,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,text enclosed by tilde characters is underlined 7underlined74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is double underlined 7double underlined74 ,the ,key to ,pronunciation1 p4 #cg 7,spelling ,lesson #c71 contains characters with diacritical marks not available in ,latin-#a character encoding4 ,therefore1 they have been transcribed as follows3 x character 'x' with macron 7bar7 above the letter 4x character 'x' with dot above the letter x character 'x' with tilde 7curved bar7 above the letter ,,plain ,,english by ,,marian ,,wharton ,for the ,education of the ,workers by the ,workers ,published by ,the ,people's ,college ,fort ,scott1 ,kansas #aiag ,he who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause of all is the cause of humanity4 ,he must learn to feel deeply and think clearly1 to express himself eloquently4 ,he must be absolutely true to the best there is in him1 if he has to stand alone4 ,such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study of history1 science and literature4 ,he must not only keep close to the people but remember that he is one of them1 and not above the meanest4 ,he must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own1 and resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command4 ,the most thrilling1 inspiring oratory1 the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited1 the oppressed1 the suffering and submerged2 it is the voice of poverty and misery1 of rags and crusts1 of wretchedness and despair2 the voice of humanity crying to the infinite2 the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches ,heaven2 the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love4 --,,eugene ,v4 ,,debs4 ,,foreword ,every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the centuries4 ,every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the past1 is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in the present4 ,we1 as members of the human race1 are not separate atoms independent of the universe1 but we are atoms of it4 ,we are the product of all time1 and partake of the truth of all preceding generations1 in which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed4 ,one reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries of previous generations1 is the fact that we feel so profoundly the discovery of a truth of any nature1 that we are prone to dogmatize it by a rule or set of rules4 ,this usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of which the rule is but an evidence4 ,a mechanic may learn every detail of every rule for the construction of a steam engine1 but if he lacks the understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules1 they will avail nothing and his work must fail4 ,if1 however1 he understands the principles involved1 his work will stand the test1 though he has no knowledge of rules as such4 ,in teaching the ,english language1 the rules have been stressed1 while the principles have been submerged1 so that the teaching of rules has not resulted in the improvement of the student4 ,the ,people's ,college1 realizing this1 has1 through the author of this work1 revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that underlie the use of language4 ,the stress is laid upon principles instead of rules1 so that the student1 whether he remember a rule or not1 will never forget the application of these principles to the use of the written and spoken word4 ,the assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles4 ,moreover1 the importance of this new departure in method cannot be over-estimated1 when we consider that only through the use of language can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning4 ,this science1 then1 lies at the very base of all real education1 and a mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means of which he may master all other sciences4 ,the author has1 with peculiar aptitude1 grasped the fundamental character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language to the real principles involved4 ,all the dry rules that are the witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away1 while the principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical application1 with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of learning1 rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use4 ,it is the principle behind the rule that has power in it4 ,when this is understood1 the method pursued by the author in this course will be universally applied to all branches of learning1 and will end forever the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules4 ,the author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it1 contained in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would indicate4 ,it really means the application of a new viewpoint to life itself4 ,it means the questioning of the utility of authority2 the questioning of the utility of institutions2 the application1 we might say1 of such a test as this3 ,does any rule1 does any authority1 does any principle1 conserve the interests of humanity8 ,if not1 away with it4 ,this means rationalism1 the use of common sense4 ,it means that at last the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny4 ,it is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race1 and with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work ,to the ,education of the ,workers by the ,workers4 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,plain ,,english ,i4 ,language ,study #i ,,ii4 ,nouns and ,verbs #ah ,,iii4 ,parts of ,speech #bg ,,iv4 ,nouns #ch ,v4 ,verbs #ej ,,vi4 ,inflection of ,verbs #eh ,,vii4 ,time ,forms of ,verbs #fi ,,viii4 ,time ,forms1 ,cont'd4 #gh ,,ix4 ,participles and ,infinitives #hh ,x4 ,helping ,verbs #ig ,,xi4 ,verbs--,common ,errors #ajf ,,xii4 ,pronouns #aae ,,xiii4 ,pronouns1 ,cont'd4 #abg ,,xiv4 ,adjectives #ach ,,xv4 ,adjectives1 ,cont'd4 #adh ,,xvi4 ,adverbs #afj ,,xvii4 ,adverbs1 ,cont'd4 #afi ,,xviii4 ,prepositions #agi ,,xix4 ,prepositions1 ,cont'd4 #ahi ,,xx4 ,conjunctions #bjj ,,xxi4 ,conjunctions1 ,cont'd4 #bab ,,xxii4 ,adjective ,clauses #bbb ,,xxiii4 ,independent ,constructions #bcb ,,xxiv4 ,sentence ,building #bdc ,,xxv4 ,sentence ,analysis #bee ,,xxvi4 ,sentence ,building #bfg ,,xxvii4 ,sentence ,building #bgh ,,xxviii4 ,the ,use of ,capitals #bhh ,,xxix4 ,punctuation #bii ,,xxx4 ,punctuation1 ,cont'd4 #caj ,,spelling ,i4 ,definition #ag ,,ii4 ,vowels and ,consonants #bf ,,iii4 ,diacritical ,marks #cf ,,iv4 ,digraphs #di ,v4 ,diphthongs #eg ,,vi4 ,syllabification #fh ,,vii4 ,syllabification1 ,cont'd4 #gg ,,viii4 ,accent #hg ,,ix4 ,compound ,words #if ,x4 ,prefixes and ,suffixes #aje ,,xi4 ,derivatives #aad ,,xii4 ,derivatives1 ,cont'd4 #abf ,,xiii4 ,silent ,e #acg ,,xiv4 ,words ,ending in ,y #adf ,,xv4 ,words with ei or ie #aei ,,xvi4 ,homonyms #afh ,,xvii4 ,derivative ,nouns #agh ,,xviii4 ,verbs with ,prepositions #ahg ,,xix4 ,derivative ,prepositions #aii ,,xx4 ,derivative ,adverbs #baa ,,xxi4 ,derivative ,adjectives #bba ,,xxii4 ,words in able and ible #bca ,,xxiii4 ,simplified ,spelling #bda ,,xxiv4 ,verbs with ,suffixes #bed ,,xxv4 ,cognate ,sounds #bfe ,,xxvi4 ,words beginning with dis #bgg ,,xxvii4 ,the prefixes in1 un and mis #bhg ,,xxviii4 ,synonyms #big ,,xxix4 ,antonyms #cjh ,,xxx4 ,common ,errors #cbj ,,plain ,,english ,lesson ,i ,open ,letter ,dear ,comrade3 ,you are beginning a course of study in the use of ,plain ,english4 ,we do not know what your previous study may have been1 but the object of this course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the ,english ,language for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in the grade school4 ,for this reason we have avoided1 as much as possible1 the statement of rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules which it is necessary to know1 grow naturally out of the need for them in the development of expression in language4 ,we have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this course4 ,first1 we assume that you have never studied grammar1 or if you have1 that you will be glad to review it in simplified form4 ,this course does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians4 ,it has been worked out on the basis of plain1 common sense4 ,our purpose is not to make of you a grammarian1 versed in the knowledge of rules and reasons1 but to give you the power to express yourself more readily1 fluently and correctly--in other words to speak and write good ,english4 ,second1 we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager to increase your store of knowledge4 ,your progress in this branch of knowledge will depend1 to a large extent1 upon your own efforts4 ,we have endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the course as simple1 clear and plain as possible2 but that does not mean you will not have to work in order to master this study4 ,we trust it will be pleasant and interesting work1 bringing you joy as it brings you a growing sense of power4 ,probably no two people will use the same plan of work4 ,your work1 to be a pleasure1 must express your own individuality4 ,however1 we want to make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find helpful4 #ast4 ,be ,systematic4 ,find some time each day which you can regularly spend in study4 ,do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each day4 ,the student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed time4 #b;d4 ,concentrate4 ,by this we mean that when you study1 you should do it to the exclusion of everything else4 ,keep your mind upon the subject4 ,you may find this difficult at first4 ,your mind will wander2 but you will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere4 #c;d4 ,have ,faith in ,yourself4 ,do not be easily discouraged4 ,you have the power to master this subject and you will4 ,you will find it of immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and correctly4 ,those whom you admire for their ready use of good ,english were not born with the gift of gab4 ,they learned how to speak by studying the rules of grammar1 the meaning of words1 just as you are studying them4 ,what they have done1 you will do4 #dth4 ,go ,slowly and ,surely4 ,do not skim through these lessons4 ,be sure you understand thoroughly as you go along4 ,read carefully and think for yourself4 ,if there is anything you do not understand at any time1 write us and ask about it4 ,these lessons have been carefully prepared and are for your benefit4 ,make them yours and call upon us freely for help4 ,this is your ,college and its only ideal is service4 #eth4 ,get a ,note-,book4 ,make your note-book your work-shop4 ,write in it an outline of each lesson4 ,fill it with notes1 examples1 anything which is of interest on the subject4 ,note down your own frequent mistakes in the use of ,english4 ,watch the conversation of your friends2 listen to good speakers4 ,write down the mistakes you notice4 ,whenever you hear a word which seems particularly good1 or when you see one in your reading1 write it in your note-book and make it part of your vocabulary4 ,you will find your interest continually growing and also your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express4 ,if we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing power of expression2 if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world2 if we can1 through the study of this wonderful language of ours1 open wider the door of opportunity for you1--our comrade1--,the ,people's ,college will have served its purpose and realized its ideal4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,good ,,english--,,what ,,is ,,it8 #a4 ,people seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes ,good ,english4 ,have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and women8 ,quite often1 he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and speak in stilted1 unnatural language1 using all the big words he can possibly remember4 ,he no doubt fondly imagines he is making an impression and using good ,english4 ,the purpose of language is to make one's self understood1 and1 of course1 this can be done in very simple and crude ,english4 ,the man who breaks every rule of grammar1 intersperses his remarks with every variety of slang phrase1 may make himself understood1 but he is not using good ,english4 #b4 ,good ,english is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to the standards of usage4 ,we have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life4 ,there is a place for the simple1 direct1 plain1 unadorned language of every-day business life--the life of the work-a-day world--and there is a place also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry4 ,if we are talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day1 we will naturally use plain1 simple1 forceful words4 ,but1 if we are speaking to our comrades1 striving to arouse them out of their lethargy1 to stir them to action as men and women1 we will just as naturally use the fine and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion--the heights of human endeavor4 #c4 ,there are certain rules for the use of ,english which have grown up through the years1 to which we must conform4 ,these are not arbitrary4 ,they have not been made by any man or any set of men4 ,in fact1 they are constantly changing1 as the common usage of the people forces the changes4 ,for these rules are only the expression of the common usage1 and as usage changes1 the rules change4 ,but these changes come slowly1 so we can set down in a book the rules which express the established usage of today4 ,the ability to use good ,english does not mean the ability to use long1 high-sounding words4 ,to be a master of good ,english means to be able to use the word that meets your need and use it correctly4 ,do not strive for effect1 strive for effective expression4 ,,use ,,your ,,dictionary #d4 ,do you know that the average individual cripples through life with a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his command as many thousands8 ,we are misers with our words4 ,here hid away in this book we call the dictionary is a wealth of words1 a rich mine of expression1 and yet in our every-day conversation we halt and stammer1 using meaningless words and phrases largely made up of current slang4 ,never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly4 ,look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there4 ,dollars may be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep1 but here is a wealth easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it4 ,you will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you get acquainted with it4 ,use it constantly2 make it your familiar companion4 ,,our ,,language #e4 ,did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way of communicating1 one with another8 ,think of ,helen ,keller1 shut up in her prison-house of silence4 ,her only mode of communication with her fellows is through the sense of touch4 ,every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its feelings4 ,every animal1 by the movements of its body or the tones of its voice1 expresses its emotions of pain1 pleasure1 rage1 hate1 joy1 hunger and the many passions that sway its life4 ,the child knows without being taught how to express its wants4 ,we understand its cry of hunger1 its scream of pain1 its laugh of delight4 ,this is the natural language1 the language of feeling4 ,it is the universal language that needs no rules and no interpreter4 ,life on every plane knows and understands it4 ,,when ,,we ,,begin ,,to ,,think #f4 ,our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate4 ,the natural language satisfies a child for a time1 but as the child grows he begins to think1 then he feels the need of a more effective means of expressing himself4 ,you can express your feelings to a certain extent by the natural language4 ,you can make one know that you are glad by the expression of the face1 the attitude of the body or the tone of the voice4 ,but could you make anyone understand why you are glad1 by these signs and gestures8 #g4 ,to express thoughts and ideas1 man had to devise another sort of language4 ,so the language of words grew up out of the need to communicate ideas to other people4 ,as man's ability to think grew1 so his language grew4 ,at first1 this language was only a spoken language4 ,the ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken word4 ,gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our written language has developed4 ,this has made it possible to put the wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world4 #h4 ,hence1 language is the means of expressing thought and feeling4 ,it has grown out of our need for expression4 ,a word is a symbol of an idea4 ,it is a sound or combination of sounds which we use to represent an idea4 ,the use of words makes it possible for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people4 ,through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our thoughts1 not only of the external world about us1 but also of the mental world in which we live4 ,we can tell of our loves1 our hates1 our dreams and our ideals4 ,animals find the natural language of looks and tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the physical plane4 ,but man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical one1 and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his thoughts4 ,exercise #a ,select from the following sentences those which it is possible to express by a look or tone or gesture1 and those which can not be expressed without words3 #a4 ,i am glad4 #b4 ,i am glad because men are struggling for freedom4 #c4 ,i am hungry4 #d4 ,i am hungry for the chance for an education4 #e4 ,come4 #f4 ,come1 let us reason together4 #g4 ,i am afraid4 #h4 ,i am afraid that we must wait long for peace4 #i4 ,go4 #aj4 ,go1 search the world over for the truth4 #aa4 ,i am disgusted4 #ab4 ,i am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves4 #ac4 ,i am tired4 #ad4 ,i am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades4 ,,our ,,expression #i4 ,our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us4 ,we can communicate with those about us2 we can open the storehouse of the knowledge of the past as recorded in books1 or as two of our writers have expressed it3 ,have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read means--that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and fancy and imagination--to the company of saint and sage1 of the wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments--that it enables us to see with the keenest eyes1 hear with the finest ears and listen to the sweetest voices of all time8--,lowell4 ,strip man of his books and his papers1 and he becomes a mere slave1 ignorant of his own resources1 ignorant of his rights and opportunities4 ,the difference between the free citizen of today and the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books4 ,the man who dislikes books can never be entirely happy1 and he who loves a good book can never be wholly miserable4--,hillis4 ,have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when you have tried to make some one feel as you feel1 understand as you understand1 see some great truth as you see it1 and could not find the words with which to express your ideas8 #aj4 ,the mastery of words gives2 first1 the ability to understand the spoken or written thoughts of others2 second1 the ability to adequately express our own thoughts2 and third1 the ability to think clearly and to grow in our intellectual life4 ,a connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying shades of meaning4 ,to gain this mastery1 you must know the words of our language and their use4 ,words are the symbols of ideas and perform certain functions in expressing our thoughts4 ,this1 simply stated1 is all that the study of ,english ,grammar comprises--the study of ,english words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling4 ,,the ,,thought ,,and ,,the ,,word #aa4 ,we have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability to think and the need for expression4 ,but we first thought6 ,so1 in order to express yourself clearly you must first think clearly4 ,any thought can be simply and clearly expressed4 ,when you read something difficult of understanding1 where the thought is buried under an avalanche of words1 you can be assured the writer was not thinking clearly4 ,he did not have the perfect mastery of his thought4 ,on the other hand1 one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to express it because he does not have the words at his command4 ,in the one case1 we have words and no idea2 in the other1 the idea and no words4 ,this study is intended to enable you to master words1 the tools of expression4 ,in whatever work you are engaged1 it was first necessary to learn to use the tools with which you work4 ,so1 you must master the use of ,english words1 the tools of your expression4 ,you can in that way learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly4 ,you will not need to resort to slang1 or to the tiresome repetition of a few words4 ,the best of everything is none too good for you4 ,it is your right1 your heritage1 and the best in the ,english language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity1 who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while1 who will place in your hands the key to a new world4 ,a ,,complete ,,thought #ab4 ,when we want to express a thought we use more than one word4 ,words are the symbols of ideas1 but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas4 ,for example1 ,i say man1 and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man1 but ,i have not said anything about any man4 ,but if ,i say1 ,man works1 then ,i have expressed a thought4 ,i have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought4 ,so we express our thoughts by groups of words4 ,the very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must1 therefore1 contain two words4 ,if ,i say men1 fire1 flowers1 and stop1 you wonder what ,i mean1 for ,i have not expressed a thought4 ,or1 ,i might say1 work1 burns1 bloom1 and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning2 but1 when ,i say1 ,men work1 ,fire burns1 ,flowers bloom1 you understand1 for ,i have told you my complete thought4 ,i have put two words together in a way to make sense2 ,i have formed a sentence4 #ac4 ,if we say1 ,go or ,wait1 in the form of a command or entreaty1 the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself4 ,but this is only because you1 who are to do the going or the waiting1 is clearly implied4 ,the words go or wait1 by themselves1 do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that ,you go or ,you wait is the intended meaning4 ,with the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty1 it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought4 ,but will any two words make a sentence--express a complete thought8 #ad4 ,which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not8 ,busy men4 ,men travel4 ,snow flies4 ,blue sky4 ,red flag4 ,rustling trees4 ,workers strike4 ,bees sting4 ,grass grows4 ,cold winds4 ,green fields4 ,happy children4 ,busy men does not express a complete thought4 ,we are wondering busy men do what8 ,but1 men travel is a complete thought4 ,it makes sense and forms a sentence1 and tells us what men do4 ,in the words1 busy men1 we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it4 ,in the two words1 men travel1 we have spoken the name men and we have told what they do4 ,if we were walking down the street together we might say3 ,the street is crowded to-day4 ,does the open road attract you8 ,see the jostling crowds4 ,or if we were discussing the class struggle1 we might say3 ,two classes have always existed4 ,to which class do you belong8 ,join your class in the struggle4 ,in every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed4 ,each of these groups of words we call a sentence4 #ae4 ,a sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought4 ,exercise #b ,write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought4 ,men444444 444444fade4 ,leaves444444 444444bloom4 ,water444444 444444run4 ,fire444444 444444write4 ,women444444 444444grow4 ,children444444 444444speak4 ,,subject ,,and ,,predicate #af4 ,we have found that every sentence must have at least two words1 one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion4 ,in the sentence1 ,men work1 we have these two parts2 men which is the part about which something is said1 and work which tells what men do4 ,the part about which something is said is called the subject4 ,in this sentence1 ,men work1 men1 therefore1 is the subject1 for it names that about which something is said4 #ag4 ,the part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate4 ,therefore in this sentence1 ,men work1 work is the predicate4 ,in the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate1 thus1 ,birds fly4 ,ships sail4 ,soldiers fight4 ,flowers fade4 ,horses neigh4 ,flags wave4 ,snow comes4 ,war rages4 ,winds blow4 ,fish swim4 #ah4 ,we may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning1 as for instance we may say3 ,the stately ships sail proudly away4 ,the war in ,europe rages furiously4 ,the soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad4 ,yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate1--,ships sail1 ,war rages1 ,soldiers fight4 ,every sentence must have a subject and a predicate1 and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate4 ,find that about which something is said1 and that will always be the subject4 ,find that which is said about the subject1 and that will be the predicate4 ,every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate4 ,the subject of a sentence names that about which something is said4 ,the predicate tells that which is said about the subject4 ,exercise #c ,in the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning1 then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate3 ,ships sail4 ,tides flow4 ,stars shine4 ,rain falls4 ,children play4 ,nature sleeps4 ,waves break4 ,war rages4 ,birds sing4 ,exercise #d ,in the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning4 ,find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate1 as in the sentence1 ,the workers of the world build palaces for other people4 #a4 ,our success lies in solidarity4 #b4 ,new occasions teach new duties4 #c4 ,two classes exist in the world4 #d4 ,labor creates all wealth4 #e4 ,the workers fight all battles4 #f4 ,our time calls for earnest deeds4 #g4 ,knowledge unlocks the door of life4 #h4 ,ignorance bars the path to progress4 #i4 ,few people think for themselves4 #aj4 ,hope stirs us to action4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #a ,spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word4 ,there is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used4 ,spelling in ,english is rather difficult4 ,if each letter represented but one sound1 spelling would be an easy matter4 ,every word would be spelled just as it sounds4 ,this is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling4 ,phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound4 ,but our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound4 ,there are some forty-two different sounds used in ,english words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet4 ,therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds4 ,then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced1 so1 all in all1 spelling is a matter of memorizing4 ,the best way to become an accurate speller is to read much1 to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently4 ,always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times4 ,in this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear4 ,if you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure4 ,the words in this lesson are taken out of ,lesson #a1 ,plain ,english ,course4 ,there are thirty in all1 five for each day of the week4 7#a7 ,look up the meaning in the dictionary4 7#b7 ,learn the correct spelling4 7#c7 ,learn the correct pronunciation4 7#d7 ,use the word in a sentence of your own construction4 7#e7 ,use it during the day in your conversation2 strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary4 ,monday ,mode ,english ,grammar ,expression ,complete ,tuesday ,language ,emotion ,group ,mastery ,dictionary ,wednesday ,thought ,symbol ,ability ,idea ,knowledge ,thursday ,subject ,predicate ,vocabulary ,practice ,history ,friday ,memory ,sentence ,write ,right ,purpose ,saturday ,propose ,growth ,learn ,teach ,pronounce ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #b ,dear ,comrade3 ,review ,lesson #a before taking up this lesson4 ,do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons4 ,our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given4 ,we want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man4 ,language like customs1 religion1 government1 has grown with the economic advancement of man4 ,as man has evolved on the economic plane1 the material plane1 as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter1 he has developed a language suited to his needs4 ,so we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars1 and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds4 ,civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing4 ,so the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas1 but an absorbing study of a living1 growing1 changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man4 ,think while you study4 ,as you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words1 remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle4 ,we of to-day are also writing history in words4 ,by our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning4 ,brotherhood1 justice1 for example6 ,the world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation4 ,you will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours4 ,watch carefully the use of words in your reading4 ,especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs4 ,use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day4 ,whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand1 look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there4 ,make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind4 ,watch also the pronunciation of the words4 ,do not try to do everything all at once1 nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow4 ,we approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer4 ,just keep steadily at it1 ,comrade4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,sentences #ai4 ,we have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts4 ,but we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes4 ,can you notice any difference in the following sentences8 ,two classes have always existed4 ,to which class do you belong8 ,join your class in the struggle4 ,when ,i say1 ,two classes have always existed1 ,i am making a simple assertion1 stating what ,i know or believe to be true4 ,when ,i say1 ,to which class do you belong8 ,i am asking a question4 ,when ,i say1 ,join your class in the struggle1 ,i am giving a command or making a request4 #bj4 ,these three kinds of sentences are called assertive1 interrogative and imperative4 ,an assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion4 ,an interrogative sentence asks a question4 ,an imperative sentence gives a command1 makes a request or expresses a wish4 #ba4 ,any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory2 that is1 it may express surprise1 excitement1 impatience1 or some other emotion4 ,for example3 ,hurrah6 ,freedom is coming6 ,this is an assertion expressed as an exclamation4 ,oh6 ,why should war continue8 ,here we have a question in the form of an exclamation4 ,come6 ,keep your courage up4 ,in this1 we have a command1 an imperative sentence1 expressed in the form of an exclamation4 ,an exclamatory sentence expresses surprise1 excitement or some other emotion4 ,in these three forms of sentences1 the assertive1 the interrogative and the imperative1 together with the exclamatory1 we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression1 either for practical or artistic purposes4 ,the sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression1 as he has developed his powers of mind4 #bb4 ,every sentence must begin with a capital letter4 ,every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period4 ,every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark4 ,the word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point4 ,the sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark2 if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period4 ,exercise #a ,mark the assertive sentences among the following with an a in the blank space4 ,mark the interrogative sentences with a q for question2 the imperative sentences with a c for command2 and the exclamatory with an e for exclamation4 #a4 444444 ,books are the true levelers4 #b4 444444 ,put not your trust in princes4 #c4 444444 ,to err is human2 to forgive divine4 #d4 444444 ,what are the rights of a child8 #e4 444444 ,seize common occasions and make them great4 #f4 444444 ,not until all are free1 is any free4 #g4 444444 ,freemen6 ,shall not we demand our own8 #h4 444444 ,is a world of happiness but a ,utopian dream8 #i4 444444 ,he who will not work1 shall not eat4 #aj4 444444 ,strike at the polls for freedom6 #aa4 444444 ,do the majority want social justice8 #ab4 444444 ,a friend is the hope of the heart4 #ac4 444444 ,how beautiful is the vision of peace6 #ad4 444444 ,acquire the thinking habit4 #ae4 444444 ,is it glorious to die for our country8 #af4 444444 ,lo6 ,women are waking and claiming their own6 #ag4 444444 ,claim your right to the best4 #ah4 444444 ,what is the highest good8 #ai4 444444 ,workers of the world1 unite6 #bj4 444444 ,to remain ignorant is to remain a slave4 ,,words--,,their ,,uses #bc4 ,we have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts4 ,these sentences are made up of words2 therefore we call words parts of speech4 ,words are only fractions or parts of speech1 and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts4 ,there are many thousands of words in the ,english language4 ,it would be impossible for us to study each word separately4 ,but these words1 like people1 are divided into classes1 so we can study each class of words4 ,these thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are1 or rather as people ought to be2 for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do4 ,in the ,industrial ,commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class1 but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do4 ,there will be various industrial groups1 groups of agricultural workers1 groups of clerical workers1 etc4 ,so words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas4 #bd4 ,words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences4 ,there are eight of these classes of words1 called parts of speech4 ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,things #be4 ,what a word does determines what part of speech it is4 ,when primitive man1 long ago1 first began to use words1 in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him4 ,he invented a word for man1 boy1 tree1 animal1 etc4 ,gradually1 all the things he met in his daily life received a name4 ,about one half of the words in our language are of this class1 the names of things4 ,every word which is used as a name of something is called a noun4 ,this word noun is derived from the ,latin word which means name1 so it is quite the same thing as saying name4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,boys run4 ,fish swim4 ,horses neigh4 ,soldiers march4 ,flags wave4 ,flowers fade4 ,girls study4 ,winds blow4 ,men work4 ,all of the words used like boys1 girls1 fish1 horses1 soldiers1 flag1 winds1 flowers and men1 are the names of objects1 therefore all of these words are nouns4 ,the subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun4 ,however1 we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject1 the noun about which the statement is made4 ,we will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons4 ,the famous palace of the kings of the ,moors1 at ,granada1 in ,spain1 was called the ,alhambra4 ,we have six nouns in this sentence1 palace1 kings1 ,moors1 ,granada1 ,spain and ,alhambra1 but the noun palace is the noun which is the subject--the noun which is the name of that about which something is said4 ,palace is the subject2 and was called is the predicate in this sentence4 #bf4 ,a noun is a word used as the name of something4 ,now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name4 ,pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun1 the name of something4 ,in the following paragraph1 the nouns are printed in italics4 ,carefully study these nouns3 ,the fire in the grate1 the lamp by the bedside1 the water in the tumbler1 the fly on the ceiling above1 the flower in the vase on the table1 all things have their history and can reveal to us nature's invisible forces4 ,exercise #b ,underscore every noun in the following quotation3 ,the whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development1 of progress1 of slow and painful climbing through the ages4 ,not only have the hills and the mountains1 the rivers and the stars1 the trees and the cattle1 the beasts and the birds1 been developing2 but man himself--his mind and his body--has been developing4 ,men are marvelous little creatures2 they have weighed the sun in their balances1 measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow2 they have sounded the depths of the ocean2 they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds2 they have learned how the seas became salt1 what the stars are made of4 ,they have learned so much1 and yet when it comes to matters of time and space1 and law and motion1 they still know so little4 ,the only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal4--,mc,millan4 ,,words ,,that ,,assert #bg4 ,after the primitive man had invented names for the things about him1 probably his next step was to invent words of action4 ,he very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things did4 ,so the words that tell what things do1 the words of action1 the words that assert1 came into the language4 ,a child follows much the same development4 ,as you can readily observe1 it first names the objects about it1 then learns the words that tell what these objects do4 ,so the words that tell what things do1 become the second class of words4 ,these words we call verbs4 ,the word verb1 like the word noun1 is taken into our language from the ,latin4 ,in ,latin1 the word verbum means the word2 and the verb is practically the word in a sentence1 for we cannot have a sentence without a verb4 ,you may string a number of words together1 but if you do not have an asserting word1 you will not have a sentence4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,men work4 ,flowers fade4 ,snow flies4 ,winds blow4 ,in these sentences1 the words work1 fade1 flies and blow1 are the words used to assert or say something of the subject1 hence they are the verbs in these sentences4 #bh4 ,sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,the men are working4 ,the boy has been studying4 ,in the first sentence it takes two words1 are working1 to make the assertion2 in the second1 three are required1 has been studying4 ,these groups of words are called verb phrases4 #bi4 ,a verb is a word that asserts4 ,a verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb4 ,the verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master4 ,it is not hard to find the verb in short sentences1 but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult4 ,for example3 ,the sun shines4 ,the man walks4 ,the boys strike4 ,we very easily see that shine1 walk and strike are the verbs in these sentences4 ,but let us add other words1 as for example3 ,the sun shines brightly4 ,the man walks for his health4 ,the boys strike the dog4 ,now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state how and why the action is performed1 or the object towards which the action is directed4 ,but in these sentences1 shine and walks and strike are still the verbs1 just as in the first sentences4 ,the verb asserts the action2 the other words merely give additional information about how or why or upon what the action is performed4 #cj4 ,another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in ,english is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb2 but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do4 ,when a word is used as a name it is a noun2 when it is used as an asserting word it is a verb4 ,note the following sentences3 ,the play made the child tired4 ,the children play in the yard4 ,in the first sentence play is a noun1 the subject of the verb made4 ,in the second sentence play is the verb1 telling what the children do4 ,always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence4 ,this will help you very much in finding your verb4 #ca4 ,then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words4 ,for example3 ,the dog belongs to the man4 ,the girl is happy4 ,in these sentences belongs and is are the verbs4 ,belongs asserts or shows the relation between the dog and the man4 ,is shows the relation between the girl and happy4 ,if we simply say girl and happy1 we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two1 but when we say1 ,the girl is happy1 we are asserting something1 and the word is makes the assertion4 ,or when we say1 ,the girl was happy1 or ,the girl will be or may be happy1 in each of these cases1 it is the verb or verb phrase was or will be or may be1 that asserts or shows the relation between the subject girl and the descriptive word happy4 ,you will observe that the verbs will be and may be are composed of more than one word and are verb phrases4 ,we will study the verb in succeeding lessons1 but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb4 ,remember too that every sentence must contain a verb4 ,get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word does decides what it is--to what part of speech it belongs1 and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building4 #cb4 ,remember3-- ,every sentence must have a subject and a predicate4 ,every sentence must express a complete thought4 ,every sentence must contain a verb4 ,a noun is the name of something4 ,a verb is a word that asserts4 ,what a word does determines what it is4 ,study carefully the following quotation4 ,the verbs are printed in italics4 ,slowly1 painfully1 proceeds the struggle of man against the power of ,mammon4 ,the past is written in tears and blood4 ,the future is dim and unknown1 but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle is not in doubt4 ,freedom will conquer slavery1 truth will prevail over error1 justice will triumph over injustice1 the light will vanquish the darkness2 and humanity will rise in the glory of universal brotherhood4--,warren4 ,exercise #c ,underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation3 ,the ,dream of ,labor3 ,ours is not the cause of one class1 of one sex1 of one tribe1 of one city1 of one state1 of one continent4 ,it is the wish for a better world where ,man shall be ,man2 where the beast shall become subdued2 where everything shall lead to complete development2 where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all2 where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue4 ,a glimpse of this ideal takes us into the ,land of ,promise1 where peace and plenty shall reign supreme2 where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves1 but for one another2 where the atmosphere shall be laden with love1 the love that saves2 where the hate that kills shall be unknown2 where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete2 where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play4 ,the mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living1 makes work worth doing1 makes dreams worth dreaming1 gives us hope and faith--the faith we need in the labor for our cause1 the faith which shall help us win4--,oscar ,leonard4 ,exercise #d ,we have found that there are a number of words in ,english which may be used either as nouns or verbs1 depending upon the function they serve in the sentence4 ,in the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line1 the verbs with two lines3 #a4 ,they man the boats4 #b4 ,the man has a boat4 #c4 ,the women pass this way4 #d4 ,they held the pass for hours4 #e4 ,little children work in the mines4 #f4 ,the work of the world is done by machinery today4 #g4 ,the armies will cross the bridge4 #h4 ,he built a cross of rude stones4 #i4 ,the leopard cannot change its spots4 #aj4 ,we will force a change in the law4 ,exercise #e ,in the following poem1 mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase4 ,you will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word not1 as in ,i do not obey4 ,do obey is the verb phrase4 ,we will learn to what part of speech not belongs a little later4 ,i ,,do ,,not ,,obey1 ,i ,,think4 ,captain1 what do you think1 ,i asked1 ,of the part your soldiers play8 ,the ,captain answered1 ,i do not think-- ,i do not think1 ,i obey4 ,do you think your conscience was meant to die1 ,and your brains to rot away8 ,the ,captain answered1 ,i do not think-- ,i do not think1 ,i obey4 ,do you think you should shoot a patriot down1 ,and help a tyrant slay8 ,the ,captain answered1 ,i do not think-- ,i do not think1 ,i obey4 ,then if this is your soldier's code1 ,i cried1 ,you're a mean1 unmanly crew2 ,and with all your feathers and gilt and braid1 ,i am more of a man than you2 ,for whatever my lot on earth may be ,and whether ,i swim or sink1 ,i can say with pride1 ',i do not obey-- ,i do not obey1 ,i think4' --,ernest ,crosby4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #b ,the twenty-six letters in the ,english alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants4 ,a vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs4 ,the vowels are a1 e1 i1 o and u4 ,all of the remaining letters of the alphabet are consonants4 ,a consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs4 ,consonant is from the ,latin con1 meaning with1 and sono--,i sound4 ,so it means literally ,i sound with4 ,the consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal organs4 ,the consonant sounds are so called because they are always sounded with a vowel2 they are used only in combination with vowels in forming words or syllables4 ,in ,english a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable4 ,sound the different consonants b1 c1 d1 f1 g1 h1 j1 k1 l1 m1 n1 p1 q1 r1 s1 t1 v1 x and z1 by themselves and you will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use of the vocal organs--the lips1 the tongue1 the teeth1 etc4--in making these various sounds4 ,w and y are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants4 ,w and y are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel sound as in awe1 new1 joy1 eye1 etc4 ,y is sometimes used as a vowel by itself as in by1 cry1 etc4 ,w and y are consonants when they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the same syllable as in wine1 twine1 yield and year4 ,look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson4 ,master the spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction4 ,monday ,reason ,evolution ,justice ,thorough ,beauty ,tuesday ,assertive ,review ,surprise ,basis ,separate ,wednesday ,interrogative ,period ,capital ,capitol ,function ,thursday ,example ,contain ,imperative ,question ,speech ,friday ,method ,various ,familiar ,industry ,alphabet ,saturday ,travel ,sense ,cents ,sail ,sale ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #c ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of speech4 ,in later lessons we will study each part of speech more thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly4 ,it is sufficient1 however1 to form a basis for our understanding of the evolution of language4 ,you will see1 as you study this lesson1 how each part of speech has been added to meet a growing need4 ,there are many1 many thousand words in the ,english language1 but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of speech1 for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs4 ,the object in studying grammar1 as in studying any other science1 is not to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts--facts which may or may not prove useful to one hereafter4 ,the object of all study is to develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think4 ,added to this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge4 ,here the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other science4 ,it deals with words1 something which we use every day4 ,you do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study grammar4 ,all that you need lies ready to your hand4 ,and in addition to this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use to every man and woman no matter what their work1 no matter what their place or position in life may be4 ,remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar4 ,grammarians are the guardians1 not the authors1 of language4 ,we do not say1 ,you should say this or that1 or you violate a rule of grammar1 but we say ,the common usage among those who use good ,english is thus and so4 ,if we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage1 then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common usage into that which we consider the more sensible way4 ,thus1 those who advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound1 but they have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this more sensible way of spelling words4 ,so think while you study4 ,do not try to learn rules and formulas4 ,see why the rules and formulas exist4 ,once having seen this you do not need to learn them--you know them already4 ,the study of any language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order4 ,so apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in every particular4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,words ,,added ,,to ,,nouns #cc4 ,when man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world in which he lived1 we have found that probably the first need was that of names for the things about him4 ,so we have nouns4 ,the second need was of words to tell what these things do1 and so we have verbs4 ,but primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words4 ,the objects about us are not all alike4 ,for example1 we have a word for man1 but when we say man that is not sufficient to describe the many different kinds of men4 ,there are tall men1 short men1 white men1 black men1 strong men1 weak men1 busy men1 lazy men4 ,there are all sorts of men in the world1 and we need words by which we can describe these different types and also indicate which man we mean4 #cd4 ,so we have a class of words which are called adjectives4 ,adjective is a word derived from the ,latin4 ,it comes from the ,latin word ad1 meaning to1 and the ,latin word jecto1 which means to throw2 hence an adjective is a word thrown to or added to a noun4 ,if you will stop to think for a moment1 you will see that it is by their qualities that we know the things about us4 ,some men are strong1 some are weak1 some are tall1 some are short4 ,these qualities belong to different men4 ,and we separate or group them into classes as they resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities4 ,things are alike which have the same qualities2 things are unlike whose qualities are different4 ,apples and oranges are alike in the fact that both are round1 both are edible4 ,they are unlike in the fact that one is red and one is yellow2 one may be sour and the other sweet4 ,so we separate them in our minds because of their different qualities2 and we have a class of words1 adjectives1 which describe these various qualities4 #ce4 ,we use adjectives for other purposes also4 ,for example1 when we say trees1 we are not speaking of any particular trees1 but of trees in general4 ,but we may add certain adjectives which point out particular trees1 as for example3 these trees1 or those trees1 or eight trees or nine trees4 ,these adjectives limit the trees of which we are speaking to the particular trees pointed out4 ,they do not express any particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives tall or beautiful express1 but they limit the use of the word trees in its application4 ,so we have our definition of the adjective4 #cf4 ,an adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its meaning4 ,exercise #a ,underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation4 ,notice also the nouns and verbs in this quotation4 ,yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth1 for they either descend or climb4 ,they descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes1 through wide roads and narrow paths1 down noble marble stairs and creaky stairs of wood--and some go down to the cellar1 and some to the grave1 and some down to the pits of shame and infamy1 and still some to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the staring1 white1 stony eye-balls of ,destiny4 ,they descend and they climb1 the fearful footsteps of men1 and some limp1 some drag1 some speed1 some trot1 some run--they are quiet1 slow1 noisy1 brisk1 quick1 feverish1 mad1 and most awful in their cadence to the ears of the one who stands still4 ,but of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb1 no footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on the dead level of a prison floor1 from a yellow stone wall to a red iron gate4--,from ,the ,walker4 ,giovannitti4 ,,words ,,added ,,to ,,verbs #cg4 ,from our study1 you see how our classes of words grew out of man's need of them in expressing his thoughts4 ,and notice also how the many thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few classes4 ,we name the things about us2 we invent words to tell what these things do2 we have another class of words which describe the things which we have named2 and now we come to a fourth class of words for which we also find great need4 ,when we come to tell what things do1 we find that we need words which will tell us how or where or when these things are done4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,the men work busily4 ,the men work late4 ,the men work now4 ,the men work here4 ,the men work hard4 ,the men work well4 ,the men work inside4 ,the men work more4 ,we would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we said simply1 ,the men work1 but each of these words which we have added1 like busily1 hard1 late1 etc41 adds something to the meaning of the verb4 ,these words add something to the action which is asserted by the verb1 for they show how and when and where and how much the men work4 #ch4 ,we call this class of words adverbs1 because they are added to verbs to make the meaning more definite1 very much as adjectives are added to nouns4 ,adverb means literally to the verb4 ,an adverb will always answer one of these questions3 how8 when8 how long8 how often8 how much8 how far8 or how late8 ,if you want to find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions1 and the word that answers it will be the adverb4 #ci4 ,an adverb may be used also with an adjective4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,the book is very long4 ,too many people never think4 ,notice here that the adverbs very and too modify the adjectives long and many4 #dj4 ,adverbs may also be used with other adverbs4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,he speaks very distinctly4 ,he walks too slowly4 ,here the adverbs very and too are used with the adverbs distinctly and slowly1 and add to their meaning4 ,we will study more fully in later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb1 but we can see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words1 a part of speech1 for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe the action expressed by verbs1 and also to add to the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs4 ,hence we have our definition of an adverb4 #da4 ,an adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb1 an adjective1 or another adverb4 ,exercise #b ,underscore all adverbs in the following sentences3 #a4 ,he will not come today4 #b4 ,here and now is the day of opportunity4 #c4 ,very slowly1 but even then entirely too rapidly1 the fire crept forward4 #d4 ,the room was very quiet and still4 #e4 ,he was too weary to go farther4 #f4 ,one must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to express himself eloquently4 #g4 ,ferrer stood there1 so calmly and so bravely facing the firing squad4 #h4 ,he was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and courageously for the education of the masses4 #i4 ,ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present system of society4 #aj4 ,he said ,the school imprisons the children physically1 intellectually and morally4 ,,words ,,used ,,in ,,place ,,of ,,nouns #db4 ,now we come to study another class of words which are also very necessary in order to express our ideas4 ,suppose you had just arrived in a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house4 ,you inquire of a stranger1 ,can you tell me who lives in the house on the corner8 ,notice the words you and me and who4 ,you could not call the stranger by name for you do not know his name1 and hence you say you4 ,and if you used your own name instead of me1 he would not recognize it1 and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little word who4 ,if you knew the stranger and he knew your name1 you might say1 ,can ,mr4 ,smith tell ,mr4 ,jones what person lives in the house on the corner4 ,but this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward4 ,so we have these little words like you and me and who1 which we use in place of nouns4 ,these words are called pronouns4 ,this word is taken from the ,latin also4 ,in the ,latin the word pro means in place of4 ,so the word pronoun means literally in place of a noun4 #dc4 ,a pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun4 ,these pronouns are very useful little words4 ,they save us a great deal of tiresome repetition4 ,notice the awkwardness of the following3 ,the workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the workers learn solidarity4 ,and yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea if we did not have pronouns4 ,instead we say3 ,the workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn solidarity4 #dd4 ,we will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons1 but we can readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns4 ,the most common pronouns are3 ,i you he she it we they me him her us them my your his her its our their that which who whose whom what ,exercise #c ,underscore the pronouns in the following story3 ,a man in ,south ,africa picked up a small piece of stone4 ,it was dirty and ,rough4 ,make me beautiful1 said the stone4 ,i shall have to hurt you1 said the man4 ,well1 if it hurts me1 ,i will bear it1 said the stone4 ,so the man took it to a clever craftsman1 who put it into a tight vise1 and cut it with his sharp instrument4 ,oh6 cried the stone4 ,and he ground it till the dust fell all about it4 ,oh6 cried the stone4 ,and he polished it very hard4 ,oh6 cried the stone4 ,and then he set it in a crown and sent it to the ,queen4 ,on a sunny day she wore her crown1 and the stone--it was a diamond--sparkled in long rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white4 ,and all the people greeted their queen4 ,she showed them her crown and they praised the beautiful stone4 ,the training was hard1 but the improvement was glorious4 ,,prepositions #de4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,i want the book on the box4 ,i want the book under the box4 ,i want the book in the box4 ,i want the book beside the box4 ,i want the book behind the box4 ,i want the book beyond the box4 ,do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any of the classes of words which we have studied8 ,i is a pronoun1 want is a verb1 the is an adjective1 book is a noun1 the is an adjective1 box is a noun2 but the words1 on1 under1 in1 beside1 behind and beyond are not nouns1 verbs1 adjectives1 adverbs or pronouns4 ,yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences without these words8 ,read the sentences without them1 and you will see that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between the book and the box4 ,and you will notice too that each word expresses a different relation1 for it means one thing to say on the box and another thing to say in the box1 and so through the list4 #df4 ,the words which are used to show this relation are called prepositions4 ,the groups of words introduced by the preposition1 like on the box and in the box1 and so on1 are called prepositional phrases4 ,the noun which follows a preposition as box follows the prepositions in1 on1 beside1 beyond1 etc41 is called the object of the preposition4 ,preposition is a word which comes into our language from the ,latin4 ,it is formed from the ,latin pre1 which means before1 and the ,latin verb which means to place1 so preposition means literally to place before4 ,it is given this name because it is placed before the noun or pronoun which is its object4 ,therefore our definition of a preposition is as follows3 #dg4 ,a preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word4 #dh4 ,either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,bring the book to me4 ,lay the book on the table4 ,he will speak to you4 ,i will speak to the man4 ,in these sentences the noun table is the object of the preposition on2 the pronoun me is the object of the preposition to2 and in the last two sentences the pronoun you and the noun man are the objects of the preposition to4 #di4 ,there are not many prepositions in the language and they are easily learned and easily distinguished4 ,here is a list of the most common and the most important prepositions4 ,use each one in a sentence4 at across around about among above against along behind beside between below beyond by before beneath down for from in into off on over to toward under up upon with within without ,exercise #d ,underscore the prepositions in the following sentences3 ,he went to the door and looked out upon the field4 ,over the river and through the woods1 to ,grandfather's house we go4 ,he saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him4 ,they went along the road1 across the bridge1 and hid among the trees at the foot of the hill4 ,they came from ,minneapolis down the river by boat4 ,the war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation4 ,the army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn4 ,his claim was within the law but without justice4 ,,conjunctions #ej4 ,we have found that the preposition is a very important connective word4 ,it connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other1 but the preposition is not the only connective word which we use in ,english4 ,we have another part of speech which performs an important function as a connective word4 ,notice the following sentence3 ,men and women struggle for their rights4 ,can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides the preposition for8 ,did you notice that little word and8 ,the noun men and the noun women are both subjects of the verb struggle1 and they are joined by this little connective word and4 ,if we did not have this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought1 thus3 ,men struggle for their rights4 ,women struggle for their rights4 ,but with the use of this connective word and we can combine these two sentences and express it all in one sentence3 ,men and women struggle for their rights4 ,this word is used in a different manner from the preposition4 ,the preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other4 ,when we say1 ,get the book on the table1 the phrase on the table designates the book just as much as if we had said1 ,get the green book4 ,so the use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words and to make one word describe or modify the other4 #ea4 ,this little word and in the sentence1 ,men and women struggle for their rights1 is a connective word also1 but it connects two words that are used in the same way1 so it is a different sort of connective word from the preposition4 ,words used in this way are called conjunctions4 ,conjunction is a word which is taken from the ,latin1 being made up of the ,latin word con1 which means together1 and the ,latin verb juncto1 which means to join4 ,so conjunction means literally to join together4 #eb4 ,a conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of sentences4 ,notice the following sentence3 ,the class struggle is waged on the political field and on the industrial field4 ,here we have the conjunction and connecting the two phrases on the political field and on the industrial field4 ,without the use of this connective word1 we would have to use two sentences to express these two thoughts3 ,the class struggle is waged on the political field4 ,the class struggle is waged on the industrial field4 #ec4 ,so a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words4 ,now notice the following sentences3 ,he will speak4 ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 and ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 but ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 if ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 therefore ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 because ,i will listen4 ,he will speak1 until ,i will listen4 #ed4 ,these sentences are joined by different conjunctions1 and the conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence4 ,the conjunction is a very useful part of speech4 ,without it we would have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the same words4 ,like prepositions1 there are not many conjunctions in ,english and they are readily recognized4 #ee4 ,we will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons4 ,if you consult the following list of those most commonly used1 you can easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading3 and as as if after although as soon as because besides before but either for hence in order that lest neither nor or since still so then though that than therefore till until unless while whether yet ,the seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our sentences4 ,the hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes4 ,they are either nouns1 pronouns1 verbs1 adverbs1 adjectives1 prepositions or conjunctions4 ,exercise #e ,underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences4 ,notice whether they connect words or phrases or sentences4 #a4 ,we cannot win unless we are organized4 #b4 ,books and music are true friends4 #c4 ,men1 women and children work under conditions neither proper nor just4 #d4 ,we must educate and organize4 #e4 ,the workers on the farms and in the factories must be united4 #f4 ,winter has come and the birds are going ,south4 #g4 ,we have been ignorant1 therefore we have been exploited4 #h4 ,we must learn before we can teach4 #i4 ,we do not understand the situation1 because we do not know the facts4 #aj4 ,do you know whether these statements are true or false8 ,,it ,,can ,,be ,,done ,somebody said that it couldn't be done1 ,but he1 with a chuckle1 replied ,that maybe it couldn't1 but he would be one ,who wouldn't say so till he tried4 ,so he buckled right in1 with a trace of a grin ,on his face4 ,if he worried he hid it4 ,he started to sing as he tackled the thing ,that couldn't be done--and he did it4 ,somebody scoffed1 ,oh1 you'll never do that2 ,at least no one ever has done it4 ,but he took off his coat and he took off his hat1 ,and the first thing we knew he'd begun it2 ,with the lift of his chin1 and a bit of a grin1 ,without any doubting or quiddit1 ,he started to sing as he tackled the thing ,that couldn't be done--and he did it4 ,there are thousands to tell you it can not be done2 ,there are thousands to prophesy failure2 ,there are thousands to point out to you1 one by one1 ,the dangers that wait to assail you4 ,but buckle right in1 with a lift of your chin1 ,then take off your coat and go to it2 ,just start in to sing as you tackle the thing ,that can not be done1--and you'll do it4 ,,interjections #ef4 ,there is another class of words which we use with sentences1 but which are really not parts of the sentences4 ,they are emotional expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to the invented language4 ,for example3 ,oh6 ,you hurt me6 ,aha6 ,now ,i have you4 ,oh1 used in this way1 is very apt to sound like a groan1 and aha like a shout of triumph4 ,these words do not really belong in the construction of the sentence4 ,the sentence would be complete without them1 but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies the thought4 ,we call expressions such as these interjections4 ,interjection is from the ,latin and means literally thrown into the midst of4 ,it comes from the ,latin word inter1 which means between1 and the ,latin verb jecto1 to throw1 so it literally means to throw between4 ,some of these words imitate sounds1 as for example3 ,bang6 ,there goes another shot4 ,ding-dong6 ,there goes the first bell4 ,we do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific subjects that express deep thought1 but you will find them often used in poetry1 fiction1 oratory or any emotional writing4 ,therefore we have our definition of an interjection3 #eg4 ,an interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound4 #eh4 ,following is a list of commonly used interjections4 ,use them in sentences of your own4 oh hello bravo ahoy aha hurrah bow wow ssh alas hist whirr pshaw fie whoa ding-dong rub-a-dub ,exercise #f ,mark the interjections in the following sentences4 ,notice those which express emotion and those which imitate sound4 #a4 ,oh6 ,is it possible4 #b4 ,hurrah6 ,we have good news at last4 #c4 ,whirr6 ,whirr6 goes the giant machine4 #d4 ,come6 ,keep up your courage4 #e4 ,what6 ,i cannot believe it4 #f4 ,courage6 ,we shall yet win4 #g4 ,bravo6 ,let those words ring down the centuries4 #h4 ,ding-dong6 the bells ring out the hour6 ,,spelling ,,lesson #c ,since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds1 some of these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound4 ,of the forty-two elementary sounds1 eighteen are vowel sounds1 but we have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds1 so each vowel has several different sounds4 ,therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words4 ,when you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation4 ,these signs are called diacritical marks4 ,the following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels4 ,study this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up4 ,when you have determined the correct pronunciation of the word1 repeat it over to yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to the correct pronunciation4 ,different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation4 ,this table is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this course--,winston's ,new ,universal ,self-,pronouncing ,dictionary4 ,key to ,pronunciation a as in late1 fade4 as in mar1 father4 4a as in mask1 dance4 a as in cat1 had4 aw as in awl1 fall4 e as in he1 feet4 e as in her1 verge4 e as in let1 men4 i as in line1 time4 i as in tin1 little4 o as in vote1 home4 as in orb1 form4 o as in lot1 odd4 oi as in oil1 join4 oo as in moon1 school4 oo as in cook1 foot4 ou as in out1 house4 u as in mute1 unit4 u as in nut1 drum4 ,the spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the different vowel sounds4 ,look up in your dictionary and mark all the a's in ,monday's lesson1 all the e's in ,tuesday's lesson1 all the i's in ,wednesday's lesson1 all the o's in ,thursday's lesson1 and all the u's in ,friday's lesson4 ,in ,saturday's lesson note the use of w and y as vowels4 ,monday ,pause ,adjective ,lazy ,quality ,advance ,tuesday ,resemble ,descend ,adverb ,interjection ,complete ,wednesday ,limit ,define ,distinct ,imprison ,civilize ,thursday ,form ,footsteps ,proof ,report ,common ,friday ,union ,under ,unusual ,summer ,commune ,saturday ,comply ,employ ,vowel ,news ,lawful ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #d ,dear ,comrade3 ,we are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language1 the words that are the names of things4 ,if we could trace these names of things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men we would have a progressive history of mankind4 ,way back yonder in the dim dawn of history1 men lived upon fruit and nuts4 ,they had no knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required cooking4 ,they communicated with one another by signs4 ,then they discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow4 ,they could now use fish and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech4 ,this stage has been called the ,middle ,stage of ,savagery4 ,with the invention of the bow and arrow1 began the third stage of savagery which merged into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery4 ,there are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic alphabet and the production of literary records4 ,all tribes that have never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use of writing are classed as barbarians4 ,civilization began with the spoken and written language and it has been well said that all that separates us from savagery is a wall of books4 ,it is upon the accumulated wisdom of the past that we build4 ,without this we would be helpless4 ,so these various names of things have come to us with developing evolving life4 ,as the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of fire1 as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils2 to heat and forge the iron into weapons2 to conquer nature in all her phases1 to feed the race1 to clothe the race1 to shelter the race more adequately1 our language has grown in volume1 strength and beauty4 ,the study of words and their uses is of great importance to you4 ,master the few rules necessary and watch your words daily4 ,we are living in an age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a vocabulary as the men of those bygone days1 who had never dreamed of the marvels that are commonplace to us4 ,as you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and choose the words that most aptly express your ideas4 ,listen to good ,english spoken as often as you can4 ,read good ,english4 ,mark the difference between good and bad ,english and gradually you will find yourself using good ,english naturally and continually4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,classes ,,of ,,nouns #ei4 ,we have learned that the words in a sentence are classified according to the work which each word does4 ,the words which assert are called verbs2 the words which are the names of things are called nouns4 ,but now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes according to the special work which they perform4 ,just as we may gather the people of the world into one great class1 the working class1 then classify them according to the industry in which they work1 thus some are farmers1 some teachers1 some factory workers2 then each class may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform1 as truck farmers1 high school teachers1 machinists1 etc4 ,so we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their meaning in the sentence4 ,in the sentence1 ,lincoln was a man of the people1 we have two nouns referring to the same person1 ,lincoln and man1 but they are different kinds of names4 ,the word man is a name that may apply to any one of a million persons but the name ,lincoln applies to one person only4 ,some nouns1 then1 represent a thing as being of a certain kind or class1 without showing which particular one is meant4 ,other nouns are names given to designate a particular individual4 ,these are called common and proper nouns4 #fj4 ,a proper noun is a special name meant for only one person1 place or thing4 ,all other nouns are common nouns4 ,a common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class of objects4 ,every proper noun should begin with a capital letter4 ,indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under the letters that ought to be capitals3 king month city france dog virginia war wilson november doctor colonel napoleon chicago governor independence day freedom ocean atlantic ocean thanksgiving thanksgiving day uncle william thursday week general sherman karl marx union labor united mine workers newspaper the daily call ,write the special or proper names of several individuals in each of the following classes3--as city1--,chicago1 ,new ,york1 etc4 ,river1 king1 author1 country1 state1 inventor1 martyr1 month1 book1 college4 ,,collective ,,nouns #fa4 ,some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and are called collective nouns4 ,many soldiers taken together form collectively an army--a number of sheep form a drove4 ,many of these group or collective nouns will readily occur to your mind4 ,a collective noun is one that in the singular form1 denotes a number of separate persons or things4 ,exercise #a ,opposite each of the following collective nouns1 write the name of the individuals represented by the collection2 as an army of soldiers2 a swarm of bees2 a flock of birds4 ,a gang of444444 ,a committee of444444 ,a herd of444444 ,a drove of444444 ,a hive of444444 ,a corps of444444 ,a suite of444444 ,a group of444444 ,a class of444444 ,a multitude of444444 ,fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns4 ,a444444of horses4 ,a444444of sailors4 ,a444444of wolves4 ,a444444of savages4 ,a444444of singers4 ,a444444of girls4 ,a444444of ships4 ,a444444of quail4 ,a444444of birds4 ,a444444of workers4 ,,abstract ,,nouns #fb4 ,when primitive man began to name the objects about him1 doubtless he first named the things which he could see1 hear1 taste1 smell and touch1--the objects which he could perceive by the five senses4 ,then gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities which he could consider apart from the object itself4 ,he hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making his arrow-heads4 ,for this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he could find1 so hardness became something which he could think of as something apart from the object itself4 ,he saw the men about him and found a name for them4 ,then he knew that some men were stronger than others1 so strength was a quality which he could consider apart from the man himself4 ,these men performed certain actions2 they ran1 they climbed1--so running and climbing became actions which he could think of as something apart from any individual4 ,he noted too that men lived in certain conditions2 for example1 some men were free1 some were slaves1 so he came to think of slavery and freedom as conditions which could be thought of as something apart from the individual4 ,so we draw away1 or separate certain ideas2 the quality from the thing which has it and the action from the thing which does it and the condition from the thing which is in it4 ,these nouns which are used to describe these qualities1 actions or conditions are called abstract nouns4 ,abstract is a word derived from the ,latin abs1 away from1 and tractus1 drawn1 so it literally means drawn away from4 ,the nouns which are names of things which we can see1 hear1 taste1 smell and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called concrete nouns4 #fc4 ,a concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived by one or more of the five senses4 ,an abstract noun is the name of a quality1 a condition or an action4 #fd4 ,you remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects1 as for example--good1 noble1 honest1 true1 wise1 etc4 ,since abstract nouns are the names of qualities1 many of our abstract nouns are formed from adjectives4 ,study carefully the following list of adjectives and nouns4 ,note that the word is an adjective when it is used with a noun to describe certain qualities4 ,it is a noun when it is used by itself to name that quality4 ,adjectives ,abstract ,nouns #a4 honest honesty #b4 pure purity #c4 true truth #d4 strong strength #e4 wise wisdom #f4 good goodness #g4 bold boldness #h4 just justice #i4 silent silence #aj4 wide width #aa4 patient patience #ab4 stupid stupidity #fe4 ,you will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name actions4 ,the verb is the part of speech which expresses action1 therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs4 ,notice the following list3 ,verbs ,abstract ,nouns #a4 learn learning #b4 invent invention #c4 choose choice #d4 defend defense #e4 try trial #f4 judge judgment #g4 read reading #h4 please pleasure #i4 elect election #aj4 move motion #ff4 ,an abstract noun is also the name of a condition4 ,these nouns are derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing which is in the condition4 ,concrete ,nouns ,abstract ,nouns #a4 slave slavery #b4 friend friendship #c4 thief theft #d4 man manhood #e4 child childhood #f4 leader leadership #g4 hero heroism #h4 martyr martyrdom ,exercise #b ,form abstract nouns from the following adjectives1 verbs and nouns4 long simple rapid lovely loyal fresh prove sing run behave believe reflect write child agent infant rascal clerk president coward ,,number ,,form #fg4 ,so we find that we classify our nouns according to the special work which they do4 ,now sometimes we find it necessary to change the form of the noun to make it express our thought4 ,thus we say1 book1 man1 boy1 knife1 when we wish to express the idea of only one of each object mentioned4 ,but when we wish to express the idea of more than one of them1 we say1 books1 men1 boys1 knives4 ,we say1 ,the boy calls2 the boys call4 ,the form of the noun boy is changed by adding an s to it4 ,the meaning has also changed4 ,boy denotes one lad2 boys denotes two or more lads4 ,any change in form and meaning of words is called inflection4 ,the change to denote more than one object is called number4 ,the word boy1 denoting one is in the singular number2 the word boys1 denoting more than one is in the plural number4 #fh4 ,inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a different application or use4 ,number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more than one4 ,the singular number denotes one thing4 ,the plural number denotes more than one thing4 ,there are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must know1 and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling4 #fi4 ,most nouns form their plural by adding s--thus3 boat boats day days book books boy boys ,long ago in early ,english all plurals were formed by adding es1 and you will read in the first translation of the ,bible1 for instance1 such words as bird-es1 cloud-es4 ,later the e was dropped and s added to the singular without an increase of syllables4 ,but when the singular ends in an s sound1 the original syllable es is retained1 for two hissing sounds will not unite4 #gj4 ,so nouns ending in s1 x1 z1 sh or soft ch1 form the plural by adding es to the singular4 ,these words end with a sound so much like that of s that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without making another syllable4 ,thus3 class classes tax taxes topaz topazes wish wishes ditch ditches #ga4 ,in words ending with the s sound but with a final e1 only s is added to form the plural1 but in pronouncing the word we then have two syllables1 thus3 house houses place places size sizes cage cages niche niches #gb4 ,letters1 figures1 signs1 etc41 are made plural by adding an apostrophe and the letter s 7's71 thus3 ,cross your t's and dot your i's4 ,do you know the table of #d's8 ,while most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding s or es1 there are some nouns that form their plural by some other change in the form of the word4 #gc4 ,notice the following list of words and their plurals3 fly flies city cities key keys day days story stories enemy enemies tray trays boy boys ,these nouns all end in y1 yet they form the plural differently4 ,some simply add s and the rest change the y to i and add es4 ,can you discover the reason8 ,wherever the y is preceded by a vowel1 as e in key1 a in tray1 o in boy1 the plural is formed by adding s4 ,but when the y is preceded by a consonant1 as l in fly1 r in story1 t in city1 and m in enemy1 the y is changed to i and es added in forming the plural4 ,if the singular ends in y after a consonant1 change y to i and add es in the plural4 #gd4 ,there are thirteen nouns ending in f and three in fe which form the plural in ves4 ,they are3 beef beeves calf calves elf elves half halves leaf leaves loaf loaves self selves sheaf sheaves shelf shelves staff staves thief thieves wharf wharves wolf wolves knife knives life lives wife wives ,all other nouns in f or fe are regular2 adding only s1 to form the plural4 #ge4 ,about forty nouns ending in o after a consonant form the plural in es4 ,the most common ones are3 buffalo cargo potato tomato negro veto cargo echo calico embargo hero mulatto mosquito motto tornado volcano torpedo flamingo ,most nouns ending in o form the plural regularly1 adding only s1 as pianos1 banjos1 cameos1 etc4 #gf4 ,a few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without adding s or es4 ,the most common of these words are3 man men goose geese ox oxen woman women foot feet mouse mice brother brethren tooth teeth child children louse lice #gg4 ,proper nouns1 when made plural1 generally follow the same rule as common nouns4 ,thus we write3 ,all the ,smiths1 the ,joneses1 both the ,miss ,johnsons1 one of the ,dr4 ,davidsons1 and the ,mrs4 ,wilsons1 were present4 ,but to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in changing the form of a proper noun1 we do not change its form in writing the plurals2 for example3 ,there were eight ,henrys1 kings of ,england4 ,the two ,marys reigned in the kingdom4 ,it would be confusing to say eight ,henries1 the two ,maries4 ,the title is made plural when several are referred to1 thus3 ,mr4 ,hayes ,the ,messrs4 ,hayes ,miss ,smith ,the ,misses ,smith #gh4 ,the title is made plural when used with several names1 thus3 ,messrs4 ,brown and ,white4 ,generals ,lee and ,grant4 ,drs4 ,long and ,larson4 #gi4 ,in the case of nouns formed of two or more words1 when the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought of separately the s is added to the whole compound word1 as four-in-hands2 forget-me-nots2 court-yards2 spoonfuls2 green-houses2 etc4 ,but when one of the parts is more important than the others1 the s is added to the more important part1 thus3 mothers-in-law commanders-in-chief hangers-on men-of-war by-standers attorneys-at-law passers-by step-sons #hj4 ,we have many words in our language taken from other languages4 ,they do not form the plural in these languages as we do1 and some of these words retain their foreign plurals4 ,some of the most commonly used of these nouns are the following3 ,singular ,plural alumnus alumni analysis analyses axis axes datum data erratum errata ellipsis ellipses appendix appendices bacterium bacteria basis bases crisis crises parenthesis parentheses radius radii terminus termini hypothesis hypotheses larva larvae madame mesdames memorandum memoranda phenomenon phenomena stratum strata thesis theses #ha4 ,the following nouns are treated as singular3 news1 pains 7meaning care71 acoustics1 mathematics1 economics1 ethics1 molasses1 physics1 politics1 and other nouns ending in ics except athletics4 ,with these always use the s-form of the verb4 ,for example3 ,the news is distorted4 ,not1 ,the news are distorted4 ,economics is an important study4 ,not1 ,economics are1 etc4 #hb4 ,the following nouns are always plural3 alms annals amends antipodes bellows billiards clothes dregs eaves fireworks hysterics measles mumps matins nippers nuptials oats premises proceeds pincers riches rickets suds scissors thanks tidings tongs trousers vitals victuals vespers ,with all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with the plural subject4 ,thus3 ,alms are given4 ,riches are easily lost4 #hc4 ,the following nouns have the same form for both plural and singular1 corps1 cannon1 deer1 grouse1 heathen1 hose1 means1 odds1 series1 sheep1 species1 swine1 vermin1 wages4 ,you can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the meaning of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,the cannon is loaded4 ,here we are speaking of one cannon4 ,the cannon used in the war are of tremendous size4 ,here we know are meant all the big guns used in the war4 ,when you say1 ,the sheep is lost1 we know you mean one sheep1 but when you say1 ,the sheep are in the pasture1 we know you mean the entire drove4 #hd4 ,when preceded by a numeral1 the following nouns have the same form for both singular and plural4 ,without the numerals1 the plural is formed by the adding of s2 brace1 couple1 dozen1 hundred1 pair1 score1 thousand1 yoke4 ,for example3 ,thousands enlisted4 ,three thousand enlisted4 ,dozens came at my call4 ,two dozen came when ,i called4 ,,gender #he4 ,all of the changes we have studied so far have been for the purpose of indicating number2 but among the nouns that name living beings1 many change to show to which sex the object named belongs4 ,these nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the feminine4 ,this is called gender4 ,gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex4 ,the nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns4 ,the nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns4 #hf4 ,the feminine form is generally made by the addition of ess to the masculine form4 ,thus3 prince princess master mistress host hostess count countess tiger tigress lion lioness actor actress god goddess #hg4 ,names of things without sex are1 of course1 of neither gender1 and are called neuter nouns4 ,neuter means literally neither4 ,such nouns as mountain1 iron1 river1 chair1 are neuter4 ,sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine4 ,thus3 king queen lord lady man woman youth maiden sir madam stag hind #hh4 ,many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and female1 and are said to be of common gender4 ,as woman enters more and more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man1 the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently1 and what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes1 thus3 ,poet1 waiter1 doctor1 editor--these nouns are used for both men and women4 ,,possessive ,,form #hi4 ,there is just one more change made in the form of a noun1 and that is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing4 ,thus we write3 ,john's book4 ,the boy's hat4 ,and since this form of the noun denotes possession1 it is called the possessive form4 ,some grammarians call this the possessive case4 ,the possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and s1 7's72 thus1 day's1 lady's1 girl's1 clerk's4 ,to plural nouns ending in s add only an apostrophe2 thus1 days'1 ladies'1 girls'1 clerks'4 ,when plural nouns do not end in s1 their possessive forms are made by adding the apostrophe and s1 the same as singular nouns1 thus3 ,they make men's and women's shoes4 #ij4 ,in words which end with a sound that resembles that of s1 the apostrophe with s forms an additional syllable4 ,thus3 ,james's 7pronounced ,james-ez47 ,mr4 ,lynch's 7pronounced ,lynch-ez47 ,the only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another s would make too many hissing sounds1 then we add the apostrophe alone4 ,thus3 ,for goodness' sake4 ,in ,jesus' name4 #ia4 ,in forming the possessive of compound nouns1 the possessive sign is always placed at the end1 thus3 ,my son-in-law's sister4 ,the man-of-war's cannon4 #ib4 ,when we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons who are joint owners of it1 we add the possessive sign to the last word only1 thus3 ,carson1 ,price and ,scott's store4 ,mason and ,hamlin's pianos4 ,if it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote1 we place the possessive sign after each name1 thus3 ,bring me ,john's and ,mary's books4 ,lee's and ,grant's armies met in battle4 ,remember that the noun has just three changes in form1 one for the plural number1 one to denote gender and one for the possessive form4 ,watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if these changes are correctly made4 ,exercise #c ,write the plural form of each of the following3 ax beef chief hero knife ,t hoof man-of-war axis basis cherry leaf son-in-law ,mr4 ,smith thief ,doctor ,wood alley buffalo chimney staff ,frenchman ,miss ,brown ox spoonful alto calf cargo two #c tooth foot turkey ,exercise #d ,underscore the nouns in the following3 ,how many abstract nouns8 ,how many concrete8 ,how many singular8 ,how many plural8 ,,five ,,and ,,fifty ,charlotte ,perkins ,gilman ,if fifty men did all the work ,and gave the price to five2 ,and let those five make all the rules-- ,you'd say the fifty men were fools1 ,unfit to be alive4 ,and if you heard complaining cries ,from fifty brawny men1 ,blaming the five for graft and greed1 ,injustice1 cruelty indeed-- ,what would you call them then8 ,not by their own superior force ,do five on fifty live1 ,but by election and assent-- ,and privilege of government-- ,powers that the fifty give4 ,if fifty men are really fools-- ,and five have all the brains-- ,the five must rule as now we find2 ,but if the fifty have the mind-- ,why don't they take the reins8 ,exercise #e ,select all the nouns in the following4 ,write their singular1 plural and possessive forms4 ,decide whether they are abstract or concrete1 common or proper or collective1 masculine1 feminine or neuter4 ,brother6 ,whoever you are1 wherever you are on all the earth1 ,i greet you4 ,i extend to you my right hand4 ,i make you a pledge4 ,here is my pledge to you3-- ,i refuse to kill your father4 ,i refuse to slay your mother's son4 ,i refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother4 ,i refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover4 ,i refuse to murder your wife's husband4 ,i refuse to butcher your little child's father4 ,i refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears4 ,i refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds of any flag4 ,will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working class8--,kirkpatrick4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #d ,some of our consonants also have more than one sound4 ,we have also certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound4 ,this combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph1 as gh1 in cough1 ch in church4 ,a digraph may either be a combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a consonant4 ,the following table contains the consonants which have more than one sound3 c--k as in cat c--s as in vice g--j as in ginger g--hard as in go s--sh as in sure s--zh as in usual s--soft as in also s--z as in does x--soft as in extra x--gz as in exist ,the following table gives the digraphs most commonly used3 ng--as in ring1 tongue ch--as in church and much ch--k as in chasm ch--sh as in chagrin th--as in then1 those th--as in thin and worth ce--sh as in ocean ci--sh as in special dg--j as in edge gh--f as in rough ph--f as in sylph qu--kw as in quart qu--k as in conquer sh--as in shall si--sh as in tension si--zh as in vision ti--sh as in motion ,the use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds4 ,notice the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week4 ,mark the consonants and digraphs4 ,monday ,commence ,certain ,general ,gradual ,sugar ,tuesday ,soldier ,season ,pleasure ,exact ,exercise ,wednesday ,singular ,chemistry ,chapter ,machine ,changing ,thursday ,theory ,thither ,ocean ,racial ,budget ,friday ,philosophy ,enough ,quorum ,bouquet ,phonetic ,saturday ,permission ,asia ,attention ,marshall ,martial ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #e ,dear ,comrade3 ,we want to say just a word about the lesson assignment4 ,this has been arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal4 ,it is not intended that you should slavishly follow it4 ,we thoroughly believe in individuality and all that contributes toward its development4 ,but we are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of liberty4 ,whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we necessarily limit our activities in some other direction4 ,power comes by concentration of force4 ,whenever we combine with others for the accomplishment of any purpose1 it becomes necessary to have some plan of action and we give and take for the end which we have in view4 ,the musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up his liberty4 ,he has only found a new freedom which enables him to make glorious music where only discord reigned before4 ,system in our work does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of real freedom4 ,so use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find expression for your real individuality in full freedom4 ,this is the first of several lessons concerning verbs4 ,the verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master1 so do not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not understand4 ,succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points4 ,keep your eyes open as you read every day1 and be careful of your spelling and pronunciation4 ,some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day4 ,in a student's letter we recently noted that1 with our letter before him in which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled1 he spelled ,college1 ,colledge4 ,do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is worthy of you4 ,demand the best for yourself4 ,read aloud this little verse from the ,good ,grey ,poet1 ,walt ,whitman3 ,o1 the joy of a manly self-hood2 ,to be servile to none1 to defer to none1 not to any tyrant known or unknown1 ,to walk with erect carriage1 a step springy and elastic1 ,to look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye1 ,to speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest1 ,to confront with your personality all the other personalities of the earth4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,the ,,word ,,that ,,asserts #ic4 ,you remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts4 ,the life of a sentence is the verb1 for without the verb we cannot assert1 question or command4 ,it was on account of this importance that the ,romans called the verb1 verbum1 which meant the word4 ,verbs1 like nouns1 are divided into classes4 #id4 ,in some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a complete assertion1 but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be followed by one or more words to complete the assertion4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,the boy ran4 ,the boy found the ball4 ,the earth revolves4 ,the earth is round4 ,do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences8 ,notice that the verbs ran and revolves make the complete assertion about their subjects4 ,notice the verbs found and is4 ,these are not complete without the addition of the words ball and round4 ,if we say ,the boy found1 ,the earth is1 you at once ask1 ,the boy found ,,what8 ,the earth is ,,what8 ,the sense is incomplete without the addition of these words ball and round4 ,a part of the thought is unexpressed2 but when we say ,the boy found the ball1 ,the earth is round1 the sense is complete4 ,so we have two classes of verbs1 ,,complete ,,and ,,incomplete ,,verbs4 #ie4 ,an incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or more words to complete its meaning4 ,the word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning are called the complement4 ,a complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its meaning4 #if4 ,you can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is incomplete by asking the question ,what8 ,if you put the question what after the verb1 and it makes a sensible question the verb is incomplete4 ,for example3 ,farmers raise--what8 ,the employer discharged--what8 ,we were--what8 ,the earth is--what8 ,if the question what8 does not make sense after the verb1 then the verb is complete4 ,for example3 ,the sun shines4 ,water flows4 ,men work4 ,the question what after these verbs would not make sense1 as3 ,the sun shines--what8 ,men work--what8 ,water flows--what8 ,so these verbs are complete verbs4 #ig4 ,the same verb1 however1 may be complete or incomplete1 according to the way in which it is used4 ,for example3 ,the corn grows4 ,the farmer grows corn4 ,in the sentence1 ,corn grows1 grows is a complete verb4 ,you could not say ,the corn grows--what8 for it does not grow anything4 ,it merely grows1 and the verb grows in this sense is a complete verb4 ,but in the sentence1 ,the farmer grows corn1 you are using the verb grows in a slightly different sense4 ,it is an incomplete verb1 for you do not mean1 ,the farmer grows1 but you mean that the farmer grows ,,corn4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences1 underscore the complete verbs with one line1 the incomplete with two lines4 ,ask the question what8 after each verb to determine whether it is complete or incomplete4 ,he returned today4 ,he returned the book4 ,the rose smells sweet4 ,he smelled the rose4 ,the trees shake in the wind4 ,the wind shakes the trees4 ,the ship plows through the waves4 ,the farmer plows the field4 ,the birds sing sweetly4 ,they sang the ,marseillaise4 ,he worries over the matter4 ,the matters worry him4 ,the table feels rough4 ,he feels the rough surface4 ,it tastes bitter4 ,he tasted the bitter dregs4 ,exercise #b ,use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete verbs1 as for example1 ,the snow melts4 ,the sun melts the snow4 melts write stopped answer rings fall see strike ,,incomplete ,,verbs #ih4 ,do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following sentences3 ,the boy found the ball4 ,the earth is round4 ,in the sentence1 ,the boy found the ball1 the word ball tells what the boy found4 ,the verb found expresses action2 it tells what the boy does4 ,boy is the subject of the action--the one who performs the action4 ,the word ball is the object of the action4 ,it shows the receiver of the action4 ,in the sentence1 ,the earth is round1 is does not express action4 ,the earth is not doing anything1 it simply is4 ,the verb is expresses a state or condition and is incomplete1 for you do not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other word or words which describe the state or condition4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,the earth is round4 ,the earth is our home4 ,the earth is a sphere4 ,the earth is large4 ,the words round1 sphere1 home and large1 describe the earth which is the subject of the verb is4 #ii4 ,so we have two classes of incomplete verbs1 the verbs that express action and the verbs that express state or condition4 ,the verbs which express action are called transitive verbs4 ,transitive is a word derived from the ,latin1 and means literally passing over4 #ajj4 ,so a transitive verb describes an action which passes over from the subject to the object4 ,as for example in the sentence1 ,the player struck the ball1 struck is a transitive verb--a verb of action--describing the action of the subject1 player1 which passes over to the object1 ball4 ,therefore we have our definition of a transitive verb3 ,a transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what receives the action expressed by the verb4 ,the complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed by a transitive verb is called the object4 ,when you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary1 you will find some verbs marked v4i41 and some verbs marked v4t4 ,v4t4 is the abbreviation for verb transitive4 ,whenever you find a verb marked v4t41 you know that it is a transitive verb1 a verb of action1 one which requires an object to complete its meaning4 ,v4i4 is the abbreviation for verb intransitive4 ,some grammarians use the term intransitive to include both complete and copulative verbs4 ,we have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs1 but you will remember that when you find verbs marked v4i4 in the dictionary that these include complete and copulative verbs4 #aja4 ,now notice these sentences3 ,the earth is round4 ,the earth is a sphere4 ,in these sentences the verb is does not express action1 but connects or couples the complements round and sphere with the subject earth4 ,verbs used in this way are called copulative verbs1 from the word copula1 which means to complete or to connect4 ,the words round and sphere are not the objects of the verb1 for they do not describe the receiver of any action4 ,they are the words which describe the state or condition expressed in the verb is1 and are called the attribute complement of the verb4 ,you note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun4 ,in the sentence1 ,the earth is round1 the adjective1 round1 is used as the complement2 in the sentence1 ,the earth is a sphere1 the noun1 sphere1 is used as the complement4 ,so we have our definition of copulative verbs4 #ajb4 ,verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs4 ,the word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb expressing state or condition1 are called the complement1 or attribute complement4 ,there are only a few of these copulative verbs4 ,all forms of the verb1 be2 like am1 is1 are1 was and were1 and the verb phrases like must be1 can be1 will be1 shall be1 have been1 had been1 etc42 and the verbs seem1 appear1 become1 look1 feel1 taste1 sound and smell1 are the principal copulative verbs4 ,exercise #c ,study carefully the following sentences4 ,note whether the complement of the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun4 ,draw one line under each adjective used as a complement and two lines under each noun used as a complement4 ,the day is beautiful4 ,i am weary and tired4 ,the men were soldiers4 ,the tasks seem endless4 ,all men must be free4 ,the workers have been slaves4 ,the burden becomes heavier every day4 ,the children feel happy and care-free4 ,evolution is the development of life4 ,grammar is the study of words and their use4 ,knowledge is freedom4 ,the music sounds sweet on the midnight air4 ,he looks well today4 ,the dregs taste bitter4 ,the incense smells sweet4 ,exercise #d ,complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement4 #a4 ,perseverance in your study will bring4444444 #b4 ,the great need of the working class is4444444 #c4 ,we shall never acknowledge4444444 #d4 ,by the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat4444444 #e4 ,the ,revolutionary fathers founded4444444 #f4 ,the workers demand4444444 #g4 ,labor's only road to freedom is4444444 #h4 ,life1 liberty and the pursuit of happiness are4444444 #i4 ,if you struggle1 you will gain4444444 #aj4 ,an incomplete verb requires4444444 #aa4 ,the complement of a transitive verb is called4444444 #ab4 ,the complement of a copulative verb may be either444444or4444444 #ajc4 ,there are two classes of verbs1 complete and incomplete4 ,a complete verb is one that requires no complement4 ,an incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its meaning4 ,incomplete verbs are of two kinds3 #a4 ,those that express action2 #b4 ,those that express state or condition4 ,incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs4 ,incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs4 ,the complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed in a transitive verb is called the object4 ,the word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are called the complement1 or attribute complement4 ,the same verb may be complete or incomplete1 according to the way in which it is used4 ,exercise #e ,in the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs and a double line under the incomplete verbs4 ,then determine whether the incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs1 and draw a line through the object or the complement4 #a4 ,some plants are poisonous4 #b4 ,a rolling stone gathers no moss4 #c4 ,perseverance brings success4 #d4 ,delays are dangerous4 #e4 ,a man's actions show his character4 #f4 ,he looks well and feels stronger4 #g4 ,the snows come and the flowers fade4 #h4 ,labor creates all wealth4 #i4 ,labor must be free4 #aj4 ,the boy writes well4 #aa4 ,the man wrote a letter4 #ab4 ,the skies are clear4 #ac4 ,the hail destroyed the wheat4 #ad4 ,no man is ever too old to learn4 #ae4 ,competition makes enemies4 #af4 ,co-operation makes friends4 #ag4 ,competition breeds hatred4 #ah4 ,co-operation breeds good will4 #ai4 ,competition ensures war4 #bj4 ,co-operation ensures peace4 ,exercise #f ,in the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in italics4 ,determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs4 ,if incomplete1 determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs4 ,draw a line under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the complement of every copulative verb4 ,remember that sometimes we have several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb4 ,watch for the verb phrases in the following1 as for example3 must be1 in the sentence1 ,labor must be free4 ,the history of man is simply the history of slavery4 ,slavery includes all other crimes4 ,it degrades labor and corrupts leisure4 ,with the idea that labor is the basis of progress goes the truth that labor must be free4 ,the laborer must be a free man4 ,there is something wrong in a government where honesty wears a rag and rascality dons a robe2 where the loving eat a crust while the infamous sit at banquets4 ,talk about equal opportunity6 ,capitalism ties a balloon to the shoulders of the rich child2 it ties a ball and chain to the feet of the poor child2 and tells them that they have an equal opportunity6 ,once the master hunted for the slaves1 now the slave hunts for a master4 ,exercise #g ,mark the verbs in the following poem4 ,often in poetry words are omitted which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed4 ,as for example in the fourth line of this poem which are1 is omitted before the word bought4 ,in prose this would read1 ,the pews which are bought by the profits1 etc4 ,so the word bought is a part of the verb phrase1 are bought4 ,in the last line of the third stanza there is another omission before the word planning4 ,the meaning is1 while they are planning slaughter4 ,planning is a part of the verb phrase are planning4 ,and in the last line is is omitted before the word beloved4 ,is beloved is the verb phrase4 ,determine whether the verbs in this poem are complete1 transitive or copulative1 and mark the objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs4 ,,who ,,is ,a ,,christian8 ,ella ,wheeler ,wilcox ,who is a ,christian in this ,christian land ,of many churches and of lofty spires8 ,not he who sits in soft1 upholstered pews ,bought by the profits of unholy greed1 ,and looks devotion while he thinks of gain4 ,not he who sends petitions from the lips ,that lie to-morrow in the street and mart4 ,not he who fattens on another's toil1 ,and flings his unearned riches to the poor ,or aids the heathen with a lessened wage1 ,and builds cathedrals with an increased rent4 ,christ1 with ,thy great1 sweet1 simple creed of love1 ,how must ,thou weary of earth's ,christian clans1 ,who preach salvation through ,thy saving blood ,while planning slaughter of their fellow men4 ,who is a ,christian8 ,it is one whose life ,is built on love1 on kindness and on faith2 ,who holds his brother as his other self2 ,who toils for justice1 equity and peace1 ,and hides no aim or purpose in his heart ,that will not chord with universal good4 ,though he be a pagan1 heretic or ,jew ,that man is ,christian and beloved of ,christ4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #e ,we often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound1 as ou in round1 oi in oil1 etc4 ,a diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single sound different from that of either alone4 ,sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound4 ,only one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as ai in rain1 oa in soap1 etc4 ,the most common diphthongs are3 ou as in sound4 ow as in owl4 oi as in oil4 oy as in boy4 ,in the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the combination of vowels forms a diphthong4 ,in some of the words the combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the vowels is sounded4 ,draw a line through the silent letter4 ,monday ,straight ,aisle ,search ,breadth ,defeat ,tuesday ,exploit ,ceiling ,height ,people ,feudal ,wednesday ,brought ,shoulder ,group ,compound ,trouble ,thursday ,royal ,coarse ,course ,broad ,flower ,friday ,laughter ,haunted ,plaid ,invoice ,chair ,saturday ,guide ,build ,grieve ,sieve ,renown ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #f ,dear ,comrade3 ,we have this week another lesson in verbs4 ,do not be discouraged if you do not understand it all at once4 ,little by little1 it will grow clearer and you will master this important word4 ,the verb may seem involved to you1 but a little application will soon make it clear4 ,it is the most important word in the language to master4 ,it almost seems as though the verb were a living1 thinking thing4 ,it changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number form and person form change4 ,if it is entertaining a subject in the singular it adopts one dress2 if it is entertaining a plural subject1 more than one1 the verb wears a different dress4 ,so also if the subject is the first person1 the person speaking1 or the second person1 the person spoken to1 or the third person1 the person spoken of1 the verb accommodates itself to the subject4 ,the verb is the most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject6 ,so watch your verb and see that it agrees4 ,refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms4 ,then1 too1 the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the time of the action--action in the present1 in the past1 in the future--action completed before the present time--before some time past--or before some future time--and action progressing and not yet completed in the present1 in the past or in the future4 ,then it can also change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon4 ,isn't the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative commonwealth of words8 ,and can you not see hidden under all this1 a marvelous development in the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning8 ,this tool of expression1 language1 has had a wonderful evolution side by side with the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative genius2 from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the great machine-driven plow of today2 from the simple threshing flail to the monster threshing machine of modern times4 ,there is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself4 ,add a little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise you4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,inflection--,,changes ,,in ,,form #ajd4 ,you remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate changes in use4 ,verbs also have several changes in form to correspond with changes in their use or meaning4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,i think4 ,i thought4 ,i work4 ,i worked4 ,what is the difference in the meaning of ,i think and ,i thought8 of ,i work and ,i worked8 ,when we say1 ,i think1 or ,i work1 we mean that the action is now1 to-day1 in the present2 but when we say1 ,i thought1 or ,i worked1 we mean that now is not the time of the action1 but that the action was performed sometime in the past4 ,so we have a change in the verb form to denote time4 ,the simple form of the verb1 like think or work1 is used to denote present time4 ,when we wish to express past time we do it by changing the form of the verb4 ,now note the following3 call ,i1 ,we1 ,you1 ,they1 send fall ,the men bring hide calls ,he1 ,she1 ,it1 sends falls ,the man brings hides ,now let us write this in another way4 ,present ,time ,singular ,plural #ast person--,i call4 ,we call4 #bnd person--,you call4 ,you call4 ,he #crd person ,she calls4 ,they1 or call4 ,it ,the men ,the man #aje4 ,you notice in this table we use the expressions first person1 second person1 and third person4 ,i and we indicate the person or persons speaking and are called the first person4 ,you indicates the person or persons spoken to and is called the second person4 ,he1 she1 it1 they1 and the person or persons or things spoken of1 are called the third person4 ,we use the word you when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days4 ,it used to be that when speaking to a single person1 people said thou1 and in speaking to two or more they said you4 ,but we today have dropped the old form thou1 and use you for both singular and plural4 #ajf4 ,now note1 in the above table1 that there is only one form change in the verb1 and this is in the third person singular4 ,we say ,i call1 ,you call1 ,we call1 ,they1 or ,the men call1 but we say ,he1 or the man calls1 in speaking of one person or thing4 ,so we change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third person and the singular number4 ,this form is made by adding s to the simple form of the verb1 therefore we may call it the s-form because it always ends in s4 ,remember that this s-form is used to express present time with a third person1 singular subject4 ,,be ,,careful ,,not ,,to ,,use ,,this ,,form ,,with ,,any ,,plural ,,subject4 ,there is no other change in the verb form in expressing the present time in any verb1 except in the verb be4 #ajg4 ,this little verb be is one of the most troublesome verbs in our language1 and since it is used in forming verb phrases1 it will be well to commit the following table to memory4 ,watch closely your use of this bothersome little word4 ,note that it has a change in form for the first person singular1 as well as for the third person singular4 ,all other verbs have just the one change1 the s-form for the third person singular4 ,the verb be has a form also to use with the first person singular1 the pronoun ,i4 ,present ,time ,past ,time ,singular ,singular #a4 ,i am4 #a4 ,i was4 #b4 ,you are4 #b4 ,you were4 #c4 ,he is4 #c4 ,he was4 ,plural ,plural #a4 ,we are4 #a4 ,we were4 #b4 ,you are4 #b4 ,you were4 #c4 ,they are4 #c4 ,they were4 #ajh4 ,the present time form is the form which expresses present time4 ,it is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the third person singular1 which is expressed by the s-form4 ,,past ,,time #aji4 ,to express past time we change the form of the verb4 ,notice the following3 ,i called ,we called ,she sent ,you sent ,he fell ,they fell ,it brought ,the men brought ,the man hid hid ,notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are all made by changes from the simple form1 which expresses present time4 ,you will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all form their past time form in different ways4 ,for example1 call adds ed2 send changes the final letter from d to t2 fall changes the vowel in the middle of the word from a to e2 bring changes both the vowel and the final letter from bring to brought2 hide drops the final letter e4 #aaj4 ,verbs whose past time forms are made by adding d or ed to the simple form are called regular verbs4 ,verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding d or ed are called irregular verbs4 #aaa4 ,there are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form their past time in the following ways3 #a4 ,by change in the vowel letter1 as fall1 fell2 write1 wrote2 see1 saw2 sing1 sang2 come1 came4 #b4 ,by dropping the final vowel2 as hide1 hid2 slide1 slid2 bite1 bit4 #c4 ,by dropping a vowel from the middle of the word2 as bleed1 bled2 feed1 fed2 lead1 led4 #d4 ,by changing the final letter or letters2 as send1 sent2 lose1 lost2 spend1 spent4 #e4 ,by changing the vowel and final letters2 as bring1 brought2 seek1 sought2 catch1 caught4 #f4 ,by changing the vowel sound and adding t or d2 as sleep1 slept2 feel1 felt2 flee1 fled4 ,there are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly careful in their use4 ,study the list in this lesson4 ,exercise #a ,write the present and past time forms of the following verbs as the verb think is written in the table given below4 think ride have give write ask make try speak run see do ,present ,time ,past ,time ,singular ,singular #a4 ,i think #a4 ,i thought #b4 ,you think #b4 ,you thought #c4 ,he thinks #c4 ,he thought ,plural ,plural #a4 ,we think #a4 ,we thought #b4 ,you think #b4 ,you thought #c4 ,they think #c4 ,they thought #aab4 ,be very careful not to use the s-form except for the third person singular4 ,be especially careful in the use of different forms of the verb be4 ,it is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make mistakes4 ,watch your own language and the conversation of your friends and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind4 ,these common blunders in the use of ,english mark us as careless or uneducated by everyone who hears us speak4 ,we have fallen into bad habits oftentimes and make these mistakes when we know better1 and only constant watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit4 ,after a time we learn to speak correctly without effort1 and then these mistakes made by others offend the ear like a false note in music4 ,exercise #b ,cross out the wrong form in the following3 ,they was--were not here4 ,the clouds has--have gathered4 ,people is--are indifferent4 ,the train was--were on time4 ,the men was--were armed4 ,our school building is--are inadequate4 ,the workers earn--earns their wages4 ,the voters elect--elects the ,president4 ,they do--does as they please4 ,we was--were there on time4 ,,doing ,,double ,,work #aac4 ,we have found now three forms of the verb1 the simple form1 the s-form1 and the past time form1 and1 in addition1 the ,i-form1 or the first person form of the verb be4 ,there are no other real verb forms1 but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when it ceases to be used as the predicate1 the asserting word of the sentence1 and becomes1 in part1 another part of speech4 ,notice in the following sentences3 ,making shoes is his work4 ,he enjoys making shoes4 ,in each of these sentences the word making1 from the verb make1 is used as a noun4 ,in the first1 ,making shoes is his work1 making is used as the subject of the sentence4 ,in the second1 ,he enjoys making shoes1 making is used as the object of the verb enjoys4 ,but making is not like the ordinary noun1 for it has an object making--what8--making shoes4 ,shoes is the object of the action expressed in making4 ,a noun never takes an object2 so while the word making is used as a noun1 it is also partly a verb4 ,it is a form of the verb used as a noun1 but keeping in part its verb nature1 partaking of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time4 ,hence these forms of the verb are called participles4 ,participle means partaker4 ,the participle may also be used as an adjective4 ,notice the following3 ,the crying child came toward us4 ,the rescuing party arrived4 ,in these sentences crying and rescuing are formed from the verbs cry and rescue1 and are used as adjectives to describe the noun child and the noun party4 ,so a participle is a mixed part of speech4 ,it is partially a verb1 but is not a true verb4 ,a true verb is always used as the predicate1 the asserting word in the sentence and always has a subject4 ,the participle never has a subject2 it may have an object1 but not a subject4 #aad4 ,there are two forms of the participle4 ,the active form or the present form as it is sometimes called1 ends in ing1 as1 waiting1 walking1 saying4 ,it expresses action1 existence1 or possession as going on at the time mentioned in the sentence4 #aae4 ,the other form of the participle is the passive form or the past form of the participle4 ,this ends in ed in the regular verbs1 and has various forms in the irregular verbs4 ,it is formed in regular verbs by adding d or ed to the simple form1 hence has the same form as the past time form1 as for example1 present time form1 call--past time form1 called--past participle1 called4 ,you will find the past participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given in this lesson1 as for example--present time form1 go--past time form1 went--past participle1 gone4 #aaf4 ,you will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that these participles are used in forming verb phrases4 ,as for example3 ,he is coming4 ,they are trying4 ,he has gone4 ,a participle is a word derived from a verb1 partaking of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective or a noun4 ,,let ,,us ,,sum ,,up #aag4 ,verbs have five form changes4 ,simple ,s-,form ,past ,time ,present ,part4 ,past ,part4 call calls called calling called go goes went going gone ,exercise #c ,write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs3 do try give hope live rob have think sing get wave lose come make ,exercise #d ,study carefully the following quotation4 ,you will find in it all five of the form changes of the verb--the present time form1 the s-form1 the past time form1 the present participle and the past participle4 ,in the verb phrases had been filled1 has survived1 has gone1 has proved and be dismayed1 you will find the past participle used in forming the verb phrase4 ,we will study these verb phrases in later lessons4 ,in the verb phrases1 was stumbling1 was groping1 is conquering1 are carrying1 the present participle is used in forming the verb phrases4 ,could reconcile is also a verb phrase4 ,we will study these verb phrases also in later lessons4 ,the present participles1 struggling1 persevering and regaining are used as adjectives4 ,study them carefully and find the words which they describe4 ,the present participles imagining1 learning and suffering are used as nouns4 ,note their use4 ,the past participles rebuffed1 self-reproached1 discouraged and promised are used as adjectives4 ,find the words which they modify4 ,there are several present time forms1 several past time forms1 and several s-forms4 ,find them and study carefully their usage4 ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,dark ,by ,helen ,keller ,america's famous blind girl1 who has come to see more than most people with normal eyes4 ,step by step my investigation of blindness led me into the industrial world4 ,and what a world it is4 ,i faced unflinchingly a world of facts--a world of misery and degradation1 of blindness1 crookedness1 and sin1 a world struggling against the elements1 against the unknown1 against itself4 ,how could ,i reconcile this world of fact with the bright world of my imagining8 ,my darkness had been filled with the light of intelligence1 and1 behold1 the outer day-lit world was stumbling1 was groping in social blindness4 ,at first1 ,i was most unhappy1 but deeper study restored my confidence4 ,by learning the suffering and burdens of men1 ,i became aware as never before of the life-power which has survived the forces of darkness--the power which1 though never completely victorious1 is continuously conquering4 ,the very fact that we are still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation proves that on the whole the battle has gone for humanity4 ,the world's great heart has proved equal to the prodigious undertaking which ,god set it4 ,rebuffed1 but always persevering2 self-reproached1 but ever regaining faith2 undaunted1 tenacious1 the heart of man labors towards immeasurably distant goals4 ,discouraged not by difficulties without1 or the anguish of ages within1 the heart listens to a secret voice that whispers3 ,be not dismayed2 in the future lies the ,promised ,land4 ,list of ,irregular ,verbs ,here is a list of the principal irregular verbs--the present and past time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a verb4 7,those marked with an r have also the regular form47 ,present ,t4 ,past ,t4 ,past ,part4 abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke1 r awaked be or am was been bear bore borne beat beat beaten begin began begun bend bent1 r bent1 r bereave bereft1 r bereft1 r beseech besought besought bet bet bet bid bid or bade bid 7den7 bind bound bound bite bit bit 7ten7 bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought build built1 r built1 r burn burnt1 r burnt1 r burst burst burst buy bought bought cast cast cast catch caught caught chide chid chid 7den7 choose chose chosen cling clung clung clothe clad1 r clad1 r come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut deal dealt1 r dealt1 r dig dug1 r dug1 r do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamt1 r dreamt1 r drink drank drunk drive drove driven dwell dwelt1 r dwelt1 r eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought find found found flee fled fled fling flung flung fly flew flown forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven forsake forsook forsaken get got got 7ten7 give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung1 r hung1 r have had had hear heard heard hew hewed hewn1 r hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept kneel knelt1 r knelt1 r knit knit1 r knit1 r know knew known lay laid laid lead led led leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie lay lain light lit1 r lit1 r lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mistake mistook mistaken mow mowed mown1 r pay paid paid plead pled1 r pled1 r put put put quit quit1 r quit1 r read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run saw sawed sawn1 r say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set shake shook shaken shape shaped shapen1 r shave shaved shaven1 r shear sheared shorn1 r shed shed shed shine shone1 r shone1 r shoe shod shod shoot shot shot show showed shown1 r shrink shrank shrunk 7en7 shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat slay slew slain sleep slept slept slide slid slid 7en7 sling slung slung slink slunk slunk slit slit slit smite smote smitten sow sowed sown1 r speak spoke spoken speed sped sped spend spent spent spill spilt1 r spilt1 r spin spun spun spit spit spit split split split spoil spoilt1 r spoilt1 r spread spread spread spring sprang sprung stand stood stood stave stove1 r stove1 r steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk stunk strike struck struck strike struck stricken stride strode stridden string strung strung strive strove striven strew strewed strewn1 r swear sworn sworn sweat sweat1 r sweat1 r sweep swept swept swell swelled swollen1 r swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown thrust thrust thrust tread trod trod 7den7 wake woke1 r woke1 r wear wore worn weave wove woven wed wed1 r wed1 r weep wept wept wet wet1 r wet1 r whet whet1 r whet1 r win won won wind wound wound work wrought1 r wrought1 r wring wrung wrung write wrote written ,,spelling ,,lesson #f ,every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound indicates a syllable 7excepting final e in such words as fate1 late1 rode1 etc47 ,take the word combination1 for example4 ,in this word we have four syllables1 thus3 ,com-bi-na-tion4 ,a syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a single effort of the voice4 ,remember that each syllable must contain a vowel or a vowel combination like oi or ou1 which is pronounced as one vowel4 ,sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in a-lone1 e-qual1 etc4 ,the final e in words like late1 and fate is not sounded4 ,it is silent1 we say4 ,all words ending in silent e have the long vowel sound1 with a very few exceptions4 ,words without the final e have the short vowel sound as for example3 fate1 fat2 mate1 mat2 hide1 hid2 rode1 rod4 ,in dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the preceding vowel when that vowel is short4 ,if the vowel is long the consonant is written with the next syllable1 as for example1 de-fine and def-i-ni-tion4 ,in de-fine the e is long therefore f1 the consonant following1 is written with the next syllable1 fine4 ,in def-i-ni-tion the e has the short sound1 therefore the f is written with the e in the syllable1 def4 ,when there are two consonants following the vowel1 divide between the consonants1 as for example1 in-ven-tion1 foun-da-tion1 etc4 ,never divide a digraph1 that is1 two consonants which are sounded together as one sound1 as for example1 moth-er1 catch-er1 te-leg-ra-pher1 etc4 ,in writing words containing double consonants like dd1 ll1 ss1 divide the word into syllables between the double consonants1 as for example1 per-mit-ted1 ad-mis-sion1 sad-dest1 etc4 ,monday ,important ,accommodate ,person ,correspond ,action ,tuesday ,difference ,notice ,indicate ,remember ,irregular ,wednesday ,mistake ,conversation ,correctly ,president ,ordinary ,thursday ,participle ,passive ,various ,phrase ,quotation ,friday ,imagine ,confidence ,humanity ,faith ,future ,saturday ,whisper ,thought ,ability ,knowledge ,genius ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #g ,dear ,comrade3 ,i wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew4 ,we get the words in our language from many sources4 ,the ,english language today is a development of the early ,anglo-,saxon4 ,england was called originally ,angle-land which was gradually shortened into ,england4 ,so we have in our language what are called pure ,english or ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,these words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary1 being simple1 strong1 forceful words4 ,then we have in our ,english many foreign words which we have adopted from other languages4 ,there are many ,latin and ,greek words2 these we use in our more elegant speech or writing4 ,there is an interesting bit written by ,sir ,walter ,scott in his novel of early ,england1 ,ivanhoe1 which illustrates the manner in which words have come into our language and also the difference in speech which marks the working class and the exploiting class4 ,as those who do the work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated the produce of their labor1 through the ages1 they will demand that which belongs to them--the best--the best in language as in everything else4 '444 ,i advise thee to call off ,fangs and leave the herd to their destiny1 which1 whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers1 or of outlaws1 or of wandering pilgrims1 can be little else than to be converted into ,normans before morning1 to thy no small ease and comfort4' ',the swine turned into ,normans to my comfort6' quoth ,gurth4 ',expound that to me1 ,wamba1 for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to read riddles4' ',why1 how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four legs8' demanded ,wamba4 ',swine1 fool1 swine1' said the herd2 'every fool knows that4' ',and swine is good ,saxon1' said the jester2 'but how call you the sow when she is flayed1 and drawn1 and quartered1 and hung by the heels like a traitor8' ',pork1' answered the swineherd4 ',i am glad every fool knows that too1' said ,wamba2 'and pork1 ,i think1 is good ,norman-,french1 and so when the brute lives and is in charge of a ,saxon slave1 she goes by her ,saxon name2 but becomes a ,norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles4 ,what dost thou think of that1 friend ,gurth1 ha8' 444 ,so you see even in words the distinction is made between those who produce and those who possess4 ,but the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy4 ,we have fought for religious and political freedom4 ,today we are waging the battle for industrial freedom4 ,it is your struggle4 ,study--prepare yourself to do battle for your rights4 ,yours for ,freedom1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,future ,,time #aah4 ,we have learned how to express present time and past time1 by changes in the form of the verb4 ,but we very often desire to make a statement in which we do not express either present or past time1 thus we may say3 ,we shall enjoy our rights some day4 ,he will join us in the struggle4 ,we do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now1 in the present1 or that we did in the past1 but that we shall enjoy our rights some time in the future4 ,in the second sentence1 will join expresses the same idea of future time4 ,to indicate future time1 we do not make a change in the verb form1 but we use shall and will with the simple form of the verb4 #aai4 ,we denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing shall or will before the simple form of the verb4 #abj4 ,the rule of some grammarians is to use shall always in the first person1 the person speaking1 to denote future time1 and will with the second person1 the person spoken to1 and with the third person1 the person spoken of1 to denote future time4 ,but common usage does not always follow the rules of the grammarians1 and1 in the course of time1 affects and changes these rules4 ,so our common usage of today uses will in the first person to express future time1 as well as shall4 ,this rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain4 ,the idea of the grammarians is that when we use will with the first person and shall with the second or third person1 we express a promise or determination4 ,thus if ,i say1 ,i shall go1 ,i simply mean that my going will be in the future4 ,but if ,i say1 ,i will go1 ,i either mean that ,i am promising to go or that ,i am expressing my determination to go4 ,so also if we use shall in the second and third persons4 ,if we say1 ,you will go or ,he will go1 we are simply stating that the going will be in the future1 but if we say1 ,you shall go1 or ,he shall go1 we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go4 ,to be technically correct this distinction should be observed4 ,shall in the first person1 and will in the second and third express simple futurity4 ,will in the first person and shall in the second and third express promise or determination4 ,but in every day conversation this distinction is not observed1 and many of our best writers do not follow this rule4 ,exercise #a ,mark the future time forms in the following sentences3 #a4 ,i shall speak of liberty4 #b4 ,i will never give up4 #c4 ,i shall write to him4 #d4 ,he shall not starve4 #e4 ,we shall expect you4 #f4 ,they shall suffer for this4 #g4 ,i shall go to ,new ,york4 #h4 ,he will call for me4 #i4 ,the hungry shall be fed4 #aj4 ,you will soon see the reason4 #aa4 ,you shall never want for a friend4 #ab4 ,they shall some day see the truth4 #ac4 ,we will not fight against our class4 #ad4 ,we will stand together4 ,,perfect ,,time #aba4 ,past1 present and future1 being the three divisions of time1 one would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three forms1 we would be through1 but if you stop to think1 you will find that there are other verb phrases of which we have need4 ,when we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time1 we do not say3 ,i study my lessons every day1 but1 ,i have studied my lessons every day4 ,not1 ,you work for him every day1 but1 ,you have worked for him every day4 ,not1 ,he sees her frequently1 but1 ,he has seen her frequently4 ,can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in ,i work every day1 and ,i have worked every day8 ,in the first sentence you express a general truth1 ,i work every day1 a truth which has been true in the past1 is true in the present1 and the implication is that it will continue to be true in the future4 ,but when you say1 ,i have worked every day1 you are saying nothing as to the future1 but you are describing an action which is completed at the present time4 ,this is called the present complete or present perfect time4 #abb4 ,perfect means complete1 and present perfect describes an action perfected or completed at the present time4 ,so it is possible for us to express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form4 #abc4 ,the present perfect time form describes an action completed at the present time1 and is formed by using the present time form of have and the past participle of the verb4 ,present ,perfect ,time ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i have seen4 ,we have seen4 #b;d4 ,you have seen4 ,you have seen4 #c;d4 ,he has seen4 ,they have seen4 #abd4 ,review in the last lesson how to form the past participle4 ,remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb4 ,in regular verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form4 ,in irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the past time form1 as for example3 go1 went1 gone2 do1 did1 done1 etc4 ,watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past participle with have or had2 never use the past time form with have or had4 ,,past ,,perfect #abe4 ,when you desire to express an action complete at some definite past time1 you do not say3 ,we finished when they came1 but1 ,we had finished when they came4 ,not1 ,they went when we arrived1 but1 ,they had gone when we arrived4 ,not1 ,i worked six months when he began1 but1 ,i had worked six months when he began4 ,can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences3 ,i worked six months when he began2 and ,i had worked six months when he began8 ,this last sentence describes an action completed or perfected before some definite past time4 #abf4 ,past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at some definite past time4 ,it is formed by using had and the past participle of the verb4 ,remember always1 with irregular verbs1 to use the past participle4 ,never use the past time form with had4 ,past ,perfect ,time ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i had seen4 ,we had seen4 #b;d4 ,you had seen4 ,you had seen4 #c;d4 ,he had seen4 ,they had seen4 ,exercise #b ,correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used instead of the past participle4 ,look up the word in the list of irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time form4 #a4 ,i have saw it often4 #b4 ,he had shook his fist4 #c4 ,she has sang for us4 #d4 ,the boat has sank here4 #e4 ,he has spoke the truth4 #f4 ,they had stole the books4 #g4 ,he has swore to the truth4 #h4 ,he had took the wrong road4 #i4 ,she has tore her dress4 #aj4 ,he had threw the ball away4 #aa4 ,the girl had wore the dress4 #ab4 ,he had wrote the letters4 #ac4 ,he had drank too much4 #ad4 ,he had rode the horse4 #ae4 ,the sun has rose4 #af4 ,he has bore his part4 #ag4 ,they have began already4 #ah4 ,the wind has blew all night4 #ai4 ,it had broke when it fell4 #bj4 ,he has chose the right4 #ba4 ,you have did your duty4 #bb4 ,he has ate his breakfast4 #bc4 ,a heavy rain has fell4 #bd4 ,they had gave it to me4 #be4 ,he has became rich4 #bf4 ,it has grew rapidly4 #bg4 ,he has knew it always4 #bh4 ,he has mistook her for another4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,time #abg4 ,we find also that we need a verb phrase to express time before some other future time1 to describe an action that will be finished1 perfected1 or completed1 before some other future action4 ,thus1 ,i shall have gone before you arrive4 ,you will have earned your money before you get it4 ,i shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes4 ,can you not see a difference in saying1 ,i shall work thirty days when pay-day comes1 and ,i shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes8 ,the first sentence expresses simple future time1 or what you will do when pay-day comes2 the second describes an action which will be completed or perfected before pay-day comes4 ,so there is quite a difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time4 #abh4 ,the future perfect time form expresses or describes an action that will be perfected or completed before some other future time4 ,it is formed by using shall have or will have with the past participle4 ,be careful to use the past participle4 ,never use the past time form with shall have or will have4 ,future ,perfect ,time ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i shall have seen4 ,we shall have seen4 #b;d4 ,you will have seen4 ,you will have seen4 #c;d4 ,he will have seen4 ,they will have seen4 ,,let ,,us ,,sum ,,up #abi4 ,we have three time forms1 present1 past1 future4 ,present ,past ,future ,i see ,i saw ,i shall see4 ,each of these three time forms has a perfect form2 that is1 a time form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present time1 or before some definite past or future time4 ,present ,past ,future ,perfect ,time ,perfect ,time ,perfect ,time ,i have seen ,i had seen ,i shall have seen #acj4 ,it is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables us to express so many shades of meaning4 ,it is like our development in observing colors4 ,you know the savage always admires vivid reds and greens and blues4 ,he does not yet see the beautiful shades and gradations of color4 ,we enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum4 ,and as we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of color4 ,in music too1 we observe the same development4 ,the barbarian enjoys loud1 crashing1 discordant sounds which he calls music1 but which to the educated ear are only harsh noises4 ,the trained musician catches the delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds which the uneducated ear does not even catch4 ,so as we study words and their uses1 we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning1 to paint our word pictures1 not in gaudy1 glaring chromo-tints1 but in the wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist4 ,now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind4 #aca4 ,let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and have it clearly in mind4 ,,verbs--,,summary ,two ,classes ,complete--,taking no complement4 ,incomplete-- ,verbs of action requiring object4 ,copulative verbs requiring complement4 ,inflection--,changes of ,form ,simple ,form ,s-,form ,past ,time ,present ,part4 ,past ,part4 see sees saw seeing seen ,,time ,,forms ,present ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i see4 ,we see4 #b4 ,you see4 ,you see4 #c4 ,he sees4 ,they see4 ,past ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i saw4 ,we saw4 #b4 ,you saw4 ,you saw4 #c4 ,he saw4 ,they saw4 ,future ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i shall see4 ,we shall see4 #b4 ,you will see4 ,you will see4 #c4 ,he will see4 ,they will see4 ,present ,perfect ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i have seen4 ,we have seen4 #b4 ,you have seen4 ,you have seen4 #c4 ,he has seen4 ,they have seen4 ,past ,perfect ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i had seen4 ,we had seen4 #b4 ,you had seen4 ,you had seen4 #c4 ,he had seen4 ,they had seen4 ,future ,perfect ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i shall have seen4 ,we shall have seen4 #b4 ,you will have seen4 ,you will have seen4 #c4 ,he will have seen4 ,they will have seen4 ,exercise #c ,read carefully the following quotation4 ,all of the verbs and verb phrases are written in italics4 ,study these carefully and decide whether they indicate present1 past1 future1 present perfect1 past perfect or future perfect time4 ,the verb phrases--is seizing1 is put1 is praised1 is defended1 can see1 must have1 are owned1 and are conducted1 do not belong to any of these six forms4 ,they are verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later4 ,all of the other verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have studied4 ,classify them4 ,the ,working ,class ,must ,strike the ,blow ,you remember ,victor ,hugo's story of the devil-fish2 how the monster put forth one tentacle after another and coiled it around his victim2 how the hero recalled that there was but one vulnerable spot in his brute enemy2 how at the strategic moment he struck a blow at that spot1 and the terrible demon of the deep shuddered1 released his grasp and fell dead4 ,capitalism is a monster which is seizing the body politic4 ,one tentacle is put forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the working class2 another has seized the working-woman2 another reaches forth to the child2 another has fastened upon government and has made that the instrument of the powerful classes2 still another has turned the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which the injustice of ,capitalism is praised and is defended2 and still another has seized the pulpit1 has silenced those who profess to speak for ,god and man1 or has turned their phrases into open apology and defense for the crimes of ,capitalism6 ,but there is one vulnerable spot in ,capitalism4 ,if the working class of the world can see that spot and will strike1 they shall be free4 ,the fundamental wrong1 the basic injustice of the ,capitalist ,system1 is that the resources of land and machinery1 to which all the people must have access1 in order to live and labor1 are owned by the few and are conducted by the few for their private profit4 ,this is the social tragedy1 the monstrous wrong of our time4--,j4 ,stitt ,wilson4 ,exercise #d ,select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time forms1 in the same manner as the time forms of the verb see are given in section #aca4 ,a ,,magic ,,word ,there's a little word below1 with letters three1 ,which1 if you only grasp its potency1 ,will send you higher ,toward the goal where you aspire1 ,which1 without its precious aid1 you'll never see-- ,,now6 ,success attends the man who views it right4 ,its back and forward meanings differ quite2 ,for this is how it reads ,to the man of ready deeds1 ,who spells it backwards from achievement's height-- ,,won6 ,,tense ,the grammatical term for the time form of the verb is ,,tense1 which is derived from a ,latin word meaning time4 ,the present time-form of the verb is called the present tense2 the past time-form1 the past tense2 the future time-form1 the future tense2 the present perfect time-form1 the present perfect tense1 etc4 ,exercise #e ,write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms1 or tenses1--present1 past1 future1 present perfect1 past perfect and future perfect1 as follows3 ,present--,labor creates all wealth4 ,past--,labor created all wealth4 ,future--,labor will create all wealth4 ,present ,perfect--,labor has created all wealth4 ,past ,perfect--,labor had created all wealth4 ,future ,perfect--,labor will have created all wealth4 #a4 ,hope stirs us to action4 #b4 ,human progress is our business4 #c4 ,the majority demand justice4 #d4 ,the workers fight all the battles4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #g ,the division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to pronunciation4 ,it is also a very important matter to understand in our written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of a line4 ,if the word is not properly divided1 it is much more difficult to read and understand4 ,the hyphen is used to divide words into syllables when carrying a portion to the next line4 ,when you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between syllables4 ,never divide a word of one syllable1 no matter how long it may be4 ,if you cannot get all of it on the line1 write it all on the next line4 ,do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line1 as for example3 luck-y1 a-loud1 etc4 ,when two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should never be separated by the hyphen1 as for example1 joy-ous1 anx-ious1 trail1 dis-course1 de-feat1 boor-ish4 ,when two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound then these vowels may be divided1 as for example1 tri-al1 co-or-di-nate1 he-ro-ic4 ,look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and divide into syllables4 ,notice specially the division of words into syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two vowels written together which are not diphthongs4 ,notice also the words which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable4 ,monday ,museum ,creatures ,peaceable ,accruing ,already ,tuesday ,persuade ,trivial ,plague ,alert ,inquiry ,wednesday ,piteous ,patriot ,poetry ,evil ,business ,thursday ,obey ,breathe ,society ,ether ,sociable ,friday ,idealism ,pledge ,ache ,acre ,pronunciation ,saturday ,idle ,idol ,mutual ,wealthy ,neighbors ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #h ,dear ,comrade3 ,you have often read the words organic and inorganic but did you ever stop to think of the meaning of these words8 ,we say a body is organic--a rock is inorganic2 one grows from within1 the other is built from without4 ,a tree is organic2 it grows4 ,a house is inorganic2 it is built4 ,the house was never a baby house1 growing from a tiny house to a large one4 ,but the tree was once a baby tree1 a sapling1 and grew branch by branch to its present height4 ,so we have two classes of things--those which grow and those which are made4 ,language belongs to the class of things which grows4 ,it is organic4 ,we have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in talking of a tree4 ,we use the words ,,root1 ,,stem and ,,branch to describe its growth4 ,language1 too1 has its different terms of life like a tree1 its youth1 its maturity1 its old age1 its death4 ,so we have dead languages like ,latin and ,greek--languages which are no longer living1--no longer serving mankind4 ,but these dead languages have left living children1 languages that have descended from them4 ,the ,italian language for example is the child1 the descendant of the classical ,latin4 ,we have many words in our ,english language from these dead languages4 ,about five-sevenths of the words in our ,english are from these classical languages4 ,the remaining two-sevenths are from the ,anglo-,saxon4 ,we use the ,anglo-,saxon words more frequently1 however1 in our every day speech4 ,and it is interesting to note that our best poetry--that which stirs our blood and touches our hearts--is written in the strong forceful ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,these words we are studying have been through some interesting experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the history of life is mirrored in their changes4 ,how much more interesting they seem when we know something of their sources1 just as we are more interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and the experiences through which he has passed4 ,you may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved1 but it is more simple in ,english than in any other language4 ,there are fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person4 ,do not rely on the memorizing of the rules4 ,rules never made one a fluent speaker4 ,write sentences in which the correct form is used4 ,read aloud from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they come readily to the tongue4 ,we have used for the exercises in these lessons excerpts from the best authors4 ,study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs especially1 this week4 ,verbs1 like all else1 are yours to command4 ,command them4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,progressive ,,verb ,,phrases #acb4 ,we have learned how to form the three principal time forms1 present1 past and future and the perfect or completed form of each of the three1 present perfect1 past perfect and future perfect4 ,and still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other shades of meaning in time4 #acc4 ,there is still another phase of action which we must have a verb phrase to express4 ,suppose you want to describe something you are now doing and are continuing to do1 something not yet completed4 ,to say1 ,i do it now1 is not satisfactory4 ,instead we say1 ,i am doing it now4 ,you have by the verb phrase1 am doing1 described a progressive action1 an action going on in the present4 ,you may also want to describe what you were doing yesterday1 an action that continued or progressed in the past4 ,you would not say1 ,i built the house yesterday but1 ,i was building the house yesterday4 ,again you may want to describe an action which will be progressing or going on in the future4 ,you do not say1 ,i shall build the house next week but1 ,i shall be building the house next week4 ,so we have progressive verb phrases4 #acd4 ,the present progressive describes an action as continuing or progressing in the present4 ,it is formed by using the present time form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,you remember that the present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb4 ,present ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i am seeing4 ,we are seeing4 #b;d4 ,you are seeing4 ,you are seeing4 #c;d4 ,he is seeing4 ,they are seeing4 #ace4 ,the past progressive time form describes an action which was continuing or progressing in the past4 ,it is formed by using the past time form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,past ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i was seeing4 ,we were seeing4 #b;d4 ,you were seeing4 ,you were seeing4 #c;d4 ,he was seeing4 ,they were seeing4 #acf4 ,the future progressive describes an action which will be progressing or going on in the future4 ,it is formed by using the future time form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,future ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i shall be seeing4 ,we shall be seeing4 #b;d4 ,you will be seeing4 ,you will be seeing4 #c;d4 ,he will be seeing4 ,they will be seeing4 #acg4 ,the perfect time forms also have a progressive form4 ,there is a difference of meaning in the present perfect and its progressive form4 ,you say for instance1 ,i have tried all my life to be free4 ,you mean you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you have ceased to try4 ,but1 if you say1 ,i have been trying all my life to be free1 we understand that you have tried and are still trying4 #ach4 ,so we have the present perfect progressive which describes an action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present time4 ,it is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,present ,perfect ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i have been seeing4 ,we have been seeing4 #b;d4 ,you have been seeing4 ,you have been seeing4 #c;d4 ,he has been seeing4 ,they have been seeing4 #aci4 ,the past perfect progressive describes an action which was continuing or progressing at some past time4 ,it is formed by using the past perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,past ,perfect ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i had been seeing4 ,we had been seeing4 #b;d4 ,you had been seeing4 ,you had been seeing4 #c;d4 ,he had been seeing4 ,they had been seeing4 #adj4 ,the future perfect progressive describes an action which will be progressing at some future time4 ,it is formed by using the future perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle4 ,future ,perfect ,progressive ,singular ,plural #ast4 ,i shall have been seeing4 ,we shall have been seeing4 #b;d4 ,you will have been seeing4 ,you will have been seeing4 #c;d4 ,he will have been seeing4 ,they will have been seeing4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences mark all the progressive forms1 and note whether they are present1 past1 future1 present perfect1 past perfect or future perfect4 #a4 ,the old order is passing4 #b4 ,men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists4 #c4 ,the class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has accumulated4 #d4 ,the workers are realizing their power4 #e4 ,he had been talking for an hour when we arrived4 #f4 ,next ,monday ,i shall have been working for one year4 #g4 ,the workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations to come unless they repudiate4 #h4 ,while ,marx was writing his books1 he lived in abject poverty4 #i4 ,the ,industrial ,relations ,commission has been investigating industrial conditions4 #aj4 ,ferrer was martyred because the ,modern ,schools were educating the people4 #aa4 ,the nations of ,europe had been preparing for war for many years4 ,,active ,,and ,,passive #ada4 ,notice carefully the following sentences2 select the subjects in these sentences which show who or what performed the action2 select the subjects that show who or what receives the action4 ,do you notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences8 ,do you notice any difference in their form8 ,the engine struck the man4 ,the man was struck by the engine4 ,the system enslaves men4 ,men are enslaved by the system4 ,leaders often betray the people4 ,the people are often betrayed by leaders4 ,let us look carefully at the first two sentences4 ,you remember when we studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an object which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb4 ,now you notice in this first sentence1 ,the engine struck the man1 we have the transitive verb struck4 ,engine is the subject of the verb and man is the object of the verb1 the receiver of the action expressed by the verb struck4 ,now in the sentence1 ,the man was struck by the engine1 we have the same thought expressed but in a different manner4 ,the word man1 which was the object of the verb struck in the first sentence1 has now become the subject of the sentence1 and we have changed our verb form from struck to was struck4 ,in the first sentence of the subject1 engine was the actor4 ,in the second sentence1 ,the man was struck by the engine1 the subject of the sentence1 man1 is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb4 #adb4 ,so we have thus changed the verb form from struck to was struck to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action4 ,struck is called the active form of the verb because the subject of the verb is the actor4 ,was struck is called the passive form of the verb because the subject receives the action4 ,passive means receiving4 ,in the passive form the subject is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb4 #adc4 ,you remember that complete verbs have no object or complement1 therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action4 ,take the complete verb1 sleep1 for example4 ,we do not sleep anything1 hence sleep has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as the subject1 the receiver of the action4 ,only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form4 ,remember that a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject as receiving the action4 ,the present1 past1 future and all the perfect time forms of transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive4 ,the progressive time forms can be changed into the passive1 but it makes an awkward construction and should be avoided as much as possible4 ,occasionally1 however1 we find it worth our while to use these forms1 as for example3 ,the book is being written by the man4 ,this is the passive form of the present progressive1 ,the man is writing a book4 ,the book was being written by the man4 ,this is the passive form of the past progressive1 ,the man was writing the book4 #add4 ,the future progressive passive is awkward1 and the present and past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive4 ,the best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which sounds much better4 ,exercise #b ,all the verbs in the following sentences are transitive verbs in the active form4 ,rewrite each sentence1 putting the verb into the passive form and making the object of the active verb the subject of the passive verb2 as1 for example1 the first sentence should be rewritten as follows3 ,war on ,russia was declared by ,germany on ,august #a1 #aiad4 #a4 ,germany declared war on ,russia1 ,august #a1 #aiad4 #b4 ,who will sign the ,emancipation ,proclamation of the ,proletariat8 #c4 ,marx and ,engels wrote the ,communist ,manifesto4 #d4 ,spain murdered ,francisco ,ferrer1 ,october #ac1 #aiji4 #e4 ,we celebrate the first of ,may as ,international ,labor ,day4 #f4 ,the people of ,paris stormed the ,bastille1 ,july #ad1 #aghi4 #g4 ,wat ,tyler was leading the ,english workers in rebellion against the ,king when the ,mayor of ,london stabbed him in #acha4 #h4 ,the ,inquisition burned ,bruno at the stake for heresy in #afjj4 #i4 ,the ,paris ,commune followed the ,german siege of ,paris in #ahga4 ,,summary #ade4 ,now let us take the verb see and name all the time forms which we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the help of the verbs1 be1 have1 shall and will4 ,first1 we want to express the present1 what is happening now1 and we want to put it in both the active and passive forms1 so we say3 ,,present ,,time ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i see4 ,i am seen4 ,you see4 ,you are seen4 ,he sees4 ,he is seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we see4 ,we are seen4 ,you see4 ,you are seen4 ,they see4 ,they are seen4 ,note that the only change in the verb form in the present ,,active is the s-form for the third person singular4 ,in the present passive the only change is the special form of the verb be for the first and third persons1 singular4 ,when we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past1 stated in the active and passive form1 we say3 ,,past ,,time ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i saw4 ,i was seen4 ,you saw4 ,you were seen4 ,he saw4 ,he was seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we saw4 ,we were seen4 ,you saw4 ,you were seen4 ,they saw4 ,they were seen4 ,we have one other division of time which we must express--the future4 ,primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present1 but with the development of memory and the means of recording events by a written language1 he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a vital part of his life4 ,but not until the faculty of thinking developed was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow the hope of today4 ,future time expresses hope1 desire1 growth4 ,,future ,,time ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i shall see4 ,i shall be seen4 ,you will see4 ,you will be seen4 ,he will see4 ,he will be seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we shall see4 ,we shall be seen4 ,you will see4 ,you will be seen4 ,they will see4 ,they will be seen4 ,then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at some time in the future--so we have present perfect1 past perfect and future perfect4 ,,present ,,perfect ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i have seen4 ,i have been seen4 ,you have seen4 ,you have been seen4 ,he has seen4 ,he has been seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we have seen4 ,we have been seen4 ,you have seen4 ,you have been seen4 ,they have seen4 ,they have been seen4 ,,past ,,perfect ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i had seen4 ,i had been seen4 ,you had seen4 ,you had been seen4 ,he had seen4 ,he had been seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we had seen4 ,we had been seen4 ,you had seen4 ,you had been seen4 ,they had seen4 ,they had been seen4 ,,future ,,perfect ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i shall have seen4 ,i shall have been seen4 ,you will have seen4 ,you will have been seen4 ,he will have seen4 ,he will have been seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we shall have seen4 ,we shall have been seen4 ,you will have seen4 ,you will have been seen4 ,they will have seen4 ,they will have been seen4 #adf4 ,but these are not all the phases of time which we can express4 ,we have progressive1 continuous action4 ,so each of these six time forms has a progressive form4 ,,present ,,progressive ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i am seeing4 ,i am being seen4 ,you are seeing4 ,you are being seen4 ,he is seeing4 ,he is being seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we are seeing4 ,we are being seen4 ,you are seeing4 ,you are being seen4 ,they are seeing4 ,they are being seen4 ,,past ,,progressive ,active ,passive ,singular ,singular ,i was seeing4 ,i was being seen4 ,you were seeing4 ,you were being seen4 ,he was seeing4 ,he was being seen4 ,plural ,plural ,we were seeing4 ,we were being seen4 ,you were seeing4 ,you were being seen4 ,they were seeing4 ,they were being seen4 ,only the ,present and ,past ,progressive forms have a passive form4 ,the rest of the ,progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only4 ,,future ,,progressive ,singular ,plural ,i shall be seeing4 ,we shall be seeing4 ,you will be seeing4 ,you will be seeing4 ,he will be seeing4 ,they will be seeing4 ,,present ,,perfect ,,progressive ,singular ,plural ,i have been seeing4 ,we have been seeing4 ,you have been seeing4 ,you have been seeing4 ,he has been seeing4 ,they have been seeing4 ,,past ,,perfect ,,progressive ,singular ,plural ,i had been seeing4 ,we had been seeing4 ,you had been seeing4 ,you had been seeing4 ,he had been seeing4 ,they had been seeing4 ,,future ,,perfect ,,progressive ,singular ,plural ,i shall have been seeing4 ,we shall have been seeing4 ,you will have been seeing4 ,you will have been seeing4 ,he will have been seeing4 ,they will have been seeing4 ,exercise #c ,write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms1 as the sentence1 ,war sweeps the earth1 is written4 #a4 ,education gives power4 #b4 ,knowledge frees men4 #c4 ,labor unions help the workers4 #d4 ,the people seek justice4 ,present ,active ,war sweeps the earth4 ,passive ,the earth is swept by war4 ,past ,active ,war swept the earth4 ,passive ,the earth was swept by war4 ,future ,active ,war shall sweep the earth4 ,passive ,the earth shall be swept by war4 ,pres4 ,per4 ,active ,war has swept the earth4 ,passive ,the earth has been swept by war4 ,past ,per4 ,active ,war had swept the earth4 ,passive ,the earth had been swept by war4 ,fut4 ,per4 ,active ,war shall have swept the earth4 ,passive ,the earth shall have been swept by war4 ,exercise #d ,underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation4 ,write all the time forms of the transitive verb1 lose1 as the time forms of the verb see are written in the foregoing table4 ,when we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being against adverse circumstances and against its enemies1 we realize that the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an animal society1 and have become habitual to it1 the more chance it has of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against hardships and foes4 ,the more thoroughly each member of the society feels his solidarity with each other member of the society1 the more completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are the main factors of all progress2 courage1 on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 free individual initiative4 ,and1 on the contrary1 the more any animal society1 or little group of animals1 loses this feeling of solidarity--which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or else of exceptional plenty--the more the two other factors of progress1 courage and individual initiative1 diminish2 in the end they disappear1 and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes4 ,without mutual confidence no struggle is possible2 there is no courage1 no initiative1 no solidarity--and no victory6--,kropotkin4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #h ,in pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word2 that is1 that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables4 ,this is called accent1 and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable4 ,accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word4 ,you will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable1 as for example3 di-vide'4 ,many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent4 ,our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words4 ,these words1 when accented on the first syllable1 are nouns2 when accented on the second syllable1 they are verbs4 ,monday ,con' tract ,con tract' ,pro' test ,pro test' ,rec' ord ,re cord' ,im' port ,im port' ,de' tail ,de tail' ,tuesday ,con' vert ,con vert' ,con' flict ,con flict' ,prog' ress ,pro gress' ,im' press ,im press' ,ref' use ,re fuse' ,wednesday ,con' test ,con test' ,con' duct ,con duct' ,proj' ect ,pro ject' ,des' ert ,de sert' ,ex' tract ,ex tract' ,thursday ,con' trast ,con trast' ,con' sort ,con sort' ,reb' el ,re bel' ,con' script ,con script' ,pres' ent ,pre sent' ,friday ,com' pound ,com pound' ,re' tail ,re tail' ,com' press ,com press' ,im' print ,im print' ,com' bine ,com bine' ,saturday ,con' fine ,con fine' ,sus' pect ,sus pect' ,com' mune ,com mune' ,ex' port ,ex port' ,in' crease ,in crease' ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #i ,dear ,comrade3 ,you have been studying several weeks now in this ,plain ,english ,course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression4 ,we have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression4 ,we have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts4 ,first we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things do and are--namely verbs4 ,and as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time1 past1 present and future1 we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all4 ,now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory4 ,you are not studying ,english in order to know rules4 ,you are studying ,english that you may be able to say and write the things you think4 ,so first of all1 think1 think6 ,that is your inalienable right6 ,do not accept anything just by blind belief4 ,think it out for yourself4 ,study until you see the 'why' of it all4 ,independent thinking has given us the present1 and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today4 ,the right to think is inalienable1 or a man is a machine4 ,thought is life or a human soul is a thing4 ,and do not lack the courage of your own thoughts4 ,you do not need to cringe or apologize to any man4 ,our life is not an apology but a life4 ,dare to think and dare to express and live your thought4 ,did you ever read ,emerson's definition of genius8 ,to believe your own thought1 to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men1--that is genius4 ,then he says1 ,we dismiss without notice our own thoughts1 because they are ours4 ,tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense1 precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another4 ,have you not experienced this8 ,how often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves1 ,that is just what ,i have long believed but ,i have never dared say so4 ,we have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves1 that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us6 ,but that is precisely what we should dare to do--to think and to do our own thinking always4 ,who dares place anything before a man6 ,so think as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end1 as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,participles #adg4 ,we have found that the verb has five forms1 made by internal changes in the verb itself1--the present time form1 the s-form1 the past time form1 the present participle and the past participle4 ,we have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs1 shall1 will1 have and be with one of the verb forms4 ,all of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence4 ,so long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate--the word or words that assert something of the subject--it still remains a verb4 ,but we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb4 #adh4 ,you remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles1 ,making shoes is his work4 ,here we have the present participle making1 with its object shoes1 used as the subject of the verb is4 ,now a noun never takes an object1 so making in this sentence is partly a verb1 partly a noun1 and is called a participle1 which means partaker4 ,we have studied and used two forms of participles1 the present and the past participle4 ,the present participle always ends in ing and expresses action or existence in the present1 or at the time mentioned in the sentence4 ,for example1 being1 bringing1 working1 seeing1 loving1 hating1 etc4 ,the past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb4 ,it expresses action or existence which is past or completed1 at the time mentioned in the sentence4 ,it is formed by adding d or ed to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs4 ,for example1 regular verbs3 learned from learn1 defeated from defeat1 watched from watch4 ,irregular verbs3 taught from teach1 seen from see1 won from win4 ,we have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives4 ,as for example3 ,the crying of the child annoyed the people4 ,the crying child ran to its mother4 ,the coming of the new day will bring peace4 ,we await the coming day of peace4 ,,participle ,,phrases #adi4 ,the present and the past participles are each single words2 but we may also have participle phrases2 that is1 two or more words used as a participle1 as for example3 ,his having joined the strikers caused him to lose his job4 ,the man1 having been discharged1 left the mill4 ,in these sentences we have the participle phrases1 having joined and having been discharged4 ,having joined is a participle phrase used as a noun1 the subject of the verb caused4 ,having been discharged is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun man4 ,notice that having joined is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun his4 ,having been discharged is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence1 man1 is the receiver4 ,these are both perfect participles1 expressing actions which are complete at the present time4 #aej4 ,we have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing4 ,these progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms4 ,the progressive active participle is formed by using having been with the present participle1 as having been working4 ,the progressive passive participle is formed by using being with the past participle1 as for example1 being watched1 being driven1 being gone1 etc4 ,so we have six participles1 three active and three passive4 ,note the following table3 ,active ,present4 ,sending4 ,perfect4 ,having sent4 ,progressive4 ,having been sending4 ,passive ,past4 ,sent4 ,perfect4 ,having been sent4 ,progressive4 ,being sent4 ,these participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases4 ,underscore those used as nouns with a single line2 those used as adjectives with two lines4 #a4 ,he denies having been hired by the employer4 #b4 ,our friends1 having arrived1 joined us at dinner4 #c4 ,the rain1 falling incessantly1 kept us from going4 #d4 ,having often seen him passing1 ,i judged he lived near4 #e4 ,the man1 being discouraged and ill1 was unable to do his work well4 #f4 ,happiness shared is happiness doubled4 #g4 ,having finished his work1 he rests at last4 #h4 ,the army1 beaten but not vanquished1 waited for the morrow4 #i4 ,the men1 having been unemployed for months1 were desperate4 #aj4 ,being prepared will not save us from war4 #aa4 ,rest is not quitting this busy career2 ,rest is the fitting of self to its sphere4 ,it's loving and serving the highest and best2 ,it's onward1 not swerving2 and that is true rest4 ,exercise #b ,write the six participle forms of the verbs see and teach1 and use in sentences of your own construction4 ,,infinitives #aea4 ,we have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech4 ,they partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,traveling is pleasant4 ,eating is necessary4 ,can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought8 ,do you not sometimes say1 ,to travel is pleasant4 ,to eat is necessary4 ,we have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences1 which is expressed in the sentences above1 where we used the participle4 ,to travel and to eat are used as nouns1 subjects of the verb is just as traveling and eating are used as nouns1 the subjects of the verb is4 ,here we have another form of the verb used as a noun4 ,when we use the verb in this way1 we are not speaking of the traveling or eating as belonging to or being done by any particular person1 nor do we indicate whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action4 ,it might be anyone doing the traveling or eating1 and it might be one person or a thousand4 ,we are making a general statement of everybody in the world1 so we call this form the infinitive4 #aeb4 ,infinite means unlimited1 without limit as to persons or number4 ,almost every verb in the language may be used in this way1 and since to is generally used before the infinitive1 to is often called the sign of the infinitive4 ,for example3 ,to be1 or not to be1 that is the question4 ,to have and to hold is the problem4 ,he likes to travel4 ,you note in all of these infinitives to is used with the simple form of the verb4 #aec4 ,to is generally omitted after verbs like help1 hear1 bid1 feel1 let1 make1 see and have1 or words of similar meaning4 ,for example3 ,help me 7to7 find it4 ,he bade me 7to7 stay4 ,feel it 7to7 shake4 ,make him 7to7 come4 ,hear me 7to7 sing4 ,let us 7to7 go4 ,see him 7to7 run4 ,have him 7to7 copy this4 #aed4 ,to is also omitted after need and dare when not is used4 ,they need to work4 ,they need not work4 ,they dared to come4 ,they dared not come4 #aee4 ,to is sometimes omitted after prepositions3 ,he will do anything for his class1 except 7to7 fight for it4 ,he would do nothing but 7to7 go away4 #aef4 ,we have a number of different forms of the infinitive1 both active and passive4 ,note the following table3 ,active ,present4 ,to love4 ,perfect4 ,to have loved4 ,present ,prog4 ,to be loving4 ,perfect ,prog4 ,to have been loving4 ,passive ,present4 ,to be loved4 ,perfect4 ,to have been loved4 #aeg4 ,notice that only the present and perfect infinitives have the passive form4 ,the progressive infinitives cannot be used in the passive4 ,remember also that only incomplete verbs1 those which require an object to receive the action1 can have a passive form4 ,the verb loved1 which we have used in the above table1 has a passive form because it is an incomplete verb1 for there must be that which is the object of our love4 #aeh4 ,the complete verbs1--verbs which require no object1--cannot have a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action4 ,take for example the verb dwell4 ,this is a complete verb which can have no passive form4 ,you cannot dwell anything1 therefore you cannot say to be dwelt or to have been dwelt4 ,so complete verbs have only the four active forms1 as follows3 ,active ,present4 ,to dwell4 ,perfect4 ,to have dwelt4 ,present ,prog4 ,to be dwelling4 ,perfect ,prog4 ,to have been dwelling4 #aei4 ,infinitives1 like participles1 may be used either as nouns or adjectives4 ,when used as nouns1 they are used in the various ways in which nouns are used4 ,the infinitive may be the subject of a sentence1 thus3 ,to hesitate now will be fatal4 ,to be defeated is no crime4 #afj4 ,the infinitive may be the object or complement of the verb4 ,for example3 ,he wanted to see you4 ,his desire is to learn4 #afa4 ,the infinitive may be used as the object of a preposition2 as1 ,he is about to go4 ,they will do anything for the cause except to live for it4 #afb4 ,the infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun4 ,for example3 ,he showed me the way to go4 ,we must have food to eat and clothes to wear4 ,the question to be decided is before us4 ,claim your right to live4 #afc4 ,the infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the meaning of a verb1 adjective or adverb1 thus3 ,he was forced to go4 ,they are slow to learn4 ,the fruit was not ripe enough to eat4 ,note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into adverb phrases4 ,as for example in the first sentence1 ,he was forced to go1 the infinitive to go1 which modifies the verb forced1 may be changed to the adverb phrase1 into going1 thus1 ,he was forced into going4 ,in the second sentence1 ,they are slow to learn1 the infinitive to learn may be changed into the adverb phrase in learning1 thus1 ,they are slow in learning4 ,in the last sentence1 ,the fruit is not ripe enough to eat1 the infinitive to eat1 which modifies the adverb enough1 may be changed into the adverb phrase1 for eating1 as for example1 ,the fruit was not ripe enough for eating4 #afd4 ,the infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb1 and we will find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas4 ,while it is not the asserting word in the sentence1 it retains the nature of a verb and may have both an object and an adverb modifier4 ,as for example1 in the sentence3 ,i wish to learn my lesson quickly4 ,to learn is the infinitive1 used as a noun1 the object of the verb wish4 ,the infinitive also has an object1 to learn--what8 ,my lesson is the object of the infinitive to learn4 ,we also have an adverb modifier in the adverb quickly1 which tells how ,i wish to learn my lesson4 ,so the infinitive retains its verb nature1 in that it may have an object and it may be modified by an adverb4 ,exercise #c ,notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences4 ,underscore all infinitives4 #a4 ,to remain ignorant is to remain a slave4 #b4 ,teach us to think and give us courage to act4 #c4 ,children love to be praised1 but hate to be censured4 #d4 ,to obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters4 #e4 ,to be exploited has always been the fate of the workers4 #f4 ,ferrer wrote on his prison wall1 ,to love a woman passionately1 to have an ideal which ,i can serve1 to have the desire to fight until ,i win--what more can ,i wish or ask8 #g4 ,the people wish the man to be punished for the crime4 #h4 ,primitive man found plenty of wood to burn4 #i4 ,we have learned to use coal and oil4 #aj4 ,the lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed4 #aa4 ,they are eager to hear the news4 #ab4 ,he has failed to come4 #ac4 ,we felt the house shake on its foundation4 #ad4 ,have him find the book for me4 #ae4 ,to be defeated is no crime2 never to have dared is the real crime4 #af4 ,the rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their backs4 #ag4 ,to have slept while others fought is your shame4 #ah4 ,claim your right to do1 to dream and to dare4 ,exercise #d ,write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb obey4 ,,don',,ts ,,for ,,infinitives #afe4 ,don't split your infinitives4 ,keep the to and the infinitive together as much as possible4 ,don't say1 ,they intended to never come back4 ,say rather1 ,they intended never to come back4 ,sometimes1 however1 the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb modifier between the to and the infinitive1 as for example3 ,to almost succeed is not enough4 ,it will be found to far exceed our expectations4 ,in these sentences the adverbs almost and far express our meaning more closely if they are placed between the to and the infinitive4 ,ordinarily1 however1 do not split your infinitives1 but place the adverb modifier either before or after the infinitive4 #aff4 ,don't use to by itself without the rest of the infinitive4 ,don't say1 ,do as ,i tell you to4 ,say instead1 ,do as ,i tell you to do2 or1 ,do as ,i tell you4 ,don't say1 ,he deceived us once and he is likely to again4 ,say rather1 ,he deceived us once and he is likely to deceive us again1 or to do so again4 #afg4 ,don't use and for to4 ,don't say1 ,try and go if you can4 ,say instead1 ,try to go if you can4 ,correct the following sentences3 ,we ought to bravely fight for our rights4 ,i will do all my employer tells me to4 ,we shall try and get our lessons4 ,i ought to at least help my comrades but ,i am afraid to4 ,exercise #e ,study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation4 ,notice which are active and which are passive infinitives4 ,the twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle1 mean1 to the women of their race1 twenty thousand human creatures to be borne within them for months1 to be given birth to in anguish1 to be fed from their breasts and to be reared with toil1 if the members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are to be maintained4 ,in nations continually at war1 incessant and unbroken child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is to survive2 and whenever war occurs1 if numbers are to be maintained1 there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing4 ,this throws upon woman1 as woman1 a war tax1 compared with which all that the male expends in military preparations is comparatively light4 ,it is especially in the domain of war that we1 the bearers of men's bodies1 who supply its most valuable munition1 who1 not amid the clamor and ardor of battle1 but singly1 and alone1 with a three-in-the-morning courage1 shed our blood and face death that the battle-field might have its food1 a food more precious to us than our heart's blood2 it is we1 especially1 who1 in the domain of war1 have our word to say1 a word no man can say for us4 ,it is our intention to enter into the domain of war and to labor there till in the course of generations we have extinguished it4--,olive ,schreiner4 ,exercise #f ,mark the participles and infinitives4 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,bright and yellow1 hard and cold1 ,molten1 graven1 hammer'd and roll'd2 ,heavy to get1 and light to hold2 ,hoarded1 barter'd1 bought1 and sold1 ,stolen1 borrow'd1 squander'd1 doled3 ,spurn'd by the young1 but hugg'd by the old ,to the very verge of the churchyard mould2 ,price of many a crime untold3 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,gold6 ,good or bad a thousand-fold6 ,how widely its agencies vary-- ,to save--to ruin--to curse--to bless-- ,as even its minted coins express1 ,now stamp'd with the image of ,good ,queen ,bess1 ,and now of a bloody ,mary4--,thos4 ,hood4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #i ,in our ,english lessons1 we have been studying the division of words into parts of speech4 ,we have been studying them as we use them in expressing our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also4 ,we may study them as words alone4 ,studied in this way we find that we have simple1 compound and derivative words4 ,for example1 man1 man-slaughter1 manly4 ,man is a simple word4 ,man-slaughter is a compound word formed of two simple words4 ,manly is a derivative word derived from man4 ,when a compound word is first formed1 it is usually written with a hyphen2 but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word4 ,a simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words without changing its meaning4 ,a compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it may be divided1 each retaining its own meaning4 ,a derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the addition of another syllable4 ,in next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives4 ,divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of which they are composed4 ,monday ,birthday ,coal-tar ,craftsman ,foreman ,gunpowder ,tuesday ,handkerchief ,headquarters ,lawsuit ,lockout ,bookkeeper ,wednesday ,motorman ,newspaper ,pasteboard ,postage-stamp ,postmaster ,thursday ,salesman ,second-hand ,shirtwaist ,sidewalk ,staircase ,friday ,trademark ,time-table ,typewriter ,tableware ,sewing-machine ,saturday ,undergarment ,underhand ,water-mark ,woodwork ,workshop ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #aj ,dear ,comrade3 ,we have been studying this course in ,plain ,english for some weeks now and ,i trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the study of our wonderful and expressive language4 ,did you ever stop to think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to use the spoken word8 ,and yet it was a still more wonderful step in advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution1 and development would have been impossible without the help of written speech4 ,an illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow men are concerned1 but we have only to think for a moment of what this world would be if we had no written language1 to understand what a mighty power it has been in evolution4 ,suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at a distance4 ,suppose there were no written words by which we could set down the countless dealings between man and man4 ,what a hopeless tangle this social life of ours would soon become6 ,suppose also that we had no knowledge of the past1 no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of past generations except that which could be handed down to us through oral speech4 ,all our knowledge of history1 of the deeds and development of the past1 all the observations by which science has uncovered to us the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us4 ,it was the invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from barbarism to civilization1 and it is more true than we oftentimes realize1 that it is only a wall of books that separates the civilized man of to-day from the savage of yesterday4 ,and yet ,i wonder if we have ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed4 ,knowledge of the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are able to express our ideas1 has become such a common-place thing to us that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown and developed through the centuries4 ,yet there are races to-day that have no written language such as we know and to whom our written language seems truly a miracle4 ,the story is told of an ,indian who was sent from one colony to another with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number4 ,the ,indian ate one of the loaves and of course1 was found out4 ,the next time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating the bread so that it might not see him6 ,but it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by the growing powers of man4 ,in succeeding letters we will trace this most interesting story of the alphabet4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,helping ,,verbs #afh4 ,we have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an assertion it denotes either present or past time4 ,when we use a verb phrase1 it expresses some other time than the past or present4 ,these verb phrases are formed by using shall1 will1 have1 had1 and the various forms of the verb be with some form of the principal verb4 ,these verbs which help to form verb phrases are called helping1 or auxiliary verbs4 ,auxiliary means helping4 ,we have used have and had with the past participle to form the present perfect and past perfect time forms4 ,we have used shall and will with different forms of the verb to denote future time1 and we have used different forms of the verb be in making the various other time forms4 ,so shall1 will1 have1 had and the various forms of the verb be are helping verbs1 which we use to help us in making verb phrases4 #afi4 ,but these are not all of the helping verbs4 ,there are other helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different ideas4 ,these are such verbs as should and would1 may and might1 can and could1 must and ought1 do and did4 ,exercise #a ,fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate forms of the helping verbs1 shall1 will1 have1 had and be4 #a4 ,when444444the workers organize8 #b4 ,education444444help us win4 #c4 ,the world444444had enough of war4 #d4 ,we444444deceived by the masters4 #e4 ,the workers444444organized into craft unions4 #f4 ,they444444never ceased the struggle4 #g4 ,the state444444founded on exploitation4 #h4 ,mutual aid444444been an important factor in evolution4 #i4 ,the truth444444taught to the people4 #aj4 ,the victory444444gained by the proletariat4 #aa4 ,the nations of ,europe444444preparing for war for years4 #ab4 ,the ,international444444recognized war for defense4 #ac4 ,we444444not made the class distinctions1 but we444444recognize them as long as they exist4 #ad4 ,the evolution of animals and the evolution of plants444444proceeded according to the same general laws4 #ae4 ,we444444never win while the majority remains ignorant4 #af4 ,the strikers444444betrayed by their leaders4 ,,should ,,and ,,would #agj4 ,should and would are the past-time forms of shall and will4 ,we use them to express action or existence dependent upon some condition1 thus3 ,i should go if ,i were well enough4 ,he should join us if you asked him4 ,in these sentences should and would express action which is possible now or will be in the future1 provided some other action takes place4 ,the same distinction which we found made in the use shall and will has been made with should and would2 that is1 that should used with the first person1 expresses action dependent upon condition2 but would1 used with the first person1 implies exercise of the will4 ,this rule is not closely followed1 though it expresses a nice distinction in the use of should and would4 ,in ordinary usage we use either should or would with the first person without any distinction of meaning1 as for example3 ,i should struggle on even if it meant death4 ,i would stand for my principles though ,i stood entirely alone4 ,we do not use should however1 with the second and third persons to express an action or existence dependent upon some condition4 ,should used with the second and third person implies obligation4 ,would is used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon some condition1 as for example3 ,he would not go1 even if you insisted4 ,they would come if you invited them4 ,you would believe him if you could hear him4 ,you would be surprised if ,i should tell you the reason4 #aga4 ,should and would in all of the sentences which we have quoted are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such conjunctions as if and though4 ,the parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the condition upon which the other action is dependent4 ,when we use should in sentences without this condition1 it means practically the same as ought1 and implies an obligation4 ,we use should with the first and second and third persons when we use it with this meaning1 as for example3 ,i should have gone yesterday4 ,you should be with us in this fight4 ,they should never fear defeat4 #agb4 ,ought could be used in all these sentences and express practically the same meaning4 ,should used in this way implies obligation4 ,exercise #b ,study carefully the following sentences4 ,write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence4 #a4 444444 ,the workers should organize if they desire to control production4 #b4 444444 ,the proletariat would destroy this system if they understood their power4 #c4 444444 ,every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize the class struggle4 #d4 444444 ,we would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of for profit4 #e4 444444 ,the ruling class would not give up their privileges even though they knew that their cupidity endangers society4 #f4 444444 ,the injury of one should be the injury of all4 #g4 444444 ,the workers' ,international should stand for the international solidarity of the workers4 #h4 444444 ,you should never fear the ridicule of little minds4 #i4 444444 ,you would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your own power4 #aj4 444444 ,no man should fear to think for himself4 #aa4 444444 ,no man would fear to think for himself if the world were truly free4 #ab4 444444 ,compromise now would mean defeat4 ,,may ,,and ,,might #agc4 ,may used as a helping verb means present permission in regard to an action or possession1 as3 ,you may come with us4 ,he may have the money4 #agd4 ,it may also mean a possible action or possession4 ,you may come with us1 for example1 might mean that some time in the future it is possible that you will come with us4 ,he may have the money1 might mean either ,he is given permission to have the money1 or ,it is possible that he has it4 ,may1 used with many verb forms1 means it is possible4 ,for example3 ,he may be hungry1 ,he may have starved4 ,he may have been starving2 that is1 it is possible that he is hungry2 that he has starved2 that he was starving4 #age4 ,might is the past form of may and expresses past permission to do or to be and also possibility in the past4 ,for example3 ,the officer said he might go4 ,that is1 he gave him permission to go4 ,you might have helped your comrades2 that is1 you had the power to have helped4 ,might is also used to express permission or the power to do in the present and future1 on condition4 ,for example3 ,he might find work if he were trained4 ,the workers might destroy this insane system if they would4 ,exercise #c ,study carefully the following sentences4 ,write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs may or might in that sentence4 #a4 444444 ,the solidarity of the workers might have averted this war4 #b4 444444 ,of all sad words of tongue or pen1 ,the saddest are these--'it might have been4' #c4 444444 ,you might join us4 #d4 444444 ,the people struggle that they may live4 #e4 444444 ,try2 you might succeed4 #f4 444444 ,the day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered4 #g4 444444 ,victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue4 #h4 444444 ,men may come and men may go2 ,but ,i go on forever4 #i4 444444 ,it seemed possible that we might win4 #aj4 444444 ,may we ever be loyal and true6 #aa4 444444 ,it appeared for a time that we might be involved in war4 #ab4 444444 ,let come what may1 we will not yield4 ,,can ,,and ,,could #agf4 ,can is the present-time form and could the past-time form1 and both imply ability or power to do or to be4 ,you can go means ,you are able to go1--,you have the power to go4 ,you may go means ,you have permission to go4 ,can is often used when we should use may1 when we mean to give permission4 ,habit plays a great part in our life and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice4 ,it is only continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech4 ,good ,english would be easy of accomplishment if to do were as easy as to know what it were good to do4 ,we are too often like the mother in the story4 ,can ,i have a piece of pie8 asked the child4 ,may ,i8 the mother corrected4 ,then the child asked1 ,may ,i have a piece of pie8 and the mother answered1 ,yes1 you can4 ,knowledge said1 may2 habit said can1 and the ready tongue obeyed the force of habit4 ,say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your ear and flows readily to your tongue4 #agg4 ,could is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to do1 conditioned upon willingness1 as3 ,he could if he would4 ,exercise #d ,study carefully the following sentences4 ,write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs can or could in that sentence4 #a4 444444 ,i can say love when others say hate2 ,i can say every man when others say one man2 ,what can ,i do8 ,i can give myself to life1 ,when other men refuse themselves to life4 #b4 444444 ,no one can be free till all are free4 #c4 444444 ,they could win their freedom if they would prepare themselves to be free4 #d4 444444 ,what can ,i do1 being alone8 #e4 444444 ,if all men could catch the vision of freedom1 wars would cease4 #f4 444444 ,could you find a better way to spend your time than in study8 #g4 444444 ,men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts4 ,,must ,,and ,,ought #agh4 ,must and ought imply obligation4 ,must conveys the idea of being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion1 as1 ,you must have known it4 ,he must go4 ,ought was originally the past time form of owe1 hence means to be indebted to1 to owe4 ,it conveys the idea of a moral obligation1 as1 ,you ought to help the cause4 ,you ought to understand4 #agi4 ,ought is always used with the infinitive1 and the same form is used to express both the present and the past time4 ,the difference in time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in the form of the helping verb4 ,with may and might and can and could1 present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of the helping verb4 ,with the helping verb ought1 the difference in time is expressed in the infinitive4 ,for example3 ,he ought to pay us our wages4 ,this means1 ,he owes it to us to pay us our wages now4 ,he ought to have paid us our wages4 ,this means1 ,he owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the past4 #ahj4 ,the present infinitive is used with the helping verb ought to express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with ought to express past time4 ,exercise #e ,study carefully the following sentences4 ,write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb must or ought in that sentence4 #a4 444444 ,service must be the key note of the future4 #b4 444444 ,competition must give place to co-operation4 #c4 444444 ,ought we to fear1 who know the truth8 #d4 444444 ,government ought to be the administration of things4 #e4 444444 ,no man ought to have the power of life and death over any other human being4 #f4 444444 ,it may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost4 #g4 444444 ,what ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war8 #h4 444444 ,for man must work and woman must weep1 ,for there is little to do and many to keep4 #i4 444444 ,the day must come when we can live the dream4 ,,do ,,and ,,did #aha4 ,do and did are used as helping verbs to give emphasis--to form emphatic verb phrases4 ,do is the present time form and did the past time form1 as for example3 ,i do wish you would come4 ,i did hope he would win4 #ahb4 ,when we use the negative not we use the helping verbs do and did to form our verb phrases4 ,for example1 we do not say3 ,i obey not4 ,i walked not4 ,he comes not4 ,they arrived not4 ,but in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative not1 we say instead3 ,i do not obey4 ,i did not walk4 ,he does not come4 ,they did not arrive4 #ahc4 ,we also use do and did with the present and past time forms of the verb in writing interrogative sentences4 ,for example1 we do not say3 ,comes he with them8 ,studied you yesterday8 ,found they the book8 ,think you it is true8 ,but we say instead3 ,does he come with them8 ,did you study yesterday8 ,did they find the book8 ,do you think it is true8 ,exercise #f ,write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb do or did in that sentence4 #a4 444444 ,slaves do not think2 they obey4 #b4 444444 ,men do not obey2 they think4 #c4 444444 ,do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per cent of the wealth8 #d4 444444 ,the children of the masses do not have the opportunity to attend school4 #e4 444444 ,did not every nation claim a war for defense8 #f4 444444 ,we did not dare to breathe a prayer1 ,or give our anguish scope4 #g4 444444 ,we do desire the freedom of the people4 #h4 444444 ,we did hope that war might be averted4 ,let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs4 #ahd4 ,helping verbs are used to express3 ,the different time forms--shall1 will1 have1 had1 be4 ,power to do or to be--can1 could1 might4 ,permission--may and might4 ,possibility--may and might4 ,obligation--must1 ought and should4 ,necessity--must4 ,condition--would4 ,mark the helping verbs in the following exercise3 ,exercise #g ,the earth shall rise on new foundations4 ,we have been naught1 we shall be all4 ,no more tradition's chains shall bind us4 ,oh6 ,liberty6 ,can man resign thee8 ,can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee8 ,capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed4 ,what can ,i do8 ,i can talk out when others are silent4 ,i can say man when others say money4 ,do you hear the children weeping1 ,o my brothers8 ,political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom4 ,political democracy can exist only where there is industrial democracy4 ,who would be free1 themselves must strike the blow4 ,if there is anything that cannot bear free thought1 let it crack4 ,no doctrine1 however established1 should be protected from discussion4 ,society can overlook murder1 adultery or swindling2 it never forgives the preaching of a new gospel4 ,the tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants4 ,every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer4 ,no picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the odious facts4 ,i know not what course others may take1 but as for me1 give me liberty or give me death4 ,exercise #h ,note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation4 ,could you use might or must or ought anywhere and strengthen the emphasis8 ,i have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own confidence1 and it seems to me1 so looked at1 to be a most just claim1 and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole of civilization4 ,this then is the claim3 ,it is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do2 and which should be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome nor over-anxious4 ,turn that claim about as ,i may1 think of it as long as ,i can1 ,i cannot find that it is an exorbitant claim2 yet if society would or could admit it1 the face of the earth would be changed2 discontent and strife and dishonesty would be ended4 ,to feel that we were doing work useful to others and pleasant to ourselves1 and that such work and its due reward could not fail us6 ,what serious harm could happen to us then8 ,and the price to be paid for so making the world happy1 must be revolution4--,william ,morris4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #aj ,simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words4 ,root means that from which something grows4 ,we know our language is a living1 growing thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins4 ,one way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our language is by placing syllables before or after the root word--the simple word--as1 for example3 unmanly4 ,in this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the root word man4 ,the syllable placed before the root word is called the prefix from the ,latin pre meaning before and the ,latin word to place4 ,therefore1 prefix means literally to place before4 ,a prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word to qualify its meaning4 ,the syllable placed after the root word1 or simple word1 is called the suffix1 from the ,latin sub meaning after and the ,latin word to place4 ,subfix the word should be literally1 but for the sake of the sound--the euphony1 the good sound--we say suffix4 ,a suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to qualify its meaning4 ,the words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative words4 ,you remember we used a suffix in forming participles4 ,the present participle is formed by adding the suffix ing to the simple form of the verb4 ,the past participle is formed by adding the suffix ed to the simple form of the verb4 ,the words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words formed by adding a prefix or suffix1 or both1 to the simple word4 ,draw a line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root word4 ,monday ,wonderful ,prosperous ,disloyalty ,uncovered ,government ,tuesday ,memorize ,unreality ,co-operation ,dependent ,truly ,wednesday ,beautify ,countless ,uncomfortable ,dishonesty ,producer ,thursday ,existence ,untruthfulness ,discontentment ,victory ,removable ,friday ,impurity ,unwillingness ,indebted ,overwearisome ,enjoyable ,saturday ,obligation ,hopeless ,endanger ,precaution ,denial ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #aa ,dear ,comrade3 ,as we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of written speech1 we discover that primitive man imagined the art of writing to have had divine origin1 to have been handed down from the powers above4 ,it is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that we do not understand4 ,so these primitive people have attributed the discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand1 as possessing magical power2 but as we come to learn the origin and causes of things1 they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods and enslavers of men4 ,we understand the laws that govern their action and they become our servants4 ,take lightning for example4 ,primitive people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of ,jove or attributed it to an act of divine providence4 ,we have learned the laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is no longer a god to whom we bow in submission1 and who slays us at his whim4 ,he has become our most faithful servant who travels along the wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding4 ,so in the early stages1 the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of liberation4 ,knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world1 desiring power over the people1 have striven to keep knowledge within their own circle2 so the art of writing was known only to the few4 ,the few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and circulated1 largely among the clergy1 who used it as priests have ever used their power--from medicine man to ,pope1--for the enslavement of the people and the protection of the privileges of a few4 ,this is aptly illustrated in the law which was known as the benefit of clergy which was not entirely repealed until the year #ahbg4 ,under this statute1 exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and also to any man who could read4 ,if a person were sentenced to death for some criminal offense1 the bishop of that community might claim him as a clerk and if1 when given a ,latin book1 he could read a verse or two1 the court would declare he reads like a clerk and the offender was only burned in the hand and then set free4 ,the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people1 was the beginning of the emancipation of the workers of the world4 ,but while we realize1 perhaps1 what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few1 still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken language of to-day4 ,when we realize how through all these long centuries man has been struggling1 striving1 evolving1 developing1 reaching out toward fuller1 freer and richer life1 it gives us courage in our struggle and makes us see ourselves1 not as individuals alone1 but as links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the past1 from whom we have inherited the power we now possess1 and reaching forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance of the past4 ,next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of writing4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,the ,,verb ,,be #ahe4 ,the verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master because it has more form changes than any other part of speech4 ,in this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most common mistakes4 #ahf4 ,first1 master that little verb be in all its forms4 ,the only way to do this is to commit to memory these forms4 ,say them over and over until any other form does not sound right4 ,present ,past ,future ,singular ,singular ,singular #a4 ,i am4 ,i was4 ,i shall be4 #b4 ,you are4 ,you were4 ,you will be4 #c4 ,he is4 ,he was4 ,he will be4 ,plural ,plural ,plural #a4 ,we are4 ,we were4 ,we shall be4 #b4 ,you are4 ,you were4 ,you will be4 #c4 ,they are4 ,they were4 ,they will be4 ,pres4 ,perf4 ,past ,perf4 ,fut4 ,perf4 ,have been4 ,had been4 ,shall have been4 #ahg4 ,do not use aint for is not or am not4 ,do not say1 ,he aint here1 or ,i aint going4 ,say1 ,he isn't here2 ,i am not going4 ,a ,,frequent ,,mistake #ahh4 ,perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the use of the past time form and the past participle4 ,remember that the past time form is never used except in expressing past time2 never use it in forming a verb phrase4 ,take the verb do1 for example--say1 ,he did the work1 never1 ,he done the work2 but we should say1 ,he has done the work1 never1 ,he has did the work4 ,say and seen are confused in the same manner4 ,watch this carefully4 ,exercise #a ,underline the correct word in the following3 #a4 ,who did--done it8 #b4 ,he sung--sang well4 #c4 ,he sunk--sank before we could reach him4 #d4 ,she written--wrote him a letter4 #e4 ,he taken--took the book4 #f4 ,they swum--swam the river4 #g4 ,i saw--seen him do it4 #h4 ,they drank--drunk too much4 #i4 ,he soon began--begun to fail4 #aj4 ,the lad ran--run home4 #aa4 ,they come--came yesterday4 ,,with ,,helping ,,verbs #ahi4 ,never use the past time form with the helping verbs has1 had1 was and were4 ,always use the past participle4 ,watch this carefully4 ,for example1 never say1 ,he has went4 ,went is the past time form4 ,say1 ,he has gone4 ,exercise #b ,underscore the correct word in the following sentences3 #a4 ,he had tore--torn the book4 #b4 ,have you ever sang--sung this tune8 #c4 ,they have showed--shown us how to win4 #d4 ,she has went--gone away4 #e4 ,the trees were shook--shaken by the wind4 #f4 ,he was chose--chosen for leader4 #g4 ,he has rose--risen from the ranks4 #h4 ,it was wrote--written by him4 #i4 ,he has took--taken the prize4 #aj4 ,he was gave--given the money4 #aa4 ,i have forgot--forgotten the rule4 #ab4 ,the river was froze--frozen over4 #ac4 ,the machine was broke--broken4 #ad4 ,it was wore--worn out4 #ae4 ,the meal was ate--eaten in silence4 ,,past ,,time ,,forms #aij4 ,watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for the past time form4 ,study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it frequently4 ,we often make the mistake of forming the past time form by adding ed when properly it is formed irregularly4 ,for example3 we often say drawed for drew1 throwed for threw1 etc4 ,exercise #c ,draw a line under the correct form in the following3 #a4 ,he grew--growed rapidly4 #b4 ,he knew--knowed better4 #c4 ,he catched--caught the ball4 #d4 ,he drew--drawed the water4 #e4 ,they threw--throwed him over4 #f4 ,i drinked--drank the water4 #g4 ,i climbed--clumb the tree4 #h4 ,i seed--saw him do it4 #i4 ,she teached--taught school4 ,,verbs ,,of ,,similar ,,form #aia4 ,do not use one verb for another of similar form but different meaning4 ,the following are the most common of these3 ,lay 7incomplete verb1 requires an object7 meaning to place or to put2 as1 to lay the book down4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 lay2 ,past1 laid2 ,past participle1 laid4 ,lie 7complete verb1 takes no object7 meaning to recline1 to rest2 as1 to lie in bed4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 lie2 ,past1 lay2 ,past participle1 lain4 ,set 7incomplete verb1 requires an object7 meaning to place or to put2 as1 to set the table4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 set2 ,past1 set2 ,past participle1 set4 ,sit 7complete verb1 takes no object7 meaning to rest1 as1 to sit in a chair4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 sit2 ,past1 sat2 ,past participle1 sat4 ,raise 7incomplete verb1 requires an object7 meaning to cause to rise1 to lift up4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 raise2 ,past1 raised2 ,past participle1 raised4 ,rise 7complete verb1 takes no object7 meaning to get up1 to ascend4 ,principal parts3 ,present1 rise2 ,past1 rose2 ,past participle1 risen4 #aib4 ,,note--,these three verbs need an object to complete their meaning3 ,present ,past ,past ,participle set set set lay laid laid raise raised raised #aic4 ,,note--,these three verbs need no object3 ,present ,past ,past ,participle sit sat sat lie lay lain rise rose risen ,exercise #d ,fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs sit1 set1 lay1 lie1 raise and rise3 #a4 ,i444444it on the table and there it4444444 #b4 ,they444444the battle ship1 ,maine4 #c4 ,where did you444444it8 #d4 ,a mile of pipe has been4444444 #e4 ,the miners444444a large strike fund4 #f4 ,she444444down to sleep4 #g4 ,the body444444in state three days4 #h4 ,the farmers of the ,u4 ,s4444444an enormous wheat crop4 #i4 ,the city444444on the right bank4 #aj4 ,we have444444the corner stone4 #aa4 ,when wages are4444441 prices are444444too4 #ab4 ,he444444in bed all morning4 #ac4 444444down ,fido4 #ad4 ,the sun444444at six this morning4 #ae4 ,she has been444444there all day4 #af4 ,the ship444444to during the storm4 #ag4 ,they have been444444new tracks4 #ah4 ,the hen is444444on the eggs4 #ai4 ,somebody said1 ,early to bed and early to4444441 ,makes a man healthy1 wealthy and wise4 #bj4 ,he444444motionless for an hour4 #ba4 ,he444444out the trees in rows4 #bb4 ,he will444444in his position4 #bc4 ,the court will444444in ,may4 #bd4 ,where did he4444448 #be4 ,she444444the table while he444444there4 #bf4 ,he444444the clock for six o'clock4 #bg4 ,the water has444444two feet since the rain4 #bh4 ,he444444the book down and444444on it4 #bi4 ,the hen has been444444a week4 #cj4 444444it on the table4 #ca4 ,he444444in the shade and watched her444444the plants4 ,,common ,,errors #aid4 ,remember that in the present time form the third person singular takes the s-form1 but the s-form is never used except with the third person singular4 ,we often make the mistake of using the s-form with a plural subject4 ,notice carefully the following sentences1 and correct the errors4 ,all of the sentences are wrong4 #a4 ,the days is getting shorter4 #b4 ,the men has struck4 #c4 ,the trains was late4 #d4 ,these papers is written for you4 #e4 ,you was disappointed1 wasn't you8 #f4 ,there is several coming4 #g4 ,the nights was dark and cloudy4 #h4 ,the clouds has gathered4 #i4 ,they was anxious to come4 #aie4 ,when two subjects are connected by and1 the s-form of the verb must not be used1 unless both subjects refer to one person2 as3 ,the president and the secretary 7two persons7 were late4 ,the president and secretary 7one person7 was elected4 #aif4 ,but when the two subjects are connected by or or nor then use the s-form of the verb2 as3 ,neither ,germany nor ,russia admits a war of offense4 ,either the ,house or the ,senate rejects the bill4 #aig4 ,never use the infinitive sign to by itself2 as3 ,i have not written and do not expect to4 ,he has not gone nor does he intend to4 #aih4 ,never use don't for doesn't4 ,the use of don't for doesn't is a very common mistake4 ,don't is a contraction of do not and doesn't of does not4 ,when you are in doubt as to which to use1 think or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the subject4 ,do not is used with a plural subject1 and does not with a singular subject4 ,for example3 ,he don't believe me4 ,this sentence in full would be1 ,he do not believe me1 which is incorrect4 ,he does not 7doesn't7 believe me is correct4 ,or1 ,they doesn't believe me4 ,this sentence in full would read1 ,they does not believe me1 which is incorrect4 ,they do not 7don't7 believe me is correct4 #aii4 ,do not use has got1 or have got for must4 ,for example1 do not say1 ,we have got to go4 ,say1 ,we must go4 ,not1 ,he has got to do what ,i say2 but1 ,he must do as ,i say4 #bjj4 ,do not say had ought4 ,for example3 ,you had ought to know better4 ,omit the had2 it is unnecessary and incorrect4 ,say1 ,you ought to know better4 #bja4 ,do not say says ,i or thinks ,i4 ,says ,i1 ,will you go8 ,says he1 ,that's what will happen4 ,thinks ,i to myself1 ,i'll show you4 ,these are incorrect4 ,say instead3 ,i said1 ,will you go8 ,he said1 ,that's what will happen4 ,i thought1 ,i'll show you4 ,exercise #e ,mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their use4 #a4 ,speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly2 for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be understood4--,penn4 #b4 ,freedom's battle1 once begun1 ,bequeathed from bleeding sire to son1 ,though baffled oft1 is ever won4 ,note the use of may and can in this quotation3 #c4 ,knowledge cannot be stolen from us4 ,it cannot be bought or sold4 ,we may be poor1 and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture1 or drive away our cow1 or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and penniless2 but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our minds4--,e4 ,burritt4 ,note the use of shall and will and would and should in the following4 ,richard ,grant ,white says3 ,i do not know in ,english literature another passage in which the distinction between shall and will and would and should is at once so elegantly1 so variously1 so precisely1 and so compactly illustrated4 #d4 ,how long ,i shall love him ,i can no more tell1 ,than1 had ,i a fever1 when ,i should be well4 ,my passion shall kill me before ,i will show it1 ,and yet ,i would give all the world he did know it2 ,but oh how ,i sigh1 when ,i think1 should he woo me1 ,i cannot refuse what ,i know would undo me4 #e4 ,i want it said of me by those who know me best that ,i always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where ,i thought a flower would grow4--,abraham ,lincoln4 ,exercise #f ,note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation4 ,note also the use of infinitives and participles4 ,mark every verb and use it in a sentence of your own4 ,faith and ,truth ,you say ,believe2 ,i say ,trust4 ,between those two words is a great gulf fixed4 ,the idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external facts is unworthy of a freeman1 but to trust is as much the true nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's milk4 ,you say ,creed2 ,i say ,faith4 ,a creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith4 ,faith is the proper atmosphere of man1 trust is his native buoyancy1 and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being4 ,you have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions--namely1 to think honestly1 and say what you think4 ,have you doubts about your creed8 say so2 only thus has the true faith ever advanced4 ,it is not ,god1 but the devil1 who whispers3 ,think at your peril6 ,do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law and order8 ,say so2 only thus has the condition of man ever improved4 ,have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature1 and do not worry about the consequences4 ,be a creator1 as you were born to be1 and spurn beyond all infamies the wretched role of a repeater and apologist4 ,the world lives and grows by heresy and treason4 ,it dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong4 ,ernest ,crosby4 ,exercise #g ,in the following paragraph1 the predicates are printed in italics1 and the participles and infinitives in italic capitals4 ,study carefully4 ,if it were taught to every child1 and in every school and college1 that it is morally wrong for anyone ,,to ,,live upon the ,,combined labor of his fellowmen without ,,contributing an approximately equal amount of useful labor1 whether physical or mental1 in return1 all kinds of ,,gambling1 as well as many other kinds of useless occupations1 would be seen ,,to ,,be of the same nature as direct dishonesty or fraud1 and1 therefore would soon come ,,to ,,be ,,considered disgraceful as well as immoral4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace4 ,exercise #h ,underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles1 the infinitives and the various time forms2 also the helping verbs3 ,what1 speaking in quite unofficial language1 is the net purport of war8 ,to my knowledge1 for example1 there dwell and toil1 in the ,british village of ,dumrudge1 usually some five hundred souls4 ,from these1 by certain 'natural enemies' of the ,french1 there are selected1 say thirty able-bodied men2 ,dumrudge1 at her own expense1 has suckled and nursed them2 she has1 not without difficulty and sorrow1 fed them up to manhood and trained them in the crafts1 so that one can weave1 another build and another hammer4 ,nevertheless1 amidst much weeping and swearing1 they are selected2 all dressed in red and shipped away1 at the public charges1 some two thousand miles1 or1 say only to the south of ,spain1 and fed there till wanted4 ,and now to that same spot in the south of ,spain are thirty similar ,french artisans1 in like manner1 wending their ways2 till at length the thirty stand facing the thirty1 each with his gun in his hand4 ,straightway1 the word ',fire' is given1 and they blow the souls out of one another2 and in the place of the sixty brisk1 useful craftsmen1 the world has sixty dead carcasses1 which it must bury and anew shed tears for4 ,had these men any quarrel8 ,busy as the devil is1 not the smallest6 ,they lived far enough apart2 were the entirest strangers2 nay1 in so wide a universe1 there was even1 unconsciously1 by commerce1 some mutual helpfulness between them4 ,how then8 ,simpleton6 ,their governors had fallen out2 and instead of shooting one another1 had these poor blockheads shoot4--,carlyle4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #aa ,there are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of ,english words4 ,the spelling of words must be largely mastered by concentration and effort of the memory4 ,it will help you to memorize the correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times4 ,this gives you a visual image of the word4 ,then spell it aloud a number of times4 ,this will give you an auditory image4 ,words which you find difficult to master1 write in a list by themselves and review frequently4 ,there are a few rules1 however1 which are helpful to know4 ,there is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week concerning words formed by adding a suffix4 ,a word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which stands a single vowel1 doubles the final consonant when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added4 ,for example3 mat1 matted1 matting2 sun1 sunned1 sunning4 ,mat ends in t1 a single consonant which is preceded by the single vowel a1--so you double the t when you add the suffix ed or ing1 which begin with a vowel4 ,notice these3 ,blend1 blended1 blending2 ,help1 helped1 helping4 ,these words do not end in a single consonant1 so you do not double the consonant4 ,notice also3 ,lean1 leaned1 leaning2 ,rain1 rained1 raining4 ,these words end in a single consonant1 but before the consonant is a double vowel1 ea in lean and ai in rain4 ,so we do not double the final consonant4 ,this same rule holds true of any suffix1 beginning with a vowel1 as er and est1 for example3 sad1 sadder1 saddest4 ,slim1 slimmer1 slimmest4 ,learn to spell the following words4 ,add the suffixes ed and ing to the words for ,monday1 ,tuesday and ,wednesday4 ,add er and est to the words for ,thursday1 ,friday and ,saturday4 ,monday ,chat ,cheat ,grin ,groan ,suit ,tuesday ,sap ,soap ,bet ,beat ,rot ,wednesday ,talk ,teach ,gain ,stir ,plan ,thursday ,thin ,dear ,flat ,cheap ,straight ,friday ,clean ,brief ,fair ,shrill ,wet ,saturday ,strong ,great ,mad ,fleet ,fat ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ab ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of speech4 ,you will notice that in words1 at least1 we give credit and place in society only because of work performed4 ,in the society of men1 people are given place and position too often because of outward dress and form or because of some special privilege4 ,they are not given their place in society because of the work which they do or because they perform any useful function4 ,in fact1 in our topsy-turvy world1 those who perform no work at all1 but are simply parasites upon society1 have claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions4 ,surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our society of words1 when men will be received1 not because of that which they possess1 but because of that which they do and are4 ,man has really laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of words into a spoken and written language4 ,when we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals1 we wonder what sort of speech he used then4 ,possibly it was only a little more articulate than the speech of some animals4 ,but man had within him the instinct to question1 and this has been the root of all his progress4 ,we can imagine these primitive men witnessing the wonder of fire1 as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set fire to the forest in which they lived2 but after the fear had subsided1 some adventurous1 inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes1 and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing4 ,so gradually they discovered the use of fire1 and with it a wonderful new future opened before the primitive man4 ,with these great discoveries1 he needed a better form of communication with his comrades1 so articulate speech developed4 ,but when we go back into the beginning of written speech1 it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning4 ,the first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker4 ,on the walls of caves in ,france and ,belgium and here in ,america1 we have found rude sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the ,ice ,age and the ,old ,stone ,age4 ,here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures describing different phases of his life1 the animals about him1 the hunt and the chase1 and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our alphabet of to-day4 ,how much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know that man has developed it himself4 ,it has not been handed down by some god or powers above2 but the spirit of rebellion against the things that be2 the great desire to know more and to find out the reason why of all the things around us1--these have been the forces that have led the race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life4 ,it is only as we1 through this spirit of rebellion1 this same divine discontent with the things that are1 seek to do our own thinking that we can add our share to the heritage of the race4 ,let us have the same courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature round about him4 ,let us think for ourselves4 ,ask always the question why and demand the reason for all things4 ,thus we shall free ourselves and help to free the race4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,in ,,place ,,of ,a ,,noun #bjb4 ,you remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun4 ,this is a very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome repetition4 ,notice the following sentences3 ,john ,smith is a machinist4 ,john ,smith works at the machine4 ,the machine is ,john ,smith's master4 ,this is awkward and the repetition is tiresome4 ,so we say instead3 ,john ,smith is a machinist4 ,he works at the machine4 ,it is his master4 ,you readily understand who and what we mean by he and it and his1 and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the statements4 ,these words like he and his and it1 which we use in place of the noun1 we call pronouns4 ,pro means literally in the ,latin1 for or in place of2 so when we say pronoun we are practically saying1 in place of a noun4 ,a pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun4 #bjc4 ,the word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it is used is called its antecedent4 ,ante means before and cedent comes from the ,latin word meaning go1 hence antecedent means literally1 going before4 ,notice this sentence3 ,the manager spoke to the men before he left and told them to stop at the office4 ,manager is the antecedent of the pronoun he1 and men is the antecedent of the pronoun them4 ,the word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,pronouns #bjd4 ,the ,latin language has had a great deal of influence upon ,english4 ,many of our words are taken from the ,latin4 ,you remember that all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from ,latin words4 ,we also feel the influence of the ,latin language in the way in which we number our personal pronouns4 ,the ,romans naturally thought that one would think of one's self first1 and so the pronouns referring to one's self1 or the person speaking1 are called the first person pronouns4 ,they are1 ,i1 my1 mine1 me and we1 our1 ours1 and us4 ,then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person spoken to1 so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called the second person pronouns4 ,formerly thou was used in speaking to one person4 ,in ,german and many other languages this form is still used1 but in ,english we do not today use the singular form thou with its variations1 thy1 thine1 and thee1 except in poetry or poetic prose4 ,in every-day speech we use you and its forms1 your and yours1 for both the singular and the plural4 ,then the ,romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were speaking2 so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are called the third person pronouns4 ,these are he1 she1 and it1 with their other forms1 his1 him1 her1 hers1 its1 in the singular1 and they1 their1 theirs and them in the plural4 ,a personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker1 the person spoken to1 or the person or thing spoken of4 ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns #bje4 ,all of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple forms2 but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form2 that is1 a form made by the addition of self or selves to the simple forms4 ,these are called compound personal pronouns4 ,they are1 in the singular1 myself1 thyself1 yourself1 himself1 herself1 itself1 and in the plural1 ourselves1 yourselves and themselves4 ,the compound personal pronouns have two uses1 reflexive and emphatic4 ,reflexive #bjf4 ,a compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject and the object refer to the same thing2 as in this sentence1 ,he has hurt himself1 himself is the object of the incomplete verb has hurt1 but it refers to the subject he4 ,reflexive is from the ,latin re meaning back and from the ,latin verb meaning throw1 so reflexive means literally thrown back4 ,these pronouns throw their meaning back to the subject4 ,emphatic #bjg4 ,a compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers4 ,for example in the sentence1 ,he did the work himself1 or1 ,he1 himself1 did the work1 himself gives emphasis or intensifies the meaning of the pronoun he4 ,remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two ways1 reflexive and emphatic4 ,for example1 the following sentences are incorrect3 ,this is for yourself and your comrade4 ,ourselves will find out the reason4 ,the correct form would be3 ,this is for you and your comrade4 ,we1 ourselves1 will find out the reason4 #bjh4 ,you can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the emphatic use4 ,in the reflexive1 the compound personal pronoun is always the object of a verb or preposition1 and the subject of the sentence is its antecedent4 ,the subject and the object always refer to the same thing4 ,in the emphatic use1 the compound personal pronoun is neither the subject nor the object1 but is thrown into the sentence simply to render it emphatic1 and to call special attention to its antecedent4 ,exercise #a ,supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell whether the use is reflexive or emphatic4 #a4 ,he discovered the truth4444444 #b4 ,the workers have robbed444444by their ignorance4 #c4 ,you must educate4444444 #d4 ,you must do the work4444444 #e4 ,he must defend4444444 #f4 ,capitalism overreaches4444444 #g4 ,the people will rule4444444 #h4 ,we will settle the question4444444 ,write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are correctly used4 ,,singular ,,and ,,plural #bji4 ,personal pronouns1 like nouns1 have number form4 ,nouns simply add s to the singular form to denote the plural1 but in personal pronouns we have different words which we use to express one or more than one person or thing4 ,in the first1 second1 and third person forms1 personal pronouns also have different forms for the object form1 the possessive and the subject form4 ,the following table gives the singular and plural of the subject form1--that is the form which is used as the subject of the sentence4 ,subject ,form ,singular ,plural ,first person4 ,i ,we ,second person4 ,you ,you ,third person4 ,he1 she1 it4 ,they ,compound ,personal ,pronouns ,singular ,plural ,first4 ,myself ,ourselves ,second4 ,yourself ,yourselves ,third4 ,himself1 herself1 itself4 ,themselves #baj4 ,remember that the first person refers to the person speaking1 the second to the person spoken to1 and the third person to the person or things spoken of4 ,when we speak of things1 we never use the first or second person1 unless we are speaking of them in a personified form4 ,so in the third person singular1 we have the pronoun it which refers to one thing4 ,in the plural1 we have no special pronoun referring to things1 but the pronoun they is used to refer both to persons and things4 ,exercise #b ,which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking1 which to the person spoken to1 and which to the person or thing spoken of8 ,which are singular1 which plural8 ,i will defend my principles4 ,give them to me for they are mine4 ,do you believe him to be your friend8 ,we saw their mistake at once4 ,they acknowledged it was their fault4 ,success will be your portion if you persevere4 ,he struggles for his rights2 she does not understand her rights4 ,it forces us to struggle for our education4 ,woman craves her freedom4 ,workers of the world1 unite2 you have a world to gain and nothing to lose but your chains4 ,form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns4 ,,possessive ,,form #baa4 ,you will note in these sentences above that we have used the pronoun my and your and his and her as my principles1 your friend1 his rights1 her freedom4 ,this is the possessive form of these personal pronouns1 the form that denotes ownership or possession4 ,you remember that nouns had a possessive form1 a form to denote possession or ownership1 as1 ,the man's book4 ,the boy's school4 ,the worker's college4 ,so pronouns also have a possessive form which we use to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing4 ,if ,i want to tell you that ,i own or possess a home1 ,i say1 ,i own my home4 ,each personal pronoun has its possessive form1 thus3 ,singular ,subject ,form ,possessive ,first person4 ,i ,my1 mine ,second person4 ,you ,your1 yours ,third person4 ,he1 she1 it ,his1 her1 hers1 its ,plural ,subject ,form ,possessive ,first person4 ,we ,our1 ours ,second person4 ,you ,your1 yours ,third person4 ,they ,their1 theirs ,,possessive ,,form #bab4 ,you will notice that the possessive forms1 my1 our1 her1 your1 its1 his and their1 are always used with the name of the object possessed4 ,as for example2 my work1 our library1 her delight1 your task1 its purpose1 his home1 their mistake4 #bac4 ,the possessive forms1 mine1 thine1 hers1 ours1 yours and theirs1 are always used by themselves and are used either as subject1 object or complement4 ,as for example3 ,that letter is mine4 ,the work is hers4 ,thine is the glory4 ,is that yours8 ,theirs not to reason why2 theirs but to do and die4 ,the possessive form his may be used either in connection with the name of the object possessed or by itself4 ,for example3 ,this is his home4 ,this home is his4 ,,object ,,form #bad4 ,pronouns have one form which nouns do not have4 ,we use the same form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object4 ,for example3 ,the man saw me4 ,i saw the man4 ,in the first sentence man is the subject of the verb saw1 and in the second sentence man is the object of the verb saw4 ,the same word is used2 but you will notice that in the first sentence me is the object of the verb saw1 and in the second ,i is the subject2 yet both refer to the same person1 the first person1 the person speaking4 ,so we have a different form of the pronoun for the object1 for example3 ,i saw him4 ,he saw me4 ,she watched us4 ,we watched her4 ,you found them4 ,him1 me1 us1 her1 and them in these sentences are used as the objects of the verbs1 see1 watch and found1 and are called the object forms of the pronouns4 ,you and it have the same form for both the subject and object2 as1 ,you did it4 ,it frightens you4 ,her is used as both the possessive form and the object form1 as1 ,her work tires her4 #bae4 ,the following table gives the subject and the object forms of the personal pronouns1 and these should never be confused in their usage4 ,we must not use the object form as the subject of the verb1 nor the subject form as the object of the verb4 ,singular ,subject ,object ,first4 ,i ,me ,second4 ,you ,you ,third4 ,he1 she1 it ,him1 her1 it ,plural ,subject ,object ,first4 ,we ,us ,second4 ,you ,you ,third4 ,they ,them ,,gender #baf4 ,you notice in all of these tables that there are three forms given for the third person singular1 he1 she1 and it4 ,these are the only forms in which pronouns express gender4 ,in all other forms the gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent4 ,he1 representing a male1 is masculine4 ,she1 representing a female1 is the feminine4 ,it represents a sexless thing1 and hence is said to be of the neuter gender4 ,,the ,,little ,,verb ,,be #bag4 ,you remember when we studied verbs1 we had the incomplete verb that took an object2 the complete verb that needed no object1 since it was complete in itself2 and one other kind of a verb4 ,do you remember this third kind of verb8 ,this third kind is the copulative verb1 and the copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of which we make the most mistakes4 ,it is that troublesome1 bothersome1 little verb be1 which is so difficult to master4 ,you remember it is an incomplete verb1 but instead of taking an object1 it takes a complement or completing word4 ,so when you see a pronoun with any form of this verb be1 you must use the subject form and not the object form4 ,this copulative verb be is simply a connecting word1 not a verb that asserts action or takes an object4 #bah4 ,here is where we make so many mistakes4 ,we say1 ,it was me1 ,it was them1 ,it was him1 ,it wasn't her2 instead of1 ,it was ,i1 ,it was they1 ,it was he1 ,it wasn't she4 ,we have used the incorrect form in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to our ears4 ,the only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct form until it has a familiar sound4 ,don't think this is putting words1 as you should do in everything4 ,we of the working class have built the world in its beauty4 ,why should we live in shacks1 dress in shoddy1 talk in slang8 ,there is no reason except that we endure it4 ,when the united working class demands its own1 it will receive it4 ,demand yours and arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can4 ,repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily4 ,we can learn the rule1 but only continued practice and watchfulness can break us of our old habits4 ,it is ,i who seek my own4 ,it shall be they who are defeated4 ,it was ,i who was ignorant4 ,it is they who cause all wars4 ,it is he who must be aroused4 ,it is we who strive for freedom4 ,it shall be ,i who shall win4 ,it was she who was enslaved4 ,it shall be we who shall demand equality4 ,it shall be they who shall conquer4 ,agreement #bai4 ,pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative commonwealth of words4 ,they strive to agree with their antecedents4 ,sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree1 and then our sentence is incorrect4 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number1 gender and person4 ,for example1 if you are referring to one man1 you must use a masculine pronoun1 singular1 third person form1 as ,i saw the man but he did not see me4 ,man is the antecedent4 ,it is singular1 masculine1 third person and so we use the pronoun he4 ,the girl came1 but she could not stay4 ,in this sentence girl is the antecedent2 it is singular1 feminine1 third person1 and so we use the pronoun she4 ,the boys did not come when the teacher called them4 ,in this sentence boys is the antecedent2 it is plural1 masculine1 third person1 and so we use the pronoun them4 #bbj4 ,sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent1 joined by and4 ,we use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the same person or thing2 as3 ,the secretary and treasurer 7one person7 resigned his position4 ,my comrade and friend 7one person7 gave me his help4 #bba4 ,but two nouns joined by and1 that mean different persons or things1 must be represented by a plural pronoun1 thus3 ,marx and ,engels 7two persons7 wrote their call to liberty1 the ,communist-,manifesto4 ,men and women will struggle for their freedom4 ,childhood and youth should have their rightful joys4 #bbb4 ,use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the use of each1 every1 many a1 or no4 ,each man and boy must do his part4 7,not their part47 ,every soldier and every officer must do his duty4 ,many a city and many a village gave its best to the army4 ,no comrade and no ,socialist will give his consent to war4 #bbc4 ,if you have two singular nouns as antecedents1 joined by or1 or nor1 use the singular pronoun1 thus3 ,either ,germany or ,france must abandon its position4 ,neither ,wilson nor ,bryan kept his promise to the people4 #bbd4 ,when you use a collective noun and are speaking of the collection as a whole1 use a singular pronoun1 as3 ,the committee will make its report4 ,the audience was hearty in its appreciation4 ,the jury has returned its verdict4 #bbe4 ,but if you are referring to the individuals of the collection separately1 use a plural pronoun2 as3 ,the committee adjourned for their dinner4 ,the audience kept their seats until the close4 ,the jury argued until their nerves were on edge4 ,,personification #bbf4 ,we sometimes speak of things as if they were persons1 and so use either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them4 ,such objects are said to be personified4 ,thus1 we say3 ,the sun his ceaseless course doth run4 ,the moon sheds her silvery ray4 ,nature dons her robes of green4 ,here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the qualities of a man and use the pronoun his4 ,then we speak of the moon and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine form4 ,,remember #bbg4 ,a pronoun must agree with its antecedent4 ,use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of the sentence4 ,use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition4 ,use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic use4 ,with all forms of the verb be1 use the subject form of the pronouns4 ,,summary ,,subject ,,possessive ,,object ,first person 7,singular ,i my 7mine7 me 7,plural we our 7ours7 us ,second person 7,singular 7,plural you your 7yours7 you ,third person 7,sing4 ,masc4 he his him 7,sing4 ,fem4 she her 7hers7 her 7,sing4 ,neut4 it its it 7,plural they their 7theirs7 them ,exercise #c ,read carefully the following beautiful dream of ,olive ,schreiner's4 ,mark all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is4 ,watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent4 ,i ,,thought ,i ,,stood ,i4 ,i thought ,i stood in ,heaven before ,god's throne1 and ,god asked me what ,i had come for4 ,i said ,i had come to arraign my brother1 ,man4 ,god said1 ,what has he done8 ,i said1 ,he has taken my sister1 ,woman1 and has stricken her and wounded her and thrust her out into the streets2 she lies there prostrate4 ,his hands are red with blood4 ,i am here to arraign him2 that the kingdom be taken from him1 because he is not worthy1 and given unto me4 ,my hands are pure4 ,i showed them4 ,god said1 ,thy hands are pure4 ,lift up thy robe4 ,i raised it2 my feet were red1 blood-red1 as if ,i had trodden in wine4 ,god said1 ,how is this8 ,i said1 ,dear ,lord1 the streets on earth are full of mire4 ,if ,i should walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted1 you see how white it is6 ,therefore ,i pick my way4 ,god said1 ,on what8 ,i was silent1 and let my robe fall4 ,i wrapped my mantle about my head4 ,i went out softly4 ,i was afraid that the angels would see me4 ,,ii4 ,once more ,i stood at the gate of ,heaven1 ,i and another4 ,we held fast by one another2 ,we were very tired4 ,we looked up at the great gates2 angels opened them1 and we went in4 ,the mud was on our garments4 ,we walked across the marble floor1 and up to the great throne4 ,then the angels divided us4 ,her1 they set upon the top step1 but me1 upon the bottom2 for1 they said1 ,last time this woman came here she left red foot-marks on the floor2 we had to wash them out with our tears4 ,let her not go up4 ,then she with whom ,i came1 looked back and stretched out her hands to me2 and ,i went and stood beside her4 ,and the angels1 they1 the shining ones who never sinned and never suffered1 walked by us1 to and fro1 up and down2 ,i think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had not been for one another1 the angels were so bright4 ,god asked me what ,i had come for2 and ,i drew my sister forward a little that ,he might see her4 ,god said1 ,how is it you are here together today8 ,i said1 ,she was upon the ground in the street1 and they passed over her2 ,i lay down by her1 and she put her arms around my neck1 and so ,i lifted her1 and we two rose together4 ,god said1 ,whom are you now come to accuse before ,me8 ,i said1 ,we are come to accuse no man4 ,and ,god bent and said1 ,my children--what is it that you seek8 ,and she beside me drew my hand that ,i should speak for both4 ,i said1 ,we have come to ask that ,thou shouldst speak to ,man1 our brother1 and give us a message for him that he might understand1 and that he might---- ,god said1 ,go1 take the message down to him6 ,i said1 ,but what is the message8 ,god said1 ,upon your hearts it is written2 take it down to him4 ,and we turned to go2 the angels went with us to the door4 ,they looked at us4 ,and one said1 ,ah6 but their dresses are beautiful6 ,and the other said1 ,i thought it was mire when they came in1 but see1 it is all golden6 ,but another said1 ,hush1 it is the light from their faces6 ,and we went down to him4 --,olive ,schreiner4 ,the ,cry of the ,people ,tremble before your chattels1 ,lords of the scheme of things6 ,fighters of all earth's battles1 ,ours is the might of kings6 ,guided by seers and sages1 ,the world's heart-beat for a drum1 ,snapping the chains of ages1 ,out of the night we come6 ,lend us no ear that pities6 ,offer no almoner's hand6 ,alms for the builders of cities6 ,when will you understand8 ,down with your pride of birth ,and your golden gods of trade6 ,a man is worth to his mother1 ,earth1 ,all that a man has made6 ,we are the workers and makers6 ,we are no longer dumb6 ,tremble1 ,o ,shirkers and ,takers6 ,sweeping the earth--we come6 ,ranked in the world-wide dawn1 ,marching into the day6 ,the night is gone and the sword is drawn ,and the scabbard is thrown away6 --,neihardt4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ab ,last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel4 ,the same rule applies to words of two or more syllables1 accented on the last syllable4 ,for example3 ,compel1 compelled1 compelling4 ,prefer1 preferred1 preferring4 ,words accented on the last syllable1 when they end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel1 double the final consonant when you add a suffix beginning with a vowel4 ,when these words take a suffix that begins with a consonant1 they do not double the final consonant2 as1 preferment4 ,words accented on any syllable but the last1 do not double the final consonant2 as1 offer1 offered1 offering4 ,words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double the final consonant2 as1 reveal1 revealed1 revealing4 ,words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants1 keep the two consonants1 no matter what suffix they take2 as1 indent1 indented2 skill1 skilled1 skillful4 ,the only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix throws the accent back to a preceding syllable4 ,when this is the case1 the final consonant is not doubled4 ,for example3 refer1 referred1 ref'erence2 confer1 conferring1 con'ference4 ,look up the following words in the dictionary1 watch for the accent1 mark and add the suffixes1 ed1 ing1 ence or ance1 if possible4 ,monday ,repel ,alter ,prefer ,debar ,answer ,tuesday ,inter ,offer ,demur ,wonder ,succeed ,wednesday ,detain ,combat ,compel ,occur ,cancel ,thursday ,permit ,travel ,repeal ,control ,profit ,friday ,forbid ,neglect ,expel ,render ,infer ,saturday ,benefit ,retain ,submit ,reveal ,limit ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ac ,dear ,comrade3 ,did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get something you felt almost sure you would forget8 ,well1 tying a knot in a cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to aid them to remember4 ,they also used this plan to send word to those at a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations4 ,a relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary on which the ,roman ,catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory4 ,there are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as an aid to memory4 ,these consist of a main cord1 and fastened at given distances are finer cords of different colors4 ,each cord is knotted in different ways to mean different things and each color1 too1 has its own meaning4 ,a red string stands for soldiers1 a yellow for gold1 and a green for corn1 and so on1 while a single knot may mean ten1 two single knots twenty1 a double knot #ajj1 two double knots #bjj4 ,in this way1 they keep a record of things1 transmit orders and use them for various purposes4 ,only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the ,island of ,hawaii kept account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this manner1 and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long4 ,the method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily within the memory of many people living today4 ,for in ,england in the early part of the last century1 accounts of debts to the government were kept by means of tally sticks1 which were merely notched sticks4 ,such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech4 ,and even after written speech was known and used1 these old methods persisted4 ,gradually1 step by step1 man has come along the path of progress4 ,adventurous spirits1 not satisfied with the old way of doing things1 sought new ways4 ,the conservatives of their day thought them dangerous people1 no doubt1 and feared that they would destroy the very foundations of society4 ,and this they oft-times did1 but only that there might rise a more perfect form of society4 ,it is the seeking1 questioning mind that demands the reason for all things1 that seeks ever better ways of doing things4 ,they have always throughout the ages refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their own lives4 ,to them we owe the progress of the world and we are the inheritors of their spirit4 ,let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our own thoughts4 ,yours for ,freedom1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,interrogative ,,pronouns #bbh4 ,you recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our thoughts1 the assertive1 the interrogative1 the imperative and the exclamatory4 ,the interrogative sentence is the form which we use in asking a question1 interrogative being derived from the ,latin inter1 meaning between1 and rogare1 to ask1 meaning literally to ask between4 ,the interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence in the arrangement of the words2 for in order to ask questions1 we usually place the predicate1 or part of it at least1 before the subject1 thus3 ,can you use good ,english8 ,did you spell the word correctly8 ,has he studied grammar8 ,in these sentences1 you note that the helping verbs1 can1 did and has1 are placed first instead of the subject4 ,it is by this arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form4 #bbi4 ,frequently1 however1 in asking questions we wish to ask concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know4 ,so we need a word to refer to the unknown object4 ,see how these uses of words grow out of our need6 ,we have three interrogative pronouns1 who and which and what1 that we use to meet this need4 ,notice the use of these three pronouns in the following sentences3 ,who wrote the ,communist ,manifesto8 ,which of the two men is the better known8 ,what are the closing words of this famous document8 ,in these sentences1 who and which and what are the interrogative pronouns1 used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or objects4 #bcj4 ,who refers only to human beings or to personified objects4 ,which refers either to human beings1 animals or things4 ,what refers only to things4 ,which and what have the same form for both the subject and the object4 ,who has a different form for all three forms1 the subject form1 the possessive form1 and the object form4 ,it uses the same form1 however1 both in singular and plural4 ,subject form ,possessive form ,object form ,who ,whose ,whom #bca4 ,we often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the pronoun who4 ,we often use the subject form for the object form1 using who where we should have used whom4 ,for example3 ,who did you see8 ,the correct form is3 ,whom did you see8 ,the pronoun whom is the object of the verb see1 hence the object form should be used4 ,however1 the use of the subject form who instead of whom is coming into such general use today that some grammarians accept it as a permissible usage4 ,the will of the people influences language1 as it does all other human institutions1 and gradually creates new rules4 ,write three sentences1 using who1 which and what as interrogative pronouns4 ,an interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question4 ,,relative ,,pronouns #bcb4 ,there is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in our speech and is a wonderful help to us4 ,for example1 suppose ,i want to tell you several things about this book4 ,i say3 ,i am reading this book4 ,it interests me greatly4 ,now it would be a great advantage to me if ,i could put these two sentences together1 and we have for this use a pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences1 and so ,i say3 ,the book which ,i am reading interests me greatly4 ,thus ,i am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence1 which conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a smoother bit of reading4 ,we have four pronouns which we use in this way1 who1 which1 that and what and they are called relative pronouns because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also serve to connect two statements4 #bcc4 ,a relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and at the same time connects two statements4 ,a relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the antecedent to which it relates1 as in the sentence above1 ,the book which ,i am reading1 interests me greatly4 ,which is the relative pronoun2 first1 because it relates to the antecedent1 book2 and second1 because it connects the statement1 ,i am reading1 with the rest of the sentence4 ,notice these sentences also3 ,the man who thinks will not enlist in the army4 ,we will destroy the system that enslaves us4 ,who and that are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and their antecedents are man and system1 and they connect the statements1 who thinks and that enslaves us1 with the rest of the sentence4 #bcd4 ,who is used to relate to persons4 ,which is used to relate only to animals and things4 ,that may relate to either persons1 animals or things4 ,what relates to things4 ,note that which1 as an interrogative1 may refer to persons as well as to animals and things2 but as a relative1 which never refers to persons4 #bce4 ,note that we use the same pronouns who1 which and what as both relative and interrogative pronouns4 ,you will not be confused in this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative pronouns only when they are used to ask questions4 ,when they are used as interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent4 ,who and which and what are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive sentence and referring to an antecedent4 ,that and what have the same form for both the subject and object forms4 ,they have no possessive form4 ,who has a different form for the subject form and the possessive form and the object form4 ,which has the same form for subject and object forms1 and a different form for the possessive form4 ,note the following3 ,subject form ,possessive form ,object form who whose whom which whose which ,i know the man who called him4 ,i know the man whose voice ,i hear4 ,i know the man whom they called4 ,in these three sentences we have the pronoun who used in its three forms1 subject1 possessive and object form4 ,we should be very careful not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun who4 ,this is the book which tells the truth4 ,this is the book whose author is in prison4 ,this is the book which ,i wanted4 ,in these three sentences we have the pronoun which used in its three forms1 subject form1 possessive form and object form4 ,in the first sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb tells2 in the second sentence1 it is used in the possessive form with the noun author2 in the third sentence1 it is used as the object of the verb wanted4 #bcf4 ,what differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed1 for it is implied in the word itself4 ,what is always equivalent to that which1 or the thing which4 ,for example1 the sentence1 ,do not tell what ,i have told you1 is equivalent to saying1 ,do not tell that which ,i have told you1 or the thing which ,i have told you4 #bcg4 ,never use what in a sentence as a relative pronoun unless you can replace it and make good sense by using that which1 or the thing which in place of what4 ,for example1 do not say1 ,i know that what he would say4 ,this is incorrect4 ,you should say1 ,i know that which he would say1 or ,i know what he would say1 using what in place of that which4 ,here is a sentence that occurred in an ,english examination recently1 which illustrates most aptly this point4 ,a subject is that what something is said about4 ,here what is used incorrectly4 ,a subject is that about which something is said1 would have been the correct form4 ,watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated4 ,all of these mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of effort to overcome1 but the result is worth the effort1 for even those about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and effort to acquiring an education for themselves1 will give greater heed to the speech of those who do speak correctly1 and will readily acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort to self-development4 #bch4 ,the antecedent of who is sometimes omitted and understood2 for example1 ,who follows the cause must endure hardship1 ,he1 is understood and omitted4 ,he who follows the cause must endure hardship4 #bci4 ,the relative pronoun itself is often omitted4 ,for example3 ,these are the men 7whom7 you must help4 ,the words 7that7 you use and the deeds 7that7 you do1 are your judges4 #bdj4 ,the relative pronouns have compound forms also1 such as whoever1 whosoever1 whichever1 whichsoever1 whatever and whatsoever1 which are used in the same manner as the simple forms4 ,,common ,,errors #bda4 ,here are a number of common errors which only constant practice and watchfulness can overcome4 ,study these over and watch your conversation closely4 ,force yourself to speak correctly for a time1 and soon correct speech will become a habit4 #a4 ,do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a sentence2 as1 ,john1 he waited for me4 ,mary1 she refused to go4 ,leave out the pronouns he and she in these sentences4 ,they are unnecessary and incorrect4 #b4 ,never use hern1 ourn1 hisn or yourn for hers1 ours1 his and yours2 as1 ,the book is hisn4 ,ourn stopped on the first4 ,did you get yourn8 ,say3 ,this book is his4 ,ours stopped on the first4 ,did you get yours8 #c4 ,never say hisself for himself4 ,there is no such word as hisself4 ,do not say1 ,he hurt hisself4 ,say1 ,he hurt himself4 #d4 ,do not say them for those2 as1 ,did you bring them songs8 ,them things are not right4 ,say1 ,did you bring those songs8 ,those things are not right4 #e4 ,do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of pronouns1 as her's1 our's1 it's4 ,leave out the apostrophe and write hers1 ours1 its4 #f4 ,do not use who to relate to animals or things2 as1 ,the dog who bit me was killed4 ,say1 ,the dog that bit me was killed4 #g4 ,do not use myself as the subject4 ,it can be used only as an emphatic or reflexive pronoun4 ,it is correct to say1 ,i found the book myself1 and ,i hurt myself4 ,but do not say1 ,they asked my friend and myself1 or ,myself and my wife will go4 ,say1 ,they asked my friend and me4 ,my wife and ,i will go4 #h4 ,avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is not clear4 ,better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence4 ,for example3 ,he said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought he had better go home4 ,now you can interpret this in at least four different ways4 ,no one but the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns he refer1 whether to the speaker or to his friend4 ,or in the sentence1 ,a tried to see ,b in the crowd1 but could not because he was so short4 ,who was short1 ,a or ,b8 ,john's father died before he was born4 ,did ,john's father die before ,john was born or did ,john's father die before ,john's father1 himself1 was born8 ,be careful in the use of pronouns in this way4 #i4 ,remember that ,i1 we1 he1 she1 they and who are always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of the verb be4 #aj4 ,remember that me1 him1 her1 them1 us and whom are always object forms4 ,never say1 ,they charged he and ,i too much4 ,say1 ,they charged him and me too much4 ,in an attempt to speak correctly and follow the niceties of ,english1 this mistake is so often made4 ,always use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition4 #aa4 ,when a participle is used as a noun1 and a pronoun is used with it1 the pronoun should always be in the possessive form4 ,we make this mistake so frequently4 ,for example1 we say3 ,us going there was a mistake4 ,we should have used the possessive form1 ,our going there was a mistake4 ,i have never known of him being absent from work4 ,we should say3 ,i have never known of his being absent from work4 ,did he tell you about me joining with them8 ,this should be1 ,did he tell you about my joining with them8 ,you talking to him set him to thinking4 ,this should be1 ,your talking to him set him to thinking4 ,watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a noun1 use the pronoun in the possessive form1 as you would with any other noun4 #ab4 ,watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with the number of its antecedent4 ,if you are speaking of one person or thing use a singular pronoun4 ,if you are speaking of more than one person or thing in your antecedent1 use the plural pronoun4 ,for example3 ,each man must do his own work4 ,the soldiers fully understood their danger4 #ac4 ,when a singular noun1 in the common gender 7this means that it may name either a male or female being71 is the antecedent of the pronoun1 it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun4 ,for example3 ,every student should send in his examination paper promptly4 ,every member of the class may select his own subject4 ,do not use the pronoun their when the antecedent is a singular noun4 ,,summary ,pronoun--,in ,place of a ,noun ,,classes ,personal ,simple-- #ast ,person1 speaking4 ,compound-- #bnd ,person1 spoken to4 #crd ,person1 spoken of4 ,interrogative ,to ask questions4 ,who1 which and what4 ,relative ,to refer to another word and connect two statements4 ,who1 which1 that and what4 ,exercise #a ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of ,i1 me1 or myself1 in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,my partner and444444joined the union4 #b4 ,they asked ,henry and444444to go4 #c4 ,may my friend and444444call8 #d4 ,i will attend to that4444444 #e4 ,let my comrade and444444go with you4 #f4 ,are you sure it was4444448 #g4 ,i blame444444for joining with them4 #h4 ,they accused444444of bothering them4 #i4 ,i am nearly beside444444with grief4 #aj4 ,the manager dismissed the men444444among the rest4 ,exercise #b ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of we1 us or ourselves in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,they are better off than4444444 #b4 ,the ,french as well as444444claim a war of defense4 #c4 ,can you blame444444who have always stood by you8 #d4 ,we will do that for4444444 #e4 ,between444444comrades there should be no differences4 #f4 ,they gave444444men work4 #g4 ,do not trouble2444444will attend to this4444444 #h4 ,they sent a special notice to our friends and4444444 ,exercise #c ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of thou1 thee1 thy or thyself in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,to444444be true1 and it follows as the night the day444444 canst not then be false to any man4 #b4 ,paul1444444art beside4444442 much learning hath made 444444mad4 #c4 444444shalt love444444neighbor as4444444 #d4 ,trust4444444 ,every heart vibrates to that iron string4 ,exercise #d ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of he1 him1 or himself in the blank spaces3 #a4 444444and ,john are to blame4 #b4 ,i think it was4444444 #c4 ,my friend and444444called on you4 #d4 ,he blamed444444for the accident4 #e4 ,you are no better than4444444 #f4 ,i shall call for you and4444444 #g4 ,you and444444must come on time4 #h4 ,he found the place4444444 #i4 ,there should be no quarrel between you and444444who loves you4 #aj4 ,if you were444444would you go8 ,exercise #e ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of she1 her1 or herself in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,they asked ,mary and444444to go4 #b4 ,mary and444444went4 #c4 ,may444444and ,i go with you8 #d4 ,let444444and ,harry go4 #e4 ,is that ,mary8 ,yes1 it is4444444 #f4 ,there are many points of difference between444444and me4 #g4 ,you are more beautiful than4444444 #h4 ,she brought it to me4444444 #i4 ,if444444and ,i join you1 will you go8 #aj4 ,they must not quarrel over444444and me4 ,exercise #f ,complete the following sentences using the correct form of they1 them1 or themselves in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,they gave444444up4 #b4 444444and ,i will finish the work4 #c4 ,i found444444where444444hath thrown444444down to rest4 #d4 ,i am sure it was444444for ,i saw444444plainly4 #e4 ,the workers enslave444444by their lack of solidarity4 #f4 444444must learn the lesson4444444 ,exercise #g ,cross out the wrong word in the following sentences3 #a4 ,everybody do--does as he pleases--they please4 #b4 ,no one should waste his--their opportunities4 #c4 ,the jury rendered its--their verdict4 #d4 ,if anyone wishes war1 let him--them do the fighting4 #e4 ,the audience displayed its--their approval by its--their applause4 #f4 ,the audience remained quietly in its--their seats4 #g4 ,the jury adjourned for its--their dinner4 #h4 ,nobody willingly gives up his--their rights4 #i4 ,each one may express his--their opinion4 #aj4 ,every man received his--their wages4 ,exercise #h ,complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the pronouns who1 whose1 or whom3 #a4 444444do you think ,i am8 #b4 ,i am the man444444you taught yesterday4 #c4 ,with444444are you going8 #d4 ,the contract was let to a man444444we are sure cannot fulfill it4 #e4 ,the contractor444444wishes to bid will come tomorrow4 #f4 ,on444444are you depending8 #g4 ,the friends444444counsel ,i took1 stood by me4 #h4 ,he is a man444444,i am sure will succeed4 #i4 ,we tried to talk to those444444we thought would understand us4 #aj4 ,for444444did you work8 ,exercise #i ,insert who1 whose1 whom1 which1 that or what in the blanks in the following sentences3 #a4 ,man is the only animal444444uses a written speech4 #b4 ,can you save444444you earn8 #c4 ,ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a wage444444permits them to produce and reproduce4 #d4 ,have you read the book ,war1 ,what ,for444444,kirkpatrick wrote4 #e4 ,newspapers444444distort the news444444they print to serve the ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers4 #f4 ,the massacre at ,ludlow was an event444444aroused the working class4 #g4 ,they444444live by the labor of others are drones in society and should be given the fate444444they deserve4 #h4 ,the big machine gun444444will destroy slavery is the printing press4 #i4 ,the man444444leadership we should follow is he444444preaches social equality4 #aj4 ,we know444444we need and we will demand444444is our right4 ,exercise #aj ,in the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark whether they are personal1 relative or interrogative1 whether they are used in the subject form1 possessive form or object form3 #a4 ,camerado1 ,i give you my hand1 ,i give you my love more precious than money1 ,i give you myself before preaching or law2 ,will you give me yourself1 will you come travel with me1 ,shall we stick by each other as long as we live8 #b4 ,i think ,i could turn and live with animals they are so placid and self-contained1 ,i stand and look at them long and long1 they do not sweat and whine about their condition1 ,they do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins1 ,they do not make me sick discussing their duty to ,god2 ,not one is dis-satisfied1 not one is demented with the mania of owning things4 ,not one kneels to another nor to his kind1 that lived thousands of years ago1 ,not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth4 --,whitman4 ,exercise #aa ,note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence1 also the use of the relative what in the last sentence of the first paragraph3 ,whoso would be a man1 must be nonconformist4 ,he who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness1 but must explore if it be goodness4 ,nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind4 ,absolve you to yourself1 and you shall have the suffrage of the world4 ,i remember an answer which1 when quite young1 ,i was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the dear old doctrines of the church4 ,on my saying1 ,what have ,i to do with the sacredness of traditions1 if ,i live wholly from within8 my friend suggested--,but these impulses may be from below1 not from above4 ,i replied1 ,they do not seem to me to be such2 but if ,i am the devil's child1 ,i will live then from the devil4 ,no law can be sacred to me but that of my nature4 ,good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this2 the only right is what is after my constitution2 the only wrong what is against it4 ,a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds1 adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines4 ,with consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do4 ,he may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall4 ,out upon your guarded lips6 ,sew them up with pack threads1 do4 ,else1 if you would be a man1 speak what you think today in words as hard as cannon balls1 and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again1 though you contradict everything you said today4 ,ah1 then1 exclaim the aged ladies1 you shall be sure to be misunderstood4 ,misunderstood6 ,it is a right fool's word4 ,is it so bad then to be misunderstood8 ,pythagoras was misunderstood1 and ,socrates1 and ,jesus1 and ,luther1 and ,copernicus1 and ,galileo1 and ,newton1 and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh4 ,to be great is to be misunderstood4--,emerson4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ac ,there are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words4 ,words ending in silent e keep the e before the suffix beginning with a consonant4 ,notice the following words3 excite excitement like likeness force forceful shame shameless lone lonesome live lively ,words ending in silent e drop the e before the suffix beginning with a vowel1 as3 excite excitable live living grieve grievous force forcible ,some words ending in silent e retain the e before the suffix beginning with a vowel1 to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to preserve the identity of the word4 ,notice the following words3 peace peaceable courage courageous singe singeing change changeable shoe shoeing notice noticeable ,these are words ending in the soft sound of c and g1 where the e is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the c and g1 and with some few words like toe1 dye1 etc41 where the dropping of the e would lose the identity of the word4 ,the e is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a consonant1 as in wholly1 nursling1 judgment1 wisdom1 lodgment4 ,add the suffixes ment and ing to the words in ,monday's lesson2 the suffix able to the words for ,tuesday and ,wednesday2 the suffixes some and ous to the words for ,thursday2 the suffixes ly or ness to the words for ,friday and ,saturday4 ,monday ,excite ,advise ,chastise ,disfranchise ,enslave ,tuesday ,manage ,receive ,blame ,exchange ,imagine ,wednesday ,admire ,service ,desire ,peace ,pronounce ,thursday ,whole ,meddle ,courage ,advantage ,outrage ,friday ,accurate ,positive ,false ,definite ,distinct ,saturday ,agreeable ,careful ,awful ,sure ,secure ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ad ,dear ,comrade3 ,you remember our definition of a word2 a word is the sign of an idea4 ,in our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts4 ,probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us4 ,then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did4 ,so we have our nouns1 which are the names of things2 our verbs1 which tell what these things do2 and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech4 ,we soon found1 however1 that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying1 so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns2 and we have pronouns4 ,all of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities2 so we have adjectives4 ,each adjective is a sign of an idea4 ,it adds its part to the expression of our complete thought4 ,so we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need4 ,without any one of them1 we would be crippled in our power of expression4 ,each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought4 ,so primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him4 ,naturally his first sign was a picture1 as nearly as he could draw it1 of the object itself4 ,if he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree2 the picture of a man represented a man1 and so on4 ,you will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing4 ,they draw pictures4 ,the average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page4 ,they want you to read the pictures4 ,to their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas4 ,these early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing4 ,we have examples of this among the ,indians of our own country4 ,there is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of ,lake ,superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted ,indian chief4 ,canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback4 ,you or ,i would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing1 but an ,indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page4 ,aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech4 ,this picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech4 ,we owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished4 ,it took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation4 ,an understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages4 ,the power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities4 ,let us make the most of them1 that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,classes ,,of ,,adjectives #bdb4 ,adjectives1 like nouns and pronouns1 are divided into classes4 ,adjectives are divided into two main classes1 qualifying and limiting4 #bdc4 ,an adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies4 ,when we say1 ,trees grow1 we are making a general statement2 that is1 we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees4 ,we have not described any particular tree4 ,but when we say1 ,the tall trees grow1 ,the old trees grow1 ,the young trees grow1 the words tall1 old and young describe certain qualities of the trees1 which separate them into classes4 ,so these adjectives are qualifying adjectives4 ,an adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun1 as1 ,the brave man1 ,the sweet apple1 ,the pretty girl1 ,the large house1 etc4 #bdd4 ,but if we say1 this tree1 that tree1 some trees1 many trees1 three trees1 or four trees1 we are not giving any quality of the tree1 but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out4 ,so such adjectives as the1 this1 that1 some1 many1 three and four are limiting adjectives4 ,an adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number4 #bde4 ,so adjectives are divided into two classes1 qualifying adjectives and limiting adjectives4 ,words that limit or qualify other words are called modifiers because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added4 ,so adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun4 ,the limiting adjectives answer the questions which and how many4 ,the qualifying adjectives answer the questions which and what kind4 #bdf4 ,a qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality4 ,a limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many1 without describing the noun it modifies4 ,,how ,,to ,,discover ,,an ,,adjective #bdg4 ,sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it2 as1 ,the beautiful1 old elm tree shades the lawn4 ,the1 beautiful1 old and elm1 all modify tree1 telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of4 ,you can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions1 which1 what kind1 or how many2 and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence4 ,for example in this sentence3 ,those three immense factories employ thousands of men4 ,factories is the noun1 subject of the sentence4 ,which factory is indicated by the adjective those4 ,how many factories is indicated by the adjective three4 ,what kind of factories is indicated by the adjective immense4 ,so we have three adjectives answering the three questions1 which1 what kind and how many4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences the adjectives are printed in italics4 ,study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives4 ,note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are not adjectives4 ,its in the phrases its cruel fangs and its savage claws1 is a possessive pronoun1 third person singular4 ,in the last sentence beggar's1 miser's1 and ,ingersoll's1 are nouns in the possessive form4 ,this terrible war in ,europe is slaughtering the working-class4 ,gaunt famine follows war4 ,a docile1 meek1 humble1 working-class makes war possible4 ,the shrieking shell snarls like a living thing2 like some wild beast in ferocious glee it thrusts its cruel fangs in earth and rock and rends living flesh with its savage claws4 ,its fetid breath of poison powder scorches in the autumn winds4 ,shattered bones1 torn flesh and flowing blood were mingled on the battlefield with broken swords and split rifles4 ,the best modern rifles will force a bullet through five human bodies at a range of twelve hundred feet4 ,the pitiful dead1 slain in war1 sleep under the solemn pines1 the sad hemlock1 the tearful willow and the embracing vines4 ,a world without the beggar's outstretched palm1 the miser's heartless stony stare1 the piteous wail of want1 the livid lips of lies1 the cruel eyes of scorn1 was ,ingersoll's vision of the future4 ,,qualifying ,,adjectives #bdh4 ,qualifying adjectives are also called descriptive adjectives because they describe the noun4 ,they answer the questions which and what kind4 ,you remember we found in the beginning of our study of ,english1 that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence1 not according to the form of the word itself4 ,for instance1 we have already found that some words1 without changing their form1 may be used either as a noun or as a verb4 ,take the word oil1 for instance4 ,i may say1 ,i oil the engine4 ,here ,i have used the word oil as a verb telling what ,i do4 ,but ,i may say1 ,the oil is gone4 ,here ,i have used the word oil as a noun1 subject of the sentence4 ,the part of speech to which a word belongs in the ,english language1 always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence4 #a4 ,so we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives1 for example the word oil1 which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb1 may also be used as an adjective4 ,for example2 ,i may say1 the oil tank4 ,here ,i have used the word oil as a descriptive adjective modifying the word tank4 ,so also we may say1 the oak tree1 the stone curb1 the earth wall4 ,in these expressions oak1 stone and earth are nouns used as descriptive adjectives4 #b4 ,we have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns1 as ,french1 ,english1 ,american4 ,these are called proper adjectives2 and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter1 these proper adjectives1 also1 should always begin with a capital letter4 #c4 ,we have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as active1 talkative1 movable1 desirable1 derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs act1 talk1 move and desire4 ,,limiting ,,adjectives #bdi4 ,limiting adjectives are also divided into classes1 the numerals1 the demonstratives and the articles4 ,numeral ,adjectives #bej4 ,numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order4 ,they are such adjectives as one1 two1 three1 four1 etc41 and first1 second and third1 etc41 as for example3 ,three men applied for work4 ,the train ran at the rate of forty miles an hour4 ,there have always been two classes in the world4 ,the first martyr to anti-militarism was ,jaures4 ,the eighteenth day of ,march is the anniversary of the ,paris ,commune4 ,in these sentences the adjectives three1 forty1 two1 first and eighteenth are all numeral adjectives4 ,they limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order4 ,adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives4 ,numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order4 ,demonstratives #bea4 ,we have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing4 ,these are called demonstrative adjectives4 ,demonstrate means literally to point out4 ,so these adjectives point out from a number of things1 one particular thing to our attention4 ,these demonstrative adjectives are this1 that1 those1 these1 yonder1 former1 latter and same4 ,these and those are the plural forms of this and that4 ,this and these are used to point out things near at hand4 ,that and those are used to point out things more distant1 as ,this is my book4 ,these are my papers1 meaning this book or these papers1 close to me4 ,by1 ,that is my pencil and ,those are my letters1 ,i mean that pencil1 and those letters1 which are farther away from me4 ,former and latter are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to1 and to point out things in point of time1 not of place4 ,for example1 we may say3 ,we no longer observe the former customs1 but rather prefer the latter4 ,he did not like his former job but this latter job pleases him4 ,you understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work1 and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant4 ,the demonstrative adjective same refers to something of which we have just spoken1 as for example1 ,he has gone to work1 ,i must do the same thing4 ,these demonstrative adjectives answer the question which1 so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence1 ask the question which1 and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective4 ,exercise #b #a4 ,this study is very interesting4 #b4 ,these comrades will stand by us4 #c4 ,that solution will never deceive the people4 #d4 ,those books have opened our eyes4 #e4 ,yonder battle appals the world4 #f4 ,former investigations have had no results4 #g4 ,this latter decision has reversed the former4 #h4 ,the class struggle has persisted through the centuries2 we are engaged in the same struggle4 ,make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives4 ,,articles #beb4 ,we have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves4 ,these three little words are a1 an and the1 and we call them articles4 ,the word article literally means a little joint or limb1 and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself1 and so we have called them articles4 ,a and an are called the indefinite articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner4 ,the is called the definite article for it points out in a more definite way4 ,we use a before words beginning with a consonant sound1 as a man1 a tree1 a book2 and we use an before words beginning with a vowel sound1 as an apple1 an editor1 an orange1 an heir4 ,in heir the h is silent1 and we say an because the word begins with a vowel sound4 ,a is used before words beginning with u because long u is equivalent in sound to a consonant1 for the blending of the sounds of which long u is composed produces the initial sound of y1 which is a consonant sound4 ,for example1 we say1 a university1 a useful work1 etc41 and not an university4 ,before words beginning with short u1 use an1 as1 an upstart1 etc4 ,in deciding whether to use a or an1 watch the initial sound of the word1 not the initial letter4 ,if it is a vowel sound use an1 if a consonant sound1 use a4 ,exercise #c ,underscore the correct article in the following sentences3 #a4 ,bring me an--a apple4 #b4 ,he is a--an able orator4 #c4 ,a--an heir was born to the ,german ,king4 #d4 ,he built a--an house for his family4 #e4 ,he is an--a honest man4 #f4 ,he is a--an undertaker4 #g4 ,i had to take a--an upper berth4 #h4 ,he joined a--an union4 #i4 ,it is a--an unique book4 #aj4 ,he is a--an unruly member of society4 #aa4 ,he told a--an untruth4 #ab4 ,he wears a--an uniform4 #ac4 ,it is a--an honor to be chosen4 #bec4 ,when a singular noun is modified by several adjectives1 only one of the articles an or a must be used if the noun denotes but one object2 but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun4 ,for example1 ,i say1 ,a red1 white and blue flag4 ,you know ,i mean but one flag1 containing the three colors1 red1 white and blue4 ,but if ,i say1 ,a red1 a white and a blue flag1 you know ,i mean three flags1 one red1 one white1 and one blue4 ,note the use of the article in the following sentences3 ,he wears a black and white suit4 ,he wears a black and a white suit4 ,he sold a red and white cow4 ,he sold a red and a white cow4 ,he bought a gas and coal stove4 ,he bought a gas and a coal stove4 ,the first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object4 ,the second sentences all refer to two objects4 #bed4 ,there are some rules concerning the article the that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say1 if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech4 ,for example1 ,i say1 ,the editor and publisher of this book is unknown4 ,i have used the article the but once1 and ,i mean that the editor and publisher is one person4 ,but ,i may say1 ,the editor and the publisher of this book are well known4 ,in this sentence ,i have used the article the twice1 the editor and the publisher1 and ,i mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons4 ,so when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing1 the article is not repeated1 but when the nouns denote different persons or things1 the article must be repeated before each noun4 ,be sure to use the proper form of the verb4 ,note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning3 ,the secretary and treasurer were--was here4 ,the secretary and the treasurer were--was elected4 ,the singer and artist were--was with me4 ,the singer and the artist were--was on the program4 ,sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea1 so that we may use the article before the first one only4 ,for example3 ,the pen and ink is gone4 ,he bought a horse and buggy4 ,the bread and butter is on the plate4 ,,interrogative ,,adjectives #bee4 ,you remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking4 ,we also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking4 ,for example3 ,which book did you enjoy most8 ,what work are you doing now8 ,what machine did you order8 ,which and what are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences4 ,interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions4 ,,indefinites #bef4 ,we have one more class of adjectives called indefinites4 ,an indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing4 ,all such adjectives as each1 every1 either1 neither1 some1 any1 many1 much1 few1 all1 both1 no1 none1 several and certain are indefinite adjectives4 ,we use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing1 but are speaking in a broad1 general sense and in an indefinite manner4 #beg4 ,the interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way4 ,they are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked1 and they are then used1 not as interrogative adjectives1 but as indefinite adjectives4 ,for example3 ,he did not know which party to join4 ,i have not learned what time he will go4 ,in these sentences which and what are not used to ask questions1 but are used to describe an unknown object4 ,exercise #d ,all the words in italics are adjectives4 ,decide to which class each adjective belongs4 ,note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives1 as3 earth-born1 self-made1 new-lit1 blood-rusted4 ,look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning4 ,note the use of fellest4 ,slavery1 the earth-born ,cyclops1 fellest of the giant brood1 ,sons of brutish ,force and ,darkness1 who have drenched the earth with blood1 ,famished in his self-made desert1 blinded by our purer day1 ,gropes in yet unblasted regions for his miserable prey2-- ,shall we guide his gory fingers where our helpless children play8 ,they have rights who dare maintain them2 we are traitors to our sires1 ,smothering in their holy ashes ,freedom's new-lit altar-fires2 ,shall we make their creed our jailer8 ,shall we1 in our haste to slay1 ,from the tombs of the old prophets steal the funeral lamps away ,to light up the martyr-fagots round the prophets of to-day8 ,new occasions teach new duties2 ,time makes ancient good1 uncouth2 ,they must upward still1 and onward1 who would keep abreast of ,truth2 ,lo1 before us gleam her camp-fires6 ,we ourselves must ,pilgrims be1 ,launch our ,mayflower1 and steer boldly through the desperate winter sea1 ,nor attempt the ,future's portal with the ,past's blood-rusted key4 --,lowell4 ,exercise #e ,the following is from ,oscar ,wilde's story of ,the ,young ,king4 ,oscar ,wilde was a master of ,english1 and if you have the opportunity1 read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives4 ,mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own4 ,and as the young ,king slept he dreamed a dream1 and this was his dream4 ,he thought that he was standing in a long1 low attic1 amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms4 ,the meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers1 bending over their cases4 ,pale1 sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams4 ,as the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens1 and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together4 ,their faces were pinched with famine1 and their thin hands shook and trembled4 ,some haggard women were seated at a table1 sewing4 ,a horrible odor filled the place4 ,the air was foul and heavy1 and the walls dripped and streamed with damp4 ,the young ,king went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him4 ,and the weaver looked at him angrily and said1 ,why art thou watching me8 ,art thou a spy set on us by our master8 ,who is thy master8 asked the young ,king4 ,our master6 cried the weaver1 bitterly4 ,he is a man like myself4 ,indeed1 there is but this difference between us--that he wears fine clothes while ,i go in rags1 and that while ,i am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding4 ,the land is free1 said the young ,king1 and thou art no man's slave4 ,in war1 answered the weaver1 the strong make slaves of the weak1 and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor4 ,we must work to live1 and they give us such mean wages that we die4 ,we toil for them all day long1 and they heap up gold in their coffers1 and our children fade away before their time1 and the faces of those we love become hard and evil4 ,we tread out the grapes1 another drinks the wine4 ,we sow the corn1 and our own board is empty4 ,we have chains1 though no eye beholds them2 and are slaves1 though men call us free4 ,is it so with all8 he asked4 ,it is so with all1 answered the weaver1 with the young as well as with the old1 with the women as well as with the men1 with the little children as well as with those who are stricken in years4 ,the merchants grind us down1 and we must needs do their bidding4 ,the priest rides by and tells his beads1 and no man has care of us4 ,through our sunless lanes creeps ,poverty with her hungry eyes1 and ,sin with his sodden face follows close behind her4 ,misery wakes us in the morning1 and ,shame sits with us at night4 ,but what are these things to thee8 ,thou art not one of us4 ,thy face is too happy4 ,and he turned away scowling1 and threw the shuttle across the loom1 and the young ,king saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold4 ,and a great terror seized upon him1 and he said to the weaver1 ,what robe is this that thou art weaving8 ,it is the robe for the coronation of the young ,king1 he answered2 ,what is that to thee8 ,and the young ,king gave a loud cry and woke and lo6 he was in his own chamber1 and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon hanging in the dusky air4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ad ,you remember in the formation of plurals1 we learned that words ending in y change y to i when es is added2 as1 lady1 ladies2 baby1 babies2 dry1 dries1 etc4 ,there are several rules concerning words ending in y1 knowledge of which will aid us greatly in spelling4 #a4 ,words ending in ie change the ie to y before ing to prevent a confusing number of vowels4 ,for example1 die1 dying2 lie1 lying2 tie1 tying4 #b4 ,words of more than one syllable ending in y preceded by a consonant1 change y into i before all suffixes except those beginning with i4 ,for example3 happy1 happily1 happiness2 witty1 wittier1 wittiest2 satisfy1 satisfied1 satisfying2 envy1 enviable1 envying4 ,this exception is made for suffixes beginning with i1 the most common of which is ing1 to avoid having a confusing number of i's4 #c4 ,most words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y before a suffix4 ,for example3 destroy1 destroyer1 destroying2 buy1 buyer1 buying2 essay1 essayed1 essayist4 ,the following words are exception to this rule3 laid1 paid1 said1 daily1 staid4 ,make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes3 er1 est1 ed1 es1 ing1 ly1 ness1 ful1 ment1 al4 ,monday ,beauty ,portray ,deny ,rare ,multiply ,tuesday ,mercy ,bury ,obey ,lovely ,envy ,wednesday ,tie ,defy ,study ,decry ,crazy ,thursday ,merry ,silly ,lusty ,imply ,day ,friday ,dismay ,duty ,employ ,satisfy ,pretty ,saturday ,pay ,joy ,journey ,qualify ,sorry ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ae ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives1 which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied4 ,we can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas4 ,we could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech4 ,each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it4 ,we see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language1 as in all things else1 growing needs have developed more efficient tools4 ,with these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools4 ,it has taken years of effort to accomplish this4 ,the changes have been slow and gradual1 and this language which we are studying is the finished product4 ,this slow development in the use of language1 even in our own lives1 makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet4 ,we have found that at first they used simple aids to memory1 as knotted strings and tally sticks4 ,then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures4 ,when a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come1 telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return1 he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone4 ,then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many4 ,these two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights4 ,in some such rude manner as this1 they were able to communicate with one another4 ,but man soon began to think1 and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures4 ,he could draw a picture of the sun1 but how could he indicate light8 ,how could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged1 such as the farmer and priest1 etc48 ,he was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas1 so his writing was no longer a picture of some object1 but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas4 ,a circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon1 indicated light4 ,the bee became a symbol of industry4 ,an ostrich feather was a symbol of justice1 because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length4 ,a picture of a woman stood simply for a woman1 but a picture of two women stood for strife1 and three women stood for intrigue4 ,these old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things4 ,the symbol for a priest in the early ,egyptian picture writing was a jackal4 ,perhaps not because he devoured widows' houses1 but because the jackal was a very watchful animal4 ,the symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood4 ,it naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing4 ,it required many centuries for this slow development of written speech4 ,the development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us4 ,let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us4 ,a mastery of these lessons will help us4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,pronouns #beh4 ,from our study of the adjective1 we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning4 ,but a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify4 ,as1 for example1 ,i may say1 ,this is mine1 and the adjective this is used alone without the noun which it modifies1 and you are able to tell only by what ,i have been saying or by some action of mine to what ,i am referring when ,i say this4 ,when adjectives are used in this manner1 they are used like pronouns--in place of a noun4 ,so sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun1 and sometimes used as a pronoun1 in place of a noun2 and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence1 an adjective used in this way is not an adjective1 but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun4 ,so these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things--when they are used in place of a noun4 ,they are adjectives when they are used with a noun to limit or qualify the noun4 ,for example1 ,i may say1 ,this tree is an elm1 but that tree is an oak4 ,this and that in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun tree4 ,but ,i may say1 ,this is an oak and that is an elm1 and in this sentence this and that are used without a noun1 they are used as pronouns4 #bei4 ,our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly4 ,but still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence4 ,so sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns4 ,we can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule3 ,when you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies1 from the same sentence1 then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun1 but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence1 then the word is used as an adjective4 ,thus1 we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition4 ,we make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence4 ,so if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective1 it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun4 ,for example1 in the sentence1 ,this book is good but that is better2 book is understood after the word that and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word book4 ,therefore that is an adjective in this sentence4 ,but if ,i say1 ,this is good1 but that is better2 there is no noun understood1 for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with this and that4 ,therefore in this sentence this and that are pronouns1 used in place of the noun4 ,and since this and that1 when used as adjectives1 are called demonstrative adjectives2 therefore when this and that1 these and those1 and similar words1 are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns4 #bfj4 ,be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives4 ,possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used1 but they are not adjectives1 they are possessive pronouns4 ,my1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your and their are all possessive pronouns1 not adjectives4 ,also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives4 ,,adjectives ,,as ,,nouns #bfa4 ,sometimes you will find words1 which we are accustomed to look upon as adjectives1 used alone in the sentence without a noun which they modify4 ,for example1 we say1 ,the strong enslave the weak4 ,here we have used the adjectives strong and weak without any accompanying noun4 ,in sentences like this1 these adjectives1 being used as nouns1 are classed as nouns4 ,remember1 in your analysis of a sentence1 that you name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence1 so while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns1 we will consider them as nouns4 ,these words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative adjectives are used as pronouns4 ,there is no noun omitted which might be inserted1 but these adjectives are used rather to name a class4 ,as1 for example2 when we say1 ,the strong1 ,the weak1 we mean all those who are strong and all those who are weak1 considered as a class4 ,you will find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading1 and you will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary speech4 ,as1 for example3 ,the rich look down upon the poor4 ,the wise instruct the ignorant4 ,many examples will occur to you4 ,remember these adjectives are nouns when they do the work of nouns4 ,,adjectives ,,with ,,pronouns #bfb4 ,since pronouns are used in place of nouns1 they may have modifiers1 also1 just as nouns do4 ,so you will often find adjectives used to modify pronouns4 ,as1 for example2 ,he1 tired1 weak and ill1 was unable to hold his position4 ,here1 tired1 weak and ill are adjectives modifying the pronoun he4 #bfc4 ,we often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun4 ,as1 for example3 ,she1 having finished her work1 went home4 ,they1 having completed the organization1 left the city4 ,he1 having been defeated1 became discouraged4 ,in these sentences1 the participles1 having finished1 having completed1 and having been defeated1 are used as adjectives to modify the pronouns she1 they and he4 ,,comparison #bfd4 ,we have found that adjectives are a very important part of our speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various qualities4 ,but with the addition of these helpful words we can describe very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact4 ,we soon find1 however1 that there are varying degrees of these qualities4 ,some objects possess them in slight degree1 some more fully and some in the highest degree4 ,so we must have some way of expressing these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives4 ,this brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives4 ,suppose ,i say3 ,that orange is sweet1 the one yonder is sweeter1 but this one is sweetest4 ,i have used the adjective sweet expressing a quality possessed by oranges in three different forms1 sweet1 sweeter and sweetest4 ,this is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees of quality4 ,this change is called comparison1 because we use it when we compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they possess1 but possess in different degrees4 ,the form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality1 as sweet1 is called the positive degree4 ,that which expresses a quality in a greater degree1 as sweeter1 is called the comparative degree4 ,that which expresses a quality in the greatest degree1 as sweetest1 is called the superlative degree4 #bfe4 ,comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality4 ,there are three degrees of comparison1 positive1 comparative and superlative4 ,the positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality4 ,the comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality4 ,the superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality4 #bff4 ,most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables regularly add er to the positive to form the comparative degree1 and est to the positive to form the superlative degree1 as3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative sweet sweeter sweetest cold colder coldest soft softer softest brave braver bravest clear clearer clearest #bfg4 ,adjectives ending in y change y to i and add er and est to form the comparative and superlative degree1 as3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative busy busier busiest lazy lazier laziest sly slier sliest witty wittier wittiest #bfh4 ,many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word itself1 since the addition of er and est would make awkward or ill-sounding words4 ,hence we must employ another method to form the comparison of this sort of words4 ,to say1 beautiful1 beautifuller1 beautifullest1 is awkward and does not sound well4 ,so we say beautiful1 more beautiful1 most beautiful4 ,many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using more and most with the simple form of the adjective1 as3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative beautiful more beautiful most beautiful thankful more thankful most thankful sensitive more sensitive most sensitive wonderful more wonderful most wonderful #bfi4 ,adjectives of two syllables1 to which er and est are added to form the comparison1 are chiefly those ending in y or le1 such as3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative happy happier happiest noble nobler noblest steady steadier steadiest feeble feebler feeblest able abler ablest witty wittier wittiest #bgj4 ,some adjectives1 few in number1 but which we use very often1 are irregular in their comparison4 ,the most important of these are as follows3 7,it would be well to memorize these47 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative good better best well bad worse worst ill much more most many little less least late later latest latter last far farther farthest 7up7 adv4 upper uppermost 7in7 adv4 inner innermost ,,descending ,,comparison #bga4 ,the change in form of adjectives in the positive1 comparative and superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with which it is compared4 ,but we also wish at times to express the fact that one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with which it is compared2 so we have what we may call the descending comparison1 by means of phrases formed by using less and least instead of more and most4 ,using less with the positive degree means a degree less than the positive1 while using least expresses the lowest degree4 ,for example3 ,descending ,comparison ,positive ,comparative ,superlative beautiful less beautiful least beautiful intelligent less intelligent least intelligent sensitive less sensitive least sensitive thankful less thankful least thankful ,,participles ,,as ,,adjectives #bgb4 ,you remember1 when we studied the participle1 that we found it was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more parts of speech4 ,for example2 in the sentence1 ,the singing of the birds greeted us2 singing is a participle derived from the verb sing1 and is used as a noun1 the subject of the verb greeted4 ,but participles are used not only as nouns2 they may also be used as adjectives4 ,for example2 we may say1 ,the singing birds greeted us4 ,here the participle singing describes the birds1 telling what kind of birds greeted us1 and is used as an adjective modifying the noun birds4 ,you will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle1 the present participle and the past participle4 ,the present participle is formed by adding ing to the root form of the verb2 and the past participle in regular verbs is formed by adding d or ed to the root form1 and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself4 ,these two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives4 #bgc4 ,the present participle is almost always active2 that is1 it refers to the actor4 ,as1 for example2 ,vessels1 carrying soldiers1 are constantly arriving4 ,here the present participle carrying describes the noun vessels1 and yet retains its function as a verb and has an object1 soldiers4 ,so it partakes of two parts of speech1 the verb and the adjective4 #bgd4 ,the past participle1 when used alone1 is almost always passive1 for it refers not to the actor1 but to what is acted upon1 thus3 ,the army1 beaten but not conquered1 prepared for a siege4 ,in this sentence beaten is the past participle of the irregular verb beat1 and conquered is the past participle of the regular verb conquer1 and both modify the noun army1 but refer to it1 not as the actor1 but as the receiver of the action4 ,hence1 the past participle is also the passive participle4 ,note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives3 ,a refreshing breeze came from the hills4 ,they escaped from the burning building4 ,toiling1 rejoicing1 sorrowing1 onward through life he goes4 ,the man1 defeated in his purpose1 gave up in despair4 ,the child1 driven in its youth to work1 is robbed of the joy of childhood4 ,the army1 forced to retreat1 destroyed all in its path4 ,the children1 neglected by society1 grow up without their rightful opportunities4 ,exercise #a ,the adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in italics4 ,determine which adjectives are capable of comparison1 and whether they are compared by adding er or est1 or by the use of more and most4 ,in a community regulated by laws of demand and supply1 but protected from open violence1 the persons who become rich are1 generally speaking1 industrious1 resolute1 proud1 covetous1 prompt1 methodical1 sensible1 unimaginative1 insensitive and ignorant4 ,the persons who remain poor are the entirely foolish1 the entirely wise1 the idle1 the reckless1 the humble1 the thoughtful1 the dull1 the imaginative1 the sensitive1 the well-informed1 the improvident1 the irregularly and impulsively wicked1 the clumsy knave1 the open thief1 and the entirely merciful1 just and godly persons4--,ruskin4 ,,participle ,,phrases #bge4 ,if you will refer now to ,lesson #i you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases2 that is1 several words used as a participle4 ,we found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns2 as1 for example3 ,his having joined the union caused him to lose his position4 ,having joined is here a participle phrase used as a noun1 subject of the verb caused4 ,participle phrases may also be used as adjectives4 ,you remember that we had four participle phrases1 as follows3 ,present perfect1 active1 having called4 ,present perfect1 passive1 having been called4 ,progressive1 active1 having been calling4 ,progressive1 passive1 being called4 ,these participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns1 thus3 ,the soldier1 having joined his comrades1 fought in the trenches4 ,the nurse1 having been watching for days1 was nearly exhausted4 ,the passive phrases also are used as adjectives1 thus3 ,the woman1 having been hired by the manager1 went to work4 ,the man1 being attacked1 fought bravely4 ,here the participle phrases having been hired and being attacked are used as adjectives to modify the nouns woman and man4 ,use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs see and obey in sentences of your own4 ,,uses ,,of ,,adjectives #bgf4 ,in our use of adjectives1 we find it convenient to use them in several different ways4 ,the most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word1 seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun2 as in the sentence1 ,these brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories4 ,in this sentence these and brave are easily discovered to be adjectives1 being used in such close connection with the noun4 ,but sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes1 and then it becomes a little more difficult to find4 ,you will recall1 in our study of the copulative verb be1 that we found it was simply a connecting word1 connecting that which followed the verb with its subject4 ,so we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject4 ,when an adjective is used in this way1 it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun4 ,for example3 ,the lesson was long and difficult4 ,long and difficult are used in the predicate after the copulative verb was1 but are used to modify the subject lesson just as much as though we said instead1 ,it was a long and difficult lesson4 ,so watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb be in all its forms1 am1 is1 are1 was1 were2 and the phrases1 has been1 will be1 must be1 etc4 #bgg4 ,you may find adjectives also used following the noun4 ,as1 for example3 ,the man1 cool and resolute1 awaited the attack4 ,cool and resolute are adjectives modifying the noun man1 but they follow the noun1 instead of being placed before it4 ,,common ,,errors #bgh4 ,there are a number of common errors which we make in comparison1 which we should be careful to avoid4 #a4 ,a number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality1 so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison4 ,for example3 full1 empty1 level1 round1 square4 ,if a thing is full or empty or level or round or square1 it cannot be more full1 or more empty1 or more level1 or more round1 or more square4 ,so do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality4 ,also such words as supreme1 eternal1 and infallible1 cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality4 #b4 ,do not use more with the comparative form made by using er1 or most with the superlative form1 made by using est4 ,for example3 do not say1 ,they cannot be more happier than they are4 ,say1 ,they cannot be happier2 or ,they cannot be more happy4 ,use either form but never both4 ,do not say1 ,that is the most wisest plan4 ,say either1 ,that is the wisest plan2 or ,that is the most wise plan1 but never use both forms4 ,never use most with a superlative form4 #c4 ,do not use the superlative form in comparing two objects4 ,the superlative form is used only when more than two are compared4 ,for example2 do not say1 ,he is the smallest of the two4 ,say1 ,he is the smaller of the two4 ,which is the largest end8 is incorrect4 ,which is the larger end8 is correct4 ,which is the oldest1 ,john or ,henry8 is also incorrect4 ,this should be1 ,which is the older1 ,john or ,henry8 ,use the comparative form always when comparing two objects4 #d4 ,in stating a comparison1 avoid comparing a thing with itself4 ,for example2 ,new ,york is larger than any city in the ,united ,states4 ,in this sentence1 when you say any city in the ,united ,states1 you are including ,new ,york2 so you are really comparing ,new ,york with itself1 and you are saying that ,new ,york is larger than itself4 ,you should have said1 ,new ,york is larger than any other city in the ,united ,states2 or1 ,new ,york is the largest city in the ,united ,states4 ,when you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word other follows the comparative word than4 #e4 ,when an adjective denoting one or more than one modifies a noun1 the adjective and the noun must agree in number4 ,for example2 ,the house is #cj foot square4 ,thirty denotes more than one1 so a plural noun should be used1 and this sentence should be1 ,the house is #cj feet square4 ,we are traveling at the rate of #dj mile an hour4 ,this should be1 ,we are traveling at the rate of #dj miles an hour4 #f4 ,only two adjectives1 this and that change their form when modifying a plural noun4 ,these and those are the plural forms of this and that4 ,so remember always to use this and that with singular nouns and these and those with plural nouns4 ,for example2 do not say1 ,these kind of people will never join us4 ,you should say1 ,this kind of people will never join us4 ,or1 ,those sort of flowers grows easily4 ,you should say1 ,that sort of flowers grows easily4 #g4 ,place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify4 ,put the adjective with the noun which it modifies4 ,for example2 do not say1 a fresh bunch of flowers1 a new pair of shoes1 a salt barrel of pork1 an old box of clothes1 a cold cup of water1 a new load of hay4 ,put the adjective with the noun which it modifies1 and say1 a bunch of fresh flowers1 a pair of new shoes1 a barrel of salt pork1 a box of old clothes1 a cup of cold water1 a load of new hay4 #h4 ,adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify1 but sometimes1 especially in poetry or in the use of participles1 they follow the nouns4 ,they should not1 however1 be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun4 ,where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun1 place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun4 ,if they are all of the same rank1 place them where they will sound best1 usually according to their length1 naming the shortest adjective first4 ,correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order3 ,the summer sky was a blue1 soft1 beautiful sky4 ,he bought a brown1 fine1 big horse4 ,a gold1 beautiful1 expensive watch was given her4 ,the new1 beautiful apartment building is on the corner4 ,he advertised for a young1 intelligent1 wide awake man4 #i4 ,never use them as an adjective4 ,them is a pronoun4 ,one of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as them things1 them men1 them books4 ,say1 those things1 those men1 those books4 #aj4 ,do not use less for the comparative form of few4 ,the comparative form of few is fewer4 ,less refers only to quantity1 fewer to number4 ,for example3 ,he raised less grain this year than last1 because he has fewer horses now than he had then4 ,he uses fewer words because he has less to say4 ,there are but few people here today2 there were still fewer 7not less7 yesterday4 ,exercise #b ,correct the adjectives in this exercise3 #a4 ,hand me the little knife4 #b4 ,he claims to be more infallible than anyone else4 #c4 ,mary is the oldest of the two4 #d4 ,he was the bestest boy in school4 #e4 ,the barn is forty foot long4 #f4 ,yonder is a happy crowd of children4 #g4 ,which is the largest end8 #h4 ,i found the bestest book4 #i4 ,this is the most principal rule4 #aj4 ,give me a cold cup of water4 #aa4 ,these kind of books will not do4 #ab4 ,give me them books4 #ac4 ,who is the tallest1 you or ,john8 ,exercise #c ,mark all the adjectives in this poem4 ,note especially the participles used as adjectives4 ,,the ,,collection ,i passed the plate in church4 ,there was a little silver1 but the crisp bank-notes heaped themselves up high before me2 ,and ever as the pile grew1 the plate became warmer and warmer1 until it fairly burned my fingers1 and a smell of scorching flesh rose from it1 and ,i perceived that some of the notes were beginning to smolder and curl1 half-browned1 at the edges4 ,and then ,i saw through the smoke into the very substance of the money1 and ,i beheld what it really was3 ,i saw the stolen earnings of the poor1 the wide margin of wages pared down to starvation2 ,i saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street1 and the over-worked child1 and the suicide of the discharged miner2 ,i saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories1 spreading disease and death2 ,i saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop2 ,i saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on ,god's land2 ,i saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the poor privilege to work1 in vain1 and becoming tramps and paupers and drunkards and lunatics1 and crowding into almshouses1 insane asylums and prisons2 ,i saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling1 filthy slums2 ,i saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all kinds1 cheapening men and women1 and vulgarizing the world2 ,i saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over forest and river and field2 ,i saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow swindlers1 and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of his vitals2 ,i saw the laboring world1 thin and pale and bent and care-worn and driven1 pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews1 who only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust2 ,i saw all this1 and the plate burned my fingers so that ,i had to hold it first in one hand and then in the other2 and ,i was glad when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me on the chancel steps and1 turning about1 lifted it up and laid it on the altar4 ,it was an old-time altar1 indeed1 for it bore a burnt offering of flesh and blood--a sweet savor unto the ,moloch whom these people worship with their daily round of human sacrifices4 ,the shambles are in the temple as of yore1 and the tables of the money-changers waiting to be overturned4 --,ernest ,crosby4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ae ,there is a class of words having the sound of long e1 represented by the diphthong ie1 and another class having the same sound represented by ei4 ,it is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with ie or ei4 ,here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words3 ,when the letter c you spy1 ,put the e before the i4 ,for example1 in such words as deceit1 receive and ceiling1 the spelling is ei4 ,on the other hand1 when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter c1 the spelling is ie1 as in grief1 field1 siege1 etc4 ,there are a few exceptions to this rule1 such as either1 neither1 leisure1 seize and weird4 ,most words1 however1 conform to the rule--when preceded by c1 ei should be used2 when preceded by any other letter1 ie4 ,observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long e4 ,when the two letters do not have the sound of long e1 as in ancient1 the rule does not apply4 ,monday ,deceive ,belief ,conceive ,brief ,ceiling ,tuesday ,field ,receive ,piece ,chief ,leisure ,wednesday ,receipt ,wield ,weird ,thief ,perceive ,thursday ,deceit ,yield ,grief ,seize ,conceit ,friday ,relieve ,neither ,liege ,shield ,niece ,saturday ,relief ,achievement ,reprieve ,lien ,siege ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #af ,dear ,comrade3 ,we have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language4 ,we have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today4 ,they gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech4 ,that which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another4 ,from this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas4 ,without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason4 ,if you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow1 your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals4 ,so man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately1 in a manner that he could depend upon1 the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time4 ,so that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks4 ,then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses1 the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell4 ,but man1 the ,thinker1 began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell4 ,he began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness1 love and hate1 and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas4 ,so we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas1 as for example2 a picture of the sun and moon to represent light2 the bee to symbolize industry2 the ostrich feather to represent justice4 ,but as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read4 ,necessity is truly the mother of invention1 and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new--something which had been undreamed of before4 ,he began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound4 ,you can find an example of this same thing on the ,children's ,puzzle ,page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve4 ,as for example3 ,a picture of an eye1 a saw1 a boy1 a swallow1 a goose and a berry1 and this would stand for the sentence1 ,i saw a boy swallow a gooseberry4 ,perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill1 a walk and a key stands for ,milwaukee4 ,and so we have a new form of picture writing4 ,notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in1 for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above4 ,the mill stands for one syllable1 walk for another and key for another4 ,this was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables4 ,what a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live1 the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort4 ,man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution4 ,it makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole2 we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things4 ,the same blood flows in us2 the same power belongs to us4 ,truly1 with this idea1 we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full4 ,yours for ,freedom1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,words ,,added ,,to ,,verbs #bgi4 ,we have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning4 ,without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas1 for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us4 ,adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact4 ,the verb1 we have found1 expresses the action of these objects2 in other words1 the verb tells what things do4 ,so with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do4 ,for example1 ,i may say1 ,men work4 ,here ,i have used simply a noun and a verb2 then ,i may add various adjectives to this and say1 ,strong1 industrious1 ambitious men work4 ,by the use of these adjectives1 ,i have told you about the kind of men who work2 but ,i have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb work4 ,i may want to tell you how they work and when they work2 where they work and how much2 in other words1 describe fully the action expressed in the verb work1 so ,i say3 ,the men work busily4 ,the men work late4 ,the men work well4 ,the men work inside4 ,the men work hard4 ,the men work here4 ,the men work now4 ,the men work more4 ,words like busily1 hard1 late1 here1 well1 now1 inside1 and more1 show how1 when1 where and how much the men work4 ,we could leave off these words and still have a sentence1 since the other words make sense without them1 but these words describe the action expressed in the verb4 ,words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite1 very much as adjectives are added to nouns4 #bhj4 ,the word adverb means1 literally1 to the verb1 and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier1 but an adverb is used to modify other words as well4 ,an adverb may be used to modify an adjective2 for example1 we might say3 ,the man was very busy4 ,this lesson is too long4 ,here very and too are added to the adjectives busy and long to qualify their meaning4 #bha4 ,you remember in the comparison of adjectives1 we used the words more and most to make the comparative and superlative degrees4 ,here more and most are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning4 ,adverbs used in this way will always answer the question1 how much1 how long1 etc4 ,in the sentence1 ,the man is very busy1 very is used to answer the question how busy4 ,and in the sentence1 ,the lesson is too long1 the adverb too answers the question how long4 ,an adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question how4 ,for example2 we say1 ,the man works very hard4 ,here the adverb hard tells how the man works and very modifies the adverb hard1 and answers the question how hard4 ,so we have our definition of an adverb3 #bhb4 ,an adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb1 an adjective or another adverb4 ,remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns1 but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb4 ,you remember that we had in our first lesson1 as the definition of a word1 that1 a word is a sign of an idea4 ,the idea is a part of a complete thought4 ,see how all of these various words represent ideas1 and each does its part to help us express our thoughts4 ,,how ,,to ,,tell ,,adverbs #bhc4 ,we need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs1 for they will always answer one of the following questions3 ,how8 ,when8 ,where8 ,why8 ,how long8 ,how often8 ,how much8 ,how far8 or ,how little8 etc4 ,just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence4 ,take the following sentence3 ,he always came down too rapidly4 ,the word always answers the question when4 ,so always is an adverb1 describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came--,he always came4 ,down answers the question where4 ,so down is the adverb describing the place of the action4 ,rapidly answers the question how1 and is the adverb describing the manner of the action4 ,too also answers the question how1 and modifies the adverb rapidly4 ,exercise #a ,underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify3 #a4 ,he writes correctly4 #b4 ,she answered quickly4 #c4 ,a very wonderful future awaits us4 #d4 ,you should not speak so hastily4 #e4 ,you can speak freely here4 #f4 ,he could never wait patiently4 #g4 ,we very often make mistakes4 #h4 ,she very seldom goes there4 #i4 ,he usually walks very rapidly4 #aj4 ,i have read the lesson quite carefully4 #aa4 ,we would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause4 #ab4 ,he frequently comes here but ,i do not expect him today4 #ac4 ,if we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak correctly and fluently4 #ad4 ,i am almost sure ,i can go there tomorrow4 #ae4 ,it was more beautifully painted than the other4 #af4 ,we eagerly await the news from the front4 #ag4 ,he always gladly obeyed his father4 #ah4 ,she spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception4 #ai4 ,the difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted4 ,exercise #b ,use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs3 slowly here now gently loudly never soon carefully nobly down seldom easily ,use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives3 quite very more too most less nearly so ,use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs3 too very quite less more most least so ,,classes ,,of ,,adverbs #bhd4 ,there are a good many adverbs in our language1 yet they may be divided1 according to their meaning1 into six principal classes3 #a4 ,adverbs of time4 ,these answer the question when1 and are such adverbs as now1 then1 soon1 never1 always1 etc4 #b4 ,adverbs of place4 ,these answer the question where1 and are such adverbs as here1 there1 yonder1 down1 above1 below1 etc4 #c4 ,adverbs of manner4 ,these answer the question how1 and are such adverbs as well1 ill1 thus1 so1 slowly1 hastily1 etc4 #d4 ,adverbs of degree4 ,these answer the questions how much1 how little1 how far1 etc41 and are such adverbs as much1 very1 almost1 scarcely1 hardly1 more1 quite1 little1 etc4 #e4 ,adverbs of cause4 ,these answer the question why1 and are such adverbs as therefore1 accordingly1 hence1 etc4 #f4 ,adverbs of number4 ,these are such adverbs as first1 second1 third1 etc4 ,exercise #c ,in the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used4 ,find the adverbs of the different classes4 #a4 ,we shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle4 #b4 ,it is much more effective to train the young4 #c4 ,he came first and remained through the entire program4 #d4 ,it is pleasant to know that we have done well4 #e4 ,our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches4 #f4 ,therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat4 #g4 ,come down and discuss the matter with us4 #h4 ,we would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts4 #i4 ,study your lessons slowly and carefully4 #aj4 ,he was scarcely able to tell his story4 #aa4 ,accordingly ,i am sending you full particulars of the plan4 #ab4 ,he came third in the ranks4 ,,interrogative ,,adverbs #bhe4 ,the adverbs how1 when1 where1 why1 whither1 whence1 etc41 are used in asking questions1 and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs4 ,for example3 ,how did it happen8 ,where are you going8 ,whence came he8 ,when did he come8 ,why did you do it8 ,whither are you going8 ,these adverbs1 how1 when1 where1 why1 whence and whither1 are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the time or place or manner of action expressed in the verb4 ,how may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb4 ,for example3 ,how late did he stay8 ,how large is the house8 ,in the first sentence1 the adverb how modifies the adverb late1 and introduces the question4 ,in the second sentence how modifies the adjective large and introduces the question4 ,exercise #d ,write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs how1 when1 where and why1 to modify verbs and ask simple questions4 ,write sentences using the interrogative adverb how to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question4 ,,adverbs ,,of ,,mode #bhf4 ,there are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions4 ,they are such adverbs as indeed1 certainly1 fairly1 truly1 surely1 perhaps and possibly4 ,these adverbs really modify the entire sentence1 in a way1 and are used to show how the statement is made1--whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way4 ,for example3 ,surely you will not leave me4 ,truly ,i cannot understand the matter as you do4 ,perhaps he knows no better4 ,indeed1 ,i cannot go with you4 ,here1 these adverbs1 truly1 surely1 perhaps and indeed1 show the manner in which the entire statement is made2 so they have been put in a class by themselves and called adverbs of mode4 ,mode means literally manner1 but these are not adverbs that express manner of action1 like slowly or wisely or well or ill4 ,they express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made1 and so really modify the whole sentence4 ,,phrase ,,adverbs #bhg4 ,we have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs4 ,they are such phrases as of course1 of late1 for good1 of old1 at all1 at length1 by and by1 over and over1 again and again1 through and through1 hand in hand1 ere long1 in vain1 to and fro1 up and down1 as usual1 by far1 at last1 at least1 in general1 in short1 etc4 ,these words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs4 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs #bhh4 ,sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb1 and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb4 ,some of these words are3 better1 little1 late1 far1 hard1 further1 first1 last1 long1 short1 much1 more and high4 ,for example3 ,the late news verifies our statement4 ,the man came late to his work4 ,in the first sentence1 the word late is used as an adjective modifying the noun news4 ,in the second sentence1 the word late is used as an adverb to modify the verb came4 #bhi4 ,you can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule3 ,adjectives modify only nouns and pronouns1 and the one essential characteristic of the adverb1 as a limiting word1 is that it is always joined to some other part of speech than a noun4 ,an adverb may modify a verb1 adjective or other adverb1 but never a noun or pronoun4 ,you recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study3 namely1 that every word is classified in the sentence according to the work which it does in that sentence4 ,so a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun2 a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun1 either a verb or an adjective or an adverb1 or even an entire sentence1 as is the case with adverbs of mode4 #bij4 ,many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes4 ,adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix ly1 or by changing ble to bly4 ,for example3 honestly1 rarely1 dearly1 ably1 nobly1 feebly4 ,but all words that end in ly are not adverbs4 ,some adjectives end in ly also1 as1 kingly1 courtly1 etc4 ,the only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence4 ,exercise #e ,in the following sentences1 tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs3 also note the words ending in ly4 ,some are adverbs and some adjectives4 #a4 ,the boy was very little4 #b4 ,it was a little early to arrive4 #c4 ,it was a hard lesson4 #d4 ,she works hard every day4 #e4 ,i read the first book4 #f4 ,i read the book first then gave it to him4 #g4 ,he went to a high mountain4 #h4 ,the eagle flew high in the air4 #i4 ,we saw clearly the lovely picture4 #aj4 ,he is a wonderfully jolly man4 #aa4 ,his courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride4 #ab4 ,he speaks slowly and clearly4 #ac4 ,they are very cleanly in their habits4 ,,nouns ,,as ,,adverbs #bia4 ,words that are ordinarily used as nouns1 are sometimes used as adverbs4 ,these are the nouns that denote time1 distance1 measure of value or direction4 ,they are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place1 or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value1 of weight1 number or age4 ,they are sometimes used to indicate direction4 ,for example3 ,they were gone a year4 ,he talked an hour4 ,they will return next week4 ,they went south for the winter4 ,they traveled #ajj miles4 ,the wheat is a foot high4 ,the man weighed #bjj pounds4 ,in these sentences1 the nouns1 year1 miles1 hour1 foot1 week1 pounds and south are used as adverbs4 ,remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence4 ,exercise #f ,mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,sighs ,one more ,unfortunate ,weary of breath1 ,rashly importunate1 ,gone to her death6 ,take her up tenderly1 ,lift her with care2 ,fashion'd so slenderly1 ,young1 and so fair6 ,look at her garments ,clinging like cerements2 ,whilst the wave constantly ,drips from her clothing2 ,take her up instantly1 ,loving1 not loathing4 ,touch her not scornfully2 ,think of her mournfully1 ,gently and humanly2 ,not of the stains of her-- ,all that remains of her ,now is pure womanly4 ,make no deep scrutiny ,into her mutiny ,rash and undutiful2 ,past all dishonor1 ,death has left on her ,only the beautiful4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,alas6 for the rarity ,of ,christian charity ,under the sun6 ,o6 it was pitiful6 ,near a whole city full1 ,home1 she had none4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the bleak wind of ,march ,made her tremble and shiver2 ,but not the dark arch1 ,or the black flowing river3 ,mad from life's history ,glad to death's mystery ,swift to be hurled-- ,anywhere1 anywhere ,out of the world6 ,in she plunged boldly1 ,no matter how coldly ,the rough river ran2 ,over the brink of it1-- ,picture it1 think of it1 ,dissolute ,man6 ,lave in it1 drink of it1 ,then1 if you can6 ,take her up tenderly1 ,lift her with care2 ,fashion'd so slenderly1 ,young and so fair6 ,ere her limbs frigidly ,stiffen too rigidly1 ,decently1 kindly1 ,smooth and compose them2 ,and her eyes1 close them1 ,staring so blindly6 ,dreadfully staring ,thro' muddy impurity1 ,as when with the daring ,last look of despairing ,fix'd on futurity4 ,perishing gloomily1 ,spurr'd by contumely1 ,cold inhumanity1 ,burning insanity1 ,into her rest4 ,cross her hands humbly ,as if praying dumbly1 ,over her breast6 ,owning her weakness1 ,her evil behavior1 ,and leaving1 with meekness1 ,her sins to her ,saviour6 --,thomas ,hood4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #af ,the ,english language is truly a melting pot1 into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun4 ,this makes our spelling very confusing many times4 ,because of this also1 we have in our language1 words which have the same sound but different meaning1 having come into the language from different sources4 ,these words are called homonyms4 ,homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning4 ,for example3 ,plane1 plain2 write1 right4 ,synonyms are words which have the same meaning4 ,for example3 ,allow1 permit2 lazy1 idle4 ,our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms4 ,look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences4 ,you will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound1 but different meanings4 ,notice especially principal and principle4 ,perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling4 ,principle is a noun4 ,principal is an adjective4 ,you can remember the correct spelling by remembering that adjective begins with a4 ,principal1 the adjective1 is spelled with an a1 pal4 ,notice also the distinction between two1 to and too4 ,look these up carefully1 for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words4 ,also notice the words no and know and here and hear4 ,monday ,buy--by ,fair--fare ,meat--meet ,our--hour ,pain--pane ,tuesday ,deer--dear ,hear--here ,new--knew ,no--know ,peace--piece ,wednesday ,two--to--too ,pair--pare--pear ,birth--berth ,ore--oar ,ought--aught ,thursday ,seen--scene ,miner--minor ,aloud--allowed ,stare--stair ,would--wood ,friday ,bear--bare ,ascent--assent ,sight--site--cite ,rain--reign--rein ,rote--wrote ,saturday ,great--grate ,foul--fowl ,least--leased ,principle--principal ,sale--sail ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ag ,dear ,comrade3 ,we are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech4 ,adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary1 and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess4 ,we usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked4 ,add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week4 ,do not slight the exercises in these lessons4 ,the study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge4 ,you do not really know a thing until you put it into practice4 ,you may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience4 ,there is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them4 ,every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads4 ,while talking watch their language and your own4 ,when a word is used that you do not fully understand1 look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word4 ,we have been following in these letters1 which are our weekly talks together1 the development of the alphabet4 ,it is really a wonderful story4 ,it brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past4 ,last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables1 parts of a word4 ,we found that this was a great step in advance4 ,do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture8 ,the symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word4 ,after a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds4 ,we do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance4 ,cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now4 ,the same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words4 ,let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was4 ,these symbols represented sounds4 ,the appeal was through the ear gate of man1 not through the eye gate4 ,thus came about the birth of the alphabet1 one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind4 ,because of this discovery1 we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols1--letters that represent sounds4 ,since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words1 let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves4 ,add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech2 and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adverbs #bib4 ,you will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality4 ,a few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives4 ,some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way1 just as adjectives1 by adding er and est2 for example3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative soon sooner soonest late later latest often oftener oftenest early earlier earliest fast faster fastest #bic4 ,most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of more and most or less and least1 just as adjectives do2 for example3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative clearly more clearly most clearly nobly more nobly most nobly ably more ably most ably truly more truly most truly ,or1 in the descending comparison3 clearly less clearly least clearly nobly less nobly least nobly ably less ably least ably truly less truly least truly #bid4 ,the following adverbs are compared irregularly4 ,it would be well to memorize this list3 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative ill worse worst well better best badly worse worst far further 7farther7 furthest 7farthest7 little less least much more most ,some adverbs are incapable of comparison1 as here1 there1 now1 today1 hence1 therefore1 etc4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive1 which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree3 #a4 ,he came too late to get his letter4 #b4 ,i can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me4 #c4 ,he speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well informed4 #d4 ,if he comes quickly he will arrive in time4 #e4 ,i will be able to speak more effectively when ,i have studied the subject4 #f4 ,those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession of the facts4 #g4 ,he needs to take a course such as this very badly4 #h4 ,i am too weary to go farther today4 #i4 ,this is the least expensive of them all4 #aj4 ,if he arrives later in the day ,i will not be able to see him4 #aa4 ,i can understand him more clearly than ,i can his friend4 #ab4 ,you must work more rapidly under the ,taylor system of efficiency4 #ac4 ,those who are least trained lose their positions first4 #ad4 ,those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive them4 ,,position ,,of ,,adverbs #bie4 ,when we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb1 we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies4 ,for example3 ,she is very studious4 ,results come rather slowly4 ,it is quite evident4 ,he speaks too rapidly4 ,when we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb1 7that is1 either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase71 if the verb is a complete verb1 we place the adverb after the verb4 ,for example3 ,the boat arrived safely4 ,the man came quickly4 ,the boy ran fast4 ,the teacher spoke hastily4 ,but when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form1 the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object4 ,as1 for example3 ,he willingly gave his consent to the proposition4 ,she gladly wrote the letter which we requested4 ,a soldier always obeys the command of a superior officer4 ,when the object of the incomplete verb is short1 then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object4 ,as1 for example3 ,i study my lessons carefully4 ,he wrote a letter hastily4 ,the object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb4 ,however1 when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb1 as3 ,i studied carefully the lessons given for this month4 ,he wrote hastily a short letter to his son4 ,when we use an adverb with a verb phrase1 we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase4 ,for example3 ,the boy has always worked4 ,the workers will then understand4 ,he will surely have arrived by that time4 ,when the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb1 as for example3 ,the work can be quickly finished4 ,the obstacles can be readily overcome4 ,the lesson must be carefully prepared4 ,the workers must be thoroughly organized4 ,when an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb1 the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second1 as for example3 ,i often stop there4 ,he usually walks very rapidly4 ,they soon learn to work rapidly4 ,if the sentence contains adverbs of time1 of place1 and of manner2 the adverb of time should come first2 of place1 second2 and of manner1 third2 as3 ,he usually comes here quickly4 ,exercise #b ,improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence3 #a4 ,i only saw the ,president once4 #b4 ,such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity4 #c4 ,no man has ever so much wealth that he does not want more4 #d4 ,it seems that the workers can be never aroused4 #e4 ,i want to briefly state the reason for my action4 #f4 ,i shall be glad to help you always4 #g4 ,i only mention a few of the facts4 #h4 ,he nearly walked to town4 #i4 ,we are told that the ,japanese chiefly live upon rice4 #aj4 ,they expected them to sign a treaty daily4 #aa4 ,having nearly lost all his money he feared again to venture4 ,,adverbs ,,and ,,infinitives #bif4 ,you remember when we studied the infinitive in ,lesson #i1 we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive2 that is1 to put the modifying word between to and the verb4 ,for example3 ,we ought to bravely stand for our rights4 ,the correct form of this is3 ,we ought to stand bravely for our rights4 ,but we have found1 also1 that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself1 and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign4 ,sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way2 for example1 when we say3 ,to almost succeed is not enough1 we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea1 if we try to put the adverb almost in any other position4 ,this is also true in such phrases as to far exceed1 to more than counterbalance1 to fully appreciate1 and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading4 ,the purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately4 ,so we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians4 ,ordinarily1 though1 it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign to4 ,do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately4 ,,common ,,errors #big4 ,the position in the sentence of such adverbs as1 only1 also and merely1 depends upon the meaning to be conveyed4 ,the place where these adverbs occur in the sentences1 may completely alter the meaning of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,only the address can be written on this side4 ,we mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side4 ,the address can only be written on this side4 ,we mean that the address cannot be printed1 but must be written4 ,the address can be written only on this side4 ,we mean that it cannot be written on any other side1 but on this side only4 ,so you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended4 ,never use an adjective for an adverb4 ,one common error is using an adjective for an adverb4 ,remember that adjectives modify nouns only4 ,whenever you use a word to modify a verb1 adjective or another adverb1 use an adverb4 ,for example1 ,he speaks slow and plain4 ,this is incorrect4 ,the sentence should be1 ,he speaks slowly and plainly4 ,watch this carefully4 ,it is a very common error4 ,another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb4 ,never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb4 ,when a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject1 the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb4 ,for example1 you would say3 ,the sea was calm4 ,here we use an adjective in the predicate1 for we are describing the appearance of the sea1 no action is expressed4 ,but if we say3 ,he spoke calmly1 we use the adverb calmly1 for the verb spoke expresses an action on the part of the subject1 and the adverb calmly describes that action1 it tells how he spoke4 ,so we say3 ,the water looks clear1 but1 ,we see clearly4 ,she appears truthful4 ,they answered truthfully4 ,she looked sweet4 ,she smiled sweetly4 ,with all forms of the verb be1 as am1 is1 are1 was1 were1 have been1 has been1 will be1 etc41 use an adjective in the predicate2 as1 ,he is glad4 ,i am happy4 ,they were eager4 ,they will be sad4 ,use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like look1 smell1 taste1 feel1 appear and seem4 ,for example3 ,he looks bad4 ,it smells good4 ,the candy tastes sweet4 ,the man feels fine today4 ,she appears anxious4 ,he seems weary4 ,never use two negative words in the same sentence4 ,the second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement4 ,the two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence4 ,for example1 never say3 ,i don't want no education4 ,he didn't have no money4 ,don't say nothing to nobody4 ,she never goes nowhere4 ,he won't say nothing to you4 ,he does not know nothing about it4 ,he never stops for nothing4 ,the stingy man gives nothing to nobody4 ,in all of these sentences we have used more than one negative2 not and no1 or not and nothing1 or never and no1 or never and nothing4 ,never use these double negatives4 ,the correct forms of these sentences are3 ,i don't want any education4 ,he didn't have any money4 ,don't say anything to any one4 ,she never goes anywhere4 ,he won't say anything to you4 ,he knows nothing about it4 ,he never stops for anything4 ,the stingy man gives nothing to any one4 ,where to place the negative adverb1 not4 ,in ,english we do not use the negative adverb not with the common verb form1 but when we use not in a sentence1 we use the auxiliary do4 ,for example1 we do not say3 ,i like it not4 ,they think not so4 ,he loves me not4 ,we strive not to succeed4 ,only in poetry do we use such expressions as these4 ,in ordinary ,english1 we say3 ,i do not like it4 ,they do not think so4 ,he does not love me4 ,we do not strive to succeed4 ,we often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that4 ,for example1 we say3 ,this here lesson is shorter than that there one was4 ,this should be3 ,this lesson is shorter than that one4 ,bring me that there book4 ,this here man will not listen4 ,these sentences should read3 ,bring me that book4 ,this man will not listen4 ,never use here and there in this manner4 ,another common mistake is using most for almost4 ,for example1 we say3 ,we are most there4 ,i see her most every day4 ,these sentences should read3 ,we are almost there4 ,i see her almost every day4 ,most is the superlative degree of much1 and should be used only in that meaning4 ,we often use the adjective real in place of very or quite1 to modify an adverb or an adjective4 ,for example1 we say3 ,i was real glad to know it4 ,she looked real nice4 ,you must come real soon4 ,say instead3 ,i am very glad to know it4 ,she looked very nice4 ,you must come quite soon4 ,really is the adverb form of the adjective real4 ,you might have said3 ,i am really glad to know it4 ,but never use real when you mean very or quite or really4 ,we use the adjective some many times when we should use the adverb somewhat4 ,for example1 we say3 ,i am some anxious to hear from him4 ,i was some tired after my trip4 ,what we intended to say was3 ,i am somewhat anxious to hear from him4 ,i was somewhat tired after my trip4 ,do not use what for when you mean why4 ,do not say3 ,what did you do that for8 ,or worse still1 ,what for did you do that8 ,say3 ,why did you do that8 ,do not use worse in place of more4 ,do not say3 ,i want to go worse than ,i ever did4 ,say3 ,i want to go more than ,i ever did4 ,observe the distinction between the words further and farther4 ,farther always refers to distance1 or extent4 ,for example3 ,he could go no farther that day4 ,we will go farther into the matter some other time4 ,further means more4 ,for example3 ,he would say nothing further in regard to the subject4 ,never use good as an adverb4 ,good is always an adjective4 ,well is the adverb form4 ,good and well are compared in the same way1 good1 better1 best1 and well1 better1 best4 ,so better and best can be used either as adjectives or adverbs2 but good is always an adjective4 ,do not say1 ,he talks good4 ,say1 ,he talks well4 ,note that ill is both an adjective and an adverb and that illy is always incorrect4 ,exercise #c ,correct the adverbs in the following sentences4 ,all but two of these sentences are wrong4 #a4 ,come quick1 ,i need you4 #b4 ,the boy feels badly4 #c4 ,give me that there pencil4 #d4 ,i am some hungry4 #e4 ,the people learn slow4 #f4 ,he never stopped for nothing4 #g4 ,what did you say that for8 #h4 ,this here machine won't run4 #i4 ,i make a mistake most every time4 #aj4 ,watch careful every word4 #aa4 ,the man works good4 #ab4 ,the tone sounds harsh4 #ac4 ,i don't want no dinner4 #ad4 ,i hope it comes real soon4 #ae4 ,i want to learn worse than ever4 #af4 ,she looked lovely4 #ag4 ,she smiled sweet4 #ah4 ,he sees good for one so old4 #ai4 ,she answered correct4 #bj4 ,he won't say nothing about it4 #ba4 ,i will be real glad to see you4 #bb4 ,that tastes sweetly4 #bc4 ,the man acted too hasty4 #bd4 ,we had most reached home4 #be4 ,they ride too rapid4 ,,do ,,not ,,use ,,too ,,many ,,adverbs #bih4 ,like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly4 ,this is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning4 ,do not use the adverbs1 very1 awfully1 etc41 with every other word4 ,it makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl1 to whom everything is very1 awfully sweet4 ,more than that1 it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech4 ,save these words until the right occasion comes to use them4 ,exercise #d ,adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify4 ,a mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence4 ,choose the right word in each of the following sentences3 #a4 ,he looked glad--gladly when ,i told him the news4 #b4 ,slaves have always been treated harsh--harshly4 #c4 ,i prefer my eggs boiled soft--softly4 #d4 ,the lecturer was tolerable--tolerably well informed4 #e4 ,speak slower--more slowly so ,i can understand you4 #f4 ,the evening bells sound sweet--sweetly4 #g4 ,the house appears comfortable--comfortably and pleasant--pleasantly4 #h4 ,if you will come quick--quickly you can hear the music4 #i4 ,i was exceeding--exceedingly glad to hear from you4 #aj4 ,the bashful young man appeared very awkward--awkwardly4 #aa4 ,the young lady looked beautiful--beautifully and she sang beautiful--beautifully4 #ab4 ,i looked quick--quickly in the direction of the sound4 #ac4 ,the sun is shining bright--brightly today and the grass looks green--greenly4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ag ,in our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify4 ,you will recall when we studied nouns1 we had one class of nouns1 called abstract nouns1 which were the names of qualities4 ,so we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality4 ,for example from the adjective happy1 we form the noun happiness1 which is the name of the quality described by the adjective happy1 by the addition of the suffix ness4 ,we use this suffix ness quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use2 as for example1 the suffix ty as in security1 formed from the adjective secure1 changing the e to i and adding the suffix ty4 ,when the word ends in t we sometimes add only y as in honesty1 derived from the adjective honest4 ,you remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action1 considered apart from the actor2 so abstract nouns may be made from verbs4 ,for example3 ,running1 from the verb run2 settlement1 from the verb settle4 ,in our lesson for this week the list for ,monday1 ,tuesday and ,wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made1 by the addition of the proper suffix1 either ness1 y1 ty or tion4 ,the list for ,thursday1 ,friday and ,saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes ment and ing4 ,make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix4 ,be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality4 ,monday ,stately ,forgetful ,real ,concise ,noble ,tuesday ,slender ,empty ,equal ,righteous ,deliberate ,wednesday ,submissive ,dreadful ,eager ,sincere ,resolute ,thursday ,enlist ,defile ,adorn ,nourish ,commence ,friday ,content ,adjust ,induce ,indict ,adjourn ,saturday ,discourage ,refine ,acquire ,enrich ,infringe ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ah ,dear ,comrade3 ,last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary1 and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess4 ,this is true of both adverbs and adjectives4 ,while we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech1 nevertheless1 adverbs are a very important factor in expression4 ,a great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs4 ,they are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun1 but by the addition of a suffix1 they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb4 ,so in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well4 ,watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly1 then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs4 ,try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long1 a well earned rest4 ,remember that our vocabulary1 and the power to use it1 is like our muscles1 it can only grow and develop by exercise4 ,the best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation4 ,we spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing4 ,conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always1 for we can talk as we work2 yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime4 ,but do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation4 ,surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while4 ,hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation4 ,remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development4 ,did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words8 ,our thinking capacity is limited1 unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions4 ,this matter of vocabulary is a matter1 too1 that is exceedingly practical4 ,it means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world4 ,a command of words means added power and efficiency2 it means the power to control1 or at least affect1 our environment2 it means the power over men and things2 it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure1 inefficient members of society4 ,so feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn2 you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you4 ,this effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,a ,,group ,,of ,,words #bii4 ,we have studied about the independent parts of speech1 that is1 the nouns and pronouns and verbs4 ,these are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words4 ,and these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent--with which we can form complete sentences4 ,then we have studied also the words that modify1--that is1 the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express4 ,so we have studied adjectives1 which modify nouns and pronouns2 and adverbs1 which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs4 #cjj4 ,the adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words2 but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way1 to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb4 ,for example1 we may say3 ,strong men1 or1 men of strength4 ,city men1 or1 men from the city4 ,jobless men1 or1 men without jobs4 ,moneyed men1 or1 men with money4 ,these groups of words like1 of strength1 from the city1 without jobs1 and with money1 express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives1 strong1 city1 jobless and moneyed4 ,you recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a phrase2 so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives4 ,the phrase1 of strength1 modifies the noun men1 just as the adjective strong modifies the noun men4 ,so we may call these phrases which modify nouns1 or which may be used to modify pronouns also1 adjective phrases1 for they are groups of words used as adjectives4 ,exercise #a ,change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases3 #a4 ,strong men know no fear4 #b4 ,she bought a ,turkish rug4 #c4 ,he followed the river bed4 #d4 ,fashionable women are parasites4 #e4 ,he left on his homeward journey4 #f4 ,sensible men readily understand their economic slavery4 #g4 ,intelligent people will not always submit to robbery4 #h4 ,senseless arguments cannot convince us of the truth4 ,,used ,,as ,,adverbs #cja4 ,these phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also4 ,you remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb4 ,let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb4 ,for example3 ,the man works rapidly1 or1 ,the man works with rapidity4 ,the man works now1 or1 ,the man works at this time4 ,the man works here1 or1 ,the man works at this place4 ,in these sentences rapidly1 now and here are single adverbs modifying the verb work4 ,the phrases1 with rapidity1 at this time1 and at this place1 express practically the same ideas1 conveyed by the single adverbs1 rapidly1 now and here4 ,these phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs4 ,therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs1 adverb phrases4 ,we also use adverbs to modify adjectives4 ,let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way3 ,rockefeller is excessively rich2 or1 ,rockefeller is rich to excess4 ,he is bodily perfect1 but mentally weak2 or1 ,he is perfect in body but weak in mind4 ,in the sentences above1 the adverb excessively modifies the adjective rich2 the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase1 to excess4 ,in the sentence1 ,he is bodily perfect1 but mentally weak1 the adverb bodily modifies the adjective perfect and the adverb mentally modifies the adjective weak4 ,in the last sentence1 the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases1 in body and in mind4 ,these phrases modify the adjectives perfect and weak1 just as do the single adverbs bodily and mentally4 #cjb4 ,we can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective4 ,it very often happens1 however1 that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase4 ,for example3 ,he bought the large house by the river4 ,the man on the train is going to the city4 ,he came from the country4 ,it is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases1 by the river1 on the train1 to the city1 and from the country4 ,you could not say the river house2 that is not what you mean4 ,you mean the large house by the river1 yet the phrase by the river modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective large4 ,it is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun house1 yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word4 ,exercise #b ,which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs8 ,change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs1 if you can think of any that express the same meaning4 #a4 ,men lived in caves long ago4 #b4 ,man's discovery of fire was the beginning of industry4 #c4 ,after this discovery1 men lived in groups4 #d4 ,the work of the world is done by machinery4 #e4 ,the workers of ,europe were betrayed4 #f4 ,they are fighting for their country4 #g4 ,the struggle for markets is the cause of war4 #h4 ,the history of the world records the struggle of the workers4 #i4 ,the idea of democracy is equal opportunity for all4 #aj4 ,the invention of the printing press placed knowledge within the reach of the masses4 #aa4 ,if you will study with diligence you can learn with ease4 #ab4 ,this knowledge will be of great value to you4 #ac4 ,diplomacy means that the plans of nations are made in secret4 #ad4 ,the men in the factory are all paid by the month4 #ae4 ,they are afraid to take a trip through ,europe at this time4 ,exercise #c ,use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences3 #a4 ,the men in the trenches are fighting bravely4 #b4 ,an uneducated man is easily exploited4 #c4 ,our educational system is inadequate4 #d4 ,the skilled workers must be organized4 #e4 ,careless men endanger the lives of others4 #f4 ,the plans have been carefully laid4 #g4 ,ambitious men often trample on the rights of others4 #h4 ,shall our education be controlled by wealthy men8 #i4 ,we want to live courageously4 #aj4 ,we want to face the future fearlessly4 #aa4 ,we want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor4 #ab4 ,by constant practice we can learn to speak effectively4 #ac4 ,this book will be a valuable addition to your library4 #ad4 ,the number of unemployed men constantly increases4 #ae4 ,the men mastered each step thoroughly as they proceeded4 #af4 ,in order to express one's self eloquently it is necessary to think clearly4 #ag4 ,we must consecrate ourselves completely to the cause of humanity4 #ah4 ,a kind act is its own reward4 #ai4 ,experienced workers can more easily secure positions4 #bj4 ,he spoke thoughtlessly but the people listened eagerly4 #ba4 ,the soldier was rewarded for his heroic deed4 #bb4 ,he is an honorable man and ,i am not surprised at this brave act4 #bc4 ,a prudent man should be chosen to fill that important office4 ,,prepositions #cjc4 ,have you noticed that all of these phrases1 which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs1 begin with a little word like of1 with1 from1 in1 at or by1 which connects the phrase with the word it modifies8 ,we could scarcely express our meaning without these little words4 ,they are connecting words and fill an important function4 ,these words usually come first in the phrase4 ,for this reason1 they are called prepositions1 which means to place before4 ,let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language4 ,suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place4 ,we might say3 ,the boys are hiding in the bushes4 ,the boys are hiding among the bushes4 ,the boys are hiding under the bushes4 ,the boys are hiding behind the bushes4 ,the boys are hiding beyond the bushes4 ,these sentences are all alike except the prepositions in1 among1 under1 behind and beyond4 ,if you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely1 you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the bushes had with the rest of the sentence4 ,the prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word bushes to the rest of the sentence4 ,but this is not all4 ,you can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence4 ,it means quite a different thing to say1 ,the boys are hiding in the bushes1 and to say1 ,the boys are hiding beyond the bushes4 ,so the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas4 ,the noun bushes is used as the object of the preposition1 and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies4 ,you remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object1 but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition1 always use the object form of the pronoun4 ,for example3 ,i bought the book from him4 ,i took the message to them4 ,i found the place for her4 ,in these sentences the pronouns1 him1 them1 and her are used as objects of the prepositions from1 to and for4 ,so we have used the object forms of these pronouns4 #cjd4 ,the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition1 and is used with it to make a phrase1 is the object of the preposition4 ,the preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies4 ,in the sentence above1 ,the boys are hiding in the bushes1 the preposition in shows the relationship between the verb phrase1 are hiding and the object of the preposition1 bushes4 ,the noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers4 ,in the sentences used about the noun bush1 which is the object of the prepositions used1 is modified by the adjective the4 ,other modifiers might also be added1 as for example3 ,the boys are hiding in the tall1 thick bushes4 ,the entire phrase1 in the tall1 thick bushes1 is made up of the preposition in1 its object bushes and the modifiers of bushes1 the1 tall and thick4 #cje4 ,the preposition1 with its object and the modifiers of the object1 forms a phrase which we call a prepositional phrase4 ,these prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs1 so we have our definitions3 ,a preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word4 ,a phrase is a group of words used as a single word4 ,a prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers4 ,an adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective4 ,an adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb4 #cjf4 ,here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions4 ,use each one in a sentence3 above about across after against along around among at before behind below beneath beside between beyond by down for from in into of off on over to toward through up upon under with within without ,,adverbs ,,and ,,prepositions #cjg4 ,many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs4 ,it may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition1 but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble3 ,a preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object1 while an adverb never has an object4 ,so when you find a word1 that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb1 used alone in a sentence without an object1 it is an adverb2 but if it is followed by an object1 then it is a preposition4 ,this brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down1 that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence4 ,the work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies4 ,so whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition4 ,for example3 ,he went about his business4 ,here1 about is a preposition and business is its object4 ,but in the sentence1 ,he is able to be about1 about is used as an adverb4 ,it has no object4 ,he sailed before the mast4 ,here1 before is a preposition introducing the phrase before the mast1 which modifies the verb sailed4 ,but in the sentence1 ,i told you that before1 before is an adverb modifying the verb told4 ,by applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition4 ,exercise #d ,tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences1 are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why3 #a4 ,he came across the street4 #b4 ,he is without work4 #c4 ,come in4 #d4 ,he lives near4 #e4 ,he brought it for me4 #f4 ,i cannot get across4 #g4 ,we will go outside4 #h4 ,this is between you and me4 #i4 ,he can go without4 #aj4 ,stay in the house4 #aa4 ,do not come near me4 #ab4 ,they all went aboard at six o'clock4 #ac4 ,he enlisted in the navy and sailed before the mast4 #ad4 ,i do not know what lies beyond4 #ae4 ,i will soon be through4 #af4 ,the aeroplane flew above the city for hours4 ,,phrase ,,prepositions #cjh4 ,sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition4 ,as1 for example3 ,according to--on account of--by means of1 etc4 #a4 ,he answered according to the rule4 #b4 ,i could not go on account of illness4 #c4 ,he won the election by means of fraud4 #d4 ,the strike was won by help of all the comrades4 #e4 ,you can learn to spell only by dint of memory4 #f4 ,we speak incorrectly by force of habit4 #g4 ,he went to ,new ,york by way of ,chicago4 #h4 ,ferrer died for the sake of his ideals4 #i4 ,in consideration of this payment1 we will send you the set of books4 #aj4 ,germany issued her ultimatum in defiance of the world4 #aa4 ,in view of all the facts1 we are convinced of his innocence4 #ab4 ,he will gladly suffer in place of his comrade4 #ac4 ,in conformity with the information contained in your letter1 ,i will join you on the #ajth4 ,exercise #e ,mark the prepositions in the following quotation4 ,in the first three paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics4 ,determine whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases4 ,underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition4 ,,the ,,sunlight ,,lay ,,across ,,my ,,bed ,in the dark one night ,i lay upon my bed4 ,and in the dark ,i dreamed a dream4 ,i dreamed ,god took my soul to ,hell4 ,and we came where hell opened into a plain1 and a great house stood there4 ,marble pillars upheld the roof1 and white marble steps led up to it4 ,the wind of heaven blew through it4 ,only at the back hung a thick curtain4 ,fair men and women there feasted at long tables4 ,they danced1 and ,i saw the robes of women flutter in the air and heard the laugh of strong men4 ,they feasted with wine2 they drew it from large jars which stood somewhat in the background1 and ,i saw the wine sparkle as they drew it4 ,and ,i said to ,god1 ,i should like to go up and drink4 ,and ,god said1 ,wait4 ,and ,i saw men coming into the banquet house2 they came in from the back and lifted the corner of the curtain at the sides and crept in quickly2 and they let the curtain fall behind them2 they bore great jars they could hardly carry4 ,and the men and women crowded round them1 and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them of the wine to drink2 and ,i saw that the women drank even more greedily than the men4 ,and when others had well drunken they set the jars among the old ones beside the wall1 and took their places at the table4 ,and ,i saw that some of the jars were very old and mildewed and dusty1 but others had still drops of new must on them and shone from the furnace4 ,and ,i said to ,god1 ,what is that8 ,for amid the sounds of the singing1 and over the dancing of feet1 and over the laughing across the winecups1 ,i heard a cry4 ,and ,god said1 ,stand away off4 ,and ,he took me where ,i saw both sides of the curtain4 ,behind the house was a wine-press where the wine was made4 ,i saw the grapes crushed1 and ,i heard them cry4 ,i said1 ,do not they on the other side hear it8 ,god said1 ,the curtain is thick2 they are feasting4 ,and ,i said1 ,but the men who came in last4 ,they saw8 ,god said1 ,they let the curtain fall behind them--and they forgot6 ,i said1 ,how came they by their jars of wine8 ,god said1 ,in the treading of the press these are they who came to the top2 they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from below2 and have gone into the house4 ,and ,i said1 ,and if they had fallen as they climbed--8 ,god said1 ,they had been wine4 ,i stood away off watching in the sunshine1 and ,i shivered4 ,and after a while ,i looked1 and ,i saw the curtain that hung behind the house moving4 ,i said to ,god1 ,is it a wind8 ,god said1 ,a wind4 ,and it seemed to me that against the curtain ,i saw pressed the forms of men and women4 ,and after a while1 the feasters saw it move1 and they whispered one to another4 ,then some rose and gathered the most worn-out cups1 and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other vessels4 ,mothers whispered to their children1 ,do not drink all1 save a little drop when you have drunk4 ,and when they had collected all the dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without lifting it4 ,after a while the curtain left off moving4 ,i said to ,god1 ,how is it so quiet8 ,he said1 ,they have gone away to drink it4 ,i said1 ,they drink it--their own6 ,god said1 ,it comes from this side of the curtain1 and they are very thirsty4 ,and still the feast went on4 ,men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls4 ,some rose1 and threw their arms about each other and danced and sang4 ,they pledged each other in the wine1 and kissed each other's blood-red lips4 ,men drank till they could drink no longer1 and laid their heads upon the table1 sleeping heavily4 ,women who could dance no more leaned back on the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders4 ,little children1 sick with wine1 lay down upon the edge of their mothers' robes4 ,i said1 ,i cannot see more1 ,i am afraid of ,hell4 ,when ,i see men dancing ,i hear the time beaten in with sobs2 and their wine is living6 ,oh1 ,i cannot bear ,hell6 ,god said1 ,where will you go8 ,i said1 ,to the earth from which ,i came2 it was better there4 ,and ,god laughed at me2 and ,i wondered why ,he laughed4 --,olive ,schreiner4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ah ,there are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a preposition with its phrase4 ,we make a great many mistakes in the use of the proper preposition with these words4 ,our spelling lesson this week covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the appropriate preposition to be used with each word4 ,learn to spell these words1 look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction4 ,,monday ,abhorrence1 of2 ,we have an abhorrence of war4 ,abhorrent1 to2 ,war is abhorrent to us4 ,acquaint1 with2 ,i will acquaint you with the facts in the case4 ,you will then be acquainted with the facts4 ,acquit1 of2 ,the man was acquitted of the charge4 ,adequate1 to2 ,our resources are not adequate to the demand4 ,,tuesday ,angry1 with1 at2 ,we are angry with persons and angry at things4 ,astonished1 at or by2 7,never with7 ,i am astonished at you1 or by you1 not with you4 ,confer2 ,we confer with people1 upon or about matters4 ,contrary2 ,a thing is contrary to our ideas1 7not from or than74 ,controversy2 with1 between1 or about1 7not over74 ,i had a controversy with you4 ,there is a controversy between the two about the result4 ,,wednesday ,convicted1 of 7not for74 ,he was convicted of the crime4 ,copy2 ,we copy after people1 from things1 and out of books4 ,deprive1 of1 7not from74 ,we are deprived of an education4 ,desire1 of and for2 ,we may speak of the desire of a man1 meaning man's desire2 but we should always say ,he has a desire for position1 for wealth1 etc4 ,die1 of1 for and from2 ,a person dies of1 not from1 a disease4 ,he dies from the effects of an injury4 ,one person may die with another1 but never with a disease1 for the disease does not die4 ,,thursday ,differ1 from1 among1 about1 concerning1 with2 ,persons or things differ from each other2 that is1 they are dissimilar in appearance4 ,two persons may differ with each other2 that is1 contend or disagree4 ,several persons differ among themselves about or concerning some matter4 ,dissent1 from 7not to74 ,there was a general dissent from that idea4 ,guilty1 of 7not for74 ,he is guilty of the crime4 ,incentive1 to 7not for74 ,it is a great incentive to action4 ,receive1 from1 7not of74 ,received from ,john ,smith1 thirty dollars1 etc4 ,,friday ,infer1 from1 7not by74 ,i infer this from your remarks1 not by your remarks4 ,introduce2 ,a man is introduced to a woman1 a speaker to an audience2 into society or into new surroundings4 ,we introduce a bill in ,congress or a resolution in a committee4 ,involved1 in 7not with74 ,we are involved in difficulties4 ,listen2 ,we listen for the expected news2 we listen to our friends1 not at4 ,married2 ,one person is married to another1 not with another4 ,,saturday ,matter1 with1 7not of74 ,what is the matter with this8 ,opposition1 to 7not against74 ,there is opposition to the motion4 ,part1 to part from1 means to leave4 ,i will part from my friends4 ,to part with means to give up4 ,a fool soon parts with his money4 ,remedy1 for2 ,we have a remedy for the disease4 ,preventive1 against2 ,we have a preventive against disease4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is easy to sit in the sunshine ,and talk to the man in the shade2 ,it is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat1 ,and point out the places to wade4 ,but once we pass into the shadows ,we murmur and fret and frown2 ,at our length from the bank1 we shout for a plank1 ,or throw up our hands and go down4 ,it is easy to sit in a carriage ,and counsel the man on foot2 ,but get down and walk and you'll change your talk1 ,as you feel the peg in your boot4 ,it is easy to tell the toiler ,how best he can carry his pack2 ,but not one can rate a burden's weight ,until it has been on his back4 ,the up-curled mouth of pleasure ,can preach of sorrow's worth2 ,but give it a sip1 and a wryer lip1 ,was never made on earth4 --,ella ,wheeler ,wilcox4 ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ai ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition4 ,the preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our vocabulary4 ,the child does not use the preposition when it first begins to talk4 ,it uses the names of things2 words of action2 words that describe objects and actions4 ,it does not begin to use prepositions until it begins to relate ideas4 ,the relation of ideas means that we are thinking2 combining ideas into thoughts4 ,then we begin to need prepositions1 which are words of relation1 connecting words1 expressing the relationship between ideas4 ,the measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of our understanding of the world about us1 of the relationship existing between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it all4 ,so words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own lives and our own experiences4 ,when you look up a word in the dictionary1 do not study the word alone2 study also the thing for which it stands4 ,a person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by sheer feat of memory2 but what good would it do unless each word could be related to practical experience8 ,it is only in this way that words become alive to us4 ,we must have an idea1 a concept and knowledge of the thing for which the word stands4 ,so let us use our dictionary in this way4 ,do not be satisfied when you have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word and understand somewhat of its meaning4 ,do not be satisfied until it has become a live word to you4 ,have a clear image and understanding of just what each word stands for4 ,use the words in sentences of your own4 ,use them in your conversation4 ,make them a part of your every-day life4 ,do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding their meaning4 ,study the poem ,abou ,ben ,adhem in this week's lesson4 ,after you have read it over a number of times1 close the book and rewrite the poem in prose in your own language4 ,then compare your version with the poem4 ,note where you have used different expressions and decide which is the better1 the words used in the poem or your own words4 ,rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of this poem4 ,exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop the power of expression4 ,no power can come in any department of life without effort having been expended in its acquisition4 ,our great writers have been careful students4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson says that he has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he needed to express precisely the idea in mind4 ,stevenson is a master of the ,english and this power came to him by this sort of studious and earnest work4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,an ,,important ,,word #cji4 ,things are not always to be judged by their size4 ,sometimes the most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance4 ,a great machine is before you4 ,you see its giant wheels1 its huge levers4 ,these may seem to be the most important parts of the machine1 but here and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts4 ,these bind the giant parts together4 ,without these connecting links1 the great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together4 ,let a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism1 and the great wheels stop1 the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill4 ,no work is possible until this little bolt has been replaced4 ,so in our sentence building1 the preposition is the bolt that joins words together4 ,the importance of the preposition in a language increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly and express itself more accurately4 ,we found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change the entire meaning of the sentence4 ,a man's life may depend upon the use of a certain preposition4 ,you may swear his life away by bearing testimony to the fact whether you saw him within the house1 or without the house2 or before dark1 or after dark4 #caj4 ,the preposition is an important word in the sentence4 ,we can use it to serve our purpose in various ways4 ,we have found1 for instance1 that we can use it3 ,first1 to change an adjective into an adjective phrase4 ,as1 for example3 ,the fearless man demands his rights4 ,the man without fear demands his rights4 ,second1 to change an adverb into an adverb phrase4 ,as1 for example3 ,we want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor4 ,we want to possess in peace the fruits of our labor4 ,third1 to express a meaning which we can express in no other way2 as1 for example1 ,they are fighting for their country4 ,there is no single word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the phrase1 for their country4 #caa4 ,so the preposition has given us a new means of expression1 the prepositional phrase4 ,we can1 by its help1 use a phrase in place of an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun1 and in place of an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective4 ,and we can also use the prepositional phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single adjective or adverb4 ,if ,i want to tell you that ,i see a bird in yonder tree1 such an expression would be impossible without that little preposition in4 ,by the use of various prepositions1 ,i can express to you the relationship between the bird and the tree4 ,i can tell you whether it is under the tree1 or in the tree1 or over the tree1 or flying around the tree1 or near the tree4 ,by the use of the various prepositions1 ,i can express accurately the relationship that exists between the bird and the tree4 ,exercise #a ,look up the list of prepositions in ,section #cjf1 on page #ahd4 ,use the following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may be expressed between these words4 ,for example1 take the two words1 man and house4 ,you may say3 ,the man went around the house4 ,the man went about the house4 ,the man went over the house4 ,the man went under the house4 ,the man went without the house4 ,the man went into the house4 ,the man went by the house4 ,the man went beyond the house4 ,the man went to the house4 enemy city soldiers cannon man machine woman factory children school government people ,a ,,governing ,,word #cab4 ,the preposition shows the relation between two words4 ,in this way it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word4 ,for example1 in the sentence given above1 ,i see the bird in the tree1 the preposition in shows the relationship between bird and tree1 and makes of tree a modifying word4 ,it expresses a different meaning than if we used the word tree as an adjective4 ,for we do not mean that we see a tree bird1 but a bird in a tree4 ,so with the help of the preposition in1 we have used tree as a modifying word4 ,but the preposition in also governs the form of the word that follows it4 ,since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or object1 this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns4 ,but pronouns have different forms for the subject and object1 so when we use a pronoun with a preposition1 we must use the object form4 ,there are seven object forms of the personal pronouns1 and after a preposition1 always use one of these object forms4 ,he gave it to me4 ,give it to him4 ,give it to her4 ,add this to it4 ,bring it to us4 ,i will give it to you4 ,he gave it to them4 #cac4 ,be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following a preposition4 ,observe this also in the use of the relative and interrogative pronoun who4 ,the object form is whom4 ,for example3 ,to whom will you go8 ,this is the man to whom ,i wrote4 ,for whom are you looking8 ,where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice8 ,where to ,put the ,preposition #cad4 ,the preposition generally precedes its object4 ,this is the reason it was given its name1 preposition1 meaning to place before4 ,sometimes1 however1 the preposition is separated from its object4 ,this is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun4 ,with these pronouns1 the preposition is often thrown to the end of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,this is the book about which ,i was speaking2 or1 ,this is the book which ,i was speaking about4 ,to whom shall ,i give this letter2 or1 ,who shall ,i give this letter to8 ,the sentence1 ,to whom shall ,i give this letter1 is grammatically correct2 but in ordinary usage we use the form1 ,who shall ,i give this letter to8 ,while the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a preposition--so that the use of to whom is grammatically correct--in common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so far away from the preposition which governs it4 ,so we find this use common4 ,for example1 instead of saying1 ,for whom is this letter8 we say1 ,who is this letter for8 #cae4 ,in poetry also1 we often find the object coming before the preposition4 ,for example3 ,the interlacing boughs between ,shadows dark and sunlight sheen1 ,alternate1 come and go4 ,boughs is here the object of the preposition between1 but in this poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition4 ,note also in the following3 ,the unseen mermaid's pearly song1 ,comes bubbling up the weeds among4 ,forever panting and forever young1 ,all breathing human passion far beyond4 #caf4 ,after an interrogative adjective1 the preposition is also often thrown to the end of the sentence4 ,as1 for example3 ,what men are the people talking about8 ,which person did you write to8 ,with these few exceptions1 however1 the preposition usually precedes its object1 as3 ,we were astonished at the news4 ,he arose from his sleep4 ,,possessive ,,phrases #cag4 ,review ,lesson #d1 in which we studied the possessive use of nouns4 ,you will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use of the apostrophe and s4 ,but instead of using the possessive forms of the name of inanimate things2 that is1 things without life1 we generally denote possession by the use of a phrase4 ,thus we would say1 ,the arm of the chair1 instead of1 ,the chair's arm2 or1 ,the roof of the house1 instead of1 ,the house's roof4 #cah4 ,we also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form would give an awkward construction4 ,as1 for example3 ,jesus' sayings4 ,so many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so1 we say instead1 ,the sayings of ,jesus4 #cai4 ,we use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form4 ,in many words1 there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form4 ,we can readily tell the meaning when it is written1 because the place of the apostrophe indicates the meaning1 but when it is spoken the sound is exactly the same4 ,as1 for example3 ,the lady's hats4 ,the ladies' hats4 ,written out in this way1 you know that in the first instance ,i am speaking of the hats belonging to one lady1 but in the second instance of the hats belonging to two or more ladies4 ,but when it is spoken1 you can not tell whether ,i mean one lady or a number of ladies4 ,so we use a phrase and say1 ,the hats of the lady2 or1 ,the hats of the ladies4 ,then the meaning is entirely clear4 #cbj4 ,sometimes we want to use two possessives together1 and in this case it is better to change one of them into a phrase2 for example1 ,this is my comrade's father's book4 ,this is an awkward construction4 ,say instead1 ,this is the book belonging to my comrade's father4 #cba4 ,do not overlook the fact1 however1 that the phrase beginning with of does not always mean possession4 ,consider the following examples and see if there is not a difference in meaning3 ,the history of ,wilson is interesting4 ,wilson's history is interesting4 ,in the first instance1 ,i mean the history of ,wilson's life is interesting2 in the second instance ,i mean the history belongs to or written by ,wilson is interesting4 ,so there is quite a difference in the meaning4 ,the phrase of ,wilson used in the first example does not indicate possession4 ,note the difference in meaning between the following sentences3 ,the picture of ,millet is good4 ,millet's picture is good4 ,the statue of ,rodin stands in the park4 ,rodin's statue stands in the park4 ,would you say3 ,the invention of gunpowder1 or gunpowder's invention8 ,the destruction of ,louvain1 or ,louvain's destruction8 ,the siege of ,antwerp1 or ,antwerp's siege8 ,the boat's keel1 or the keel of the boat8 ,,common ,,errors #cbb4 ,prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant words1 yet we make a great many mistakes in their use4 ,it is these little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid4 ,notice carefully in your own speech this week1 and in the conversation which you overhear1 the use of the prepositions4 ,notice especially the following cautions3 #a4 ,do not use prepositions needlessly4 ,we often throw a preposition in at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence1 and which we should not use again4 ,the little preposition at is most frequently used in this way4 ,see how many times this week you hear people use such phrases as3 ,at which store do you trade at8 ,at what corner did you stop at8 ,the last at is entirely unnecessary4 ,it has already been used once and that is enough4 ,we also use at and to at the close of sentences beginning with an interrogative adverb1 where they are not necessary4 ,for example1 we say3 ,where did you go to8 ,where did you stop at8 ,where am ,i at8 ,the correct form of these sentences is3 ,where did you go8 ,where did you stop8 ,where am ,i8 ,do not use at and to in this way1 they are entirely superfluous and give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence4 ,do not close a sentence with a preposition in this way4 #b4 ,do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs4 ,for example1 we often say3 ,the idea is no use to me4 ,we should say1 ,the idea is of no use to me4 ,i was home yesterday4 ,we should say1 ,i was at home yesterday4 #c4 ,do not use the preposition of with a verb that requires an object4 ,the noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition4 ,as1 for example3 ,he does not remember of seeing you4 ,do you approve of his action8 ,remember and approve are both incomplete verbs requiring an object1 and the nouns seeing and action are the objects of the incomplete verbs remember and approve4 ,the preposition of is entirely superfluous4 ,the sentences should read3 ,he does not remember seeing you4 ,do you approve his action8 ,other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition of in this way are the verbs accept and recollect4 ,as1 for example3 ,will you accept of this kindness8 ,will you try to recollect of it8 ,these sentences should read3 ,will you accept this kindness8 ,will you try to recollect it8 ,the ,correct ,preposition #cbc4 ,we make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions4 ,for example1 the preposition between refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two1 thus3 ,we settled the quarrel between the two men4 ,this is correct1 but it is incorrect to say3 ,we settled the quarrel between the members of the ,union4 ,we cannot settle a quarrel between a dozen people4 ,when there are more than two1 use the word among4 ,we can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel among a dozen people4 ,between refers to two objects1 among refers to more than two4 ,for example3 ,divide the work between the two men4 ,divide the work among twenty men4 #cbd4 ,do not confuse the use of in and into4 ,when entrance is denoted use into4 ,as1 for example3 ,he came into the room4 ,he got into the auto4 ,often the use of in will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence4 ,for example3 ,he ran in the water4 ,he ran into the water4 ,the man acted as our guide in the city4 ,the man acted as our guide into the city4 ,the horse ran in the pasture4 ,the horse ran into the pasture4 #cbe4 ,do not use below and under to mean less or fewer in regard to an amount or number4 ,below and under have reference to place only4 ,it is correct to say3 ,he went under the bridge4 ,he came out below the falls4 ,but it is incorrect to say3 ,the price is below cost4 ,there were under fifty present4 ,say instead3 ,the price is less than cost4 ,there were fewer than fifty present4 #cbf4 ,do not misuse over and above4 ,these prepositions have reference only to place4 ,they are incorrectly used to mean more than or greater than4 ,it is correct to say3 ,the boat anchored above the landing4 ,he flew over the city4 ,it is incorrect to say3 ,he bought above a hundred acres4 ,he lives over a mile from here4 ,these sentences should be3 ,he bought more than a hundred acres4 ,he lives more than a mile from here4 ,,the ,,preposition ,,with ,,verbs #cbg4 ,in our first lesson on prepositions1 we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs4 ,there are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb4 ,foreigners especially who are learning the ,english language have great difficulty with the prepositions4 ,here are a few of these common words3 ,adapt4 ,with adapt we can use either the preposition to or for4 ,for example2 we adapt ourselves to circumstances1 that is1 we accommodate or conform ourselves2 but a thing can be adapted for a certain purpose4 ,agree4 ,we can use the prepositions with and to with the verb agree1 but with different meanings4 ,for example1 we say1 ,we agree with you about a certain matter2 and1 ,we agree to the proposal which you make4 ,ask4 ,we ask a favor of a person4 ,we ask a friend for a favor4 ,we ask about some one or thing that we wish to hear about4 ,charge4 ,there are several prepositions we can use with the verb charge4 ,your grocer charges you for the things that you buy4 ,if you run an account you are charged with a certain amount4 ,these things are charged to you2 but in war the enemy charges upon you4 ,compare4 ,one thing is compared with another in quality1 but it is compared to another when we are using the comparison for an illustration4 ,complain4 ,we make complaint to the manager of the things we do not like4 ,comply4 ,we comply with the request of another1 but he does a thing in compliance with that request4 ,do not use the preposition to with compliance4 ,correspond4 ,with correspond1 we use either the preposition with or to4 ,for example1 ,i may correspond with you1 meaning that ,i communicate with you by letter1 but one thing corresponds to another1 meaning that it is like the other4 ,disgust4 ,we are disgusted with our friends sometimes at the things which they do4 ,we are disgusted with people and at things4 ,reconcile4 ,with reconcile1 we use either the preposition with or to4 ,for example1 ,i may become reconciled with you2 that is1 ,i am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement4 ,but we reconcile one thing to another2 that is1 we harmonize one thing with another4 ,taste4 ,we have a taste for music1 art or literature1 but we enjoy the taste of good things to eat4 ,when taste refers to one of the five senses1 use the preposition of1 but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment1 use the preposition for4 ,exercise #b ,mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem3 ,,the ,,angel ,,of ,,discontent ,when the world was formed and the morning stars ,upon their paths were sent1 ,the loftiest-browed of the angels was made ,the ,angel of ,discontent4 ,and he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills1 ,where the crested serpents sting1 ,and the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls1 ,and he told of better things4 ,and he led them forth to the towered town1 ,and forth to the fields of corn1 ,and told of the ampler work ahead1 ,for which his race was born4 ,and he whispers to men of those hills he sees ,in the blush of the misty west2 ,and they look to the heights of his lifted eye-- ,and they hate the name of rest4 ,in the light of that eye does the slave behold ,a hope that is high and brave2 ,and the madness of war comes into his blood-- ,for he knows himself a slave4 ,the serfs of wrong by the light of that eye ,march with victorious songs2 ,for the strength of the right comes into their hearts ,when they behold their wrongs4 ',tis by the light of that lifted eye ,that error's mists are rent2 ,a guide to the table-lands of ,truth ,is the ,angel of ,discontent4 ,and still he looks with his lifted eye1 ,and his glance is far away1 ,on a light that shines on the glimmering hills ,of a diviner day4 --,sam ,walter ,foss4 ,exercise #c ,mark all of the prepositions in the following poem4 ,write out the entire phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition4 ,for example1 in the phrase in the second line2 from a rich dream1 dream is the object of the preposition from2 and a and rich modify the noun dream4 ,abou ,ben ,adhem 7may his tribe increase7 ,awoke one night from a rich dream of peace1 ,and saw1 within the moonlight of his room1 ,making it rich1 and like a lily in bloom1 ,an angel1 writing in a book of gold4 ,exceeding peace had made ,ben ,adhem bold1 ,and to the ,presence in the room he said1 ,what writest thou8 ,the ,vision raised its head1 ,and1 with a look made of all sweet accord1 ,answered1 ,the names of those who love the ,lord4 ,and is mine one8 said ,abou4 ,nay1 not so1 ,replied the ,angel4 ,abou spoke1 more low1 ,but cheerily still2 and said1 ,i pray thee1 then1 ,write me as one that loves his fellow-men4 ,the angel wrote and vanished4 ,the next night ,it came again1 with a great wakening light1 ,and showed the names whom love of ,god had blessed1 ,and lo6 ,ben ,adhem's name led all the rest4 --,leigh ,hunt4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ai ,there are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions4 #a4 ,a few prepositions are formed from verbs4 ,these are really participle prepositions1 for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions4 ,these are such as concerning1 excepting1 regarding1 respecting1 during1 according1 etc4 ,nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase1 as for example1 we can either say2 ,i wrote regarding these facts1 or ,i wrote you in regard to these facts4 ,i mentioned them all excepting the last1 or1 ,i mentioned them all with the exception of the last4 ,i have gone according to the directions1 or1 ,i have gone in accord with the directions4 #b4 ,derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing a to other parts of speech1 as along1 around1 abroad1 etc4 ,strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix a is really from the preposition on4 #c4 ,we have also compound prepositions formed3 ,by uniting two prepositions1 as into1 within1 throughout1 etc4 ,by uniting a preposition and some other part of speech1 usually a noun or an adjective1 as beside1 below and beyond4 ,we also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb4 ,some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately2 as for example1 the compound verb withstand1 derived from the preposition with and the verb stand1 has almost the opposite meaning from stand with4 ,our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition4 ,look up the meaning in the dictionary4 ,use them in sentences in the compound form2 then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning4 ,monday ,upset ,withdraw ,outrun ,overlook ,understand ,tuesday ,oversee ,undergo ,outnumber ,withhold ,overcome ,wednesday ,overflow ,undertake ,overreach ,overthrow ,outshine ,thursday ,overhear ,withstand ,overgrow ,overhaul ,overrun ,friday ,concerning ,regarding ,respecting ,according ,excepting ,saturday ,against ,throughout ,around ,between ,beneath ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bj ,dear ,comrade3 ,we are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech4 ,we have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech1 but it has been time well spent4 ,we cannot use good ,english and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building4 ,as soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech1 we will spend several weeks in sentence building4 ,this will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words4 ,the ,english language is one of the most interesting of all to study4 ,it is the most truly international of all languages1 for the ,english language contains words from almost every language in the world4 ,did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things8 ,we can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else4 ,nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians4 ,germany1 perhaps1 possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country1 and in ,germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the ,german language4 ,they have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life4 ,they insist that the people use these words1 instead of foreign importations4 ,the ,german ,state takes great pride in the ,german language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today4 ,the rulers of ,germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the ,german language4 ,in conquered ,poland1 only ,german is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce4 ,the patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race4 ,in ,english1 however1 we have the beginnings of an international speech4 ,our civilization is derived from various sources4 ,here in ,america we are truly the melting-pot of the nations1 and this is mirrored forth in our language which is1 in a way1 a melting-pot also1 in which have been thrown words from every tongue4 ,those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language1 but to those of us to whom ,internationalism is not an empty word1 but a living ideal1 an international language becomes also part of the ideal4 ,there is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the ,english language4 ,pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson4 ,these are quotations from the very best literature4 ,if there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author1 write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,conjunctions #cbh4 ,you remember that in ,lesson #c1 where we studied the parts of speech1 we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition1--the conjunction4 ,a preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other4 ,the conjunction plays a different part as a connective1 for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses4 ,note the following sentences3 ,shall we be men or machines8 ,we must struggle for ourselves and for our children4 ,we pray for peace but furnish ammunition for war4 ,the use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition1 for1 by its use1 where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject1 we can combine it all into one sentence4 ,you will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us4 ,if we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition4 ,if we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things1 without conjunctions1 we would have each time to repeat the entire statement4 ,try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression4 ,without the use of the conjunction1 you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again1 and your description would be a jerky1 tiresome1 unsatisfactory piece of writing4 ,exercise #a ,rewrite the following sentences1 writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions3 #a4 ,the birds are singing and spring is here4 #b4 ,we talk of peace1 but war still rages4 #c4 ,the unemployed cannot find work and they are dying of hunger4 #d4 ,we believed in war for defense and every nation is now fighting for defense4 #e4 ,we believe in education and we are struggling for universal education4 #f4 ,the old order is fast passing and the new order is rapidly appearing4 #g4 ,profit is the keynote of the present1 but service shall be the keynote of the future4 #h4 ,all children should be in school1 but thousands must earn their bread4 ,note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined2 and each of these simple sentences is called a clause1 and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate4 ,exercise #b ,rewrite the following simple sentences1 using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate4 ,rewrite these into a paragraph1 making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can3 ,one hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education4 ,as a result we have our public schools of today4 ,our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression4 ,our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression4 ,our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy4 ,our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal4 ,our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions4 ,there has been a subtle subversion of the ideal4 ,the public school system has been made to serve the master class4 ,we have spent millions to make the ideal a reality4 ,have we realized the ideal8 ,is there universal education8 ,is there education for every child beneath the flag8 ,the grounds of our public schools have cost millions4 ,the buildings have cost millions4 ,the courses of study are many4 ,they are varied4 ,they are elaborate4 ,but the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast4 ,the children of the workers do not enjoy this feast4 ,,classes ,,of ,,conjunctions #cbi4 ,conjunctions are divided into classes1 as are other parts of speech1 according to the work which they do4 ,notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence4 ,we are united and we shall win4 ,when we are united1 we shall win4 ,in the first sentence the conjunction and connects the two clauses1 we are united and we shall win4 ,they are both independent clauses1 neither is dependent upon the other1 and both are of equal importance4 ,but by the use of the conjunction when1 instead of the conjunction and1 we have changed the meaning of the sentence4 ,there is quite a difference in saying1 ,we are united and we shall win1 and ,when we are united we shall win4 ,by connecting these two statements with the conjunction when1 we have made of the clause1 we are united1 a dependent clause1 it modifies the verb phrase shall win4 ,it tells when we shall win1 just as much as if we had used an adverb to modify the verb phrase1 and had said1 ,we shall win tomorrow1 instead of1 ,we shall win when we are united4 ,so in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions1 the conjunction and1 which connects clauses of equal rank or order1 and the conjunction when1 which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause4 #ccj4 ,so the conjunctions like and are called co-ordinate conjunctions4 ,co-ordinate means literally of equal rank or order4 ,conjunctions like when are called sub-ordinate conjunctions4 ,sub-ordinate means of inferior rank or order4 ,so we have our definitions3 #cca4 ,a conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses4 ,a co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words1 phrases or clauses having the same rank4 ,a subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause4 ,,co-,,ordinate ,,conjunctions #ccb4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions connect words1 phrases or clauses of equal rank4 ,the most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are2 and1 but1 or1 nor4 #ccc4 ,but there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs1 which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions4 ,these words are not always conjunctions1 for they are sometimes used as adverbs4 ,when they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning2 but still they are conjunctions1 for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank4 ,thus3 ,i am not in favor of the motion1 nevertheless ,i shall vote for it4 ,the deputies voted for the war appropriation1 notwithstanding they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda4 ,i did not believe in the change1 however ,i did not oppose it4 #ccd4 ,the co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also1 are2 therefore1 hence1 still1 besides1 consequently1 yet1 likewise1 moreover1 else1 than1 also1 accordingly1 nevertheless1 notwithstanding1 otherwise1 however1 so and furthermore4 ,these conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements4 #cce4 ,we often use these conjunctions1 and also1 and1 but1 or1 and nor1 at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before4 ,you will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph1 thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it4 #ccf4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank4 ,,nouns ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the subject of a verb4 ,as3 ,death and disaster follow in the wake of war4 ,in this sentence1 death is just as much the subject of the verb follow as is the word disaster1 but no more so4 ,you can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence4 ,they are both of equal importance1 both of the same rank in the sentence1 and neither depends upon the other4 ,these two words taken together form the subject of the sentence4 ,this is called the compound subject1 for it consists of two simple subjects4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a verb4 ,he studies history and science4 ,in this sentence the words history and science are both used as objects of the verb studies4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a preposition4 ,he called for the letters and the papers4 ,in this sentence letters and papers are both objects of the preposition for1 connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and4 ,exercise #c ,note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions4 ,draw a line under compound subjects4 #a4 ,john and ,henry are going home4 #b4 ,music and painting are fine arts4 #c4 ,the grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions4 #d4 ,the time calls for brave men and women4 #e4 ,we struggle for truth and freedom4 #f4 ,will you study ,english or arithmetic8 #g4 ,education and organization are necessary for success4 #h4 ,we must learn the truth about production and distribution4 #i4 ,we demand justice and liberty4 #aj4 ,the great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class4 ,,pronouns #ccg4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns4 ,these are used in the same way as nouns1--either as subject or object4 ,nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object4 ,pronouns1 however1 have different forms when used as the object4 ,here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns4 ,when the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction2--if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form2--if they are used as objects1 both must be used in the object form4 ,for example1 it is incorrect to say1 ,he told the story to her and ,i4 ,here her is properly used in the object form1 for it is the object of the preposition to2 the pronoun ,i connected with her by the use of the conjunction and is also the object of the preposition to1 and the object form should be used4 ,you would not say1 ,he told the story to ,i4 ,the sentence should read1 ,he told the story to her and me4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the subject of a sentence1 as for example3 ,she and ,i arrived today4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the verb1 as for example3 ,did you call her or me8 ,co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the preposition1 as3 ,he gave that to you and me4 ,exercise #d ,study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used4 #a4 ,he and ,i are old friends4 #b4 ,did you ask him or me8 #c4 ,they promised him and ,i that they would come4 #d4 ,find the place for she and me4 #e4 ,me and him will get it for you and she4 #f4 ,she and ,i will go with you4 #g4 ,you and ,i must decide matters for ourselves4 #h4 ,you will find him and her to be loyal comrades4 ,,verbs #cch4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs4 ,verbs connected in this way have the same subject2 and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs1 we save repeating the subject4 ,he reads and studies constantly4 ,in this sentence reads and studies are words of the same kind and of the same rank2 either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence4 ,they are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction and4 ,they have a single subject1 the pronoun he4 ,this is called a compound predicate4 ,in the sentence1 ,he reads constantly1 we have a simple predicate1 the single verb reads2 but in the sentence1 ,he reads and studies constantly1 we have a compound predicate1 compound of the two verbs reads and studies4 ,a sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate4 ,as1 for example3 ,john and ,james read and study constantly4 ,in this sentence ,john and ,james is the compound subject of both the verbs1 read and study4 ,so we have a compound subject and a compound predicate4 ,exercise #e ,notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions4 ,draw lines under each compound predicate4 #a4 ,the days come and go in a ceaseless round4 #b4 ,the brave man dreams and dares to live the dream4 #c4 ,the coward dreams but dares not live the dream4 #d4 ,we produce splendidly but distribute miserably4 #e4 ,the bought press twists and distorts the facts4 #f4 ,only a traitor aids or supports the enemy4 #g4 ,we agitate and educate for the cause of liberty4 ,,adjectives #cci4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives4 ,in this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition4 ,when several adjectives are used to modify the same word1 the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives4 ,as1 for example3 ,a simple1 clear and concise course has been prepared4 ,exercise #f ,in the following sentences1 underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions4 #a4 ,the plains of ,france are covered with the dead and dying soldiers4 #b4 ,education should be both universal and free4 #c4 ,they are faithful and loyal comrades4 #d4 ,this was only our just and legal right4 #e4 ,old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar4 #f4 ,the service of humanity is a sweet and noble task4 #g4 ,we must be brave and true4 #h4 ,he lived a noble and courageous life4 #i4 ,all was old and cold and mournful4 #aj4 ,most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited4 ,,adverbs #cdj4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs4 ,this gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb4 ,for example3 ,he spoke fluently and eloquently4 ,exercise #g ,in the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions3 #a4 ,man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties4 #b4 ,she is wonderfully and gloriously brave4 #c4 ,he speaks eloquently and impressively1 but very slowly4 #d4 ,nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children4 #e4 ,advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season4 #f4 ,we must resist injustice bravely and courageously4 #g4 ,he feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class4 #h4 ,he writes easily and rapidly4 #i4 ,the words1 calmly and coolly spoken1 were instantly opposed4 #aj4 ,he reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably4 #aa4 ,he was gently but unwaveringly firm4 #ab4 ,the revolution comes slowly but surely4 ,,phrases #cda4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are used1 not only to connect words1 but also to connect phrases4 ,verb ,phrases #cdb4 ,verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions4 ,for example3 ,the ,people's ,college is owned and controlled by the working class4 ,we have made and are making a fierce struggle for a free press4 ,in this last sentence the two verb phrases1 have made and are making are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and4 ,often in using verb phrases1 we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases4 ,when this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction4 ,as1 for example3 ,the ,people's ,college is owned and controlled by the working class4 ,in this sentence the helping verb is belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence4 ,in the second phrase1 only the past participle controlled is used4 ,it is understood that we mean1 ,the ,people's ,college is owned and is controlled by the working class4 ,exercise #h ,note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases4 ,supply the helping verb where it is omitted4 #a4 ,our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas4 #b4 ,we have written but have received no answer4 #c4 ,will you come or stay8 #d4 ,man must struggle or remain in slavery4 #e4 ,the workers are organizing and demanding their rights4 #f4 ,we must arouse and educate our comrades4 #g4 ,we have sought but have not found4 ,prepositional ,phrases #cdc4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases4 ,these phrases may be used as adjective phrases4 ,for example3 ,the books in the book case and on the table belong to me4 ,these phrases may be used as adverb phrases4 ,for example3 ,he works with speed and with ease4 ,exercise #i ,note in the following sentences1 the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions4 ,mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases4 #a4 ,education is the road out of ignorance and into the light4 #b4 ,the army charged over the plain and up the hill4 #c4 ,the first men lived in groups and in clans4 #d4 ,democracy means government of the people and by the people4 #e4 ,shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism4 #f4 ,they are not fighting for their country but for their king4 #g4 ,human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts4 #h4 ,the problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution4 #i4 ,they are deceived by their leaders and by their press4 #aj4 ,you can pay either by the week or by the month4 #aa4 ,our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority4 ,infinitives and ,participles #cdd4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles4 ,exercise #aj ,in the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions4 #a4 ,those words will inspire us to dream and to dare4 #b4 ,we shall learn to produce and to distribute4 #c4 ,to be or not to be1 that is the question4 #d4 ,puffing and panting1 the great engine pulled up to the station4 #e4 ,a cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own4 #f4 ,the warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses4 #g4 ,singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children4 #h4 ,the exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics4 ,,clauses #cde4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank4 ,for example3 ,the floods came and the winds blew4 ,each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself1 but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction1 and4 ,clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate1 but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence4 ,for example3 ,the rain and snow fell1 and the wind blew a mighty gale4 ,here the first clause in the compound sentence1 the rain and snow fell1 contains a compound subject1 rain and snow4 ,the boys are running and shouting1 and the girls are gathering flowers4 ,here the first clause has a compound predicate1 are running and shouting4 ,the second and connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence4 ,,correlatives #cdf4 ,certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs1 such as both1 and2 either1 or2 neither1 nor2 whether1 or4 ,these pairs are called correlatives4 ,the first word in the pair1 as1 both1 either1 neither1 or whether1 is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting4 ,these are used in such sentences as3 ,i have both seen and heard him4 ,they will join us either in ,april or in ,may4 ,labor has received neither liberty nor justice4 ,whether to go forward or to retreat was the problem4 ,note that nor is always the proper correlative to use with neither and also with the negatives not and never when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes4 ,for example3 ,there are thousands in this country who can neither read nor write4 ,neither you nor ,i can foretell the future4 ,he will not write nor should you4 ,capital punishment is nothing more nor less than legalized murder4 ,we shall never lower our colors nor retreat4 ,or is always used with the correlative either4 ,for example3 ,we will either come or write you4 ,either he was mistaken or he deliberately lied4 ,exercise #aa ,note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions and1 but1 or and nor1 in the following quotation4 ,mark especially the use of and as an introductory conjunction1 introducing a new sentence1 but connecting it with that which has gone before4 ,in my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance4 ,liberty is born of intelligence4 ,only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind4 ,men began to inquire1 ,by what right does a crowned robber make me work for him8 ,the man who asked this question was called a traitor4 ,they said then1 and they say now1 that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free4 ,i deny it4 ,out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail4 ,in the intellectual air1 there is space enough for every wing4 ,and the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave1 and does not do his duty to his fellow men4 ,for one1 ,i expect to do my own thinking4 ,and ,i will take my oath this minute that ,i will express what thoughts ,i have1 honestly and sincerely4 ,i am the slave of no man and of no organization4 ,i stand under the blue sky and the stars1 under the infinite flag of nature1 the peer of every human being4 ,all ,i claim1 all ,i plead is simple liberty of thought4 ,that is all4 ,i do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth4 ,i do not claim that ,i have floated level with the heights of thought1 nor that ,i have descended to the depths of things2 ,i simply claim that what ideas ,i have1 ,i have a right to express1 and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber4 ,every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot4 ,i do not want it4 ,free labor will give us wealth1 and has given us wealth1 and why8 ,because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand4 ,that is why4 ,and when a man works for his wife and children1 the problem of liberty is1 how to do the most work in the shortest space of time2 but the problem of slavery is1 how to do the least work in the longest space of time4 ,slavery is poverty2 liberty is wealth4 ,it is the same in thought4 ,free thought will give us truth2 and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves1 exactly4 ,free thought will give us wealth4 ,there has not been a generation of free thought yet4 ,it will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world4 ,i don't know what the future may bring forth2 ,i don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future2 ,i don't know what garments may be woven1 with the years to come2 but ,i do know1 coming from the infinite sea of the future1 there will never touch this bank and shoal of time a greater blessing nor a grander glory1 than liberty for man1 woman and child4 ,oh1 liberty6 ,float not forever in the far horizon6 ,remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist4 ,but come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever4--,ingersoll4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bj ,we found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words4 ,we also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words4 ,derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways3 #a4 ,by adding suffixes to adjectives1 chiefly the suffix ly1 as for example2 chiefly1 truly1 really1 lately1 etc4 #b4 ,by changing ble to bly1 as in ably1 nobly1 etc4 #c4 ,by adding the suffix ward1 as in forward1 upward1 skyward1 downward1 homeward1 etc4 #d4 ,we have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix a to adjectives and nouns1 as ahead1 afoot1 afresh1 also by adding the prefix be1 as in besides1 beyond4 ,we often misspell a number of adverbs by adding s where it does not rightfully belong2 as1 anywheres1 everywheres1 backwards1 forwards1 towards1 upwards1 downwards1 afterwards1 homewards1 etc4 ,all of these words should be written without the s4 ,we also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech1 such as sometime1 henceforth1 forever1 overheard1 outside1 etc4 ,in the lesson for ,monday1 ,tuesday and ,wednesday1 adjectives are given having opposite meanings4 ,make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix ly4 ,thursday's and ,friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in ly4 ,look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs4 ,saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs4 ,monday ,haughty--,humble ,wise--,ignorant ,careful--,careless ,firm--,wavering ,tuesday ,honest--,deceitful ,fearful--,fearless ,punctual--,tardy ,identical--,different ,wednesday ,thoughtful--,thoughtless ,rich--,poor ,attentive--,inattentive ,industrious--,lazy ,thursday ,quickly ,lovely ,clearly ,cleanly ,friday ,homely ,truly ,courtly ,nearly ,saturday ,otherwise ,herewith ,sometime ,always ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #ba ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions4 ,we have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language1 the conjunction naturally comes last4 ,the need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed4 ,you will notice that the connective words1 such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use4 ,the child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact1 then it learns the words that express what these things do4 ,but it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words4 ,these become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things4 ,the use of conjunctions1 however1 can be greatly overdone4 ,the long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand4 ,if you will note the authors which you enjoy the most1 it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences4 ,we have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages4 ,you wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath4 ,it is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected4 ,but no mind can grasp many ideas at one time4 ,break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly4 ,use conjunctions rather sparingly1 especially these subordinate conjunctions4 ,do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence4 ,notice in your reading for this week those who use the short1 crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences4 ,notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read4 ,take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer4 ,this will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression4 ,especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day4 ,as the work of the world is conducted today1 the workers have too little time for reading4 ,they are apt1 after a hard day's work1 to be too tired to follow an author through long1 winding1 involved passages4 ,in the spoken word1 this is also true4 ,you will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences4 ,break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion4 ,conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short1 jerky sentences1 but we must avoid using them too frequently4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,subordinate ,,conjunctions #cdg4 ,we have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words1 phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent2 that is1 they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word1 phrase or clause4 ,subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence4 ,these inferior clauses are dependent clauses4 ,subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases2 but only dependent clauses1 to the rest of the sentence4 ,note the following sentences3 ,he came quickly4 ,he came on time4 ,he came when he was called4 ,in the first sentence the word quickly is an adverb modifying the verb came and answers the question when4 ,it tells when he came4 ,in the second sentence1 the phrase on time is an adverb phrase modifying the verb came1 and answers the question when4 ,it tells when he came4 ,in the third sentence1 the clause when he was called1 also answers the question when1 and tells when he came4 ,therefore1 it is a clause used as an adverb4 ,it is different from the phrase on time1 for the phrase on time does not contain a subject and a predicate4 #cdh4 ,the difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate1 while the clause always contains both a subject and a predicate4 ,so in the clause1 when he was called1 he is the subject and was called is the predicate1 and when is the subordinate conjunction1 which connects this adverb clause to the verb came1 which it modifies4 ,the clause he came1 and the clause when he was called1 are not of equal rank and importance1 because the clause1 when he was called1 simply modifies the verb contained in the clause he came1 by describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came4 ,so the clause1 when he was called1 is a subordinate or dependent clause1 and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions4 #cdi4 ,a subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause4 ,,classes ,,of ,,subordinate ,,conjunctions #cej4 ,most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses4 ,these clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs4 ,they will tell how1 when1 where or why the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred4 ,there are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses4 ,they introduce3 #cea4 ,adverb clause of time4 ,these clauses will answer the question when and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as1 before1 since1 as1 while1 until1 when1 after and as soon as4 ,notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions3 ,we waited until you came4 ,we waited after you came4 ,we waited as you came4 ,we waited before you came4 ,we waited since you came4 ,we left while you were gone4 ,we left when you were gone4 ,we left as soon as you were gone4 #ceb4 ,adverb clause of place4 ,these answer the question where1 and are introduced by the conjunctions1 where1 whence1 whither4 ,i will go where you go4 ,the wind blows whither it listeth4 ,he went whence he came4 #cec4 ,adverb clauses expressing cause or reason4 ,these will answer the question why4 ,they are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as1 because1 for1 since1 as1 whereas1 inasmuch as1 etc4 ,note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions3 ,i will come because you expect me4 ,i will come since you expect me4 ,i will come as you expect me4 ,i will come for you expect me4 ,i will come inasmuch as you expect me4 #ced4 ,adverb clauses of manner4 ,these clauses will answer the question how1 and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as1 as1 as if1 as though1 etc4 ,study as though you were in earnest4 ,come as if you had been called4 ,do as ,i say1 not as ,i do4 ,in these clauses of manner1 introduced by as if1 and as though1 were is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects4 ,for example3 ,he writes as if he were informed of the facts4 ,they talk as though they were confident of success4 ,you act as though ,i were your slave4 #cee4 ,adverb clauses of comparison4 ,these clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions than and as4 ,the verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by than and as4 ,for example3 ,he is taller than ,i4 ,the complete sentence would be3 ,he is taller than ,i am4 ,he is not so tall as ,i4 ,here the sentence would be3 ,he is not so tall as ,i am4 ,when the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses1 be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun4 ,it may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed4 ,for example2 it is incorrect to say3 ,i am not so tall as him4 ,the correct form is3 ,i am not so tall as he4 ,the complete sentence would be3 ,i am not so tall as he is1 and the pronoun should be in the subject form1 for it is the subject of the verb is1 which is understood and omitted4 ,the use of the subject or of the object form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence4 ,for example1 you say3 ,i admire them as much as he4 ,you mean that you admire them as much as he admires them4 ,but if you say1 ,i admire them as much as him1 you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him4 ,quite a different meaning6 ,be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way1 for you can express quite a different meaning4 ,for example1 if you say1 ,i care more for you than he1 you mean1 ,i care more for you than he cares for you4 ,but if you say1 ,i care more for you than him1 you mean1 ,i care more for you than ,i care for him4 ,a mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time1 if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in ,plain ,english6 #cef4 ,adverb clauses of condition4 ,these clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as1 if1 provided1 supposing1 unless1 except1 otherwise1 though1 notwithstanding1 albeit1 and whether4 ,for example3 ,i will come if you need me4 ,i will come provided you need me4 ,i will go notwithstanding you need me4 ,i will not go unless ,i am called4 ,he will not go except he is called4 ,he will not go though he is called4 ,he came1 otherwise ,i would go4 ,he will go whether you go or stay4 ,when subordinate clauses beginning with if1 though or unless are joined to clauses containing might1 could1 would or should1 the verb were is sometimes used with a singular subject1 in such sentences as3 ,if this were true1 ,i should know it4 ,unless ,i were positive1 ,i would not say so4 ,though our leader were lost1 yet we would not despair4 ,if he were here1 he would explain it himself4 ,if ,i were with you1 ,i might make you understand4 ,sometimes in sentences like these1 if is omitted in the clause1 and the verb placed first4 ,for example3 ,were he here1 he would deny these slanders4 ,were he truly class-conscious1 he would oppose this war4 ,were this fact known1 the people would never submit4 ,these clauses express something which is uncertain1 or which is to be decided in the future2 a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish4 ,occasionally you will find the verb be used instead of is1 in clauses of this kind introduced by if1 though1 unless1 except1 lest1 etc4 ,for example3 ,if it be true1 ,i will hear it4 ,though he be guilty1 we will not desert him4 ,in subordinate clauses connected by if1 unless1 etc41 with a principal clause which expresses future time1 the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause4 ,for example3 ,if they are willing1 we will join them4 ,unless he comes1 ,i shall not leave4 ,if it rains1 we will not go4 #ceg4 ,adverb clauses expressing purpose4 ,these are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as1 that1 in order that and lest4 ,for example3 ,take good care that you understand this lesson4 ,i will go today in order that ,i may meet him4 ,watch these carefully lest they be stolen4 ,read the labor press that you may know the truth4 ,notice that that1 when used in this way1 as a pure conjunction1 means in order that4 ,for example1 the sentence above might read3 ,read the labor press in order that you may know the truth4 #ceh4 ,adverb clauses expressing result4 ,these are introduced by the subordinate conjunction that1 as for example3 ,they were so late that ,i could not go4 ,,summary #cei4 ,we have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing3 #a4 ,time4 ,answer the question when4 #b4 ,place4 ,answer the question where4 #c4 ,cause or reason4 ,answer the question why4 #d4 ,manner4 ,answer the question how4 #e4 ,comparison4 ,used to compare4 #f4 ,condition4 ,answer the question on what condition4 #g4 ,purpose4 ,answer the question for what purpose4 #h4 ,result4 ,answer the question to what result4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences1 mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong2 ask the question when1 where1 why1 how1 on what condition1 for what purpose1 to what result4 ,underscore the subordinate clauses4 ,the subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics4 #a4 ,speech was developed that we might be able to communicate with one another4 #b4 ,the ,international failed in the crisis because it had no definite war program4 #c4 ,we will fail if we have no definite program4 #d4 ,if labor were united1 we could destroy wage slavery4 #e4 ,when the people understand1 they will no longer submit4 #f4 ,labor cannot win until it learns solidarity4 #g4 ,after the terrible war is over1 the workers in all countries may come closer together4 #h4 ,we are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the war has been declared4 #i4 ,if we knew the facts we could not be misled4 #aj4 ,inform yourself before you seek to teach others4 #aa4 ,we must unite in order that we may possess power4 #ab4 ,it is more than the heart can bear4 #ac4 ,may you have courage to dare ere you have ceased to dream4 #ad4 ,if we remain ignorant1 we shall remain enslaved4 #ae4 ,we sometimes fear to trust our own thought because it is our own4 #af4 ,though we should lose the strike we will not despair4 #ag4 ,the battle waged so fiercely that thousands were slain4 ,,phrase ,,conjunctions #cfj4 ,there are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions4 ,they are3 ,as if1 as though1 but also1 but likewise1 so that1 except that1 inasmuch as1 notwithstanding that1 in order that1 as well as1 as far as1 so far as1 as little as1 provided that1 seeing that1 etc4 ,exercise #b ,write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses4 ,,noun ,,clauses #cfa4 ,we have found that there are two kinds of clauses1 principal clauses and subordinate clauses4 ,a principal clause is one that does not depend on any word4 ,a subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause4 ,we have found1 also1 that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions1 for they are of equal rank and importance2 neither is dependent upon the other4 ,subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction4 ,the subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses4 ,the subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun4 ,when the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause4 #cfb4 ,a noun clause is a clause used as a noun4 ,a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used1 except as a possessive4 ,it may be used as a subject1 an object1 a predicate complement1 or in apposition with a noun4 ,these noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns1 interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions4 ,for example3 ,i know who he is4 ,he asked1 what do you want8 ,i know where it is4 ,in the first sentence1 who he is1 is a noun clause used as the object of the verb know4 ,it tells what ,i know1 and is the object of the verb know1--just as if ,i had said2 ,i know the facts4 ,in this sentence the noun1 facts1 is the object of the verb know4 ,in the second sentence1 ,he asked1 what do you want8 the noun clause what do you want is the object of the verb asked1 and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun what4 ,we will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns4 ,in this lesson we are studying the conjunctions4 ,in the last sentence1 ,i know where it is1 the noun clause where it is1 is the object of the verb know1 and is introduced by the conjunction where4 #cfc4 ,noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions1 where1 when1 whence1 whither1 whether1 how1 why1 and also by the subordinate conjunction that4 ,for example3 ,i know where ,i can find it4 ,i inquired when he would arrive4 ,we do not know whence it cometh nor whither it goeth4 ,ask whether the train has gone4 ,i don't know how ,i can find you4 ,i cannot understand why he does so4 ,i believe that he is honest4 ,in all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb4 ,noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions4 ,as1 for example3 ,you do not listen to what is said4 ,he talked to me about what had happened4 ,he told me to come to where he was4 #cfd4 ,noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence4 ,as for example3 ,that he is innocent is admitted by all4 ,that he was guilty has been proven4 ,why he should do this is very strange4 ,how we are to live is the great problem4 ,in all of these sentences1 the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb4 ,you will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction that4 ,but quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way4 ,for example3 ,it is admitted by all that he is innocent4 ,it has been proven that he was guilty4 ,you will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb4 ,but now we have this little pronoun it used as the subject1 instead of the clause1 which is the real subject of the sentence4 ,it is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence4 ,the noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence4 #cfe4 ,noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb4 ,for example3 ,the general opinion is that he is innocent4 ,the problem is how we may accomplish this quickly4 ,the question was why any one should believe such statements4 ,in all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs is and was1 to complete the meaning1 just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as1 ,socialism is a science4 ,war is murder4 #cff4 ,a noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning4 ,apposition means to place alongside of4 ,note in the following sentences3 ,the fact1 that such a law had been passed1 alters the situation4 ,his motion1 that the matter should be laid on the table1 was adopted4 ,in the first sentence1 the clause1 that such a law had been passed1 is placed beside the noun fact and explains what that fact is4 ,the clause1 that the matter should be laid on the table1 is in apposition to and explains the noun motion4 ,these noun clauses are used in apposition4 ,exercise #c ,complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces3 #a4 ,can you tell444444,germany has a million fighting men8 #b4 ,would you be pleased444444the ,united ,states should intervene in ,mexico8 #c4 ,the ,mexican revolution will continue444444the people possess the land4 #d4 ,no one may vote in the convention444444he has credentials4 #e4 444444,debs was in ,woodstock jail1 he became in ,socialist4 #f4 444444the treaty was signed1 hostilities ceased4 #g4 ,we shall win444444we have the courage4 #h4 444444we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle4 #i4 ,all are enslaved444444one is enslaved4 #aj4 ,humanity will be free444444labor is free4 #aa4 ,let us do our duty444444we understand it4 #ab4 ,man will never reach his best444444he walks side by side with woman4 #ac4 ,we must struggle444444we would be free4 #ad4 444444we shout for peace1 we support war4 #ae4 ,all our sympathies should be with the man444444toils1444444we know444444labor is the foundation of all4 #af4 444444all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best444444it has4 #ag4 444444man develops he places greater value upon his own rights4 #ah4 444444man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others4 #ai4 444444all men give to all others the rights444444they claim for themselves this world will be civilized4 ,exercise #d ,note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from ,the ,ballad of ,reading ,gaol4 ,underscore the subordinate clauses4 ,are they adverb or noun clauses8 ,do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words1 phrases or clauses8 ,i know not whether ,laws be right1 ,or whether ,laws be wrong2 ,all that we know who lie in gaol ,is that the wall is strong2 ,and that each day is like a year1 ,a year whose days are long4 ,but this ,i know1 that every ,law ,that men have made for ,man1 ,since first ,man took his brother's life1 ,and the sad world began1 ,but straws the wheat and saves the chaff ,with a most evil fan4 ,this too ,i know--and wise it were ,if each could know the same-- ,that every prison that men build ,is built with bricks of shame1 ,and bound with bars lest ,christ should see ,how men their brothers maim4 ,with bars they blur the gracious moon1 ,and blind the goodly sun3 ,and they do well to hide their ,hell1 ,for in it things are done ,that son of ,god nor son of ,man ,ever should look upon6 ,in ,reading gaol by ,reading town ,there is a pit of shame1 ,and in it lies a wretched man ,eaten by teeth of flame1 ,in a burning winding sheet he lies1 ,and his grave has got no name4 ,and there1 till ,christ call forth the dead1 ,in silence let him lie3 ,no need to waste the foolish tear1 ,or heave the windy sigh3 ,the man had killed the thing he loved1 ,and so he had to die4 ,and all men kill the thing they love1 ,by all let this be heard1 ,some do it with a bitter look1 ,some with a flattering word1 ,the coward does it with a kiss1 ,the brave man with a sword4 --,oscar ,wilde4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #ba ,in ,lesson ,no4 #ag we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives4 ,we found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes4 ,adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes4 ,there are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way2 as1 al1 ous1 ic1 ful1 less1 able1 ible1 ary and ory4 ,notice the following words3 nation1 national2 peril1 perilous2 reason1 reasonable2 sense1 sensible2 custom1 customary2 advise1 advisory2 hero1 heroic2 care1 careful1 careless4 ,to some words1 more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed2 for example1 use1 useless1 useful2 care1 careless1 careful4 ,make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes3 ,al1 less1 ous1 ic1 ful1 able1 ible1 ary1 ory1 and ly4 ,monday ,accident ,danger ,origin ,commend ,element ,tuesday ,critic ,libel ,attain ,revolution ,contradict ,wednesday ,cynic ,injury ,respect ,station ,migrate ,thursday ,event ,parent ,order ,virtue ,marvel ,friday ,second ,fashion ,consider ,murder ,incident ,saturday ,constitution ,industry ,vibrate ,tribute ,compliment ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bb ,dear ,comrade3 ,we have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech4 ,we are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves4 ,we are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking4 ,we will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly4 ,the analysis of language has meant a growing power to think on the part of the people4 ,we sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life1 but this is not true4 ,simplicity of language is the product of high civilization4 ,primitive life was marked1 not by simplicity of language1 but by the scarcity of language4 ,they made one word stand for an entire sentence1 and if they wished to express a little different meaning1 an entirely different word had to be used1 as for example1 in the primitive language3 ,i said to her1 would be one word1 and ,i said to him1 would be another1 entirely different1 word4 ,but as the power of thought began to develop1 we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the him and the her4 ,so as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple4 ,in most languages1 the different meaning of the verb1 for example1 is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form4 ,this is called the inflection of the verb4 ,in ,english we would use several words to express the same thing4 ,for example1 the ,latin word ,fuissem requires four ,english words to express the same meaning2 ,i should have been1 we say in ,english4 ,so instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form1 we1 by the use of auxiliary verbs1 have1 shall1 do1 be1 etc41 are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly4 ,most other languages also have changes for gender4 ,every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory4 ,then the adjectives1 possessive pronouns and the articles a and the have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun2 this involves a great effort of memory4 ,so while the ,english may seem somewhat involved to you1 it is1 after all1 much simpler than other languages4 ,it has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications4 ,take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature4 ,the quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers4 ,a study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution4 ,they are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives4 ,yours for the ,revolution1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,adjective ,,clauses #cfg4 ,in our study of subordinate clauses1 we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns4 ,we have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs1 to describe the time1 place1 manner1 cause1 condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb4 ,we have found1 also1 that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used1 as the subject of the sentence1 the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement4 ,but these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put4 ,note the following sentences3 ,wealthy men desire to control the education of the people4 ,men of wealth desire to control the education of the people4 ,men who are wealthy desire to control the education of the people4 ,do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun men8 ,in the first sentence1 wealthy is an adjective1 modifying the noun men4 ,in the second sentence1 of wealth is a prepositional phrase1 used as an adjective modifying the noun men4 ,in the last sentence1 who are wealthy is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective wealthy and the adjective phrase of wealth are used1 to modify the noun men4 ,we have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways3 by a word2 by a phrase2 by a clause4 #cfh4 ,a word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective4 ,a phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase4 ,a clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause4 ,note the difference between a phrase and a clause4 #cfi4 ,a prepositional phrase1 used as an adjective1 consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object1 together with its modifiers4 ,a phrase never has either a subject or a predicate4 ,who are wealthy1 is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate4 ,the pronoun who is the subject in the clause1 and the predicate is the copulative verb are with the predicate complement1 the adjective wealthy4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause1 if possible4 ,for example3 ,a fearless man always defends his rights4 ,a man without fear always defends his rights4 ,a man who is fearless always defends his rights4 #a4 ,the unemployed men are becoming desperate4 #b4 ,the uneducated masses are demanding equal opportunity4 #c4 ,the discovery of gold was an important discovery4 #d4 ,unorganized labor is helpless4 #e4 ,the revolution needs intelligent rebels4 #f4 ,a few wealthy men are striving to control education4 #g4 ,this will be a progressive movement4 #h4 ,labor-saving inventions throw men out of employment4 #i4 ,scientific men prophesy a great advance for the mass4 ,,the ,,introducing ,,word #cgj4 ,you will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who1 which and that4 ,these relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction1 because they are serving as connecting elements2 they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify4 ,but you will note1 also1 that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements1 but they also play a part in the subordinate clause1 as either the subject or object4 ,for example3 ,the man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle4 ,are these the books that you ordered8 ,in the first sentence1 who has an education is an adjective clause modifying the noun man1 introduced by the relative pronoun who1 which is also the subject of the verb has4 ,in the second sentence1 that you ordered is an adjective clause1 modifying the noun books1 introduced by the relative pronoun that1 which is also the object of the verb ordered4 #cga4 ,there is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses4 ,if the clause is used as a noun1 either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used1 it is a noun clause4 ,if it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions why1 when1 where1 or how1 etc41 it is an adverb clause4 ,if it is used as an adjective1--if it modifies a noun or pronoun1--it is an adjective clause4 ,you will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive4 ,we do not have possessive clauses4 ,the clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun4 #cgb4 ,an adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun4 ,an adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns1 who1 which or that4 ,the use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas1 for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once4 ,exercise #b ,in the following sentences1 note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses4 ,the verb in the subordinate clause is in italics4 #a4 ,life is what we make it4 #b4 ,we acquire the strength that we overcome4 #c4 ,while he slept the enemy came4 #d4 ,all that he does is to distribute what others produce4 #e4 ,when faith is lost1 when honor dies1 the man is dead4 #f4 ,thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just2 he is naked though he be locked up in steel whose conscience with injustice is corrupted4 #g4 ,when strength and justice are true yoke fellows1 where can we find a mightier pair than they8 #h4 ,you will gain a good reputation if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear4 #i4 ,live as though life were earnest and life will be so4 #aj4 ,he that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves4 #aa4 ,who does the best his circumstance allows does well2 angels could do no more4 #ab4 ,he is not worthy of the honeycomb that shuns the hive because the bees have stings4 #ac4 ,we always may be what we might have been4 #ad4 ,rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind4 #ae4 ,let me make the songs of the people and ,i care not who makes the laws4 #af4 ,attention is the stuff that memory is made of4 #ag4 ,a great writer has said that grace is beauty in action2 ,i say that justice is truth in action4 #ah4 ,if we do not plant knowledge when young it will give us no shade when we are old4 #ai4 ,you can no more exercise your reason if you live in constant dread of laughter than you can enjoy your life if you live in constant dread and terror of death4 ,,which ,,relative ,,pronoun ,,to ,,use #cgc4 ,we are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause4 ,we hesitate as to whether we should use that or who or which4 ,remember that who always refers to persons1 which refers to animals or things1 and that may refer to either persons1 animals or things4 ,so when referring to a person1 we may use either who or that1 and when referring to animals or things1 we may use either which or that4 ,as1 for example1 we may say1 either1 ,the man who was here yesterday came back today1 or ,the man that was here yesterday came back today4 ,either is correct1 for who and that both refer to persons4 #cgd4 ,we may make a little distinction in the use of who and that when referring to persons1 however4 ,a clause introduced by that is usually a restrictive clause4 ,it limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies4 ,when you say1 ,the man that was here yesterday1 you mean that man and no other1 limiting your meaning to that particular man4 ,on the other hand1 when you say1 ,the man who was here yesterday1 there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause1 but it is merely a descriptive clause1 adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man4 ,the same is true when we are speaking of things using either that or which4 ,the clause introduced by which is presumably a descriptive clause4 ,we do1 however1 often use who or which when the sense of the clause is restrictive1 but we should never use that to introduce an adjective clause1 unless the sense is restrictive4 ,when in your sentences you can use1 instead of the relative pronoun who or which1 the conjunction and1 you can know that the use of the pronoun who or which is correct4 ,as1 for example3 ,i have read the book1 which ,i found very interesting4 ,you could say instead3 ,i have read the book and ,i found it very interesting4 ,this would express the same meaning4 ,but if you say3 ,i have read the book that ,i found very interesting1 you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book4 #cge4 ,we do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech1 but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language4 ,the man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being1 can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine4 ,his ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine1 a difference which we1 who do not know and love the machine1 would never notice4 ,so it is in language4 ,once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression1 we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words4 ,in just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music1 which we1 who possess an uneducated ear1 cannot know2 and the artist also has a wondrous range of color1 while we1 who are not sensitive to color1 know only a few of the primal colors4 ,,adjective ,,clauses ,,with ,,conjunctions #cgf4 ,the adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns4 ,adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions1 such as1 where1 when1 whence1 or why4 ,as1 for example3 ,antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought4 ,no man knows the hour when opportunity will be his4 ,each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated4 ,note in these sentences the clauses1 where a terrible battle was fought1 when opportunity will be his1 why this world-war was precipitated1 are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns place1 hour and reason1 and are introduced by the conjunctions where1 when1 and why4 ,these are adjective clauses because they modify1 by either limiting or describing1 the nouns with which they are used4 ,you will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses1 for they would be used in the place of a noun4 ,as1 for example3 ,antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought4 ,no man knows when opportunity will be his4 #cgg4 ,we determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective1 adverb or noun1 by the work which it does in a sentence4 ,noun clauses are used in the place of a noun2 adverb clauses modify verbs1 adjectives1 and adverbs2 adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns4 ,,the ,,little ,,word ,,as #cgh4 ,adjective clauses may also be introduced by as4 ,as is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways2 sometimes as an adverb1 sometimes as a conjunction2 and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after such1 same and many4 ,for example3 ,such books as you should read are listed here4 ,no such person as he ever came here4 ,we are facing the same crisis as our comrades faced4 ,this is the same as you gave before4 ,he has made as many mistakes as you have4 ,in these sentences as is really used as a relative pronoun1 connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify4 ,as may also be used as an adverb4 ,i am as tall as you are4 ,here the first as modifies tall and is used as an adverb2 the second as is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause you are1 with the principal clause4 ,note that in making comparisons1 as is always used when the comparison is equal1 so when it is unequal1 thus3 ,i am as tall as you are4 ,she is not so tall as you are4 ,we have found that as is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause4 ,for example3 ,she is as beautiful as she is good4 ,the clause1 as she is good1 is an adverb clause1 modifying the adjective beautiful4 ,in the sentence1 ,do as ,i say1 as ,i say is an adverb clause of manner1 modifying the verb do4 ,,connective ,,words #cgi4 ,let us not be confused in this matter of connectives4 ,there are just four classes of connective words3 #a4 ,copulative verbs4 #b4 ,relative pronouns4 #c4 ,prepositions4 #d4 ,conjunctions4 #chj4 ,the copulative verb is not a pure connective1 for it serves another purpose in the sentence4 ,for example1 in the sentence1 ,the book is interesting1 the copulative verb is connects the adjective interesting with the noun book1 which it modifies2 but it also is the asserting word in the sentence4 ,so it fulfils a double function4 ,it is an asserting word and also a connective word4 #cha4 ,the relative pronoun also is not a pure connective1 for it serves two purposes in the sentence4 ,it not only connects the clause which it introduces1 with the word which it modifies1 but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause4 ,for example3 ,the man who was here has gone4 ,the clause1 who was here1 is introduced by the relative pronoun who1 which connects that clause with the noun man1 which the clause modifies4 ,who also serves as the subject of the verb was4 ,in the sentence1 ,the men whom we seek have gone1 the clause1 whom we seek1 is introduced by the relative pronoun whom1 which connects the clause with the word men1 which it modifies4 ,whom also serves as the object of the verb in the clause1 the verb seek4 #chb4 ,a preposition is not a pure connective1 since it serves a double function4 ,it shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object4 ,as1 for example1 in the sentence3 ,the man before me is not the culprit1 the preposition before connects its object me with the noun man1 which the prepositional phrase modifies1 showing the relation between them2 and it governs the form of its object1 for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the object form4 #chc4 ,even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction and4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions such as but1 yet1 still1 however1 etc41 not only connect words1 phrases and clauses of equal rank1 but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought4 #chd4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions like therefore1 hence1 then1 etc41 connect words1 phrases and clauses of equal rank1 and also introduce a reason or cause4 ,co-ordinate conjunctions like or1 either1 nor1 neither1 whether1 etc41 connect words1 phrases and clauses of equal rank1 and also express the choice of an alternative4 ,thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives4 #che4 ,subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning4 ,they express1 as do adverbs1 place1 time1 manner1 cause1 reason1 purpose1 condition or result4 ,some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs1 because1 even when they are used as conjunctions1 they retain some of their adverbial force4 ,but according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence1 all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions1 although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning4 ,exercise #c ,in the following sentences the connectives are in italics4 ,determine whether they are copulative verbs1 relative pronouns1 prepositions1 co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions4 #a4 ,they are slaves who dare not be in the right with two or three4 #b4 ,in the twentieth century war will be dead1 dogmas will be dead1 but man will live4 #c4 ,the abuse of free speech dies in a day1 but its denial slays the life of the people and entombs the race4 #d4 ,liberty for the few is not liberty4 #e4 ,liberty for me and slavery for you means slavery for both4 #f4 ,the greatest thing in the world is for a man to know that he is his own4 #g4 ,nothing can work me damage except myself4 #h4 ,he that loveth maketh his own the grandeur which he loves4 #i4 ,my life is not an apology1 but a life4 #aj4 ,i cannot consent to pay for a privilege where ,i have intrinsic right4 #aa4 ,it is difficult to free fools from the chains which they revere4 #ab4 ,desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others4 #ac4 ,all our liberties are due to men who1 when their conscience compelled them1 have broken the laws of the land4 #ad4 ,it takes great strength to live where you belong1 ,when other people think that you are wrong4 #ae4 ,if the truth shall make you free1 ye shall be free indeed4 #af4 ,he is true to ,god who is true to man4 ,exercise #d ,in the following sentences underscore all the connectives--copulative verbs1 prepositions1 relative pronouns1 co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions4 ,there was a bird's egg once1 picked up by chance upon the ground1 and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl4 ,and in time the chick bred out1 and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost4 ,and by and by they gathered round it1 and speculated as to what the bird might be4 ,one said1 ,it is surely a waterfowl1 a duck1 or it may be a goose2 if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble4 ,but another said1 ,it has no webs to its feet2 it is a barn-yard fowl2 if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap4 ,but a third speculated1 ,look now at its curved beak2 no doubt it is a parrot1 and can crack nuts4 ,but a fourth said1 ,no1 but look at its wings2 perhaps it is a bird of great flight4 ,but several cried1 ,nonsense6 ,no one has ever seen it fly6 ,why should it fly8 ,can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do8 ,and the bird1 with its leg chained close to the log1 preened its wings4 ,so they say about it1 speculating and discussing it3 and one said this1 and another that4 ,and all the while1 as they talked1 the bird sat motionless1 ,suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do8--and the bird shivered4 ,but the others cried1 ,it is too valuable2 it might get lost4 ,if it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck4 ,and the bird1 with its foot chained to the log1 sat looking upward into the clear sky2 the sky1 in which it had never been--for the bird--the bird1 knew what it would do--because it was an eaglet6 --,olive ,schreiner4 ,exercise #e ,these stirring lines are taken from ,arturo ,giovannitti's ,arrows in the ,gale and are a part of the poem ,the ,sermon on the ,common4 ,note the use of the conjunctions4 ,mark all of the clauses4 ,ye are the power of the earth1 the foundations of society1 the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful1 the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world1 and if ye fold your mighty arms1 all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man4 ,ye are the light of the world4 ,there was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth1 and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes4 ,ye are eternal1 even as your father1 labor1 is eternal1 and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you4 ,ages have come and gone1 kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen1 old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust1 heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion4 ,but ye1 ,plebs1 ,populace1 ,people1 ,rabble1 ,mob1 ,proletariat1 live and abide forever4 ,therefore ,i say unto you1 banish fear from your hearts1 dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds1 arm your yearning with your strength1 your vision with your will1 and open your eyes and behold4 ,do not moan1 do not submit1 do not kneel1 do not pray1 do not wait4 ,think1 dare1 do1 rebel1 fight--,,arise6 ,it is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever4 ,it is not true that injustice1 iniquity1 hunger1 misery1 abjection1 depravity1 hatred1 theft1 murder and fratricide are eternal4 ,there is no destiny that the will of man cannot break4 ,there are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy4 ,there is nothing that the power of your arms1 lighted by the power of your mind1 cannot transform and reconstruct and remake4 ,arise1 then1 ye men of the plow and the hammer1 the helm and the lever1 and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore4 ,through you1 through your united1 almighty strength1 order shall become equity1 law shall become liberty1 duty shall become love and religion shall become truth4 ,through you1 the man-beast shall die and the man be born4 ,through you1 the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin4 ,through you1 by the power of your brain and hand1 ,all the predictions of the prophets1 ,all the wisdom of the sages1 ,all the dreams of the poets1 ,all the hopes of the heroes1 ,all the visions of the martyrs1 ,all the prayers of the saints1 ,all the crushed1 tortured1 strangled1 maimed and murdered ideals of the ages1 and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love1 the great threefold truth forever4 ,and lo and behold1 my brothers1 this shall be called the revolution4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bb ,in our study of the spelling of ,english words we have found that there are not many rules that apply4 ,in fact1 the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory4 ,in last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of able or ible1 but we find it difficult to determine whether to add able or ible4 ,the sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use a or i4 ,there is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory4 ,these are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary4 ,our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending in ible or able4 ,the words for ,monday1 ,tuesday1 and ,wednesday all end in able2 the words for ,thursday1 ,friday1 and ,saturday will end in ible4 ,notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling4 ,notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing ble to bly4 ,so when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary1 you have also added the adverbs as well4 ,monday ,probable ,capable ,usable ,considerable ,respectable ,tuesday ,durable ,salable ,advisable ,available ,equitable ,wednesday ,tolerable ,profitable ,remarkable ,valuable ,comfortable ,thursday ,possible ,horrible ,plausible ,intelligible ,terrible ,friday ,credible ,visible ,infallible ,responsible ,sensible ,saturday ,forcible ,permissible ,feasible ,corruptible ,eligible ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bc ,dear ,comrade3 ,in this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections4 ,interjections are the language of emotion4 ,this was probably the earliest form of speech4 ,you notice that children use these exclamations often1 and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them4 ,this language belongs also to the savage1 whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought4 ,as we progress from feeling to thinking1 the use of the interjection diminishes4 ,you will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history4 ,to attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language1 but you will not find interjections in these books4 ,these books of science are books that express thought and not feeling4 ,but if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely1 for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings4 ,especially in poetry will you find the interjection used1 for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade4 ,in conversation1 these exclamatory words are very useful4 ,they fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another4 ,they are usually accompanied by a gesture1 which adds force to the word4 ,the tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal4 ,you can say1 ,oh6 in half a dozen different ways2 you may express surprise1 wonder1 joy1 sorrow1 pain1 or disgust4 ,a great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words4 ,some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk4 ,they serve to help the timid1 to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity4 ,when we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling1 their use is perfectly justified4 ,but one author has called these words the miserable refuge of the speechless4 ,we use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves4 ,this use is unjustified4 ,be careful that you do not use them in this way4 ,it has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses4 ,do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words4 ,there is a rich mine of words at your disposal4 ,do not be satisfied with bits of glass that have no value1 when the rich diamonds of real expression can be yours for just a little digging4 ,save your emotional language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,interjections #chf4 ,we have been studying the parts of speech1--the elements of which sentences are composed4 ,but we have another class of words which we call parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words1 but which are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we have been discussing4 ,these are words which we call interjections4 ,interjection means1 literally1 thrown between1 from jecto1 to throw1 and inter1 between4 ,so interjections do not enter into the construction of sentences but are only thrown in between4 ,every word that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun1 a pronoun1 a verb1 an adjective1 an adverb1 a preposition or a conjunction4 ,there are words1 however1 that we use with sentences which do not enter into the construction4 ,for example1 you say3 ,oh6 ,i am wounded4 ,aha6 ,i have conquered4 ,alas6 ,he came too late4 #chg4 ,words which we use in these sentences1 like1 oh1 aha1 alas1 are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement4 ,your ,oh6 in a sentence like3 ,oh6 ,i am wounded1 would probably sound very much like a groan4 ,but your ,aha6 in the1 ,aha6 ,i have conquered1 will sound like a shout of victory1 and your ,alas6 in the sentence1 ,alas6 ,he came too late1 will express grief or regret over the fact that he came too late4 ,these words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered4 ,every one1 upon hearing them1 knows at once whether they express grief or delight4 #chh4 ,an interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound4 #chi4 ,interjections may be divided into four classes3 #a4 ,words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds1 as3 7a7 ,surprise or wonder2 as1 ,oh1 ,aha1 ,what4 7b7 ,pleasure1 joy1 or exaltation2 as1 ,hurrah1 ,ha1 ,ha4 7c7 ,pain1 sadness or sorrow2 as1 ,alas1 ,alack4 7d7 ,contempt or disgust2 as ,fie1 ,fudge1 ,ugh1 ,pshaw4 #b4 ,words used instead of a question2 as1 ,eh8 ,hey8 #c4 ,words used instead of a command2 as3 7a7 ,to call attention2 as1 ,hello1 ,ahoy1 ,whoa4 7b7 ,to express silence2 as1 ,shh1 ,hush1 ,hist4 7c7 ,to direct or drive out1 etc41 as1 ,whoa1 ,gee1 ,haw1 ,scat4 #d4 ,words used to imitate sounds made by animals1 machines1 etc41 as1 ,bow-wow1 ,ding-dong1 ,bang1 ,rub-a-dub4 ,when we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals1 machines1 etc41 in writing1 we spell out the words as nearly as we can1 just as we write ding-dong to represent the sound of the bell or tick-tock to indicate the ticking of a clock4 ,note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express1 as for instance1 crash1 roar1 buzz1 hush1 groan1 bang1 puff1 etc4 ,exercise #a ,mark the interjections in the following sentences4 ,which express surprise8 ,which joy8 ,which sorrow8 ,which disgust8 #a4 ,alas6 ,we shall never meet again4 #b4 ,bravo6 ,you have done well4 #c4 ,pshaw6 ,is that the best you can do8 #d4 ,ship ahoy6 ,all hands on deck4 #e4 ,hello6 ,when did you come8 #f4 ,hurrah6 ,we have won the victory4 #g4 ,alas1 alack6 ,those days will never come again4 #h4 ,hist6 ,you must be as still as mice4 ,exercise #b ,write sentences using an interjection to express3 #a4 ,joy4 #b4 ,surprise4 #c4 ,pain4 #d4 ,sorrow4 #e4 ,disgust4 #f4 ,to ask a question4 #g4 ,to call attention4 #h4 ,to silence4 #i4 ,to direct4 #aj4 ,to imitate the sound made by an animal4 #aa4 ,by a machine4 ,,exclamatory ,,words #cij4 ,interjections express only emotion or feeling4 ,they do not express ideas4 ,however1 we have a number of words which are used somewhat as interjections are used1 which we may class as exclamatory words1 but they express more than interjections1 for they express ideas as well as emotions2 but1 like interjections1 they are used independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence4 #cia4 ,many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as exclamations4 ,when they are so used they have no place in the construction of the sentence2 that is1 they do not depend upon the sentence in which they are used1 in any way4 ,a noun used in this way is not used as the subject or the object1 but simply as an exclamation4 ,for example2 the noun nonsense may be used as an interjection1 as in the sentence2 ,nonsense6 ,i do not believe a word of it4 ,in this sentence1 nonsense is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part in the sentence1 either as subject or object1 but is an independent construction4 ,there are a number of words used in this way3 #a4 ,nouns and pronouns1 as fire1 mercy1 shame1 nonsense1 the idea1 what4 #b4 ,verbs like1 help1 look1 see1 listen1 hark1 behold1 begone4 #c4 ,adjectives like1 good1 well1 brave1 welcome1 strange4 #d4 ,adverbs like1 out1 indeed1 how1 why1 back1 forward4 #e4 ,prepositions like1 on1 up1 down4 #f4 ,phrases like1 ,oh dear1 dear me1 good bye4 ,words and phrases such as these1 used as exclamations1 are not true interjections1 for they express a little more than feeling4 ,they express an idea which1 in our haste1 we do not completely express4 ,the other words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the stress of emotion4 ,for example3 ,silence6 ,i will hear no more4 ,in this sentence it is understood that we mean1 ,let us have silence1 ,i will hear no more4 ,but in the stress of our emotion1 we have omitted the words1 ,let us have4 ,if we say1 ,good6 that will do splendidly1 you know that we mean1 ,that is good1 we have simply omitted ,that is1 which is necessary to complete the sentence4 ,sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important words4 ,for example3 ,a sail6 a sail6 ,this is not a sentence1 for it does not contain a verb1 yet we know that what was meant was1 ,i see a sail1 ,i see a sail4 ,exercise #c ,write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as exclamatory words1 and add as many more to the list as you can think of4 ,,yes ,,and ,,no #cib4 ,the words yes and no1 which we use in reply to questions were originally adverbs1 but we no longer use them as adverbs4 ,we no longer combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words1 but use them independently4 ,they are in themselves complete answers4 ,thus1 if you ask me the question1 ,will you come8 ,i may say ,yes1 meaning1 ,i will come2 or1 ,no1 meaning1 ,i will not come4 ,the responsives yes and no thus stand for whole sentences1 so they are really independent words4 ,we may use them in connection with other sentences4 ,for example2 ,i may say1 ,yes1 ,i will come1 or ,no1 ,i will not come4 ,used in this way1 they still retain an independent construction in the sentence4 ,we call them responsives because they are used in response to questions4 ,,other ,,independent ,,expressions #cic4 ,other words may be used in an independent construction in sentences1 without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or without having the sentences depend upon them1 such as3 #a4 ,a word used in address4 ,for example3 ,mr4 ,president1 ,i move that a committee be now appointed4 ,fellow ,workers1 ,i rise to address you4 ,in these sentences1 ,mr4 ,president and ,fellow ,workers are nouns used independently2 that is1 they are neither the subject of the sentence nor used as object or predicate complement4 ,they are independent of all other words in the sentence4 ,the most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs with imperative sentences4 ,for example3 ,comrades1 rouse yourselves4 ,men1 strike for freedom4 #b4 ,exclamatory expressions4 ,these are nouns used in the manner in which we have already discussed1 as in the sentence3 ,nonsense6 ,i do not believe a word of it4 ,alas6 poor ,yorick6 ,i knew him well4 #c4 ,words and phrases used parenthetically1 as for example3 ,by the way1 ,i met a friend of yours today4 ,we cannot1 however1 join you at once4 ,he called1 it seems1 while we were gone4 ,in these sentences such words as1 however1 and such phrases as1 by the way1 and1 it seems1 are used independently1--in parenthesis1 as it were2 that is1 they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence4 ,when we analyze our sentences1 these independent words are not considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used4 ,it is sufficient to say that they are independent words4 #d4 ,conjunctions used as introductory words4 ,we have noted the use of conjunctions like the co-ordinates and1 but1 etc41 and the subordinates because1 in order that1 so1 for1 wherefore1 how1 whether1 etc41 which are used to introduce sentences and connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone before4 ,,introductory ,,words #cid4 ,we have a number of words which we use to introduce our sentences4 ,they are such words as1 so1 well and why4 ,these are ordinarily adverbs1 but when they are used merely to introduce a sentence they retain little of their adverbial force4 ,for example3 ,so1 that is your only excuse4 ,well1 ,i cannot understand why you should accept it4 ,why1 that is no reason at all4 ,in these sentences1 so1 well and why do not modify any of the words in the sentences1 but are used merely to introduce the sentences4 ,they serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone before4 #cie4 ,the adverb there is also used as an introductory word4 ,when it is used in this manner1 it loses its adverbial force4 ,there1 as ordinarily used1 is an adverb of place1 but it is often used to introduce a sentence4 ,for example3 ,there is some mistake about it4 ,in this sentence there is not used as an adverb1 but it is used simply as an introductory word4 ,it is used to introduce a sentence in which the verb comes before the real subject4 ,mistake is the real subject of the verb is1 and there is used simply as the introductory word4 #cif4 ,the indefinite pronoun it is also used as an introductory word1 to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as there4 ,the real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence4 ,for example3 ,it is best to know the truth4 ,this could be written1 ,to know the truth is best1 and the entire meaning of the sentence would be conveyed4 #cig4 ,adverbs of mode4 ,you remember in our study of adverbs1 we had certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode4 ,these are used to modify the entire sentence4 ,they express the feeling in which the entire sentence is uttered4 ,adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent words4 ,they are such words as1 indeed1 surely1 certainly1 perhaps1 etc4 ,for example3 ,indeed1 ,i cannot tell you now4 ,surely1 ,i will comply with your request4 ,perhaps it may be true4 ,i certainly hope to do so before long4 ,exercise #d ,note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections1 and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words4 ,mark those which are used in direct address1 those which are used parenthetically1 and those which are used as mere introductory words4 #a4 ,oh1 it seems impossible to believe it4 #b4 ,surely1 you will accept my word4 #c4 ,nonsense1 there is not the least truth in the story4 #d4 ,it will be impossible for us to join4 #e4 ,therefore we urge you to join in this campaign4 #f4 ,there is only one solution to the problem4 #g4 ,it is difficult to discover the true facts4 #h4 ,well1 ,i have done my best to persuade you4 #i4 ,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i rise to a point of order4 #aj4 ,comrades1 come and stand for your rights4 #aa4 ,yes1 ,i have studied that philosophy4 #ab4 ,enough6 we have been enslaved too long4 #ac4 ,hark6 we hear the tramp of the army of labor4 #ad4 ,alas6 that any should refuse to join in this battle4 #ae4 ,you have not1 it seems1 understood the issue4 #af4 ,indeed1 solidarity is our only hope4 #ag4 ,br-r-r-r-r-r-r1 thus whirl the machines that grind our children's lives4 #ah4 ,hush6 ,over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of ,europe's women and children4 ,,explanatory ,,words #cih4 ,we sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of a sentence to explain other words in the sentence4 ,for example3 ,we1 the undersigned1 subscribe as follows3 ,helen ,keller1 the most wonderful woman of this age1 champions the cause of the working class4 ,in the first sentence1 the words1 the undersigned1 are added to the pronoun we to explain who we means4 ,in the second sentence1 the words1 the most wonderful woman of this age1 are added to explain who ,helen ,keller is4 ,words added to other words in this way are called explanatory words4 ,they are placed in apposition to the noun which they explain4 ,apposition means by the side of1 or in position near4 ,you remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun4 ,for example3 ,there is an old saying1 in union there is strength4 ,these words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other words or phrases or clauses4 ,for example3 ,helen ,keller1 the most wonderful woman of this age1 champions the cause of the working class4 ,in this sentence1 woman is the noun placed in apposition to the particular name1 ,helen ,keller1 and the noun woman is modified by the adjectives the1 and wonderful1 and by the phrase of this age4 ,sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first one4 ,this is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions1 where the language is quite formal4 ,for example3 ,we1 the undersigned1 members of ,local ,no4 #ch1 do hereby move1 etc4 ,i1 ,john ,smith1 ,notary ,public1 in and for the county of ,clay1 etc4 ,these words1 undersigned and members1 are both placed in apposition to the pronoun ,we1 explaining to whom that pronoun refers4 ,exercise #e ,in the following sentences note the explanatory words and their modifiers3 #a4 ,wendell ,phillips1 the great abolitionist1 was a man of genius4 #b4 ,buckle1 the historian1 writes from the view point of the materialistic conception of history4 #c4 ,giovannitti1 the poet1 wrote ,arrows in the ,gale4 #d4 ,helen ,keller1 champion of the working class1 wrote the introduction to this book4 #e4 ,we1 the workers of the world1 will some day claim our own4 #f4 ,he was found guilty of treason1 a crime punishable by death4 #g4 ,ferrer1 the martyr of the twentieth century1 was put to death by the ,spanish government4 #h4 ,jaures1 the great ,french socialist1 was the first martyr to peace4 #i4 ,but ye1 ,plebs1 ,populace1 ,people1 ,rabble1 ,mob1 ,proletariat1 live and abide forever4 #aj4 ,ye are eternal1 even as your father1 labor1 is eternal4 #aa4 ,this document1 the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 hinders the progress of the people4 #ab4 ,the memory of ,guttenberg1 the inventor of the printing press1 should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker4 #ac4 ,wallace1 the scientist and author1 was co-discoverer with ,darwin of the theory of evolution4 #ad4 ,karl ,marx1 the thinker1 applied this theory to social forces4 #ae4 ,do you understand the three basic principles of ,socialism--the class struggle1 economic determinism and surplus value8 ,exercise #f ,read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest to you1 then make sentences containing these words1 modified by a word or group of words in apposition1 which explain more fully these words4 ,law1 martyr1 society1 education1 inventor1 commander1 freedom1 ,eugene ,v4 ,debs1 ,karl ,marx1 ,kaiser ,wilhelm1 ,the ,balkan1 ,lawrence1 ,colorado1 ,calumet4 ,,absolute ,,construction #cii4 ,we have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation to every other word1 except these words which we have been studying1 which we use independently4 ,these explanatory words which we have just been studying are not used independently1 but do in a sense modify the noun with which they are placed in apposition4 ,sometimes we place a noun or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does not really modify any part of the sentence1 but modifies the whole sentence in a way1 for it expresses an attendant thought or an accompanying circumstance4 ,for example3 ,the workers being unorganized1 the strike was easily defeated4 ,the strikers having won1 work was resumed on their terms4 ,the workers being unorganised and the strikers having won are not clauses for they do not contain a verb4 ,being unorganized and having won are participles4 ,neither do they modify any word in the sentence4 ,they are not placed in apposition with any other word4 ,while they do express a thought in connection with the sentence1 in construction they seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence2 that is1 they are not closely connected with the sentence1 hence they are called absolute constructions4 ,ab means from1 and solute1 loose2 so this means1 literally1 loose from the rest of the sentence4 ,we speak of these as absolute constructions1 instead of independent1 because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the sentence and is really a part of it4 ,notice that the noun used in the absolute construction is not the subject of the sentence4 ,take the sentence1 ,the workers being unorganized1 the strike was easily defeated1 the noun strike is the subject of the sentence1 and the noun workers is used in the absolute construction with the participle1 being unorganized4 ,these absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb clauses4 ,for example1 this sentence might read3 ,the strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized4 ,do not make the mistake of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute construction as the subject of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,the workers1 being unorganized1 were easily defeated4 ,this is not the meaning of this sentence4 ,the meaning of the sentence is that the strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized4 ,but the adverb clause1 because the workers were unorganized1 instead of being written as an adverb clause1 has been written in the absolute construction1 the workers being unorganized4 ,while it is nearly always possible to change these absolute constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened by the change4 ,these absolute constructions often enable us to make a statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in any other way4 ,exercise #g ,in the following sentences1 note the groups of words which are used in absolute construction4 ,rewrite these sentences and if possible change these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases or clauses4 ,note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make this change4 #a4 ,nationalism having been taught to generation after generation1 the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their fellow workers4 #b4 ,the hour having arrived1 ,ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to die4 #c4 ,the mass being without education1 capitalism gains an easy victory4 #d4 ,the class struggle being a fact1 why should we hesitate to join our class8 #e4 ,these facts being true1 such a conclusion is inevitable4 #f4 ,darwin having stated the theory of evolution1 ,marx applied its principles to social science4 #g4 ,chattel slavery having been destroyed1 wage-slavery became the corner stone of capitalism4 #h4 ,the price having been paid1 we claim our own4 #i4 ,the battle ended1 the army left the trenches4 ,exercise #h ,mark the interjections in the following quotations4 ,note the independent constructions4 ,mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition4 ,in the mind's eye1 ,i see a wonderful building1 something like the ,coliseum of ancient ,rome4 ,the galleries are black with people2 tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest4 ,a great contest1 indeed6 ,a contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested4 ,it is the contest--the fight to death--between ,truth and ,error4 ,the door opens1 and a slight1 small1 shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena4 ,it is ,truth4 ,the vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter4 ,what6 ,is this ,truth8 ,this shuddering thing in tattered clothes1 and almost naked8 ,and the house shakes again with mocking and hisses4 ,the door opens again1 and ,error enters--clad in cloth of gold1 imposing in appearance1 tall of stature1 glittering with gems1 sleek and huge and ponderous1 causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps4 ,the audience is for a moment dazzled into silence1 then it breaks into applause1 long and deafening4 ,welcome6 ,welcome6 is the greeting from the multitude4 ,welcome6 shout ten thousand throats4 ,the two contestants face each other4 ,error1 in full armor--backed by the sympathies of the audience1 greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators2 and ,truth1 scorned1 scoffed at1 and hated4 ,the issue is a foregone conclusion1 murmurs the vast audience4 ,error will trample ,truth under its feet4 ,the battle begins4 ,the two clinch1 separate1 and clinch again4 ,truth holds its own4 ,the spectators are alarmed4 ,anxiety appears in their faces4 ,their voices grow faint4 ,is it possible8 ,look6 ,see6 ,there6 ,error recedes6 ,it fears the gaze of ,truth6 ,it shuns its beauteous eyes6 ,hear it shriek and scream as it feels ,truth's squeeze upon its wrists4 ,error is trying to break away from ,truth's grip4 ,it is making for the door4 ,it is gone6 ,the spectators are mute4 ,every tongue is smitten with the palsy4 ,the people bite their lips until they bleed4 ,they cannot explain what they have seen4 ,oh6 who would have believed it8 ,is it possible8--they exclaim4 ,but they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen--that puny and insignificant looking thing called ,truth has put ancient and entrenched ,error1 backed by the throne1 the altar1 the army1 the press1 the people and the gods--to rout4 ,the pursuit of truth6 ,is it not worth living for8 ,to seek the truth1 to love the truth1 to live the truth8 ,can any religion offer more8--,mangasarian4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bc ,many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds in the spoken words4 ,thus1 in the spoken word though there are only two sounds1 the th and the o2 u and g and h are silent4 ,there are a great many words in the ,english language which contain these silent letters4 ,there has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of simplifying the spelling of these words1 omitting these silent letters4 ,some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling1 and so in some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent letters dropped2 for example1 you will find though spelled tho1 through spelled thru4 ,this method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would be confusing4 ,probably in most of your reading you will find the old method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included4 ,no doubt1 as time goes on1 we shall adopt this simplified method of spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters4 ,in our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words containing silent letters4 ,,monday ,in a number of words you will find ea pronounced as short e4 ,the board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the a1 which is a silent letter1 from these words4 ,if we adopted their suggestion1 words like head would be spelled hed4 ,note the spelling of the following words in which ea is pronounced as short e and the a is silent4 ,spread1 stead1 threat1 meant1 pleasant1 stealth4 ,,tuesday ,we have a number of words ending in ough in which the gh is silent4 #a4 ,in some of these words the ou is pronounced like ow4 ,we have already changed the spelling of a few of these words1 for example1 we no longer use plough1 but write it plow4 #b4 ,in other words ending with ough the ugh is silent and the words end with a long o sound1 as in though4 ,many writers have dropped the silent letters ugh and spell this simply tho4 #c4 ,a few other words ending with ough end with a u sound and those who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the ough and used simply u1 as in through2 many writers spell it simply thru4 ,observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters3 ,bough1 through1 thorough1 furlough1 borough1 though4 ,,wednesday ,we have a number of words ending in mn in which the n is silent4 ,note the spelling of the following words3 ,autumn1 solemn1 column1 kiln1 hymn1 condemn4 ,,thursday ,we have a number of words containing a silent b4 ,notice the spelling of the following words3 ,doubt1 debt1 dumb1 limb1 thumb1 lamb4 ,,friday ,a number of words end with silent ue after g4 ,some writers omit the ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent ue1 but you will find it used now in most of your reading4 ,these are such words as3 ,catalogue1 demagogue1 decalogue1 tongue1 league1 harangue4 ,,saturday ,we have a number of words ending with gh in which the gh has the sound of f1 as in the following words3 ,trough1 rough1 enough1 laugh1 tough1 cough4 ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bd ,dear ,comrade3 ,we have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are going to enter upon the work of sentence building4 ,in the next few lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these lessons so far4 ,this is a good time to give this work a thorough review4 ,perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have not thoroughly understood1 or perhaps there have been some rules for which you have not seen the reason4 ,now as we begin to construct our sentences1 all of this will fit into its place4 ,we shall find the reason for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us4 ,there is a science in language as in everything else1 and language1 after all1 is governed by the will of the people4 ,this has seemed so self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its development that they have given this power a special name4 ,they speak of the ,genius of the ,language as though there was some spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language4 ,there is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language4 ,that spirit is the creative genius of the people4 ,it is the same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and free expression1 if it were permitted to act4 ,there being no private profit connected with the control of the language1 the creative genius of the people has had fuller sway4 ,the educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change or conserve the use of words4 ,the people themselves are the final arbiter in language4 ,it is the current usage among the masses which puts the final stamp upon any word4 ,think what this same creative genius might do if it were set free in social life1 in industrial life4 ,it would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of the people themselves4 ,but those who would profit by the enslavement of the people have put stumbling blocks1--laws1 conventions1 morals1 customs1--in the way of the people4 ,their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep1 but let us rejoice that in language1 at least1 we are free4 ,and let us1 as we realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life1 determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in all life4 ,some day the revolution will come4 ,the people will be free to rule themselves1 to express their will1 not in the realms of words alone1 but in their social and economic life2 and as we become free within1 dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own1 we each become a torch of the revolution1 a center of rebellion--one of those who make straight the path for the future4 ,yours for the ,revolution1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,sentence ,,building #djj4 ,every expression of a complete thought is a sentence4 ,a sentence is the unit in language4 ,words are the material out of which we build our sentences1 so we have been studying the various parts of speech that are used in sentence building4 ,now we are ready to use these parts of speech in the building of sentences4 ,we have found that there are eight parts of speech1 though the interjection1 which is termed the eighth part of speech1 is not in reality a part of the sentence2 but is a complete1 independent construction4 ,so in your sentences all of the many hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions2 nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs1 adverbs1 prepositions and conjunctions4 #dja4 ,you remember in our first lesson we found that there were just three kinds of sentences4 ,the assertive1 the interrogative and the imperative2 or in other words1 sentences which state a fact1 ask a question or give a command4 ,we also found that these three kinds of sentences could all be expressed in exclamatory form4 ,,three ,,kinds ,,of ,,sentences ,assertive4 ,makes a statement4 ,interrogative4 ,asks a question4 ,imperative4 ,gives a command4 ,assertive sentence2 ,i remember the day4 ,interrogative sentence2 ,do you not remember the day8 ,imperative sentence2 ,remember the day4 ,in ,exclamatory ,form ,assertive2 ,nonsense6 ,i remember the day4 ,interrogative2 ,what6 ,do you not remember the day8 ,imperative2 ,oh come6 ,remember the day4 ,,analysis--,,simple ,,sentences #djb4 ,now that we have finished the study of the various parts of speech1 we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis4 ,sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together4 ,to analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different parts4 ,we speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and the predicate and their modifiers1 because we thus unloosen them or separate them from one another4 ,these parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence4 ,the elements of a sentence consist of the words1 phrases and clauses used in forming the sentence4 #djc4 ,let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our sentences1 using the various parts of speech as we have studied them4 ,let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider4 ,for example3 ,men work4 ,there are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple sentence in this manner1 and these are1 either the noun and the verb1 or the pronoun and the verb4 ,we might say instead of ,men work1 ,they work1 and have a complete sentence4 ,in the sentence ,men work1 men is the subject and work is the predicate4 ,the subject and the predicate are the two principal elements in a sentence4 ,no sentence can be formed without these two parts and these two parts can express a thought without the help of other elements4 ,now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers4 ,you remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective4 ,so we add the adjective busy1 and we have3 ,busy men work4 ,our simple subject is still the noun men1 but the complete subject is the noun with its modifier1 busy men4 ,we may add other adjectives and say3 ,the busy1 industrious men with families work4 ,here we have our simple subject men modified by the adjectives1 the1 busy and industrious1 and also by the adjective phrase1 with families4 ,so the complete subject of the sentence now is1 the busy1 industrious men with families4 ,our predicate is still the single verb work4 ,let us now enlarge the predicate4 ,we have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs1 and so we may say3 ,the busy1 industrious men with families work hard4 ,the busy1 industrious men with families work hard in the factory4 ,our simple predicate1 work is now enlarged4 ,it is modified by the adverb1 hard and the adverb phrase1 in the factory4 ,so our complete predicate is now1 work hard in the factory4 #djd4 ,these sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences4 ,a simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement1 question or command4 #dje4 ,a simple sentence1 therefore1 will contain but one subject and one predicate4 ,the subject may be a compound subject and the predicate may be a compound predicate1 but still the sentence expresses a single thought4 ,for example3 ,the boys sing4 ,this is a simple statement with a simple subject and a simple predicate4 ,then we may say3 ,the boys sing and play4 ,we still have a single statement1 but a compound predicate1 sing and play4 ,now we may make a compound subject1 and say1 ,the boys and girls sing and play1 but we have still a single statement1 for both predicates are asserted of both subjects4 ,so1 ,the boys and girls sing and play1 is a simple sentence4 ,if we say1 ,the boys sing and the girls play1 we have a compound sentence1 composed of two simple sentences1 ,the boys sing1 ,the girls play4 ,if we say1 ,the boys sing while the girls play1 we have a complex sentence formed of the simple sentence1 ,the boys sing1 and the dependent clause1 while the girls play4 #djf4 ,now let us sum up our definitions3 ,every sentence must contain two parts1 a subject and a predicate4 ,the subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said4 ,the predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject4 ,the simple subject of a sentence is a noun1 or the word used in place of a noun1 without modifiers4 ,the simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers4 ,the complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of its modifiers4 ,the complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all of its modifiers4 ,a simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement1 question or command4 ,a complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses4 ,a compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses4 ,a clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics4 ,find all of the modifiers of the subject and all of the modifiers of the predicate1 and draw a single line under the complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate4 #a4 ,beautiful pictures hang on the wall4 #b4 ,those elm trees grow rapidly every year4 #c4 ,a terrible storm broke unexpectedly at sea4 #d4 ,the clear1 crystal water runs swiftly to the sea4 #e4 ,the beautiful flowers fade quickly in the heat4 #f4 ,the happy1 boisterous children play at school every day4 #g4 ,the sturdy oak in the forest stands bravely through every storm4 #h4 ,their arching tops almost speak to us4 #i4 ,a cry of joy rings through the land4 #aj4 ,the leaves of the trees flutter in the wind4 #aa4 ,great clouds of smoke float in the air4 ,exercise #b ,note carefully the following simple sentences4 ,each of these groups of two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you4 ,lengthen each sentence by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so as to make a fuller and more definite statement4 ,for example3 ,ships sail4 ,this is a simple subject and simple predicate4 ,we add adjectives and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers and we have1 as follows3 ,the stately ships in the bay sail proudly away to foreign shores4 ,snow melts4 ,winds blow4 ,house stands4 ,boys run4 ,soldiers fight4 ,tides flow4 ,children play4 ,ships sail4 ,guns boom4 ,women endure4 ,,another ,,element #djg4 ,you will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these sentences have been complete verbs as hang1 grow1 runs1 fade1 etc4 ,a complete verb1 you will remember1 is a verb that does not need an object or a complement4 ,it is complete within itself4 ,it may be modified by an adverb or an adverb phrase1 but when you leave off these modifiers you still have complete sense4 ,in any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete sentences4 ,for example3 ,great clouds of smoke float in the air4 ,here1 the adverb phrase1 in the air1 may be omitted and still we have complete sense1 thus3 ,great clouds of smoke float4 #djh4 ,the incomplete verbs1 however1 require either an object or complement to complete their meaning4 ,incomplete verbs are of two kinds2 those that express action and those that express state or condition4 ,an incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb1 so we have another element which enters into the simple sentence1 when we use an incomplete verb4 ,for example3 ,the busy man makes shoes4 ,in order to complete the sentence1 we must use an object with the incomplete verb makes4 ,to say1 ,the busy man makes1 is not enough4 ,we must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb1 makes4 ,verbs of action often have two objects4 ,one object names the thing that receives the action and the other names the thing indirectly affected by the action4 ,for example3 ,the tailor made him a coat4 #dji4 ,coat is the direct object of the verb made4 ,but we have another object in the pronoun him4 ,we do not mean that the tailor made him1 but that the tailor made him a coat4 ,coat is the direct object and him is the indirect object4 ,the indirect object is always placed before the direct object4 ,the indirect object may be used as the object of the preposition to or for4 ,as for example1 this sentence might be rewritten to read1 ,the tailor made a coat for him4 ,in this sentence1 him is not the indirect object of the verb1 but is the object of the preposition for4 #daj4 ,the direct object of the verb always answers the question what8 ,as for example1 the tailor made what8--a coat4 ,the indirect object of the verb names the person or thing to or for which the act is done1--the tailor made a coat for whom8--for him4 ,the direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate of the sentence4 ,there may be other modifiers also1 as adverbs or adverb phrases1 and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb4 ,as for example3 ,the tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion4 ,the complete predicate is1 gladly made him a coat for the occasion1 formed of the verb made1 the direct object1 coat1 the indirect object him1 the adverb modifier1 gladly1 and the phrase modifier1 for the occasion4 ,exercise #c ,in the following sentences1 underscore the direct object with one line and the indirect object with two lines4 ,the verb is in italics4 #a4 ,he gave her a book4 #b4 ,he wrote me a long letter4 #c4 ,her father bought her a watch4 #d4 ,the nurse gave the patient his medicine4 #e4 ,the mother gave her daughter a present4 #f4 ,give me time to think4 #g4 ,the clerk sold her a dress4 #h4 ,the teacher read the children a story4 #i4 ,the company furnishes the men food and shelter4 #aj4 ,the man showed us his wounds4 ,exercise #d ,in the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the complete predicate4 ,notice especially the direct and the indirect objects of the incomplete verbs4 ,the simple subjects and the direct objects are in italics4 #a4 ,a great many miles separate us from our friends4 #b4 ,the merry shouts of the children fill the air with music4 #c4 ,a gentle breeze brings us the perfume of the flowers4 #d4 ,a careless druggist gave the unfortunate man the wrong medicine4 #e4 ,his admiring friends gave him a beautiful ring4 #f4 ,soldiers obey orders from their superiors4 #g4 ,this terrible war claims thousands of victims4 #h4 ,the power of hunger drives the unemployed to rebellion4 #i4 ,the workers of the world produce enough for all4 #aj4 ,the retiring secretary showed us a letter from the president4 #aa4 ,the old sea captain told them an interesting story of life at sea4 #ab4 ,labor produces all wealth4 ,,copulative ,,verbs #daa4 ,we have another class of incomplete verbs which require a complement to complete their meaning4 ,these are the copulative verbs4 ,the number of copulative verbs is small4 ,they are3 all forms of the verb be2 also1 like1 appear1 look1 feel1 sound1 smell1 become1 seem1 etc4 ,these verbs require a noun or an adjective or a phrase as a complement1 to complete their meaning4 ,they are really connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used in the predicate with the noun which they modify4 ,the noun or adjective or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called a predicate complement4 ,for example3 ,the man is a hero4 ,here we have a noun1 hero1 used as a predicate complement after the copulative verb1 is1 to describe the noun man4 ,the man is class-conscious4 ,in this sentence1 we have an adjective1 class-conscious1 in the predicate to modify the subject1 man4 ,it is connected with the subject by the copulative verb is4 ,the man is in earnest4 ,here we have a phrase1 in earnest1 used in the predicate to modify the noun man1 and connected with the subject by the copulative verb is4 #dab4 ,so in the predicate with the copulative verbs--incomplete verbs which express state or condition--we may use a noun or an adjective or a phrase4 ,a noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers4 ,it may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases4 ,these adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs4 ,the complete predicate1 then1 is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its modifiers4 ,for example3 ,grant was the most famous general of the ,civil war4 ,in this sentence1 ,grant is the complete subject1 was the most famous general of the ,civil war is the complete predicate4 ,was is the copulative verb2 general is the noun used as the predicate complement2 the and famous are adjectives modifying general2 most is an adverb modifying the adjective famous1 and1 of the ,civil war is an adjective phrase modifying general1 so our complete predicate is1 was the most famous general of the ,civil war4 ,when an adjective is used in the predicate complement it1 too1 may have modifiers and more than one adjective may be used4 ,for example3 ,the man is very brave and loyal to his class4 ,here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement1 brave and loyal4 ,brave is modified by the adverb very1 and loyal is modified by the adverb phrase1 to his class4 ,the complete predicate is1 is very brave and loyal to his class4 ,when we use a phrase as a predicate complement1 it1 too1 may have modifiers and more than one phrase may be used4 ,for example3 ,the man is in the fight and deeply in earnest4 ,in this sentence1 two phrases are used in the predicate complement1 in the fight and in earnest4 ,the second phrase1 in earnest is modified by the adverb deeply4 ,the complete predicate is1 is in the fight and deeply in earnest4 ,exercise #e ,fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers used as predicate complement4 ,name all of the parts of speech which you have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences analyzed above3 ,the men are loyal members of the ,union4 ,slavery is4444444 ,liberty will be4444444 ,war is4444444 ,the machine is4444444 ,the children were4444444 ,fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives and their modifiers used in the predicate complement4 ,the work is hard and destructive to the children4 ,the history will be4444444 ,labor has been4444444 ,peace will be4444444 ,poverty is4444444 ,fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the predicate complement4 ,his service was for his class4 ,socialism is4444444 ,the workers are4444444 ,the message shall be4444444 ,the government is4444444 ,the opportunity is4444444 ,,verb ,,phrases #dac4 ,note that in most of the sentences which we have used1 we have used the simple form of the verb1 the form that is used to express past and present time4 ,in expressing other time forms we use verb phrases4 ,note the summary given in section #ade1 which gives the different time forms of the verb4 #dad4 ,sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words may separate the words forming the phrase4 ,when you analyze your sentence this will not confuse you4 ,you will easily be able to pick out the verb phrase4 ,for example3 ,i shall very soon find out the trouble4 ,here the adverbs1 very and soon1 separate find from its auxiliary shall4 ,the verb phrase is1 shall find4 ,the negative not very often separates the words forming a verb phrase4 ,for example3 ,i will not go4 ,in this sentence1 will go is the verb phrase4 ,when we use the auxiliary verb do to express emphasis1 and also the negative not1 not comes between the auxiliary verb do1 and the principal verb4 ,for example3 ,i do not obey1 ,i think4 ,in this sentence1 do obey is the verb phrase4 ,in interrogative sentences1 the verb phrase is inverted and a part of the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after4 ,for example3 ,will you go with us8 ,you is the subject of this interrogative sentence and will go is the verb phrase2 but in order to ask the question1 the order is inverted and part of the verb phrase placed first4 ,in using interrogative adverbs in asking a question1 the same inverted order is used4 ,for example3 ,when will this work be commenced8 ,in this sentence1 work is the subject of the sentence and will be commenced is the verb phrase4 ,if you should write this in assertive form1 it would be3 ,this work will be commenced when8 ,by paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated by other parts of speech4 ,,let ,,us ,,sum ,,up #dae4 ,the elements of a sentence are the words1 phrases or clauses of which it is composed4 ,a simple sentence is one which contains a single statement1 question or command4 ,a simple sentence contains only words and phrases4 ,it does not contain dependent clauses4 ,the elements of a simple sentence are3 ,the simple subject--the noun1 or the ,the complete subject word used in place of the noun--and all its modifiers4 ,the complete predicate ,the simple predicate--the verb1 and all its modifiers4 ,exercise #f ,in the following sentences1 the simple subjects and the simple predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics4 ,locate all the modifiers of the subjects and predicates1 and determine the part of speech of each word in the sentence4 ,sentences ,nos4 #a1 #e1 #f1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb and #cg are simple sentences4 ,sentences ,nos4 #b1 #d1 #g1 #aa1 #ac1 #ag1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh1 #cc1 #cd and #cf are complex4 ,sentences ,nos4 #c1 #aj1 #ab1 #ba1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #bi and #ce are compound4 ,no4 #h is incomplete1 having neither subject nor predicate4 ,no4 #i is incomplete1 there being no predicate in the principal clause4 ,no4 #bj is a simple sentence1 with a complex sentence in parenthesis4 ,no4 #bg consists of two dependent clauses4 ,in the complex sentences1 draw a line under the dependent clauses4 ,br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--4 #a4 ,what are the machines saying1 a hundred of them in one long room8 #b4 ,they must be talking to themselves1 for ,i see no one else for them to talk to4 #c4 ,but yes1 there is a boy's red head bending over one of them1 and beyond ,i see a pale face fringed with brown curly locks4 #d4 ,there are only five boys in all1 on the floor1 half-hidden by the clattering machines1 for one bright lad can manage twenty-five of them4 #e4 ,each machine makes one cheap1 stout sock in five minutes1 without seam1 complete from toe to ankle1 cutting the thread at the end and beginning another of its own accord4 #f4 ,the boys have nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the steel rods and replace the spools of yarn4 #g4 ,but how rapidly and nervously they do it--the slower hands straining to accomplish as much as the fastest6 #h4 ,working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close1 greasy air and endless whirr---- #i4 ,boys who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a swim in the river this fine summer afternoon4 #aj4 ,and in these good times1 the machines go all night1 and other shifts of boys are kept from their beds to watch them4 #aa4 ,the young girls in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs are not so strong as the boys4 #ab4 ,they have an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in the noise and smell1 and then they are of no use for the rest of the day4 #ac4 ,the kind stockholders have had to provide a room for collapsed girls and to employ a doctor1 who finds it expedient not to understand this strange new disease4 #ad4 ,perhaps their children will be more stalwart in the next generation4 #ae4 ,yet this factory is one of the triumphs of our civilization4 #af4 ,with only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms1 it produces five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four hours for the toilers of the land4 #ag4 ,it would take an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what these small boys perform4 ,br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--r--4 #ah4 ,what are the machines saying8 #ai4 ,they are saying1 ,we are hungry4 #bj4 ,we have eaten up the men and women4 7,there is no longer a market for men and women1 they come too high7-- #ba4 ,we have eaten up the men and women1 and now we are devouring the boys and girls4 #bb4 ,how good they taste as we suck the blood from their rounded cheeks and forms1 and cast them aside sallow and thin and careworn1 and then call for more4 #bc4 ,br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r6 how good they taste2 but they give us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays1 although there are so many outside begging to come in--4 #bd4 ,only one boy to twenty of us1 and we are nearly famished6 #be4 ,we eat those they give us and those outside will starve1 and soon we shall be left almost alone in the world with the stockholders4 #bf4 ,br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r6 ,what shall we do then for our food8 the machines chatter on4 #bg4 ,when we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them4 #bh4 ,then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and feast on them 7how fat and tender and toothsome they will be67 until at last we alone remain1 clattering and chattering in a desolate land1 growled the machines4 #bi4 ,while the boys went on anxiously1 hurriedly rubbing and polishing1 and the girls downstairs went on collapsing4 #cj4 ,br--r--r--r--r--r--r--r6 growled the machines4 #ca4 ,the devil has somehow got into the machines4 #cb4 ,they came like the good gnomes and fairies of old1 to be our willing slaves and make our lives easy4 #cc4 ,now that1 by their help1 one man can do the work of a score1 why have we not plenty for all1 with only enough work to keep us happy8 #cd4 ,who could have foreseen all the ills of our factory workers and of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work8 #ce4 ,the good wood and iron elves came to bless us all1 but some of us have succeeded in bewitching them to our own ends and turning them against the rest of mankind4 #cf4 ,we must break the sinister charm and win over the docile1 tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human being from their benefits4 #cg4 ,we must cast the devil out of the machines4 --,ernest ,crosby4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bd ,among the common suffixes in ,english are the suffixes or and er4 ,these suffixes mean one who or that which4 ,for example1 builder1 one who builds2 actor1 one who acts2 heater1 that which heats4 ,but we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix or or er to form these derivative words4 ,there is no exact rule which can be given1 but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions3 ,to the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix er4 ,for example1 writer1 boxer1 singer1 etc4 ,to the longer and less common words1 usually those derived from the ,latin or the ,greek1 add the suffix or4 ,for example1 legislator1 conqueror1 etc4 ,there are a number of words in the ,english like honor1 in which the last syllable used to be spelled our instead of or4 ,you will probably run across such words as these in your reading4 ,this mode of spelling these words1 however1 is being rapidly dropped and the ending or is being used instead of our4 ,there are also a number of words in our language like center1 which used to be spelled with re instead of er4 ,the re ending is not used any more1 although you may run across it occasionally in your reading4 ,the proper ending for all such words as these is er4 ,there are a few words1 however1 like timbre 7a musical term7 and acre1 which are still properly spelled with the re ending4 ,the spelling lessons for ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday and ,thursday1 contain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding er or or4 ,look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have added the proper suffix4 ,the list for ,friday consists of words which you may find in your reading spelled with the our ending4 ,the list for ,saturday contains words which you may find spelled with the re ending instead of the er4 ,monday ,create ,produce ,profess ,debate ,govern ,tuesday ,edit ,consume ,consign ,legislate ,design ,wednesday ,solicit ,pay ,success ,observe ,invent ,thursday ,vote ,debt ,organize ,sail ,strike ,friday ,labor ,neighbor ,rumor ,valor ,candor ,saturday ,theater ,scepter ,fiber ,somber ,meager ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #be ,dear ,comrade3 ,in logic1 we have two ways of reasoning1 from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general4 ,in other words1 we may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion2 or we may go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to the facts which produce the conclusion4 ,scientists use the former method4 ,they gather together all the facts which they possibly can and from these facts they reach their conclusions4 ,this was what ,karl ,marx did for the social problems of his day4 ,he analyzed these problems4 ,he gathered together all of the facts which he could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he reached certain conclusions4 ,he foretold the rise of capitalism and outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago among superstitious people1 they would probably have called him a prophet4 ,this mastery of analysis1 of marshaling our facts and from them reaching conclusions1 is a wonderful power to possess1 and this is exactly what we are doing in our ,english work4 ,we are analyzing our sentences1 finding the elements of which they are composed1 and then building the sentence2 and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really studied except in connection with each other1 this analysis of sentences gives us an understanding of the thought4 ,the effort to analyze a difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the sentence4 ,this1 in turn1 cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in its expression4 ,so do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence building4 ,you will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of mind4 ,you will be able to think more accurately and express yourself more clearly4 ,after a little practice in analysis you will find that in your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly4 ,you will see at a glance1 without thinking about it consciously1 the subject and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence4 ,then you will not confuse the meaning4 ,you will not have to go back and reread the passage to find out just what the author was talking about2 and when you come to write and speak yourself1 you will have formed the habit of logical expression4 ,in this way you will be able to put your thought in such a manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean4 ,now1 no habit comes without practice4 ,you cannot do a thing unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times4 ,so practice this analysis of sentences over and over4 ,it really is an interesting game in itself1 and the results which it will bring to you are tremendously worth while4 ,nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for ourselves and to put that thought into words4 ,yours for ,freedom1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,a ,,simple ,,sentence #daf4 ,we have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the complete subject and the complete predicate4 ,the noun is most often used as the subject of a sentence4 ,it may have a number of modifiers1 but when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is the subject of the sentence4 ,occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject is a noun4 ,as for example3 ,a wild piercing cry rang out4 ,hopeless1 helpless children work in the cotton mills4 ,the golden age of peace will come4 ,little child lives are coined into money4 ,defenseless1 helpless children suffer most under capitalism4 ,every neglected child smites my conscience in the name of humanity4 ,the thrilling1 far-sounding battle-cry shall resound4 ,note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun1 which is the simple subject of the sentence4 ,all of the other words which comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun1 or modifiers of its modifiers4 ,but in our study of words1 we have found that there are a number of other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be used as the subject of a sentence4 #dag4 ,a pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence1 for the pronoun is a word used in place of the noun2 and a pronoun used as the subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun4 ,it may be modified by adjectives or adjective phrases1 as for example3 ,we are confident of success4 ,he1 worried and out of employment1 committed suicide4 ,she1 heartsick and weary1 waited for an answer4 ,she1 with her happy1 watchful ways1 blessed the household4 ,they1 victorious and triumphant1 entered the city4 ,how can ,i1 without money or friends1 succeed8 ,out of the night that covers me1 ,black as the pit from pole to pole1 ,i thank whatever ,gods there be ,for my unconquerable soul4 ,in all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the sentence1 and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete subject of the sentence4 #dah4 ,the participle may be used as a noun1 the subject of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,traveling is pleasant4 ,here the present participle traveling is used as a noun1 subject of the sentence4 ,participle phrases may also be used as nouns1 as for example3 ,being prepared will not save us from war4 ,his having signed the note was the cause of the trouble4 ,in these sentences1 being prepared and having signed are participle phrases used as nouns1 the subjects of the verbs will save and was4 ,note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following sentences3 ,painting is an art4 ,making shoes is his work4 ,being discovered seems to be the real crime4 ,his having joined his comrades was a brave act4 ,your remaining here will be dangerous4 ,note that when the participle is used as a noun1 the possessive form of the pronoun is always used with it1 as in the sentence above3 ,your remaining here will be dangerous4 ,notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object2 as1 making shoes1 his having joined his comrades4 ,the participle still retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object4 ,the entire phrases1 ,his having joined his comrades1 and1 ,making shoes1 are the subjects of the sentences4 #dai4 ,the infinitive may also be used as a noun1 the subject of the sentence4 ,note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as the subject of the sentence3 ,to err is human2 to forgive is divine4 ,to be or not to be is the question4 ,to toil all day is wearisome4 ,to aim is one thing2 to hit the mark is another4 ,to remain ignorant is to remain a slave4 #dbj4 ,an adjective can also be used as the subject4 ,you remember in our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a noun1 as for example3 ,the strong enslave the weak4 ,here the adjective strong is used as a noun1 subject of the sentence4 ,note in the following sentences1 the use of the adjectives as subjects3 ,the wise instruct the ignorant4 ,the dead were left upon the battlefields4 ,the rich look down upon the poor4 ,the mighty of the earth have forced this war upon us4 ,the poor are enslaved by their ignorance4 ,the wounded were carried to the hospitals4 ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,in ,a ,,sentence ,the subject usually comes first in the sentence4 ,if it has any modifiers1 they alone precede the subject1 as for example3 ,a wonderful1 inspiring lecture was given4 ,the weary army slept in the trenches4 ,but occasionally we find the subject after the verb4 #dba4 ,by simple inversion4 ,we will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose1 as for example3 ,never have ,i heard one word to the contrary4 ,in this sentence ,i is the subject of the sentence1 have heard is the verb1 and never is an adverb modifying the verb phrase1 have heard4 ,but in order to place emphasis upon the word never1 which is the emphatic word in the sentence1 never is placed first1 and the verb phrase inverted so that the subject ,i comes in between the two words which form the verb phrase4 ,the sentence expressed in its usual order would be3 ,i have never heard one word to the contrary4 ,you will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon the word never as the inverted statement4 #dbb4 ,in interrogative sentences1 the subject comes after the helping verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence4 ,as for example3 ,have you heard the news8 ,when will we hear from you8 ,how have the people been managing8 ,what will the children do then8 ,will the students come later8 ,can the work be accomplished quickly8 ,must our youth end so quickly8 #dbc4 ,the real subject comes after the verb when we use the introductory word it4 ,as for example3 ,it will not be safe to go4 ,to go is really the subject of the sentence4 ,to go will not be safe4 ,it is sometimes the real subject of a sentence1 as in the sentence2 ,it is a wonderful story4 ,here it is the subject of the sentence and a wonderful story is the predicate complement4 ,but in the sentence3 ,it is wonderful to hear him tell the story4 ,to hear him tell the story is the real subject of the sentence4 ,the first sentence1 ,it is a wonderful story1 could not be rewritten1 but the second sentence could be rewritten1 as follows3 ,to hear him tell the story is wonderful4 #dbd4 ,the introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence1 just as the introductory word it4 ,the real subject is used later in the sentence4 ,as for example3 ,there were a great many people present4 ,this could be rewritten1 omitting the introductory word there4 ,we could say3 ,a great many people were present4 ,the noun people is the subject of the sentence4 ,exercise #a ,in the following sentences1 underscore the complete subject with one line1 and the simple subject with two lines1 and decide whether the simple subject is a noun1 pronoun1 participle1 infinitive or an adjective used as a noun3 #a4 ,a great man is universal and elemental4 #b4 ,to love justice was his creed4 #c4 ,a more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of human heart4 #d4 ,the reading of good books should begin in childhood4 #e4 ,dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal4 #f4 ,the weary seek for rest4 #g4 ,to believe in yourself is the first essential4 #h4 ,he1 speaking and writing constantly for the cause1 has given his life to the movement4 #i4 ,to remain ignorant is to remain a slave4 #aj4 ,a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds4 #aa4 ,a great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency4 #ab4 ,to be great is to be misunderstood4 #ac4 ,traveling is a fool's paradise4 #ad4 ,it is not enough to be sincere4 #ae4 ,we1 seeking the truth1 have found our own4 #af4 ,there are thousands of comrades with us4 ,,the ,,complete ,,predicate #dbe4 ,look first in the predicate for your verb4 ,it will always be the principal part of your predicate4 ,it may be a verb or a verb phrase1 but the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is to find the verb4 ,the verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers constitutes the simple predicate4 ,if the verb is a complete verb1 its only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases4 ,for example3 ,a splendid statue of ,lincoln stands yonder in the park4 ,in this sentence1 stands yonder in the park is the complete predicate4 ,stands is a complete verb4 ,it requires no object1 but it is modified by the adverb yonder and by the adverb phrase in the park4 ,,incomplete ,,verbs #dbf4 ,if the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action1 then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate4 ,the complete predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five parts2 a verb1 a direct object1 an indirect object1 an adverb and an adverb phrase4 ,as for example3 ,the tailor gladly made him a coat at that time4 ,in this sentence1 the complete predicate is gladly made him a coat at that time4 ,made is the verb4 ,it is an incomplete verb of action1 and coat is its direct object4 ,him is the indirect object4 ,made is also modified by the adverb gladly1 and the adverb phrase1 at that time4 ,all of these are not always used1 of course1 in every predicate2 but these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an incomplete verb4 ,,the ,,object ,,of ,,the ,,verb #dbg4 ,words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those which may be used for its subject4 ,we may have a noun used as the object of the verb4 ,for example3 ,hail destroyed the crops4 ,the banks rob the farmers4 ,we must educate the children4 ,labor produces all wealth4 ,in these sentences1 crops1 farmers1 children and wealth are nouns used as the object of the verb4 ,a pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb4 ,for example3 ,will you not teach me8 ,send them to her4 ,they have invited us4 ,the comrades will remember him4 ,in the above sentences1 me1 them1 us and him are the objects of the verbs1 will teach1 send1 have invited and will remember4 ,remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form1 as1 me1 her1 him1 us and them4 #dbh4 ,an infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb1 thus3 ,i like to study4 ,he asked to go4 ,i want to learn all that ,i can4 ,in this last sentence1 the infinitive1 to learn1 is the direct object of the verb want4 ,the object of the infinitive1 to learn1 is all that ,i can4 ,all of this taken together with the verb want1 forms the complete predicate1 want to learn all that ,i can4 #dbi4 ,the participle may also be used as the object of a verb1 thus3 ,we heard the thundering of the cannon4 ,we enjoyed the dancing4 ,do you hear the singing of the birds8 ,in these sentences1 the participles thundering1 dancing1 and singing are the objects of the verbs heard1 enjoyed and do hear4 #dcj4 ,an adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a verb1 thus3 ,i saw the rich and the poor struggling together4 ,the struggle for existence crushes the weak4 ,seek the good and the true4 ,in these sentences the adjectives rich1 poor1 weak1 good and true1 are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs saw1 crushes and seek4 ,,verbs ,,of ,,state ,,or ,,condition ,we have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition1 or copulative verbs1 the predicate complement may be either a noun1 as1 ,the man is a hero2 or an adjective1 as1 ,the man is class-conscious2 or a phrase1 as1 ,the man is in earnest4 ,the predicate complement may also be3 #dca4 ,a pronoun2 as1 ,who is she8 ,that was he4 ,this is ,i4 ,in these sentences the subjects of the verbs are she1 that and this1 and the pronouns who1 he and ,i are used as predicate complements4 #dcb4 ,infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement1 thus3 ,to remain ignorant is to remain a slave4 ,to remain ignorant1 is the subject of the copulative verb is1 and the infinitive1 to remain1 with its complement1 a slave1 is the predicate complement4 #dcc4 ,a participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate complement1 thus3 ,society is the mingling of many elements4 ,mingling1 in this sentence is a participle of the verb mingle1 but is used as a noun1 the predicate complement of the verb is4 ,society is the subject of the verb4 ,where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase1 the participle is part of the verb phrase1 thus3 ,we are mingling in society4 ,here1 are mingling1 is the present progressive verb phrase1 and the participle mingling is not used as a noun or adjective1 but is part of the verb phrase are mingling4 ,if you will observe the different parts of speech carefully1 you will not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part of the verb phrase4 ,exercise #b ,in the following sentences the incomplete verbs1 including infinitives and participles1 are in italics4 ,mark the words1 phrases or clauses which are used as objects or complements1 to complete the meaning of these verbs4 ,there is no such thing in ,america as an independent press1 unless it is in the country towns4 ,you have and ,i know it4 ,there is not one of you who dares to write his honest opinions4 ,if you did1 you know beforehand that it would never appear in print4 ,i am paid #aej4jj a week for keeping my honest opinions out of the paper with which ,i am connected4 ,others of you are paid similar salaries for similar things4 ,any one of you who would be so foolish as to write his honest opinions would be out on the streets looking for another job4 ,the business of the ,new ,york journalist is to destroy the truth1 to lie outright1 to pervert1 to villify1 to fawn at the feet of ,mammon1 and to sell his race and his country for his daily bread4 ,you know this and ,i know it4 ,so what folly is this to be toasting an ,independent ,press4 ,we are the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes4 ,we are the jumping-jacks2 they pull the strings and we dance4 ,our talents1 our possibilities and our lives are all the property of other men4 ,we are intellectual prostitutes4--,john ,swinton4 ,,modifiers ,,of ,,the ,,simple ,,sentence #dcd4 ,remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single statement1 question or command4 ,it is a clause1 for it contains a subject and a predicate2 but it contains only the one subject and the one predicate4 ,a sentence containing two principal clauses1 or a principal clause and a subordinate clause1 would contain two complete statements1 questions or commands1 therefore it would not be a simple sentence1 but compound or complex4 ,remember1 however1 that the simple sentences may contain two or more subjects with the same predicate1 or two or more predicates with the same subject1 or both a compound subject and a compound predicate4 #dce4 ,the modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases4 ,the modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases4 ,the modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases4 ,if an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier1 then the sentence is no longer a simple sentence1 but becomes a complex sentence1 for it now contains a dependent clause4 ,,order ,,of ,,elements #dcf4 ,the usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the subject1 the predicate and the object or complement1 thus3 ,subject ,predicate ,men work ,subject ,predicate ,object ,men build houses ,subject ,predicate ,complement ,books are helpful ,this is called the natural or logical order4 ,logical means according to sense or reason4 ,adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify1 thus3 ,good books are helpful4 ,adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify1 thus3 ,the men then came quickly to the rescue4 ,the adverb then precedes the verb came1 which it modifies2 and the adverb quickly is placed after the verb4 ,adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the words which they modify1 thus3 ,the more industrious students learn quite rapidly4 ,in this sentence1 the adverb more is placed before the adjective industrious1 which it modifies2 and the adverb quite is placed before the adverb rapidly1 which it modifies4 ,adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify1 thus3 ,the men in the car came quickly to the rescue4 ,the manager of the mine remained with the men4 ,in this last sentence1 the adjective phrase1 of the mine1 is placed after the noun manager1 which it modifies1 and the adverb phrase1 with the men1 is placed after the verb remained1 which it modifies4 #dcg4 ,these sentences illustrate the logical order in which the elements of the sentence usually come4 ,but this logical order is not strictly adhered to4 ,many times1 in order to place the emphasis upon certain words1 we reverse this order and place the emphasized words first1 as3 ,without your help1 we cannot win4 ,the logical order of this sentence is3 ,we cannot win without your help4 ,but we want to place the emphasis upon your help1 so we change the order of the words and place the phrase1 without your help1 first4 #dch4 ,this inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with more emphasis4 ,our language is so flexible that we can express the same thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements in the sentence4 ,notice in the following sentences1 the inversion of the usual order1 and see what difference this makes in the expression of the thought4 ,uneasy lies the head that wears a crown4 ,a more terrible scene you cannot imagine4 ,with the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged4 ,louder and louder thundered the tempest4 ,silently and sadly the men returned to their homes4 ,to transpose these inverted sentences--that is to place the elements in their logical order1 gives us an insight into the thought expressed in the sentence4 ,it is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance1 and in this way we can grasp at once the thought of the sentence4 ,so you will find that this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading4 #dci4 ,when we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be lost in the maze of words4 ,a paragraph is often like a string of pearls4 ,the author has a single thread of thought running through the different sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves well in sentence analysis1 we will never lose this thread4 ,it will be like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and emotion roar about us4 ,exercise #c ,in the following poem1 study carefully the inverted order of the sentences4 ,rewrite them1 placing the elements in their logical order4 ,as for example3 ,to the poor man you've been true from of old4 ,the elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation4 ,rewritten in their logical order this would read3 ,you've been true to the poor man from of old4 ,you will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry4 ,,hunger ,,and ,,cold ,sisters1 two1 all praise to you1 ,with your faces pinched and blue2 ,to the poor man you've been true1 ,from of old2 ,you can speak the keenest word1 ,you are sure of being heard1 ,from the point you're never stirred1 ,hunger and ,cold6 ,let sleek statesmen temporize2 ,palsied are their shifts and lies ,when they meet your bloodshot eyes1 ,grim and bold2 ,policy you set at naught1 ,in their traps you'll not be caught1 ,you're too honest to be bought1 ,hunger and ,cold6 ,let them guard both hall and bower2 ,through the window you will glower1 ,patient till your reckoning hour ,shall be tolled2 ,cheeks are pale1 but hands are red1 ,guiltless blood may chance be shed1 ,but ye must and will be fed1 ,hunger and ,cold6 ,god has plans man must not spoil1 ,some were made to starve and toil1 ,some to share the wine and oil1 ,we are told2 ,devil's theories are these1 ,stifling hope and love and peace1 ,framed your hideous lusts to please1 ,hunger and ,cold6 ,scatter ashes on thy head1 ,tears of burning sorrow shed1 ,earth6 and be by ,pity led ,to love's fold2 ,ere they block the very door ,with lean corpses of the poor1 ,and will hush for naught but gore1 ,hunger and ,cold6 --,lowell4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #be ,you remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there were a number of consonants in ,english which had more than one sound2 for example1 c1 s1 g1 x1 etc4 ,a number of other consonants have sounds which are similar2 that is1 they are made with the organs of articulation in the same position1 only one is a soft1 and the other a hard sound2 for example1 p and b1 t and d1 f and v1 etc4 ,these sounds are called cognate sounds4 ,cognate means literally of the same nature1 and so these sounds are of the same nature1 only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more complete than in the other4 ,our language contains a number of words in which there is a difference in the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a noun and as a verb4 ,the final consonants in these words are the cognate sounds1 f1 v2 t1 d2 th soft or th hard1 s soft1 or s hard4 ,when the consonant sound is a soft sound1 the word is a noun2 and when the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb4 ,for example2 use and use2 breath and breathe2 life and live1 etc4 ,the spelling lessons for ,monday1 ,tuesday and ,wednesday contain words ending in cognate sounds1 in which the words ending with a soft sound are nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs4 ,add others to this list as they occur to you4 ,we have a number of words in the ,english beginning with ex4 ,in some of these words1 the ex has the sound of eks1 and in some of the words the ex has the sound of egs4 ,it is not easy at times to know which sound to use4 ,in regard to the use of ex1 follow this rule3 ,when a word beginning with ex is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel1 the ex is pronounced egs2 in all other words ex is pronounced eks2 for example1 in executor1 the ex is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel1 therefore1 ex is pronounced egs4 ,in execute1 the ex is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with a vowel1 and therefore ex is pronounced eks4 ,in explain1 ex is followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant1 and it is therefore pronounced eks4 ,note that in words like exhibit1 exhort1 etc41 the ex is followed by a vowel sound1 the h being silent1 and it is therefore1 pronounced egs1 for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel sound4 ,the spelling list for ,thursday1 ,friday and ,saturday contains words beginning with ex4 ,watch carefully the pronunciation4 ,monday ,excuse ,excuse ,abuse ,abuse ,grease ,grease ,sacrifice ,sacrifice ,device ,devise ,tuesday ,intent ,intend ,advice ,advise ,relief ,relieve ,cloth ,clothe ,reproof ,reprove ,wednesday ,ascent ,ascend ,strife ,strive ,mouth ,mouth ,grief ,grieve ,bath ,bathe ,thursday ,exile ,except ,exhibit ,expert ,exempt ,friday ,example ,excellent ,exhaust ,exit ,expropriate ,saturday ,exercise ,exist ,experiment ,exaggerate ,explanation ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bf ,dear ,comrade3 ,there are really two things which will come to us out of the study of grammar4 ,one of these1 which we discussed in our letter last week1 is the power of logical thinking4 ,the second is the ability to express our thoughts correctly2 that is1 according to accepted usage4 ,so you can consider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints4 ,first1 you can look to see if you have used the words correctly4 ,we have noted these common errors especially in our study of the various parts of speech4 ,there are certain errors we often make1 as for example1 using a plural noun with a singular verb1 or using the past time form of the verb for the past participle4 ,we have noted a great many of these errors in our speech4 ,we might make ourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still make these mistakes1 but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from our speech for several reasons4 ,to those who understand the use of correct ,english1 these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated4 ,no matter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are expressing1 if we make these grammatical errors1 they very naturally discount our thought also4 ,they feel that if we cannot speak correctly1 in all probability we cannot think accurately1 either4 ,then1 too1 these words in our speech distract the attention of our hearers from the things which we are saying4 ,it is like the mannerism of an actor4 ,if he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and persists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting1 we always see the actor himself1 instead of the character which he is portraying4 ,his mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp of the idea4 ,so in music4 ,you may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one is playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note1 the discord distracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit of the music again4 ,so we must watch these common errors in our speech1 but we must not let our study of ,english be simply that alone4 ,the greatest benefit which we are deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the logical habit of mind1 which the effort to express ourselves clearly and accurately and in well-chosen words will give us4 ,put as much time as you can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences4 ,take your favorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his particular charm for you4 ,if there is any sentence which gives you a little trouble and you cannot analyze it properly1 copy it in your next examination paper and state where the difficulty lies4 ,rewrite the passages which please you most and then compare your version with the author's and see if you really grasped his meaning4 ,in this way you will add quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power of expressing yourself4 ,yours for ,freedom1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,the ,,simple ,,sentence #ddj4 ,we have been analyzing the simple sentence1 which contains only words and phrases4 ,we have found that there may enter into the simple sentence1 the following elements3 #a4 ,the simple subject4 #b4 ,the simple predicate4 #c4 ,the modifiers of the subject4 #d4 ,the object of the verb4 #e4 ,the predicate complement4 #f4 ,the modifiers of the predicate4 ,this is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence1 but this is the order of their importance4 ,we first look for the simple subject and the simple predicate2 then we can determine which words are the modifiers of the subject2 then we find the object or predicate complement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb2 and thus we have all of the elements which go into the construction of the simple sentence4 ,we may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the predicate1 connected by a co-ordinate conjunction1 thus3 ,marx and ,engels lived and worked together4 ,here we have two proper nouns used as the subject1 ,marx and ,engels4 ,we have also two verbs used as the predicate1 lived and worked4 ,we call this a compound subject and compound predicate4 ,so in one simple sentence1 that is a sentence which makes a single assertion1 we may have every part of speech4 ,for example3 ,the most intelligent men and women think for themselves4 ,in this sentence1 we have a noun1 verb1 pronoun1 adjective1 adverb1 conjunction and preposition--every part of speech except the interjection1 which is an independent element and does not enter into the construction of the sentence4 ,exercise #a ,write simple sentences of your own containing3 #a4 ,a compound subject4 #b4 ,a compound predicate4 #c4 ,a noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives4 #d4 ,a noun as subject modified by a phrase4 #e4 ,an incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object4 #f4 ,an incomplete verb with a predicate complement4 #g4 ,a predicate modified by one or more adverbs4 #h4 ,a predicate modified by an adverb phrase4 ,,complex ,,sentences #dda4 ,the simple sentence is the unit of speech4 ,it is a combination of words which makes a single statement1 question or command4 ,but many times a constant repetition of these short sentences would become tiresome1 and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly and rapidly as we desire4 ,so we have evolved a way in which we may combine these sentences into longer statements4 ,let us take the two simple sentences3 ,we are united4 ,we shall succeed4 ,we may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate conjunction and4 ,then our sentence reads3 ,we are united and we shall succeed4 ,this is a compound sentence1 formed by uniting two simple sentences4 ,both of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank4 ,neither depends upon the other4 ,they are united by the co-ordinate conjunction and4 ,we can combine these sentences in a different way4 ,for example1 we may say3 ,if we are united1 we shall succeed4 ,now we have a subordinate clause1 if we are united1 which is used to modify the verb of the main clause1 succeed4 ,we have used the subordinate conjunction if1 and so we have a complex sentence formed by uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause4 #ddb4 ,the next step in sentence building1 after the simple sentence1 is the complex sentence4 ,a complex sentence is a combination of two or more simple sentences1 which are so united that one sentence remains the main sentence--the backbone1 as it were--and the other sentence becomes subordinate or dependent upon it4 #ddc4 ,a complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses4 ,a principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the help of any other clause or clauses4 ,a subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement dependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,dependent ,,clauses #ddd4 ,dependent clauses are of three kinds4 ,they may be used either as nouns1 adjectives or adverbs1 and so are called noun clauses1 adjective clauses or adverb clauses4 ,,noun ,,clauses #dde4 ,noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun4 ,they may be used in any way in which a noun may be used1 except as a possessive4 #a4 ,the noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,that he is innocent is admitted by all4 ,the clause1 that he is innocent is used as a noun1 the subject of the sentence4 #b4 ,the noun clause may be used as the object of a verb1 thus3 ,i admit that ,i cannot understand your argument4 ,the clause1 that ,i cannot understand your argument1 is in this sentence the object of the verb admit4 #c4 ,the noun clause may be used as the predicate complement1 thus3 ,the fact is that this policy will never win4 ,the clause1 that this policy will never win1 is here used in the predicate with the copulative verb is4 #d4 ,the noun clause may also be used in apposition1 explaining the noun with which it is used1 thus3 ,the motion1 that the question should be reconsidered1 was carried4 ,that the question should be reconsidered1 is here a noun clause1 used in apposition with the noun motion1 and explains the meaning of the noun4 #e4 ,the noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition1 thus3 ,i now refer to what he claims4 ,the noun clause1 what he claims1 is here the object of the preposition1 to4 ,exercise #b ,in the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics4 ,determine whether they are used as the subject1 or object of the verb1 as predicate complement1 in apposition1 or as the object of a preposition4 #a4 ,the fact is that ,i was not listening4 #b4 ,whatever ,king ,midas looked upon turned to gold4 #c4 ,he acknowledged what we had suspected4 #d4 ,we will never know what the real situation was4 #e4 ,the fact that the wage is insufficient can be easily proved4 #f4 ,he replied to what had been asked4 #g4 ,the claim was that he had made a speech inciting to riot4 #h4 ,the law that labor unions are in restraint of trade was upheld4 #i4 ,that we cannot win by compromise is readily apparent4 #aj4 ,labor demands that it shall have its full product4 #aa4 ,whoever controls education controls the future4 #ab4 ,he came to where the militia was in camp4 ,exercise #c ,write sentences containing noun clauses used3 #a4 ,as the subject of a verb4 #b4 ,as the object of a verb4 #c4 ,as a predicate complement4 #d4 ,in apposition4 #e4 ,as the object of a preposition4 ,,adjective ,,clauses #ddf4 ,a dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective clause4 ,an adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective1 and1 hence1 always modifies a noun or some word used as a noun1 such as a pronoun or a participle4 ,in ,lesson #bb1 we studied adjective clauses and found that they could be introduced by the relative pronouns1 who1 which1 that and as1 and also by conjunctions such as1 when1 where1 whither1 whence1 etc4 ,an adjective clause may modify any noun or any word used as a noun in the sentence4 #a4 ,an adjective clause may modify the subject1 thus3 ,men who have become class-conscious do not make good soldiers4 ,in this sentence the clause1 who have become class-conscious1 modifies the noun men1 and is introduced by the relative pronoun who4 #b4 ,an adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the verb1 as3 ,the men supported the party which fought for their rights4 ,here the clause1 which fought for their rights1 is an adjective clause introduced by the pronoun which1 and it modifies the noun party1 which is the object of the verb supported4 #c4 ,an adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used in the predicate complement1 as3 ,that was the book which ,i enjoyed4 ,in this sentence the clause1 which ,i enjoyed1 is an adjective clause modifying the noun book1 which is used as the predicate complement with the copulative verb was4 #d4 ,an adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used as the object of a preposition1 as3 ,he arrived on the train which was late4 ,here the adjective clause1 which was late1 modifies the noun train1 which is the object of the preposition on4 ,sometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses1 for frequently the connecting word is omitted1 as for example3 ,i could not find the man ,i wanted4 ,in this sentence1 the pronoun whom is omitted2 the complete sentence would read3 ,i could not find the man whom ,i wanted4 ,whom ,i wanted is an adjective clause modifying the noun man4 ,exercise #d ,in the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions introducing adjective clauses are omitted4 ,rewrite the sentences using the proper relative pronouns and conjunctions4 ,the adjective clauses are in italics4 #a4 ,the people you are seeking are not here4 #b4 ,i have read the book you brought4 #c4 ,the articles you mentioned are not listed4 #d4 ,i will go to the place you say4 #e4 ,this is a book you should read4 #f4 ,those are ideals the people will readily grasp4 #g4 ,we make ,gods of the things we fear4 #h4 ,i listened to every word he said4 #i4 ,i should love the cause you love4 #aj4 ,the things the people demand are just and right4 ,exercise #e ,in the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in italics4 ,determine whether they modify the subject or the object1 the predicate complement or the object of the preposition4 #a4 ,in that moment when he saw the light he joined our cause4 #b4 ,other men are lenses through which we read our own minds4 #c4 ,this is perhaps the reason why we are unable to agree4 #d4 ,he that loveth maketh his own the grandeur that he loves4 #e4 ,the other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency4 #f4 ,there is a popular fable of a sot who was picked up dead drunk in the street1 carried to the ,duke's house1 washed and dressed and laid in the ,duke's bed1 and1 on his waking1 treated with all ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane4 #g4 ,he who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness1 but must explore if it be goodness4 #h4 ,superstition1 who is the mother of fear and faith1 still rules many people4 #i4 ,we are looking for the time when the useful shall be the honorable4 #aj4 ,he who enslaves another cannot be free4 #aa4 ,he who attacks the right assaults himself4 #ab4 ,the force that is in every atom and every star1 in everything that grows and thinks1 that hopes and suffers1 is the only possible ,god4 #ac4 ,he who adds to the sum of human misery is a blasphemer4 #ad4 ,the grandest ambition that can enter the soul is the desire to know the truth4 ,,adverb ,,clauses #ddg4 ,the third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence is the adverb clause4 ,an adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb4 ,it may modify a verb1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,we studied adverb clauses in lesson #ba and we found eight classes of adverb clauses1 expressing time1 place1 cause or reason1 manner1 comparison1 condition1 purpose and result4 ,for example3 #a4 ,adverb clause of time3 ,no man is truly free until all are free4 #b4 ,adverb clause of place3 ,we must live where we can find work4 #c4 ,adverb clause expressing cause or reason3 ,we lost the strike because the men were not class-conscious4 #d4 ,adverb clause of manner3 ,we must work as if the result depended entirely upon us4 #e4 ,adverb clause of comparison3 ,the working class must become more class-conscious than it is today4 #f4 ,adverb clause of condition3 ,we will continue to be exploited if we do not demand our rights4 #g4 ,adverb clause expressing purpose3 ,we must read the labor press in order that we may know the truth concerning conditions4 #h4 ,adverb clause expressing result3 ,the battle raged so furiously that thousands were slain4 ,,analyzing ,,complex ,,sentences #ddh4 ,to analyze a complex sentence2 that is1 to break it up into its different parts--treat the sentence first as a whole1 then find the simple subject and the simple predicate4 ,if a noun clause is the subject1 treat it first as a noun4 ,treat adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying certain words4 ,in other words1 analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with dependent clauses considered as modifying words2 then analyze each dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence4 ,make an outline like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence4 ,let us take this sentence and analyze it3 ,conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the world1 now1 in our day1 the freedom which they seek4 ,simple subject1 solidarity4 ,simple predicate1 would give4 ,modifiers of the subject3 ,adjective1 conscious4 ,adjective phrase1 in the ranks4 ,adjective clause1 7none74 ,complete subject1 ,conscious solidarity in the ranks4 ,modifiers of the predicate3 ,adverb1 now4 ,adverb phrase1 in our day4 ,adverb clause1 7none74 ,direct object1 freedom4 ,modifiers of direct object3 ,adjective1 the4 ,adjective phrase1 7none74 ,adjective clause1 which they seek1 ,indirect object1 class4 ,modifiers of indirect object3 ,adjectives1 the1 working4 ,adjective phrase1 of the world4 ,adjective clause1 7none74 ,complete predicate1 would give the working class of the world1 now1 in our day1 the freedom which they seek4 ,analyze the dependent clause1 which they seek1 just as a principal clause is analyzed4 ,they is the simple subject1 seek is the simple predicate1 which is the direct object4 ,the complete predicate is seek which4 #ddi4 ,notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below are imperative sentences1--the subject1 the pronoun you1 being omitted so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate4 ,as for example3 ,take the place which belongs to you4 ,the omitted subject is the pronoun you4 ,take the place which belongs to you is the complete predicate1 made up of the simple predicate take2 its object1 the noun place2 the adjective the1 and the adjective clause1 which belongs to you1 both of which modify the noun place4 ,exercise #f ,using the outline given above1 analyze the following complex sentences4 #a4 ,take the place which belongs to you4 #b4 ,let us believe that brave deeds will never die4 #c4 ,the orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in the simplest words4 #d4 ,gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the human heart4 #e4 ,children should be taught that it is their duty to think for themselves4 #f4 ,we will be slaves as long as we are ignorant4 #g4 ,we must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within4 #h4 ,cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms in the cause4 #i4 ,men measure their esteem of each other by what each has4 #aj4 ,our esteem should be measured by what each is4 #aa4 ,what ,i must do is all that concerns me4 #ab4 ,the great man is he who1 in the midst of the crowd1 keeps the independence of solitude4 #ac4 ,the only right is what is after my constitution4 #ad4 ,whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist4 #ae4 ,they who build on ideas build for eternity4 ,exercise #g ,we have studied all the parts of speech1 and now our work is to combine these parts for the expression of thought4 ,it will be good practice and very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our reading4 ,this helps us to grow familiar with their use4 ,it also helps us to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly4 ,in the following quotation1 mark underneath each word1 the name of every part of speech4 ,use n4 for noun1 v4 for verb1 pro4 for pronoun1 adv4 for adverb1 adj4 for adjective1 p4 for preposition and c4 for conjunction4 ,write v4 p4 under the verb phrases4 ,for example3 ,the workers of the world do not have1 adj4 n4 p4 adj4 n4 v4p4 adv4 v4p4 under this system1 very many opportunities p4 adj4 n4 adv4 adj4 n4 for rest and pleasure for themselves4 p4 n4 c4 n4 p4 pro4 ,mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation3 ,the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles4 ,freeman and slave1 patrician and plebeian1 lord and serf1 guildmaster and journeyman1--in a word1 oppressor and oppressed1--stood in constant opposition to one another1 carried on an uninterrupted1 now hidden1 now open fight1 a fight that each time ended1 either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large1 or in the common ruin of the contending classes4 ,in the earlier epochs of history1 we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders1 a manifold gradation of social rank4 ,in ancient ,rome we have patricians1 knights1 plebeians1 slaves2 in the middle ages1 feudal lords1 vassals1 guild-masters1 journeymen1 apprentices1 serfs2 in almost all of these classes1 again1 subordinate gradations4 ,the modern bourgeois society1 that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society1 has not done away with class antagonisms4 ,it has but established new classes1 new conditions of oppression1 new forms of struggle in place of the old ones4 --,communist ,manifesto4 ,exercise #h ,in the following quotation1 mark all of the clauses and determine whether they are dependent or independent clauses4 ,if they are dependent clauses1 determine whether they are noun1 adjective or adverb clauses4 ,mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex4 ,i see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me1 and causes me to tremble for the safety of my country4 ,as a result of war1 corporations have been enthroned1 and an era of corruption in high places will follow4 ,the money power of the country will endeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people1 until all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands1 and the republic is destroyed4 ,i feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our country than ever before1 even in the midst of war4 ,god grant that my forebodings may be groundless4 ,monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as a refuge from the power of the people4 ,in my present position ,i could scarcely be justified were ,i to omit to raise a warning voice against the approach of a returning despotism4444 ,it is assumed that labor is available only in connection with capital2 that nobody labors unless somebody else1 owning capital1 somehow1 by the use of it1 induces him to labor4 ,labor is prior to and independent of capital4 ,capital is only the fruit of labor1 and could not have existed if labor had not first existed4 ,labor is the superior of capital1 and deserves much the higher consideration4 ,i bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the power which they possess1 and which1 if surrendered1 will surely be used to shut the door of advancement for such as they1 and fix new disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the early days of our race the ,almighty said to the first of mankind1 ,in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1 and since then1 if we except the light and air of ,heaven1 no good thing has been or can be enjoyed by us without first having cost labor4 ,and inasmuch as most good things have been produced by labor1 it follows that all such things belong of right to those whose labor has produced them4 ,but it has so happened1 in all ages of the world1 that some have labored and others have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits4 ,this is wrong1 and should not continue4 ,to secure to each laborer the whole product of his labor1 as nearly as possible1 is a worthy object of any government4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just ,god's assistance in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this country1 with its institutions1 belongs to the people who inhabit it4 --,lincoln4 ,exercise #i ,in the following poem find all of the assertive1 interrogative and imperative sentences4 ,mark all of the simple sentences and all of the complex sentences4 ,mark all of the dependent clauses and determine whether each is used as a noun1 adjective or adverb clause4 ,the verbs and the verb phrases are in italics4 ,shall you complain who feed the world1 ,who clothe the world1 ,who house the world8 ,shall you complain who are the world1 ,of what the world may do8 ,as from this hour you are the power1 ,the world must follow you4 ,the world's life hangs on your right hand1 ,your strong right hand1 ,your skilled right hand2 ,you hold the whole world in your hand2 ,see to it what you do6 ,for dark or light or wrong or right1 ,the world is made by you4 ,then rise as you never rose before1 ,nor hoped before1 ,nor dared before2 ,and show as never was shown before ,the power that lies in you4 ,stand all as one2 see justice done2 ,believe and dare and do4 --,charlotte ,perkins ,gilman4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bf ,in our last lesson we had examples of words in which the s had the soft sound1 and also of words in which the s had the sound of z4 ,in some ,english words1 it is difficult to determine which sound to use4 ,there are a number of words in ,english beginning with dis4 ,in a few of the words1 the s has the sound of z1 and in other words it has the sound of s4 ,there are only a few words which are pronounced with the diz sound4 ,discern1 dismal and dissolve are always pronounced with the diz sound4 ,disease and disaster are pronounced both ways4 ,some dictionaries give the diz sound and some give the dis sound4 ,the spelling lesson for ,monday1 ,tuesday and ,wednesday contains a number of words beginning with dis4 ,be sure of the pronunciation4 ,run through the words in the dictionary beginning with the dis sound and mark those in which the dis has the sound of diz4 ,we have also a number of words in the ,english language which end in ise or ize1 and we are often confused to know which ending to use4 ,there is a rule1 which has very few exceptions1 which covers the use of ise and ize4 ,words should be spelled with the ize ending when the ize can be cut off1 and the word that is left can be used alone4 ,for example2 author1 authorize4 ,in this word you can cut off the ize and the word author can be used alone4 ,but in the word exercise1 if you cut off the ise1 the remaining portion cannot be used alone4 ,recognize and criticise are exceptions to this rule4 ,when used as a suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb1 ize is the proper ending2 as theory1 theorize1 civil1 civilize1 etc4 ,final e or y is dropped before ize1 as in the words memorize1 sterilize1 etc4 ,the spelling lesson for ,thursday1 ,friday and ,saturday contains a number of common words ending with ize or ise4 ,study carefully this list and add as many words to it as you can4 ,monday ,disappear ,distress ,discern ,disburse ,discipline ,tuesday ,discount ,discredit ,distribute ,dismal ,disseminate ,wednesday ,disguise ,distance ,dissolve ,discontent ,disposition ,thursday ,franchise ,civilize ,surprise ,organize ,compromise ,friday ,monopolize ,revise ,legalize ,enterprise ,capitalize ,saturday ,memorize ,advertise ,theorize ,comprise ,systematize ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bg ,dear ,comrade3 ,ingersoll said3 ,words are the garments of thought and the robes of ideas4 ,this is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the relationship between words and thoughts4 ,words are really the body which we give to our thoughts4 ,until they are clothed in words1 our thoughts are only ghosts of ideas4 ,other people cannot see or come into contact with them1 and they can have but little influence upon the world4 ,without thought1 no language is possible4 ,it is equally true that without language1 no growth of thought is possible4 ,it is futile to try to determine which is first1 language or thought4 ,the two are entirely necessary to each other and make possible social and individual development4 ,every time that you add a word to your vocabulary1 you have added to your mental equipment4 ,you have also added greatly to your power of enjoyment4 ,through these words you will come into a new relationship to your fellow men4 ,each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance4 ,a knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends4 ,when we have learned to read we need never more be lonely4 ,some one has written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this moment4 ,in the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who have written in these pages their life's experience4 ,no matter what mood you are in1 you can find a book to suit that mood4 ,no matter what your need1 there is a book which meets that need4 ,form the habit of reading and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit4 ,nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational advantages in our youth4 ,buckle1 the author of the greatest history that has ever been written1 left school at the age of fourteen1 and it is said that at that age1 except a smattering of mathematics1 he knew only how to read2 but when he died at the age of forty1 this man1 who did not know his letters when he was eight years old1 could read and write seven languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more4 ,he had written a wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers4 ,engraven upon his marble altar tomb is the following couplet3 ,the written word remains long after the writer4 ,the writer is resting under the earth1 but his words endure4 ,good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every one of us4 ,let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and worry4 ,let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books1 and let us prepare ourselves1 by reading and studying1 for the battle for the emancipation of the workers of the world4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,sentences #dej4 ,a simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion1 question or command4 ,the simple sentence contains only words and phrases4 #dea4 ,a complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement and one or more modifying statements4 ,the statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in dependent clauses4 ,the complex sentence has only one main clause and one or more dependent clauses4 #deb4 ,a compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses4 ,these compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses4 ,these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions1 for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are always of equal rank or order4 ,exercise #a ,review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences4 ,use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences4 ,for example3 ,the sun rises and the day dawns4 ,the men work but the boys play4 ,the sun rises4 ,the day dawns4 ,he studies diligently4 ,he learns rapidly4 ,he came early4 ,he could not stay4 ,the weather is cold4 ,the plants are not growing4 ,the men work4 ,the boys play4 ,the day is cold4 ,the wind is blowing4 ,take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate conjunctions1 and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each pair of simple sentences4 ,for example3 ,when the sun rises1 the day dawns4 ,the men work while the boys play4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,compound ,,sentences #dec4 ,compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences4 ,rewrite the following compound sentences1 making of each sentence two simple sentences3 ,the birds are singing and spring is here4 ,he believes in war but his brother is against it4 ,we must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved4 ,he will not study nor will he allow any one else to study4 #ded4 ,a compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a complex sentence1 joined by a co-ordinate conjunction4 ,for example3 ,john goes to school1 but ,mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother4 ,this compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence1 ,john goes to school1 and the complex sentence1 ,mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother4 #dee4 ,both parts of the compound sentence may be complex2 that is1 both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent clauses4 ,for example3 ,john goes to school where his brother goes1 but ,mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother4 ,this compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences4 ,the sentence1 ,john goes to school where his brother goes1 is complex because it contains the dependent clause1 where his brother goes2 the sentence1 ,mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother1 is complex because it contains the dependent clause1 in order that she may help her mother4 ,exercise #b ,read carefully the following sentences1 determine which are simple sentences1 which are complex and which are compound4 #a4 ,when the state is corrupt1 then the laws are most multiplied4 #b4 ,to teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution4 #c4 ,freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense4 #d4 ,the destroyers have always been honored4 #e4 ,liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied4 #f4 ,where slavery is1 there liberty cannot be2 and where liberty is1 there slavery cannot be4 #g4 ,all our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the mother without destroying her children4 #h4 ,in the twentieth century1 war will be dead1 but man will live4 #i4 ,the abuse of free speech dies in a day1 but the denial entombs the hope of the race4 ,,sentence ,,analysis #def4 ,there is no more important part of the study of ,english than the analysis of sentences4 ,the very best result that can come to one from the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind4 ,the effort to analyze a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning4 ,this cultivates in us accuracy1 both of thought and of expression4 ,so1 spend as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences4 ,the subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence1 upon which all the rest of the sentence is hung4 ,the other parts of the sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of the sentence4 ,hence1 the most important thing in sentence analysis is to be able to discover the subject and predicate4 ,in the expression of a thought1 there are always two important essentials1 that about which something is said1--which constitutes the subject1--and that which is said about the subject1 which constitutes the predicate4 ,there may be a number of modifying words1 phrases or subordinate clauses1 but there is always a main clause which contains a simple subject and a simple predicate4 ,find these first1 and you can then fit the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places4 #deg4 ,let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from ,jack ,london3 ,man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man4 ,it has increased a thousand-fold4 ,wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made4 ,why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived8 ,let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it4 ,man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man4 ,what is the main word in this sentence--the word about which the entire statement is made8 ,clearly it is the word efficiency4 ,efficiency is the noun which is the subject of the sentence4 ,then you might ask what sort of efficiency and whose efficiency8 ,what sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase1 for food-getting and shelter-getting4 ,whose efficiency is explained by the possessive noun1 man's4 ,therefore1 the complete subject is1 ,man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting4 ,now we are ready to consider the predicate4 ,what has efficiency done8 ,it has not diminished4 ,has diminished is the verb phrase1 which is the simple predicate of this sentence4 ,it is modified by the adverb not1 so we have ,man's efficiency has not diminished4 ,then we might ask1 when has it not diminished8 ,and this is answered by the phrase1 since the day of the cave-man4 ,so we have our complete predicate1 ,has not diminished since the day of the cave-man4 ,in this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts1 every sentence4 ,first find the subject1 then ask what that subject does1 and the answer will be the predicate or verb4 ,do not confuse the verb with the words which state how or why the action is performed1 and do not confuse the verb with the object of the action4 ,the verb simply asserts the action4 ,the other words will add the additional information as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed4 ,let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from ,jack ,london4 ,in the second sentence1 ,it has increased a thousand-fold1 the personal pronoun it1 which refers to the noun efficiency1 is the subject of the sentence2 and when you ask what it has done1 you find that the question is answered by the verb1 has increased4 ,therefore1 has increased is the verb in the sentence4 ,the noun1 thousand-fold is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased4 ,it is an adverb-noun1 which you will find explained in ,section #bia4 ,in the next sentence1 ,wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made1 we find two nouns about which a statement is made4 ,artifices have been made and inventions have been made2 so artifices and inventions are both the subjects of the sentence4 ,therefore1 we have a compound subject with a single verb1 have been made4 ,artifices is modified by the adjective wonderful1 and inventions is modified by the adjective marvelous1 so we have wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions1 as the complete subject1 and have been made1 as the complete predicate4 ,in the last sentence1 ,why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived81 we find a sentence which is a trifle more difficult of analysis4 ,it is written in the interrogative form4 ,if you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or verb phrase in an interrogative sentence1 rewrite the sentence in the assertive form1 and you will find it easier to analyze4 ,when we rewrite this sentence we have1 ,millions of modern men do live more miserably than the cave-man lived4 ,now it is evident that the noun millions is the subject of the sentence4 ,we see quickly that men cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition of1 in the phrase1 of modern men4 ,so we decide that the noun millions is the simple subject4 ,when we ask the question what millions do1 our question is answered by the verb phrase1 do live4 ,so do live is the simple predicate1 and the skeleton of our sentence1 the simple subject and the simple predicate1 is millions do live4 ,the subject millions is modified by the adjective phrase of modern men4 ,then we ask1 how do men live8 ,and we find our question answered by they live miserably4 ,but we are told how miserably they live by the adverb more and the adverb clause1 than the cave-man lived1 both modifying the adverb miserably4 ,so we have our complete predicate1 do live more miserably than the cave-man lived4 ,this interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb why4 ,do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the subject and predicate in every sentence and properly place all modifying words4 ,there is nothing that will so increase your power of understanding what you read1 and your ability to write clearly1 as this facility in analyzing sentences4 ,exercise #c ,the following is ,elbert ,hubbard's description of the child-laborers of the ,southern cotton-mills4 ,read it carefully4 ,notice that the sentences are all short sentences1 and the cumulative effect of these short sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one can never forget4 ,the subjects and predicates are in italics4 ,when you have finished your study of this question1 rewrite it from memory and then compare your version with the original version4 ,i thought that ,i would lift one of the little toilers4 ,i wanted to ascertain his weight4 ,straightway through his thirty-five pounds of skin and bone there ran a tremor of fear4 ,he struggled forward to tie a broken thread4 ,i attracted his attention by a touch4 ,i offered him a silver dime4 ,he looked at me dumbly from a face that might have belonged to a man of sixty4 ,it was so furrowed1 tightly drawn and full of pain4 ,he did not reach for the money4 ,he did not know what it was4 ,there were dozens of such children in this particular mill4 ,a physician who was with me said that they would probably all be dead in two years4 ,their places would be easily filled1 however1 for there were plenty more4 ,pneumonia carries off most of them4 ,their systems are ripe for disease and when it comes there is no rebound4 ,medicine simply does not act4 ,nature is whipped1 beaten1 discouraged4 ,the child sinks into a stupor and dies4 ,exercise #d ,in the following sentences1 mark the simple sentences1 the complex sentences and the compound sentences1 and analyze these sentences according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences1 complex sentences and compound sentences3 #a4 ,force is no remedy4 #b4 ,law grinds the poor1 and the rich men rule the law4 #c4 ,force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues4 #d4 ,freedom is a new religion1 a religion of our time4 #e4 ,desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others4 #f4 ,an ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his country4 #g4 ,a journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same vocation4 #h4 ,without free speech no search for truth is possible4 #i4 ,liberty for the few is not liberty4 #aj4 ,liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both4 #aa4 ,no revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who make it4 #ab4 ,men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift their heads to throw off the yoke4 #ac4 ,many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom4 ,the maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim4 ,if men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may indeed wait forever4 ,,summary #deh4 ,the following is a summary of that which we have learned in sentence building3 ,assertive ,use ,interrogative ,sentences are ,imperative classified ,exclamatory according to ,simple ,form ,complex ,compound ,elements ,words1 the eight parts of speech4 of ,phrases1 adjective1 adverb and verb phrases4 ,the ,sentence4 ,clauses1 adjective1 adverb and noun clauses4 #dei4 ,,essentials ,,of ,a ,,simple ,,sentence ,subject ,predicate ,subject ,complete ,verb ,subject ,copulative ,verb ,predicate ,complement ,subject ,transitive ,verb ,direct ,object ,subject ,transitive ,verb ,direct ,object ,indirect ,object #dfj4 ,,the ,,subject ,noun--,the man came4 ,pronoun--,he came4 ,the simple subject ,adjective--,the poor came4 may be ,infinitive--,to find work is difficult4 ,participle--,walking is good exercise4 ,clause--,what ,i learn cannot be lost4 ,complete subject--,simple subject and modifiers4 ,modifiers of the ,subject ,word--,wealthy men rule4 ,adjective ,phrase--,men of wealth rule4 ,clause--,men who are wealthy rule4 ,possessive--,the man's energy was great4 ,word--,the poet1 ,lowell1 was the author4 ,appositive ,clause--,the fact1 that you came1 pleases me4 ,the soldiers1 wounded and dying1 were ,participle left on the field ,infinitive--,a plan to end the war was discussed4 #dfa4 ,,the ,,predicate ,the simple ,verb--,the man came4 predicate ,verb phrase--,the man has been coming daily4 ,predicate ,complement--,the man was a hero4 ,a ,,complete ,direct ,object--,the man brought the book4 ,,predicate ,the ,indirect ,object--,the man brought me the book4 equals a verb or verb phrase ,word--,the man works rapidly4 and ,adverb ,phrase--,the man works in the factory4 ,modifiers ,clause--,the man works whenever he can4 ,words--,the man works hard4 ,,simple ,,sentences ,phrases--,the man on your right works in the ,,contain ,,only factory4 ,words1 ,the man works steadily ,complex sentences ,phrases in the factory whenever contain and there is work4 ,dependent clauses4 ,compound sentences contain two or more principal clauses1 as3 ,the sun rises and the day dawns4 #dfb4 ,take the simple subjects and simple predicates in ,exercise #e1 and build up sentences2 first1 by adding a word1 then a phrase and then a clause to modify the subject2 then add a word and a phrase and a clause to modify the predicate4 ,so long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences4 ,when you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence4 ,when you unite two independent clauses in one sentence1 then you have a compound sentence1 and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate conjunction4 ,these will be readily distinguished for there are only a few co-ordinate conjunctions4 ,go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what these are1 and whenever you find two clauses connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence4 ,remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its own4 ,when you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you do not have a clause4 ,each clause must contain a subject and a predicate of its own4 #dfc4 ,here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject and a simple predicate3 ,,simple ,,subject ,,enlarged ,simple ,subject and ,predicate--,soldiers obey4 ,adjectives added--,the enlisted soldiers obey4 ,phrase added--,the enlisted soldiers in the trenches obey4 ,clause added--,the enlisted soldiers in the trenches1 who are doomed to die1 obey4 ,,simple ,,predicate ,,enlarged ,simple ,subject and ,predicate--,soldiers obey4 ,object added--,soldiers obey orders4 ,adverb added--,soldiers obey orders quickly4 ,phrase added--,soldiers obey orders quickly and without question4 ,clause added--,soldiers obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so4 ,combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence3 ,the enlisted soldiers in the trenches1 who are doomed to die1 obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so4 ,this is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses4 ,we might add another independent clause and make of this a compound sentence4 ,for example3 ,the enlisted soldiers in the trenches1 who are doomed to die1 obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so1 and this is patriotism4 ,exercise #e ,enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates3 ,men write4 ,boys play4 ,people study4 ,the law rules4 ,exercise #f ,in the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses4 ,determine whether they are noun1 adjective or adverb clauses4 ,do you find any simple or compound sentences in this poem8 ,,men6 whose boast it is that ye ,come of fathers brave and free1 ,if there breathe on earth a slave1 ,are you truly free and brave8 ,if ye do not feel the chain1 ,when it works a brother's pain1 ,are ye not base slaves indeed1 ,slaves unworthy to be freed8 ,women6 who shall one day bear ,sons to breathe ,new ,england air1 ,if ye hear without a blush1 ,deeds to make the roused blood rush ,like red lava through your veins1 ,for your sisters now in chains1-- ,answer6 are you fit to be ,mothers of the brave and free8 ,is true ,freedom but to break ,fetters for our own dear sake1 ,and1 with leathern hearts1 forget ,that we owe mankind a debt8 ,no6 true freedom is to share ,all the chains our brothers wear1 ,and1 with heart and hand1 to be ,earnest to make others free6 ,they are slaves who fear to speak ,for the fallen and the weak2 ,they are slaves who will not choose ,hatred1 scoffing1 and abuse1 ,rather than in silence shrink ,from the truth they needs must think2 ,they are slaves who dare not be ,in the right with two or three4 --,lowell4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bg ,we have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition of suffixes4 ,derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes4 ,you remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple word to form the derivative4 ,among the most common of these prefixes are in1 un and mis4 ,the prefix in used with an adjective or adverb means not2 for example1 insane means not sane2 incorrect means not correct1 etc4 ,the prefix in used with a noun means lack of2 for example1 inexperience means lack of experience2 inability means lack of ability1 etc4 ,in words beginning with m or p1 in1 meaning not or lack of1 is changed to im4 ,this is done for the sake of euphony4 ,the n does not unite readily with the sound of m or p4 ,so we do not say inmodest and inpartial1 but immodest and impartial4 ,the prefix un1 used with participles1 means not2 for example1 unprepared means not prepared2 unguarded means not guarded1 etc4 ,the prefix un used with verbs1 means to take off or to reverse2 for example1 uncover means to take off the cover2 untwist means to reverse the process of the twisting4 ,the prefix un used with adjectives means not2 for example1 uncertain means not certain2 uncommon means not common4 ,the prefix mis used with nouns or verbs1 means wrong4 ,for example1 mistreatment means wrong treatment2 to misspell means to spell wrong4 ,add the prefix in to the nouns given in ,monday's list2 add the prefix in to the adjectives given in ,tuesday's list2 add the prefix im to the adjectives and nouns in ,wednesday's lesson2 add the prefix un to the participles and adjectives in ,thursday's lesson2 add the prefix un to the verbs in ,friday's lesson1 and add the prefix mis to the nouns and verbs in ,saturday's lesson4 ,monday ,tolerance ,frequency ,competence ,efficiency ,coherence ,tuesday ,convenient ,expedient ,famous ,adequate ,solvent ,wednesday ,pertinent ,morality ,patience ,moderate ,pious ,thursday ,balanced ,biased ,gracious ,stable ,solicited ,friday ,burden ,veil ,fasten ,screw ,furl ,saturday ,construe ,apprehension ,inform ,guide ,judge ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bh ,dear ,comrade3 ,we are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and of punctuation4 ,the use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing to do with our spoken words1 but both are very important in our written language4 ,there is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad spelling1 faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals4 ,the rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary4 ,after an understanding of them1 however1 you will discover that they are not arbitrary1 but are based upon a single principle4 ,the word which is of the most importance1 or which should receive the most emphasis is the word which is capitalized1 as for example1 the principal words in a title1 the first words in a sentence1 proper names1 etc4 ,study these rules carefully1 note the use of the capitals in your reading and watch your written language carefully for a time4 ,soon the proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural4 ,in the meantime do not fail to keep up your study of words4 ,add at least one word to your vocabulary every day4 ,did you ever consider how we think in pictures8 ,nearly every word that we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds4 ,the content of words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed4 ,take1 for example1 words like head or hand4 ,head originally referred to a portion of the body of a living thing2 then it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a picture of an animal's head1 for example1 the head of a pin4 ,again1 it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was associated with the head of a human being1 as the head of the bed4 ,then1 by the power of association1 since the head was considered the most conspicuous and important part of the body1 that which was most conspicuous and important was called the head1 as the head of the army1 the head of the nation4 ,then1 since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental faculties1 the head was often used instead of the brain or mental faculties4 ,we speak of a clear head or a cool head4 ,thus we have a number of idiomatic expressions4 ,we may speak of the head of the river2 or the subject matter was divided under four heads2 or again1 the matter came to a head2 he is head and ears in debt2 we cannot make head against the opposition1 etc4 ,this transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought4 ,trace the words like hands1 arm1 foot1 eye1 tongue1 in their use1 first as physical then as mental or spiritual4 ,this will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content of the words which you use4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,capital ,,letters #dfd4 ,in our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation4 ,we may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well1 but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks1 our written language readily betrays our ignorance4 #dfe4 ,there are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe4 ,some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization1 in an effort to seem different from other people1 perhaps4 ,these rules for the use of capital letters1 like all other rules1 are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men1 but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people4 ,we should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar4 ,we should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good ,english do thus1 and so1 for this reason1 ,i shall do it also4 ,this is simply obeying the standard of majority rule4 ,if there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule1 we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule4 ,many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way4 ,they feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons1 then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage4 ,but there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing4 ,one feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different1 in a very superficial manner4 ,let us be unique and individual in our thought4 ,if this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world1 then we are justified in being different from the rest4 ,we have thought and reason behind our action4 ,this is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things4 ,so let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,capital ,,letters #dff4 ,use a capital for the first word of every sentence4 ,when you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter4 ,each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence4 ,the use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought4 #dfg4 ,begin every line of poetry with a capital letter4 ,sometimes in poetry1 the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line2 in this case1 the first word of the second line does not begin with a capital letter4 #dfh4 ,use a capital for every proper noun4 ,this includes names of persons1 countries1 states1 towns1 cities1 streets and geographical names1 as the names of seas1 lakes1 mountains1 rivers1 etc4 #dfi4 ,the words ,north1 ,south1 ,east and ,west are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions4 ,when these words simply refer to the points of the compass1 they should not begin with a capital4 #dgj4 ,the pronoun ,i and the interjection ,o should always be capitals4 ,never write the pronoun ,i with a small i4 #dga4 ,every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter4 ,proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns4 ,for example3 the ,marxian philosophy1 the ,darwinian theory1 ,indian money1 ,japanese labor1 etc4 #dgb4 ,always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters4 ,for example3 ,january1 ,february1 ,august1 ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,friday1 etc4 #dgc4 ,use a capital letter for every name or title of the ,deity4 ,for example3 ,god1 ,jehovah1 ,christ1 ,jesus1 etc4 ,it is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to ,god or ,christ4 #dgd4 ,begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties1 also all adjectives derived from them4 ,as for example3 ,christian ,church1 ,methodism1 ,republican ,party1 ,mohammedan1 ,socialist1 etc4 #dge4 ,begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital4 ,in poetry or poetic prose we often speak of war1 fame1 death1 hope1 fancy1 liberty1 etc41 as persons4 ,whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter4 #dgf4 ,use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition4 ,in titles the nouns1 pronouns1 adjectives1 verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital1 while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters4 ,the articles1 the1 a and an are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title4 #dgg4 ,use a capital to begin every direct quotation4 ,the first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter4 ,a direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker4 ,for example3 ,he said1 ,i will come4 ,this is a direct quotation1 but ,he said that he would come1 is an indirect quotation4 #dgh4 ,use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question4 ,for example3 ,resolved2 ,that the ,united ,states should democratize war4 ,the question is1 ,shall the people determine the question of war8 #dgi4 ,use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars4 ,for example2 ,the bill is as follows3 ,for ,composition #bj4jj ,for ,press ,work #aj4jj ,paper #be4jj #dhj4 ,begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital4 ,for example1 ,president ,wilson1 ,doctor ,smith1 ,professor ,locke4 ,when you use a title of this kind as a general term1 that is1 not indicating any particular person1 do not use a capital4 ,as for example3 ,the society has had several presidents4 ,but if you use the title to take the place of the person's name1 for example3 ,the ,president read the message to ,congress1 always use a capital4 #dha4 ,use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address4 ,for example3 ,my dear ,father1 ,my dear ,mother1 ,my dear ,comrade1 ,dear ,aunt ,emma1 ,dear ,friend1 ,dear ,fellow ,workers1 etc4 ,also in conversation4 ,are you coming with me1 ,mother8 ,what did the ,doctor say1 ,comrade ,smith8 ,when these words are not used in direct address1 however1 they should not be capitalized4 ,for example1 at the close of a letter you would write3 ,your sincere friend4 ,your loving brother4 ,or in conversation3 ,i asked my mother to go with me4 ,my brother wrote me concerning the matter4 #dhb4 ,begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital4 ,for example3 ,public ,library1 ,high ,school1 ,the ,east ,side1 ,the ,union ,square1 ,central ,market1 etc4 ,these words used in a general sense1 however1 should not begin with a capital letter4 ,for example3 ,our public libraries1 our high schools1 jails1 prisons1 post offices1 etc4 #dhc4 ,the words state and territory1 when they refer to particular divisions of the country1 should be capitalized4 ,for example3 ,the ,state of ,new ,york1 ,the ,territory of ,alaska1 ,the ,french ,government1 etc4 ,state and government are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names4 ,for example3 ,the ,state is based on exploitation4 ,the ,government has issued an edict of war4 ,we do not use a capital in such expressions as3 ,church and state1 state affairs2 they occupy a large territory1 etc4 #dhd4 ,in directing letters or other matter for the mail1 capitalize all words except prepositions1 conjunctions or articles4 ,these should be capitalized only when they begin a line4 ,exercise #a ,draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital3 john joffre1 lake michigan1 day1 thursday1 friday1 spring1 august1 december1 germany1 country1 france1 man1 jones1 smith1 doctor1 doctor george1 professor moore1 girl1 mary1 susan1 methodist1 mohammedan1 church1 party1 republican party1 socialist1 company1 national electric light company1 river1 mississippi river1 the red river1 essex county1 state of illinois1 iowa1 railway1 new york1 new york central railway1 the french revolution1 novel1 the sea wolf1 poem1 arrows in the gale1 american4 ,exercise #b ,notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter4 #a4 iron1 the twin brother of fire1 the first born out of the matrix of the earth1 a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor1 am i1 o man4 #b4 therefore i say unto you1 banish fear from your hearts4 #c4 but ye1 plebs1 populists1 people1 rebels1 mob1 proletariat1 live and abide forever4 #d4 and they came here from all parts of the earth1 the syrians and the armenians1 the thracians and the tartars1 the jews1 the greeks and the romans1 the gauls and the angles and the huns and the hibernians1 even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of ice they came to listen unto his words4 #e4 marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto4 #f4 its closing words are2 working men of all countries unite4 #g4 italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become involved in the war4 #h4 john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of congress4 #i4 eugene v4 debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising his right of free speech4 #aj4 col4 the abbreviation for colorado1 is easily confused with cal4 the abbreviation for california4 #aa4 the people's college is a college maintained by the working class4 #ab4 william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the national democratic convention4 #ac4 marion craig wentworth1 a socialist playwright1 has written a play called war brides4 #ad4 the play closes with these words2 a message to the emperor3 i refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more war4 #ae4 olive schreiner's woman and labor is full of fascinating thought4 ,exercise #c ,notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations1 and determine the reason for the use of every capital3 ,as the nobles of ,england wrung their independence from ,king ,john1 and as the tradesmen of ,france broke through the ring of privilege enclosing the ,three ,estates2 so today the millions who serve society in arduous labor on the highways1 and aloft on the scaffoldings1 and by the sides of the whirring machines1 are demanding that they1 too1 and their children1 shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and make beautiful this life4--,frank ,walsh4 ,the toad beneath the harrow knows ,exactly where the tooth-point goes4 ,the butterfly beside the road ,doth preach contentment to that toad4 ,when ,i came here1 it was said that the ,colorado ,fuel and ,iron ,company voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their being naturalized or not2 and even their mules1 it used to be remarked1 were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess names4 ,from a letter written by ,mr4 ,l4 ,m4 ,bowers1 ,chairman of ,the ,board of ,directors of the ,colorado ,fuel and ,iron ,company1 to the ,secretary of ,mr4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 ,jr41 under date of ,may #ac1 #aiac4 ,master1 ,i've done ,thy bidding1 wrought in ,thy many lands4 ,not by my sins wilt ,thou judge me1 but by the work of my hands4 ,master1 ,i've done ,thy bidding1 and the light is low in the west1 ,and the long1 long shift is over 444 ,master1 ,i've earned it--,rest4 --,robert ,service4 ,it's ,o6 to be a slave ,along with the barbarous ,turk1 ,where woman has never a soul to save1 ,if this is ,christian work6 --,thos4 ,hood4 ,while there is a lower class1 ,i am in it4 ,while there is a criminal element1 ,i am of it4 ,while there is a soul in jail1 ,i am not free4 --,eugene ,v4 ,debs4 ,when ,adam delved and ,eve span1 ,who was then the gentleman8 ,the vilest deeds1 like poison weeds1 ,bloom well in prison-air2 ,it is only what is good in man ,that wastes and withers there3 ,pale ,anguish keeps the heavy gate1 ,and the ,warder is ,despair4 --,oscar ,wilde4 ,,abbreviations ,,and ,,contractions #dhe4 ,there are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract1 in our every-day use4 ,a contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters4 ,the apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word4 ,as1 for example3 ,b'ld'g1 ,b'l'v'd1 ,m'f'g4 ,when the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used1 these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used4 ,there is no accepted list of these contractions4 ,we devise them according to our need at the moment4 ,an abbreviation1 however1 is an authorized contraction of the word4 ,it is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space4 ,the apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period4 ,as for example3 ,bldg4 ,blvd4 ,mfg4 ,these abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently4 ,too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous4 ,take time to write out the majority of words4 ,only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words4 ,avoid an excessive use of abbreviations4 ,,commonly ,,used ,,abbreviations #dhf4 ,we quite often abbreviate the names of the months1 especially those which have long names4 ,short names like ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june and ,july1 should never be abbreviated4 ,for the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations1 ,jan41 ,feb41 ,aug41 ,sept41 ,oct41 ,nov41 ,dec4 ,days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows3 ,sun41 ,mon41 ,tues41 ,wed41 ,thur41 ,fri41 ,sat4 ,do not use these abbreviations too often4 ,spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space4 ,mr41 ,mrs41 ,messrs41 ,jr41 ,sr41 are never spelled out1 but are always written in the abbreviated form4 ,you will often find ,doctor and ,professor abbreviated to ,dr41 ,prof4 ,this is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full4 #dhg4 ,we have abbreviated forms for a number of names2 as for example3 ,geo41 ,chas41 ,thos41 ,wm41 etc4 ,but it is always much better to write these names out in full3 ,george1 ,charles1 ,thomas1 ,william1 etc4 ,remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them4 ,jim1 ,charley1 ,tom1 and ,bill are not abbreviations but nicknames4 ,in correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space1 we abbreviate the names of states and territories1 as follows3 ,alabama1 ,ala4 ,arizona1 ,ariz4 ,arkansas1 ,ark4 ,california1 ,cal4 ,colorado1 ,colo4 ,connecticut1 ,conn4 ,delaware1 ,del4 ,district of ,columbia1 ,d4 ,c4 ,florida1 ,fla4 ,georgia1 ,ga4 ,idaho1 ,ida4 ,illinois1 ,ill4 ,indiana1 ,ind4 ,iowa1 ,ia4 ,kansas1 ,kan4 ,kentucky1 ,ky4 ,louisiana1 ,la4 ,maine1 ,me4 ,maryland1 ,md4 ,massachusetts1 ,mass4 ,michigan1 ,mich4 ,minnesota1 ,minn4 ,mississippi1 ,miss4 ,missouri1 ,mo4 ,montana1 ,mont4 ,nebraska1 ,neb4 ,nevada1 ,nev4 ,new ,hampshire1 ,n4 ,h4 ,new ,jersey1 ,n4 ,j4 ,new ,mexico1 ,n4 ,m4 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,north ,carolina1 ,n4 ,c4 ,north ,dakota1 ,n4 ,d4 ,ohio1 ,o4 ,oklahoma1 ,okla4 ,oregon1 ,ore4 ,pennsylvania1 ,pa4 or ,penna4 ,rhode ,island1 ,r4 ,i4 ,south ,carolina1 ,s4 ,c4 ,south ,dakota1 ,s4 ,d4 ,tennessee1 ,tenn4 ,texas1 ,tex4 ,vermont1 ,vt4 ,virginia1 ,va4 ,washington1 ,wash4 ,west ,virginia1 ,w4 ,va4 ,wisconsin1 ,wis4 ,wyoming1 ,wyo4 #dhh4 ,use a4 m4 and p4 m4 after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose1 but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full4 ,as for example1 do not say3 ,i will arrive tomorrow a4 m41 or1 ,you may call about eight p4 m4 ,say rather3 ,i will arrive tomorrow morning4 ,you may call at eight o'clock this evening4 ,the letters a4 m4 are the abbreviation for ante meridiem1 ,latin for before noon2 and p4 m4 for post meridiem1 meaning afternoon4 #dhi4 ,two consecutive years may be written #aiad-ae1 but use #aiae rather than '#ae4 ,in the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full1 as1 ,may #bh1 #aiae1 instead of #e-bh-ae4 ,in the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing4 ,the list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used1 especially in business correspondence3 for at acct4 for account agt4 for agent amt4 for amount ans4 for answer asst4 for assistant atty4 for attorney av4 for average bal4 for balance bbl4 for barrel bdl4 for bundle bro4 for brother bros4 for brothers blk4 for black bls4 for bales bu4 or bush4 for bushels ,co4 for company chgd4 for charged ,c4 ,o4 ,d4 for cash on delivery cr4 creditor cts4 cents cwt4 for hundred weight cu4 for cubic do4 for the same dr4 for debtor doz4 for dozen ea4 for each et al4 for and others e4 g4 for example etc4 for and so forth ft4 for foot or feet frt4 freight f4 o4 b4 free on board gal4 gallon guar4 for guaranty hdkfs4 for handkerchiefs h4 p4 horse power in4 for inches ins4 for insurance inst4 for this month i4 e4 for that is ,jr4 for junior lb4 for pound memo4 for memorandum ,mon4 for ,monday mo4 for month mos4 for months mdse4 for merchandise mfg4 for manufacturing ,mss4 for manuscript no4 for number ,n4 ,b4 for take notice ,o4 ,k4 for all correct oz4 for ounce for per cent pp4 pages pr4 for pair pt4 for pint pk4 for peck prox4 for next month qt4 for quart recd4 for received sec4 for second ,sec4 for secretary ,sr4 for senior ,supt4 for superintendent ult4 for last month via by way of viz4 namely vol4 for volume wt4 for weight yd4 for yard yds4 for yards yr4 for year ,exercise #d ,write the proper abbreviations for the following words3 ,building ,charles ,boulevard ,tuesday ,arkansas ,mississippi ,foot ,virginia ,georgia ,senior ,by way of ,per cent ,charged ,avenue ,october ,delaware ,professor ,thursday ,colorado ,kansas ,handkerchiefs ,january ,secretary ,superintendent ,received ,that is ,free on board ,monday ,oklahoma ,july ,thomas ,california ,company ,account ,friday ,merchandise ,number ,all correct ,cash on delivery ,and so forth ,colonel ,maine ,august ,william ,missouri ,brothers ,amount ,wyoming ,,spelling ,,lesson #bh ,there is no way to learn to spell except by constant application4 ,watch in your reading the spelling of all words4 ,whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary1 master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word4 ,keep your dictionary handy2 use it constantly in the study of your lessons4 ,do not guess at the spelling of the word4 ,you are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up4 ,read your examinations over carefully before sending them in1 watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation4 ,when your papers are graded and returned you1 make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words4 ,do not be guilty of the same error twice4 ,remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling4 ,while there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other1 we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning4 ,words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms4 ,it is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning4 ,it is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power4 ,they do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it4 ,with their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning4 ,for the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms4 ,for the words given in the lessons for the last three days1 look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym4 ,monday ,abundant ,plenty ,precarious ,uncertain ,behavior ,conduct ,tuesday ,abuse ,invective ,hateful ,odious ,praise ,applause ,wednesday ,sufficient ,enough ,refuge ,asylum ,achieve ,attain ,thursday ,insolent ,revenge ,curb ,repudiate ,censure ,regret ,friday ,prosperity ,subterfuge ,event ,observe ,portion ,destroy ,saturday ,talkative ,indolent ,profit ,volunteer ,cordial ,enormous ,there are a number of nouns very similar in form1 yet different in meaning1 which we very often use incorrectly4 ,cross out in these sentences the incorrect word4 ,look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning3 ,roger's essay--assay won him praise4 ,the assay--essay indicated the quantity of gold in the metal4 ,the completion--completeness of the course entitled me to a ,diploma4 ,the completion--completeness of the arrangements fills us with hope of success4 ,confidants--confidence often betray us4 ,the business world is built upon confidants--confidence4 ,the conscience--consciousness of a religious person is very sensitive4 ,the class struggle develops class conscience--consciousness4 ,the strikers listened to unwise counsel--council4 ,the council--counsel refused the franchise4 ,you knew he was a cultured--cultivated man1 the moment you met him4 ,it is a highly cultured--cultivated plant4 ,i asked her for the recipe--receipt for making cake4 ,he gave her a receipt--recipe for the money4 ,emigration---immigration has reduced the population of ,servia4 ,emigration--immigration is flooding the ,united ,states with cheap labor4 ,edison's discovery--invention of the storage battery was a momentous event4 ,the discovery--invention of gold in ,alaska attracted the attention of the world4 ,the state placed a limitation--limit upon the sale of liquor within certain limits--limitations4 ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #bi ,dear ,comrade3 ,the spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or woman4 ,it is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work that count the most for us4 ,the things which come to us without any effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good while we have them4 ,sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to attend school as much as we would like4 ,there is no gainsaying but that this is a tremendous handicap and yet1 after all1 it is not an insurmountable obstacle4 ,it is much better to have the appetite without the food than to have the food without the appetite4 ,there is always a chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle hard enough4 ,so in the matter of an education4 ,many a man who has never seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been through college4 ,these men have really wanted knowledge1 have sought it early and late1 and have found knowledge2 and because they were in the work-a-day world1 in constant contact with their fellow-men1 they were able to relate the knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they lived and this is true education4 ,this is1 also1 what many college-bred people lack4 ,a student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake4 ,if you are striving to learn1 not to make grades or to pass examinations or to secure a degree1 but simply for the sake of knowing things1 then indeed you are on the way to become really educated4 ,stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge1 observe the things about you1 add to your store of information daily2 read a good book each day1 even if you have time to read only a page or two1 and you will be surprised at the result in your life4 ,take1 for example1 our spelling4 ,why should we continually misspell the words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed page4 ,if we are wide-awake and have our eyes open1 we can soon learn to spell correctly all these common words1 at least4 ,make a list this week of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work1 then look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have misspelled4 ,there is no reason why we should not be learning constantly and the more we observe1 the more acute becomes our power of observation4 ,let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great world movement1 that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the vision of what the world might be1 and that we belong to that glorious army of those who are fighting for the dream2 so we may take courage2 so we may find joy in the struggle1 bitter as it may be1 and so we may do our part in the fight4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,punctuation #dij4 ,marks of punctuation are very important in our written language4 ,they take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and intonation of the voice1 by which we make our meaning clear in vocal speech4 ,so the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical devices4 ,they are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our thought4 ,punctuation is a word derived from the ,latin word punctum which means a point4 ,we have other words from the same derivation1 as puncture1 etc4 ,punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to make its meaning clear4 ,some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the omission of punctuation marks4 ,it is said1 that a toast was one time given at a public dinner2 ,woman6 without her1 man would be a savage4 ,the next day it appeared in print2 ,woman1 without her man1 would be a savage4 ,you can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence4 #dia4 ,in conversation1 the tone of the voice which we use1 has a great effect upon our meaning1 for example ,i might say1 ,the ,international failed1 in such a tone of voice1 that it would express despair and chagrin1 and indicate that the ,international was a thing of the past2 or ,i might say1 ,the ,international failed1 with such an inflection1 that you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with contempt1 that the ,international was still powerful and its triumph inevitable4 ,and in writing1 the only way we have of expressing these shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks4 ,so these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly1 or put there simply for decoration2 they have a meaning and a very great meaning4 ,those who use short1 crisp sentences have less need for punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences4 ,when we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply1 we will naturally use fewer marks of punctuation4 #dib4 ,you will find that1 in writing in connection with business1 there is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical writings4 ,business writing is usually direct and simple in style4 ,its purpose is to state facts4 ,the literary and philosophical writing1 however1 expresses more involved ideas and emotions1 and in these1 the punctuation is exceedingly important4 #dic4 ,one of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a pause or break in the thought4 ,a very good rule to go by in punctuating is to repeat the sentence aloud1 and whenever you pause for breath or because of a break in the thought1 it is a pretty safe indication that in that place1 you should have a punctuation mark4 #did4 ,the following are the chief marks of punctuation3 #a4 ,the ,comma 1 #b4 ,the ,semi-colon 2 #c4 ,the ,colon 3 #d4 ,the ,period 4 #e4 ,the ,interrogation ,point 8 #f4 ,the ,exclamation ,point 6 #g4 ,the ,dash -- #h4 ,the ,parenthesis 77 #i4 ,the ,bracket #aj4 ,the ,quotation ,marks #aa4 ,the ,apostrophe ' #ab4 ,the ,hyphen - ,,the ,,comma #die4 ,the comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the thought4 ,there are a number of rules given for the use of commas4 ,these rules1 like the rules for the use of capitals1 you cannot commit to memory2 but1 after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to your reading1 you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use of the comma4 ,select some book which you are reading and go through it1 noticing especially the use of the commas4 ,see if you can determine the reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did4 ,notice1 also1 what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would have upon the meaning of the sentence4 #dif4 ,the ,comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence4 ,,rule #a4 #dig4 ,words1 phrases and clauses1 forming a series and used in the same construction1 should be separated from each other by commas when the conjunctions are omitted4 ,,words ,,which ,,form ,a ,,series #dih4 ,the words which form a series1 separated by a comma may be either nouns1 adjectives1 adverbs or verbs4 ,the comma is only used where the conjunction is omitted4 ,note carefully the following sentences3 ,love1 laughter and happiness are the right of every child4 ,he visited every city1 town and village4 ,the working class has been meek1 humble1 docile and gullible4 ,all the crushed1 tortured1 strangled1 maimed and murdered ideals of the ages shall become an everlasting reality4 ,he struggled patiently1 faithfully and fearlessly for the cause4 ,if labor thinks1 dares1 rebels1 fights1 it will be victorious4 ,,phrases ,,which ,,form ,,series #dii4 ,phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted4 ,for example3 ,day after day1 year after year1 century after century1 the class struggle has proceeded4 ,the struggle in the mines1 in the fields1 in the factories and in the shops1 will go on until labor receives the product of its toil4 ,,clauses ,,used ,,in ,a ,,series #ejj4 ,sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction and a comma is used to indicate the omission4 ,for example3 ,do not moan1 do not submit1 do not kneel1 do not pray1 do not wait4 ,speak as you mean1 do as you profess1 perform what you promise4 ,,rule #b4 #eja4 ,explanatory and introductory expressions1 words in direct address1 parenthetical words and phrases1 are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,note carefully the following examples3 ,jaures1 the great ,french ,socialist1 was the first martyr to peace4 ,war having been declared1 the troops were mobilized4 ,no1 ,i cannot believe you4 ,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i desire to speak to the convention4 ,we can1 of course1 give you the information you desire4 ,,rule #c4 #ejb4 ,words1 phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,these words1 phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of the sentences or at the end of the sentences1 or in some place out of their natural order1 for the sake of emphasis1 instead of with the words they modify4 ,notice in the following sentences how these words1 phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas4 ,rewrite these sentences1 placing these words1 phrases and clauses in their natural order and omit the commas4 ,longingly and anxiously1 he waited4 ,with this exception1 the figures are correct4 ,the music1 sweet and dreamy1 floated upon the air4 ,the waves came rolling in1 white with foam4 ,to deceive the men1 he resorted to shameful tricks4 ,before anyone else could speak1 he was on his feet4 ,,rule #d4 #ejc4 ,co-ordinate clauses1 when closely related in meaning are separated by commas4 ,the comma should precede the co-ordinate conjunction4 ,for example3 ,i have not intended to detain you1 but the matter required explanation4 ,,rule #e4 #ejd4 ,the omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be indicated by a comma4 ,sometimes in writing for effect or to give emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence2 at other times we omit the verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences1 and its continued use would mean a tiresome repetition4 ,for example3 ,reading maketh a full man2 conference1 a ready man2 writing1 an exact man4 ,here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is indicated by the use of the comma4 ,,rule #f4 #eje4 ,short1 direct quotations should be preceded by a comma4 ,for example3 ,their slogan is1 ,an injury to one is the concern of all4 ,ferrer's last words were1 ,long live the modern school4 ,,rule #g4 #ejf4 ,separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three figures each by the use of commas4 ,for example3 ,the population of the ,united ,states has now reached #ajj1jjj1jjj4 ,according to the census of #aijj1 there are #bi1jgc1bcc people engaged in gainful occupations in the ,united ,states4 ,exercise #a ,supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places3 #a4 ,food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life4 #b4 ,we believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or plutocracy4 #c4 ,man is the master of nature of law of life4 #d4 ,we shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own4 #e4 ,sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the fruits of poverty4 #f4 ,you should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and perseveringly4 #g4 ,the most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of the disinherited4 #h4 ,through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall become truth4 #i4 ,first let us consider the main question4 #aj4 ,mr4 ,president ,i rise to a point of order4 #aa4 ,we the workers of the world must unite4 #ab4 ,the class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our class8 #ac4 ,you have not it seems understood the issue4 #ad4 ,of all our needs education is the greatest4 #ae4 ,regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro4 #af4 ,before any one can take special training he must have a good knowledge of ,english4 #ag4 ,we plead for education universal and free4 #ah4 ,the first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense the third good humor and the fourth wit4 #ai4 ,the slogan of the ,people's ,college is ,the education of the workers by the workers4 #bj4 ,according to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the ,united ,states is #ahebajjb4 #ba4 ,there are #dfaajjj in the first grade and #aeejjj in the last year of high school4 ,,the ,,semi-,,colon #ejg4 ,the semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the comma4 ,the period indicates a complete break in the thought4 ,so the comma indicates a slight break1 the semi-colon a greater break in the thought1 and the period1 the completion of the thought4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,semi-,,colon #ejh4 ,the semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought4 ,for example3 ,the wind is chill2 ,but let it whistle as it will1 ,we'll keep our ,christmas merry still4 #eji4 ,as a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences that are already punctuated by commas4 ,for example3 ,after considerable delay1 he came back to look for his friends2 but1 though he looked diligently1 he could not find them4 #eaj4 ,the semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple sentences when the conjunction is omitted4 ,the continual repetition of the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the forcefulness of our sentences4 ,so instead of continually repeating the conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons4 ,for example3 ,through the industrial revolution1 the face of the earth is making over even as to its physical forms2 political boundaries are wiped out and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map2 population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the earth2 habits of living are altered with startling abruptness2 the search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated2 and the application of these truths to life is made not only practicable1 but commercially necessary4 #eaa4 ,the semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of specific statements4 ,for example3 ,we quote you the following prices3 ,grade ,no4 #a1 #a4jj2 ,grade ,no4 #b1 #b4ij2 poorer grades not in demand4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,colon #eab4 ,the colon is not used as much as it formerly was4 ,the comma and the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where older writers used the colon4 ,one authority in ,english says that1 in strict logic the colon is to the sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in mathematics4 #eac4 ,the colon is used before a formal list of items4 ,for example3 ,economics has three important divisions3 production1 distribution1 consumption4 #ead4 ,the colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a letter4 ,for example3 ,dear ,sir3 ,gentlemen3 ,comrades3 ,in such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon4 ,for example3 ,my dear ,sir3-- ,gentlemen3-- ,comrades3-- #eae4 ,the colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such expressions as1 thus3 as follows3 the following3 for example3 etc4 ,the colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are explanatory of the main clause4 ,for example3 ,the ,people's ,college has two great aims3 the first is to bring education within the reach of every worker2 the second is to teach from the viewpoint of the working class4 ,we were advised to proceed thus3 first1 to be systematic in our work2 second1 to concentrate2 third1 to go slowly and surely2 and last of all1 to think for ourselves4 ,,rules ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,period #eaf4 ,the period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion of a sentence4 #eag4 ,the period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative sentences4 ,for example3 ,there is talk of peace but preparation for war4 ,claim your own at any hazard4 #eah4 ,the period is used after all initials and all abbreviations1 as for example3 ,e4 ,v4 ,debs2 ,t4 ,p4 ,o',connor2 ,mr41 ,dr41 ,co41 ,mass41 ,n4 ,y41 ,c4 ,o4 ,d41 ,f4 ,o4 ,b41 ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 etc4 #eai4 ,the period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers4 ,for example3 #c4adaf #i4cdb4 ,a period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents2 as3 #d4ej1 #b4be1 #af4ed1 #ceibf4gb4 ,it is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money1 as3 #ad4 #aes4 #f;d4 #ebj4 ,the period is used after letters used as numerals or after figures used to number paragraphs1 notes1 remarks1 questions or any list of particulars4 ,for example3 ,the letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of rules as a4 b4 c41 etc41 also the numerals and letters marking sections or sub-sections in chapters1 as ,chapter #h4 ,paragraph #a4 ,rule #a4 ,page #d4 ,volume #b4 ,paragraph #c4 ,p4 #af4 #eba4 ,the period is also used after headings and titles1 after dates and signatures to letters and other documents2 also at the close of the address at the beginning of a letter1 and of the name at the close of the letter2 also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or package4 ,exercise #b ,in the following quotations place the commas1 semi-colons1 colons and periods in their proper places1 and be able to give a reason for what you do3 ,the man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated with a cross ,the most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life liberty and love ,the number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as follows ,napoleonic wars #aijjjjj our ,civil ,war #fefjjj ,franco-,german ,war #bijjjj ,boer ,war #ijhih ,russo-,japanese #eeeijj and in the present world-war untold millions ,walt ,whitman who represents individualism at its best writes ,i sing the song of myself ,to this the ,socialist replies ,inasmuch as my redemption is bound up in that of my class ,i sing the song of my class ,we believe with ,john ,ruskin whether there be one ,god or three no ,god or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept clean ,my dear ,mr ,smith ,your letter of the #aeth has been received ,through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world ,and this is the burden of its message ,by the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat bread ,the sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity of the working class ,its rays of light are bursting through the dark horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us ,it is lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not be ,exercise #c ,note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself1 in accordance with the rules we have studied1 why the commas1 semi-colons1 colons and periods are used as they are3 ,,john ,,brown ,states are not great ,except as man may make them2 ,men are not great except they do and dare4 ,but ,states1 like men1 ,have destinies that take them-- ,that bear them on1 not knowing why or where4 ,the why repels ,the philosophic searcher-- ,the why and where all questionings defy1 ,until we find1 ,far back in youthful nurture1 ,prophetic facts that constitute the why4 ,all merit comes ,from braving the unequal2 ,all glory comes from daring to begin4 ,fame loves the ,state ,that1 reckless of the sequel1 ,fights long and well1 whether it lose or win4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and there is one ,whose faith1 whose fight1 whose failing1 ,fame shall placard upon the walls of time4 ,he dared begin-- ,despite the unavailing1 ,he dared begin1 when failure was a crime4 ,when over ,africa ,some future cycle ,shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge2 ,when1 as with trumpet ,of ,archangel ,michael1 ,culture shall bid a colored race emerge2 99 99 99 99 99 ,from boulevards ,o'erlooking both ,nyanzas1 ,the statured bronze shall glitter in the sun1 ,with rugged lettering3 ,,john ,,brown ,,of ,,kansas3 ,,he ,,dared ,,begin2 ,,he ,,lost1 ,,but1 ,,losing1 ,,won4 --,eugene ,ware4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #bi ,last week we studied words which had the same1 or nearly the same1 meaning4 ,there is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words1 but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little difference which word we use4 ,some writers1 however1 are very careful and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word to express their meaning4 ,robert ,louis ,stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea4 ,a very amusing story is told of ,thomas ,carlyle1 who was very careful to use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to express4 ,he had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they occurred to him1 so he would have them for ready reference and use4 ,one day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him4 ,suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in his mind4 ,he wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget it in the morning1 but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold to secure his note book so he nudged ,jeanie1 his wife1 and said3 ,jeanie1 ,jeanie1 get up6 ,i have thought of a good word1 and ,i want you to write it down4 ,now it was equally cold for ,jeanie1 so ,jeanie nudged ,thomas and said3 ,thomas1 ,thomas1 get up yourself4 ,i have thought of a bad one6 ,nevertheless1 it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to write them down4 ,possibly to save trouble1 you had better write them for yourself6 ,but in addition to words which have the same meaning1 or almost the same meaning1 there are also words which express just the opposite meaning1 and it is well for us to be master of these words also4 ,these words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms4 ,words and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words for the first three days' study4 ,for the last three days1 words only are given4 ,look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the most suitable antonyms4 ,monday ,legal ,illegal ,artificial ,natural ,assert ,deny ,tuesday ,civilized ,barbarous ,courage ,cowardice ,active ,passive ,wednesday ,initial ,final ,temporary ,permanent ,history ,legend ,thursday ,addition ,cleverness ,assured ,genuine ,acquit ,increase ,friday ,affection ,composure ,enlarge ,anxious ,prompt ,discord ,saturday ,succeed ,describe ,winning ,wasteful ,superficial ,grieve ,write the proper word in the following blanks3 ,,patients or ,,patience ,the ,doctor has many4444444 ,we have no444444with stupidity4 ,,negligence or ,,neglect ,the accident was due to the444444of the employer4 ,he has been guilty of444444of his family for he was injured by the criminal444444of the ,railroad ,company4 ,,observance or ,,observation ,the troops were concealed from4444444 ,trade ,unions never fail in the444444of ,labor ,day4 ,a man's own444444will guide him in the444444of all good customs4 ,,relatives or ,,relations ,taft and ,roosevelt did not always have pleasant444444with each other4 ,he has gone to visit his4444444 ,we do not always have pleasant444444with our4444444 ,,sects or ,,sex ,there are many religious4444444 ,woman is refused the ballot because of her4444444 ,,statue or ,,statute ,the law was placed upon the444444books4 ,the world will sometime erect a444444to the man of the people4 ,do not fear to be thought a high-brow if you use these words in your every day speech4 ,the very people who may laugh are in their hearts admiring you1 and are1 in all probability1 envious4 ,the man who has accused another of being a high-brow has by that very act1 admitted his own inferiority4 ,demand the best for yourself in words1 as in everything else4 ,,plain ,,english ,,lesson #cj ,dear ,comrade3 ,with this lesson we are finishing this course in ,plain ,english4 ,we have covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of grammar4 ,we have tried1 as far as possible1 to avoid the stupid conning of rules or learning by rote4 ,we have attempted at least to make the reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated4 ,we have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of language1 for language is a romance2 in its growth is written the epic of the race4 ,our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage4 ,so1 feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been1 we trust that you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new vision of life4 ,most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch much of the beauty of life4 ,that is the curse of a society that dooms its citizens to weary1 toil-burdened lives1 robbed of the joy and beauty of living4 ,yet1 if we know how to read we can always have access to books and through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page4 ,the quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers4 ,will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with these men and women8 ,above all things they will bring you into the atmosphere of liberty and of freedom4 ,for throughout all the pain of the struggle of the past and of the present1 there has been the fight of man for freedom4 ,we have gained the mastery over nature4 ,wild animals1 which were a constant menace to savage man1 have been destroyed4 ,we have been freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature4 ,with the invention of the machine1 man has increased his ability to provide the essentials of life1--food1 clothing and shelter--a thousandfold4 ,the past has seen revolution after revolution in the struggle for mastery4 ,we now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them and make them serve him4 ,his increased facilities for food-getting and shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind4 ,we have a part to play in that great revolution4 ,whatever you may have gained from the study of this course2 what increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to you2 may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own4 ,yours for ,education1 ,,the ,,people',s ,,college4 ,,the ,,eternal ,,why #ebb4 ,there is no more important mark of punctuation than the ,interrogation ,point4 ,asking questions is the foundation and beginning of all wisdom4 ,progress is based upon the eternal ,why4 ,if men had always been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually asked questions which they set themselves to answer1 we would still be living in caves or dwelling in trees4 ,the natural child1 that is1 the child whose will has not been broken1 is an animated ,interrogation ,point4 ,he is full of questions4 ,he wants to know why this and why that4 ,this is a most natural trait and one that should not be destroyed4 ,it may sadly interfere sometimes with the things that we wish to do1 to stop and answer the child's questions as to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on while he was doing it2 but it is decidedly important that some one should answer these questions which the child asks1 in a manner to satisfy its present craving for knowledge4 ,the fact that this trait has been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains their stupidity in later years4 ,encourage every child to ask questions4 ,encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer to its questions4 ,cultivate also this trait yourself4 ,do not accept a thing simply because some one says it is so4 ,insist upon knowing for yourself4 ,this is the secret of progress1 that we should think for ourselves1 investigate for ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own ideas4 ,the wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does he reject it because it is new4 ,he inquires1 demands1 reasons and satisfies himself as to the merit of the question4 ,so the ,interrogation ,point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning4 ,it stands for the open and inquiring mind2 for the courage that dares question all things and seek the truth4 ,,the ,,interrogation ,,point #ebc4 ,an ,interrogation ,point should be placed after every direct question4 ,a direct question is one that can be answered4 ,an indirect question is one that cannot be answered4 ,if ,i say1 ,why do you not study81 ,i am asking a direct question to which you can give an answer2 but if ,i say1 ,i wonder why you do not study1 ,i have asked an indirect question which does not require a direct answer4 ,why do you not go8 7,direct7 ,he asked why you did not go4 7,indirect7 #ebd4 ,when an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another sentence1 use the interrogation point after the clause1 and begin the clause with a capital letter4 ,for example3 ,the question1 ,shall we be involved in war81 should be settled by the people4 ,,the ,,exclamation ,,point #ebe4 ,the exclamation point should be placed after words1 phrases or sentences that express strong emotion4 ,for example3 ,oh6 ,when shall peace reign again8 ,alas6 ,i am undone6 ,to the firing line6 the battle rages6 #ebf4 ,ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the interjection or word used as an interjection1 but frequently when the strong emotion continues throughout the expression1 the exclamation point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the interjection1 even though the interjection comes first in the sentence4 ,for example3 ,on1 ,comrades1 on6 ,charge1 ,chester1 charge6 ,,the ,,dash #ebg4 ,the dash is a much abused punctuation mark4 ,a great many writers who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark4 ,their rule seems to be1 whenever you pause make a dash4 ,punctuation marks indicate pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion4 ,the dash should not be used as a substitute for the comma1 semi-colon1 colon1 etc4 ,in reality1 the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be correctly used4 #ebh4 ,the chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,in the next place--but ,i cannot discuss the matter further under the circumstances4 #ebi4 ,the dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with the sentence as would be indicated by commas4 ,as for example3 ,the contention may be true--although ,i do not believe it--that this sort of training is necessary4 #ecj4 ,the dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or more expressive pause4 ,for example3 ,the man sank--then rose--then sank again4 #eca4 ,the dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a summing up4 ,for example3 ,production1 distribution1 consumption--all are a part of economics4 #ecb4 ,a dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for emphasis4 ,for example3 ,is there universal education--education for every child beneath the flag8 ,it is not for the masses of the children--not for the children of the masses4 #ecc4 ,if the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation marks1 this mark should be placed before the second dash4 ,for example3 ,war for defense--and was there ever a war that was not for defense8--was permitted by the ,international4 ,this sight--what a wonderful sight it was6--greeted our eyes with the dawn4 #ecd4 ,the dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word1 especially such words as as1 namely1 viz41 etc4 ,for example3 ,society is divided into two classes--the exploited and the exploiting classes4 #ece4 ,after a quotation1 use the dash before the name of the author4 ,for example3 ,life only avails1 not the having lived4--,emerson4 #ecf4 ,the dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures4 ,for example3 ,it happened in the city of ,m--4 ,it was in the year #ah--4 ,,parenthesis #ecg4 ,in our study of the comma and the dash we have found that parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash4 ,when the connection with the rest of the sentence is close1 and yet the words are thrown in in a parenthetical way1 commas are used to separate the parenthetical statement from the rest of the sentence4 #ech4 ,when the connection is not quite so close1 the dash is used instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown in by way of explanation or additional statement4 ,but when we use explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence1 these phrases or clauses are separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis4 #eci4 ,,general ,,rule3--,marks of parenthesis are used to set off expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the sentence4 ,for example3 ,ignorance 7and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it87 keeps us enslaved4 ,education 7and this is a point that needs continual emphasis7 is the foundation of all progress4 ,,the ,,punctuation ,,of ,,the ,,parenthesis #edj4 ,if the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an exclamation1 it should be followed by the interrogation point or the exclamation point1 within the parenthesis4 ,for example3 ,we are all of us 7who can deny it87 partial to our own failings4 ,the lecturer 7and what a marvelous orator he is67 held the audience spellbound for hours4 ,,other ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,parenthesis #eda4 ,an ,interrogation ,point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the accuracy of our statement4 ,for example3 ,in #aheh 787 this great movement was started4 ,john 787 ,smith was the next witness4 #edb4 ,the parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the enumeration of particulars4 ,for example3 ,economics deals with 7#a7 production1 7#b7 distribution1 7#c7 consumption4 ,there are three sub-heads2 7a7 grammar1 7b7 rhetoric1 7c7 composition4 #edc4 ,marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number written in figures when it is also written in words1 as3 ,we will need forty 7#dj7 machines in addition to those we now have4 ,enclosed find ,forty ,dollars 7#dj4jj7 to apply on account4 ,,the ,,bracket #edd4 ,the bracket indicates that the word or words included in the bracket are not in the original discourse4 #ede4 ,the bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing words1 dates and the like1 and for corrections1 additions and explanations4 ,for example3 ,this rule usually applies though there are some exceptions4 ,see ,note #c1 ,rule #a1 ,page #fg4 #edf4 ,all interpretations1 notes1 corrections and explanations1 which introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself1 should be enclosed in brackets4 #edg4 ,brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis4 ,if we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical statement this should be enclosed in a bracket4 ,for example3 ,he admits that this fact 7the same fact which the previous witness ,mr4 ,james ,e4 ,smith had denied7 was only partially true4 ,,quotation ,,marks #edh4 ,quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are the exact words of the writer or speaker4 #edi4 ,a direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,he remarked1 ,i believe it to be true4 ,but an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,he remarked that he believed it was true4 #eej4 ,when the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation it is not necessary to use the quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,all courage comes from braving the unequal4--,eugene ,f4 ,ware4 ,when the name of the author precedes the quotation1 the marks are used1 as in the following3 ,it was ,eugene ,f4 ,ware who said1 ,men are not great except they do and dare4 #eea4 ,when we are referring to titles of books1 magazines or newspapers1 or words and phrases used in illustration1 we enclose them in quotation marks1 unless they are written in italics4 ,for example3 ,whitman's ,leaves of ,grass or ,whitman's ,leaves of ,grass4 ,the ,new ,york ,call or ,the ,new ,york ,call4 ,the word book is a noun1 or1 ,the word book is a noun4 ,,the ,,quotation ,,within ,a ,,quotation #eeb4 ,when a quotation is contained within another1 the included quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire quotation enclosed by the usual marks4 ,for example3 ,he began by saying1 ,the last words of ,ferrer1 ',long live the modern school' might serve as the text for this lecture4 ,the speaker replied1 ,it was ,karl ,marx who said1 ',government always belongs to those who control the wealth of the country4' ,you will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used after it1 the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation4 ,,punctuation ,,with ,,quotation ,,marks #eec4 ,marks of punctuation are 7except the interrogation point and the exclamation point which are explained later7 placed inside the quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,a wise man said1 ,know thyself4 ,notice that the period is placed after the word thyself and is followed by the quotation marks4 ,we can easily rout the enemy1 declared the speaker4 ,notice that the comma is placed after enemy1 and before the quotation marks4 #eed4 ,the ,interrogation ,point and the ,exclamation ,point are placed within the quotation marks if they refer only to the words quoted1 but if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,he said1 ,will you come now8 ,did he say1 ,will you come now8 ,he said1 ,what a beautiful night6 ,how wonderfully inspiring is ,walt ,whitman's poem1 ,the ,song of the ,open ,road6 #eee4 ,sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within a quotation4 ,these words should be set off by commas1 and both parts of the quotation enclosed in quotation marks4 ,for example3 ,i am aware1 he said1 that you do not agree with me4 ,but why1 the speaker was asked1 should you make such a statement8 ,i do not believe1 he replied1 that you have understood me4 ,,the ,,apostrophe #eef4 ,the apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or syllables1 as3 ,he doesn't1 instead of does not2 ,we're1 instead of we are2 ,i'm1 instead of ,i am2 it's1 instead of it is2 ne'er1 instead of never2 they'll1 instead of they will1 etc4 #eeg4 ,the apostrophe is also used to denote possession4 ,in the single form of the nouns it precedes the s4 ,in the plural form of nouns ending in s it follows the s4 ,for example3 ,boy's1 man's1 girl's1 king's1 friend's1 etc4 ,boys'1 men's1 girls'1 kings'1 friends'1 etc4 ,note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns ours1 yours1 its1 theirs1 hers4 #eeh4 ,the apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters1 figures or signs4 ,for example3 ,dot your i's and cross your t's4 ,he seems unable to learn the table of #h's and #i's4 ,do not make your n's and u's so much alike4 #eei4 ,the apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in dates1 as3 '#hg instead of #ahhg1 '#ae instead of #aiae4 ,,the ,,hyphen #efj4 ,the hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the end of a line to indicate that a word is divided4 ,we have so many compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not4 ,as1 for example2 we find such words as schoolhouse1 bookkeeper1 railway and many others which are1 in reality1 compound words and in the beginning were written with the hyphen4 ,we have used them so frequently and their use as compound words has become so commonplace1 that we no longer use the hyphen in writing them4 ,yet frequently you will find them written with the hyphen by some careful writer4 #efa4 ,as a general rule the parts of all words which are made by uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens1 as3 ,men-of-war1 knee-deep1 half-hearted1 full-grown1 mother-in-law1 etc4 #efb4 ,the numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a hyphen1 as2 forty-two1 twenty-seven1 thirty-nine1 etc4 #efc4 ,when the word self is used with an adverb1 a noun or an adjective1 it is always connected by the hyphen1 as2 self-confidence1 self-confident1 self-confidently1 self-command1 self-assertive1 self-asserting1 etc4 #efd4 ,when the word fold is added to a number of more than one syllable1 the hyphen is always used1 as2 thirty-fold1 forty-fold1 fifty-fold1 etc4 ,if the numeral has but one syllable1 do not use the hyphen1 as2 twofold1 threefold1 fourfold1 etc4 #efe4 ,when fractions are written in words instead of figures always use the hyphen1 as2 one-half1 one-fourth1 three-sevenths1 nine-twelfths1 etc4 #eff4 ,the words half and quarter1 when used with any word1 should be connected by a hyphen1 as2 half-dollar1 quarter-pound1 half-skilled1 half-barbaric1 half-civilized1 half-dead1 half-spent1 etc4 #efg4 ,sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words are connected by the hyphen4 ,for example3 ,it was a never-to-be-forgotten day4 ,he wore a sort of ,i-told-you-so air4 ,they were fresh-from-the-pen copies4 ,,additional ,,marks ,,of ,,punctuation ,there are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in writing but which we find on the printed page4 ,it is well for us to know the meaning of these marks4 #efh4 ,the caret 77 is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or a number of words4 ,the omitted part is generally written above1 and the caret shows where it should be inserted4 ,for example3 s ,i cannot give you this permis ion4 received ,i have just a letter from him4 ,please write your matriculation number on all examination and all letters papers sent in to the ,college4 ,the above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of a letter1 a word or phrase4 #efi4 ,if a letter or manuscript is not too long1 it should always be rewritten and the omissions properly inserted4 ,occasionally1 however1 we are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it by the use of the caret4 ,if1 however1 there are many mistakes1 the letter or paper should be rewritten1 for the too frequent use of the caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript4 ,,marks ,,of ,,ellipsis #egj4 ,sometimes a long dash 7--------7 or succession of asterisks 799 99 99 99 99 997 or of points 74 4 4 4 4 47 is used to indicate the omission of a portion of a sentence or a discourse4 ,in printed matter usually the asterisks are used to indicate an omission4 ,in typewritten matter usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission4 ,in writing1 these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes 7-- -- -- --74 ,,marks ,,of ,,reference #ega4 ,on the printed page you will often find the asterisk 79971 or the dagger1 7,symbol3 dagger71 the section 771 or parallel lines 771 used to call your attention to some note or remark written at the close of the paragraph or on the margin1 at the bottom of the page or the end of the chapter4 ,it is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you come to the mark which indicates their presence1 for they usually contain some matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which you have just finished reading4 ,exercise #a ,in the following exercise1 note the various marks of punctuation and determine why each one is used3 ,,the ,,marseillaise ,ye sons of toil1 awake to glory6 ,hark1 hark1 what myriads bid you rise2 ,your children1 wives and grandsires hoary-- ,behold their tears and hear their cries6 ,shall hateful tyrants1 mischief breeding1 ,with hireling hosts1 a ruffian band1-- ,affright and desolate the land1 ,while peace and liberty lie bleeding8 ,,chorus ,to arms6 to arms6 ye brave6 ,th' avenging sword unsheathe6 ,march on1 march on1 all hearts resolved ,on ,victory or ,death4 ,with luxury and pride surrounded1 ,the vile1 insatiate despots dare1 ,their thirst for gold and power unbounded1 ,to mete and vend the light and air2 ,like beasts of burden would they load us1 ,like gods would bid their slaves adore1 ,but ,man is ,man1 and who is more8 ,then shall they longer lash and goad us8 7,,chorus7 ,o ,liberty6 can man resign thee1 ,once having felt thy generous flame8 ,can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee1 ,or whip thy noble spirit tame8 ,too long the world has wept bewailing1 ,that ,falsehood's dagger tyrants wield2 ,but ,freedom is our sword and shield1 ,and all their arts are unavailing6 7,,chorus7 --,rouget de ,lisle4 ,,thus ,,spake ,,zarathustra ,i teach ye the ,over-man4 ,the man is something who shall be overcome4 ,what have ye done to overcome him8 ,all being before this made something beyond itself3 and you will be the ebb of this great flood1 and rather go back to the beast than overcome the man8 ,what is the ape to the man8 ,a mockery or a painful shame4 ,and even so shall man be to the ,over-man3 a mockery or a painful shame4 ,man is a cord1 tied between ,beast and ,over-man--a cord above an abyss4 ,a perilous arriving1 a perilous traveling1 a perilous looking backward1 a perilous trembling and standing still4 ,what is great in man is that he is a bridge1 and no goal2 what can be loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under4 ,i love them that know how to live1 be it even as those going under1 for such are those going across4 ,i love them that are great in scorn1 because these are they that are great in reverence1 and arrows of longing toward the other shore6--,nietzsche4 ,,spelling ,,lesson #cj ,there are a great many words in ,english which are frequently mispronounced2 the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable2 for example1 thea'ter instead of the'ater2 the wrong sound is given to the vowel1 for example1 hearth is pronounced hurth4 ,sometimes1 too1 an extra letter is added in the pronunciation2 for example1 once is often pronounced as though it were spelled wunst4 ,the following is a list of common words that are frequently mispronounced1 and there are many others which you may add to this list as they occur to you4 ,look up the correct pronunciation in the dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud4 ,in the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation1 which we often hear4 ,acoustics a-cow-stics ,aeroplane air-e-o-plane ,apron a-pron ,athlete ath-a-lete ,autopsy au-top'-sy ,awkward awk-ard ,column col-yum ,coupon coo-pon ,deficit de-fic'it ,diphtheria dip-ther-y ,economic ee'co-nom-ic ,errand ur-rant ,faucet fos-set ,figure fig-ger ,film fill-um ,finance fi'nance ,guardian guar-deen' ,height heighth ,hostile hos-tile' ,hundred hund'erd ,idea i-dee' ,inaugurate in-aug-er-ate ,inquiry in'qui-ry ,inventory in-ven'-to-ry ,length lenth ,magazine mag'-a'zinn ,mischievous mis-chie'-vi-ous ,municipal mu-ni-cip'-al ,opponent op'-ponent ,overalls over-hauls ,rheumatism rheumatiz ,stomach stum-ick ,twice twict ,vaudeville vaw'de-ville ,there are a number of words in ,english which sound very much alike and which we are apt to confuse4 ,for example1 ,i heard a man recently say in a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and now needed an anecdote4 ,it is presumed that he meant that it needed an antidote4 ,some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been expelled but simply expended4 ,he undoubtedly meant that the individual had been suspended4 ,this confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our statements would otherwise have4 ,there are a number of words which are so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them4 ,in our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common of these easily confounded words4 ,add to the list as many others as you can4 ,monday ,lightening1 to make light ,lightning1 an electric flash ,prophesy1 to foretell ,prophecy1 a prediction ,accept1 to take ,except1 to leave out ,tuesday ,advice1 counsel ,advise1 to give counsel ,attendants1 servants ,attendance1 those present ,stationary1 fixed ,stationery1 pens1 paper1 etc4 ,wednesday ,formerly1 in the past ,formally1 in a formal way ,addition1 process of adding ,edition1 publication ,celery1 a vegetable ,salary1 wages ,thursday ,series1 a succession ,serious1 solemn ,precedent1 an example ,president1 chief or head ,partition1 a division ,petition1 a request ,friday ,ingenious1 skillful ,ingenuous1 honest ,jester1 one who jests ,gesture1 action ,lose1 to suffer loss ,loose1 to untie ,saturday ,presence1 nearness ,presents1 gifts ,veracity1 truthfulness ,voracity1 greediness ,disease1 illness ,decease1 death ,,the ,,end ,,and ,,the ,,beginning ,as we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we have covered quite a little ground4 ,we have covered the entire field of ,english grammar including punctuation4 ,but our study of ,english must not conclude with the study of this course4 ,this is simply the foundation which we have laid for future work4 ,you know when students graduate from high school or college the graduation is called the ,commencement4 ,that is a peculiarly fitting term1 for the gaining of knowledge ought truly to be the commencement of life for us4 ,some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a man's marriage to a charming1 wealthy woman4 ,he pursued and married her because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he grew to love her for herself4 ,so we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a living2 because we expect it to make us more efficient workers2 to increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher salary1 enter a better profession and be more certain of a job4 ,all this is well2 but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom for these reasons1 practical as they are1 we have fallen in love with her for her own sake4 ,we begin to take pleasure in her society2 we begin to want to know things for the sake of knowing them1 for the pleasure that it brings us1 quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain4 ,so while we have urged upon you the study of ,english because of the great practical benefit that it will be to you1 we trust that you have also grown to love the study for its own sake4 ,make this but the beginning of your work in the study of ,english4 ,,index 7by ,section ,no47 ,abbreviations1 #dhf-dhi ,absolute ,construction1 #cii ,adjectives ,defined1 #cf ,classification of1 #bdb-bde ,qualifying1 #bdf ,limiting1 #bdf ,descriptive1 #bdh ,numeral1 #bdi-bej ,demonstrative1 #bea ,how to discover1 #bdg ,interrogative1 #bee ,indefinite1 #bef-beg ,used as pronouns1 #beh-bei ,used as nouns1 #bfa ,comparison of1 #bfd-bga ,participles used as1 #bgb-bgd ,participle phrases used as1 #bge ,adverbs ,defined1 #da1 #bhb ,use of1 #bgi-bha ,how to tell1 #bhc ,classes of1 #bhd ,interrogative1 #bhe ,of mode1 #bhf1 #cig ,phrase ,adverbs1 #bhg ,to ,distinguish from ,adj1 #bhh-bhi ,derivation of1 #bij ,nouns used as1 #bia ,comparison of1 #bib-bid ,position of1 #bie ,with ,infinitive1 #bif ,common errors in use of1 #big-bih ,articles ,a and ,an1 use of1 #beb-bec ,the1 use of1 #bed ,capital ,letters ,need of1 #dfd ,uses of1 #bb1 #fj1 #dfe ,rules for1 #dff-dhd ,clauses ,defined1 #djf ,noun1 #cfa-cff1 #cga1 #dde ,adjective1 #cfg-cgb1 #ddf ,with ,conjunctions1 #cgf ,introduced by as1 #cgh ,adverb1 #ddg ,dependent1 kinds of1 #ddd-ddg ,conjunctions ,defined1 #eb1 #cca ,uses of1 #cbh ,classes of1 #cbi-ccj ,co-ordinate1 #ccb-ccd ,uses of1 #ccf-cde ,correlatives1 #cdf ,subordinate1 defined1 #cdi ,use of1 #cdg ,classes of1 #cej-cei ,phrase ,conjunctions1 #cfj ,connective ,words ,classes of1 #cgi ,uses of1 #chj-che ,contractions1 #dhe ,dictionary1 ,use of1 #d ,exclamatory ,words1 #cij-cia ,explanatory ,words1 #cih ,good ,english1 defined1 #b ,grammar1 ,english1 defined1 #aj ,independent ,expressions1 #cic ,infinitives ,use of1 #aea-afg ,to1 omitted1 #aec-aee ,forms of1 #aef ,passive1 #aef-aeg ,interjections ,defined1 #eg1 #chh ,classes of1 #chi ,introductory ,words1 #cid-cif ,language ,defined1 #h ,natural1 #e ,spoken1 #f ,written1 #g ,nouns ,defined1 #bf ,classification of1 #ei ,proper1 defined1 #fj ,common1 defined1 #fj ,collective1 defined1 #fa ,abstract1 #fb-ff ,concrete1 #fc ,number1 defined1 #fh ,number1 ,singular1 #fh ,number1 ,plural1 #fh ,formation of ,plural1 #fi-hd ,formation of ,possessive1 #hi-ij1 #ib ,compound1 #ia ,gender1 defined1 #he ,formation of ,feminine1 #hf ,neuter1 #hg ,common1 #hh ,object ,direct1 #ajj1 #djh-daj1 #dbg-dcj ,indirect1 #djh-daj ,participle ,defined1 #aaf ,active form1 #aad ,present form1 #aad1 #adh ,passive form1 #aae1 #adh ,past form1 #aae ,past irregular forms1 #abd ,used as nouns1 #adh ,used as adjective1 #bgb-bgd ,phrase1 #adi-aej ,phrase used as adjective1 #bge ,parts of ,speech1 #bd ,phrases ,verb1 #bi1 #dac ,adverbs1 #bhg ,prepositional1 #cjj-cje1 #cag-cba ,prepositions1 #cjh ,conjunctions1 #cfj ,predicate ,defined1 #ag ,complete1 #djf1 #dbe ,simple1 #djf ,simple ,enlarged1 #dfc ,complement1 #daa-dab ,modifiers of1 #dfa ,prepositions ,defined1 #dg1 #cje ,use of1 #cji-cab ,object of1 #cjd1 #cac ,list of1 #cjf ,how to ,distinguish from ,adverbs1 #cjg ,phrase prepositions1 #cjh ,place of1 #cad-caf ,common errors in use of1 #cbb ,with verbs1 #cbg ,choice of1 #cbc-cbf ,prepositional ,phrases1 #cjj-cje ,use of1 #cag-cba ,pronouns ,defined1 #dc1 #bjb ,antecedent of1 #bjc ,personal1 #bjd ,compound personal1 #bje-bjh ,number forms of1 #bji ,object forms of1 #bad-bae ,possessive forms of1 #baa-bac ,gender forms of1 #baf ,with verb be1 #bag-bah ,agreement of1 #bai-bbe ,personification1 #bbf ,interrogative1 #bbh-bca ,relative1 #bcb-bcf ,what1 #bcd1 #bcf-bdj ,who1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bdj ,which1 #bcd-bcf1 #bdj ,that1 #bcd-bcf ,omitted1 #bci ,punctuation ,need of1 #dij-dic ,marks of1 #did ,the ,comma1 #die-dif ,rules for use of1 #dig-ejf ,the ,semi-colon1 #djg-eaa ,the ,colon1 #eab-eae ,the ,period1 #bb1 #eaf-eba ,the ,interrogation ,point1 #bb1 #ebc-ebd ,the ,exclamation ,point1 #bb1 #ebe-ebf ,the ,dash1 #ebg-ecf ,the ,parenthesis1 #ecg-edc ,the ,bracket1 #edd-edg ,the ,quotation ,marks1 #edh-eee ,the ,apostrophe1 #eef-eei ,the ,hyphen1 #efj-efg ,the ,caret1 #efh ,marks of ,ellipsis1 #egj ,marks of ,reference1 #ega ,responsives1 #cib ,sentence ,defined1 #ae ,essentials of1 #ah ,use of1 #ai ,assertive1 #bj ,interrogative1 #bj ,imperative1 #bj ,exclamatory1 #ba ,elements1 order of1 #dcf-dch ,analysis of1 #def-deg ,simple1 defined1 #djd-djf ,modifiers of1 #dcd-dce ,essentials of1 #dei ,analysis of1 #djb-dje ,complex1 #djf1 #ddc1 #dea ,analysis of1 #ddh ,compound1 defined1 #djf1 #deb ,kinds of1 #dec-dee ,building of1 #djj ,classification of1 #dja ,summary of1 #deh ,subject of1 #daf-dbj ,subject ,defined1 #af ,complete1 #djf ,simple1 #djf ,simple1 enlarged1 #dfb ,place of1 #dba-dbd ,thought1 ,complete1 #ab-ad ,verb ,defined1 #bi ,complete1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aca1 #aeh ,incomplete1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aca1 #dbf ,classified1 #ii1 #ajc ,complement of1 #ie1 #ajb ,transitive1 defined1 #ajj1 #ajc ,object of1 #ajj1 #ada ,copulative1 #ajb-ajc1 #dca-dcc ,time forms ,present1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #aaa ,past1 #ajd1 #aji1 #aaa ,future1 #aah-abj ,pres4 ,perf41 #aba-abc1 #ade ,past ,perf41 #abf ,future ,perf41 #abh ,regular1 #aaj ,irregular1 #aaj ,progressive ,form1 #acc ,present1 #acd1 #adf ,past1 #ace1 #adf ,future1 #acf1 #adf ,pres4 ,perf41 #ach1 #adf ,past ,perf41 #aci1 #adf ,fut4 ,perf41 #adj1 #adf ,active1 #adb ,passive1 #ada-adf ,helping1 #afh-ahd ,be1 #ahf ,lay1 lie1 set1 sit1 raise1 rise1 #aia-aic ,s-form1 #ajf1 #aid-aif ,phrase1 #bi1 #dac-dad ,words ,defined1 #h ,mastery of1 #aj ,use of1 #bc 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 #a4 ,punctuation errors such as incorrect or missing end-of-sentence punctuation1 period for comma in mid-sentence1 and missing end quotation marks have been corrected without comment4 ,inconsistency in the author's spelling of certain words1 such as today_/to-day have been retained4 #b4 ,the list of foreign words broken across pp4 #dd-de 7section #hj47 and the list of abbreviations broken across pp4 #bie-bif 7section #dhi47 were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order4 #c4 ,the numbering in ,exercise #d on p4 #aaj 7section #aic47 was corrected4 #d4 ,added ditto marks 77 to the table on p4 #aec 7section #bgj74 #e4 ,commas were added to the separate the abbreviations on p4 #cje 7section #eah74 #f4 ,the following typographical errors were corrected3 ,page #aj your vocabularly changed to your vocabulary #bc verb-phrase changed to verb phrase #ch as limited a vocabularly changed to as limited a vocabulary #da the name of person changed to the name of the person #dd ,mr4 ,hays changed to ,mr4 ,hayes #hb the ,bastile changed to the ,bastille #adc publiher changed to publisher #aeg than he had them changed to than he had then #ahj the noun man changed to the noun men 7two instances7 #ahb a little work changed to a little word #ahg of the desire of changed to of the desire of #aia expresed changed to expressed #bjg ,he feels keenly and deeply and wrongs of his class4 changed to ,he feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class4 #bbb our expression of it become more simple4 changed to our expression of it became more simple4 #bch in apposition to the pronoun ,i changed to in apposition to the pronoun ,we4 #beb ,i see a pale face changed to ,i see a pale face #bfe ,with your faces pinches and blue changed to with your faces pinched and blue #bga the party which fought for their rights changed to the party which fought for their rights #bgg ,find e or y changed to ,final e or y #bhg ,the prefix in used with adjectives changed to ,the prefix un used with adjectives #cab ,the dash if often used changed to ,the dash is often used