 may be judged from the incident recorded on page #de4 ,larceny1 when successfully carried out under difficult circumstances1 was applauded2 when discovered1 it was severely punished4 ,a story is told of a boy who1 rather than betray himself1 allowed a stolen fox1 concealed under his clothes1 to eat out his entrails4 ,in one respect ,spartan education may claim superiority over that of most other ,greek states3 it was not confined to one sex4 ,spartan girls1 though apparently permitted to live at home1 were subjected to a course of training differing from that of their brothers only in being less severe4 ,they had their own exercise-grounds1 on which they learnt to leap1 run1 cast the javelin1 throw the discus1 play ball1 wrestle1 dance1 and sing2 and there is good evidence to show that their exercises had an admirable effect upon their physical constitution4 ,that the breezy daughters of ,sparta were handsomer and more attractive than the hot-house maidens of ,athens1 is a well-attested fact4 ,many ,spartan women continued their athletic and musical exercises into ripe womanhood1 learning even to ride spirited horses and drive chariots4 ,if we may believe ,aristotle1 however1 the effect of all this training upon their moral nature was anything but desirable4 ,they were neither virtuous nor brave4 7c7 ,,youth4--,about the age of eighteen1 ,spartan boys passed into the class of epheboi1 or cadets1 and began their professional training for war4 ,this was their business for the next twelve years1 and no light business it was4 ,for the first two years they were called melleirenes1 and devoted themselves to learning the use of arms1 and to light skirmishing4 ,they were under the charge of special officers called bideoi1 but had to undergo a rigid examination before the ephors every ten days 7see p4 #da74 ,their endurance was put to severe tests4 ,speaking of the altar of ,artemis ,orthia1 ,pausanias says3 ,an oracle commanded the people to imbrue the altar with human blood1 and hence arose the custom of sacrificing on it a man chosen by lot4 ,lycurgus did away with this practice1 and ordained that1 instead1 the cadets should be scourged before the altar1 and thus the altar is covered with blood4 ,while this is going on1 a priestess stands by1 holding1 in her arms the wooden image 7of ,artemis74 ,this image1 being small1 is1 under ordinary circumstances1 light2 but1 if at any time the scourgers deal too lightly with any youth1 on account of his beauty or his rank1 then the image becomes so heavy that the priestess cannot support it2 whereupon she reproves the scourgers1 and declares that she is burdened on their account4 ,thus the image that came from the sacrifices in the ,crimea has always continued to enjoy human blood4 ,this ,artemis appears1 with a bundle of twigs in her arm1 next to ,ares1 among the ,spartan divinities1 on the frieze of the ,parthenon4 ,at twenty years of age1 the young men became eirenes1 and entered upon a course of study closely resembling actual warfare4 ,they lived on the coarsest food1 slept on reeds1 and rarely bathed or walked4 ,they exercised themselves in heavy arms1 in shooting1 riding1 swimming1 ball-playing1 and in conflicts of the most brutal kind4 ,they took part in complicated and exhausting dances1 the most famous of which was the ,pyrrhic1 danced under arms4 ,they manned fortresses1 assassinated ,helots1 and1 in cases of need1 even took the field against an enemy4 7d7 ,,manhood4--,at the age of thirty1 being supposed to have reached their majority1 they fell into the ranks of full citizens1 and took their share in all political functions4 ,they were compelled to marry1 but were allowed to visit their wives only rarely and by stealth4 ,they sometimes had two or three children before they had ever seen their wives by daylight4 ,when not engaged in actual war1 they spent much of their time in watching the exercises of their juniors1 and the rest in hunting wild boars and similar game in the mountains4 ,like ,xenophon1 they thought hunting the nearest approach to war4 ,such was the education that ,sparta gave her sons4 ,that it produced strong warriors and patriotic citizens1 there can be no doubt4 ,but that is all3 it produced no men4 ,it was greatly admired by men like ,xenophon and ,plato1 who were sick of ,athenian democracy2 but ,aristotle estimated it at its true worth4 ,he says3 ,as long as the ,laconians were the only people who devoted themselves to violent exercises1 they were superior to all others2 but now they are inferior even in gymnastic contests and in war4 ,their former superiority1 indeed1 was not due to their training their young men in this way1 but to the fact that they alone did so4 ,and even ,xenophon1 at the end of a long panegyric on the ,spartan constitution1 is obliged to admit that already in his time it has fallen from its old worth into feebleness and corruption1 and this in spite of the fact that he had his own sons educated at ,sparta4 ,when ,sparta fell before the heroic and cultured ,epaminondas1 she fell unpitied1 leaving to the world little or nothing but a warning example4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,pythagoras ,virtue and health and all good and ,god are a harmony4--,pythagoras4 ,one is the principle of all4--,philolaus the ,pythagorean4 ,all things that are known have number4--,id4 ,the principles of all virtue are three1 knowledge1 power1 and choice4 ,knowledge is like sight1 whereby we contemplate and judge things2 power is like bodily strength1 whereby we endure and adhere to things2 choice is like hands to the soul1 whereby we stretch out and lay hold of things4--,theages the ,pythagorean4 ,the ,doric discipline1 even in ,sparta1 where it could exhibit its character most freely1 produced merely soldiers and not free citizens or cultivated men4 ,it was1 nevertheless1 in its essential features1 the ,hellenic ideal1 and numerous attempts were made to remedy its defects and to give it permanence1 by connecting it with higher than mere local and aristocratic interests4 ,one of the earliest and most noteworthy of these was made by ,pythagoras4 ,this extraordinary personage appears to have been born in the island of ,samos in the first quarter of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,though he was born among ,ionians1 his family appears to have been ,achaian and1 to some extent1 ,pelasgian 7,tyrrhenian71 having emigrated from ,phlius in the ,argolid4 ,after distinguishing himself in ,ionia1 he emigrated in middle life to ,magna ,grcia1 and took up his abode in the ,achaian colony of ,croton1 then a rich and flourishing city4 ,the cause of his emigration seems to have been the tyranny of ,polycrates1 which apparently imparted to him a prejudice against ,ionic tendencies in general4 ,whether he derived any part of his famous learning from visits to ,egypt1 ,phnicia1 ,babylonia1 etc41 as was asserted in later times1 is not clear4 ,it is not improbable that he visited ,egypt1 and there is good reason for believing that he became acquainted with ,phnician theology through ,pherecydes of ,syros4 ,that he was an omnivorous student is attested by his contemporary1 ,heraclitus4 ,he was undoubtedly affected by the physical theories current in his time in ,ionia1 while he plainly drew his political and ethical ideas from ,sparta or ,crete4 ,of his activity in ,ionia we know little2 but we may perhaps conclude that it was of the same nature as that which he afterwards displayed in ,italy4 ,here he appeared in the triple capacity of theologian1 ethical teacher1 and scientist4 ,his chief interest for us lies in the fact that he was apparently the first man in ,greece1 and1 indeed1 in the western world1 who sought to establish an ethical institution apart from the ,state4 ,in this respect he bears a strong resemblance to the prophet ,isaiah1 who may be said to have originated the idea of a ,church 7see p4 #acc74 ,pythagoras' aim seems to have been to gather round him a body of disciples who should endeavor to lead a perfect life1 based upon certain theological or metaphysical notions1 and guided by a rule of almost monastic strictness4 ,like other men who have found themselves in the midst of irreverence1 selfishness1 and democratic vulgarity and anarchy1 he believed that his time demanded moral discipline1 based upon respect for authority and character1 with a firm belief in future retribution1 and inculcated by a careful study of the order and harmony of nature2 and such discipline he strove1 with all his might1 to impart4 ,having no faith in the capacity of the ,state to be an instrument for his purpose1 he set to work independently of it1 and seems to have met with very marked success1 drawing to him many of the best men and women of ,southern ,italy4 ,so numerous and powerful1 indeed1 did his followers become that they held the balance of power in several cities1 and were able to use it for the enforcement of their own principles4 ,as these were exceedingly undemocratic1 and opposed to the tendencies of the time1 they finally roused bitter opposition1 so that the ,pythagoreans were persecuted and attempts made to exterminate them with fire and sword4 ,in this way their political influence was broken1 and their assemblies suppressed2 but the effect of ,pythagoras' teaching was not lost4 ,his followers1 scattered abroad throughout the ,hellenic world1 carried his precepts and his life-ideal with them4 ,in the following centuries they found many noble sympathizers--,pindar1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,epicharmus1 etc4--and underwent many modifications1 until they finally witnessed a resurrection1 in the forms of ,neo-,pythagoreanism and ,neo-,platonism1 after the ,christian era4 ,in these later guises1 ,pythagoreanism lost itself in mysticism and contemplation1 turning its followers into inactive ascetics2 but in its original form it seems to have been especially adapted to produce men of vigorous action and far-sighted practicality4 ,milo of ,croton1 the inimitable wrestler2 ,archytas of ,tarentum1 philosopher1 mathematician1 musician1 inventor1 engineer1 general1 statesman2 and ,epaminondas1 the greatest and noblest of ,theban generals1 were professed ,pythagoreans4 ,we might perhaps express the aim of ,pythagoras' pedagogical efforts by the one word ,,harmony4 ,just as he found harmony everywhere in the physical world1 so he strove to introduce the same into the constitution of the human individual1 and into the relations of individuals with each other4 ,he may perhaps be regarded as the originator of that view of the world1 of men1 and of society which makes all good consist in order and proportion1 a view which recommends itself strongly to idealists1 and has given birth to all those social ,utopias1 whose static perfection seems to relieve the individual from the burden of responsibility1 and which have been dangled before the eyes of struggling humanity from his days to ours4 ,according to this view1 which had its roots in ,greek thought generally1 the aim of education is to find for each individual his true place and to make him efficient therein4 ,man is made for order1 and not order for man4 ,he is born into a world of order1 as is shown by the fact that number and proportion are found in everything that is known4 ,pythagoras1 in his enthusiasm for his principle1 carried his doctrine of numbers to absurd lengths1 identifying them with real things2 but this enthusiasm was not without its valuable results1 since it is to ,pythagoras and his school that we owe the sciences of geometry and music4 ,moreover1 experience must have taught him that it is one thing to propound a theory1 another to make it effective in regulating human relations4 ,in order to accomplish the latter object1 he invoked the aid of divine authority and of the doctrines of metempsychosis and future retribution4 ,hence his educational system had a strong religious cast1 which showed itself even outwardly in the dignified demeanor and quiet self-possession of his followers4 ,harmony1 then1 to be attained by discipline1 under religious sanctions1 was the aim of ,pythagoras' teaching4 ,believing1 however1 that only a limited number of persons were capable of such harmony1 he selected his pupils with great care1 and subjected them to a long novitiate1 in which silence1 self-examination1 and absolute obedience played a prominent part4 ,the aim of this was to enable them to overcome impulse1 concentrate attention1 and develop reverence1 reflection1 and thoughtfulness1 the first conditions of all moral and intellectual excellence4 ,while the first care was directed to their spiritual part1 their bodies were by no means forgotten4 ,food1 clothing1 and exercise were all carefully regulated on hygienic and moral principles4 ,regarding the details of ,pythagoras' educational system we are not well informed2 but the spirit and tendency of it have been embalmed for us in the so-called ,golden ,words1 which1 if not due to the pen of ,pythagoras himself1 certainly reach back to very near his time1 and contain nothing at variance with what we otherwise know of his teaching4 ,we insert a literal version4 ,,the ,,golden ,,words4 ,the ,gods immortal1 as by law disposed1 ,first venerate1 and reverence the oath3 ,then to the noble heroes1 and the powers ,beneath the earth1 do homage with just rites4 ,thy parents honor and thy nearest kin1 ,and from the rest choose friends on virtue's scale4 ,to gentle words and kindly deeds give way1 ,nor hate thy friend for any slight offence4 ,bear all thou canst2 for ,can dwells nigh to ,must4 ,these things thus know4 ,what follow learn to rule3 ,the belly first1 then sleep and lust and wrath4 ,do nothing base with others or alone3 ,but most of all thyself in reverence hold4 ,then practise justice both in deed and word1 ,nor let thyself wax thoughtless about aught3 ,but know that death's the common lot of all4 ,be not untimely wasteful of thy wealth1 ,like vulgar men1 nor yet illiberal4 ,in all things moderation answers best4 ,do things that profit thee3 think ere thou act4 ,let never sleep thy drowsy eyelids greet1 ,till thou hast pondered each act of the day3 ,wherein have ,i transgressed8 ,what have ,i done8 ,what duty shunned8--beginning from the first1 ,unto the last4 ,then grieve and fear for what ,was basely done2 but in the good rejoice4 ,these things perform2 these meditate2 these love4 ,these in the path of godlike excellence ,will place thee1 yea1 by ,him who gave our souls ,the number ,four1 perennial nature's spring6 ,but1 ere thou act1 crave from the gods success4 ,these precepts having mastered1 thou shalt know ,the system of the never-dying gods ,and dying men1 and how from all the rest ,each thing is sunder'd1 and how held in one3 ,and thou shalt know1 as it is right thou shouldst1 ,that nature everywhere is uniform1 ,and so shalt neither hope for things that lie ,beyond all hope1 nor fail of any truth4 ,but from such food abstain as we have named1 ,and1 while thou seek'st to purge and free thy soul1 ,use judgment1 and reflect on everything1 ,setting o'er all best ,thought as charioteer4 ,be glad to gather goods1 nor less to lose4 ,of human ills that spring from spirit-powers ,endure thy part nor peevishly complain4 ,cure what thou canst3 'tis well1 and then reflect3 ,fate never lays too much upon the good4 ,words many1 brave and base1 assail men's ears4 ,let these not disconcert or trammel thee2 ,but when untruth is spoken1 meekly yield4 ,what next ,i say in every act observe3 ,let none by word or deed prevail on thee ,to do or say what were not best for thee4 ,think ere thou act1 lest foolish things be done2-- ,for thoughtless deeds and words the caitiff mark2-- ,but strongly do what will not bring regret4 ,do naught thou dost not know2 but duly learn4 ,so shall thy life with happiness o'erflow4 ,be not neglectful of thy body's health2 ,but measure use in drink1 food1 exercise-- ,i mean by 'measure' what brings no distress4 ,follow a cleanly1 simple mode of life1 ,and guard against such acts as envy breed4 ,then1 if1 when thou the body leav'st1 thou mount ,to the free ether1 deathless shalt thou be1 ,a god immortal1--mortal never more6 ,in this system six things are noteworthy3 7#a7 ,its comprehensiveness1 in that it takes account of man's whole nature1--body1 soul1 and spirit2 affections1 intellect1 and will1 and of all his relations--to gods and men1 to self and nature3 7#b7 ,its aimfulness1 in that it promises happiness here and blessedness hereafter1 as the reward of right living3 7#c7 ,its piety1 in that it everywhere recognizes the need of divine assistance3 7#d7 ,its appreciation of science1 as insight into the nature and grounds of multiplicity and unity3 7#e7 ,its stress laid on right doing1 as the condition of right knowing3 7#f7 ,its belief in man's divinity and perfectibility4 ,it is curious that the poem contains no reference to the doctrine of metempsychosis1 which might apparently have been appealed to as a powerful moral sanction4 ,that a system like that of ,pythagoras1 combining the religious1 the mystical1 the scientific1 the ethical1 and the social tendencies of the ,hellenic mind1 should have exerted a deep and abiding influence1 need not surprise us4 ,we find profound traces of it1 not only in all subsequent ,greek thought1 but even in foreign systems1 such as ,essenism1 whose elements were ,hebrew ,nazarenism and ,greek ,pythagoreanism4 ,the relations between ,essenism and ,christianity have not yet been determined4 ,of the effect of ,pythagoras' teaching on ,epaminondas ,i have already spoken4 ,,chapter ,v ,,ionian ,,or ,,athenian ,,education ,let me now give an account of the ,old ,education1 when ,i1 uttering words of justice1 was in my prime1 and self-control was held in respect4 ,in the first place1 a child was not allowed to be heard uttering a grumble4 ,then all the boys of the quarter were obliged to march in a body1 in an orderly way and with the scantest of clothing1 along the streets to the music master's1 and this they did even if it snowed like barley-groats4 ,then they were set to rehearse a song1 without compressing their thighs1--either ,pallas1 mighty city-stormer1 or ,a shout sounding far1 putting energy into the melody which their fathers handed down4 ,and1 if any one attempted any fooling1 or any of those trills like the difficult inflexions la ,phrynis now in vogue1 he received a good threshing for his pains1 as having insulted the ,muses4 ,again1 at the physical trainer's1 the boys1 while sitting1 were obliged to keep their legs in front of them4444 ,and at dinner they were not allowed to pick out the best radish-head1 or to snatch away anise or celery from their elders1 or to gourmandize on fish and field-fares1 or to sit with their legs crossed4444 ,take courage1 young man1 and choose me1 the ,better ,reason1 and you shall know how to hate the public square1 to avoid the bath-houses1 to be ashamed of what is shameful1 to show temper when any one addresses you in ribald language1 to rise from your seat when your elders approach1 and not to be a lubber to your own parents1 or to do any other unseemly thing to mar the image of ,modesty1 or to rush to the house of the dancing-girl1 and1 while you are gaping at her performances1 get struck with an apple by a wench and fall from your fair fame1 or to talk back to your father1 or1 addressing him as ,japhet1 to revile the old age which made the nest for you4444 ,then1 fresh and blooming1 you will spend your time in the gymnasia1 and not go about the public square1 mouthing monstrous jokes1 like the young men of to-day1 or getting dragged into slippery1 gumshon-bamboozling disputes1 but1 going down to the ,academy1 with some worthy companion of your own age1 you will start a running-match1 crowned with white reed1 smelling of smilax1 leisure and deciduous white poplar1 rejoicing in the spring1 when the plane-tree whispers to the maple4 ,if you do the things which ,i enjoin1 and give your mind to them1 you will always have a well-developed chest1 a clear complexion1 broad shoulders1 and a short tongue4--,aristophanes1 ,clouds 7,speech of ,right ,reason74 ,in their systems of education1 some states strive to impart a courageous habit to their people from their very childhood by a painful and laborious training1 whereas we1 though living in a free and natural way1 are ready to meet them in a fair field with no favor4--,pericles' ,funeral ,oration 7,thucydides74 ,i will never disgrace these sacred arms1 nor desert my companion in the ranks4 ,i will fight for temples and public property1 both alone and with many4 ,i will transmit my fatherland1 not only not less1 but greater and better1 than it was transmitted to me4 ,i will obey the magistrates who may at any time be in power4 ,i will observe both the existing laws and those which the people may unanimously hereafter make1 and1 if any person seek to annul the laws or to set them at nought1 ,i will do my best to prevent him1 and will defend them both alone and with many 7all874 ,i will honor the religion of my fathers4 ,and ,i call to witness ,aglauros1 ,enyalios1 ,ares1 ,zeus1 ,thallo1 ,auxo1 and ,hegemone4--,oath of the ,athenian ,epheboi4 ,consider1 ,men of ,athens1 what careful provision was made by ,solon1 the ancient lawgiver1 by ,draco1 and other lawgivers of that period1 for the cultivation of good morals4 ,in the first place1 they made laws to secure a moral education for our children1 and laid down1 in plain terms1 just what the free-born boy should study and how he should be nurtured2 secondly1 they made regulations regarding young men2 and1 thirdly1 with regard to the other periods of life in their order1 including both private persons and public speakers2 and1 having recorded these laws1 they left them in your keeping1 appointing you their guardians4--schines 7against ,timarchus74 ,if systems of education are to be classified according to their results--and these are perhaps the fairest test--then the ,old ,education of ,athens must be assigned a very high place4 ,the character which she displayed1 and the exploits which she performed1 in the early decades of the fifth century ,b4,c41 bear unequivocal testimony to the value of the training to which her citizens had previously been subjected4 ,this training could perhaps hardly be better characterized than by the word puritanical4 ,the men who fought at ,marathon1 ,salamis1 and ,plat were puritans1 trained1 in a hard school1 to fear the gods1 to respect the laws1 their neighbors1 and themselves1 to reverence the wisdom of experience1 to despise comfort and vice1 and to do honest work4 ,they were not enfeebled by sthetic culture1 paralyzed by abstract thinking1 or hardened by professional training4 ,they were educated to be men1 friends1 and citizens1 not to be mere thinkers1 critics1 soldiers1 or money-makers4 ,it was against a small band of such men that the hosts of ,persia fought in vain4 ,it is natural that this ,old ,education of ,athens should have a special interest for us1 inasmuch as it seems1 in great measure1 to have solved the problem that must be uppermost with every true educator and friend of education1 viz4 ,how can strong1 wise1 and good men be produced8 ,for this reason1 as also because we are the better informed regarding the educational system of ,athens than that of any other ,greek state1 it seems proper to devote special attention to it1 treating it as preminently ,greek education4 ,indeed1 whatever is permanently valuable in ,greek education is to be found in that of ,athens1 other systems having mainly but an historical interest for us4 ,in comparing the education of ,athens with that of ,sparta1 we are at once struck with two great distinctions3 7#a7 ,while ,spartan education is public1 ,athenian education is mainly private2 7#b7 ,while ,sparta educates for war1 ,athens educates for peace4 ,as to the former of these1 it is not a little remarkable that1 while many of the first thinkers of ,greece1 including ,plato and ,aristotle1 advocated an entirely public education1 ,athens never adopted it1 or even took any steps in that direction4 ,it seems as if the ,athenians felt instinctively that socialistic education1 by relieving parents of the responsibility of providing for the education of their own children1 was removing a strong moral influence1 undermining the family1 and jeopardizing liberty4 ,perhaps the example of ,sparta was not without its influence4 ,no liberty-loving people1 such as the ,athenians were1 would consent to merge the family in the ,state1 or to sacrifice private life to public order4 ,as to the second distinction1 which was all-pervasive1 it divides the two peoples by an impassable gulf and assigns them to two different grades of civilization4 ,and it was one of which both peoples were entirely conscious4 ,while ,sparta represented her ideal by a chained ,ares1 ,athens found hers in a ,wingless ,victory1 a form of ,athena1 the divinity of political and industrial wisdom4 ,as the aim of ,sparta was strength1 so that of ,athens was ,,wisdom--the wise man in the wise state4 ,by the wise man1 was meant he whose entire faculties of body1 soul1 and mind were proportionately and cordinately developed2 by the wise state1 that in which each class of the population performed its proper function1 and occupied its proper relation toward the rest1 and this without any excessive exercise of authority4 ,if the ,spartan1 like the artificially tamed barbarian1 submitted to living by rule and command1 the ,athenian1 like the naturally civilized man1 delighted to live in a free and natural way 7 7 governed from within1 and not from without4 ,to make possible such life was the aim of ,athenian education1 which1 instead of seeking to merge the man in the ,state1 or to rend the two asunder1 treated them as necessary correlates and strove to balance their claims4 ,the endeavor on the part of ,athens to steer a middle course between socialism and individualism1 is manifest in the fact that1 though she had no public system of education1 she took great care to see that her citizens were thoroughly educated in the spirit of her institutions1 and1 indeed1 made such education a condition of citizenship1 which was thus an academic degree1 conferred only after careful examination4 ,by a law of ,solon's1 parents who had failed to give their sons a proper education lost all claim upon them for support in their old age4 ,furthermore1 ,athens subjected all her male citizens to a systematic preparation for civil and military functions1 before she allowed them to exercise these4 ,athenian education comprised four grades corresponding to four institutions1 7#a7 the family1 7#b7 the school1 7#c7 the gymnasium or college1 7#d7 the ,state4 ,we may consider these in their order4 7#a7 ,,family ,,education4 ,the birth of a child was regarded by the ,athenians as a joyful event1 as something calling for gratitude to the gods4 ,this expressed itself in a family festival1 called the ,amphidromia1 celebrated usually on the seventh day after the birth4 ,on this occasion1 the child was carried rapidly round the family altar and received its name4 ,a sacrifice was then offered to the gods1 the mother was purified1 and christening presents were displayed4 ,the child was now a member of the family and under the protection of its gods4 ,for the next seven years1 it was wholly in the hands of parents and nurses1 the latter being usually slaves4 ,during this time its body was the chief object of care1 and everything seems to have been done to render it healthy and hardy4 ,cradles do not seem to have been in use1 and the child was sung to sleep on the nurse's knee4 ,while it was being weaned1 it was fed on milk and soft food sweetened with honey4 ,as soon as it was able to move about and direct attention to external objects1 it received playthings1 such as rattles1 dolls of clay or wax1 hobby-horses1 etc41 and was allowed to roll and dig in the sand4 ,such were the simple gymnastics of this early period4 ,as to the other branch of education1 it consisted mostly in being sung to and in listening to stories about gods and heroes1 monsters and robbers1 of which ,greek mythology was full4 ,by means of these the child's imagination was roused and developed1 and certain sthetic1 ethical1 and national prepossessions awakened4 ,though children were often frightened from certain acts and habits by threats of bogles coming to carry them off1 yet the chief ethical agency employed was evidently strict discipline4 ,to secure good behavior in his children was the first care of the ,athenian parent4 ,though disinclined to harshness1 he never doubted that he who spareth the rod hateth the child4 ,children were never placed upon exhibition or applauded for their precocious or irreverent sayings4 ,they were kept as much as possible out of the way of older people1 and1 when necessity brought them into the presence of these1 they were taught to behave themselves quietly and modestly4 ,no ,greek author has preserved for us a collection of the smart sayings or roguish doings of ,athenian children4 ,though the ,kindergarten did not exist in those old days1 yet its place was1 in great measure1 filled by the numerous games in which the children engaged1 in part at least under their nurses' superintendence4 ,games played so important a part in the whole life of the ,greek people1 and especially of the ,athenians1 that their importance in the education of children was fully recognized and much attention devoted to them4 ,during play1 character both displays itself more fully1 and is more easily and deeply affected1 than at any other time2 and1 since the whole of the waking life of the child in its earliest years is devoted to play1 this is the time when character is formed1 and therefore the time which calls for most sedulous care4 ,in playing games1 children not only exercise their bodies and their wits2 they also learn to act with fairness1 and come to feel something of the joy that arises from companionship and friendly rivalry in a common occupation4 ,moreover1 as games have no end beyond themselves1 they are admirable exercises in free1 disinterested activity and a protection against selfish and sordid habits4 ,of all this the ,athenians were fully aware4 ,there are probably few games played by children in our day that were not known in ancient ,athens4 ,it seems1 however1 that games were there conducted with more system1 and a deeper sense of their pedagogical value1 than they are with us4 ,we hear of running1 leaping1 hopping1 catching1 hitting1 and throwing games1 gymnastic games1 and games of chance4 ,the ball1 the top1 the hoop1 the swing1 the see-saw1 the skipping rope1 the knuckle-bones were as much in use in ancient1 as in modern1 times4 ,cards1 of course1 there were not2 and1 indeed1 games of chance1 though well known1 seem rarely to have been indulged in by children4 ,it hardly seems necessary to remark that there were some games peculiar to boys and others to girls1 and that the latter were less rude than the former4 ,doubtless1 too1 the games played in the city1 where the children would have few chances of going beyond their homes1 were different from those played in the country1 where almost complete freedom to roam in the open air was enjoyed4 ,we must always bear in mind that well-to-do ,athenian families spent the greater part of the year at their country-houses1 which1 with few exceptions1 were so near the city that they could be reached even on foot in a single day4 ,this country life had a marked effect upon the education of ,athenian children4 7#b7 ,,school ,,education4 ,about the age of seven1 the ,athenian boy1 after being entered on the roll of prospective citizens in the temple of ,apollo ,patros1 and made a member of a phratria1 went to school1 or1 rather1 he went to two schools1 that of the music-master1 and that of the physical trainer4 ,he was always accompanied thither and back by a pedagogue1 who was usually a slave1 who carried his writing-materials1 his lyre1 etc4 7there being no school-books to carry71 and whom he was expected implicitly to obey4 ,the boys of each quarter of the city collected every morning at some appointed place and walked to school1 like little soldiers1 in rank and file4 ,they wore next to no clothing1 even in the coldest weather1 and were obliged to conduct themselves very demurely in the streets4 ,the school hours were very long1 beginning early in the morning and continuing till late in the evening4 ,solon found it necessary to introduce a law forbidding schoolmasters to have their schools open before sunrise or after sunset4 ,it thus appears that boys1 after the age of seven1 spent their whole day at school1 and were thus early withdrawn from the influence of their mothers and sisters1 a fact which was not without its bearing upon morals4 ,there are several interesting points in connection with ,athenian school life about which our information is so scanty that we are left in some doubt respecting them4 ,for example1 though it is quite plain that ,athens had no system of public instruction1 it is not so clear that she did not own the school buildings4 ,again1 it is not certain whether music 7including letters7 and gymnastics were1 or were not1 taught in the same locality4 ,thirdly1 there is some doubt about the number and order of the hours devoted to each of the two branches of study4 ,in regard to these points ,i can state only what seems to me most probable4 ,as to school buildings1 we are expressly told by the author of the fragmentary tract on ,the ,athenian ,state1 currently attributed to ,xenophon1 but probably written as early as ,b4,c4 #dbd1 that the people 77 builds itself many palstras1 dressing-rooms1 baths1 and the masses have more enjoyment of these than the few that are well-to-do4 ,if we assume that some of these palstras were for boys1 as we apparently have a right to do1 we must conclude that some1 at least1 if not all1 of the schools for bodily training were public edifices1 let out by the ,state to teachers4 ,like all the great gymnasia1 some1 and possibly all1 of them were situated outside the city walls and had gardens attached to them4 ,whether the music-schools were so likewise1 is doubtful1 and this brings us to our second question--whether the two branches of education were taught in the same place4 ,that they were not taught in the same room1 or by the same person1 is clear enough2 but it does not follow from this that they were not taught in the same building1 or at any rate in the same enclosed space4 ,though there seems to be no explicit statement in any ancient author on this point1 ,i think there are sufficient reasons for concluding that1 generally at least1 they were so taught4 ,if we find that ,antisthenes1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1 who may be said to have introduced a systematic higher education into ,athens1 opened their schools in the great public gymnasia1 frequented by youths and men1 we may surely conclude that the lower mental education was not separated from the physical4 ,in the ,lysis of ,plato1 we find some young men coming out of a palstra outside the city walls1 and inviting ,socrates to enter1 telling him that their occupation 77 consists mostly in discussions 7 71 and that their teacher is a certain ,miccus1 an admirer of his4 ,socrates recognizes the man as a capable sophist1 a term never used of physical trainers4 ,on entering1 ,socrates finds a number of boys and youths 77 playing together1 the former having just finished a sacrifice4 ,it seems to follow directly from this that intellectual education was imparted in the palstras4 ,if this be true1 we may1 ,i think1 conclude that in ,athens the schools generally were outside the city walls1 though the case was certainly different in some other cities4 ,in regard to our third question1 it is clear that1 if boys spent their whole day in one place1 it would be more easy to divide it profitably between musical instruction and gymnastics than if they spent one part of it in one place1 and another in another4 ,just how it was divided1 we do not know1 and ,i have little doubt that much depended upon the notions of parents and the tendencies of different periods4 ,it is quite clear1 from certain complaints of ,aristotle's1 that in ,athens parents enjoyed great liberty in this matter4 ,in any case1 since1 as we know1 the institutions of education were open all day1 it seems more than probable that one class of boys took their gymnastic lesson at one hour1 another at another1 and so with other branches of study4 ,it cannot be that the physical training-schools were deserted when the music-schools were in session4 ,i think there is sufficient reason for believing that1 generally1 the younger boys took their physical exercises in the morning1 and their intellectual instruction in the afternoon1 the order being reversed in the case of the older boys4 ,how much of the time spent at school was given up to lessons and how much to play1 is not at all clear2 but ,i am inclined to think that the playtime was at least as long as the worktime4 ,the schools were for boys what the agora and the gymnasium were for grown men--the place where their lives were spent4 ,before we consider separately the two divisions of ,athenian education1 a few facts common to them may be mentioned4 ,in the first place1 they had a common end1 which was1 to produce men independent but respectful1 freedom-loving but law-abiding1 healthy in mind and body1 clear in thought1 ready in action1 and devoted to their families1 their fatherland1 and their gods4 ,contrary to the practice of the ,romans1 the ,athenians sought to prepare their sons for independent citizenship at as early an age as possible4 ,in the second place1 the motives employed in both divisions were the same1 viz4 fear of punishment and hope of reward4 ,as we have seen1 the ,athenian boy1 if he behaved badly1 was not spared the rod4 ,as an offset against this1 when he did well1 he received unstinted praise1 not to speak of more substantial things4 ,education1 like everything else in ,greece1 took the form of competition4 ,the ,homeric line 7,il41 vi1 #bjh2 xi1 #ghd71 ,see that thou ever be best1 and above all others distinguished1 was the motto of the ,athenian in everything4 ,in the third place1 in both divisions the chief aim was the realization of capacity1 not the furthering of acquisition4 ,mere learning and execution were almost universally despised in the old time1 while intelligence and capacity were universally admired4 ,in the fourth place1 in both divisions the utmost care was directed to the conduct of the pupils1 so that it might be gentle1 dignified1 and rational4 ,in the fifth place1 education in both its branches was intended to enable men to occupy worthily and sociably their leisure time1 quite as much as to prepare them for what might be called their practical duties in family1 society1 and ,state4 ,the fine arts1 according to the ,greeks1 furnished the proper amusements for educated men 774 77 ,musical 7and ,literary7 ,instruction4 ,though the ,greek word music 77 came in later times to have an extended meaning1 in the epoch of which we are treating1 it included only music in our sense1 and poetry1 two things which were not then separated4 ,aristophanes1 as late as ,b4,c4 #dbb1 can still count upon an audience ready to laugh at the idea of giving instruction in astronomy and geometry1 as things too remote from human interests 7,clouds1 vv #bbj sqq474 ,the poetry consisted chiefly of the epics of ,homer and ,hesiod1 the elegiacs of ,tyrtus1 ,solon1 ,theognis1 etc41 the iambics of ,archilochus1 ,simonides1 etc41 and the songs of the numerous lyrists1 ,terpander1 ,arion1 ,alcus1 ,alcman1 ,sappho1 ,simonides1 etc4 ,the music was simple1 meant to sweeten 77 the words and bring out their meaning4 ,in fact1 the music and the poetry were always composed together1 so that the poet was necessarily also a musician4 ,what we call harmony was unknown in ,greek music at all times1 and instrumental music was almost entirely confined to solo-playing4 ,in treating of ,athenian1 and1 indeed1 of all ,greek1 education1 it is of the utmost importance to realize that the intellectual and moral part of it has music and poetry for its starting-point4 ,this is the core round which everything else gathers2 this is what determines its character1 influence1 and ideal4 ,culture1 as distinguished from nature1 is the material of ,athenian intellectual and moral education2 and by this is meant1 not the history or theory of culture1 as it might be set forth in prose1 but culture itself1 as embodied in the ideals and forms of music-wedded poetry1 appealing to the emotions that stir the will1 as well as to the intelligence that guides it4 ,by making the works of the great poets of the ,greek people the material of their education1 the ,athenians attained a variety of objects difficult of attainment by any other one means4 ,the fact is1 the ancient poetry of ,greece1 with its finished form1 its heroic tales and characters1 its accounts of peoples far removed in time and space1 its manliness and pathos1 its directness and simplicity1 its piety and wisdom1 its respect for law and order1 combined with its admiration for personal initiative and worth1 furnished1 in the hands of a careful and genial teacher1 a material for a complete education such as could not well be matched even in our own day4 ,what instruction in ethics1 politics1 social life1 and manly bearing could not find a fitting vehicle in the ,homeric poems1 not to speak of the geography1 the grammar1 the literary criticism1 and the history which the comprehension of them involved8 ,into what a wholesome1 unsentimental1 free world did these poems introduce the imaginative ,greek boy6 ,what splendid ideals of manhood and womanhood did they hold up for his admiration and imitation6 ,from ,hesiod he would learn all that he needed to know about his gods and their relation to him and his people4 ,from the elegiac poets he would derive a fund of political and social wisdom1 and an impetus to patriotism1 which would go far to make him a good man and a good citizen4 ,from the iambic poets he would learn to express with energy his indignation at meanness1 feebleness1 wrong1 and tyranny1 while from the lyric poets he would learn the language suitable to every genial feeling and impulse of the human heart4 ,and in reciting or singing all these1 how would his power of terse1 idiomatic expression1 his sense of poetic beauty and his ear for rhythm and music be developed6 ,with what a treasure of examples of every virtue and vice1 and with what a fund of epigrammatic expression would his memory be furnished6 ,how familiar he would be with the character and ideals of his nation1 how deeply in sympathy with them6 ,and all this was possible even before the introduction of letters4 ,with this event a new era in education begins4 ,the boy now not only learns and declaims his ,homer1 and sings his ,simonides or ,sappho1 he learns also to write down their verses from dictation1 and so at once to read and to write4 ,this1 indeed1 was the way in which these two 7to us7 fundamental arts were acquired4 ,as soon as the boy could trace with his finger in sand1 or scratch with a stylus on wax1 the forms of the letters1 and combine them into syllables and words1 he began to write poetry from his master's dictation4 ,the writing-lesson of to-day was the reading1 recitation1 or singing-lesson of to-morrow4 ,every boy made his own reading-book1 and1 if he found it illegible1 and stumbled in reading1 he had only himself to blame4 ,the ,greeks1 and especially the ,athenians1 laid the greatest stress upon reading well1 reciting well1 and singing well1 and the youth who could not do all the three was looked upon as uncultured4 ,nor could he hide his want of culture1 since young men were continually called upon1 both at home and at more or less public gatherings1 to perform their part in the social entertainment4 ,the strictly musical instruction of this period was almost entirely confined to simple1 strong ,doric airs1 sung to an accompaniment which was played on an instrument closely resembling the modern guitar 71 74 ,complicated and wind instruments were unpopular1 and the softer or more thrilling kinds of music1 ,lydian1 ,phrygian1 etc41 had not yet been introduced1 at least into schools4 ,anything like the skill and execution demanded of professional players1 who were usually slaves or foreigners1 was considered altogether unworthy of a free man and a citizen1 and was therefore not aimed at4 ,fond as the ,athenians were of the fine arts1 they always held professional skill in any of them1 except poetry and musical composition1 to be incompatible with that dignity and virtue which they demanded of the free citizen4 ,a respectable ,athenian would no more have allowed his son to be a professional musician than he would have allowed him to be a professional acrobat4 ,it is difficult for us to understand the way in which the ,greeks regarded music4 ,inferior as their music was to ours in all technical ways1 it exerted an influence upon their lives of which we can form but a faint conception4 ,to them it was a dmonic power1 capable of rousing or assuaging the passions1 and hence of being used for infinite good or evil4 ,no wonder1 then1 that in their education they sought to employ those kinds which tended to purgation 771 and to avoid those that were exciting1 sentimental1 or effeminate6 ,no wonder that they disapproved of divorcing music from the intellectual element contained in the words1 and allowing it to degenerate into a mere emotional or sensual luxury6 ,music the ,greeks regarded1 not indeed as a moral force 7a phrase that to them1 who regarded morality as a matter of the will1 would have conveyed no meaning71 but as a force whose office it was1 by purging and harmonizing the human being1 to make him a fit subject for moral instruction4 ,music1 they held1 brought harmony1 first into the human being himself1 by putting an end to the conflict between his passions and his intelligent will1 and then1 as a consequence1 into his relations with his fellows4 ,harmony within was held to be the condition of harmony without4 ,in the period of which ,i am speaking1 no distinction was yet made between music and literature 771 both being taught by the citharist 774 ,indeed1 the term for teacher of literature 77 was not then invented4 ,but the citharist not only taught literature3 he also taught the elements of arithmetic1 a matter of no small difficulty1 considering the clumsy notation then in use4 ,this was done by means of pebbles1 a box of sand1 or an abacus similar in principle to that now used by billiard players to keep count of their strokes4 ,as to the schoolrooms in ancient ,athens1 they were apparently simple in the extreme2 indeed1 rather porches open to sun and wind than rooms in the modern sense4 ,they contained little or no furniture4 ,the boys sat upon the ground or upon low benches1 like steps 771 while the teacher occupied a high chair 774 ,the benches were washed1 apparently every day1 with sponges4 ,the only decorations permitted in the schoolrooms1 it seems1 were statues or statuettes of the ,muses and ,apollo1 and the school festivals or exhibitions were regarded as festivals in honor of these4 ,indeed1 in ,greece every sort of festival was regarded as an act of worship to some divinity4 ,the chief school festival seems to have been the ,musa 771 at which the boys recited and sang4 77 ,gymnastics or ,bodily ,training4 ,under the term ,gymnastics 771 the ,greeks generally included everything relating to the culture of the body4 ,the ends which the ,athenians sought to reach through this branch of education were health1 strength1 adroitness1 ease1 self-possession1 and firm1 dignified bearing4 ,a certain number of boys1 intending to take part in the ,olympic and other great games1 were allowed to train as athletes under a gymnast 71 7 in the public gymnasia1 and under the direction of the ,state2 but these were exceptions4 ,the athlete was not an ideal person at ,athens1 as he was at ,thebes and ,sparta4 ,gymnastic exercises were conducted partly in the palstras1 or wrestling schools1 partly on the race-courses1 both of which were under the direction of professional trainers 774 ,in early times1 the palstra and race-course were simply an open space covered with sand and probably connected with the school 771 thus corresponding to our playground4 ,later1 this space was partly covered over and furnished with dressing-rooms1 a bath1 seats for spectators1 an altar for sacrifices1 statues1 etc4 ,of the five gymnastic exercises in which boys were trained1 all except wrestling seem to have been conducted on the race-course1 so that the palstra was reserved for what its name implied4 ,it is by no means certain that every palstra had a race-course connected with it1 at least in the time of which we are speaking1 and possibly in many cases the boys took part of their exercises in the public race-course running from the agora to beyond the walls4 ,just as the schoolroom was decorated with images of ,apollo and the ,muses1 so the palstra was decorated with images of ,hermes1 ,heracles1 and ,eros1 symbolizing1 respectively1 adroitness1 human strength1 and youthful friendship4 ,the special patron of the palstra was ,hermes1 and the gymnastic exhibition took the form of a festival to him1 the ,herma1 at which a sacrifice was offered and the boys were allowed the use of the building to play games in1 the victors wearing crowns4 ,it would be impossible1 in a work of this compass1 to enter into a minute description of all the exercises of the ,athenian palstra4 ,we must be content with a general statement1 which may be prefaced with the remark that these exercises were at first light1 increasing gradually in rigor and difficulty as the strength and skill of the growing child permitted4 ,the chief gymnastic exercises were five1 named in this order in a famous line of ,simonides3 7#a7 leaping1 7#b7 running1 7#c7 discus-throwing1 7#d7 javelin-casting1 7#e7 wrestling 771 which last gave the name to the palstra4 ,we shall not strictly follow this order1 but begin with 7#a7 ,running4--,this was the simplest1 lightest1 most natural1 and1 therefore1 the most easily taught of exercises4 ,it was probably also the oldest4 ,we find even ,homer making his ideal ,phacians begin their games with it1 and this practice seems to have been general throughout antiquity4 ,in taking this exercise1 the boys divested themselves of all clothing and had their bodies rubbed with oil4 ,the running appears to have been of the simplest kind4 ,hurdle-races1 sack-races1 etc41 were apparently excluded from education4 ,at the same time1 the running was rendered difficult by the soft sand with which the course was covered to the depth of several inches4 ,the races were distinguished according to their length in furlongs or stadia3 7#a7 the furlong-race1 7#b7 the double-furlong race1 7#c7 the horse 7four-furlong7 race1 7#d7 the long race1 whose length seems to have been twenty-four furlongs1 or about three miles4 ,the stadion was #bjb yards ,english4 ,the shorter races called for brief concentration of energy1 the longer for persistence and endurance2 all were exercises in agility2 all tended to develop lung-power4 7#b7 ,leaping or ,jumping4--,this exercise seems1 in the main1 to have confined itself to the long leap4 ,though the high leap and the pole-jump can hardly have been unknown1 we have no evidence that they were ever employed in the gymnastic training of boys4 ,there may have been hygienic reasons which forbade their use4 ,on the other hand1 boys were taught to lengthen their leap by means of weights1 somewhat similar to our dumb-bells1 carried in their hands1 and swung forward in the act of leaping4 ,such leaping would be an exercise for the arms1 as well as for the legs and the rest of the body4 ,but1 just as there were two exercises intended chiefly for the legs1 so there were two intended chiefly for the arms--discus-throwing and javelin-casting4 7#c7 ,discus-throwing4--,the modern world has been rendered very familiar with the method of this exercise by the copies of the discobolus of ,myron1 preserved in ,rome and extensively engraved and photographed1 and that of the discobolus of ,alcamenes which now stands in the ,vatican 7see ,overbeck1 ,griech4 ,plastik vol4 i1 p4 #bgf74 ,the discus was generally a flat1 round piece of stone or metal1 a sort of large quoit with no hole in the middle1 which the user sought to throw as far as he could4 ,the discobolus of ,alcamenes shows us a youth balancing the discus in his left hand1 and taking the measure of his throw with his eye2 that of ,myron shows us another in the act of throwing4 ,he swings the discus backward in his right hand1 and bends his body forward to balance it4 ,his right foot1 the toes contracted with effort1 rests firmly on the ground2 the left is slightly lifted2 the whole body is like a bent bow4 ,in the next instant the left foot will advance1 the left hand1 now resting on the right knee1 will swing backwards1 the body will resume its erect position1 and the discus will be shot forward from the right hand like an arrow4 ,nothing could show more clearly than does this statue the perfect organization1 symmetry1 and balance which were the aim of ,greek gymnastics4 ,not one limb could be moved without affecting all the rest1--which shows that the exercise extended to the whole body4 7#d7 ,javelin-casting4--,the aim of this exercise was to develop skill and precision of eye and hand1 rather than strength of muscle4 ,the instrument employed was a short dagger or lance1 which was aimed at a mark4 ,he who could hit the mark from the greatest distance was the most proficient scholar4 ,the spear1 before being thrown1 was balanced in the right hand at the height of the ear4 7#e7 ,wrestling4--,this very complicated exercise was evidently the principal one in the gymnastic course1 the one to which the others were merely preparatory4 ,it was the only one which a boy could not practice by himself4 ,it exercised not only the whole body1 but the patience and temper as well4 ,the aim of the wrestler was to throw 77 his antagonist4 ,those who took part in this exercise had their bodies rubbed with oil and strewn with fine sand4 ,it seems that the wrestler was allowed to do anything he chose to his antagonist except to bite1 strike1 or kick him4 ,before he could claim the victory he had to throw him three times4 ,after the contest the wrestlers scraped from their bodies1 with a strigil1 the oil and dust1#b bathed1 were again rubbed with oil1 exposed their bodies to the sun1 in order to dry and tan them1 and dressed4 ,the bathing was done in cold water1 and both the bathing and the sunning were in part intended to inure the body to sudden cold and heat1 which inurement was considered a very essential part of physical training4 ,such were the chief exercises employed in the gymnastic training of the ,athenians4 ,thus far1 we have considered the two branches of education as conducted separately1 and as not coming at any point in contact with each other4 ,but it would have been very unlike the ,greek1 and especially the ,athenian1 to leave the two divisions of education unrelated and unharmonized4 ,and1 indeed1 he did not so leave them1 but brought them together in the most admirable way in what he called orchesis1 a word for which we have no better equivalent than 77 ,dancing 71 74 ,dancers1 says ,aristotle1 by means of plastic rhythms 7rhythms reproduced in plastic forms7 imitate characters1 feelings1 and actions4 ,xenophon1 in his ,anabasis1 describing a banquet that took place in the wilds of ,paphlagonia1 says3 ,after the treaty was ratified and the pan sung1 there first rose up two ,thracians and danced in armor to the flute1 leaping high and lightly1 and using their swords4 ,finally one of them struck the other1 so that everybody thought he had wounded him2 but he fell in an artificial way4 ,then the ,paphlagonians raised a shout2 but the assailant1 having despoiled the fallen man of his armor1 went out singing the ,sitalcas4 ,then others of the ,thracians carried out the other as if he had been dead2 but he was none the worse4 ,next1 some nianes and ,magnesians stood up and danced the so-called ,carpa in armor4 ,the manner of the dance was this3 one man1 putting his arms within reach1 sows and drives a team1 frequently turning round as if afraid4 ,then a robber makes his appearance4 ,as soon as the other espies him1 he seizes his arms1 advances to him1 and fights in front of the team4 ,and the two did this keeping time to the flute4 ,finally the robber1 having bound the other1 carries off both him and the team2 sometimes1 on the contrary1 the ploughman binds the robber1 in which case he yokes him1 with his hands bound behind his back1 to his oxen and drives off4 ,several other dances1 performed by persons of different nationalities1 follow2 but enough has been quoted to show that the ,greek was something very different from our dancing4 ,it was1 indeed1 a pantomimic ballet1 interspersed with tableaux vivans4 ,in the dances here mentioned1 the flute is the instrument employed1 and this the player could not accompany with his voice4 ,but in the ,athenian schools1 in the old time1 the flute1 and all music without words1 were tabooed4 ,there can be no doubt1 therefore1 that in these the orchestic performances were accompanied by the lyre1 the player on which sang in words what the dancers danced4 ,it is obvious that in such performances the musical 7literary7 and gymnastic branches of education came in for about equal shares4 ,dancing exercised the whole human being1 body and soul1 and exercised them in a completely harmonious way4 ,it is this harmony1 this rhythmic movement of the body in consonance with the emotions of the soul and the purposes of the intelligence1 that is grace 774 ,hence1 while the ,greeks relied upon gymnastics to impart strength and firmness to the body1 they looked to dancing for courtliness and grace4 ,plato places the two on the same footing1 as parts of a single discipline4 ,the fact that the two divisions of education met in dancing seems to prove what ,i surmised above1 viz4 that they were conducted within the same precincts2 in which case we may suppose that1 while the dancing exercises took place in the palstra1 the music was supplied by the music master4 ,we know that the chorus-leader was a public officer1 appointed by the demos1 and had to be over forty years old4 ,in any case1 it is curious enough to think that ,athenian1 and1 generally1 ,greek1 education culminated in dancing4 ,but this was a perfectly logical result2 for the chorus is the type of ,greek social life1 as we see most clearly in the ,republic of ,plato4 ,it hardly needs to be pointed out that the supreme form of ,greek art1 the drama1 was but a development of the ,bacchic or ,dionysiac chorus4 ,this development consisted in the separation of the music from the pantomime1 and the assignment of the former to the chorus1 which no longer danced1 but walked1 and of the latter to the actors1 who added the dialogue to it4 ,greek life was divided into three parts--civil1 military1 religious4 ,music and letters were a preparation for the first1 gymnastics for the second1 and dancing for the third4 ,dancing formed a prominent part in ,greek worship1 and it may be doubted whether free ,athenians ever danced except before the gods -- 1 as ,xenophon says4 ,two things still remain to be considered with regard to ,athenian schools1 7#a7 grading1 7#b7 holidays4 ,with respect to the former1 the practice probably differed at different times2 but we seem to be justified in assuming that1 at the time of which ,i am speaking1 there were but two grades1 boys 77 and youths 774 ,these are mentioned by ,plato1 in the ,lysis1 as celebrating the ,herma together in a palstra4 ,the first grade would include the boys from seven to eleven years of age2 the second1 those from eleven to fifteen4 ,as to holidays1 they seem to have been simply the feast-days of the greater gods1 when business of every sort was suspended4 ,such days amounted to about ninety annually4 7#c7 ,,college ,,education4 ,about the time when he was blossoming into manhood1 that is1 some time between his fourteenth and his sixteenth year1 the ,athenian boy of the olden time was transferred from the private school and palstra1 which belonged to the family side of life1 to the gymnasium1 which belonged to the ,state1 and in which he received the education calculated to fit him for the duties of a citizen4 ,having1 in the family and the school1 been trained to be a gentleman 771 he must now be trained to be a citizen1 capable of exercising legislative1 judicial1 and military functions4 ,the ,state saw to it that he received this training1 if his parents chose and could afford it4 ,in the time of ,solon1 about ,b4,c4 #eij1 two great gymnasia1 the ,academy and ,cynosarges1 were erected in the midst of extensive groves outside the city walls4 ,these groves were afterwards surrounded with high walls1 furnished with seats and other conveniences1 and turned into city parks4 ,the ,academy1 which lay to the northwest of the city1 in the valley of the ,cephisus1 and was under the patronage of ,athena1 was the resort of the full-blooded citizens1 while ,cynosarges1 situated to the east of the city1 near the foot of ,lycabettus1 was assigned to those who had foreign blood in their veins1 that is1 who had only one parent of pure ,athenian stock4 ,this gymnasium was under the patronage of ,heracles1 whose worship always implies the presence of a foreign and vanquished element4 ,these were the only two gymnasia belonging to ,athens before the time of ,pericles4 ,they were1 probably1 destroyed by the ,persians in #dhj1 and had afterwards to be rebuilt1 and the groves replanted4 ,while the children of nearly all the free citizens of ,athens attended the school and the palstra1 it is clear that only the youth of the wealthier classes attended the gymnasium4 ,one result of this was that the government and offices of the ,state fell exclusively into the hands of those classes2 and it was perhaps just in order to make this division1 without introducing any class-law1 that the shrewd ,solon established the gymnasia1 which thus became a bulwark against democracy4 ,as soon as the ,athenian youth was transferred to the gymnasium1 he passed from under the charge of the pedagogue1 who represented the family1 and came under the direct surveillance of the ,state4 ,he was now free to go where he would1 to frequent the agora and the street1 to attend the theatre1 in which he had his appointed place1 and to make himself directly acquainted with all the details of public life4 ,in the gymnasium he passed into the hands of a gymnast or scientific trainer1 and for the next two or three years was subjected to the severer exercises1 wrestling1 boxing1 etc4 ,no special provision1 beyond the fact that he had to learn the laws1 was made for his intellectual and moral instruction4 ,he was expected to acquire this from contact with the older citizens whom he met in the agora1 the street1 or the public park4 ,thus1 at what is justly regarded as the most critical age1 he was almost compelled to live a free1 breezy1 outdoor life1 full of activity and stirring incident1 his thoughts and feelings directed outwards into acts of will1 and not turned back upon himself or his own states4 ,at the same time he was acquiring just that practical knowledge of ethical laws and of real life which could best fit him for active citizenship4 ,he now learnt to ride1 to drive1 to row1 to swim1 to attend banquets1 to sustain a conversation1 to discuss the weightiest questions of statesmanship1 to sing and dance in public choruses1 and to ride or walk in public processions4 ,if he abused his liberty and behaved in a lawless or unseemly way1 he was called to account by the severe ,court of the ,areopagus1 which attended to public morals4 ,he saw little of girls of his own age1 except his sisters1 unless it was at public festivals1 when there was little opportunity of becoming acquainted with them4 ,his affectionate nature therefore expressed itself mostly in the form of devoted friendships to other youths of his own1 or nearly his own1 age1 a fact which enables us to understand why friendship fills so large a space1 not only in the life1 but also in the ethical treatises of the ,greeks1--,plato1 ,aristotle1 etc41--and why love1 in the modern sense1 plays so insignificant a part4 ,the truth is that1 even in ,athens1 the ,state encroached upon the family4 ,plato's ,republic was only the logical carrying out of principles that were latent long before in the social life of the ,athenian people4 ,it would be impossible to treat in detail the exercises to which the ,athenian youth was subjected during the years in which he attended the public gymnasium as a pupil4 ,the old exercises of the palstra were continued1 running and wrestling especially2 but the former was now done in armor1 and the latter became more violent1 and was supplemented by boxing4 ,in fact1 the physical exercises were now systematized into the pentathlon--running1 leaping1 discus-throwing1 wrestling1 boxing--which formed the programme of nearly all gymnastic exhibitions4 ,during these years1 the youth was still regarded as a minor1 and his father or guardian was responsible for his good behavior4 ,but when he reached the age of eighteen1 a change took place1 and he passed under the direct control of the ,state4 ,his father now brought him before the reeve of his demos 7ward or village71 as a candidate for independent citizenship4 ,if he proved to be the lawful child of free citizens1 and came up to the moral and physical requirements of the law1 his name was entered upon the register of the demos1 and he became a member of it4 ,he was now prepared to be presented to the whole people1 and to pass the ,state examination4 ,he shore his long hair for the first time1 and donned the black garment of the citizen4 ,in this guise he presented himself to the king-archon of the ,state1 who1 at a public assembly1 introduced him1 along with others1 to the whole people4 ,he was then and there armed with spear and shield 7supplied by the ,state if his father had fallen in war71 and thence proceeded to the shrine of ,aglauros1 where1 looking down on the agora1 the city1 and the ,attic plain1 he took the ,solonian oath of citizenship 7see p4 #fa74 ,he was now technically an ephbos1 cadet1 or citizen-novice1 ready to undergo those two years of severe discipline which at once formed his introduction to practical affairs1 and constituted the ,state examination4 ,during the first year he remained in the neighborhood of ,athens1 drilling in arms1 and acquiring a knowledge of military tactics4 ,his life was now the hard life of a soldier4 ,he slept in the open air1 or in the guard-houses 77 that surrounded the city1 and was liable to be called upon at any time by the government to give aid in an emergency4 ,he also took part in the public festivals4 ,at the end of the year1 all the ephboi of one year's standing passed an examination in military drill before the assembled people 7 #c71 after which they were employed as militia to man the frontier guard-houses1 and as rural gendarmerie 771 scouring the country in all directions4 ,they now lived like soldiers in war-time1 and learnt two important things1 7#a7 the topography of ,attica1 its roads1 passes1 brooks1 springs1 etc41 7#b7 the art of enforcing law and order4 ,their life1 indeed1 closely resembled that of the ,alpine corps 7,alpini7 of the ,italian army at the present day4 ,these spend the summer in making themselves acquainted with every height1 valley1 pass1 stream1 and covert in the ,italian ,alps1 often bivouacking for days together at great heights4 ,that during this time the ephboi should have taken any part in the legislative or judicial duties of citizens1 seems in the highest degree improbable4 ,at the end of their second year1 however1 they passed a second examination1 called the citizenship or manhood examination 7 71 after which they were full members of the ,state4 7#d7 ,,university ,,education4 ,the ,greek university was the ,state1 and the ,greek ,state was a university--a ,cultur-,staat1 as the ,germans say4 ,that the ,state is a school of virtue1 was a view generally entertained in the ancient world1 which1 until it began to decay1 completely identified the man with the citizen4 ,the influence of this view upon the attitude of the individual to the ,state1 and of the ,state to the individual1 can hardly be overestimated4 ,the ,state claimed1 and the individual accorded to it1 a disciplinary right which extended to every sphere and action of life4 ,thus the sphere of morality coincided exactly with the sphere of legality1 or1 to put it the other way1 the sphere of legality extended to the whole sphere of morality1 and this was considered true1 whatever form the ,state or government might assume--monarchy1 aristocracy1 democracy1 etc4 ,to give a full account of the university education of old ,athens would be to write her social and political history up to the time of the ,persian ,wars4 ,this is1 of course1 out of the question4 ,all ,i can do is to point out those elements in the ,state which enabled it to produce that splendid array of noble men1 and accomplish those great deeds and works1 which make her brief career seem the brightest spot in the world's history4 ,the chief of these elements1 and the one which included all the rest1 was the ,greek ideal of harmony4 ,athens was great as a ,state and as a school so long as she embodied that ideal1 so long as she distributed power and honor in accordance with worth 77 intellectual1 moral1 practical2 in a word1 so long as the ,state was governed by the best citizens 771 and the rest acknowledged their right to do so4 ,notwithstanding the contention of ,grote and others1 it is strictly true that ,athens was great because1 and so long as1 she was aristocratic 7in the ancient sense71 and perished when she abandoned her fundamental ideal by becoming democratic4 ,this assertion must not be construed as any slur upon democracy as such1 or as denying that ,athens in perishing paved the way for a higher ideal than her own4 ,it simply states a fact1 which may be easily generalized without losing its truth3 ,an institution perishes when it abandons the principle on which it was founded and built up4 ,unless we bear this in mind1 we shall utterly fail to understand the lesson of ,athenian history4 ,if it be maintained that some of ,athens' noblest work was done under the democracy1 the sufficient answer is1 that it was nearly all done by men who retained the spirit of the old aristocracy1 and bitterly opposed the democracy4 ,we need name only schylus1 ,sophocles1 ,aristophanes1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,demosthenes4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,new ,,education 7,b4,c4 #dhj-cch7 ,,chapter ,i ,,individualism ,,and ,,philosophy ,homer ought to be driven from the lists and whipt1 and ,archilochus likewise4--,heraclitus4 ,thou needs must have knowledge of all things1 ,first of the steadfast core of the ,truth that forceth conviction1 ,then of the notions of mortals1 where true conviction abides not4 --,parmenides4 ,all things were undistinguished3 then ,intellect came and brought them into order4--,anaxagoras4 ,man is the measure of all things4 ,in regard to the ,gods1 ,i am unable to know whether they are or are not4--,protagoras4 ,,strepsiades4 ,don't you see what a good thing it is to have learning8 ,there isn't any ,zeus1 ,phidippides6 ,,phidippides4 ,who is there then8 ,,streps4 ,vortex rules1 having dethroned ,zeus4 ,,phid4 ,pshaw6 what nonsense6 ,,streps4 ,you may count it true1 all the same4 ,,phid4 ,who says so8 ,,streps4 ,socrates the ,melian1 and ,chrephon1 who knows the footprints of fleas4--,aristophanes1 ,clouds4 ,there is an old-fashioned saw1 current of yore among mortals1 that a man's happiness1 when full-grown1 gives birth and dies not childless1 and that from ,fortune there springs insatiate woe for all his race4 ,but ,i1 dissenting from all others1 am alone of different mind4 ,it is the ,irreverent ,deed that begets after it more of its kind4 ,for to righteous homes belongs a fair-childrened lot forever2 but old ,irreverence is sure to beget ,irreverence1 springing up fresh among evil men1 when the numbered hour arrives4 ,and the new ,irreverence begets ,surfeit of ,wealth1 and a power beyond all battle1 beyond all war1 unholy ,daring1 twin curses1 black to homes1 like to their parents4 ,but ,justice shines in smoky homes1 and honors the righteous life1 and1 leaving1 with averted eyes1 foundations gilded with impurity of hands1 she draws nigh to holy things1 honoring not the power of wealth1 with its counterfeit stamp of praise4 ,and her will is done4--schylus ,from the time they are children to the day of their death1 we teach them and admonish them4 ,as soon as the child understands what is said to him1 his nurse and his mother and his pedagogue and even his father vie with each other in trying to make the best of him that can be made1 at every word and deed instructing him and warning him1 ,this is right1 ,this is wrong1 ,this is beautiful1 ,this is ugly1 ,this is righteous1 ,this is sinful1 ,do this1 ,don't do that4 ,and if the child readily obeys1 well and good2 if he does not1 then they treat him like a bent and twisted stick1 straightening him out with threats and blows4 ,later on1 they send him to school1 and then they lay their injunctions upon the masters to pay much more attention to the good behavior of their sons than to their letters and music 772 and the teachers act upon these injunctions4 ,later yet1 when they have learnt to read1 and are proceeding to understand the meaning of what is written1 just as formerly they understood what was said to them1 they put before them on the benches to read the works of good poets1 and insist upon their learning them by heart--works which contain many admonitions1 and many narratives1 noble deeds1 and eulogies of the worthy men of old--their purpose being to awaken the boy's ambition1 so that he may imitate these men and strive to be worthy likewise4 ,the music-teachers also1 pursuing the same line1 try to inculcate self-control 77 and to prevent the boys from falling into mischief4 ,in addition to this1 when they have learnt to play on the lyre1 their masters teach them other poems1 written by great lyric poets1 making them sing them and play the accompaniments to them1 and compelling them to work into their souls the rhythms and melodies of them1 so that they may grow in gentleness1 and1 having their natures timed and tuned1 may be fitted to speak and act4 ,the truth is1 the whole life of man needs timing and tuning4 ,furthermore1 in addition to all this1 parents send their sons to the physical trainer1 in order that their bodies may be improved and rendered capable of seconding a noble intent1 and they themselves not be forced1 from physical deterioration1 to play the coward in war or other 7serious7 matters4 ,and those who can best afford to give this education1 give most of it1 and these are the richest people4 ,their sons go earliest to school and leave it latest4 ,and when the boys leave school1 the ,state insists that they shall learn the laws and live according to them1 and not according to their own caprice 444 ,and if any one transgresses these laws1 the ,state punishes him 444 ,seeing that so much attention is devoted to virtue1 both in the family and in the ,state1 do you wonder1 ,socrates1 and question whether virtue be something that can be taught8 ,surely you ought not to wonder at this1 but rather to wonder if it could not be taught4--,plato1 ,protagoras 7words of ,protagoras74 ,isn't it true1 ,lysis1 said ,i1 that your parents love you very much8--,to be sure1 said he4--,then they would wish you to be as happy as possible8--,of course1 said he4--,and do you think a person is happy who is a slave1 and is not allowed to do anything he desires8--,i don't1 indeed1 said he4--,then1 if your father and mother love you and wish you to be happy1 they endeavor by every means in their power to make you happy4--,to be sure they do1 said he4--,then they allow you to do anything you please1 and never chide you1 or prevent you from doing what you desire4--,by ,jove6 they do1 ,socrates3 they prevent me from doing a great many things4--,what do you mean1 said ,i2 they wish you to be happy1 and yet prevent you from doing what you wish8 ,let us take an example3 ,if you want to ride in one of your father's chariots1 and to hold the reins1 when it is competing in a race1 won't they allow you1 or will they prevent you8--,by ,jove6 no3 they would not allow me1 said he4 ,but why should they8 ,there is a charioteer1 who is hired by my father4--,what do you mean8 ,they allow a hired man1 rather than you1 to do what he likes with the horses1 and pay him a salary besides8--,and why not8 said he4--,well then1 ,i suppose they allow you to manage the mule-team1 and if you wanted to take the whip and whip it1 they would permit you4--,how could they8 said he4--,what8 said ,i3 is nobody allowed to whip it8--,of course1 he said2 the muleteer4--,a slave or a free man8--,a slave1 said he4--,and so it seems they think more of a slave than of their son1 and entrust their property to him rather than to you1 and allow him to do what he pleases1 whereas they prevent you4 ,but1 farther1 tell me this4 ,do they allow you to manage yourself1 or do they not even trust you to that extent8--,how trust me8 said he4--,then does some one manage you8--,yes1 my pedagogue here1 said he4--,but he is surely not a slave8--,of course he is1 our slave1 said he4--,is it not strange1 said ,i1 that a freeman should be governed by a slave8 ,but1 to continue1 what is this pedagogue doing when he governs you8--,taking me to a teacher1 or something of the kind1 he said4--,and these teachers1 it cannot be that they too govern you8--,to any extent4--,so then your father likes to set over you a host of masters and managers2 but1 of course1 when you go home to your mother1 she lets you do what you like1 in order to make you happy1 either with the threads or the loom1 when she is weaving--does she not8 ,she surely doesn't in the least prevent you from handling the batten1 or the comb1 or any of the instruments used in spinning4--,and he1 laughing1 said3 ,by ,jove1 ,socrates2 she not only prevents me1 but ,i should be beaten if ,i touched them4--,by ,hercules1 said ,i1 isn't it true that you have done some wrong to your father and mother8--,by ,jove1 not ,i1 he said4--,but for what reason1 then1 do they so anxiously prevent you from being happy1 and doing what you please1 and maintain you the whole day in servitude to some one or another1 and without power to do almost anything you like4 ,it seems1 indeed1 that you derive no advantage from all this wealth1 but anybody manages it rather than you1 nor from your body1 nobly born as it is1 but some one else shepherds it and takes care of it4 ,but you govern nothing1 ,lysis1 and do nothing that you desire4--,the reason1 ,socrates1 he said1 is1 that ,i am not of age4--,plato1 ,lysis4 ,the present state of the constitution is as follows3 ,citizenship is a right of children whose parents are both of them citizens4 ,registration as member of a deme or township takes place when eighteen years of age are completed4 ,before it takes place the townsmen of the deme find a verdict on oath1 firstly1 whether they believe the youth to be as old as the law requires1 and if the verdict is in the negative he returns to the ranks of the boys4 ,secondly1 the jury find whether he is freeborn and legitimate4 ,if the verdict is against him he appeals to the ,helia1 and the municipality delegate five of their body to accuse him of illegitimacy4 ,if he is found by the jurors to have been illegally proposed for the register1 the ,state sells him for a slave2 if the judgment is given in his favor1 he must be registered as one of the municipality4 ,those on the register are afterwards examined by the senate1 and if anyone is found not to be eighteen years old1 a fine is imposed on the municipality by which he was registered4 ,after approbation1 they are called epheboi1 or cadets1 and the parents of all who belong to a single tribe hold a meeting and1 after being sworn1 choose three men of the tribe above forty years of age1 whom they believe to be of stainless character and fittest for the superintendence of youth1 and out of these the commons in ecclesia select one superintendent for all of each tribe1 and a governor of the whole body of youths from the general body of the ,athenians4 ,these take them in charge1 and after visiting with them all the temples1 march down to ,pirus1 where they garrison the north and south harbors1 ,munychia and ,acte4 ,the commons also elect two gymnastic trainers for them1 and persons who teach them to fight in heavy armor1 to draw the bow1 to throw the javelin1 and to handle artillery4 ,each of the ten commanders receives as pay a drachma about #bj cts4 per diem1 and each of the cadets four obols about #ac cts44 ,each commander draws the pay of the cadets of his own tribe1 buys with it the necessaries of life for the whole band 7for they mess together by tribes71 and purveys for all their wants4 ,the first year is spent in military exercises4 ,the second year the commons meet in the theatre and the cadets1 after displaying before them their mastery in warlike evolutions1 are each presented with a shield and spear1 and become mounted patrols of the frontier and garrison the fortresses4 ,they perform this service for two years1 wearing the equestrian cloak and enjoying immunity from civic functions4 ,during this period1 to guard their military duties from interruption1 they can be parties to no action either as defendant or plaintiff1 except in suits respecting inheritance1 or heiresses1 or successions to hereditary priesthoods4 ,when the three years are completed they fall into the ordinary body of citizens4--,aristotle1 ,constitution of ,athens 7,poste's ,version1 with slight alterations74 ,that perfect harmony between power and worth at which the ,athenian ,state aimed1 was something not easily attained or preserved4 ,as far back as its recorded history reaches1 we find a struggle for power going on between a party which possessed more power than its worth justified1 and a party which possessed less2 that is1 between a party which1 having once been worthy1 strove to hold power in virtue of its past history1 and one that claimed power in virtue of the worth into which it was growing3 in a word1 a struggle between declining aristocracy and growing democracy4 ,to the party in power1 of course1 this seemed a rebellion against lawful authority and privilege1 and it did its best to suppress it4 ,hence came the rigorous legislation of ,draco2 later the more conciliatory1 less out-spoken1 but equally aristocratic legislation of ,solon2 then the tyranny of ,pisistratus1 lasting as long as he could hold the balance of power between the contending parties2 then the constitution of ,clisthenes1 with the breaking up of the old ,athenian aristocratic system1 the remodelling of the tribes1 the degradation of the ,areopagus1 and the definite triumph of democracy4 ,to complete the movement and1 as it were1 to consecrate it1 came the ,persian ,wars1 which mark the turning-point1 the peripeteia1 in ,athenian history and education4 ,whatever efforts aristocracy makes to maintain itself after this1 are made in the name of1 and under cover of a zeal for1 democracy4 ,the aristocratic ,athenian ,state was based upon land-ownership1 slavery1 and the entire freedom of the land-owning class from all but family and ,state duties1 from all need of engaging in productive industry4 ,so long as the chief wealth of the ,state consisted in land and its produce1 so long the population was divided into two classes1 the rich and the poor1 and so long the former had little difficulty in keeping all power in its own hands4 ,but no sooner did the growth of commerce throw wealth into the hands of a class that owned no land1 and was not above engaging in industry1 than this class began to claim a share in political power4 ,there were now two wealthy classes1 standing opposed to each other1 a proud1 conservative one1 with old wealth and worth1 and a vain1 radical one1 with new wealth and wants1 both bidding for the favor of the class that had little wealth1 little worth1 and many wants1 and thus making it feel its importance4 ,such is the origin of ,athenian democracy4 ,it is the child of trade and productive industry4 ,it owed its final consecration to the ,persian ,wars1 and especially to the battle of ,salamis1 in which ,athens was saved by her fleet1 manned chiefly by marines 77 from the lower classes1 the upper classes1 as we have seen1 being trained only for land-service4 ,thus the battle of ,salamis was not only a victory of ,greece over ,persia1 but of foreign trade over home agriculture1 of democracy over aristocracy4 ,the fact that the ,athenian democracy owed its origin to trade determined1 in great measure1 its history and tendencies4 ,one of its many results was that it opened ,athens to the influx of foreign men1 foreign ideas1 and foreign habits1 not to speak of foreign gods1 all of which tended to break up the old self-contained1 carefully organized life of the people4 ,in no department were their effects sooner or more clearly felt than in that of education4 ,from about the date of the battle of ,salamis1 when the youthful ,ionian1 ,anaxagoras1 came to ,athens1 a succession of men of advanced ideas in art and science sought a field of action within her borders4 ,such a field1 indeed1 seemed purposely to have been left open for them by the ,state1 which had provided no means of intellectual or moral education for its young citizens1 after they passed under its care 7see p4 #hg74 ,nothing was easier or more profitable than for these wise foreigners to constitute themselves public teachers1 and fill the place which the ,state had left vacant4 ,the ,state might occasionally object1 and seek to punish one or another of them for corrupting of the youth by the promulgation of impious or otherwise dangerous ideas1 as it did in the case of ,anaxagoras2 but their activity was too much in harmony with a tendency of the time1--a radical and individualistic tendency inseparable from democracy1--to be dispensed with altogether4 ,hence it was that1 within a few years after the battle of ,salamis1 there flourished in ,athens a class of men unknown before within her boundaries1 a class of private professors1 or sophists1 as they called themselves1 who undertook to teach theoretically what the ,state had assumed could be taught only practically and by herself1 viz41 virtue and wisdom4 ,their ideas were novel1 striking1 and radical1 hence congenial to a newly emancipated populace1 vain of its recent achievements1 and contemptuous of all that savored of the narrow1 pious puritanism of the old time2 their premises were magnificent1 and their fees high enough to impose upon a class that always measures the value of a thing by what it is asked to pay for it2 their method of teaching was such as to flatter the vanity1 and secure the favor1 of both pupils and parents4 ,no wonder that their success was immediate and their influence enormous4 ,from the days of ,socrates to our own1 'sophist' has been a term of reproach1 and not altogether unjustly so4 ,hegel1 ,grote1 and ,zeller have1 indeed1 shown that the sophists did not deserve all the obloquy which has attached itself to their name1 inasmuch as they were neither much better nor much worse than any class of men who set up to teach new doctrines for money1 and1 as wise economists1 suit supply to demand2 nevertheless1 it may be fairly enough said that they largely contributed to demoralize ,athens1 by encouraging irreverence for the very conceptions upon which her polity was built1 and by pandering to some of the most selfish and individualistic tendencies of democracy4 ,if it be said that they have their place in the history of human evolution1 as the heralds of that higher view of life which allows the individual a sphere of activities and interests outside of that occupied by the ,state1 this may at once and without difficulty be admitted1 without our being thereby forced to regard them as noble men4 ,the truth is1 they represented1 in practice and in theory1 the spirit of individualism1 which was then everywhere asserting itself against the spirit of nationalism or polity1 and which perhaps had to assert itself in an exaggerated and destructive way1 before the rightful claims of the two could be manifested and harmonized4 ,it is the incorporation of this spirit of individualism into education that constitutes the ,new ,education4 ,this spirit1 as manifested in the sophists and their teaching1 directed itself against the old political spirit in all the departments of life--in religion1 in politics1 in education4 ,it discredited the old popular gods1 upon loyalty to whom the existence of the ,state had been supposed to depend1 substituting for them some crude fancy like ,vortex1 or some bald abstraction like ,intellect4 ,it encouraged the individual to seek his end in his own pleasure1 and to regard the ,state as but a means to that end4 ,it championed an education in which these ideas occupied a prominent place4 ,what the sophists actually taught the ambitious young men who sought their instruction1 was self-assertion1 unscrupulousness1 and a showy rhetoric1 in whose triumphal procession facts1 fancies1 and falsehoods marched together in brilliant array4 ,it is but fair to them to say that1 in their endeavor to instruct young men in the art of specious oratory1 they laid the foundations of the art of rhetoric and the science of grammar4 ,so much1 at least1 the world owes to them4 ,since it was to the young men1 who1 freed from the discipline of home1 pedagogue1 school1 and palstra1 could be met with anywhere1 in the street1 the agora1 the gymnasium1 that the sophists directed their chief attention1 it was of course these who first showed the effects of their teaching4 ,but their influence1 falling in1 as it did1 with the pronounced radical tendencies of the time1 soon made itself felt in all grades of education1 from the family to the university1 in the form of an irreverent1 flippant1 conceited rationalism1 before whose self-erected and self-corrupted tribunal every institution in heaven and earth was to be tried4 ,in the schools this influence showed itself in various ways3 7#a7 in an increased attention to literature1 and especially to the formal side of it1 7#b7 in the tendency to substitute for the works of the old epic and lyric poets the works of more recent writers tinged with the new spirit1 7#c7 in the introduction of new and complicated instruments and kinds of music1 7#d7 in an increasing departure from the severe physical and moral discipline of the old days4 ,we now1 for the first time1 hear of a teacher of literature1 distinct from the music master1 of teachers who possessed no copy of ,homer 7,alcibiades is said to have chastised such a one71 of flutes1 citharas1 and the like in use in schools1 of wildness and lewdness among boys of tender age4 ,in the palstra the new spirit showed itself in a tendency to substitute showy and unsystematic exercises for the vigorous and graded exercises of the older time1 to sacrifice education to execution4 ,but1 as already remarked1 the new spirit showed itself most clearly and hurtfully in the higher education4 ,the young men1 instead of spending their time in vigorous physical exercise in the gymnasia and open country1 began now to hang about the streets and public places1 listening to sophistic discussions1 and to attend the schools of the sophists1 exercising their tongues more than any other part of their bodies4 ,the effect of this soon showed itself in a decline of physical power1 of endurance1 courage1 and manliness1 and in a strong tendency to luxury and other physical sins4 ,they now began to imagine for themselves a private life1 very far from coincident with that demanded of a citizen1 and to look upon the old citizen-life1 and its ideals1 sanctions1 and duties1 with contempt or pity1 as something which they had learnt to rise above4 ,the glory and well-being of their country were no longer their chief object of ambition4 ,the dry rot of individualism1 which always seems to those affected by it an evidence of health and manly vigor1 was corrupting their moral nature1 and preparing the way for the destruction of the ,state4 ,for it was but too natural that these young men1 when they came to be members of the ,state1 should neglect its lessons and claims1 and1 following the new teachings1 live to themselves4 ,thus1 just as the character of the ,old ,education of ,athens showed itself in the behavior of her sons in the ,persian ,wars1 so that of her ,new ,education showed itself fifty years later in the ,peloponnesian ,war1 that long and disastrous struggle which wrecked ,athens and ,greece4 ,yet ,athens and her education were not allowed to go to ruin without a struggle4 ,the aristocratic party long stuck to the old principles and tried to give them effect2 but1 failing to understand the new circumstances and to take account of them1 it erred in the application of them1 by seeking simply to restore the old conditions4 ,individuals also exerted their best efforts for the same end4 schylus1 who had fought at ,marathon1 and who1 more than any other ,greek1 was endowed with the spirit of religion1 interpreted the old mythology in an ethical sense1 and in this form worked it into a series of dramas1 whereby the history and institutions of the ,greek people were shown to be due to a guiding ,providence of inexorable justice1 rewarding each man according to his works1 abhorring proud homes gilded with impurity of hands1 and dwelling with the pure and righteous1 though housed in the meanest cot4 schylus thus became1 not only the father of ,greek tragedy1 but also the sublimest moral teacher ,greece ever possessed4 ,for moral grandeur there is but one work in all literature that can stand by the side of schylus' ,oresteia1 and that is the ,divine ,comedy4 ,yet schylus was driven from ,athens on a charge of impiety1 and died in exile4 ,but it was not the tragic drama alone that was inspired and made a preacher of righteousness3 in the hands of ,aristophanes1 the comic drama exerted all its power for the same end4 ,for over thirty years this inimitable humorist used the public theatre to lash the follies1 and hold up to contempt the wretched leaders1 of the ,athenian populace1 pointing out to his countrymen the abyss of destruction that was yawning before them4 ,the world has never seen such earnest comedy1 not even in the works of ,molire or ,beaumarchais4 ,yet it was all in vain4 ,long before his death1 ,aristophanes was forbidden to hold up to public scorn the degradation of his people4 ,among the individual citizens who labored with all their might to bring back ,athens to her old worth were two of very different character1 endowments1 and position1 the one laboring in the world of action1 the other in the world of thought4 ,the first was ,pericles1 who1 seeing that democracy was the order of the day1 accepted it1 and1 by his personal character and position1 strove to guide it to worthy ends4 ,in order to encourage gymnastic exercises1 particularly among the sons of the newer families1 he built the ,lyceum1 in a grove sacred to ,apollo1 between ,cynosarges and the city walls1 as a gymnasium for them4 ,with a view to encouraging among them the study of music1 he built an odeon1 or music-hall1 under the southeast end of the ,acropolis4 ,both were magnificent structures4 ,what he did towards the completion of the great theatre for the encouragement of dancing1 we do not know2 that this entered into his plan1 there can hardly be any doubt4 ,but ,pericles was too wise a man to suppose that he could induce his pleasure-seeking countrymen to subject themselves to the old discipline1 without offering them an object calculated to rouse their ambition and call forth their energy4 ,this object was nothing less than a united ,greece1 with ,athens as its capital4 ,how hard he tried to make this object familiar to them1 and to render ,athens worthy of the place he desired her to occupy1 is pathetically attested to this day by the ,propyla and the ,parthenon4 ,on the frieze of the latter is represented the solemn sacrifice that was to cement the union of the ,hellenic people1 and place it at the head of civilization4 ,when degenerate ,greece resisted all his efforts to make her become one peaceably1 he tried to make her do so by force1 and the ,peloponnesian ,war1 started on a mere frivolous pretext1 was the result4 ,he did not live long enough to learn the outcome of this desperate attempt to wake his countrymen to new moral and political life1 and it was well4 ,if he had1 he might have been forced to recognize that he had been attempting an impossible task1--trying to erect a strong structure with rotten timber1 to make a noble ,state out of ignoble1 selfish men4 ,unfortunately1 the example of his own private life1 in which he openly defied one of the laws of the ,state1 and tried to make concubinage 77 respectable1 more than undid all the good he sought to accomplish4 ,the truth is1 ,pericles was himself too deeply imbued with the three vices of his time--rationalism1 self-indulgence1 and love of show--to be able to see any true remedy for the evils that sprang from them4 ,what was needed was not letters1 music1 gymnastics1 dancing1 or dream of empire1 but something entirely different--a new moral inspiration and ideal4 ,this1 the second of the men to whom reference has been made1 ,socrates1 sought to supply4 ,in the midst of self-indulgence1 he lived a life of poverty and privation2 in the midst of splendor and the worship of outward beauty1 he pursued simplicity and took pleasure in his ugliness2 in the midst of self-assertive rationalism and all-knowing sophistry1 he professed ignorance and submission to the gods4 ,the problem of how to restore the moral life of ,athens and ,greece presented itself to ,socrates in this form3 ,the old ethical social sanctions1 divine and human1 having1 under the influence of rationalism and individualism1 lost their power1 where and how shall we find other sanctions to take their place8 ,to answer this one question was the aim of ,socrates' whole life4 ,he was not long in seeing that any true answer must rest upon a comprehension of man's entire nature and relations1 and that the sophists were able to impose upon his countrymen only because no such comprehension was theirs4 ,he saw that the old moral life1 based upon nave tradition and prescription1 sanctioned by gods of the imagination1 would have to give place to a moral life resting upon self-understanding and reflection4 ,he accordingly adopted as his motto the command of the ,delphic oracle1 ,know ,thyself 7 71 and set to work with all his might to obey it4 ,he now1 therefore1 went to meet the sophists on their own ground and with their own methods1 and he did this so well as to be considered by many1 ,aristophanes among them1 as the best possible representative of the class4 ,what is true is1 that he was the first ,athenian who undertook to do what the sophists had for some time considered their special function1--to impart a higher education to the youth and men of ,athens4 ,he went about the streets1 shops1 walks1 schools1 and gymnasia of the city1 drawing all sorts of persons into conversation1 and trying to elicit truth for himself and them 7for he pretended to know nothing74 ,he was never so pleased as when he met a real sophist1 who professed to have knowledge1 and never so much in his element as when1 in the presence of a knot of young men1 he could1 by his ironical1 subtle questions1 force said sophist to admit that he too knew nothing4 ,the fact was1 ,socrates1 studying ,heraclitus1 had become convinced that the reason why men fell into error was because they did not know themselves1 or their own thoughts1 because what they called thoughts were mere opinions1 mere fragments of thoughts4 ,he concluded that1 if men were ever to be redeemed from error1 intellectual and moral1 they must be made to think whole thoughts4 ,accordingly1 he took the ordinary opinions of men and1 by a series of well-directed questions1 tried to bring out their implications1 that is1 the wholes of which they were parts4 ,such is the ,socratic or dialectic 7 conversational7 method4 ,it does not pretend to impart any new knowledge1 but merely1 as ,socrates said1 to deliver the mind of the thoughts with which it is pregnant4 ,and ,socrates not only held that saving truth consisted of whole thoughts2 he held also that all such thoughts were universally and necessarily true2 that1 while there might be many opinions about a thing1 there could be but one truth1 the same for all men1 and therefore independent of any man4 ,this was the exact opposite of what ,protagoras the sophist had taught1 the opposite of the gospel of individualism 7see p4 #ic74 ,man is so far from being the measure of all things1 that there is in all things a measure to which he must conform1 if he is not to sink into error4 ,this measure1 this system of whole truths1 implying an eternal mind to which it is present1 and by which it is manifested in the world1 is just what man arrives at1 if he will but think out his thoughts in their completeness4 ,in doing so1 he at once learns the laws by which the universe is governed and finds a guide and sanction for his own conduct--a sanction no longer external and imposed by the ,state1 but internal and imposed by the mind4 ,a system like this involved a complete reversal of the old view of the relation between man and the ,state1 and at the same time took the feet from under individualism4 ,it is true1 said ,socrates in effect1 that the individual1 and not the ,state1 is the source of all authority1 the measure of all things2 but he is so1 not as individual1 but as endowed with the universal reason by which the world1 including the ,state1 is governed4 ,this is the sum and substance of ,socrates' teaching1 this is what he believed to be true self-knowledge4 ,this is the truth whose application to life begins a new epoch in human history1 and separates the modern from the ancient world2 this is the truth that1 reiterated and vivified by ,christianity1 forms the very life of our life to-day4 ,in adopting this view1 ,socrates necessarily formed a party by himself1 a party which could hope for no sympathy from either of the other two into which his countrymen were divided4 ,the party of tradition charged him with denying the gods of his country and corrupting her youth2 the radical party hated him because he convicted its champions of vanity1 superficiality1 and ignorance4 ,between them1 they compassed his death1 and ,athens learnt1 only when it was too late1 that she had slain her prophet4 ,but ,socrates1 though slain1 was not dead4 ,his spirit lived on1 and the work which he had begun grew and prospered4 ,yet it could not save ,athens1 except upon a condition which she neither would nor could accept1 that of remodelling her polity and the life of her citizens in accordance with divine truth and justice4 ,indeed1 though he discovered a great truth1 ,socrates did not present it in a form in which it could be accepted under the given conditions4 ,he himself even did not by any means see all the stupendous implications of his own principle1 which1 in fact1 was nothing less than the ground of all true ethics1 all liberty1 and all science4 ,it is doubtful whether any one sees them now1 and certain that they have been nowhere realized4 ,still his truth and his life were not without their immediate effect upon ,athens and ,athenian education4 ,men1 working in his spirit1 and inspired with his truth1 more or less clearly understood1 almost immediately replaced the sophists in ,athens1 and drew the attention of her citizens1 old and young1 to the serious search for truth4 ,in fact1 from this time on1 the intellectual tendency began to prevail over the gymnastic and musical1 and this continued until1 finally1 it absorbed the whole life of the people1 and ,athens1 from being a university-,state1 became a ,state-university4 ,such it was in the days of ,cicero1 ,paul1 ,plutarch1 ,lucian1 and ,proclus4 ,that this one-sided tendency was fatal to the political life of ,athens1 and therefore1 in some degree1 to its moral life1 is clear enough2 and1 though we cannot hold ,socrates personally responsible for this result1 we must still admit that it was one which flowed from his system of thought4 ,personally1 indeed1 ,socrates was a moral hero1 and five righteous men like him1 had they appeared1 would have gone far to save ,athens2 but this very heroism1 this inborn enthusiasm for righteousness1 blinded him so far as to make him believe that men had only to know the right in order to be ready to follow it4 ,hence that exaggerated importance attached to right knowing1 and that comparative neglect of right feeling and right doing1 which in the sequel proved so paralyzing4 ,hence the failure of ,socrates' teaching to stem the tide of corruption in ,athens1 and restore her people to heroism and worth4 ,socrates left behind him many disciples1 some of whom distinguished themselves in practical ways1 others as founders of philosophic schools1 emphasizing different sides of his teaching4 ,he was but a few years in his grave when two of these were teaching regularly in the two old gymnasia of ,athens4 ,plato1 a full-blooded ,athenian1 was teaching in the ,academy the intellectual and moral theories of his master1 while ,antisthenes1 a half-breed 7his mother being a ,thracian71 was inculcating the lesson of his heroic life in ,cynosarges4 ,their followers were called1 respectively1 ,academics and ,cynics4 ,thus1 by these two men1 was the higher education for the first time introduced into the public institutions of ,athens4 ,socrates' aim1 as we have seen1 had been purely a moral one1 and this fact was not lost sight of by his immediate followers4 ,the chief question with them all was still3 ,how can the people be brought back to moral life8 ,but1 thanks partly to the vagueness in which he had left the details of his doctrine1 they were divided with respect to the means whereby this was to be accomplished4 ,one party1 best represented by ,plato1 and following most closely in the footsteps of the master1 held that1 man being essentially a social being1 and morality a relation in society1 it was only in and through a social order1 a ,state1 that virtue could be realized4 ,another party1 represented by ,antisthenes1 maintained that virtue was a purely personal matter1 and that the wise man stood high above any and all social institutions4 ,these two views maintained themselves1 side by side1 in nearly all subsequent ,greek thought1 and at last found expression in the ,state and ,church of the ,christian world4 ,two of ,socrates' followers1 believers in institutional morality1 left behind them treatises which have come down to us1 giving their views as to the manner in which virtue might be cultivated4 ,these are the practical ,xenophon and the theoretic ,plato1 both men of pure ,athenian stock4 ,nothing will better enable us to comprehend the evils of the ,new ,education than a consideration of the means by which these worthy men proposed to remedy them4 ,both are idealists and ,utopians2 but the former is conservative and reactionary1 while the latter is speculative and progressive4 ,both are aiming at one thing--a virtuous and happy ,state1 to replace the vicious and wretched one in which they found their lot cast2 but they differed in their views regarding the nature of such a ,state1 and the means of realizing it4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,xenophon ,never a good is the rule of the many2 let one be the ruler4--,homer ,wealth without ,worth is no harmless housemate4--,sappho ,one to me is ten thousand1 if he be best4 ,all the ,ephesians1 from youth up1 ought to be hanged and the ,state left to the boys1 because they cast out ,hermodorus1 the worthiest man amongst them1 saying3 ',no one of us shall be worthiest1 else let him be so elsewhere and among others4'--,heraclitus ,reflecting once that1 of the very small states1 ,sparta appeared to be the most powerful and the most renowned in ,greece1 ,i began to wonder in what way this had come about4 ,but when ,i reflected upon the manners of the ,spartans1 ,i ceased to wonder4 ,as to ,lycurgus1 who drew up for them the laws1 by obedience to which they have prospered1 ,i admire him and hold him to be1 in the highest degree1 a wise man4 ,for he1 instead of imitating other states1 reached conclusions opposite to those of most1 and thereby rendered his country conspicuous for prosperity4--,xenophon ,xenophon was in no sense a philosopher or a practical teacher1 but he was a man of sterling worth1 of knightly courage1 of wide and varied experience1 of strong sagacity1 and of genial disposition1 a keen observer1 and a charming writer4 ,he was a true old ,athenian puritan1 broadened and softened by study and contact with the world4 ,he hated democracy so cordially that he would not live in ,athens to witness its vulgarity and disorder2 but he loved his country1 and desired to see its people restored to their ancient worth4 ,he believed that this could be done only by some great1 royal personality1 like ,lycurgus or ,cyrus1 enforcing a rigid discipline1 and once more reducing the man to the citizen4 ,unwilling1 probably1 to hold up hated ,sparta as a model to his beaten and smarting countrymen1 he laid the scene of his pedagogical romance in far-off ,persia4 ,in the ,education of ,cyrus 7 7 we have ,xenophon's scheme for a perfect education4 ,despite the scene in which it is laid1 it is purely ,hellenic1 made up of ,athenian and ,spartan elements in about equal proportions4 ,for this reason also it has a special interest for us4 ,as the portion of the treatise dealing directly with public education is brief1 we can hardly do better than transcribe it in a translation4 ,cyrus is still celebrated in legend and song by the barbarians as a man of extraordinary personal beauty1 and as of a most gentle1 studious1 and honor-loving disposition1 which made him ready to undergo any labor1 and brave any danger1 for the sake of praise4 ,such is the account that has been handed down of his appearance and disposition4 ,he was1 of course1 educated in accordance with the laws of the ,persians4 ,these laws seem to begin their efforts for the public weal at a different point from those of most other states2 for most states1 after allowing parents to educate their children as they please1 and the older people even to spend their time according to their own preference1 lay down such laws as3 ,thou shalt not steal1 ,thou shalt not rob1 ,thou shalt not commit burglary1 ,thou shalt not commit assault1 ,thou shalt not commit adultery1 ,thou shalt not disobey a magistrate1 etc42 and if any one transgresses any of these laws1 they inflict punishment on him4 ,the ,persian laws1 on the contrary1 provide beforehand that the citizens shall never1 from the very first1 have any disposition to commit a wicked or base act4 ,and they do so in this way4 ,they have what they call a ,freemen's ,square1 where the royal palace and the other public buildings stand4 ,from this square are removed all wares and chafferers1 with their cries and vulgarities1 to another place1 so that their din and disorder may not interfere with the decorum of the cultivated class4 ,this square in the neighborhood of the public buildings is divided into four parts1 one for boys1 one for youths 771 one for mature men1 and one for men beyond the military age4 ,the hour when these shall appear in their places is settled by law4 ,the boys and mature men come at daybreak1 the older men when they think fit1 except on the special days when they are bound to appear4 ,the youths pass the night by the public buildings in light armor1 only those who are married being excused4 ,these are not hunted up1 unless they have been ordered beforehand to appear2 but it is not thought decent to be often absent4 ,each of these divisions is under the charge of twelve governors1 one from each of the twelve tribes into which the ,persians are divided4 ,the governors of the boys are chosen from among the elderly men1 with special view to their fitness for making the most of boys1 while those of the youths are chosen from among the mature men upon a similar principle4 ,those of the mature men are selected with a view to their ability to hold these to their regular duties1 and to the special commands of the supreme authority4 ,even the old men have presidents appointed over them1 who see that they perform their duty4 ,what the duties of each are we shall now state1 in order to show just how provision is made for securing the highest worth on the part of the citizens4 ,first1 then1 the boys1 when they go to school1 spend their time in learning justice4 ,they say they go for that purpose1 just as our boys go to learn letters4 ,their governors spend the greater part of the day in acting as judges among them4 ,it is needless to say that boys1 as well as men1 bring charges against each other of theft and robbery and violence and deceit and slander1 and similar things1 and those whom the judges find guilty of any of these they punish4 ,but they also punish those whom they find bringing false charges4 ,they pronounce judgment likewise on a charge which1 more than anything else1 makes men hate each other1 and for which they are judged less than for any other1 namely1 ingratitude4 ,if the judges find a boy in a position to return a favor and not doing it1 they punish him severely1 believing that persons who are ungrateful will1 more than any others1 be undutiful to the gods1 to parents1 country1 and friends4 ,it is generally held that ingratitude1 more than aught else1 leads to irreverence1 and we need not add that it is the prime mover in every form of baseness4 ,they teach the boys also self-denial1 and these are greatly aided in learning this virtue from seeing it daily practised by their elders4 ,another thing they teach them is obedience to those placed in authority over them2 and they are greatly aided in learning this1 by seeing their elders strictly obeying their governors4 ,another thing yet which they teach them is self-discipline in matters of eating and drinking2 and they are greatly aided in this by seeing that their elders never absent themselves for the purpose of eating1 until they are permitted to do so by their governors1 as well as by the fact that they 7the boys7 do not eat with their mothers1 but with their teachers1 and at a signal from their governors4 ,as food1 they bring with them from home bread1 as a relish1 nasturtium1 and in order to drink1 if they are thirsty1 they bring an earthen cup to draw water from the river with4 ,in addition to all these things1 the boys learn to shoot with the bow and to throw the javelin4 ,up to the age of sixteen or seventeen years1 these are the studies in which the boys engage2 after that they are transferred to the class of cadets 774 ,these cadets spend their time in this way3 ,for ten years from the time when they graduate from the boys' class1 they sleep1 as we have already said1 in the precincts of the public buildings1 acting at once as a guard to the city and practising self-denial4 ,it is generally agreed1 indeed1 that this is the age which especially requires attention4 ,during the day they are at the disposal of their governors1 and ready to perform any public service required4 ,if no such service is demanded1 they remain in the neighborhood of the public buildings4 ,when the king goes out to hunt1 which he does many times a month1 he takes with him one-half of the tribes1 and leaves the other behind4 ,those youths who accompany him must carry with them bows and1 in a sheath alongside their quivers1 a bill or scimitar2 also a light shield1 and two javelins apiece1 one to throw1 the other to use1 if necessary1 at close quarters4 ,for this reason they make hunting a matter of public concern1 and the king1 as in war1 acts as their leader1 hunts himself1 and sees that the others hunt1 the ,persians being of opinion that this is the best of all preparations for war4 ,and1 indeed1 it accustoms them to rise early1 and to bear heat and cold2 it affords them exercise in marching and running1 and compels them to use their bows or their javelins upon wild animals1 wherever they happen to come upon them4 ,they are often forced1 moreover1 to sharpen their courage1 when they find themselves face to face with some powerful animal4 ,they must1 of course1 wound the one that comes to close quarters1 and hold at bay the one that attacks them4 ,hence it is difficult to find in war anything that is absent from the chase4 ,when they go out to hunt1 the young men1 of course1 take with them a larger luncheon than the boys are allowed to have2 but this is the only difference between the two4 ,and while they are hunting1 they sometimes do not lunch at all2 but1 if they have to remain beyond their time on account of some game1 or otherwise1 if they wish to prolong the chase1 they make a dinner of this lunch1 and on the following day continue the hunt till dinner-time1 counting the two days one1 because they consume only one day's food4 ,and they do this for the sake of practice1 so that1 if ever they should run short of provisions in war1 they may be able to do the same thing4 ,these youths have as a relish what game they capture in the chase1 otherwise they have nasturtium4 ,and if any one thinks that they eat without pleasure1 when they have only nasturtium with their food1 or drink without pleasure1 when they drink water1 let him remember how sweet barley-cake and wheaten bread are when he is hungry1 and how sweet water is when he is thirsty4 ,the tribes that remain behind1 when the king goes hunting1 spend their time in the same studies which they pursued as boys1 including shooting and javelin-casting1 and in these continual contests are going on4 ,there are likewise public exhibitions in them1 at which prizes are offered2 and whichever tribe contains most young men exceptionally proficient1 manly1 and steady1 is commended by the citizens1 who likewise honor1 not only their present governor1 but also the governor who had charge of them as boys4 ,the young men who are left behind are also employed by the authorities1 if any such service is required as manning a guard-house1 tracking out malefactors1 running down robbers1 or anything demanding strength and swiftness4 ,such are the studies of the young men4 ,and when they have passed ten years in these1 they graduate into the class of mature men4 ,from the date of this graduation1 they spend five and twenty years more in the following manner3 ,in the first place1 like the young men1 they place themselves at the disposal of the authorities for any public service requiring at once sagacity and unimpaired strength4 ,if they are required to take the field in war1 men proficient as they are go armed1 no longer with bows and javelins1 but with what are called hand-to-hand weapons1 breast-plates1 shields in their left hands1 such as we see in pictures of the ,persians1 and a sword or bill in their right4 ,and all the officials are drawn from this class1 except the boys' teachers4 ,and when they have passed twenty-five years in this class1 they are something more than fifty years of age4 ,at that age they graduate into the class of elders1 as1 indeed1 they are called4 ,these elders no longer serve in war outside their own country1 but1 remaining at home1 act as judges in public and private cases4 ,they do so even in capital cases4 ,they likewise choose all the officials1 and if any person belonging to either of the classes of young and mature men neglects any of his lawful duties1 the governor of his tribe1 or any one else who pleases1 may report him to the elders1 and these1 if they find the fact to be as reported1 expel him from his tribe1 and he who is expelled remains dishonored all his life4 ,to give a clearer notion of the polity of the ,persians as a whole1 ,i will retrace my steps a little4 ,after what has been said1 this may be done in a very few words3 ,the ,persians1 then1 are said to number about one hundred and twenty thousand4 ,of these1 none is excluded by law from honors or offices2 but all ,persians are allowed to send their sons to the public schools of justice4 ,however1 it is only those who are able to maintain their sons without employment that send them there3 the rest do not4 ,on the other hand1 those that are educated by the public teachers are permitted to spend their youth among the ephboi1 while those who have not completed this education are not4 ,again those that pass their youth among the ephboi1 and come up to the legal requirements1 are allowed to graduate into the class of mature men1 and to participate in honors and offices2 whereas those who do not pass through the grade of the ephboi do not rise to the class of mature men4 ,finally1 those who complete the curriculum of the mature men without reproach1 pass into the class of elders4 ,thus it is that this class of elders is composed of men who have passed through all the grades of culture4 ,such is the polity of the ,persians1 and such is the system of training whereby they endeavor to secure the highest worth4 ,this ,utopian scheme of education has a peculiar interest1 because it is nothing more or less than the old ideal of ,greek education become fully conscious of itself1 under the influence of the new ideal4 ,let us call attention to the main points of it4 7#a7 ,the education here set forth is purely political3 men are regarded simply and solely as citizens2 all honors are civic honors4 7#b7 ,no provision is made for the education of women1 their range of activity being entirely confined to the family4 7#c7 ,distinction is made to rest upon education and conduct4 7#d7 ,the poorer classes of the population1 though not legally excluded from education1 position1 and power1 are virtually excluded by their poverty1 so that the government is altogether in the hands of the rich1 and is1 in fact1 an aristocracy1 while pretending to be a democracy3 hence1 7#e7 ,social distinctions are distinctions of worth1 which is just the ,greek ideal4 ,there is1 however1 one point in the scheme which shows that it is reactionary1 directed against prevailing tendencies4 ,not one word is said of the intellectual side of education1 of music or letters4 ,it is evident that ,xenophon1 himself a man of no mean literary attainments1 clearly saw the dangers to ,greek life and liberty involved in that exaggerated devotion to literary and intellectual pursuits which followed the teaching of the sophists and ,socrates1 and that1 in order to check this perilous tendency1 he drew up a scheme of education from which intellectual and literary pursuits are altogether excluded1 in which justice takes the place of letters1 and music is not mentioned4 ,this suggests a curious inquiry in respect to his ,memoirs of ,socrates4 ,this work has generally been regarded as giving us a more correct notion of the real1 living ,socrates than the manifestly idealizing works of ,plato4 ,but was not ,xenophon1 who could not fail to see the future power of ,socrates' influence1 as anxious as ,plato to claim the prophet as the champion of his own views1 and does not this fact determine the whole character of his work8 ,is it not a romance1 in the same sense that the ,cyropdia is1 with only this difference1 that the facts of ,socrates' life1 being fairly well known to those for whom ,xenophon was writing1 could not be treated with the same freedom and disregard as those of ,cyrus' life8 ,before we part with ,xenophon1 we must call attention to another treatise of his1 in which he deals with a subject that was then pressing for consideration--the education of women4 ,while1 as we have seen1 the olian states and even ,dorian ,sparta provided1 in some degree1 for women's education1 ,athens apparently1 conceiving that woman had no duties outside of the family1 left her education entirely to the care of that institution4 ,the conservative ,xenophon does not depart from this view2 but1 seeing the moral evils that were springing from the neglect of women and their inability to be1 in any sense1 companions to their cultured1 or over-cultured1 husbands1 he lays down in his conomics a scheme for the education of the young wife by her husband4 ,as this affords us an admirable insight into the lives of ,athenian girls and women1 better1 indeed1 than can be found elsewhere1 we cannot do better than transcribe the first part of it4 ,it takes the form of a conversation between ,socrates and a young husband1 named ,ischomachus 7,strong ,fighter71 and is reported by the former4 ,socrates tells how1 seeing ,ischomachus sitting at leisure in a certain portico1 he entered into conversation with him1 paid him an acceptable compliment1 and inquired how he came to be nearly always busy out of doors1 seeing that he evidently spent little time in the house4 ,ischomachus replies3-- ',as to your inquiry1 ,socrates1 it is true that ,i never remain indoors4 ,nor need ,i2 for my wife is fully able by herself to manage everything in the house4' ',this again1 ,ischomachus1' said ,i1 'is something that ,i should like to ask you about1 whether it was you who taught your wife to be a good wife1 or whether she knew all her household duties when you received her from her father and mother4' ',well1 ,socrates1' said he1 'what do you suppose she knew when ,i took her1 since she was hardly fifteen when she came to me1 and1 during the whole of her life before that1 special care had been taken that she should see1 hear1 and ask as little as possible4 ,indeed1 don't you think ,i ought to have been satisfied if1 when she came to me1 she knew nothing but how to take wool and turn it into a garment1 and had seen nothing but how tasks in spinning are assigned to maids8 ,as regards matters connected with eating and drinking1 of course she was extremely well educated when she came1 and this seems to me the chief education1 whether for a man or a woman4' ',in all other matters1 ,ischomachus1' said ,i1 'you yourself instructed your wife1 so as to make her an excellent housewife4' ',to be sure1' said he1 'but not until ,i had first sacrificed1 and prayed that ,i might succeed in teaching her1 and she might succeed in learning1 what was best for both of us4' ',then1' said ,i1 'your wife took part in your sacrifice and in these prayers1 did she not8' ',certainly she did1' said ,ischomachus1 'and solemnly promised to the gods that she would be what she ought to be1 and showed every evidence of a disposition not to neglect what was taught her4' ',but do1 ,i beseech you1 ,ischomachus1 explain to me1' said ,i1 'what was the first thing you set about teaching her8 ,i shall be more interested in hearing you tell that1 than if you told me all about the finest gymnastic or equestrian exhibition4' ,and ,ischomachus replied3 ',what should ,i teach her8 ,as soon as she could be handled1 and was tame enough to converse1 ,i spoke to her in some such way as this3 ,tell me1 my dear1 have you ever considered why ,i took you as my wife1 and why your parents gave you to me8 ,that it was not because ,i could not find any one else to share my bed1 you know as well as ,i4 ,no1 but because ,i was anxious to find for myself1 and your parents were anxious to find for you1 the most suitable partner in home and offspring1 ,i selected you1 and your parents1 it seems1 selected me1 out of all possible matches4 ,if1 then1 ,god shall ever bless us with children1 then we will take the greatest care of them1 and try to give them the best possible education2 for it will prove a blessing to both of us to have the very best of helpers and supports in our old age4 ,but at present we have this as our common home4 ,and all that ,i have1 ,i pass over to the common stock1 and all that you have brought with you1 you have added to the same4 ,nor must we begin to count which of us has contributed the larger number of things1 but must realize that whichever of us is the better partner contributes the more valuable things4 ,then1 ,socrates1 my wife replied1 and said3 ,in what way can ,i coperate with you8 ,what power have ,i8 ,everything rests with you4 ,my mother told me that my only duty was to be dutiful4 ,assuredly1 my dear1 said ,i1 and my father told me the same thing4 ,but it is surely the duty of a dutiful husband and a dutiful wife to act so that what they have may be improved to the utmost1 and by every fair and lawful means increased to the utmost4 ,and what do you find1 said my wife1 that ,i can do towards helping you to build up our house8 ,dear me6 said ,i1 whatever things the gods have endowed you with the power to do1 and the law permits1 try to do these to the best of your ability4 ,and what are these8 said she4 ,it strikes me1 said ,i1 that they are by no means the least important things1 unless it be true that in the hive the queen-bee is entrusted with the least important functions4 ,indeed1 it seems to me1 my dear1 ,i continued1 that the very gods have yoked together this couple called male and female with a very definite purpose1 viz4 to be the source of the greatest mutual good to the yoke-fellows4 ,in the first place1 this union exists in order that living species may not die out1 but be preserved by propagation2 in the second1 the partners in this union1 at least in the case of human beings1 obtain through it the supports of their old age4 ,moreover1 human beings do not live1 like animals1 in the open air1 but obviously require roofs4 ,and ,i am sure1 people who are going to have anything to bring under a roof must have some one to do outdoor duties2 for1 you see1 ploughing1 sowing1 planting1 herding1 are all outdoor employments1 and it is from them that we obtain all our supplies4 ,on the other hand1 when the supplies have all been brought under cover1 there is needed some one to take care of them1 and to perform those duties which must be done indoors4 ,among these are the rearing of children and the preparation of food from the produce of the earth2 likewise the making of cloth out of wool4 ,and1 since both these classes of duties1 the outdoor and the indoor1 require labor and care1 it seems to me1 ,i said1 that ,god has constructed the nature of woman with a special view to indoor employments and cares1 and that of man with a view to outdoor employments and cares4 ,for he has made both the body and the soul of the man better able than those of the woman to bear cold1 heat1 travelling1 military service1 and so has assigned to him the outdoor employments4 ,and1 since he has made the body of woman less able to endure these things1 he seems to me to have assigned to her the indoor employments4 ,considering1 moreover1 that he had made it woman's nature and duty to nourish young children1 he imparted to her a greater love for babies than he did to man4 ,and1 inasmuch as he had made it part of woman's duty to take care of the income of the family1 ,god1 knowing that for care-taking the soul is none the worse for being ready to fear1 bestowed upon woman a greater share of fear than upon a man4 ,on the other hand1 knowing that he who attends to the outdoor employments will have to protect the family from wrong-doers1 he endowed him with a greater share of courage4 ,and1 since both have to give and receive1 he divided memory and carefulness between them1 so that it would be difficult to determine which of the sexes1 the male or the female1 is the better equipped with these4 ,and the necessary self-denial he divided between them1 and made a decree that1 whichever of the two1 the husband or the wife1 was the superior1 should be rewarded with the larger share of this blessing4 ,and just because the nature of man and the nature of woman are not both equally fitted for all tasks1 the two are the more dependent upon each other1 and their union is the more beneficial to them1 because the one is able to supply what the other lacks4 ,and now1 said ,i1 my dear1 that we know the duties which ,god has assigned to us respectively1 it becomes each of us to do our best1 in order to perform these duties4 ,and the law1 ,i continued1 coincides with the divine intention1 and unites man and woman4 ,and1 just as ,god has made them partners in offspring1 so the law makes them partners in the household4 ,and the law sets its approval upon that difference of function which ,god has signified by the difference of ability which marks the sexes4 ,for it is more respectable for a woman to remain indoors than to spend her time out of doors1 and less respectable for a man to remain indoors than to attend to outdoor concerns4 ,and1 if any one acts in a manner at variance with this divine ordination1 it may be that his transgression does not escape the notice of the gods1 and that he is punished for neglecting his own duties or performing those of his wife4 ,it appears to me1 said ,i1 that the queen-bee also performs duties that are assigned to her by ,god4 ,and what duties1 said my wife1 does the queen-bee perform1 that have any resemblance to those incumbent upon me8 ,this1 said ,i1 that she remains in the hive and does not allow the other bees to be idle1 but sends out those that have to work to their business1 and knows and receives what each brings in1 and takes care of it till it is needed for use4 ,and when the time for using comes1 she distributes to each her just share4 ,besides this1 she attends to the construction of the honey-combs that goes on indoors1 and sees that it is done properly and rapidly1 and carefully sees that the young swarm is properly reared4 ,and when it is old enough1 and the young bees are fit for work1 she sends them out1 as a colony1 under the leadership of one of the old ones4 ,and will it be my duty1 said my wife1 to do these things8 ,exactly so1 said ,i1 it will be your duty to remain indoors1 to send out together to their work those whose duties lie out of doors1 and to superintend those who have to work indoors1 to receive whatever is brought in1 to dispense whatever has to be paid out1 while the necessary surplus you must provide for1 and take care that the year's allowance be not spent in a month4 ,when wool is brought in to you1 you must see that it is turned into cloth2 and when dried grain comes1 that it is properly prepared for food4 ,there is1 however1 one of your duties1 said ,i1 that will perhaps seem somewhat disagreeable to you4 ,whenever any one of the slaves is sick1 you will have to see that he is properly nursed1 no matter who he is4 ,indeed1 said my wife1 that will be a most pleasant duty1 if those who have been carefully nursed are going to be grateful and kindlier than they were before4 ,and ,i1' said ,ischomachus1 'admiring her answer1 continued3 ,don't you suppose1 my dear1 that by such examples of care on the part of the queen of the hive the bees are so disposed to her that1 when she leaves1 none of them are willing to remain behind1 but all follow her8 ,and my wife replied3 ,i should be surprised if the duties of headship did not fall to you rather than to me4 ,for my guardianship and disposal of things in the house would be ridiculous1 unless you saw to it that something was brought in from without4 ,and my bringing-in would be ridiculous1 said ,i1 if there were no one to take care of what ,i brought8 ,don't you see1 ,i said1 how those who pour water into a leaky barrel1 as the expression is1 are pitied1 as wasting their labour8 ,and indeed1 said my wife1 they are to be pitied1 if they do that4 ,there are other special duties1 said ,i1 that are sure to become pleasant to you2 for example1 when you take a raw hand at weaving and turn her into an adept1 and so double her value to you1 or when you take a raw hand at managing and waiting and make her capable1 reliable1 and serviceable1 so that she acquires untold value1 or when you have it in your power to reward those male slaves that are dutiful and useful to your family1 or to punish one who proves the opposite of this4 ,but the pleasantest thing of all will be1 if you prove superior to me1 and make me your knight1 and if you need not fear that1 as you advance in years1 you will forfeit respect in the house1 but are sure that1 as you grow older1 the better a partner you are to me1 and the better a mother to the children1 the more highly you will be respected in the house4 ,for all that is fair and good1 said ,i1 increases for men1 as life advances1 not through beauties1 but through virtues4 ,such1 ,socrates1 to the best of my recollection1 was the first conversation ,i had with my wife4' ,ischomachus goes on and tells how1 in subsequent conversations1 he taught his wife the value of order1 how to have a place for everything1 and everything in its place1 how to train a servant1 and how to make herself attractive without the use of cosmetics or fine clothes4 ,but enough has been quoted to show what the ideal family relation among the ,athenians was1 and what education was thought fitting for girls and women4 ,just as the man was merged in the citizen1 so the woman was merged in the housewife1 and they each received the education and training demanded by their respective duties4 ,if ,athenian husbands had all been like ,ischomachus1 it is clear that the lives of wives might have been very happy and useful1 and that harmony might have reigned in the family4 ,but1 unfortunately1 that was not very often the case4 ,wives1 being neglected1 became lazy1 wasteful1 self-indulgent1 shrewish1 and useless1 while their husbands1 finding them so1 sought in immoral relations with brilliant and cultivated hetr1 or in worse relations still1 a coarse substitute for that satisfaction which they ought to have sought and found in their own homes4 ,thus there grew up a condition of things which could not fail to sap the moral foundations of society1 and which made thoughtful men turn their attention to the question of woman's education and sphere of duty4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,plato ,all human laws are nourished by the one divine law2 for it prevaileth as far as it listeth1 and sufficeth for all and surviveth all4--,heraclitus ,though reason is universal1 the mass of men live as if they had each a private wisdom of his own4--,id4 ,,antigone4 444 ,but him will ,i inter2 ,and sweet 'twill be to die in such a deed1 ,and sweet will be my rest with him1 the sweet1 ,when ,i have righteously offended here4 ,for longer time1 methinks1 have ,i to please ,the dwellers in yon world than those in this2 ,for ,i shall rest forever there4 ,but thou1 ,dishonor still what's honored of the gods4 --,sophocles1 ,antigone4 ,the circle that gathered round ,isaiah and his household in these evil days1 holding themselves apart from their countrymen1 treasuring the word of revelation1 and waiting for ,jehovah1 were indeed1 as ,isaiah describes them1 signs and tokens in ,israel from ,jehovah of hosts that dwelleth in ,mount ,zion4 ,the formation of this little community was a new thing in the history of religion4 ,till then no one had dreamed of a fellowship of faith dissociated from all national forms1 maintained without the exercise of ritual services1 bound together by faith in the divine word alone4 ,it was the birth of a new era in the ,old ,testament religion1 for it was the birth of the conception of the ,church1 the first step in the emancipation of spiritual religion from the forms of political life1--a step not less significant that all its consequences were not seen till centuries had passed away4--,w4 ,robertson ,smith1 ,prophets of ,israel4 ,still at the prophets' feet the nations sit4--,lowell4 ,that which is to be known ,i shall declare1 knowing which a man attains immortality--the beginningless ,supreme ,brahma that is said to be neither ,aught nor ,naught4--,bhagavad ,gt4 ,the only ,metaphysics which really and immediately sustains ,ethics is one which is itself primarily ethical1 and made of the staff of ,ethics4--,schopenhauer4 ,in answer to the burning question1 ,how can ,athens be brought back to moral life and strength8 ,socrates had answered1 ,by finding a new moral sanction4 ,he had even gone further1 and said3 ,this sanction is to be found in correct thinking1 in thinking whole thoughts1 which1 because they are whole1 are absolutely true1 being the very principles according to which ,god governs the world4 ,this is1 obviously1 a mere formal answer4 ,if it was to be of any real service1 three further questions had to be answered3 7#a7 ,how can whole thoughts be reached8 7#b7 ,what do they prove to be when they are reached8 7#c7 ,how can they be applied to the moral reorganization of human life8 ,plato's philosophy is but an attempt to answer these questions4 ,it therefore naturally falls into three divisions1 7#a7 ,dialectics1 including ,logic and ,theory of ,knowledge1 7#b7 ,theoretics1 including ,metaphysics and ,physics1 7#c7 ,practics1 including ,ethics and ,politics4 ,it is obvious that any attempt to reform society on ,socratic principles must proceed1 not from society itself1 but from some person or persons in whom these principles are realized1 and who act upon it from without4 ,these persons will be the philosophers or1 rather1 the sages4 ,two distinct questions1 therefore1 present themselves at the outset3 7#a7 ,how does a man become a sage8 7#b7 ,how can the sage organize human life1 and secure a succession of sages to continue his work after him8 ,to the first of these questions1 dialectics gives the answer2 to the second1 practics2 while theoretics exhibits to us at once the origin and the end1 that is1 the meaning1 of all existence1 the human included4 ,in the teaching of ,plato we find1 for the first time recognized and exhibited1 the extra-civic or super-civic man1 the man who is not a mere fragment of a social whole1 completely subordinated to it1 but who1 standing above society1 moulds it in accordance with ideas derived from a higher source4 ,forecasts of this man1 indeed1 we find in all ,greek literature from ,homer down1--in ,heraclitus1 ,sophocles1 etc41 and especially1 as we have seen1 in ,pythagoras2--but it is now for the first time that he finds full expression1 and tries to play a conscious part4 ,in him we have the promise of the future ,church4 ,but to return to the first of our two questions1 ,how does a man become a sage8 ,we found the answer to be1 ,by the dialectic method4 ,of this1 however1 not all men have the inclination to avail themselves1 but only a chosen few1 to whom the gods have granted the inspiration of ,love 77--a longing akin to madness 771 kindled by physical beauty1 but tending to the ,supreme ,good4 ,this good1 as we shall see1 consists in the vision 77 of eternal truth1 of being1 as it is4 ,the few men who are blessed with this love are the divinely appointed reformers and guides of mankind1 the well-being of which depends upon submission to them4 ,the dialectic method is the process by which the inspired mind rises from the beauty of physical things1 which are always particulars1 to the beauty of spiritual things1 which are always universals1 and finally to the beauty of the ,supreme ,good1 which is ,the ,universal4 ,the man who has reached this last1 and who sees its relation to all other universals1 so that they form together a correlated whole1 sees all truth1 and is the sage4 ,what we call universals ,plato called ideas 7 forms or species74 ,these ideas he regards as genera1 as numbers1 as active powers1 and as substances1 the highest of which is ,god4 ,two things are especially notable in connection with this theory3 7#a7 that it involves that ,oriental ascetic view of life which makes men turn away from the sensible world1 and seek their end and happiness in the colorless world of thought2 7#b7 that it suggests a view of the nature of ,god which comes perilously near to ,oriental pantheism4 ,plato1 indeed1 nowhere denies personality of ,god2 but neither does he affirm it1 and he certainly leaves the impression that the ,supreme ,being is a force acting according to a numerical ratio or law4 ,it would be difficult to overestimate the influence of these two views upon the subsequent course of ,greek education and life4 ,the former suggested to the super-civic man a sphere of activity which he could flatter himself was superior to the civic1 viz4 a sphere of contemplation2 while the second1 by blurring1 or rather ignoring1 the essential elements of personality in ,god1 viz4 consciousness1 choice1 and will1 left no place for a truly religious or moral life4 ,this explains why ,platonism1 while it has inspired no great civic movement1 has played such a determining part in ecclesiasticism1 and why1 nevertheless1 the ,church for ages was compelled to fight the tendencies of it1 which it did in great measure under the gis of ,plato's stern critic1 ,aristotle4 ,we are now ready to take up our second question3 ,how can the sage organize human life1 and secure a succession of sages to continue his work after him8 ,plato has given two widely different answers to this question1 in his two most extensive works1 7#a7 the ,republic1 written in his earlier life1 when he was under the influence of ,heraclitus1 ,parmenides1 and ,socrates1 and stood in a negative attitude toward the real world of history1 7#b7 the ,laws1 written toward the end of his life1 when he became reconciled1 in part at least1 to the real world and its traditional beliefs1 and found satisfaction and inspiration in the teachings of ,pythagoras4 ,his change of allegiance is shown by the fact that in the ,laws1 and in them alone1 ,socrates does not appear as a character4 ,we shall speak first of the ,republic1 and then point out wherein the ,laws differs from it4 ,when ,plato wrote his ,republic1 he was deeply impressed with the evils and dangers of the social order in which he lived4 ,this impression1 which was that of every serious man of the time1 had in his case probably been deepened by the teaching and the tragic death of ,socrates4 ,the dangers were1 obviously1 the demoralization of ,athenian men and women1 and the consequent weakening and dissolution of the social bonds4 ,the evils1 as he saw them1 were 7#a7 the defective education of children1 7#b7 the neglect of women1 7#c7 the general disorganization of the ,state through individualism1 which placed power in the hands of ignorance and rapacity1 instead of in those of wisdom and worth4 ,the ,republic is a scheme for removing these evils and averting the consequent dangers4 ,it is the ,platonic sage's recipe for the healing of society1 and it is but fair to say that1 of all the ,utopian and sthetic schemes ever proposed for this end1 it is incomparably the best4 ,it proposes nothing less than the complete transformation of society1 without offering any hint as to how a selfish and degraded people is to be induced to submit thereto4 ,in the transformed society1 the ,state is all in all2 the family is abolished2 women are emancipated and share in the education and duties of men2 the ,state attends to the procreation and education of children2 private property is forbidden4 ,the ,state is but the individual writ large1 and the individual has three faculties1 in the proper development and cordination of which consists his well-being3 the same1 therefore1 must be true of the ,state4 ,these faculties are 7#a7 intellect or reason1 71 1 1 etc471 7#b7 spirit or courage 71 71 7#c7 desire or appetite 71 1 74 ,the first resides in the head1 the second in the heart1 the third in the abdomen4 ,the first is peculiar to man1 the second he shares with the animals1 and the third with both animals and plants4 ,the proper relation of these faculties exists when reason1 with clear insight1 rules the whole man 7,prudence72 when spirit takes its directions from reason in its attitude toward pleasure and pain 7,fortitude72 when spirit and appetite together come to an understanding with reason as to when the one1 and when the other1 shall act 7,temperance72 and1 finally1 when each of the three strictly confines itself to its proper function 7,justice74 ,thus we obtain the four cardinal virtues4 ,as existing in the individual1 they are relations between his own faculties4 ,it is only in the ,state that they are relations between the individual and his fellows4 ,rather we ought to say1 they are relations between different classes of society2 for society is divided into three classes1 marked by the predominance of one or other of the three faculties of the soul4 ,first1 there is the intelligent class1--the philosophers or sages2 second1 the spirited class1--the military men or soldiers2 third1 the covetous class1--men devoted to industry1 trade1 and money-making4 ,the well-being of the ,state1 as of the individual1 is secure only when the relations between these classes are the four cardinal virtues2 when the sages rule1 and the soldiers and money-makers accept this rule1 and when each class strictly confines itself to its own function1 so1 for example1 that the sages do not attempt to fight1 the soldiers to make money1 or the money-makers to fight or rule4 ,in the ,platonic ideal ,state1 accordingly1 the three classes dwell apart and have distinct functions4 ,all the power is in the hands of the philosophers1 who dwell in lofty isolation1 devoted to the contemplation of divine ideas1 and descending only through grace to mingle with human affairs1 as teachers and absolute rulers1 ruling without laws4 ,their will is enforced by the military class1 composed of both sexes1 which lives outside the city1 devoting itself to physical exercises and the defence of the ,state4 ,these two classes together constitute the guardians 77 of the ,state1 and stand to each other in the relation of head and hand4 ,they produce nothing1 own nothing1 live sparingly1 and1 indeed1 cherish a sovereign contempt for all producing and owning1 as well as for those who produce and own4 ,they find their satisfaction in the performance of their functions1 and the maintenance of virtue in the ,state4 ,what small amount of material good they require is supplied to them by the industrial class1 which they protect in the enjoyment of the only good it strives after or can appreciate1 the good of the appetites4 ,this class1 of course1 has no power1 either directive or executive1 being incapable of any4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 entirely happy in its condition of tutelage1 and1 as far as virtue can be predicated of sensuality1 virtuous1 the excesses of sensuality being repressed by the other two classes4 ,indeed1 the great merit which ,plato claims for his scheme is1 that it secures harmony1 and therefore happiness1 for all1 by placing every individual citizen in the class to which by nature he belongs1 that is1 in which his nature can find the fullest and frest expression compatible with the well-being of the whole4 ,such is ,plato's political scheme1 marked by the two notorious ,greek characteristics1 love of harmony and contempt for labor4 ,it is curious to think that it foreshadowed three modern institutions--the ecclesiastical hierarchy1 the standing army1 and the industrial community1 in which1 however1 the relations of power demanded by ,plato are almost reversed1 with 7it is only fair to say7 the result which he foresaw4 ,in trying to answer the question1 ,by what means shall these classes be sundered8 ,plato calmly assumes that his scheme is already in full operation among grown people1 so that the only difficulty remaining is with regard to the children4 ,and this is completely met by his scheme of education4 ,the ,state or1 let us say at once1 the philosophic class1 having abolished the family1 and assumed its functions1 determines what number and kind of children it requires at any given time1 and provides for them as it would for sheep or kine4 ,it brings together at festivals the vigorous males and females1 and allows them to choose their mates for the occasion4 ,as soon as the children are born1 they are removed from their mothers and taken charge of in ,state institutions1 where the feeble and deformed are at once destroyed4 ,any children begotten without the authority of the ,state share the same fate1 either before or after birth4 ,those whose birth is authorized1 and who prove vigorous1 are reared by the ,state1 none of them knowing1 or being known by1 their parents4 ,but they by no means suffer any diminution of parentage on that account2 for every mature man regards himself as the father1 and every mature woman regards herself as the mother1 of all the children born within a certain time1 so that every child has thousands of fathers and mothers1 all interested in his welfare2 and the mothers1 being relieved from nearly all the duties of maternity1 share equally with the men in all the functions of the ,state4 ,the system of education to which the children of the ,state are subjected is1 to a large extent1 modelled after that of ,sparta1 especially in respect to its rigor and its absolutely political character4 ,it contains1 however1 a strong ,ionic or ,athenian element1 notably on the intellectual and sthetic side4 ,it may fairly claim to be intensely ,hellenic4 ,it accepts the time-honored division of education into ,music and ,gymnastics1 making no distinct place for ,letters1 but including them under ,music4 ,it demands that these two branches shall be pursued as parts of a whole1 calculated to develop1 as far as may be1 the harmonious human being1 and fit him to become part of the harmonious ,state4 ,i have said as far as may be1 because ,plato believes that only a small number of persons at any given time can be reduced to complete harmony4 ,these are the born philosophers1 who1 when their nature is fully realized1 no longer require the ,state1 but stand1 as gods1 above it4 ,in truth1 the ,state is needed just because the mass of mankind cannot attain inner harmony1 but would perish1 were it not for the outer harmony imposed by the philosophers4 ,this is a sad fact1 and would be altogether disheartening1 were it not for the belief1 which ,plato seems to have derived from ,pythagoras and the ,egyptians1 that those human beings who fail to attain harmony in one life1 will have opportunities to do so in other lives1 so long as they do not1 by some awful and malignant crime or crimes1 show that they are utterly incapable of harmony4 ,plato's scheme of political education1 therefore1 requires1 as its complement1 the doctrines of individual immortality1 of probation continued through as many lives as may be necessary1 and of the possibility of final and eternal blessedness or misery4 ,in fact1 ,plato has a fully-developed eschatology1 with an other world1 consisting of three well-defined parts1--,elysium1 ,acheron1 and ,tartarus1--corresponding to the ,paradise1 ,purgatory1 and ,hell of ,catholic ,christianity2 with one important difference1 however1 due to the doctrine of metempsychosis4 ,while the ,christian purgatory is a place or state of purgation for souls whose probation is over forever1 ,acheron is merely a place where imperfect souls remain till the end of a world-period1 or on1 of ten thousand years1 when they are again allowed to return to life and renew their struggle for that complete harmony which is the condition of admission to the society of the gods4 ,it is from this eschatology that ,plato derives the moral sanctions which he employs in his ,state4 ,it is true that no one has insisted with greater force than he upon the truth that virtue is1 in and for itself1 the highest human good2 he believed1 however1 that this could be appreciated only by the philosopher1 who had experience of it1 and that for the lower orders of men a more powerful1 though less noble1 sanction was necessary4 ,accordingly1 he depicts the joys of ,elysium in images that could not but appeal to the ,hellenic imagination1 and paints ,tartarus in gruesome colors that would do honor to a ,st4 ,ignatius4 ,in order fully to understand the method of ,plato's political education1 we must revert to ,chapter ,,iii of ,book ,i4 ,there we saw that1 according to the ,greeks1 a complete education demanded three things1 7#a7 a noble nature1 7#b7 training through habit1 7#c7 instruction4 ,for the first ,plato would do what can be done by artificial selection of parents2 for the second1 he would depend upon music and gymnastics2 for the third1 upon philosophy4 ,in these last two divisions we have the root of the medival trivium and quadrivium4 ,the ,platonic pedagogical system seeks to separate the ignoble from the noble natures1 and to place the former in the lowest class4 ,it then trains the noble natures in music and gymnastics1 and1 while this is going on1 it tries to distinguish those natures which are capable of rising above mere training to reflective or philosophic thought1 from those which are not4 ,the latter it assigns to the military class1 which always remains at the stage of training1 while the former are instructed in philosophy1 and1 if they prove themselves adepts1 are finally admitted to the ruling class1 as sages4 ,any member of either of the higher classes who proves himself unworthy of that class1 may at any time be degraded into the next below4 ,as soon as the children are accepted by the ,state1 their education under ,state nurses begins4 ,the chief efforts of these for some time are directed to the bodies of the children1 to seeing that they are healthy and strong4 ,as soon as the young creatures can stand and walk1 they are taught to exert themselves in an orderly way and to play little games2 and as soon as they understand what is said to them1 they are told stories and sung to4 ,such is their first introduction to gymnastics and music4 ,what games are to be taught1 what stories told1 and what airs sung to the children1 the ,state determines1 and indeed1 since the character of human beings depends1 in great measure1 upon the first impression made upon them1 this is one of its most sacred duties4 ,plato altogether disapproves of leaving children without guidance to seek exercise and amusement in their own way1 and demands that their games shall be such as call forth1 in a gentle and harmonious way1 all the latent powers of body and mind1 and develop the sense of order1 beauty1 and fitness4 ,he is still more earnest in insisting that the stories told to children shall be exemplifications of the loftiest morality1 and the airs sung to them such as settle1 strengthen1 and solemnize the soul4 ,he follows ,heraclitus in demanding that the ,homeric poems1 so long the storehouse for children's stories1 shall be entirely proscribed1 on account of the false ideals which they hold up both of gods and heroes1 and the intimidating descriptions which they give of the other world4 ,virtue1 he holds1 cannot be furthered by fear1 which is characteristic only of slaves4 ,he thinks that all early intellectual training should be a sort of play4 ,the truth is1 the infant-school of ,plato's ,republic comes as near as can well be imagined to the ideal of the modern kindergarten4 ,while this elementary education is going on1 the officers of the ,state have abundant opportunity for observing the different characters of the children1 and distinguishing the noble from the ignoble4 ,as soon as a child shows plainly that it belongs by nature to the lowest class1 they consign it to that class1 and its education by the ,state practically ceases4 ,of course these officers know from what class each child came1 and they make use of this knowledge in determining its future destiny4 ,at the same time1 they are not to be entirely guided by it1 but to act impartially4 ,the education of the lowest class after childhood the ,state leaves to take care of itself1 persuaded that appetite will always find means for its own satisfaction4 ,the nobler natures it continues to educate1 without any break1 until they reach the age of twenty4 ,and this education is distinctly a military training4 ,as time goes on1 the gymnastic exercises become more violent1 more complex1 and more sustained1 but always have for their subject the soul1 rather than the body1 and never degenerate into mere athletic brutality4 ,special attention is directed to the musical and literary exercises1 as the means whereby the soul is directly trained and harmonized4 ,plato holds that no change can be made in the music of a ,state1 without a corresponding change in the whole organization2 in other words1 that the social and political condition of a people is determined by the literature and music which it produces and enjoys4 ,he virtually says1 ,let me make the songs of a people1 and he who will may make their laws4 ,of the character of the music which he recommends we have already spoken4 ,from literature he would exclude all that we are in the habit of calling by that name1 all that is mimetic1 poetic1 or creative1 and confine the term to what is scientific1 didactic1 and edifying4 ,he sends the poets out of the ,state with mock-reverent politeness1 as creatures too divine for human use4 ,he is particularly severe upon the dramatists1 not sparing even the sublime schylus4 ,in fact1 he would banish from his ,state all art not directly edifying4 ,the literature which he recommends is plainly of the nature of sop's ,fables1 the ,pythagorean ,golden ,words1 and the ,parmenidean or ,heraclitean work ,on ,nature4 ,if we wished to express his intent in strictly modern language1 we should have to say that he desired to replace literary training by ethical and scientific1 and the poetical mode of presenting ideals by the prosaic4 ,the true music1 he held1 is in the human being4 ,if we find1 he says1 a man who perfectly combines gymnastics with music1 and in exact proportion applies them to the soul1 we shall be entirely justified in calling him the perfect musician and the perfect trainer1 far superior to the man who arranges strings alongside each other4 ,there are many matters of detail in ,plato's scheme of military training that well deserve consideration1 but cannot be even touched upon here4 ,before we leave it1 however1 we may give the dates at which the different branches of education are to begin4 ,care of the body begins at birth1 story-telling with the third year1 gymnastics with the seventh1 writing and reading with the tenth1 letters and music with the fourteenth1 mathematics with the sixteenth1 military drill1 which for the time supplants all other training1 with the eighteenth4 ,when the young people reach the age of twenty1 those who show no great capacity for science1 but are manly and courageous1 are assigned to the soldier class1 and start on a course of higher education in military training1 while those who evince great intellectual ability become novices in the ruling class1 and begin a curriculum in science1 which lasts till the close of their thirtieth year4 ,this course includes arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy1 the only sciences at that time cultivated1 and aims at impressing upon the youthful mind the unity and harmony of the physical or phenomenal universe4 ,at the age of thirty1 those students who do not show any particular aptitude for higher studies are drafted off into the lower public offices1 while those who do1 pass five years in the study of dialectics1 whereby they rise to pure ideas4 ,they are then1 from their thirty-fifth to their fiftieth year1 made to fill the higher public offices1 in which they take their orders directly from the sages4 ,during this period they put their acquirements to a practical test1 and so come really and fully into possession of them4 ,at the end of their fiftieth year1 after half a century of continuous education of body1 mind1 and will1 they are reckoned to have reached the vision of the supreme good1 and therefore to be fit to enter the contemplative ruling class4 ,they are now free men2 they have reached the goal of existence2 their life is hidden with ,god2 they are free from the prison of the body1 and only remain in it voluntarily1 and out of gratitude to the ,state which has educated them1 in order to direct it1 in accordance with absolute truth and right1 toward the ,supreme ,good4 ,such1 in its outlines1 is ,plato's theory of education1 as set forth in the ,republic4 ,it is easy to point out its defects and its errors1 which are neither small nor few1 but fundamental and all-pervasive4 ,but it is equally easy to see how it came to have these defects and errors1 since they are simply those of every sthetic social scheme which ignores the nature of the material with which it presumes to deal1 and takes no account of the actual history of social institutions or of the forces by which they are evolved4 ,it is emphatically the product of a youthful intellect1 carried away by an artistic ideal4 ,it was1 however1 the intellect of a ,plato1 who1 when he became more mature1 saw1 without irreverence for the dreams of youth1 the feebleness of ideas for the conflict with human frailties1 and strove to correct his exaggerated estimate of their power4 ,this he did in the ,laws1 whose very title suggests1 in a way almost obtrusive1 the change of attitude and allegiance4 ,while in the ,republic the ,state is governed by sages1 almost entirely without laws1 in the later work1 the sages almost disappear and the laws assume an all-important place4 ,in writing the ,laws1 moreover1 he exchanges allegiance to ,socrates and ideas for allegiance to ,pythagoras and the gods4 ,in saying this1 ,i have marked the fundamental difference between the ,republic and the ,laws4 ,while in the former ,plato finds the moral sanctions1 in the last resort1 in the ideas of the pure intellect1 trained in mathematics1 astronomy1 and dialectics1 in the latter he derives them from the content of the popular consciousness1 with its gods1 its ethical notions1 its traditions4 ,in these1 as embodied in institutions1 he finds the most serviceable1 if not the most exalted1 revelation of divine truth4 ,trusting to this1 he no longer seeks to abolish the family and private property1 but merely to have them regulated2 he no longer banishes strangers and poets from his ,state1 but merely subjects them to ,state supervision2 he no longer demands a philosophical training for the rulers1 but only practical insight2 he no longer divides his citizens into sages1 soldiers1 and wealth-producers1 but into freemen 7corresponding to his previous military class7 and slaves4 ,his government is no longer an aristocracy of intellect1 but a compound of aristocracy1 oligarchy1 and democracy1 representing1 respectively1 worth1 wealth1 and will4 ,his plan of education is modified to suit these altered conditions4 ,the children1 as in ,sparta1 do not begin the ,state course of education until about their seventh year1 after which their training is very much the same as that demanded in the ,republic1 with the omission1 of course1 of dialectics4 ,though women are no longer to be relieved of their home duties1 they are still to share in the education and occupations of men1 an arrangement which is facilitated by the law ordaining that both men and women shall eat at public tables4 ,in making these changes1 ,plato believed that he was falling from a lofty1 but unrealizable1 ideal1 and making concessions to human weakness2 in reality1 he was approaching truth and right4 ,,book ,,iii ,,aristotle 7,b4,c4 #chd-cbb7 ,,chapter ,i ,,aristotle--,,life ,,and ,,works ,aristotle1 in my opinion1 stands almost alone in philosophy4--,cicero4 ,aristotle1 ,nature's private secretary1 dipping his pen in intellect4--,eusebius4 ,wherever the divine wisdom of ,aristotle has opened its mouth1 the wisdom of others1 it seems to me1 is to be disregarded4--,dante4 ,i could soon get over ,aristotle's prestige1 if ,i could only get over his reasons4--,lessing4 ,if1 now in my quiet days1 ,i had youthful faculties at my command1 ,i should devote myself to ,greek1 in spite of all the difficulties ,i know4 ,nature and ,aristotle should be my sole study4 ,it is beyond all conception what that man espied1 saw1 beheld1 remarked1 observed4 ,to be sure he was sometimes hasty in his explanations2 but are we not so1 even to the present day8--,goethe 7at #gh74 ,if the proper earnestness prevailed in philosophy1 nothing would be more worthy of establishing than a foundation for a special lectureship on ,aristotle2 for he is1 of all the ancients1 the most worthy of study4--,hegel4 ,aristotle was one of the richest and most comprehensive geniuses that ever appeared--a man beside whom no age has an equal to place4--,id4 ,physical philosophy occupies itself with the general qualities of matter4 ,it is an abstraction from the dynamic manifestations of the different kinds of matter2 and even where its foundations were first laid1 in the eight books of ,aristotle's ,physical ,lectures1 all the phenomena of nature are represented as the motive vital activity of a universal world-force4--,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,it was characteristic of this extraordinary genius to work at both ends of the scientific process4 ,he was alike a devotee to facts and a master of the highest abstractions4--,alexander ,bain4 ,aristotle is the ,father of the ,inductive ,method1 and he is so for two reasons3 ,first1 he theoretically recognized its essential principles with a clearness1 and exhibited them with a conviction1 which strike the modern man with amazement2 and then he made the first comprehensive attempt to apply them to all the science of the ,greeks4--,wilhelm ,oncken4 ,aristotle1 for whose political philosophy our admiration rises1 the more we consider the work of his successors1 is less guided by imagination than ,plato1 examines reality more carefully1 and recognizes more acutely1 the needs of man4--,bluntschli4 ,it appears to me that there can be no question1 that ,aristotle stands forth1 not only as the greatest figure in antiquity1 but as the greatest intellect that has ever appeared upon the face of this earth4--,george ,j4 ,romanes4 ,aristotle1 with all the wisdom of ,plato before him1 which he was well able to appropriate1 could find no better definition of the true good of man than the full exercise or realization of the soul's faculties in accordance with its proper excellence1 which was excellence of thought1 speculative and practical4--,thomas ,hill ,green4 ,it is pretty definitely settled1 among men competent to form a judgment1 that ,aristotle was the best educated man that ever walked on the surface of this earth4 ,he is still1 as he was in ,dante's time1 the master of those that know4 ,it is1 therefore1 not without reason that we look to him1 not only as the best exponent of ancient education1 but as one of the worthiest guides and ensamples in education generally4 ,that we may not lose the advantage of his example1 it will be well1 before we consider his educational theories1 to cast a glance at his life1 the process of his development1 and his work4 ,aristotle was born about ,b4,c4 #chd1 in the ,greek colony of ,stagira in ,thrace1 near the borders of ,macedonia4 ,his father1 ,nicomachus1 was a physician of good standing1 the author of several medical works1 and the trusted friend of ,amyntas1 the ,macedonian ,king4 ,his mother1 ,phstis1 was descended from the early settlers of the place4 ,it was doubtless under his father's guidance that the boy ,aristotle first became interested in those physical studies in which he was destined to do such wonderful work4 ,losing1 however1 both his parents at an early age1 he came under the charge of ,proxenus1 of ,atarneus1 who appears to have done his duty by him4 ,at the age of eighteen he came to ,athens for his higher education1 and entered the school of ,plato in the ,academy4 ,here he remained for nearly twenty years1 listening to ,plato1 and acquiring those vast stores of information which in later life he worked up into lectures and scientific treatises4 ,nothing escaped him1 neither art1 science1 religion1 philosophy1 nor politics4 ,he seems1 being well off1 to have begun early to collect a library1 and to aim at encyclopdic knowledge4 ,about his methods of study we know very little2 but we hear that at times he assisted ,plato in his work and was very careful of his own attire4 ,it is clear that1 in course of time1 he rose in thought above the teachings of his master1 and even rejected the most fundamental of them1 the doctrine of self-existent ideas4 ,but he never lost respect for that master1 and when the latter died1 he retired with ,xenocrates1 son of the new head of the ,academy1 to ,atarneus1 the home of his old guardian ,proxenus1 and of his fellow-,academic1 ,hermias1 now king or tyrant of the place4 ,here he remained for three years1 in the closest intimacy with his friend1 until the latter was treacherously murdered by the ,persians4 ,he then crossed over to ,mytilene1 taking with him ,pythias1 ,hermias' sister or niece1 whom he had married1 and to whom he was deeply devoted4 ,he erected in ,delphi a statue to his dead friend1 and dedicated to him a poem1 of which we shall hear more in the sequel4 ,about ,b4,c4 #cdc1 when he was over forty years old1 he was called to ,macedonia1 as tutor to ,alexander1 the thirteen-year-old son of ,king ,philip1 and grandson of his own father's old patron1 ,amyntas4 ,this office he filled for about three years with distinguished success1 and it may be safely said that never had so great a tutor so great a pupil4 ,during the latter part of the time1 at least1 ,aristotle and ,alexander seem to have lived at ,stagira4 ,this town had been captured and destroyed by ,philip1 and its inhabitants scattered4 ,with the permission of the conqueror1 ,aristotle reassembled the inhabitants1 rebuilt the town1 drew up its laws1 and laid out near it1 at ,mieza1 in imitation of the ,academy1 a gymnasium and park1 which he called the ,nymphum4 ,hither he appears to have retired with his royal pupil and several other youths who were receiving education along with him1 among them ,theophrastus and the ill-fated ,callisthenes4 ,it was probably here that ,aristotle adopted the habit of walking while imparting instruction1 a habit which afterwards gave the name to his school4 ,when ,alexander1 at sixteen1 entered his father's army1 ,aristotle still continued to teach in the ,nymphum1 which existed even in ,plutarch's time1 more than four hundred years afterwards4 ,but this lasted only for about five years2 for in #cce1 when ,alexander1 who in the previous year had succeeded his murdered father1 was preparing to invade ,persia1 ,aristotle moved to ,athens4 ,finding that his old friend1 ,xenocrates1 was director of the school in the ,academy1 he established himself1 as a public teacher or professor1 in the ,lyceum1 the ,periclean gymnasium1 used chiefly1 it should seem1 by the lower classes and by foreign residents1 of whom he himself was one4 ,as an alien1 as the friend of the victorious ,macedonians1 who three years before had broken the power of ,greece at ,chronea1 and taken away her autonomy forever1 as a rival of the ,platonists1 and as a wealthy1 well-dressed gentleman1 he had many enemies and detractors2 but his conduct seems to have been so unobjectionable that no formal charge could be brought against him4 ,his very numerous pupils were mostly foreigners1 a fact not without its influence on the subsequent course of thought4 ,he divided his days between writing and teaching1 taking his physical exercise while engaged in the latter occupation4 ,in the mornings he gave lectures to a narrow circle1 in a strictly formal and scientific way1 upon the higher branches of science2 while in the afternoons he conducted conversations upon more popular themes with a less select audience4 ,the former were called his esoteric1 the latter his exoteric1 discourses4 ,it was during his second residence in ,athens1 in the twelve years from ,b4,c4 #cce to #cbc1 that ,aristotle composed most of those great works in which he sought to sum up1 in an encyclopdic way1 the results of a life of all-embracing study and thought4 ,he had been in no haste to put himself on record1 and it was not until he had reached a consistent view of the world that he ventured to treat1 in a definitive way1 any aspect of it4 ,thus it was that each of his treatises formed part of one great whole of thought4 ,had he succeeded in completing his plan1 he would have left to the world a body of science such as1 even in our own day1 would look in vain for a peer among the works of any one man4 ,unfortunately1 his plan was not completed1 and even of the works which he did write only a portion has come down to us4 ,but that portion is sufficient to place their author at the head of all scientific men4 ,some of his works1 for example1 his ,logic1 ,metaphysics1 ,ethics1 and ,politics1 still occupy the first place in the literature of these subjects4 ,how a single man could have done all that he did1 and in so many different departments1 is almost inconceivable4 ,no doubt he had helpers1 in the shape of secretaries1 learned slaves1 and disciples2 and it is certain that he received from his royal pupil munificent aid1 which enabled him to do much1 especially in the directions of physical and political research1 that would have been impossible for a poor man2 but1 after all allowances have been made1 his achievement still seems almost miraculous4 ,during all the years in which ,aristotle was thus engaged1 his position at ,athens was becoming more and more insecure4 ,the anti-,macedonian party were waiting for the first opportunity to rid the city of him1 and were prevented from open attempts at this only by dread of ,alexander's displeasure4 ,even when it was known that ,aristotle had incurred disfavor with his old pupil1 they did not venture to attack him2 but in #cbc1 when the news of ,alexander's sudden death made all ,greece feel that now the time had come to get rid forever of the hated ,macedonians1 and recover its liberty1 they at once gave vent to their long-cherished hatred4 ,how hard it was to find matter for an accusation against him1 is shown by the fact that they had to go back to his old poem on ,worth1 written in memory of ,hermias 7see p4 #d71 and to base thereon a charge of impiety--a charge always easily made1 and always sure to arouse strong popular prejudice4 ,according to ,athenian law1 the defendant in any such case might1 if he chose1 escape punishment by leaving the city any time before the trial2 and ,aristotle1 not being1 like ,socrates1 a citizen1 could have no ground for refusing to take advantage of this liberty4 ,accordingly1 with the remark that he would not voluntarily allow the ,athenians to sin a second time against philosophy1 he withdrew to his country residence at ,chalcis in ,euba1 the old home of his mother's family1 to wait till affairs should take another turn1 as1 indeed1 they soon afterwards did1 when ,athens had to open her gates to ,antipater4 ,but1 ere that happened1 ,aristotle was in his grave1 having died in #cbb1 shortly before ,demosthenes1 of disease of the stomach1 from which he had long suffered4 ,his remains are said to have been carried to ,stagira1 where the grateful inhabitants erected an altar over them and paid divine honors to his memory4 ,his library and the manuscripts of his works he left in the hands of ,theophrastus1 who succeeded him in the ,lyceum4 ,his will1 the text of which has come down to us1 bears testimony1 along with all else that we know of him1 to the nobility1 kindliness1 and justice of his nature4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,aristotle',s ,,philosophy ,platon rvait2 ,aristote pensait4--,alfred de ,musset4 ,are ,god and ,nature then at strife ,that ,nature lends such evil dreams8 --,tennyson4 ,there are three ,essences4 ,two of these are sensible2 one being eternal1 and the other perishable4 ,the latter is admitted by all1 in the form1 for example1 of plants and animals2 in regard to the former1 or eternal one1 we shall have to consider its elements1 and see whether they be one or many4 ,the third is immutable and1 therefore1 inaccessible to sense1 and this some thinkers hold to be transcendent4--,aristotle4 ,the vision of the divine is what is sweetest and best2 and if ,god always enjoys that vision as we sometimes do1 it is wonderful1 and if he does so in a yet higher degree1 it is more wonderful still4 ,and so even it is4 ,and life belongs to him2 for the self-determination of thought is life1 and he is self-determination4 ,and his absolute self-determination is the supreme and eternal life4 ,and we call ,god a living being1 eternal1 best2 so that life and duration1 uniform and eternal1 belong to ,god2 for this is ,god4--,id4 ,we must consider in what way the system of the universe contains the good and the best1 whether as something transcendent and self-determined1 or as order4 ,surely in both ways at once1 as in any army1 for which the good is in order1 and is the general1 and the latter more than the former4 ,for the general is not due to the order1 but the order to the general4--,id4 ,the thought of ,aristotle differs from that of ,plato both in its method and in its results4 ,plato1 reared in the school of ,pythagoras1 ,parmenides1 ,heraclitus1 and ,socrates1 had1 naturally enough1 come to look for truth in the supersensual region of mind1 and thought he found it in ideas attainable by a process of dialectic within the individual consciousness4 ,he thus came to put forward a doctrine which1 despite its ostensible purpose to cement the bonds of society1 in reality tended to withdraw men from society altogether and increase the very individualism it was intended to cure4 ,aristotle1 while still in ,plato's school1 had turned away from this doctrine1 and in after-life he never lost an opportunity of combating it4 ,he could point to ,plato's ,republic as a warning example of its logical consequences4 ,but1 in doing this1 he was prepared to put another doctrine in its place1 and he did so on the basis of a profound study of the whole course of ,greek thought1 mythological and philosophical4 ,instead of appealing1 like ,plato1 to the individual consciousness1 and trying to discover ultimate truth by bringing its data into harmony among themselves1 ,aristotle appeals to the historic consciousness1 and endeavors to find truth by harmonizing and complementing its data through a further appeal to the outer world1 in which these data are realized4 ,he maintains that the truths reached by the dialectic process are merely formal1 and therefore empty1--useless in practice1 until they have been filled by experience from the storehouse of nature4 ,in consequence of this changed attitude1 he sets aside the dialectic process1 and substitutes for it the ,method of ,induction1 which he was the first man in the world to comprehend1 expound1 and apply1 becoming thus the father of all true science4 ,and he makes a more extensive use of induction than any other man since his time1 applying it in a field in which even now it is hardly supposed to yield any results1 the field of the common consciousness4 ,indeed1 he everywhere begins his search for concrete truth by examining the historic consciousness1 and1 having1 by a process of induction1 discovered and generalized its contents1 he turns with these to nature and1 by a second induction1 corrects1 completes1 and harmonizes them4 ,we might express this in modern language1 by saying that his whole endeavor is to correct and supplement the imperfect human consciousness by a continual appeal to the divine consciousness1 as manifested in the world4 ,it is the error of modern investigators that they employ only one-half of the inductive method1 the objective1 and either omit altogether the subjective1 or else1 like ,plato1 apply it only to the individual consciousness4 ,hence come the widely divergent results which still meet us in so many of the sciences1 in ,politics1 ,psychology1 etc41 hence the fact that a great deal of science1 instead of correcting1 widening1 and harmonizing the common consciousness1 stands altogether apart from it1 or even in direct opposition to it4 ,the man who writes a treatise on ,psychology1 or on the ,soul1 without troubling himself to discover what ,soul means in the general consciousness of mankind1 and perhaps setting out with an altogether individual notion of it1 can hardly look for any other result4 ,aristotle1 true to his method of induction1 devotes one entire book of his ,psychology to finding out what ,soul means in the historic consciousness1 unreflective as well as reflective4 ,then1 with this meaning1 he goes to nature1 seeks by induction to discover what she has to say about it1 and abides by her reply4 ,hence it is that his thought has laid hold upon the world1 and influenced it in practical ways1 as no other man's thought has ever done4 ,hence it is that1 of all ancient men1 he is the one before whom the modern scientist bows with respect4 ,if we now ask ourselves what was the underlying thought that shaped ,aristotle's theory of induction1 what was his ,weltanschauung1 we shall find it to be this3 ,the divine intelligence reveals itself subjectively in an historic process in the human consciousness1 and objectively#d in a natural process in the outer world4 ,truth for man is the harmony of the two revelations4 ,it follows directly from this that the scientist must take impartial account of both4 ,so1 for example1 if he finds gods in the historical consciousness1 and laws or forces in nature1 he has no right1 like the theologian1 to merge the latter in the former1 or1 like the physicist1 to replace the former by the latter4 ,he must retain both till he can bring them into harmony4 ,only then does he know either4 ,such a philosophy as this1 instead of drawing men away from the world of nature and history1 and confining them to the narrow circle of their own consciousness1 of necessity sent them back to that world1 as the only means by which any human well-being could be reached4 ,it is for this reason that it has so powerfully affected both social life and science4 ,nevertheless1 we should err greatly1 if we supposed that1 in ,aristotle's view1 the divine is nothing more than an immanent idea1 working as a force-form in nature1 and as a thought-form in mind4 ,he does1 indeed1 believe that the divine is all this1 but not that this is all the divine there is4 ,over and above the divine which is determined in nature and in man1 there is the transcendent ,mind1 or ,god1 determining himself through himself1 and bearing the same relation to the divine that the sun bears to light1 the human mind to human thought1 the general to the order of his army4 ,here we are far away from ,pantheism1 and1 though we have not yet risen to a clear conception of personality1 we have at the helm of the universe a conscious being1 the source of law and order4 ,and man1 rising above the thought whereby he knows himself through nature1 and nature through himself1 may enter into the consciousness of ,god and become a partaker in that life which is sweetest and best4 ,these are the features of ,aristotle's thought which in the thirteenth century made it acceptable to the ,christian ,church in her struggle against ,pantheism1 and which paved the way for that higher mysticism of which ,thomas ,aquinas is the most distinguished exponent--a mysticism which does not1 like that of the ,neoplatonists and ,buddhists1 dispense with thought to lose itself in vacancy1 but which1 rising upon a broad basis of knowledge1 pierces the clouds of sense1 to find itself in the presence of the most concrete ,reality1 the inexhaustible source of all thought and all things4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,aristotle',s ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,state ,first1 then1 let us try to enumerate whatever worthy utterances have proceeded from men of the past upon any aspect of the subject1 and then1 referring to our collections of ,constitutional ,histories1 let us seek to arrive at a theory as to what sorts of things preserve and destroy each particular form of government1 and see for what reasons some are well1 some ill1 managed4 ,succeeding in this1 we may1 perhaps1 the better learn both what is the best form of government1 and what arrangements1 laws1 and customs are best suited to each form4--,aristotle4 ,man is a political animal4--,id4 ,the ,state is prior to the individual4--,id4 ,without friends no one would choose to live1 although he possessed all other blessings4--,id4 ,if happiness be self-determination in accordance with worth1 we must conclude that it will be in accordance with the supreme worth1 which will be the worth of the noblest part of us4 ,this part1 whatever it may be1 whether intellect 77 or something else1 that which by nature evidently rules and guides us and has insight into things beautiful and divine1 whether it be itself divine1 or the divinest part of us1 is that whose self-determination1 in accordance with its proper worth1 will be the perfect happiness4 ,that this consists in the vision of divine things has already been said4444 ,this1 indeed1 is the supreme self-determination1 for the reason that intellect is the highest part of us1 and that with which it deals is the highest of the knowable4444 ,but a life of this sort would be something higher than the human2 for he who lived it would not be living as man1 but as the subject of something divine4444 ,if1 then1 intellect is something divine in relation to man1 the life lived according to it must be divine in relation to human life4 ,instead1 then1 of following those who advise us1 as being human1 to set our thoughts upon human things1 and1 as being mortals1 to set them on mortal things1 it is our duty1 as far as may be1 to act as immortal beings1 and do all we can to live in accordance with the supreme part of us4--,aristotle4 ,man alone1 among all beings1 occupies a middle place between things corruptible and things incorruptible4444 ,two ends1 therefore1 ,ineffable ,providence has ordained for man3 ,blessedness in this life1 which consists in the exercise of native faculty1 and is figured by the ,earthly ,paradise1 and blessedness in the eternal life1 which consists in the enjoyment of the vision of ,god1 a thing not to be achieved by any native faculty1 unless aided by divine light1 and which is to be understood by the ,heavenly ,paradise4444 ,these ends and means would be disregarded by human passion1 if men were not restrained in their course by bit and bridle4444 ,for this reason man required a double directive1 corresponding to this double end4 ,he required the ,supreme ,pontiff to guide the human race to life eternal1 and the ,emperor to guide the human race to temporal felicity1 in accordance with the teachings of philosophy4444 ,the truth with regard to the question whether the authority of the ,emperor is derived directly from ,god or from another1 must not be taken so strictly as to mean that the ,roman ,prince is not1 in some respects1 subject to the ,roman ,pontiff1 the fact being that this mortal felicity of ours is1 in some sense1 ordained with a view to immortal felicity4 ,let ,csar1 therefore1 display that reverence for ,peter which the first-born son ought to display for his father1 so that1 being illuminated by his father's grace1 he may with greater virtue enlighten the world1 which he has been called to govern by ,him who is governor of all things1 spiritual and temporal4--,dante4 ,o ,grace abounding1 whence ,i did presume ,to fix my gaze upon the eternal light ,so far that ,i consumed my sight therein6 ,within its deeps ,i saw internalized ,into one volume1 bound with love1 ,that which is outered in the universe2-- ,substance and accident1 and all their modes1 ,as 'twere1 together merged in such a sort ,that what ,i mean is but a simple light4 ,the universal form of this same knot ,i think ,i saw1 because1 when thus ,i speak1 ,i feel that ,i rejoice with larger joy4--,id4 ,man's chief end is to glorify ,god1 and to enjoy him forever4--,westminster ,shorter ,catechism4 ,plato's chief purpose1 in writing upon education1 had been to suggest a remedy for the social and moral conditions of his native ,athens4 ,aristotle has no such purpose4 ,he is1 in a very deep sense1 a cosmopolitan1 and writes in the interest of science and universal utility4 ,his range of vision is not confined to ,athens1 or even to ,greece 7though he is very proud of being a ,greek71 but ranges over the whole known world in time and space4 ,unlike ,plato1 too1 who had been familiar mainly with institutions of the past in ,egypt and ,greece1 ,aristotle is deeply affected by the tendencies of the future1 and1 though no one lays greater stress than he upon the necessity of a knowledge of the past for him who would construct a sound social theory1 he nevertheless declares that the whole of the past is shaped by something which is in the future1 by the ultimate realization4 ,this view comes out in a paradoxical way in his famous saying that the ,state is prior to the individual1 by which he means that it is man's political nature working in him that makes him an individual1 and at the same time realizes itself in a ,state4 ,and this brings us to ,aristotle's conception of the ,state1 which we must consider before taking up his theory of education1 for the reason that to him1 as to all the ancient world1 education is a function of the ,state1 and is conducted1 primarily at least1 for the ends of the ,state4 ,before venturing upon a theory of the ,state1 ,aristotle1 true to his inductive principles1 wrote the ,constitutional ,histories of over two hundred and fifty different states4 ,one of these1 the ,constitutional ,history of ,athens1 has recently been discovered and published 7see p4 #if74 ,he held that it was only by means of a broad induction1 thus rendered possible1 that he could discover the idea of the ,state1 that is1 its self-realizing form4 ,employing this method1 then1 he came to the conclusion that the ,state is that highest social institution which secures the highest good or happiness of man4 ,having1 in a previous treatise1 satisfied himself that this good is ,worth 771 and worth being in every case the full exercise of characteristic or differentiating faculty1 he concludes that1 since man's distinguishing faculty is reason1 the ,state is the institution which secures to man the fullest and frest exercise of this4 ,it follows directly that the ,state is1 simply and solely1 the supreme educational institution1 the university to which all other institutions are but preparatory4 ,and two more conclusions follow3 7#a7 that states will differ in constitution with the different educational needs of the peoples among whom they exist1 and 7#b7 that1 since all education is but a preparation for some worthy activity1 political education1 the life of man as a citizen1 is but a preparation for the highest activity1 which1 because it is highest1 must necessarily be an end in itself4 ,this activity1 ,aristotle argues1 can be none other than contemplation1 the ,vision of the ,divine 774 ,results which have moved the world followed logically from this doctrine4 ,whereas ,plato had made provision for a small and select body of super-civic men1 and so paved the way for religious monasticism and asceticism1 ,aristotle maintains that in every civilized man1 as such1 there is a super-civic part1 in fact1 a superhuman and divine part1 for the complete realization of which all the other parts1 and the ,state wherein they find expression1 are but means4 ,here we have1 in embryo1 the whole of ,dante's theory of the relation of ,church and ,state1 a theory which lies at the basis of all modern political effort1 however little the fact may be recognized4 ,here1 indeed1 we have the whole framework of the ,divine ,comedy2 here too we have the doctrine of the ,beatific ,vision1 which for ages shaped and1 to a large extent1 still shapes1 the life of ,christendom4 ,well might ,dante claim ,aristotle as his master 7see p4 #aec76 ,well might the great doctors of the ,church speak of him as ,the ,philosopher1 and as the ,forerunner of ,christ in ,things ,natural4 ,in vain did ,peter ,ramus and ,luther and ,bruno and ,bacon depreciate or anathematize him6 ,he is more powerful to-day in thought and life than at any time for the last twenty-two centuries4 ,it may be asked how far1 and in what form1 ,aristotle conceives the divine life to be possible for man on earth4 ,he answers that1 though it cannot be perfectly or continuously realized here1 it is in some degree and for certain times attainable 7see p4 #afa74 ,in so far as it is a social life1 it is the life of friendship or spiritual love 771 to which he has devoted almost two books of his ,ethics1 books which give us a loftier idea of his personal purity and worth than any other of his extant writings4 ,he insists that friendship is the supreme blessing 7see p4 #aff71 and that whatever a man's being is1 or whatever he chooses to live for1 in that he wishes to spend his life in the company of his friends4 ,it is even said that ,aristotle1 while teaching in the ,lyceum1 gathered about him a knot of noble youths and earnest students1 and formed them into a kind of community1 with a view to leading a truly spiritual social life4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,aristotle',s ,,pedagogical ,,state ,nature is the beginning of everything4--,aristotle4 ,life is more than meat1 and the body than raiment4--,jesus4 ,the forces of the human passions in us1 when completely repressed1 become more vehement2 but when they are called into action for short time and in the right degree1 they enjoy a measured delight1 are soothed1 and1 thence being purged away1 cease in a kindly1 instead of a violent1 way4 ,for this reason1 in tragedy and comedy1 through being spectators of the passions of others1 we still our own passions1 render them more moderate1 and purge them away2 and so1 likewise1 in the temples1 by seeing and hearing base things1 we are freed from the injury that would come from the actual practice of them4--,jamblichus4 ,care for the body must precede care for the soul2 next to care for the body must come care for the appetites2 and1 last of all1 care for the intelligence4 ,we train the appetites for the sake of the intelligence1 and the body for the sake of the soul4--,aristotle4 ,the practice of abortion was one to which few persons in antiquity attached any deep feeling of condemnation4444 ,the physiological theory that the ftus did not become a living creature till the hour of birth had some influence on the judgments passed upon this practice4 ,the death of an unborn child does not appeal very powerfully to the feeling of compassion1 and men who had not yet attained any strong sense of the sanctity of human life1 who believed that they might regulate their conduct on these matters by utilitarian views1 according to the general interest of the community1 might very readily conclude that prevention of birth was in many cases an act of mercy4 ,in ,greece1 ,aristotle not only countenanced the practice1 but even desired that it should be enforced by law1 when population had exceeded certain assigned limits4 ,no law in ,greece1 or in the ,roman ,republic1 or during the greater part of the ,empire1 condemned it4444 ,the language of the ,christians from the very beginning was very different4 ,with unwavering consistency and with the strongest emphasis1 they denounced the practice1 not simply as inhuman1 but as definitely murder4--,lecky1 ,european ,morals4 ,aristotle clearly saw that the strong tendency of the human race to increase1 unless corrected by strict and positive laws1 was absolutely fatal to every system founded on equality of property2 and there cannot surely be a stronger argument against any system of this kind than the necessity of such laws as ,aristotle himself proposes4444 ,he seems to be fully aware that to encourage the birth of children1 without providing properly for their support1 is to obtain a very small accession to the population of a country1 at the expense of a very great accession of misery4--,malthus1 ,essay on ,population4 ,considering ,aristotle's views with regard to man1 his end1 and the function of the ,state1 we can have little difficulty in divining the character and method of his educational system4 ,man is a being endowed with reason2 his end is the full realization of this1 his sovereign and distinguishing faculty2 the ,state is the means whereby this is accomplished4 ,readers of ,goethe's ,wilhelm ,meister will remember the description1 in the second part1 of the ,pedagogical ,province4 ,now1 ,aristotle's ,state might with entire propriety be called a ,pedagogical ,province4 ,in trying to describe this ,state1 and the manner in which it discharges its function1 it is difficult to know where to begin1 for the reason that1 taken as a whole1 the ,state is both teacher and pupil4 ,it arranges the whole scheme of education1 and is therefore related to it as cause2 it is built up by this scheme1 and is therefore related to it as effect4 ,it comes1 accordingly1 both at the beginning and at the end4 ,it is a university which arranges the entire scheme of education1 and is itself its highest grade4 ,i shall try to surmount this difficulty by distinguishing what the ,state is from what it does1 beginning with the former1 and ending with the latter4 ,with regard to what the ,state is1 we have to consider 7#a7 its natural1 7#b7 its social1 conditions4 ,the former are climate1 and extent1 nature1 and situation of territory2 the latter1 number and character of inhabitants1 property regulations1 distinction of classes1 city architecture1 mode of life1 government1 and relations to other states4 ,aristotle demands for his ,state a temperate climate1 on the ground that a cold one renders men strong and bold1 but dull and stupid1 while a hot one renders them intellectual but effeminate4 ,the best climate is one that makes them at once brave and intelligent4 ,the territory must be extensive enough1 and fertile enough1 to supply its inhabitants with all the material conditions of life in answer to labor which shall rouse1 without exhausting1 their energies4 ,it must face east or south1 and be healthy1 well-watered1 accessible from land and sea1 and easily defensible4 ,as to the social conditions1 ,aristotle finds the most important to be the number of citizens4 ,and here two things must be carefully borne in mind4 7#a7 ,he means by ,state a city with a small territory4 ,this is not1 as has been erroneously supposed1 his highest social unity4 ,he recognizes clearly the nation 77 and the confederacy 772 but he holds that they exist merely for material ends1 whereas the end of the ,state is spiritual4 7#b7 ,he means by citizen a politician4 ,a man is a citizen1 not because he is born or domiciled in a ,state1 but because he is a sharer in its functions4 ,a ,state made up of mechanics1 no matter how great their number1 would be a small ,state1 and one composed of slaves would be no ,state at all4 ,thus1 in estimating the size of a ,state1 we are to consider the character of its inhabitants1 their fitness for political functions1 rather than their number4 ,little ,athens was a much larger ,state than gigantic ,persia on the field of ,marathon4 ,aristotle lays down that the number of citizens must be large enough to insure independence1 this being essential to a ,culture-,state1 and not too large to be manageable4 ,besides the citizens1 there will necessarily be in the ,state a very large number of other human beings1 slaves1 agriculturists1 mechanics1 sailors--for all these he excludes from citizenship on the ground that they do not make virtue1 that is1 the realization of reason1 the end of their lives4 ,women1 in a sense1 are citizens1 if they belong to the families of citizens2 but their sphere is the family4 ,with regard to property1 ,aristotle begins by considering what things it is necessary for4 ,these he finds to be six1 three private and three public4 ,the former are food 7including clothing and shelter71 instruments of production1 and arms2 the latter are public enterprises 7civil and military71 religion1 and law4 ,these are the necessaries 77 of a ,state1 for which it must duly provide4 ,the most important of all is religion1 on which he everywhere lays great stress4 ,as to the distribution of property1 he propounds a scheme which is half socialistic4 ,all the land is to belong to the ,state1 that is1 to the body of the free citizens4 ,it is to be divided into two equal portions1 and one set apart for public1 the other for private1 uses4 ,the revenue from the public part is to go for the support of religion 7and law87 and of the public tables1 from which no citizen is excluded by poverty4 ,the private part is to be so divided that each citizen shall have one lot near the city1 and one near the frontier4 ,this will give him an interest in defending the whole territory4 ,both parts are to be cultivated by serfs or slaves1 part of whom will necessarily belong to the ,state1 and part to private individuals4 ,land-owning is to be a condition of citizenship1 and all citizens are to be forbidden to exercise any form of productive industry4 ,this last rule1 it is hoped1 will prevent grievous inequalities of wealth1 and the evils that flow from them4 ,a modest competency1 derived from his estate1 is all that any citizen should aim at4 ,only degraded people1 incapable of virtue1 will crave for more4 ,upon the distinction of classes some light has been already thrown4 ,they are two2 the ruling and the ruled4 ,aristotle holds that this distinction runs through the whole of nature and spirit1 that it is fundamental in being itself4 ,it holds between ,god and the universe1 form and matter1 soul and body1 object and subject1 husband and wife1 parent and child1 master and slave1 etc41 etc4 ,the ruling class again is sub-divided into two parts1 one that thinks and determines 7legislators and judges71 and one that executes 7officials1 officers1 soldiers72 while the ruled is sub-divided into husbandmen1 mechanics1 and seamen 7sailors1 fishermen1 etc474 ,all the members of the ruled class are serfs or public slaves1 working1 not for themselves1 but for their masters4 ,aristotle holds that they ought to be barbarians of different races1 and not ,greeks4 ,the architecture of the city will in some degree correspond to this social division4 ,it will naturally fall into three divisions1 military1 religious1 and civil4 ,first of all1 a city must have walls4 ,these should have towers and bastions at proper distances1 and be made as attractive as possible4 ,the temples of the gods and the offices of the chief magistrates should1 if possible1 stand together on a fortified citadel1 conspicuously dominating the entire city4 ,adjoining this ought to be the ,freemen's ,square1 reserved entirely for the ruling class1 and unencumbered by business or wares of any sort4 ,here ought to stand the gymnasium for the older citizens1 who will thus be brought into contact with the magistrates and inspired with true reverence and freemen's fear4 ,the market-square must be placed so as to be convenient for the reception of goods both from sea and land4 ,this comprehends all the civil architecture except the mess-halls1 of which we shall better speak in the next paragraph4 ,the mode of life of the ruling class will necessarily differ widely from that of the ruled4 ,about the latter ,aristotle has nothing to say4 ,he hopes for little from that class beyond the possibility of being held in contented subordination4 ,as it has no political life1 all that is left to it is the life of the family4 ,the ruling class1 on the contrary1 live to a large extent in public1 and on public funds4 ,they exercise in public gymnasia and eat at public tables4 ,the chief magistrates have their mess-hall in the citadel2 the priests have theirs close to the temples2 the magistrates1 who preside over business matters1 streets1 and markets1 have theirs near the market-square1 while those who attend to the defences of the city have tables in the towers4 ,when not engaged in public business1 the citizens may meet in the ,freemen's ,square and enjoy an open-air conversazione1 with music1 poetry1 and philosophy1 in a word1 1 for which our language has no even approximate equivalent 7see p4 #cc74 ,in proportion as they advance in years1 the citizens enjoy more and more 1 which1 indeed1 is regarded as the end of life1 here and hereafter4 ,the government is entirely in the hands of the free citizens1 the legislative and deliberative power being in those of the elders2 the executive power1 civil and military1 in those of the younger portion4 ,it is curious that1 though ,aristotle regards this as the best possible arrangement under ordinary circumstances1 he nevertheless believes that the happiest condition for a ,state would be to be governed by some divine or heroic man1 far superior to all the others in wisdom and goodness4 ,he plainly considers ,pisistratus to have been one such man1 and he perhaps hoped that ,alexander might be another4 ,the relations of the pedagogical ,state to other ,states are1 as far as possible1 to be peaceful4 ,just as all labor is for the sake of rest and 1 so all war is for the sake of peace2 and that ,state is to be envied which can maintain an honorable independence without war4 ,a cultured ,state will eschew all attempts at conquest1 and be as unwilling to tyrannize over another ,state as to be tyrannized over by one4 ,at the same time1 it will always be prepared for war1 possessing an army of well-trained1 well-armed soldiers1 and a well-manned1 well-equipped fleet4 ,such are the chief features of ,aristotle's ideal ,state1 based1 as he believes1 on man's political nature and the history of the past4 ,like all social ideals1 like heaven itself1 as ordinarily conceived1 it is a static condition4 ,its institutions are fixed once for all1 and every effort is made to preserve them4 ,it is curious to note in how many points it coincides with ,xenophon's ideal4 ,the purpose of the ,state is to educate its citizens1 to make them virtuous4 ,virtue is the very life-principle of the ,state1 and it does not depend1 as other conditions do1 upon nature or chance1 but upon free will4 ,the ideal ,state1 like every other1 must educate with a view to its own institutions1 since only in this way can these be preserved4 ,and1 since the ,state1 as a whole1 has but one aim1 it is evident that the political education of all the citizens ought to be the same1 and that this is a matter for the ,state to attend to1 and not one to be left to individual caprice1 as is now almost universally done1 when every parent attends to the education of his own children1 and gives them whatever schooling suits his own fancy4 ,for the education of those members of the ,state who are not citizens the ,state makes no provision4 ,they learn their practical duties by performing them1 and are completely under the control of the citizens4 ,aristotle makes the most vigorous efforts to prove that slavery has its justification in nature1 which has established between ,greek and barbarian the relation of master and slave 7see p4 #ab74 ,as woman belongs to the family1 and is only indirectly a citizen of the ,state1 her education is entrusted to the former institution4 ,the daughter is to be educated by the parents1 and the wife by the husband1 exactly as recommended by ,xenophon4 ,having concluded that education ought to be a matter of ,state legislation1 and the same for all the citizens1 he continues3 ,it remains to inquire what shall be the nature of the education1 and the method of imparting it4444 ,the present state of education leaves this question in a perfect muddle1 no one seeming to know whether we ought to teach those subjects which enable people to make a living1 or those which foster worth1 or1 finally1 accomplishments4 ,all have had their advocates4 ,in regard to those studies which have worth for their aim1 there is no general agreement1 owing to the fact that different people have different views as to what kinds of worth are admirable1 and consequently differ in regard to the means to be employed for the cultivation of them4 ,one point1 however1 is perfectly clear1 viz4 that those useful things which are necessary ought to be taught4 ,but it is equally clear that a distinction ought to be made between liberal and illiberal studies1 and that only those useful subjects ought to be taught which do not turn those learning them into craftsmen4 ,we ought to look upon every employment1 art1 or study which contributes to render the bodies1 souls1 or intellects of free men unfit for the uses and practices of virtue1 as a craft4 ,for this reason it is that we call all those arts which lower the condition of the body crafts1 and extend the term to the money-making trades1 because they preoccupy and degrade the intelligence4 ,as to the liberal arts1 to cultivate an acquaintance with them up to a certain point is not illiberal2 but any over-devotion to them1 with a view to attaining professional skill1 is liable to the objections mentioned4 ,it also makes a great difference for what purpose we do or learn a thing4 ,if a man does a thing for his own1 for his friends'1 or for worth's sake1 it is not illiberal1 whereas if he does it often for the sake of anybody else1 he will be held to be doing something mercenary or slavish4 ,the next and all-important question is1 ,for what end shall the ,state educate1--for business or for leisure8 ,in answering this1 ,aristotle breaks entirely away from the old ,greek traditions1 as well as from ,plato1 and maintains that1 while it must educate for both1 yet education for leisure is far more important than education for business1 and cites ,nature as his authority4 ,nature itself demands1 he says1 not only that we should pursue business properly1 but that we should be able to employ our leisure elegantly4 ,if we must have both1 we must2 but leisure is preferable to business1 and our final inquiry must be1 in what sort of employment we shall spend our leisure4 ,it is useless to say that we are to spend it in play1 and that play is the end and aim of our life4 ,if this is impossible1 and the truth is that the proper place for play is in the midst of business 7it is the man who is toiling that requires recreation1 which is the aim of play1 business being accompanied with exertion and tension71 then1 in having recourse to play1 we must select the proper seasons for administering it1 just as if it were a medicine4 ,indeed1 all such movement of the soul is relaxation1 and becomes recreation on account of the pleasure which it affords4 ,leisure1 on the contrary1 is considered1 in and by itself1 to involve pleasure1 happiness1 and a blessed life4 ,these fall to the lot of those who have leisure1 not of those who are engaged in business4 ,those who engage in business do so for some ulterior end not realized in it1 whereas happiness is itself an end and1 according to universal belief1 brings1 not pain but pleasure4 ,of course1 as to the nature of this pleasure1 there is at present a variety of opinions1 every one having his own preferences due to his character and habits1 and the highest type of man preferring the highest type of pleasure and that which arises from the noblest things4 ,we need no further argument to show that we should receive instruction and education in certain things with a view to otium cum dignitate 7or cultured leisure71 and that these should be ends in themselves1 in contradistinction to the instruction given for business1 which is necessary and has an ulterior aim4 ,three principles ,aristotle lays down as valid for all education3 7#a7 that the training of the body ought to take precedence in time over that of the mind2 7#b7 that pupils should be taught to do things before they are taught the reasons and principles of them2 7#c7 that learning is never playing1 or for the sake of playing4 ,the periods of education distinguished by ,aristotle are3 7#a7 ,childhood1 extending from birth to the end of the seventh year1 and spent in healthy growing and1 latterly1 in preparation for discipline2 7#b7 ,boyhood1 from the beginning of the eighth year to the advent of puberty1 devoted to the lighter forms of discipline1 bodily and mental2 7#c7 ,youth1 from the age of puberty to the end of the twenty-first year1 occupied with the severer forms of discipline2 7#d7 ,manhood1 devoted to ,state duties4 ,all these are but preparations for the divine life of the soul4 ,we shall treat these in order1 including the second and third under one head4 ,,chapter ,v ,,education ,,during ,,the ,,first ,,seven ,,years ,suffer no lewdness or indecent speech ,the apartment of tender youth to reach4--,juvenal4 ,le cur d'un homme vierge est un vase profond-- ,lorsque la premire eau qu'on y verse est impure1 ,la mer y passerait sans laver la souillure2 ,car l'abme est immense1 et la tache est au fond4 --,alfred de ,musset4 ,the ,state must begin the education of children before their birth2 indeed1 before the marriage of their parents4 ,it must see that only persons of robust constitutions marry4 ,athletes are not suited for marriage1 neither are weaklings4 ,the best age for marriage is thirty-seven for a man1 and eighteen for a woman4 ,during their pregnancy women must take special care of their health1 living on light food1 and taking short walks4 ,the ,state should make a law that they visit the temples of certain gods every day1 and offer up a prayer of thanksgiving for the honor conferred upon them4 ,they must carefully avoid all forms of emotional excitement4 ,when defective children are born1 they must be exposed or destroyed4 ,the ,state must determine what number of children each married couple may have1 and1 if more than this number are begotten1 they must be destroyed either before or after birth4 ,as soon as children are born1 it ought to be remembered that their future strength will depend greatly upon the nourishment supplied to them4 ,a milk diet is best1 and wine must be avoided4 ,it is likewise of great importance that children should make those motions that are appropriate to their stage of development4444 ,whatever it is possible to inure children to1 they ought to be subjected to from the very outset1 and gradual progress to be made4 ,children1 on account of their high natural warmth1 are the proper subjects for inurement to cold4 ,these and other points of the same nature are what ought to be attended to in the first years of the child's life4 ,in the following years1 up to the age of five1 while children ought not to be subjected to any instruction or severe discipline1 for fear of impeding their growth1 they ought to take such exercises as shall guard their bodies from sluggishness4 ,this may be secured by other forms of activity as well as by play4 ,care must be taken that their games shall be neither unrefined1 laborious1 nor languid4 ,as to the conversation and stories which children are to hear1 that is a matter for the attention of those officers called ,guardians of ,public ,instruction4 ,it ought to be seen to that all such things tend to pave the way for future avocations4 ,hence all games ought to be types of future studies4 ,as to the screaming and crying of children1 they are things that ought not to be prohibited1 as they are in some places4 ,they contribute to the growth of the body1 by acting as a sort of gymnastics4 ,just as persons engaged in hard work increase their strength by holding their breath1 so children increase theirs by screaming4 ,it is the business of the ,guardians of ,public ,instruction to provide for their amusement generally1 as well as to see that these bring them as little as possible in contact with slaves4 ,it is1 of course1 natural that at this age they should learn improprieties of speech and manner from what they hear and see4 ,as to foul language1 it ought1 of course1 like everything else that is foul1 to be prohibited in all society 7for frivolous impurity of talk easily leads to impurity of action71 but above all1 in the society of the young1 so that they may neither hear nor utter any such thing4 ,if any child be caught uttering or doing anything that is forbidden1 if he be freeborn and under the age when children are allowed to come to the public table1 he ought to be disgraced and subjected to corporal punishment2 if he be older1 it will be sufficient to punish him with disgrace1 like a slave1 for having behaved like one4 ,and if we thus prohibit all mention of improper things1 with stronger reason shall we prohibit all looking at improper pictures and listening to improper narratives4 ,it ought to be made the business of the ,guardians of ,public ,instruction to see that there does not exist a statue or a picture representing any such thing anywhere in the ,state1 except in the temples of those gods to whom ordinary belief ascribes a certain wantonness4444 ,there ought to be a regulation forbidding young persons to be present at lampoons or comedies before they reach the age when they are allowed to come to the public table and partake of wine1 and when education has fortified them against all possible danger from them4444 ,we all have a preference for what we first know2 for this reason everything that savors of meanness or ignobility ought to be made alien to children4 ,from the completion of their fifth year to that of their seventh1 children ought to be present at the giving of the various kinds of instruction which they will afterwards have to acquire4 ,in this brief sketch of primary education we see that ,aristotle does not depart far from the notions of ,plato4 ,it contains even the revolting features of his scheme4 ,it assumes that the citizens--men1 women1 and1 after a certain age1 children--eat at public tables1 and that education is entirely managed by the ,state1--the family1 in this respect1 being merely its agent4 ,some of its features1 including the ,guardians of ,public ,instruction 71 child-herds7 are plainly borrowed from ,sparta4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,years ,,from ,,seven ,,to ,,twenty-,,one ,the natures that give evidence of being the noblest are just those that most require education4--,socrates4 ,we found ourselves beneath a noble castle ,encompassed seven times with lofty walls1 ,defended round by a fair rivulet4 ,o'er this we passed as upon solid earth3 ,through seven gates ,i entered with these sages4 ,we came upon a meadow of fresh green4--,dante4 ,for this period1 which ,aristotle divides into two 7see p4 #ahc7 by the advent of puberty1 he1 in the main1 accepts the course of study customary in his time4 ,it consists1 he says1 of four branches1--,letters1 ,gymnastics1 ,music1 and ,drawing1 the last not being universal4 ,letters and ,drawing are taught because they are useful in the ordinary business of life and for a variety of purposes1 and ,gymnastics because they foster manliness1 whereas the purpose of ,music is doubtful4 ,of ,,letters ,aristotle has not much to say1 beyond the fact that they are necessary in the common affairs of life4 ,he champions ,homer against ,plato1 and goes into a long discussion to show the value of the drama4 ,instead of believing1 with ,plato1 that children should see and hear nothing that would excite their emotions1 he maintains that it is only by being properly excited and purged that these can be trained and made subordinate to the reason4 ,among the passions that obstruct the exercise of reason are fear and pity4 ,tragedy rouses these and then drains them off in a pleasant and harmless way4 ,comedy does the same thing for pleasure and laughter4 ,in fact1 he maintains that the special function of the fine arts is to act as cathartics for the different passions4 ,art is ideal experience4 ,aristotle has left us a work on tragedy that holds the place of honor in the literature of that subject even at the present day4 ,,drawing ,aristotle recommends as a branch of study which develops taste and judgment in regard to the products of industrial art2 but he says it should not be studied merely for its use in enabling us to choose these1 or even works of fine art1 correctly1 but rather because it enables us to appreciate beauty of form4 ,he adds3 ,the perpetual demand for what is merely useful is anything but a mark of breadth or liberality4 ,after thus briefly dismissing ,letters and ,drawing1 ,aristotle passes on to ,gymnastics and ,music1 and devotes considerable space to each4 ,alongside ,,gymnastics1 but distinguished from them1 he names ,,physical ,,culture 771 saying that1 while the former gives character to the acts of the body1 the latter gives character to the body itself4 ,the aim of gymnastic training should be neither athleticism nor ferocity1 such as the ,lacedmonians cultivate in their children in the hope of making them courageous4 ,the former is detrimental to the beauty and growth of the body2 the latter misses its aim 7see p4 #da74 ,hence nobility1 and not ferocity1 ought to play the principal part among our aims in physical education4 ,for neither a wolf nor any other wild beast ever braved a noble danger4 ,to do that takes a noble man2 and those who allow their children to go too deep into such wild exercises1 and so leave them uninstructed in the necessary branches1 make them1 in point of fact1 mere professionals1 useful for the ends of the ,state only in a single requisite1 and1 as we have shown1 inferior to others even in that4 ,there is a general agreement1 then1 as to the utility of ,gymnastics and to the manner in which they ought to be conducted4 ,up to the age of puberty1 children ought to be subjected only to the lighter exercises1 and all forced dieting and violent exertions eschewed1 so that no obstacle may be put to the growth of the body4 ,it is no slight evidence of the fact that violent exercise impedes growth1 that there are not more than two or three examples on record of persons' having been victorious at the ,olympic games both as boys and men4 ,the explanation of this is1 that the others were robbed of their strength in their boyhood by the training they had to undergo4 ,after the advent of puberty1 for a period of three years1 the young men are apparently to have very little gymnastics1 and to devote themselves assiduously to letters1 music1 and drawing4 ,the period following this is to be devoted to severe exercise and strict dieting1 mental exertion being reduced to a minimum2 for the two kinds of exertion naturally work against each other1 bodily exertion impeding the intellect1 and intellectual exertion the body4 ,on ,,music1 as a branch of study1 we have almost a disquisition from the pen of ,aristotle4 ,the question that first occupies him is1 ,what is the use of music8 ,is it a recreation1 an occupation for cultured leisure1 or a gymnastic for the soul8 ,it is all three1 he replies1 and would deserve study for the sake of any one of them4 ,at the same time1 its chief value in education lies in its third use4 ,music imparts a mental habit2 about that there can be no doubt4 ,for example1 the songs of ,olympus render the soul enthusiastic1 and enthusiasm is an affection of the soul's habit4 ,aristotle reasons in this way3 ,music is capable of affecting us with all kinds of pleasures and pains4 ,but moral worth at bottom consists in finding pleasure in what is noble1 and pain in what is ignoble1 that is1 in a correct distribution of affection4 ,but in good music the strains that give pleasure are attached to the ideas that are noble1 and the strains that give pain to the ideas that are ignoble2 hence1 by a natural association1 the pleasures and pains which we find in the music attach themselves to the ideas which it accompanies4 ,there is nothing that we ought to learn and practice so assiduously as the art of judging correctly and of taking delight in gentlemanly bearing and noble deeds4 ,and apart from the natural manifestations of the passions themselves1 there is nothing in which we can find anger1 gentleness1 courage1 self-control1 and their opposites1 as well as the other moods1 so well represented as in rhythms and songs4 ,this we all know by experience2 for the moods of our souls change when we listen to such strains4 ,but the practice which we thus receive from rhythms and songs1 in rejoicing and suffering properly1 brings us very near being affected in the same way by the realities themselves4 ,here ,aristotle draws a distinction between music1 which appeals to the ear1 and the arts that appeal to the other senses1 or rather to sight2 for no art appeals to touch1 taste1 or smell4 ,in the objects of art that appeal to the eye1 we have expressions of passions only in so far as they affect the body1 whereas in music we have their direct expression passing from soul to soul4 ,yet persons are deeply moved by statuary and painting1 so much so that young people ought not to be allowed to see such works as those of ,pauson4 ,how much more then must they be moved by music6 ,that they are so is quite plain2 for there is such an obvious difference of nature between harmonies that the listeners are affected in entirely different ways by them4 ,by some they are thrown into a kind of mournful or grave mood1 e4g41 by what is known as the mixed ,lydian2 by others a sentimental turn is given to their thoughts1 for example1 by languid harmonies2 while there is another kind that especially produces balance of feeling and collectedness4 ,this effect is confined to the ,doric harmonies4 ,the ,phrygian harmonies rouse enthusiasm4 ,these are correct results arrived at by those thinkers who have devoted their attention to this branch of education1--results based upon actual experience4 ,what is true of harmonies is true also of rhythms4 ,some of these have a steady1 others a mobile1 character2 of the latter1 again1 some have coarse1 others refined1 movements4 ,from all these considerations1 it is obvious that music is calculated to impart a certain character to the habit of the soul1 whence it follows that it ought to be brought to bear upon children1 and instruction given them in it4 ,musical instruction1 indeed1 is admirably adapted to their stage of development2 for young people1 just because they are young1 are not fond of persisting in anything that does not give them pleasure1 and music is one of the pleasant things4 ,there seems even to be a certain kinship between harmonies and rhythms and the soul2 whence many philosophers hold that the soul is a harmony1 or that it has harmony4 ,aristotle1 having thus shown that music is a proper subject of instruction1 goes on to inquire whether children ought1 or ought not1 to be taught music1 by being taught to sing and play themselves8 ,his answer is well worth quoting at full length4 ,it is quite evident1 he says1 that music will have a very much greater effect in moulding people1 if they take part in the performance themselves4 ,indeed1 it is difficult1 or even impossible1 for those who do not learn to do things themselves to be good judges of them when they are done4 ,at the same time1 children must have some amusement1 and we may look upon ,archytas' rattle1 which they give to children to spend their energies upon1 and to prevent them from breaking things about the house1 as a good invention4 ,it is useless to try to keep a young creature quiet1 and1 just as the rattle is the proper thing for babies1 so musical instruction is the proper rattle for older children4 ,it follows that children ought to be taught music by being made to produce it themselves1 and it is not difficult to determine either what is suitable and unsuitable for different ages1 or to answer those people who pretend that the study of music is something ungentlemanly4 ,in the first place1 since people must1 to some extent1 learn things themselves1 in order to form a correct judgment about them1 they ought to learn the practice of them while they are young1 so that1 when they grow up1 they may be able to dispense with it1 and yet1 through their early studies1 be able to judge of them correctly and take the proper delight in them4 ,to the objections which some people raise1 that music turns people into craftsmen1 it is not hard to find an answer1 if we consider to what extent the practice of music ought to be required of children who are being reared in the civic virtues1 what songs and rhythms they ought to learn1 and what instruments they ought to use--for this makes a difference4 ,herein lies the solution of the difficulty4 ,the fact is1 there is nothing to prevent certain kinds of music from accomplishing the end proposed4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that the acquisition of music ought not to be allowed to interfere with future usefulness1 to impart an ignoble habit to the body1 or render it unfit for civic duties1--either for the immediate learning1 or the subsequent exercise1 of them4 ,all the beneficial results of musical education would be attained1 if1 instead of going into a laborious practice1 such as is required to prepare people for public exhibitions1 if instead of trying to perform those marvellous feats and tours de force which have lately become popular at public exhibitions1 and passed from them into education1 the children were to learn just enough to enable them to take delight in noble songs and rhythms1 instead of finding a mere undiscriminating pleasure in anything that calls itself music1 as some of the lower animals and the bulk of slaves and children do4 ,if so much be admitted1 we need be in no doubt respecting our choice of instruments4 ,aristotle specially condemns the flute1 and tells how it came into use1 and how it was afterwards discarded1 as exerting an immoral influence4 ,in the same way were condemned many of the older instruments1 as the pectis1 the barbitus1 and those which tended to produce sensual pleasure in the hearers--also the septangle1 the triangle1 the sambuca1 and all those requiring scientific manipulation4 444 ,we would1 then1 condemn all professional instruction in the nature and use of these instruments4 ',professional' we call all instruction that looks toward public exhibitions4 ,the person who receives this pursues his art1 not with a view to his own culture1 but to afford a pleasure1 and that a vulgar one1 to other people4 ,for this reason we hold that such practice is not proper for free men1 but savors of meniality and handicraft4 ,the aim1 indeed1 for which they undertake this task is an ignoble one4 ,for audiences1 being vulgar1 are wont to change their music1 and so react upon the character of the professionals who cater to their tastes1 and this again has its influence upon their bodies1 on account of the motions which they are obliged to go through4 ,since different kinds of music have different effects upon the habit of the soul1 ,aristotle next inquires what kinds are suitable for education4 ,we accept1 he says1 the classification made by certain philosophers1 who divide songs into ethical1 practical1 and enthusiastic1 assigning to them the different harmonies respectively1 and we affirm that music is to be employed1 not for one useful purpose alone1 but for several2 first1 for instruction2 second1 for purgation2 and third1 for cultured leisure1 for relaxation1 and for recreation4 ,it is obvious that all harmonies ought to be employed1 though not all in the same way4 ,the most ethical 7i4e4 those that most affect the ethos or habit of the soul7 must be employed for instruction2 the practical and enthusiastic for entertainments by professional performers4 ,for those emotions which manifest themselves powerfully in some souls are potentially present in all1 with a difference in degree merely1 e4g41 pity1 fear1 and also enthusiasm1 a form of excitement by which certain persons are very liable to be possessed4 ,if we watch the effects of the sacred songs1 we shall see that those persons are restored to a normal condition under the influence of those that solemnize the soul1 just as if they had undergone medical treatment and purgation4 ,the same thing must happen to all persons predisposed to pity1 fear1 or emotion generally1 as well as to others in so far as they allow themselves to come within the reach of any of these2 for them all there must exist some form or another of purgation and relief accompanied with pleasure4 ,in this way those 'purgative' songs afford a harmless pleasure1 and it is for this reason that there ought to be a legal enactment to the effect that performers giving public concerts should employ such harmonies and such songs4 ,the fact is1 since there are two kinds of public1 the one free and cultivated1 the other rude and vulgar1 composed of mechanics1 laborers1 and the like1 there must be entertainments and exhibitions to afford pastime to the latter as well as the former4 ,as the souls of these people are1 so to speak1 perverted from the normal habit1 so also among the harmonies there are abnormities1 and among songs there are the strained and discolored2 and each individual derives pleasure from that which is germane to his nature4 ,for this reason performers must be allowed to produce this kind of music1 for the benefit of this portion of the public4 ,for the purposes of instruction1 as has been said1 we must employ ethical songs and the corresponding harmonies4 ,such a harmony is the ,doric1 as has already been remarked4 ,we must likewise admit any other species of music that may have approved itself to such persons as have devoted attention to philosophic discussion and musical education4444 ,in respect to the ,doric harmony1 it is universally admitted to be1 of all harmonies1 the most sedate1 expressive of the most manly character4 ,moreover1 since our principle is1 that the mean between extremes is desirable and ought to be pursued1 and the ,doric harmony holds this relation to other harmonies1 it follows that ,doric songs should be taught to young people in preference to any other4 ,two things1 however1 must be kept in view1 the practicable and the befitting4 ,i mean that we must discuss what is specially practicable for different people1 as well as what is befitting4 ,this1 indeed1 will depend upon the different periods of life4 ,for example1 it would not be easy for persons in the decline of life to sing the intense harmonies2 for them nature suggests the languid kinds4 ,for this reason those musicians are right who blame ,socrates for having condemned the languid harmonies1 as subjects of instruction1 on the ground that they were intoxicating4 7,by this term he did not mean inebriating1 in the sense that wine is inebriating1--for wine renders boisterous rather than anything else1--but languid47 ,the truth is1 with an eye to the future1 to old age1 instruction ought to be given in harmonies and songs of this sort4 ,moreover1 if there is any harmony suitable for youth1 as tending to refine as well as to instruct1 as is the case notably with the ,lydian1 it1 of course1 ought to be adopted4 ,it is clear1 then1 that there are three distinct things to be considered in reference to education1 avoidance of extremes1 practicability1 and appropriateness4 ,so much for the four branches of study which1 according to ,aristotle1 ought to compose the curriculum of youth4 ,we have noticed that1 in his extant works1 he says little about ,letters and ,drawing4 ,just what branches the former was supposed to include1 he has nowhere told us directly2 but ,i think there can be little doubt that he gave a place to ,grammar1 ,rhetoric 7including ,poetics71 ,dialectic1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 and ,astronomy1 which1 along with ,music1 make up the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 the ,trivium and ,quadrivium of the ,middle ,ages4 ,this curriculum underwent considerable changes at different times1 as we can see from ,philo1 ,teles1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and others2 but in ,martianus ,capella it returned to its original form1 and in this dominated education for a thousand years4 ,we might perhaps draw out ,aristotle's programme of secondary education thus3-- ,physical ,dancing 7see p4 #hb7 ,before ,training ,deportment puberty4 ,running ,leaping ,before ,practical ,javelin-casting puberty4 ,discus-throwing ,gymnastics ,wrestling ,shooting ,after ,,studies3 ,marching puberty4 ,creative ,music ,drilling ,drawing ,riding ,grammar ,rhetoric ,before puberty4 ,theoretic ,dialectic ,arithmetic ,geometry ,after puberty4 ,astronomy ,,chapter ,,vii ,,education ,,after ,,twenty-,,one ,be assured that happiness has its source1 not in extensive possessions1 but in a right disposition of the soul4 ,even in the case of the body1 no one would call it fortunate for being arrayed in splendid garments2 but one would do so1 if it had health1 and were nobly developed1 even without such appendages4 ,in the same manner1 we ought to ascribe happiness to the soul only when it is cultivated1 and to call a man happy only if he possesses such a soul1 not if he is splendidly attired outwardly1 but has no worth of his own4444 ,for those whose souls are ill-conditioned1 neither wealth1 nor power1 nor beauty is a blessing2 on the contrary1 the more excessive these conditions are1 the more widely and deeply do they injure their possessors1 being unaccompanied with right-mindedness4--,aristotle4 ,zeno used to tell a story about ,crates1 to this effect3 ,one day ,crates was sitting in a shoemaker's shop1 reading aloud ,aristotle's ,exhortation 7to ,philosophy71 addressed to ,themison1 king of the ,cyprians1 in which the king is reminded that he possesses1 in an exceptional degree1 all the conditions of philosophy1 superabundant wealth1 and high position4 ,as he was reading1 the shoemaker1 without interrupting his sewing1 listened to him1 until at last ,crates said3 ,philiscus1 ,i think ,i will write an ,exhortation for you2 for ,i see you have more of the conditions of philosophy than ,aristotle has enumerated4--,teles4 ,at the age of twenty-one1 those young men who have successfully completed the ,state system of training become citizens or politicians1 and begin to exercise the functions of such4 ,these are of two kinds1 7#a7 active1 practical1 or executive1 and 7#b7 deliberative1 theoretical1 or legislative4 ,as action must1 on the one hand1 be vigorous1 and1 on the other1 guided by deliberation1 which requires large experience1 the functions of the ,state must be so arranged that the active duties fall to the young and robust1 the deliberative to the elderly and mature4 ,the distinguishing virtue of the former is fortitude1 with endurance or patience2 that of the latter philosophy4 ,both equally have self-control and justice4 ,in this way does ,aristotle distribute ,plato's four cardinal virtues4 ,when young men first become citizens1 they are assigned to posts of active service1 civil and military1 and thus study practical philosophy--,ethics and ,politics--in a practical way4 ,as they grow older1 they gradually rise to posts demanding less practice and more thought1 until at last they are admitted to the deliberative body1 or council1 when their active duties cease1 and they are able to devote themselves to ,speculative ,philosophy or ,theoretics4 ,these men have now reached the end of life1 as far as this world is concerned4 ,they spend their days in cultured leisure1 and the contemplation of divine things 774 ,the very oldest of them1 those who are most conversant with divine things1 are chosen as priests1 so that they may1 as it were1 live with the gods1 and these be worthily served4 ,thus gradually1 almost insensibly1 they pass from the world of time to that of eternity2 from the imperfect activity of practice1 whose end is beyond itself1 to the perfect energy of contemplation1 which is self-sufficient and the life of ,god4 ,in this way ,aristotle settles the vexed question with regard to the compatibility and relative value of the practical and the contemplative life4 ,they are necessary complements of each other4 ,practice is the realization of what contemplation discovers in the pure energy of ,god1 revealing itself in the world4 ,thus the practical life of man glides gradually into the contemplative life of ,god4 ,such is the highest view of man's destiny1 and the way thither1 that the ,greeks ever reached1 and it is in many ways a most attractive and inspiring one4 ,its defects are the defects of all that is ,greek4 ,they are two3 7#a7 its ideal is intellectual and sthetic1--a cordinated1 harmonious whole1 whereof the individual is but a part3 not moral or religious--a self-surrender of the individual to the supreme will2 consequently1 7#b7 it does not provide for every human being1 as such1 but only for a small1 select number1 the fruit of the whole4 ,its ethics are institutional not personal1 and1 indeed1 the ,greek never arrived at a distant conception of personality1 that being possible only through the moral consciousness1 which is its core4 ,it seeks to find happiness in a correlation and balancing of individual selves1 not in the independent conformity of each self to a supreme self4 ,hence it was that1 with all its marvellous grasp and manly prudence1 the ideal of ,aristotle proved powerless to restore the moral unity of man1 until it was absorbed in a higher4 ,,book ,,iv ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,period 7,b4,c4 #cch-;,a4,d4 #cac7 ,,chapter ,i ,,from ,,ethnic ,,to ,,cosmopolitan ,,life ',tis ,greece1 but living ,greece no more4--,byron4 ,most glorious of all the ,undying1 many-named1 girt round with awe6 ,jove1 author of ,nature1 applying to all things the rudder of law-- ,hail6 ,hail6 for it justly rejoices the races whose life is a span ,to lift unto ,thee their voices--the ,author and ,framer of ,man4 ,for we are ,thy sons2 ,thou didst give us the symbols of speech at our birth1 ,alone of the things that live1 and mortal move upon earth4 ,wherefore ,thou shalt find me extolling and ever singing ,thy praise2 ,since ,thee the great ,universe1 rolling on its path round the world1 obeys3-- ,obeys ,thee1 wherever ,thou guidest1 and gladly is bound in ,thy bands1 ,so great is the power ,thou confidest1 with strong1 invincible hands1 ,to ,thy mighty1 ministering servant1 the bolt of the thunder1 that flies1 ,two-edged1 like a sword and fervent1 that is living and never dies4 ,all nature1 in fear and dismay1 doth quake in the path of its stroke1 ,what time ,thou preparest the way for the one ,word ,thy lips have spoke1 ,which blends with lights smaller and greater1 which pervadeth and thrilleth all things1 ,so great is ,thy power and ,thy nature--in the ,universe ,highest of ,kings6 ,on earth1 of all deeds that are done1 ,o ,god6 there is none without ,thee4 ,in the holy ther not one1 nor one on the face of the sea2 ,save the deeds that evil men1 driven by their own blind folly1 have planned2 ,but things that have grown uneven are made even again by ,thy hand2 ,and things unseemly grow seemly1 the unfriendly are friendly to ,thee2 ,for so good and evil supremely ,thou hast blended in one by decree4 ,for all ,thy decree is one ever--a ,word that endureth for aye1 ,which mortals1 rebellious1 endeavor to flee from and shun to obey-- ,ill-fated1 that1 worn with proneness for the lordship of goodly things1 ,neither hear nor behold1 in its ,oneness1 the law that divinity brings2 ,which men with reason obeying1 might attain unto glorious life1 ,no longer aimlessly straying in the paths of ignoble strife4 ,there are men with a zeal unblest1 that are wearied with following of fame1 ,and men1 with a baser quest1 that are turned to lucre and shame4 ,there are men1 too1 that pamper and pleasure the flesh with delicate stings3 ,all these desire beyond measure to be other than all these things4 ,great ,jove1 all-giver1 dark-clouded1 great ,lord of the thunderbolt's breath6 ,deliver the men that are shrouded in ignorance1 dismal as death4 ,o ,father6 dispel from their souls the darkness1 and grant them the light ,of ,reason1 ,thy stay1 when the whole wide world ,thou rulest with might1 ,that we1 being honored1 may honor ,thy name with the music of hymns1 ,extolling the deeds of the ,donor1 unceasing1 as rightly beseems ,mankind2 for no worthier trust is awarded to ,god or to man ,than forever to glory with justice in the law that endures and is ,one4--,cleanthes4 ,the distinguishing characteristics of ,hellenic education were unity1 comprehensiveness1 proportion1 and aimfulness4 ,it extended to the whole human being1 striving to bring the various elements of his nature into complete harmony in view of an end4 ,this end was the ,state1 in which the individual citizen was expected to find a field for all his activities4 ,we have seen how1 while conservative ,sparta clung to this ideal to the last1 and rigorously excluded those influences which tended to undermine it1 ,athens1 by freely admitting these1 gradually broke down the fair proportion between bodily and mental education1 in an excessive devotion to the latter1 and so came to make a distinction between the man and the citizen4 ,the result was an epidemic of individualism which threatened the existence of all that was ,hellenic4 ,against this destructive power the noblest men in the nation1 an schylus1 an ,aristophanes1 a ,pericles1 a ,socrates1 a ,xenophon1 a ,plato1 an ,aristotle1 fought with all the might of worth and intellect4 ,some of them sought once more to remerge the man in the citizen by means of a despotism and the suppression of all intellectual pursuits2 others1 seeing clearly the impossibility of this1 tried so to define the sphere of the individual that it should not encroach upon that of the citizen1 but stand in harmonious relation to it4 ,they did this by placing the sphere of the individual above that of the ,state1 and1 inasmuch as the former was a purely intellectual sphere1 they found themselves driven to conclude1 and to lay down1 that the contemplative life is the end and consummation of the practical1 that the citizen and the ,state exist only for the sake of the individual4 ,they were very far indeed from seeing all the implications of this conclusion3 these showed themselves only in the sequel2 but the fact is1 that the principle of the separation between the man and the citizen1 and the assignment of the place of honor to the former1 proved at once the destroying angel of ,hellenism and the animating spirit of the civilization which took its place4 ,if we look closely at the schemes of ,plato and ,aristotle1 we shall see that they try to render innocuous the spirit of individualism by exhausting its activities in intellectual relations to the divine1 offering it heaven1 if it will only consent to relinquish to the political spirit its earthly claims4 ,they practically said3 ,man1 in all his relations to his fellow-men here below1 is a citizen2 only in relation to ,god is he an individual4 ,the history of the last two thousand years is but a commentary on this text4 ,from the day when the master-mind of the ,greek world credited man's nature with a divine element having a supreme activity of its own1 ,european thought and life have been agitated by three questions1 and largely shaped by the answers given to them3 7#a7 ,what is the nature of the divine element in man8 7#b7 ,in what form or institution shall that element find expression and realization8 7#c7 ,how shall that institution relate itself to the ,state8 ,and they have not yet been definitely answered4 ,principles that are to move the world are never the result of mere abstract thought1 but always of a crisis or epoch in human affairs4 ,and so it was in the present case4 ,the separation between the man and the citizen was accomplished in fact1 before it was formulated in theory4 ,on the other hand1 the theory received emphasis from the events which accompanied and followed its promulgation4 ,the battle of ,chronea1 which took place sixteen years before ,aristotle's death1 by putting an end forever to the free civic life of ,greece1 removed the very conditions under which the old ideal could realize itself1 and forced men to seek a sphere of activity1 and to form associations1 outside of the ,state4 ,the ,state1 indeed1 still maintained a semblance of life1 and the old education1 with its literature1 gymnastics1 and music still continued2 but the spirit of both was gone4 ,the ,state was gradually replaced by the philosophic schools1 while intellectual training tended more and more to concentrate itself upon rhetoric1 that art which enables the individual to shine before his fellows1 and to gain wealth or public preferment4 ,from this time on1 the spiritual life of ,greece found expression in the pretentious1 empty individualism of the rhetorician1 the lineal descendant of the sophists1 and in the philosophical sects1 which embodied the spirit of ,socrates1 their opponent4 ,the founder of the rhetorical schools may be said to have been ,isocrates1 who1 after being a pupil of ,socrates'1 turned against the philosophic tendency1 and championed elegant philistinism4 ,the aim of these schools was to turn out clever men of the world1 thoroughly acquainted with popular opinions and motives1 and capable of expressing themselves glibly1 sententiously1 and persuasively on any and every subject4 ,they usually made no profession of imparting profound learning or eliciting philosophic thought3 indeed1 they despised both2 but they did seek to impart such an amount of ordinary knowledge as to place their pupils in the chief current of the popular thought of their time4 ,they thus became the bearers of practical education among a people who1 having lost their political life without finding any higher1 sought to obtain satisfaction in social intercourse4 ,for hundreds of years they exerted an enormous influence1 and1 indeed1 at certain times and places were formidable rivals of the philosophic schools4 ,the first man of ,greek race who attempted to found a sect or school outside the ,state was ,pythagoras1 and there can be no doubt that all subsequent schools were in some degree modelled upon his4 ,it is true that the ,pythagorean school had been broken up and dispersed long before the days of ,plato and ,aristotle 7see p4 #ed72 nevertheless1 his followers1 scattered over ,greece1 had carried with them the ideas and principles of their master1 and now that ,athens had fallen into the condition against which the ,pythagorean discipline had been a protest1 these ideas found a ready response in the hearts of those men whom the social life of the time could not satisfy4 ,hence the schools of ,plato and ,aristotle1 which had originally been mere educational institutions1 turned1 even during the lifetime of the latter1 into sects 71 heresies1 as they were called later on71 with definite sets of non-political principles1 in accordance with which their members tried to shape their lives4 ,it cannot be said that these two schools were in any high degree successful1 and the reasons were that they were too purely intellectual1 that they made no striking revolt against political life1 and that they called for a type of man not easy to find4 ,but1 shortly after the death of ,aristotle1 there arose1 almost contemporaneously1 two other schools1 which exerted an influence1 deep and wide1 for over six hundred years4 ,these were the ,epicurean and the ,stoic4 ,widely as these differed in respect to means1 they sought the same end1 namely1 personal independence1 and they sought it by conformity to laws imposed by no human legislator1 but by nature4 ,the former took the law of the senses1 the latter the law of the spirit1 for its guide2 and1 by a strange contradiction1 while the former championed free will1 the latter professed fatalism4 ,these four schools were the only ones that ever met with extensive patronage in ,athens1 and with the exception of the ,academic1 they never diverged far from the principles of their founders4 ,in the time of ,marcus ,aurelius1 after ,athens had been for ages a mere ,roman university1 they were placed under ,state patronage1 and supported by public funds1 and there is no record to show that this was discontinued until they were finally closed by the ,emperor ,justinian in ,a4,d4 #ebi4 ,not long after the death of ,aristotle1 ,athens was supplanted by ,alexandria1 as the centre of ,greek influence4 ,here the rhetorical and philosophic schools established themselves1 and could soon boast a numerous discipleship4 ,this1 however1 was no longer exclusively1 or even mainly1 ,greek1 but was recruited from all the nations of the known world1 more especially those of the ,east4 ,phnicians1 ,syrians1 ,jews1 ,persians1 etc41 not to speak of ,egyptians1 now became students of ,greek philosophy1 and members of philosophic sects1 whose members not only studied together1 but often1 to a large extent1 lived together in communities4 ,about the year ,b4,c4 #cjj were founded the famous ,museum and ,library of ,alexandria--the first university and the first public library in the world4 ,round these the various sects gathered1 to study1 to discuss1 and to exchange opinions4 ,nor was it ,greek thought alone that engaged their attention4 ,the opinions and beliefs of ,egypt and the ,east came in for a share1 and1 in the end1 for the largest share4 ,nor is this wonderful1 when we consider the direction that thought and life were then taking4 ,we have already seen that1 as ,greek civic life lost the conditions of its existence1 the thoughtful portion of the people came more and more to seek for life-principles in the supersensible world of intellect4 ,the nature of this world ,plato and ,aristotle had done their best to reveal4 ,but the event proved that neither an ordered host of ideas commanded by the ,good1 nor a ,supreme ,intelligence served by a host of lower intelligences1 could yield the principles which the life of the time demanded2 and thus we find the philosophers of ,alexandria striving to people their intelligible world with forms drawn from all the religions of the ,east1 including ,judaism4 ,thus there grew up the various forms of ,alexandrine philosophy1 compounds of ,greek thought and ,oriental religion4 ,on the basis of these again were organized1 at the same time1 various forms of social life1 all tending more or less to religious communism4 ,hence came the ,essenes 7see p4 #ei71 the ,therapeuts1 the ,neopythagoreans1 and the ,neoplatonists1 all of whom1 notwithstanding certain shortcomings1 did much to purify life1 and to pave the way for a higher civilization4 ,in ,b4,c4 #adf1 ,greece1 and1 in ,b4,c4 #cj1 ,egypt1 fell into the hands of the ,romans and thenceforth formed provinces of their empire4 ,athens and ,alexandria were now ,roman university-towns1 while ,rome became more and more the diffusing centre of ,greek and ,oriental influence4 ,it would be impossible1 in a work like the present1 to give even a sketch of the forms which education assumed in these three great centres1 or in the world that revolved round them1 in the six hundred and more years that passed between the loss of ,greek autonomy and the triumph of ,christianity4 ,we shall merely endeavor to give a general notion of its two chief tendencies1 which1 as we saw1 were towards rhetoric and philosophy2 and we shall do this in connection with the names of two men1 who may be regarded as respectively typical of the two tendencies1 ,quintilian the rhetorician1 and ,plotinus the philosopher4 ,by doing so we shall pave the way for the consideration of the ,rise of the ,christian ,schools4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,quintilian ,,and ,,rhetorical ,,education ,rhetoric is the counterpart of ,dialectic4 ,both have for their subjects those things which1 in a certain way1 are matters of common knowledge1 and belong to no definite science4 ,hence everybody1 in some degree1 is gifted with them2 for everybody1 to some extent1 tries to examine and sustain an argument1 to defend himself1 and to accuse others4--,aristotle4 ,there is a certain political theory which is made up of many great things4 ,a large and important part of it is artificial eloquence1 which they call rhetoric4--,cicero4 ,every duty which tends to preserve human relations and human society must be assigned a higher place than any that stops short with knowledge and science4--,id4 ,zeno1 having pressed his fingers together and closed his fist1 said that was like ,dialectic2 having spread them out and opened his hand1 he said ,eloquence was like his palm there4--,id4 ,to act considerately is of more moment than to think wisely4--,id4 ,i pass to the pleasure of oratorical eloquence1 the delight of which one enjoys not at any one moment1 but almost every day and every hour4--,tacitus4 ,grammar is an experimental knowledge of the usages of language as generally current among poets and prose writers4 ,it is divided into six parts1 7#a7 trained reading with due regard to prosody i4e4 aspiration1 accentuation1 quantity1 emphasis1 metre1 etc41 7#b7 exposition according to poetic figures literary criticism1 7#c7 ready statement of dialectical peculiarities and allusions philology1 geography1 history1 mythology1 7#d7 discovery of etymologies1 7#e7 accurate account of analogies accidence and syntax1 7#f7 criticism of poetical productions1 which is the noblest part of the grammatic art ethics1 politics1 strategy1 etc44--,dionysius ,thrax4 ,reading is the rendering of poetic or prose productions without stumbling or hesitancy4 ,it must be done with due regard to expression1 prosody1 and pauses4 ,from the expression we learn the merit of the piece1 from the prosody the art of the reader1 and from the pauses the meaning intended to be conveyed4 ,in this way we read tragedy heroically1 comedy conversationally1 elegiacs thrillingly1 epics sustainedly1 lyrics musically1 and dirges softly and plaintively4 ,any reading done without due observance of these rules degrades the merits of the poets and makes the habits of readers ridiculous4--,id4 ,some arts are common1 others liberal4444 ,the liberal arts1 which some call the logical arts1 are astronomy1 geometry1 music1 philosophy1 medicine1 grammar1 rhetoric4--,scholia to ,dionysius ,thrax4 ,it is obvious that man excels the other animals in worth and speech3 ,why may we not hold that his worth consists as much in eloquence as in reason8--,quintilian4 ,the civil man1 and he who is truly wise1 who does not devote himself to idle disputes1 but to the administration of the commonwealth 7from which those folks who are called philosophers have farthest withdrawn themselves71 will be glad to employ every available oratorical means to reach his ends1 having previously settled in his own mind what ends are honorable4--,id4 ,if we count over all the epochs of life1 we shall find its pains far more numerous than its pleasures4444 ,the first1 that of babyhood1 is trying4 ,the baby is hungry2 the nurse sends it to sleep3 it is thirsty2 she washes it3 it wants to go to sleep2 she takes a rattle and makes a noise4 ,when the child has escaped from the nurse1 it is taken hold of by the pedagogue1 the physical trainer1 the grammar-master1 the music-master1 the drawing-master4 ,in process of time1 there are added the arithmetic-master1 the geometer1 the horse-breaker2 he rises early2 he has no chance for leisure4 ,he becomes a cadet2 again he has to fear the drill-master1 the physical trainer1 the fencing-master1 the gymnasiarch4 ,by all these he is whipt1 watched1 throttled4 ,he graduates from the cadets at twenty2 again he dreads and watches captain and general1 etc4--,teles the ,stoic 7,b4,c4 #bfj74 ,the palmy period in the history of ,rome is the period when she had no literature4 ,it was only when the ,roman nationality began to break up1 and cosmopolitan ,greek tendencies to lay hold upon the people1 that a literature began to appear4 ,for this reason1 ,roman literature from its very inception is1 from absolute necessity1 filled with the ,greek spirit1 and stands in the most direct opposition to the national spirit of the people4--,mommsen4 ,quintiliane1 vag moderator summe juvent1 ,gloria ,roman1 ,quintiliane1 tog4--,martial4 ,up to the time when ,rome began to decline1 the school education of her youth was meagre in the extreme1 consisting of reading1 writing1 and a little law4 ,all later education that was more than this was borrowed from the ,greeks4 ,it was about the year #bjj ,b4,c41 at the close of the ,second ,punic ,war1 that their influence began clearly to show itself4 ,the severe ,cato1 who so cordially despised rhetoricians and philosophers1 learnt ,greek in his old age and wrote1 for the use of his son1 a series of manuals on ethics1 rhetoric1 medicine1 military science1 farming1 and law4 ,at the same time ,scipio ,africanus spent his leisure hours in practising gymnastics4 ,from this time on1 and just in proportion as ,rome lost her national character and became cosmopolitan1 she more and more adopted ,greek manners1 ,greek religion 7or irreligion71 and ,greek education4 ,when1 finally1 in ,b4,c4 #adf1 ,greece became a ,roman dependency1 it was strictly true that ,captive ,greece took captive her rude conqueror4 ,thousands of ,greek schoolmasters1 rhetoricians1 philosophers1 etc41 flocked to ,rome1 and1 though attempts were made to expel or suppress them1 they held their place1 for the simple reason that the education they offered was a necessity of the time4 ,rome1 the mistress of the world1 had either to become cosmopolitan or perish1 and she preferred the former alternative4 ,she now1 for the first time1 began to have a literature and to cultivate her own language4 ,the studies which she specially affected were 7#a7 grammar1 that is1 literature1 7#b7 rhetoric1 7#c7 philosophy1 which corresponded to school1 college1 and university education4 ,the last1 like music and geometry1 was1 for the most part1 an elegant accomplishment1 rather than a serious study4 ,the physical sciences found little favor4 ,so long as ,roman education was in the hands of ,greeks1 it was conducted in the ,greek language1 and the authors read and discussed were ,greek4 ,but the ,romans1 though willing enough to borrow ,greek culture1 were unwilling to remain permanently in intellectual dependence upon a conquered people1 which in many respects they despised4 ,strong efforts1 therefore1 were made to develop a national literature and a national education4 ,about the year ,b4,c4 #ajj1 ,lucius lius ,prconinus ,stilo1 a worthy and conservative ,roman knight1 opened a private class in ,latin grammar and rhetoric for young men of the upper classes1 and from this time on the direct influence of the ,greeks1 except in philosophy1 declined4 ,greek1 indeed1 continued to be spoken by all persons making any pretensions to culture2 but ,latin became the language of ,roman literature4 ,among the pupils of ,stilo were ,varro and ,cicero1 who1 along with ,julius ,csar1 may be called the parents of the classical ,latin language1 literature1 and eloquence4 ,both ,varro and ,csar wrote works on grammar4 ,a certain ,cornificius 7generally known as ,auctor ad ,herennium7 about this time wrote the first ,latin treatise on ,rhetoric2 but the great authority on the subject1 in practice as well as theory1 was ,cicero1 who wrote no fewer than seven works on it4 ,with ,cicero's death1 and the transformation of the republic into an empire1 eloquence lost its noblest use1 the defence of liberty4 ,rhetoric1 nevertheless1 continued to be cultivated as a fine art and for forensic use1 and1 indeed1 was made to cover the whole of the higher education of youth4 ,of this art the most celebrated teacher was ,quintilian1 the supreme director of giddy youth1 the glory of the ,roman toga 7i4e4 civil manhood74 ,quintilian was born about ,a4,d4 #ce in the ,spanish city of ,calagurris 7,calahorra71 where1 later1 ,st4 ,dominic first saw the light4 ,he was educated in ,rome1 but afterwards returned to his native place and established himself as a teacher of rhetoric4 ,about ,a4,d4 #fh1 he was invited by the ,emperor ,galba to settle in ,rome1 which he did1 giving instruction in rhetoric with unparalleled success for twenty years1 and drawing a salary from the government4 ,at the end of that time1 he retired1 rich and honored1 into private life4 ,it was after this that he wrote the work which carried his fame down to posterity1 his ,institutio ,oratorica1 or ,education of the ,orator4 ,in the first book of this he draws out a scheme of preparatory education for the family and the school2 the succeeding ten are devoted to rhetoric1 and the last to the character of the orator1 whom he regards as identical with the cultivated gentleman4 ,it is only the first book that concerns the modern student of education1 and of this ,i shall now give a brief summary4 ,the first care of the parent1 after the birth of a child1 should be to procure for it a nurse of good moral character and of cultivated speech4 ,a child that early learns bad habits in acting and speaking1 rarely1 if ever1 gets cured of them afterwards4 ,great care ought to be taken with regard to the child's youthful companions1 and to his pedagogue1 who ought to be of good character and well-informed4 ,its first language ought to be ,greek2 but ,latin ought to be begun early1 and both to be carefully cultivated4 ,there is no need to follow the ordinary custom of not allowing the child to learn to read or write before the close of its seventh year4 ,much can very profitably be done by play long before that4 ,it is a mistake to teach children to repeat the alphabet before they know the forms of the letters4 ,these they may learn from tablets or blocks4 ,as soon as the letters are recognized1 they ought to be written4 ,following with a pen the forms of letters engraved on ivory tablets is a good thing4 ,after letters1 syllables must be learnt--all the possible syllables in both languages4 ,after syllables come words1 and after words1 sentences4 ,in all this process1 it is of the utmost importance to secure thoroughness by avoiding haste4 ,the child must not attempt words till he can read and write all the syllables1 nor sentences till he is perfectly familiar with words4 ,in reading sentences1 he must learn to run ahead1 so that1 while he is pronouncing one word with his lips1 he is recognizing others with his eye4 ,the writing lesson should be utilized in order to make the child acquainted with rare words and good poetry4 ,at this stage1 his memory ought to be well exercised1 and made to lay up large stores of good literature for future use4 ,at the same time1 his organs of speech should be well trained1 by being made to pronounce rapidly verses containing difficult combinations of sound4#e ,as soon as he is able1 the child should go to school4 ,home education is objectionable on many accounts1 especially for boys intended for orators4 ,these1 above all others1 must learn sociability1 tact1 and esprit de corps1 and form school-friendships4 ,many moral lessons can be learnt1 and many motives employed1 in the school1 that are not possible in the family4 ,among the latter is ambition1 which though itself a vice1 is the parent of many virtues1 and therefore ought to be freely used4 ,hardly any motive is so powerful4 ,when a boy is sent to school1 his teacher's first business is to investigate his character and capacity4 ,the chief marks of ability are memory and power of imitation4 ,imitation is not mimicry1 which is always a sign of low nature4 ,slowness1 though objectionable1 is better than precocity1 which should be discouraged in every way4 ,different treatment is required for different boys3 some need the bit1 some the spur4 ,the best boy is the one whom praise excites1 whom glory pleases1 who cries when he is beaten4 ,such a one may be nourished with emulation2 reproach will sting him2 honor will rouse him4 ,boys ought to have seasons of rest and play1 neither too short to afford recreation1 nor too long to encourage idleness4 ,games of question and answer are good for sharpening the wits4 ,in play an excellent opportunity is offered to the teacher for learning the character of his pupils4 ,corporal punishment is altogether to be deprecated1 and1 indeed1 is unneeded when the teacher does his duty4 ,what boys learn in school is grammar2 but this must be supplemented by music and astronomy4 ,without the former it will be impossible to scan verse2 without the latter1 to understand certain allusions and modes of fixing dates in the poets4 ,a little philosophy is necessary for the sake of understanding such poets as ,empedocles and ,lucretius2 geometry1 in order to give practice in apodictic reasoning1 as well as for practical uses4 ,thus the curriculum of school education will consist of ,grammar1 ,music1 ,astronomy1 ,philosophy1 and ,geometry4 ,grammar consists of two parts1 7#a7 ,methodics1 or the art of correct speaking1 7#b7 ,historics 7,german ,realien71 the interpretation of poets1 historians1 philosophers1 etc4 ,methodics--grammar in the modern sense--should aim at enabling a boy to speak and write with correctness1 clearness1 and elegance4 ,all barbarisms 7i4e4 foreign words and idioms71 solecisms1 affectations1 and careless pronunciations are to be avoided4 ,in the use of language1 four things are to be taken into account1 7#a7 reason1 7#b7 antiquity1 7#c7 authority1 7#d7 custom4 ,in reading1 the boy must be taught where to draw his breath1 where to divide a verse1 where the sense is complete1 where it begins1 where the voice is to be raised1 where lowered1 what inflections to use1 what is to be uttered slowly1 what rapidly1 what forcibly1 what gently4 ,that he may be able to do all this1 he must understand4 ,reading must above all be manly and grave1 with a certain sweetness4 ,poetry must not be read either as prose1 nor yet in a sing-song way4 ,all theatrical personification1 and all gesticulation smacking of the comedian1 are to be avoided4 ,for ,histories the teacher must be very careful in his selection of texts4 ,homer and ,virgil are best to begin with4 ,though their full import cannot be understood by youth1 they awake enthusiasm for what is noble and spirited1 and will often be read in later life4 ,tragedies are useful4 ,there is nourishment in the lyric poets2 but they must be used with caution and in selections1 from which everything relating to love must be excluded4 ,even ,horace must be expurgated4 ,satire and comedy1 though of the utmost value for the orator1 must be deferred till the moral character is sufficiently established not to be injured by them4 ,passages from the poets ought to be committed to memory4 ,in all reading1 the utmost care ought to be taken to promote purity and manliness 7sanctitas et virilitas74 ,after reading a piece of poetry1 boys must be made to analyze and scan it1 to point out peculiarities of language and rhythm1 to enumerate the different meanings of words1 to name and explain the various figures of speech4 ,but far more important than all this it is1 that the teacher should impress on their minds the importance of systematic arrangement and propriety of description1 showing what is suitable for each rle1 what is commendable in thought1 what in expression1 where diffuseness is proper1 and where brevity4 ,in giving collateral information1 whether in history1 mythology1 or geography1 he should keep within bounds1 giving only what is necessary and rests on respectable authority4 ,it is one of the virtues of a schoolmaster to be ignorant of some things4 ,as regards lessons in composition1 the teacher should begin by making his pupils write out from memory the ,fables of sop1 in pure1 simple1 direct1 and unadorned language4 ,he should then call upon them to turn poetry into prose1 and to paraphrase it1 either briefly or diffusely4 ,he should then make them write out proverbs1 apophthegms1 aphorisms1 short1 brilliant anecdotes1 etc4 ,famous stories related by the poets may be used as subjects for composition1 but chiefly for the sake of information4 ,beyond this the schoolmaster should not go in the matter of composition4 ,the rest should be left to the rhetorician4 ,it is of great importance in youthful education that several subjects should be studied at the same time4 ,boys like and need variety1 and1 when they get it1 it is truly astonishing how much they can accomplish4 ,there is not the slightest reason for fearing that boys will shrink from the labor of study4 ,no age is less easily fatigued4 444 ,boys are naturally more inclined to hard work than young men4 ,such1 in brief1 is ,quintilian's school-programme4 ,it has no place for physical science 7except ,astronomy71 for manual training1 or for physical exercise4 ,play is1 indeed1 permitted as a necessary recreation1 and gymnastics and physical training 77 are recommended in so far as they are necessary to enable the budding orator to move and to gesticulate gracefully2 but that is all4 ,nothing can please that is not becoming4 ,as soon as he is ready1 the young aspirant for oratorical fame passes into the hands of the rhetorician1 under whom he learns all the arts1 and acquires all that knowledge1 necessary to fit him for his profession4 ,no kind of knowledge1 and no moral excellence ought to be foreign to the orator4 ,quintilian is very severe upon the philosophers for claiming1 in their title1 to be1 in an exceptional way1 lovers of wisdom1 and maintains that the true orator is the truly wise and good man4 ,he is surely superior to the philosopher1 who turns his back upon the world and manifests no interest in human affairs4 ,moreover1 philosophy may be simulated2 eloquence cannot4 ,the closing chapter of the last book of ,quintilian's work treats of the orator after his retirement from public life4 ,he is to devote himself to writing and to the study of art1 science1 and philosophy4 ,the picture is charming2 but it ends with death1 and there is nothing beyond4 ,god may be defined for oratorical purposes2 but his existence is a matter of conjecture4 ,in ,quintilian we have the highest type of the civic man living under a cosmopolitan despotism4 ,his defects--his pedantry1 his servility1 his externality1 his worldliness--are only such as are natural to a good man placed in this position1 without any outlook upon a higher existence4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,plotinus ,,and ,,philosophic ,,education ,the material body1 which is subject to motion1 change1 dissolution1 and division1 requires an immaterial principle to hold and bind it together in unity4 ,this principle of unity is the soul4 ,if it were material1 it would require another principle of unity1 and so on ad infinitum1 till an immaterial first were reached1 which would then be the true soul4--,ammonius ,saccas4 ,intelligible things1 when they are united with other things1 are not changed1 as corporeal things are when they are united with each other1 but remain as they are1 and what they are4 ,soul and body are intimately united1 but not mixed4 ,the soul can separate and withdraw itself from the body1 not only in sleep1 but also in thought4 ,as the sun illuminates and yet remains itself a separate light1 so is the soul in its relation to the body4 ,it is not in the body as in place2 rather the body is in it and of it4--,id4 ,one's duty is to become first man1 then ,god4--,hierocles4 ,neither ,schelling nor ,baader nor ,hegel has refuted ,plotinus3 in many ways he soars above them4--,arthur ,richter4 ,what is loved by us here is mortal and hurtful4 ,our love is love for an image1 that often turns into its opposite1 because what we loved was not truly worthy of love1 nor the good which we sought4 ,god alone is the true object of our love4--,plotinus4 ,the practical and the contemplative lives1 which ,plato and ,aristotle had labored so hard to combine and correlate1 in order to save human worth and ,greek civilization1 fell asunder1 despite all their efforts--greatly1 of course1 to the detriment of both4 ,in the terrible picture which ,quintilian draws of ,roman life in the first century of our era1 we see one side of the result of this divorce3 in the cruel satires of ,lucian1 written less than a century later1 we may find depicted the other4 ,but1 just as1 in the midst of the moral corruption and brutality1 there arose from time to time worthy men like ,quintilian and ,tacitus1 so amid the philosophical charlatanry and pretence1 there still survived a few earnest thinkers1 who aspired with all the power that was in them to divine truth1 and strove to find in the eternal world that reality which was so miserably wanting in this4 ,by far the greater number of these men were neither ,greeks nor ,romans1 but ,orientals1 men whose thinking combined ,greek philosophy with some earnest form of ,eastern mysticism4 ,to such men this life was merely an opportunity of preparing for a higher1 in which lay all beauty1 all good1 and all blessedness4 ,it is not difficult to see what sort of education would follow from this view of life4 ,it may best be characterized by the one word ascetic4 ,it no longer seeks to train harmoniously all the faculties of body and mind with a view to a worthy social life1 but to enable the soul to die to the body and to social life1 and so rise to union and consubstantiality with ,god4 ,in no sect was this tendency more marked than in the ,neoplatonic1 or1 as it might equally well be called1 the ,neoaristotelian or ,neopythagorean1 the greatest name in which is ,plotinus4 ,plotinus was born in ,egypt about ,a4,d4 #bje4 ,his nationality is unknown4 ,he received his education in ,alexandria--grammar1 rhetoric1 and philosophy1--and adopted the teaching of the last as a profession4 ,he sought in vain1 however1 for a system that could satisfy him1 till he met with ,ammonius the ,sack-bearer1 whom he at once recognized as his master4 ,this ,ammonius had been reared as a ,christian1 but had apostatized on becoming acquainted with philosophy4 ,his ,christian education1 however1 had not been altogether lost on him2 for he had carried over into philosophy a religious spirit1 and not a few of the esoteric ideas then current in certain ,christian sects4 ,it was this1 apparently1 that enabled him to give a new direction to philosophy1 and to found a new school1 whose influence upon subsequent1 even ,christian1 thought1 it would be difficult to overestimate4 ,his school was the ,neoplatonic1 which1 more than any other1 united profound thought with mystic theosophy 774 ,plotinus listened to ,ammonius for eleven years1 and1 on the death of the latter1 paid a visit to ,persia1 with the view of studying the religion of that country4 ,he shortly returned1 however1 and1 after a brief sojourn at ,antioch1 betook himself1 in his fortieth year 7,a4,d4 #bdd71 to ,rome1 where he spent the remainder of his life as a teacher of philosophy4 ,his saintly character and his deep1 religious thought drew round him a considerable number of earnest men and women1 including even members of the imperial family4 ,he made some attempt to found in ,campania a ,platonopolis1 so that his principles might be realized in a social life1 in a theosophic community2 but this was never carried out4 ,he died in ,a4,d4 #bgj4 ,plotinus was the only truly great1 original ancient thinker after ,aristotle4 ,while ,plato and ,aristotle had sought to rise to the intelligible world from1 and by means of1 the sensible1 ,plotinus1 believing that he has attained a direct1 intuitional knowledge of the former1 sets out from it and thence tries to reach the other4 ,at the summit of being he finds the supreme ,platonic principle1 the ,one or the ,good1 absolutely transcendent and self-sufficient2 next below this1 the supreme ,aristotelian principle1 ,intelligence or ,absolute ,knowing1 the locus of all ideas2 and third1 the supreme principle of the ,stoics1 ,soul1 ,life1 or ,zeus1 the animating principle of the world4 ,good1 ,intelligence1 ,life--these are ,plotinus' divine trinity1 evolved by a process of abstraction from the ,nous of ,aristotle 7see p4 #afa74 ,the members of this trinity are neither personal1 conscious1 nor equal4 ,each lower is caused by1 but does not emanate from1 the next above it2 and this causation is due1 not to any act of free will1 but to an inner necessity4 ,thus the trinity of ,plotinus is a mere energy1 acting according to necessary laws4 ,the third member of it turns toward matter1 which is mere poverty and hunger for being1 and1 in so doing1 produces a world of gods1 dmons1 and mundane beings1 the highest of which last is man4 ,all that has matter has multiplicity4 ,it is easy enough to see what kind of ethics and education will spring from such a system as this4 ,inasmuch as the good means self-sufficiency1 freedom from multiplicity and matter1 evil means dependence1 multiplicity1 materiality4 ,whatever evil there is in man is due to his connection with matter1 for which he is in no sense responsible4 ,his sole business1 if he desires blessedness1 is to free himself from matter and multiplicity1 and return to the unity of the ,supreme ,good4 ,the steps by which this may be accomplished are1 7#a7 ,music or ,art1 7#b7 ,love1 7#c7 ,philosophy or ,dialectic3 through all these he rises above multiplicity into unity4 ,in all this there is1 obviously1 neither moral evil nor moral good1 and1 indeed1 the world of ,plotinus contains no moral element1 for the simple reason that it contains nothing personal1 either in ,god or man4 ,evil is the product of necessity1 and consciousness1 implying as it does1 multiplicity1 is part of it4 ,the unethical character of ,plotinus' teaching comes out very clearly in his reversal of the positions of instruction and purgation in the scheme of education4 ,according to the old view1 purgation was a mere medical process1 preparatory to ethical training 7see p4 #g74 ,according to the ,neoplatonic view1 ethical training and the political virtues are a mere preparation for purgation and the intellectual virtues4 ,and this is perfectly logical2 for evil1 being physical1 must be cured by physical means4 ,and the means which ,plotinus recommends are magical1 rather than moral2 rites and prayers1 rather than heroic deeds2 the suppression of the will1 rather than its exercise4 ,plotinus is too much of a ,greek to accept1 or even see1 all the consequences of his own theory1 which makes moral life consist in an attempt to escape from the world and to quench consciousness and personality4 ,accordingly1 though he has a poor opinion of civic life 7a thing excusable enough in those days71 he believes that the civic virtues ought to be cultivated1 as a means toward the higher1 and has apparently nothing to say against the ordinary grammatical1 rhetorical1 and musical education of his time4 ,he has a good deal to say in favor of ,mathematics1 as a preparation for what to him is the supreme branch of education1 ,dialectics4 ,but the tendency of his teaching is only too obvious1 and the conclusions which he did not draw1 time and succeeding generations drew for him4 ,the effect of ,neoplatonism was1 in the long run1 to make the super-civic part of man the whole man1 to discredit political life and political effort1 and to pave the way for the mystic1 the ascetic1 and the hermit4 ,nor were the tendencies of the other philosophical schools in any marked degree different4 ,thus philosophy1 instead of contributing to harmonize man and society1 and to restore moral life1 came to be one of the strongest agencies in bringing about confusion and dissolution1 by ignoring moral life altogether1 embracing superstition1 and turning man into a mere plaything of blind necessity and magical forces4 ,and thus ancient civilization fell to pieces1 because man himself had fallen to pieces1 and each piece tried to set itself up for the whole4 ,the civic fragment finds its highest expression in ,quintilian1 the super-civic in ,plotinus4 ,ere the fragments can be united into a truly moral being1 a member of a truly moral society1 a new combining force1 unknown to either rhetorician or philosopher1 must arise4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,conclusion ,truly it was an old world1 and even ,csar's patriotic genius was not enough to make it young again4 ,the dawn does not return till the night has fully set in4--,mommsen4 ,my thoughts are not your thoughts1 neither are your ways my ways1 saith the ,lord4--,isaiah4 ,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy mind4 ,this is the great and first commandment4 ,and a second like unto it is this1 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself4--,jesus4 ,render unto ,csar the things that are ,csar's1 and to ,god the things that are ,god's4--,id4 ,are not five sparrows sold for two farthings8 and not one of them is forgotten in the sight of ,god4 ,but the very hairs of your head are all numbered4--,id4 ,we love because he first loved us4 ,if a man say1 ,i love ,god1 and hateth his brother1 he is a liar4--,john4 ,by one intelligible form1 which is the divine ,essence1 and one conscious intention1 which is the divine ,word1 things may be known in their multiplicity by ,god4--,thomas ,aquinas4 ,if ,god acts in all things1 and such action in no way derogates from his dignity1 but even belongs to his universal and supreme power1 he cannot consider it below him1 nor does it stain his dignity1 if he extend his providence to the individual things of this world4--,id4 ,une immense esprance a pass sur la terre4--,alfred de ,musset4 ,we have seen that the ,greek ideal of life rested upon the complete identification of the man with the citizen4 ,we have seen also how this ideal was paralyzed by the growth of individualism2 how the wisest men thought to render this innocuous and even beneficent1 by providing for it a sphere of contemplation1 superior to that of practice1 but organically related to it1 and1 finally how1 with the failure of this attempt1 the two sides of human nature1 divorced from each other1 degenerated1 the one into selfish worldliness1 the other into equally selfish other-worldliness1 both conditions equally destitute of moral significance4 ,this sad result was mainly due to three causes1 7#a7 that the remedies proposed for individualism were not sufficient1 7#b7 that the best remedy was set aside1 7#c7 that the conditions for which the remedies were offered soon ceased to exist4 ,both ,plato and ,aristotle wrote for the small ,greek polities1 which lost their autonomy through the ,macedonian conquest4 ,if it may be doubted whether even the proposals of the latter would have redeemed these polities1 had they continued free1 it is certain that they would have been ineffective under the changed circumstances4 ,at all events1 they were never adopted1 and even for the super-civic man the teaching of ,plato was preferred to his4 ,as the new cosmopolitanism deepened the gulf between the citizen and the individual1 and immeasurably widened the sphere of the latter1 in the same proportion did the teaching of ,plato fail to bridge over that gulf1 and provide activity for that sphere4 ,to tell the super-civic man now that his function was to contemplate divine things and oracularly deliver laws for the guidance of the world1 would have argued an absence of humor not common in those days4 ,besides1 those persons who claimed to have contemplated divine things showed no such fitness for legislation as to induce practical men to accept their guidance4 ,the sober fact was1 that the contemplation of divine things1 which more and more absorbed the energy of ,greek thought1 was1 except for ,aristotle1 a mere vague asperation without moral value1 and became ever more a sort of mystic ecstasy1 in which the individual1 instead of acquiring insight and power to live worthily and beneficently in the world1 was thrown back upon himself1 with his will paralyzed4 ,nor could this be otherwise1 seeing the nature of the divine things1 the contemplation of which was reckoned so important4 ,instead of being personal attributes1 or a person imposing a moral law seen to be binding1 they were mere abstractions1 increasing in emptiness the higher they were in the series1 the highest being absolute vacancy4 ,in vain had ,aristotle protested that all reality is individual3 the ,platonic theory1 that all knowledge is of ideas or universals1 prevailed1 with the result that the highest knowledge was held to be knowledge of that which is absolutely universal1 viz4 indeterminate being or1 as ,plotinus held1 something lacking even the determination of being--the ,supreme ,good4 ,that the super-civic man should find satisfaction in gazing into vacancy1 or be any more valuable in the world after he had done so1 no matter how spotless his life and ecstatic his look1 is inconceivable4 ,but while1 in the ,greek world1 the sphere of activity of the super-civic man was vanishing into nothingness1 among a small and obscure band of restored exiles of ,semitic race1 that sphere had come to claim the entire man and all his relations1 practical and spiritual4 ,isaiah's little band of faithful followers 7see p4 #acc7 had grown into a nation1 living by no law save that of ,jehovah1 a very real1 very awful1 and very holy personality1 whom the heaven of heavens could not contain1 but who yet watched the rising up and the sitting down of every son of man4 ,long before ,quintilian wrote his elegant treatise on rhetoric1 or ,plotinus his pantheistic ,enneads1 there had sprung from the bosom of this people a man who1 bursting1 at the expense of his life1 the narrow bounds of his nationally1 elevated the theocracy of his people into a ,kingdom of ,heaven1 which he had bade proclaim to all the world4 ,it was proclaimed1 and then 7though to some it seemed a stumbling-block1 and to others foolishness7 the super-civic man1 who for hundreds of years had been wandering in darkness1 in search of his fatherland1 suddenly became aware that he had found it in the ,church of ,christ4 ,he now no longer tries to escape from the visible world into the emptiness of an abstract first principle2 but1 in the service of a ,first ,principle who is the most concrete of realities1 and who numbers the very hairs of his head1 he goes down into the most loathsome depths of the material world to elevate and redeem the meanest of the sons of men4 ,there is no question of bond or free1 ruler or ruled1 now4 ,in the ,kingdom of ,heaven there are no such relations4 ,the only greatness recognized there is greatness in service2 the only law1 the ,law of ,love4 ,love6 yes1 the whole secret is in that one word4 ,by adding love to the conception of the ,god of his people1 by exemplifying it in his own life1 and demanding it of his followers1 ,jesus accomplished what had baffled all the wisdom of the ,greek sages4 ,he restored the moral unity of man1 abolished the old world1 and made a new heaven and a new earth4 ,in vain have the advocates of an indeterminate1 self-evolving first principle1 whether calling themselves ,neoplatonists1 mystics1 materialists1 evolutionists1 ,hegelians1 or ,theosophists1 striven to bring back the old world with its class distinctions and institutional ethics2 in vain have they sought to sink the individual ,god and man of reality in the universal ideas of thought4 ,the ,law of ,love1 which is the ground of individuality1 as well as of true society1 has bidden1 and will bid them1 defiance4 ,,appendix ,,appendix ,,the ,,seven ,,liberal ,,arts ,the ,greeks originally recognized two branches of liberal education#f 7#a7 ,gymnastics1 for the body1 and 7#b7 ,music1 for the soul4 ,out of music grew1 in process of time1 not only the so-called ,liberal ,arts1 that is1 the arts that go to constitute the education of every freeman1 but also what was regarded as a superfluous luxury 771 ,philosophy4 ,it is the purpose of this appendix to trace1 as far as possible1 this gradual development4 ,in doing so1 one must bear in mind that originally the term ,music covered1 not only what we call music1 but also poetry1 and that poetry was the vehicle of all the science that then was4 ,the ,homeric aoidos knows the works of gods and men4 ,strictly speaking1 therefore1 it was out of music and poetry that all the arts and sciences grew4 ,the first step in this direction was taken when ,letters were introduced1 that is1 about the first ,olympiad4#g ,but it was long before ,letters were regarded as a separate branch of education2 they were simply a means of recording poetry4 ,even as late as the time of ,plato1 ,letters are still usually included under ,music4 ,in ,aristotle1 they are recognized as a separate branch4 ,it follows from this that1 when we find ,greek writers confining soul-education to ,music1 or ,music and ,letters1 we must not conclude that these signify only playing and singing1 reading and writing4 ,socrates was saying nothing new or paradoxical1 when he affirmed that ,philosophy was the highest music4 ,the ,pythagoreans had said the same thing before him1 and there can be no doubt that ,pythagoras himself included under ,music 7#a7 ,letters1 7#b7 ,arithmetic1 7#c7 ,geometry1 7#d7 ,astronomy1 7#e7 ,music1 in our sense1 and 7#f7 ,philosophy 7a term invented by him74 ,plato did the same thing4 ,he speaks of the true ,muse that is accompanied with truth 77 and philosophy4 ,but in his time ,music was used in two senses1 a broad one1 in which it included the whole of intellectual education1 and a narrow one1 in which it is confined to music in the modern sense4 ,it is in this latter sense that it is used by ,aristotle1 when he makes the intellectual branches of school education 7#a7 ,letters1 7#b7 ,music1 and 7#c7 ,drawing4 ,philosophy he places in a higher grade4 ,having distinguished ,letters from ,music1 it is natural enough that he should assign to the former the branches which ,pythagoras had included under the latter4 ,his literary scheme appears to be 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 7#c7 ,dialectic1 7#d7 ,arithmetic1 7#e7 ,geometry1 7#f7 ,astronomy4 ,add ,music1 and we have exactly the ,seven ,liberal ,arts2 but1 as ,drawing must also be added1 it is clear that there was1 as yet1 no thought of fixing definitely the number seven4 ,that ,drawing was for a long time part of the school curriculum1 is rendered clear by a passage in a work of ,teles 7,b4,c4 #bfj7 quoted by ,stobus 7xcviii1 #gb71 in which it is said that boys study 7#a7 ,letters1 7#b7 ,music1 7#c7 ,drawing2 young men1 7#d7 ,arithmetic1 and 7#e7 ,geometry4 ,the last two branches are here already distinguished from ,letters2 but we cannot be sure that the list is intended to be exhaustive4 ,what is especially noticeable in the list of ,teles is1 that it draws a clear distinction between the lower and higher studies1 a distinction which foreshadows the ,trivium and ,quadrivium of later times4#h ,philosophy1 or the highest education1 ,aristotle divided into 7#a7 ,theory and 7#b7 ,practice4 ,theory he subdivided into 7a7 ,theology1 ,first ,philosophy1 or ,wisdom1 called later ,metaphysics1 the science of the ,unchangeable1 and 7b7 ,physics1 the science of the ,changeable2 ,practice into 7a7 ,ethics1 including ,politics and conomics1 and 7b7 ,poetics or sthetics4 ,after ,teles we hear little of the ,greek school-curriculum until about the ,christian era4 ,meanwhile1 the ,romans1 having acquired a smattering of ,greek learning1 began to draw up a scheme of studies suitable for themselves4 ,it is noticeable that in this scheme there is no such distinction as the ,greeks drew between liberal 71 1 7 and illiberal 77 arts4#i ,as early as the first half of the second century ,b4,c41 ,cato the ,censor wrote a series of manuals for his son on 7#a7 ,ethics1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 7#c7 ,medicine1 7#d7 ,military ,science1 7#e7 ,farming1 7#f7 ,law4 ,it is very significant that the only ,greek school-study which appears here is ,rhetoric2 this the ,romans1 and notably ,cato himself1 always studied with great care for practical purposes4 ,it seems that ,cato1 in order to resist the inroads of ,greek education and manners1 which he felt to be demoralizing1 tried to draw up a characteristically ,roman curriculum4 ,greece1 however1 in great measure1 prevailed1 and half a century later we find ,varro writing upon most of the subjects in the ,greek curriculum3 ,grammar1 ,rhetoric1 ,dialectic1 ,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 ,astronomy1 ,music1 ,philosophy1 besides many others4 ,he wrote a treatise in nine books1 called ,disciplinarum ,libri4 ,ritschl1 in his ,qustiones ,varronian1#aj tried to show that these ,disciplin were the ,seven ,liberal ,arts1 plus ,architecture and ,medicine1 and ,mommsen1 in his ,roman ,history1 has followed him2 but ,ritschl himself later changed his opinion4 ,there seems no doubt that 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 7#c7 ,dialectic1 7#d7 ,music1 7#e7 ,geometry1 and 7#f7 ,architecture were treated in the work3 what the rest were we can only guess4#aa ,there is no ground for the assertion that the ,seven ,liberal ,arts were obtained by dropping ,architecture and ,medicine from ,varro's list4 ,it must have been about the time of ,varro1 if not earlier1 that ,roman education came to be divided into three grades1 called respectively 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 and 7#c7 ,philosophy1 the last falling to the lot of but few persons4 ,of course ,grammar now came to have a very extensive meaning1 as we can see from the definition of it given by ,dionysius ,thrax1 in his grammar1 prepared apparently for ,roman use 7,b4,c4 #ij74 ,in the ,scholia to that work 7,i am unable to fix their date71 we find the ,liberal ,arts enumerated as 7#a7 ,astronomy1 7#b7 ,geometry1 7#c7 ,music1 7#d7 ,philosophy1 7#e7 ,medicine1 7#f7 ,grammar1 7#g7 ,rhetoric4#ab ,but to return to the ,greeks4 ,in the works of ,philo ,judus1 a contemporary of ,jesus1 we find the ,encyclic ,arts frequently referred to1 and distinguished from ,philosophy4 ,the former1 he says1 are represented by the ,egyptian slave ,hagar1 the latter by ,sarah1 the lawful wife4 ,one must associate with the ,arts before he can find ,philosophy fruitful4 ,in no one passage does ,philo give a list of the ,encyclic ,arts4 ,in one place we find enumerated 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,geometry1 7#c7 ,music1 7#d7 ,rhetoric 7,de ,cherub41 #cj72 in another 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,geometry1 7#c7 the entire music of encyclic instruction 7,de ,agricult41 #d72 in another 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,music1 7#c7 ,geometry1 7#d7 ,rhetoric1 7#e7 ,dialectic 7,de ,congressu ,qur4 ,erud4 ,grat41 #e72 in another1 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,arithmetic1 7#c7 ,geometry1 7#d7 ,music1 7#e7 ,rhetoric 7,de ,somniis1 #ce71 etc4 ,it would seem that the ,encyclic ,arts1 according to ,philo1 were 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 7#c7 ,dialectic1 7#d7 ,arithmetic1 7#e7 ,geometry1 7#f7 ,music4 ,astronomy appears in none of the lists4 ,philosophy is divided into 7#a7 ,physics1 7#b7 ,logic1 7#c7 ,ethics 7,de ,mutat4 ,nom41 #aj71 a division that was long current4 ,from what has been adduced1 ,i think we may fairly conclude that at the ,christian era no definite number had been fixed for the liberal arts either at ,athens1 ,alexandria1 or ,rome4 ,the list apparently differed in different places4 ,clearly the ,roman programme was quite different from the ,greek4 ,shortly after this era1 we find ,seneca 7who died ,a4,d4 #fe7 giving the liberal arts1 liberalia studia1 as 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,music1 7#c7 ,geometry1 7#d7 ,arithmetic1 7#e7 ,astronomy 7,epist41 #hh74 ,he divides ,philosophy into 7#a7 ,moral1 7#b7 ,natural1 7#c7 ,rational1 and the last he subdivides into 7a7 ,dialectic and 7b7 ,rhetoric4 ,above all he places ,wisdom1 ,sapientia perfectum bonum est mentis human 7,epist41 #hi74 ,here we see that two of the ,seven ,liberal ,arts are classed under ,philosophy4 ,a little later1 ,quintilian divides all education into 7#a7 ,grammar1 and 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 but condescends to allow his young orator to study a little ,music1 ,geometry1 and ,astronomy4 ,turning to the ,greeks1 we find ,sextus ,empiricus1 who seems to have flourished in ,athens and ,alexandria toward the end of the second century1 writing a great work against the dogmatists or mathematicians1 of whom he finds nine classes1 corresponding to six arts1 and three sciences of philosophy4 ,the arts are 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,rhetoric1 7#c7 ,geometry1 7#d7 ,arithmetic1 7#e7 ,astronomy1 7#f7 ,music3 the sciences1 7#a7 ,logic1 7#b7 ,physics1 7#c7 ,ethics4 ,we are now not far from the ,seven ,liberal ,arts2 still we have not reached them4 ,there is not1 ,i think1 any noteworthy list of the liberal arts to be found in any ancient author after ,sextus1 till we come to ,st4 ,augustine4 ,in his ,retractiones1 written about #dbe1 he tells us 7,i1 #f7 that in his youth he undertook to write ,disciplinarum ,libri 7the exact title of ,varro's work671 that he finished the book on 7#a7 ,grammar1 wrote six volumes on 7#b7 ,music1 and made a beginning with other five disciplines1 7#c7 ,dialectic1 7#d7 ,rhetoric1 7#e7 ,geometry1 7#f7 ,arithmetic1 7#g7 ,philosophy4 ,it has frequently been assumed that we have here1 for the first time1 the ,seven ,liberal ,arts definitely fixed2 but there is nothing whatever in the passage to justify this assumption4 ,the author does not say the other five disciplines1 but merely other five4 ,among these five1 moreover1 is named ,philosophy1 which1 though certainly a discipline1 was never1 so far as ,i can discover1 called an art1 liberal or otherwise4 ,there is not the smallest reason for tracing back the ,seven ,liberal ,arts to ,st4 ,augustine1 who surely was incapable of any such playing with numbers4 ,he does not1 indeed1 recognize the ,seven4 ,it is in the fantastic and superficial work of ,martianus ,capella1 a heathen contemporary of ,augustine's1 that they first make their appearance1 and even there no stress is laid upon their number4 ,they are 7#a7 ,grammar1 7#b7 ,dialectic1 7#c7 ,rhetoric1 7#d7 ,geometry1 7#e7 ,arithmetic1 7#f7 ,astronomy1 7#g7 ,music4 ,these1 no doubt1 were the branches taught in the better schools of the ,roman ,empire in the fourth and fifth centuries1 when1 on the whole1 the ,greek liberal curriculum had supplanted the ,roman rhetorical one4 ,there is not the slightest ground for supposing that ,capella had anything to do with fixing the curriculum which he celebrates4 ,his work is a wretched production1 sufficiently characterized by its title1 ,the ,wedding of ,mercury and ,philology4 ,he wrote about seven arts because he found seven to write about4 ,attention was first called to the number of the arts1 and a mystical meaning attached to it1 by the ,christian senator1 ,cassiodorus 7#dhj-ege7 in his ,de ,artibus et ,disciplinis ,liberalium ,litterarum4 ,he finds it written in ,prov4 ix1 #a1 that ,wisdom hath builded her house4 ,she hath hewn out her seven pillars4 ,he concludes that the ,seven ,liberal ,arts are the seven pillars of the house of ,wisdom4 ,they correspond also to the days of the week1 which are also seven4 ,it is to be observed that he distinguishes the ,arts from the ,disciplines1 or1 as they said later1 the ,trivium from the ,quadrivium4 ,the pious notion of ,cassiodorus was worked out by ,isidore of ,seville 7died #fcf7 in his ,etymologi1 and by ,alcuin 7died #hjd7 in his ,grammatica4 ,of course1 as soon as the number of the arts came to be regarded as fixed by ,scripture authority1 it became as familiar a fact as the number of the planets or of the days of the week1 or indeed1 as the number of the elements4 ,about ,a4,d4 #hbj ,hrabanus ,maurus 7#ggf-hef71 a pupil of ,alcuin's1 wrote a work1 ,de ,clericorum ,institutione1 in which the phrase ,septem ,liberales ,artes is said to occur for the first time4 ,about the same date ,theodulfus wrote his allegorical poem ,de ,septem ,liberalibus in quadam ,pictura ,descriptis4#ac ,the ,liberal ,studies after ,st4 ,augustine did not include ,philosophy1 which rested upon the ,seven ,arts1 as upon seven pillars1 and was usually divided into 7#a7 ,physical1 7#b7 ,logical1 7#c7 ,ethical4#ad ,after a time ,philosophy came to be an all-embracing term4 ,in a commentary on the ,timus of ,plato1 assigned by ,cousin to the twelfth century1 we find the following scheme3-- ,ethics4 ,practical ,economics4 ,politics4 ,theology4 ,,philosophy ,arithmetic ,mathematics4 ,music ,theoretical ,geometry ,quadrivium4 ,astronomy ,physics4 ,the author expressly says that ,mathematica quadrivium continet2 but he plainly does not include the ,trivium under ,philosophy4 ,this1 however1 was done the following century4 ,in the ,itinerarium ,mentis in ,deum of ,st4 ,bonaventura 7#abba-gd7 we find the following arrangements3-- ,metaphysics--essence3 leads to ,first ,principle ,father4 ,natural ,mathematics--numbers1 figures3 leads to ,image ,son4 ,physics--natures1 powers1 diffusions3 leads to ,gift of ,holy ,spirit4 ,,philosophy ,grammar--power of expression ,father4 ,rational ,logic--perspicuity in argument ,son4 ,rhetoric--skill in persuading ,holy ,spirit4 ,monastics--innascibility of ,father4 ,moral conomics--familiarity of ,son4 ,politics--liberality of ,holy ,spirit4 ,here we have the ,trivium1 under the division ,rational1 while the ,quadrivium must still be included under ,mathematics4 ,in both cases we get nine sciences or disciplines1 and the number was apparently chosen1 because it is the square of three1 the number of the ,holy ,trinity4 ,in the latter case this was certainly true4 ,speaking of the primary divisions of ,philosophy1 the ,saint says3 ,the first treats of the cause of being1 and therefore leads to the ,power of the ,father2 the second of the ground of understanding1 and therefore leads to the ,wisdom of the ,word2 the third of the order of living1 and therefore leads to the goodness of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,dante1 in his ,convivio 7,,ii1 #ad1 #ae71 gives the following scheme1 based upon the ten heavens1 nine of which are moved by angels or intelligences1 while the last rests in ,god4 ,grammar ,moon ,angels4 ,trivium ,dialectic ,mercury ,archangels4 ,rhetoric ,venus ,thrones4 ,,liberal ,,arts ,arithmetic ,sun ,dominions4 ,quadrivium ,music ,mars ,virtues4 ,geometry ,jupiter ,principalities4 ,astrology ,saturn ,powers4 ,physics and ,starry ,heaven ,cherubim4 ,metaphysics ,moral ,science ,crystalline ,seraphim4#ae ,,philosophy ,heaven ,theology ,empyrean ,god4 ,in ,dante are summed up the ancient and medival systems of education4 ,,bibliography ,it is not intended here to give a complete ,bibliography of ,greek ,education1 but merely to point the readers of this book1 who may desire to pursue the subject further1 to the chief sources of information4 #a4 ,,ancient ,,works ,for the first part of the ,hellenic ,period1 that of the ,old ,education1 our authorities are fragmentary1 and often vague4 ,they are the ,iliad and ,odyssey of ,homer1 the ,works and ,days of ,hesiod1 the fragments of the pre-,socratic philosophers 7collected by ,mullach1 in his ,fragmenta ,philosophorum ,grcorum1 ,paris1 ,didot1 #ahfj-ha1 #c vols4 #dto71 and the comedies of ,aristophanes1 especially the ,clouds4 ,for the second part of the same period1 that of the ,new ,education1 the chief authorities are the tragedies of ,euripides1 the ,clouds of ,aristophanes1 the dialogues of ,plato1 especially the ,protagoras1 ,lysis1 ,republic1 and ,laws1 and the ,cyropdia1 conomics1 and ,constitution of ,lacedmon of ,xenophon4 ,for ,aristotle's educational doctrines1 we are confined for information to his own works1 and1 among these1 to the ,ethics and ,politics4 ,of the latter1 the closing chapters of the seventh1 and the whole of the eighth1 book deal professedly with education4 ,some information may also be gleaned from the recently discovered ,constitution of ,athens4 ,for the ,hellenistic ,period1 our information is derived chiefly from inscriptions1 from the writings of ,philo ,judus1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 ,plutarch 7,on the ,nurture of ,children71 lian 7,miscellanies71 ,lucian 7,anacharsis chiefly71 ,stobus1 ,plotinus1 ,varro1 ,cicero1 ,seneca1 ,quintilian 7,education of the ,orator71 ,martianus ,capella 7,nuptials of ,mercury and ,philology71 and ,cassiodorus1 and from stray notices in other poets1 historians1 and philosophers4 ,of the works referred to1 these deserve special mention3-- #a4 ,aristophanes1 ,clouds4 ,translations by ,john ,hookham ,frere1 ,thomas ,mitchell1 and ,w4,j4 ,hickie 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #b4 ,xenophon1 ,cyropdia4 ,translation1 in ,whole ,works translated by ,ashley ,cooper and ,others1 ,philadelphia1 #ahdb1 and by ,j4,s4 ,watson and ,h4 ,dale 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #c4 ,plato1 ,republic4 ,translations by ,j4 ,ll4 ,davies and ,d4,j4 ,vaughan1 by ,b4 ,jowett1 and by ,henry ,davis 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #d4 ,plato1 ,laws4 ,translations by ,b4 ,jowett1 and by ,g4 ,burges 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #e4 ,aristotle1 ,politics 7,books ,,vii1 ,,viii74 ,translations by ,b4 ,jowett1 ,j4,e4,c4 ,weldon1 and ,e4 ,walford 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #f4 ,plutarch1 ,on the ,nurture of ,children4 ,translation in ,morals1 translated from the ,greek by several hands1 corrected and revised by ,w4,w4 ,goodwin1 ,boston1 #ahgh4 #g4 ,quintilian1 ,education of an ,orator4 ,translation by ,j4,s4 ,watson 7in ,bohn's ,library74 #b4 ,,modern ,,works ,these are very numerous2 but the most comprehensive is ,lorenz ,grasberger's ,erziehung und ,unterricht im klassischen ,alterthum1 mit besonderer ,rcksicht auf die ,bedrfnisse der ,gegenwart1 ,wrzburg1 #ahfd-ha1 #c vols4 ,the first volume deals with the physical training of boys1 the second with their intellectual training1 and the third with the education imparted by the ,state to young men 774 ,a volume of plates is promised4 ,the work is badly constructed1 but is a mine of information and of references4 ,along with this may be named ,o4,h4 ,jger1 ,die ,gymnastik der ,hellenen1 in ihrem ,einfluss auf's gesammte ,alterthum und ihrer ,bedeutung fr die deutsche ,gegenwart1 ,esslingen1 #ahej2 ,fournier1 ,sur l',education et l',instruction ,publiques chez les ,grecs1 ,berlin1 #ahcc2 ,becq de ,fouquire1 ,les ,jeux des ,anciens1 ,paris1 #ahfi2 ,de ,pauw1 ,recherches ,philosophiques sur les ,grecs2 ,fr4 ,jacobs1 ,ueber die ,erziehung der ,hellenen zur ,sittlichkeit1 ,vermischte ,schr4 ,pt4 ,,iii42 ,albert ,dumont1 ,essai sur l',ephbie ,attique1 ,paris1 #ahgf-f2 ,dittenberger1 ,de ,ephebis ,atticis2 ,chr4 ,petersen1 ,das ,gymnasium der ,griechen nach seiner baulichen ,einrichtung beschrieben1 ,hamburg1 #aheh2 ,alexander ,kapp1 ,platon's ,erziehungslehre1 ,minden1 #ahcc1 and ,aristotle's ,staatspdagogik1 ,hamm1 #ahcg2 ,j4,h4 ,krause1 ,geschichte der ,erziehung des ,unterrichts und der ,bildung bei den ,griechen1 ,etruskern und ,rmern1 ,halle1 #ahea4 ,chapters on ,greek ,education may be found in ,w4,a4 ,becker's ,charicles and ,gallus2 in ,guhl and ,koner's ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans--all three translated into ,english4 ,in ,hellenica is an essay1 by ,r4,s4 ,nettleship1 on the ,theory of ,education in the ,republic of ,plato1 ,rivington1 #ahhj1 and in ,edwin ,hatch's ,influence of ,greek ,ideas upon the ,christian ,church 7,hibbert ,lectures7 is a chapter on ,greek ,education 7,lecture ,,ii74 ,,footnotes3 #a ,it is worth while to note that it was a passage from ,philolaus that suggested to ,copernicus the revolution of the earth round a centre4 #b ,this is represented in the charming ,apoxyomenos of the ,vatican4 #c ,so says ,aristotle1 who tells us further that in his time on this occasion they were presented with spear and shield by the people 7see p4 #ig74 #d ,i am here using the terms objective and subjective in their modern acceptation1 which almost exactly inverts the ancient usage4 ,see ,martineau1 ,study of ,religion1 vol4 i1 p4 #che1 n4 #b4 #e ,like ,peter ,piper1 etc41 and the ,german ,messwechsel ,wachsmaske4 #f ,it must be borne in mind that the ,greek 1 art1 corresponds almost exactly to what we mean by science4 ,it is defined by ,aristotle1 ,metaph41 ,a4 #a2 #iha a #e sqq4 ,schwegler1 in his translation of the ,metaphysics1 renders it by ,wissenschaft4 is our philosophy4 #g ,see ,jebb1 ,homer1 pp4 #aaj sqq4 #h ,it is a pity that we cannot fix the date of the so-called ,picture of ,cebes 7 74 ,in this we find enumerated the votaries of ,false ,learning1 7#a7 ,poets1 7#b7 ,rhetoricians1 7#c7 ,dialecticians1 7#d7 ,musicians1 7#e7 ,arithmeticians1 7#f7 ,geometricians1 7#g7 ,astrologers 7if we count ,poets ,grammarians1 we have exactly the ,seven ,liberal ,arts71 7#h7 ,hedonists1 7#i7 ,peripatetics1 7#aj7 ,critics1 and such others as are like to these4 ,the ,hedonists 77 are the ,cyrenaics2 the ,critics 77 can hardly be the grammarians1 though that is usually the meaning of the term in later times4 ,should we not read 8 #i ,liberal means fit1 illiberal unfit1 for freemen4 ,the sum of the liberal arts was called 1 which we have corrupted into ,encyclopdia4 #aj ,bonn1 #ahde4 #aa ,see ,boissier1 tude sur la ,vie et les ,ouvrages de ,m4,t4 ,varron1 pp4 #ccb1 sqq4 #ab ,see ,bekker's ,anecdota ,grca1 ii41 #fee4 #ac ,i am indebted for a number of these facts to an article by ,professor ,a4,f4 ,west1 in the ,princeton ,college ,bulletin1 ,november1 #ahij4 #ad ,these terms1 which we still find in ,isidore and ,hrabanus ,maurus1 are afterwards1 in the thirteenth century1 replaced by their ,latin equivalents3 ,natural1 ,rational1 and ,moral4 ,in the case of the second1 this caused considerable confusion1 inasmuch as when it ceased to be used as rational1 it took the place of dialectic4 #ae ,in the ,x,x,v,i,i,ith ,canto of the ,paradise1 these angelic powers are arranged somewhat differently1 in deference to ,dionysius ,areopagita and ,st4 ,bernard4 ,,index ,a ,academics1 #aab1 #baj4 ,academy1 #hf1 #aab4 ,achilles1 #f4 olian ,education1 #ch sqq4 olians1 #ce4 schylus1 #ajd sqq4 sop's ,fables1 #adf1 #bbc4 1 #dg4 ,alexander the ,great1 #dj1 #aef sq41 #agh4 ,alexandria1 #baa4 ,ammonius ,saccas1 #bbe1 #bbg4 ,amphidromia1 #fe4 ,amyntas1 #aef4 ,anaxagoras1 #bd1 #ii sq4 ,antisthenes1 #aab4 ,apoxyomenos1 the1 #hb n4 ,archytas1 #ee1 #aic4 ,aristocracy in ,athens1 #ih4 ,aristophanes1 #aje4 ,aristotle1 ,life1 #bi1 #aec sqq4 ,death1 #aei4 ,philosophy1 #afa4 ,theology1 #afe4 ,theory of the ,state1 #aff sqq4 ,pedagogical ,state1 #agb sqq4 ,scheme of ,secondary ,education1 #aii4 ,arithmetic1 how ,taught1 #gg4 ,artemis ,orthia1 #ej4 ,arts1 ,origin of1 in ,greece1 #bj4 ,athenian ,education1 #fj4 ,athenian ,ideal of the ,state1 #fc4 ,athletes1 #gh1 #ahd4 ,athletics1 #aij4 ,b ,barbarians vs4 ,greeks1 #ab4 ,bodily ,training1 #gg4 ,branches of ,greek ,education1 #f4 ,c ,csar1 #bag4 ,cato ,major1 #baf4 ,chronea1 ,battle of1 #aeg4 ,character of the ,greeks 7,zeller71 #ah4 ,children1 ,defective1 #ahe4 ,children1 ,treatment of1 #ahe4 ,christianity1 #bcc sqq4 ,cicero1 #bag4 ,citharist1 his ,functions1 #gg4 ,citizen1 ,meaning of1 #age4 ,clisthenes1 #ih4 ,college ,education1 #he4 ,commerce1 ,effect of1 #ba1 #ii sq4 ,competition in ,education1 #ga4 ,conditions of ,education1 #i4 ,contemplation1 #bja4 ,copernicus1 #ci4 ,cornificius 7,auctor ad ,herennium71 #bag4 ,cretan ,education1 #db4 ,culture-,state1 #ij1 #age4 ,cynosarges 7,gymnasium71 #hf1 #aab4 ,cyrus1 his ,education1 #aae sqq4 ,d ,dancing1 #hb sqq4 ,democracy in ,athens1 #ib1 #ii4 ,diagog 771 #cc1 #agh4 ,dionysiac ,chorus1 #he4 ,dipnis and ,scyllis1 #ba4 ,discus-throwing1 #hj4 ,dorian ,education1 #da sqq4 ,doric ,harmonies1 #aig4 ,draco1 #ih4 ,drawing1 #ahi4 ,e ,education1 ,old1 #bg1 #cc1 #fa sqq4 ,new #bg1 #ic sqq4 ,higher1 #ajh4 7,inspirer71 #dg4 ,epaminondas1 #dj1 #ee4 ,epheboi 7,cadets71 #di1 #hi1 #ij1 #aaf1 #aah4 ,epheboi1 ,oath of1 #fa1 #hi4 ,epicureans1 #baj4 ,epochs in ,education1 #bf4 ,essenism1 #ei1 #bab4 ,ethnic and ,cosmopolitan ,life1 #bje4 ,examinations1 #fd1 #ij4 ,f ,family ,education in ,athens1 #fd4 ,freedom1 ,greek ,tendency to1 #ai4 ,freeman's ,square1 #aaf1 #agg4 ,friendship1 ,aristotle on1 #agj4 ,g ,games1 #ff4 ,golden ,words1 #eg sqq41 #adf4 ,grading in ,schools1 #he4 ,grammar1 #bad1 #bba4 ,greeks a ,mixed ,race1 #bj4 ,greeks vs4 ,barbarians1 #ab4 ,guardians of ,public ,instruction1 #ahe sqq4 ,gymnasia at ,athens1 #hf1 #aje4 ,gymnastics1 #g1 #gg1 #ahi4 ,h ,harmony1 #ee1 #ef1 #gf4 ,doric1 ,lydian1 etc4 #aib4 in ,music1 ,unknown to ,greeks1 #gc4 ,hellenic ,period of ,education1 #bf1 #cb sqq4 ,hellenistic ,period of ,education1 #bg1 #bjc sqq4 ,helots1 #dd sq4 ,herma1 #gi1 #he4 ,hermias1 #aee4 ,hesiod1 #bb4 ,hetr1 #acb4 ,holidays1 #he4 ,homeric ,education1 #f1 #ag4 ,society and ,kings1 #af4 ,poems collected1 #ce4 ,homerid1 #ba4 ,i ,ideal of ,greek ,education1 #c1 #bjf4 ,individualism and ,philosophy1 #ic sqq41 #bjg4 ,induction1 ,method of1 #afb4 ,ionian ,education1 #fj sqq4 ,isaiah1 #ec1 #acc1 #bcd4 ,ischomachus1 #abd sqq4 ,isocrates1 #bji4 ,j ,javelin-casting1 #ha4 ,jumping1 #hj4 ,justinian1 #baa4 ,k ,kalokagathia1 #h1 #ab1 #ae1 #hf4 ,katharsis 7purgation71 #g1 #gf1 #bbi4 ,kindergarten1 #ff1 #ade4 ,kingdom of ,heaven1 #bcd4 ,know ,thyself1 #ajh4 ,l ,larceny1 ,instruction in1 #dh4 ,leaping1 #hj4 ,learning1 how viewed in ,greece1 #gb4 ,leisure1 ,education for1 #cc1 #agi4 ,letters1 #bb1 #ahh4 ,letters1 ,introduction and ,uses of1 #ba4 ,liberal ,arts1 #ahj sqq41 #aih4 ,library of ,alexandria1 #baa4 ,life the ,original ,school1 #f4 ,literary ,education1 #gb4 ,love1 as a ,power in ,life1 #bcd4 ,lyceum1 #aje1 #aga4 ,lycurgus1 #db1 #dc4 ,lysis1 #ci4 ,m ,macedonian ,period in ,education1 #ac4 ,marriage1 #aj1 #abg4 ,melleirenes1 #di4 ,milo1 the ,wrestler1 #ee4 ,money-making ,classes1 #ac4 ,music1 #bb1 #cd1 #gb sqq41 #ahh1 #aia4 ,music1 ,greek ,feeling for1 #gf1 #adf4 ,museum at ,alexandria1 #baa4 ,n ,nymphum at ,stagira1 #aef4 ,neoplatonism1 #bab1 #bbg4 ,o conomy1 #ac4 ,olympic ,games1 #gh4 ,p 1 #df1 #ahe1 #ahg4 ,palstra1 #fi sq41 #gh sq4 ,pantheism1 #acf4 ,parmenides1 #bd4 ,parthenon1 #bd1 #ajf4 ,pedagogical ,state1 #agb sqq4 ,pedagogue1 #fh4 ,peleus1 #g4 ,pentathlon1 #hh4 ,pericles1 #aje sqq4 ,perioikoi1 #dd4 ,periods of ,greek ,education1 #bf sqq4 ,persian ,education1 #aae sqq4 ,personality1 #bjb4 ,pherecydes1 #ec4 ,phiditia1 #dd4 ,philolaus1 #ci4 ,philosophy1 ,rise of1 #bb4 ,philosophy and ,individualism1 #ic sqq4 ,physical ,culture1 #ahi4 ,physicians in ,homer1 #ag4 ,pindar1 #ci4 ,pisistratus1 #ce1 #ih1 #agh4 ,plato1 #bi1 #aab1 #acc sqq41 #acd1 #acf1 #acg1 #adb4 ,play1 #ff1 #aha sqq4 ,plotinus1 #bi1 #bbe sqq41 #bbh sqq4 ,poetesses1 #ba4 ,poetry1 ,value of1 for ,education1 #gc sqq4 ,professional1 ,meaning of1 #aie4 ,prometheia1 #bd4 ,proxenus of ,atarneus1 #aee4 ,purgation1 #g1 #gf4 ,pythagoras1 #bi1 #eb sqq41 #adi4 ,pythias1 #aef4 ,q ,quadrivium1 #add1 #aih4 ,quintilian1 #bi1 #bad sqq4 ,r ,reading1 #ge4 ,rhapsodes1 #bc4 ,rhetorical ,schools1 #bji1 #bag4 ,roman ,education1 #baf sqq4 ,roman ,period1 #bg4 ,ruling and ,ruled1 #agf4 ,running1 #gi4 ,s ,school ,education in ,athens1 #fg4 ,buildings #fi4 ,rooms #gg4 ,scipio ,africanus1 #baf4 ,singing1 #ge4 ,slaves1 #ab4 ,social ,life in ,greece1 #ah4 ,socrates1 #bd1 #ajg sqq4 ,socratic ,method1 #aji4 ,solon1 and his ,laws1 #fh1 #ih4 ,soothsayers in ,homer1 #ag4 ,sophists1 #bc1 #ajj sq4 ,spartan ,education1 #da1 #dc sqq4 ,spartan ,girls1 #di4 ,government1 #dd4 ,ideal1 #db4 ,mercilessness1 #de1 #ej4 ,women1 #dd4 ,stagira1 #aee sq4 ,state1 ,meaning of ,term1 #agd4 ,state as a ,school1 #ia4 ,stilo1 ,lucius lius ,prconinus1 #bag4 ,stoics1 #baj4 ,supercivic ,man1 #acf1 #bcd4 ,t ,theban ,education1 #bh4 ,themistes1 #ag4 ,theories of ,education1 #bh4 ,therapeuts1 #bab4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 #afe4 ,thucydides' ,daughter1 #cg4 ,tragedy1 #hd4 ,trivium1 #add1 #aih4 ,u ,university ,education1 #ij4 of ,alexandria1 #bab4 of ,athens1 #baa4 ,w ,wilhelm ,meister1 #agc4 ,wingless ,victory1 #fc4 ,wisdom1 the ,ideal of ,athens1 #fc4 ,women1 ,education of1 #di1 #abd4 ,worth1 #af1 #dh4 ,worth1 ,aristotle's ,pan to1 #d4 ,wrestling1 #ha sqq4 ,writing1 #ge4 ,x ,xenophon1 #bi1 #aac1 #aad sqq4 ,memoirs of ,socrates1 #abc4 conomics1 #abd4 on ,female ,education1 #abd sqq4 ,typography by ,j4,s4 ,cushing ,co41 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,presswork by ,berwick ,smith1 ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,corrections from the errata list on p4 #b have been incorporated into the text4 ,words in italics are indicated by underscores1 like this4 ,the variant spellings freeborn and free-born1 ,staatspdagogik and ,staatspaedagogik1 subdivided and sub-divided are used in this text4 ,the abbreviations ,b4,c4 and ,a4,d4 sometimes precede their date1 sometimes follow it4 ,amendments to the text have been made as follows3 p4 #ba3 ,spata amended to ,sparta4 p4 #fc3 civilizaton amended to civilization4 p4 #gd3 partiotism amended to patriotism4 p4 #gh3 neans amended to means4 p4 #gh3 humane amended to human4 p4 #he3 pantomine amended to pantomime4 p4 #ahf3 sufficent amended to sufficient4 p4 #ahh3 quotation mark deleted after not being universal4 p4 #bah3 ,b4,c4 amended to ,a4,d4 p4 #bbg3 fourtieth amended to fortieth4 p4 #bdc3 ,grammer amended to ,grammar4 p4 #bdf3 full stop added after ,mathematics4 p4 #bdf3 extra the deleted from the following century4 ,greek3 ,on p4 #bb has not been changed to 7as in ,,lsj7 as it may be an acceptable alternative form4 ,similarly on p4 #bbc has not been changed to 7as in ,,lsj74