---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,transcrib]'s note3 ,?is book 0 publi%$ 9 two volumes1 ( :i* ?is is ! ,numb]s enclos$ 9 squ>e brackets1 e4g4 #a1 relate to footnotes1 :i* h be5 plac$ at ! end ( ! text4 ,numb]s enclos$ 9 p>5!ses1 e4g4 7#a71 relate to works ref]r$ to 9 ! text & li/$ at ! end ( ?is volume4 ,9 ! text v]sions ( ^! two volumes1 words 9 italics are enclos$ 9 und]scores1 bold words are enclos$ 9 plus signs1 & words 9 ,go?ic script are enclos$ 9 equal signs4 ,curly brackets are us$ to repres5t subscripts1 e4g4 k#a4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,creation4 ,illu/ration3 ,hypo!tical ,sket* ( ! ,monophyletic ,orig9 ( ,man4 ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,creation3 ,,or ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants ,,by ,,! ,,action ,,( ,,natural ,,causes4 ,a ,,popul> ,,exposition ,,( ,,! ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,evolution ,,9 ,,g5]al1 ,,& ,,( ,,t ,,( ,,d>w91 ,,goe!1 ,,& ,,lam>ck ,,9 ,,p>ticul>4 ,,f ,,! ,,g]man ,,( ,,ern/ ,,haeckel1 ,,pr(essor ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,j5a4 ,,! ,,translation ,,revis$ ,,by ,,pr(essor ,e4 ,,ray ,,lanke/]1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,fell[ ,,( ,,exet] ,,college1 ,,ox=d4 ,,9 ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,& ,,company1 #a1 #c1 ,,& #e ,,bond ,,/reet4 #ahhj4 ,a s5se sublime ,( some?+ f> m deeply int]fus$1 ,^: dwell+ is ! light ( sett+ suns1 ,& ! r\nd ocean1 & ! liv+ air1 ,& ! blue sky1 & 9 ! m9d ( man2 ,a motion & a _s t impels ,all ?9k+ ?+s1 all objects ( all ?\ght1 ,& rolls ?r\gh all ?+s4 ,9 all ?+s1 9 all natures1 9 ! />s ,( azure heav51 ! un5dur+ cl\ds1 ,9 fl[] & tree1 9 e pebbly /one ,t paves ! brooks1 ! /ation>y rocks1 ,! mov+ wat]s & ! invisible air4 ,,wordswor?4 ,,cont5ts ,,( ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,page ,,p]iods ,,( ,,creation ,,& ,,records ,,( ,,creation4 ,re=m ( ,sy/ems by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,! ,natural ,sy/em z a ,p$igree4--,palontological ,records ( ! ,p$igree4--,petrifactions z ,records ( ,creation4--,deposits ( ! ,neptunic ,/rata & ! ,enclosure ( ,organic ,rema9s4--,division ( ! ,organic ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>? into ,five ,ma9 ,p]iods3 ,p]iod ( ! ,tangle ,=e/s1 ,f]n ,=e/s1 ,p9e ,=e/s1 ,foliace\s ,=e/s1 & ( ,cultivation4--,! ,s]ies ( ,neptunic ,/rata4--,immeasurable ,duration ( ! ,p]iods :i* h elaps$ dur+ _! ,=mation4--,deposits ( ,/rata only dur+ ! ,s9k+1 n dur+ ! ,elevation ( ! ,gr\nd4--,o!r ,gaps 9 ! ,records ( ,creation4--,metamorphic ,condition ( ! mo/ ,anci5t ,neptunic ,/rata4--,small ,ext5t ( ,palontological ,exp]i5ce4--,small proportion ( ,organisms & ( ,p>ts ( ,organisms ,capable ( ,petrify+4--,r>ity ( _m ,petrifi$ ,species4--,want ( ,fossilis$ ,int]m$iate ,=ms4--,records ( ! ,creation 9 ,ontog5y & 9 ,comp>ative ,anatomy #a ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,k+dom ,,( ,,! ,,proti/a4 ,special ,mode ( ,c>ry+ out ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t 9 ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,organisms4--,con/ruction ( ,p$igrees4--,desc5t ( all ,_m-cell$ f ,s+le-cell$ ,organisms4--,desc5t ( ,cells f ,mon]a4--,mean+ ( ,organic ,tribes1 or ,phyla4--,numb] ( ! ,tribes 9 ! ,animal & ,vegetable ,k+doms4--,! ,monophyletic ,hypo!sis ( ,desc5t1 or ! ,hypo!sis ( "o ,common ,prog5itor1 & ! ,polyphyletic ,hypo!sis ( ,desc5t1 or ! ,hypo!sis ( _m ,prog5itors4--,! ,k+dom ( ,proti/a1 or ,primval ,be+s4--,eight ,classes ( ! ,proti/a ,k+dom3 ,mon]a1 ,amb1 or ,protopla/2 ,:ip-swimm]s1 or ,flagellata2 ,ciliat$-balls1 ,cili ,catallacta2 ,labyr9?-/ream]s1 or ,labyr9?ule2 ,fl9t-cells1 or ,diatome2 ,muc\s-m\lds1 or ,myxomycetes2 ,root-foot]s 7,rhizopoda74--,rem>ks on ! ,g5]al ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,proti/a3 ,_! ,vital ,ph5om5a1 ,*emical ,composition1 & ,=mation 7,individuality & ,fundam5tal ,=m74--,phylog5y ( ! ,pro/i/a ,k+dom #cf ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,k+dom4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4--,division ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom into ,six ,bran*es & ,eighte5 ,classes4--,! ,fl[]less ,plants 7,cryptogamia74--,sub-k+dom ( ! ,?allus ,plants4--,! ,tangles1 or ,alg 7,prim>y ,alg1 ,gre5 ,alg1 ,br[n ,alg1 ,r$ ,alg74--,! ,?read-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,li*5s & ,fungi74--,sub-k+dom ( ! ,pro?allus ,plants4--,! ,mosses1 or ,musc9 7,wat]-mosses1 ,liv]worts1 ,leaf-mosses1 ,bog-mosses74--,! ,f]ns1 or ,filic9 7,leaf-f]ns1 ,bamboo-f]ns1 ,wat]-f]ns1 ,scale-f]ns74--,sub k+dom ( ,fl[]+ ,plants 7,phan]ogamia74--,! ,gymnosp]ms1 or ,plants ) ,nak$ ,se$s 7,palm-f]ns ,cycade2 ,p9es ,conif]74--,! ,angiosp]ms1 or ,plants ) ,enclos$ ,se$s4--,monocotyl4--,dicotyl4--,cup-blo ssoms 7,apetal74--,/>-blossoms 7,diapetal74--,bell-blossoms 7,gamopetal7 #gg ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,i4 ,,animal-,,plants ,,& ,,worms4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,l9nu' & ,lam>ck's ,sy/ems4--,! ,f\r ,types ( ,br & ,cuvi]4--,_! ,increase to ,sev5 ,types4--,g5ealogical ,importance ( ! ,sev5 ,types z ,indep5d5t ,tribes ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,d]ivation ( ,zoophytes & ,worms f ,primval ,animals4--,monophyletic & ,polyphyletic ,hypo!sis ( ! ,desc5t ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,common ,orig9 ( ! ,f\r ,high] ,animal ,tribes out ( ! ,worm ,tribe4--,division ( ! ,sev5 ,animal ,tribes into ,sixte5 ,ma9 ,classes1 & ,?irty-eight ,classes4--,primval ,animals 7,mon]a1 ,amb1 ,synamb71 ,greg>9es1 ,infusoria1 ,planades1 & ,ga/rades 7,planula & ,ga/rula74--,tribe ( ,zoophytes4--,spongi 7,muc\s ,sponges1 ,fibr\s ,sponges1 ,calc>e\s ,sponges74--,sea ,nettles1 or ,acaleph 7,corals1 ,hood-jellies1 ,comb-jellies74--,tribe ( ,worms #aag ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,ii4 ,,mollusca1 ,,/>-,,fi%es1 ,,& ,,articulat$ ,,animals4 ,tribe ( ,molluscs4--,f\r ,classes ( ,molluscs3 ,lamp-%ells 7,spirobran*ia72 ,mussels 7,lamellibran*ia72 ,snails 7,co*lides72 ,cuttle-fi% 7,cephalopoda74--,tribe ( ,/>-fi%es1 or ,e*9od]ma4--,_! ,d]ivation f ,r+$ ,worms 7,mail$ ,worms1 or ,phrac!lm9!s74--,! ,alt]nation ( ,g5]ation 9 ! ,e*9od]ma4--,f\r ,classes ( ,/>-fi%3 ,sea-/>s 7,a/]idea72 ,sea-lilies 7,cr9oidea72 ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9idea72 ,sea-cucumb]s 7,holo?uridea74--,tribe ( ,articulat$ ,animals1 or ,ar?ropoda4--,f\r ,classes ( ,articulat$ ,animals3 ,bran*iata1 or ,cru/acea1 brea?+ ?r\gh gills2 ,jo9t$ ,crabs2 ,mail$ ,crabs2 ,articulata ,tra*eata1 brea?+ ?r\gh ,air ,tubes4--,spid]s 7,long ,spid]s1 ,r\nd ,spid]s74--,myriopods4--,insects4--,*ew+ & ,suck+ ,insects4--,p$igree & ,hi/ory ( ! ,eight ,ord]s ( ,insects #aed ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,iii4 ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,! ,records ( ! ,creation ( ,v]tebrate ,animals 7,comp>ative ,anatomy1 ,embryology1 & ,palontology74--,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,v]tebrate ,animals4--,! ,f\r ,classes ( ,v]tebrate ,animals1 accord+ to ,l9nu & ,lam>ck4--,_! ,increase to ,n9e ,classes4--,ma9 ,class ( ! ,tube-he>t$1 or ,skull-less ,animals 7! ,lancelet74--,blood ,relation%ip betwe5 ! ,skull-less ,fi% & ! ,tunicates4--,agreem5t 9 ! ,embryological ,developm5t ( ,amphioxus & ,ascidi4--,orig9 ( ! ,v]tebrate ,tribe out ( ! ,worm ,tribe4--,ma9 ,class ( ,s+le-no/ril$1 or ,r\nd-m\!d ,animals 7,hag & ,lampreys74--,ma9 ,class ( ,anamnionate ,animals1 devoid ( ,amnion4--,fi%es 7,primval ,fi%1 ,c>tilag9\s ,fi%1 ,osse\s ,fi%74--,mud-fi%1 or ,dipneu/a4--,sea ,dragons1 or ,halisauria4--,frogs & ,salam&]s1 or ,amphibia 7,mail$ ,amphibia1 ,nak$ ,amphibia74--,ma9 ,class ( ,amnionate ,animals1 or ,amniota4--,reptiles 7,prim>y ,reptiles1 ,liz>ds1 ,s]p5ts1 ,crocodiles1 ,tortoises1 ,fly+ ,reptiles1 ,dragons1 ,beak$ ,reptiles74--,birds 7,fea!r-tail$1 ,fan-tail$1 ,bu%-tail$7 #aib ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,iv4 ,,mammals4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,mammals accord+ to ,l9nu & ,bla9ville4--,?ree ,sub-classes ( ,mammals 7,orni?odelphia1 ,didelphia1 ,monodelphia74--,orni?odelphia1 or ,monotrema4--,beak$ ,animals 7,orni?o/oma74--,didelphia1 or ,m>supials4--,h]bivor\s & ,c>nivor\s ,m>supials4--,monodelphia1 or ,plac5talia 7,plac5tal ,animals74--,mean+ ( ! ,plac5ta4--,tuft ,plac5talia4--,girdle ,plac5talia4--,disc ,plac5talia4--,non-deciduates1 or ,indeciduata4--,ho($ ,animals4--,s+le & ,d\ble-ho($ ,animals4--,:ales4--,too?less ,animals4--,deciduates1 or ,animals ) ,decidua4--,semi-apes4--,gnaw+ ,animals4--,pseudo-ho($ ,animals4--,insectivora4--,bea/s ( ,prey4--,bats4--,apes #bca ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,orig9 ,,& ,,p$igree ,,( ,,man4 ,! ,application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to ,man4--,its ,imm5se ,importance & ,logical ,necessity4--,man's ,position 9 ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,animals1 among ,disco-plac5tal ,animals4--,incorrect ,sep>ation ( ! ,bimana & ,quadrumana4--,correct ,sep>ation ( ,semi-apes f ,apes4--,man's ,position 9 ! ,ord] ( ,apes4--,n>r[-nos$ ,apes 7( ! ,old ,_w7 & ,flat-nos$ ,apes 7( ,am]ica74--,diff]5ce ( ! two ,gr\ps4--,orig9 ( ,man f ,n>r[-nos$ ,apes4--,human ,apes1 or ,an?ropoides4--,african ,human-apes 7,gorilla & ,*impanzee74--,asiatic ,human-apes 7,orang & ,gibbon74--,comp>ison betwe5 ! diff]5t ,human ,apes & ! diff]5t ,races ( ,m54--,survey ( ! ,s]ies ( ! ,prog5itors ( ,man4--,inv]tebrate ,prog5itors 7,pro*ordata7 & ,v]tebrate ,prog5itors #bfc ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,migration ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,mank9d4 ,,human ,,species ,,& ,,human ,,races4 ,age ( ! ,human ,race4--,causes ( its ,orig94--,! ,orig9 ( ,human ,language4--,monophyletic or ,s+le1 ,polyphyletic or ,multiple ,orig9 ( ! ,human ,race4--,d]ivation ( ,man f _m ,pairs4--,classification ( ! ,human ,races4--,sy/em ( ,twelve ,species ( ,m54--,woolly-,hair$ ,m51 or ,ulotri*is4--,bu%y-,hair$ 7,papuans1 ,hott5tots74--,fleecy-hair$ 7,caffres1 ,negroes74--,/raight-hair$ ,m51 or ,lissotri*i4--,/iff-hair$ 7,au/ralians1 ,malays1 ,mongols1 ,arctic1 & ,am]ican ,tribes74--,curly-hair$ 7,dravidas1 ,nubians1 ,midl&]s74--,numb] ( ,population4--,primval ,home ( ,man 7,s\? ,asia1 or ,lemuria74--,nature ( ,primval ,m54--,numb] ( ,primval ,languages 7,monoglotti/s & ,polyglotti/s74--,div]g5ce & ,migration ( ! ,human ,race4--,geographical ,di/ribution ( ! ,human ,species #bif ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,objections ,,aga9/1 ,,& ,,pro(s ,,( ,,! ,,tru? ,,(1 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,desc5t4 ,objections to ! ,doctr9e ( ,filiation4--,objections ( ,fai? & ,reason4--,immeasurable ,l5g? ( ! ,geological ,p]iods4--,transition ,=ms betwe5 ,k9dr$ ,species4--,dep5d5ce ( ,/ability ( ,=m on ,inh]itance1 & ( ! ,v>iability ( ,=m on ,adaptation4--,orig9 ( v ,complicat$ ,arrangem5t ( ,organisation4--,gradual ,developm5t ( ,in/9cts & ,m5tal ,activities4--,orig9 ( priori ,k f ,k a po/]iori4--,! ,k requisite = ! ,correct ,und]/&+ ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,filiation4--,necess>y ,int]action betwe5 ,empiricism & ,philosophy4--,pro(s ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,inn] ,causal-,connection betwe5 all ! ,biological ,s]ies ( ,ph5om5a4--,! ,direct ,pro( ( ! ,!ory ( ,selection4--,relation ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to ,an?ropology4--,pro(s ( ! ,animal ,orig9 ( ,man4--,! ,pi!coid ,!ory z an ,insep>able ,"p ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,induction & ,d$uction4--,gradual ,developm5t ( ! ,human ,m9d4--,body & ,m9d4--,human ,s\l & ,animal ,s\l4--,a ,glance at ! ,future #ccd ,,li/ ,,( ,,works ,,ref]r$ ,,to ,,9 ,,! ,,text #cga ,,app5dix 7,explanation ( ! ,plates7 #cgi ,,index #djb ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations4 ,,plates4 ,,xv4--,hypo!tical ,sket* ( ! ,monophyletic ,orig9 ( ,man ,frontispiece ,,iv4--,h& ( ,n9e diff]5t ,mammals ,to face page #cd ,v4--,s+le-,/emm$1 or ,monophyletic1 ,p$igree ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom 0 #aab ,,vi4--,hi/orical ,gr[? ( ! ,six ,great ,/ems ( ,animals 0 #abb ,,vii4--,animal ,plants1 or ,zoophytes 0 #adj ,,viii4--,/> ,fi%es--,fir/ ,g5]ation ,betwe5 pp4 #agj1 #aga ,,ix4--,/> ,fi%es--,second ,g5]ation 0 0 0 ,x4--,nauplius-,y\?-,=m ( ,six ,crab ,fi% 0 #agd1 #age ,,xi4--,adult-,=m ( ! same ,six ,crab ,fi% 0 0 0 ,,xii4--,ascidia & ,amphioxus 0 #bja1 #bjb ,,xiii4--,ascidia & ,amphioxus 0 0 0 ,,xiv4--,s+le1 or ,monophyletic1 ,p$igree ( ,back-bon$ ,animals ,to face page #bbb ,,figures4 #h4--,protamba ,primitiva #eb #i4--;,ba?ybius ,hckelii #ec #aj4--;,amba ,sphrococcus #ed #aa4--;,eugl5a ,/riata #eg #ab4--,magosphra ,planula #eh #ac4--,labyr9?ula ,macrocy/is #ei #ad4--,navicula ,hippocampus #fj #ae4--,phys>um ,albipes #fa #af4--;,cyrtidosphra ,e*9oides #ff #ag4--;,caul]pa ,d5ticulata #hg #ah4--;,eua/rum ,rota #hh #ai4--;,fucus ,vesiculosus 7egg (7 #ij ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,creation4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,p]iods ,,( ,,creation ,,& ,,records ,,( ,,creation4 ,re=m ( ,sy/ems by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,! ,natural ,sy/em z a ,p$igree4--,palontological ,records ( ! ,p$igree4--,petrifactions z ,records ( ,creation4--,deposits ( ! ,neptunic ,/rata & ! ,enclosure ( ,organic ,rema9s4--,division ( ! ,organic ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>? into ,five ,ma9 ,p]iods3 ,p]iod ( ! ,tangle ,=e/s1 ,f]n ,=e/s1 ,p9e ,=e/s1 ,foliace\s ,=e/s1 & ( ,cultivation4--,! ,s]ies ( ,neptunic ,/rata4--,immeasurable ,duration ( ! ,p]iods :i* h elaps$ dur+ _! ,=mation4--,deposits ( ,/rata only dur+ ! ,s9k+1 n dur+ ! ,elevation ( ! ,gr\nd4--,o!r ,gaps 9 ! ,records ( ,creation4--,metamorphic ,condition ( ! mo/ ,anci5t ,neptunic ,/rata4--,small ,ext5t ( ,palontological ,exp]i5ce4--,small proportion ( ,organisms & ( ,p>ts ( ,organisms ,capable ( ,petrify+4--,r>ity ( _m ,petrifi$ ,species4--,want ( ,fossilis$ ,int]m$iate ,=ms4--,records ( ! ,creation 9 ,ontog5y & 9 ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,! revolution>y influ5ce :i* ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t mu/ ex]cise ^u all sci5ces1 w 9 all probability affect no bran* ( sci5ce1 except+ ,an?ropology1 s mu* z ! descriptive portion ( natural hi/ory1 t :i* is kn[n z sy/ematic ,zoology & ,botany4 ,mo/ naturali/s :o h hi!rto occupi$ !mselves ) arrang+ ! diff]5t sy/ems ( animals & plants1 h collect$1 nam$1 & arrang$ ! diff]5t species ( ^! natural bodies ) mu* ! same int]e/ z antiqu>ians & e?nograph]s collect ! weapons & ut5sils ( diff]5t nations4 ,_m h n ev5 ris5 above ! degree ( intellig5ce ) :i* p usually collect1 label1 & arrange cre/s1 /amps1 & simil> curiosities4 ,9 ! same mann] z "s collectors f9d _! pleasure 9 ! simil>ity ( =ms1 ! beauty or r>ity ( ! cre/s or /amps1 & admire 9 !m ! inv5tive art ( man1 s _m naturali/s take a delight 9 ! manifold =ms ( animals & plants1 & m>vel at ! ri* imag9ation ( ! ,creator1 at ,8 unwe>i$ creative activity1 & at ,8 curi\s fancy = =m+1 by ! side ( s _m beautiful & useful organisms1 also a numb] ( ugly & useless ones4 ,?is *ildlike treatm5t ( sy/ematic ,zoology & ,botany is completely annihilat$ by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,9 ! place ( ! sup]ficial & playful int]e/ ) :i* mo/ naturali/s h hi!rto reg>d$ organic /ructures1 we n[ h ! mu* high] int]e/ ( ! intellig5t und]/&+ :i* detects 9 ! relat$ =ms ( organisms _! true blood relation%ips4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em ( animals & plants1 :i* 0 =m]ly valu$ ei!r only z a regi/ry ( names1 to facilitate ! survey ( ! diff]5t =ms1 or z a table ( cont5ts = ! %ort expression ( _! degrees ( simil>ity1 receives f ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t ! incomp>ably high] value ( a true p$igree ( organisms4 ,?is p$igree is to disclose to u ! g5ealogical connection ( ! small] & l>g] gr\ps4 ,x has to %[ u 9 :at way ! diff]5t classes1 ord]s1 families1 g5]a1 & species ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms correspond ) ! diff]5t bran*es1 twigs1 & gr\ps ( twigs ( ! p$igree4 ,e wid] & high] category or /age ( ! sy/em 7= example a class1 or an ord]7 comprises a numb] ( l>g] & /rong] bran*es ( ! p$igree2 e n>r[] & l[] category 7= example a g5us1 or a species7 only a small] & ?9n] gr\p ( twigs4 ,x is only :5 we ?us view ! natural sy/em z a p$igree t we p]ceive its true value4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,xvii4 p4 #cig47 ,s9ce we hold fa/ ?is g5ealogical conception ( ! ,organic ,sy/em1 to :i* alone und\bt$ly ! future ( classificatory ,zoology & ,botany belongs1 we %\ld n[ turn our att5tion to "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial1 b also "o ( ! mo/ difficult1 tasks ( ! 8non-miracul\s hi/ory ( creation10 namely1 to ! actual con/ruction ( ! ,organic ,p$igree4 ,let u see h[ f> we are already able to po9t out all ! diff]5t organic =ms z ! div]g5t desc5dants ( a s+le or ( "s few common orig9al =ms4 ,b h[ c we con/ruct ! actual p$igree ( ! animal & vegetable gr\p ( =ms f our k ( !m1 at pres5t s scanty & fragm5t>y8 ,! answ] to ?is "q lies 9 :at we h already rem>k$ ( ! p>allelism ( ! ?ree s]ies ( developm5t--9 ! important causal relation :i* connects ! palontological developm5t ( all organic tribes ) ! embryological developm5t ( individuals1 & ) ! sy/ematic developm5t ( gr\ps4 ,9 ord] to accompli% our task we %all fir/ h to direct our att5tion to palontology1 or ! sci5ce ( petrifactions4 ,= if ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t is really true1 if ! petrifi$ rema9s ( =m]ly liv+ animals & plants really proce$ f ! ext9ct primval ance/ors & prog5itors ( ! pres5t organisms1 !n1 )\t any?+ else1 ! k & comp>ison ( petrifactions ought to disclose to u ! p$igree ( organisms4 ,h[ev] simple & cle> ?is may seem 9 !ory1 ! task becomes extremely h>d & complicat$ :5 x is actually tak5 9 h&4 ,its practical solution w\ld be v difficult ev5 if ! petrifactions 7 to any ext5t completely pres]v$4 ,b ?is is by no means ! case4 ,! obvi\s records ( creation :i* lie buri$ 9 petrifactions are imp]fect beyond all measure4 ,h5ce x is necess>y critically to exam9e ^! records1 & to det]m9e ! value :i* petrifactions possess = ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( organic tribes4 ,z ,i h previ\sly discuss$ ! g5]al importance ( petrifactions z ! records ( creation1 :5 we 7 consid]+ ,cuvi]'s m]its 9 ! sci5ce ( fossils1 we may n[ at once exam9e ! conditions & circum/ances "u :i* ! rema9s ( organic bodies became petrifi$ & pres]v$ 9 a m or less recognizable =m4 ,z a rule we f9d petrifactions or fossils enclos$ only 9 ^? /ones :i* h be5 deposit$ 9 lay]s z mud by wat]1 & :i* are on t acc\nt call$ neptunic1 /ratifi$1 or s$im5t>y rocks4 ,! deposition ( su* /rata c\ld ( c\rse only comm5ce aft] ! cond5sation ( wat]y vap\r into liquid wat] _h tak5 place 9 ! c\rse ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,aft] t p]iod1 :i* we consid]$ 9 our la/ *apt]1 n only did life beg9 on ! e>?1 b also an un9t]rupt$ & exce$+ly important trans=mation ( ! rigid inorganic cru/ ( ! e>?4 ,! wat] began t extremely important me*anical action by :i* ! surface ( ! e>? is p]petually1 ?\gh sl[ly1 trans=m$4 ,i may surely presume t x is g5]ally kn[n :at an extremely important influ5ce1 9 ?is respect1 is ev5 yet ex]cis$ by wat] at e mom5t4 ,z x falls d[n z ra91 trickl+ ?r\gh ! upp] /rata ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & fl[+ d[n f heights into holl[s1 x *emically dissolves diff]5t m9]al p>ts ( ! gr\nd1 & me*anically wa%es away ! loose p>ticles4 ,9 fl[+ d[n f m\nta9s wat] c>ries _! debris into ! pla9s1 or deposits x z mud 9 /agnant lakes4 ,?us x cont9ually works at l[]+ m\nta9s & fill+ up valleys4 ,9 l mann] ! break]s ( ! sea "w un9t]rupt$ly at ! de/ruction ( ! coa/s & at fill+ up ! bottom ( ! sea ) ! debris !y wa% d[n4 ,! action ( wat] alone1 if x 7 n c\nt]act$ by o!r circum/ances1 w\ld 9 "t level ! :ole e>?4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! m\nta9 masses--:i* are annually c>ri$ d[n z mud into ! sea1 & deposit$ on its floor--are s great t 9 ! c\rse ( a long] or %ort] p]iod1 say a few millions ( ye>s1 ! surface ( ! e>? w\ld be completely levell$ & become enclos$ by a cont9u\s %eet ( wat]4 ,t ?is does n happ5 is ow+ to ! p]petual volcanic action ( ! fi]y-fluid c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,! surg+ ( ! melt$ nucleus aga9/ ! firm cru/ necessitates cont9ual alt]nations ( elevation & depression on ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,^! elevations & depressions = ! mo/ "p take place v sl[ly2 b1 z !y cont9ue = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 by ! comb9$ effect ( small1 int]rupt$ movem5ts1 !y produce results no less gr& ?an does ! c\nt]act+ & levell+ action ( wat]4 ,s9ce ! elevations & depressions ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? alt]nate ) "o ano!r 9 ! c\rse ( millions ( ye>s1 fir/ ?is & !n t "p ( ! e>?'s surface is above or bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,i h already giv5 examples ( ?is 9 ! prec$+ *apt] 7vol4 i4 p4 #cfa74 ,h5ce1 9 all probability1 !re is no "p ( ! out] cru/ ( ! e>? :i* has n be5 repeat$ly above & also bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,?is repeat$ *ange expla9s ! v>iety & ! diff]5t composition ( ! num]\s neptunic /rata ( rocks1 :i* 9 mo/ places h be5 deposit$ "o above ano!r 9 consid]able ?ickness4 ,9 ! diff]5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory dur+ :i* ^! deposits took place !re liv$ v>i\s & diff]5t populations ( animals & plants4 ,:5 _! dead bodies sank to ! bottom ( ! wat]s1 ! =ms ( ! bodies impress$ !mselves ^u ! s(t mud1 & imp]i%able p>ts1 su* z h>d bones1 tee?1 %ells1 etc41 became enclos$ 9 x un9jur$4 ,^! 7 pres]v$ 9 ! mud1 :i* cond5s$ !m into neptunic rock1 & z petrifactions !y n[ s]ve to *>act]ise ! respective /rata4 ,by a c>eful comp>ison ( ! diff]5t /rata ly+ "o above ano!r1 & ! petrifactions pres]v$ 9 !m1 x has become possible to decide ! relative age ( ! /rata & gr\ps ( /rata1 & to e/abli%1 by direct obs]vation1 ! pr9cipal eras ( phylog5y1 t is to say1 ! /ages 9 hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( animal & vegetable tribes4 ,! diff]5t /rata ( neptunic rocks deposit$ "o above ano!r1 :i* are compos$ 9 v v>i\s ways ( lime/one1 clay1 & s&1 geologi/s h gr\p$ toge!r into an ideal ,sy/em or ,s]ies1 :i* corresponds ) ! :ole c\rse ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 or ) t portion ( ! e>?'s hi/ory dur+ :i* organic life exi/$4 ,j z s-call$ 8univ]sal hi/ory0 falls into l>g] & small] p]iods1 :i* are *>act]iz$ by ! conditions ( developm5t ( ! mo/ important nations at ! respective epo*s1 & are sep>at$ f "o ano!r by great ev5ts1 s we also divide ! inf9itely long] organic hi/ory ( ! e>? into a s]ies ( great] & less p]iods4 ,ea* ( ^! p]iods is di/+ui%$ by a *>act]i/ic flora & fauna1 & by ! specially /rong developm5t ( c]ta9 vegetable or animal gr\ps1 & ea* is sep>at$ f ! prec$+ & succe$+ p]iod by a /rik+ *ange 9 ! "* ( its animal & vegetable inhabitants4 ,9 relation to ! foll[+ survey ( ! hi/orical c\rse ( developm5t :i* ! l>ge animal & vegetable tribes h pass$ ?r\gh1 x w be desirable to say a few words fir/ z to ! sy/ematic classification ( ! neptunic gr\ps ( /rata1 & ! l>g] & small] p]iods correspond+ to !m4 ,z w be se5 directly1 we are able to divide ! :ole ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ly+ "o above ano!r into five ma9 gr\ps or p]iods1 ea* p]iod into sev]al subord9ate gr\ps ( /rata or sy/ems1 & ea* sy/em ( /rata aga9 into /ill small] gr\ps or =mations2 f9ally1 ea* =mation c aga9 be divid$ into /ages or sub-=mations1 & ea* ( ^! aga9 into /ill small] lay]s or b$s4 ,ea* ( ! five great rock-gr\ps 0 deposit$ dur+ a great division ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 dur+ a long era or epo*2 ea* sy/em dur+ a %ort] p]iod2 ea* =mation dur+ a /ill %ort] p]iod4 ,9 ?us r$uc+ ! p]iods ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 & ! neptunic /rata conta9+ petrifactions deposit$ dur+ ^? p]iods into a connect$ sy/em1 we proce$ exactly l ! hi/orian :o divides ! hi/ory ( nations into ! ?ree ma9 divisions ( ,antiquity1 ! ,middle ,ages1 & ,mod]n ,times1 & ea* ( ^? sections aga9 into subord9ate p]iods & epo*s4 ,b ! hi/orian by ?is %>p sy/ematic division1 & by fix+ ! b\nd>y ( ! p]iods by p>ticul> dates1 only seeks to facilitate 8 survey1 & 9 no way means to d5y ! un9t]rupt$ connection ( ev5ts & ! developm5t ( nations4 ,exactly ! same qualification applies to our sy/ematic division1 specification1 or classification ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,"h1 too1 a cont9u\s ?read runs ?r\gh ! s]ies ( ev5ts unbrok54 ,we mu/ !re=e di/9ctly prote/ aga9/ ! idea t by %>ply b\nd+ ! l>g] & small] gr\ps ( /rata1 & ! p]iods correspond+ ) !m1 we 9 any way wi% to adopt ,cuvi]'s doctr9e ( t]re/rial revolutions1 & ( repeat$ new creations ( organic populations4 ,t ?is errone\s doctr9e has long s9ce be5 completely refut$ by ,lyell1 ,i h already m5tion$4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #abg47 ,! five great ma9 divisions ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 or ! palontological hi/ory ( developm5t1 we call ! primordial1 prim>y1 second>y1 t]ti>y1 & quat]n>y epo*s4 ,ea* is di/9ctly *>act]iz$ by ! pr$om9at+ developm5t ( c]ta9 animal & vegetable gr\ps 9 x1 & we might accord+ly symbolically designate ! five epo*s1 on ! "o h& by ! names ( ! gr\ps ( ! vegetable k+dom1 & on ! o!r h& by ^? ( ! diff]5t classes ( v]tebrate animals4 ,9 ?is case ! fir/1 or primordial epo*1 w\ld be ! era ( ! ,tangles 7,alg7 & skull-less ,v]tebrates2 ! second1 or prim>y epo*1 t ( ! ,f]ns & ,fi%es2 ! ?ird1 or second>y epo*1 t ( ,p9e ,=e/s & ,reptiles2 ! f\r?1 or t]ti>y epo*1 t ( ,foliace\s ,=e/s & ( ,mammals2 f9ally1 ! fif?1 or quat]n>y epo*1 ! era ( ,man1 & 8 ,civilization4 ,! divisions or p]iods :i* we di/+ui% 9 ea* ( ! five long eras 7p4 #ad7 are det]m9$ by ! diff]5t sy/ems ( /rata into :i* ea* ( ! five great rock-gr\ps is divid$ 7p4 #ae74 ,we %all n[ take a cursory glance at ! s]ies ( ^! sy/ems1 & at ! same "t at ! populations ( ! five great epo*s4 ,! fir/ & longe/ division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? is =m$ by ! primordial epo*1 or ! era ( ! ,tangle ,=e/s4 ,x comprises ! imm5se p]iod f ! fir/ spontane\s g5]ation1 f ! orig9 ( ! fir/ t]re/rial organism1 to ! end ( ! ,silurian sy/em ( deposits4 ,dur+ ?is immeasurable space ( "t1 :i* 9 all probability 0 mu* long] ?an all ! o!r f\r epo*s tak5 toge!r1 ! ?ree mo/ ext5sive ( all ! neptunic sy/ems ( /rata 7 deposit$1 namely1 ! ,laur5tian1 ^u t ! ,cambrian1 & ^u t ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,! approximate ?ickness or size ( ^! ?ree sy/ems toge!r am\nts to #gj1jjj feet4 ,( ^! ab\t #cj1jjj belong to ! ,laur5tian1 #ah1jjj to ! ,cambrian1 & #bb1jjj to ! ,silurian sy/em4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( all ! f\r o!r rock gr\ps1 ! prim>y1 second>y1 t]ti>y1 & quat]n>y1 tak5 toge!r1 may am\nt at mo/ to #fj1jjj feet2 & f ?is fact alone1 ap>t f _m o!r reasons1 x is evid5t t ! duration ( ! primordial p]iod 0 probably mu* long] ?an ! duration ( all ! subsequ5t p]iods d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,_m ?\s&s ( millions ( ye>s 7 requir$ to deposit su* masses ( /rata4 ,un=tunately1 by f> ! l>ge/ portion ( ! primordial gr\p ( /rata is 9 ! metamorphic /ate 7:i* we %all directly expla971 & consequ5tly ! petrifactions conta9$ 9 !m--! mo/ anci5t & mo/ important ( all--h1 to a great ext5t1 be5 de/roy$ & become unrecognisable4 ,only 9 "o portion ( ! ,cambrian /rata h petrifactions be5 pres]v$ 9 a recognizable condition & 9 l>ge quantities4 ,! mo/ anci5t ( all di/9ctly pres]v$ petrifactions has be5 f\nd 9 ! l[e/ ,laur5tian /rata 79 ! ,ottawa =mation71 :i* ,i %all aft]w>ds h to speak ( z ! 8,canadian ,life's-dawn0 7,eozoon canad5se74 ,al?\gh only by f> ! small] portion ( ! primordial or ar*ili?ic petrifactions are pres]v$ to u 9 a recognizable condition1 /ill !y possess ! value ( ine/imable docum5ts ( ! mo/ anci5t & obscure times ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,:at seems to be %[n by !m1 9 ! fir/ place1 is t dur+ ! :ole ( ?is imm5se p]iod !re exi/$ only inhabitants ( ! wat]s4 ,z yet1 at any rate1 among all ar*ili?ic petrifactions1 n a s+le "o has be5 f\nd :i* c ) c]ta9ty be reg>d$ z an organism :i* has liv$ on l&4 ,all ! vegetable rema9s we possess ( ! primordial p]iod belong to ! l[e/ ( all gr\ps ( plants1 to ! class ( ,tangles or ,alg1 liv+ 9 wat]4 ,9 ! w>m primval sea1 ^! con/itut$ ! =e/s ( ! p]iod1 ( ! ri*ness ( :i* 9 =ms & d5sity we may =m an approximate idea f _! pres5t desc5dants1 ! tangle =e/s ( ! ,atlantic ,s>gasso sea4 ,! colossal tangle =e/s ( ! ar*ili?ic p]iod suppli$ ! place ( ! =e/ vegetation ( ! ma9l&1 :i* 0 !n utt]ly want+4 ,all ! animals1 also1 ^: rema9s h be5 f\nd 9 ar*ili?ic /rata1 l ! plants1 liv$ 9 wat]4 ,only cru/acea are met ) among ! animals ) articulat$ feet1 z yet no spid]s & no insects4 ,( v]tebrate animals1 only a v few rema9s ( fi%es are kn[n z hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! mo/ rec5t ( all primordial /rata1 9 ! upp] ,silurian4 ,b ! headless v]tebrate animals1 :i* we call skull-less1 or ,acrania1 & out ( :i* fi%es mu/ h be5 develop$1 we suppose to h liv$ 9 great numb]s dur+ ! primordial epo*4 ,h5ce we may call x aft] ! ,acrania z well z aft] ! ,tangles4 ,! prim>y epo*1 or ! era ( ,f]n ,=e/s1 ! second ma9 division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 :i* is also call$ ! paloli?ic or palozoic p]iod1 la/$ f ! end ( ! ,silurian =mation ( /rata to ! end ( ! ,p]mian =mation4 ,?is epo* 0 also ( v long duration1 & aga9 falls into ?ree %ort] p]iods1 dur+ :i* ?ree great sy/ems ( /rata 7 deposit$1 namely1 fir/1 ! ,devonian sy/em1 or ! old r$ s&/one2 ^u t1 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 or coal sy/em2 & ^u ?is1 ! ,p]mian sy/em4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( ^! ?ree sy/ems tak5 toge!r may am\nt to ab\t #db1jjj feet1 f :i* we may inf] ! imm5se l5g? ( "t requisite = _! =mation4 ,! ,devonian & ,p]mian =mations are especially ri* 9 rema9s ( fi%es1 ( primval fi% z well z enamell$ fi% 7,ganoids71 b ! bony fi% 7,teleo/ei7 are abs5t f ! /rata ( ! prim>y epo*4 ,9 coal are f\nd ! mo/ anci5t rema9s ( animals liv+ on l&1 bo? ( articulat$ animals 7spid]s & insects7 z well z ( v]tebrate animals 7amphibi\s animals1 l newts & frogs74 ,9 ! ,p]mian sy/em !re occur1 9 addition to ! amphibi\s animals1 ! m highly-develop$ reptiles1 &1 inde$1 =ms ne>ly relat$ to our liz>ds 7,prot]osaurus1 etc474 ,b1 nev]!less1 we may call ! prim>y epo* t ( ,fi%es1 because ^! few amphibi\s animals & reptiles are insignificant 9 comp>ison ) ! imm5se mass ( palozoic fi%es4 ,j z ,fi%es pr$om9ate ov] ! o!r v]tebrate animals1 s ,f]ns1 or ,filices1 pr$om9ate among ! plants ( ?is epo*1 &1 9 fact1 real f]ns & tree f]ns 7leaf$ f]ns1 or ,phylopt]id71 z well z bamboo f]ns 7,calamophyt7 & scal$ f]ns 7,lepidophyt74 ,^! f]ns1 :i* grew on l&1 =m$ ! *ief "p ( ! d5se paloli?ic isl& =e/s1 ! fossil rema9s ( :i* are pres]v$ to u 9 ! enorm\sly l>ge /rata ( coal ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 & 9 ! small] /rata ( coal ( ! ,devonian & ,p]mian sy/ems4 ,we are ?us ju/ifi$ 9 call+ ! prim>y epo* ei!r ! era ( ,f]ns or t ( ,fi%es4 ,! ?ird great division ( ! palontological hi/ory ( developm5t is =m$ by ! second>y epo*1 or ! era ( ,p9e ,=e/s1 :i* is also call$ ! mesoli?ic or mesozoic epo*4 ,x ext5ds f ! end ( ! ,p]mian sy/em to ! end ( ! ,*alk =mation1 & is aga9 divid$ into ?ree great p]iods4 ,! /ratifi$ sy/ems deposit$ dur+ ?is p]iod are1 fir/ & l[e/1 ! ,triassic sy/em1 9 ! middle ! ,jura sy/em1 & at ! top ! ,cretace\s sy/em4 ,! av]age ?ickness ( ^! ?ree sy/ems tak5 toge!r is mu* less ?an t ( ! prim>y gr\p1 & am\nts z a :ole only to ab\t #ae1jjj feet4 ,! second>y epo* c accord+ly 9 all probability n h be5 half s long z ! prim>y epo*4 ,j z ,fi%es prevail$ 9 ! prim>y epo*1 ,reptiles pr$om9at$ 9 ! second>y epo* ov] all o!r v]tebrate animals4 ,x is true t dur+ ?is p]iod ! fir/ birds & mammals orig9at$2 at t "t1 also1 !re exi/$ important amphibi\s animals1 especially ! gigantic ,labyr9?odonts1 9 ! sea ! wond]ful sea-dragons1 or ,halisaurii1 swam ab\t1 & ! fir/ fi% ) bones 7 associat$ ) ! _m primval fi%es 7,%>ks7 & enamell$ fi% 7,ganoids7 ( ! e>li] times2 b ! v v>i\sly develop$ k9ds ( reptiles =m$ ! pr$om9at+ & *>act]i/ic class ( v]tebrate animals ( ! second>y epo*4 ,besides ^? reptiles :i* 7 v ne>ly relat$ to ! pres5t liv+ liz>ds1 crocodiles1 & turtles1 !re 71 dur+ ! mesoli?ic p]iod1 sw>ms ( grotesquely %ap$ dragons4 ,! rem>kable fly+ liz>ds1 or ,pt]osaurii1 & ! colossal l&-dragons1 or ,d9osaurii1 ( ! second>y epo*1 are peculi>1 z !y occur nei!r 9 ! prec$+ nor 9 ! succe$+ epo*s4 ,! second>y epo* may be call$ ! era ( ,reptiles2 b on ! o!r h&1 x may also be call$ ! era ( ,p9e ,=e/s1 or m accurately1 ( ! ,gymnosp]ms1 t is1 ! epo* ( plants hav+ nak$ se$s4 ,= ?is gr\p ( plants1 especially z repres5t$ by ! two important classes--! p9es1 or ,conif]1 & ! palm-f]ns1 or ,cycade--dur+ ! second>y epo* con/itut$ a pr$om9ant "p ( ! =e/s4 ,b t[>ds ! end ( ! epo* 79 ! ,*alk p]iod7 ! plants ( ! p9e tribe gave place to ! leaf-be>+ =e/s :i* !n develop$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,,survey ,( ! ,palontological ,p]iods1 or ( ! ,great] ,divisions ( ! ,organic ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,i4 ,fir/ ,epo*3 ,,ar*ili?ic ,,era4 ,primordial ,epo*4 7,era ( ,skull-less ,animals & ,=e/s ( ,tangles47 #a4 ,old] ,primordial ,p]iod or ,laur5tian ,p]iod4 #b4 ,middle ,primordial ,p]iod 0 ,cambrian ,p]iod4 #c4 ,lat] ,primordial ,p]iod 0 ,silurian ,p]iod4 ,,ii4 ,second ,epo*3 ,,pal,,oli?ic ,,era4 ,prim>y ,epo*4 7,era ( ,fi% & ,f]n ,=e/s47 #d4 ,old] ,prim>y ,p]iod or ,devonian ,p]iod4 #e4 ,mid ,prim>y ,p]iod 0 ,coal ,p]iod4 #f4 ,lat] ,prim>y ,p]iod 0 ,p]mian ,p]iod4 ,,iii4 ,?ird ,epo*3 ,,mesoli?ic ,,era4 ,second>y ,epo*4 7,era ( ,reptiles & ,p9e ,=e/s47 #g4 ,old] ,second>y ,p]iod or ,trias ,p]iod4 #h4 ,middle ,second>y ,p]iod 0 ,jura ,p]iod4 #i4 ,lat] ,second>y ,p]iod 0 ,*alk ,p]iod4 ,,iv4 ,f\r? ,epo*3 ,c,,noli?ic ,,era4 ,t]ti>y ,epo*4 7,era ( ,mammals & ,leaf ,=e/s47 #aj4 ,old] ,t]ti>y ,p]iod or ,eoc5e ,p]iod4 #aa4 ,new] ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 0 ,mioc5e ,p]iod4 #ab4 ,rec5t ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 0 ,plioc5e ,p]iod4 ,v4 ,fif? ,epo*3 ,,an?ropoli?ic ,,era4 ,quat]n>y ,epo*4 7,era ( ,man & ,cultivat$ ,=e/s47 #ac4 ,old] ,quat]n>y ,p]iod or ,ice or ,glacial ,p]iod4 #ad4 ,new] ,quat]n>y ,p]iod 0 ,po/ ,glacial ,p]iod4 #ae4 ,rec5t ,quat]n>y ,p]iod 0 ,p]iod ( ,culture4 7,! ,p]iod ( ,culture is ! ,hi/orical ,p]iod1 or ! ,p]iod ( ,tradition47 ,,survey ,( ! ,palontological ,=mations1 or ^? ,/rata ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/ conta9+ ,petrifactions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,rock-,gr\ps4 ,sy/ems4 ,=mations4 ,synonyms ( ,=mations4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,v4 ,quat]n>y ,gr\p1 ,,xiv4 ,rec5t #cf4 ,pres5t ,upp] alluvial or 7,alluvium7 #ce4 ,rec5t ,l[] alluvial ,an?ropoli?ic 7,an?ropozoic7 ,,xiii4 ,plei/oc5e #cd4 ,po/ glacial ,upp] diluvial gr\ps ( 7,diluvium7 #cc4 ,glacial ,l[] diluvial /rata ,,iv4 ,t]ti>y ,,xii4 ,plioc5e #cb4 ,arv]nian ,upp] plioc5e ,gr\p1 7,late t]ti>y7 #ca4 ,sub-,app59e ,l[] plioc5e or ,cnoli?ic ,,xi4 ,mioc5e #cj4 ,falunian ,upp] mioc5e 7,cnozoic7 7,new t]ti>y7 #bi4 ,limburgian ,l[] mioc5e gr\ps ( /rata #bh4 ,gypsum ,upp] eoc5e ,x4 ,eoc5e #bg4 ,nummulitic ,mid eoc5e 7,old t]ti>y7 #bf4 ,london clay ,l[] eoc5e #be4 ,:ite *alk ,upp] cretace\s ,,ix4 ,cretace\s #bd4 ,gre5 s& ,mid cretace\s #bc4 ,neocomian ,l[] cretace\s ,,iii4 ,second>y #bb4 ,weald5 ,! ,k5ti% ,weald ,gr\p1 or #ba4 ,portl&ian ,upp] oolite ,mesoli?ic ,,viii4 ,jura #bj4 ,ox=dian ,mid oolite 7,mesozoic7 #ai4 ,ba? ,l[] oolite gr\ps ( #ah4 ,lias ,lias =mation /rata #ag4 ,keup] ,upp] trias ,,vii4 ,trias #af4 ,mus*el-kalk ,mid trias #ae4 ,bunt] s& ,l[] trias ,,vi4 ,p]mian #ad4 ,ze*/e9 ,upp] ,p]mian ,,ii4 ,prim>y #ac4 ,l[] ,p]mian ,gr\p1 #ab4 ,c>bonif]\s or ,v4 ,c>bonic s&/one ,upp] c>bonic ,paloli?ic 7coal7 #aa4 ,c>bonif]\s 7,palozoic7 lime/one ,l[] c>bonic gr\ps ( ,,iv4 ,devonian #aj4 ,pilton ,upp] ,devonian /rata 7,old r$ s&/one7 #i4 ,ilfracombe ,mid ,devonian #h4 ,l9ton ,l[] ,devonian ,i4 ,primordial #g4 ,ludl[ ,upp] ,silurian ,gr\p1 ,,iii4 ,silurian #f4 ,ll&ov]y ,mid ,silurian or #e4 ,ll&eilo ,l[] ,silurian ,ar*ili?ic 7,ar*izoic7 ,,ii4 ,cambrian #d4 ,potsdam ,upp] ,cambrian gr\ps ( #c4 ,longmynd ,l[] ,cambrian /rata ,i4 ,laur5tian #b4 ,labrador ,upp] ,laur5tian #a4 ,ottawa ,l[] ,laur5tian ,! f\r? ma9 division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 ! t]ti>y epo*1 or era ( ,leaf$ ,=e/s1 is mu* %ort] & less peculi> ?an ! ?ree fir/ epo*s4 ,?is epo*1 :i* is also call$ ! cnoli?ic or cnozoic epo*1 ext5d$ f ! end ( ! cretace\s sy/em to ! end ( ! plioc5e sy/em4 ,! /rata deposit$ dur+ x am\nt only to a ?ickness ( ab\t #cjjj feet1 & consequ5tly are mu* inf]ior to ! ?ree fir/ great gr\ps4 ,! ?ree sy/ems also into :i* ! t]ti>y p]iod is subdivid$ are v difficult to di/+ui% f "o ano!r4 ,! olde/ ( !m is call$ eoc5e1 or old t]ti>y2 ! new] mioc5e1 or mid t]ti>y2 & ! la/ is ! plioc5e1 or lat] t]ti>y sy/em4 ,! :ole population ( ! t]ti>y epo* approa*es mu* ne>]1 on ! :ole z well z 9 detail1 to t ( ! pres5t "t ?an is ! case 9 ! prec$+ epo*s4 ,f ?is "t ! class ( ,mammals greatly pr$om9ates ov] all o!r v]tebrate animals4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 ! gr\p--s ri* 9 =ms--( ! ,angiosp]ms1 or plants ) cov]$ se$s1 pr$om9ates1 & its leafy =e/s con/itute ! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,! gr\p ( ! ,angiosp]ms consi/s ( ! two classes ( s+le-se$-lob$ plants1 or ,monocotyl$ons1 & ! d\ble-se$-lob$ plants1 or ,dicotyl$ons4 ,! ,angiosp]ms ( bo? classes _h1 x is true1 made _! appe>ance 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 & mammals _h already occurr$ 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod1 & ev5 9 ! ,triassic p]iod2 b bo? gr\ps1 ! mammals & ! plants ) enclos$ se$s1 did n atta9 _! peculi> developm5t & supremacy until ! t]ti>y epo*1 s t x may ju/ly be call$ aft] !m4 ,! fif? & la/ ma9 division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? is ! quat]n>y epo*1 or era ( ,civilization1 :i* 9 comp>ison ) ! l5g? ( ! f\r o!r epo*s almo/ vani%es into no?+1 ?\gh ) a comical conceit we usually call its record ! 8hi/ory ( ! _w40 ,z ! p]iod is *>act]iz$ by ! developm5t ( ,man & 8 ,culture1 :i* has influ5c$ ! organic _w m p[]fully & ) great] trans=m+ effect ?an h all previ\s conditions1 x may also be call$ ! era ( ,man1 ! an?ropoli?ic or an?ropozoic p]iod4 ,x might also be call$ ! era ( ,cultivat$ ,=e/s1 or ,g>d5s1 because ev5 at ! l[e/ /age ( human civilization man's influ5ce is already p]ceptible 9 ! utilization ( =e/s & _! products1 & !re=e also 9 ! physiognomy ( ! l&scape4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ?is era1 :i* ext5ds d[n to ! pres5t "t1 is geologically b\nd$ by ! end ( ! plioc5e /ratification4 ,! neptunic /rata :i* h be5 deposit$ dur+ ! comp>atively %ort quat]n>y epo* are v diff]5t 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?1 b !y are mo/ly ( v slight ?ickness4 ,!y are r$uc$ to two 8sy/ems10 ! old] ( :i* is designat$ ! diluvial1 or plei/oc5e1 & ! lat] ! alluvial1 or rec5t4 ,! diluvial sy/em is aga9 divid$ into two 8=mations10 ! old] glacial & ! m rec5t po/ glacial =mations4 ,= dur+ ! old] diluvial p]iod !re occurr$ t extremely rem>kable decrease ( ! temp]ature ( ! e>? :i* l$ to an ext5sive glaciation ( ! temp]ate zones4 ,! great importance :i* ?is 8ice0 or 8glacial p]iod0 has ex]cis$ on ! geographical & topographical di/ribution ( organisms has already be5 expla9$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] 7vol4 i4 p4 #cfe74 ,b ! po/ glacial p]iod1 or ! m rec5t diluvial p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! temp]ature aga9 increas$ & ! ice retreat$ t[>ds ! poles1 0 also highly important 9 reg>d to ! pres5t /ate ( *orological relations4 ,! biological *>act]i/ic ( ! quat]n>y epo* lies ess5tially 9 ! developm5t & disp]sion ( ! human organism & 8 culture4 ,man has act$ ) a great] trans=m+1 de/ructive1 & modify+ influ5ce ^u ! animal & vegetable population ( ! e>? ?an any o!r organism4 ,= ?is reason1 & n because we assign to man a privileg$ exceptional position 9 nature 9 o!r matt]s1 we may ) full ju/ice designate ! developm5t ( man & 8 civilization z ! beg9n+ ( a special & la/ ma9 division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,x is probable inde$ t ! corporeal developm5t ( primval man out ( man-l apes took place z f> back z ! e>li] plioc5e p]iod1 p]haps ev5 9 ! mioc5e t]ti>y p]iod4 ,b ! actual developm5t ( human spee*1 :i* we look ^u z ! mo/ p[]ful ag5cy 9 ! developm5t ( ! peculi> *>act]i/ics ( man & 8 dom9ion ov] o!r organisms1 probably belongs to t p]iod :i* on geological gr\nds is di/+ui%$ f ! prec$+ plioc5e p]iod z ! plei/oc5e or diluvial4 ,9 fact ! "t :i* has elaps$ f ! developm5t ( human spee* d[n to ! pres5t day1 ?\gh x may comprise _m ?\s&s & p]haps hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s1 almo/ vani%es into no?+ z comp>$ ) ! immeasurable l5g? ( ! p]iods :i* h pass$ f ! beg9n+ ( organic life on ! e>? d[n to ! orig9 ( ! human race4 ,! tabul> view giv5 on page #ae %[s ! succession ( ! palontological rock-gr\ps1 sy/ems1 & =mations1 t is1 ! l>g] & small] neptunic gr\ps ( /rata1 :i* conta9 petrifactions1 f ! upp]mo/1 or ,alluvial1 d[n to ! l[e/1 or ,laur5tian1 deposits4 ,! table on page #ad pres5ts ! hi/orical division ( ! correspond+ eras ( ! l>g] & small] palontological p]iods1 & 9 a rev]s$ succession1 f ! mo/ anci5t ,laur5tian up to ! mo/ rec5t ,quat]n>y p]iod4 ,_m attempts h be5 made to make an approximate calculation ( ! numb] ( ?\s&s ( ye>s con/itut+ ^! p]iods4 ,! ?ickness ( ! /rata has be5 comp>$1 :i*1 accord+ to exp]i5ce1 is deposit$ dur+ a c5tury1 & :i* am\nts only to "s few l9es or in*es1 ) ! :ole ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ masses ( rock1 ! succession ( :i* we h j survey$4 ,?is ?ickness1 on ! :ole1 may on an av]age am\nt to ab\t #acj1jjj feet2 ( ^! #gj1jjj belong to ! primordial1 or ar*ili?ic2 #db1jjj to ! prim>y1 or paloli?ic2 #ae1jjj to ! second>y1 or mesoli?ic2 & f9ally only #c1jjj to ! t]ti>y1 or cnoli?ic gr\p4 ,! v small & sc>cely appreciable ?ickness ( ! quat]n>y1 or an?ropoli?ic deposit _c "h come into consid]ation at all4 ,on an av]age1 x may at mo/ be comput$ z f #ejj to #gjj feet4 ,b x is self evid5t t all ^! measurem5ts h only an av]age & approximate value1 & are meant to give only a r\gh survey ( ! relative proportion ( ! sy/ems ( /rata & ( ! spaces ( "t correspond+ ) !m4 ,n[1 if we divide ! :ole p]iod ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?--t is1 f ! beg9n+ ( life on ! e>? d[n to ! pres5t day--into a hundr$ equal p>ts1 & if !n1 correspond+ to ! ?ickness ( ! sy/ems ( /rata1 we calculate ! relative duration ( ! "t ( ! five ma9 divisions or p]iods accord+ to p]c5tages1 we obta9 ! foll[+ result3-- ,i4 ,ar*ili?ic1 or primordial p]iod #ec4f ,,ii4 ,paloli?ic1 or prim>y p]iod #cb4a ,,iii4 ,mesoli?ic1 or second>y p]iod #aa4e ,,iv4 ,cnoli?ic1 or t]ti>y p]iod #b4c ,v4 ,an?ropoli?ic1 or quat]n>y p]iod #j4e ----- ,total #ajj4j ,accord+ to ?is1 ! l5g? ( ! ar*ili?ic p]iod1 dur+ :i* no l&-liv+ animals or plants z yet exi/$1 am\nts to m ?an "o half1 m ?an #ec p] c5t42 on ! o!r h& ! l5g? ( ! an?ropoli?ic era1 dur+ :i* man has exi/$1 am\nts to sc>cely "o-half p] c5t4 ( ! :ole l5g? ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 q impossible to calculate ! l5g? ( ^! p]iods1 ev5 approximately1 by ye>s4 ,! ?ickness ( ! /rata ( mud at pres5t deposit$ dur+ a c5tury1 & :i* has be5 us$ z a basis = ?is calculation1 is ( c\rse q diff]5t 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>? "u ! diff]5t conditions 9 :i* ^! deposits take place4 ,x is v slight at ! bottom ( ! deep sea1 9 ! b$s ( broad riv]s ) a %ort c\rse1 & 9 inl& seas :i* receive v scanty supplies ( wat]4 ,x is comp>atively great on ! sea-%ores expos$ to /rong break]s1 at ! e/u>ies ( l>ge riv]s ) long c\rses1 & 9 inl& seas ) copi\s supplies ( wat]4 ,at ! m\? ( ! ,mississippi1 :i* c>ries ) x a consid]able am\nt ( mud1 9 ! c\rse ( #ajj1jjj ye>s ab\t #fjj feet w\ld be deposit$4 ,at ! bottom ( ! op5 sea1 f> away f ! coa/s1 dur+ ?is long p]iod only "s few feet ( mud w\ld be deposit$4 ,ev5 on ! sea-%ores :]e a comp>atively l>ge quantity ( mud is deposit$ ! ?ickness ( ! /rata =m$ dur+ ! c\rse ( a c5tury may aft] all am\nt to no m ?an a few in*es or l9es :5 cond5s$ into solid /one4 ,9 any case1 h[ev]1 all calculations bas$ ^u ^! comp>isons are v unsafe1 & we _c ev5 approximately conceive ! enorm\s l5g? ( ! p]iods :i* 7 requisite = ! =mation ( ! sy/ems ( neptunic /rata4 ,"h we c apply only relative1 n absolute1 measurem5ts ( "t4 ,moreov]1 we %\ld entirely err 7 we to consid] ! size ( ^! sy/ems ( /rata alone z ! measure ( ! actual space ( "t :i* has elaps$ dur+ ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,= ! elevations & depressions ( ! e>?'s cru/ h p]petually alt]nat$ ) "o ano!r1 & ! m9]alogical & palontological diff]5ce--:i* is p]ceiv$ betwe5 ea* two succe$+ sy/ems ( /rata1 & betwe5 ea* two ( _! =mations at any p>ticul> spot--corresponds 9 all probability ) a consid]able int]m$iate space ( _m ?\s&s ( ye>s1 dur+ :i* t p>ticul> "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ 0 rais$ above ! wat]4 ,x 0 only aft] ! lapse ( ?is int]m$iate p]iod1 :5 a new depression aga9 laid ! "p 9 "q "u wat]1 t !re occurr$ a new deposit ( e>?4 ,z1 9 ! mean "t1 ! inorganic & organic conditions on ?is "p _h und]gone a consid]able trans=mation1 ! newly-=m$ lay] ( mud 0 necess>ily compos$ ( diff]5t e>?y con/itu5ts & enclos$ diff]5t petrifactions4 ,,iv4 ,t]ti>y ,gr\p ( ,/rata1 #c1jjj feet4 ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 ,plioc5e4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,ix4 ,*alk ,sy/em4 ,,iii4 ,mesoli?ic ,gr\p ( ,/rata4 ,deposits ( ! ,,viii4 ,jura ,sy/em4 ,second>y ,epo*1 ab\t #ae1jjj feet4 ,,vii4 ,trias ,sy/em4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,vi4 ,p]mian ,sy/em4 ,,ii4 ,paloli?ic ,gr\p ( ,/rata4 ,deposits ( ! ,v4 ,coal ,sy/em4 ,prim>y ,epo*1 ab\t #db1jjj feet4 ,,iv4 ,devonian ,sy/em4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,iii4 ,silurian ,sy/em1 ab\t #bb1jjj feet4 ,i4 ,ar*ili?ic ,gr\p ( ,/rata4 ,deposits ( ! ,,ii4 ,cambrian ,sy/em1 ab\t ,primordial ,epo*1 ab\t #ah1jjj feet4 #gj1jjj feet4 ,i4 ,laur5tian ,sy/em1 ab\t #cj1jjj feet4 ,! /rik+ diff]5ces :i* s frequ5tly occur betwe5 ! petrifactions ( two /rata1 ly+ "o above ano!r1 are to be expla9$ 9 a simple & easy mann] by ! supposition t ! same "p ( ! e>?'s surface has be5 expos$ to repeat$ depressions & elevations4 ,su* alt]nat+ elevations & depressions take place ev5 n[ ext5sively1 & are ascrib$ to ! heav+ ( ! fi]y fluid nucleus aga9/ ! rigid cru/4 ,?us1 = example1 ! coa/ ( ,sw$5 & a portion ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica are con/antly ?\gh sl[ly ris+1 :ile ! coa/ ( ,holl& & a portion ( ! ea/ coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica are gradually s9k+4 ,! ris+ z well z ! s9k+ takes place v sl[ly1 & 9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury sometimes only am\nts to "s few l9es1 sometimes to a few in*es1 or at mo/ a few feet4 ,b if ?is action cont9ues un9t]rupt$ly ?r\gh\t hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s x is capable ( =m+ ! highe/ m\nta9s4 ,x is evid5t t elevations & depressions1 su* z n[ c be measur$ 9 ^! places1 h un9t]rupt$ly alt]nat$ "o ) ano!r 9 diff]5t places dur+ ! :ole c\rse ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,?is may be inf]r$ ) c]ta9ty f ! geographical di/ribution ( organisms4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cej47 ,b to =m a judgm5t ( our palontological records ( creation x is extremely important to %[ t p]man5t /rata c only be deposit$ dur+ a sl[ s9k+ ( ! gr\nd "u wat]1 b n dur+ its cont9u$ ris+4 ,:5 ! gr\nd sl[ly s9ks m & m bel[ ! level ( ! sea1 ! deposit$ lay]s ( mud get into cont9ually deep] & quiet] wat]1 :]e !y c become cond5s$ into /one undi/urb$4 ,b :51 on ! o!r h&1 ! gr\nd sl[ly rises1 ! newly-deposit$ lay]s ( mud1 :i* enclose ! rema9s ( plants & animals1 aga9 imm$iately come )9 ! rea* ( ! play ( ! waves1 & are soon worn away by ! =ce ( ! break]s1 toge!r ) ! organic rema9s :i* !y on close4 ,= ?is simple b v important reason1 !re=e1 abundant lay]s1 9 :i* organic rema9s are pres]v$1 c only be deposit$ dur+ a cont9u\s s9k+ ( ! gr\nd4 ,:5 any two diff]5t =mations or /rata1 ly+ "o above ! o!r1 correspond ) two diff]5t p]iods ( depression1 we mu/ assume a long p]iod ( ris+ betwe5 !m1 ( :i* p]iod we "k no?+1 because no fossil rema9s ( ! !n liv+ animals & plants c\ld be pres]v$4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ^? p]iods ( elevation1 :i* h pass$ )\t leav+ any trace beh9d !m1 des]ve a no less c>eful consid]ation ?an ! great] or less alt]nat+ p]iods ( depression1 ( ^: organic population we c =m an approximate idea f ! /rata conta9+ petrifactions4 ,probably ! =m] 7 n ( %ort] duration ?an ! latt]4 ,f ?is alone x is app>5t h[ imp]fect our records mu/ necess>ily be1 & all ! m s s9ce x c be !oretically prov$ t ! v>iety ( animal & vegetable life mu/ h increas$ greatly dur+ ^? v p]iods ( elevation4 ,= z new tracts ( l& are rais$ above ! wat]1 new isl&s are =m$4 ,e new isl&1 h[ev]1 is a new c5tre ( creation1 because ! animals & plants accid5tally ca/ a%ore !re1 f9d 9 ! new t]ritory1 9 ! /ruggle = life1 abundant opportunity ( develop+ !mselves peculi>ly1 & ( =m+ new species4 ,! =mation ( new species has evid5tly tak5 place pre-em95tly dur+ ^! int]m$iate p]iods1 ( :i*1 un=tunately1 no petrifactions c\ld be pres]v$1 :]eas1 on ! contr>y1 dur+ ! sl[ s9k+ ( ! gr\nd !re 0 m *ance ( num]\s species dy+ out1 & ( a retrogression into few] specific =ms4 ,! int]m$iate =ms betwe5 ! old & ! newly-=m+ species mu/ also h liv$ dur+ ! p]iods ( elevation1 & consequ5tly c\ld likewise leave no fossil rema9s4 ,9 addition to ! great & deplorable gaps 9 ! palontological records ( creation--:i* are caus$ by ! p]iods ( elevation--!re are1 un=tunately1 _m o!r circum/ances :i* imm5sely dim9i% _! value4 ,i mu/ m5tion "h especially ! metamorphic /ate ( ! mo/ anci5t =mations1 ( ^? /rata :i* conta9 ! rema9s ( ! mo/ anci5t flora & fauna1 ! orig9al =ms ( all subsequ5t organisms1 & :i*1 !re=e1 w\ld be ( especial int]e/4 ,x is j ^! rocks--&1 inde$1 ! great] "p ( ! primordial1 or ar*ili?ic /rata1 almo/ ! :ole ( ! ,laur5tian1 & a l>ge "p ( ! ,cambrian sy/ems--:i* no long] conta9 any recognizable rema9s1 & = ! simple reason t ^! /rata h be5 subsequ5tly *ang$ or metamorphos$ by ! influ5ce ( ! fi]y fluid int]ior ( ! e>?4 ,^! deepe/ neptunic /rata ( ! cru/ h be5 completely *ang$ f _! orig9al condition by ! heat ( ! gl[+ nucleus ( ! e>?1 & h assum$ a cry/all9e /ate4 ,9 ?is process1 h[ev]1 ! =m ( ! organic rema9s enclos$ 9 !m has be5 entirely de/roy$4 ,x has be5 pres]v$ only "h & !re by a happy *ance1 z 9 ! case ( ! mo/ anci5t petrifactions kn[n1 ! ,eozoon canad5se1 f ! l[e/ ,laur5tian /rata4 ,h[ev]1 f ! lay]s ( cry/all9e *>coal 7graphite7 & cry/all9e lime/one 7m>ble71 :i* are f\nd deposit$ 9 ! metamorphic rocks1 we may ) c]ta9ty conclude t petrifi$ animal & vegetable rema9s exi/$ 9 !m 9 e>li] times4 ,our record ( creation is also extremely imp]fect f ! circum/ance t only a small portion ( ! e>?'s surface has be5 accurately inve/igat$ by geologi/s1 namely1 ,engl&1 ,g]many1 & ,france4 ,b we "k v little ( ! o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 ( ,russia1 ,spa91 ,italy1 & ,turkey4 ,9 ! :ole ( ,europe1 only "s few p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ h be5 laid op51 by f> ! l>ge/ portion ( x is unkn[n to u4 ,! same applies to ,nor? ,am]ica & to ! ,ea/ ,indies4 ,!re "s few tracts h be5 inve/igat$2 b ( ! l>g] portion ( ,asia1 ! mo/ ext5sive ( all cont95ts1 we "k almo/ no?+2 ( ,africa no?+1 except+ ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope & ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean2 ( ,au/ralia almo/ no?+2 & ( ,s\? ,am]ica b v little4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t only q a small portion1 p]haps sc>cely ! ?\s&? "p ( ! :ole surface ( ! e>?1 has be5 palontologically inve/igat$4 ,we may !re=e reasonably hope1 :5 m ext5sive geological inve/igations are made1 :i* are greatly assi/$ by ! con/ructions ( railroads & m9es1 to f9d a great numb] ( o!r important petrifactions4 ,a h9t t ?is w be ! case is giv5 by ! rem>kable petrifactions f\nd 9 ^? p>ts ( ,africa & ,asia :i* h be5 m9utely inve/igat$1--! ,cape di/ricts & ! ,himalaya m\nta9s4 ,a s]ies ( entirely new & v peculi> animal =ms h become kn[n to u f ! rocks ( ^! localities4 ,b we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! va/ bottom ( ! exi/+ oceans is at ! pres5t "t q inaccessible to palontological inve/igations1 & t ! great] "p ( ! petrifactions :i* h la9 !re f primval times w ei!r nev] be kn[n to u1 or at be/ only aft] ! c\rse ( _m ?\s&s ( ye>s1 :5 ! pres5t bottom ( ! ocean %all h become accessible by gradual elevation4 ,if we call to m9d ! fact t ?ree-fif?s ( ! :ole surface ( ! e>? consi/s ( wat]1 & only two-fif?s ( l&1 x becomes pla9 t on ?is acc\nt ! palontological record mu/ always pres5t an imm5se gap4 ,b1 9 addition to ^!1 !re exi/s ano!r s]ies ( difficulties 9 ! way ( palontology :i* arises f ! nature ( ! organisms !mselves4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z a rule only ! h>d & solid p>ts ( organisms c fall to ! bottom ( ! sea or ( fre% wat]s1 & be !re enclos$ 9 ! mud & petrifi$4 ,h5ce x is only ! bones & tee? ( v]tebrate animals1 ! calc>e\s %ells ( molluscs1 ! *it9\s skeletons ( articulat$ animals1 ! calc>e\s skeletons ( />-fi%es & corals1 & ! woody & solid p>ts ( plants1 t are capable ( be+ petrifi$4 ,b s(t & delicate p>ts1 :i* con/itute by f> ! great] portion ( ! bodies ( mo/ organisms1 are v r>ely deposit$ 9 ! mud "u circum/ances fav\rable to _! becom+ petrifi$1 or di/9ctly impress+ _! ext]nal =m ^u ! h>d5+ mud4 ,n[1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t l>ge classes ( organisms1 z = example ! ,m$us1 ! nak$ molluscs )\t %ells1 a l>ge portion ( ! articulat$ animals1 almo/ all worms1 & ev5 ! l[e/ v]tebrate animals1 possess no firm & h>d p>ts capable ( be+ petrifi$4 ,9 l mann] ! mo/ important p>ts ( plants1 su* z ! fl[]s1 are = ! mo/ "p s s(t & t5d] t !y _c be pres]v$ 9 a recognizable =m4 ,we !re=e _c expect to f9d any petrifi$ rema9s ( ^! important organisms4 ,moreov]1 all organisms at an e>ly /age ( life are s s(t & t5d] t !y are q incapable ( be+ petrifi$4 ,consequ5tly all ! petrifactions f\nd 9 ! neptunic /ratifications ( ! e>?'s cru/ comprise altoge!r b a v few =ms1 & ( ^! = ! mo/ "p only isolat$ fragm5ts4 ,we mu/ next be> 9 m9d t ! dead bodies ( ! inhabitants ( ! sea are mu* m likely to be pres]v$ & petrifi$ 9 ! deposits ( mud ?an ^? ( ! inhabitants ( fre% wat] & ( ! l&4 ,organisms liv+ on l& c1 z a rule1 become petrifi$ only :5 _! corpses fall accid5tally into ! wat] & are buri$ at ! bottom 9 ! h>d5+ lay]s ( mud4 ,b ?is ev5t dep5ds ^u v _m conditions4 ,we _c !re=e be a/oni%$ t by f> ! majority ( petrifactions belong to organisms :i* h liv$ 9 ! sea1 & t ( ! inhabitants ( ! l& proportionately only v few are pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,h[ _m cont+5cies come into play "h we may inf] f ! s+le fact t ( _m fossil mammals1 9 fact ( all ! mammals ( ! second>y1 or mesozoic epo*1 no?+ is kn[n except ! l[] jawbone4 ,?is bone is 9 ! fir/ place comp>atively solid1 & 9 ! second place v easily sep>ates itself f ! dead body1 :i* floats on ! wat]4 ,:il/ ! body is driv5 away & dissolv$ by ! wat]1 ! l[] jawbone falls d[n to ! bottom ( ! wat] & is !re enclos$ 9 ! mud4 ,?is expla9s ! rem>kable fact t 9 a /ratum ( lime/one ( ! ,jurassic sy/em ne> ,ox=d1 9 ! slates ( ,/onesfield1 z yet only ! l[] jawbones ( num]\s p\*$ animals 7,m>supials7 h be5 f\nd4 ,!y are ! mo/ anci5t mammals kn[n1 & ( ! :ole ( ! re/ ( _! bodies n a s+le bone exi/s4 ,! oppon5ts ( ! !ory ( developm5t1 accord+ to _! usual logic1 w\ld f ?is fact be oblig$ to draw ! conclusion t ! l[] jawbone 0 ! only bone 9 ! body ( ^? animals4 ,footpr9ts are v in/ructive :5 we attempt to e/imate ! _m accid5ts :i* s arbitr>ily influ5ce our k ( fossils2 !y are f\nd 9 great numb]s 9 diff]5t ext5sive lay]s ( s&/one2 = example1 9 ! r$ s&/one ( ,connecticut1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,^! footpr9ts 7 evid5tly made by v]tebrate animals1 probably by reptiles1 ( ^: bodies n ! slighte/ trace has be5 pres]v$4#a ,! impressions :i* _! feet h left on ! mud alone betray ! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! o!rwise unkn[n animals4 ,! accid5ts :i*1 besides ^!1 det]m9e ! limits ( our palontological k1 may be inf]r$ f ! fact t we "k ( only "o or two specim5s ( v _m important petrifactions4 ,x is n t5 ye>s s9ce we became acqua9t$ ) ! imp]fect impression ( a bird 9 ! ,jurassic or ,oolitic sy/em1 ! k ( :i* has be5 ( ! v greate/ importance = ! phylog5y ( ! :ole class ( birds4 ,all birds previ\sly kn[n pres5t$ a v uni=mly organiz$ gr\p1 & %[$ no /rik+ transitional =ms to o!r v]tebrate classes1 n ev5 to ! ne>ly relat$ reptiles4 ,b t fossil bird f ! ,jura possess$ n an ord9>y bird's tail1 b a liz>d's tail1 & ?us confirm$ :at _h be5 conjectur$ ^u o!r gr\nds1 namely1 ! d]ivation ( birds f liz>ds4 ,?is s+le fossil has ?us ess5tially ext5d$ n only our k ( ! age ( ! class ( birds1 b also ( _! blood relation%ip to reptiles4 ,9 l mann] our k ( o!r animal gr\ps has be5 (t5 ess5tially modifi$ by ! accid5tal discov]y ( a s+le fossil4 ,! palontological records mu/ necess>ily be exce$+ly imp]fect1 because we "k ( s v few examples1 or only m]e fragm5ts ( v _m important fossils4 ,ano!r & v s5sible gap 9 ^! records is caus$ by ! circum/ance t ! int]m$iate =ms :i* connect ! diff]5t species h1 z a rule1 n be5 pres]v$1 & = ! simple reason t 7accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( div]g5ce ( "*7 !y 7 less fav\r$ 9 ! /ruggle = life ?an ! mo/ div]g5t v>ieties1 :i* _h develop$ out ( "o & ! same orig9al =m4 ,! int]m$iate l9ks h1 on ! :ole1 always di$ out rapidly1 & h b r>ely be5 pres]v$ z fossils4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mo/ div]g5t =ms 7 able to ma9ta9 !mselves 9 life = a long] p]iod z indep5d5t species1 to propagate m num]\sly1 & consequ5tly to be m readily petrifi$4 ,b ?is does n exclude ! fact t 9 "s cases ! connect+ int]m$iate =ms ( ! species h be5 pres]v$ s p]fectly petrifi$1 t ev5 n[ !y cause ! greate/ p]plexity & occasion endless disputes among sy/ematic palontologi/s ab\t ! arbitr>y limits ( species4 ,an excell5t example ( ?is is furni%$ by ! celebrat$ & v v>iable fre%-wat] snail f ! ,/ub5 ,valley1 ne> ,/e9heim1 9 ,wrtemburg1 :i* has be5 describ$ sometimes z ,palud9a1 sometimes z ,valvata1 & sometimes z ,planorbis multi=mis4 ,! sn[-:ite %ells ( ^! small snails con/itute m ?an half ( ! mass ( ! t]ti>y lime/one hills1 & 9 ?is "o locality %[ su* an a/oni%+ v>iety ( =ms1 t ! mo/ div]g5t extremes might be ref]r$ to at lea/ tw5ty entirely diff]5t species4 ,b all ^! extreme =ms are unit$ by su* innum]able int]m$iate =ms1 & !y lie s regul>ly above & beside "o ano!r1 t ,hilg5dorf 0 able1 9 ! cle>e/ mann]1 to unravel ! p$igree ( ! :ole gr\p ( =ms4 ,9 l mann]1 among v _m o!r fossil species 7= example1 _m ammonites1 t]ebratul1 sea ur*9s1 lily encr9ites1 etc47 !re are su* masses ( connect+ int]m$iate =ms1 t !y r$uce ! 8deal]s 9 fossil species0 to despair4 ,:5 we weigh all ! circum/ances "h m5tion$1 ! numb] ( :i* might easily be increas$1 x does n appe> a/oni%+ t ! natural acc\nts or records ( creation =m$ by petrifactions are extremely defective & incomplete4 ,b nev]!less1 ! petrifactions actually discov]$ are ( ! greate/ value4 ,_! significance is ( no less importance to ! natural hi/ory ( creation ?an ! celebrat$ inscription on ! ,rosetta /one1 & ! decree ( ,canopus1 are to ! hi/ory ( nations--to ar*ology & philology4 ,j z x has become possible by means ( ^! two mo/ anci5t inscriptions to recon/ruct ! hi/ory ( anci5t ,egypt1 & to deciph] all hi]oglyphic writ+s1 s 9 _m cases a few bones ( an animal1 or imp]fect impressions ( a l[] animal or vegetable =m1 are suffici5t = u to ga9 ! mo/ important />t+-po9ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! :ole gr\p1 & 9 ! se>* aft] _! p$igree4 ,a c\ple ( small back tee?1 :i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,keup] =mation ( ! ,trias1 h ( !mselves alone furni%$ a sure pro( t mammals exi/$ ev5 9 ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,( ! incomplet5ess ( ! geological acc\nts ( creation1 ,d>w91 agree+ ) ,lyell1 ! greate/ ( all rec5t geologi/s1 says3-- 8,i look at ! geological record z a hi/ory ( ! _w imp]fectly kept1 & writt5 9 a *ang+ dialect2 ( ?is hi/ory we possess ! la/ volume alone1 relat+ only to two or ?ree c\ntries4 ,( ?is volume1 only "h & !re a %ort *apt] has be5 pres]v$2 & ( ea* page1 only "h & !re a few l9es4 ,ea* ^w ( ! sl[ly-*ang+ language1 m or less diff]5t 9 ! successive *apt]s1 may repres5t ! =ms ( life :i* are entomb$ 9 our consecutive =mations1 & :i* falsely appe> to u to h be5 abruptly introduc$4 ,on ?is view1 ! difficulties above discuss$ are greatly dim9i%$1 or ev5 disappe>40--,orig9 ( ,species1 #f? ,edition1 p4 #bhi4 ,if we be> 9 m9d ! exce$+ incomplet5ess ( palontological records1 we %all n be surpris$ t we are /ill dep5d5t ^u s _m unc]ta9 hypo!ses :5 actually endeav\r+ to sket* ! p$igree ( ! diff]5t organic gr\ps4 ,h[ev]1 we =tunately possess1 besides fossils1 o!r records ( ! hi/ory ( ! orig9 ( organisms1 :i* 9 _m cases are ( no less value1 nay1 9 sev]al cases are ( mu* great] value1 ?an fossils4 ,by f> ! mo/ important ( ^! o!r records ( creation is1 )\t d\bt1 ontog5y1 t is1 ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! organic individual 7embryology & metamorphology74 ,x briefly repeats 9 great & m>k$ features ! s]ies ( =ms :i* ! ance/ors ( ! respective individuals h pass$ ?r\gh f ! beg9n+ ( _! tribe4 ,we h designat$ ! palontological hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! ance/ors ( a liv+ =m z ! hi/ory ( a tribe1 or phylog5y1 & we may !re=e ?us enunciate ?is exce$+ly important biog5etic fundam5tal pr9ciple3 8,ontog5y is a %ort & quick repetition1 or recapitulation1 ( ,phylog5y1 det]m9$ by ! laws ( ,inh]itance & ,adaptation40 ,z e animal & e plant f ! beg9n+ ( its individual exi/5ce passes ?r\gh a s]ies ( diff]5t =ms1 x indicates 9 rapid succession & 9 g5]al outl9es ! long & sl[ly *ang+ s]ies ( /ates ( =m :i* its prog5itors h pass$ ?r\gh f ! mo/ anci5t times4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 #f1 #aaj1 #cjj47 ,x is true t ! sket* :i* ! ontog5y ( organisms gives u ( _! phylog5y is 9 mo/ cases m or less obscur$1 & all ! m s ! m ,adaptation1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 has pr$om9at$ ov] ,inh]itance1 & ! m p[]fully ! law ( abbreviat$ inh]itance1 & ! law ( correlative adaptation1 h ex]t$ _! influ5ce4 ,h[ev]1 ?is does n less5 ! great value :i* ! actual & fai?fully pres]v$ features ( t sket* possess4 ,ontog5y is ( ! mo/ ine/imable value = ! k ( ! e>lie/ palontological conditions ( developm5t1 j because no petrifi$ rema9s ( ! mo/ anci5t conditions ( ! developm5t ( tribes & classes h be5 pres]v$4 ,^!1 inde$1 c\ld n h be5 pres]v$ on acc\nt ( ! s(t & t5d] nature ( _! bodies4 ,no petrifactions c\ld in=m u ( ! fundam5tal & important fact :i* ontog5y reveals to u1 t ! mo/ anci5t common ance/ors ( all ! diff]5t animal & vegetable species 7 q simple cells l ! egg-cell4 ,no petrifaction c\ld prove to u ! imm5sely important fact1 e/abli%$ by ontog5y1 t ! simple increase1 ! =mation ( cell-aggregates & ! diff]5tiation ( ^? cells1 produc$ ! inf9itely manifold =ms ( multicellul> organisms4 ,?us ontog5y helps u ov] _m & l>ge gaps 9 palontology4 ,illu/ration3 ,h& ( ,n9e diff]5t ,mammals4 ,pl4 ,,iv4 #a4 ,man1 #b4 ,gorilla1 #c4 ,orang1 #d4 ,dog1 #e4 ,seal1 #f4 ,porpoise1 #g4 ,bat1 #h4 ,mole1 #i4 ,duck-bill4 ,to ! invaluable records ( creation furni%$ by palontology & ontog5y are add$ ! no less important evid5ces = ! blood relation%ip ( organisms furni%$ by comp>ative anatomy4 ,:5 organisms1 ext]nally v diff]5t1 ne>ly agree 9 _! int]nal /ructure1 "o may ) c]ta9ty conclude t ! agreem5t has its f\ndation 9 ,inh]itance1 ! dissimil>ity its f\ndation 9 ,adaptation4 ,comp>e1 = example1 ! h&s & =e paws ( ! n9e diff]5t animals :i* are repres5t$ on ,plate ,,iv41 9 :i* ! bony skeleton 9 ! int]ior ( ! h& & ( ! five f+]s is visible4 ,ev]y:]e we f9d1 ?\gh ! ext]nal =ms are mo/ diff]5t1 ! same bones1 & among !m ! same numb]1 position1 & connection4 ,x w p]haps appe> v natural t ! h& ( man 7,fig4 #a7 diff]s v little f t ( ! gorilla 7,fig4 #b7 & ( ! orang-outang 7,fig4 #c71 8 ne>e/ relations4 ,b x w be m surpris+ if ! =e feet ( ! dog also 7,fig4 #d71 z well z ! brea/-f9 7! h&7 ( ! seal 7,fig4 #e71 & ( ! dolph9 7,fig4 #f71 %[ ess5tially ! same /ructure4 ,& x w appe> /ill m wond]ful t ev5 ! w+ ( ! bat 7,fig4 #g71 ! %ovel-feet ( ! mole 7,fig4 #h71 & ! =e feet ( ! duck-bill 7,orni?orhyn*us7 7,fig4 #i71 ! mo/ imp]fect ( all mammals1 is compos$ ( entirely ! same bones1 only _! size & =m be+ v>i\sly *ang$4 ,_! numb]1 ! mann] ( _! arrangem5t & connection has rema9$ ! same4 7,comp>e also ! explanation ( ,plate ,,iv41 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,x is q inconceivable t any o!r cause1 except ! common inh]itance ( ! "p 9 "q f common ance/ors1 c\ld h occasion$ ?is wond]ful homology or simil>ity 9 ! ess5tial inn] /ructure ) su* diff]5t ext]nal =ms4 ,n[1 if we g d[n fur!r 9 ! sy/em bel[ ! mammals1 & f9d t ev5 ! w+s ( birds1 ! =e feet ( reptiles & amphibi\s animals1 are compos$ ( ess5tially ! same bones z ! arms ( man & ! =e legs ( ! o!r mammals1 we c1 f ?is circum/ance alone1 ) p]fect c]ta9ty1 inf] ! common orig9 ( all ^! v]tebrate animals4 ,"h1 z 9 all o!r cases1 ! degree ( ! int]nal agreem5t 9 ! =m discloses to u ! degree ( blood relation%ip4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,k+dom ,,( ,,! ,,proti/a4 ,special ,mode ( ,c>ry+ out ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t 9 ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,organisms4--,con/ruction ( ,p$igrees4--,desc5t ( all ,_m-,cell$ f ,s+le-,cell$ ,organisms4--,desc5t ( ,cells f ,mon]a4--,mean+ ( ,organic ,tribes1 or ,phyla4--,numb] ( ! ,tribes 9 ! ,animal & ,vegetable ,k+doms4--,! ,monophyletic ,hypo!sis ( ,desc5t1 or ! ,hypo!sis ( "o ,common ,prog5itor1 & ! ,polyphyletic ,hypo!sis ( ,desc5t1 or ! ,hypo!sis ( ,_m ,prog5itors4--,! ,k+dom ( ,proti/a1 or ,primval ,be+s4--,eight ,classes ( ! ,proti/a ,k+dom4--,mon]a1 ,amb1 or ,protopla/4--,:ip-swimm]s1 or ,flagellata4--,ciliat$-balls1 or ,catallacta4--,labyr9?-/ream]s1 or ,labyr9?ule4--,fl9t-cells1 or ,diatome4--,muc\s-m\lds1 or ,myxomycetes4--,root-foot]s 7,rhizopoda74--,rem>ks on ! ,g5]al ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,proti/a3 ,_! ,vital ,ph5om5a1 ,*emical ,composition1 & ,=mation 7,individuality & ,fundam5tal ,=m74--,phylog5y ( ! ,proti/a ,k+dom ,by a c>eful comp>ison ( ! individual & ! palontological developm5t1 z also by ! comp>ative anatomy ( organisms1 by ! comp>ative exam9ation ( _! fully develop$ /ructural *>act]i/ics1 we arrive at ! k ( ! degrees ( _! diff]5t /ructural relation%ips4 ,by ?is1 h[ev]1 we at ! same "t obta9 an insight into _! true blood relation%ip1 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 is ! real reason ( ! /ructural relation%ip4 ,h5ce by collect+1 comp>+1 & employ+ ! empirical results ( embryology1 palontology1 & anatomy = supplem5t+ ea* o!r1 we arrive at an approximate k ( 8! ,natural ,sy/em10 :i*1 accord+ to our views1 is ! p$igree ( organisms4 ,x is true t our human k1 9 all ?+s fragm5t>y1 is especially s 9 ?is case1 on acc\nt ( ! extreme incomplet5ess & defectiv5ess ( ! records ( creation4 ,h[ev]1 we mu/ n all[ ?is to disc\rage u1 or to det] u f und]tak+ ?is highe/ problem ( biology4 ,let u r see h[ f> x may ev5 n[ be possible1 9 spite ( ! imp]fect /ate ( our embryological1 palontological1 & anatomical k1 to e/abli% a probable s*eme ( ! g5ealogical relation%ips ( organisms4 ,d>w9 9 8 book gives u no answ] to ^! special que/ions ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t2 at ! conclusion he only expresses 8 conjecture 8t animals h desc5d$ f at mo/ only f\r or five prog5itors1 & plants f an equal or less numb]40 ,b z ^! few aborig9al =ms /ill %[ traces ( relation%ip1 & z ! animal & vegetable k+doms are connect$ by int]m$iate transitional =ms1 he arrives aft]w>ds at ! op9ion 8t probably all ! organic be+s :i* h ev] liv$ on ! e>? h desc5d$ f "s "o primordial =m1 into :i* life 0 fir/ brea!d by ! ,creator40 ,l ,d>w91 all o!r adh]5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t h only treat$ x 9 a g5]al way1 & n made ! attempt to c>ry x out specially1 & to treat ! 8,natural ,sy/em0 actually z ! p$igree ( organisms4 ,if1 !re=e1 we v5ture ^u ?is difficult und]tak+1 we mu/ take up indep5d5t gr\nd4 ,f\r ye>s ago ,i set up a numb] ( hypo!tical g5ealogies = ! l>g] gr\ps ( organisms 9 ! sy/ematic introduction to my ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,developm5t 7,g54 ,morph4 vol4 ii471 & !reby1 9 fact1 made ! fir/ attempt actually to con/ruct ! p$igrees ( organisms 9 ! mann] requir$ by ! !ory ( developm5t4 ,i 0 q consci\s ( ! extreme difficulty ( ! task1 & z ,i und]took x 9 spite ( all disc\rag+ ob/acles1 ,i claim no m ?an ! m]it ( hav+ made ! fir/ attempt & giv5 a /imulus = o!r & bett] attempts4 ,probably mo/ zoologi/s & botani/s 7 b little satisfi$ ) ?is beg9n+1 & lea/ s 9 ref]5ce to ! special doma9 9 :i* ea* "o is specially at "w4 ,h[ev]1 x is c]ta9ly 9 ?is case mu* easi] to blame ?an to produce some?+ bett]1 & :at be/ proves ! imm5se difficulty ( ?is inf9itely complicat$ task is ! fact t no naturali/ has z yet suppli$ ! place ( my p$igrees by bett] ones4 ,b1 l all o!r sci5tific hypo!ses :i* s]ve to expla9 facts1 my g5ealogical hypo!ses may claim to be tak5 into consid]ation until !y are replac$ by bett] ones4 ,i hope t ?is replacem5t w v soon take place2 & ,i wi% = no?+ m ?an t my fir/ attempt may induce v _m naturali/s to e/abli% m accurate p$igrees = ! individual gr\ps1 at lea/ 9 ! special doma9 ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom :i* happ5s to be well kn[n to "o or o!r ( !m4 ,by num]\s attempts ( ?is k9d our g5ealogical k1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 w sl[ly advance & approa* m t[>ds p]fection1 al?\gh x c ) c]ta9ty be =ese5 t we %all nev] arrive at a complete p$igree4 ,we lack1 & %all ev] lack1 ! indisp5sable palontological f\ndations4 ,! mo/ anci5t records w ev] rema9 seal$ to u1 = reasons :i* h be5 previ\sly m5tion$4 ,! mo/ anci5t organisms :i* arose by spontane\s g5]ation--! orig9al p>5ts ( all subsequ5t organisms--mu/ necess>ily be suppos$ to h be5 ,mon]a--simple1 s(t1 album9\s lumps1 )\t /ructure1 )\t any def9ite =ms1 & entirely )\t any h>d & =m$ p>ts4 ,!y & _! next (fspr+ 7 consequ5tly n 9 any way capable ( be+ pres]v$ 9 a petrifi$ condition4 ,b we also lack1 = reasons discuss$ 9 detail 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 by f> ! great] portion ( ! innum]able palontological docum5ts1 :i* are really requisite = a safe recon/ruction ( ! hi/ory ( animal tribes1 or phylog5y1 & = ! true k ( ! p$igree ( organisms4 ,if we1 !re=e1 9 spite ( ?is1 v5ture to und]take _! hypo!tical con/ruction1 we mu/ *iefly dep5d = guidance on ! two o!r s]ies ( records :i* mo/ ess5tially supplem5t ! palontological ar*ives4 ,^! are ontog5y & comp>ative anatomy4 ,if ?\ghtfully & c>efully we consult ^! mo/ valuable records1 we at once p]ceive :at is exce$+ly significant1 namely1 t by f> ! great] numb] ( organisms1 especially all high] animals & plants1 are compos$ ( a great numb] ( cells1 & t !y orig9ate out ( an egg1 & t ?is egg1 9 animals z well z 9 plants1 is a s+le1 p]fectly simple cell--a little lump ( album9\s con/itution1 9 :i* ano!r album9\s corpuscle1 ! cell-k]nel1 is enclos$4 ,?is cell conta9+ its k]nel gr[s & becomes enl>g$4 ,by division x =ms an accumulation ( cells1 & out ( ^!1 by division ( lab\r 7z has previ\sly be5 describ$71 !re arise ! numb]less diff]5t =ms :i* are pres5t$ to u 9 ! fully develop$ animal & vegetable species4 ,?is imm5sely important process--:i* we may foll[ /ep by /ep1 ) our own eyes1 any day 9 ! embryological developm5t ( any animal or vegetable individual1 & :i* z a rule is by no means consid]$ ) ! rev]5ce x des]ves--in=ms u m surely & completely ?an all petrifactions c\ld d z to ! orig9al palontological developm5t ( all _m-cell$ organisms1 t is1 ( all high] animals & plants4 ,= z ontog5y1 or ! embryological developm5t ( e s+le individual1 is ess5tially only a recapitulation ( phylog5y1 or ! palontological developm5t ( its *a9 ( ance/ors1 we may at once1 ) full assurance1 draw ! simple & important conclusion1 t all _m-cell$ animals & plants 7 orig9ally d]iv$ f s+le-cell$ organisms4 ,! primval ance/ors ( man1 z well z ( all o!r animals1 & ( all plants compos$ ( _m cells1 7 simple cells liv+ isolat$4 ,?is invaluable secret ( ! organic p$igree is reveal$ to u ) infallible c]ta9ty by ! egg ( animals1 & by ! true egg-cell ( plants4 ,:5 ! oppon5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t ass]t x to be miracul\s & inconceivable t an exce$+ly complicat$ _m-cell$ organism c\ld1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 h proce$$ f a simple s+le-cell$ organism1 we at once reply t we may see ?is incr$ible miracle at any mom5t1 & foll[ x ) our own eyes4 ,= ! embryology ( animals & plants visibly pres5ts to our eyes 9 ! %orte/ space ( "t ! same process z t :i* has tak5 place 9 ! orig9 ( ! :ole tribe dur+ ! c\rse ( enorm\s p]iods ( "t4 ,^u ! gr\nd ( embryological records1 !re=e1 we c ) full assurance ma9ta9 t all _m-cell$1 z well z s+le-cell$1 organisms are orig9ally desc5d$ f simple cells2 connect$ ) ?is1 ( c\rse1 is ! conclusion t ! mo/ anci5t root ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom 0 common to bo?4 ,= ! diff]5t primval 8orig9al cells0 out ( :i* ! few diff]5t ma9 gr\ps or tribes h develop$1 only acquir$ _! diff]5ces aft] a "t1 & 7 desc5d$ f a common 8primval cell40 ,b :]e did ^? few 8orig9al cells10 or ! "o primval cell1 come f8 ,= ! answ] to ?is fundam5tal g5ealogical "q we mu/ return to ! !ory ( pla/ids & ! hypo!sis ( spontane\s g5]ation :i* we h already discuss$ 7vol4 i4 p4 #cbg74 ,z 0 !n %[n1 we _c imag9e cells to h aris5 by spontane\s g5]ation1 b only ,mon]a1 ^? primval creatures ( ! simple/ k9d conceivable1 l ! /ill liv+ ,protamb1 ,protomyx1 etc4 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 ,fig4 #a74 ,only su* corpuscules ( mucus )\t compon5t p>ts--^: :ole album9\s body is z homog5e\s 9 itself z an inorganic cry/al1 b :i* nev]!less fulfills ! two organic fundam5tal functions ( nutrition & propagation--c\ld h directly aris5 out ( inorganic matt] by autog5y at ! beg9n+ 7we may suppose7 ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod4 ,:ile "s ,mon]a rema9$ at ! orig9al simple /age ( =mation1 o!rs gradually develop$ into cells by ! inn] k]nel ( ! album9\s mass becom+ sep>at$ f ! ext]nal cell-sub/ance4 ,9 o!rs1 by diff]5tiation ( ! out]mo/ lay] ( ! cell-sub/ance1 an ext]nal cov]+ 7membrane1 or sk97 0 =m$ r\nd simple cytods 7)\t k]nel71 z well z r\nd nak$ cells 7conta9+ a k]nel74 ,by ^! two processes ( sep>ation 9 ! simple primval mucus ( ! ,mon]on body1 by ! =mation ( a k]nel 9 ! int]ior & a cov]+ on ! out] surface ( ! mass ( plasma1 !re arose out ( ! orig9al mo/ simple cytods1 or ,mon]a1 ^? f\r diff]5t species ( pla/ids1 or individuals1 ( ! fir/ ord]1 f :i*1 by diff]5tiation & comb9ation1 all o!r organisms c\ld aft]w>ds develop !mselves4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cdg47 ,! "q n[ =ces itself ^u u1 ,are all organic cytods & cells1 & consequ5tly also ^? 8orig9al cells0 :i* we previ\sly consid]$ to be ! prim>y p>5ts ( ! few great ma9 gr\ps ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 desc5d$ f a s+le orig9al =m ( ,mon]on1 or 7 !re sev]al diff]5t organic prim>y =ms1 ea* traceable to a peculi> indep5d5t species ( ,mon]on :i* orig9at$ by spontane\s g5]ation8 ,9 o!r words1 ,is ! :ole organic _w ( a common orig91 or does x owe its orig9 to sev]al acts ( spontane\s g5]ation8 ,?is fundam5tal "q ( g5ealogy seems at fir/ sight to be ( exce$+ importance4 ,b on a m accurate exam9ation1 we %all soon see t ?is is n ! case1 & t x is 9 reality a matt] ( v subord9ate importance4 ,let u n[ pass on to exam9e & cle>ly limit our conception ( an organic tribe4 ,by tribe1 or phylum1 we und]/& all ^? organisms ( ^: blood relation%ip & desc5t f a common prim>y =m !re c be no d\bt1 or ^: relation%ip1 at lea/1 is mo/ probable f anatomical reasons1 z well z f reasons f\nd$ on hi/orical developm5t4 ,our tribes1 or phyla1 accord+ to ?is idea1 ess5tially co9cide ) ^? few 8great classes10 or 8ma9 classes10 ( :i* ,d>w9 also ?9ks t ea* conta9s only organisms relat$ by blood1 & ( :i*1 bo? 9 ! animal & 9 ! vegetable k+doms1 he only assumes ei!r f\r or five4 ,9 ! animal k+dom ^! tribes w\ld ess5tially co9cide ) ^? f\r1 five1 or six ma9 divisions :i* zoologi/s1 s9ce ,br & ,cuvi]1 h di/+ui%$ z 8ma9 =ms1 g5]al plans1 bran*es1 or sub-k+doms0 ( ! animal k+dom4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #ec47 ,br & ,cuvi] di/+ui%$ only f\r ( !m1 namely3--#a4 ,! v]tebrate animals 7,v]tebrata72 #b4 ,! articulat$ animals 7,articulata72 #c4 ,! mollusc\s animals 7,mollusca72 & #d4 ,! radiat$ animals 7,radiata74 ,at pres5t six are g5]ally di/+ui%$1 s9ce ! tribe ( ! articulat$ animals is divid$ into two tribes1 ^? possess+ articulat$ feet 7,ar?ropoda71 & ! worms 7,v]mes72 & 9 l mann] ! tribe ( radiat$ animals is subdivid$ into ! two tribes ( ! /> animals 7,e*9od]mata7 & ! animal-plants 7,zoophyta74 ,)9 ea* ( ^! six tribes1 all ! includ$ animals1 9 spite ( great v>iety 9 ext]nal =m & inn] /ructure1 nev]!less possess su* num]\s & important *>act]i/ics 9 common1 t !re c be no d\bt ( _! blood relation%ip4 ,! same applies also to ! six great ma9 classes :i* mod]n botany di/+ui%es 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 namely3--#a4 ,fl[]+ plants 7,phan]ogamia72 #b4 ,f]ns 7,filic972 #c4 ,mosses 7,musc972 #d4 ,li*5s 7,li*5es72 #e4 ,fungi 7,fungi72 & #f4 ,wat]-we$s 7,alg74 ,! la/ ?ree gr\ps1 aga91 %[ su* close relations to "o ano!r1 t by ! "n ( 8,?allus plants0 !y may be contra/$ ) ! ?ree fir/ ma9 classes1 & consequ5tly ! numb] ( phyla1 or ma9 gr\ps1 ( ! vegetable k+dom may be r$uc$ to ! numb] ( f\r4 ,mosses & f]ns may likewise be compris$ z 8,pro?allus plants0 7,pro?allophyta71 & !reby ! numb] ( plant tribes r$uc$ to ?ree--,fl[]+ plants1 ,pro?allus plants1 & ,?allus plants4 ,v important facts 9 ! anatomy & ! hi/ory ( developm5t1 bo? 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 support ! supposition t ev5 ^! few ma9 classes or tribes are connect$ at _! roots1 t is1 t ! l[e/ & mo/ anci5t prim>y =ms ( all ?ree are relat$ by blood to "o ano!r4 ,nay1 by a fur!r exam9ation we are oblig$ to g /ill a /ep fur!r1 & to agree ) ,d>w9's supposition1 t ev5 ! two p$igrees ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom are connect$ at _! l[e/ roots1 & t ! l[e/ & mo/ anci5t animals & plants are d]iv$ f a s+le common prim>y creature4 ,accord+ to our view1 ?is common primval organism c h be5 no?+ b a ,mon]on :i* took its orig9 by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,9 ! mean "t we %all at all ev5ts be act+ cauti\sly if we avoid ?is la/ /ep1 & assume true blood relation%ip only )9 ea* tribe1 or phylum1 :]e x has be5 und5iably & surely e/abli%$ by facts 9 comp>ative anatomy1 ontog5y1 & phylog5y4 ,b we may "h po9t to ! fact t two diff]5t fundam5tal =ms ( g5ealogical hypo!sis are possible1 & t all ! diff]5t inve/igations ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t 9 relation to ! orig9 ( organic gr\ps ( =ms w1 9 future1 t5d m & m 9 "o or ! o!r ( ^! directions4 ,! unit>y1 or monophyletic1 hypo!sis ( desc5t w endeav\r to trace ! fir/ orig9 ( all individual gr\ps ( organisms1 z well z _! totality1 to a s+le common species ( ,mon]on :i* orig9at$ by spontane\s g5]ation 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdc74 ,! multiple1 or polyphyletic1 hypo!sis ( desc5t1 on ! o!r h&1 w assume t sev]al diff]5t species ( ,mon]a h aris5 by spontane\s g5]ation1 & t ^! gave rise to sev]al diff]5t ma9 classes 7tribes1 or phyla7 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdh74 ,! app>5tly great contra/ betwe5 ^! two hypo!ses is 9 reality ( v little importance4 ,= bo? ! monophyletic & ! polyphyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t mu/ necess>ily g back to ! ,mon]a z ! mo/ anci5t root ( ! "o or ( ! _m organic tribes4 ,b z ! :ole body ( a ,mon]on consi/s only ( a simple1 =mless mass1 )\t compon5t p>ticles1 made up ( a s+le album9\s comb9ation ( c>bon1 x foll[s t ! diff]5ces ( ! diff]5t ,mon]a c only be ( a *emical nature1 & c only consi/ 9 a diff]5t atomic composition ( t muc\s album9\s comb9ation4 ,b ^! subtle & complicat$ diff]5ces ( mixture ( ! inf9itely manifold comb9ations ( album5 are n appreciable by ! rude & imp]fect means ( human obs]vation & are1 consequ5tly1 at pres5t ( no fur!r int]e/ to ! task we h 9 h&4 ,! "q ( ! monophyletic or polyphyletic orig9 w con/antly recur )9 ea* individual tribe1 :]e ! orig9 ( a small] or ( a l>g] gr\p is discuss$4 ,9 ! vegetable k+dom1 = example1 "s botani/s w be incl9$ to d]ive all fl[]+ plants f a s+le =m ( f]n1 :ile o!rs w pref] ! idea t sev]al diff]5t gr\ps ( ,phan]ogama h sprung f sev]al diff]5t gr\ps ( f]ns4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! animal k+dom1 "s zoologi/s w be m 9 fav\r ( ! supposition t all plac5tal animals are d]iv$ f a s+le p\*$ animal2 o!rs w be m 9 fav\r ( ! opposite supposition1 t sev]al diff]5t gr\ps ( plac5tal animals h proce$$ f sev]al diff]5t p\*$ animals4 ,9 reg>d to ! human race itself1 "s w pref] to d]ive x f a s+le =m ( ape1 :ile o!rs w be m incl9$ to ! idea t sev]al diff]5t races ( m5 h aris51 indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 out ( sev]al diff]5t species ( ape4 ,)\t "h express+ our op9ion 9 fav\r ( ei!r ! "o or ! o!r conception1 we mu/1 nev]!less1 rem>k t 9 g5]al ! monophyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t des]ves to be pref]r$ to ! polyphyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t4 ,9 accordance ) ! *orological proposition ( a s+le 8c5tre ( creation0 or ( a s+le primval home = mo/ species 7:i* has already be5 discuss$71 we may be p]mitt$ to assume t ! orig9al =m ( e l>g] or small] natural gr\p only orig9at$ once 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 & only 9 "o "p ( ! e>?4 ,we may safely assume ?is simple orig9al root1 t is1 ! monophyletic orig91 9 ! case ( all ! m highly develop$ gr\ps ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cec47 ,b x is v possible t ! m complete ,!ory ( ,desc5t ( ! future w involve ! polyphyletic orig9 ( v _m ( ! l[ & imp]fect gr\ps ( ! two organic k+doms4 ,= ^! reasons ,i consid] x be/1 9 ! mean "t1 to adopt ! monophyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t bo? = ! animal & = ! vegetable k+dom4 ,accord+ly1 ! above-m5tion$ six tribes1 or phyla1 ( ! animal k+dom mu/ be connect$ at _! l[e/ root1 & likewise ! ?ree or six ma9 classes1 or phyla1 ( ! vegetable k+dom mu/ be trac$ to a common & mo/ anci5t orig9al =m4 ,h[ ! connection ( ^! tribes is to be conceiv$ ,i %all expla9 9 ! succe$+ *apt]s4 ,b be=e proce$+ to ?is1 we mu/ occupy ourselves ) a v rem>kable gr\p ( organisms1 :i* _c )\t artificial con/ra9t be assign$ ei!r to ! p$igree ( ! vegetable or to t ( ! animal k+dom4 ,^! int]e/+ & important organisms are ! prim>y creatures1 or ,proti/a4 ,all organisms :i* we comprise "u ! "n ( ,proti/a %[ 9 _! ext]nal =m1 9 _! inn] /ructure1 & 9 all _! vital ph5om5a1 su* a rem>kable mixture ( animal & vegetable prop]ties1 t !y _c ) p]fect ju/ice be assign$ ei!r to ! animal or to ! vegetable k+dom2 & = m ?an tw5ty ye>s an endless & fruitless dispute has be5 c>ri$ on z to :e!r !y are to be assign$ to ?is or t k+dom4 ,mo/ ( ,proti/a are s small t !y c sc>cely1 if at all1 be p]ceiv$ ) ! nak$ eye4 ,h5ce ! majority ( !m h only become kn[n dur+ ! la/ fifty ye>s1 s9ce by ! help ( ! improv$ & g5]al use ( ! microscope ^! m9ute organisms h be5 m frequ5tly obs]v$ & m accurately exam9$4 ,h[ev]1 no soon] 7 !y bett] kn[n ?an endless disputes arose ab\t _! real nature & _! position 9 ! natural sy/em ( organisms4 ,_m ( ^! d\btful prim>y creatures botani/s def9$ z animals1 & zoologi/s z plants2 nei!r ( ! two w\ld own !m4 ,o!rs1 aga91 7 decl>$ by botani/s to be plants1 & by zoologi/s to be animals2 ea* claim$ !m4 ,^! contradictions are n altoge!r caus$ by our imp]fect k ( ! ,proti/a1 b 9 reality by _! true nature4 ,inde$1 mo/ ,proti/a pres5t su* a confus$ mixture ( sev]al animal & vegetable *>act]i/ics1 t ea* inve/igator may arbitr>ily assign !m ei!r to ! animal or vegetable k+dom4 ,accord+ly z he def9es ^! two k+doms1 & z he looks ^u ?is or t *>act]i/ic z det]m9+ ! animal or vegetable nature1 he w assign ! individual classes ( ,proti/a 9 "o case to ! animal & 9 ano!r to ! vegetable k+dom4 ,b ?is sy/ematic difficulty has become an inextricable knot by ! fact t all m rec5t inve/igations on ! l[e/ organisms h completely effac$1 or at lea/ de/roy$1 ! %>p b\nd>y betwe5 ! animal & vegetable k+dom :i* _h hi!rto exi/$1 & to su* a degree t its re/oration is possible only by means ( a completely artificial def9ition ( ! two k+doms4 ,b ?is def9ition c\ld n be made s z to apply to _m ( ! ,proti/a4 ,= ?is & o!r reasons x is1 9 ! mean "t1 be/ to exclude ! d\btful be+s f ! animal z well z f ! vegetable k+dom1 & to comprise !m 9 a ?ird organic k+dom /&+ midway betwe5 ! two o!rs4 ,?is int]m$iate k+dom ,i h e/abli%$ z ! ,k+dom ( ! ,prim>y ,creatures 7,proti/a71 :5 discuss+ g5]al anatomy 9 ! fir/ volume ( my ,g5]al ,morphology1 pp4 #aia-bch4 ,9 my ,monograph ( ! ,mon]a17#ae7 ,i h rec5tly treat$ ( ?is k+dom1 hav+ some:at *ang$ its limits1 & giv5 x a m accurate def9ition4 ,( indep5d5t classes ( ! k+dom ,proti/a1 we may at pres5t di/+ui% ! foll[+3-- #a4 ,! /ill liv+ ,mon]a2 #b4 ,! ,amboidea1 or ,protopla/s2 #c4 ,! ,:ip-swimm]s1 or ,flagellata2 #d4 ,! ,flimm]-balls1 or ,catallacta2 #e4 ,! ,tram-weav]s1 or ,labyr9?ule2 #f4 ,! ,fl9t-cells1 or ,diatome2 #g4 ,! ,slime-m\lds1 or ,myxomycetes2 #h4 ,! ,ray-/ream]s1 or ,rhizopoda4 ,! mo/ important gr\ps at pres5t di/+ui%able 9 ^! eight classes ( ,proti/a are nam$ 9 ! sy/ematic table on p4 #ea4 ,probably ! numb] ( ^! ,proti/a w be consid]ably increas$ 9 future days by ! progressive inve/igations ( ! ontog5y ( ! simple/ =ms ( life1 :i* h only lately be5 c>ri$ on ) any great zeal4 ,) mo/ ( ! classes nam$ we h become intimately acqua9t$ only dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s4 ,! exce$+ly int]e/+ ,mon]a & ,labyr9?ule1 z also ! ,catallacta1 7 inde$ discov]$ only a few ye>s ago4 ,x is probable also t v num]\s gr\ps ( ,proti/a h di$ out 9 e>li] p]iods1 )\t hav+ left any fossil rema9s1 ow+ to ! v s(t nature ( _! bodies4 ,we might add to ! ,proti/a f ! /ill liv+ l[e/ gr\ps ( organisms--! ,fungi2 & 9 s do+ %\ld make a v l>ge addition to its doma94 ,provisionally we %all leave !m among plants1 ?\gh _m naturali/s h sep>at$ !m altoge!r f ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! p$igree ( ! k+dom ,proti/a is /ill envelop$ 9 ! greate/ obscurity4 ,! peculi> comb9ation ( animal & vegetable prop]ties1 ! indiff]5t & unc]ta9 "* ( _! relations ( =ms & vital ph5om5a1 toge!r ) a numb] ( sev]al v peculi> features :i* sep>ate mo/ ( ! subord9ate classes %>ply f ! o!rs1 at pres5t baffle e attempt di/9ctly to make out _! blood relation%ips ) "o ano!r1 or ) ! l[e/ animals on ! "o h&1 & ) ! l[e/ plants on ! o!r h&4 ,x is n improbable t ! classes specifi$1 & _m o!r unkn[n classes ( ,proti/a1 repres5t q indep5d5t organic tribes1 or phyla1 ea* ( :i* has indep5d5tly develop$ f "o1 p]haps f v>i\s1 ,mon]a :i* h aris5 by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,if we d n agree to ?is polyphyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t1 & pref] ! monophyletic hypo!sis ( ! blood relation%ip ( all organisms1 we %all h to ,look ^u ! diff]5t classes ( proti/a z ! l[] small (f-%oots ( ! root1 spr++ f ! same simple mon]a root1 out ( :i* arose ! two mighty & _m-bran*$ p$igrees ( ! animal k+dom on ! "o h&1 & ( ! vegetable k+dom on ! o!r4 7comp>e pp4 #gd1 #ge47 be=e i ent] into ?is difficult "q m accurately1 x w be appropriate to premise some?+ fur!r z to ! cont5ts ( ! classes ( proti/a giv5 on ! next page1 & _! g5]al natural hi/ory4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! ,l>g] & ,small] ,gr\ps ( ! ,k+dom ,proti/a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,classes ( ,sy/ematic ,"n ,ord]s ( ,a "n ( a ! ,proti/a ( ! ,classes4 ,families ( ! ,g5us ,k+dom4 ,classes4 z an example4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a4 ,gymnomon]a ,protog5es #a4 ,,mon]s ,mon]a #b4 ,lepomon]a ,protomyxa #a4 ,gymnamb ,amba #b4 ,,protopla/s ,amboida #b4 ,leptamb ,arcella #c4 ,greg>9 ,monocy/is #a4 ,nudiflagellata ,eugl5a #c4 ,,:ip-,,swimm]s ,flagellata #b4 ,cili(lagellata ,p]id9ium #d4 ,,flimm]-,,balls ,catallacta #a4 ,catallacta ,magosphra #e4 ,,tram-,,weav]s ,labyr9?ule #a4 ,labyr9?ule ,labyr9?ula #a4 ,/riata ,navicula #f4 ,,fl9t-,,cells ,diatomea #b4 ,vittata ,tabell>ia #c4 ,areolata ,cosc9odiscus #a4 ,phys>e ?alium #g4 ,,slime-,,m\lds ,myxomycetes #b4 ,/emonite ,/emonitis #c4 ,tri*iace ,arcyria #d4 ,lycogale ,reticul>ia ,i4 ,acytt>ia #a4 ,mono?alamia ,gromia #b4 ,poly?alamia ,nummul9a #h4 ,,ray-,,/ream]s ,,or ,,rhizopods4 ,,ii4 ,heliozoa #a4 ,heliozoa ,act9osphrium 7,root-feet7 #a4 ,monocytt>ia ,cyrtidosphra ,,iii4 ,radiol>ia #b4 ,polycytt>ia ,collosphra ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,protamba primitiva1 a fre%-wat] ,mon]on1 mu* enl>g$4 ,a4 ,! entire ,mon]on ) its =m-*ang+ processes4 ,b4 ,x beg9s to divide itself into two halves4 ,c4 ,! division ( ! two halves is complet$1 & ea* n[ repres5ts an indep5d5t individual4 ,x w p]haps seem /range t ,i %\ld "h aga9 beg9 ) ! rem>kable ,mon]a z ! fir/ class ( ! ,proti/a k+dom1 z ,i ( c\rse look ^u !m z ! mo/ anci5t prim>y =ms ( all organisms )\t exception4 ,/ill1 :at are we o!rwise to d ) ! /ill liv+ ,mon]a8 ,we "k no?+ ( _! palontological orig91 we "k no?+ ( any ( _! relations to l[] animals or plants1 & we "k no?+ ( _! possible capability ( develop+ into high] organisms4 ,! simple & homog5e\s little lump ( slime or mucus :i* con/itutes _! entire body 7,fig4 #h7 is ! mo/ anci5t & orig9al =m ( animal z well z ( vegetable pla/ids4 ,h5ce x w\ld evid5tly be j z arbitr>y & unreasonable to assign !m to ! animal z x w\ld be to assign !m to ! vegetable k+dom4 ,9 any case we %all = ! pres5t be act+ m cauti\sly & critically if we comprise ! /ill liv+ ,mon]a--^: numb] & di/ribution is probably v great--z a special & indep5d5t class1 contra/+ !m ) ! o!r classes ( ! k+dom ,proti/a1 z well z ) ! animal k+dom4 ,morphologically consid]$1 ! ,mon]a--on acc\nt ( ! p]fect homog5eity ( ! album9\s sub/ance ( _! bodies1 on acc\nt ( _! utt] want ( het]og5e\s p>ticles--are m closely connect$ ) anorgana ?an ) organisms1 & evid5tly =m ! transition betwe5 ! inorganic & organic _w ( bodies1 z is necessitat$ by ! hypo!sis ( spontane\s g5]ation4 ,i h describ$ & giv5 illu/rations ( ! =ms & vital ph5om5a ( ! /ill liv+ ,mon]a 7,protamba1 ,protog5es1 ,protomyxa1 etc47 9 my ,monograph ( ! ,mon]a17#ae7 & h briefly m5tion$ ! mo/ important facts 9 ! eigh? *apt] 7vol4 i4 pp4 #ahc-ahg74 ,!re=e1 only by way ( a specim51 ,i "h repeat ! draw+ ( ! fre%-wat] ,protamba 7,fig4 #h74 ,! hi/ory ( ! life ( an orange-r$ ,protomyxa adrantiaca1 :i* ,i obs]v$ at ,lanz]ote1 "o ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 is giv5 9 ,plate ,i4 7see its explanation 9 ! ,app5dix74 ,besides ?is1 ,i "h add a draw+ ( ! =m ( ,ba?ybius1 t rem>kable ,mon]on discov]$ by ,huxley1 :i* lives 9 ! greate/ dep?s ( ! sea 9 ! %ape ( nak$ lumps ( protoplasm & reticul> mucus 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,ba?ybius ,hckelii1 ! 8creature ( primval slime10 f ! greate/ dep?s ( ! sea4 ,! figure1 :i* is greatly magnifi$1 only %[s t =m ( ! ,ba?ybius :i* consi/s ( a nak$ network ( protoplasm1 )\t ! discoli?s & cya?oli?s :i* are f\nd 9 o!r =ms ( ! same ,mon]on1 & :i* p]haps may be consid]$ z ! products ( its secretion4 ,! ,amb ( ! pres5t day1 & ! organisms mo/ closely connect$ ) !m1 ,arcellid & ,greg>91 :i* we "h unite z a second class ( ,proti/a "u ! "n ( ,amboidea 7,protopla/a71 pres5t no few] g5ealogical difficulties ?an ! ,mon]a4 ,^! prim>y creatures are at pres5t usually plac$ 9 ! animal k+dom )\t its 9 reality be+ und]/ood :y4 ,= simple nak$ cells--t is1 %ell-less pla/ids ) a k]nel--occur z well among real plants z real animals4 ,! g5]ative cells1 = example1 9 _m ,alg 7spores & eggs7 exi/ = a long] or %ort] "t 9 wat] 9 ! =m ( nak$ cells ) a k]nel1 :i* _c be di/+ui%$ at all f ! nak$ eggs ( _m animals 7= example1 ^? ( ! ,siphonophor\s ,m$us74 7,comp>e ! figure ( a nak$ egg ( a bladd]-wrack 9 ,*apt] xvii4 p4 #ij47 ,9 reality e nak$ simple cell1 :e!r x proce$s f an animal or vegetable body1 _c be di/+ui%$ f an indep5d5t ,amba4 ,= an ,amba is no?+ b a simple prim>y cell1 a nak$ little lump ( cell-matt]1 or plasma1 conta9+ a k]nel4 ,! contractility ( ?is plasma1 :i* ! free ,amba %[s 9 /ret*+ out & draw+ 9 its *ang+ processes1 is a g5]al vital prop]ty ( ! organic plasma ( all animal z well z ( all vegetable pla/ids4 ,:5 a freely mov+ ,amba1 :i* p]petually *anges its =m1 passes into a /ate ( re/1 x draws itself toge!r into ! =m ( a globule1 & surr\nds itself ) a secret$ membrane4 ,x c !n be z little di/+ui%$ f an animal egg z f a simple globul> vegetable cell 7,fig4 #aj ,a74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,amba sphrococcus1 greatly magnifi$4 ,a fre%-wat] ,amba )\t a contractile vacuole4 ,a4 ,! enclos$ ,amba 9 ! /ate ( a globul> lump ( plasma 7c7 enclos+ a k]nel & a k]nel-speck 7a74 ,! simple cell is surr\nd$ by a cy/1 or cell membrane 7d74 ,b4 ,! free ,amba1 :i* has bur/ & left ! cy/1 or cell-membrane4 ,c4 ,x beg9s to divide by its k]nel p>t+ into two k]nels1 & ! cell-sub/ance betwe5 ! two contract+4 ,d4 ,! division is complet$1 & ! cell-sub/ance has entirely sep>at$ into two bodies4 7,da & ,db74 ,nak$ cells1 ) k]nels1 l ^? repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #aj ,b1 :i* are cont9u\sly *ang+1 /ret*+ out & draw+ 9 =mless1 f+]-l processes1 & :i* are on ?is acc\nt call$ amboid1 are f\nd frequ5tly & widely disp]s$ 9 fre% wat] & 9 ! sea2 nay1 are ev5 f\nd creep+ on l&4 ,!y take _! food 9 ! same way z 0 previ\sly describ$ 9 ! case ( ! ,protamba 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf74 ,_! propagation by division c sometimes be obs]v$4 7,fig4 #aj ,c1 ,d47 ,i h describ$ ! processes 9 an e>li] *apt] 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahg74 ,_m ( ^! =mless ,amb h lately be5 recogniz$ z ! e>ly /ages ( developm5t ( o!r ,proti/a 7especially ! ,myxomycet71 or z ! fre$ cells ( l[] animals & plants4 ,! col\rless blood-cells ( animals1 = example1 ^? ( human blood1 _c be di/+ui%$ f ,amb4 ,!y1 l ! latt]1 c receive solid corpuscles into _! int]ior1 z ,i 0 ! fir/ to %[ by fe$+ !m ) f9ely divid$ col\r+ matt]s 7,g54 ,morph4 i4 #bga74 ,h[ev]1 o!r ,amb 7l ! "o giv5 9 ,fig4 #aj7 seem to be indep5d5t 8good species10 s9ce !y propagate !mselves un*ang$ ?r\gh\t _m g5]ations4 ,besides ! real1 or nak$1 ,amb 7,gymnamb71 we also f9d widely diffus$ 9 fre% wat] case-be>+ ,amb 7,lepamb71 ^: nak$ plasma body is p>tially protect$ by a m or less solid %ell 7,arcella71 sometimes ev5 by a case 7,difflugia7 compos$ ( small /ones4 ,la/ly1 we frequ5tly f9d 9 ! body ( _m l[] animals p>asitic ,amb 7,greg>971 :i*1 adapt+ !mselves to a p>asitic life1 h surr\nd$ _! plasma-body ) a delicate clos$ membrane4 ,! simple nak$ ,amb are1 next to ! ,mon]a1 ! mo/ important ( all organisms to ! :ole sci5ce ( biology1 & especially to g5]al g5ealogy4 ,= x is evid5t t ! ,amb orig9ally arose out ( simple ,mon]a 7,protamb71 by ! important process ( segregation tak+ place 9 _! homog5e\s viscid body--! diff]5tiation ( an inn] k]nel f ! surr\nd+ plasma4 ,by ?is means ! great progress f a simple cytod 7)\t k]nel7 into a real cell 7) k]nel7 0 accompli%$ 7comp>e ,fig4 #h ,a & ,fig4 #aj ,b74 ,z "s ( ^! cells at an e>ly /age encas$ !mselves by secret+ a h>d5$ membrane1 !y =m$ ! fir/ vegetable cells1 :ile o!rs1 rema9+ nak$1 develop$ into ! fir/ aggregates ( animal cells4 ,! pres5ce or abs5ce ( an encircl+ h>d membrane =ms ! mo/ important1 al?\gh by no means ! entire1 diff]5ce ( =m betwe5 animal & vegetable cells4 ,z vegetable cells ev5 at an e>ly /age enclose !mselves )9 _! h>d1 ?ick1 & solid cellul> %ell1 l t ( ! ,amb 9 a /ate ( re/ 7,fig4 #aj ,a71 !y rema9 m indep5d5t & less accessible to ! influ5ces ( ! out] _w ?an are ! s(t animal cells1 :i* are 9 mo/ cases nak$1 or m]ely cov]$ by a ?9 pliable membrane4 ,b 9 consequ5ce ( ?is ! vegetable cells _c comb9e1 z d ! animal cells1 = ! con/ruction ( high] & composite fibr\s tracts1 = example1 ! n]v\s & muscul> tissues4 ,x is probable t1 9 ! case ( ! mo/ anci5t s+le-cell$ organisms1 !re mu/ h develop$ at an e>ly /age ! v important diff]5ce 9 ! animal & vegetable mode ( receiv+ food4 ,! mo/ anci5t s+le-cell$ animals1 be+ nak$ cells1 c\ld admit solid p>ticles into ! int]ior ( _! s(t bodies1 z d ! ,amb 7,fig4 #aj ,b7 & ! col\rless blood-cells2 :]eas ! mo/ anci5t s+le-cell$ plants encas$ by _! membranes 7 no long] able to d ?is1 & c\ld admit ?r\gh x only fluid nutrition 7by means ( diffusion74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,a s+le ,:ip-swimm] 7,eugl5a /riata71 greatly magnifi$4 ,above a ?read-l la%+ :ip is visible2 9 ! c5tre ! r\nd cellul> k]nel1 ) its k]nel speck4 ,! ,:ip-swimm]s 7,flagellata71 :i* we consid] z a ?ird class ( ! k+dom ,proti/a1 are ( no less d\btful nature ?an ! ,amb4 ,!y (t5 %[ z close & important relations to ! vegetable z to ! animal k+dom4 ,"s ,flagellata at an e>ly /age1 :5 freely mov+ ab\t1 _c be di/+ui%$ f real plants1 especially f ! spores ( _m ,alg2 :]eas o!rs are directly alli$ to real animals1 namely1 to ! fr+$ ,infusoria 7,ciliata74 ,! ,flagellata are simple cells :i* live 9 fre% or salt wat]1 ei!r s+ly or unit$ 9 colonies4 ,! *>act]i/ic "p ( _! body is a v movable simple or comp\nd :ip-l app5dage 7:ip1 or flagellum7 by means ( :i* !y actively swim ab\t 9 ! wat]4 ,?is class is divid$ into two ord]s4 ,among ! fr+$ :ip-swimm]s 7,cili(lagellata7 !re exi/s1 9 addition to ! long :ip1 a %ort fr+e ( vibrat+ hairs1 :i* is want+ 9 ! unfr+$ :ip-swimm]s 7,nud(lagellata74 ,to ! =m] belong ! fl9t-%ell$ yell[ ,p]id9ia1 :i* are l>gely active 9 caus+ ! phosphoresc5ce ( ! sea2 to ! latt] belong ! gre5 ,eugl51 imm5se masses ( :i* frequ5tly make our ponds 9 spr+ q gre54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,! ,norwegian ,flimm]-ball 7,magosphra planula7 swimm+ by means ( its vibratile fr+es1 z se5 f ! surface4 ,a v rem>kable new =m ( ,proti/a1 :i* ,i h nam$ ,flimm]-ball 7,magosphra71 ,i discov]$ only ?ree ye>s ago 79 ,septemb]1 #ahfi71 on ! ,norwegian coa/ 7,fig4 #ab71 & h m accurately describ$ 9 my ,biological ,/udies7#ae7 7p4 #acg1 ,plate ,v474 ,(f ! isl& ( ,gis-oe1 ne> ,b]g51 ,i f\nd swimm+ ab\t1 on ! surface ( ! sea1 extremely neat little balls compos$ ( a numb] 7betwe5 ?irty & =ty7 ( fr+$ pe>-%ap$ cells1 ! po9t$ ends ( :i* 7 unit$ 9 ! c5tre l radii4 ,aft] a "t ! ball dissolv$4 ,! individual cells sw>m$ ab\t indep5d5tly 9 ! wat] l fr+$ ,infusoria1 or ,ciliata4 ,^! aft]w>ds sank to ! bottom1 drew _! fr+es into _! bodies1 & gradually *ang$ into ! =m ( creep+ ,amb 7l ,fig #aj ,b74 ,^! la/ aft]w>ds encas$ !mselves 7z 9 ,fig4 #aj ,a71 & !n divid$ by repeat$ halv+s into a l>ge numb] ( cells 7exactly z 9 ! case ( ! cleavage ( ! egg1 ,fig4 #f1 vol4 i4 p4 #bii74 ,! cells became cov]$ ) vibratile hairs1 broke ?r\gh ! case enclos+ !m1 & n[ aga9 swam ab\t 9 ! %ape ( a fr+$ ball 7,fig4 #ab74 ,?is wond]ful organism1 :i* sometimes appe>s l a simple ,amba1 sometimes z a s+le fr+$ cell1 sometimes z a _m-cell$ fr+$ ball1 c evid5tly be class$ ) none ( ! o!r ,proti/a1 & mu/ be consid]$ z ! repres5tative ( a new indep5d5t gr\p4 ,z ?is gr\p /&s midway betwe5 sev]al ,proti/a1 & l9ks !m toge!r1 x may be> ! "n ( ,m$iator1 or ,catallacta4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,labyr9?ula macrocy/is 7mu* enl>g$74 ,bel[ is a l>ge gr\p ( accumulat$ cells1 "o ( :i*1 on ! left1 is sep>at+ itself2 above are two s+le cells :i* are glid+ along ! ?reads ( ! reti=m labyr9? :i* =m _! 8tramways40 ,! ,proti/a ( ! fif? class1 ! ,tram-weav]s1 or ,labyr9?ule1 are ( a no less puzzl+ nature2 !y 7 lately discov]$ by ,ci5k[ski on piles 9 sea wat] 7,fig4 #ac74 ,!y are sp9dle-%ap$ cells1 mo/ly ( a yell[-o*re col\r1 :i* are sometimes unit$ into a d5se mass1 sometimes move ab\t 9 a v peculi> way4 ,!y =m1 9 a mann] n yet expla9$1 a reti=m frame ( entangl$ ?reads 7comp>$ to a labyr9?71 & on ! d5se filam5t\s 8tramways0 ( ?is frame !y glide ab\t4 ,f ! %ape ( ! cells ( ! ,labyr9?ule we might consid] !m z ! simple/ plants1 f _! motion z ! simple/ animals1 b 9 reality !y are nei!r animals nor plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,navicula hippocampus 7greatly magnifi$74 ,9 ! middle ( ! cell ! cell-k]nel 7nucleus7 is visible1 toge!r ) its k]nel speck 7nucleolus74 ,! ,fl9t-cells 7,diatome71 a six? class ( ,proti/a1 are p]haps ! mo/ closely relat$ to ! ,labyr9?ule4 ,^! prim>y creatures--:i* at pres5t are g5]ally consid]$ z plants1 al?\gh "s celebrat$ naturali/s /ill look ^u !m z animals--inhabit ! sea & fre% wat]s 9 imm5se masses1 & (f] an endless v>iety ( ! mo/ elegant =ms4 ,!y are mo/ly small microscopic cells1 :i* ei!r live s+ly 7,fig4 #ad71 or unit$ 9 great numb]s1 & occur ei!r atta*$ to objects1 or glide & creep ab\t 9 a peculi> mann]4 ,_! s(t cell-sub/ance1 :i* is ( a *>act]i/ic br[ni% yell[ col\r1 is always enclos$ by a solid & h>d fl9ty %ell1 possess+ ! neate/ & mo/ v>i$ =ms4 ,?is fl9ty cov]+ is op5 to ! ext]ior only by "o or two slits1 ?r\gh :i* ! enclos$ s(t plasma-body communicates ) ! out] _w4 ,! fl9ty cases are f\nd petrifi$ 9 masses1 & _m rocks--= example1 ! ,tripoli slate poli%1 ! ,sw$i% m\nta9 meal1 etc41--are 9 a great measure compos$ ( !m4 ,a sev5? class ( ,proti/a is =m$ by ! rem>kable ,slime-m\lds 7,myxomycetes74 ,!y 7 =m]ly univ]sally consid]$ z plants1 z real ,fungi1 until t5 ye>s ago ! botani/ ,de ,b>y1 by discov]+ _! ontog5y1 prov$ !m to be q di/9ct f ,fungi1 & r to be ak9 to ! l[] animals4 ,! mature body is a r\ndi% bladd]1 (t5 sev]al in*es 9 size1 fill$ ) f9e spore-du/ & s(t flakes 7,fig4 #ae71 z 9 ! case ( ! well-kn[n puff-balls 7,ga/romycetes74 ,h[ev]1 ! *>act]i/ic cellul> ?reads1 or hyph1 ( a real fungus d n arise f ! g]m9al corpuscles1 or spores1 ( ! ,myxomycetes1 b m]ely nak$ masses ( plasma1 or cells1 :i* at fir/ swim ab\t 9 ! =m ( ,flagellata 7,fig4 #aa71 aft]w>ds creep ab\t l ! ,amb 7,fig4 #aj ,b71 & f9ally comb9e ) o!rs ( ! same k9d to =m l>ge masses ( 8slime10 or 8plasmodia40 ,out ( ^!1 aga91 !re arises1 by-&-by1 ! bladd]-%ap$ fruit-body4 ,_m ( my read]s probably "k "o ( ^! plasmodia1 ! ?alium septicum1 :i* 9 summ] =ms a beautiful yell[ mass ( s(t mucus1 (t5 sev]al feet 9 bread?1 kn[n by ! "n ( 8tan fl[]s10 & p5etrates tan-heaps & tan-b$s4 ,at an e>ly /age ^! slimy1 freely-creep+ ,myxomycetes1 :i* live = ! mo/ "p 9 damp =e/s1 ^u decay+ vegetable sub/ances1 b>k ( trees1 etc41 are ) equal ju/ice or inju/ice decl>$ by zoologi/s to be animals1 :ile 9 ! mature1 bladd]-%ap$ condition ( fructification !y are by botani/s def9$ z plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,a /alk$ fruit-body 7spore-bladd]1 fill$ ) spores7 ( "o ( ! ,myxomycetes 7,phys>um albipes7 n mu* enl>g$4 ,! nature ( ! ,ray-/ream]s 7,rhizopoda71 ! eigh? class ( ! k+dom ,proti/a1 is equally obscure4 ,^! rem>kable organisms h peopl$ ! sea f ! mo/ anci5t times ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 9 an imm5se v>iety ( =ms1 sometimes creep+ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 sometimes swimm+ on ! surface4 ,only v few live 9 fre% wat] 7,gromia1 ,act9osphrium74 ,mo/ ( !m possess solid calc>e\s or fl9ty %ells ( an extremely beautiful con/ruction1 :i* c be p]fectly pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,!y h frequ5tly accumulat$ 9 su* huge numb]s z to =m m\nta9 masses1 al?\gh ! s+le individuals are v small1 & (t5 sc>cely visible1 or completely invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,a v few atta9 ! diamet] ( a few l9es1 or ev5 z mu* z a c\ple ( in*es4 ,! "n :i* ! class be>s is giv5 because ?\s&s ( exce$+ly f9e ?reads ( protoplasm radiate f ! entire surface ( _! nak$ slimy body2 ^! rays are quasi-feet1 or pseudopodia1 :i* bran* (f l roots 7:5ce ! t]m ,rhizopoda1 signify+ root-foot$71 unite l nets1 & are obs]v$ cont9ually to *ange =m1 z 9 ! case ( ! simpl] plasmic feet ( ! ,amboidea1 or ,protopla/s4 ,^! ev]-*ang+ little pseudo-feet s]ve bo? = locomotion & = tak+ food4 ,! class ( ! ,rhizopoda is divid$ into ?ree diff]5t legions1 viz4 ! *amb]-%ells1 or ,acytt>ia1 ! sun-animalcules1 or ,heliozoa1 & ! basket-%ells1 or ,radiol>ia4 ,! ,*amb]-%ells 7,acytt>ia7 con/itute ! fir/ & l[e/ ( ^! ?ree legions2 = ! :ole ( _! s(t body consi/s m]ely ( simple muc\s or slimy cell-matt]1 or protoplasm1 :i* has n diff]5tiat$ into cells4 ,h[ev]1 9 spite ( ?is mo/ primitive nature ( body1 mo/ ( ! ,acytt>ia secrete a solid %ell compos$ ( calc>e\s e>?1 :i* pres5ts a great v>iety ( exquisite =ms4 ,9 ! m anci5t & m simple ,acytt>ia ?is %ell is a simple *amb]1 bell-%ap$1 tubul>1 or l ! %ell ( a snail1 f ! m\? ( :i* a bundle ( plasmic ?reads issues4 ,9 contra/ to ^! s+le-*amb]$ =ms 7,mono?alamia71 ! _m-*amb]$ =ms 7,poly?alamia7--to :i* ! great majority ( ! ,acytt>ia belong--possess a h\se1 :i* is compos$ 9 an arti/ic mann] ( num]\s *amb]s4 ,^! *amb]s sometimes lie 9 a r[ "o beh9d ! o!r1 sometimes 9 conc5tric circles or spirals1 9 ! =m ( a r+ r\nd a c5tral po9t1 & !n frequ5tly "o above ano!r 9 _m ti]s1 l ! boxes ( an amphi!atre4 ,?is =mation1 = example1 is f\nd 9 ! nummulites1 ^: calc>e\s %ells1 ( ! size ( a l5til1 h accumulat$ to ! numb] ( millions1 & =m :ole m\nta9s on ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! /ones ( :i* "s ( ! ,egyptian pyramids are built consi/ ( su* nummulitic lime/one4 ,9 mo/ cases ! *amb]s ( ! %ells ( ! ,poly?alamia are w\nd r\nd "o ano!r 9 a spiral l9e4 ,! *amb]s are connect$ ) "o ano!r by passages & doors1 l rooms ( a l>ge palace1 & are g5]ally op5 t[>ds ! outside by num]\s little w9d[s1 out ( :i* ! plasmic body c /ream or /ra9 =? its little pseudo-feet1 or rays ( slime1 :i* are always *ang+ =m4 ,b 9 spite ( ! exce$+ly complicat$ & elegant /ructure ( ?is calc>e\s labyr9?1 9 spite ( ! endless v>iety 9 ! /ructure & ! decoration ( its num]\s *amb]s1 & 9 spite ( ! regul>ity & elegance ( _! execution1 ! :ole ( ?is arti/ic palace is f\nd to be ! secret$ product ( a p]fectly =mless1 slimy mass1 devoid ( any compon5t p>ts6 ,v]ily1 if ! :ole ( ! rec5t anatomy ( animal & vegetable textures did n support our !ory ( pla/ids1 if all its important results did n unanim\sly corroborate ! fact t ! :ole miracle ( vital ph5om5a & vital =ms is traceable to ! active ag5cy ( ! =mless album9\s comb9ations ( protoplasm1 ! ,poly?alamia alone w\ld secure ! triumph ( t !ory4 ,= we may "h at any mom5t1 by means ( ! microscope1 po9t out ! wond]ful fact1 fir/ e/abli%$ by ,duj>d9 & ,max ,s*ulze1 t ! =mless mucus ( ! s(t plasma-body1 ?is true 8matt] ( life10 is able to secrete ! neate/1 mo/ regul>1 & mo/ complicat$ /ructures4 ,?is secretive skill is simply a result ( inh]it$ adaptation1 & by x we le>n to und]/& h[ ?is same 8primval slime0--?is same protoplasm--c produce 9 ! bodies ( animals & plants ! mo/ diff]5t & mo/ complicat$ cellul> =ms4 ,x is1 moreov]1 a matt] ( special int]e/ t ! mo/ anci5t organism1 ! rema9s ( :i* are f\nd 9 a petrifi$ condition1 belongs to ! ,poly?alamia4 ,?is organism is ! 8,canadian ,life's-dawn0 7,eozoon canad5se71 :i* has already be5 m5tion$1 & :i* 0 f\nd a few ye>s ago 9 ! ,ottawa =mation 79 ! deepe/ /rata ( ! ,laur5tian sy/em71 on ! ,ottawa riv] 9 ,canada4 ,if we expect$ to f9d organic rema9s at all 9 ^! mo/ anci5t deposits ( ! primordial p]iod1 we %\ld c]ta9ly look = su* ( ! mo/ simple ,proti/a z are cov]$ ) a solid %ell1 & 9 ! organization ( :i* ! diff]5ce betwe5 animal & plant is z yet n indicat$4 ,we "k ( b few species ( ! ,sun-animalcules 7,heliozoa71 ! second class ( ! ,rhizopoda4 ,"o species is v frequ5tly f\nd 9 our fre% wat]s4 ,x 0 obs]v$ ev5 9 ! la/ c5tury by a cl]gyman 9 ,dantzig1 ,ei*horn by "n1 & x has be5 call$ aft] him1 ,act9osphrium ,ei*hornii4 ,to ! nak$ eye x appe>s z a gelat9\s grey globule ( mucus1 ab\t ! size ( a p9's head4 ,look+ at x ?r\gh ! microscope1 we see hundr$s or ?\s&s ( f9e muc\s ?reads radiat+ f ! c5tral plasma body1 & p]ceive t ! inn] lay] ( its cell-sub/ance is diff]5t f ! out] lay]1 :i* =ms a bladd]-l membrane4 ,9 consequ5ce ( its /ructure1 ?is1 ! little sun-animalcule1 al?\gh want+ a %ell1 really rises above ! /ructureless ,acytt>ia1 & =ms ! transition f ^! to ! ,radiol>ia4 ,! g5us ,cy/ophrys is ( a nature ak9 to x4 ,! ,basket-%ells 7,radiol>ia7 =m ! ?ird & la/ class ( ! ,rhizopoda4 ,_! l[] =ms are closely alli$ to ! ,heliozoa & ,acytt>ia1 :]eas _! high] =ms rise f> above !m4 ,!y are ess5tially di/+ui%$ f bo? by ! fact t ! c5tral "p ( _! body is compos$ ( _m cells1 & surr\nd$ by a solid membrane4 ,?is clos$ 8c5tral capsule10 g5]ally ( a globul> %ape1 is cov]$ by a muc\s lay] ( plasma1 out ( :i* !re radiate on all sides ?\s&s ( exce$+ly f9e ?reads1 ! bran*+ & conflu5t s-call$ pseudopodia4 ,betwe5 ^! are scatt]$ num]\s yell[ cells ( unkn[n function1 conta9+ gra9s ( />*4 ,mo/ ,radiol>ia are *>act]iz$ by a highly develop$ skeleton1 :i* consi/s ( fl9t1 & displays a wond]ful ri*ness ( ! neate/ & mo/ curi\s =ms4 ,sometimes ?is fl9ty skeleton =ms a simple trellice-"w ball 7,fig4 #af s71 sometimes a m>vell\s sy/em ( sev]al conc5tric trellic$ balls1 encas$ 9 "o ano!r1 & connect$ by radial /aves4 ,9 mo/ cases delicate spikes1 :i* are frequ5tly bran*$ l a tree1 radiate f ! surface ( ! balls4 ,9 o!r cases ! :ole skeleton consi/s ( only "o fl9ty />1 & is !n g5]ally compos$ ( tw5ty /aves1 di/ribut$ accord+ to def9ite ma!matical laws1 & unit$ 9 a common c5tral po9t4 ,! skeletons ( o!r ,radiol>ia aga9 =m symmetrical _m-*amb]$ /ructures1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,poly?alamia4 ,p]haps no o!r gr\p ( organisms develop 9 ! =mation ( _! skeletons su* an am\nt ( v>i\s fundam5tal =ms1 su* geometrical regul>ity1 & su* elegant ar*itecture4 ,mo/ ( ! =ms z yet discov]$1 ,i h giv5 9 ! atlas accompany+ my ,monograph ( ! ,radiol>ia47#bc7 ,"h ,i %all only give z an example ! picture ( "o ( ! simple/ =ms1 ! ,cyrtidosphra e*9oides ( ,nice4 ,! skeleton 9 ?is case consi/s only ( a simple trellic$ ball 7s71 ) %ort radial spikes 7a71 :i* loosely surr\nd ! c5tral capsule 7c74 ,out ( ! muc\s cov]+1 enclos+ ! latt]1 radiate a great numb] ( delicate little pseudopodia 7p71 :i* are p>tly drawn back und]nea? ! %ell1 & fus$ into a lumpy mass ( mucus4 ,betwe5 ^! are scatt]$ a numb] ( yell[ cells 7l74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,cyrtidosphra e*9oides1 #djj times enl>g$4 c4 ,globul> c5tral capsule4 s4 ,basket-"w ( ! p]=at$ fl9ty %ell4 a4 ,radial spikes1 :i* radiate f ! latt]4 p4 ,! pseudo-feet radiat+ f ! muc\s cov]+ surr\nd+ ! c5tral capsule4 l4 ,yell[ globul> cells1 scatt]$ betwe5 ! latt]1 conta9+ gra9s ( />*4 ,mo/ ,acytt>ia live only at ! bottom ( ! sea1 on /ones & seawe$s1 or creep ab\t 9 s& & mud by means ( _! pseudopodia1 b mo/ ,radiol>ia swim on ! surface ( ! sea by means ( long pseudopodia ext5d+ 9 all directions4 ,!y live toge!r !re 9 imm5se numb]s1 b are mo/ly s small t !y h be5 almo/ completely ov]look$1 & h only become accurately kn[n dur+ ! la/ f\rte5 ye>s4 ,c]ta9 ,radiol>ia liv+ 9 communities 7,polycytt>ia7 =m gelat9\s lumps ( "s l9es 9 diamet]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 mo/ ( ^? liv+ isolat$ 7,monocytt>ia7 are invisible to ! nak$ eye2 b /ill _! petrifi$ %ells are f\nd accumulat$ 9 su* masses t 9 _m places !y =m entire m\nta9s2 = example1 ! ,nicob> ,isl&s 9 ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 & ! ,isl& ( ,b>badoes 9 ! ,antilles4 ,z mo/ read]s are probably b little acqua9t$ ) ! eight classes ( ! ,proti/a j m5tion$1 ,i %all n[ add "s fur!r g5]al obs]vations on _! natural hi/ory4 ,! great majority ( all ,proti/a live 9 ! sea1 "s swimm+ freely on ! surface1 "s creep+ at ! bottom1 & o!rs atta*$ to /ones1 %ells1 plants1 etc4 ,_m species ( ,proti/a also live 9 fre% wat]1 b only a v small numb] on dry l& 7= example1 ,myxomycetes & "s ,protopla/a74 ,mo/ ( !m c be se5 only ?r\gh ! microscope1 except :5 millions ( individuals are f\nd accumulat$4 ,only a few ( !m atta9 a diamet] ( "s l9es1 or z mu* z an in*4 ,:at !y lack 9 size ( body !y make up = by produc+ a/oni%+ numb]s ( individuals1 & !y v consid]ably influ5ce 9 ?is way ! economy ( nature4 ,! imp]i%able rema9s ( dead ,proti/a1 = in/ance1 ! fl9ty %ells ( ! ,diatome & ,radiol>ia & ! calc>e\s %ells ( ! ,acytt>ia1 (t5 =m l>ge rock masses4 ,9 reg>d to _! vital ph5om5a1 especially ^? ( nutrition & propagation1 "s ,proti/a are m alli$ to plants1 o!rs m to animals4 ,bo? 9 _! mode ( tak+ food & 9 ! *emical *anges ( _! liv+ sub/ance1 !y sometimes m resemble ! l[] animals1 at o!rs ! l[] plants4 ,free locomotion is possess$ by _m ,proti/a1 :ile o!rs are )\t x2 b ?is does n con/itute a *>act]i/ic di/9ction1 z we "k ( und\bt$ animals :i* entirely lack free locomotion1 & ( g5u9e plants :i* possess x4 ,all ,proti/a h a s\l--t is to say1 are 8animate0--z well z all animals & all plants4 ,! s\l's activity 9 ! ,proti/a manife/s itself 9 _! irritability1 t is1 9 ! movem5ts & o!r *anges :i* take place 9 consequ5ce ( me*anical1 electrical1 & *emical irritation ( _! contractile protoplasm4 ,consci\sness & ! capability ( w & ?\ght are probably want+ 9 all ,proti/a4 ,h[ev]1 ! same qualities are 9 ! same degree also want+ 9 _m ( ! l[] animals1 :]eas _m ( ! high] animals 9 ^! respects are sc>cely inf]ior to ! l[] races ( human be+s4 ,9 ! ,proti/a1 z 9 all o!r organisms1 ! activities ( ! s\l are traceable to molecul> motions 9 ! protoplasm4 ,! mo/ important physiological *>act]i/ic ( ! k+dom ,proti/a lies 9 ! exclusively non-sexual propagation ( all ! organisms belong+ to x4 ,! high] animals & plants multiply almo/ exclusively 9 a sexual mann]4 ,! l[] animals & plants multiply also1 9 _m cases1 9 a non-sexual mann]1 by division1 ! =mation ( buds1 ! =mation ( g]ms1 etc4 ,b sexual propagation almo/ always exi/s by ! side ( x1 & (t5 regul>ly alt]nates ) x 9 succe$+ g5]ations 7,metag5esis1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjf74 ,all ,proti/a1 on ! o!r h&1 propagate !mselves exclusively 9 a non-sexual mann]1 & 9 fact1 ! di/9ction ( ! two sexes among !m has n be5 effect$--!re are nei!r male nor female ,proti/a4 ,! ,proti/a 9 reg>d to _! vital ph5om5a /& midway betwe5 animals & plants1 t is to say1 betwe5 _! l[e/ =ms2 & ! same mu/ be said 9 reg>d to ! *emical composition ( _! bodies4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important di/9ctions betwe5 ! *emical composition ( animal & vegetable bodies consi/s 9 ! *>act]i/ic =mation ( ! skeleton4 ,! skeleton1 or ! solid scaffold+ ( ! body 9 mo/ g5u9e plants1 consi/s ( a sub/ance call$ cellulose1 devoid ( nitrog51 b secret$ by ! nitrog5\s cell-sub/ance1 or protoplasm4 ,9 mo/ g5u9e animals1 on ! o!r h&1 ! skeleton g5]ally consi/s ei!r ( nitrog5\s comb9ations 7*it91 etc47 or ( calc>e\s e>?4 ,9 ?is respect "s ,proti/a are m l plants1 o!rs m l animals4 ,9 _m ( !m ! skeleton is pr9cipally or entirely =m$ ( calc>e\s e>?1 :i* is met ) bo? 9 animal & vegetable bodies4 ,b ! active vital sub/ance 9 all cases is ! muc\s protoplasm4 ,9 reg>d to ! =m ( ! ,proti/a1 x is to be rem>k$ t ! individuality ( _! body almo/ always rema9s at an extremely l[ /age ( developm5t4 ,v _m ,proti/a rema9 = life simple pla/ids or individuals ( ! fir/ ord]4 ,o!rs1 inde$1 =m colonies or republics ( pla/ids by ! union ( sev]al individuals4 ,b ev5 ^! high] individuals ( ! second ord]1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( simple pla/ids1 = ! mo/ "p rema9 at a v l[ /age ( developm5t4 ,! memb]s ( su* communities among ! ,proti/a rema9 v simil> "o to ano!r1 & nev]1 or only 9 a slight degree1 comm5ce a division ( lab\r1 & are consequ5tly z little able to r5d] _! community fit = high] functions z are1 = example1 ! savages ( ,au/ralia4 ,! community ( ! pla/ids rema9s 9 mo/ cases v loose1 & ea* s+le pla/id reta9s 9 a great measure its own individual indep5d5ce4 ,a second /ructural *>act]i/ic1 :i* next to _! l[ /age ( individuality especially di/+ui%es ! ,proti/a1 is ! l[ /age ( developm5t ( _! /]eometrical fundam5tal =ms4 ,z ,i h %[n 9 my !ory ( fundam5tal =ms 79 ! f\r? book ( ! ,g5]al ,morphology71 a def9ite geometrical fundam5tal =m c be po9t$ out 9 mo/ organisms1 bo? 9 ! g5]al =m ( ! body & 9 ! =m ( ! individual p>ts4 ,?is ideal fundam5tal =m1 or type1 :i* is det]m9$ by ! numb]1 position1 comb9ation1 & diff]5tiation ( ! compon5t p>ts1 /&s 9 j ! same relation to ! real organic =m z ! ideal geometrical fundam5tal =m ( cry/als does to _! imp]fect real =m4 ,9 mo/ bodies & p>ts ( ! bodies ( animals & plants ?is fundam5tal =m is a pyramid4 ,x is a regul> pyramid 9 ! s-call$ 8regul> radiate0 =ms1 & an irregul> pyramid 9 ! m highly diff]5tiat$1 s-call$ 8bilat]ally symmetrical0 =ms4 7,comp>e ! plates 9 ! fir/ volume ( my ,g5]al ,morphology1 pp4 #eef-eeh47 ,among ! ,proti/a ?is pyramidal type1 :i* prevails 9 ! animal & vegetable k+dom1 is on ! :ole r>e1 & in/ead ( x we h ei!r q irregul> 7amorph\s7 or m simple1 regul> geometrical types2 especially frequ5t are ! sph]e1 ! cyl9d]1 ! ellipsoid1 ! sph]oid1 ! d\ble cone1 ! cone1 ! regul> polygon 7tetrah$ron1 hexah$ron1 octah$ron1 dodecah$ron1 icosah$ron71 etc4 ,all ! fundam5tal =ms ( ! pro-morphological sy/em1 :i* are ( a l[ rank 9 t sy/em1 prevail 9 ! ,proti/a4 ,h[ev]1 9 _m ,proti/a !re occur also ! high]1 regul>1 & bilat]al types1 fundam5tal =ms :i* pr$om9ate 9 ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,9 ?is respect "s ( ! ,proti/a are frequ5tly m closely alli$ to animals 7z ! ,acytt>ia71 o!rs m s to plants 7z ! ,radiol>ia74 ,) reg>d to ! palontological developm5t ( ! k+dom ,proti/a1 we may =m v>i\s1 b necess>ily v unsafe1 g5ealogical hypo!ses4 ,p]haps ! individual classes ( ! k+dom are indep5d5t tribes1 or phyla1 :i* h develop$ indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r & indep5d5tly ( ! animal & ! vegetable k+doms4 ,ev5 if we adopt ! monophyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t1 & ma9ta9 a common orig9 f a s+le =m ( ,mon]on = all organisms1 )\t exception1 :i* ev] h liv$ & /ill live ^u ! e>?1 ev5 9 ?is case ! connection ( ! neutral ,proti/a on ! "o h& ) ! vegetable k+dom1 & on ! o!r h& ) ! animal k+dom1 mu/ be consid]$ z v vague4 ,we mu/ reg>d !m 7comp>e p4 #gd7 z l[] (f-%oots :i* h develop$ directly out ( ! root ( ! great d\ble-bran*$ organic p$igree1 or p]haps out ( ! l[e/ tribe ( ,proti/a1 :i* may be suppos$ to h %ot up midway betwe5 ! two div]g+ high & vigor\s trunks ( ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,! individual classes ( ! ,proti/a1 :e!r !y are m closely connect$ at _! roots 9 gr\ps1 or only =m a loose bun* ( root (fsets1 mu/ 9 ?is case be reg>d$ z hav+ no?+ to d ei!r ) ! div]g+ gr\ps ( organisms belong+ to ! animal k+dom on ! "r1 or to ! vegetable k+dom on ! left4 ,!y mu/ be suppos$ to h reta9$ ! orig9al simple "* ( ! common primval liv+ ?+ m ?an h g5u9e animals & g5u9e plants4 ,b if we adopt ! polyphyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t1 we h to imag9e a numb] ( organic tribes1 or phyla1 :i* all %oot up by spontane\s g5]ation out ( ! same gr\nd1 by ! side ( & indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 7,comp>e p4 #ge47 ,9 t case numb]s ( diff]5t ,mon]a mu/ h aris5 by spontane\s g5]ation ^: diff]5ces w\ld dep5d only ^u slight1 to u imp]ceptible1 diff]5ces 9 _! *emical composition1 & consequ5tly ^u diff]5ces 9 _! capability ( developm5t4 ,a small numb] ( ,mon]a w\ld !n h giv5 orig9 to ! animal k+dom1 &1 aga91 a small numb] w\ld h produc$ ! vegetable k+dom4 ,betwe5 ^! two gr\ps1 h[ev]1 !re w\ld h develop$1 indep5d5tly ( !m1 a l>ge numb] ( indep5d5t tribes1 :i* h rema9$ at a l[] /age ( organization1 & :i* h nei!r develop$ into g5u9e plants nor into g5u9e animals4 ,a safe means ( decid+ betwe5 ! monophyletic & polyphyletic hypo!ses is z yet q impossible1 consid]+ ! imp]fect /ate ( our phylog5etic k4 ,! diff]5t gr\ps ( ,proti/a1 & ^? l[e/ =ms ( ! animal k+dom & ( ! vegetable k+dom :i* are sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! ,proti/a1 %[ su* a close connection ) "o ano!r & su* a confus$ mixture ( *>act]i/ics1 t at pres5t any sy/ematic division & arrangem5t ( ! gr\ps ( =ms seem m or less artificial & =c$4 ,h5ce ! attempt "h (f]$ mu/ be reg>d$ z entirely provisional4 ,b ! m deeply we p5etrate into ! g5ealogical secrets ( ?is obscure doma9 ( inquiry1 ! m probable appe>s ! idea t ! vegetable k+dom & ! animal k+dom are ea* ( indep5d5t orig91 & t midway betwe5 ^! two great p$igrees a numb] ( o!r indep5d5t small gr\ps ( organisms h aris5 by repeat$ acts ( spontane\s g5]ation1 :i* on acc\nt ( _! indiff]5t neutral "*1 & 9 consequ5ce ( _! mixture ( animal & vegetable prop]ties1 may lay claim to ! designation ( indep5d5t ,proti/a4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,vegetable ,k+dom ,animal ,k+dom ,plant ,animalia _/------------------ _/-------------------------------------- ----- ,fl[]+ ,plants ,v]tebrate ,animals ,phan]ogamia ,v]tebrata -----v-------_/ ,articulat$ ,animals ,ar?ropoda -----v------_/ ,/>-fi%es ,mollusc\s ,animals ,f]ns ,e*9od]ma ,mollusca ,filic9 -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,mosses -------------------v---------------_/ ,musc9 ,li*5s ,worms ,li*5es ,v]mes ,animal-trees ,zoophytes ---- ,fungi ,alg ,fungi -------v-----_/ -----v---_/ ,neutral ,primval ,plants ,primval ,creatures ,primval ,animals ,protophyta ,proti/a ,protozoa -----v------_/ -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,vegetable ,mon]a ,neutral ,mon]a ,animal ,mon]a --------------------------v------------_ / ,ar*igonic ,mon]a 7,pieces ( ,protoplasm :i* h orig9at$ by ,spontane\s ,g5]ation7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,polyphyletic ,,p$igree4 ,,ii4 ,i4 ,,iii4 ,vegetable ,proti/a ,animal ,k+dom ,k+dom ,k+dom ,vegetabilia ,proti/a ,animalia ------v------_/ -----v----_/ _/-------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,slime-m\lds1 or ,muc\s ,fungi ,ray-/ream]s ,myxomycetes ,rhizopoda -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,fl9t-cells ,flimm]-balls ,diatom ,catallacta -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,:ip-swimm]s ,flagellata -----v------_/ ,tram-weav]s ,labyr9?ulea -----v------_/ ,amb1 ,primval ,primval ,plants or ,animals ,protophyta ,protopla/a ,protozoa ------v------_/ -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,vegetable ,neutral ,animal ,mon]a ,mon]a ,mon]a ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,n4,b4--,! l9es m>k$ ) a indicate ext9ct tribes ( ,proti/a1 :i* h aris5 indep5d5tly by repeat$ acts ( ,spontane\s ,g5]ation4 ,?us1 if we assume "o entirely indep5d5t trunk = ! vegetable k+dom1 & a second = ! animal k+dom1 we may set up a numb] ( indep5d5t /ems ( ,proti/a1 ea* ( :i* has develop$1 q indep5d5tly ( o!r /ems & trunks1 f a special ar*igonic =m ( ,mon]a4 ,9 ord] to make ?is relation m cle>1 we may imag9e ! :ole _w ( organisms z an imm5se mead[ :i* is p>tially )]$1 & ^u :i* two _m-bran*$ & mighty trees are /&+1 likewise p>tially )]$4 ,! two great trees repres5t ! animal & vegetable k+doms1 _! fre% & /ill gre5 bran*es ! liv+ animals & plants2 ! dead bran*es ) )]$ leaves repres5t ! ext9ct gr\ps4 ,! )]$ grass ( ! mead[ corresponds to ! num]\s ext9ct tribes1 & ! few /alks1 /ill gre51 to ! /ill liv+ phyla ( ! k+dom ,proti/a4 ,b ! common soil ( ! mead[1 f :i* all h sprung up1 is primval by protoplasm4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,vegetable ,,k+dom4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4--,division ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom into ,six ,bran*es & ,eighte5 ,classes4--,! ,fl[]less ,plants 7,cryptogamia74--,sub-k+dom ( ! ,?allus ,plants4--,! ,tangles1 or ,alg 7,prim>y ,alg1 ,gre5 ,alg1 ,br[n ,alg1 ,r$ ,alg74--,! ,?read-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,li*5s & ,fungi74--,sub-k+dom ( ! ,pro?allus ,plants4--,! ,mosses1 or ,musc9 7,wat]-mosses1 ,liv]worts1 ,leaf-mosses1 ,bog-mosses74--,! ,f]ns1 or ,filic9 7,leaf-f]ns1 ,bamboo-f]ns1 ,wat]-f]ns1 ,scale-f]ns74--,sub-k+dom ( ,fl[]+ ,plants 7,phan]ogamia74--,! ,gymnosp]ms1 or ,plants ) ,nak$ ,se$s 7,palm-f]ns ,cycade2 ,p9es ,conif]74--,! ,angiosp]ms1 or ,plants ) ,enclos$ ,se$s4--,monocotyl4--,dicotyl4--,cup-blo ssoms 7,apetal74--,/>-blossoms 7,diapetal74--,bell-blossoms 7,gamopetal74 ,e attempt t we make to ga9 a k ( ! p$igree ( any small or l>ge gr\p ( organisms relat$ by blood mu/1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 />t ) ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! exi/+ 8natural sy/em0 ( ?is gr\p4 ,= al?\gh ! natural sy/em ( animals & plants w nev] become f9ally settl$1 b w always repres5t a m]ely approximate k ( true blood relation%ip1 /ill x w always possess great importance z a hypo!tical p$igree4 ,x is true1 by a 8natural sy/em0 mo/ zoologi/s & botani/s only endeav\r to express 9 a concise way ! subjective conceptions :i* ea* has =m$ ( ! objective 8=m-relation%ips0 ( organisms4 ,^! =m-relation%ips1 h[ev]1 z ! read] has se51 are 9 reality ! necess>y result ( true blood relation%ip4 ,consequ5tly1 e morphologi/ 9 promot+ our k ( ! natural sy/em1 at ! same "t promotes our k ( ! p$igree1 :e!r he wi%es x or n4 ,! m ! natural sy/em des]ves its "n1 & ! m firmly x is e/abli%$ ^u ! concordance ( results obta9$ f ! /udy ( comp>ative anatomy1 ontog5y1 & palontology1 ! m surely may we consid] x z ! approximate expression ( ! true p$igree ( ! organic _w4 ,9 ent]+ ^u ! task contemplat$ 9 ?is *apt]1 ! g5ealogy ( ! vegetable k+dom1 we %all h1 accord+ to ?is pr9ciple1 fir/ to glance at ! natural sy/em ( ! vegetable k+dom z x is at pres5t 7) m or less important modifications7 adopt$ by mo/ botani/s4 ,accord+ to ! sy/em g5]ally 9 vogue1 ! :ole s]ies ( vegetable =ms is divid$ into two ma9 gr\ps4 ,^! ma9 divisions1 or sub-k+doms1 are ! same z 7 di/+ui%$ m ?an a c5tury ago by ,*>les ,l9nu1 ! f\nd] ( sy/ematic natural hi/ory1 & :i* he call$ ,cryptogamia1 or secretly-blossom+ plants1 & ,phan]ogamia1 or op5ly-fl[]+ plants4 ,! latt]1 ,l9nu1 9 8 artificial sy/em ( plants1 divid$1 accord+ to ! diff]5t numb]1 =mation1 & comb9ation ( ! an!rs1 & also accord+ to ! di/ribution ( ! sexual organs1 into tw5ty-?ree diff]5t classes1 & !n add$ ! ,cryptogamia to ^! z ! tw5ty-f\r? & la/ class4 ,! ,cryptogamia1 ! secretly-blossom+ or fl[]less plants1 :i* 7 =m]ly b little obs]v$1 h 9 consequ5ce ( ! c>eful inve/igations ( rec5t times be5 prov$ to pres5t su* a great v>iety ( =ms1 & su* a m>k$ diff]5ce 9 _! co>s] & f9] /ructure1 t we mu/ di/+ui% no less ?an f\rte5 diff]5t classes ( !m2 :]eas ! numb] ( classes ( fl[]+ plants1 or ,phan]ogamia1 may be limit$ to f\r4 ,h[ev]1 ^! eighte5 classes ( ! vegetable k+dom c aga9 be naturally gr\p$ 9 su* a mann] t we are able to di/+ui% 9 all six ma9 divisions or bran*es ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,two ( ^! six bran*es belong to ! fl[]+1 & f\r to ! fl[]less plants4 ,! table on page #hb %[s h[ ! eighte5 classes are di/ribut$ among ! six bran*es1 & h[ ^! aga9 fall "u ! sub-k+doms ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! "o sub-k+dom ( ! ,cryptogamia may n[ be naturally divid$ into two divisions1 or sub-k+doms1 diff]+ v ess5tially 9 _! int]nal /ructure & 9 _! ext]nal =m1 namely1 ! ,?allus plants & ! ,pro?allus plants4 ,! gr\p ( ,?allus plants comprises ! two l>ge bran*es ( ,tangles1 or ,alg1 :i* live 9 wat]1 & ! ,?read-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,li*5s & ,fungi71 :i* gr[ on l&1 ^u /ones1 b>k ( trees1 ^u decay+ bodies1 etc4 ,! gr\p ( ,pro?allus plants1 on ! o!r h&1 comprises ! two bran*es ( ,mosses & ,f]ns1 conta9+ a great v>iety ( =ms4 ,all ,?allus plants1 or ,?allophytes1 c be directly recogniz$ f ! fact t ! two morphological fundam5tal organs ( all o!r plants1 /em & leaves1 _c be di/+ui%$ 9 _! /ructure4 ,! complete body ( all ,alg & ( all ,?read-plants is a mass compos$ ( simple cells1 :i* is call$ a lobe1 or ?allus4 ,?is ?allus is z yet n diff]5tiat$ into axial-organs 7/em & root7 & leaf-organs4 ,on ?is acc\nt1 z well z ?r\gh _m o!r peculi>ities1 ! ,?allophytes contra/ /rongly ) all rema9+ plants--^? compris$ "u ! two sub-k+doms ( ,pro?allus plants & ,fl[]+ plants--& = ?is reason ! two latt] sub-k+doms are frequ5tly class$ toge!r "u ! "n ( ,/emm$ plants1 or ,cormophytes4 ,! foll[+ table w expla9 ! relation ( ^! ?ree sub-k+doms to "o ano!r accord+ to ! two diff]5t views3-- ,a4 ,?allus ,plants ,i4 ,?allus ,plants 7,?allophyta7 7,?allophyta7 ,i4 ,fl[]less ,plants4 7,cryptogamia7 ,b4 ,pro?allus ,plants 7,pro?allophyta7 ,,ii4 ,/emm$ ,plants 7,cormophyta7 ,,ii4 ,fl[]+ ,plants ,c4 ,fl[]+ ,plants 7,phan]ogamia7 7,phan]ogamia7 ,! /emm$ plants1 or ,cormophytes1 9 ! organization ( :i* ! diff]5ce ( axial-organs 7/em & root7 & leaf-organs is already develop$1 =m at pres5t1 & h1 inde$1 = a v long p]iod =m$1 ! pr9cipal portion ( ! vegetable _w4 ,h[ev]1 ?is 0 n always ! case4 ,9 fact1 /emm$ plants1 n only ( ! fl[]+ gr\p1 b ev5 ( ! pro?allus gr\p1 did n exi/ at all dur+ t immeasurably long space ( "t :i* =ms ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ great division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 "u ! "n ( ! ar*ili?ic1 or primordial p]iod4 ,! read] w recollect t dur+ ?is p]iod ! ,laur5tian1 ,cambrian1 & ,silurian sy/ems ( /rata 7 deposit$1 ! ?ickness ( :i*1 tak5 z a :ole1 am\nts to ab\t #gj1jjj feet4 ,n[1 z ! ?ickness ( all ! m rec5t sup]-incumb5t /rata1 f ! ,devonian to ! deposits ( ! pres5t "t1 tak5 toge!r1 am\nts to only ab\t #fj1jjj feet1 we 7 enabl$ f ?is fact alone to draw ! conclusion--:i* is probable also = o!r reasons--t ! ar*ili?ic1 or primordial1 p]iod 0 ( long] duration ?an ! :ole succe$+ p]iod d[n to ! pres5t "t4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is immeasurable space ( "t1 :i* probably comprises _m millions ( c5turies1 vegetable life on our e>? seems to h be5 repres5t$ exclusively by ! sub-k+dom ( ,?allus plants1 &1 moreov]1 only by ! class ( m>9e ,?allus plants1 t is to say1 ! ,alg4 ,at lea/ all ! petrifi$ rema9s :i* are positively kn[n to be ( ! primordial p]iod belong exclusively to ?is class4 ,z all ! animal rema9s ( ?is imm5se p]iod also belong exclusively to animals t liv$ 9 wat]1 we come to ! conclusion t at t "t organisms adapt$ to a life on l& did n exi/ at all4 ,= ^! reasons ! fir/ & mo/ imp]fect ( ! great prov9ces or bran*es ( ! vegetable k+dom1 ! division ( ! ,alg1 or ,tangles1 mu/ be ( special int]e/ to u4 ,b1 9 addition1 !re is ! int]e/ :i* ?is gr\p (f]s :5 view$ by itself4 ,9 spite ( ! exce$+ly simple composition ( _! con/itu5t cells1 :i* are b little diff]5tiat$1 ! ,alg %[ an extraord9>y v>iety ( diff]5t =ms4 ,to !m belong ! simple/ & mo/ imp]fect ( all =ms1 z well z v highly develop$ & peculi> =ms4 ,! diff]5t gr\ps ( ,alg are di/+ui%$ z mu* by size ( body z by ! p]fection & v>iety ( _! out] =m4 ,at ! l[e/ /age we f9d su* species z ! m9ute ,protococcus1 sev]al hundr$ ?\s&s ( :i* occupy a space no l>g] ?an a p9's head4 ,at ! highe/ /age we m>vel at ! gigantic ,macrocy/s1 :i* atta9 a l5g? ( f #cjj to #djj feet1 ! longe/ ( all =ms 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,x is possible t a l>ge portion ( ! coal has be5 =m$ out ( ,alg4 ,if n = ^! reasons1 yet ! ,alg mu/ excite our special att5tion f ! fact t !y =m ! beg9n+ ( vegetable life1 & conta9 ! orig9al =ms ( all o!r gr\ps ( plants1 suppos+ t our monophyletic hypo!sis ( a common orig9 = all gr\ps ( plants is correct4 7,comp>e p4 #hc47 ,,sy/ematic ,,view ,( ! ,six ,bran*es & ,eighte5 ,classes ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,prim>y ,gr\ps or ,sub-,k+doms ,bran*es or ,clades ,classes ,sy/ematic ,"n ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,classes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- #a4 ,primval alg #a4 ,ar*ephyce 7,protophyta7 ,i4 #b4 ,gre5 alg #b4 ,*lorophyce ,a4 ,tangles 7,*loroalg7 ,?allus ,plants ,alg ,?allophyta #c4 ,br[n alg #c4 ,phophyce 7,fucoide7 #d4 ,r$ alg #d4 ,rhodophyce 7,floride7 ,,ii4 #e4 ,li*5s #e4 ,li*5es ,?read-plants ,inophyta #f4 ,fungi #f4 ,fungi #g4 ,tangle-mosses #g4 ,*>obrya 7,*>ace7 ,,iii4 #h4 ,liv]worts #h4 ,?allobrya ,mosses 7,hepatic7 ,musc9 #i4 ,frondose-mosses #i4 ,phyllobrya ,b4 7,frondos7 ,pro?allus ,plants #aj4 ,turf-mosses #aj4 ,sphagnobrya ,pro?allophyta 7,sphagnace7 #aa4 ,%aft-f]ns #aa4 ,calam>i 7,calamophyta7 ,,iv4 ,f]ns #ab4 ,frondose-f]ns #ab4 ,filices ,felic9 7,pt]ide7 #ac4 ,aquatic f]ns #ac4 ,rhizoc>pe 7,hydropt]ides7 #ad4 ,scale-f]ns #ad4 ,selag9e 7,lepidophyta7 ,v4 ,plants ) #ae4 ,palm-f]ns #ae4 ,cycade ,c4 ,nak$ ,se$s ,fl[]+ ,plants ,gymnosp]ma #af4 ,p9es #af4 ,conif] ,phan]ogamia ,,vi4 #ag4 ,plants ) #ag4 ,monocotyl ,plants ) "o se$ lobe ,enclos$ ,se$s ,angiosp]ma #ah4 ,plants ) #ah4 ,dicotyl two se$ lobes ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,gamopetal 7,fl[]s ) corolla7 ,dialypetal 7,/>-%ap$ fl[]s7 ,mono*lamyde ,,monocotyl$on 7,fl[]s ) calyx7 7,"o se$-lob$ plants7 ,,dicotyl$on 7,two se$-lob$ plants7 --------------------v-------------_/ ,,conif] ,angiosp]m ,,cycade 7,p9es7 7,plants ) enclos$ se$s7 7,palm-f]ns7 ,,gnetace -----------v-----------------------_/ ,gymnosp]m 7,plants ) nak$ se$s7 ,phan]ogam 7,fl[]+ plants7 ,pt]ide ,selag9e ,rhizoc>pe 7,frondose-f]ns7 7,scal$-f]ns7 7,wat]-f]ns7 ,calam>i 7,%aft-f]ns7 -------------------------------v-------- ----------------_/ ,filic9 ,frondos ,sphagnace 7,f]ns7 7,leaf-mosses7 7,turf-mosses7 ,,*>ace ----------------v------------_/ 7,tangle-mosses7 ,hepatic 7,liv]worts7 ------------------v--------------------_ / ,musc9 7,mosses7 ,fucoide ,floride 7,br[n ,alg7 ,li*5es 7,r$ ,alg7 ,*lorophyce 7,li*5s7 7,gre5 ,alg7 ------------------v-----------------_/ ,fungi ,inophyta ,alg 7,tangles7 7,?read-plants7 -------v------------------------------_/ ,protophyta 7,primval ,plants7 ,vegetable ,mon]a ,mo/ p liv+ inl& c =m b a v imp]fect idea ( ?is exce$+ly int]e/+ bran* ( ! vegetable k+dom1 because !y "k only its proportionately small & simple repres5tatives liv+ 9 fre% wat]4 ,! slimy gre5 aquatic filam5ts & flakes ( our pools & dit*es & spr+s1 ! light gre5 slimy cov]+s ( all k9ds ( wood :i* h = any l5g? ( "t be5 9 contact ) wat]1 ! yell[i% gre51 fro?y1 & oozy gr[?s ( our village ponds1 ! gre5 filam5ts resembl+ tufts ( hair :i* occur ev]y:]e 9 fre% wat]1 /agnant & fl[+1 are = ! mo/ "p compos$ ( diff]5t species ( ,alg4 ,only ^? :o h visit$ ! sea-%ore1 & wond]$ at ! imm5se masses ( ca/-up seawe$1 & :o1 f ! rocky coa/ ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 h se5 ?r\gh ! cle> blue wat]s ! beautifully-=m$ & highly-col\r$ vegetation ( ,alg at ! bottom1 "k h[ to e/imate ! importance ( ! class ( ,alg4 ,& yet1 ev5 ^! m>9e ,alg-=e/s ( ,european %ores1 s ri* 9 =ms1 give only a fa9t idea ( ! colossal =e/s ( ,s>gasso 9 ! ,atlantic ocean1 ^? imm5se banks ( ,alg1 cov]+ a space ( ab\t #dj1jjj squ>e miles--! same :i* made ,columbus1 on 8 voyage ( discov]y1 believe t a cont95t 0 ne>4 ,simil> b f> m ext5sive =e/s ( ,alg grew 9 ! primval ocean1 probably 9 d5se masses1 & :at c\ntless g5]ations ( ^! ar*ili?ic ,alg h di$ out "o aft] ano!r is atte/$1 among o!r facts1 by ! va/ ?ickness ( ,silurian alum s*i/s 9 ,sw$51 ! peculi> composition ( :i* proce$s f ^? masses ( subm>9e ,alg4 ,accord+ to ! rec5tly express$ op9ion ( ,fr$]ick ,mohr1 a geologi/ ( ,bonn1 ev5 ! great] "p ( our coal seams h aris5 out ( ! accumulat$ dead bodies ( ! ,alg =e/s ( ! ocean4 ,)9 ! bran* ( ! ,alg we di/+ui% f\r diff]5t classes1 ea* ( :i* is aga9 divid$ into sev]al ord]s & families4 ,^! aga9 conta9 a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t g5]a & species4 ,we designate ^! f\r classes z ,primval ,alg1 or ,ar*ephyce1 ,gre5 ,alg1 or ,*lorophyce1 ,br[n ,alg1 or ,phophyce1 & ,r$ ,alg1 or ,rhodophyce4 ,! fir/ class ( ,alg1 ! ,primval ,alg 7,ar*ephyce71 might also be call$ primval plants1 because !y conta9 ! simple/ & mo/ imp]fect ( all plants1 &1 among !m1 ^? mo/ anci5t ( all vegetable organisms out ( :i* all o!r plants h orig9at$4 ,to !m !re=e belong ^? mo/ anci5t ( all vegetable ,mon]a :i* arose by spontane\s g5]ation 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod4 ,fur!r1 we h to reckon among !m all ^? vegetable =ms ( ! simple/ organization :i* fir/ develop$ out ( ! ,mon]a 9 ! ,laur5tian p]iod1 & :i* possess$ ! =m ( a s+le pla/id4 ,at fir/ ! entire body ( "o ( ^! small prim>y plants consi/$ only ( a mo/ simple cytod 7a pla/id )\t k]nel71 & aft]w>ds atta9$ ! high] =m ( a simple cell1 by ! sep>ation ( a k]nel 9 ! plasma4 7,comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cde47 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day !re exi/ v>i\s mo/ simple =ms ( ,alg :i* h deviat$ b little f ! orig9al prim>y plants4 ,among !m are ! ,alg ( ! families ,codiolace1 ,protococcace1 ,desmidiace1 ,palmellace1 ,hydrodictye1 & sev]al o!rs4 ,! rem>kable gr\p ( ,phyco*romace 7,*roococcace & ,oscill>9e7 might also be compris$ among !m1 unless we pref] to consid] !m z an indep5d5t tribe ( ! k+dom ,proti/a4 ,! monopla/ic ,protophyta--t is1 ^? prim>y ,alg =m$ by a s+le pla/id--are ( ! greate/ int]e/1 because ! vegetable organism 9 ?is case completes its :ole c\rse ( life z a p]fectly simple 8individual ( ! fir/ ord]10 ei!r z a cytod )\t k]nel1 or z a cell conta9+ a k]nel4 ,among ! prim>y plants consi/+ ( a s+le cytod are ! exce$+ly rem>kable ,siphone1 :i* are ( consid]able size1 & /rangely 8mimic0 ! =ms ( high] plants4 ,_m ( ! ,siphone atta9 a size ( sev]al feet1 & resemble an elegant moss 7,bryopsis71 or 9 "s cases a p]fect fl[]+ plant ) /alks1 roots1 & leaves 7,caul]pa7 7,fig4 #ag74 ,yet ! :ole ( ?is l>ge body1 ext]nally s v>i\sly diff]5tiat$1 consi/s int]nally ( an entirely simple sack1 possess+ ! negative *>act]s ( a simple cytod4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,caul]pa d5ticulata1 a monopla/ic ,siphonean ( ! natural size4 ,! entire bran*+ prim>y plant1 :i* appe>s to consi/ ( a creep+ /alk ) fibr\s roots & ind5t$ leaves1 is 9 reality only a s+le pla/id1 & moreov] a cytod 7)\t a k]nel71 n ev5 atta9+ ! grade ( a cell ) nucleus4 ,^! curi\s ,siphone1 ,vau*]i1 & ,caul]p %[ u to h[ great a degree ( elaboration a s+le cytod1 al?\gh a mo/ simple individual ( ! fir/ ord]1 c develop by cont9u\s adaptation to ! relations ( ! out] _w4 ,ev5 ! s+le-cell$ prim>y plants--:i* are di/+ui%$ f ! monocytods by possess+ a k]nel--develop into a great v>iety ( exquisite =ms by adaptation2 ?is is ! case especially ) ! beautiful ,desmidiace1 ( :i* a species ( ,eua/rum is repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #ah z a specim54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,eua/rum rota1 a s+le-cell$ ,desmid1 mu* enl>g$4 ,! :ole ( ! />-%ap$ body ( ?is primval plant has ! =mal value ( a simple cell4 ,9 its c5tre lies ! k]nel1 & )9 ?is ! k]nel corpuscle1 or speck4 ,x is v probable t simil> primval plants1 ! s(t body ( :i*1 h[ev]1 0 n capable ( be+ pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate1 at "o "t peopl$ ! ,laur5tian primval sea 9 great masses & v>ieties1 & 9 a great abundance ( =ms1 )\t1 h[ev]1 go+ beyond ! /age ( individuality ( a simple pla/id4 ,! gr\p ( ,gre5 ,tangles 7,*lorophyce71 or ,gre5 ,alg 7,cloroalg71 are ! second class1 & ! mo/ closely alli$ to ! primval gr\p4 ,l ! majority ( ! ,ar*ephyce1 all ! ,*lorophyce are col\r$ gre51 & by ! same col\r+ matt]--! sub/ance call$ leaf-gre51 or *lorophyll--:i* col\rs ! leaves ( all ! high] plants4 ,to ?is class belong1 besides a great numb] ( l[ m>9e ,alg1 mo/ ( ! ,alg ( fre% wat]1 ! common wat] hair-we$s1 or ,conf]v1 ! gre5 slime-balls1 or ,glosphr1 ! bright gre5 wat]-lettuce1 or ,ulva1 :i* resembles a v ?9 & long lettuce leaf1 & also num]\s small microscopic alg1 d5se masses ( :i* =m a light gre5 %9y cov]+ to all sorts ( objects ly+ 9 wat]--wood1 /ones1 etc4 ,^! =ms1 h[ev]1 rise above ! simple prim>y ,alg 9 ! composition & diff]5tiation ( _! body4 ,z ! gre5 ,alg1 l ! primval ,alg1 mo/ly possess a v s(t body1 !y are b r>ely capable ( be+ petrifi$4 ,h[ev]1 x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ?is class ( ,alg--:i* 0 ! fir/ to develop out ( ! prec$+ "o--mo/ ext5sively & v>i\sly peopl$ ! fre% & salt wat]s ( ! e>? 9 e>ly times4 ,9 ! ?ird class1 t ( ! ,br[n ,tangles 7,phophyce71 or ,black ,alg 7,fucoide71 ! bran* ( ! ,alg atta9s its highe/ /age ( developm5t1 at lea/ 9 reg>d to size & body4 ,! *>act]i/ic col\r ( ! ,fucoid is m or less d>k br[n1 sometimes t5d+ m to an olive gre5 or yell[i% gre51 sometimes m to a br[ni% r$ or black col\r4 ,among ^! are ! l>ge/ ( all ,alg1 :i* are at ! same "t ! longe/ ( all plants1 namely1 ! colossal giant ,alg1 among/ :i* ! ,macrocy/is pyrif]a1 on ! coa/ ( ,cali=nia1 atta9s a l5g? ( #djj feet4 ,also1 among our indig5\s ,alg1 ! l>ge/ =ms belong to ?is gr\p4 ,especially ,i may m5tion "h ! /ately sug>-tangle 7,lam9>ia71 ^: slimy1 olive gre5 ?allus-body1 resembl+ gigantic leaves ( f #aj to #ae feet 9 l5g?1 & f a half to "o foot 9 bread?1 are ?r[n up 9 great masses on ! coa/s ( ! ,nor? & ,baltic seas4 ,to ?is class belongs also ! bladd]-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 common 9 our seas1 ^: =k-%ap$1 deeply-cut leaves are kept float+ on ! wat] by num]\s air bladd]s 7z is ! case1 too1 ) _m o!r br[n ,alg74 ,! freely float+ ,s>gasso ,alga 7,s>gasso baccif]um71 :i* =ms ! mead[s or =e/s ( ! ,s>gasso ,sea1 also belongs to ?is class4 ,al?\gh ea* individual ( ^! l>ge alga-trees is compos$ ( _m millions ( cells1 yet at ! beg9n+ ( its exi/5ce x consi/s1 l all high] plants1 ( a s+le cell--a simple egg4 ,?is egg--= example1 9 ! case ( our common bladd]-wrack--is a nak$1 uncov]$ cell1 & z su* is s l ! nak$ egg-cells ( l[] m>9e animals--= example1 ^? ( ! ,m$us--t !y might easily be mi/ak5 "o = ano!r 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,! egg ( ! common bladd]-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus71 a simple nak$ cell1 mu* enl>g$4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! nak$ globule ( protoplasm ! bright k]nel is visible4 ,x 0 probably ! ,fucoide1 or ,br[n ,alg1 :i* dur+ ! primordial p]iod1 to a great ext5t con/itut$ ! *>act]i/ic alga-=e/s ( t imm5se space ( "t4 ,_! petrifi$ rema9s1 especially ^? ( ! ,silurian p]iod1 :i* h be5 pres]v$1 c1 x is true1 give u b a fa9t idea ( !m1 because ! mat]ial ( ^! ,alg1 l t ( mo/ o!rs1 is ill-suit$ = pres]vation 9 a fossil /ate4 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 a l>ge portion ( coal is p]haps compos$ ( !m4 ,less important is ! f\r? class ( ,alg1 t ( ! ,rose-col\r$ ,alg 7,rhodophyce71 or ,r$ ,sea-we$s 7,floride74 ,?is class1 x is true1 pres5ts a great numb] ( diff]5t =ms2 b mo/ ( !m are ( mu* small] size ?an ! ,br[n ,alg4 ,al?\gh !y are inf]ior to ! latt] 9 p]fection & diff]5tiation1 !y f> surpass !m 9 "s o!r respects4 ,to !m belong ! mo/ beautiful & elegant ( all ,alg1 :i* on acc\nt ( ! f9e plumose division ( _! leaf-l bodies1 & also on acc\nt ( _! pure & delicate r$ col\r1 are among ! mo/ *>m+ ( plants4 ,! *>act]i/ic r$ col\r sometimes appe>s z a deep purple1 sometimes z a gl[+ sc>let1 sometimes z a delicate rose t9t1 & may v]ge into violet & blui% purple1 or on ! o!r h& into br[n & gre5 t9ts ( m>vell\s spl5d\r4 ,:oev] has visit$ "o ( our sea-coa/ wat]+ places1 mu/ h admir$ ! lovely =ms ( ! ,floride1 :i* are frequ5tly dri$ on :ite pap] & (f]$ = sale4 ,mo/ ( ! ,r$ ,alg are s delicate1 t !y are q incapable ( be+ petrifi$2 ?is is ! case ) ! spl5did ,ptilotes1 ,plocamia1 ,deless]ia1 etc4 ,h[ev]1 !re are individual =ms1 l ! ,*ondria & ,sphrococca1 :i* possess a h>d] ?allus1 (t5 almo/ z h>d z c>tilage1 & ( ^! fossil rema9s h be5 pres]v$--pr9cipally 9 ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 & lat] 9 ! oolites4 ,x is probable t ?is class also _h an important %>e 9 ! composition ( ! ar*ili?ic ,alg flora4 ,if we n[ aga9 take into consid]ation ! flora ( ! primordial p]iod1 :i* 0 exclusively =m$ by ! gr\p ( ,alg1 we c see t x is n improbable t its f\r subord9ate classes _h a %>e 9 ! composition ( ^? subm>9e =e/s ( ! primval oceans1 simil> to t :i* ! f\r types ( vegetation--trees ) trunks1 fl[]+ %rubs1 grass1 & t5d] leaf-f]ns & mosses--at pres5t take 9 ! composition ( our rec5t l& =e/s4 ,we may suppose t ! subm>9e tree =e/s ( ! primordial p]iod 7 =m$ by ! huge ,br[n ,alg1 or ,fucoide4 ,! _m-col\r$ fl[]s at ! foot ( ^! gigantic trees 7 repres5t$ by ! gay ,r$ ,alg1 or ,floride4 ,! gre5 grass betwe5 0 =m$ by ! hair-l bun*es ( ,gre5 ,alg1 or ,*loroalg4 ,f9ally1 ! t5d] foliage ( f]ns & mosses1 :i* at pres5t cov] ! gr\nd ( our =e/s1 fill ! crevices left by o!r plants1 & ev5 settle on ! trunks ( ! trees1 at t "t probably _h repres5tatives 9 ! moss & f]n-l ,siphone1 9 ! ,caul]pa & ,bryopsis1 f among ! class ( ! prim>y ,alg1 ,protophyta1 or ,ar*ephyce4 ,) reg>d to ! relation%ips ( ! diff]5t classes ( ,alg to "o ano!r & to o!r plants1 x is exce$+ly probable t ! ,prim>y ,alg1 or ,ar*ephyce1 z already rem>k$1 =m ! common root ( ! p$igree1 n m]ely = ! diff]5t classes ( ,alg1 b = ! :ole vegetable k+dom4 ,on ?is acc\nt !y may ) ju/ice be designat$ z primval plants1 or ,protophyta4 ,out ( ! nak$ vegetable ,mon]a1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod1 enclos$ cytods 7 probably ! fir/ to arise 7vol4 i4 p4 #cde71 by ! nak$1 /ructureless1 album9\s sub/ance ( ! ,mon]a becom+ cond5s$ 9 ! =m ( a pellicle on ! surface1 or by secret+ a membrane4 ,at a lat] p]iod1 out ( ^! enclos$ cytods g5u9e vegetable cells probably arose1 z a k]nel or nucleus sep>at$ itself 9 ! int]ior f ! surr\nd+ cell-sub/ance or plasma4 ,! ?ree classes ( ,gre5 ,alg1 ,br[n ,alg1 & ,r$ ,alg1 are p]haps ?ree di/9ct classes1 :i* h aris5 indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r out ( ! common radical gr\p ( ,primval ,alg1 & !n develop$ !mselves fur!r 7ea* accord+ to its k9d71 & h v>i\sly bran*$ (f into ord]s & families4 ,! ,br[n & ,r$ ,alg possess no close blood relation%ip to ! o!r classes ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,^! latt] h mo/ probably aris5 out ( ! ,primval ,alg1 ei!r directly or by ! int]m$iate /ep ( ! ,gre5 ,alg4 ,x is probable t ,mosses 7out ( :i*1 at a lat] "t1 ,f]ns develop$7 proce$$ f a gr\p ( ,gre5 ,alg1 & t ,fungi & ,li*5s proce$$ f a gr\p ( ,primval ,alg4 ,! ,phan]ogamia develop$ at a mu* lat] p]iod out ( ,f]ns4 ,z a second class ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom we h above m5tion$ ! ,?read-plants 7,inophyta74 ,we und]/ood by ?is t]m ! two closely relat$ classes ( ,li*5s & ,fungi4 ,x is possible t ^! ,?allus plants h n aris5 out ( ! ,primval ,alg1 b out ( "o or m ,mon]a1 :i*1 indep5d5tly ( ! latt]1 arose by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,x appe>s conceivable t _m ( ! l[e/ ,fungi1 z = example1 _m f]m5t-caus+ fungi 7=ms ( ,micrococcus1 etc471 owe _! orig9 to a numb] ( diff]5t ar*igonic ,mon]a 7t is1 ,mon]a orig9at+ by spontane\s g5]ation74 ,9 any case ! ,?read-plants _c be consid]$ z ! prog5itors ( any ( ! high] vegetable classes4 ,li*5s1 z well z fungi1 are di/9ct f ! high] plants 9 ! composition ( _! s(t bodies1 consi/+ z x does ( a d5se felt-"w ( v long1 v>i\sly int]wov51 & peculi> ?reads or *a9s ( cells--! s-call$ hyph1 on :i* acc\nt we di/+ui% !m z a prov9ce "u ! "n ,?read-plants4 ,f _! peculi> nature !y c\ld n leave any important fossil rema9s1 & consequ5tly we c =m only a v vague guess at _! palontological developm5t4 ,! fir/ class ( ,?read-plants1 ! ,fungi1 exhibit a v close relation%ip to ! l[e/ ,alg2 ! ,algo-fungi1 or ,phycomycetes 7! ,saprolegni & ,p]onospor7 9 reality only diff] f ! bladd]-wracks & ,siphone 7! ,vau*]ia & ,caul]pa7 m5tion$ previ\sly by ! want ( leaf-gre51 or *lorophyll4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 all g5u9e ,fungi h s _m peculi>ities1 & deviate s mu* f o!r plants1 especially 9 _! mode ( tak+ food1 t !y might be consid]$ z an entirely di/9ct prov9ce ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,o!r plants live mo/ly ^u inorganic food1 ^u simple comb9ations :i* !y r5d] m complicat$4 ,!y produce protoplasm by ! comb9ation ( wat]1 c>bonic acid1 & ammonia4 ,!y take 9 c>bonic acid & give out oxyg54 ,b ! ,fungi1 l animals1 live ^u organic food1 consi/+ ( complicat$ comb9ations ( c>bon1 :i* !y receive f o!r organisms & assimilate4 ,!y inhale oxyg5 & give out c>bonic acid l animals4 ,!y also nev] =m leaf-gre51 or *lorophyll1 :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( mo/ o!r plants4 ,9 l mann] !y nev] produce />*4 ,h5ce _m em95t botani/s h repeat$ly propos$ to remove ! ,fungi completely out ( ! vegetable k+dom1 & to reg>d !m z a special & ?ird k+dom1 betwe5 t ( animals & plants4 ,by ?is means our k+dom ( ,proti/a w\ld be consid]ably increas$4 ,! ,fungi 9 ?is case w\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 be alli$ to ! s-call$ 8slime m\lds10 or ,myxomycetes 7:i*1 h[ev]1 nev] =m any hyph74 ,b z _m ,fungi propagate 9 a sexual mann]1 & z mo/ botani/s1 accord+ to ! preval5t op9ion1 look ^u ,fungi z g5u9e plants1 we %all "h leave !m 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 & connect !m ) li*5s1 to :i* !y are at all ev5ts mo/ ne>ly relat$4 ,! phyletic orig9 ( ,fungi w probably long rema9 obscure4 ,! close relation%ip already h9t$ at betwe5 ! ,phycomycetes & ,siphone 7especially betwe5 ! ,saprolegni & ,vau*]i7 sugge/s to u t !y are d]iv$ f ! latt]4 ,fungi w\ld !n h to be consid]$ z ,alg1 :i* by adaptation to a p>asitical life h become v peculi>ly trans=m$4 ,_m facts1 h[ev]1 support ! supposition t ! l[e/ fungi h orig9at$ indep5d5tly f ar*igonic ,mon]a4 ,! second class ( ,inophyta1 ! ,li*5s 7,li*5es71 are v rem>kable 9 relation to phylog5y2 = ! surpris+ discov]ies ( late ye>s h taught u t e ,li*5 is really compos$ ( two di/9ct plants--( a l[ =m ( ,alga 7,no/o*ace1 ,*roococcace71 & ( a p>asitic =m ( ,fungus 7,ascomycetes71 :i* lives z a p>asite ^u ! =m]1 & ^u ! nutritive sub/ances prep>$ by x4 ,! gre5 cells1 conta9+ *lorophyll 7gonidia71 :i* are f\nd 9 e li*51 belong to ! ,alga4 ,b ! col\rless ?reads 7hyph7 :i*1 d5sely int]wov51 =m ! pr9cipal mass ( ! body ( ,li*5s1 belong to ! p>asitic ,fungus4 ,b 9 all cases ! two =ms ( plants--,fungus & ,alga--:i* are always consid]$ z memb]s ( two q di/9ct prov9ces ( ! vegetable k+dom1 are s firmly unit$1 & s ?or\ghly int]wov51 t ne>ly e "o looks ^u a ,li*5 z a s+le organism4 ,mo/ ,li*5s =m small1 m or less =mless or irregul>ly ind5t$1 cru/-l cov]+s to /ones1 b>k ( trees1 etc4 ,_! col\r v>ies ?r\gh all possible t9ts1 f ! pure/ :ite to yell[1 r$1 gre51 br[n1 & ! deepe/ black4 ,_m li*5s are important 9 ! economy ( nature f ! fact t !y c settle 9 ! drie/ & mo/ b>r5 localities1 especially on nak$ rocks ^u :i* no o!r plant c live4 ,! h>d black lava1 :i* cov]s _m squ>e miles ( gr\nd 9 volcanic regions1 & :i* = c5turies frequ5tly pres5ts ! mo/ det]m9$ opposition to ! life ( e k9d ( vegetation1 is always fir/ occupi$ by ,li*5s4 ,x is ! :ite or grey ,li*5s 7,/]eocaulon7 :i*1 9 ! mo/ desolate & b>r5 fields ( lava1 always beg9 to prep>e ! nak$ rocky gr\nd = cultivation1 & conqu] x = subsequ5t high] vegetation4 ,_! decay+ bodies =m ! fir/ m\ld 9 :i* mosses1 f]ns1 & fl[]+ plants c aft]w>ds take firm root4 ,h>dy ,li*5s are also less affect$ by ! sev]ity ( climate ?an any o!r plants4 ,h5ce ! nak$ rocks1 ev5 9 ! highe/ m\nta9s--= ! mo/ "p cov]$ by et]nal sn[1 on :i* no plant c\ld ?rive--are encru/$ by ! dry bodies ( ,li*5s4 ,leav+ n[ ! ,fungi1 ,li*5s1 & ,alg1 :i* are compris$ "u ! "n ( ,?allus plants1 we ent] ^u ! second sub-k+dom ( ! vegetable k+dom1 t ( ! ,pro?allus plants 7,pro?allophyta71 :i* by "s botani/s are call$ phyllogonic ,cryptogamia 79 contradi/9ction to ! ,?allus plants1 or ?allogonic ,cryptogamia74 ,?is sub-k+dom comprises ! two prov9ces ( ,mosses & ,f]ns4 ,"h we meet ) 7except 9 a few ( ! l[e/ =ms7 ! sep>ation ( ! vegetable body into two diff]5t fundam5tal organs1 axial-organs 7/em & root7 & leaves 7or lat]al organs74 ,9 ?is ! ,pro?allus plants resemble ! ,fl[]+ plants1 & h5ce ! two gr\ps h rec5tly (t5 be5 class$ toge!r z /emm$ plants1 or ,cormophytes4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ,mosses & ,f]ns resemble ! ,?allus plants1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! developm5t ( fl[]s & se$s1 & ev5 ,l9nu class$ !m ) ^!1 z ,cryptogamia1 9 contradi/9ction to ! plants =m+ se$s2 t is1 fl[]+ plants 7,an?ophyta or ,phan]ogamia74 ,"u ! "n ( 8,pro?allus plants0 we comb9e ! closely-relat$ ,mosses & ,f]ns1 because bo? exhibit a peculi> & *>act]i/ic 8alt]nation ( g5]ation0 9 ! c\rse ( _! individual developm5t4 ,= e species exhibits two diff]5t g5]ations1 ( :i* ! "o is usually call$ ! ,pro?allium1 or ,=e-gr[?1 ! o!r is spok5 ( z ! ,cormus1 or actual ,/em ( ! moss or f]n4 ,! fir/ & orig9al g5]ation1 ! ,=e-gr[?1 or ,pro?allus1 also call$ ,protonema1 /ill rema9s 9 t l[] /age ( elaboration manife/$ ?r\gh\t life by all ,?allus plants2 t is to say1 /em & leaf-organs h z yet n diff]5tiat$1 & ! entire cell-mass ( ! ,=e-gr[? corresponds to a simple ?allus4 ,! second & m p]fect g5]ation ( mosses & f]ns--! ,/em1 or ,cormus--develops a mu* m highly elaborate body1 :i* has diff]5tiat$ into /alk & leaf 7z 9 ! case ( fl[]+ plants71 except 9 ! l[e/ mosses1 :]e ?is g5]ation also rema9s 9 ! l[] /age ( ! ?allus4 ,) ! exception ( ^! latt] =ms ! fir/ g5]ation ( ,mosses & ,f]ns 7! ?allus-%ap$ ,=e-gr[?7 always produces a second g5]ation ) /em & leaves2 ! latt] 9 its turn produces ! ?allus ( ! fir/ g5]ation1 & s on4 ,?us1 9 ?is case1 z 9 ! ord9>y cases ( alt]nation ( g5]ation 9 animals1 ! fir/ g5]ation is l ! ?ird1 fif?1 etc41 ! second l ! f\r?1 six?1 etc4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #bjf47 ,( ! two ma9 classes ( ,pro?allus plants1 ! ,mosses 9 g5]al are at a mu* l[] /age ( developm5t ?an ! ,f]ns1 & _! l[e/ =ms 7especially 9 an anatomical respect7 =m ! transition f ! ,?allus plants ?r\gh ! ,alg to ,f]ns4 ,! g5ealogical connection ( ,mosses & ,f]ns :i* is indicat$ by ?is fact c1 h[ev]1 be inf]r$ only f ! case ( ! mo/ imp]fect =ms ( ! two classes2 = ! m p]fect & high] gr\ps ( mosses & f]ns d n /& 9 any close relation to "o ano!r1 & develop 9 completely opposite directions4 ,9 any case ,mosses h aris5 directly out ( ,?allus plants1 & probably out ( ,gre5 ,alg4 ,f]ns1 on ! o!r h&1 are probably d]iv$ f ext9ct unkn[n ,mosses1 :i* 7 v ne>ly relat$ to ! l[e/ liv]worts ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( creation1 ,f]ns are ( great] importance ?an ,mosses4 ,! bran* ( ,mosses 7,musc91 also call$ ,musci1 or ,bryophyta7 conta9s ! l[] & m imp]fect plants ( ! gr\p ( ,pro?allophytes1 :i* z yet d n possess vessels4 ,_! bodies are mo/ly s t5d] & p]i%able t !y are v ill-suit$ = be+ pres]v$ 9 a recognizable /ate z fossils4 ,h5ce ! fossil rema9s ( all classes ( ,mosses are r>e & insignificant4 ,x is probable t ,mosses develop$ 9 v e>ly times out ( ! ,?allus plants1 or1 to be m precise1 out ( ! ,gre5 ,alg4 ,x is probable t 9 ! primordial p]iod !re exi/$ aquatic =ms ( transition f ! latt] to ,mosses1 & 9 ! prim>y p]iod to ^? liv+ on l&4 ,! ,mosses ( ! pres5t day--out ( ! gradually diff]5tiat+ developm5t ( :i* comp>ative anatomy may draw "s inf]5ces z to _! g5ealogy--are divid$ into two diff]5t classes1 namely3 7#a7 ,liv]worts2 7#b7 ,leafy ,mosses4 ,! fir/ & olde/ class ( ,mosses1 :i* is directly alli$ to ! ,gre5 ,alg1 or ,conf]v1 is =m$ by ! ,liv]worts 7,hepatic1 or ,?allobrya74 ,! mosses belong+ to !m are1 = ! mo/ "p1 small & insignificant 9 =m1 & are little kn[n4 ,_! l[e/ =ms /ill possess1 9 bo? g5]ations1 a simple ?allus l ! ,?allus plants2 z = example1 ! ,ricci & ,m>*antiace4 ,b ! m highly develop$ liv]worts1 ! ,jung]manniace & ^? ak9 to !m1 gradually comm5ce to diff]5tiate /em & leaf1 & _! mo/ highly-develop$ =ms are closely alli$ to leaf-mosses4 ,by ?is transitional s]ies ! liv]worts %[ _! direct d]ivation f ! ,?allophytes1 & m especially f ! ,gre5 ,alg4 ,! ,mosses1 :i* are g5]ally ! only ones kn[n to ! un9itiat$--& :i*1 9 fact1 =m ! pr9cipal portion ( ! :ole bran*--belong to ! second class1 or ,leafy ,mosses 7,musci frondosi1 call$ ,musci 9 a n>r[ s5se1 also ,phyllobrya74 ,among !m are mo/ ( ^? pretty little plants :i*1 unit$ 9 d5se gr\ps1 =m ! bright glossy c>pet ( moss 9 our woods1 or :i*1 9 company ) liv]worts & li*5s1 cov] ! b>k ( trees4 ,z res]voirs1 c>efully /or+ up moi/ure1 !y are ( ! greate/ importance 9 ! economy ( nature4 ,:]ev] man m]cilessly cuts d[n & de/roys =e/s1 !re1 z a consequ5ce1 disappe> ! leafy mosses :i* cov]$ ! b>k ( ! trees1 or1 protect$ by _! %ade1 clo!d ! gr\nd1 & fill$ ! spaces betwe5 ! l>g] plants4 ,toge!r ) ! leafy mosses disappe> ! useful res]voirs :i* /or$ up ra9 & dew = times ( dr\ght4 ,?us arises a disa/r\s dryness ( ! gr\nd1 :i* prev5ts ! gr[? ( any ri* vegetation4 ,9 ! great] "p ( ,s\!rn ,europe--9 ,greece1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 & ,spa9--mosses h be5 de/roy$ by ! inconsid]ate extirpation ( =e/s1 & ! gr\nd has !reby be5 robb$ ( its mo/ useful /ores ( moi/ure2 once fl\ri%+ & ri* tracts ( l& h be5 *ang$ into dry & b>r5 wa/es4 ,un=tunately 9 ,g]many1 also1 ?is rude b>b>ism is beg9n+ to prevail m & m4 ,x is probable t ! small frondose mosses h play$ ?is exce$+ly important "p 9 nature = a v long "t1 possibly f ! beg9n+ ( ! prim>y p]iod4 ,b z _! t5d] bodies are z little suit$ z ^? ( all o!r mosses = be+ pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate1 palontology c give u no in=mation ab\t ?is4 ,we le>n f ! sci5ce ( petrifactions mu* m ?an we d 9 ! case ( ,mosses ( ! importance :i* ! second bran* ( ,pro?allus plants--t is1 ,f]ns--h _h 9 ! hi/ory ( ! vegetable _w4 ,f]ns1 or m /rictly speak+1 ! 8plants ( ! f]n tribe0 7,filic9e1 or ,pt]ide1 also call$ ,pt]idophyta1 or ,vascul> ,cryptogams71 =m$ dur+ an extremely long p]iod1 namely1 dur+ ! :ole prim>y or paloli?ic p]iod1 ! pr9cipal portion ( ! vegetable _w1 s t we may )\t hesitation call x ! era ( ,f]n ,=e/s4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( ! ,devonian p]iod1 9 :i* organisms liv+ on l& appe>$ = ! fir/ "t1 namely1 dur+ ! deposits ( ! ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & ,p]mian /rata1 plants l ,f]ns pr$om9at$ s mu* ov] all o!rs1 t we are ju/ifi$ 9 giv+ ?is "n to t p]iod4 ,9 ! /ratifications j m5tion$1 b above all1 9 ! imm5se lay]s ( coal ( ! ,c>bonif]\s or coal p]iod1 we f9d su* num]\s & occasionally well pres]v$ rema9s ( ,f]ns1 t we c =m a tol]able vivid picture ( ! v peculi> l& flora ( ! paloli?ic p]iod4 ,9 ! ye> #ahee ! total numb] ( ! !n kn[n paloli?ic species ( plants am\nt$ to ab\t a ?\s&1 & among ^! !re 7 no less ?an #hgb ,f]ns4 ,among ! rema9+ #abh species 7 #gg ,gymnosp]ms 7p9es & palm-f]ns71 #dj ,?allus plants 7mo/ly ,alg71 & ab\t #bj n accurately def9able ,cormophyta 7/em-plants74 ,z already rem>k$1 ,f]ns probably develop$ out ( ! l[] liv]worts 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! prim>y p]iod4 ,9 _! organization ,f]ns rise consid]ably above ,mosses1 & 9 _! m highly develop$ =ms ev5 approa* ! fl[]+ plants4 ,9 ,mosses1 z 9 ,?allus plants1 ! entire body is compos$ ( almo/ equi-=mal cells1 little if at all diff]5tiat$2 b 9 ! tissues ( ,f]ns we f9d ^? peculi>ly diff]5tiat$ /r+s ( cells :i* are call$ ! vessels ( plants1 & :i* are univ]sally met ) 9 fl[]+ plants4 ,h5ce ,f]ns are sometimes unit$ z 8vascul> ,cryptogams0 ) ,phan]ogams1 & ! gr\p s =m$ is contra/$ z t ( ! 8vascul> plants0 ) 8cellul> plants10--t is1 ) 8cellul> cryptogams0 7,mosses & ,?allus plants74 ,?is v important process 9 ! organization ( plants--! =mation ( vessels--fir/ occurr$1 !re=e1 9 ! ,devonian p]iod1 consequ5tly 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! second & small] half ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,! bran* ( ,f]ns1 or ,filic91 is divid$ into five di/9ct classes3 7#a7 ,frondose ,f]ns1 or ,pt]id2 7#b7 ,re$ ,f]ns1 or ,calam>i2 7#c7 ,aquatic ,f]ns1 or ,rhizoc>pe2 7#d7 ,snakes ,tongues1 or ,ophiogloss2 & 7#e7 ,scale ,f]ns1 or ,lepidophyta4 ,by f> ! mo/ important ( ^! five classes1 & also ! ri*e/ 9 =ms1 7 fir/ ! ,frondose ,f]ns1 & !n ! ,scale-f]ns1 :i* =m$ ! pr9cipal portion ( ! paloli?ic =e/s4 ,! ,re$ ,f]ns1 on ! o!r h&1 _h at t "t already some:at dim9i%$ 9 numb]2 & ( ! ,aquatic ,f]ns1 we d n ev5 "k ) c]ta9ty :e!r !y !n exi/$4 ,x is difficult = u to =m any idea ( ! v peculi> "* ( ^? gloomy paloli?ic f]n =e/s1 9 :i* ! :ole ( ! gay abundance ( fl[]s ( our pres5t flora 0 entirely want+1 & :i* 7 n enliv5$ by any birds4 ,( ! fl[]+ plants !re !n exi/$ only ! two l[e/ classes1 ! p9es & palm f]ns1 ) nak$ se$s1 ^: simple & insignificant blossoms sc>cely des]ve ! "n ( fl[]s4 ,! phylog5y ( ,f]ns1 & ( ! ,gymnosp]ms :i* h develop$ out ( !m1 has be5 made especially cle> by ! excell5t inve/igations :i* ,edw>d ,/rasburg] publi%$ 9 #ahgb1 on 8,! ,conif] & ,gnetace10 z also 8,on ,azolla40 ,?is ?\ghtful naturali/ & ,*>les ,m>t9s1 ( ,montpelli]1 are among ! few botani/s :o h ?or\ghly und]/ood ! fundam5tal value ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 & ! me*anical-causal connection betwe5 ontog5y & phylog5y4 ,! majority ( botani/s d n ev5 yet "k ! important diff]5ce betwe5 homology & analogy1 betwe5 ! morphological & physiological comp>ison ( p>ts--:i* has long s9ce be5 recogniz$ 9 zoology--b ,/rasburg] has employ$ ?is di/9ction & ! pr9ciple ( evolution 9 8 8,comp>ative ,anatomy ( ! ,gymnosp]ms10 9 ord] to sket* ! outl9es ( ! blood relation%ip ( ?is important gr\p ( plants4 ,! class among ,f]ns :i* has develop$ mo/ directly out ( ! ,liv]worts is ! class ( real ,f]ns1 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! ^w1 ! ,frondose ,f]ns 7,filices1 or ,phyllopt]ides1 also call$ ,pt]id74 ,9 ! pres5t flora ( ! temp]ate zones ?is class =ms only a subord9ate "p1 = x is 9 mo/ cases repres5t$ only by l[ =ms )\t trunks4 ,b 9 ! torrid zones1 especially 9 ! moi/1 /eam+ =e/s ( tropical regions1 ?is class pres5ts u ) ! l(ty palm-l f]n trees4 ,^! beautiful tree-f]ns ( ! pres5t day1 :i* =m ! *ief ornam5t ( our hot-h\ses1 c h[ev] give u b a fa9t idea ( ! /ately & spl5did frondose f]ns ( ! prim>y p]iod1 ^: mighty trunks1 d5sely cr[d$ toge!r1 !n =m$ entire =e/s4 ,^! trunks1 accumulat$ 9 sup]-incumb5t masses1 are f\nd 9 ! coal seams ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & betwe5 !m1 9 an excell5t /ate ( pres]vation1 are f\nd ! impressions ( ! elegant fan-%ap$ leaves1 cr[n+ ! top ( ! trunk 9 an umbrella-l bu%4 ,! v>i$ outl9es & ! fea!r-l =ms ( ^! fronds1 ! elegant %ape ( ! bran*+ ve9s or bun*es ( vessels 9 _! t5d] foliage1 c /ill be z di/9ctly recogniz$ 9 ! impressions ( ! paloli?ic fronds z 9 ! fronds ( f]ns ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 _m cases ev5 ! clu/]s ( fruit1 :i* are di/ribut$ on ! l[] surface ( ! fronds1 are di/9ctly pres]v$4 ,aft] ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 ! pr$om9ance ( frondose f]ns dim9i%$1 & t[>ds ! end ( ! second>y p]iod !y play$ almo/ z subord9ate a "p z !y d at ! pres5t "t4 ,! ,calam>i1 ,ophiogloss1 & ,rhizoc>pe seem to h develop$ z ?ree div]g+ bran*es out ( ! ,frondose ,f]ns1 or ,pt]id4 ,! ,calam>i1 or ,calamophyta1 h rema9$ at ! l[e/ level among ^! ?ree classes4 ,! ,calam>i comprise ?ree diff]5t ord]s1 ( :i* only "o n[ exi/s1 namely1 ! ,horse-tails 7,equisetace74 ,! two o!r ord]s1 ! ,giant ,re$s 7,calamite71 & ! ,/>-leaf ,re$s 7,a/]ophyllite71 are long s9ce ext9ct4 ,all ,calam>i are *>act]iz$ by a holl[ & jo9t$ /alk1 /em1 or trunk1 ^u :i* ! bran*es & leaves 79 cases :]e !y exi/7 are set s z to encircle ! jo9t$ /em 9 :orls4 ,! holl[ jo9ts ( ! /alk are sep>at$ f "o ano!r by p>tition walls4 ,9 ,horse-tails & ,calamite ! surface is trav]s$ by longitud9al ribs runn+ p>allel1 z 9 ! case ( a flut$ column1 & ! out] sk9 conta9s s mu* silici\s e>? 9 ! liv+ =ms1 t x is us$ = cleans+ & poli%+4 ,9 ! ,a/]ophyllite1 ! />-%ap$ :orls ( leaves 7 m /rongly develop$ ?an 9 ! two o!r ord]s4 ,!re exi/1 at pres5t1 ( ! ,calam>i only ! insignificant ,horse-tails 7,equisetum71 :i* gr[ 9 m>%es & on moors2 b dur+ ! :ole ( ! prim>y & second>y p]iods !y 7 repres5t$ by great trees ( ! g5us ,equisetites4 ,!re exi/$1 at ! same "t1 ! closely relat$ ord] ( ! ,giant ,re$s 7,calamites71 ^: /rong trunks grew to a height ( ab\t fifty feet4 ,! ord] ( ! ,a/]ophyllites1 on ! o!r h&1 conta9$ small] & pretti] plants1 ( a v peculi> =m1 & belongs exclusively to ! prim>y p]iod4 ,among all ,f]ns1 ! hi/ory ( ! ?ird class1 t ( ! ,root1 or ,aquatic ,f]ns 7,rhizoc>pe1 or ,hydropt]id71 is lea/ kn[n to u4 ,9 _! /ructure ^! f]ns1 :i* live 9 fre% wat]1 are on ! "o h& alli$ to ! frond f]ns1 & on ! o!r to ! scaly f]ns1 b !y are m closely relat$ to ! latt]4 ,among !m are ! b little kn[n moss f]ns 7,salv9ia71 clov] f]ns 7,m>silea71 & pill f]ns 7,pilul>ia7 ( our fre% wat]s2 fur!r1 ! l>ge ,azolla :i* floats 9 tropical ponds4 ,mo/ ( ! aquatic f]ns are ( a delicate nature1 & h5ce ill-suit$ = be+ petrifi$4 ,?is is probably ! reason ( _! fossil rema9s be+ s sc>ce1 & ( ! olde/ ( ^? kn[n to u hav+ be5 f\nd 9 ! ,jura sy/em4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ! class is mu* old]1 & t x 0 already develop$ dur+ ! paloli?ic p]iod out ( o!r f]ns by adaptation to an aquatic life4 ,! f\r? class ( f]ns is =m$ by ! ,tongue ,f]ns 7,ophiogloss1 or ,glossopt]ides74 ,^! f]ns1 to :i* belongs ! ,botry*ium1 z well z ! ,ophioglossum 7add]'s-tongue7 ( our native g5]a1 7 =m]ly consid]$ z =m+ b a small sub-division ( ! frondose f]ns4 ,b !y des]ve to =m a special class1 because !y repres5t important transitional =ms f ! ,pt]ide & ,lepidophytes t[>ds high] plants1 & mu/ be reg>d$ z among ! direct prog5itors ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,! fif? & la/ class is =m$ by ! ,scale ,f]ns 7,lepidophytes1 or ,selag9es74 ,9 ! same way z ! ,ophiogloss arose out ( ! frondose =ms1 ! scale f]ns arose out ( ! ,ophiogloss4 ,!y 7 m highly develop$ ?an all o!r f]ns1 & =m ! transition to fl[]+ plants1 :i* mu/ h develop$ out ( !m4 ,next to ! frondose f]ns !y took ! l>ge/ "p 9 ! composition ( ! paloli?ic f]n =e/s4 ,?is class also conta9s1 z does ! class ( re$ f]ns1 ?ree ne>ly relat$ b /ill v diff]5t ord]s1 ( :i* only "o n[ exi/s1 ! two o!rs hav+ become ext9ct t[>ds ! end ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! scal$ f]ns /ill exi/+ belong to ! ord] ( ! club-mosses 7,lycopodiace74 ,!y are mo/ly small1 pretty moss-l plants1 ^: t5d]1 _m-bran*$ /alk creeps 9 curves on ! gr\nd l a snake1 & is d5sely encompass$ & cov]$ by small scaly leaves4 ,! pretty creep+ ,lycopodium ( our woods1 :i* m\nta9 t\ri/s tw9e r\nd _! hats1 is kn[n to all1 z also ! /ill m delicate ,selag9ella1 :i* "u ! "n ( creep+ moss is us$ to adorn ! soil ( our hot-h\ses 9 ! =m ( a ?ick c>pet4 ,! l>ge/ club-mosses ( ! pres5t day are f\nd 9 ! ,sunda ,isl&s1 :]e _! /alks rise to ! height ( tw5ty-five feet1 & atta9 half a foot 9 ?ickness4 ,b 9 ! prim>y & second>y p]iods ev5 l>g] trees ( ?is k9d 7 widely di/ribut$1 ! mo/ anci5t ( :i* probably 7 ! prog5itors ( ! p9es 7,lycopodites74 ,! mo/ important dim5sions 71 h[ev]1 atta9$ by ! class ( scale trees 7,lepidod5dre71 & by ! seal trees 7,sigill>ie74 ,^! two ord]s1 ) a few species1 appe> 9 ! ,devonian p]iod1 b d n atta9 _! imm5se & a/oni%+ developm5t until ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & become ext9ct t[>ds ! end ( x1 or 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod directly foll[+ ^u x4 ,! scale trees1 or ,lepidod5dre1 7 probably m closely relat$ to club-mosses ?an to ,sigill>ie4 ,!y grew into spl5did1 /raight1 unbran*+ trunks :i* divid$ at ! top into num]\s =k$ bran*es4 ,!y bore a l>ge cr[n ( scaly leaves1 & l ! trunk 7 m>k$ 9 elegant spiral l9es by ! sc>s left at ! base ( ! leaf /alks :i* _h fall5 (f4 ,we "k ( scale-m>k$ trees f =ty to sixty feet 9 l5g?1 & f twelve to fifte5 feet 9 diamet] at ! root4 ,"s trunks are said to be ev5 m ?an a hundr$ feet 9 l5g?4 ,9 ! coal are f\nd /ill l>g] accumulations ( ! no less highly develop$ b m sl5d] trunks ( ! rem>kable seal trees1 ,sigill>ie1 :i* 9 _m places =m ! pr9cipal "p ( coal seams4 ,_! roots 7 =m]ly describ$ z q a di/9ct vegetable =m 7"u ! "n ( ,/igm>ia74 ,! ,sigill>ie are 9 _m respects v l ! scale-trees1 b diff] f !m & f f]ns 9 g5]al 9 _m ways4 ,!y 7 possibly closely relat$ to ! ext9ct ,devonian ,lycopt]ide1 comb9+ *>act]i/ic peculi>ities ( ! club-mosses & ! frondose f]ns1 :i* ,/rasburg] consid]s z ! hypo!tical prim>y =m ( fl[]+ plants4 ,9 leav+ ! d5se =e/s ( ! prim>y p]iod1 :i* 7 pr9cipally compos$ ( frond f]ns 7,lepidod5dre & ,sigill>ie71 we pass onw>ds to ! no less *>act]i/ic p9e =e/s ( ! second>y p]iod4 ,?us we leave ! doma9 ( ! ,cryptogamia1 ! plants =m+ nei!r fl[]s nor se$s1 & ent] ! second ma9 division ( ! vegetable k+dom1 namely1 ! sub-k+dom ( ! ,phan]ogamia1 fl[]+ plants =m+ se$s4 ,?is division1 s ri* 9 =ms1 conta9+ ! pr9cipal portion ( ! pres5t vegetable _w1 & especially ! majority ( plants liv+ on l&1 is c]ta9ly ( a mu* m rec5t date ?an ! division ( ,cryptogamia4 ,= x c h develop$ out ( ! latt] only 9 ! c\rse ( ! paloli?ic p]iod4 ,we c ) full assurance ma9ta9 t1 dur+ ! :ole ar*ili?ic p]iod1 h5ce dur+ ! fir/ & long] half ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 no fl[]+ plants z yet exi/$1 & t !y fir/ develop$ dur+ ! prim>y p]iod out ( ,cryptogamia ( ! f]n k9d4 ,! anatomical & embryological relation ( ,phan]ogamia to ! latt] is s close1 t f x we c ) c]ta9ty inf] _! g5ealogical connection1 t is1 _! true blood relation%ip4 ,fl[]+ plants _c h directly aris5 out ( ?allus plants1 nor out ( mosses2 b only out ( f]ns1 or ,filic9es4 ,mo/ probably ! scal$ f]ns1 or ,lepidophyta1 & m especially among/ ^! ! ,lycopodiace1 =ms closely relat$ to ! ,selag9ella ( ! pres5t day1 h be5 ! direct prog5itors ( ! ,phan]ogamia4 ,on acc\nt ( its anatomical /ructure & its embryological developm5t1 ! sub-k+dom ( ! ,phan]ogamia has = a long "t be5 divid$ into two l>ge bran*es1 into ! ,gymnosp]ms1 or plants ) nak$ se$s1 & ! ,angiosp]ms1 or plants ) enclos$ se$s4 ,! latt] are 9 e respect m p]fect & m highly organiz$ ?an ! =m]1 & develop$ out ( !m only at a late date dur+ ! second>y p]iod4 ,! ,gymnosp]ms1 bo? anatomically & embryologically1 =m ! transition gr\p f ,f]ns to ,angiosp]ms4 ,! l[]1 m imp]fect1 & ! old] ( ! two ma9 classes ( fl[]+ plants1 t ( ! ,ar*isp]me1 or ,gymnosp]ms 7) nak$ se$s71 atta9$ its mo/ v>i$ developm5t & wide/ di/ribution dur+ ! mesoli?ic or second>y epo*4 ,x 0 no less *>act]i/ic ( ?is p]iod1 ?an 0 ! f]n gr\p ( ! prec$+ prim>y1 & ! ,angiosp]ms ( ! succe$+ t]ti>y1 epo*4 ,h5ce we might call ! second>y epo* t ( ,gymnosp]ms1 or aft] its mo/ important repres5tatives1 ! era ( ,p9e ,=e/s4 ,! ,gymnosp]ms are divid$ into ?ree classes3 ! ,conif]1 ,cycade1 & ,gnetace4 ,we f9d fossil rema9s ( ! p9es1 or ,conif]s1 & ( ! ,cycads1 ev5 9 coal1 & mu/ inf] f ?is t ! transition f scal$ f]ns to ,gymnosp]ms took place dur+ ! ,coal1 or possibly ev5 9 ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,gymnosp]ms play b a v subord9ate "p dur+ ! :ole ( ! prim>y epo*1 & d n pr$om9ate ov] ,f]ns until ! beg9n+ ( ! second>y epo*4 ,( ! two classes ( ,gymnosp]ms j m5tion$1 t ( ! ,palm ,f]ns 7,zami1 or ,cycade7 /&s at ! l[e/ /age1 & is directly alli$ to f]ns1 z ! "n implies1 s t "s botani/s h actually includ$ !m 9 ! f]n gr\p4 ,9 _! ext]nal =m !y resemble palms1 z well z tree f]ns 7or tree-l frond f]ns71 & are adorn$ by a cr[n ( fea!ry leaves1 :i* is plac$ ei!r on a ?ick1 %ort trunk1 or on a sl5d]1 simple trunk l a pill>4 ,at ! pres5t day ?is class1 once s ri* 9 =ms1 is b scantily repres5t$ by a few =ms liv+ 9 ! torrid zones1 namely1 by ! conif]\s f]ns 7,zamia71 ! ?ick-trunk$ bread-tree 7,encephal>tos71 & ! sl5d]-trunk$ ,caffir bread-tree 7,cycas74 ,!y may frequ5tly be se5 9 hot-h\ses1 & are g5]ally mi/ak5 = palms4 ,a mu* great] v>iety ( =ms ?an occurs among ! /ill exi/+ palm f]ns 7,cycade7 is pres5t$ by ! ext9ct & fossil ,cycads1 :i* occurr$ 9 great numb]s m t[>ds ! middle ( ! second>y p]iod1 dur+ ! ,jura1 & :i* at t "t pr9cipally det]m9$ ! "* ( ! =e/s4 ,! class ( ,p9es1 or conif]\s trees 7,conif]71 has pres]v$ d[n to our day a great] v>iety ( =ms ?an h ! palm f]ns4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t "t ! trees belong+ to x--cypresses1 junip] trees1 & trees ( life 7,?uja71 ! box & g9ko trees 7,salisburya71 ! arauc>ia & c$>s1 b above all ! g5us ,p9us1 :i* is s ri* 9 =ms1 ) its num]\s & important species1 spruces1 p9es1 firs1 l>*es1 etc4--/ill play a v important "p 9 ! mo/ diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?1 & almo/ ( !mselves con/itute ext5sive =e/s4 ,yet ?is developm5t ( p9es seems b weak 9 comp>ison ) ! pr$om9ance :i* ! class _h atta9$ ov] o!r plants dur+ ! e>ly second>y p]iod1 t ( ! ,trias4 ,at t "t mighty conif]\s trees--) b proportionately few g5]a & species1 b /&+ toge!r 9 imm5se masses ( individuals--=m$ ! pr9cipal "p ( ! mesoli?ic =e/s4 ,?is fact ju/ifies u 9 call+ ! second>y p]iod ! 8era ( ! p9e =e/s10 al?\gh ! rema9s ( ,cycade pr$om9ate ov] ^? ( conif]\s trees 9 ! ,jura p]iod4#b ,f ! p9e =e/s ( ! mesoli?ic1 or second>y p]iod1 we pass on into ! leafy =e/s ( ! cnoli?ic1 or t]ti>y p]iod1 & we arrive ?us at ! consid]ation ( ! six? & la/ class ( ! vegetable k+dom1 t ( ! ,metasp]m1 ,angiosp]m1 or plants ) enclos$ se$s4 ,! fir/ c]ta9 & und\bt$ fossils ( plants ) enclos$ se$s are f\nd 9 ! /rata ( ! *alk sy/em1 & inde$ we "h f9d1 side by side1 rema9s ( ! two classes into :i* ! ma9 class ( ,angiosp]ms is g5]ally divid$1 namely1 ! "o se$-lob$ plants1 or monocotyl1 & ! two se$-lob$ plants1 or dicotyl4 ,h[ev]1 ! :ole gr\p probably orig9at$ at an e>li] p]iod dur+ ! ,trias4 ,= we "k ( a numb] ( d\btful & n accurately def9able fossil rema9s ( plants f ! ,oolitic & ,trias 7sic7 p]iods1 :i* "s botani/s consid] to be ,monocotyl1 :il/ o!rs consid] !m z ,gymnosp]ms4 ,9 reg>d to ! two classes ( plants ) enclos$ se$s1 ! ,monocotyl & ,dicotyl1 x is exce$+ly probable t ! ,dicotyl$ons develop$ out ( ! ,gnetace1 b t ! ,monocotyl$ons develop$ lat] out ( a bran* ( ! dicotyl$ons4 ,! class ( "o se$-lob$ plants 7,monocotyl1 or ,monocotyl$ons1 also call$ ,endog57 comprises ^? fl[]+ plants ^: se$s possess b "o g]m leaf or se$ lobe 7cotyl$on74 ,ea* :orl ( its fl[] conta9s 9 mo/ cases ?ree leaves1 & x is v probable t ! "m plants ( all ,monocotyl$ons possess$ a regul> triple blossom4 ,! leaves are mo/ly simple1 & trav]s$ by simple1 /raight bun*es ( vessels or 8n]ves40 ,to ?is class belong ! ext5sive families ( ! ru%es1 grasses1 lilies1 irids1 & or*ids1 fur!r a numb] ( indig5\s aquatic plants1 ! wat]-onions1 sea grasses1 etc41 & f9ally ! spl5did & highly develop$ families ( ! ,aroide & ,p&ane1 ! bananas & palms4 ,on ! :ole1 ! class ( ,monocotyl$ons--9 spite ( ! great v>iety ( =ms :i* x develop$1 bo? 9 ! t]ti>y & ! pres5t p]iod--is mu* m simply organiz$ ?an ! class ( ! ,dicotyl$ons1 & its hi/ory ( developm5t also (f]s mu* less ( int]e/4 ,z _! fossil rema9s are = ! mo/ "p difficult to recognize1 x /ill rema9s at pres5t an op5 "q 9 :i* ( ! ?ree great second>y p]iods--! ,trias1 ,jura1 or *alk p]iod--! ,monocotyl$ons orig9at$4 ,at all ev5ts !y exi/$ 9 ! *alk p]iod z surely z did ! ,dicotyl$ons4 ,illu/ration3 ,haeckel ,hi/ory ( ,creation4 ,,pl4 ,v4 ,relative l5g?s ( ! #e ,epo*s 9 p]c5tages4 ,qu>t]n>y ,epo* #j4e ,t]ti>y ,epo* #b4c ,second>y ,epo* #aa4e ,prim>y ,epo* #cb4a ,primordial ,epo* #ec4f ----- ,total #ajj4j ,s+le-/emm$ or ,,monophyletic ,,p$igree ( ! ,,vegetable ,,k+dom bas$ on ,palontology4 ,! second class ( plants ) enclos$ se$s1 ! two se$-lob$ 7,dicotyl1 or ,dicotyl$ons1 also call$ ,exog57 pres5ts mu* great] hi/orical & anatomical int]e/ 9 ! developm5t ( its subord9ate gr\ps4 ,! fl[]+ plants ( ?is class g5]ally possess1 z _! "n indicates1 two se$ lobes or g]m leaves 7cotyl$ons74 ,! numb] ( leaves compos+ its blossom is g5]ally n ?ree1 z 9 mo/ ,monocotyl$ons1 b f\r1 five1 or a multiple ( ^? numb]s4 ,_! leaves1 moreov]1 are g5]ally m highly diff]5tiat$ & m composite ?an ^? ( ! ,monocotyl$ons2 !y are trav]s$ by crook$1 bran*+ bun*es ( vessels or 8ve9s40 ,to ?is class belong mo/ ( ! leaf$ trees1 & z !y pr$om9ate 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod z well z1 at pres5t1 ov] ! ,gymnosp]ms & ,f]ns1 we may call ! cnoli?ic p]iod t ( leaf$ =e/s4 ,al?\gh ! majority ( ,dicotyl$ons belong to ! mo/ highly develop$ & mo/ p]fect plants1 /ill ! l[e/ division ( !m is directly alli$ to ! ,gymnosp]ms1 & p>ticul>ly to ! ,gnetace4 ,9 ! l[] ,dicotyl$ons1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,monocotyl$ons1 calyx & corolla are z yet n diff]5tiat$4 ,h5ce !y are call$ ,apetal\s 7,mono*lamyde1 or ,apetal74 ,?is sub-class mu/ !re=e d\btless be look$ ^u z ! orig9al gr\p ( ! ,angiosp]ms1 & exi/$ probably ev5 dur+ ! ,trias & ,jura p]iods4 ,among !m are mo/ ( ! leaf$ trees be>+ catk9s--bir*es & ald]s1 will[s & popl>s1 bee*es & oaks2 fur!r1 ! plants ( ! nettle k9d--nettles1 hemp1 & hops1 figs1 mulb]ries1 & elms2 f9ally1 plants l ! spurges1 laurels1 & am>an?4 ,x 0 n until ! *alk p]iod t ! second & m p]fect class ( ! ,dicotyl$ons appe>$1 namely1 ! gr\p ) corollas 7,di*lamyde1 or ,corolliflor74 ,^! arose out ( ! ,apetal f ! simple cov] ( ! blossoms ( ! latt] becom+ diff]5tiat$ into calyx & corolla4 ,! sub-class ( ! ,corolliflor is aga9 divid$ into two l>ge ma9 divisions or legions1 ea* ( :i* conta9s a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t ord]s1 families1 g5]a1 & species4 ,! fir/ legion be>s ! "n ( />-fl[]s1 or ,diapetal1 ! second t ( ! bell-fl[]s1 or ,gamopetal4 ,! l[] & less p]fect ( ! two legions ( ! ,corolliflor are ! />-fl[]s 7also call$ ,diapetal or ,dialypetal74 ,to !m belong ! ext5sive families ( ! ,umbellif]1 or umbrella-worts 7wild c>rot1 etc471 ! ,crucif]1 or cruci=m blossoms 7cabbage1 etc472 fur!r1 ! ,ranunculace 7butt]cups7 & ,crassulace1 ! ,mall[s & ,g]aniums1 &1 besides _m o!rs1 ! l>ge gr\p ( ,roses 7:i* comprise1 besides roses1 mo/ ( our fruit trees71 & ! ,pea-blossoms 7conta9+1 among o!rs1 beans1 clov]1 g5i/a1 acacia1 & mimosa74 ,9 all ^! ,diapetal ! blossom-leaves rema9 sep>ate1 & nev] gr[ toge!r1 z is ! case 9 ! ,gamopetal4 ,^! latt] develop$ fir/ 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod out ( ! ,diapetal1 :]eas ! ,diapetal appe>$ 9 ! *alk p]iod toge!r ) ! ,apetal4 ,! highe/ & mo/ p]fect gr\p ( ! vegetable k+dom is =m$ by ! second division ( ! ,corolliflor1 namely1 ! legion ( bell-fl[]s 7,gamopetal1 also call$ ,monopetal or ,sympetal74 ,9 ?is gr\p ! blossom-leaves1 :i* 9 o!r plants g5]ally rema9 sep>ate1 gr[ regul>ly toge!r into a m or less bell-l1 funnel-%ap$1 or tubul> fl[]4 ,to !m belong1 among o!rs1 ! ,bell-fl[]s & ,convolvulus1 ,primroses & ,hea?s1 ,g5tian & ,honeysuckle1 fur!r ! family ( ! ,olives 7olive trees1 privet1 eld]1 & a%71 & f9ally1 besides _m o!r families1 ! ext5sive division ( ! ,lip-blossoms 7,labiat7 & ! ,composites4 ,9 ^! la/ ! diff]5tiation & p]fection ( ! ,phan]ogamic blossoms atta9 _! highe/ /age ( developm5t1 & we mu/ !re=e place !m at ! head ( ! vegetable k+dom1 z ! mo/ p]fect ( all plants4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 ! legion ( ! ,gamopetal appe> 9 ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? lat] ?an all ! ma9 gr\ps ( ! vegetable k+dom--9 fact1 n until ! cnoli?ic or t]ti>y epo*4 ,9 ! e>lie/ t]ti>y p]iod ! legion is /ill v r>e1 b x gradually increases 9 ! mid-t]ti>y1 & atta9s its full developm5t only 9 ! late/ t]ti>y & ! quat]n>y p]iod4 ,n[ if1 hav+ rea*$ our own "t1 we look back ^u ! :ole hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ! vegetable k+dom1 we _c b p]ceive 9 x a gr& confirmation ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,! two great pr9ciples ( organic developm5t :i* h be5 po9t$ out z ! necess>y results ( natural selection 9 ! ,/ruggle = ,life1 namely1 ! laws ( diff]5tiation & p]fect+1 manife/ !mselves ev]y:]e 9 ! developm5t ( ! l>g] & small] gr\ps ( ! natural sy/em ( plants4 ,9 ea* l>g] or small] p]iod ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?1 ! vegetable k+dom increases bo? 9 v>iety & p]fection1 z a glance at ,plate ,,iv4 w cle>ly %[4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ! long primordial p]iod !re exi/$ only ! l[e/ & mo/ imp]fect gr\p1 t ( ! ,alg4 ,to ^! are add$1 9 ! prim>y p]iod1 ! high] & m p]fect ,cryptogamia1 especially ! ma9-class ( ,f]ns4 ,dur+ ! coal p]iod ! ,phan]ogamia beg9 to develop out ( ! latt]2 at fir/1 h[ev]1 !y are repres5t$ only by ! l[] ma9-class1 t ( ,gymnosp]ms4 ,x 0 n until ! second>y p]iod t ! high] ma9-class1 t ( ,angiosp]ms1 arose out ( !m4 ,( ^! also !re exi/$ at fir/ only ! l[] gr\ps )\t di/9ct corollas1 ! ,monocotyl$ons & ! ,apetal4 ,x 0 n until ! *alk p]iod t ! high] ,corolliflor develop$ out ( ! latt]4 ,b ev5 ?is mo/ highly develop$ gr\p is repres5t$1 9 ! *alk p]iod1 only by ! l[] /age ( ,/>-fl[]s1 or ,diapetal1 & only at q a late date1 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod1 did ! m highly develop$ ,bell-blossoms1 ,gamopetal1 arise out ( !m1 :i* at ! same "t are ! mo/ p]fect ( all fl[]+ plants4 ,?us1 9 ea* succe$+ lat] division ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? ! vegetable k+dom gradually rose to a high] degree ( p]fection & v>iety4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,i4 ,,animal-,,plants ,,& ,,worms4 ,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,l9nu & ,lam>ck's ,sy/ems4--,! ,f\r ,types ( ,br & ,cuvi]4--,_! ,increase to ,sev5 ,types4--,g5ealogical ,importance ( ! ,sev5 ,types z ,indep5d5t ,tribes ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,d]ivation ( ,zoophytes & ,worms f ,primval ,animals4--,monophyletic & ,polyphyletic ,hypo!sis ( ! ,desc5t ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4--,common ,orig9 ( ! ,f\r ,high] ,animal ,tribes out ( ! ,worm ,tribe4--,division ( ! ,sev5 ,animal ,tribes into ,sixte5 ,ma9 ,classes1 & ,?irty-eight ,classes4--,primval ,animals 7,mon]a1 ,amb1 ,synamb71 ,greg>9es1 ,infusoria1 ,planades1 & ,ga/rades 7,planula & ,ga/rula74--,tribe ( ,zoophytes4--,spongi 7,muc\s ,sponges1 ,fibr\s ,sponges1 ,calc>e\s ,sponges74--,sea ,nettles1 or ,acaleph 7,corals1 ,hood-jellies1 ,comb-jellies74--,tribe ( ,worms4 ,! natural sy/em ( organisms :i* we mu/ employ 9 ! animal z well z 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 z a guide 9 our g5ealogical inve/igations1 is 9 bo? cases ( b rec5t orig91 & ess5tially det]m9$ by ! progress ( comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y 7! hi/ory ( individual developm5t7 dur+ ! pres5t c5tury4 ,almo/ all ! attempts at classification made 9 ! la/ c5tury foll[$ ! pa? ( ! artificial sy/em1 :i* 0 fir/ e/abli%$ 9 a consi/5t mann] by ,*>les ,l9nu4 ,! artificial sy/em diff]s ess5tially f ! natural "o1 9 ! fact t x does n make ! :ole organization & ! int]nal /ructure 7dep5d+ ^u ! blood relation%ip7 ! basis ( classification1 b only employs individual1 & = ! mo/ "p ext]nal1 *>act]i/ics1 :i* readily /rike ! eye4 ,?us ,l9nu di/+ui%$ 8 tw5ty-f\r classes ( ! vegetable k+dom pr9cipally by ! numb]1 =mation1 & comb9ation ( ! /am5s4 ,9 l mann] he di/+ui%$ six classes 9 ! animal k+dom pr9cipally by ! nature ( ! he>t & blood4 ,^! six classes 73 7#a7 ,mammals2 7#b7 ,birds2 7#c7 ,amphibi\s ,animals2 7#d7 ,fi%es2 7#e7 ,insects2 & 7#f7 ,worms4 ,b ^! six animal classes ( ,l9nu are by no means ( equal value1 & x 0 an important advance :51 at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury1 ,lam>ck compris$ ! fir/ f\r classes z v]tebrate animals 7,v]tebrata71 & put !m 9 contra/ ) ! rema9+ animals 7! insects & worms ( ,l9nu71 ( :i* he made a second ma9 division--! inv]tebrate animals 7,inv]tebrata74 ,9 reality ,lam>ck ?us agre$ ) ,ari/otle1 ! fa!r ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 :o _h di/+ui%$ ^! two ma9 gr\ps1 & call$ ! =m] blood-be>+ animals1 ! latt] bloodless animals4 ,! next important progress t[>ds a natural sy/em ( ! animal k+dom 0 made "s decades lat] by two mo/ illu/ri\s zoologi/s1 ,c>l ,ern/ ,br & ,george ,cuvi]4 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 !y e/abli%$1 almo/ simultane\sly & indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 ! proposition t x 0 necess>y to di/+ui% sev]al completely di/9ct ma9 gr\ps 9 ! animal k+dom1 ea* ( :i* possess$ an entirely peculi> type or /ructure 7comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ec74 ,9 ea* ( ^! ma9 divisions !re is a tree-%ap$ & bran*+ gradation f mo/ simple & imp]fect =ms to ^? :i* are exce$+ly composite & highly develop$4 ,! degree ( developm5t )9 ea* type is q indep5d5t ( ! peculi> plan ( /ructure1 :i* =ms ! basis ( ! type & gives x a special *>act]i/ic4 ,! 8type0 is det]m9$ by ! peculi> relations 9 position ( ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! body1 & ! mann] 9 :i* ! organs are connect$4 ,! degree ( developm5t1 h[ev]1 is dep5d5t ^u ! great] or less division ( lab\r among organs1 & on ! diff]5tiation ( ! pla/ids & organs4 ,?is extremely important & fruitful idea 0 e/abli%$ by ,br1 :o reli$ m di/9ctly & ?or\ghly ^u ! hi/ory ( individual developm5t ?an did ,cuvi]4 ,cuvi] bas$ 8 argum5t ^u ! results ( comp>ative anatomy4 ,b nei!r ( !m recogniz$ ! true cause ( ! rem>kable relation%ips po9t$ out by !m1 :i* is fir/ reveal$ to u by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,x %[s u t ! common type or plan ( /ructure is det]m9$ by inh]itance1 & ! degree ( developm5t or diff]5tiation by adaptation4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 #aj74 ,bo? ,br & ,cuvi] di/+ui%$ f\r diff]5t types 9 ! animal k+dom1 & divid$ x accord+ly into f\r great ma9 divisions 7bran*es or circles74 ,! fir/ ( ^! is =m$ by ! v]tebrate animals 7,v]tebrata71 & comprises ,l9nu' fir/ f\r classes--mammals1 birds1 amphibi\s animals1 & fi%es4 ,! second type is =m$ by ! articulat$ animals 7,articulata71 conta9+ ,l9nu' insects1 consequ5tly ! six-legg$ insects1 & also ! myriopods1 spid]s1 & cru/acea1 b besides ^!1 a l>ge numb] ( ! worms1 especially ! r+$ worms4 ,! ?ird ma9 division comprises ! mollusc\s animals 7,mollusca7--slugs1 snails1 mussels1 & "s k9dr$ gr\ps4 ,f9ally1 ! f\r? & la/ circle ( ! animal k+dom comprises ! v>i\s radiat$ animals 7,radiata71 :i* at fir/ sight diff] f ! ?ree prec$+ types by _! radiat$1 fl[]-l =m ( body4 ,= :ile ! bodies ( molluscs1 articulat$ animals1 & v]tebrat$ animals consi/ ( two symmetrical lat]al halves--( two c\nt]p>ts or antim]a1 ( :i* ! "o is ! mirror ( ! o!r--! bodies ( ! s-call$ radiat$ animals are compos$ ( m ?an two1 g5]ally ( f\r1 five1 or six c\nt]p>ts gr\p$ r\nd a common c5tral axis1 z 9 ! case ( a fl[]4 ,h[ev] /rik+ ?is diff]5ce may seem at fir/1 x is1 9 reality1 a v subord9ate "o1 & ! radial =m has by no means ! same importance 9 all 8radiat$ animals40 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ^! natural ma9 gr\ps or types ( ! animal k+dom by ,br & ,cuvi] 0 ! greate/ advance 9 ! classification ( animals s9ce ! "t ( ,l9nu4 ,! ?ree gr\ps ( v]tebrat$ animals1 articulat$ animals1 & molluscs are s mu* 9 accordance ) nature t !y are reta9$1 ev5 at ! pres5t day1 little alt]$ 9 ext5t4 ,b a m accurate k soon %[$ ! utt]ly unnatural "* ( ! gr\p ( ! radiat$ animals4 ,leuck>t1 9 #ahdh1 fir/ po9t$ out t two p]fectly di/9ct types 7 conf\nd$ "u ! "n1 namely1 ! ,/>-fi%es 7,e*9od]ma7--! sea-/>s1 lily encr9ites1 sea-ur*9s1 & sea-cucumb]s2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,animal-plants1 or ,zoophytes 7,cl5t]ata or ,zoophyta7--! sponges1 corals1 hood-jellies1 & comb-jellies4 ,at ! same "t1 ,siebold unit$ ! ,infusoria ) ! ,rhizopoda1 "u ! "n ( ,protozoa 7l[e/ animals71 into a special ma9 division ( ! animal k+dom4 ,by ?is ! numb] ( animal types 0 increas$ to six4 ,x 0 f9ally increas$ to sev5 by ! fact t mod]n zoologi/s sep>at$ ! ma9 division ( ! articulat$ animals into two gr\ps3 7a7 ^? possess+ articulat$ feet 7,ar?ropoda71 correspond+ to ,l9nu' ,insects1 namely1 ! ,flies 7) six legs71 ,myriopods1 ,spid]s1 & ,cru/acea2 & 7b7 ! footless ,worms 7,v]mes71 or ^? possess+ non-articulat$ feet4 ,^! latt] comprise only ! real or g5u9e ,worms 7r+-worms1 r\nd worms1 plan>ian worms1 etc471 & !re=e 9 no way correspond ) ! ,worms ( ,l9nu1 :o _h includ$ ! molluscs1 ! radiates1 & _m o!r l[] animals "u ?is "n4 ,?us1 accord+ to ! views ( mod]n zoologi/s1 :i* are giv5 9 all rec5t manuals & treatises on zoology1 ! animal k+dom is compos$ ( sev5 completely di/9ct ma9 divisions or types1 ea* ( :i* is di/+ui%$ by a *>act]i/ic plan ( /ructure peculi> to x1 & p]fectly di/9ct f e "o ( ! o!rs4 ,9 ! natural sy/em ( ! animal k+dom--:i* ,i %all n[ proce$ to expla9 z its probable p$igree--,i %all on ! :ole agree ) ?is usual division1 b n )\t "s modifications1 :i* ,i consid] v important 9 connection ) g5ealogy1 & :i* are r5d]$ absolutely necess>y 9 consequ5ce ( our view z to ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( animals4 ,we evid5tly obta9 ! greate/ am\nt ( in=mation conc]n+ ! p$igree ( ! animal k+dom 7z well z conc]n+ t ( ! vegetable k+dom7 f comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y4 ,besides ^!1 palontology also ?r[s mu* valuable light ^u ! hi/orical succession ( _m ( ! gr\ps4 ,f num]\s facts 9 comp>ative anatomy1 we may1 9 ! fir/ place1 inf] ! common orig9 ( all ^? animals :i* belong to "o ( ! sev5 8types40 ,= 9 spite ( all ! v>iety 9 ! ext]nal =m develop$ )9 ea* ( ^! types1 ! ess5tial relative position ( ! p>ts ( ! body :i* det]m9es ! type1 is s con/ant1 & agrees s completely 9 all ! memb]s ( e type1 t on acc\nt ( _! relations ( =m alone we are oblig$ to unite !m1 9 ! natural sy/em1 into a s+le ma9 gr\p4 ,b we mu/ c]ta9ly conclude1 moreov]1 t ?is conjunction also has its expression 9 ! p$igree ( ! animal k+dom4 ,= ! true cause ( ! intimate agreem5t 9 /ructure c only be ! actual blood relation%ip4 ,h5ce we may1 )\t fur!r discussion1 lay d[n ! important proposition t all animals belong+ to "o & ! same circle or type mu/ be desc5d$ f "o & ! same orig9al prim>y =m4 ,9 o!r words1 ! idea ( ! circle or type1 z x is employ$ 9 zoology s9ce ,br & ,cuvi]'s "t to designate ! few pr9cipal ma9 gr\ps or 8sub-k+doms0 ( ! animal k+doms1 co9cides ) ! idea ( 8tribe0 or 8phylum10 z employ$ by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,if1 !n1 we c trace all ! v>ieties ( animal =ms to ^! sev5 fundam5tal =ms1 ! foll[+ "q next pres5ts itself to u z a second phylog5etic problem--,:]e d ^! sev5 animal tribes come f8 ,are !y sev5 orig9al prim>y =ms ( an entirely indep5d5t orig91 or are !y also di/antly relat$ by blood to "o ano!r8 ,illu/ration3 ,,pl4 ,,vi4 ,hi/orical ,gr[? ( ! six great /ems ( ,animals4 ,see ! ,explanation4 ,at fir/ we might be incl9$ to answ] ?is "q 9 a polyphyletic s5se1 by say+ t we mu/ assume1 = ea* ( ! sev5 great animal tribes1 at lea/ "o indep5d5t prim>y =m completely di/9ct f ! o!rs4 ,on fur!r consid]+ ?is difficult problem1 we arrive 9 ! end at ! notion ( a monophyletic orig9 ( ! animal k+dom1 viz41 t ^! sev5 prim>y =ms are connect$ at _! l[e/ roots1 & t !y are d]iv$ f a s+le1 common primval =m4 ,9 ! animal z well z 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 :5 closely & accurately consid]$1 ! monophyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t is f\nd to be m satisfactory ?an ! polyphyletic hypo!sis4 ,x is comp>ative ontog5y 7embryology7 :i* fir/ & =emo/ leads to ! assumption ( ! monophyletic orig9 ( ! :ole animal k+dom 7! ,proti/a except$ ( c\rse74 ,! zoologi/ :o has ?\ghtfully comp>$ ! hi/ory ( ! individual developm5t ( v>i\s animals1 & has und]/ood ! importance ( ! biog5etic pr9ciple 7p4 #cc71 _c b be conv9c$ t a common root mu/ be assum$ = ! sev5 diff]5t animal tribes1 & t all animals1 includ+ man1 are d]iv$ f a s+le1 common prim>y =m4 ,! result ( ! consid]ation ( ! facts ( embryology1 or ontog5y1 is ! foll[+ g5ealogical or phylog5etic hypo!sis1 :i* ,i h put =w>d & expla9$ 9 detail 9 my 8,philosophy ( ,calc>e\s ,sponges0 7,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe1 etc41--8! ,!ory ( ! ,lay]s ( ! ,embryo1 & ! ,p$igree ( ,animals074 ,! fir/ /age ( organic life 9 ! ,animal k+dom 7z 9 ! ,vegetable & ,proti/a k+doms7 0 =m$ by p]fectly simple ,mon]a1 orig9at+ by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,! =m] exi/5ce ( ?is simple/ animal =m is1 ev5 at pres5t1 atte/$ by ! fact t ! egg-cell ( _m animals loses its k]nel directly aft] becom+ fructifi$1 & ?us relapses to ! l[] /age ( developm5t ( a cytod )\t a k]nel1 l a ,mon]on4 ,?is rem>kable occurr5ce ,i h int]pret$1 accord+ to ! law ( lat5t inh]itance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bje71 z a phylog5etic relapse ( ! cellul> =m into ! orig9al =m ( a cytod4 ,! ,mon]ula1 z we may call ?is egg-cytod )\t a k]nel1 repeats !n1 accord+ to ! biog5etic pr9ciple 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cc71 ! mo/ anci5t ( all animal =ms1 ! common prim>y =m ( ! animal k+dom1 namely1 ! ,mon]on4 ,! second ontog5etic process consi/s 9 a new k]nel be+ =m$ 9 ! ,mon]ula1 or egg-cytod1 :i* ?us returns aga9 to ! value ( a true egg-cell4 ,accord+ to ?is1 we mu/ look ^u ! simple animal cell1 conta9+ a k]nel1 or ! s+le-cell$ primval animal--:i* may /ill be se5 9 a liv+ /ate 9 ! ,amb ( ! pres5t day--z ! second /ep 9 ! s]ies ( phylog5etic =ms ( ! animal k+dom4 ,l ! /ill liv+ simple ,amb1 & l ! nak$ egg-cells ( _m l[] animals 7= example1 ( ,sponges & ,m$us1 etc471 :i* _c be di/+ui%$ f !m1 ! remote phyletic prim>y ,amb also 7 p]fectly simple nak$-cells1 :i* mov$ ab\t 9 ! ,laur5tian primval ocean1 creep+ by means ( ! ev]-*ang+ processes ( _! body-sub/ance1 & n\ri%+ & propagat+ !mselves 9 ! same way z ! ,amb ( ! pres5t day4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #ahh1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #ed47 ,! exi/5ce ( ?is ,amba-l1 s+le-cell$ prim>y =m ( ! :ole animal k+dom is unmi/akably indicat$ by ! exce$+ly important fact t ! egg ( all animals1 f ^? ( sponges & worms up to ^? ( ! ant & man1 is a simple cell4 ,?irdly1 f ! 8s+le-cell0 /ate arose ! simple/ multicellul> /ate1 namely1 a heap or a small community ( simple1 equi-=mal1 & equival5t cells4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day1 9 ! ontog5etic developm5t ( e animal egg-cell1 !re fir/ arises a globul> heap ( equi-=mal nak$ cells1 by ! repeat$ self-division ( ! prim>y cell4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #aij & ! ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #c47 ,we call$ ?is accumulation ( cells ! mulb]ry /ate 7,morula71 because x resembles a mulb]ry or blackb]ry4 ,?is ,morula-body occurs 9 ! same simple =m 9 all ! diff]5t tribes ( animals1 & on acc\nt ( ?is mo/ important circum/ance we may inf]--accord+ to ! biog5etic pr9ciple--t ! mo/ anci5t1 _m-cell$1 prim>y =m ( ! animal k+dom resembl$ a ,morula l ?is1 & 0 9 fact a simple heap ( ,amba-l primval cells1 "o simil> to ! o!r4 ,we %all call ?is mo/ anci5t community ( ,amb--?is mo/ simple accumulation ( animal cells--:i* is recapitulat$ 9 individual developm5t by ! ,morula--! ,synamba4 ,out ( ! ,synamb1 9 ! e>ly ,laur5tian p]iod1 !re aft]w>ds develop$ a f\r? prim>y =m ( ! animal k+dom1 :i* we %all call ! ciliat$ g]m 7,plana74 ,?is arose out ( ! ,synamba by ! out] cells on ! surface ( ! cellul> community beg9n+ to ext5d vibrat+ fr+es call$ cilia1 & becom+ 8ciliat$ cells10 & ?us diff]5tiat+ f ! inn] & un*ang$ cells4 ,! ,synamb consi/$ ( completely equi-=m$ & nak$ cells1 & crept ab\t sl[ly1 at ! bottom ( ! ,laur5tian primval ocean1 by means ( movem5ts l ^? ( an ,amba4 ,! ,plana1 on ! o!r h&1 consi/$ ( two k9ds ( diff]5t cells--inn] ones l ! ,amb1 & ext]nal 8ciliat$ cells40 ,by ! vibrat+ movem5ts ( ! cilia ! entire multicellul> body acquir$ a m rapid & /rong] motion1 & pass$ ov] f ! creep+ to ! swimm+ mode ( locomotion4 ,9 exactly ! same mann] ! ,morula1 9 ! ontog5esis ( l[] animals1 /ill *anges into a ciliat$ =m ( l>va1 :i* has be5 kn[n1 s9ce ! ye> #ahdg1 "u ! "n ( ,planula4 ,?is ,planula is sometimes a globul>1 sometimes an oval body1 :i* swims ab\t 9 ! wat] by means ( a vibrat+ movem5t2 ! fr+$ 7ciliat$7 & small] cells ( ! surface diff] f ! l>g] inn] cells1 :i* are unfr+$4 7,fig4 #d ( ! ,frontispiece47 ,out ( ?is ,planula1 or fr+$ l>va1 !re !n develops1 9 animals ( all tribes1 an exce$+ly important & int]e/+ animal =m1 :i*1 9 my ,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 ,i h nam$ ,ga/rula 7t is1 l>va ) a /oma* or inte/9e74 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #e1 #f74 ,?is ,ga/rula ext]nally resembles ! ,planula1 b diff]s ess5tially f x 9 ! fact t x encloses a cavity :i* op5s to ! outside by a m\?4 ,! cavity is ! 8prim>y inte/9e10 or 8prim>y /oma*10 ! proga/]1 ! fir/ beg9n+ ( ! alim5t>y canal2 its op5+ is ! 8prim>y m\?0 7pro/oma74 ,! wall ( ! proga/] consi/s ( two lay]s ( cells3 an out] lay] ( small] ciliat$ cells 7out] sk91 or ectod]m71 & ( an inn] lay] ( l>g] non-ciliat$ cells 7inn] sk91 or entod]m74 ,?is exce$+ly important l>val =m1 ! 8,ga/rula10 makes its appe>ance 9 ! ontog5esis ( all tribes ( animals--9 ,sponges1 ,m$us1 ,corals1 ,worms1 ,sea-squirts1 ,radiat$ animals1 ,molluscs1 & ev5 9 ! l[e/ ,v]tebrata 7,amphioxus3 comp>e p4 #bjj1 ,plate ,,xii41 ,fig4 ,b #d2 see also 9 ! same place ! ,ascidian1 ,fig4 ,a #d74 ,def9ition ( ! =ms ,ontog5esis4 ,phylog5esis4 ( ! five fir/ /ages ,! five fir/ /ages ,! five fir/ /ages ( ! developm5t ( ( ! individual ( ! phyletic or ! animal body4 developm5t4 hi/orical developm5t4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,fir/ ,/age ( ,developm5t4 #a4 #a4 ,mon]ula4 ,mon]on4 ,a simple cytod 7a pla/id )\t a k]nel47 ,animal egg )\t a ,mo/ anci5t animal k]nel 7:5 ! egg-k]nel ,mon]a1 orig9at+ by has disappe>$1 spontane\s g5]ation4 aft] be+ fructifi$74 ,second ,/age ( ,developm5t4 #b4 #b4 ,ovulum4 ,amb4 ,a simple cell 7a pla/id conta9+ a ,animal egg ) k]nel ,animal ,amb4 k]nel47 7a simple egg-cell74 ,?ird ,/age ( ,developm5t4 #c4 #c4 ,morula4 ,synamba4 ,a community 7an 7,mulb]ry =m47 aggregation ( id5tical ,an aggregation ( simple cells74 ,globul> heap ( homog5e\s ,amb4 8cleavage sph]es40 ,f\r? ,/age ( ,developm5t4 #d4 #d4 ,planula4 ,plana4 ,a solid or bladd]-%ap$1 7,ciliat$ l>va47 globul>1 or oval ,_m-cell$ primval body1 compos$ ( two ,_m-cell$ l>va animal )\t k9ds ( diff]5t cells3 )\t m\?1 compos$ m\?1 compos$ ( ext]nally ciliat$1 ( diff]5t cells4 two k9ds ( diff]5t int]nally non-ciliat$ cells4 cells4 ,fif? ,/age ( ,developm5t4 #e4 #e4 ,ga/rula4 ,ga/ra4 ,a globul> or oval 7,l>va ) m\?47 body ) simple inte/9al ,_m-cell$ ) inte/9es ,_m-cell$ primval cavity & m\?-op5+4 & m\?2 inte/9al animal ) inte/9e ,body wall compos$ wall ) two & m\?2 inte/9al ( two lay]s2 an lay]s4 wall ) two ext]nally ciliat$ ectod]m lay]s4 7,prim>y =m 7d]mal lay]71 an ( zoophytes & int]nally non-ciliat$ worms47 entod]m 7ga/ral lay]74 ,f ! ontog5etic occurr5ce ( ! ,ga/rula 9 ! mo/ diff]5t animal classes1 f ,zoophytes up to ,v]tebrata1 we may1 accord+ to ! biog5etic pr9ciple1 safely draw ! conclusion t dur+ ! ,laur5tian p]iod !re exi/$ a common prim>y =m ( ! six high] animal tribes1 :i* 9 all ess5tial po9ts 0 =m$ l ! ,ga/rula1 & :i* we %all call ! ,ga/ra4 ,?is ,ga/ra possess$ a p]fectly simple globul> or oval body1 :i* enclos$ a simple cavity ( l =m1 namely1 ! proga/]2 at "o ( ! poles ( ! longitud9al axis ! prim>y inte/9e op5$ by a m\? :i* s]v$ = ! reception ( nutrition4 ,! body wall 7:i* 0 also ! inte/9al wall7 consi/$ ( two lay]s ( cells1 ! unfr+$ entod]m1 or inte/9al lay]1 & ! fr+$ ectod]m1 or sk9-lay]2 by ! motion ( ! cilia or fr+es ( ! latt] ! ,ga/ra swam ab\t freely 9 ! ,laur5tian ocean4 ,ev5 9 ^? high] animals1 9 ! ontog5esis ( :i* ! orig9al ,ga/rula =m has disappe>$1 accord+ to ! laws ( abbreviat$ inh]itance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bab71 ! composition ( ! ,ga/ra body has be5 transmitt$ to ! phase ( developm5t :i* directly arises out ( ! ,morula4 ,?is phase is an oval or r\nd disc consi/+ ( two cell-lay]s or membranes3 ! out] cell-lay]1 ! animal or d]mal lay] 7ectobla/71 corresponds to ! ectod]m ( ! ,ga/ra2 out ( x develops ! ext]nal1 loose sk9 7epid]mis71 ) its gl&s & app5dages1 z well z ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,! inn] cell-lay]1 ! vegetative or inte/9al lay] 7hypobla/71 is orig9ally ! entod]m ( ! ,ga/ra2 out ( x develops ! inn] membrane 7epi!lium7 ( ! inte/9al canal & its gl&s4 7,comp>e my ,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 vol4 i4 p4 #dff1 etc47 ,by ontog5y we h already ga9$ five primordial /ages ( developm5t ( ! animal k+dom3 7#a7 ! ,mon]on2 7#b7 ! ,amba2 7#c7 ! ,synamba2 7#d7 ! ,plana2 & 7#e7 ! ,ga/ra4 ,! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! five olde/ prim>y =ms1 :i* succe$$ "o ano!r1 & :i* mu/ h liv$ 9 ! ,laur5tian p]iod1 foll[s z a consequ5ce ( ! biog5etic pr9ciple2 t is to say1 f ! p>allelism & ! me*anico-causal connection ( ontog5esis & phylog5esis4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cji47 ,9 our g5ealogical sy/em ( ! animal k+dom we may class all ^! animal =ms1 long s9ce ext9ct1 &1 :i* on acc\nt ( ! s(t nature ( _! bodies c\ld leave no fossil rema9s1 among ! tribe ( ,primval animals 7,protozoa71 :i* also comprises ! /ill liv+ ,infusoria & ,greg>94 ,! phyletic developm5t ( ! six high] animal tribes1 :i* are all d]iv$ f ! ,ga/ra1 deviat$ at ?is po9t 9 two directions4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,ga/rads 7z we may call ! gr\p ( =ms *>act]iz$ by ! ,ga/ra-type ( /ructure71 divid$ into two div]g5t l9es or bran*es2 ! "o bran* ( ,ga/rads gave up free locomotion1 adh]$ to ! bottom ( ! sea1 & ?us1 by adopt+ an adhesive mode ( life1 gave rise to ! ,protascus1 ! common prim>y =m ( ! ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta74 ,! o!r bran* ( ! ,ga/rads reta9$ free locomotion1 did n become adh]5t & lat] on develop$ into ! ,pro!lmis1 ! common prim>y =m ( ,worms 7,v]mes74 7,comp>e p4 #acc47 ,?is latt] tribe 7z limit$ by mod]n zoology7 is ( ! greate/ int]e/ 9 ! /udy ( g5ealogy4 ,= among ,worms1 z we %all see lat]1 !re are1 besides v num]\s peculi> families1 & besides _m indep5d5t classes1 also v rem>kable =ms1 :i* may be consid]$ z =ms ( direct transition to ! f\r high] animal tribes4 ,bo? comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ^! worms enable u to recognize 9 !m ! ne>e/ blood relations ( ^? ext9ct animal =ms :i* 7 ! orig9al prim>y =ms ( ! f\r high] animal tribes4 ,h5ce ^! latt]1 ! ,molluscs1 ,/>-fi%es1 ,articulat$ animals1 & ,v]tebrate animals1 d n /& 9 any close blood relation%ip to "o ano!r1 b h orig9at$ indep5d5tly 9 f\r diff]5t places out ( ! tribe ( ,worms4 ,9 ?is way comp>ative anatomy & phylog5y lead u to ! monophyletic p$igree ( ! animal k+dom1 ! outl9es ( :i* are giv5 on p4 #acc4 ,accord+ to x ! sev5 phyla1 or tribes1 ( ! animal k+dom are ( diff]5t value 9 reg>d to g5ealogy4 ,! orig9al prim>y gr\p ( ! :ole animal k+dom is =m$ by ! ,primval animals 7,protozoa71 includ+ ! ,infusoria & ,ga/rads4 ,out ( ^! latt] arose ! two tribes ( ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta7 & ,worms z div]g+ bran*es4 ,out ( f\r diff]5t gr\ps ( ! ,worm tribe1 ! f\r high] tribes ( ! animal k+dom 7 develop$--! ,/>-fi%es 7,e*9od]ma7 & ,insects 7,ar?ropoda7 on ! "o h&1 & ! ,molluscs 7,mollusca7 & ,v]tebrat$ animals 7,v]tebrata7 on ! o!r4 ,hav+ ?us sket*$ out ! monophyletic p$igree ( ! animal k+dom 9 its mo/ important features1 we mu/ n[ turn to a clos] exam9ation ( ! hi/orical c\rse ( developm5t :i* ! sev5 tribes ( ! animal k+dom1 & ! classes di/+ui%$ 9 !m1 h pass$ ?r\gh 7p4 #acb74 ,!re is a mu* l>g] numb] ( classes 9 ! animal ?an 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 ow+ to ! simple reason t ! animal body1 9 consequ5ce ( its m v>i$ & p]fect vital activity1 c\ld diff]5tiate & develop 9 v _m m diff]5t directions ?an c\ld ! vegetable body4 ,?us1 :ile we 7 able to divide ! :ole vegetable k+dom into six ma9 classes & n9ete5 classes1 we h to di/+ui%1 at lea/1 sixte5 ma9 classes & ?irty-eight classes 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,^! are di/ribut$ among ! sev5 diff]5t tribes ( ! animal k+dom 9 ! way %[n 9 ! ,sy/ematic ,survey on pages #acb & #acc4 ,! gr\p ( ,primval animals 7,protozoa7 )9 ! compass :i* we "h assign to ?is tribe1 comprises ! mo/ anci5t & ! simple/ prim>y =ms ( ! animal k+dom2 = example1 ! five olde/ phyletic /ages ( developm5t previ\sly m5tion$1 & besides ^! ! ,infusoria & ,greg>91 z well z all ^? imp]fect animal =ms1 = :i*1 on acc\nt ( _! simple & indiff]5t organization1 no place c be f\nd 9 any ( ! o!r six animal tribes4 ,mo/ zoologi/s1 9 addition to ^!1 include among ! ,protozoa a l>g] or small] portion ( ^? l[e/ organisms1 :i* we m5tion$ 9 our neutral k+dom ( ,proti/a 79 ,*apt] ,,xvi474 ,b ^! ,proti/a1 especially ! l>ge division ( ! ,rhizopoda1 :i* are s ri* 9 =ms1 _c be consid]$ z real animals = reasons previ\sly giv54 ,h5ce1 if we "h leave !m out ( ! "q1 we may accept two ma9 classes or prov9ces ( real ,protozoa1 namely1 ,egg animals 7,ovul>ia7 & ,g]m animals 7,bla/ul>ia74 ,to ! =m] belong ! ?ree classes ( ,ar*ezoa1 ,greg>91 & ,infusoria1 to ! latt] ! two classes ( ,planads & ,ga/rads4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #af ,ma9 ,classes & #ch ,classes ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,tribes or ,phyla ,ma9 ,classes1 ,classes ,sy/ematic ,"n ( ! ,bran*es or ,clades ( ! ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ,classes4 ,animal ,k+dom4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,a4 ,primval ,i4 ,egg-animals #a4 ,ar*aic animals #a4 ,ar*ezoa ,animals ,ovul>ia #b4 ,greg>9es #b4 ,greg>9 #c4 ,infusoria #c4 ,infusoria ,protozoa ,,ii4 ,mulb]ry animals #d4 ,planads #d4 ,planadas ,bla/ul>ia #e4 ,ga/rads #e4 ,ga/radas ,b4 ,animal ,,iii4 ,sponges #f4 ,sponges #f4 ,porif]a ,plants ,spongi ,zoophyta ,,iv4 ,sea-nettles #g4 ,corals #g4 ,coralla ,acaleph #h4 ,hood-jellies #h4 ,hydrom$us #i4 ,comb-jellies #i4 ,ct5ophora ,c4 ,v4 ,bloodless worms #aj4 ,plan>y worms #aj4 ,platyhelm9!s ,worms ,aclomi #aa4 ,r\nd worms #aa4 ,nema!lm9!s ,v]mes ,,vi4 ,blood-be>+ #ab4 ,moss-polyps #ab4 ,bryozoa worms #ac4 ,sac-worms #ac4 ,tunicata ,clomati #ad4 ,proboscideans #ad4 ,rhyn*ocla #ae4 ,/>-worms #ae4 ,gephyrea #af4 ,:eel animalcules #af4 ,rotatoria #ag4 ,r+-worms #ag4 ,annelida ,d4 ,,vii4 ,headless %ellfi% #ah4 ,lamp-%ells #ah4 ,spirobran*ia ,molluscs ,acephala #ai4 ,mussels #ai4 ,lamellibran*ia ,mollusca ,,viii4 ,head-be>+ #bj4 ,snails #bj4 ,co*lides ,eucephala #ba4 ,cuttles #ba4 ,cephalopoda ,e4 ,,ix4 ,r+$-arms #bb4 ,sea-/>s #bb4 ,a/]ida ,/>-fi%es ,colobra*ia #bc4 ,lily-/>s #bc4 ,cr9oida ,e*9od]ma ,x4 ,armless #bd4 ,sea-ur*9s #bd4 ,e*9ida ,lipobra*ia #be4 ,sea-cucumb]s #be4 ,holo?uri ,f4 ,,xi4 ,gill-brea!rs #bf4 ,crab-fi% #bf4 ,cru/acea ,articulat$ ,c>ides ,animals ,,xii4 ,tube-brea!rs #bg4 ,spid]s #bg4 ,ara*nida ,ar?ropoda ,tra*eata #bh4 ,c5tip$es #bh4 ,myriopoda #bi4 ,flies #bi4 ,insecta ,,xiii4 ,skull-less #cj4 ,lancelets #cj4 ,leptoc>dia ,acrania ,g4 ,v]tebrate ,,xiv4 ,s+le-no/ril$ #ca4 ,lampreys #ca4 ,cyclo/oma ,animals ,monorrh9a ,v]tebrata ,,xv4 ,amnion-less #cb4 ,fi%es #cb4 ,pisces ,anamnia #cc4 ,mud-fi% #cc4 ,dipneu/a #cd4 ,sea dragons #cd4 ,halisauria #ce4 ,amphibians #ce4 ,amphibia ,,xvi4 ,amnion-be>+ #cf4 ,reptiles #cf4 ,reptilia ,amniota #cg4 ,birds #cg4 ,aves #ch4 ,mammals #ch4 ,mammalia ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,v]tebrata 7,v]tebrat$ animals7 ,craniota ,ar?ropoda ,mollusca 7,articulat$ ,animals7 7,molluscs7 ,e*9od]ma ,tra*eata ,eucephala 7,/>-fi%es7 ,lipobra*ia ,cru/acea ,acrania ,annelida ,tunicata ,acephala ,bryozoa ,colobra*ia ,gephyrea ,rotatoria --v---_/ --v---_/ ---------v-------------------_/ ------v-----_/ ,v]mes 7,worms7 ------------------v-------------------_/ ,c,,lomati 7,worms ) a body-cavity7 ,platyhelm9!s -----v------_/ ,zoophyta 7,animal-,plants7 ,,ac,,lomi ,spongi ,acaleph 7,worms )\t body-cavity7 ------v-------_/ ,protascus ,pro!lmis -----------v---------------_/ ,protozoa 7,primval animals7 _/-------------------------- ,,ga/r,a ,infusoria ,,plan,a ,greg>9 ,,synam,b ----v---_/ ---------v--------_/ ,,am,b ,,mon]a ,! fir/ prov9ce ( ! ,protozoa consi/s ( ! ,egg animals 7,ovul>ia72 we include among !m all s+le-cell$ animals1 all animals ^: body1 9 ! fully develop$ /ate1 possesses ! =m-value ( a simple pla/id 7( a cytod or a cell71 also ^? simple animal =ms ^: body consi/s ( an aggregation ( sev]al cells p]fectly simil> "o to ano!r4 ,! ,ar*aic animals 7,ar*ezoa7 =m ! fir/ class 9 ! s]ies ( ,egg animals4 ,x conta9s only ! mo/ simple & mo/ anci5t prim>y =ms ( ! animal k+dom1 ^: =m] exi/5ce we h prov$ by means ( ! fundam5tal law ( biog5esis2 !y are1 7#a7 ,animal ,mon]a2 7#b7 ,animal ,amb2 7#c7 ,animal ,synamb4 ,we may1 if we *oose1 include among !m a portion ( ! /ill liv+ ,mon]a & ,amb1 b ano!r portion 7accord+ to ! discussion 9 ,*apt] ,,xvi47 mu/ on acc\nt ( _! neutral nature be consid]$ z ,proti/a1 & a ?ird portion1 on acc\nt ( _! vegetable nature1 mu/ be consid]$ z plants4 ,a second class ( ! egg animals consi/s ( ! ,greg>9es 7,greg>971 :i* live z p>asites 9 ! inte/9es & body-cavities ( _m animals4 ,"s ( ^! ,greg>9es are p]fectly simple cells l ! ,amb2 "s =m *a9s ( two or ?ree id5tical cells1 "o ly+ beh9d ! o!r4 ,!y diff] f ! nak$ ,amb by possess+ a ?ick1 simple membrane1 :i* surr\nds _! cell-body2 !y c be consid]$ z animal ,amb :i* h adopt$ a p>asitical mode ( life1 & 9 consequ5ce h surr\nd$ !mselves ) a secret$ cov]+4 ,z a ?ird class ( egg animals1 we adopt ! real ,infusoria 7,infusoria71 embrac+ ^? =ms to :i* mod]n zoology almo/ univ]sally limits ?is class ( animals4 ,! pr9cipal portion ( !m consi/s ( ! small ciliat$ ,infusoria 7,ciliata71 :i* inhabit all ! fre% & salt wat]s ( ! e>? 9 great numb]s1 & :i* swim ab\t by means ( a delicate g>b ( vibratile fr+es4 ,a second & small] division consi/s ( ! adh]5t suck+ ,infusoria 7,ac9et71 :i* take _! food by means ( f9e suck+-tubes4 ,al?\gh dur+ ! la/ ?irty ye>s num]\s & v c>eful inve/igations h be5 made on ^! small animalcules1--:i* are mo/ly invisible to ! nak$ eye1--/ill we are ev5 n[ n v sure ab\t _! developm5t & =m-value4 ,we d n ev5 yet "k :e!r ! ,infusoria are s+le or _m-cell$2 b z no inve/igator has z yet prov$ _! body to be a comb9ation ( cells1 we are1 9 ! mean "t1 ju/ifi$ 9 consid]+ !m z s+le-cell$1 l ! ,greg>9es & ! ,amb4 ,! second ma9 class ( primval animals consi/s ( ! ,g]m animals 7,bla/ul>ia74 ,?is "n we give to ^? ext9ct ,protozoa :i* correspond to ! two ontog5etic embryonic =ms ( ! six high] animal tribes1 namely1 ! ,planula & ! ,ga/rula4 ,! body ( ^! ,bla/ul>ia1 9 a p]fectly develop$ /ate1 0 compos$ ( _m cells1 & ^! cells moreov] diff]5tiat$--9 two ways at lea/--into an ext]nal 7animal or d]mal7 & an int]nal 7vegetative or ga/ral7 mass4 ,:e!r !re /ill exi/ repres5tatives ( ?is gr\p is unc]ta94 ,_! =m] exi/5ce is und\bt$ly prov$ by ! two exce$+ly important ontog5etic animal =ms :i* we h already describ$ z ,planula & ,ga/rula1 & :i* /ill occur z a transi5t /age ( developm5t 9 ! ontog5y ( ! mo/ diff]5t tribes ( animals4 ,correspond+ to ^!1 we may1 accord+ to ! biog5etic pr9ciple1 assume ! =m] exi/5ce ( two di/9ct classes ( ,bla/ul>ia1 namely1 ! ,planada & ,ga/rada4 ,! type ( ! ,planada is ! ,plana--long s9ce ext9ct--b ^: hi/orical portrait is /ill pres5t$ to u at ! pres5t day 9 ! widely di/ribut$ ciliat$ l>va 7,planula74 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #d47 ,! type ( ! ,ga/rada is ! ,ga/ra1 ( ^: orig9al nature ! m\?-&-/oma* l>va 7,ga/rula71 :i* recurs 9 ! mo/ diff]5t animal tribes1 /ill gives a fai?ful repres5tation4 7,frontispiece ,fig4 #e1 #f47 ,out ( ! ,ga/ra1 z we h previ\sly m5tion$1 !re 7 at "o "t develop$ two diff]5t prim>y =ms1 ! ,protascus & ,pro!lmis2 ! =m] mu/ be look$ ^u z ! prim>y =m ( ! ,zoophytes1 ! latt] z ! prim>y =m ( ,worms4 7,comp>e ! enunciation ( ?is hypo!sis 9 my ,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 vol i4 p4 #dfd47 ,! ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta1 or ,cl5t]ata7 :i* con/itute ! second tribe ( ! animal k+dom1 rise consid]ably above ! primitive animals 9 ! *>act]s ( _! :ole organisation1 :ile !y rema9 f> bel[ mo/ ( ! high] animals4 ,= 9 ! latt] 7) ! exception only ( ! l[e/ =ms7 ! f\r di/9ct functions ( nutrition--namely1 dige/ion1 circulation ( ! blood1 respiration1 & excretion--are univ]sally accompli%$ by f\r p]fectly diff]5t sy/ems ( organs3 by ! inte/9es1 ! vascul> sy/em1 ! organs ( respiration1 & ! ur9>y app>atus4 ,9 ,zoophytes1 h[ev]1 ^! functions & _! organs are n yet sep>ate1 & are all p]=m$ by a s+le sy/em ( alim5t>y canals1 by ! s-call$ ga/ro-vascul> sy/em1 or ! cl5t]ic app>atus ( ! inte/9al cavity4 ,! m\?1 :i* is also ! anus1 leads into a /oma*1 into :i* ! o!r cavities ( ! body also op54 ,9 ,zoophytes ! body-cavity1 or 8cloma10 possess$ by ! f\r high] tribes ( animals is /ill completely want+1 likewise ! vascul> sy/em & blood1 z also ! organs ( respiration1 etc4 ,all ,zoophytes live 9 wat]2 mo/ ( !m 9 ! sea1 only a v few 9 fre% wat]1 su* z fre%-wat] sponges 7,spongilla7 & "s primval polyps 7,hydra1 ,cordylophora74 ,a specim5 ( ! pretty fl[]-l =ms :i* are met ) 9 great v>iety among ,zoophytes is giv5 on ,plate ,,vii4 7,comp>e its explanation 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,! tribe ( animal-plants1 or ,zoophytes1 is divid$ into two di/9ct prov9ces1 ! ,sponges1 or ,spongi1 & ! ,sea-nettles1 or ,acaleph 7p4 #add74 ,! latt] are mu* ri*] 9 =ms & m highly organiz$ ?an ! =m]4 ,9 all ,sponges ! entire body1 z well z ! individual organs1 are diff]5tiat$ & p]fect$ to a mu* less ext5t ?an 9 ,sea-nettles4 ,all ,sponges lack ! *>act]i/ic nettle-organs :i* all ,sea-nettles possess4 ,! common prim>y =m ( all ,zoophytes mu/ be look$ = 9 ! ,protascus1 an animal =m long s9ce ext9ct1 b ^: exi/5ce is prov$ accord+ to ! biog5etic pr9ciple by ! ,ascula4 ,?is ,ascula is an ontog5etical developm5t =m :i*1 9 ,sponges z well z 9 ,sea-nettles1 proce$s f ! ,ga/rula4 7,comp>e ! ,ascula ( ! calc>e\s sponge on ! ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #g1 #h47 ,= aft] ! ,ga/rula ( zoophytes has = a "t swum ab\t 9 ! wat] x s9ks to ! bottom1 & !re adh]es by t pole ( its axis :i* is opposite to ! op5+ ( ! m\?4 ,! ext]nal cells ( ! ectod]m draw 9 _! vibrat+1 cili>y hairs1 :]eas1 on ! contr>y1 ! inn] cells ( ! entod]m beg9 to =m !m4 ,?us ! ,ascula1 z we call ?is *ang$ =m ( l>va1 is a simple sack1 its cavity 7! cavity ( ! /oma* or inte/9e7 op5+ by a m\? ext]nally1 at ! upp] pole ( ! longitud9al axis 7opposite ! basal po9t ( fixture74 ,! entire body is "h 9 a c]ta9 s5se a m]e /oma* or inte/9al canal1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,ga/rula4 ,! wall ( ! sack1 :i* is bo? body wall & inte/9al wall1 consi/s ( two lay]s or coats ( cells1 a fr+$ entod]m1 or ga/ral lay] 7correspond+ ) ! inn] or vegetative g]m-lay] ( ! high] animals71 & an unfr+$ exod]m or d]mal lay] 7correspond+ ) ! ext]nal or animal g]m-lay] ( ! high] animals74 ,! orig9al ,protascus1 a true lik5ess ( :i* is /ill furni%$ by ! ,ascula1 probably =m$ egg-cells & sp]m-cells out ( its ga/ral lay]4 ,! ,protascads--z we w call ! mo/ anci5t gr\p ( vegetable animals1 repres5t$ by ! ,protascus-type--divid$ into two l9es or bran*es1 ! ,spongi & ! ,sea-nettles1 or ,acaleph4 ,i h %[n 9 my ,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges 7vol4 i4 p4 #dhe7 h[ closely ^! two ma9 classes ( ,zoophytes are relat$1 & h[ !y mu/ bo? be d]iv$1 z two div]g+ =ms1 f ! ,protascus-=m4 ,! prim>y =m ( ,spongi1 :i* ,i h !re call$ ,ar*ispongia1 arose out ( ! ,protascus by ! =mation ( pores ?r\gh its body-wall2 ! prim>y =m ( ,sea-nettles1 :i* ,i !re call$ ,ar*ydra1 develop$ out ( ! ,protascus by ! =mation ( nettle-organs1 z also by ! =mation ( feel]s or t5tacles4 ,! ma9-class or bran* ( ! ,sponges1 ,spongi1 or ,porif]a1 lives 9 ! sea1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! gre5 fre%-wat] ,sponge 7,spongilla74 ,^! animals 7 long consid]$ z plants1 lat] z ,proti/a2 9 mo/ ,manuals !y are /ill class$ among ! primval animals1 or ,protozoa4 ,b s9ce ,i h demon/rat$ _! developm5t out ( ! ,ga/rula1 & ! con/ruction ( _! bodies ( two cellul> g]m-lay]s 7z 9 all high] animals71 _! close relation%ip to ,sea-nettles1 & especially to ! ,hydrapolyps1 seems f9ally to be e/abli%$4 ,! ,olyn?us especially1 :i* ,i consid] z ! common prim>y =m ( calc>e\s sponges1 has ?r[n a complete & unmi/akable light ^u ?is po9t4 ,! num]\s =ms compris$ 9 ! class ( ,spongi h z yet be5 b little exam9$2 !y may be divid$ into ?ree legions & eight ord]s4 ,! fir/ legion consi/s ( ! s(t1 gelat9\s ,muc\s ,sponges 7,myxospongi71 :i* are *>act]iz$ by ! abs5ce ( any h>d skeleton4 ,among !m are1 on ! "o h&1 ! long-s9ce-ext9ct prim>y =ms ( ! :ole class1 ! type ( :i* ,i consid] to be ! ,ar*ispongia2 on ! o!r h& !re are ! /ill liv+1 gelat9\s sponges1 ( :i* ! ,halis>ca is be/ kn[n4 ,we c obta9 a notion ( ! ,ar*ispongia1 ! mo/ anci5t primval sponge1 if we imag9e ! ,olyn?us 7see ,frontispiece71 to be depriv$ ( its radiat+ calc>e\s spicul4 ,! second legion ( ,spongi conta9s ! ,fibr\s ,sponges 7,fibrospongi71 ! s(t body ( :i* is support$ by a firm1 fibr\s skeleton4 ,?is fibr\s skeleton (t5 consi/s m]ely ( s-call$ 8horny fibres10 =m$ ( a v ela/ic1 n readily de/ructible1 organic sub/ance4 ,?is is ! case = in/ance 9 our common ba?+ ,sponge 7,euspongia (fic9alis71 ! purifi$ skeleton ( :i* we use e morn+ :5 wa%+4 ,bl5d$ ) ! horny1 fibr\s skeleton ( _m ( ^! ,sponges1 !re are num]\s fl9ty spicula2 ?is is ! case = example ) ! fre%-wat] ,sponge 7,spongilla74 ,9 o!rs ! :ole skeleton consi/s ( only calc>e\s or silici\s spicula :i* are frequ5tly int]wov5 into an extremely beautiful lattice-"w1 z 9 ! celebrat$ ,v5us' ,fl[] ,basket 7,euplectella74 ,?ree ord]s ( fibr\s sponges may be di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! diff]5t =mation ( ! spicula1 namely1 ,*alyn?9a1 ,geod9a1 & ,hexact9ella4 ,! natural hi/ory ( ! fibr\s sponges is ( especial int]e/ to ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 z 0 fir/ %[n by ,osc> ,s*midt1 ! greate/ au?ority on ?is gr\p ( animals4 ,9 no o!r gr\p1 p]haps1 c ! unlimit$ pliability ( ! specific =m1 & its relation to ,adaptation & ,inh]itance1 be s cle>ly foll[$ /ep by /ep2 p]haps 9 no o!r gr\p is ! species s difficult to limit & def9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,lagesse sc4 ,?is proposition1 :i* applies to ! great legion ( ! ,fibr\s ,sponges1 applies 9 a /ill high] degree to ! small] b exce$+ly int]e/+ legion ( ! calc>e\s sponges 7,calcispongi71 on :i* 9 #ahgb1 aft] five ye>s' c>eful exam9ation1 ,i publi%$ a compreh5sive ,monograph4 ,! sixty plates ( figures accompany+ ?is ,monograph expla9 ! extreme pliability ( ^! small sponges 8good species0 ( :i*1 9 fact1 _c be spok5 ( 9 ! usual sy/ematic s5se4 ,we f9d among !m only v>y+ s]ies ( =ms1 :i* d n ev5 completely transmit _! specific =m to _! ne>e/ desc5dants1 b by adaptation to subord9ate1 ext]nal conditions ( exi/5ce1 p]petually *ange4 ,x frequ5tly occurs "h1 t !re arise out ( "o & ! same /ock diff]5t =m-species1 :i* accord+ to ! usual sy/em w\ld belong to sev]al q di/9ct g5]a2 ?is is ! case1 = in/ance1 ) ! rem>kable ,ascometra 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #aj47 ,! entire ext]nal bodily =m is mu* m pliable & protean 9 ,calc>e\s ,sponges ?an 9 ! silici\s sponges1 :i* are *>act]iz$ by possess+ silici\s spicula1 =m+ a beautiful skeleton4 ,?r\gh ! /udy ( ! comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y ( calc>e\s sponges1 we c recognise1 ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty1 ! common prim>y =m ( ! :ole gr\p1 namely1 ! sack-%ap$ ,olyn?us1 ^: developm5t is repres5t$ 9 ! ,frontispiece 7comp>e its explanation 9 ! ,app5dix74 ,out ( ! ,olyn?us 7,fig4 #i on ! ,frontispiece71 ! ord] ( ! ,ascones 0 ! fir/ to develop1 out ( :i*1 at a lat] p]iod1 ! two o!r ord]s ( ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 ! ,leucones & ,sycones1 arose z div]g+ bran*es4 ,)9 ^! ord]s1 ! desc5t ( ! individual =ms c aga9 be foll[$ /ep by /ep4 ,?us ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges 9 e respect confirm ! proposition :i* ,i h else:]e ma9ta9$3 t 8! natural hi/ory ( sponges =ms a connect$ & /rik+ argum5t 9 fav\r ( ,d>w940 ,! second ma9 class or bran* 9 ! tribe ( ,zoophytes is =m$ by ! ,sea-nettles 7,acaleph1 or ,cnid74 ,?is int]e/+ gr\p ( animals1 s ri* 9 =ms1 is compos$ ( ?ree diff]5t classes1 namely1 ! ,hood-jellies 7,hydrom$us71 ! ,comb-jellies 7,ct5ophora71 & ! ,corals 7,coralla74 ,! hypo!tical1 ext9ct ,ar*ydra mu/ be look$ ^u z ! common prim>y =m ( ! :ole gr\p2 x has left two ne> relations 9 ! /ill liv+ fre%-wat] polyps 7,hydra & ,cordylophora74 ,! ,ar*ydra 0 v closely relat$ to ! simple/ =ms ( ,spongi 7,ar*ispongia & ,olyn?us71 & probably diff]$ f !m only by possess+ nettle organs1 & by ! abs5ce ( cutane\s pores4 ,out ( ! ,ar*ydra !re fir/ develop$ ! diff]5t ,hydroid polyps1 "s ( :i* became ! prim>y =ms ( ,corals1 o!rs ! prim>y =ms ( ,hydrom$us4 ,! ,ct5ophora develop$ lat] out ( a bran* ( ! latt]4 ,! ,sea-nettles diff] f ! ,spongi 7) :i* !y agree 9 ! *>act]i/ic =mation ( ! sy/em ( ! alim5t>y canal7 pr9cipally by ! con/ant possession ( nettle organs4 ,^! are small bladd]s fill$ ) poison1 l>ge numb]s--g5]ally millions--( :i* are disp]s$ ov] ! sk9 ( ! sea nettles1 & :i* bur/ & empty _! cont5ts :5 t\*$4 ,small animals are kill$ by ?is2 9 l>g] animals ?is nettle poison causes a slight inflammation ( ! sk91 j z does ! poison ( our common nettles4 ,any "o :o has (t5 ba!d 9 ! sea1 w probably h at times come 9 contact ) l>ge ,hood-jellies 7,jelly-fi%71 & become acqua9t$ ) ! unpleasant burn+ feel+ :i* _! nettle organs c produce4 ,! poison 9 ! spl5did blue ,jelly-fi%1 ,physalia1 or ,portuguese ,man-(-w>1 acts s p[]fully t x may lead to ! dea? ( a human be+4 ,! class ( ,corals 7,coralla7 lives exclusively 9 ! sea1 & is m especially repres5t$ 9 ! w>m seas by an abundance ( beautiful & highly-col\r$ =ms l fl[]s4 ,h5ce !y are also call$ ,fl[]-animals 7,an?ozoa74 ,mo/ ( !m are atta*$ to ! bottom ( ! sea1 & conta9 an int]nal calc>e\s skeleton4 ,_m ( !m by cont9u$ gr[? produce su* imm5se /ocks t _! calc>e\s skeletons h =m$ ! f\ndation ( :ole isl&s1 z is ! case ) ! celebrat$ coral reefs & atolls ( ! ,s\? ,seas1 ! rem>kable =ms ( :i* 7 fir/ expla9$ by ,d>w947#ac7 ,9 corals ! c\nt]p>ts1 or antim]a--t is1 ! correspond+ divisions ( ! body :i* radiate f & surr\nd ! c5tral ma9 axis ( ! body--exi/ sometimes to ! numb] ( f\r1 sometimes to ! numb] ( six or eight4 ,accord+ to ?is we di/+ui% ?ree legions1 ! ,f\rfold 7,tetracoralla71 ,sixfold 7,hexacoralla71 & ,eightfold corals 7,octocoralla74 ,! f\rfold corals =m ! common prim>y gr\p ( ! class1 out ( :i* ! sixfold & eightfold h develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #d ,classes & #cj ,ord]s ( ! ,animal ,plants1 or ,zoophytes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,class ( ! ,legions ( ! ,ord]s ( ! ,a ,g5us ,"n ,zoophytes4 ,zoophytes4 ,zoophytes4 z example4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,i4 ,i4 ,myxospongi #a4 ,ar*ispong9a ,ar*ispongia ,muc\s ,sponges #b4 ,halis>c9a ,halis>ca ,sponges ,,ii4 ,fibrospongi #c4 ,*alyn?9a ,spongilla ,spongi ,fibr\s ,sponges #d4 ,geod9a ,ancor9a or #e4 ,hexact9ella ,euplectella ,porif]a ,,iii4 ,calcispongi #f4 ,ascones ,olyn?us ,calc>e\s ,sponges #g4 ,leucones ,dyssycus #h4 ,sycones ,sycurus ,,ii4 ,,iv4 ,tetracoralla #i4 ,rugosa ,cya?ophyllum ,f\rfold ,corals #aj4 ,p>anemeta ,c]ean?us ,corals ,v4 ,hexacoralla #aa4 ,cauliculata ,antipa!s ,coralla ,sixfold ,corals #ab4 ,madrepor>ia ,a/ra or #ac4 ,halirhoda ,act9ia ,an?ozoa ,,vi4 ,octocoralla #ad4 ,alcyonida ,lobul>ia ,eightfold ,corals #ae4 ,gorgonida ,isis #af4 ,p5natulida ,v]etillum ,,iii4 ,,vii4 ,ar*ydr #ag4 ,hydr>ia ,hydra ,primval ,polyps ,jelly-polyps ,,viii4 ,leptom$us #ah4 ,vesiculata ,s]tul>ia ,hydrom$us ,s(t ,jelly-fi% #ai4 ,ocellata ,tubul>ia #bj4 ,siphonophora ,physophora or ,,ix4 ,tra*ym$us #ba4 ,m>sipor*ida ,tra*ynema ,hood-jellies ,h>d ,jelly-fi% #bb4 ,phyllor*ida ,g]yonia #bc4 ,elasmor*ida ,*>ybd ,m$usa ,x4 ,calycozoa #bd4 ,podact9>ia ,luc]n>ia ,/alk$ ,jellies ,,xi4 ,discom$us #be4 ,semo/ome ,aurelia ,disc-jellies #bf4 ,rhizo/ome ,crambessa ,,iv4 ,,xii4 ,eury/oma #bg4 ,b]oida ,b]oe ,wide-m\!d ,comb-jellies ,,xiii4 ,/5o/oma #bh4 ,saccata ,cydippe ,ct5ophora ,n>r[-m\!d #bi4 ,lobata ,eu*>is #cj4 ,tniata ,ce/um ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ct5ophora ,hydrom$us ,tniata ,lobata ,rhizo/ome ---v----_/ ,semo/ome ,saccata ,,discom$us ,,/5o/oma ,tra*ym$us ,siphonophora ,luc]n>ia ,,eury/oma ,calycozoa -------------------------v-------------- --_/ ,,leptom$us ,coralla ,octocoralla ,hexacoralla ----v----_/ ,tetracoralla ,spongi ,fibrospongi ,calcispongi ,*alyn?9a ,leucones ,sycones ,hexact9ella,geod9a ,dyssycus ,sycurus ,hydroida ,cordylophora ,hydra ------v---_/ -----v--_/ ,ascones ,myxospongia -----v-------_/ ,halis>c9a ,,hydroida ,procorallum ,,*alyn?us ,,olyn?us -----v--------_/ ------v----------_/ ,hydroida ,ar*ispongi ,ar*ydra --------------v--------_/ ,protascus ,ga/ra ,! second class ( ,sea-nettles is =m$ by ! ,hood-jellies 7,m$us7 or ,polyp-jellies 7,hydrom$us74 ,:ile mo/ corals =m /ocks l plants1 & are atta*$ to ! bottom ( ! sea1 ! ,hood-jellies g5]ally swim ab\t freely 9 ! =m ( gelat9\s bells4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 numb]s ( !m1 especially ! l[] =ms1 :i* adh]e to ! bottom ( ! sea1 & resemble pretty little trees4 ,! l[e/ & simple/ memb]s ( ?is class are ! little fre%-wat] polyps 7,hydra & ,cordylophora74 ,we may look ^u !m z b little *ang$ desc5dants ( ^? ,primval polyps 7,ar*ydr71 f :i*1 dur+ ! primordial p]iod1 ! :ole division ( ! ,sea-nettles orig9at$4 ,sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! ,hydra are ! adh]5t ,hydroid polyps 7,campanul>ia1 ,tubul>ia71 :i* produce freely swimm+ m$us by budd+1 & out ( ! eggs ( ^! !re aga9 arise adh]5t polyps4 ,^! freely swimm+ ,hood-jellies are mo/ly ( ! =m ( a mu%room1 or ( an umbrella1 f ! rim ( :i* _m long & delicate t5tacles hang4 ,!y are among ! mo/ beautiful & mo/ int]e/+ inhabitants ( ! sea4 ,! rem>kable hi/ory ( _! lives1 & especially ! complicat$ alt]nation ( g5]ation ( polyps & m$us1 are among ! /ronge/ pro(s ( ! tru? ( ! !ory ( desc5t4 ,= j z ,m$us /ill daily arise out ( ! ,hydroids1 did ! freely swimm+ m$usa-=m orig9ally proce$1 phylog5etically1 out ( ! adh]5t polyp-=m4 ,equally important = ! !ory ( desc5t is ! rem>kable division ( lab\r ( ! individuals1 :i* among "s ( !m is develop$ to an a/oni%+ly high degree1 m especially 9 ! spl5did ,siphonophora47#cg7 7,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #ac47 ,! ?ird class ( ,sea-nettles--! peculi> division ( ,comb-jellies 7,ct5ophora71 probably develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! ,hood-jellies4 ,! ,ct5ophora1 :i* are also call$ ,ribb$-jellies1 possess a body ( ! =m ( a cucumb]1 :i*1 l ! body ( mo/ ,hood-jellies1 is z cle> & transp>5t z cry/al or cut glass4 ,comb or ,ribb$-jellies are *>act]iz$ by _! peculi> organs ( motion1 namely1 by eight r[s ( paddl+1 ciliat$ leaflets1 :i* run 9 ! =m ( eight ribs f "o end ( ! longitud9al axis 7f ! m\?7 to ! opposite end4 ,^? ) n>r[ m\?s 7,/5o/oma7 probably develop$ lat] out ( ^? ) wide m\?s 7,eury/oma74 7,comp>e ,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #af47 ,! ?ird tribe ( ! animal k+dom1 ! phylum ( ,worms or worm-l animals 7,v]mes1 or ,helm9!s71 conta9s a numb] ( div]g+ bran*es4 ,"s ( ^! num]\s bran*es h develop$ into well-m>k$ & p]fectly indep5d5t classes ( ,worms1 b o!rs *ang$ long s9ce into ! orig9al1 radical =ms ( ! f\r high] tribes ( animals4 ,ea* ( ^! f\r high] tribes 7& likewise ! tribe ( ,zoophytes7 we may picture to ourselves 9 ! =m ( a l(ty tree1 ^: bran*es repres5t ! diff]5t classes1 ord]s1 families1 etc4 ,! phylum ( ,worms1 on ! o!r h&1 we h to conceive z a l[ bu% or %rub1 out ( ^: root a mass ( indep5d5t bran*es %oot up 9 diff]5t directions4 ,f ?is d5sely bran*$ %rub1 mo/ ( ! bran*es ( :i* are dead1 !re rise f\r high /ems ) _m bran*es4 ,^! are ! f\r l(ty trees j m5tion$ z repres5t+ ! high] phyla--! ,e*9od]ma1 ,articulata1 ,mollusca1 & ,v]tebrata4 ,^! f\r /ems are directly connect$ ) "o ano!r at ! root only1 to wit1 by ! common prim>y gr\p ( ! ,worm tribe4 ,! extraord9>y difficulties :i* ! sy/ematic arrangem5t ( ,worms pres5ts1 = ?is reason m]ely1 are /ill m increas$ by ! fact t we d n possess any fossil rema9s ( !m4 ,mo/ ( ! ,worms _h & /ill h su* s(t bodies t !y c\ld n leave any *>act]i/ic traces 9 ! neptunic /rata ( ! e>?4 ,h5ce 9 ?is case aga9 we are entirely conf9$ to ! records ( creation furni%$ by ontog5y & comp>ative anatomy4 ,9 mak+ !n ! exce$+ly difficult attempt to ?r[ a few hypo!tical rays ( light ^u ! obscurity ( ! p$igree ( ,worms1 ,i mu/ !re=e expressly rem>k t ?is sket*1 l all simil> attempts possesses only a provisional value4 ,! num]\s classes di/+ui%$ 9 ! tribe ( ,worms1 & :i* almo/ e zoologi/ gr\ps & def9es accord+ to 8 own p]sonal views1 are1 9 ! fir/ place1 divid$ into two ess5tially diff]5t gr\ps or bran*es1 :i* 9 my ,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges ,i h t]m$ ,aclomi & ,clomati4 ,= all ! l[] ,worms :i* are compris$ 9 ! class ( ,flat-worms 7,platyhelm9!s71 7! ,glid+-worms1 ,suck]-worms1 ,tape-worms71 diff] v /rik+ly f o!r ,worms1 9 ! fact t !y possess nei!r blood nor body-cavity 7no clome72 !y are1 !re=e1 call$ ,aclomi4 ,! true cavity1 or clome1 is completely abs5t 9 !m z 9 all ! ,zoophytes2 9 ?is important respect ! two gr\ps are directly alli$4 ,b all o!r ,worms 7l ! f\r high] tribes ( animals7 possess a g5u9e body-cavity & a vascul> sy/em connect$ ) x1 :i* is fill$ ) blood2 h5ce we class !m toge!r z ,clomati4 ,! ma9 division ( ,bloodless ,worms 7,aclomi7 conta9s1 accord+ to our phylog5etic views1 besides ! /ill liv+ ,flat-worms1 ! unkn[n & ext9ct prim>y =ms ( ! :ole tribe ( ,worms1 :i* we %all call ! ,primval ,worms 7,ar*elm9!s74 ,! type ( ^! ,primval ,worms1 ! anci5t ,pro!lmis1 may be directly d]iv$ f ! ,ga/ra 7p4 #acc74 ,ev5 at pres5t ! ,ga/rula-=m--! fai?ful hi/orical portrait ( ! ,ga/ra--recurs 9 ! ontog5esis ( ! mo/ diff]5t k9ds ( worms z a transi5t l>va-=m4 ,! ciliat$ ,glid+-worms 7,turbell>ia71 ! prim>y gr\p ( ! pres5t ,plan>y or ,flat-worms 7,platyhelm9!s71 are ! ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,primval ,worms4 ,! p>asitical ,suck]-worms 7,trematoda7 arose out ( ! ,glid+-worms1 :i* live freely 9 wat]1 by adaptation to a p>asitical mode ( life2 & out ( !m lat] on--by an increas+ p>asitism--arose ! ,tape-worms 7,ce/oda74 ,out ( a bran* ( ! ,aclomi arose ! second ma9 division ( ! ,worm tribe1 ! ,worms ) blood & body-cavity 7,clomati73 ( ^! !re are sev5 diff]5t classes4 ,! ,p$igree on p4 #aea %[s h[ ! obscure phylog5y ( ! sev5 classes ( ,clomati may be suppos$ to /&4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 m5tion ^! classes "h q briefly1 z _! relation%ips & d]ivation are1 at pres5t1 /ill v complicat$ & obscure4 ,m num]\s & m accurate inve/igations ( ! ontog5y ( ! diff]5t ,clomati w at "s future "t ?r[ light ^u _! phylog5esis4 ,! ,r\nd ,worms 7,nema!lm9!s7 :i* we m5tion z ! fir/ class ( ! ,clomati1 & :i* are *>act]iz$ by _! cyl9drical =m1 consi/ pr9cipally ( p>asitical ,worms :i* live 9 ! int]ior ( o!r animals4 ,( human p>asites1 ! celebrat$ ,tri*91 ! ,maw-worms1 ,:ip-worms1 etc41 = example1 belong to !m4 ,! ,/>-worms 7,gephyrea7 :i* live exclusively 9 ! sea are alli$ to r\nd worms1 & ! compreh5sive class ( ,r+-worms 7,annelida7 are alli$ to ! =m]4 ,to ! ,r+-worms1 ^: long body is compos$ ( a numb] ( segm5ts1 all alike 9 /ructure1 belong ! ,lee*es 7,hirud9ea71 ,e>?-worms 7,lumbric9a71 & all ! m>9e bri/le-foot$ ,worms 7,*topoda74 ,ne>ly ak9 to !m are ! ,sn\t-worms 7,rhyn*ocla71 & ! small microscopic ,:eel-worms 7,rotif]a74 ,! unkn[n1 ext9ct1 prim>y =ms ( ! tribe ( ,sea-/>s 7,e*9od]ma71 & ( ! tribe ( ! articulat$ animals 7,ar?ropoda71 7 ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,r+-worms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ probably look = ! prim>y =ms ( ! great tribe ( ,molluscs 9 ext9ct ,worms1 :i* 7 v closely relat$ to ! ,moss-polyps 7,bryozoa7 ( ! pres5t day2 & = ! prim>y =ms ( ! ,v]tebrata 9 ! unkn[n ,clomati1 ^: ne>e/ k9 ( ! pres5t day are ! ,sea-sacs1 especially ! ,ascidia4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #h ,classes & #bb ,ord]s ( ! ,worm ,tribe4 7,comp>e ,g54 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,v4 pp4 #ge-gg47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,classes ,sy/ematic ( ! ,ord]s ( ! ,"n ( ! ,"n ( a ,g5us ,worm ,tribe4 ,worm ,tribe4 ,ord]s ( ,worms4 z example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #a4 ,flat #a4 ,primval worms #a4 ,ar*elm9!s ,pro!lmis ,worms #b4 ,glid+-worms #b4 ,turbell>ia ,plan>ia ,platyhel- #c4 ,suck]-worms #c4 ,trematoda ,di/oma m9!s #d4 ,tape-worms #d4 ,ce/oda ,tnia #b4 ,r\nd #e4 ,arr[-worms #e4 ,*togna?a ,sagitta ,worms #f4 ,?read-worms #f4 ,nematoda ,tri*9a ,nema!l- #g4 ,hook-head$ #g4 ,acan?ocephala ,e*9orhyn*us m9!s worms #c4 ,moss #h4 ,horse-%oe-lipp$ #h4 ,lophopoda ,alcyonella ,polyps #i4 ,circle-lipp$ #i4 ,/elmopoda ,retepora ,bryozoa #d4 ,sea-sacs #aj4 ,sea-squirts #aj4 ,ascidia ,phallusia ,tunicata #aa4 ,sea-b>rels #aa4 ,?aliacea ,salpa #e4 ,proboscideans #ab4 ,tongue-worms #ab4 ,ent]opneu/a ,balanoglossus ,rhyn*ocla #ac4 ,cord-worms #ac4 ,nem]t9a ,borlasia #ad4 ,/>-worms )\t #ad4 ,sipunculida ,sipunculus #f4 ,/>-,worms bri/les ,gephyrea #ae4 ,/>-worms ) #ae4 ,e*iurida ,e*iurus bri/les #g4 ,:eel ,animalcule #af4 ,:eel-worms #af4 ,rotatoria ,hydat9a ,rotif]a #ag4 ,be>-worms #ag4 ,arctisca ,macrobiotus #ah4 ,worms ) claws #ah4 ,ony*ophora ,p]ipatus #h4 ,r+ #ai4 ,lee*es #ai4 ,hirud9ea ,hirudo ,worms #bj4 ,l&-worms #bj4 ,drilomorpha ,lumbricus ,annelida #ba4 ,mail$ worms #ba4 ,phrac!lm9!s ,crossopodia #bb4 ,bri/le-foot$ #bb4 ,*topoda ,aphrodite worms ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,*topoda ,drilomorpha -------v-------_/ ,phrac!lm9!s ,e*iurida ,hirud9ea ,sipunculida ,ony*ophora ----v---_/ ,gephyrea ,arctisca --v---_/ ,*togna?a --v-----_/ -----v-----_/ ,nematoda ---------v---------_/ --v--_/ ,annelida ,acan?o- cephala ,/elmopoda ,ent]opneu/a --v--_/ ,nema!lm9!s ,lophopoda ,ascidia ,bryozoa ,?alicea ,nem]t9a ,rotif]a ---v-_/ ,rhyn*ocla --v---_/ ----v---_/ ,tunicata -----------------------v---------------- -------------_/ ,clomati 7worms ) body-cavity7 ,ce/oda ,trematoda ,turbell>ia ,platyhelm9!s -------v---------_/ ,aclomi 7worms )\t body-cavity7 ,ar*elm9!s ,pro!lmis ,ga/ra ,! class ( ,sea-sacs 7,tunicata7 is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable among ,worms4 ,!y all live 9 ! ocean1 :]e "s ( ! ,ascidi adh]e to ! bottom1 :ile o!rs 7! sea-b>rels1 or ,?aliacea7 swim ab\t freely4 ,9 all ( !m ! non-jo9t$ body has ! =m ( a simple b>rel-%ap$ sack1 :i* is surr\nd$ by a ?ick c>tilag9\s mantle4 ,?is mantle consi/s ( ! same non-nitrog5\s comb9ation ( c>bon1 :i*1 "u ! "n ( cellulose1 plays an important "p 9 ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 & =ms ! l>ge/ portion ( vegetable cellul> membranes1 & consequ5tly also ! great] "p ( wood4 ,! b>rel-%ap$ body g5]ally possesses no ext]nal app5dages4 ,no "o w\ld recognise 9 !m a trace ( relation%ip to ! highly diff]5tiat$ v]tebrate animals4 ,& yet ?is c no long] be d\bt$1 s9ce ,k[alewsky's inve/igations1 :i* 9 ! ye> #ahfg sudd5ly ?rew an exce$+ly surpris+ & unmi/akable light ^u !m4 ,f ^! inve/igations x has become cle> t ! individual developm5t ( ! adh]5t simple ,ascidian ,phallusia agrees 9 mo/ po9ts ) t ( ! l[e/ v]tebrate animal1 namely1 ! ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus74 ,! e>ly /ages ( ! ,ascidia possess ! beg9n+s ( ! sp9al m>r[ & ! sp9al column 7*orda dorsalis7 ly+ b5ea? x1 :i* are ! two mo/ ess5tial & mo/ *>act]i/ic organs ( ! v]tebrate animal4 ,accord+ly1 ( all inv]tebrate animals kn[n to u1 ! ,tunicates are )\t d\bt ! ne>e/ blood relations ( ! ,v]tebrates1 & mu/ be consid]$ z ! ne>e/ relations ( ^? ,worms out ( :i* ! v]tebrate tribe has develop$4 7,comp>e ,plates ,,xii4 & ,,xiii47 ,:ile ?us diff]5t bran*es ( ! ,clomat\s gr\p ( ! ,worms furni% u ) sev]al g5ealogical l9ks lead+ to ! f\r high] tribes ( animals1 & give u important phylog5etic indications ( _! orig91 ! l[] gr\p ( ,aclomi1 on ! o!r h&1 %[ close relation%ips to ! ,zoophytes1 & to ! ,primval animals4 ,! great phylog5etic int]e/ ( ! ,worm tribe re/s ^u ?is peculi> int]m$iate position4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,ii4 ,,mollusca1 ,,/>-,,fi%es1 ,,& ,,articulat$ ,,animals4 ,tribe ( ,molluscs4--,f\r ,classes ( ,molluscs3 ,lamp-%ells 7,spirobran*ia72 ,mussels 7,lamellibran*ia72 ,snails 7,co*lides72 ,cuttle-fi% 7,cephalopoda74--,tribe ( ,/>-fi%es1 or ,e*9od]ma4--,_! ,d]ivation f ,r+$ ,worms 7,mail$ ,worms1 or ,phrac!lm9!s74--,! ,alt]nation ( ,g5]ation 9 ! ,e*9od]ma4--,f\r ,classes ( ,/>-fi%3 ,sea-/>s 7,a/]idea72 ,sea-lilies 7,cr9oidea72 ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9idea72 ,sea-cucumb]s 7,holo?uridea74--,tribe ( ,articulat$ ,animals1 or ,ar?ropoda4--,f\r ,classes ( ,articulat$ ,animals3 ,bran*iata1 or ,cru/acea1 brea?+ ?r\gh gills2 ,jo9t$ ,crabs2 ,mail$ ,crabs2 ,articulata ,tra*eata1 brea?+ ?r\gh ,air ,tubes4--,spid]s 7,long ,spid]s1 ,r\nd ,spid]s74--,myriopods4--,insects4--,*ew+ & ,suck+ ,insects4--,p$igree & ,hi/ory ( ! ,eight ,ord]s ( ,insects4 ,! great natural ma9 gr\ps ( ! animal k+dom1 :i* we h di/+ui%$ z ,,tribes1 or ,,phyla 78types0 accord+ to ,br & ,cuvi]71 are n all ( equal sy/ematic importance = our phylog5y or hi/ory ( ! p$igree ( ! liv+ _w4 ,!y c nei!r be class$ 9 a s+le s]ies ( /ages1 "o above ano!r1 nor be consid]$ z entirely indep5d5t /ems1 nor z equal bran*es ( a s+le family-tree4 ,x seems r 7z we saw 9 ! la/ *apt]7 t ! tribe ( ,protozoa1 ! s-call$ primval animals1 is ! common radical gr\p ( ! :ole animal k+dom4 ,out ( ! ,ga/rada--:i* we class among ! ,protozoa--! ,zoophytes & ! ,worms h develop$1 z two div]g+ bran*es4 ,we mu/ n[ 9 turn look ^u ! v>i$ & mu*-bran*+ tribe ( ,worms z ! common prim>y gr\p1 out ( :i* 7f p]fectly di/9ct bran*es7 arose ! rema9+ tribes1 ! f\r high] phyla ( ! animal k+dom4 7,comp>e ! ,p$igree1 p4 #acc47 ,let u n[ take a g5ealogical look at ^! f\r high] tribes ( animals1 & try :e!r we _c make out ! mo/ important outl9es ( _! p$igree4 ,ev5 %\ld ?is attempt prove defective & imp]fect1 we %all at all ev5ts h made a beg9n+1 & pav$ ! road = subsequ5t & m satisfactory attempts4 ,x does n matt] 9 :at succession we take up ! exam9ation ( ! f\r high] tribes4 ,= ^! f\r phyla h no close relation%ip :atev] among "o ano!r1 b h gr[n out f entirely di/9ct bran*es ( ! gr\p ( ,worms 7p4 #acc74 ,we may consid] ! tribe ( ,molluscs z ! mo/ imp]fect & ! l[e/ 9 po9t ( morphological developm5t4 ,we n[h]e meet among !m ) ! *>act]i/ic articulation or segm5t$ =mation ( ! body1 :i* di/+ui%es ev5 ! ,r+-worms1 & :i* 9 ! o!r ?ree high] tribes--! ,e*9od]ma1 ,articulata1 & ,v]tebrata--is mo/ ess5tially connect$ ) ! high developm5t ( _! =ms1 _! diff]5tiation1 & p]fection4 ,! body 9 all ,molluscs--9 mussels1 snails1 etc4--is a simple non-jo9t$ sack1 9 ! cavity ( :i* lie ! inte/9es4 ,! n]v\s sy/em consi/s n ( a cord b ( sev]al di/9ct 7g5]ally ?ree7 pairs ( knots loosely connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,= ^! & _m o!r anatomical reasons1 ,i consid] ! tribe ( ,molluscs 79 spite ( ! high physiological developm5t ( its mo/ p]fect =ms7 to be morphologically ! l[e/ among ! f\r high] tribes ( animals4 ,:il/1 = reasons already giv51 we exclude ! ,moss-polyps1 & ,tunicates--:i* h hi!rto be5 g5]ally class$ ) ! tribe ( ,molluscs--we reta9 z g5u9e ,molluscs ! foll[+ f\r classes3 ,lamp-%ells1 ,mussels1 ,snails1 & ,cuttles4 ,! two l[] classes ( ,molluscs1 ! ,lamp-%ells & ,mussels1 possess nei!r head nor tee?1 & !y c !re=e be compris$ "u "o ma9 class1 or bran*1 z headless animals 7,acephala71 or too?less animals 7,anodontoda74 ,?is bran* is also frequ5tly call$ t ( ! clam-%ells 7,con*if]a1 or ,bivalvia71 because all its memb]s possess a two-valv$ calc>e\s %ell4 ,9 contra/ to ^! ! two high] classes ( ,molluscs1 ! snails & cuttles1 may be repres5t$ z a second bran* ) ! "n ( ,head-be>]s 7,cephalophora71 or ,too?-be>]s 7,odontophora71 because bo? head & tee? are develop$ 9 !m4 ,! s(t1 sack-%ap$ body 9 mo/ ,molluscs is protect$ by a calc>e\s %ell or h\se1 :i* 9 ! ,acephala 7lamp-%ells & mussels7 consi/s ( two valves1 b 9 ! ,cephalophora 7snails & cuttles7 is g5]ally a spiral tube 7! s-call$ snail's h\se74 ,al?\gh ^! h>d skeletons are f\nd 9 l>ge quantities 9 a petrifi$ /ate 9 all ! neptunic /rata1 yet !y tell u b little ( ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! tribe1 :i* mu/ h tak5 place = ! mo/ "p 9 ! primordial p]iod4 ,ev5 9 ! ,silurian /rata we f9d fossil rema9s ( all ! f\r classes ( ,molluscs1 "o beside ! o!r1 & ?is1 conjo9tly ) mu* o!r evid5ce1 di/9ctly proves t ! tribe ( ,molluscs _h !n obta9$ a /rong developm5t1 :5 ! high] tribes1 especially ! ,articulates & ,v]tebrates1 _h sc>cely got beyond ! beg9n+ ( _! hi/orical developm5t4 ,9 subsequ5t p]iods1 especially 9 ! prim>y & second>y p]iods1 ^! high] tribes increas$ 9 importance m & m at ! exp5se ( ,molluscs & ,worms1 :i* 7 no mat* = !m 9 ! /ruggle = life1 & accord+ly decreas$ 9 numb]4 ,! /ill liv+ ,molluscs & ,worms mu/ be consid]$ z only a proportionately small remnant ( ! va/ molluscan fauna1 :i* greatly pr$om9at$ 9 ! primordial & prim>y p]iods ov] ! o!r tribes4 7,comp>e ,plate ,,vi4 & explanation 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,no tribe ( animals %[s m di/9ctly ?an d ! ,molluscs1 h[ v diff]5t ! value ( fossils is 9 geology & 9 phylog5y4 ,9 geology ! diff]5t species ( ! fossil %ells ( ,molluscs are ( ! greate/ importance because !y s]ve z excell5t m>ks :]eby to *>act]ize ! diff]5t gr\ps ( /rata1 & to fix _! relative ages4 ,z f> z relates to ! g5ealogy ( ,molluscs1 h[ev]1 !y are ( v little value1 because1 on ! "o h&1 ! %ells are p>ts ( q subord9ate morphological importance1 & because ! actual developm5t ( ! tribe belongs to ! e>li] primordial p]iod1 f :i* no di/9ct fossils h be5 pres]v$4 ,if !re=e we wi% to con/ruct ! p$igree ( ,molluscs1 we are ma9ly dep5d5t ^u ! records ( ontog5y & comp>ative anatomy f :i* we obta9 some?+ l ! foll[+ result4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,vi4 pp4 #ajb-aaf47 ,! l[e/ /age ( ! f\r classes ( g5u9e ,molluscs kn[n to u1 is occupi$ by ! ,lamp-%ells or ,spiral-gills 7,spirobran*ia71 frequ5tly b inappropriately call$ ,arm-foot]s 7,bra*iopoda71 :i* h become atta*$ to ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,!re n[ exi/ b few =ms ( ?is class2 = in/ance1 "s species ( ,l+ula1 ,t]ebratula1 & o!rs ak9 to !m1 :i* are b feeble remnants ( ! great v>iety ( =ms :i* repres5t$ ! ,lamp-%ells 9 e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,9 ! ,silurian p]iod !y con/itut$ ! pr9cipal portion ( ! :ole ,mollusc tribe4 ,f ! agreem5t :i*1 9 _m respects1 _! e>ly /age ( developm5t pres5ts ) ! ,moss animals1 x has be5 conclud$ t !y h develop$ out ( ,worms1 :i* 7 ne>ly relat$ to ?is class4 ,( ! two sub-classes ( ,lamp-%ells1 ! ,h+e-less 7,ec>d9es7 mu/ be look$ ^u z ! l[] & m imp]fect1 ! ,h+$ 7,te/ic>d9es7 z ! high] & m fully develop$ gr\p4 ,! anatomical diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,lamp-%ells & ! ?ree o!r classes ( ,molluscs is s consid]able t ! latt] may be di/+ui%$ f ! =m] by ! "n ( ,otoc>dia4 ,all ! ,otoc>dia h a he>t ) *amb] 7v5tricle7 & ante-*amb] 7auricle71 :]eas ,lamp-%ells d n possess ! ante-*amb]4 ,moreov]1 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is develop$ only 9 ! =m] 7& n 9 ! latt]7 9 ! %ape ( a complete ph>yngeal r+4 ,h5ce ! f\r classes ( ,molluscs may be gr\p$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- #a4 ,lamp-%ells ,i4 ,haploc>dia ,i4 ,molluscs 7,spirobran*ia74 7) simple he>t74 )\t head4 ,acephala4 #b4 ,mussels 7,lamellibran*ia74 ,,ii4 ,otoc>dia 7) *amb] ,,ii4 ,molluscs #c4 ,snails & ante-*amb] ) head4 7,co*lides74 to ! he>t74 ,cephalophora4 #d4 ,cuttles 7,cephalopoda74 ,! result ( ^! /ructural dispositions = ! hi/ory ( ! p$igree ( ,molluscs1 :i* is confirm$ by palontology1 is t ,lamp-%ells /& mu* ne>] to ! primval root ( ! :ole tribe ( ,molluscs ?an d ! ,otoc>dia4 ,probably ,mussels & ,snails develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es out ( ,molluscs1 :i* 7 ne>ly ak9 to ! ,lamp-%ells4 ,mussels1 or ,plate-gills 7,lamellibran*ia71 possess a bivalv$ %ell l ! ,lamp-%ells4 ,9 ! latt]1 "o ( ! two valves cov]s ! back1 ! o!r ! belly ( ! animal2 :]eas 9 ,mussels ! two valves lie symmetrically on ! "r & left side ( ! body4 ,mo/ ,mussels live 9 ! sea1 only a few 9 fre% wat]4 ,! class is divid$ into two sub-classes1 ,asiphonia & ,siphonida1 ( :i* ! latt] 7 develop$ at a lat] p]iod out ( ! =m]4 ,among ! ,asiphonia are ,oy/]s1 "m-(-pe>l ,%ells1 & fre% wat] ,mussels2 among ! ,siphonida1 :i* are *>act]iz$ by a respiratory tube1 are ! ,v5us-%ells1 ,razor-%ells1 & ,burr[+ ,clams4 ,! high] ,molluscs seem to h develop$ at a lat] p]iod out ( ^? )\t head & tee?2 !y are di/+ui%$ f ! latt] by ! di/9ct =mation ( ! head1 & m especially by a peculi> k9d ( too? app>atus4 ,_! tongue pres5ts a curi\s plate1 arm$ ) a great numb] ( tee?4 ,9 our common ,v9ey>d ,snail 7,helix pomatia7 ! numb] ( tee? am\nt to #ba1jjj1 & 9 ! l>ge ,g>d5 ,slug 7,limax maximus7 to #bf1hjj4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #d ,classes1 #h ,sub-classes1 & #ba ,ord]s ( ,molluscs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,classes ( ,sub-classes ( ,ord]s ( ,sy/ematic ,"n ,molluscs4 ,molluscs4 ,molluscs4 ( ! ,ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,i4 ,molluscs )\t head or tee?3 ,,acephala or ,,anodontoda4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i4 ,i4 ,ec>d9es #a4 ,/alk$ #a4 ,l+ulida ,lamp-%ells ,h+e-less #b4 ,flatt5$ #b4 ,craniada ,spirobran*ia or ,bra*iopoda ,,ii4 ,te/ic>d9es #c4 ,fle%y arm$ #c4 ,s>cobra*ia ,h+e-less #d4 ,calc>e\s-arm$ #d4 ,scl]obra*ia ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,asiphonia #e4 ,"o-muscl$ #e4 ,monomya ,mussels ,mussels )\t #f4 ,unev5-muscl$ #f4 ,het]omya or respiratory tubes #g4 ,ev5-muscl$ #g4 ,isomya ,plate-gills ,lamellibran*ia ,,iv4 ,siphonida #h4 ,r\nd-mantl$ #h4 ,integripallia or ,mussels ) #i4 ,ray-mantl$ #i4 ,s9upalliata ,phyllobran*ia respiratory tubes #aj4 ,tube-mussels #aj4 ,inclusa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,ii4 ,molluscs ) head & tee?3 ,,cephalophora or ,,odontophora4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,v4 ,/ump-head$ #aa4 ,tube-snails #aa4 ,scaphopoda ,,iii4 ,p]ocephala #ab4 ,butt]fly-snails #ab4 ,pt]opoda ,snails #ac4 ,) h9d gills #ac4 ,opi/hobran*ia ,co*lides #ad4 ,) =e gills #ad4 ,prosobran*ia or ,,vi4 ,l>ge-head$ #ae4 ,swimm+-snails #ae4 ,het]opoda ,ga/]opoda ,delocephala #af4 ,beetle-snails #af4 ,*itonoida #ag4 ,snails ) lungs #ag4 ,pulmonata ,,vii4 ,*amb]-,p\lps #ah4 ,pe>l boats #ah4 ,nautilida ,,iv4 ) f\r gills #ai4 ,ammon's horns #ai4 ,ammonitida ,cuttles ,tetrabran*ia or ,p\lps ,,viii4 ,ink-,p\lps ) #bj4 ,t5-arm$ #bj4 ,decabra*iones two gills ,cephalopoda ,dibran*ia #ba4 ,eight-arm$ #ba4 ,octobra*iones ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,dibran*ia ,het]opoda ,prosobran*ia ,pulmonata ,tetrabran*ia ,lipobran*ia ,cephalopoda 7,cuttles or ,p\lps7 ,gymnobran*ia -------v------_/ ,pleurobran*ia ,*itonides ,opi/hobran*ia ---------------------------------v------ ---_/ ,delocephala --------v----------_/ ,pt]opoda ,inclusa ------v-----_/ ,s9upalliata ,scaphopoda ,integripalliata ---v--_/ ,scl]obra*ia ,siphoniata ,p]ocephala ,co*lides 7,snails7 ,s>cobra*ia ,asiphonia ,te/ic>d9es ,lamellibran*ia 7,mussels7 ,ec>d9es ----------v-------------_/ ,spirobran*ia 7,lamp-%ells7 ,otoc>dia 7,molluscs ) *amb] & ante-*amb] to ! he>t7 -----------------v--------------_/ ,promollusca 7,primval ,molluscs7 ,molluscs ) simple he>t 7,worms7 ,ga/ra ,we di/+ui% two sub-classes among ! ,snails 7,co*lides1 or ,ga/]opoda71 namely1 ! ,/ump-head$ & ! ,l>ge-head$ ,snails4 ,! ,/ump-head$ ,snails 7,p]ocephala7 are v closely alli$ to ,mussels 7?r\gh ! ,too?-%ells71 & also to ! ,cuttle-fi% 7?r\gh ! ,butt]fly-snails74 ,! m highly develop$ ,snails1 ) l>ge heads 7,delocephala71 c be divid$ into ,snails ) gills 7,bran*iata7 & ,snails ) lungs 7,pulmonata74 ,among ! latt] are ! ,l&-snails1 ! only ,molluscs :i* h left ! wat] & become habituat$ to a life on l&4 ,! great majority ( ,snails live 9 ! sea1 only a few live 9 fre% wat]4 ,"s ,riv]-snails 9 ! tropics 7! ,ampull>ia7 are amphibi\s1 liv+ sometimes on l&1 sometimes 9 wat]1 & at "o "t !y brea! ?r\gh gills1 at ano!r ?r\gh lungs4 ,!y h bo? k9ds ( respiratory organs1 l ! ,mud-fi% & ,gill$ ,newts among ! ,v]tebrata4 ,! f\r? & la/ class1 & at ! same "t ! mo/ highly develop$ class ( ,molluscs1 is t ( ! ,cuttles1 or ,p\lps1 also call$ ,cephalopoda 7foot atta*$ to ! head74 ,!y all live 9 ! sea1 & are di/+ui%$ f ,snails by eight1 t51 or m long arms1 :i* surr\nd ! m\? 9 a circle4 ,! ,cuttles exi/+ 9 our rec5t oceans--! ,sepia1 ,calam>y1 ,argonaut1 & ,pe>ly ,nautilus--are1 l ! few ,spiral-gill ,lamp-%ells ( ! pres5t "t1 b a poor remnant ( ! ho/ :i* repres5ts ?is class 9 ! oceans ( ! primordial1 prim>y1 & second>y p]iods4 ,! num]\s fossil 8,ammon's horns0 7,ammonites71 8pe>l boats0 7,nautilus71 & 8?und]bolts0 7,belemnites7 are evid5ces ( ! long s9ce ext9ct spl5d\r ( ! tribe4 ,! ,p\lps1 or ,cuttles1 h probably develop$ out ( a l[ bran* ( ! snail class1 out ( ! ,butt]fly-snails 7,pt]opoda7 or k9dr$ =ms4 ,! diff]5t sub-classes & ord]s1 di/+ui%$ 9 ! f\r classes ( ,molluscs1 ^: sy/ematic succession is giv5 on ! ,table 7p4 #afj71 furni% v>i\s pro(s ( ! validity ( ! law ( progress by _! hi/orical developm5t & by ! sy/ematic developm5t correspond+ to x4 ,z h[ev] ^! subord9ate gr\ps ( ,molluscs are 9 !mselves ( no fur!r special int]e/1 ,i mu/ ref] to ! sket* ( _! p$igree on p4 #afa1 & to ! detail$ p$igree ( ,molluscs :i* ,i h giv5 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology1 & ,i %all n[ at once turn to ! consid]ation ( ! tribe ( ,/>-fi%es4 ,! ,/>-fi%es 7,e*9od]ma1 or ,e/rell7 among :i* are ! f\r classes ( ,sea-/>s1 ,sea-lilies1 ,sea-ur*9s1 & ,sea-cucumb]s are "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ divisions ( ! animal k+dom1 & yet we "k less ab\t !m ?an ab\t any4 ,!y all live 9 ! sea4 ,e "o :o has be5 at ! sea %ore mu/ h se5 at lea/ two ( _! =ms1 ! ,sea-/>s & ! ,sea-ur*9s4 ,! tribe ( ,/>-fi%es mu/ be consid]$ z a completely indep5d5t tribe ( ! animal k+dom on acc\nt ( its v peculi> organization1 & mu/ be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! ,animal-plants--,zoophytes1 or ,cl5t]ata1 ) :i* x is /ill frequ5tly b errone\sly class$ "u ! "n ,radiata 7z = example1 by ,agassiz1 :o ev5 to ?is day def5ds ?is error ( ,cuvi]'s1 toge!r ) _m o!rs74 ,all ,e*9od]ma are *>act]iz$1 & at ! same "t di/+ui%$ f all o!r animals1 by a v rem>kable app>atus = locomotion1 :i* consi/s ( a complicat$ sy/em ( canals or tubes1 fill$ ) sea wat] f )\t4 ,! sea wat] 9 ^! aqu$ucts is mov$ p>tly by ! /rokes ( ! cilia1 or vibratile hairs l9+ _! walls1 & p>tly by ! contractions ( ! muscul> walls ( ! tubes !mselves1 :i* resemble india-rubb] bags4 ,! wat] is press$ f ! tubes into a numb] ( little holl[ feet1 :i* !reby become widely di/5d$1 & are !n employ$ = walk+ & suction4 ,! ,sea-/>s are moreov] *>act]iz$ by a peculi> calc>e\s =mation 9 ! sk91 :i* 9 mo/ cases =ms a firm1 well-clos$ coat ( mail1 compos$ ( a numb] ( plates4 ,9 almo/ all ,e*9od]ma ! body consi/s ( five radii 7c\nt]p>ts1 or antim]a7 /&+ r\nd ! ma9 axis ( ! body1 :]e !y meet4 ,x is only 9 "s species ( ,sea-/>s t ! numb] ( ^! radii am\nt to m ?an five--to #f-i1 #aj-ab1 or ev5 to #bj-dj2 & 9 ?is case ! numb] ( radii is g5]ally n con/ant1 b v>ies 9 diff]5t individuals ( "o species4 ,! hi/orical developm5t & ! p$igree ( ! ,e*9od]ma are completely reveal$ to u by _! num]\s &1 9 mo/ cases1 excell5tly pres]v$ fossil rema9s1 by _! v rem>kable individual developm5tal hi/ory1 & by _! int]e/+ comp>ative anatomy2 ?is is ! case ) no o!r tribe ( animals1 ev5 ! ,v]tebrata !mselves are n to be except$4 ,by a critical use ( ^? ?ree ar*ives1 & by a c>eful comp>ison ( ! results d]iv$ f _! /udy1 we obta9 ! foll[+ g5ealogy ( ! ,/>-fi%es1 :i* ,i h already publi%$ 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology 7vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,iv4 pp4 #fb-gg47 ,! mo/ anci5t & orig9al gr\p ( ! ,/>-fi%es1 ! prim>y =m ( ! :ole phylum1 consi/s ( ! class ( ! true ,sea-/>s 7,a/]ida74 ,?is is e/abli%$ by num]\s & important argum5ts 9 anatomy & ! hi/ory ( developm5t1 b above all by ! irregul> & v>y+ numb] ( ! radii1 or antim]a1 :i* 9 all o!r ,e*9od]ma is limit$1 )\t exception1 to five4 ,e ,/>-fi% consi/s ( a c5tral1 small1 body-disc1 all r\nd ! circumf]5ce ( :i* are atta*$ five or sev]al long articulat$ arms4 ,ea* arm ( ! ,/>-fi% ess5tially corresponds 9 its organisation ) an articulat$ worm ( ! class ( ,r+-worms1 or ,annelida 7p4 #adi74 ,i !re=e consid] ! ,/>-fi% z a g5u9e /ock or cormus ( five or m articulat$ worms1 :i* h aris5 by ! />-wise gr[? ( a numb] ( buds out ( a c5tral "m-worm4 ,! connect$ memb]s1 ?us gr\p$ l ! rays ( a />1 h inh]it$ f ! "m-worm ! common op5+ ( ! m\?1 & ! common dige/ive cavity 7/oma*7 ly+ 9 ! c5tral body-disc4 ,! end by :i* !y h gr[n toge!r1 & :i* fuses 9 ! common c5tral disc1 probably corresponds to ! po/]ior end ( ! orig9al indep5d5t worms4 ,9 exactly ! same way sev]al individuals ( c]ta9 k9ds ( worms are unit$ s z to =m a />-l cormus4 ,?is is ! case 9 ! ,botryllid1 comp\nd ,ascidians1 belong+ to ! class ( ! ,tunicata4 ,"h also ! po/]ior ends ( ! individual worms h gr[n toge!r1 & h =m$ a common outlet = dis*>ges1 a c5tral cloaca2 :]eas at ! ant]ior end ea* worm /ill possesses its own m\?4 ,9 ,/>-fi%es ! orig9al m\?s h probably become clos$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! cormus1 or colony1 :]eas ! cloaca has develop$ into a common m\? = ! :ole cormus4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #d ,classes1 #i ,sub-classes1 & #bj ,ord]s ( ,/>-fi%es4 7,comp>e ,g54 ,morph4 ,,ii4 ,plate ,,iv4 pp4 #fb-fg47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,classes ( ! ,sub-classes ( ! ,ord]s ( ! ,sy/ematic ,"n ,/>-fi%es4 ,/>-fi%es4 ,/>-fi%es4 ( ! ,ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,i4 #a4 ,prim>y ,/>s #a4 ,teca/ra ,sea ,/>s ) radiat$ #b4 ,articulat$ ,/>s #b4 ,cola/ra ,i4 /oma* #c4 ,bris+a ,/>s #c4 ,bris+a/ra ,sea ,/>s ,act9oga/ra ,a/]ida ,,ii4 #d4 ,s]p5t ,/>s #d4 ,ophia/ra ,sea ,/>s ) disc- #e4 ,tree ,/>s #e4 ,phyta/ra %ap$ /oma* #f4 ,lily ,/>s #f4 ,cr9a/ra ,discoga/ra ,,iii4 #g4 ,plat$ ,lilies ) #g4 ,phatnocr9ida ,lilies ) arms arms ,bra*iata #h4 ,articulat$ ,lilies #h4 ,colocr9ida ) arms ,,ii4 ,,iv4 #i4 ,regul>ly budd+ #i4 ,p5tremitida ,sea ,lilies ,lilies ) buds ,lilies ,cr9oida ,bla/oidea #aj4 ,lilies budd+ on #aj4 ,eleu!rocr9a two sides ,v4 #aa4 ,bladd] ,lilies #aa4 ,agelacr9ida ,bladd] ,lilies )\t /alks ,cy/idea #ab4 ,bladd] ,lilies #ab4 ,sphronitida ) /alks ,,vi4 #ac4 ,pale*9ida ) #ac4 ,melonitida ,old] ,sea ,ur*9s m ?an #aj 7) m ?an r[s ( ambulacral #bj r[s ( plates7 plates ,,iii4 ,pale*9ida #ad4 ,pale*9ida ) #ad4 ,eocid>ia ,sea ,ur*9s #aj r[s ( ,e*9ida ,,vii4 ambulacral plates ,m rec5t ,sea #ae4 ,aute*9ida ) #ae4 ,desmo/i*a ,ur*9s 7) #bj b&-l ambulacra r[s ( plates7 #af4 ,aute*nidia ) #af4 ,petalo/i*a ,aute*9ida leaf-l ambulacra ,,viii4 #ag4 ,eupodia ) scuti- #ag4 ,aspido*irota ,sea ,cucumb]s =m t5tacles ) aquatic feet #ah4 ,eupodia ) #ah4 ,d5dro*irota ,,iv4 ,eupodia bran*+ t5tacles ,sea ,cucumb]s ,,ix4 ,holo?uri ,sea ,cucumb]s #ai4 ,apodia ) wat]- #ai4 ,liod]matida )\t aquatic lungs feet #bj4 ,apodia )\t #bj4 ,synaptida ,apodia wat]-lungs ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,clypea/rid ,spatangid ,dysa/]id ,aspido*irota ------v------_/ ,synaptida ,cassidulid ,petalo/i*a ,liod]matida ,apodia ------v-------_/ ,e*9onid ,gal]itid ,e*9ometrid ---------v-----------_/ ------v---------_/ ,d5dro*irota ,eupodia ,lati/ell ,holo?uri ,sal5id ------v------_/ ------v------------_/ ,angu/i/ell ,desmo/i*a ,aute*9ida ,colocr9 ,sphronitid ,phyta/ra ,eocid>id ,eleu!rocr9a ,ophia/ra ,agelacr9 ,discoga/ra ,cy/idea ,melonitida ,phatnocr9 ,bris+a/ra ,pale*9ida ,brahiata ,p5tremitida ,e*9ida ,bla/oidea ,cola/ra ----------v-----------------_/ -------v-----------_/ ,bra*iata ,cr9oida ,cr9a/ra -------------------------v-------------- --------------------_/ ,toca/ra ,act9oga/ra ,a/]ida ,phrac!lm9!s ,clomati ,ga/ra ,h5ce ! ,/>-fi%es w\ld be comp\nd /ocks ( worms :i*1 by ! radial =mation ( buds1 h develop$ out ( true articulat$ worms1 or ,annelids4 ,?is hypo!sis is mo/ /rongly support$ by ! comp>ative anatomy1 & by ! ontog5y ( "s ,/>-fi%es 7,cola/ra71 & ( segm5t$ worms4 ,! _m-jo9t$ ,r+-worms 7,annelida7 9 _! inn] /ructure are closely alli$ to ! individual arms or radii ( ! ,/>-fi%es1 t is to ! orig9al s+le worms1 :i* ea* arm repres5ts4 ,ea* ( ! five worms ( ! ,/>-fi% is a *a9 compos$ ( a great numb] ( equi-=mal memb]s1 or metam]a1 ly+ "o beh9d ! o!r1 l e segm5t$ ,worm1 & e ,ar?ropod4 ,z 9 ! latt] a c5tral n]v\s cord1 ! v5tral n]ve cord runs along ! c5tral l9e ( ! v5tral wall ( ea* segm5t4 ,on ea* metam]on !re is a pair ( non-jo9t$ feet1 & besides ^!1 9 mo/ cases1 "o or m h>d ?orns or bri/les simil> to ^? ( _m ,r+-worms4 ,a deta*$ arm ( a ,/>-fi% c lead an indep5d5t life1 & c !n1 by ! radially-direct$ gr[? ( buds at "o end1 aga9 become a complete />4 ,! mo/ important pro(s1 h[ev]1 ( ! tru? ( my hypo!sis are furni%$ by ! ontog5y or ! individual developm5t ( ! ,e*9od]ma4 ,! mo/ rem>kable facts ( ?is ontog5y 7 fir/ discov]$ 9 ! ye> #ahdh by ! great zoologi/1 ,johannes ,mll] ( ,b]l94 ,"s ( its mo/ important /ages are repres5t$ on ,plates ,,viii4 & ,,ix4 7,comp>e _! explanation 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,fig4 ,a on ,plate ,,ix4 %[s u a common ,sea-/> 7,ura/]71 ,fig4 ,b1 a ,sea-lily 7,comatula71 ,fig4 ,c1 a ,sea-ur*9 7,e*9us71 & ,fig4 ,d1 a ,sea-cucumb] 7,synapta74 ,9 spite ( ! extraord9>y diff]5ce ( =m manife/$ by ^! f\r repres5tatives ( ! diff]5t classes ( ,/>-fi%es1 yet ! beg9n+ ( _! developm5t is id5tical 9 all cases4 ,out ( ! egg an animal-=m develops :i* is utt]ly diff]5t f ! fully develop$ ,/>-fi%1 b v l ! ciliat$ l>v ( c]ta9 segm5t$ ,worms 7,/>-worms & ,r+-worms74 ,?is peculi> animal-=m is g5]ally call$ ! 8l>va10 b m correctly ! 8nurse0 ( ^! ,/>-fi%4 ,x is v small & transp>5t1 swims ab\t by means ( a fr+e ( cilia1 & is always compos$ ( two equal symmetrical halves or sides4 ,! fully gr[n ,e*9od]m1 h[ev]--:i* is frequ5tly m ?an a hundr$ times l>g]1 & q opaque--creeps at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & is always compos$ ( at lea/ five co-ord9ate pieces1 or antim]a1 9 ! =m ( radii4 ,plate ,,viii4 %[s ! developm5t ( ! 8nurses0 ( ! f\r ,e*9od]ms repres5t$ on ,plate ,,ix4 ,! fully develop$ ,e*9od]m arises by a v rem>kable process ( budd+ 9 ! int]ior ( ! 8nurse10 ( :i* x reta9s little m ?an ! /oma*4 ,! nurse1 errone\sly call$ ! 8l>va10 ( ! ,e*9od]m1 mu/ accord+ly be reg>d$ z a solit>y worm1 :i* by int]nal budd+ produces a second g5]ation1 9 ! =m ( a /ock ( />-%ap$ & connect$ worms4 ,! :ole ( ?is process is a g5u9e alt]nation ( g5]ations1 or metag5esis1 n a 8metamorphosis10 z is g5]ally ?\gh errone\sly /at$4 ,a simil> alt]nation ( g5]ations also occurs 9 _m o!r worms1 especially 9 "s /> worms 7,sipunculid71 & cord worms 7,nem]t974 ,n[ if1 be>+ 9 m9d ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y1 we ref] ! ontog5y ( ,e*9od]ma to _! phylog5y1 !n ! :ole hi/orical developm5t ( ! ,/>-fi%es sudd5ly becomes cle> & intelligible to u1 :]eas )\t ?is hypo!sis x rema9s an insoluble my/]y4 7,comp>e ,g54 ,morph4 ii4 pp4 #ie-ii47 ,besides ! reasons m5tion$1 !re are _m o!r facts 7pr9cipally f ! comp>ative anatomy ( ,e*9od]ma7 :i* mo/ di/9ctly prove ! correctness ( my hypo!sis4 ,i e/abli%$ ?is hypo!sis 9 #ahff1 )\t hav+ any idea t fossil articulat$ worms /ill exi/$1 app>5tly answ]+ to ! hypo!tical prim>y =ms4 ,su* h 9 ! mean "t1 h[ev]1 really be5 discov]$4 ,9 a treatise 8,on ! ,equival5t ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,taconic ,s*i/ 9 ,g]many10#c ,ge9itz & ,liebe1 9 #ahfg1 h describ$ a numb] ( articulat$ ,silurian worms1 :i* completely confirm my suppositions4 ,numb]s ( ^! v rem>kable worms are f\nd 9 an excell5t /ate ( pres]vation 9 ! slates ( ,wrzba*1 9 ! upp] di/ricts ( ,reusz4 ,!y are ( ! same /ructure z ! articulat$ arm ( a ,/>-fi%1 & evid5tly possess$ a h>d coat ( mail1 a mu* d5s]1 m solid cutane\s skeleton ?an o!r worms 9 g5]al4 ,! numb] ( body-segm5ts1 or metam]a1 is v consid]able1 s t ! worms1 al?\gh no m ?an a qu>t] or half an in* 9 bread?1 atta9$ a l5g? ( f two to ?ree feet4 ,! excell5tly pres]v$ impressions1 especially ^? ( ! ,phyllodocites ?ur+iacus & ,crossopodia ,h5rici1 are s l ! arms ( _m ,/>-fi% 7,cola/ra7 t _! true blood relation%ip seems v probable4 ,?is primval gr\p ( worms1 :i* are mo/ probably ! ance/ors ( ,/>-fi%1 ,i call ,mail$ worms 7,phrac!lm9!s1 p4 #aej47 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 viii4 ,,/> ,,fi%es4 ,,fir/ ,,g5]ation4 ,,worm ,,p]son4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ix4 ,,/> ,,fi%es4 ,,second ,,g5]ation4 ,,worm ,,/ock4 ,! ?ree o!r classes ( ,e*9od]ma evid5tly arose at a lat] p]iod out ( ! class ( ,sea-/>s :i* h mo/ fai?fully reta9$ ! orig9al =m ( ! /ellate colony ( worms4 ,! ,sea-lilies1 or ,cr9oida1 diff] lea/ f !m1 b hav+ giv5 up ! free1 sl[ motion possess$ by o!r ,sea-/>s1 !y h become adh]5t to rocks1 etc41 & =m = !mselves a long /alk4 ,"s ,encr9ites1 h[ev] 7= example1 ! ,comatul1 ,fig4 ,b1 on ,plates ,,viii4 & ,,ix471 aft]w>ds deta* !mselves f _! /alk4 ,! orig9al worm individuals 9 ! ,cr9oida are inde$ no long] pres]v$ 9 ! same indep5d5t condition z 9 ! case ( ! common />-fi%2 b !y nev]!less always possess articulat$ arms ext5d+ f a common c5tral disc4 ,h5ce we may unite ! ,sea-lilies & ,sea-/>s into a ma9-class1 or bran*1 *>act]iz$ z possess+ articulat$ arms 7,colobra*ia74 ,9 ! o!r two classes ( ,e*9od]ma1 ! ,sea-ur*9s & ,sea-cucumb]s1 ! articulat$ arms are no long] pres5t z indep5d5t p>ts1 b1 by ! increas$ c5tralization ( ! /ock1 h completely fus$ s z to =m a common1 inflat$1 c5tral disc1 :i* n[ looks l a simple box or capsule )\t arms4 ,! orig9al /ock ( five individuals has app>5tly deg5]at$ to ! =m-value ( a simple individual1 a s+le p]son4 ,h5ce we may repres5t ^! two classes z a bran* *>act]iz$ z be+ )\t arms 7,lipobra*ia71 equival5t to ^? :i* possess articulat$ arms4 ,! fir/ ( ^! two classes1 t ( ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9ida7 takes its "n f ! num]\s & frequ5tly v l>ge ?orns :i* cov] ! h>d %ell1 :i* is itself arti/ically built up ( calc>e\s plates4 7,fig4 ,c1 ,plates ,,viii4 & ,,ix47 ,! fundam5tal =m ( ! %ell itself is a p5tagonal pyramid4 ,! ,sea-ur*9s probably develop$ directly out ( ! gr\p ( ,sea-/>s4 ,! diff]5t classes & ord]s ( m>9e lilies & />s :i* are giv5 9 ! foll[+ table1 illu/rate ! laws ( progress & diff]5tiation 9 a /rik+ mann]4 ,9 ea* succe$+ p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory we see ! individual classes cont9ually increas+ 9 v>iety & p]fection4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,iv47 ,! hi/ory ( ?ree ( ^! classes ( ,/>-fi% is v m9utely record$ by num]\s & excell5tly pres]v$ fossils1 b on ! o!r h&1 we "k almo/ no?+ ( ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! f\r? class1 t ( ! ,sea-cucumb]s 7,holo?uri74 ,^! curi\s sausage-%ap$ ,/>-fi% manife/ ext]nally a deceptive simil>ity to worms4 7,fig4 ,d1 ,plates ,,viii4 & ,,ix47 ,! skeletal /ructures 9 _! sk9 are v imp]fect1 & h5ce no di/9ct rema9s ( _! elongat$1 cyl9drical1 worm-l body c\ld be pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate4 ,h[ev]1 f ! comp>ative anatomy ( ! ,holo?uri1 we c inf] t !y h aris51 by ! s(t5+ ( ! cutane\s skeleton1 f memb]s ( ! class ( ,sea-ur*9s4 ,f ! ,/>-fi% we turn to ! fif? & mo/ highly develop$ tribe ( ! inv]tebrate animals1 namely1 ! phylum ( ,articulata1 or ^? ) jo9t$ feet 7,ar?ropoda74 ,z has already be5 rem>k$1 ?is tribe corresponds to ,l9nu' class ( ,insects4 ,x conta9s f\r classes3 7#a7 ! g5u9e six-legg$ ,insects1 or ,flies2 7#b7 ! eight-legg$ ,spid]s2 7#c7 ! ,c5tip$es1 ) num]\s pairs ( legs2 & 7#d7 ! ,crabs1 or ,cru/acea1 ^: legs v>y 9 numb]4 ,! la/ class brea! wat] ?r\gh gills1 & may !re=e be contra/$ z ! ma9-class ( gill-brea?+ ,ar?ropoda1 or ,gill$ ,insects 7,c>ides71 ) ! ?ree fir/ classes4 ,! latt] brea! air by means ( peculi> w9d-pipes1 or tra*e1 & may !re=e appropriately be unit$ to =m ! ma9-class ( ! tra*ea-brea?+ ,ar?ropoda1 or ,tra*eate ,insects 7,tra*eata74 ,9 all animals ) articulat$ feet1 z ! "n indicates1 ! legs are di/9ctly articulat$1 & by ?is1 z well z by ! /rong diff]5tiation ( ! sep>ate p>ts ( ! body1 or metam]a1 !y are %>ply di/+ui%$ f ,r+$ worms1 ) :i* ,br & ,cuvi] class$ !m4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 9 e respect s l ! ,r+$ worms t !y c sc>cely be consid]$ altoge!r di/9ct f !m4 ,!y1 l ! ,r+$ worms1 possess a v *>act]i/ic =m ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 ! s-call$ v5tral m>r[1 :i* comm5ces 9 a gullet-r+ encircl+ ! m\?4 ,f o!r facts also1 x is evid5t t ! ,ar?ropoda develop$ at a late p]iod out ( articulat$ worms4 ,probably ei!r ! ,:eel ,animalcules or ! ,r+$ worms are _! ne>e/ blood relations 9 ! ,worm tribe4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,v4 pp4 #he-ajb47 ,n[1 al?\gh ! d]ivation ( ! ,ar?ropoda f r+$ ,worms may be consid]$ z c]ta91 /ill x _c ) equal assurance be ma9ta9$ t ! :ole tribe ( ! =m] has aris5 out ( "o bran* ( ! latt]4 ,= sev]al reasons seem to support ! supposition t ! ,gill$ ,ar?ropods h develop$ out ( a bran* ( articulat$ worms1 diff]5t f t :i* gave rise to ! ,tra*eate ,ar?ropods4 ,b on ! :ole x rema9s m probable t bo? ma9-classes h aris5 out ( "o & ! same gr\p ( ,worms4 ,9 ?is case ! ,tra*eate ,insects--,spid]s1 ,flies1 & ,c5tip$es--mu/ h bran*$ (f at a lat] p]iod f ! gill-brea?+ ,insects1 or ,cru/acea4 ,! p$igree ( ! ,ar?ropoda c on ! :ole be cle>ly made out f ! palontology1 comp>ative anatomy1 & ontog5y ( its f\r classes1 al?\gh "h1 z ev]y:]e else1 _m details rema9 v obscure4 ,n until ! hi/ory ( ! individual developm5t ( all ! diff]5t gr\ps has become m accurately kn[n ?an x is at pres5t1 c ?is obscurity be remov$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! class ( ,gill$ ,insects1 or ,crabs 7,c>ides71 is at pres5t t be/ kn[n to u2 !y are also call$ encru/$ animals 7,cru/acea71 on acc\nt ( ! h>d cru/ or cov]+ ( _! body4 ,! ontog5y ( ^! animals is extremely int]e/+ &1 l t ( ,v]tebrate animals1 di/9ctly reveals ! ess5tial outl9es ( ! hi/ory ( _! tribe1 t is1 _! phylog5y4 ,fritz ,mll]1 9 8 "w1 8,fr ,d>w9107#af7 :i* has already be5 ref]r$ to1 has expla9$ ?is rem>kable s]ies ( facts 9 a v able mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,nauplius4 ,y\?-=m ( six ,crab-fi%4 ,pl4 ,x4 ,a4 ,limnetis4 ,b4 ,cyclops4 ,c4 ,l]nacoc]a4 ,d4 ,lepas4 ,e4 ,saccul9a4 ,f4 ,p5eus4 ,illu/ration3 ,adult =m ( ! same six ,crab-fi%4 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ,a4 ,limnetis4 ,b4 ,cyclops4 ,c4 ,l]nacoc]a4 ,d4 ,lepas4 ,e4 ,saccul9a4 ,f4 ,p5eus4 ,! common prim>y =m ( all ,crabs1 :i* 9 mo/ cases is ev5 n[ ! fir/ to develop out ( ! egg1 is orig9ally "o & ! same1 ! s-call$ ,nauplius4 ,?is rem>kable primval crab repres5ts a v simple =m ( articulat$ animal1 ! body ( :i* 9 g5]al has ! =m ( a r\ndi%1 oval1 or pe>-%ap$ disc1 & has on its v5tral side only ?ree pairs ( legs4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is unclov51 ! two subsequ5t pairs are =k$4 ,9 front1 above ! m\?1 lies a simple1 s+le eye4 ,al?\gh ! diff]5t ord]s ( ! ,cru/acean class diff] v widely f "o ano!r 9 ! /ructure ( _! body & its app5dages1 yet ! e>ly ,nauplius =m always rema9s ess5tially ! same4 ,9 ord] to be conv9c$ ( ?is1 let ! read] look att5tively at ,plates ,x4 & ,,xi41 a m detail$ explanation ( :i* is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,on ,plate ,,xi4 we see ! fully develop$ repres5tatives ( six diff]5t ord]s ( ,crabs1 a ,leaf-foot$ ,crab 7,limnetis1 ,fig4 ,a c72 a ,/alk$ ,crab 7,lepas1 ,fig4 ,d c72 a ,root ,crab 7,saccul9a1 ,fig4 ,e c72 a ,boatman ,crab 7,cyclops1 ,fig4 ,b c72 a ,fi% ,l\se 7,l]noc]a1 ,fig4 ,c c72 &1 la/ly1 a highly develop$ ,%rimp 7,p5eus1 ,fig4 ,f c74 ,^! six crabs v>y v mu*1 z we see1 9 ! entire =m ( body1 9 ! numb] & =mation ( ! legs1 etc4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we look at ! e>lie/ /ages1 or 8nauplius10 ( ^! six diff]5t classes1 aft] !y h crept out ( ! egg--^? m>k$ ) correspond+ lett]s on ,plate ,x4 7,fig4 ,a n-,f n7--we %all be surpris$ to f9d h[ mu* !y agree4 ,! diff]5t =ms ( ,nauplius ( ^! six ord]s diff] no m f "o ano!r ?an w\ld six diff]5t 8good species0 ( "o g5us4 ,consequ5tly1 we may ) assurance inf] a common d]ivation ( all ^? ord]s f a common ,primval ,crab1 :i* 0 ess5tially l ! ,nauplius ( ! pres5t day4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #g ,legions & #bj ,ord]s ( ,crabs1 or ,cru/acea4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,legions ( ! ,ord]s ( ! ,sy/ema ,"n ,"n ( a ,cru/ace4 ,cru/ace4 ( ! ,ord]s4 ,g5us z an example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i4 ,,entomo/raca1 ,l[] ,cru/acea1 or ,segm5t$ ,crabs 7n pass+ ?r\gh ! actual ,zoa =m 9 y\?74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,i4 ,bran*iopoda #a4 ,primval ,crabs #a4 ,ar*ic>ida ,nauplius ,gill-foot$ ,crabs #b4 ,leaf-foot ,crabs #b4 ,phyllopoda ,limnetis #c4 ,trilobites #c4 ,trilobita ,p>adoxides #d4 ,wat] ,fleas #d4 ,cladoc]a ,daphnia #e4 ,bivalve ,crabs #e4 ,o/racoda ,cypris ,,ii4 ,pecto/raca #f4 ,b>nacle ,crabs #f4 ,cirrip$ia ,lepas ,fix$ ,crabs #g4 ,root ,crabs #g4 ,rhizocephala ,saccul9a ,,iii4 ,copepoda #h4 ,boatm5 ,crabs #h4 ,eucopepoda ,cyclops ,o>-foot$ ,crabs #i4 ,fi% ,lice #i4 ,siphono/oma ,l]noc]a ,,iv4 ,pantopoda #aj4 ,no-body ,crabs #aj4 ,pycnogonida ,nymphon ,no-body ,crabs ,v4 ,pcilopoda #aa4 ,spe>-tails #aa4 ,xiphosura ,limulus ,%ield ,crabs #ab4 ,giant ,crabs #ab4 ,giganto/raca ,eurypt]us ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,ii4 ,,malaco/raca1 ,high] ,cru/acea1 or ,mail$ ,crabs 7pass+ ?r\gh ! ,zoa =m 9 y\?74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,vi4 ,podoph?alma #ac4 ,zoa ,crabs #ac4 ,zopoda ,zoa ,/alk-ey$ ,mail$ #ad4 ,split-legg$ ,crabs #ad4 ,s*izopoda ,mysis ,crabs #ae4 ,m\?-foot$ ,crabs #ae4 ,/omatopoda ,squilla #af4 ,t5-foot$ ,crabs #af4 ,decapoda ,p5eus ,,vii4 ,edrioph?alma #ag4 ,cuma ,crabs #ag4 ,cumacea ,cuma ,mail$ ,crabs ) #ah4 ,flea ,crabs #ah4 ,amphipoda ,gamm>us sessile eyes #ai4 ,wiz>d ,crabs #ai4 ,lmodipoda ,caprella #bj4 ,l\se ,crabs #bj4 ,isopoda ,oniscus ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,bra*yura ,isopoda ,lmodipoda ,anomura ,amphipoda -----v----_/ ,macrura ,decapoda ,/omatopoda ,cumacea ,edrioph?alma ----v----_/ ---------------------------v------------ _/ ,s*izopoda ,podoph?alma ,zopoda ,malaco/raca ,giganto/raca ,rhizocephala ,siphono/oma ,xiphosur ,zoa ,cirrip$i ,pecto/raca ------v------_/ ,pcilopoda ,nebali ,eucopepoda ,bel9ur ,copepoda ,pycnogonida ,pantopoda ,trilobita ,phyllopoda ,o/racoda ,cladoc] -----------------v-------_/ ---v---_/ ,bran*iopoda ----------------------v----------------- --------_/ ,nauplius ,ar*ic>id 7,articulat$ ,worms7 ,! p$igree on p4 #agg w %[ h[ we may at pres5t approximately conceive ! d]ivation ( ! tw5ty ord]s ( ,cru/acea enum]at$ on p4 #agf1 f ! common prim>y =m ( ! ,nauplius4 ,out ( ! ,nauplius =m--:i* orig9ally exi/$ z an indep5d5t g5us--! five legions ( l[] ,crabs develop$ z div]g+ bran*es 9 diff]5t directions1 :i* 9 ! sy/ematic survey ( ! class are unit$ z ,segm5t$ ,crabs 7,entomo/raca74 ,! high] division ( ,mail$ ,crabs 7,malaco/raca7 h likewise orig9at$ out ( ! common ,nauplius =m4 ,! ,nebalia is /ill a direct =m ( transition f ! ,phyllopods to ! ,s*izopods1 t is1 to ! prim>y =m ( ! /alk-ey$ & sessile-ey$ ,mail$ ,crabs4 ,! ,nauplius at ?is /age gives rise to ano!r l>va =m1 ! s-call$ ,zoa1 :i* is ( great importance4 ,! ord] ( ,s*izopoda1 ^? ) clov5 feet 7,mysis1 etc471 probably orig9at$ f ?is curi\s ,zoa2 !y are at pres5t /ill directly alli$1 ?r\gh ! ,nebalia to ! ,phyllopoda1 ^? ) foliace\s feet4 ,b ( all liv+ crabs ! ,phyllopods are ! mo/ closely alli$ to ! orig9al prim>y =m ( ! ,nauplius4 ,out ( ! ,s*izopoda ! /alk-ey$ & sessile-ey$ ,mail$ ,crabs1 or ,malaco/raca1 develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es 9 diff]5t directions3 ! =m] ?r\gh %rimps 7,p5eus1 etc471 ! latt] ?r\gh ! ,cumacea 7,cuma1 etc471 :i* are /ill liv+ & closely alli$ to ! ,s*izopoda4 ,among ^? ) /alk$ eyes is ! riv] crab 7cray-fi%71 ! lob/]1 & ! o!rs ) long tails1 or ! ,macrura1 out ( :i*1 9 ! *alk p]iod1 ! %ort-tail$ crabs1 or ,bra*yura1 develop$ by ! deg5]ation ( ! tail4 ,^? ) sessile eyes divide into ! two bran*es ( ,flea-crabs 7,amphipoda7 & ,l\se-crabs 7,isopoda72 among ! latt] are our common ,rock-slat]s & ,wood-lice4 ,! second ma9-class ( ,articulat$ animals1 t ( ! ,tra*eata1 or air-brea?+ ,tra*eate ,insects#d 7,spid]s1 ,c5tip$es1 & ,flies7 did n develop until ! beg9n+ ( ! paloli?ic era1 aft] ! close ( ! ar*ili?ic p]iod1 because all ^! animals 79 contra/ ) ! aquatic crabs7 are orig9ally inhabitants ( l&4 ,x is evid5t t ! ,tra*eata c h develop$ only aft] ! lapse ( ! ,silurian p]iod :5 t]re/rial life fir/ began4 ,b z fossil rema9s ( spid]s & insects h be5 f\nd1 ev5 9 ! c>bonif]\s b$s1 we c pretty accurately det]m9e ! "t ( _! orig94 ,! developm5t ( ! fir/ ,tra*eate ,insects out ( gill-be>+ ,zoa-crabs1 mu/ h tak5 place betwe5 ! end ( ! ,silurian & ! beg9n+ ( ! coal p]iod1 t is1 9 ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,geg5baur1 9 8 excell5t 8,outl9es ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy107#ba7 has lately endeav\r$ to expla9 ! orig9 ( ! ,tra*eata by an +5i\s hypo!sis4 ,! sy/em ( tra*e1 or air pipes1 & ! modifications ( organization dep5d5t ^u x1 di/+ui% ,flies1 ,c5tip$es1 & ,spid]s s mu* f o!r animals1 t ! conception ( its fir/ orig9 pres5ts no inconsid]able difficulties to phylog5y4 ,accord+ to ,geg5baur1 ( all liv+ ,tra*eate ,insects1 ! ,primval ,flies1 or ,ar*ipt]a1 are mo/ closely alli$ to ! common prim>y =m ( ! ,tra*eata4 ,^! insects--among :i* we may especially m5tion ! delicate ,day flies 7,ephem]a71 & ! agile dragon-flies 7,libellula7--9 _! e>lie/ y\?1 z l>v1 frequ5tly possess ext]nal tra*eate gills :i* lie 9 two r[s on ! back ( ! body1 & are %ap$ l a leaf or pa9t-bru%4 ,simil> leaf or pa9t-bru% %ap$ organs are met ) z real wat]-brea?+ organs or gills1 9 _m crabs & r+$ worms1 &1 moreov]1 9 ! latt] z real dorsal app5dages or limbs4 ,! 8tra*eate gills10 f\nd 9 ! l>v ( _m primval w+$ insects1 mu/ 9 all probability be expla9$ z 8dorsal limbs10 & z hav+ develop$ out ( ! correspond+ app5dages ( ! ,annelida1 or possibly z hav+ really aris5 out ( simil> p>ts 9 ,cru/acea long s9ce ext9ct4 ,! pres5t tra*eal respiration ( ! ,tra*eata develop$ at a lat] p]iod out ( respiration ?r\gh ! 8tra*eate gills40 ,! tra*eate gills !mselves1 h[ev]1 h 9 "s cases disappe>$1 & 9 o!rs become trans=m$ into ! w+s ( ! ,flies4 ,!y h disappe>$ entirely 9 ! classes ( ,spid]s & ,c5tip$es1 & ^! gr\ps mu/ accord+ly be conceiv$ ( z deg5]at$ or peculi>ly develop$ lat]al bran*es ( ! ,fly class1 :i* at an e>ly p]iod bran*$ (f f ! common prim>y =m ( ,flies2 ,spid]s probably did s at an e>li] p]iod ?an ,c5tip$es4 ,:e!r t common prim>y =m ( all ,tra*eata1 :i* 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology ,i h nam$ ,protra*eata1 did develop directly out ( g5u9e ,r+$ worms1 or at fir/ out ( ,cru/acea ( ! ,zoa =m 7,zopoda1 p4 #agg7 w probably be settl$ at "s future "t by a m accurate k & comp>ison ( ! ontog5y ( ! ,tra*eata1 ,cru/acea1 & ,annelida4 ,h[ev]1 ! root ( ! ,tra*eata1 z well z t ( ! ,cru/acea1 mu/ 9 any case be look$ = 9 ! gr\p ( ,r+$ worms4 ,! g5u9e ,spid]s 7,ara*nida7 are di/+ui%$ f ,flies by ! abs5ce ( w+s1 & by f\r pairs ( legs2 b1 z is di/9ctly se5 9 ! ,scorpion-spid]s & ,t>antul1 !y1 l ,flies1 possess 9 reality only ?ree pairs ( g5u9e legs4 ,! app>5t 8f\r? pair ( legs0 9 spid]s 7! =emo/7 are 9 reality a pair ( feel]s4 ,among ! /ill exi/+ ,spid]s1 !re is a small gr\p :i* is probably v closely alli$ to ! common prim>y =m ( ! :ole class2 ?is is ! ord] ( ,scorpion-spid]s1 or ,solifug1 7,solpuga1 ,galeodes71 ( :i* sev]al l>ge species live 9 ,africa & ,asia1 & are dread$ on acc\nt ( _! poison\s bite4 ,_! body consi/s--z we suppose to h be5 ! case 9 ! common ance/or ( ! ,tra*eata--( a head possess+ sev]al pairs ( feel]s l legs1 ( a ?orax1 to ! ?ree r+s ( :i* are atta*$ ?ree pairs ( legs1 & ( a h9d] body1 or abdom51 consi/+ ( _m di/9ct r+s4 ,9 ! articulation ( _! body1 ! ,solifug are !re=e 9 reality m closely relat$ to flies ?an to o!r spid]s4 ,out ( ! ,devonian ,primval ,spid]s1 :i* 7 ne>ly relat$ to ! ,solifug ( ! pres5t day1 ! ,long ,spid]s1 ! ,tailor ,spid]s1 & ! ,r\nd ,spid]s probably develop$ z ?ree div]g+ bran*es4 ,! ,long ,spid]s 7,ar?roga/res71 9 :i* ! e>li] articulation ( body has be5 bett] pres]v$ ?an 9 ,r\nd ,spid]s1 appe> to be ! old] & m orig9al =ms4 ,! mo/ important memb]s ( ?is sub-class are ! scorpions1 :i* are connect$ ) ! ,solifug ?r\gh ! ,t>antella 7or ,phrynid74 ,! small book scorpions1 :i* inhabit our libr>ies & h]b>iums1 appe> z a deg5]ate lat]al bran* f ! true scorpions4 ,midway betwe5 ! ,scorpions & ,r\nd ,spid]s are ! long-legg$ ,tailor-spid]s 7,opiliones7 :i* h possibly aris5 out ( a special bran* ( ! ,solifug4 ,! ,pycnogonida1 or ,no-body ,crabs1 & ! ,arctisca1 or ,be> ,worms--/ill g5]ally includ$ among ,long ,spid]s--mu/ be completely exclud$ f ! class ( ,spid]s2 ! =m] belong to ! ,cru/acea1 ! latt] to ,r+$ worms4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #c ,classes & #ag ,ord]s ( ! ,tra*eata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,classes ( ! ,sub-,classes ( ! ,ord] ( ! ,two ,names ( ,tra*eata4 ,tra*eata4 ,tra*eata4 ,g5]a z examples4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #a4 ,scorpion spid]s ,solpuga ,solifug ,galeodes #b4 ,t>antella ,phrynus ,phrynida ,!lyphonus ,i4 ,i4 ,long spid]s #c4 ,scorpions ,scorpio ,spid]s ,ar?roga/res ,scorpioda ,bu?us ,ara*nida #d4 ,book scorpions ,obisium ,pseudoscorpioda ,*elif] #e4 ,tailor spid]s ,phalangium ,opilionida ,opilio ,,ii4 #f4 ,sp9n+ spid]s ,epeira ,r\nd spid]s ,arane ,mygale ,sphroga/res #g4 ,mites ,s>coptes ,ac>ida ,demodex ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,c5tip$es ,simple-foot$ #h4 ,simple-foot$ ,scolop5dra ,*ilopoda ,*ilopoda ,geophilus ,scolop5dria ,,iv4 #i4 ,d\ble-foot$ ,julus or ,d\ble-foot$ ,diplopoda ,polydesmus ,myriapoda ,diplopoda #aj4 ,primitive flies ,ephem]a ,ar*ipt]a ,libellula #aa4 ,gauze-w+s ,hem]obius ,neuropt]a ,phryganea ,v4 ,*ew+ #ab4 ,/raight-w+s ,locu/a ,ma/icantia ,or?opt]a ,=ficula ,,iii4 #ac4 ,beetles ,cic9dela ,flies ,coleopt]a ,melolon?a ,hexapoda #ad4 ,bee-w+s ,apis ,hym5opt]a ,=mica #ae4 ,bugs ,aphis ,,vi4 ,hemipt]a ,cimex ,suck+ ,sug5tia #af4 ,two-w+s ,culex ,dipt]a ,musca #ag4 ,butt]flies ,bombyx ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,butt]flies ,lepidopt]a ,bees ,two-w+s ,hym5opt]a ,dipt]a ,beetles ,bugs ,coleopt]a -------v-----_/ ,hemipt]a ,gauze w+s ,/raight-w+s ,neuropt]a -------v------_/ ,or?opt]a ----------------------v----------------- ------------_/ ,primval ,flies ,ar*ipt]a ,scorpions ,d\ble-foot$ ,scorpioda ,diplopoda ,tailor ,spid]s ,opiliones ,book ,scorpions ,mites ,pseudoscorpioda ,ac>ida -----v-----_/ ,t>antella ,weav+ ,spid]s ,phrynida ,simple-foot$ ,arane ,*ilopoda ,c5tip$es ,myriapoda -------------v--------_/ ,scorpion ,spid]s ,solifug ,spid]s4 ,ara*nida ,flies ,insecta ,hexapoda --------------------v------------------- --_/ ,prim>y ,air-brea?+ ,ar?ropods ,protra*eata ,articulat$ ,worms ,coelm9!s ,fossil rema9s ( ,long ,spid]s are f\nd 9 ! ,coal4 ,! second sub-class ( ! ,ara*nida1 ! ,r\nd ,spid]s 7,sphroga/res71 fir/ appe> 9 ! fossil /ate 9 ! ,jura1 t is1 at a v mu* lat] p]iod4 ,!y h develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! ,solifuga1 by ! r+s ( ! body becom+ m & m unit$ ) "o ano!r4 ,9 ! true ,sp9n+ ,spid]s 7,arane71 :i* we admire on acc\nt ( _! delicate skill 9 weav+1 ! union ( ! jo9ts ( ! trunk1 or metam]a1 goes s f>1 t ! trunk n[ consi/s ( only two pieces1 ( a head-brea/ 7cephalo-?orax7 ) jaws1 feel]s1 & f\r pairs ( legs1 & ( a h9d] body )\t app5dages1 :]e ! sp9n+ w>ts are plac$4 ,9 ,mites 7,ac>ida71 :i* h probably aris5 by deg5]ation 7especially by p>asitism7 out ( a lat]al bran* ( ,sp9n+ ,spid]s1 ev5 ^! two trunk pieces h become unit$ & n[ =m an unsegm5t$ mass4 ,! class ( ,scolop5dria1 ,myriapoda1 or ,c5tip$es1 ! smalle/ & poore/ 9 =ms ( ! f\r classes ( ,ar?ropoda1 is *>act]iz$ by a v elongat$ body1 l t ( a segm5t$ ,r+$ worm1 & (t5 possesses m ?an a hundr$ pairs ( legs4 ,b ^! animals also orig9ally develop$ out ( a six-legg$ =m ( ,tra*eata1 z is di/9ctly prov$ by ! individual developm5t ( ! millip$e 9 ! egg4 ,_! embryos h at fir/ only ?ree pairs ( legs1 l g5u9e insects1 & only at a lat] p]iod d ! po/]ior pairs ( legs bud1 "o by "o1 f ! gr[+ r+s ( ! h9d] body4 ,( ! two ord]s ( ,c5tip$es 7:i* 9 our c\ntry live "u b>ks ( trees1 9 moss1 etc47 ! r\nd1 d\ble-foot$ ones 7,diplopoda7 probably did n develop until a lat] p]iod out ( ! old] flat1 s+le-foot$ ones 7,*ilopoda71 by successive pairs ( r+s ( ! body unit+ toge!r4 ,fossil rema9s ( ! ,*ilopoda are fir/ met ) 9 ! ,jura p]iod4 ,! ?ird & la/ class ( ! ,ar?ropoda brea?+ ?r\gh tra*e1 is t ( ! ,flies1 or ,insects1 9 ! n>r[ s5se ( ! ^w 7,insecta1 or ,hexapoda71 ! l>ge/ ( all classes ( animals1 & next to t ( ,mammalia1 also ! mo/ important4 ,al?\gh ,flies develop a great] v>iety ( g5]a & species ?an all o!r animals tak5 toge!r1 yet ^! are all 9 reality only sup]ficial v>iations ( a s+le type1 :i* is entirely & con/antly pres]v$ 9 its ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,9 all ,flies ! ?ree divisions ( ! trunk--head1 brea/ 7?orax71 & h9d] body are q di/9ct4 ,! h9d] body1 or abdom51 z 9 ! case ( spid]s1 has no articulat$ app5dages4 ,! c5tral division1 ! brea/ or ?orax1 has on its v5tral side ?ree pairs ( legs1 on its back two pairs ( w+s4 ,x is true t1 9 v _m ,flies1 "o or bo? pairs ( w+s h become r$uc$ 9 size or h ev5 entirely disappe>$2 b ! comp>ative anatomy ( ,flies di/9ctly %[s t ?is defici5cy has aris5 only gradually by ! deg5]ation ( ! w+s1 & t all ! ,flies exi/+ at pres5t are d]iv$ f a common1 prim>y ,fly1 :i* possess$ ?ree pairs ( legs & two pairs ( w+s4 7,comp>e p4 #bef47 ,^! w+s1 :i* s /rik+ly di/+ui% ,flies f all o!r ,ar?ropoda1 probably arose1 z has be5 already %[n1 out ( ! tra*eate gills :i* may /ill be obs]v$ 9 ! l>v ( ! ephem]al flies 7,ephem]a7 :i* live 9 wat]4 ,! head ( ,flies univ]sally possesses1 besides ! eyes1 a pair ( articulat$ feel]s1 or ant5n1 & also ?ree jaws ^u ea* side ( ! m\?4 ,^! ?ree pairs ( jaws1 al?\gh !y h aris5 9 all ,flies f ! same orig9al basis1 by diff]5t k9ds ( adaptation1 h become *ang$ to v v>i$ & rem>kable =ms 9 ! v>i\s ord]s1 & are !re=e employ$ = di/+ui%+ & *>act]iz+ ! ma9 divisions ( ! class4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we may di/+ui% two ma9 divisions1 namely1 ,flies ) *ew+ m&ibles 7,ma/icantia7 & ,flies ) suck+ m\?s 7,sug5tia74 ,on a clos] exam9ation ea* ( ^! two divisions may aga9 be divid$ into two sub-gr\ps4 ,among *ew+ ,flies1 or ,ma/icantia1 we may di/+ui% ! bit+ & ! lick+ ones4 ,bit+ flies 7,mord5tia7 comprise ! mo/ anci5t & primval w+$ ,flies1 ! gauzy-w+$ 7,neuropt]a71 /raight-w+$ 7,or?opt]a71 & beetles 7,coleopt]a74 ,lick+ flies 7,lamb5tia7 are repres5t$ by ! "o ord] ( sk9-w+$ 7,hym5opt]a7 ,flies4 ,we di/+ui% two gr\ps ( ,suck+ ,flies1 or ,sug5tia1 namely1 ^? :i* prick & ^? :i* sip4 ,!re are two ord]s ( prick+ ,flies 7,pung5tia71 ^? ) half w+s 7,hemipt]a7 & gnats & bl[-flies 7,dipt]a72 butt]flies are ! only sipp+ ,flies 7,sorb5tia71 ,lepidopt]a4 ,bit+ ,flies1 & inde$ ! ord] ( ,primval ,flies 7,ar*ipt]a1 or ,pseudoneuropt]a7 are ne>e/ ak9 to ! /ill liv+ ,flies1 & include ! mo/ anci5t ( all ,flies1 ! prim>y =ms ( ! :ole class 7h5ce also ^? ( all ,tra*eata74 ,among !m are1 fir/ ( all1 ! ,ephem]al ,flies 7,ephem]a7 ^: l>v :i* live 9 wat]1 9 all probability /ill %[ u 9 _! tra*e-gills ! organs out ( :i* ! w+s ( ,flies 7 orig9ally develop$4 ,?is ord] fur!r conta9s ! well kn[n dragon-flies1 or ,libellula1 ! w9e-glass sug> mites 7,lepisma71 ! hopp+ ,flies ) bladd]-l feet 7,physopoda71 & ! dread$ ,t]mites1 fossil rema9s ( :i* are f\nd ev5 9 coal4 ,! ord] ( ,gauze-w+$ ,flies 7,neuropt]a71 probably develop$ directly out ( ! primval ,flies1 :i* diff] f !m only by _! p]fect s]ies ( trans=mations4 ,among !m are ! gauze-flies 7,planip5nia71 caddis-flies 7,phryganida71 & fan-flies 7,/repsipt]a74 ,fossil ,flies1 :i* =m ! transition f ! primval ,flies 7,libellula7 to ! gauze-w+$ 7,sialid71 are f\nd ev5 9 coal 7,dictyophylebia74 ,! ord] ( ,/raight-w+$ ,flies 7,or?opt]a7 develop$ at an e>ly p]iod out ( ano!r bran* ( ! primval ,flies by diff]5tiation ( ! two pairs ( w+s4 ,?is division is compos$ ( "o gr\p ) a great v>iety ( =ms--cockroa*es1 gras%opp]s1 crickets1 etc4 7,ulonata7--& ( a small] gr\p consi/+ only ( ! well-kn[n e>wigs 7,labidura71 :i* are *>act]is$ by nipp]s at ! h9d] end ( _! bodies4 ,fossil rema9s ( cockroa*es1 z well z ( crickets & gras%opp]s1 h be5 f\nd 9 coal4 ,fossil rema9s ( ! f\r? ord] ( ,bit+ ,flies1 beetles 7,coleopt]a7 likewise occur 9 coal4 ,?is extremely compreh5sive ord]--! fav\rite "o ( amateurs & collectors--%[s m cle>ly ?an any o!r :at inf9ite v>iety ( =ms c be develop$ ext]nally by adaptation to diff]5t conditions ( life1 )\t ! int]nal /ructure & ! orig9al =m ( ! body be+ 9 any way ess5tially *ang$4 ,beetles h probably develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! /raight-w+$ ,flies1 f :i* !y diff] only 9 _! trans=mations 7l>va1 pupa1 etc474 ,! "o ord] ( ,lick+ ,flies1 namely1 ! int]e/+ gr\p ( ! ,bees1 or ,sk9-w+$ ,flies 7,hym5opt]a71 is closely alli$ to ! f\r ord]s ( bit+ ,flies4 ,among !m are ^? ,flies :i* h ris5 to su* an a/oni%+ degree ( m5tal developm5t1 ( intellectual p]fection1 & /r5g? ( "*1 by _! ext5sive division ( lab\r1 =mation ( communities & /ates1 & surpass 9 ?is n m]ely mo/ inv]tebrate animals1 b ev5 mo/ animals 9 g5]al4 ,?is may be said especially ( all ants & bees1 also ( wasps1 leaf-wasps1 wood-wasps1 gall-wasps1 etc4 ,!y are fir/ met ) 9 a fossil /ate 9 ! oolites1 b !y d n appe> 9 great] numb]s until ! t]ti>y p]iod4 ,probably ^! insects develop$ ei!r out ( a bran* ( ! primval ,flies or ! gauze-w+$ ,flies4 ,( ! two ord]s ( ,prick+ ,flies 7,hemipt]a & ,dipt]a71 t conta9+ ! ,half-w+$ ,flies 7,hemipt]a71 also call$ ,beak$ ,flies 7,rhyn*ota71 is ! old] ( ! two4 ,x includes ?ree sub-ord]s1 viz41 ! leaf-lice 7,homopt]a71 ! bugs 7,het]opt]a71 & lice 7,p$icul9a74 ,fossil rema9s ( ! fir/ two classes are f\nd 9 ! oolites2 b an anci5t ,fly 7,eug]eon7 is f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian sy/em1 & seems to indicate ! d]ivation ( ! ,hemipt]a f ! ,neuropt]a4 ,probably ! mo/ anci5t ( ! ?ree sub-ord]s ( ! ,hemipt]a are ! ,homopt]a1 among :i*1 besides ! actual leaf-lice1 are ! %ield-lice1 leaf-fleas1 & leaf-crickets1 or ,cicad4 ,lice h probably develop$ out ( two diff]5t bran*es ( ,homopt]a1 by cont9u$ deg5]ation 7especially by ! loss ( w+s72 bugs1 on ! o!r h&1 by ! p]fect+ & diff]5tiation ( ! two pairs ( w+s4 ,! second ord] ( prick+ flies1 namely1 ! ,two-w+$ ,flies 7,dipt]a71 are also f\nd 9 a fossil /ate 9 ! oolites1 toge!r ) ,half-w+$ ,flies2 b !y probably develop$ out ( ! ,hemipt]a by ! deg5]ation ( ! h9d w+s4 ,9 ,dipt]a ! =e w+s alone h rema9$ p]fect4 ,! pr9cipal portion ( ?is ord] consi/s ( ! elongat$ gnats 7,nemoc]a7 & ( ! compact bl[-flies & h\se-flies 7,bra*yc]a71 ! =m] ( :i* are probably ! old] ( ! two4 ,h[ev]1 rema9s ( bo? are f\nd 9 ! oolitic p]iod4 ,! two small gr\ps ( lice-flies 7,pupip>a7 =m+ *rysales1 & ! hopp+-fleas 7,aphanipt]a71 probably develop$ out ( ! ,dipt]a by deg5]ation result+ f p>asitism4 ,! eigh? & la/ ord] ( ,flies1 & at ! same "t ! only "o ) m\?-p>ts adapt$ to sipp+ liquids1 consi/s ( mo?s & butt]flies 7,lepidopt]a74 ,?is ord] appe>s1 9 sev]al morphological respects1 to be ! mo/ p]fect class ( ,flies1 & accord+ly 0 ! la/ to develop4 ,= we only "k ( fossil rema9s ( ?is ord] f ! t]ti>y p]iod1 :]eas ! ?ree prec$+ ord]s ext5d back to ! oolites1 & ! f\r bit+ ord]s ev5 to ! coal p]iod4 ,! close relation%ip betwe5 "s mo?s 7,t9e7 & 7,noctu71 & "s caddis-flies 7,phryganida7 r5d]s x probable t butt]flies h develop$ f ?is gr\p1 t is1 out ( ! ord] ( ,gauze-w+$ ,flies1 or ,neuropt]a4 ,! :ole hi/ory ( ,flies1 &1 moreov]1 ! hi/ory ( ! :ole tribe ( ,ar?ropoda1 ess5tially confirms ! great laws ( diff]5tiation & p]fect+ :i*1 accord+ to ,d>w9's !ory ( selection1 mu/ be consid]$ z ! necess>y results ( ,natural ,selection4 ,! :ole tribe1 s ri* 9 =ms1 beg9s 9 ! ,ar*ili?ic p]iod ) ! class ( ,crabs brea?+ by gills1 & ) ! l[e/ ,primval ,crabs1 or ,ar*ic>id4 ,! =m ( ^! ,primval ,crabs1 :i* 7 develop$ out ( segm5t$ worms1 is /ill approximately pres]v$ by ! rem>kable ,nauplius1 9 ! common l>val /age ( s _m ,crabs4 ,out ( ! ,nauplius1 at a lat] p]iod1 ! curi\s ,zoa 0 develop$1 :i* is ! common l>val =m ( all ! high] or mail$ crabs 7,malaco/raca71 &1 at ! same "t1 possibly ( t ,ar?opod :i* at fir/ brea!d ?r\gh tra*e1 & became ! common ance/or ( all ,tra*eata4 ,?is ,devonian ance/or1 :i* mu/ h orig9at$ betwe5 ! end ( ! ,silurian & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,coal p]iod1 0 probably mo/ closely relat$ to ! /ill liv+ ,primval ,flies1 or ,ar*ipt]a4 ,out ( ^! !re develop$1 z ! ma9 tribe ( ! ,tra*eata1 ! class ( ,flies1 f ! l[e/ /age ( :i* ! spid]s & c5tip$es sep>at$ z two div]g+ bran*es4 ,?r\gh\t a long p]iod !re exi/$ only ! f\r bit+ ord]s ( ,flies--! ,primval flies1 ,gauze-w+s1 ,/raight-w+s1 & ! ,beetles1 ! fir/ ( :i* is probably ! common prim>y =m ( ! ?ree o!rs4 ,x 0 only at a mu* lat] p]iod t ! ,lick+1 ,prick+1 & ,sipp+ flies develop$ out ( ! ,bit+ ones1 :i* reta9$ ! orig9al =m ( ! ?ree pairs ( jaws mo/ di/9ctly4 ,! foll[+ table w %[ once m h[ ^! ord]s succe$$ "o ano!r 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,,classification ,,( ,,flies4 #a4 ,primval w+$ ,m4,i4 ,ar*ipt]a ,a4,a4 ,i4 #b4 ,gauze-w+$ ,m4,c4 ,a4 ,bit+ ,flies ,neuropt]a ,a4,a4 ,flies ,mord5tia #c4 ,/raight-w+$ ,m4,i4 ) ,*ew+ ,or?opt]a ,a4,d4 ,m\?s #d4 ,beetles ,m4,c4 ,ma/icantia ,coleopt]a ,a4,d4 ,,ii4 #e4 ,sk9-w+$ ,m4,c4 ,lick+ ,flies ,hym5opt]a ,a4,a4 ,lamb5tia #f4 ,half-w+$ ,m4,i4 ,,iii4 ,hemipt]a ,a4,a4 ,b4 ,/++ ,flies ,flies #g4 ,tway-flies ,m4,c4 ) ,suck+ ,pung5tia ,dipt]a ,a4,d4 ,m\?s ,sug5tia ,,iv4 #h4 ,butt]flies ,m4,c4 ,sipp+ ,flies ,lepidopt]a ,a4,a4 ,sorb5tia ,note4--,! diff]5ce 9 ! metamorphosis or trans=mation & 9 ! developm5t ( ! w+s ( ! eight individual ord]s ( ,flies is also specifi$ by ! foll[+ lett]s3 ,m4,i4 ,imp]fect ,metamorphosis4 ,m4,c4 ,p]fect ,metamorphosis4 7,comp>e ,g54 ,morph4 ii4 p4 #ii47 ,a4,a4 ,equal w+s 7=e & h9d] w+s are ! same1 or diff] b little74 ,a4,d4 ,unequal w+s 7=e & h9d] w+s v diff]5t 9 /ructure & texture1 occasion$ by /rong diff]5tiation74 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,iii4 ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,! ,records ( ! ,creation ( ,v]tebrate ,animals 7,comp>ative ,anatomy1 ,embryology1 & ,palontology74--,! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,v]tebrate ,animals4--,! ,f\r ,classes ( ,v]tebrate ,animals1 accord+ to ,l9nu & ,lam>ck4--,_! increase to ,n9e ,classes4--,ma9 ,class ( ! ,tube-he>t$1 or ,skull-less ,animals 7! ,lancelet74--,blood ,relation%ip betwe5 ! ,skull-less ,fi% & ! ,tunicates4--,agreem5t 9 ! ,embryological ,developm5t ( ,amphioxus & ,ascidi4--,orig9 ( ! ,v]tebrate ,tribe out ( ! ,worm ,tribe4--,ma9 ,class ( ,s+le-no/ril$1 or ,r\nd-m\!d ,animals 7,hag & ,lampreys74--,ma9 ,class ( ,anamnionate ,animals1 devoid ( ,amnion4--,fi%es 7,primval ,fi%1 ,c>tilag9\s ,fi%1 ,osse\s ,fi%74--,mud-fi%1 or ,dipneu/a4--,sea ,dragons1 or ,halisauria4--,frogs & ,salam&]s1 or ,amphibia 7,mail$ ,amphibia1 ,nak$ ,amphibia74--,ma9 ,class ( ,amnionate ,animals1 or ,amniota4--,reptiles 7,prim>y ,reptiles1 ,liz>ds1 ,s]p5ts1 ,crocodiles1 ,tortoises1 ,fly+-,reptiles1 ,dragons1 ,beak$ ,reptiles74--,birds 7,fea!r-tail$1 ,fan-tail$1 ,bu%-tail$74 ,n "o ( ! natural gr\ps ( organisms--:i*1 we h designat$ z tribes1 or phyla1 on acc\nt ( ! blood-relation%ip ( all ! species includ$ 9 !m--is ( su* great & exce$+ importance z ! tribe ( ,v]tebrate ,animals4 ,=1 accord+ to ! unanim\s op9ion ( all zoologi/s1 man also is a memb] ( ! tribe2 & 8 :ole organization & developm5t _c possibly be di/+ui%$ f t ( o!r ,v]tebrate animals4 ,b z f ! individual hi/ory ( human developm5t1 we h already recogniz$ ! und5iable fact t1 9 develop+ out ( ! egg1 man at fir/ does n diff] f o!r ,v]tebrate animals1 & especially f ,mammals1 we mu/ necess>ily come to ! conclusion1 9 reg>d to ! palontological hi/ory ( 8 developm5t1 t man has1 hi/orically1 actually develop$ out ( ! l[] ,v]tebrata1 & t he is directly d]iv$ f l[] mammals4 ,?is circum/ance1 toge!r ) ! _m high int]e/s :i*1 9 o!r respects1 entitle ! ,v]tebrata to m consid]ation ?an o!r organisms1 ju/ifies u 9 exam9+ ! p$igree ( ! ,v]tebrata & its expression 9 ! natural sy/em1 ) special c>e4 ,=tunately1 ! records ( creation1 :i* mu/ 9 all cases be our guide 9 e/abli%+ p$igrees1 are especially complete 9 ?is important animal tribe1 f :i* our own race has aris54 ,ev5 at ! beg9n+ ( our c5tury ,cuvi]'s comp>ative anatomy & palontology1 & ,br's ontog5y ( ! ,v]tebrate animals1 _h br\ght u to a high level ( accurate k on ?is matt]4 ,s9ce !n x is especially due to ,johannes ,mll]'s & ,ra?ke's inve/igations 9 comp>ative anatomy1 & mo/ rec5tly to ^? ( ,geg5baur & ,huxley1 t our k ( ! natural relation%ips among ! diff]5t gr\ps ( ,v]tebrata has become enl>g$4 ,x is especially ,geg5baur's classical works1 p5etrat$ z !y are ?r\gh\t ) ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 :i* h demon/rat$ t ! mat]ial ( comp>ative anatomy receives its true importance & value only by ! application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 & ?is 9 ! case ( all animals1 b especially 9 t 9 ! ,v]tebrate tribe4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e else1 analogies mu/ be trac$ to ,adaptation1 homologies to ,transmission by ,inh]itance4 ,:5 we see t ! limbs ( ! mo/ diff]5t ,v]tebrata1 9 spite ( _! exce$+ly diff]5t ext]nal =ms1 nev]!less possess ess5tially ! same int]nal /ructure2 :5 we see t 9 ! arm ( a man & ape1 9 ! w+ ( a man or a bird1 9 ! brea/ f9s ( :ales & sea-dragons1 9 ! =e-legs ( ho($ animals & frogs1 ! same bones always lie 9 ! same *>act]i/ic position1 articulation & connection--we c only expla9 ?is wond]ful agreem5t & homology by ! supposition ( a common transmission by inh]itance f a s+le prim>y =m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /rik+ diff]5ces ( ^! homolog\s bodily p>ts proce$ f adaptation to diff]5t conditions ( exi/5ce4 7,comp>e ,plate ,,iv47 ,ontog5y1 or ! individual hi/ory ( developm5t1 l comp>ative anatomy1 is ( especial importance to ! p$igree ( ! ,v]tebrata4 ,! fir/ /ages ( developm5t aris+ out ( ! egg are ess5tially id5tical 9 all ,v]tebrate animals1 & reta9 _! agreem5t ! long]1 ! ne>] ! respective ,v]tebrate animal =ms1 :5 fully develop$1 /& to "o ano!r 9 ! natural sy/em1 t is1 9 ! p$igree4 ,h[ f> ?is agreem5t ( g]m =ms1 or embryos1 ext5ds1 ev5 9 ! mo/ highly develop$ ,v]tebrate animals1 ,i h already _h occasion to expla9 7vol i4 pp4 #cjf-cji74 ,! complete agreem5t 9 =m & /ructure1 = example1 9 ! embryos ( a man & a dog1 ( a bird & a tortoise1 exi/+ 9 ! /ages ( developm5t repres5t$ on ,plates ,,ii4 & ,,iii41 is a fact ( incalculable importance1 & furni%es u ) ! mo/ important data = ! con/ruction ( _! p$igree4 ,f9ally1 ! palontological records ( creation are also ( especial value 9 ! case ( ^! same ,v]tebrate animals2 = _! fossil rema9s belong = ! mo/ "p to ! bony skeleton1 a sy/em ( organs :i* is ( ! utmo/ importance = und]/&+ _! g5]al organization4 ,x is true t "h1 z 9 all o!r cases1 ! fossil records are exce$+ly imp]fect & incomplete1 b m important rema9s ( ext9ct ,v]tebrate animals h be5 pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate1 ?an ( mo/ o!r gr\ps ( animals2 & s+le fragm5ts frequ5tly furni% ! mo/ important h9ts z to ! relation%ip & ! hi/orical succession ( ! gr\ps4 ,! "n ( ,v]tebrate ,animals 7,v]tebrata71 z ,i h already said1 orig9at$ ) ! great ,lam>ck1 :o t[>ds ! end ( ! la/ c5tury compris$ "u ?is "n1 ,l9nu' f\r high] classes ( animals1 viz4 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,amphibi\s animals1 & ,fi%es1 ,l9nu' two l[] classes1 ,insects & ,worms1 ,lam>ck contra/$ to ! ,v]tebrata z ,inv]tebrata1 lat] also call$ ,ev]tebrata4 ,! division ( ! ,v]tebrata into ! f\r classes above nam$ 0 reta9$ also by ,cuvi] & 8 foll[]s1 & 9 consequ5ce by _m zoologi/s d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,b 9 #ahbb ,blanville1 ! di/+ui%$ anatomi/1 f\nd out by comp>ative anatomy--:i* ,br did almo/ at ! same "t f ! ontog5y ( ,v]tebrata--t ,l9nu' class ( ,amphibi\s animals 0 an unnatural union ( two v diff]5t classes4 ,^! two classes 7 sep>at$ z e>ly z #ahbj1 by ,m]r91 z two ma9 gr\ps ( ,amphibi\s animals1 "u ! names ( ,pholidota & ,batra*ia4 ,! ,batra*ia1 :i* are at pres5t 79 a re/rict$ s5se7 call$ ,amphibi\s animals1 comprise ,frogs1 ,salam&]s1 gill$ ,salam&]s1 ,ccilia1 & ! ext9ct ,labyr9?odonta4 ,_! entire organization is closely alli$ to t ( ,fi%es4 ,! ,pholidota1 or ,reptiles1 on ! o!r h&1 are mu* m closely alli$ to ,birds4 ,!y comprise liz>ds1 s]p5ts1 crocodiles1 & tortoises1 & ! gr\ps ( ! mesoli?ic ,dragons1 ,fly+ reptiles1 etc4 ,9 con=mity ) ?is natural division ( ,amphibi\s animals into two classes1 ! :ole tribe ( ,v]tebrate animals 0 divid$ into two ma9 gr\ps4 ,! fir/ ma9 gr\p1 conta9+ ,amphibi\s animals & ,fi%es1 brea! ?r\gh\t _! lives1 or 9 e>ly life1 by means ( gills1 & are !re=e call$ gill$ ,v]tebrata 7,bran*iata1 or ,anallantoida74 ,! second ma9 gr\p--,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals--brea! at no p]iod ( _! lives ?r\gh gills1 b exclusively ?r\gh lungs1 & h5ce may appropriately be call$ ,gill-less1 or ,v]tebrata ) lungs 7,abran*iata1 or ,allantoida74 ,h[ev] correct ?is di/9ction may be1 /ill we _c rema9 satisfi$ ) x if we wi% to arrive at a true natural sy/em ( ! v]tebrate tribe1 & at a "r und]/&+ ( its p$igree4 ,9 ?is case1 z ,i h %[n 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology1 we are oblig$ to di/+ui% ?ree o!r classes ( ,v]tebrate animals1 by divid+ :at has hi!rto be5 reg>d$ z ! class ( fi%es into f\r di/9ct classes4 7,g54 ,morph4 vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,vii4 pp4 #aaf-afj47 ,! fir/ & l[e/ ( ^! classes comprises ! ,skull-less animals 7,acrania71 or animals ) tubul> he>ts 7,leptoc>dia71 ( :i* only "o repres5tative n[ exi/s1 namely1 ! rem>kable little ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus74 ,ne>ly alli$ to ?is is ! second class1 t ( ! ,s+le-no/ril$ animals 7,monorrh9a71 or ,r\nd-m\!d animals 7,cyclo/oma71 :i* includes ! ,hags 7,myx9oida7 & ,lampreys 7,petromyzonta74 ,! ?ird class conta9s only ! g5u9e ,fi% 7,pisces73 ! ,mud-fi%es 7,dipneu/a7 are add$ to ^! z a f\r? class1 & =m ! transition f ,fi% to ,amphibi\s animals4 ,?is di/9ction1 :i*1 z w be se5 imm$iately1 is v important = ! g5ealogy ( ! ,v]tebrate animals1 increases ! orig9al numb] ( ,v]tebrate classes f f\r to eight4 ,9 mo/ rec5t times a n9? class ( ,v]tebrata has be5 add$ to ^! eight classes4 ,geg5baur's rec5tly publi%$ inve/igations 9 comp>ative anatomy prove t ! rem>kable class ( ,sea-dragons 7,halisauria71 :i* h hi!rto be5 includ$ among ,reptiles1 mu/ be consid]$ q di/9ct f ^!1 & z a sep>ate class :i* bran*$ (f f ! ,v]tebrate /ock1 ev5 be=e ! ,amphibi\s animals4 ,to x belong ! celebrat$ l>ge ,i*?yosauri & ,plesiosauri ( ! oolitic & *alk p]iods1 & ! old] ,simosauri ( ! ,trias p]iod1 all ( :i* are m closely alli$ to ,fi% ?an to ,amphibi\s animals4 ,^! n9e classes ( ,v]tebrate animals are1 h[ev]1 by no means ( ! same g5ealogical value4 ,h5ce we mu/ divide !m1 z ,i h already %[n 9 ! ,sy/ematic ,survey on p4 #acc1 into f\r di/9ct ma9-classes or tribes4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ?ree highe/ classes1 ,mammals1 ,birds1 & ,reptiles1 may be compris$ z a natural ma9-class "u ! "n ( ,amnion animals 7,amnionata74 ,! ,amnion-less animals 7,anamnionata71 naturally oppos$ to !m z a second ma9-class1 include ! f\r classes ( ,batra*ians1 ,sea-dragons1 ,mud-fi%1 & ,fi%es4 ,! sev5 classes j nam$1 ! ,anamnionata z well z ! ,amnionata1 agree among "o ano!r 9 num]\s *>act]i/ics1 :i* di/+ui% !m f ! two l[e/ classes 7! s+le-no/ril$ & tubul>-he>t$ animals74 ,h5ce we may unite !m 9 ! natural ma9 gr\p ( ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7,amphirrh9a74 ,f9ally1 ^! ,amphirrh9a on ! :ole are mu* m closely relat$ to ^? animals ) r\nd m\?s or s+le no/rils ?an to ! skull-less or tube-he>t$ animals4 ,we may1 !re=e1 ) full ju/ice class ! s+le & d\ble-no/ril$ animals into "o pr9cipal ma9 gr\p1 & contra/ !m z animals ) skulls 7,craniota71 or bulbul> he>ts 7,pa*yc>dia71 to ! "o class ( skull-less animals1 or animals ) tubul> he>ts4 ,?is classification ( ! ,v]tebrate animals propos$ by me r5d]s x possible to obta9 a cle> survey ( ! n9e classes 9 _! mo/ important g5ealogical relations4 ,! sy/ematic relation%ip ( ^! gr\ps to "o ano!r may be briefly express$ by ! foll[+ table4 ,a4 ,skull-less ,animals #a4 ,tubul> he>ts #a4 ,leptoc>dia 7,acrania7 a4 ,s+le no/ril$ animals #b4 ,r\nd-m\?s #b4 ,cyclo/oma ,b4 ,monorrh9a ,animals ) ,skulls b4 ,d\ble #c4 ,fi% #c4 ,pisces 7,craniota7 no/ril$ ,i4 ,non-,amnionate #d4 ,mud-fi% #d4 ,dipneu/a animals ,anamnia #e4 ,sea-dragons #e4 ,halisauria or #f4 ,batra*ians #f4 ,amphibia ,amphirrh9a ,?ick ,he>ts ,,ii4 ,amnionate4 #g4 ,reptiles #g4 ,reptilia 7,pa*yc>dia7 ,amniota #h4 ,birds #h4 ,aves #i4 ,mammals #i4 ,mammalia ,! only "o repres5tative ( ! fir/ class1 ! small lanceolate fi%1 or ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus7 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,b71 /&s at ! l[e/ /age ( organization ( all ! ,v]tebrate animals kn[n to u4 ,?is exce$+ly int]e/+ & important animal1 :i* ?r[s a surpris+ light ^u ! old] roots ( our p$igree1 is evid5tly ! la/ ( ! ,mohicans--! la/ surviv+ repres5tative ( a l[] class ( ,v]tebrate animals1 v ri* 9 =ms1 & v highly develop$ dur+ ! primordial p]iod1 b :i* un=tunately c\ld leave no fossil rema9s on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce ( all solid skeleton4 ,! ,lancelet /ill lives widely di/ribut$ 9 diff]5t seas2 = in/ance1 9 ! ,baltic1 ,nor? ,sea1 & ,m$it]ranean1 :]e x g5]ally lies buri$ 9 ! s& on flat %ores4 ,! body1 z ! "n indicates1 has ! =m ( a n>r[ lanceolate leaf1 po9t$ at bo? extremities4 ,:5 full gr[n x is ab\t two in*es long1 ( a :ite col\r & semi-transp>5t4 ,ext]nally1 ! little lanceolate animal is s little l a v]tebrate animal t ,pallas1 :o fir/ discov]$ x1 reg>d$ x z an imp]fect nak$ snail4 ,x has no legs1 & nei!r head1 skull1 nor bra94 ,ext]nally1 ! =e end ( ! body c be di/+ui%$ f ! h9d] end only by ! op5 m\?4 ,b /ill ! ,amphioxus 9 its int]nal /ructure possesses ^? mo/ important features1 :i* di/+ui% all ,v]tebrate animals f all ,inv]tebrate animals1 namely1 ! sp9al rod & sp9al m>r[4 ,! sp9al rod 7,*orda dorsalis7 is a /raight1 cyl9drical1 c>tilag9\s /aff1 po9t$ at bo? ends1 =m+ ! c5tral axis ( ! int]nal skeleton1 & ! basis ( ! v]tebral column4 ,directly above ! sp9al rod1 on its dorsal side1 lies ! sp9al m>r[ 7m$ulla sp9alis71 likewise orig9ally a /raight b int]nally holl[ cord1 po9t$ at bo? ends4 ,?is =ms ! pr9cipal piece & c5tre ( ! n]v\s sy/em 9 all ,v]tebrate animals4 7,comp>e above vol4 i4 p4 #cjc47 ,9 all ,v]tebrate animals )\t exception1 man includ$1 ^! important p>ts ( ! body dur+ ! embryological developm5t out ( ! egg1 orig9ally beg9 9 ! same simple =m1 :i* is reta9$ ?r\gh\t life by ! ,amphioxus4 ,x is only at a lat] p]iod t ! bra9 develops by ! expansion ( ! =e end ( ! sp9al m>r[1 & out ( ! sp9al rod ! skull :i* encloses ! bra94 ,z ^! two important organs d n develop at all 9 ! ,amphioxus1 we may ju/ly call ! class repres5t$ by x1 ,skull-less animals 7,acrania71 9 opposition to all ! o!rs1 namely1 to ! animals ) skulls 7,craniota74 ,! ,skull-less animals are g5]ally call$ tubul>-he>t$ 7,leptoc>dia71 because a c5traliz$ he>t does n z yet exi/1 & ! blood is circulat$ 9 ! body by ! contractions ( ! tubul> blood-vessels !mselves4 ,! ,skull$ animals1 :i* possess a c5traliz$1 ?ick-wall$1 bulb-%ap$ he>t1 ought !n by way ( contra/ to be call$ bulbul>-he>t$ animals 7,pa*yc>dia74 ,illu/ration3 ,ascidia 7,a47 & ,amphioxus 7,b47 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,legesse sc4 ,animals ) skulls & c5tral he>ts evid5tly develop$ gradually 9 ! lat] primordial p]iod out ( ^? )\t skulls & ) tubul> he>ts4 ,( ?is ! ontog5y ( skull$ animals leaves no d\bt4 ,b :5ce are ^! same skull-less animals d]iv$8 ,x is only v lately t an exce$+ly surpris+ answ] has be5 giv5 to ?is important "q4 ,f ,k[alewsky's inve/igations1 publi%$ 9 #ahfg1 on ! individual developm5t ( ! ,amphioxus & ! adh]+ ,sea-squirts 7,ascidia7 belong+ to ! class ( mantl$ animals 7,tunicata71 x has be5 prov$ t ! ontog5ies ( ^! two entirely diff]5t look+ animal-=ms agree 9 ! fir/ /age ( developm5t 9 a mo/ rem>kable mann]4 ,! freely swimm+ l>v ( ! ,ascidians 7,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 ,a7 develop ! und5iable beg9n+ ( a sp9al m>r[ 7,fig4 #e g7 & ( a sp9al rod 7,fig4 #e c71 & ?is moreov] 9 entirely ! same way z does ! ,amphioxus4 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,b47 ,x is true t 9 ! ,ascidians ^! mo/ important organs ( ! ,v]tebrate animal-body d n aft]w>ds develop fur!r4 ,! ,ascidians take on a retrograde trans=mation1 become atta*$ to ! bottom ( ! sea1 & develop into %apeless lumps1 :i* :5 look$ ^u ext]nally w\ld sc>cely be suppos$ to be animals4 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,a47 ,b ! sp9al m>r[1 z ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 & ! sp9al rod1 z ! fir/ basis ( ! v]tebral column1 are su* important organs1 s exclusively *>act]i/ic ( ,v]tebrate animals1 t we may f !m ) c]titude inf] ! true blood relation%ip ( ,v]tebrate ) ,tunicate animals4 ,( c\rse we d n mean to say by ?is1 t ,v]tebrate animals are d]iv$ f ,tunicate animals1 b m]ely t bo? gr\ps h aris5 out ( a common root1 & t ! ,tunicates1 ( all ! ,inv]tebrata1 are ! ne>e/ blood relations ( ! ,v]tebrates4 ,x is q evid5t t g5u9e ,v]tebrate animals develop$ progressively dur+ ! primordial p]iod 7& ! skull-less animals fir/7 out ( a gr\p ( worms1 f :i* ! deg5]ate ,tunicate animals arose 9 ano!r & a retrograde direction4 7,comp>e ! m detail$ explanation ( ,plates ,,xii4 & ,,xiii4 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,out ( ! ,skull-less animals !re develop$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 a second l[ class ( ,v]tebrate animals1 :i* /ill /&s f> bel[ t ( fi%1 & :i* is n[ repres5t$ only by ! ,hags 7,myx9oida7 & ,lampreys 7,petromyzonta74 ,?is class also1 on acc\nt ( ! abs5ce ( all solid p>ts1 c\ld1 un=tunately1 z little z ! ,skull-less animals leave fossil rema9s4 ,f its :ole organization & ontog5y x is q evid5t t x repres5ts a v important int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! ,skull-less animals & ,fi%es1 & t its few /ill exi/+ memb]s are only ! la/ surviv+ rema9s ( a probably v highly develop$ animal gr\p :i* exi/$ t[>ds ! end ( ! primordial p]iod4 ,on acc\nt ( ! curi\s m\? possess$ by ! ,hags & ,lampreys1 :i* !y use = suck+1 ! :ole class is usually call$ ,r\nd-m\!d animals 7,cyclo/oma74 ,! "n ( ,s+le-no/ril$ animals 7,monorrh9a7 is /ill m *>act]i/ic4 ,= all ,cyclo/oma possess a simple1 s+le nasal tube1 :]eas1 9 all o!r ,v]tebrate animals 7) ! exception ( ! ,amphioxus7 ! nose consi/s ( two lat]al halves1 a "r & a left no/ril4 ,we are !re=e enabl$ to comprise ^! latt] 7,anamnionata & ,amnionata7 "u ! head+1 d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7,amphirrh9a74 ,all ! ,amphirrh9a possess a fully develop$ jaw-skeleton 7upp] & "u jaw71 :]eas x is completely want+ 9 ! ,monorrh9a4 ,ap>t also f ! peculi> nasal =mation1 & ! abs5ce ( jaws1 ! ,s+le-no/ril$ animals are di/+ui%$ f ^? ) d\ble no/rils by _m peculi>ities4 ,?us !y want ! important sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em1 & ! sple5 :i* ! ,amphirrh9a possess4 ,( ! swimm+ bladd]1 & ! two pairs ( legs--:i* all d\ble-no/ril$ animals h1 at lea/ 9 _! embryonic conditions--n a trace exi/s 9 ! ,s+le-no/ril$ animals1 :i* is ! case also 9 ! ,skull-less animals4 ,h5ce1 we are surely ju/ifi$ 9 completely sep>at+ ! ,monorrh9a1 z we h sep>at$ ! ,skull-less animals1 f ! ,fi%es1 ) :i* !y h hi!rto be5 errone\sly class$4 ,illu/ration3 ,ascidia 7,a47 & ,amphioxus 7,b47 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,lagesse sc4 ,we owe our fir/ accurate k ( ! ,monorrh9a1 or ,cyclo/oma1 to ! great zoologi/1 ,johannes ,mll] ( ,b]l92 8 classical "w on ! 8,comp>ative ,anatomy ( ! ,myx9oida0 =ms ! f\ndation ( our mod]n views on ! /ructure ( ! ,v]tebrate animals4 ,he di/+ui%$ two di/9ct gr\ps among ! ,cyclo/oma1 :i* we %all consid] z sub-classes4 ,! fir/ sub-class consi/s ( ! ,hags 7,hyp]otreta1 or ,myx9oida74 ,!y live 9 ! sea z p>asites ^u o!r fi%1 into ^: sk9 !y p5etrate 7,myx9e1 ,bdello/oma74 ,_! organ ( he>+ has only "o annul> canal1 & _! s+le nasal tube p5etrates ! palate4 ,! second sub-class1 t ( ,lampreys1 or ,prides 7,hyp]o>tia1 or ,petromyzontia7 is m highly develop$4 ,x includes ! well-kn[n ,lamp]ns1 or ,n9e-eyes1 ( our riv]s 7,petromyzon fluviatilis71 ) :i* mo/ p]sons are acqua9t$4 ,!y are repres5t$ 9 ! sea by ! frequ5tly l>g] m>9e or g5u9e ,lampreys 7,petromyzon m>9us74 ,! nasal tube ( ^! s+le-no/ril$ animals does n p5etrate ! palate1 & 9 ! auricul> organ !re are two annul> canals4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #d ,ma9-classes1 #i ,classes1 & #bf ,sub-classes ( ,v]tebrata4 ,g54 ,morph4 vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,vii4 pp4 #aaf-afj4 ,i4 ,skull-less 7,acrania71 or ,tube-he>t$ 7,leptoc>dia74 ,v]tebrata )\t head1 )\t skull & bra91 )\t c5traliz$ he>t4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #a4 ,skull-less ,i4 ,tube-he>t$ #a4 ,lancelet #a4 ,amphioxus ,acrania ,leptoc>dia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,ii4 ,animals ) skulls 7,craniota7 & ) ?ick-wall$ he>ts 7,pa*yc>dia74 ,v]tebrata ) head1 ) skull & bra91 ) c5traliz$ he>t4 ,ma9-classes ,classes ,sub-classes ,sy/ematic ,"n ( ! ,skull$ ( ! ( ! ( ! ,animals4 ,skull$ ,animals4 ,skull$ ,animals4 ,sub-classes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #b4 ,s+le-,no/ril$ ,,ii4 ,r\nd m\?s #b4 ,hags1 or ,muc\s #b4 ,hyp]otreta ,monorrh9a ,cyclo/oma ,fi% 7,myx9oida7 #c4 ,lampreys1 or #c4 ,hyp]o>tia ,pride 7,petromyzontia7 ,,iii4 ,fi% #d4 ,primval fi% #d4 ,sela*ii ,pisces #e4 ,ganoid fi% #e4 ,ganoides #f4 ,osse\s fi% #f4 ,teleo/ei ,,iv4 ,mud-fi% #g4 ,mud-fi% #g4 ,protopt]i #c4 ,non-amnionate ,dipneu/a ,anamnionata #h4 ,primval #h4 ,simosauria ,v4 ,sea-dragons dragons ,halisauri #i4 ,snake-dragons #i4 ,plesiosauria #aj4 ,fi%-dragons #aj4 ,i*?yosauria ,,vi4 ,batra*ians #aa4 ,mail$ ,batra*ians #aa4 ,phractamphibia ,amphibia #ab4 ,nak$ ,batra*ians #ab4 ,lissamphibia #d4 ,amnion ,,vii4 ,reptiles #ac4 ,prim>y reptiles #ac4 ,tocosauria ,animals ,reptilia #ad4 ,liz>ds #ad4 ,lac]tilia ,amnionata #ae4 ,s]p5ts #ae4 ,ophidia #af4 ,crocodiles #af4 ,crocodilia #ag4 ,tortoises #ag4 ,*elonia #ah4 ,fly+ reptiles #ah4 ,pt]osauria #ai4 ,dragons #ai4 ,d9osauria #bj4 ,beak$ reptiles #bj4 ,anomodontia ,,viii4 ,birds #ba4 ,long-tail$ #ba4 ,saurur ,aves #bb4 ,fan-tail$ #bb4 ,c>9at #bc4 ,bu%-tail$ #bc4 ,ratit ,,ix4 ,mammals #bd4 ,cloacal animals #bd4 ,monotrema ,mammalia #be4 ,p\*$ animals #be4 ,m>supialia #bf4 ,plac5tal animals #bf4 ,plac5talia ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #i4 ,mammals ,mammalia #h4 ,birds ,aves #g4 ,reptiles ,reptilia #e4 ,sea-dragons ,halisauria -------v--------_/ ,osse\s fi% ,amnion ,animals ,teleo/ei #d4 ,mud-fi% ,amniota ,dipneu/a #f4 ,batra*ians ,ganoid fi% ,amphibia ,ganoidei --------------v--------------_/ ,v]tebrate animals brea?+ ?r\gh lungs ,amphipneumones ------------v-----------------_/ ,primval fi% ,sela*ii #c4 ,fi%es ,pisces ,d\ble-no/ril$ ,amphirrh9a #b4 ,r\nd-m\!d ,cyclo/oma --------------------v-------------_/ ,s+le-no/ril$ ,monorrh9a ,animals ) skulls ,craniota #a4 ,tube-he>t$ ,leptoc>dia ---------v------_/ ,ascidi ,sea-b>rels ,skull-less ,animals ,?aliacea ,acrania ,v]tebrate ,animals ,v]tebrata ----v----_/ ,tunicate ,animals ,tunicata -----------v---------_/ ,worms ,v]mes ,all exi/+ ,v]tebrate animals1 ) ! exception ( ! ,monorrh9a & ,amphioxus j m5tion$1 belong to ! gr\p :i* we designate z ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7,amphirrh9a74 ,all ^! animals possess 79 spite ( ! great v>iety 9 ! re/ ( _! =ms7 a nose consi/+ ( two lat]al halves1 a jaw-skeleton1 a sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em1 ?ree annul> canals connect$ ) ! auricul> sac1 & a sple54 ,fur!r1 all ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals possess a bladd]-%ap$ expansion ( ! gullet1 :i*1 9 ,fi%1 has develop$ into ! swimm+ bladd]1 b 9 all o!r ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals into lungs4 ,f9ally1 9 all ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals !re exi/ 9 ! y\nge/ /age ( gr[? ! beg9n+s ( two pairs ( extremities1 or limbs1 a pair ( =e legs1 or brea/ f9s1 & a pair ( h9d] legs1 or v5tral f9s4 ,"o ( ^! pairs ( legs sometimes deg5]ates 7z 9 ! case ( eels1 :ales1 etc471 or bo? pairs ( legs 7z 9 ,ccili & s]p5ts7 ei!r deg5]ate or entirely disappe>2 b ev5 9 ^! cases !re exi/s "s trace ( _! orig9al beg9n+ 9 an e>ly embryonic p]iod1 or ! useless rema9s ( !m may be f\nd 9 ! =m ( rudim5t>y organs4 7,comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ac47 ,f all ^! important indications we may conclude ) full assurance t all d\ble-no/ril$ animals are d]iv$ f a s+le common prim>y =m1 :i* develop$ ei!r directly or indirectly dur+ ! primordial p]iod out ( ! ,monorrh9a4 ,?is prim>y =m mu/ h possess$ ! organs above m5tion$1 & also ! beg9n+ ( a swimm+ bladd] & ( two pairs ( legs or f9s4 ,x is evid5t1 t ( all /ill liv+ d\ble-no/ril$ animals1 ! l[e/ =ms ( %>ks are mo/ closely alli$ to ?is long s9ce ext9ct1 unkn[n1 & hypo!tical prim>y =m1 :i* we may call ! ,prim>y ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7,prosela*ii74 ,we may !re=e look ^u ! gr\p ( primval fi%1 or ,sela*ii1 to :i* ! ,prosela*ii probably belong$1 z a prim>y gr\p1 n only ( ! ,fi% class1 b ( ! :ole ma9-class ( d\ble-no/ril$ animals4 ,! class ( ,fi% 7,pisces7 ) :i* we accord+ly beg9 ! s]ies ( ,d\ble-no/ril$ animals1 is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r six classes ( ! s]ies by ! swimm+ bladd] nev] develop+ into lungs1 b act+ only z a hydro/atic app>atus4 ,agree+ ) ?is1 we f9d t 9 fi% ! nose is =m$ by two bl9d holes 9 front ( ! m\?1 :i* nev] pi]ce ! palate s z to op5 into ! cavity ( ! m\?4 ,9 ! o!r six classes ( d\ble-no/ril$ animals1 bo? no/rils are *ang$ into air passages :i* pi]ce ! palate1 & ?us conduct air to ! lungs4 ,g5u9e fi% 7aft] ! exclusion ( ! ,dipneu/a7 are accord+ly ! only d\ble-no/ril$ animals :i* exclusively brea! ?r\gh gills & nev] ?r\gh lungs4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 !y all live 9 wat]1 & bo? pairs ( _! legs h reta9$ ! orig9al =m ( paddl+ f9s4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #g ,legions & #ae ,ord]s ( ! ,fi%es4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,sub-classes ,legions ,ord]s ,examples ( ( ( f ,fi%es4 ,fi%es4 ,fi%es4 ! ,ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - #a4 ,%>ks ,%>ks1 dog-fi% ,i4 ,transv]se ,squalacei ,a4 m\?s #b4 ,rays ,spik$ rays1 electric ,primval ,plagio/omi ,rajacei rays1 etc4 ,fi% ,sela*ii ,,ii4 ,sea-,cats #c4 ,sea-,cats ,*imra1 ,calorrhyn*ias ,holocephali ,*imracei #d4 ,buckl]-heads ,cephalaspid1 ,placod]ma1 ,,iii4 ,mail$ ,ganoid ,pamphracte etc4 ,fi% #e4 ,/urgeons ,spoon-/urgeons1 /urgeons1 ,tabulif]i ,/uriones /]let1 etc4 #f4 ,efulcri ,d\ble-f9n$ ,b4 ,,iv4 ,angul>-scal$ #g4 ,fulcrati ,paloniscus1 bony pike1 ,ganoid ,ganoid ,fi% etc4 ,fi% ,rhombif]i #h4 ,semopt]i ,african f9ny pike1 etc4 ,ganoides ,v4 ,r\nd-scal$ #i4 ,closcolopes ,holopty*ius1 ,clacan?ides1 ,ganoid ,fi% etc4 ,cyclif]i #aj4 ,pycnoscolopes ,coccolepida1 ,amiad1 etc4 ,,vi4 ,osse\s ,fi% ) an air #aa4 ,h]r+ species ,h]r+s1 salmon1 c>p1 passage to ! ,?rissog5es etc4 ,c4 swimm+ #ab4 ,eel species ,eels1 snake eels1 electric ,osse\s bladd] ,en*elyg5es eels1 etc4 ,fi% ,physo/omi ,teleo/ei ,,vii4 ,osse\s ,fi% #ac4 ,/i*obran*ii ,p]*1 wrasse1 turbot1 )\t an air etc4 passage to ! #ad4 ,plectogna?i ,trunk fi%1 globe fi%1 swimm+ etc4 bladd] #ae4 ,lophobran*ii ,pipe fi%1 sea horses1 ,physocli/i etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,p$igree ,,( ,,! ,,non-,,amnionate ,,craniota4 ,plectogna?i ,anura ,lophobran*ia ,p]omela ,sozura -------v-----_/ ,labyr9?odonta ,/i*obran*ia ,physocli/i --v-----_/ ,en*elyg5es ,ganocephala ,sozobran*ia ,phractamphibia ,lissamphibia --v---_/ -------v-------_/ ,?rissog5es ,amphibia ,physo/omi ,semopt]i ,teleo/ei ,protopt]i ,fulcrati ,plesiosauria ,pycnoscolopes ,ic?yosauria ,closcolopes ,efulcri ,cyclif]i ,rhombif]i 7,cycloganoides7 7,rhomboganoides7 ---------v--------_/ ----v-----_/ ,dipneu/a ,placod]ma ,simosauria ,/uriones ,halisauria ,cephalaspid ,rajacei -----------v--------_/ ,amphipneumona -----v-------_/ ,pamphracti ,tabulif]i 7,placoganoides7 ,*imracei ,ganoides ,holocephali ,squalacei --------v---------_/ ,plagio/omi -------------v---------------------_/ ,sela*ii ,fi% ,amphirrh9a ,cyclo/oma ,monorrh9a -------v---------_/ ,craniota ,g5u9e fi% are divid$ into ?ree di/9ct sub-classes1 namely1 ,primval fi%1 ,ganoid fi%1 & ,osse\s fi%4 ,! olde/ ( ^!1 :]e ! orig9al =m has be5 mo/ fai?fully pres]v$1 is t ( ! ,primval fi% 7,sela*ii74 ,( ^! !re /ill exi/ ,%>ks 7,squali71 & ,rays 7,raj71 :i* are class$ toge!r z cross-m\!d fi%es 7,plagio/omi71 & ! /range & grotesquely =m$ ,sea-cats1 or ,*imracei 7,holocephali74 ,^! prim>y fi% ( ! pres5t day1 :i* are met ) 9 all seas1 are only poor rema9s ( ! prevail+ animal gr\ps1 ri* 9 =ms1 :i* ! ,sela*ii =m$ 9 ! e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 & especially dur+ ! paloli?ic p]iod4 ,un=tunately all ,primval fi% possess a c>tilag9\s1 nev] a completely osse\s skeleton1 :i* is b little1 if at all1 capable ( be+ petrifi$4 ,! only h>d p>ts ( ! body :i* c\ld be pres]v$ 9 a fossil /ate1 are ! tee? & f9-spikes4 ,^! are f\nd 9 ! old] =mations 9 su* quantities1 v>ieties1 & sizes1 t we may1 ) c]ta9ty1 inf] a v consid]able developm5t ( ,primval fi% 9 ^? remote ages4 ,!y are ev5 f\nd 9 ! ,silurian /rata1 :i* conta9 b few rema9s ( o!r ,v]tebrata1 su* z ,enamell$ fi% 7& ^! only 9 ! mo/ rec5t "p1 t is1 9 ! upp] ,silurian74 ,by f> ! mo/ important & int]e/+ ( ! ?ree ord]s ( ,primval fi% are ,%>ks2 ( all /ill liv+ d\ble-no/ril$ animals1 !y are probably mo/ closely alli$ to ! orig9al prim>y =m ( ! :ole gr\p1 namely1 to ! ,prosela*ii4 ,out ( ^! ,prosela*ii1 :i* probably diff]$ b little f g5u9e ,%>ks1 ,enamell$ fi%1 & ! pres5t ,primval fi%1 9 all probability1 develop$ 9 "o direction1 & ! ,dipneu/a1 ,sea-dragons1 & ,amphibia 9 ano!r4 ,! ,ganoid1 or ,enamell$ fi% 7,ganoides71 9 reg>d to _! anatomy /& midway betwe5 ! ,primval & ! ,osse\s fi%4 ,9 _m *>act]i/ics !y agree ) ! =m]1 & 9 _m o!rs ) ! latt]4 ,h5ce1 we inf] t g5ealogically !y =m ! transition f ,primval to ,osse\s fi%4 ,! ,ganoids are = ! mo/ "p ext9ct1 & m ne>ly s ?an ! ,primval fi%1 :]eas !y 7 develop$ 9 great =ce dur+ ! entire paloli?ic & mesoli?ic p]iods4 ,ganoid fi% are divid$ into ?ree legions accord+ to ! =m ( _! ext]nal cov]+1 namely1 ,mail$1 ,angul>-scal$1 & ,r\nd-scal$4 ,! ,mail$ ,ganoid fi% 7,tabulif]i7 are ! olde/1 & are directly alli$ to ! ,sela*ii1 out ( :i* !y orig9at$4 ,fossil rema9s ( !m1 ?\gh r>e1 are f\nd ev5 9 ! upp] ,silurian 7,pt]aspis lud5sis ( ! ,ludl[ /rata74 ,gigantic species ( !m1 coat$ ) /rong bony plates1 are f\nd 9 ! ,devonian sy/em4 ,b ( ?is legion !re n[ lives only ! small ord] ( ,/urgeons 7,/uriones71 includ+ ! ,spade-/urgeons 7,spatul>id71 & ^? ,/urgeons 7,accip5s]id7 to :i* belong1 among o!rs1 ! ,huso1 :i* yields is+lass1 or /urgeon's s\nd1 & ! ,cavi>-/urgeon1 ^: eggs we eat 9 ! %ape ( cavi>1 etc4 ,out ( ! mail$ ,ganoid fi%1 ! angul> & r\nd-scal$ ones probably develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es4 ,! ,angul>-scal$ ,ganoid fi% 7,rhombif]i7--:i* c be di/+ui%$ at fir/ sight f all o!r fi% by _! squ>e or rhombic scales--are at pres5t repres5t$ only by a few survivors1 namely1 ! ,f9ny ,pike 7,polypt]us7 9 ,african riv]s 7especially ! ,nile71 & by ! ,bony ,pike 7,lepido/eus7 9 ,am]ican riv]s4 ,yet dur+ ! paloli?ic & ! fir/ half ( ! mesoli?ic epo*s ?is legion =m$ ! mo/ num]\s gr\p ( fi%es4 ,! ?ird legion1 t ( ,r\nd-scal$ ,ganoid fi% 7,cyclif]i71 0 no less ri* 9 =ms1 & liv$ pr9cipally dur+ ! ,devonian & ,coal p]iods4 ,?is legion1 ( :i* ! ,bald ,pike 7,amia71 9 ,nor? ,am]ican riv]s1 is ! only survivor1 0 especially important1 inasmu* z ! ?ird sub-class ( fi%1 namely1 ,osse\s fi%1 develop$ out ( x4 ,osse\s fi% 7,teleo/ei7 include ! great] portion ( ! fi% ( ! pres5t day4 ,among ^! are by f> ! great] portion ( m>9e fi%1 & all ( our fre%-wat] fi% except ! ,ganoid fi% j m5tion$4 ,?is class is di/9ctly prov$ by num]\s fossils to h aris5 ab\t ! middle ( ! ,mesoli?ic epo* out ( ,ganoid fi%1 & moreov] out ( ! ,r\nd-scal$1 or ,cyclif]i4 ,! ,?rissopid ( ! ,oolitic p]iod 7,?rissops1 ,leptolepis1 ,?>sis71 :i* are mo/ closely alli$ to ! h]r+s ( ! pres5t day1 are probably ! olde/ ( all ,osse\s fi%1 & h directly aris5 out ( ,r\nd-scal$ ,ganoid fi%1 closely alli$ to ! exi/+ ,amia4 ,9 ! old] ,osse\s fi% ( ! legion call$ ,physo/omi1 z also 9 ! ,ganoides1 ! swimm+ bladd] ?r\gh\t life 0 connect$ ) ! ?roat by a p]man5t air passage 7a k9d ( w9dpipe74 ,?is is /ill ! case ) all ! fi% belong+ to ?is legion1 namely1 ) h]r+s1 salmon1 c>p1 %ad1 eels1 etc4 ,h[ev]1 dur+ ! *alk p]iod ?is air passage1 9 "s ( ! ,physo/omi1 became con/rict$ & clos$1 & ! swimm+ bladd] 0 ?us completely sep>at$ f ! ?roat4 ,h5ce !re arose a second legion ( ,osse\s fi%1 ! ,physocli/i1 :i* did n atta9 _! actual developm5t until ! t]ti>y epo*1 & soon f> surpass$ ! ,physo/omi 9 v>iety4 ,to ?is legion belong mo/ ( ! sea fi% ( ! pres5t day1 especially ! l>ge families ( ! ,turbot1 ,tunny1 ,wrasse1 ,cr[fi%1 etc41 fur!r1 ! ,lock-jaws 7,plectogna?i71 ,trunk fi%1 & ,globe-fi% & ! ,bu%y-gills 7,lophobran*i71 viz41 ,pipe-fi%1 & ,sea-horses4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 only v few ,physocli/i among our riv] fi%1 = in/ance1 ,p]* & ,/icklebacks2 ! majority ( riv] fi% are ,physo/omi4 ,midway betwe5 g5u9e ,fi% & ,amphibia is ! rem>kable class ( ,mud-fi%1 or ,scaly ,sir5s 7,dipneu/a1 or ,protopt]i74 ,!re n[ exi/ only a few repres5tatives ( ?is class1 namely1 ! ,am]ican ,mud-fi% 7,lepidosir5 p>adoxa7 9 ! region ( ! riv] ,amazon1 & ! ,african ,mud-fi% 7,protopt]us annect5s7 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,africa4 ,a ?ird l>ge ,salam&]-fi% 7,c]atodus ,fo/]i7 has lately be5 discov]$ 9 ,au/ralia4 ,dur+ ! dry season1 t is 9 summ]1 ^! /range animals bury !mselves 9 a ne/ ( leaves 9 ! dry mud1 & !n brea! air ?r\gh lungs l ! ,amphibia4 ,b dur+ ! wet season1 9 w9t]1 !y live 9 riv]s & bogs1 & brea! wat] ?r\gh gills l fi%4 ,ext]nally1 !y resemble fi% ( ! eel k9d1 & are l !m cov]$ ) scales2 9 _m o!r *>act]i/ics also--9 _! int]nal /ructure1 _! skeleton1 extremities1 etc4--!y resemble ,fi% m ?an ,amphibia4 ,b 9 c]ta9 features !y resemble ! ,amphibia1 especially 9 ! =mation ( _! lungs1 nose1 & he>t4 ,!re is consequ5tly an endless dispute among zoologi/s1 z to :e!r ! ,mud-fi% are g5u9e ,fi% or ,amphibia4 ,di/+ui%$ zoologi/s h express$ !mselves 9 fav\r ( bo? op9ions4 ,b 9 fact1 ow+ to ! complete bl5d+ ( *>act]i/ics :i* !y pres5t1 !y belong nei!r to ! "o nor to ! o!r class1 & are probably mo/ correctly dealt ) z a special class ( ,v]tebrata1 =m+ ! transition betwe5 ,fi%es & ,amphibians4 ,! /ill liv+ ,dipneu/a are probably ! la/ surviv+ rema9s ( a gr\p :i* 0 =m]ly ri* 9 =ms1 b has left no fossil traces on acc\nt ( ! want ( a solid skeleton4 ,9 ?is respect1 ^! animals are exactly l ! ,monorrh9a & ! ,leptoc>dia4 ,h[ev]1 tee? are f\nd 9 ! ,trias :i* resemble ^? ( ! liv+ ,c]atodus4 ,possibly ! ext9ct ,dipneu/a ( ! paloli?ic p]iod1 :i* develop$ 9 ! ,devonian epo* out ( primval fi%1 mu/ be look$ ^u z ! prim>y =ms ( ! ,amphibia1 & ?us also ( all high] ,v]tebrata4 ,at all ev5ts ! unkn[n =ms ( transition--f ,primval fi% to ,amphibia--7 probably v l ! ,dipneu/a4 ,a v peculi> class ( ,v]tebrate animals1 long s9ce ext9ct1 & :i* appe>s to h liv$ only dur+ ! second>y epo*1 is =m$ by ! rem>kable ,sea-dragons 7,halisauria1 or ,enaliosauria1 also call$ ,nexipoda1 or ,swimm+-foot$ animals74 ,^! =midable animals ( prey inhabit$ ! mesoli?ic oceans 9 great numb]s1 & 7 ( mo/ peculi> =ms1 sometimes f ?irty to =ty feet 9 l5g?4 ,f _m & excell5tly pres]v$ fossil rema9s & impressions1 bo? ( ! entire body ( ,sea-dragons z well z ( s+le p>ts1 we h become v accurately acqua9t$ ) ! /ructure ( _! bodies4 ,!y are usually class$ among ,reptiles1 :il/ "s anatomi/s h plac$ !m 9 a mu* l[] rank1 z directly alli$ to ,fi%4 ,geg5baur's rec5tly publi%$ inve/igations1 :i* place ! /ructure ( _! limbs 9 a true light1 h l$ to ! surpris+ conclusion t ! ,sea-dragons =m q an isolat$ gr\p1 diff]+ widely bo? f ,reptiles & ,amphibia z well z f ,fi%4 ,! skeleton ( _! f\r legs1 :i* are trans=m$ into %ort1 broad1 paddl+ f9s 7l ^? ( fi% & :ales7 furni%es u ) a cle> pro( t ! ,halisauria bran*$ (f f ! ma9-/ock ( ,v]tebrata at an e>li] p]iod ?an ! ,amphibia4 ,= ,amphibia1 z well z ! ?ree high] classes ( ,v]tebrata1 are all d]iv$ f a common prim>y =m1 :i* possess$ only five toes or f+]s on ea* leg4 ,b ! ,sea-dragons h 7ei!r di/9ctly develop$ or 9 a rudim5t>y condition z p>ts ( ! skeleton ( ! foot7 m ?an five f+]s1 z h also ! ,sela*ians or ,primval fi%4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !y brea!d air ?r\gh lungs1 l ! ,dipneu/a1 al?\gh !y always swam ab\t 9 ! sea4 ,!y1 !re=e1 p]haps1 9 conjunction ) ! ,dipneu/a1 bran*$ (f f ! ,sela*ii1 b did n develop into high] ,v]tebrata2 !y =m an ext9ct lat]al l9e ( ! p$igree1 :i* has di$ out4 ,! m accurately kn[n ,sea-dragons are class$ into ?ree ord]s1 di/9ct en\gh "o f ! o!r1 namely1 ,primval ,dragons1 ,fi% ,dragons1 & ,s]p5t ,dragons4 ,! ,primval ,dragons 7,simosauria7 are ! olde/ ,sea-dragons1 & liv$ only dur+ ! ,trias p]iod4 ,! skeletons ( _m diff]5t g5]a ( !m are met ) 9 ! ,g]man lime/one kn[n z 8,mus*el-kalk40 ,!y seem ^u ! :ole to h be5 v l ! ,plesiosauria1 & are1 consequ5tly1 sometimes unit$ ) !m into "o ord] z ,sauropt]ygia4 ,! ,s]p5t ,dragons 7,plesiosauria7 liv$ 9 ! oolitic & *alk p]iods toge!r ) ! ,i*?yosauria4 ,!y 7 *>act]is$ by an uncommonly long ?9 neck1 :i* 0 frequ5tly long] ?an ! :ole body1 & c>ri$ a small head ) a %ort sn\t4 ,:5 _! ar*$ neck 0 rais$ !y mu/ h look$ v l a swan2 b 9 place ( w+s & legs !y _h two pairs ( %ort1 flat1 oval-paddl+ f9s4 ,! body ( ! ,fi% ,dragons 7,i*?yosauria7 0 ( an entirely diff]5t =m2 ^! animals may be oppos$ to ! two prec$+ ord]s "u ! "n ( ,fi%-f9n]s 7,i*?yopt]ygia74 ,!y possess$ a v long ext5d$ body1 l a fi%1 & a heavy head ) an elongat$1 flat sn\t1 b a v %ort neck4 ,ext]nally1 !y 7 probably v l porpoises4 ,_! tail 0 v long1 :]eas x 0 v %ort 9 ! memb]s ( ! prec$+ ord]s4 ,also bo? pairs ( paddl+ f9s are broad] & %[ v diff]5t /ructure f t se5 9 ! o!r two ord]s4 ,probably ! ,fi% ,dragons & ,s]p5t ,dragons develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es out ( ! ,primval ,dragons2 b x is also possible t ! ,plesiosauria alone orig9at$ out ( ! ,simosauria1 & t ! ,i*?yosauria 7 l[] (f-%oots f ! common /ock4 ,at all ev5ts1 !y mu/ all be directly1 or indirectly d]iv$ f ! ,sela*ii1 or ,primval fi%4 ,! succe$+ classes ( ,v]tebrata1 ! ,amphibia & ! ,amniota 7,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals71 ow+ to ! *>act]i/ic /ructure :i* !y all exhibit ( five toes to ea* foot1 may all be d]iv$ f a common prim>y =m1 :i* orig9at$ f ! ,sela*ii1 & :i* possess$ five toes on ea* ( its f\r limbs4 ,:5 we f9d a less numb] ( toes ?an five1 we c %[ t ! miss+ ones mu/ h be5 lo/ 9 ! c\rse ( "t by adaptation4 ,! olde/ kn[n ,v]tebrata ) five toes are ! ,batra*ias 7,amphibia74 ,we divide ?is class into two sub-classes1 namely1 mail$ ,batra*ians & nak$ ,batra*ians1 ! fir/ ( :i* is di/+ui%$ by ! body be+ cov]$ ) bony plates or scales4 ,! fir/ & eld] sub-class ( ,amphibia consi/s ( ! ,mail$ ,batra*ians 7,phractamphibia71 ! olde/ l& liv+ ,v]tebrata ( :i* fossil rema9s exi/4 ,well-pres]v$ fossil rema9s ( !m occur 9 ! coal1 especially ( ^? ) ,enamell$ heads 7,ganocephala71 :i* are mo/ closely alli$ to fi%1 namely1 ! ,ar*egosaurus ( ,sa>bruck1 & ! ,d5dr]peton ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,!re !n foll[ at a lat] p]iod ! gigantic ,labyr9?-too!d animals 7,labyr9?odonta71 :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! ,p]mian sy/em by ,zygosaurus1 b at a lat] p]iod1 m especially 9 ! ,trias1 by ,ma/odonsaurus1 ,trematosaurus1 ,capitosaurus1 etc4 ,! %ape ( ^! =midable rapaci\s animals seems to h be5 betwe5 t ( crocodiles1 salam&]s1 & frogs1 b 9 _! int]nal /ructure !y 7 m closely relat$ to ! two latt]1 :ile by _! solid coat ( mail1 =m$ ( /rong bony plates1 !y resembl$ ! fir/ animals4 ,^! gigantic mail$ ,batra*ians seem to h become ext9ct t[>ds ! end ( ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,no fossil rema9s ( mail$ ,batra*ia are kn[n dur+ ! :ole ( ! subsequ5t p]iods4 ,h[ev]1 ! /ill liv+ bl9d ,snakes1 or ,ccili 7,p]omela7--small-scal$ ,phractamphibia ( ! =m & ! same mode ( life z ! e>?-worm--prove t ?is sub-class cont9u$ to exi/1 & nev] became completely ext9ct4 ,! second sub-class ( ,amphibia1 ! nak$ ,batra*ia 7,lissamphibia71 probably orig9at$ ev5 dur+ ! prim>y & second>y epo*s1 al?\gh fossil rema9s ( !m are fir/ f\nd 9 ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ f mail$ ,batra*ia by possess+ a nak$ smoo?1 & slimy sk91 entirely )\t scales or coat ( mail4 ,!y probably develop$ ei!r out ( a bran* ( ! ,phractamphibia1 or out ( ! same common root ) !m4 ,! ontog5y ( ! ?ree /ill liv+ ord]s ( nak$ ,batra*ia--! gill$ ,batra*ia1 tail$ ,batra*ia1 & frog ,batra*ia--di/9ctly repeats ! hi/orical c\rse ( developm5t ( ! :ole sub-class4 ,! olde/ =ms are ! gill$ ,batra*ia 7,sozobran*ia71 :i* reta9 ?r\gh\t life ! orig9al prim>y =m ( nak$ ,batra*ia1 & possess a long tail1 toge!r ) wat]-brea?+ gills4 ,!y are mo/ closely alli$ to ! ,dipneu/a1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 !y diff] ext]nally by ! abs5ce ( ! coat ( scales4 ,mo/ gill$ ,batra*ia live 9 ,nor? ,am]ica3 among o!rs ( ! class is ! ,axolotl1 or ,sir$on1 already m5tion$4 7,comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bda47 ,9 ,europe ! ord] is only repres5t$ by "o =m1 ! celebrat$ 8,olm0 7,proteus angu9us71 :i* inhabits ! grotto ( ,adelsb]g & o!r caves 9 ,c>9?ia1 & :i*1 f liv+ 9 ! d>k1 has acquir$ rudim5t>y eyes :i* c no long] see 7vol4 i4 p4 #ac74 ,! ord] ( ,tail$ ,batra*ia 7,sozura7 h develop$ out ( ! gill$ ,batra*ia by ! loss ( ext]nal gills2 ! ord] includes our black & yell[ spott$ l& ,salam&] 7,salam&ra maculata71 & our nimble aquatic ,salam&]s 7,tritons74 ,_m ( !m--= in/ance1 ! celebrat$ giant ,salam&]s 9 ,japan 7,cryptobran*us ,japonicus7--/ill reta9 ! gill-slits1 al?\gh ! gills !mselves h disappe>$4 ,all ( !m1 h[ev]1 reta9 ! tail ?r\gh\t life4 ,tritons occasionally--:5 =c$ to rema9 9 wat] always--reta9 _! gills1 & ?us rema9 at ! same /age ( developm5t z gill$ ,batra*ia4 7,comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bda47 ,! ?ird ord]1 ! tailless or frog-l ,batra*ia 7,anura71 dur+ _! metamorphosis1 n only lose _! gills1 ) :i* 9 e>ly life 7z s-call$ tadpoles7 !y brea! 9 wat]1 b also ! tail ) :i* !y swim ab\t4 ,dur+ _! ontog5y1 !re=e1 !y pass ?r\gh ! c\rse ( developm5t ( ! :ole sub-class1 !y be+ at fir/ ,gill$ ,batra*ia1 !n ,tail$ ,batra*ia1 & f9ally ,frog-l ,batra*ia4 ,! inf]5ce f ?is is evid5tly1 t ,frog-l ,batra*ia develop$ at a lat] p]iod out ( ,tail$ ,batra*ia1 z ! latt] _h develop$ out ( ,gill$ ,batra*ia :i* orig9ally exi/$ alone4 ,9 pass+ f ! ,amphibia to ! next class ( ,v]tebrata1 namely1 ,reptiles1 we obs]ve a v consid]able advance 9 ! progress ( organization4 ,all ! d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7,amphirrh9a7 up to ?is "t consid]$1 & m especially ! two l>g] classes ( ,fi% & ,batra*ia1 agree 9 a numb] ( important *>act]i/ics1 :i* ess5tially di/+ui% !m f ! ?ree rema9+ classes ( ,v]tebrata--,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals4 ,dur+ ! embryological developm5t ( ^! latt]1 a peculi>ly delicate cov]+1 ! fir/ ftal membrane1 or amnion1 :i* comm5ces at ! navel1 is =m$ r\nd ! embryo2 ?is membrane is fill$ ) ! amnion-wat]1 & encloses ! embryo or g]m 9 ! =m ( a bladd]4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is v important & *>act]i/ic =mation1 we may comprise ! ?ree mo/ highly develop$ classes ( ,v]tebrata "u ! t]m ,amnion-animals 7,amniota74 ,! f\r classes ( d\ble-no/ril$ animals :i* we h j consid]$1 9 :i* ! amnion is want+ 7z is ! case 9 all l[] ,v]tebrate animals1 s+le-no/ril$ & skull-less animals71 may on ! o!r h& be oppos$ to ! o!rs z amnion-less animals 7,anamnia74 ,! =mation ( ! ftal membrane1 or amnion1 :i* di/+ui%es reptiles1 birds1 & mammals f all o!r ,v]tebrata1 is evid5tly a v important process 9 _! ontog5y1 & 9 ! phylog5y :i* corresponds ) x4 ,x co9cides ) a s]ies ( o!r processes1 :i* ess5tially det]m9e ! high] developm5t ( ,amnionate animals4 ,! fir/ ( ^! important processes is ! total loss ( gills1 = :i* reason ! ,amniota1 "u ! "n ( ,gill-less animals 7,ebran*iata71 7 =m]ly oppos$ to all o!r ,v]tebrate animals :i* brea!d ?r\gh gills 7,bran*iata74 ,9 all ! ,v]tebrate already discuss$1 we f\nd t !y ei!r always brea!d ?r\gh gills1 or at lea/ did s 9 e>ly life1 z 9 ! case ( ,frogs & ,salam&]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we nev] meet ) a ,reptile1 ,bird1 or ,mammal :i* at any p]iod ( its exi/5ce brea!s ?r\gh gills1 & ! gill-ar*es & op5+s :i* d exi/ 9 ! embryos1 are1 dur+ ! c\rse ( ! ontog5y1 *ang$ into entirely diff]5t /ructures1 viz41 into p>ts ( ! jaw-app>atus & ! organ ( he>+4 7,comp>e above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjg47 ,all ,amnionate animals h a s-call$ co*lea 9 ! organ ( he>+1 & a 8r\nd w9d[0 correspond+ ) x4 ,^! p>ts are want+ 9 ! ,amnion-less animals2 moreov]1 _! skull lies 9 a /raight l9e ) ! axis ( ! v]tebral column4 ,9 ,amniotic animals ! base ( ! skull appe>s b5t 9 on ! abdom9al side1 s t ! head s9ks ^u ! brea/4 7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 ,c1 ,d1 ,g1 ,h47 ,! organs ( te>s at ! side ( ! eye also fir/ develop 9 ! ,amniota4 ,! "q n[ is1 ,:5 did ?is important advance take place 9 ! c\rse ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?8 ,:5 did ! common ance/or ( all ,amniota develop out ( a bran* ( ! ,non-amniota1 to wit1 out ( ! bran* ( ! ,amphibia8 ,to ?is "q1 ! fossil rema9s ( ,v]tebrata d n give u a v def9ite1 b /ill !y d give an approximate1 answ]4 ,= ) ! exception ( two liz>d-l animals f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian sy/em 7! ,prot]osaurus & ,rhopalodon71 all ! fossil rema9s ( ,amniota1 z yet kn[n1 belong to ! second>y1 t]ti>y1 & quat]n>y epo*s4 ,) reg>d to ! two ,v]tebrata j nam$1 x is /ill d\btful :e!r !y are g5u9e reptiles1 or p]haps ,amphibia ( ! salam&] k9d4 ,_! skeleton alone is kn[n to u1 & ev5 ?is n p]fectly4 ,n[ z we "k no?+ ( ! *>act]i/ic features ( _! s(t p>ts1 x is q possible t ! ,prot]osaurus & ,rhopalodon 7 non-amnionate animals m closely alli$ to ,amphibia ?an to ,reptiles2 possibly !y belong$ to ! transition =m betwe5 ! two classes4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 z und\bt$ fossil rema9s ( ,amniota h be5 f\nd z e>ly z ! ,trias1 x is probable t ! ma9 class ( ,amniota fir/ develop$ 9 ! ,trias1 t is1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,mesoli?ic epo*4 ,z we h already se51 ?is v p]iod is evid5tly "o ( ! mo/ important turn+ po9ts 9 ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,! paloli?ic f]n =e/s 7 !n replac$ by ! p9e =e/s ( ! ,trias p]iod2 important trans=mations !n took place 9 _m ( ! classes ( ,inv]tebrata4 ,articulat$ m>9e lilies 7,colocr9a7 develop$ out ( ! plat$ ones 7,phatnocr9a47 ,! ,aute*9id1 or sea-ur*9s ) only tw5ty r[s ( plates1 took ! place ( ! paloli?ic ,pale*9id1 ! sea-ur*9s ) m ?an tw5ty r[s ( plates4 ,! ,cy/ide1 ,bla/oide1 ,trilobita1 & o!r *>act]i/ic gr\ps ( ,inv]tebrata ( ! prim>y p]iod became ext9ct4 ,x is no wond] t trans=m+ conditions ( adaptation p[]fully influ5c$ ! ,v]tebrate tribes also 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,trias p]iod1 & caus$ ! orig9 ( ,amniotic animals4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! two ,liz>d & ,salam&]-l animals ( ! ,p]mian sy/em1 ! ,prot]osaurus & ,rhopalodon1 are consid]$ g5u9e ,reptiles1 & consequ5tly ! mo/ anci5t ,amniota1 !n ! orig9 ( ?is ma9 class mu/ necess>ily h tak5 place 9 ! prec$+ p]iod1 t[>ds ! end ( ! prim>y1 namely1 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod4 ,h[ev]1 all o!r rema9s ( ,reptiles1 :i* 7 =m]ly believ$ to h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,p]mian & ! ,coal sy/em1 or ev5 9 ! ,devonian sy/em1 h be5 prov$ to be ei!r n rema9s ( ,reptiles at all1 or to belong to a m rec5t date 7= ! mo/ "p to ! ,trias74 7,comp>e ,plate ,,xiv47 ,! common hypo!tical prim>y =m ( all ,amniotic animals1 :i* we may call ,protamnion1 & :i* 0 possibly ne>ly relat$ to ! ,prot]osaurus1 v probably /ood ^u ! :ole midway betwe5 salam&]s & liz>ds1 9 reg>d to its bodily =mation4 ,its desc5dants divid$ at an e>ly p]iod into two diff]5t l9es1 "o ( :i* became ! common prim>y =m ( ,reptiles & ,birds1 ! o!r ! prim>y =m ( ,mammals4 ,( all ! ?ree classes ( ,amniota1 ,reptiles 7,reptilia1 or ,pholidota1 also call$ ,sauria 9 ! wide/ s5se71 rema9 at ! l[e/ /age ( developm5t1 & diff] lea/ f _! ance/ors1 ! ,amphibia4 ,h5ce !y 7 =m]ly univ]sally includ$ among !m1 al?\gh _! :ole organization is mu* m l t ( ,birds ?an ,amphibia4 ,!re n[ exi/ only f\r ord]s ( ,reptiles1 namely1--,liz>ds1 ,s]p5ts1 ,crocodiles1 & ,tortoises4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 =m b a poor remnant ( ! exce$+ly v>i\s & highly develop$ ho/ ( ,reptiles :i* liv$ dur+ ! ,mesoli?ic1 or ,second>y epo*1 & pr$om9at$ ov] all o!r ,v]tebrata4 ,! imm5se developm5t ( ,reptiles dur+ ! ,second>y epo* is s *>act]i/ic t we c\ld z well "n x aft] ^? animals z aft] ! ,gymnosp]ms 7p4 #aaa74 ,twelve ( ! tw5ty-sev5 sub-ord]s1 giv5 on ! accompany+ table1 & f\r ( ! eight ord]s1 belong exclusively to ! second>y p]iod4 ,^! mesoli?ic gr\ps are m>k$ by an a/]isk4 ,all ! ord]s1 ) ! exception ( ,s]p5ts1 are f\nd fossiliz$ ev5 9 ! ,jura & ,trias p]iods4 ,illu/ration3 ,pl4 ,,xiv4 ,horizontal axis3 ,bran*es1 ,classes1 & ,sub-,classes1 ( ! ,v]tebrate ,/em4 ,pro*ordata ,ev]tebrate ,=efa!rs ( ! ,v]tebrate ,skull-less 7,acrania7 or ,tube-he>t$ ,fi%1 7,leptoc>dia7 ,s+le no/rill$ 7,monorrh9a7 or ,r\nd-m\!d ,fi%es 7,cyclo/oma7 ,anamnia ,pair$-no/rill$ =ms or ,amphirrh9a ) gills1 )\t ,amnion4 ,fi%1 ,pisces ,primeval ,fi%1 ,sela*ii4 ,enamell$ ,fi%1 ,ganoides4 ,bony ,fi%1 ,teleo/ei4 ,mud ,fi%1 ,dipneu/a4 ,sea-,dragons1 ,halisauria4 ,frogs & ,newts1 ,amphibia4 ,amniota ,pair$ no/rill$ or ,amphirrh9a ) ,amnion1 )\t gills4 ,reptiles1 ,reptilia4 ,primval ,reptiles1 ,tocosauria4 ,liz>ds1 ,lac]tilia4 ,snakes1 ,ophidia4 ,crocodiles1 ,crocodilia4 ,tortoises1 ,*elonia4 ,fly+ ,reptiles1 ,pt]osauria4 ,dragons1 ,d9osauria4 ,bill$ ,reptiles1 ,anomodontia4 ,birds1 ,aves4 ,suckl+ animals1 ,mammalia4 ,bill$ ,animals1 ,monotrema4 ,p\*$ ,animals1 ,m>supialia4 ,plac5tal ,animals1 ,plac5talia4 ,v]tical axis3 ,c5oli?ic or ,t]ti>y ,epo*4 ,plioc5e ,age4 ,mioc5e ,age4 ,eoc5e ,age4 ,mesoli?ic or ,second>y ,epo*4 ,*alk ,p]iod4 ,jurassic ,p]iod4 ,triassic ,p]iod4 ,paloli?ic or ,prim>y ,epo*4 ,p]mian ,p]iod4 ,coal ,p]iod4 ,devonian ,p]iod4 ,ar*ili?ic or ,primordial ,epo*4 ,silurian ,p]iod4 ,cambrian ,p]iod4 ,laur5tian ,p]iod4 ,leg5d3 ,s+le or ,,monophyletic ,,p$igree ( ! ,/em ( ! ,,back-,,bon$ ,,animals ,bas$ on ,palontology4 ,relative l5g?s ( ! #e ,epo*s 9 p] c5tages4 ,qu>t]n>y ,epo* #j4e ,t]ti>y ,epo* #b4c ,second>y ,epo* #aa4e ,prim>y ,epo* #cb4a ,primordial ,epo* #ec4f ------ ,total #ajj4j ,9 ! fir/ ord]1 t ( ,prim>y ,reptiles1 or ,prim>y ,creep]s 7,tocosauria71 we class ! ext9ct ,!codontia ( ! ,trias1 toge!r ) ^? ,reptiles :i* we may look ^u z ! common prim>y =m ( ! :ole class4 ,to ! latt]1 :i* we may call ,primval ,reptiles 7,proreptilia71 ! ,prot]osaurus ( ! ,p]mian sy/em v probably belongs4 ,! sev5 rema9+ ord]s mu/ be consid]$ z div]g+ bran*es1 :i* h develop$ 9 diff]5t directions out ( t common prim>y =m4 ,! ,!codontia ( ! ,trias1 ! only positively kn[n fossil =ms ( ,tocosauria1 7 ,liz>ds :i* seem to h be5 l ! /ill liv+ monitor liz>ds 7,monitor1 ,v>anus74 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #h ,ord]s & #bg ,sub-ord]s ( ,reptiles4 7,^? gr\ps m>k$ ) 99 became ext9ct ev5 dur+ ! ,second>y ,p]iod47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,sub-ord]s ,sy/ematic ,"n ,a ,g5]ic ,"n ,ord]s ( ( ! z ( ,reptiles4 ,reptiles4 ,sub-ord]s4 an example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,i4 ,prim>y #a4 ,primval reptiles #a4 ,proreptilia 99 7,prot]osaurus87 ,reptiles ,tocosauria #b4 #b4 ,!codontia 99 ,palosaurus #c4 ,cleft-tongu$ #c4 ,fissil+ues ,monitor #d4 ,?ick-tongu$ #d4 ,crassil+ues ,iguana ,,ii4 ,liz>ds #e4 ,%ort-tongu$ #e4 ,brevil+ues ,anguis ,lac]tilia #f4 ,r+$ liz>ds #f4 ,glyptod]mata ,amphisbna #g4 ,*ameleons #g4 ,v]mil+ues ,*amleo #h4 ,add]s #h4 ,aglyphodonta ,colub] #i4 ,tree s]p5ts #i4 ,opi/hoglypha ,dipsas ,,iii4 ,s]p5ts #aj4 #aj4 ,prot]oglypha ,hydrophis ,ophidia #aa4 ,vip]s #aa4 ,sol5oglypha ,vip]a #ab4 ,worm s]p5ts #ab4 ,opot]odonta ,typhlops #ac4 ,amphicla #ac4 ,teleosauria 99 ,teleosaurus ,,iv4 ,crocodiles #ad4 ,opi/hocla #ad4 ,/5eosauria 99 ,/5eosaurus ,crocodilia #ae4 ,pro/hocla #ae4 ,alligatores ,alligator #af4 ,sea tortoises #af4 ,?alassita ,*elone ,v4 ,tortoises #ag4 ,riv] tortoises #ag4 ,potamita ,trionyx ,*elonia #ah4 ,m>% tortoises #ah4 ,elodita ,emys #ai4 ,l& tortoises #ai4 ,*]sita ,te/udo #bj4 ,long-tail$ #bj4 ,rhamphorhyn*i 99 ,rhamphorhyn*us ,,vi4 ,fly+ ,fly+ liz>ds ,reptiles #ba4 ,%ort-tail$ #ba4 ,pt]odactyli 99 ,pt]odactylus ,pt]osauria99 ,fly+ liz>ds #bb4 ,giant dragons #bb4 ,h>pagosauria 99 ,megalosaurus ,,vii4 ,dragons #bc4 ,elephant9e #bc4 ,!rosauria 99 ,iguanodon ,d9osauria99 dragons #bd4 ,dog-too!d #bd4 ,cynodontia 99 ,dicynodon ,,viii4 ,beak$ #be4 ,too?less #be4 ,cryptodontia 99 ,ud5odon ,reptiles #bf4 ,kang>oo reptiles #bf4 ,hypsosauria 99 ,compsogna?us ,anomodontia99 #bg4 ,bird reptiles #bg4 ,tocorni!s 99 7,tocornis7 ,( ! f\r ord]s ( reptiles n[ exi/+1 & :i*1 moreov]1 h alone repres5t$ ! class s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! t]ti>y epo*1 t ( ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia7 is probably mo/ closely alli$ to ! ext9ct ,prim>y ,reptiles1 & especially ?r\gh ! monitors already nam$4 ,! class ( ,s]p5ts 7,ophidia7 develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! ord] ( liz>ds1 & ?is probably n until ! beg9n+ ( ! t]ti>y epo*4 ,at lea/ we at pres5t only "k ( fossil rema9s ( s]p5ts f ! t]ti>y /rata4 ,crocodiles 7,crocodilia7 exi/$ mu* e>li]2 ! ,teleosauria & ,/5eosauria belong+ to ! class are f\nd fossil 9 l>ge quantities ev5 9 ! ,jura2 b ! /ill liv+ alligators are fir/ met ) 9 a fossil /ate 9 ! *alk & t]ti>y /rata4 ,! mo/ isolat$ ( ! f\r exi/+ ord]s ( reptiles consi/s ( ! rem>kable gr\p ( ,tortoises 7,*elonia72 fossils ( ^! /range animals are fir/ met ) 9 ! ,jura4 ,9 "s *>act]i/ics !y are alli$ to ,amphibia1 9 o!rs1 to ,crocodiles1 & by c]ta9 peculi>ities ev5 to ,birds1 s t _! true position 9 ! p$igree ( ,reptiles is probably f> d[n at ! root4 ,! extraord9>y resemblance ( _! embryos to ,birds1 manife/$ ev5 at lat] /ages ( ! ontog5esis1 is exce$+ly /rik+4 ,! f\r ext9ct ord]s ( ,reptiles %[ among "o ano!r1 &1 ) ! f\r exi/+ ord]s j m5tion$1 su* v>i\s & complicat$ relation%ips1 t 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k we are oblig$ to give up ! attempt at e/abli%+ _! p$igree4 ,! mo/ deviat+ & mo/ curi\s =ms are ! ,fly+ ,reptiles 7,pt]osauria72 fly+ liz>ds1 9 :i* ! extremely elongat$ fif? f+] ( ! h& s]v$ to support an enorm\s fly+ membrane4 ,!y probably flew ab\t1 9 ! second>y p]iod1 mu* 9 ! same way z ! bats ( ! pres5t day4 ,! smalle/ fly+ liz>ds 7 ab\t ! size ( a sp>r[2 ! l>ge/1 h[ev]1 ) a bread? ( w+ ( m ?an sixte5 feet1 exce$$ ! l>ge/ ( our liv+ fly+ birds 9 /ret* ( w+ 7condor & albatross74 ,num]\s fossil rema9s ( !m1 ( ! long-tail$ ,rhamphorhyn*ia & ( ! %ort-tail$ ,pt]odactyl are f\nd 9 all ! /rata ( ! ,jura & ,*alk p]iods1 b 9 ^! only4 ,n less rem>kable & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mesoli?ic epo* 0 ! gr\p ( ,dragons 7,d9osauria1 or ,pa*ypoda74 ,^! colossal reptiles1 :i* atta9$ a l5g? ( m ?an fifty feet1 are ! l>ge/ inhabitants ( ! l& :i* h ev] exi/$ on our globe2 !y liv$ exclusively 9 ! second>y epo*4 ,mo/ ( _! rema9s are f\nd 9 ! l[] cretace\s sy/em1 m especially 9 ! ,weald5 =mations ( ,engl&4 ,! majority ( !m 7 fe>ful bea/s ( prey 7! ,megalosaurus f tw5ty to ?irty1 ! ,pelorosaurus f =ty to fifty feet 9 l5g?74 ,! ,iguanodon1 h[ev]1 & "s o!rs liv$ on vegetable food1 & probably play$ a "p 9 ! =e/s ( ! *alk p]iod simil> to t ( ! unwieldy b small] elephants1 hippopotami1 & rh9oc]oses ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,beak$ ,reptiles 7,anomodontia71 likewise also long s9ce ext9ct1 b ( :i* v _m rem>kable rema9s are f\nd 9 ! ,trias & ,jura1 7 p]haps closely relat$ to ! ,dragons4 ,_! jaws1 l ^? ( mo/ ,fly+ ,reptiles & ,tortoises1 _h become *ang$ into a beak1 :i* ei!r possess$ only deg5]at$ rudim5t>y tee?1 or no tee? at all4 ,9 ?is ord]1 if n 9 ! prec$+ "o1 we mu/ look = ! prim>y p>5ts ( ! bird class1 :i* we may call ,bird ,reptiles 7,tocorni!s74 ,probably v closely relat$ to !m 0 ! curi\s1 kang>oo-l ,compsogna?us f ! ,jura1 :i* 9 v important *>act]i/ics already %[s an approximation to ! /ructure ( birds4 ,! class ( ,birds 7,aves71 z already rem>k$1 is s closely alli$ to ,reptiles 9 int]nal /ructure & by embryonal developm5t1 t !y und\bt$ly orig9at$ out ( a bran* ( ?is class4 ,ev5 a glance at ,plates ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 w %[ t ! embryos ( birds at a "t :5 !y already ess5tially diff] f ! embryos ( ,mammals1 are /ill sc>cely di/+ui%able f ^? ( ,tortoises & o!r ,reptiles4 ,! cleavage ( ! yolk is p>tial 9 ! case ( ,birds & ,reptiles1 9 ,mammals x is total4 ,! r$ blood-cells ( ! =m] possess a k]nel1 ^? ( ! latt] d n4 ,! hair ( ,mammals develops 9 clos$ follicles 9 ! sk91 b ! fea!rs ( birds & also ! scales ( reptiles develop 9 hillocks on ! sk94 ,! l[] jaw ( ! latt] is mu* m complicat$ ?an t ( ,mammals2 ! latt] d n possess ! quadrate bone ( ! =m]4 ,:]eas 9 ,mammals 7z 9 ! case ( ,amphibia7 ! connection betwe5 ! skull & ! fir/ neck v]tebra is =m$ by two knobb$ jo9ts1 or condyles1 9 ,birds & ,reptiles ^? h become unit$ into a s+le condyle4 ,! two la/ classes may !re=e ju/ly be unit$ into "o gr\p z ,monocondylia1 & contra/$ to ,mammals1 or ,dicondylia4 ,! deviation ( ,birds f ,reptiles1 9 any case1 fir/ took place 9 ! mesoli?ic epo*1 & ?is moreov] probably dur+ ! ,trias4 ,! olde/ fossil rema9s ( birds are f\nd 9 ! upp] ,jura 7,ar*opt]yx74 ,b !re exi/$1 ev5 9 ! ,trias p]iod1 diff]5t ,saurians 7,anomodonta7 :i* 9 _m respects seem to =m ! transition f ! ,tocosauria to ! prim>y ance/ors ( ,birds1 ! hypo!tical ,tocorni!s4 ,probably ^! ,tocorni!s 7 sc>cely di/+ui%able f o!r beak$ liz>ds 9 ! sy/em1 & 7 closely relat$ to ! kang>oo-l ,compsogna?us f ! ,jura ( ,sol5h(54 ,huxley classes ! latt] ) ! ,d9osauria1 & believes !m to be ! ne>e/ relations to ! ,tocorni!s4 ,! great majority ( ,birds--9 spite ( all ! v>iety 9 ! col\r+ ( _! beautiful fea!ry dress1 & 9 ! =mation ( _! beaks & feet--are ( an exce$+ly uni=m organization1 9 mu* ! same way z are ! class ( insects4 ,! bird =m has adapt$ itself on all sides to ! ext]nal conditions ( exi/5ce1 )\t hav+ !reby 9 any way ess5tially deviat$ f ! /rict h]$it>y type ( its *>act]i/ic /ructure4 ,!re are only two small gr\ps1 ! fea!r-tail$ birds 7,saurur7 & ^? ( ! o/ri* k9d1 :i* diff] consid]ably f ! usual type ( bird1 namely1 f ^? ) keel-%ap$ brea/s 7,c>9at71 & h5ce ! :ole class may be divid$ into ?ree sub-classes4 ,! fir/ sub-class1 ! ,reptile-tail$1 or ,fea!r-tail$ ,birds 7,saurur71 are z yet kn[n only ?r\gh a s+le1 & t an imp]fect1 fossil impression1 :i*1 h[ev]1 9 be+ ! olde/ & also a v peculi> fossil bird1 is ( great importance4 ,?is fossil is ! ,primval ,griff91 or ,ar*opt]yx li?ographica1 ( :i* z yet only "o specim5 has be5 f\nd 9 ! li?ographic slate at ,sol5h(51 9 ! ,upp] ,jura sy/em ( ,bav>ia4 ,?is rem>kable bird seems on ! :ole to h be5 ( ! size & =m ( a l>ge rav51 especially z reg>ds ! legs1 :i* are 9 a good /ate ( pres]vation2 head & brea/ un=tunately are want+4 ,! =mation ( ! w+s deviates some:at f t ( o!r birds1 b t ( ! tail /ill m s4 ,9 all o!r birds ! tail is v %ort & compos$ ( b few %ort v]tebr2 ! la/ ( ^! h gr[n toge!r into a ?91 bony plate /&+ p]p5dicul>ly1 ^u :i* ! rudd]-fea!rs ( ! tail are atta*$ 9 ! =m ( a fan4 ,! ,ar*opt]yx1 h[ev]1 has a long tail l a liz>d1 compos$ ( num]\s 7#bj7 long ?9 v]tebr1 & on e v]tebra are atta*$ ! /rong rudd]-fea!rs 9 twos1 s t ! :ole tail appe>s regul>ly fea!r$4 ,?is same =mation ( ! tail "p ( ! v]tebral column occurs transi5tly 9 ! embryos ( o!r birds1 s t ! tail ( ! ,ar*opt]yx evid5tly repres5ts ! orig9al =m ( bird-tail inh]it$ f reptiles4 ,l>ge numb]s ( simil> birds ) liz>d-tails probably liv$ dur+ ! middle ( ! second>y p]iod2 accid5t has z yet1 h[ev]1 only reveal$ ?is "o fossil4 ,! ,fan-tail$1 or ,keel-brea/$ birds 7,c>9at71 :i* =m ! second sub-class1 comprise all liv+ ,birds ( ! pres5t day1 ) ! exception ( ^? ( ! o/ri* k9d1 or ,ratit4 ,!y probably develop$ out ( ,fea!r-tail$ ,birds dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! second>y p]iod1 namely1 9 ! ,jura or ,*alk p]iod1 by ! h9d] tail v]tebr gr[+ toge!r1 & by ! tail becom+ %ort5$4 ,only v few rema9s ( !m are kn[n f ! second>y p]iod1 & ^! moreov] only out ( ! la/ section ( x1 namely1 f ! ,*alk4 ,^! rema9s belong to a swimm+ bird ( ! albatross species1 & a wad+ bird l a snipe4 ,all ! o!r fossil rema9s ( birds z yet kn[n h be5 f\nd 9 ! t]ti>y /rata4 ,! ,bu%y-tail$1 or ,o/ri*-l ,birds 7,ratit71 also call$ ,runn+ ,birds 7,cursores71 ! ?ird & la/ sub-class1 is n[ repres5t$ only by a few liv+ species1 by ! ,african o/ri* ) two toes1 ! ,am]ican & ,au/ralian o/ri* ) ?ree toes1 by ! ,indian cass[>y & ! f\r-to$ kiwi1 or ,apt]yx1 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,! ext9ct giant birds ( ,madagasc> 7pyornis7 & ! ,new ,zeal& ,d9ornis1 :i* 7 mu* l>g] ?an ! /ill liv+ o/ri*es1 also belong to ?is gr\p4 ,! ,birds ( ! o/ri* k9d--by giv+ up ! habit ( fly+1 by ! deg5]ation ( ! muscles = fly+ result+ f ?is1 & ( ! brea/ bone :i* s]ves z _! support1 & by ! correspond+ /rong] developm5t ( ! h9d] legs = runn+--h probably aris5 out ( a bran* ( ! ,keel-brea/$ birds4 ,b possibly1 z ,huxley ?9ks1 !y may be ! ne>e/ relations ( ! ,d9osauria & ( ! ,reptiles ak9 to !m1 especially ( ! ,compsogna?us2 at all ev5ts1 ! common prim>y =m ( all ,birds mu/ be look$ = among ! ext9ct ,reptiles4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,p$igree ,,& ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 ,,iv4 ,,mammals4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,mammals accord+ to ,l9nu & ,bla9ville4--,?ree ,sub-classes ( ,mammals 7,orni?odelphia1 ,didelphia1 ,monodelphia74--,orni?odelphia1 or ,monotrema4--,beak$ ,animals 7,orni?o/oma74--,didelphia1 or ,m>supials4--,h]bivor\s & ,c>nivor\s ,m>supials4--,monodelphia1 or ,plac5talia 7,plac5tal ,animals74--,mean+ ( ! ,plac5ta4--,tuft ,plac5talia4--,girdle ,plac5talia4--,disc ,plac5talia4--,non-deciduates1 or ,indeciduata4--,ho($ ,animals4--,s+le & ,d\ble-ho($ ,animals4--,:ales4--,too?less ,animals4--,deciduates1 or ,animals ) ,decidua4--,semi-apes4--,gnaw+ ,animals4--,pseudo-ho($ ,animals4--,insectivora4--,bea/s ( ,prey4--,bats4--,apes4 ,!re are only a few po9ts 9 ! classification ( organisms ^u :i* naturali/s h always agre$4 ,"o ( ^! few undisput$ po9ts is ! privileg$ position ( ! class ( ,mammals at ! head ( ! animal k+dom4 ,! reason ( ?is privilege consi/s p>tly 9 ! special int]e/1 also 9 ! v>i\s uses & ! _m pleasures1 :i* ,mammals1 m ?an all o!r animals1 (f] to man1 & p>tly 9 ! circum/ance t man himself is a memb] ( ?is class4 ,= h[ev] diff]5tly 9 o!r respects man's position 9 nature & 9 ! sy/em ( animals may h be5 reg>d$1 yet no naturali/ has ev] d\bt$ t man1 at lea/ f a purely morphological po9t ( view1 belongs to ! class ( ,mammals4 ,f ?is !re directly foll[s ! exce$+ly important inf]5ce t man1 by consangu9ity also1 is a memb] ( ?is class ( animals1 & has hi/orically develop$ out ( long s9ce ext9ct =ms ( ,mammals4 ,?is circum/ance alone ju/ifies u "h 9 turn+ our especial att5tion to ! hi/ory & ! p$igree ( ,mammals4 ,let u1 !re=e1 = ?is purpose fir/ exam9e ! gr\ps ( ?is class ( animals4 ,old] naturali/s1 especially consid]+ ! =mation ( ! jaw & feet1 divid$ ! class ( ,mammals into a s]ies ( f eight to sixte5 ord]s4 ,! l[e/ /age ( ! s]ies 0 occupi$ by ! :ales1 :i* seem$ to diff] mo/ f man1 :o /&s at ! highe/ /age1 by _! fi%-l =m ( body4 ,?us ,l9nu di/+ui%$ ! foll[+ eight ord]s3 7#a7 ,cet 7:ales72 7#b7 ,bellu 7hippopotami & horses72 7#c7 ,pecora 7rum9at+ animals72 7#d7 ,glires 7gnaw+ animals & rh9oc]oses72 7#e7 ,be/i 7insectivora1 m>supials1 & v>i\s o!rs72 7#f7 ,f] 7bea/s ( prey72 7#g7 ,bruta 7too?less animals & elephants72 7#h7 ,primates 7bats1 semi-apes1 apes1 & m574 ,cuvi]'s classification1 :i* became ! /&>d ( mo/ subsequ5t zoologi/s1 did n rise mu* above t ( ,l9nu4 ,cuvi] di/+ui%$ ! foll[+ eight ord]s3 7#a7 ,cetacea 7:ales72 7#b7 ,rum9antia 7rum9at+ animals72 7#c7 ,pa*yd]ma 7ho($ animals1 ) ! exclusion ( rum9at+ animals72 7#d7 ,ed5tata 7animals poor 9 tee?72 7#e7 ,rod5tia 7gnaw+ animals72 7#f7 ,c>nassia 7m>supials1 bea/s ( prey1 insectivora1 & bats72 7#g7 ,quadrumana 7semi-apes & apes72 7#h7 ,bimana 7man74 ,! mo/ important advance 9 ! classification ( ,mammals 0 made z e>ly z #ahaf by ! em95t anatomi/ ,bla9ville1 :o has already be5 m5tion$1 & :o fir/ cle>ly recognis$ ! ?ree natural ma9 gr\ps or sub-classes ( ,mammals1 & di/+ui%$ !m accord+ to ! =mation ( _! g5]ative organs z ,orni?odelphia1 ,didelphia1 & ,monodelphia4 ,z ?is division is n[ ju/ly consid]$ by all sci5tific zoologi/s to be ! be/1 on acc\nt ( solid f\ndation on ! hi/ory ( developm5t1 let u "h keep to x also4 ,! fir/ sub-class consi/s ( ! ,cloacal ,animals1 or ,brea/less animals1 also call$ ,=k$ animals 7,monotrema1 or ,orni?odelphia74 ,?is class is n[ repres5t$ only by two species ( liv+ mammals1 bo? ( :i* are conf9$ to ,au/ralia & ! neighb\r+ isl& ( ,van ,diem5's l&1 namely1 ! well-kn[n ,wat] ,duck-bill 7,orni?orhyn*us p>adoxus7 ) ! beak ( a bird1 & ! less kn[n ,beak$ ,mole 7,e*idna hy/rix71 resembl+ a h$gehog4 ,bo? ( ^! curi\s animals1 :i* are class$ 9 ! ord] ( ,beak$ ,animals 7,orni?o/oma71 are evid5tly ! la/ surviv+ remnants ( an animal gr\p =m]ly ri* 9 =ms1 :i* alone repres5t$ ! ,mammalia 9 ! second>y epo*1 & out ( :i* ! second sub-class1 ! ,didelphia1 develop$ lat]1 probably 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,un=tunately1 we z yet d n "k ) c]ta9ty ( any fossil rema9s ( ?is mo/ anci5t prim>y gr\p ( ,mammals1 :i* we w call ,prim>y ,mammals 7,promammalia74 ,yet !y possibly comprise ! olde/ ( all ! fossil ,mammalia kn[n1 namely1 ! ,microle/es antiquus1 ( :i* animals1 h[ev]1 we z yet only "k "s few small mol> tee?4 ,^! h be5 f\nd 9 ! upp]mo/ /rata ( ! ,trias1 9 ! ,keup]1 fir/ 9 ,g]many 7at ,deg]lo*1 ne> ,/uttg>t1 9 #ahdg71 lat] also 9 ,engl& 7at ,frome71 9 #aheh4 ,simil> tee? h lately be5 f\nd also 9 ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,trias1 & h be5 describ$ z ,droma!rium sylve/re4 ,^! rem>kable tee?1 f ! *>act]i/ic =m ( :i* we c conclude t !y belong$ to an insectivor\s mammal1 are ! only rema9s ( mammals z yet f\nd 9 ! old] second>y /rata1 namely1 9 ! ,trias4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 t besides ^! _m ( ! o!r mammalian tee? f\nd 9 ! ,jura & ,*alk sy/ems1 :i* are /ill g5]ally ascrib$ to ,m>supials1 9 reality belong to ,cloacal ,animals4 ,?is _c be decid$ ) c]ta9ty ow+ to ! abs5ce ( ! *>act]i/ic s(t p>ts4 ,9 any case1 num]\s ,monotrema1 ) well-develop$ tee? & cloaca1 mu/ h prec$$ ! adv5t ( ,m>supial animals4 ,! designation1 8,cloacal animals0 7,monotrema71 has be5 giv5 to ! ,orni?odelphia on acc\nt ( ! cloaca :i* di/+ui%es !m f all o!r ,mammals2 b :i* on ! o!r h& makes !m agree ) ,birds1 ,reptiles1 & ,amphibia1 9 fact1 ) ! l[] ,v]tebrata4 ,! =mation ( ! cloaca consi/s 9 ! la/ portion ( ! inte/9al canal receiv+ ! m\? ( ! urog5ital app>atus1 t is1 ! unit$ ur9>y & g5ital organs1 :]eas 9 all o!r ,mammals 7,didelphia z well ,monodelphia7 ^! organs h an op5+ di/9ct f t ( ! rectum4 ,h[ev]1 9 ^! latt] also ! cloaca =mation exi/s dur+ ! fir/ p]iod ( _! embryonal life1 & ! sep>ation ( ! two op5+s takes place only at a lat] date 79 man ab\t ! twelf? week ( developm5t74 ,! ,cloacal animals h also be5 call$ 8,=k$ animals10 because ! coll>-bones1 by means ( ! brea/ bone1 h become unit$ into "o piece1 simil> to ! well-kn[n =k-bone1 or m]ry-?\ght1 9 birds4 ,9 all o!r ,mammals ! two coll>-bones rema9 sep>at$ 9 front & d n fuse ) ! brea/ bone4 ,moreov]1 ! coracoid bones are mu* m /rongly develop$ 9 ! ,cloacal animals ?an 9 ! o!r ,mammalia1 & are connect$ ) ! brea/ bone4 ,9 _m o!r *>act]i/ics also--especially 9 ! =mation ( _! int]nal g5ital organs1 _! auricul> labyr9?1 & _! bra9--,beak$ animals are m closely alli$ to ! o!r ,v]tebrata ?an to ,mammals1 s t "s naturali/s h be5 incl9$ to sep>ate !m f ! latt] z a special class4 ,h[ev]1 l all o!r ,mammals1 !y br+ =? liv+ "y ones1 :i* = a "t are n\ri%$ ) milk f ! "m4 ,b :]eas 9 all o!r ,mammals ! milk issues ?r\gh nipples1 or teats1 f ! mamm>y gl&s1 teats are completely want+ 9 beak$ animals1 & ! milk comes simply out ( a flat1 sieve-l1 p]=at$ pat* ( ! sk94 ,h5ce !y may also be call$ ,brea/less or ,teatless animals 7,ama/a74 ,! curi\s =mation ( ! beak 9 ! two /ill liv+ ,beak$ animals1 :i* is connect$ ) ! suppression ( ! tee?1 mu/ evid5tly n be look$ ^u z an ess5tial feature ( ! :ole sub-class ( ,cloacal animals1 b z an accid5tal "* ( adaptation di/+ui%+ ! la/ remnant ( ! class z mu* f ! ext9ct ma9 gr\p1 z ! =mation ( a simil> too?less sn\t di/+ui%es _m too?less animals 7= in/ance1 ! ant-eat]7 f ! o!r plac5tal animals4 ,! unkn[n1 ext9ct ,prim>y ,mammals1 or ,promammalia--:i* liv$ dur+ ! ,trias p]iod1 & ( :i* ! two /ill liv+ ord]s ( ,beak$ animals repres5t b a s+le deg5]at$ bran* develop$ on "o side--probably possess$ a v highly develop$ jaw l ! m>supial animals1 :i* develop$ f !m4 ,m>supial1 or ,p\*$ ,animals 7,didelphia1 or ,m>supialia71 ! second ( ! ?ree sub-classes ( ,mammals1 =m 9 e respect--bo? z reg>ds _! anatomy & embryology1 z well z _! g5ealogy & hi/ory--! transition betwe5 ! o!r sub-classes--! ,cloacal & ,plac5tal ,animals4 ,num]\s repres5tatives ( ?is gr\p /ill exi/1 especially ! well-kn[n kang>oos1 p\*$ rats1 & p\*$ dogs2 b on ! :ole ?is sub-class1 l ! prec$+ "o1 is evid5tly approa*+ its complete ext9ction1 & ! liv+ memb]s ( ! class are ! la/ surviv+ remnants ( a l>ge gr\p ri* 9 =ms1 :i* repres5t$ ! ,mammalia dur+ ! m rec5t second>y & ! e>li] t]ti>y p]iods4 ,! ,m>supial ,animals probably develop$ t[>ds ! middle ( ! ,mesoli?ic epo* 7dur+ ! ,jura7 out ( a bran* ( ! ,cloacal ,animals1 & 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,t]ti>y epo* aga91 ! gr\p ( ,plac5tal ,animals arose out ( ! ,m>supials1 & ! latt] !n succumb$ to ! =m] 9 ! /ruggle = life4 ,all ! fossil rema9s ( ,mammals kn[n to u f ! ,second>y epo*1 belong ei!r exclusively to ,m>supials1 or p>tly p]haps to ,cloacal animals4 ,at t "t ,m>supials seem to h be5 di/ribut$ ov] ! :ole e>?2 ev5 9 ,europe 7,france & ,engl&71 well-pres]v$ fossil rema9s ( !m h be5 f\nd4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! la/ (f-%oots ( ! sub-class n[ liv+ are conf9$ to a v n>r[ tract ( di/ribution1 namely1 to ,au/ralia1 ! ,au/ralasian1 & a small "p ( ! ,asiatic ,ar*ipelago4 ,!re are also a few species /ill liv+ 9 ,am]ica1 b at ! pres5t day n a s+le m>supial animal lives on ! cont95t ( ,asia1 ,africa1 or ,europe4 ,! "n ( p\*$ animals is giv5 to ! class on acc\nt ( ! purse-%ap$ p\* 7m>supium7 exi/+ 9 mo/ in/ances on ! abdom9al side ( ! female animals1 9 :i* ! "m c>ries ab\t h] "y = a consid]able "t aft] _! bir?4 ,?is p\* is support$ by two *>act]i/ic m>supial bones1 also exi/+ 9 ,cloacal animals1 b n 9 ,plac5tal animals4 ,! "y ,m>supial animal is born 9 a mu* m imp]fect =m ?an ! "y ,plac5tal animal1 & only atta9s ! same degree ( developm5t :i* ! latt] possesses directly at its bir?1 aft] x has develop$ 9 ! p\* = "s "t4 ,9 ! case ( ! giant kang>oo1 :i* atta9s ! height ( a man1 ! newly born "y "o1 :i* has be5 c>ri$ 9 ! mat]nal womb n mu* long] ?an five weeks1 is n m ?an an in* 9 l5g?1 & only atta9s its ess5tial developm5t subsequ5tly1 9 ! p\* ( ! "m1 :]e x rema9s ab\t n9e mon?s atta*$ to ! nipple ( ! mamm>y gl&4 ,! diff]5t divisions g5]ally di/+ui%$ z families 9 ! sub-class ( ,m>supial animals1 des]ve 9 reality ! rank ( indep5d5t ord]s1 = !y diff] f "o ano!r 9 manifold diff]5tiations ( ! jaw & limbs1 9 mu* ! same mann]1 al?\gh n s %>ply1 z ! v>i\s ord]s ( ,plac5tal animals4 ,9 "p !y p]fectly agree ) ! latt]4 ,x is evid5t t adaptation to simil> conditions ( life has effect$ entirely co9cid5t or analog\s trans=mations ( ! orig9al fundam5tal =m 9 ! two sub-classes ( ,m>supials4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ab\t eight ord]s ( ,m>supial animals may be di/+ui%$1 ! "o half ( ! ma9 gr\p or legion ( :i* are h]bivor\s1 ! o!r half c>nivor\s4 ,! olde/ fossil rema9s ( ! two legions 7if ! previ\sly m5tion$ ,microle/es & ! ,droma!rium are n includ$7 occur 9 ! ,jurassic /rata1 namely1 9 ! slates ( ,/onesfield1 ne> ,ox=d4 ,! slates belong to ! ,ba?1 or ! ,l[] ,oolite =mation--/rata :i* lie directly above ! ,lias1 ! olde/ ,jura =mation4 7,comp>e p4 #ae47 ,x is true t ! rema9s ( ,m>supials f\nd 9 ! slates ( ,/onesfield1 z well z ^? :i* 7 f\nd lat] 9 ! ,purbeck /rata1 consi/ only ( l[] jaws4 7,comp>e p4 #bi47 ,b =tunately ! l[] jaw is j "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic p>ts ( ! skeleton ( ,m>supials4 ,= x is di/+ui%$ by a hook-%ap$ process ( ! l[] corn] ( ! jaw turn+ d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 :i* nei!r occurs 9 ,plac5tal nor 9 ! 7/ill liv+7 ,cloacal animals1 & f ! exi/5ce ( ?is process on ! l[] jaws f ,/onesfield1 we may inf] t !y belong$ to ,m>supials4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,,( ,,cloacal ,,& ,,m>supial ,,mammalia4 ,i4 ,fir/ ,sub-class ( ,mammalia3 ,=k$ or ,cloacal ,animals 7,monotrema1 or ,orni?odelphia74 ,mammals ) ,cloaca1 )\t ,plac5ta1 ) ,m>supial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,i4 ,prim>y ,mammals ,unkn[n ext9ct ,mammalia f ! 7,microle/es87 ,promammalia ,trias ,p]iod 7,droma!rium87 ,,ii4 #a4 ,aquatic beak$ #a4 ,orni?orhyn*ida #a4 ,orni?orhyn*us ,beak$ ,animals animals p>adoxus ,orni?o/oma #b4 ,t]re/rial #b4 ,e*idnida #b4 ,e*idna hy/rix beak$ animals ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,ii4 ,second ,sub-class ( ,mammalia3 ,p\*$ or ,m>supial ,animals 7,m>supialia1 or ,didelphia74 ,mammals )\t ,cloaca1 )\t ,plac5ta1 ) ,m>supial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,legions ,ord]s ,sy/ematic ,"n ,families ( ! ( ( ( ,m>supialia4 ,m>supialia4 ,m>supialia4 ! ,ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #a4 ,ho($ #a4 ,b>ypoda #a4 ,/]eogna?ida ,m>supial animals #b4 ,noto!rida ,,iii4 #c4 ,diprotodontia ,h]bivor\s ,m>supial #b4 ,kang>oo #b4 ,macropoda #d4 ,plagiaulacida ,animals ,m>supial animals #e4 ,halmaturida 7,leap+ p\*$ #f4 ,d5drolagida ,m>supialia animals7 ,botanophaga #c4 ,root-eat+ #c4 ,rhizophaga ,m>supial animals 7,gnaw+ p\*$ #g4 ,phascolomyida animals7 #d4 ,fruit eat+ #d4 ,c>pophaga ,m>supial animals #h4 ,phascol>ctida 7,climb+ p\*$ #i4 ,phalangi/ida animals7 #aj4 ,petaurida #e4 ,insectivor\s #e4 ,can?>ophaga #aa4 ,?ylaco!rida ,m>supial animals #ab4 ,spalaco!rida 7,primval p\*$ #ac4 ,myrmecobida animals7 #ad4 ,p]amelida ,,iv4 ,c>nivor\s #f4 ,m>supial animals #f4 ,ed5tula ,m>supial poor 9 tee? ,animals 7,p\*$ animals #ae4 ,t>sip$9a ) trunks7 #g4 ,rapaci\s m>supial #g4 ,creophaga #af4 ,dasyurida animals #ag4 ,?ylac9ida ,m>supialia 7,rapaci\s p\*$ #ah4 ,?ylacoleonida ,zoophaga animals7 #h4 ,ape-foot$ #h4 ,p$imana ,m>supial animals #ai4 ,*ironectida 7,p\*$ animals #bj4 ,didelphyida ) h&s7 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,,( ,,plac5tal ,,animals4 ,,iii4 ,?ird ,sub-class ( ,mammalia3 ,plac5talia1 or ,monodelphia 7,plac5tal ,animals74 ,mammals )\t ,cloaca1 ) ,plac5ta1 )\t ,m>supial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,legions ( ,ord]s ( ,sub-ord]s ( ,sy/ematic ,"n ! ! ! ( ,plac5tal ,animals4,plac5tal ,animals4,plac5tal ,animals4 ! ,sub-ord]s4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,iii4 #a4 ,,indecidua4 ,plac5tal ,animals )\t ,decidua4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,v4 ,i4 ,s+le-ho($ #a4 ,tapirs #a4 ,tapiromorpha ,ho($ ,animals ,p]issodactyla #b4 ,horses #b4 ,solidungula ,ungulata ,,ii4 ,d\ble-ho($ #c4 ,pigs #c4 ,*o]omorpha ,artiodactyla #d4 ,rum9at+ #d4 ,rum9antia ,,iii4 ,h]bivor\s ,,vi4 ,:ales #e4 ,sea c[s #e4 ,sir5ia ,:ales ,phycoceta ,cetacea ,,iv4 ,c>nivor\s #f4 ,:ales #f4 ,autoceta ,:ales #g4 ,zeuglodonta #g4 ,zeugloceta ,s>coceta ,,vii4 ,v4 ,digg+ ,animals #h4 ,ant-eat]s #h4 ,v]mil+uia ,animals ,effodi5tia #i4 ,armadilloes #i4 ,c+ulata poor 9 tee? ,ed5tata ,,vi4 ,slo?s #aj4 ,giant ,slo?s #aj4 ,gravigrada ,bradypoda #aa4 ,dw>f ,slo?s #aa4 ,t>digrada ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,iii4 #b4 ,,deciduata4 ,plac5tal ,animals ) ,decidua4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,viii4 ,,vii4 ,rapaci\s #ab4 ,rapaci\s l& #ab4 ,c>nivora ,plac5tal ,animals ,animals animals ,zonoplac5talia ,c>n>ia #ac4 ,rapaci\s sea #ac4 ,p9nip$ia animals ,,viii4 ,false-ho($ #ad4 ,hyrax #ad4 ,lamnungia ,animals #ae4 ,toxodonts #ae4 ,toxodontia ,*elophora #af4 ,d9o!ria #af4 ,gonyogna?a #ag4 ,elephants #ag4 ,proboscidea ,,xi4 ,,ix4 ,semi-apes #ah4 ,f+]$ animals #ah4 ,leptodactyla ,disc ,plac5tal ,prosimi #ai4 ,fly+ lemur #ai4 ,pt5opleura ,animals #bj4 ,long-foot$ #bj4 ,macrot>si ,discoplac5talia #ba4 ,%ort-foot$ #ba4 ,bra*yt>si ,x4 ,gnaw+ ,animals #bb4 ,squirrel species #bb4 ,sciuromorpha ,rod5tia #bc4 ,m\se species #bc4 ,myomorpha #bd4 ,porcup9e species #bd4 ,hy/ri*omorpha #be4 ,h>e species #be4 ,lagomorpha ,,xi4 ,insect-eat+ #bf4 ,) a ccum #bf4 ,m5otyphla ,animals #bg4 ,)\t a #bg4 ,lipotyphla ,insectivora ccum ,,xii4 ,fly+ ,animals#bh4 ,fly+ foxes #bh4 ,pt]ocynes ,*iropt]a #bi4 ,bats #bi4 ,nyct]ides ,,xiii4 ,apes #cj4 ,claw$ apes #cj4 ,arctopi!ci ,simi #ca4 ,flat-nos$ #ca4 ,platyrrh9 #cb4 ,n>r[-nos$ #cb4 ,cat>rh9 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,man ,hom9es ,elephants ,proboscidea ,bats ,nyct]ides ,rock ,conies ,m>9e animals ( prey ,lamnungia ,n>r[-nos$ ,p9nip$ia ,cat>rh9 ,fly+ foxes ------v-----_/ ,flat-nos$ ,pt]ocynes ,pseudo-ho($ ,platyrrh9 ,fly+ ,animals ,*elophora ,*iropt]a ----v---_/ ,l& animals ( prey ,apes ,c>nivora ,gnaw+ ,animals ,simi ,animals ( ,prey ,rod5tia ,c>n>ia ,f+]$ animals ,lemurs ,leptodactyla ,bra*yt>si ,true -------v---------_/ :ales ,insect eat]s ,s>coceta -----v----_/ ---v----_/ ,insectivora ------------------v--------------------- _/ ,sea c[s ,semi-apes ,sir5ia ,prosimi ,:ales ,decidu\s ,animals ,cetacea ,deciduata ,poor 9 tee? ,ho($ ,animals ,ed5tata ,ungulata -------v--------_/ ,indecidu\s ,indeciduata -------------v-------------_/ ,plac5tal ,animals ,plac5talia ,h]bivor\s m>supials ,c>nivor\s m>supials ,m>supialia botanophaga ,m>supialia zoophaga --------------v-----------------_/ ,m>supial ,m>supialia ,beak$ animals ,orni?o/oma ---------v--------_/ ,prim>y mammals ,promammalia ,cloacal ,animals ,monotrema ,( ,h]bivor\s m>supials 7,botanophaga71 only two fossils are z yet kn[n f ! ,jura1 namely1 ! ,/]eogna?us ooliticus1 f ! slates ( ,/onesfield 7,l[] ,oolite71 & ! ,plagiaulax ,becklesii1 f ! middle ,purbeck /rata 7,upp] ,oolite74 ,b 9 ,au/ralia !re are gigantic fossil rema9s ( ext9ct h]bivor\s ,m>supials f ! diluvial p]iod 7,diprotodon & ,noto!rium7 :i* 7 f> l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ ( ! /ill liv+ ,m>supials4 ,! ,diprotodon ,au/ralis1 ^: skull alone is ?ree feet long1 exce$$ ev5 ! riv]-horse1 or ,hippopotamus1 9 size & ^u ! :ole resembl$ x 9 ! unwieldy & clumsy =m ( body4 ,?is ext9ct gr\p1 :i* probably correspond$ ) ! gigantic plac5tal ho($ animals ( ! pres5t day--! hippopotami & rh9oc]oses--may be call$ ,ho($ ,m>supials 7,b>ypoda74 ,closely alli$ to !m is ! ord] ( kang>oos1 or ,leap+ ,m>supials 7,macropoda71 :i* all h se5 9 zoological g>d5s4 ,9 _! %ort5$ =e legs1 _! v l5g!n$ h9d legs1 & v /rong tail1 :i* s]ves z a jump+ pole1 !y correspond ) ! leap+ mice 9 ! class ( ,rod5ts4 ,_! jaw1 h[ev]1 resembles t ( horses1 & _! complex /oma* t ( ,rum9ants4 ,a ?ird ord] ( ,h]bivor\s ,m>supials corresponds 9 its jaws to ,rod5ts1 & 9 its subt]ranean mode ( life1 especially1 to digg+ mice4 ,h5ce !y may be t]m$ ,rod5t ,m>supials1 or root-eat+ p\*$ animals 7,rhizophaga74 ,!y are n[ repres5t$ only by ! ,au/ralian wombat 7,phascolomys74 ,a f\r? & la/ ord] ( ,h]bivor\s ,m>supials is =m$ by ! climb+ or ,fruit-eat+ ,m>supials 7,c>pophaga71 ^: mode ( life & /ructure resembles p>tly t ( squirrels1 p>tly t ( apes 7,phalangi/a1 ,phascol>ctus74 ,! second legion ( ,m>supials1 ! ,c>nivor\s ,m>supials 7,zoophaga71 is likewise divid$ into f\r ma9 gr\ps or ord]s4 ,! mo/ anci5t ( ^! is t ( ! primval1 or ,insectivor\s ,m>supials 7,can?>ophaga74 ,x probably includes ! prim>y =ms ( ! :ole legion1 & possibly also ^? ( ! :ole sub-class4 ,at lea/1 all ! l[] jaws f ,/onesfield 7) ! exception ( ! ,/]eogna?us7 belong to ,insectivor\s ,m>supials1 & ! /ill liv+ ,myrmecobius is _! ne>e/ relative4 ,b "s ( ^? oolitic ,primval ,m>supials possess$ a l>g] numb] ( tee? ?an all ! o!r kn[n mammals1 = ea* half ( ! l[] jaw ( ! ,?ylaco!rium conta9$ sixte5 tee? 7?ree incisors1 "o can9e too?1 six pseudo1 & six g5u9e mol>s74 ,if ! upp] jaw1 :i* is unkn[n1 _h z _m tee?1 !n ! ,?ylaco!rium _h no less ?an sixty-f\r tee?1 j d\ble ! numb] possess$ by man4 ,! ,primval ,m>supials correspond1 on ! :ole1 ) ! ,insectivora among ,plac5tal animals1 :i* ord] includes h$gehogs1 moles1 & %rew-mice4 ,a second ord]1 :i* has probably develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! la/1 consi/s ( ! ,sn\t$1 or ,too?less ,m>supials 7,ed5tula71 :i* resemble ! ,too?less animals1 or ,ed5tata1 among ! ,plac5tal animals by _! tube-%ap$ sn\t1 _! deg5]at$ jaws1 & _! correspond+ mode ( life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mode ( life & =mation ( ! jaws ( ,rapaci\s m>supials 7,creophaga7 correspond ) ^? ( ! g5u9e ,bea/s ( ,prey1 or ,c>nivora1 among ,plac5tal animals4 ,?is ord] includes ! p\*$ m>t5 7,dasyurus7 & ! p\*$ wolf 7,?ylac9us7 9 ,au/ralia4 ,al?\gh ! latt] atta9s to ! size ( a wolf1 x is b a dw>f 9 comp>ison ) ! ext9ct ,au/ralian p\*$ lions 7,?ylacoleo7 :i* 7 at lea/ z l>ge z a lion1 & possess$ huge can9e tee? m ?an two in*es 9 l5g?4 ,f9ally1 ! eigh? & la/ ord] is =m$ by ! m>supials ) h&s1 or ! ,ape-foot$ ,p\*$ animals 7,p$imana71 :i* live bo? 9 ,au/ralia & ,am]ica4 ,!y are frequ5tly kept 9 zoological g>d5s1 especially ! diff]5t species ( ! g5us ,didelphys1 & are kn[n by ! "n ( p\*$ rats1 bu% rats1 or opossums4 ,! ?umb on _! h9d] feet is opposable to ! f\r o!r toes1 z 9 a h&1 & by ?is !y are directly alli$ to ! ,semi-apes1 or ,prosimia1 among ,plac5tal animals4 ,x is possible t ^! latt] are really next ak9 to ! m>supials ) h&s1 & t !y h develop$ out ( _! long s9ce ext9ct ance/ors4 ,x is v difficult to discov] ! g5ealogy ( ,m>supials1 & ?is m especially because we are b v imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) ! :ole sub-class2 & ! ,m>supials ( ! pres5t day are evid5tly only ! la/ remnants ( a gr\p t 0 at "o "t ri* 9 =ms4 ,x is possible t ,m>supials ) h&s1 ^? ) sn\ts1 z well z rapaci\s ,m>supials1 develop$ z ?ree div]g+ bran*es out ( ! common prim>y gr\p ( ,primval ,m>supials4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! rod5t1 leap+1 & ho($ ,m>supials h p]haps aris5 z ?ree div]g+ bran*es out ( ! common h]bivor\s prim>y gr\p1 t is1 out ( ! ,climb+ ,m>supials4 ,climb+ & ,primval ,m>supials might1 h[ev]1 be two div]g+ bran*es ( ! common prim>y =ms ( all ,m>supials1 t is1 ( ! ,prim>y ,m>supials 7,prodidelphia71 :i* orig9at$ dur+ ! old] second>y p]iod out ( ,cloacal animals4 ,! ?ird & la/ sub-class ( mammals comprises ! ,plac5tal animals1 or ,plac5tals 7,monodelphia1 or ,plac5talia74 ,x is by f> ! mo/ important1 compreh5sive1 & mo/ p]fect ( ! ?ree sub-classes2 = ! class includes all ! kn[n mammalia1 ) ! exception ( ,m>supials & ,beak$ animals4 ,man also belongs to ?is sub-class1 & has develop$ out ( its l[] memb]s4 ,plac5tal animals1 z _! "n indicates1 are di/+ui%$ f all o!r mammals1 m especially by ! =mation ( a s call$ plac5ta4 ,?is is a v peculi> & rem>kable organ1 :i* plays an exce$+ly important "p 9 n\ri%+ ! "y "o develop+ 9 ! mat]nal body4 ,! plac5ta 7also call$ aft]-bir?7 is a s(t1 spongy1 r$ body1 :i* diff]s v mu* 9 =m & size1 b :i* consi/s = ! mo/ "p ( an intricate network ( ve9s & blood vessels4 ,its importance lies 9 ! ex*ange ( sub/ance betwe5 ! nutritive blood ( ! mat]nal womb1 or ut]us1 & ! body ( ! g]m1 or embryo4 7,see vol4 i4 p4 #bih47 ,?is v important organ is develop$ nei!r 9 m>supials nor 9 beak$ animals4 ,b plac5tal animals are also di/+ui%$ f ^! two sub-classes by _m o!r peculi>ities1 ?us m especially by ! abs5ce ( m>supial bones1 by ! high] developm5t ( ! int]nal sexual organs1 & by ! m p]fect developm5t ( ! bra91 especially ( ! s-call$ call\s body or beam 7corpus callosum71 :i*1 z ! int]m$iate commissure1 or transv]se bridge1 connects ! two hemisph]es ( ! l>ge bra9 ) ea* o!r4 ,plac5tal animals also d n possess ! peculi> hook$ process ( ! l[] jaw :i* *>act]izes ,m>supials4 ,! foll[+ classification 7p4 #bdf7 ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics ( ! ?ree sub-classes w be/ expla9 h[ ,m>supials1 9 ^! anatomical respects1 /& midway betwe5 ,cloacal & ,plac5tal animals4 ,plac5tal animals are m v>i\sly diff]5tiat$ & p]fect$1 & ?is1 moreov]1 9 a f> high] degree1 ?an ,m>supials1 & !y h1 on ?is acc\nt1 long s9ce be5 arrang$ into a numb] ( ord]s1 diff]+ pr9cipally 9 ! =mation ( ! jaws & feet4 ,b :at is ev5 ( m importance ?an ^!1 is ! diff]5t developm5t ( ! plac5ta1 & ! mann] ( its connection ) ! mat]nal ut]us4 ,= 9 ! ?ree l[] ord]s ( ,plac5tal animals1 9 ,ho($ animals1 ,:ales1 & ,too?less animals1 ! peculi> spongy membrane1 :i* is call$ ! decidu\s membrane1 or decidua1 & :i* connects ! mat]nal & ! ftal portions ( ! plac5ta1 does n become develop$4 ,?is takes place exclusively 9 ! sev5 high] ord]s ( ,plac5tal animals1 & we may1 !re=e1 accord+ to ,huxley1 class !m 9 ! ma9 gr\p ( ,deciduata1 or animals ) decidua4 ,!y are contra/$ ) ! ?ree fir/-m5tion$ legions ( indecidu\s animals1 or ,indeciduata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,cloacal ,animals ,p\*$ ,animals ,plac5tal ,animals ,?ree ,sub-,classes ,,monotrema ,,m>supialia ,,plac5talia ( or or or ,mammals4 ,,orni?odelphia ,,didelphia ,,monodelphia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #a4 ,cloaca =mation ,con/ant ,embryonal ,embryonal #b4 ,nipples ( ! pectoral ,want+ ,exi/+ ,exi/+ gl&s1 or milk w>ts #c4 ,=e coll> bones1 ,unit$ ,n unit$ ,n unit$ or clavicles1 gr[n toge!r 9 ! middle1 ) ! brea/ bone1 & =m+ a =k$ bone #d4 ,m>supial bones ,exi/+ ,exi/+ ,want+ #e4 ,corpus callosum ( ,feebly ,feebly ,/rongly develop$ ! bra9 develop$ develop$ #f4 ,plac5ta ,want+ ,want+ ,exi/+ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,b 9 ! v>i\s ord]s ( ,plac5tal animals ! plac5ta diff]s n only 9 important int]nal diff]5ces ( /ructure1 :i* are connect$ ) ! abs5ce or ! pres5ce ( a decidua1 b also 9 ! ext]nal =m ( ! plac5ta itself4 ,9 ! ,indeciduata x consi/s1 9 mo/ cases1 ( num]\s1 s+le1 scatt]$ bun*es or tufts ( vessels1 & h5ce ?is gr\p may be call$ tuft$ plac5tal animals 7,villiplac5talia74 ,9 ! ,deciduata1 h[ev]1 ! s+le tufts ( vessels are unit$ into a cake1 :i* appe>s 9 two diff]5t =ms4 ,9 ! "o case x surr\nds ! embryo 9 ! =m ( a clos$ b& or r+1 s t only ! two poles ( ! oval egg bladd] are free ( tufts2 ?is is ! case 9 animals ( prey 7,c>n>ia7 & ! pseudo-ho($ animals 7,*elophora71 :i* may consequ5tly be compris$ z girdl$-plac5tal animals 7,zonoplac5talia74 ,9 ! o!r ,deciduata1 to :i* man also belongs1 ! plac5ta is a simple r\nd disc1 & we !re=e call !m disc-plac5tals 7,discoplac5talia74 ,?is gr\p includes ! five ord]s ( ,semi-apes1 ,gnaw+ animals1 ,insectivora1 ,bats1 & ,apes1 f ! latt] ( :i*1 9 ! zoological sy/em1 man _c be sep>at$4 ,x may be consid]$ z q c]ta91 f reasons bas$ ^u _! comp>ative anatomy & _! hi/ory ( developm5t1 t ,plac5tal animals fir/ develop$ out ( ,m>supials1 & t ?is v important developm5t--! fir/ orig9 ( ! plac5ta--probably took place 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! t]ti>y epo*1 dur+ ! eoc5e p]iod4 ,b "o ( ! mo/ difficult que/ions 9 ! g5ealogy ( animals is ! important consid]ation :e!r all ,plac5tal animals h aris5 out ( "o or out ( sev]al di/9ct bran*es ( ,m>supials2 9 o!r words1 :e!r ! orig9 ( ! plac5ta occurr$ b once1 or sev]al times4 ,:51 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology1 ,i = ! fir/ "t endeav\r$ to e/abli% ! p$igree ( ,mammals1 ,i "h1 z 9 mo/ cases1 pref]r$ ! monophyletic1 or "o-root$1 to ! polyphyletic1 or _m-root$1 hypo!sis ( desc5t4 ,i assum$ t all ,plac5tal animals 7 d]iv$ f a s+le =m ( ,m>supial animal1 :i*1 = ! fir/ "t1 began to =m a plac5ta4 ,9 ?is case ! ,villiplac5tals1 ,zonoplac5tals1 & ,discoplac5tals w\ld p]haps h to be consid]$ z ?ree div]g+ bran*es ( ! common prim>y =m ( ,plac5tals1 or x might also be conceiv$ t ! two latt]1 ! ,deciduata1 _h develop$ only at a lat] p]iod out ( ! ,indeciduata1 :i* on _! "p _h aris5 directly out ( ! ,m>supials4 ,h[ev]1 !re are also important reasons = ! alt]native2 namely1 t sev]al gr\ps ( ,plac5tals1 diff]+ f ! beg9n+1 arose out ( sev]al di/9ct gr\ps ( ,m>supials1 s t ! plac5ta itself 0 =m$ sev]al times indep5d5tly4 ,?is op9ion is ma9ta9$ by ,huxley1 ! mo/ em95t ,engli% zoologi/1 & by _m o!rs4 ,9 ?is case ! ,indeciduata & ! ,deciduata w\ld p]haps h to be consid]$ z two completely di/9ct gr\ps2 !n ! ord] ( ,ho($ animals1 z ! prim>y gr\p ( ! ,indeciduata1 might be suppos$ to h orig9at$ out ( ! ,m>supial ho($ animals 7,b>ypoda74 ,among ! ,deciduata1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ord] ( ,semi-apes1 z ! common prim>y =m ( ! o!r ord]s1 might possibly h aris5 out ( ,h&$ ,m>supials 7,p$imana74 ,b x is also conceivable t ! ,deciduata !mselves h aris5 out ( sev]al diff]5t ord]s ( ,m>supials1 ,animals ( ,prey out ( ,rapaci\s ,m>supials1 ,gnaw+ animals out ( ,gnaw+ ,m>supials1 ,semi-apes out ( ,h&$ ,m>supials1 etc4 ,z we d n at pres5t possess suffici5t empiric mat]ial to solve ?is mo/ difficult "q1 we mu/ leave x & turn our att5tion to ! hi/ory ( ! diff]5t ord]s ( ,plac5tal animals1 ^: p$igree c (t5 be v accurately e/abli%$ 9 detail4 ,we mu/1 z already rem>k$1 consid] ! ord] ( ,ho($ animals 7,ungulata7 z ! prim>y gr\p ( ! ,indeciduata1 or ,tuft-plac5tals2 ! two o!r ord]s1 ,:ales & ,too?less animals1 develop$ out ( !m1 z two div]g+ gr\ps1 probably only at a lat] p]iod1 by adaptation to v diff]5t modes ( life4 ,b x is also possible t ! animals poor 9 tee? 7,ed5tata7 may be ( q a diff]5t orig94 ,ho($ animals are 9 _m respects among ! mo/ important & ! mo/ int]e/+ ,mammals4 ,!y di/9ctly %[ t a true und]/&+ ( ! natural relation%ip ( animals c nev] be reveal$ to u m]ely by ! /udy ( liv+ =ms1 b 9 all cases only by an equal consid]ation ( _! ext9ct & fossil blood-relations & ance/ors4 ,if1 z is usually done1 only ! liv+ ,ho($ animals are tak5 into consid]ation1 x seems q natural to divide !m into ?ree entirely di/9ct ord]s1 namely3 7#a7 ,horses1 or ,s+le-ho($ animals 7,solidungula1 or ,equ9a72 7#b7 ,rum9at+ animals1 or ,d\ble-ho($ 7,bisulca1 or ,rum9antia72 & 7#c7 ,?ick-sk9n$1 or ,_m-ho($ 7,multungula1 or ,pa*yd]ma74 ,b z soon z ! ext9ct ,ho($ animals ( ! t]ti>y p]iod are tak5 into consid]ation--( :i* animals we possess v num]\s & important rema9s--x is se5 t ?is division1 b m especially ! limitation ( ! ,?ick-sk9n$ animals1 is completely artificial1 & t ^! ?ree gr\ps are m]ely top bran*es lopp$ f ! p$igree ( ,ho($ animals1 :i* are mo/ closely connect$ by ext9ct int]m$iate =ms4 ,! "o half ( ! ,?ick-sk9n$ animals--rh9oc]oses1 tapirs1 & palo!ria--manife/ ! close/ relation%ips to horses1 & h l !m odd-to$ feet2 :]eas ! o!r half ( ! ,?ick-sk9n$ animals--pigs1 hippopotami1 & anoplo!ria--on acc\nt ( _! d\ble-to$ feet are mu* m closely alli$ to rum9at+ animals ?an to ! =m]4 ,h5ce we mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 among ,ho($ animals di/+ui% ! two ord]s ( ,pair$-ho(s & ,odd-ho(s1 z two natural gr\ps1 :i* develop$ z div]g+ bran*es out ( ! old t]ti>y prim>y gr\p ( ,prim>y ,ho($ animals1 or ,pro*ela4 ,! ord] ( ,odd-ho($ animals 7,p]issodactyla7 comprises ^? ,ungulata 9 :i* ! middle 7or ?ird7 toe ( ! foot is mu* m /rongly develop$ ?an ! o!rs1 s t x =ms ! actual c5tre ( ! ho(4 ,?is ord] includes ! v anci5t1 common1 prim>y gr\p ( all ,ho($ animals1 t is1 ! ,prim>y-ho($ animals 7,pro*ela71 :i* are f\nd 9 a fossil /ate 9 ! olde/ ,eoc5e /rata 7,lophiodon1 ,coryphodon1 ,pliolophus74 ,directly alli$ to ?is gr\p is t bran* :i* is ! actual prim>y =m ( ! ,odd-ho($ animals1 namely1 ! ,palo!ria1 fossils ( :i* occur 9 ! upp] ,eoc5e & l[] ,mioc5e4 ,out ( ! ,palo!ria1 at a lat] p]iod1 ! rh9oc]oses 7,nasicornia7 & rh9oc]os-horses 7,elasmo!rida7 on ! "o h&1 & ! tapirs1 lama-tapirs1 & primval horses1 on ! o!r1 develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es4 ,! long s9ce ext9ct primval horses1 or ,an*i!ria1 =m$ ! transition f ! ,palo!ria & tapirs to ! ,mioc5e horses1 or hipp>ions1 :i* are closely alli$ to ! g5u9e liv+ horses4 ,! second ma9 gr\p ( ,ho($ animals1 ! ord] ( ,pair-ho($ animals 7,artiodactyla71 comprises ^? ho($ animals 9 :i* ! middle 7?ird7 & f\r? toe ( ! foot are almo/ equally develop$1 s t ! space betwe5 ! two =ms ! c5tral l9e ( ! entire foot4 ,! ord] is divid$ into two sub-ord]s--! ,pig-%ap$ & ! ,cud-*ew+1 or ,rum9at+4 ,! ,pig-%ap$ 7,*romorpha7 comprise 9 ! fir/ place ! o!r bran* ( ,prim>y-,ho($-animals1 ! ,anoplo!ria1 :i* we consid] z ! common prim>y =m ( all ,pair-ho($ animals1 or ,artiodactyla 7,di*obune1 etc474 ,out ( ! ,anoplo!ria arose1 z two div]g+ bran*es1 ! primval sw9e1 or ,an?raco!ria1 on ! "o h&1 =m+ ! transition to sw9e & riv]-horses1 & ! ,xiphodonta on ! o!r h&1 =m+ ! transition to ,rum9at+ animals4 ,! olde/ ,rum9at+ animals 7,rum9antia7 are ! ,primval ,/ags1 or ,dremo!ria1 out ( :i*1 possibly1 ! /ag-%ap$ 7,elaphia71 ! holl[-horn$ 7,cavicornia71 & camels 7,tylopoda71 h develop$ z ?ree div]g+ bran*es4 ,yet ^! latt] are1 9 _m respects1 m alli$ to ! ,odd-ho(s ?an to ! g5u9e ,pair-ho(s4 ,! accompany+ sy/ematic survey on p4 #beb1 w %[ h[ ! num]\s families ( ,ho($ animals are gr\p$1 9 correspond5ce ) ?is g5ealogical hypo!sis4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! ,sections & ,families ( ,ho($ ,animals1 or ,ungulata4 7,n4,b4 ,^? families t are ext9ct are m>k$ ) an a/]isk47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,ord]s ( ,sections ,families ,sy/ematic ,"n ,ho($ ( ( ( animals4 ,ho($ ,animals4 ,ho($ ,animals4 ! ,families4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,i4 ,i4 ,prim>y ,ho($ #a4 ,lophiodonta #a4 ,lophiodontia99 ,odd-to$ ,animals499 #b4 ,pliolophida #b4 ,pliolophida99 ,ho($ ,pro*ela ,animals #c4 ,prim>y #c4 ,palo!rida99 ,odd-ho(s ,ungulata ,,ii4 ,tapir-%ap$ #d4 ,lama-tapirs #d4 ,macrau*5ida99 ,tapiromorpha #e4 ,tapirs #e4 ,tapirida ,p]issodactyla #f4 ,rh9oc]oses #f4 ,nasicornia #g4 ,rh9oc]os-horses #g4 ,elasmo!rida99 ,,iii4 ,s+le-ho(s #h4 ,primval #h4 ,an*i!rida99 ,solidungula horses #i4 ,horses #i4 ,equ9a #aj4 ,prim>y #aj4 ,anoplo!rida99 ,pair-ho(s #aa4 ,primval #aa4 ,an?raco!rida99 ,,iv4 ,pig-%ap$ pigs ,*romorpha #ab4 ,pigs #ab4 ,setig]a #ac4 ,riv] horses #ac4 ,obesa #ad4 ,primval #ad4 ,xiphodontia99 rum9ants #ae4 ,primval #ae4 ,dremo!rida99 de] ,,ii4 ,a4 ,/ag-%ap$ a4 #af4 ,pseudo #af4 ,tragulida ,pair-to$ ,elaphia musk de] ,ho($ ,animals b4 #ag4 ,musk de] #ag4 ,mos*ida #ah4 ,de] #ah4 ,c]v9a ,ungulata ,v4 c4 #ai4 ,primval #ai4 ,siva!rida99 ,artiodactyla ,rum9at+ giraffes animals #bj4 ,giraffes #bj4 ,devexa ,rum9antia #ba4 ,primval #ba4 ,antilocapr9a99 d4 gazelles #bb4 ,gazelles #bb4 ,antilop9a ,b4 ,holl[-horn$ #bc4 ,goats #bc4 ,capr9a ,c>icornia e4 #bd4 ,%eep #bd4 ,ov9a #be4 ,ox5 #be4 ,bov9a ,c4 ,pad-foot$ #bf4 ,lamas #bf4 ,au*5ida ,tylopoda #bg4 ,camels #bg4 ,camelida ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ox5 ,giraffes ,%eep ,de] --v---_/ ,goats ---v---_/ ,musk de] ,horses ,equi ---v-----_/ ,antelopes ,camels ----v-----_/ & ,lamas ,int]m$iate horses ,de]-%ap$ ,tylopoda ,hipp>iones -----v------_/ ,elaphia ,holl[-horn$ ,cavicornia ,primval horses -------v--------_/ ,an*i!rida ,primval de] ,dremo!rida ,s+le ,ho(]s ,solidungula --v------------------_/ ,rum9at+ ,animals ,rum9antia ,sea-ox5 ,tapirs ,sir5ia ,tapirida ,riv]-horses ,lama-tapirs ,obesa ,macrau*5ida ,pigs ----v-----_/ ,setig]a --------------v--_/ ,rh9oc]os-horses ,elasmo!rida ------v-------_/ ,primval pigs ,rh9oc]uses ,an?raco!rida ,nasicornia ---v-----_/ ,primval rum9ants ,xiphodontia ---v---_/ ------v------_/ --------v--------_/ ,prim>y ,pair-ho(s ,prim>y ,odd-ho(s ,anoplo!rida ,palo!rida ------------v-------------_/ ,pro*ela ,prim>y-ho($-animals 7,lophiodontia & ,pliophida7 7,ho($ m>supials8 ,b>ypoda87 ,x is probable t ! rem>kable legion ( ,:ales 7,cetacea7 orig9at$ out ( ,ho($ animals1 :i* accu/om$ !mselves exclusively to an aquatic life1 & !reby became trans=m$ into ! %ape ( fi%4 ,al?\gh ^! animals seem ext]nally v l _m g5u9e ,fi%1 yet !y are1 z ev5 ,ari/otle p]ceiv$1 g5u9e ,mammals4 ,by _! :ole int]nal /ructure--9 s f> z x has n become *ang$ by adaptation to an aquatic life--!y1 ( all kn[n ,mammals1 are mo/ closely alli$ to ,ho($ animals1 & m especially agree ) !m 9 ! abs5ce ( ! decidua & 9 ! tuft$ plac5ta4 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day ! riv]-horse 7,hippopotamus7 con/itutes a k9d ( transition =m to ! ,sea ,c[s 7,sir5ia71 & f ?is x seems mo/ probable t ! ext9ct prim>y =ms ( ! ,cetacea are mo/ closely alli$ to ! ,sea ,c[s ( ! pres5t day1 & t !y develop$ out ( ,pair-ho($ animals1 :i* 7 relat$ to ! hippopotamus4 ,out ( ! ord] ( ,h]bivor\s :ales 7,phycoceta7--to :i* ! sea c[s belong1 & :i* accord+ly1 v probably1 conta9 ! prim>y =ms ( ! legion--! o!r ord] ( ,c>nivor\s :ales 7,s>coceta7 appe>s to h develop$ at a lat] p]iod4 ,b ,huxley ?9ks t ^! latt] 7 ( q a diff]5t orig91 & t !y arose out ( ! ,c>n>ia ?r\gh ! ,seals4 ,among ! ,s>coceta1 ! ext9ct gigantic ,zeuglodonta 7,zeugloceta7--^: fossil skeletons "s "t ago excit$ great int]e/1 x be+ ?\ght t !y 7 8sea s]p5ts0--are probably only a peculi>ly develop$ lat]al bran* ( g5u9e :ales 7,autoceta71 :i* comprise1 besides ! colossal :alebone :ales1 ! ca*alot or sp]maceti :ales1 dolph9s1 n>:als1 porpoises1 etc4 ,! ?ird legion ( ! ,indeciduata1 or ,sp>si-plac5talia1 comprises ! /range gr\p ( ! animals poor 9 tee? 7,ed5tata72 x is compos$ ( ! two ord]s ( burr[]s & slo?s4 ,! ord] ( ,burr[]s 7,effodi5tia7 consi/s ( ! two sub-ord]s ( ant eat]s 7,v]mil+uia71 to :i* ! scal$ animals also belong1 & ! girdle animals 7,c+ulata71 :i* 7 =m]ly repres5t$ by ! gigantic ,glyptodons4 ,! ord] ( ,slo?s 7,t>digrada7 consi/s ( ! two sub-ord]s ( ! small1 /ill liv+ dw>f slo?s 7,bradypoda71 & ( ! ext9ct unwieldy giant slo?s 7,gravigrada74 ,! enorm\s fossil rema9s ( ^! colossal h]bivora sugge/ t ! :ole legion is becom+ ext9ct1 & t ! ,ed5tata ( ! pres5t day are b a poor remnant ( ! mighty ord] ( ! diluvial p]iod4 ,! close relations betwe5 ! /ill liv+ ,s\? ,am]ican ,ed5tata & ! ext9ct gigantic =ms :i* are f\nd beside ! latt] on ! same "p ( ! globe1 made su* an impression ^u ,d>w9 on 8 fir/ visit to ,s\? ,am]ica1 t !y ev5 !n sugge/$ to him ! fundam5tal idea ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 7,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #acd47 ,b x is precisely ! g5ealogy ( ?is legion :i* is mo/ difficult4 ,! ,ed5tata are p]haps no?+ b a peculi>ly develop$ lat]al bran* ( ! ,ungulata2 b x may also be t _! root lies 9 q ano!r direction4 ,we n[ leave ! fir/ ma9 gr\p ( ,plac5tal animals1 ! ,indeciduata1 & turn to ! second ma9 gr\p1 namely1 ! ,deciduata1 or animals ) decidua1 :i* are di/+ui%$ f ! =m] by possess+ a decidu\s membrane1 or decidua1 dur+ _! embryonal life4 ,we "h meet ) a v rem>kable small gr\p ( animals1 = ! mo/ "p ext9ct1 & :i* probably 7 ! old t]ti>y 7or eoc5e7 ance/ors ( man4 ,^! are ! ,semi-apes1 or ,lemurs 7,prosimi72 ^! curi\s animals are probably ! b little *ang$ desc5dants ( ! primval gr\p ( ,plac5talia :i* we h to consid] z ! common prim>y =m ( all ,deciduata4 ,!y h hi!rto be5 class$ toge!r 9 ! same ord] ) ,apes :i* ,blum5ba* call$ ,quadrumana 7f\r-h&$74 ,h[ev]1 ,i reg>d !m z entirely di/9ct f ^!1 n m]ely because !y diff] f all ,apes1 mu* m ?an d ! mo/ diff]5t ,apes f "o ano!r1 b also because !y comprise mo/ int]e/+ transitional =ms lead+ to ! o!r ord]s ( ,deciduata4 ,i conclude f ?is t ! few /ill liv+ ,semi-apes1 :i* moreov] diff] v mu* among "o ano!r1 are ! la/ surviv+ remnants ( a prim>y gr\p n[ almo/ ext9ct1 b :i* 0 at "o "t ri* 9 =ms1 & out ( :i* all ! o!r ,deciduata 7possibly ) ! s+le exception ( ,bea/s ( ,prey1 & ,pseudo-ho($ animals7 h develop$ z div]g+ bran*es4 ,! old prim>y gr\p ( ,semi-apes has probably develop$ out ( ,h&$ or ,ape-foot$ ,m>supials 7,p$imana71 :i* are surpris+ly l !m 9 ! trans=mation ( _! h9d] feet into grasp+ h&s4 ,! primval prim>y =ms !mselves 7:i* probably orig9at$ 9 ! eoc5e p]iod7 are ( c\rse long s9ce ext9ct1 z are also ! great] portion ( ! transition-=ms betwe5 !m & all ! o!r ord]s ( ,deciduata4 ,h[ev]1 individual remnants ( ! latt] are pres]v$ among ! ,semi-apes ( ! pres5t day4 ,among ^!1 ! rem>kable ,f+]-animal ( ,madagasc> 7,*iromys madagasc>i5sis7 con/itutes ! remnant ( ! gr\p ( ! ,leptodactyla & ! transition to ,rod5ts4 ,! /range fly+ lemur 9 ! ,s\? ,sea & ,sunda isl&s 7,galeopi!cus71 ! only remnant ( ! gr\p ( ,pt]opleura1 =ms a p]fect int]m$iate /age betwe5 ,semi-apes & ,bats4 ,! long-foot$ ,semi-apes 7,t>sius1 ,otolicnus7 con/itute ! la/ remnant ( t prim>y bran* 7,macrot>si7 out ( :i* ! ,insectivora develop$4 ,! %ort-foot$ =ms 7,bra*yt>si7 are ! m$ium ( connection betwe5 !m & g5u9e ,apes4 ,! ,%ort-foot$ ,semi-apes comprise ! long-tail$ ,lemur1 ! %ort-tail$ ,li*anotus1 & ! ,/5ops1 ! latt] ( :i* seems to be v closely alli$ to ! probable ance/ors ( man among ! ,semi-apes4 ,! %ort-foot$ z well z ! long-foot$ ,prosimi live widely di/ribut$ ov] ! isl&s ( s\!rn ,asia & ,africa1 m especially 9 ,madagasc>2 "s live also on ! cont95t ( ,africa4 ,no ,semi-ape1 ei!r liv+ or 9 a fossil /ate1 has z yet be5 f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,!y all lead a solit>y1 nocturnal k9d ( life1 & climb ab\t on trees4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cfa47 ,among ! six rema9+ ord]s ( ,deciduata1 all ( :i* are probably d]iv$ f long s9ce ext9ct ,semi-apes1 ! ord] ( ,gnaw+ animals 7,rod5tia71 :i* is ri* 9 =ms1 has rema9$ at ! l[e/ /age4 ,among ^! ! squirrel-l animals 7,sciuromorpha7 /& ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,p$iman\s ,m>supials4 ,out ( ?is prim>y gr\p ! m\se-l animals 7,myomorpha7 & ! porcup9e-l animals 7,hy/ricomorpha7 develop$ probably z two div]g+ bran*es1 ! =m] ( :i* are directly connect$ ) ! squirrel-l animals1 by ! eoc5e ,myoxida1 ! latt] by ! eoc5e ,psammoryctida4 ,! f\r? sub-ord]1 ! h>e-l animals 7,lagomorpha71 probably develop$ only at a lat] p]iod out ( "o ( ! o!r ?ree sub-ord]s4 ,v closely alli$ to ! ,rod5tia is ! rem>kable ord] ( ,pseudo-ho($ animals 7,*elophora74 ,( ^! !re n[ live b two g5]a1 indig5\s to ,asia & ,africa1 namely1 ,elephants 7,elephas71 & ,rock ,conies 7,hyrax74 ,bo? h hi!rto g5]ally be5 class$ among real ,ho($ animals1 or ,ungulata1 ) :i* !y agree 9 ! =mation ( ! feet4 ,b an id5tical trans=mation ( nails or claws into ho(s occurs also 9 g5u9e ,rod5tia & 9 c]ta9 ho($ ,rod5tia 7,subungulata7 :i* live exclusively 9 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,beside small] =ms 7= example1 gu9ea pigs & gold h>es7 ! ,subungulata also include ! l>ge/ ( all ,rod5tia1 namely1 ! ,capyb>a ,rats1 :i* are ab\t f\r feet 9 l5g?4 ,! ,rock ,conies1 :i* are ext]nally v ne>ly ak9 to ,rod5ts1 especially to ! ho($ ,rod5ts1 7 =m]ly class$ among ,rod5tia by "s celebrat$ zoologi/s1 z an especial sub-class 7,lamnungia74 ,elephants1 on ! o!r h&1 :5 n class$ among ,ho($ animals1 7 g5]ally consid]$ z ! repres5tatives ( a special ord] :i* 7 call$ ,trunk$ animals 7,proboscidea74 ,b ! =mation ( ! plac5tas ( ,elephants & ( ,hyrax agree 9 a rem>kable mann]1 & are entirely di/9ct f ^? ( ,ho($ animals4 ,^! latt] nev] possess a decidua1 :]eas ,elephants & ,hyrax are g5u9e ,deciduata4 ,_! plac5ta is inde$ n ( ! =m ( a disc1 b ( a girdle1 z 9 ! case ( ,animals ( ,prey2 x is v possible t ! girdle-%ap$ plac5ta is b a second>y developm5t ( ! discoplac5ta4 ,?us1 !n1 x might be ?\ght t ! ,pseudo-ho($ animals h develop$ out ( a bran* ( ! ,rod5tia1 & 9 a simil> mann] p]haps ! ,c>nivora out ( a bran* ( ! ,insectivora4 ,at all ev5ts1 ,elephants & ,hyrax 9 _m respects1 especially 9 ! =mation ( important skeletal p>ts1 ( ! limbs1 etc41 are m closely alli$ to ! ,rod5tia1 & m especially to ho($ ,rod5tia1 ?an to g5u9e ,ho($ animals4 ,moreov] sev]al ext9ct =ms1 especially ! rem>kable ,s\? ,am]ican ,arr[-too!d animals 7,toxodontia71 /& 9 _m respects midway betwe5 ,elephants & ,rod5tia4 ,t ! /ill liv+ ,elephants & ,hyrax are b ! la/ survivors ( a gr\p ( ,pseudo-ho($ animals1 :i* 0 once ri* 9 =ms1 is prov$ n only by ! v num]\s fossil species ( ,elephants & ,ma/odon 7"s ( :i* are ev5 l>g]1 o!rs also mu* small] ?an ! ,elephants ( ! pres5t day71 b also by ! rem>kable mioc5e ,d9o!ria 7,gonyogna?a71 betwe5 :i* & _! next k9dr$1 ! ,elephants1 !re mu/ be a long s]ies ( unkn[n connect+ int]m$iate =ms4 ,tak+ all ?+s into consid]ation1 ! mo/ probable hypo!sis :i* c be e/abli%$ at pres5t z to ! orig9 & ! relation%ip ( ,elephants1 ,d9o!ria1 ,toxodon1 & ,hyrax is1 t !y are ! la/ survivors ( a gr\p ( ,pseudo-ho($ animals ri* 9 =ms1 :i* develop$ out ( ! ,rod5tia1 & probably out ( relatives ( ! ,subungulata4 ,! ord] ( ,insect ,eat]s 7,insectivora7 is a v anci5t gr\p1 & is next ak9 to ! common ext9ct prim>y =m ( ! ,deciduata1 z well z to ! ,semi-apes ( ! pres5t day4 ,x has probably develop$ out ( ,semi-apes :i* 7 closely alli$ to ! ,long-foot$ ,lemurs 7,macrot>si7 ( ! pres5t day4 ,x is sep>at$ into two ord]s1 ,m5otyphla & ,lipotyphla2 ! ,m5otyphla are probably ! old] ( ! two1 & are di/+ui%$ f ! ,lipotyphla by possess+ an inte/9al ccum1 or typhlon4 ,! ,m5otyphla include ! climb+ ,tupajas ( ! ,sunda ,isles1 & ! leap+ ,macroscelides ( ,africa4 ,! ,lipotyphla are repres5t$ 9 our c\ntry by %rew mice1 moles1 & h$gehogs4 ,! ,insectivora1 9 ! =mation ( _! jaws & _! mode ( life1 are ne>ly ak9 to ,c>nivora1 b are1 on ! o!r h&1 by _! discoplac5tas & by _! l>ge sem9al vesicles1 alli$ to ,rod5ts4 ,x is probable t ! ord] ( ,rapaci\s animals 7,c>n>ia7 develop$ out ( a long s9ce ext9ct bran* ( ,insectivora1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,x is a natural gr\p1 v ri* 9 =ms1 b /ill ( v uni=m organization4 ,! ,rapaci\s animals are sometimes also call$ ,girdle-plac5tals 7,zonoplac5tals71 al?\gh ! ,pseudo-ho($ animals 7,*elophora71 9 ! same way1 also des]ve ?is designation4 ,b z ! latt]1 9 o!r respects1 are m closely alli$ to ! ,rod5tia ?an to ,c>n>ia1 we h already discuss$ !m 9 connection ) ! =m]4 ,animals ( prey are divid$ into two1 ext]nally v diff]5t1 b int]nally v closely relat$1 sub-ord]s1 namely1 ,l& animals ( prey & ,m>9e animals ( prey4 ,! ,l& animals ( prey 7,c>nivora7 comprise be>s1 dogs1 cats1 etc41 ^: p$igree c be approximately guess$ at by means ( _m ext9ct int]m$iate =ms4 ,! ,m>9e animals ( prey1 or ,seals 7,p9nip$ia71 comprise sea be>s1 sea dogs1 sea lions1 & walruses4 ,al?\gh m>9e animals ( prey appe> ext]nally v unlike l& animals ( prey1 yet by _! int]nal /ructure1 _! jaw & _! peculi> girdle-%ap$ plac5ta1 !y are v ne>ly ak9 to !m1 & h evid5tly orig9at$ out ( a bran* ( !m1 probably out ( a k9d ( weasel 7,mu/el9a74 ,ev5 at ! pres5t day ! fi% ott]s 7,lutra71 & /ill m s ! sea ott]s 7,enhydris71 pres5t a direct =m ( transition to ,seals1 & cle>ly %[ h[ ! bodies ( l& ,c>nivora are trans=m$ into ! %ape ( a ,seal1 by adaptation to an aquatic life1 & h[ ! /e]+ f9s ( m>9e rapaci\s animals h aris5 out ( ! legs ( ! =m]4 ,! latt] consequ5tly /& 9 ! same relation to ! =m] z d ! ,:ales to ,ho($ animals among ! ,indeciduata4 ,9 ! same way z ! riv]-horse at pres5t /&s midway betwe5 ! extreme bran*es ( ox5 & sea ox51 ! sea ott] /ill =ms a surviv+ int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! widely sep>at$ bran*es ( dogs & sea dogs4 ,9 bo? cases ! complete trans=mation ( ! ext]nal =m1 consequ5t ^u adaptation to entirely diff]5t conditions ( life1 has n be5 able to efface ! solid f\ndation ( ! inh]it$ int]nal peculi>ities4 ,accord+ to ,huxley's op9ion1 :i* has already be5 quot$1 only ! ,h]bivor\s ,:ales 7,sir5ia7 are d]iv$ f ,ho($ animals2 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,c>nivor\s ,cetacea 7,s>coceta7 are d]iv$ f ! m>9e animals ( prey2 ! ,zeuglodonts w\ld =m a transition betwe5 ! two latt]4 ,b 9 ?is case x w\ld be difficult to und]/& ! close anatomical relations :i* exi/ betwe5 ! ,h]bivor\s & ,c>nivor\s ,cetacea4 ,! /range peculi>ities 9 ! int]nal & ext]nal /ructure :i* s /rik+ly di/+ui% ! two gr\ps f all o!r mammals w\ld !n h to be reg>d$ only z analogies 7caus$ by ! same k9ds ( adaptation71 n z homologies 7transmitt$ f a common prim>y =m74 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 /rikes me z be+ by f> ! m probable1 & h5ce ,i h left all ! ,cetacea among ! ,indeciduata z "o gr\p ( k9dr$ orig94 ,! rem>kable ord] ( ,fly+ ,mammals1 or ,bats 7,*iropt]a71 /&s ne> to ! ,c>n>ia z well z to ! ,insectivora4 ,x has become /rik+ly trans=m$ by adaptation to a fly+ mode ( life1 j z m>9e animals ( prey h become modifi$ by adaptation to a swimm+ mode ( life4 ,?is ord] probably also orig9at$ out ( ! ,semi-apes1 ) :i* x is ev5 at pres5t closely alli$1 ?r\gh ! fly+ lemurs 7,galeopi!cus74 ,( ! two ord]s ( fly+ animals1 ! insect-eat+ =ms1 or fly+ mice 7,nyct]ides71 probably develop$ out ( ^? eat+ fruits1 or fly+ foxes 7,pt]ocynes72 = ! latt] are1 9 _m ways1 m closely alli$ to ,semi-apes ?an are ! =m]4 ,we h n[ /ill to discuss ! g5u9e ,apes 7,simi7 z ! la/ ord] ( ,mammals2 b z1 accord+ to ! zoological sy/em1 ! human race belongs to ?is ord]1 & z x und\bt$ly develop$ hi/orically out ( a bran* ( ?is ord]1 we %all devote a special *apt] to a m c>eful exam9ation ( its p$igree & hi/ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,orig9 ,,& ,,p$igree ,,( ,,man4 ,! ,application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to ,man4--,its ,imm5se ,importance & ,logical ,necessity4--,man's ,position 9 ! ,natural ,sy/em ( ,animals1 among ,disco-plac5tal ,animals4--,incorrect ,sep>ation ( ! ,bimana & ,quadrumana4--,correct ,sep>ation ( ,semi-apes f ,apes4--,man's ,position 9 ! ,ord] ( ,apes4--,n>r[-nos$ ,apes 7( ! ,old ,_w7 & ,flat-nos$ ,apes 7( ,am]ica74--,diff]5ce ( ! two ,gr\ps4--,orig9 ( ,man f ,n>r[-nos$ ,apes4--,human ,apes1 or ,an?ropoides4--,african ,human ,apes 7,gorilla & ,*impanzee74--,asiatic ,human ,apes 7,orang & ,gibbon74--,comp>ison betwe5 ! diff]5t ,human ,apes & ! diff]5t ,races ( ,m54--,survey ( ! ,s]ies ( ! ,prog5itors ( ,man4--,inv]tebrate ,prog5itors 7,pro*ordata7 & ,v]tebrate ,prog5itors4 ,( all ! individual que/ions answ]$ by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 ( all ! special inf]5ces drawn f x1 !re is none ( su* importance z ! application ( ?is doctr9e to ,man himself4 ,z ,i rem>k$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is treatise1 ! inexorable necessity ( ! /ricte/ logic =ces u to draw ! special d$uctive conclusion f ! g5]al inductive law ( ! !ory1 t ,man has develop$ gradually1 & /ep by /ep1 out ( ! l[] ,v]tebrata1 & m imm$iately out ( ,ape-l ,mammals4 ,t ?is doctr9e is an insep>able "p ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 & h5ce also ( ! univ]sal ,!ory ( ,developm5t 9 g5]al1 is recogniz$ by all ?\ghtful adh]5ts ( ! !ory1 z well z by all its oppon5ts :o reason logically4 ,b if ! doctr9e be true1 !n ! recognition ( ! animal orig9 & p$igree ( ! human race w necess>ily affect m deeply ?an any o!r progress ( ! human m9d ! views we =m ( all human relations1 & ! aims ( all human sci5ce4 ,x mu/ soon] or lat] produce a complete revolution 9 ! conception ent]ta9$ by man ( ! entire univ]se4 ,i am firmly conv9c$ t 9 future ?is imm5se advance 9 our k w be reg>d$ z ! beg9n+ ( a new p]iod ( ! developm5t ( ,mank9d4 ,x c only be comp>$ to ! discov]y made by ,cop]nicus1 :o 0 ! fir/ :o v5tur$ di/9ctly to express ! op9ion1 t x 0 n ! sun :i* mov$ r\nd ! e>?1 b ! e>? r\nd ! sun4 ,j z ! geoc5tric conception ( ! univ]se--namely1 ! false op9ion t ! e>? 0 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se1 & t all its o!r portions revolv$ r\nd ! e>?--0 ov]?r[n by ! sy/em ( ! univ]se e/abli%$ by ,cop]nicus & 8 foll[]s1 s ! an?ropoc5tric conception ( ! univ]se--! va9 delusion t ,man is ! c5tre ( t]re/rial nature1 & t its :ole aim is m]ely to s]ve him--is ov]?r[n by ! application 7attempt$ long s9ce by ,lam>ck7 ( ! !ory ( desc5t to ,man4 ,z ,cop]nicus' sy/em ( ! univ]se 0 me*anically e/abli%$ by ,newton's !ory ( gravitation1 we see ,lam>ck's !ory ( desc5t atta9 its causal e/abli%m5t by ,d>w9's !ory ( selection4 ,?is comp>ison1 :i* is v int]e/+ 9 _m respects1 ,i h discuss$ 9 detail else:]e4 ,9 ord] to c>ry out ?is extremely important application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to man1 ) ! necess>y imp>tiality & objectivity1 ,i mu/ above all beg ! read] 7at lea/ = a %ort "t7 to lay aside all traditional & cu/om>y ideas on ! 8,creation ( ,man10 & to dive/ himself ( ! deep-root$ prejudices conc]n+ x1 :i* are implant$ 9 ! m9d 9 e>lie/ y\?4 ,if he fail to d ?is1 he _c objectively e/imate ! weight ( ! sci5tific argum5ts :i* ,i %all br+ =w>d 9 fav\r ( ! animal d]ivation ( ,man1 t is1 ( 8 orig9 out ( ,ape-l ,mammals4 ,we _c "h d bett] ?an imag9e ourselves ) ,huxley to be ! inhabitants ( ano!r planet1 :o1 tak+ ! opportunity ( a sci5tific j\rney ?r\gh ! univ]se1 h arriv$ ^u ! e>? & h !re met ) a peculi> two-legg$ mammal call$ ,man1 diffus$ ov] ! :ole e>? 9 great numb]s4 ,9 ord] to exam9e him zoologically1 we %\ld pack a numb] ( ! individuals ( diff]5t ages & f diff]5t l&s 7z we %\ld d ) ! o!r animals collect$ on ! e>?7 into l>ge vessels fill$ ) spirits ( w9e1 & on our return to our own planet we %\ld comm5ce ! comp>ative anatomy ( all ^! t]re/rial animals q objectively4 ,z we %\ld h no p]sonal int]e/ 9 ,man1 9 a creature s entirely diff]5t f ourselves1 we %\ld exam9e & criticise him z imp>tially & objectively z we %\ld ! o!r t]re/rial animals4 ,9 do+ ?is we %\ld1 ( c\rse1 9 ! fir/ place refra9 f all conjectures & speculations on ! nature ( 8 s\l1 or on ! spiritual side ( 8 nature1 z x is usually call$4 ,we %\ld occupy ourselves solely ) 8 bodily /ructure1 & ) t natural conception ( x :i* is (f]$ by ! hi/ory ( 8 individual developm5t4 ,x is evid5t t 9 ord] correctly to det]m9e ,man's position among ! o!r t]re/rial organisms we mu/1 9 ! fir/ place1 foll[ ! guidance ( ! natural sy/em4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to det]m9e ! position :i* belongs to ,man 9 ! natural sy/em ( animals z accurately & di/9ctly z possible4 ,we %all !n1 if 9 fact ! !ory ( desc5t be correct1 be able f 8 position 9 ! sy/em to det]m9e ! real prim>y relation%ip1 & ! degree ( consangu9ity connect+ ,man ) ! animals mo/ l him4 ,! hypo!tical p$igree ( ! human race w !n foll[ naturally z ! f9al result ( ?is anatomical & sy/ematic inquiry4 ,n[ if1 by means ( comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y1 we seek = man's position 9 t ,natural ,sy/em ( animals :i* =m$ ! subject ( ! la/ two *apt]s1 ! incontrov]tible fact w at once pres5t itself to u1 t man belongs to ! tribe1 or phylum1 ( ! ,v]tebrata4 ,e "o ( ! *>act]i/ics1 :i* s /rik+ly di/+ui% all ! ,v]tebrata f all ,inv]tebrata1 is possess$ by him4 ,x has also nev] be5 d\bt$ t ( all ! ,v]tebrata ! ,mammals are mo/ closely alli$ to ,man1 & t he possesses all ! *>act]i/ic features di/+ui%+ !m f all o!r ,v]tebrata4 ,if !n we fur!r c>efully exam9e ! ?ree diff]5t ma9 gr\ps or sub-classes ( ,mammals--! int]-connections ( :i* 7 discuss$ 9 our la/ *apt]--!re _c be ! slighte/ d\bt t ,man belongs to ! ,plac5tals1 & %>es ) all o!r ,plac5tals1 ! important *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% !m f ,m>supials & f ,cloacals4 ,f9ally1 ( ! two ma9 gr\ps ( plac5tal ,mammals1 ! ,deciduata & ! ,indeciduata1 ! gr\p ( ,deciduata d\btless includes ,man4 ,= ! human embryo is develop$ ) a g5u9e decidua1 & is ?us absolutely di/+ui%$ f all ! ,indeciduata4 ,among ! ,deciduata we di/+ui% two legions1 ! ,zonoplac5talia1 ) girdle-%ap$ plac5ta 7,bea/s ( ,prey & ,pseudo-ho($ animals71 & ! ,discoplac5talia1 ) disc-%ap$ plac5ta 7all ! rema9+ ,deciduata74 ,man possesses a disc-%ap$ plac5ta1 l all ,discoplac5talia2 & ?us our next "q mu/ be1 ,:at is man's position 9 ?is gr\p8 ,9 ! la/ *apt] we di/+ui%$ ! foll[+ five ord]s ( ,discoplac5talia3 7#a7 ,semi-apes2 7#b7 ,rod5ts2 7#c7 ,insectivora2 7#d7 ,bats2 7#e7 ,apes4 ,! la/ ( ^! five ord]s1 t ( ,apes1 is1 z e "o kn[s1 9 e bodily feature f> m closely alli$ to ,man ?an ! f\r o!rs4 ,h5ce ! only rema9+ "q n[ is1 :e!r1 9 ! sy/em ( animals1 ,man is to be directly class$ 9 ! ord] ( g5u9e ,apes1 or :e!r he is to be consid]$ z ! repres5tative ( a special six? ord] ( ,discoplac5talia1 alli$ to1 b m advanc$ ?an1 t ( ! ,apes4 ,l9nu 9 8 sy/em class$ ,man 9 ! same ord] ) g5u9e ,apes1 ,semi-apes1 & ,bats1 :i* he call$ ,primates2 t is1 lords1 z x 7 ! highe/ dignit>ies ( ! animal k+dom4 ,b ,blum5ba*1 ( ,gtt+51 sep>at$ ,man z a special ord]1 "u ! "n ( ,bimana1 or two-h&$1 & contra/$ him ) ! ,apes & ,semi-apes "u ! "n ( ,quadrumana1 or f\r-h&$4 ,?is classification 0 also adopt$ by ,cuvi] &1 consequ5tly1 by mo/ subsequ5t zoologi/s4 ,x 0 n until #ahfc t ,huxley1 9 8 excell5t "w1 ! 8,evid5ce z to ,man's ,place 9 ,nature107#bf7 %[$ t ?is classification 0 bas$ ^u errone\s ideas1 & t ! s-call$ 8f\r-h&$0 ,apes & ,semi-apes are 8two-h&$0 z mu* z man is himself4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! foot & h& does n consi/ 9 ! physiological peculi>ity t ! fir/ digit or ?umb is opposable to ! f\r o!r digits or f+]s 9 ! h&1 & is n s 9 ! foot1 = !re are wild tribes ( m5 :o c oppose ! fir/ or l>ge toe to ! o!r f\r1 j z if x 7 a ?umb4 ,!y c !re=e use _! 8grasp+ foot0 z well z a s-call$ 8h9d] h&10 l ,apes4 ,! ,*9ese boatm5 r[ ) ?is h9d] h&1 ! ,b5gal workm5 weave ) x4 ,! ,negro1 9 :om ! big toe is especially /rong & freely moveable1 :5 climb+ seizes hold ( ! bran*es ( ! trees ) x1 j l ! 8f\r-h&$0 ,apes4 ,nay1 ev5 ! newly born *ildr5 ( ! mo/ highly develop$ races ( m51 dur+ ! fir/ mon?s ( _! life1 grasp z easily ) ! 8h9d] h&0 z ) ! 8=e h&10 & hold a spoon plac$ 9 its clut* z firmly ) _! big toe z ) ! ?umb6 ,on ! o!r h&1 among ! high] ,apes1 especially ! gorilla1 h& & foot are diff]5tiat$ z 9 man4 7,comp>e ,plate ,,iv47 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 h& & foot is !re=e n physiological1 b morphological1 & is det]m9$ by ! *>act]i/ic /ructure ( ! bony skeleton & ( ! muscles atta*$ to x4 ,! ankle-bones diff] f ! wri/-bones 9 arrangem5t1 & ! foot possesses ?ree special muscles n exi/+ 9 ! h& 7a %ort flexor muscle1 a %ort ext5sor muscle1 & a long fibul> muscle74 ,9 all ^! respects1 ,apes & ,semi-apes entirely agree ) man1 & h5ce x 0 q errone\s to sep>ate him f !m z a special ord] on acc\nt ( ! /rong] diff]5tiation ( 8 h& & foot4 ,x is ! same also ) all ! o!r /ructural features by means ( :i* x 0 attempt$ to di/+ui% ,man f ,apes2 = example1 ! relative l5g? ( ! limbs1 ! /ructure ( ! skull1 ( ! bra91 etc4 ,9 all ^! respects1 )\t exception1 ! diff]5ces betwe5 ,man & ! high] ,apes are less ?an ! correspond+ diff]5ces betwe5 ! high] & ! l[] ,apes4 ,h5ce ,huxley1 = reasons bas$ on ! mo/ c>eful & mo/ accurate anatomical comp>isons1 arrives at ! extremely important conclusion--8,?us1 :atev] sy/em ( organs be /udi$1 ! comp>ison ( _! modifications 9 ! ,ape s]ies leads to "o & ! same result1 t ! /ructural diff]5ces :i* sep>ate ,man f ! ,gorilla & ,*impanzee are n s great z ^? :i* sep>ate ! ,gorilla f ! l[] ,apes40 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 ,huxley1 /rictly foll[+ ! dem&s ( logic1 classes ,man1 ,apes1 & ,semi-apes 9 a s+le ord]1 ,primates1 & divides x into ! foll[+ sev5 families1 :i* are ( almo/ equal sy/ematic value3 7#a7 ,an?rop9i 7,man72 7#b7 ,cat>rh9i 7g5u9e ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w72 7#c7 ,platyrrh9i 7g5u9e ,am]ican ,apes72 7#d7 ,arctopi!ci 7,am]ican claw$ ,apes72 7#e7 ,lemur9i 7%ort-foot$ & long-foot$ ,semi-apes1 p4 #bee72 7#f7 ,*iromy9i 7p4 #bef72 7#g7 ,galeopi!c9i 7,fly+ ,lemurs1 p4 #bef74 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! ,families & ,g5]a ( ,apes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,sections ,families ,g5]a ,sy/ematic ,"n ( ( ( ( ,apes4 ,apes4 ,apes4 ! ,g5]a4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,i4 ,,apes ,,( ,,! ,,new ,,_w 7,hesp]opi!ci71 ,,or ,,flat-,,nos$ ,,apes 7,platyrrh9i74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,a4 ,platyrrh9i ,i4 ,silky apes #a4 ,bru% ape #a4 ,midas ) claws ,hapalida #b4 ,lion ape #b4 ,jac*us ,arctopi!ci ,,ii4 ,flat-nos$1 #c4 ,squirrel ape #c4 ,*ryso?rix )\t preh5sile #d4 ,leap+ ape #d4 ,calli?rix ,b4 ,platyrrh9i tail #e4 ,nocturnal ape #e4 ,nyctipi!cus ) blunt ,aphyoc]ca #f4 ,tail ape #f4 ,pi!cia nails ,,iii4 ,flat-nos$1 #g4 ,roll+ ape #g4 ,cebus ,dysmopi!ci ) preh5sile #h4 ,climb+ ape #h4 ,ateles tail #i4 ,woolly ape #i4 ,lago?rix ,labidoc]ca #aj4 ,h[l+ ape #aj4 ,mycetes ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,,ii4 ,,apes ,,( ,,! ,,old ,,_w 7,heopi!ci71 ,,or ,,n>r[-,,nos$ ,,apes 7,cat>rh9i74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,,iv4 ,tail$ ,cat>rh9i1 ) #aa4 ,pavian #aa4 ,cynocephalus ,c4 ,tail$ *eek-p\*es #ab4 ,macaque #ab4 ,innus ,cat>rh9i ,ascop>ea #ac4 ,sea cat #ac4 ,c]copi!cus ,m5oc]ca ,v4 ,tail$ ,cat>rh9i1 )\t #ad4 ,holy ape #ad4 ,semnopi!cus *eek-p\*es #ae4 ,%ort ape #ae4 ,colobus ,anasca #af4 ,nose ape #af4 ,nasalis #ag4 ,gibbon #ag4 ,hylobates ,,vi4 ,human apes #ah4 ,orang-,outan #ah4 ,satyrus ,d4 ,tailless ,an?ropoides #ai4 ,*impanzee #ai4 ,engeco ,cat>rh9i #bj4 ,gorilla #bj4 ,gorilla ,lipoc]ca ,,vii4 ,m5 #ba4 ,ape-l man1 #ba4 ,pi!can?ropus ,erecti or spee*less man 7,alalus7 7,an?ropi7 #bb4 ,talk+ man #bb4 ,homo ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,/raight-hair$ m5 ,lissotri*i ,woolly-hair$ m5 ,ulotri*i -------------v-------------_/ ,spee*less m5 7,alali71 or ,ape-l m5 7,pi!can?ropi7 ,gorilla ,gorilla ,orang ,*impanzee ,satyrus ,engeco ,gibbon ,hylobates ------v------_/ ,african -------v--------_/ ,man-l ,apes ,asiatic ,man-l ,apes ----------v-----------_/ ,man-l ,apes ,nose apes ,an?ropoides ,nasalis ,silk apes ,tall apes ,arctopi!ci ,semnopi!cus ,clut*-tails ,labidoc]ca -v----------_/ ,sea cat ,pavian -----v-------_/ ,c]copi!cus ,cynocephalus ,flap-tails ,aphyoc]ca --------------v--------------_/ ,flat-nos$ ,apes ,tail$ ,n>r[-nos$ apes ,platyrrh9i ,cat>rh9a m5oc]ca ,n>r[-nos$ ,cat>rh9i --------------v---------------_/ ,apes ,simi ,semi-apes ,prosimi ,if we wi% to arrive at a natural sy/em1 & consequ5tly at ! p$igree ( ! ,primates1 we mu/ g a /ep fur!r /ill1 & entirely sep>ate ! ,semi-apes1 or ,prosimi1 7,huxley's la/ ?ree families71 f ,g5u9e ,apes1 or ,simi 7! fir/ f\r families74 ,=1 z ,i h already %[n 9 my ,g5]al ,morphology1 & expla9$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 ! ,semi-apes diff] 9 _m & important respects f ,g5u9e ,apes1 & 9 _! individual =ms are m closely alli$ to ! v>i\s o!r ord]s ( ,discoplac5talia4 ,h5ce ! ,semi-apes mu/ probably be consid]$ z ! remnants ( ! common prim>y gr\p1 out ( :i* ! o!r ord]s ( ,discoplac5talia1 &1 x may be1 all ,deciduata1 h develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 pp4 #adh & #aec47 ,b man _c be sep>at$ f ! ord] ( ,g5u9e ,apes1 or ,simi1 z he is 9 e respect m closely alli$ to ! high] ,g5u9e ,apes ?an ! latt] are to ! l[] ,g5u9e ,apes4 ,g5u9e ,apes 7,simi7 are univ]sally divid$ into two p]fectly natural gr\ps1 namely1 ! ,apes ( ! ,new ,_w1 or ,am]ican ,apes1 & ! ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w1 :i* are indig5\s to ,asia & ,africa1 & :i* =m]ly also exi/$ 9 ,europe4 ,^! two classes diff] pr9cipally 9 ! =mation ( ! nose1 & !y h be5 nam$ accord+ly4 ,am]ican ,apes h flat noses1 s t ! no/rils are 9 front1 n bel[2 h5ce !y are call$ ,flat ,noses 7,platyrrh9i74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w h a n>r[ c>tilag9\s bridge1 & ! no/rils turn$ d[nw>ds1 z 9 man2 !y are1 !re=e1 call$ ,n>r[ ,noses 7,cat>rh9i74 ,fur!r1 ! jaw1 :i* plays an important "p 9 ! classification ( ,mammals1 is ess5tially di/9ct 9 ^! two gr\ps4 ,all ,cat>rh91 or ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w1 h exactly ! same jaws z ,man1 namely1 9 ea* jaw f\r incisors above & bel[1 !n on ea* side a can9e too? & five *eek tee?1 ( :i* two are pre-mol>s & ?ree mol>s1 altoge!r ?irty-two tee?4 ,b all ,apes ( ! ,new ,_w1 all ,platyrrh9i1 h f\r m *eek tee?1 namely1 ?ree pre-mol>s & ?ree mol>s on ea* side1 above & bel[3 !y consequ5tly possess ?irty-six tee?4 ,only "o small gr\p =ms an exception to ?is rule1 namely1 ! ,arctopi!ci1 or ,claw$ ,apes1 9 :om ! ?ird mol> has deg5]at$1 & !y accord+ly h on ea* half ( _! jaw ?ree pre-mol>s & two mol>s4 ,!y also diff] f ! o!r ,platyrrh9i by hav+ claws on ! f+]s ( _! h&s & ! toes ( _! feet1 n nails l ,man & ! o!r ,apes4 ,?is small gr\p ( ,s\? ,am]ican ,apes1 :i* includes among o!rs ! well-kn[n pretty little ,midas-monkey & ! ,jac*us1 mu/ probably be consid]$ only z a peculi>ly develop$ lat]al bran* ( ! ,platyrrh9i4 ,n[1 if we ask :at evid5ce c be drawn1 z to ! p$igree ( ,apes1 f ! above facts1 we mu/ conclude t all ! ,apes ( ! ,new ,_w h develop$ out ( "o tribe1 = !y all possess ! *>act]i/ic jaw & ! nasal =mation ( ! ,platyrrh9i4 ,9 l mann] x foll[s t all ! ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w mu/ be d]iv$ f "o & ! same common prim>y =m1 :i* possess$ ! same =mation ( nose & jaw z all ! /ill liv+ ,cat>rh9i4 ,fur!r1 x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t ! ,apes ( ! ,new ,_w1 tak5 z an entire tribe1 are ei!r d]iv$ f ^? ( ! ,old ,_w1 or 7to express x m vaguely & cauti\sly7 bo? are div]g+ bran*es ( "o & ! same tribe ( ,apes4 ,we also arrive at ! exce$+ly important conclusion--:i* is ( ! utmo/ significance 9 reg>d to ,man's di/ribution on ! e>?'s surface--t ,man has develop$ out ( ! ,cat>rh9i4 ,= we _c discov] a zoological "* di/+ui%+ him 9 a high] degree f ! alli$ ,apes ( ! ,old ,_w ?an t 9 :i* ! mo/ div]g5t =ms ( ?is gr\p are di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r4 ,?is is ! important result ( ,huxley's c>eful anatomical exam9ation ( ! "q1 & x _c be too highly e/imat$4 ,! anatomical diff]5ces betwe5 ,man & ! mo/ human-l ,cat>rh9i 7,orang1 ,gorilla1 ,*impanzee7 are 9 e respect less ?an ! anatomical diff]5ces betwe5 ! latt] & ! l[e/ /ages ( ,cat>rh9i1 m especially ! ,dog-l ,baboon4 ,?is exce$+ly important conclusion is ! result ( an imp>tial anatomical comp>ison ( ! diff]5t =ms ( ,cat>rh9i4 ,if1 !re=e1 we recognise ! natural sy/em ( animals z ! guide to our speculations1 & e/abli% ^u x our p$igree1 we mu/ necess>ily come to ! conclusion t ! human race is a small bran* ( ! gr\p ( ,cat>rh9i1 & has develop$ out ( long s9ce ext9ct ,apes ( ?is gr\p 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,"s adh]5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t h ?\ght t ! ,am]ican races ( ,m5 h develop$1 indep5d5tly ( ^? ( ! ,old ,_w1 out ( ,am]ican ,apes4 ,i consid] ?is hypo!sis to be q errone\s1 = ! complete agreem5t ( all mank9d ) ! ,cat>rh9i1 9 reg>d to ! *>act]i/ic =mation ( ! nose & jaws1 di/9ctly proves t !y are ( ! same orig91 & t !y develop$ out ( a common root aft] ! ,platyrrh9i1 or ,am]ican ,apes1 _h already bran*$ (f f !m4 ,! primval inhabitants ( ,am]ica1 z is prov$ by num]\s e?nographical facts1 immigrat$ f ,asia1 & p>tly p]haps f ,polynesia 7or ev5 f ,europe74 ,!re /ill exi/ great difficulties 9 e/abli%+ an accurate p$igree ( ! ,human ,race2 ?is only c we fur!r ass]t1 t ! ne>e/ prog5itors ( man 7 tail-less ,cat>rh9i 7,lipoc]ca71 resembl+ ! /ill liv+ ,man-l ,apes4 ,^! evid5tly develop$ at a late p]iod out ( tail$ ,cat>rh9i 7,m5oc]ca71 ! orig9al =m ( ,ape4 ,( ^? tail-less ,cat>rh9i1 :i* are n[ frequ5tly call$ ,man-l ,apes1 or ,an?ropoides1 !re /ill exi/ f\r diff]5t g5]a conta9+ ab\t a doz5 diff]5t species4 ,! l>ge/ ,man-l ,ape is ! fam\s ,gorilla 7call$ ,gorilla eng5a1 or ,pongo gorilla71 :i* is indig5\s to ! tropics ( we/]n ,africa1 & 0 fir/ discov]$ by ! mission>y1 ,dr4 ,savage1 9 #ahdg1 on ! banks ( ! riv] ,gaboon4 ,its ne>e/ relative is ! ,*impanzee 7,engeco troglodytes1 or ,pongo troglodytes71 also indig5\s to we/]n ,africa1 b consid]ably small] ?an ! ,gorilla1 :i* surpasses man 9 size & /r5g?4 ,! ?ird ( ! ?ree l>ge ,man-l ,apes is ! ,orang1 or ,orang ,outang1 indig5\s to ,borneo & ! o!r ,sunda ,isl&s1 ( :i* two k9dr$ species h rec5tly be5 di/+ui%$1 namely1 ! l>ge ,orang 7,satyrus orang1 or ,pi!cus satyrus7 & ! small ,orang 7,satyrus morio1 or ,pi!cus morio74 ,la/ly1 !re /ill exi/s 9 s\!rn ,asia ! g5us ,gibbon 7,hylobates71 ( :i* f f\r to eight diff]5t species are di/+ui%$4 ,!y are consid]ably small] ?an ! ?ree fir/-nam$ ,an?ropoides1 & 9 mo/ *>act]i/ics diff] m f ,man4 ,! tail-less ,man-l ,apes--especially s9ce we h become m intimately acqua9t$ ) ! ,gorilla1 & its connection ) ,man by ! application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t--h excit$ su* univ]sal int]e/1 & call$ =? su* a flood ( writ+s1 t !re is no occasion = me "h to ent] into any detail ab\t !m4 ,! read] w f9d _! relations to ,man fully discuss$ 9 ! excell5t works ( ,huxley17#bf7 ,c>l ,vogt17#bg7 ,b*n]17#dc7 & ,rolle47#bh7 ,i %all !re=e conf9e myself to /at+ ! mo/ important g5]al conclusion result+ f _! ?or\gh comp>ison ) ,man1 namely1 t ea* "o ( ! f\r ,man-l ,apes /&s ne>] to ,man 9 "o or sev]al respects ?an ! re/1 b t no "o ( !m c 9 e respect be call$ absolutely ! mo/ l ,man4 ,! ,orang /&s ne>e/ to ,man 9 reg>d to ! =mation ( ! bra91 ! ,*impanzee 9 important *>act]i/ics 9 ! =mation ( ! skull1 ! ,gorilla 9 ! developm5t ( ! feet & h&s1 &1 la/ly1 ! ,gibbon 9 ! =mation ( ! ?orax4 ,?us1 f a c>eful exam9ation ( ! comp>ative anatomy ( ! ,an?ropoides1 we obta9 a simil> result to t obta9$ by ,weisba*1 f a /ati/ical classification & a ?\ghtful comp>ison ( ! v num]\s & c>eful measurem5ts :i* ,s*]z] & ,s*w>z made ( ! diff]5t races ( ,m5 dur+ _! voyage 9 ! ,au/rian frigate ,nov>a r\nd ! e>?4 ,weisba* comprises ! f9al result ( 8 inve/igations 9 ! foll[+ words3 8,! ape-l *>act]i/ics ( ,man are by no means conc5trat$ 9 "o or ano!r race1 b are di/ribut$ 9 p>ticul> p>ts ( ! body1 among ! diff]5t races1 9 su* a mann] t ea* is end[$ ) "s heirloom ( ?is relation%ip--"o race m s1 ano!r less1 & ev5 we ,europeans _c claim to be entirely free f evid5ces ( ?is relation%ip40#e ,i mu/ "h also po9t out1 :at 9 fact is self-evid5t1 t n "o ( all ! /ill liv+ ,apes1 & consequ5tly n "o ( ! s-call$ ,man-l ,apes1 c be ! prog5itor ( ! ,human ,race4 ,?is op9ion1 9 fact1 has nev] be5 ma9ta9$ by ?\ghtful adh]5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 b x has be5 assign$ to !m by _! ?\ghtless oppon5ts4 ,! ,ape-l prog5itors ( ! ,human ,race are long s9ce ext9ct4 ,we may possibly /ill f9d _! fossil bones 9 ! t]ti>y rocks ( s\!rn ,asia or ,africa4 ,9 any case !y w1 9 ! zoological sy/em1 h to be class$ 9 ! gr\p ( tail-less ,n>r[-nos$ ,apes 7,cat>rh9i ,lipoc]ci1 or ,an?ropoides74 ,! g5ealogical hypo!ses1 to :i* we h ?us f> be5 l$ by ! application ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to ,man1 pres5t !mselves to e cle>ly & logically reason+ p]son z ! direct results f ! facts ( comp>ative anatomy1 ontog5y1 & palontology4 ,( c\rse our phylog5y c indicate only 9 a v g5]al way ! outl9es ( ! human p$igree4 ,phylog5y is ! m 9 dang] ( becom+ errone\s ! m rigor\sly x is appli$ 9 detail to special animal =ms kn[n to u4 ,h[ev]1 we c1 ev5 n[1 ) approximate c]ta9ty di/+ui% at lea/ ! foll[+ tw5ty-two /ages ( ! ance/ors ( ,man4 ,f\rte5 ( ^! /ages belong to ! ,v]tebrata1 & eight to ! ,inv]tebrate ance/ors ( ,man 7,pro*ordata47 ,,! ,,*a9 ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,ance/ors1 ,,or ,,! ,,s]ies ,,( ,,! ,,prog5itors1 ,,( ,,man4 7,comp4 ,*4 ,,xx41 ,,xxi42 ,plate ,,xiv4 & p4 #bb47 ,,fir/ ,,half ,,( ,,! ,,s]ies ,,( ,,! ,,ance/ors ,,( ,,man4 ,,inv]tebrate ,,ance/ors ,,( ,,man 7,pro*ordata74 ,,fir/ ,,/age3 ,mon]a4 ,! mo/ anci5t ance/ors ( ,man1 z ( all o!r organisms1 7 liv+ creatures ( ! simple/ k9d imag9able1 organisms )\t organs1 l ! /ill liv+ ,mon]a4 ,!y consi/$ ( simple1 homog5e\s1 /ructureless & =mless little lumps ( muc\s or album9\s matt] 7protoplasm71 l ! /ill liv+ ,protamba primitiva4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 ,fig4 #a47 ,! =m value ( ^! mo/ anci5t ance/ors ( man 0 n ev5 equal to t ( a cell1 b m]ely t ( a cytod 7comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cdg72 =1 z 9 ! case ( all ,mon]a1 ! little lump ( protoplasm did n z yet possess a cell-k]nel4 ,! fir/ ( ^! ,mon]a orig9at$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod by spontane\s g5]ation1 or ar*igony1 out ( s-call$ 8inorganic comb9ations10 namely1 out ( simple comb9ations ( c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog54 ,! assumption ( ?is spontane\s g5]ation1 t is1 ( a me*anical orig9 ( ! fir/ organisms f inorganic matt]1 has be5 prov$ 9 our ?irte5? *apt] to be a necess>y hypo!sis4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cch47 ,a direct pro( ( ! e>li] exi/5ce ( ?is mo/ anci5t ance/ral /age1 bas$ ^u ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y1 is possibly /ill furni%$ by ! circum/ance t1 accord+ to ! ass]tions ( _m inve/igators1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! developm5t ( ! egg1 ! cell-k]nel1 or nucleus1 disappe>s1 & ! egg-cell ?us relapses to ! l[] /age ( ! cytod 7,mon]ula1 p4 #abd2 relapse ( ! nucleat$ pla/id into a non-nucleat$ condition74 ,! assumption ( ?is fir/ /age is necess>y = mo/ important g5]al reasons4 ,,second ,,/age3 ,amb4 ,! second ance/ral /age ( ,man1 z ( all ! high] animals & plants1 is =m$ by a simple cell1 t is1 a little piece ( protoplasm enclos+ a k]nel4 ,!re /ill exi/ l>ge numb]s ( simil> 8s+le-cell$ organisms40 ,among !m ! common1 simple ,amb 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahh1 ,fig4 #b7 _c h be5 ess5tially diff]5t f ^! prog5itors4 ,! =m value ( e ,amba is ess5tially ! same z t /ill possess$ by ! egg ( ,man1 & by ! egg ( all o!r animals4 7,vol4 i4 p4 #ahi1 ,fig4 #c47 ,! nak$ egg-cells ( ,sponges1 :i* creep ab\t exactly l ,amb1 _c be di/+ui%$ f !m4 ,! egg-cell ( ,man1 :i* l t ( mo/ o!r animals is surr\nd$ by a membrane1 resembles an enclos$ ,amba4 ,! fir/ s+le-cell$ animals ( ?is k9d arose out ( ,mon]a by ! diff]5tiation ( ! inn] k]nel & ! ext]nal protoplasm2 !y liv$ 9 ! e>li] ,primordial p]iod4 ,an irrefutable pro( t su* s+le-cell$ primval animals really exi/$ z ! direct ance/ors ( ,man1 is furni%$ accord+ to ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y 7vol4 i4 p4 #cji7 by ! fact t ! human egg is no?+ m ?an a simple cell4 7,comp>e p4 #abd47 ,,?ird ,,/age3 ,synamb4 ,9 ord] to =m an approximate conception ( ! organisation ( ^? ance/ors ( ,man :i* fir/ develop$ out ( ! s+le-cell$ ,primval animals1 x is necess>y to trace ! *anges und]gone by ! human egg 9 ! beg9n+ ( its individual developm5t4 ,x is j "h t ontog5y guides u ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty on to ! track ( phylog5y4 ,we h already se5 t ! egg ( ,man 79 ! same way z t ( all o!r ,mammals71 aft] fructification has tak5 place1 falls by self-division into a mass ( simple & equi-=mal ,amba-l cells 7vol4 i4 p4 #aij1 ,fig4 #d ,d74 ,all ^! divid$ globules are at fir/ exactly l "o ano!r1 nak$ cells conta9+ a k]nel1 b )\t cov]+2 9 _m animals !y %[ movem5ts l ^? ( ! ,amb4 ,?is ontog5etic /age ( developm5t :i* we call$ ,morula 7p4 #abe71 on acc\nt ( its mulb]ry %ape1 is a c]ta9 pro( t 9 ! e>ly primordial p]iod !re exi/$ ance/ors ( man :i* possess$ ! =m value ( a mass ( homog5e\s1 loosely connect$ cells4 ,!y may be call$ a community ( ,amb 7,synamb74 7,comp>e p4 #abg47 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! s+le-cell$ ,primval animals ( ! second /age by repeat$ self-division & by ! p]man5t union ( ! products ( ?is division4 ,,f\r? ,,/age3 ,ciliat$ ,l>va 7,planada74 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ontog5esis ( mo/ ( ! l[] animals1 & also 9 t ( ! l[e/ ,v]tebrate animals1 ! ,lanceolate ,animals1 or ,amphioxus1 !re fir/ develops out ( ! ,morula 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #c7 a ciliat$ l>va 7planula74 ,^? cells1 ly+ on ! surface ( ! homog5e\s mass ( cells1 ext5d hair-l processes1 or fr+es ( hairs1 :i* by /rik+ aga9/ ! wat] keep ! :ole body rotat+4 ,! r\nd _m-cell$ body ?us becomes diff]5tiat$1 9 t ! ext]nal cells cov]$ ) cilia diff] f ! non-ciliat$ int]nal cells 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #d74 ,9 ,man & 9 all o!r ,v]tebrate animals 7) ! exception ( ! ,amphioxus71 z well z 9 all ,ar?ropoda1 ?is /age ( ! ciliat$ l>va has be5 lo/1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 by abbreviat$ inh]itance4 ,!re mu/1 h[ev]1 h exi/$ ance/ors ( ,man 9 ! e>ly ,primordial p]iod :i* possess$ ! =m value ( ^! ciliat$ l>v 7,plana1 p4 #abe74 ,a c]ta9 pro( ( ?is is furni%$ by ! ,amphioxus1 :i* is on ! "o h& relat$ by blood to ,man1 b on ! o!r has reta9$ d[n to ! pres5t day ! /age ( ! planula4 ,,fif? ,,/age3 ,primval ,/oma* ,animals 7,ga/rada74 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! individual developm5t ( ,amphioxus1 z well z 9 ! mo/ diff]5t l[] animals1 !re fir/ arises out ( ! planula ! extremely important =m ( l>va :i* we h nam$ /oma* l>va1 or ga/rula 7p4 #abf2 ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #e1 #f74 ,accord+ to ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y ?is ga/rula proves ! =m] exi/5ce ( an indep5d5t =m ( primval animal ( ! same /ructure1 & ?is we h nam$ primval /oma* animal1 or ,ga/ra 7pp4 #abg1 #abh74 ,^! ,ga/rada mu/ h exi/$ dur+ ! old] ,primordial p]iod1 & !y mu/ h also includ$ ! ance/ors ( man4 ,a c]ta9 pro( ( ?is is furni%$ by ! ,amphioxus1 :i* 9 spite ( its blood relation%ip to ,man /ill passes ?r\gh ! /age ( ! ga/rula ) a simple inte/9e & a d\ble inte/9al wall4 7,comp>e ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 ,b #d47 ,,six? ,,/age3 ,glid+ ,worms 7,turbell>ia74 ,! human ance/ors ( ! six? /age :i* orig9at$ out ( ! ,ga/rada ( ! fif? /age1 7 l[ worms1 :i*1 ( all ! =ms ( worms kn[n to u1 7 mo/ closely alli$ to ! ,glid+ ,worms1 or ,turbell>ia1 or at lea/ ^u ! :ole possess$ _! =m value4 ,l ! ,turbell>ia ( ! pres5t day1 ! :ole surface ( _! body 0 cov]$ ) cilia1 & !y possess$ a simple body ( an oval %ape1 entirely )\t app5dages4 ,^! aclomat\s worms did n z yet possess a true body-cavity 7clom7 nor blood4 ,!y orig9at$ 9 ! e>ly primordial p]iod out ( ! ,ga/rada1 by ! =mation ( a middle g]m-lay]1 or muscul> lay]1 & also by ! fur!r diff]5tiation ( ! int]nal p>ts into v>i\s organs2 m especially ! fir/ =mation ( a n]v\s sy/em1 ! simple/ organs ( s5se1 ! simple/ organs = secretion 7kidneys7 & g5]ation 7sexual organs74 ,! pro( t human ance/ors exi/$ ( a simil> =mation1 is to be look$ = 9 ! circum/ance t comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y po9t to ! l[] aclomat\s ,worms z ! common prim>y =m1 n m]ely ( all high] ,worms1 b also ( ! f\r high] tribes ( animals4 ,n[1 ( all ! animals kn[n to u1 ! ,turbell>ia1 :i* possess nei!r a body-cavity nor blood1 are mo/ closely alli$ to ^! primval aclomat\s ,prim>y ,worms4 ,,sev5? ,,/age3 ,s(t ,worms 7,scolecida74 ,betwe5 ! ,turbell>ia ( ! prec$+ /age & ! ,sack ,worms ( ! next /age1 we mu/ necess>ily assume at lea/ "o connect+ int]m$iate /age4 ,= ! ,tunicata1 :i* ( all kn[n animals /& ne>e/ to ! eigh? /age1 & ! ,turbell>ia :i* mo/ resemble ! six? /age1 inde$ bo? belong to ! l[] division ( ! unsegm5t$ ,worms2 b /ill ^! two divisions diff] s mu* f "o ano!r 9 _! organization1 t we mu/ necess>ily assume ! e>li] exi/5ce ( ext9ct int]m$iate =ms betwe5 ! two4 ,^! connect+ l9ks1 ( :i* no fossil rema9s exi/1 ow+ to ! s(t nature ( _! bodies1 we may comprise z ,s(t ,worms1 or ,scolecida4 ,!y develop$ out ( ! ,turbell>ia ( ! six? /age by =m+ a true body-cavity 7a clom7 & blood 9 _! int]ior4 ,x is difficult to say :i* ( ! /ill liv+ ,clomati are ne>e/ ak9 to ^! ext9ct ,scolecida2 x may be ! ,acorn-worms 7,balanoglossus74 ,! pro( t ev5 ! direct ance/ors ( man belong$ to ^! ,scolecida1 is furni%$ by ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,worms & ( ! ,amphioxus4 ,! =m value ( ?is /age mu/ moreov] h be5 repres5t$ by sev]al v diff]5t int]m$iate /ages1 9 ! wide gap betwe5 ,turbell>ia & ,tunicata4 ,,eigh? ,,/age3 ,sack ,worms 7,himatega74 ,"u ! "n ( ,sack worms1 or ,himatega1 we "h allude 9 ! eigh? place to ^? ,clomati1 out ( :i* ! mo/ anci5t skull-less ,v]tebrata 7 directly develop$4 ,among ! ,clomati ( ! pres5t day1 ! ,ascidians are ! ne>e/ relatives ( ^! exce$+ly rem>kable ,worms1 :i* connect ! widely diff]+ classes ( ,inv]tebrate & ,v]tebrate animals4 ,t ! ance/ors ( man really exi/$ dur+ ! primordial p]iod 9 ! =m ( ^! ,himatega1 is di/9ctly prov$ by ! exce$+ly rem>kable & important agreem5t pres5t$ by ! ontog5y ( ! ,amphioxus & ! ,ascidia4 7,comp>e ,plates ,,xii4 & ,,xiii41 also pp4 #aeb1 #bjj1 etc47 ,f ?is fact ! e>li] exi/5ce ( ,sack ,worms may be inf]r$2 !y ( all kn[n worms 7 mo/ closely relat$ to our rec5t ,tunicates1 especially to ! freely swimm+ "y =ms or l>v ( ! simple ,sea-squirts 7,ascidia1 ,phallusia74 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! worms ( ! sev5? /age by ! =mation ( a dorsal n]ve-m>r[ 7m$ulla tube71 & by ! =mation ( ! sp9al rod 7*orda dorsalis7 :i* lies bel[ x4 ,x is j ! position ( ?is c5tral sp9al rod1 or axial skeleton1 betwe5 ! dorsal m>r[ on ! dorsal side1 & ! inte/9al canal on ! v5tral side1 :i* is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( all ,v]tebrate animals1 includ+ man1 b also ( ! l>v ( ! ,ascidia4 ,! =m value ( ?is /age ne>ly corresponds ) t :i* ! l>v ( ! simple ,sea-squirts possess at ! "t :5 !y %[ ! beg9n+ ( ! dorsal m>r[ & sp9al rod4 7,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 ,a #e3 comp>e ! explanation ( ^! figures 9 ! ,app5dix47 ,,second ,,half ,,( ,,! ,,s]ies ,,( ,,human ,,ance/ors4 ,,v]tebrate ,,animal ,,ance/ors ,,( ,,man 7,v]tebrata74 ,,n9? ,,/age3 ,skull-less ,animals 7,acrania74 ,! s]ies ( human ance/ors1 :i* 9 accordance ) _! :ole organisation we h to consid] z ,v]tebrate animals1 beg9s ) ! ,skull-less animals1 or ,acrania1 ( ^: nature ! /ill liv+ ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus1 ,plate ,,xii4 ,b1 ,,xiii4 ,b7 gives u a fa9t idea4 ,s9ce ?is little animal 9 its e>lie/ embryonal /ate entirely agrees ) ! ,ascidia1 & 9 its fur!r developm5t %[s itself to be a true ,v]tebrate animal1 x =ms a direct transition f ! ,v]tebrata to ! ,inv]tebrata4 ,ev5 if ! human ance/ors ( ! n9? /age 9 _m respects diff]$ f ! ,amphioxus--! la/ surviv+ repres5tative ( ! ,skull-less animals--yet !y mu/ h resembl$ x 9 its mo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ics1 9 ! abs5ce ( head1 skull1 & bra94 ,skull-less animals ( su* /ructure--out ( :i* animals ) skulls develop$ at a lat] p]iod--liv$ dur+ ! primordial p]iod1 & orig9at$ out ( ! ,himatega ( ! eigh? /age by ! =mation ( ! metam]a1 or body segm5ts1 z also by ! fur!r diff]5tiation ( all organs1 especially ! m p]fect developm5t ( ! dorsal n]ve-m>r[ & ! sp9al rod ly+ bel[ x4 ,probably ! sep>ation ( ! two sexes 7gono*orism7 also began at ?is /age1 :]eas all ! previ\sly m5tion$ inv]tebrate ance/ors 7ap>t f ! #c--d fir/ neutral /ages7 exhibit$ ! condition ( h]maphrodites 7h]maphroditism74 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #aif47 ,! c]ta9 pro( ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! skull-less & bra9less ance/ors ( man1 is furni%$ by ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ! ,amphioxus & ( ! ,craniota4 ,,t5? ,,/age3 ,s+le-no/ril$ ,animals 7,monorrh9a74 ,out ( ! ,skull-less ance/ors ( man !re arose 9 ! fir/ place animals ) skulls1 or ,craniota1 ( ! mo/ imp]fect nature4 ,! l[e/ /age ( all /ill liv+ ,craniota is occupi$ by ! class ( r\nd-m\!d animals1 or ,cyclo/oma1 namely1 ! ,hag 7,myx9oidea7 & ,lampreys 7,petromyzontia74 ,f ! int]nal organization ( ^! s+le-no/ril$ animals1 or ,monorrh9a1 we c =m an approximate idea ( ! nature ( ! human ance/ors ( ! t5? /age4 ,9 ! =m]1 z also 9 ! latt]1 skull & bra9 mu/ h be5 ( ! simple/ =m1 & _m important organs1 z = example1 ! swimm+ bladd]1 ! sympa!tic n]ve1 ! sple51 ! jaw skeleton1 & bo? pairs ( legs1 may probably z yet n h exi/$4 ,h[ev]1 ! p\* gills & ! r\nd suck+ m\? ( ! ,cyclo/oma mu/ probably be look$ ^u z purely adaptive *>act]i/ics1 :i* did n exi/ 9 ! correspond+ /age ( ance/ors4 ,! s+le-no/ril$ animals orig9at$ dur+ ! primordial p]iod out ( ! skull-less animals by ! ant]ior end ( ! dorsal m>r[ develop+ into ! bra91 & ! ant]ior end ( ! dorsal *ord into ! skull4 ,! c]ta9 pro( t su* s+le-no/ril$ & jawless ance/ors ( man did exi/1 is f\nd 9 ! 8comp>ative anatomy ( ! ,myx9oidea40 ,,elev5? ,,/age3 ,primval ,fi% 7,sela*ii474 ,( all kn[n ,v]tebrate animals1 ! ance/ors ( ! ,primval ,fi% probably %[$ mo/ resemblance to ! /ill liv+ ,%>ks 7,squalacei74 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! s+le-no/ril$ animals by ! division ( ! s+le no/ril into two lat]al halves1 by ! =mation ( a sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em1 a jaw skeleton1 a swimm+ bladd]1 & two pairs ( legs 7brea/ f9s or =e-legs1 & v5tral f9s or h9d-legs74 ,! int]nal organisation ( ?is /age may probably1 ^u ! :ole1 h correspond$ to ! l[e/ species ( ,%>ks kn[n to u2 ! swimm+ bladd] 0 h[ev] m /rongly develop$2 9 ! case ( ! latt] x exi/s only z a rudim5t>y organ4 ,!y liv$ z e>ly z ! ,silurian p]iod1 z is prov$ by ! fossil rema9s ( %>ks 7tee? & f9 sp9es7 f ! ,silurian /rata4 ,a c]ta9 pro( t ! ,silurian ance/ors ( man & ( all ! o!r d\ble-no/ril$ animals 7 ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,sela*ii1 is furni%$ by ! comp>ative anatomy ( ! latt]2 x %[s t ! relations ( organisation 9 all ,amphirrh9a c be d]iv$ f ^? ( ! ,sela*ii4 ,,twelf? ,,/age3 ,mud ,fi% 7,dipneu/a74 ,our twelf? ance/ral /age is =m$ by ,v]tebrate animals :i* probably possess$ a remote resemblance to ! /ill liv+ ,salam&] fi% 7,c]atodus1 ,protopt]us1 ,lepidosir51 p4 #bab74 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! ,primval fi% 7probably at ! beg9n+ ( ! paloli?ic1 or prim>y p]iod7 by adaptation to life on l&1 & by ! trans=mation ( ! swimm+ bladd] into an air-brea?+ lung1 & ( ! nasal cavity 7:i* n[ op5$ into ! cavity ( ! m\?7 into air passages4 ,! s]ies ( ! ance/ors ( man :i* brea!d air ?r\gh lungs began at ?is /age4 ,_! organisation may probably 9 _m respects h agre$ ) t ( ! /ill liv+ ,c]atodus & ,protopt]us1 b at ! same "t may h be5 v diff]5t4 ,!y probably liv$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,_! exi/5ce is prov$ by comp>ative anatomy1 :i* %[s ! ,dipneu/a to be an int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! ,sela*ii & ,amphibia4 ,,?irte5? ,,/age3 ,gill$ ,amphibians 7,sozobran*ia74 ,out ( ^? ,mud ,fi%1 :i* we consid]$ ! prim>y =ms ( all ! ,v]tebrata :i* brea! ?r\gh lungs1 !re develop$ ! class ( ,amphibia z ! ma9 l9e 7pp4 #bje1 #baf74 ,"h began ! five-to$ =mation ( ! foot 7! ,p5tadactyla71 :i* 0 !nce transmitt$ to ! high] ,v]tebrata1 & f9ally also to ,man4 ,! gill$ ,amphibians mu/ be look$ ^u z our mo/ anci5t ance/ors ( ! class ( ,amphibia2 besides possess+ lungs !y reta9$ ?r\gh\t life regul> gills1 l ! /ill liv+ ,proteus & ,axolotl 7p4 #bah74 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! ,dipneu/a by ! trans=mation ( ! paddl+ f9s into five-to$ legs1 & also by ! m p]fect diff]5tiation ( v>i\s organs1 especially ( ! v]tebral column4 ,9 any case !y exi/$ ab\t ! middle ( ! paloli?ic1 or prim>y p]iod1 possibly ev5 be=e ! ,coal p]iod2 = fossil ,amphibia are f\nd 9 coal4 ,! pro( t simil> gill$ ,amphibians 7 our direct ance/ors1 is giv5 by ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,amphibia & ,mammals4 ,,f\rte5? ,,/age3 ,tail$ ,amphibians 7,sozura74 ,our amphibi\s ance/ors :i* reta9$ _! gills ?r\gh\t life1 7 replac$ at a lat] p]iod by o!r ,amphibia1 :i*1 by metamorphosis1 lo/ ! gills :i* !y _h possess$ 9 e>ly life1 b reta9$ ! tail1 z 9 ! case ( ! salam&]s & newts ( ! pres5t day4 7,comp>e p4 #bah47 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! gill$ ,amphibians by accu/om+ !mselves 9 e>ly life to brea! only ?r\gh gills1 & lat] 9 life only ?r\gh lungs4 ,!y probably exi/$ ev5 9 ! second half ( ! prim>y1 namely1 dur+ ! ,p]mian p]iod1 b possibly ev5 dur+ ! ,coal p]iod4 ,! pro( ( _! exi/5ce lies 9 ! fact t tail$ ,amphibians =m a necess>y int]m$iate l9k betwe5 ! prec$+ & succe$+ /ages4 ,,fifte5? ,,/age3 ,primval ,amniota 7,protamnia74 ,! "n ,protamnion we h giv5 to ! prim>y =m ( ! ?ree high] classes ( ,v]tebrate animals1 out ( :i* ! ,proreptilia & ! ,promammalia develop$ z two div]g+ bran*es 7p4 #bbb74 ,x orig9at$ out ( unkn[n tail$ ,amphibia by ! complete loss ( ! gills1 by ! =mation ( ! amnion1 ( ! co*lea1 & ( ! r\nd w9d[ 9 ! auditory organ1 & ( ! organs ( te>s4 ,x probably orig9at$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! mesoli?ic or second>y p]iod1 p]haps ev5 t[>ds ! end ( ! prim>y1 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod4 ,! c]ta9 pro( t x once exi/$ lies 9 ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ! ,amniota2 = all ,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals1 includ+ ,man1 agree 9 s _m important *>act]i/ics t !y mu/1 ) full assurance1 be admitt$ to be ! desc5dants ( a s+le common prim>y =m1 namely1 ( ! ,protamnion4 ,,sixte5? ,,/age3 ,prim>y ,mammals 7,promammalia74 ,we n[ f9d ourselves m at home ) our ance/ors4 ,f ! sixte5? up to ! tw5ty-second /age !y all belong to ! l>ge & well kn[n class ( ,mammals1 ! conf9es ( :i* we ourselves h z yet n transgress$4 ,! common1 long s9ce ext9ct & unkn[n prim>y =ms ( all ,mammalia1 :i* we h nam$ ,promammalia1 7 at all ev5ts1 ( all /ill liv+ animals1 ( ! class mo/ closely relat$ to ! ,beak$ animals1 or ,orni?o/oma 7,orni?orhyn*us1 ,e*idna1 p4 #bcc74 ,!y diff]$ f ! latt]1 h[ev]1 by ! tee? pres5t 9 _! jaws4 ,! =mation ( ! beak 9 ! ,beak$ animals ( ! pres5t day mu/ be look$ ^u z an adaptive *>act]i/ic :i* develop$ at a lat] p]iod4 ,! ,promammalia arose out ( ! ,protamnia 7probably only at ! beg9n+ ( ! second>y p]iod1 namely1 9 ! ,trias7 by v>i\s advances 9 _! int]nal organisation1 z also by ! trans=mation ( ! epid]mal scales into hairs1 & by ! =mation ( a mamm>y gl& :i* furni%$ milk = ! n\ri%m5t ( ! "y ones4 ,! c]ta9 pro( t ! ,promammalia--inasmu* z !y are ! common prim>y =ms ( all ,mammals--also belong to our ance/ors1 lies 9 ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,mammalia & ,man4 ,,sev5te5? ,,/age3 ,p\*$ ,animals 7,m>supialia74 ,! ?ree sub-classes ( ,mammalia--z we h already se5--/& 9 su* a relation to "o ano!r t ! ,m>supials1 bo? z reg>ds _! anatomy & _! ontog5y & phylog5y1 =m ! direct transition f ! ,monotrema to ,plac5tal animals 7p4 #bdg74 ,consequ5tly1 human ance/ors mu/ also h exi/$ among ,m>supials4 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! ,monotrema--:i* include ! prim>y ,mammalia1 or ,promammalia--by ! division ( ! cloaca into ! rectum & ! urog5ital s9us1 by ! =mation ( a nipple on ! mamm>y gl&1 & by ! p>tial suppression ( ! clavicles4 ,! olde/ ,m>supials at all ev5ts exi/$ z e>ly z ! ,jura p]iod 7p]haps ev5 9 ! ,trias72 dur+ ! ,*alk p]iod !y pass$ ?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages prep>+ ! way = ! orig9 ( ,plac5talia4 ,! c]ta9 pro( ( our d]ivation f ,m>supials--ne>ly ak9 to ! /ill liv+ opossum & kang>oo 9 _! ess5tial inn] /ructure--is furni%$ by ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,mammalia4 ,,eighte5? ,,/age3 ,semi-apes 7,prosimi74 ,! small gr\p ( ,semi-apes1 z we h already se51 is "o ( ! mo/ important & mo/ int]e/+ ord]s ( ,mammalia4 ,x conta9s ! direct prim>y =ms ( ,g5u9e ,apes1 & ?us also ( ,man4 ,our ,semi-ape ance/ors probably possess$ only a v fa9t ext]nal resemblance to ! /ill liv+1 %ort-foot$ ,semi-apes 7,bra*yt>si71 especially ! ,maki1 ,indri1 & ,lori 7p4 #bef74 ,!y orig9at$ 7probably at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,c5oli?ic1 or ,t]ti>y p]iod7 out ( ,m>supials ( ,rat-l appe>ance by ! =mation ( a plac5ta1 ! loss ( ! m>supium & ! m>supial bones1 & by ! high] developm5t ( ! commissures ( ! bra94 ,! c]ta9 pro( t ,g5u9e ,apes1 & h5ce also our own race1 are ! direct desc5dants ( ,semi-apes1 is to be f\nd 9 ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,plac5tal animals4 ,,n9ete5? ,,/age3 ,tail$ ,apes 7,m5oc]ca74 ,( ! two classes ( ,g5u9e ,apes :i* develop$ out ( ! ,semi-apes1 x is only ! n>r[-nos$1 or ,cat>rh9i1 :i* are closely relat$ by blood to ,man4 ,our old] ance/ors f ?is gr\p probably resembl$ ! /ill liv+ ,nose-apes & ,holy-apes 7,semnopi!cus71 :i* possess jaws & n>r[ noses l ,man1 b h a long tail1 & _! bodies d5sely cov]$ ) hair 7p4 #bga74 ,! ,tail$ ,apes ) n>r[ noses 7,cat>rh9i ,m5oc]ci7 orig9at$ out ( ,semi-apes by ! trans=mation ( ! jaw1 & by ! claws on _! toes becom+ *ang$ into nails2 ?is probably took place z e>ly z ! old] ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! c]ta9 pro( ( our d]ivation f ,tail$ ,cat>rh9i is to be f\nd 9 ! comp>ative anatomy & ! ontog5y ( ,apes & ( ,man4 ,,tw5tie? ,,/age3 ,man-l ,apes 7,an?ropoides74 ,( all /ill liv+ ,apes ! l>ge tail-less1 n>r[-nos$ ,apes1 namely1 ! ,orang & ,gibbon 9 ,asia1 ! ,gorilla & ,*impanzee 9 ,africa1 are mo/ ne>ly ak9 to ,man4 ,x is probable t ^! ,man-l ,apes1 or ,an?ropoides1 orig9at$ dur+ ! ,mid-t]ti>y p]iod1 namely1 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,!y develop$ out ( ! ,tail$ ,cat>rh9i ( ! prec$+ /age--) :i* !y ess5tially agree--by ! loss ( ! tail1 ! p>tial loss ( ! hairy cov]+ & by ! excessive developm5t ( t portion ( ! bra9 j above ! facial portion ( ! skull4 ,!re d n exi/ direct human ance/ors among ! ,an?ropoides ( ! pres5t day1 b !y c]ta9ly exi/$ among ! unkn[n ext9ct ,human ,apes ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,! c]ta9 pro( ( _! =m] exi/5ce is furni%$ by ! comp>ative anatomy ( ,man-l ,apes & ( ,man4 ,,tw5ty-,,fir/ ,,/age3 ,ape-l ,m5 7,pi!can?ropi74 ,al?\gh ! prec$+ ance/ral /age is already s ne>ly ak9 to g5u9e ,m5 t we sc>cely require to assume an int]m$iate connect+ /age1 /ill we c look ^u ! spee*less ,primval ,m5 7,alali7 z ?is int]m$iate l9k4 ,^! ,ape-l m51 or ,pi!can?ropi1 v probably exi/$ t[>ds ! end ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,!y orig9at$ out ( ! ,man-l ,apes1 or ,an?ropoides1 by becom+ completely habituat$ to an upright walk1 & by ! correspond+ /rong] diff]5tiation ( bo? pairs ( legs4 ,! =e h& ( ! ,an?ropoides became ! human h&1 _! h9d] h& became a foot = walk+4 ,al?\gh ^! ,ape-l ,m5 mu/ n m]ely by ! ext]nal =mation ( _! bodies1 b also by _! int]nal m5tal developm5t1 h be5 mu* m ak9 to real ,m5 ?an ! ,man-l ,apes c\ld h be51 yet !y did n possess ! real & *ief *>act]i/ic ( man1 namely1 ! articulate human language ( words1 ! correspond+ developm5t ( a high] consci\sness1 & ! =mation ( ideas4 ,! c]ta9 pro( t su* ,primval ,m5 )\t ! p[] ( spee*1 or ,ape-l ,m51 mu/ h prec$$ m5 possess+ spee*1 is ! result arriv$ at by an inquir+ m9d f comp>ative philology 7f ! 8comp>ative anatomy0 ( language71 & especially f ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( language 9 e *ild 78glottal ontog5esis07 z well z 9 e nation 78glottal phylog5esis074 ,,tw5ty-,,second ,,/age3 ,m5 7,hom9es74 ,g5u9e ,m5 develop$ out ( ! ,ape-l ,m5 ( ! prec$+ /age by ! gradual developm5t ( ! animal language ( s\nds into a connect$ or articulate language1 ( words4 ,! developm5t ( ?is function1 ( c\rse1 w5t h& 9 h& ) ! developm5t ( its organs1 namely1 ! high] diff]5tiation ( ! l>ynx & ! bra94 ,! transition f spee*less ,ape-l ,m5 to ,g5u9e or ,talk+ ,m5 probably took place at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod1 namely1 9 ! ,diluvial p]iod1 b possibly ev5 at an e>li] date1 9 ! m rec5t ,t]ti>y4 ,z1 accord+ to ! unanim\s op9ion ( mo/ em95t philologi/s1 all human languages are n d]iv$ f a common primval language1 we mu/ assume a polyphyletic orig9 ( language1 & 9 accordance ) ?is a polyphyletic transition f spee*less ,ape-l ,m5 to ,g5u9e ,m54 ,,ance/ral ,,s]ies ,,( ,,! ,,human ,,p$igree4 ,m ,n ,b\nd>y betwe5 ! ,inv]tebrate & ,v]tebrate ,ance/ors4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,epo*s ( ! ,geological ,p]iods ,animal ,ne>e/ ,liv+ ,organic ( ! ,ance/ral ,/ages ,relatives ( ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,organic ,hi/ory ( ,ance/ral ,/ages4 ,e>?4 ( ! ,e>?4 ,man4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #a4 ,mon]a ,protog5es 7,mon]a7 ,protamba #b4 ,s+le-cell$ ,simple ,amb ,primval animals 7,automb7 #c4 ,_m-cell$ ,communities ( ,primval animals ,amb 7,synamb7 #d4 ,ciliat$ planul ,planula l>v 7,planada7 ,i4 ,,ar*ili?ic #a4 ,laur5tian ,p]iod #e4 ,primval ,inte/9al ,ga/rula l>v ,,or animals 7,ga/rada7 #b4 ,cambrian ,p]iod ,,primordial #f4 ,glid+ ,worms ,rhabdocla ,,epo* #c4 ,silurian ,p]iod 7,turbell>ia7 ,d5drocla #g4 ,s(t-worms 8,betwe5 ! ,sea-squirts 7,scolecida7 & ,glid+ worms #h4 ,sack worms ,sea-squirts 7,himatega7 7,ascidi7 ,m44444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444,n #i4 ,skull-less ,lancelets 7,acrania7 7,amphioxi7 #aj4 ,s+le-no/ril$ ,lampreys 7,monorrh9a7 7,petromyzonta7 7,comp>e p4 #bb1 & ,plate ,,xiv4 & its #aa4 ,primval fi% ,%>ks explanation47 7,sela*ii7 7,squalacei7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #d4 ,devonian ,p]iod #ab4 ,salam&] fi% ,mud fi% ,,ii4 7,dipneu/a7 7,protopt]i7 ,,pal,,oli?ic #e4 ,coal ,p]iod ,,or #ac4 ,gill$ ,amphibia 7,proteus7 #f4 ,p]mian ,p]iod 7,sozobran*ia7 ,axolotl 7,sir$on7 ,,prim>y ,,epo* #ad4 ,tail$ ,amphibia ,wat]-newts 7,sozura7 7,tritons7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ae4 ,primval ,amniota 8,betwe5 ! ,tail$-,amphibia ,,iii4 7,protamnia7 & ,prim>y ,,mesoli?ic #g4 ,trias ,p]iod mammals ,,or #h4 ,jura ,p]iod #af4 ,prim>y ,mammals ,beak$ animals ,,second>y 7,promammalia7 7,monotrema7 ,,epo* #i4 ,*alk ,p]iod #ag4 ,p\*$ animals ,p\*$ rats 7,m>supialia7 7,didelphys7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ah4 ,semi-apes ,lori 7,/5ops7 7,prosimi7 ,maki 7,lemur7 ,,iv4 #ai4 ,tail$ ,n>r[-nos$ ,nose apes ,,c5oli?ic #aj4 ,eoc5e ,p]iod ,apes ,holy apes ,,or #aa4 ,mioc5e ,p]iod #bj4 ,m5-l ,apes or ,gorilla1 ,*impanzee1 ,,t]ti>y ,tail-less ,n>r[-nos$ ,orang1 ,,epo* #ab4 ,plioc5e ,p]iod ,apes ,gibbon #ba4 ,spee*less ,m5 or ,deaf & ,dumb1 ,ape-l ,m5 ,cret9s or ,microcephali ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,v4 ,,quat]n>y #ac4 ,diluvial ,p]iod #bb4 ,talk+ ,m5 ,au/ralians & ,,epo* #ad4 ,alluvial ,p]iod ,papuans ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,migration ,,& ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,mank9d4 ,,human ,,species ,,& ,,human ,,races4 ,age ( ! ,human ,race4--,causes ( its ,orig94--,! ,orig9 ( ,human ,language4--,monophyletic or ,s+le1 ,polyphyletic or ,multiple ,orig9 ( ! ,human ,race4--,d]ivation ( ,man f _m ,pairs4--,classification ( ! ,human ,races4--,sy/em ( ,twelve ,species ( ,m54--,woolly-hair$ ,m51 or ,ulotri*is4--,bu%y-hair$ 7,papuans1 ,hott5tots74--,fleecy-hair$ 7,caffres1 ,negroes74--,/raight-hair$ m51 or ,lissotri*i4--,/iff-hair$ 7,au/ralians1 ,malays1 ,mongols1 ,arctic1 & ,am]ican ,tribes74--,curly-hair$ 7,dravidas1 ,nubians1 ,midl&]s74--,numb] ( ,population4--,primval ,home ( ,man 7,s\? ,asia1 or ,lemuria74--,nature ( ,primval ,m54--,numb] ( ,primval ,languages 7,monoglotti/s & ,polyglotti/s74--,div]g5ce & ,migration ( ! ,human ,race4--,geographical ,di/ribution ( ! ,human ,species4 ,! ri* treasure ( k we possess 9 ! comp>ative anatomy & ! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( ,v]tebrate animals1 enables u ev5 n[ to e/abli% ! mo/ important outl9es ( ! human p$igree 9 ! way we h done 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,"o mu/1 h[ev]1 n expect to be able to survey satisfactorily 9 e detail ! hi/ory or phylog5y ( ! human species :i* w h5ce=? =m ! basis ( ,an?ropology1 & ( all o!r sci5ces4 ,! complete developm5t ( ?is mo/ important sci5ce--( :i* we c only lay ! fir/ f\ndation--mu/ rema9 res]v$ = ! m accurate & ext5sive inve/igations ( a future "t4 ,?is applies also to ^? m special que/ions ( human phylog5y at :i* x is desirable be=e conclud+ to take a cursory glance1 namely1 ! "q ( ! "t & place ( ! orig9 ( ! human race1 z also ( ! diff]5t species & races into :i* x has diff]5tiat$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 )9 :i* ! sl[ & gradual transmutation ( ! mo/ man-l apes into ! mo/ ape-l m5 took place1 c ( c\rse n be det]m9$ by ye>s1 nor ev5 by c5turies4 ,?is mu* c1 h[ev]1 ) full assurance be ma9ta9$1 = reasons giv5 9 ! la/ *apt]1 t ,man is d]iv$ f ,plac5tal animals4 ,n[1 z fossil rema9s ( ^! ,plac5talia are f\nd only 9 ! t]ti>y rocks1 ! human race c at ! e>lie/ h develop$ only )9 ! ,t]ti>y p]iod out ( p]fect$ man-l apes4 ,:at seems mo/ probable is t ?is mo/ important process 9 ! hi/ory ( t]re/rial creation occurr$ t[>ds ! end ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 t is 9 ! ,plioc5e1 p]haps ev5 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 b possibly also n until ! beg9n+ ( ! ,diluvial p]iod4 ,at all ev5ts ,man1 z su*1 liv$ 9 c5tral ,europe z e>ly z ! ,diluvial p]iod1 contemporane\sly ) _m l>ge1 long s9ce ext9ct mammals1 especially ) ! diluvial elephant1 or mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 ! woolly-hair$ rh9oc]os 7,rh9oc]os ti*orrh9us71 ! giant de] 7,c]vus euryc]os71 ! cave be> 7,ursus spelu71 ! cave hyna 7,hyna spela71 ! cave lion 7,felis spelu71 etc4 ,! results br\ght to light by rec5t geology & ar*ology z to ^! fossil m5 & _! animal contempor>ies ( ! diluvial p]iod1 are ( ! greate/ int]e/4 ,b z a clos] exam9ation ( !m w\ld occupy too mu* ( my limit$ space1 ,i mu/ conf9e myself "h to sett+ =? _! great g5]al importance1 & ref] = p>ticul>s to ! num]\s writ+s :i* h rec5tly be5 publi%$ on ! ,primval ,hi/ory ( ,man1 m especially to ! excell5t works ( ,*>les ,lyell17#cj7 ,c>l ,vogt17#bg7 ,fri$ri* ,rolle17#bh7 ,john ,lubbock17#dd7 ,l4 ,b*n]17#dc7 etc4 ,! num]\s & int]e/+ discov]ies pres5t$ to u by ^! ext5sive inve/igations ( late ye>s on ! primval hi/ory ( ! human race1 place ! important fact 7long s9ce probable = _m o!r reasons7 beyond a d\bt1 t ! human race1 z su*1 has exi/$ = m ?an tw5ty ?\s& ye>s4 ,b x is also probable t m ?an a hundr$ ?\s& ye>s1 p]haps _m hundr$ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 h elaps$ s9ce its fir/ appe>ance2 &1 9 contra/ to ?is1 x mu/ seem v absurd t our cal5d>s /ill repres5t ! 8,creation ( ! ,_w1 accord+ to ,calvisius10 to h tak5 place #ehba ye>s ago4 ,n[1 :e!r we reckon ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! human race1 z su*1 has exi/$ & diffus$ itself ov] ! e>?1 z tw5ty ?\s&1 a hundr$ ?\s&1 or _m hundr$ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 ! lapse ( "t is 9 any case imm5sely small 9 comp>ison ) ! inconceivable l5g? ( "t :i* 0 requisite = ! gradual developm5t ( ! long *a9 ( human ance/ors4 ,?is is evid5t ev5 f ! small ?ickness ( all ,diluvial deposits 9 comp>ison ) ! ,t]ti>y1 & ( ^! aga9 9 comp>ison ) ! prec$+ deposits4 7,comp>e p4 #bb47 ,b ! inf9itely long s]ies ( sl[ly & gradually develop+ animal =ms f ! simple/ ,mon]on to ! ,amphioxus1 f ?is to ! ,primval ,fi%1 f ! ,primval ,fi% to ! fir/ ,mammal1 & aga91 f ! latt] to ,man1 also require = _! hi/orical developm5t a succession ( p]iods probably compris+ _m ?\s&s ( millions ( ye>s4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #abi47 ,^? processes ( developm5t :i* l$ to ! orig9 ( ! mo/ ,ape-l ,m5 out ( ! mo/ ,man-l ,apes mu/ be look$ = 9 ! two adaptational *anges :i*1 above all o!rs1 are di/9ctive ( ,man1 namely1 upright walk & articulate spee*4 ,^! two physiological functions necess>ily orig9at$ toge!r ) two correspond+ morphological transmutations1 ) :i* !y /& 9 ! close/ correlation1 namely1 ! diff]5tiation ( ! two pairs ( limbs & ! diff]5tiation ( ! l>ynx4 ,! important p]fect+ ( ^! organs & _! functions mu/ h necess>ily & p[]fully react$ ^u ! diff]5tiation ( ! bra9 & ! m5tal activities dep5d5t ^u x1 & ?us h pav$ ! way = ! endless c>e] 9 :i* ,man has s9ce progressively develop$1 & 9 :i* he has f> out/ripp$ 8 animal ance/ors4 7,g54 ,morph4 ii4 p4 #dcj47 ,! fir/ & e>lie/ ( ^! ?ree great processes 9 ! developm5t ( ! human organism probably 0 ! high] diff]5tiation & ! p]fect+ ( ! extremities :i* 0 effect$ by ! habit ( an upright walk4 ,by ! =e feet m & m exclusively adopt+ & reta9+ ! function ( grasp+ & h&l+1 & ! h9d] feet m & m exclusively ! function ( /&+ & walk+1 !re 0 develop$ t contra/ betwe5 ! h& & foot :i* is inde$ n exclusively *>act]i/ic ( man1 b :i* is mu* m /rongly develop$ 9 him ?an 9 ! apes mo/ l m54 ,?is diff]5tiation ( ! =e & h9d] extremities 01 h[ev]1 n m]ely mo/ advantage\s = _! own developm5t & p]fect+1 b x 0 foll[$ at ! same "t by a :ole s]ies ( v important *anges 9 o!r p>ts ( ! body4 ,! :ole v]tebral column1 & m especially ! girdle ( ! pelvis & %\ld]s1 z also ! muscles belong+ to !m1 !reby exp]i5c$ ^? *anges :i* di/+ui% ! human body f t ( ! mo/ man-l apes4 ,^! transmutations 7 probably accompli%$ long be=e ! orig9 ( articulate spee*2 & ! human race ?us exi/$ = long1 ) an upright walk & ! *>act]i/ic human =m ( body connect$ ) x1 be=e ! actual developm5t ( human language1 :i* w\ld h complet$ ! second & ! m important "p ( human developm5t4 ,we may !re=e di/+ui% a special 7#ba/7 /age 9 ! s]ies ( our human ance/ors1 namely1 ,spee*less ,man 7,alalus71 or ,ape-man 7,pi!can?ropus71 ^: body 0 inde$ =m$ exactly l t ( ,man 9 all ess5tial *>act]i/ics1 b :o did n z yet possess articulate spee*4 ,! orig9 ( articulate language1 & ! high] diff]5tiation & p]fect+ ( ! l>ynx connect$ ) x1 mu/ be look$ ^u z only a lat]1 & ! mo/ important /age 9 ! process ( ! developm5t ( ,man4 ,x 01 d\btless1 ?is process :i* above all o!rs help$ to create ! deep *asm betwe5 man & animal1 & :i* also fir/ caus$ ! mo/ important progress 9 ! m5tal activity & ! p]fect+ ( ! bra9 connect$ ) x4 ,!re inde$ exi/s 9 v _m animals a language = communicat+ s5sations1 desires1 & ?\ghts1 p>tly a language ( ge/ures1 p>tly a language ( feel+ or t\*1 p>tly a language ( cries or s\nds1 b a real language ( words or ideas1 a s-call$ 8articulate0 language1 :i* by ab/raction *anges s\nds into words1 & words into s5t5ces1 belongs1 z f> z we "k1 exclusively to ,man4 ,! orig9 ( human language mu/1 m ?an any?+ else1 h _h an ennobl+ & trans=m+ influ5ce ^u ! m5tal life ( ,man1 & consequ5tly ^u 8 bra94 ,! high] diff]5tiation & p]fect+ ( ! bra9 & m5tal life z its highe/ function develop$ 9 direct correlation ) its expression by means ( spee*4 ,h5ce1 ! highe/ au?orities 9 comp>ative philology ju/ly see 9 ! developm5t ( human spee* ! mo/ important process :i* di/+ui%es ,man f 8 animal ance/ors4 ,?is has be5 especially set =? by ,augu/ ,s*lei*]1 9 8 treatise 8,on ! ,importance ( ,spee* = ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man407#cd7 ,9 ?is relation we see "o ( ! close/ connections betwe5 comp>ative zoology & comp>ative philology2 & "h ! !ory ( developm5t assigns to ! latt] ! task ( foll[+ ! orig9 ( language /ep by /ep4 ,?is task1 z int]e/+ z x is important1 has ( late ye>s be5 successfully und]tak5 by _m inquir]s1 b m especially by ,wilhelm ,bleek1 :o has be5 occupi$ = sev5te5 ye>s 9 ,s\? ,africa ) ! /udy ( ! languages ( ! l[e/ races ( m51 & h5ce has be5 enabl$ to solve ! "q4 ,augu/ ,s*lei*] m especially discusses1 9 accordance ) ! !ory ( selection1 h[ ! v>i\s =ms ( spee*1 l all o!r organic =ms & functions1 h develop$ by ! process ( natural selection1 & h divid$ into _m species & dialects4 ,i h no space "h to foll[ ! process ( ! =mation ( language1 & mu/ ref] 9 reg>d to ?is to ! above-m5tion$ important "w ( ,wilhelm ,bleek1 8,on ! ,orig9 ( ,language407#ce7 ,b we h /ill to m5tion "o ( ! mo/ important results ( comp>ative philology1 :i* is ( ! highe/ importance to ! g5ealogy ( ! human species1 t is1 t human language 0 probably ( a multiple1 or polyphyletic orig94 ,human spee*1 z su*1 did n develop probably until ! g5us ( ,spee*less or ,primval ,man1 or ,ape ,man1 _h sep>at$ into sev]al k9ds or species4 ,9 ea* ( ^! human species1 & p]haps ev5 9 ! diff]5t sub-species & v>ieties ( ?is species1 language develop$ freely & indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs4 ,at lea/ ,s*lei*]1 "o ( ! fir/ au?orities on ! subject1 ma9ta9s t 8ev5 ! beg9n+s ( language--9 s\nds z well z 9 reg>d to ideas & views :i* 7 reflect$ 9 s\nds1 & fur!r1 9 reg>d to _! capability ( developm5t--mu/ h be5 diff]5t4 ,= x is positively impossible to trace all languages to "o & ! same primval language4 ,an imp>tial inve/igation r %[s t !re are z _m primval languages z !re are races407#cd7 ,9 l mann]1 ,fri$]i* ,mll]7#da7 & o!r em95t l+ui/s assume a free & indep5d5t orig9 ( ! families ( languages & _! primval /ocks4 ,x is well kn[n1 h[ev]1 t ! b\nd>ies ( ^! tribes ( languages & _! ramifications are by no means always ! b\nd>ies ( ! diff]5t human species1 or ! s-call$ 8races10 di/+ui%$ by u on acc\nt ( _! bodily *>act]i/ics4 ,?is1 z well z ! complicat$ relations ( ! mixture ( races1 & ! v>i\s =ms ( hybrids1 is ! great difficulty ly+ 9 ! way ( trac+ ! human p$igree 9 its individual bran*es1 species1 races1 v>ieties1 etc4 ,9 spite ( ^! great & s]i\s difficulties1 we _c "h refra9 f tak+ "o m cursory glance at ! ramification ( ! human p$igree1 & at ! same "t consid]+1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! !ory ( desc5t1 ! mu* discuss$ "q ( ! monophyletic or polyphyletic orig9 ( ! human race1 & its species or races4 ,z is well kn[n1 two great p>ties h = a long "t be5 at w> ) ea* o!r ^u ?is "q2 ! monophyli/s 7or monog5i/s7 ma9ta9 ! unity ( orig9 & ! blood relation%ip ( all races ( m54 ,! polyphyli/s 7or polyg5i/s71 on ! o!r h&1 are ( op9ion t ! diff]5t races ( m5 are ( indep5d5t orig94 ,accord+ to our previ\s g5ealogical inve/igations we _c d\bt t1 at lea/ 9 a wide s5se1 ! monophyletic op9ion is ! "r "o4 ,= ev5 suppos+ t ! transmutation ( ,man-l ,apes into ,m5 _h tak5 place sev]al times1 yet ^? ,apes !mselves w\ld aga9 be alli$ by ! "o p$igree common to ! :ole ord] ( ,apes4 ,! "q !re=e w\ld always be m]ely ab\t a ne>] or remot] degree ( blood relation%ip4 ,9 a n>r[] s5se1 on ! o!r h&1 ! polyphyli/'s op9ion w\ld probably be "r1 inasmu* z ! diff]5t primval languages h develop$ q indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r4 ,h5ce1 if ! orig9 ( an articulate language is consid]$ z ! real & pr9cipal act ( humanification1 & ! species ( ! human race are di/+ui%$ accord+ to ! roots ( _! language1 x might be said t ! diff]5t races ( m5 _h orig9at$1 indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 by diff]5t bran*es ( primval1 spee*less m5 directly spr++ f apes1 & =m+ _! own primval language4 ,/ill !y w\ld ( c\rse be connect$ fur!r up or l[] d[n at _! root1 & ?us all w\ld f9ally be d]iv$ f a common primval /ock4 ,:ile we hold ! latt] ( ^! convictions1 & :ile we = _m reasons believe t ! diff]5t species ( spee*less primval m5 7 all d]iv$ f a common ape-l human =m1 we d n ( c\rse mean to say t all m5 are desc5d$ f "o pair4 ,?is latt] supposition1 :i* our mod]n ,indo-,g]manic culture has tak5 f ! ,semitic my? ( ! ,mosaic hi/ory ( creation1 is by no means t5able4 ,! :ole ( ! celebrat$ dispute1 z to :e!r ! human race is desc5d$ f a s+le pair or n1 re/s ^u a completely false way ( putt+ ! "q4 ,x is j z s5seless z ! dispute z to :e!r all sport+ dogs or all race-horses are desc5d$ f a s+le pair4 ,we might ) equal ju/ice ask :e!r all ,g]mans or all ,engli%m5 are 8desc5d$ f a s+le pair10 etc4 ,a 8fir/ human pair10 or 8a fir/ man10 has 9 fact nev] exi/$1 any m ?an !re ev] exi/$ a fir/ pair or a fir/ individual ( ,engli%m51 ,g]mans1 race-horses1 or sport+ dogs4 ,! orig9 ( a new species1 ( c\rse1 always results f an exi/+ species1 by a long *a9 ( _m diff]5t individuals %>+ ! sl[ process ( trans=mation4 ,suppos+ t we _h all ! diff]5t pairs ( ,human ,apes & ,ape-l ,m5 be=e u--:i* belong to ! true ance/ors ( ! human race--x w\ld ev5 !n be q impossible 7)\t do+ s mo/ arbitr>ily7 to call any "o ( ^! pairs ( ape-l m5 8! fir/ pair40 ,z little c we d]ive ea* ( ! twelve races or species ( m51 :i* we %all consid] directly1 f a 8fir/ pair40 ,! difficulties met ) 9 classify+ ! diff]5t races or species ( m5 are q ! same z ^? :i* we discov] 9 classify+ animal & vegetable species4 ,9 bo? cases =ms app>5tly q diff]5t are connect$ ) "o ano!r by a *a9 ( int]m$iate =ms ( transition4 ,9 bo? cases ! dispute z to :at is a k9d or a species1 :at a race or a v>iety1 c nev] be det]m9$4 ,s9ce ,blum5ba*'s "t1 z is well kn[n1 x has be5 ?\ght t mank9d may be divid$ into five races or v>ieties1 namely3 7#a7 ! ,e?iopian1 or black race 7,african negro72 7#b7 ! ,malayan1 or br[n race 7,malays1 ,polynesians1 & ,au/ralians72 7#c7 ! ,mongolian1 or yell[ race 7! pr9cipal inhabitants ( ,asia & ! ,esquimaux ( ,nor? ,am]ica72 7#d7 ! ,am]icans1 or r$ race 7! aborig9es ( ,am]ica72 & 7#e7 ! ,caucasian1 or :ite race 7,europeans1 nor? ,africans1 & s\?-we/]n ,asiatics74 ,all ( ^! five races ( m51 accord+ to ! ,jewi% leg5d ( creation1 are said to h be5 desc5d$ f 8a s+le pair0--,adam & ,eve1--& 9 accordance ) ?is are said to be v>ieties ( "o k9d or species4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we comp>e !m )\t prejudice1 !re c be no d\bt t ! diff]5ces ( ^! five races are z great & ev5 great] ?an ! 8specific diff]5ces0 by :i* zoologi/s & botani/s di/+ui% recognis$ 8good0 animal & vegetable species 78bon species074 ,! excell5t palontologi/ ,qu5/$t is "r 9 ma9ta9+ t1 8if ,negroes & ,caucasians 7 snails1 zoologi/s w\ld univ]sally agree t !y repres5t$ two v excell5t species1 :i* c\ld nev] h orig9at$ f "o pair by gradual div]g5ce40 ,! *>act]i/ics by :i* ! races ( m5 are gradually di/+ui%$ are p>tly tak5 f ! =mation ( ! hair1 p>tly f ! col\r ( ! sk91 & p>tly f ! =mation ( ! skull4 ,9 reg>d to ! la/ "*1 two extremes are di/+ui%$1 namely1 long heads & %ort heads4 ,9 long-head$ m5 7,doli*ocephali71 ^: /ronge/ developm5t is f\nd 9 ,negroes & ,au/ralians1 ! skull is ext5d$1 n>r[1 & compress$ on ! "r & left4 ,9 %ort-head$ m5 7,bra*ycephali71 on ! o!r h&1 ! skull is compress$ 9 an exactly opposite mann]1 f ! front to ! back1 is %ort & broad1 :i* is especially /rik+ 9 ! case ( ! ,mongolians4 ,m$ium-head$ m5 7,mesocephali71 /&+ betwe5 ! two extremes1 pr$om9ate especially among ,am]icans4 ,9 e "o ( ^! ?ree gr\ps we f9d m5 ) slant+ tee? 7,progna?i71 ^: jaws1 l ^? ( ! animal sn\t1 /rongly project1 & ^: front tee? !re=e slope 9 front1 & m5 ) /raight tee? 7,or?ogna?i71 ^: jaws project b little1 & ^: front tee? /& p]p5dicul>ly4 ,dur+ ! la/ t5 ye>s a great deal ( "t & tr\ble h be5 devot$ to ! c>eful exam9ation & measurem5t ( ! =ms ( skulls1 :i* h1 h[ev]1 n be5 rew>d$ by correspond+ results4 ,= )9 a s+le species1 z = example )9 ! ,m$it]ranean species1 ! =m ( ! skull may v>y s mu* t bo? extremes are met ) 9 ! same species4 ,mu* bett] />t+-po9ts = ! classification ( ! human species are furni%$ by ! nature ( ! hair & spee*1 because !y are mu* m /rictly h]$it>y ?an ! =m ( ! skull4 ,comp>ative philology seems especially to be becom+ an au?ority 9 ?is matt]4 ,9 ! late/ great "w on ! races ( m51 :i* ,fri$]i* ,mll] has publi%$ 9 8 excell5t 8,e?nography107#db7 he ju/ly places language 9 ! =e-gr\nd4 ,next to x ! nature ( ! hair ( ! head is ( great importance2 = al?\gh x is 9 itself ( c\rse only a subord9ate morphological "*1 yet x seems to be /rictly transmitt$ )9 ! race4 ,( ! twelve species ( m5 di/+ui%$ on ! foll[+ table 7p4 #cjh71 ! f\r l[] species are *>act]is$ by ! woolly nature ( ! hair ( _! heads2 e hair is flatt5$ l a tape1 & ?us its section is oval4 ,^! f\r species ( woolly-hair$ m5 7,ulotri*i7 we may r$uce into two gr\ps--tuft-hair$ & fleecy-hair$4 ,! hair on ! head ( tuft-hair$ m5 7,lophocomi71 ,papuans & ,hott5tots1 gr[s 9 unequally divid$ small tufts4 ,! woolly hair ( fleecy-hair$ m5 7,eriocomi71 on ! o!r h&1 9 ,caffres & ,negroes1 gr[s equally all ov] ! sk9 ( ! head4 ,all ,ulotri*i1 or woolly-hair$ m51 h slant+ tee? & long heads1 & ! col\r ( _! sk91 hair1 & eyes is always v d>k4 ,all are inhabitants ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e2 x is only 9 ,africa t !y come nor? ( ! equator4 ,!y are on ! :ole at a mu* l[] /age ( developm5t1 & m l apes1 ?an mo/ ( ! ,lissotri*i1 or /raight-hair$ m54 ,! ,ulotri*i are incapable ( a true inn] culture & ( a high] m5tal developm5t1 ev5 "u ! fav\rable conditions ( adaptation n[ (f]$ to !m 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,no woolly-hair$ nation has ev] _h an important 8hi/ory40 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,( ! #ab ,species ( ,m5 & _! #cf ,races4 7,comp>e ,plate ,,xv47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,species4 ,races4 ,home4 ,immigrat$ f ! ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #a4 ,papuan #a4 ,nigritos ,malacca1 ,philipp9e ,we/ ,homo ,papua ,isl&s #b4 ,new ,gu9ea m5 ,new ,gu9ea ,we/ #b4 ,hott5tot #c4 ,melanesians ,melanesia ,nor?-we/ ,homo #d4 ,tasmanians ,van ,diem5's ,l& ,nor?-ea/ ,hott5tottus #e4 ,hott5tots ,! ,cape ,nor?-ea/ #f4 ,bu%m5 ,! ,cape ,nor?-ea/ #c4 ,kaffre #g4 ,zulu ,kaffres ,ea/]n ,s\? ,africa ,nor? ,homo ,caf] #h4 ,bes*uanas ,c5tral ,s\? ,africa ,nor?-ea/ #i4 ,congo ,kaffres ,we/]n ,s\? ,africa ,ea/ #d4 ,negro #aj4 ,tibu negroes ,tibu di/rict ,s\?-ea/ ,homo ,nig] #aa4 ,s\dan negroes ,s\dan ,ea/ #ab4 ,s5egambians ,s5egambia ,ea/ #ac4 ,nigritians ,nigritia ,ea/ 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #e4 ,au/ralian #ad4 ,nor? ,au/ralians ,nor? ,au/ralia ,nor? ,h4 ,au/ralis #ae4 ,s\? ,au/ralians ,s\? ,au/ralia ,nor? #f4 ,malay #af4 ,sundanesians ,sunda ,ar*ipelago ,we/ ,homo ,malayus #ag4 ,polynesians ,pacific ,ar*ipelago ,we/ #ah4 ,natives ( ,madagasc> ,madagasc> ,ea/ #g4 ,mongolian #ai4 ,indo-,*9ese ,tibet1 ,*9a ,s\? ,homo #bj4 ,coreo-,japanese ,corea1 ,japan ,s\?-we/ ,mongolus #ba4 ,altaians ,c5tral ,asia1 ,nor? ,asia ,s\? #bb4 ,uralians ,nor?-we/]n ,asia1 ,s\?-ea/ ,nor!rn ,europe1 ,hung>y #h4 ,arctic ,m5 #bc4 ,hyp]boreans ,extreme ,n4,e4 ( ,asia ,s\?-we/ ,homo ,arcticus #bd4 ,esquimaux ,! extreme nor? ( ,we/ ,am]ica #i4 ,am]ican #be4 ,nor? ,am]icans ,nor? ,am]ica ,nor?-we/ ,homo #bf4 ,c5tral ,am]icans ,c5tral ,am]ica ,nor? ,am]icanus #bg4 ,s\? ,am]icans ,s\? ,am]ica ,nor? #bh4 ,patagonians ,! extreme s\? ( ,nor? ,s\? ,am]ica #aj4 ,dravidas #bi4 ,deccans ,h9do/an ,ea/8 ,homo ,dravida #cj4 ,s+alese ,ceylon ,nor?8 #aa4 ,nubian #ca4 ,dongolese ,nubia ,ea/ ,homo ,nuba #cb4 ,fulatians ,fulu-l& 7,c5tral ,ea/ ,africa7 #ab4 #cc4 ,caucasians ,caucasus ,s\?-ea/ ,m$it]ranese #cd4 ,basque ,extreme nor? ( ,spa9 ,s\?8 ,homo #ce4 ,semites ,arabia1 ,nor? ,africa1 etc4 ,ea/ ,m$it]raneus #cf4 ,indo-g]manic ,s\?-we/]n ,asia1 ,s\?-ea/ tribes ,europe1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,indo-,g]manians #i4 ,am]icans ,semites ,magy>s ,caucasians ,esquimaux ,basques ,f9s ---v---_/ ----v----_/ ,hyp]boreans #h4 ,arctic ,m5 ,samoides ,t>t>s -------v-------_/ ---v----_/ #ab4 ,m$it]ranese ,calmucks ,s+alese ,tungusians ,fulatians ,deccans --------v---------_/ ---v---_/ #aj4 ,dravidas ,dongolese ,altaians ,uralians #aa4 ,nubians ,japanese --------v---------_/ -------v--------_/ ,ural-,altaians ,euplocomi ,*9ese ,coreans ,siamese ,madagasc>s ,tibet ,polynesians #d4 ,negroes #c4 ,kaffres ,coreo-,japanese ---v----_/ -----v-----_/ ,indo-,*9ese ,sundanesians ---v-----_/ ,eriocomi -----------v-------------_/ #f4 ,malays #g4 ,mongols -------v-------------------------------- -----_/ ,promalays #b4 ,hott5tots #a4 ,papuans #e4 ,au/ralians ----v---_/ -----v-----_/ ,lophocomi ,eu?ycomi ---------v---------_/ ,woolly-hair$ ,/raight-hair$ ,ulotri*i ,lissotri*i --------------v-----------------_/ ,primval ,m5 ,9 ! eight high] races ( m51 :i* we comprise z /raight-hair$ 7,lissotri*i71 ! hair ( ! head is nev] actually woolly1 al?\gh x is v mu* frizzl$ 9 "s individuals4 ,e sep>ate hair is cyl9drical 7n l a tape71 & h5ce its section is circul> 7n oval74 ,! eight races ( ,lissotri*i may likewise be divid$ into two gr\ps--/iff-hair$ & curly-hair$4 ,/iff-hair$ m5 7,eu?ycomi71 ! hair ( ^: heads is q smoo? & /raight1 & n frizzl$1 include ,au/ralians1 ,malays1 ,mongolians1 ,arctic tribes1 & ,am]icans4 ,curly-hair$ m51 on ! o!r h&1 ! hair ( ^: heads is m or less curly1 & 9 :om ! be>d is m develop$ ?an 9 all o!r species1 include ! ,dravidas1 ,nubians1 & ,m$it]ranean races4 7,comp>e ,plate ,,xv47 ,n[1 be=e we v5ture ^u ! attempt hypo!tically to expla9 ! phyletic div]g5ce ( mank9d1 & ! g5ealogical connection ( its diff]5t species1 we w premise a %ort description ( ! twelve nam$ species & ( _! di/ribution4 ,9 ord] cle>ly to survey _! geographical di/ribution1 we mu/ g back "s ?ree or f\r c5turies1 to ! "t :5 ! ,indian ,isl&s & ,am]ica 7 fir/ discov]$1 & :5 ! pres5t great m+l+ ( species1 & m especially ! influx ( ! ,indo-,g]manic race1 _h z yet n made great progress4 ,we beg9 ) ! l[e/ /ages1 ) ! woolly-hair$ m5 7,ulotri*i71 all ( :om are progna?ic ,doli*ocephali4 ,! ,papuan 7,homo ,papua71 ( all ! /ill liv+ human species1 is p]haps mo/ closely relat$ to ! orig9al prim>y =m ( woolly-hair$ m54 ,?is species n[ inhabits only ! l>ge isl& ( ,new ,gu9ea & ! ,ar*ipelago ( ,melanesia ly+ to ! ea/ ( x 7,solomon's ,isl&s1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ! ,new ,hebrides1 etc474 ,b scatt]$ remnants ( x are also /ill f\nd 9 ! int]ior ( ! p59sula ( ,malacca1 & likewise 9 _m o!r isl&s ( ! l>ge ,pacific ,ar*ipelago2 mo/ly 9 ! inaccessible m\nta9\s p>ts ( ! int]ior1 & especially 9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4 ,! b lately ext9ct ,tasmanians1 or ! natives ( ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 belong$ to ?is gr\p4 ,f ^! & o!r circum/ances x is cle> t ! ,papuans 9 =m] times possess$ a mu* l>g] area ( di/ribution 9 s\?-ea/]n ,asia4 ,!y 7 driv5 out by ! ,malays & =c$ ea/w>ds4 ,! sk9 ( all ,papuans is ( a black col\r1 sometimes m incl9+ to br[n1 sometimes m to blue4 ,_! woolly hair gr[s 9 tufts1 is spirally twi/$ 9 screws1 & (t5 m ?an a foot 9 l5g?1 s t x =ms a /rong woolly wig1 :i* /&s f> out f ! head4 ,_! face1 bel[ ! n>r[ depress$ =ehead1 has a l>ge turn$-up nose & ?ick protrud+ lips4 ,! peculi> =m ( _! hair & spee* s ess5tially di/+ui%es ! ,papuans f _! /raight-hair$ neighb\rs1 f ! ,malays z well z f ! ,au/ralians1 t !y mu/ be reg>d$ z an entirely di/9ct species4 ,closely relat$ to ! ,papuans by ! tuft$ gr[? ( hair1 b geographically widely sep>at$ f !m1 are ! ,hott5tots 7,homo ,hott5tottus74 ,!y inhabit exclusively ! s\!rnmo/ "p ( ,africa1 ! ,cape & ! adjac5t p>ts1 & h immigrat$ !re f ! nor?-ea/4 ,! ,hott5tots1 l _! orig9al k9sm5 ! ,papuans1 occupi$ 9 =m] times a mu* l>g] area 7probably ! :ole ( ,ea/]n ,africa71 & are n[ approa*+ _! ext9ction4 ,besides ! g5u9e ,hott5tots--( :om !re n[ exi/ only ! two tribes ( ! ,coraca 79 ! ea/]n ,cape di/ricts7 & ! ,namaca 79 ! we/]n portion ( ! ,cape7--?is species also includes ! ,bu%m5 79 ! m\nta9\s int]ior ( ! ,cape74 ,! woolly hair ( all ,hott5tots gr[s 9 tufts1 l bru%es1 z 9 ! case ( ,papuans4 ,bo? species also agree 9 ! po/]ior "p ( ! body1 9 ! female sex be+ specially incl9$ to =m a great accumulation ( fat 7,/eatopygia74 ,b ! sk9 ( ,hott5tots is mu* light]1 ( a yell[i% br[n col\r4 ,_! v flat face is rem>kable = its small =ehead & nose1 & l>ge no/rils4 ,! m\? is v broad ) big lips1 ! *9 small & po9t$4 ,_! spee* is *>act]is$ by sev]al q peculi> guttural s\nds4 ,! next neighb\rs & k9sm5 ( ,hott5tots are ,kaffres 7,homo ,caf]74 ,?is woolly-hair$ human species is1 h[ev]1 di/+ui%$1 l ! foll[+ "o 7! g5u9e ,negro71 f ,hott5tots & ,papuans by ! woolly hair n be+ divid$ into tufts1 b cov]+ ! head z a ?ick fleece4 ,! col\r ( _! sk9 v>ies ?r\gh all %ades1 f ! yell[i% black ( ! ,hott5tot to ! br[n black or pure black ( ! g5u9e ,negro4 ,:ile 9 =m] times ! race ( ,kaffres 0 assign$ to a v small area ( di/ribution1 & 0 g5]ally look$ ^u only z a v>iety ( ! g5u9e ,negro1 ?is species is n[ consid]$ to include almo/ ! :ole ( ! inhabitants ( equatorial ,africa1 f ! #bj? degree s\? latitude to ! #d? degree nor?2 consequ5tly1 all ,s\? ,africans1 ) ! exception ( ! ,hott5tots4 ,!y include especially ! inhabitants ( ! ,zulu1 ,zambesi1 & ,mozambique di/ricts on ! ea/ coa/1 ! l>ge human families ( ! ,bes*uans or ,sets*uans 9 ! int]ior1 & ! ,h]r]o & ,congo tribes ( ! we/ coa/4 ,!y too1 l ! ,hott5tots1 h immigrat$ f ! nor?-ea/4 ,kaffres1 :o 7 usually class$ ) ,negroes1 diff] v ess5tially f !m by ! =mation ( _! skull & by _! spee*4 ,_! face is long & n>r[1 _! =ehead high1 & _! nose prom95t & frequ5tly curv$1 _! lips n s protrud+1 & _! *9 po9t$4 ,! _m languages ( ! diff]5t tribes ( ,kaffres c all be d]iv$ f an ext9ct primval language1 namely1 f ! ,bantu language4 ,! g5u9e ,negro 7,homo ,nig]7--:5 ,kaffres1 ,hott5tots1 & ,nubians are sep>at$ f him--at pres5t =ms a mu* less compreh5sive human species ?an 0 =m]ly suppos$4 ,!y n[ only include ! ,tibus1 9 ! ea/]n p>ts ( ! ,sah>a2 ! ,sudan p1 or ,sudians1 :o inhabit ! s\? ( t l>ge des]t2 also ! inhabitants ( ! ,we/]n ,coa/ ( ,africa1 f ! m\? ( ! ,s5egal 9 ! nor?1 to beyond ! e/u>y ( ! ,nig] 9 ! s\? 7,s5egambians & ,nigritians74 ,g5u9e ,negroes are accord+ly conf9$ betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,capricorn1 & only a small portion ( ! ,tibu tribe 9 ! ea/ h gone beyond ?is b\nd>y4 ,! ,negro species has spread )9 ?is zone1 com+ f ! ea/4 ,! col\r ( ! sk9 ( g5u9e negroes is always m or less ( a pure black4 ,_! sk9 is velvety to ! t\*1 & *>act]is$ by a peculi> (f5sive exhalation4 ,al?\gh ,negroes agree ) ,kaffres 9 ! =mation ( ! woolly hair ( ! head1 yet !y diff] ess5tially 9 ! =mation ( _! face4 ,_! =ehead is flatt] & l[]1 _! nose broad & ?ick1 n prom95t1 _! lips l>ge & protrud+1 & _! *9 v %ort4 ,g5u9e ,negroes are moreov] di/+ui%$ by v ?9 calves & v long arms4 ,?is species ( m5 mu/ h bran*$ into _m sep>ate tribes at a v e>ly p]iod1 = _! num]\s & entirely di/9ct languages c 9 no way be trac$ to "o primval language4 ,to ! f\r woolly-hair$ species ( m5 j discuss$1 /raight-hair$ m5 7,hom9es ,lissotri*i7 /& 9 /rong contra/1 z ano!r ma9 bran* ( ! g5us4 ,five ( ! eight species ( ! latt]1 z we h se51 c be compris$ z /iff-hair$ 7,eu?ycomi7 & ?ree z curly-hair$ 7,euplocomi74 ,we %all 9 ! fir/ place consid] ! =m]1 :i* includes ! primval inhabitants ( ! great] "p ( ,asia & ! :ole ( ,am]ica4 ,! l[e/ /age ( all /raight-hair$ m51 & on ! :ole p]haps ( all ! /ill liv+ human species1 is occupi$ by ! ,au/ralian1 or ,au/ral-negro 7,homo ,au/ralis74 ,?is species seems to be exclusively conf9$ to ! l>ge isl& ( ,au/ralia2 x resembles ! g5u9e ,african ,negro by its black or br[ni% black hair1 & ! (f5sive smell ( ! sk91 by its v slant+ tee? & long-head$ =m ( skull1 ! rec$+ =ehead1 broad nose1 protrud+ lips1 & also by ! entire abs5ce ( calves4 ,on ! o!r h& ,au/ralians diff] f g5u9e ,negroes z well z f _! ne>e/ neighb\rs ! ,papuans1 by ! mu* weak] & m delicate /ructure ( _! bones1 & m especially by ! =mation ( ! hair ( _! heads1 :i* is n woolly & frizzl$1 b ei!r q lank or only slightly curl$4 ,! v l[ /age ( bodily & m5tal developm5t ( ! ,au/ralian is p]haps n altoge!r orig9al1 b has aris5 by deg5]ation1 t is1 by adaptation to ! v unfav\rable conditions ( exi/5ce 9 ,au/ralia4 ,!y probably immigrat$ to _! pres5t home f ! nor? or nor?-we/1 z a v e>ly (f%oot ( ! ,eu?ycomi4 ,!y are probably m closely relat$ to ! ,dravidas1 & h5ce to ! ,euplocomi1 ?an ! o!r ,eu?ycomi4 ,! v peculi> language ( ! ,au/ralians is brok5 up into num]\s small bran*es1 :i* are gr\p$ into a nor!rn & a s\!rn class4 ,! ,malay 7,homo ,malayus71 ! br[n race ( e?nograph]s1 al?\gh n a l>ge species1 is important 9 reg>d to its g5ealogy4 ,an ext9ct s\? ,asiatic human species1 v closely relat$ to ! ,malays ( ! pres5t day1 mu/ probably be look$ ^u z ! common prim>y =m ( ?is & ! foll[+ high] human species4 ,we w call ?is hypo!tical prim>y species1 ,primval ,malays1 or ,promalays4 ,! ,malays ( ! pres5t day are divid$ into two widely disp]s$ races1 ! ,sundanesians1 :o inhabit ,malacca1 ! ,sunda ,isl&s 7,sumatra1 ,java1 ,borneo1 etc47 & ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 & ! ,polynesians1 :o are disp]s$ ov] ! great] portion ( ! ,pacific ,ar*ipelago4 ,! nor!rn b\nd>y ( _! wide tract ( di/ribution is =m$ on ! ea/ by ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s 7,hawai71 & on ! we/ by ! ,m>ian ,isl&s 7,ladrones72 ! s\!rn b\nd>y on ! ea/ is =m$ by ! ,mang>eva ,ar*ipelago1 & on ! we/ by ,new ,zeal&4 ,! inhabitants ( ,madagasc> are an especial bran* ( ,sundanesians :o h be5 driv5 to ! f> we/4 ,?is wide pelagic di/ribution ( ! ,malays is expla9$ by _! p>tiality = nautical life4 ,_! primval home is ! s\?-ea/]n portion ( ! ,asiatic cont95t1 f :5ce !y spread to ! ea/ & s\?1 & drove ! ,papuans be=e !m4 ,! ,malays1 9 ! =mation ( body1 are ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,mongols1 b are also ne>ly alli$ to ! curly-hair$ ,m$it]ranese4 ,!y are g5]ally %ort-head$1 m r>ely m$ium-head$1 & v r>ely long-head$4 ,_! hair is black & /iff1 b frequ5tly some:at curl$4 ,! col\r ( _! sk9 is br[n1 sometimes yell[i%1 or ( a c9namon col\r1 sometimes r$di% or copp] br[n1 m r>ely d>k br[n4 ,9 reg>d to ! =mation ( face1 ,malays 9 a great measure =m an int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! ,mongols & ! ,m$it]ranese2 !y c frequ5tly n be di/+ui%$ f ! latt]4 ,_! face is g5]ally broad1 ) prom95t nose & ?ick lips1 ! op5+ = _! eyes n s n>r[ly cut & slant+ z 9 ,mongols4 ,! ne> relation%ip betwe5 all ,malays & ,polynesians is prov$ by _! language1 :i* inde$ broke up at an e>ly p]iod into _m small bran*es1 b /ill c always be trac$ to a common & q peculi> primval language4 ,! ,mongol 7,homo ,mongolus7 is1 next to ! ,m$it]ranese1 ! ri*e/ 9 individuals4 ,among !m are all ! inhabitants ( ! ,asiatic ,cont95t1 except+ ! ,hyp]boreans 9 ! nor?1 ! few ,malays 9 ! s\?-ea/ 7,malacca71 ! ,dravidas 9 ,we/]n ,india1 & ! ,m$it]ranese 9 ! s\?-we/4 ,9 ,europe ?is species ( m5 is repres5t$ by ! ,f9s & ,lapps 9 ! nor?1 by ! ,osmanlis 9 ,turkey1 & ! ,magy>s 9 ,hung>y4 ,! col\r ( ! ,mongol is always di/+ui%$ by a yell[ tone1 sometimes a light pea gre51 or ev5 :ite1 sometimes a d>k] br[ni% yell[4 ,_! hair is always /iff & black4 ,! =m ( _! skull is1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 decid$ly %ort 7especially 9 ,kalmucks1 ,bas*kirs1 etc47 b frequ5tly ( m$ium l5g? 7,t>t>s1 ,*9ese1 etc47 ,b among !m we nev] meet ) g5u9e long-head$ m54 ,! n>r[ op5+s ( _! eyes1 :i* are g5]ally slant+1 _! prom95t *eek bones1 broad noses1 & ?ick lips are v /rik+1 z well z ! r\nd =m ( _! faces4 ,! language ( ! ,mongols is probably traceable to a common primval language2 b ! monosyllabic languages ( ! ,indo-,*9ese races1 & ! polysyllabic languages ( ! o!r ,mongol races1 /& 9 contra/ z two ma9 bran*es :i* sep>at$ at an e>ly "t4 ,! monosyllabic tribes ( ! ,indo-,*9ese include ! ,tibetans1 ,birmans1 ,siamese1 & ,*9ese4 ,! o!r polysyllabic ,mongols are divid$ into ?ree races1 namely3 7#a7 ! ,coreo-,japanese 7,coreans & ,japanese72 7#b7 ! ,altaians 7,t>t>s1 ,kirgises1 ,kalmucks1 ,buriats1 ,tungusians72 & 7#c7 ! ,uralians 7,samoi$es1 ,f9s74 ,! ,magy>s ( ,hung>y are desc5d$ f ! ,f9s4 ,! ,pol> m5 7,homo ,arcticus7 mu/ be look$ ^u z a bran* ( ! ,mongolian human species4 ,we comprise "u ?is "n ! inhabitants ( ! ,arctic ,pol> l&s ( bo? hemisph]es1 ! ,esquimaux 7& ,gre5l&]s7 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ! ,hyp]boreans 9 nor?-ea/]n ,asia 7,jukagirs1 ,ts*uks*es1 ,kuriaks1 & ,kamts*ads74 ,by adaptation to ! ,pol> climate1 ?is human race has become s peculi>ly trans=m$ t x may be consid]$ z a di/9ct species4 ,_! /ature is l[ & ( a squ>e build2 ! =mation ( _! skull ( m$ium size or ev5 long2 _! eyes n>r[ & slant+ l ! ,mongols2 _! *eek-bones prom95t1 & _! m\? wide4 ,_! hair is /iff & black2 ! col\r ( _! sk9 is ( a light or d>k br[n t+e1 sometimes m incl9$ to :ite or to yell[1 l t ( ! ,mongols1 sometimes m to r$1 l t ( ! ,am]icans4 ,! languages ( ,pol> m5 are z yet little kn[n1 b !y diff] bo? f ! ,mongolian & f ! ,am]ican4 ,pol> m5 mu/ probably be reg>d$ z a remnant & a peculi>ly adapt$ bran* ( t tribe ( ,mongols :i* emigrat$ f nor?-ea/]n ,asia to ,nor? ,am]ica1 & populat$ t "p ( ! e>?4 ,at ! "t ( ! discov]y ( ,am]ica1 t "p ( ! e>? 0 peopl$ 7sett+ aside ! ,esquimaux7 only by a s+le human species1 namely1 by ! ,r$sk9s1 or ,am]icans 7,homo ,am]icanus74 ,( all o!r human species !y are mo/ closely relat$ to ! two prec$+4 ,! =m ( _! skull is g5]ally a m$ium "o1 r>ely %ort or long-head$4 ,_! =ehead broad & v l[2 _! nose l>ge1 prom95t1 & frequ5tly aquil9e2 _! *eek-bones prom95t2 _! lips r ?9 ?an ?ick4 ,! col\r ( _! sk9 is *>act]is$ by a r$ fundam5tal t9t1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 sometimes pure copp]-r$1 or light r$1 sometimes a deep] r$di% br[n1 yell[ br[n or olive br[n4 ,! num]\s languages ( ! v>i\s ,am]ican races & tribes are extremely diff]5t1 yet !y agree 9 _! orig9al f\ndation4 ,probably ,am]ica 0 fir/ peopl$ f nor?-ea/]n ,asia by ! same tribe ( ,mongols f :om ! ,pol> m5 7,hyp]boreans & ,esquimaux7 h also bran*$4 ,?is tribe fir/ spread 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & f !nce migrat$ ov] ! i/hmus ( ,c5tral ,am]ica d[n to ,s\? ,am]ica1 at ! extreme s\? ( :i* ! species deg5]at$ v mu* by adaptation to ! v unfav\rable conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,b x is also possible t ,mongols & ,polynesians immigrat$ f ! we/ & mix$ ) ! =m] tribe4 ,9 any case ! aborig9es ( ,am]ica came ov] f ! ,old ,_w1 & did n1 z "s suppose1 9 any way orig9ate out ( ,am]ican apes4 ,cat>rh9i1 or ,n>r[-nos$ ,apes1 nev] at any p]iod exi/$ 9 ,am]ica4 ,! ?ree human species /ill to be consid]$--! ,dravidas1 ,nubians1 & ,m$it]ranese--agree 9 sev]al *>act]i/ics :i* seem to e/abli% a close relation%ip betwe5 !m1 & di/+ui% !m f ! prec$+ species4 ,! *ief ( ^! *>act]i/ics is ! /rong developm5t ( ! be>d1 :i* 9 all o!r species is ei!r entirely want+ or b v scanty4 ,! hair ( _! heads is g5]ally n s lank & smoo? z 9 ! five prec$+ species1 b 9 mo/ cases m or less curly4 ,o!r *>act]i/ics also seem to fav\r our class+ !m 9 "o ma9 gr\p ( curly-hair$ m5 7,euplocomi74 ,! ,dravida man 7,homo ,dravida7 seems to /& v ne> ! common prim>y =m ( ! ,euplocomi1 & p]haps ( ,lissotri*i4 ,at pres5t ?is primval species is only repres5t$ by ! ,deccan tribes 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,h9do/an1 & by ! neighb\r+ inhabitants ( ! m\nta9s on ! nor?-ea/ ( ,ceylon4 ,b 9 e>li] times ?is race seems to h occupi$ ! :ole ( ,h9do/an1 & to h spread ev5 fur!r4 ,x %[s1 on ! "o h&1 traits ( relation%ip to ! ,au/ralians & ,malays2 on ! o!r1 to ! ,mongols & ,m$it]ranese4 ,_! sk9 is ei!r ( a light or d>k br[n col\r2 9 "s tribes1 ( a yell[i% br[n1 9 o!rs1 almo/ black br[n4 ,! hair ( _! heads1 z 9 ,m$it]ranese1 is m or less curl$1 nei!r q smoo?1 l t ( ! ,eu?ycomi1 nor actually woolly1 l t ( ! ,ulotri*i4 ,! /rong developm5t ( ! be>d is also l t ( ! ,m$it]ranese4 ,! oval =m ( face seems p>tly to be ak9 to t ( ! ,malays1 p>tly to t ( ! ,m$it]ranese4 ,_! =ehead is g5]ally high1 _! nose prom95t & n>r[1 _! lips slightly protrud+4 ,_! language is n[ v mu* mix$ ) ,indo-,g]manic elem5ts1 b seems to h be5 orig9ally d]iv$ f a v peculi> primval language4 ,! ,nubian 7,homo ,nuba7 has caus$ e?nograph]s no few] difficulties ?an ! ,dravida species4 ,by ?is "n we und]/& n m]ely ! real ,nubians 7,s*angallas1 or ,dongolese71 b also _! ne> k9sm51 ! ,fulas1 or ,fellatas4 ,! real ,nubians inhabit ! c\ntries ( ! ,upp] ,nile 7,dongola1 ,s*angalla1 ,b>abra1 ,cord(an72 ! ,fulas1 or ,fellatas1 on ! o!r h&1 h !nce migrat$ f> we/w>d1 & n[ inhabit a broad tract 9 ! s\? ( ! we/]n ,sah>a1 hemm$ 9 betwe5 ! ,s\danians 9 ! nor? & ! ,nigritos 9 ! s\?4 ,! ,nubian & ,fula races are g5]ally ei!r class$ ) negroes or ) ! ,hamitic races 7?us ) ,m$it]ranese71 b are s ess5tially diff]5t f bo? t !y mu/ be reg>d$ z a di/9ct species4 ,9 =m] times !y v probably occupi$ a l>ge "p ( nor?-ea/]n ,africa4 ,! sk9 ( ! ,nubian & ,fula races is ( a yell[i% or r$di% br[n col\r1 m r>ely d>k br[n or approa*+ to black4 ,_! hair is n woolly b curl$1 frequ5tly ev5 q smoo?2 its col\r is d>k br[n or black4 ,_! be>d is mu* m /rongly develop$ ?an 9 negroes4 ,! oval =mation ( _! faces approa*es m to ! ,m$it]ranean ?an to ! ,negro type4 ,_! =ehead is high & broad1 _! nose prom95t & n flat1 _! lips n s protrud+ z 9 ! negro4 ,! language ( ! ,nubian races seems to possess no relation%ip to ^? ( g5u9e negroes4 ,! ,caucasian1 or ,m$it]ranean man 7,homo ,m$it]raneus71 has f "t immemorial be5 plac$ at ! head ( all races ( m51 z ! mo/ highly develop$ & p]fect4 ,x is g5]ally call$ ! ,caucasian race1 b z among all ! v>ieties ( ! species1 ! ,caucasian bran* is ! lea/ important1 we pref] ! mu* m suitable appellation propos$ by ,fri$ri* ,mll]1 namely1 t ( ,m$it]ranean1 or ,midl& m54 ,= ! mo/ important v>ieties ( ?is species1 :i* are moreov] ! mo/ em95t actors 9 :at is call$ 8,univ]sal ,hi/ory10 fir/ rose to a fl\ri%+ condition on ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! =m] area ( ! di/ribution ( ?is species is express$ by ! "n ( 8,indo-,atlantic0 species1 :]eas at pres5t x is spread ov] ! :ole e>?1 & is ov]com+ mo/ ( ! o!r species 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,9 bodily z well z 9 m5tal qualities1 no o!r human species c equal ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,?is species alone 7) ! exception ( ! ,mongolian7 has _h an actual hi/ory2 x alone has atta9$ to t degree ( civilization :i* seems to raise man above ! re/ ( nature4 ,! *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% ! ,m$it]ranean f ! o!r species ( ! race are well kn[n4 ,! *ief ( ! ext]nal features is ! light col\r ( ! sk91 :i* h[ev] exhibits all %ades1 f pure :ite or r$di% :ite1 ?r\gh yell[ or yell[i% br[n to d>k br[n or ev5 black br[n4 ,! gr[? ( ! hair is g5]ally /rong1 ! hair ( ! head m or less curly1 ! hair ( ! be>d /rong] ?an 9 any ( ! o!r species4 ,! =m ( ! skull %[s a great developm5t 9 bread?2 m$ium heads pr$om9ate ^u ! :ole1 b long & %ort heads are also widely di/ribut$4 ,x is only 9 ?is "o species ( m5 t ! body z a :ole atta9s t symmetry 9 all p>ts1 & t equal developm5t1 :i* we call ! type ( p]fect human beauty4 ,! languages ( all ! races ( ?is species c by no means be trac$ to a s+le common primval language2 we mu/ at lea/ assume f\r radically diff]5t primval languages4 ,9 accordance ) ?is we mu/ also assume )9 ?is "o species f\r diff]5t races1 :i* are only connect$ at _! root4 ,two ( ^! races1 ! ,basques & ,caucasians1 n[ exi/ only z small remnants4 ,! ,basques1 :i* 9 e>li] times peopl$ ! :ole ( ,spa9 & ! s\? ( ,france1 n[ inhabit b a n>r[ tract ( l& on ! nor!rn coa/ ( ,spa91 on ! ,bay ( ,biscay4 ,! remnant ( ! ,caucasian race 7! ,daghe/ans1 ,ts*]cassians1 ,m+relians1 & ,georgians7 are n[ conf9$ to ! di/ricts ( ,m\nt ,caucasus4 ,! language ( ! ,caucasians z well z t ( ! ,basques is entirely peculi>1 & c be trac$ nei!r to ! ,semitic nor to ! ,indo-,g]manic primval languages4 ,ev5 ! languages ( ! two pr9cipal races ( ! ,m$it]ranean species--! ,semitic & ,indo-,g]manic--_c be trac$ to a common orig91 & consequ5tly ^! two races mu/ h sep>at$ at a v e>ly p]iod4 ,semites & ,indo-,g]mani are desc5d$ f diff]5t ape-l m54 ,! ,semitic race likewise sep>at$ at a v e>ly p]iod into two div]g+ bran*es1 namely1 into ! ,egyptian & ,arabic bran*es4 ,! ,egyptian1 or ,african bran*1 ! ,dyssemites--:i* sometimes "u ! "n ( ,hamites are entirely sep>at$ f ! ,semites--embraces ! l>ge gr\p ( ,b]b]s1 :o occupy ! :ole ( nor? ,africa1 & 9 e>li] times also peopl$ ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 &1 f9ally1 also ! gr\p ( ! ,e?iopians1 ! ,b$%a1 ,galla1 ,danakil1 ,somali1 & o!r tribes :i* occupy all ! nor?-ea/]n %ores ( ,africa z f> z ! equator4 ,! ,arabic1 or ,asiatic bran*1 t is1 ! ,eusemites1 also call$ ,semites 9 a n>r[ s5se1 embrace ! inhabitants ( ! l>ge ,arabian p59sula1 ! primval family ( g5u9e ,arabians 78primval type ( ! ,semites071 & also ! mo/ highly develop$ ,semitic gr\ps1 ! ,jews1 or ,hebrews1 & ! ,aramans--! ,syrians & ,*aldans4 ,a colony ( ! s\!rn ,arabs 7! ,himj>ites71 :i* cross$ ! ,/raits ( ,bab-el-,m&eb1 has peopl$ ,abyss9ia4 ,la/ly1 ! ,indo-,g]manic race1 :i* has f> surpass$ all ! o!r races ( m5 9 m5tal developm5t1 sep>at$ at a v e>ly p]iod1 l ! ,semitic1 into two div]g+ bran*es1 ! ,ario-,romaic & ! ,slavo-,g]manic bran*es4 ,out ( ! =m] arose on ! "o h& ! ,arians 7,indians & ,iranians71 on ! o!r ! ,grco-,roman 7,greeks & ,albanians1 ,italians & ,kelts74 ,out ( ! ,slavo-,g]manic bran* 7 develop$ on ! "o h& ! ,slavonians 7,russian1 ,bulg>ian1 ,t*ec1 & ,baltic tribes71 on ! o!r ! ,g]mani 7,sc&9avians & ,g]mans1 ,ne!rl&]s & ,anglo-,saxons74 ,augu/ ,s*lei*] has expla9$1 9 a v cle> g5ealogical =m1 h[ ! fur!r ramifications ( ! ,indo-,g]manic race may be accurately trac$ 9 detail on ! basis ( comp>ative philology47#f7 7,comp>e p4 #cca47 ,! total numb] ( human individuals at pres5t am\nts to betwe5 #a1cjj & #a1djj millions4 ,9 our ,tabul> ,survey 7p4 #ccc7 #a1cej millions has be5 assum$ z ! mean numb]4 ,accord+ to an approximate e/imate1 z f> z su* a ?+ is possible1 #a1bjj millions ( ^! are /raight-hair$ m51 only ab\t #aej millions woolly-hair$4 ,! mo/ highly develop$ species1 ,mongols & ,m$it]ranese1 f> surpass all ! o!r human species 9 numb]s ( individuals1 = ea* ( !m alone comprises ab\t #eej millions4 7,comp>e ,fri$]i* ,mll]'s ,e?nography1 p4 #cj47 ,( c\rse ! relative numb] ( ! twelve species fluctuates e ye>1 & t too accord+ to ! law develop$ by ,d>w91 t 9 ! /ruggle = life ! m highly develop$1 ! m fav\r$ & l>g] gr\ps ( =ms1 possess ! positive incl9ation & ! c]ta9 t5d5cy to spread m & m at ! exp5se ( ! l[]1 m backw>d1 & small] gr\ps4 ,?us ! ,m$it]ranean species1 & )9 x ! ,indo-,g]manic1 h by means ( ! high] developm5t ( _! bra9 surpass$ all ! o!r races & species 9 ! /ruggle = life1 & h already spread ! net ( _! dom9ion ov] ! :ole globe4 ,x is only ! ,mongolian species :i* c at all successfully1 at lea/ 9 c]ta9 respects1 compete ) ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,)9 ! tropical regions1 ,negroes1 ,kaffres1 & ,nubians1 z also ! ,malays & ,dravidas1 are 9 "s measure protect$ aga9/ ! encroa*m5ts ( ! ,indo-,g]manic tribes by _! be+ bett] adapt$ = a hot climate2 ! case ( ! arctic tribes ( ! pol> regions is simil>4 ,b ! o!r races1 :i* z x is are v mu* dim9i%$ 9 numb]1 w soon] or lat] completely succumb 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce to ! sup]iority ( ! ,m$it]ranean races4 ,! ,am]ican & ,au/ralian tribes are ev5 n[ fa/ approa*+ _! complete ext9ction1 & ! same may be said ( ! ,papuans & ,hott5tots4 ,9 n[ turn+ to ! equally int]e/+ & difficult "q ( ! relative connection1 migration1 & primval home ( ! twelve species ( m51 ,i mu/ premise ! rem>k t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our an?ropological k1 any answ] to ?is "q mu/ be reg>d$ only z a provisional hypo!sis4 ,?is is mu* ! same z ) any g5ealogical hypo!sis :i* we may =m ( ! orig9 ( k9dr$ animal & vegetable species1 on ! basis ( ! 8,natural ,sy/em40 ,b ! necess>y unc]ta9ty ( ^! special hypo!ses ( desc5t1 9 no way %akes ! absolute c]ta9ty ( ! g5]al !ory ( desc5t4 ,man1 we may feel c]ta91 is desc5d$ f ,cat>rh9i1 or n>r[-nos$ apes1 :e!r we agree ) ! polyphylites1 & suppose ea* human species1 9 its primval home1 to h orig9at$ out ( a special k9d ( ape2 or :e!r1 agree+ ) ! monophylites1 we suppose t all ! human species arose only by diff]5tiation f a s+le species ( primval man 7,homo primig5ius74 ,= _m & weighty reasons we hold ! monophyletic hypo!sis to be ! m correct1 & we !re=e assume a s+le primval home = mank9d1 :]e he develop$ out ( a long s9ce ext9ct an?ropoid species ( ape4 ,( ! five n[ exi/+ cont95ts1 nei!r ,au/ralia1 nor ,am]ica1 nor ,europe c h be5 ?is primval home1 or ! s-call$ 8,p>adise10 ! 8cradle ( ! human race40 ,mo/ circum/ances indicate s\!rn ,asia z ! locality 9 "q4 ,besides s\!rn ,asia1 ! only o!r ( ! n[ exi/+ cont95ts :i* might be view$ 9 ?is light is ,africa4 ,b !re are a numb] ( circum/ances 7especially *orological facts7 :i* sugge/ t ! primval home ( man 0 a cont95t n[ sunk bel[ ! surface ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 :i* ext5d$ along ! s\? ( ,asia1 z x is at pres5t 7& probably 9 direct connection ) x71 t[>ds ! ea/1 z f> z fur!r ,india & ! ,sunda ,isl&s2 t[>ds ! we/1 z f> z ,madagasc> & ! s\?-ea/]n %ores ( ,africa4 ,we h already m5tion$ t _m facts 9 animal & vegetable geography r5d] ! =m] exi/5ce ( su* a s\? ,indian cont95t v probable4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cfa47 ,sclat] has giv5 ?is cont95t ! "n ( ,lemuria1 f ! ,semi-apes :i* 7 *>act]i/ic ( x4 ,by assum+ ?is ,lemuria to h be5 man's primval home1 we greatly facilitate ! explanation ( ! geographical di/ribution ( ! human species by migration4 7,comp>e ! ,table ( ,migrations ,,xv41 & its explanation at ! end47 ,we z yet "k ( no fossil rema9s ( ! hypo!tical primval man 7,homo primig5ius7 :o develop$ out ( an?ropoid apes dur+ ! t]ti>y p]iod1 ei!r 9 ,lemuria or 9 s\!rn ,asia1 or possibly 9 ,africa4 ,b consid]+ ! extraord9>y resemblance betwe5 ! l[e/ woolly-hair$ m51 & ! highe/ man-l apes1 :i* /ill exi/ at ! pres5t day1 x requires b a slight /ret* ( ! imag9ation to conceive an int]m$iate =m connect+ ! two1 & to see 9 x an approximate lik5ess to ! suppos$ primval m51 or ape-l m54 ,! =m ( _! skull 0 probably v long1 ) slant+ tee?2 _! hair woolly2 ! col\r ( _! sk9 d>k1 ( a br[ni% t9t4 ,! hair cov]+ ! :ole body 0 probably ?ick] ?an 9 any ( ! /ill liv+ human species2 _! arms comp>atively long] & /rong]2 _! legs1 on ! o!r h&1 knock-kne$1 %ort] & ?9n]1 ) entirely undevelop$ calves2 _! walk b half erect4 ,?is ape-l man v probably did n z yet possess an actual human language1 t is1 an articulate language ( ideas4 ,human spee*1 z has already be5 rem>k$1 mo/ likely orig9at$ aft] ! div]g5ce ( ! primval species ( m5 into diff]5t species4 ,! numb] ( primval languages is1 h[ev]1 consid]ably l>g] ?an ! numb] ( ! species ( m5 above discuss$4 ,= philologi/s h hi!rto n be5 able to trace ! f\r primval languages ( ! ,m$it]ranean species1 namely1 ! ,basque1 ,caucasian1 ,semitic1 & ,indo-,g]manic to a s+le primval language4 ,z little c ! diff]5t ,negro languages be d]iv$ f a common primval language2 h5ce bo? ^! species1 ,m$it]ranean & ,negro1 are c]ta9ly polyglottonic1 t is1 _! respective languages orig9at$ aft] ! div]g5ce ( ! spee*less prim>y species into sev]al races _h already tak5 place4 ,p]haps ! ,mongols1 ! ,arctic & ,am]ican tribes1 are likewise polyglottonic4 ,! ,malayan species is1 h[ev]1 monoglottonic2 all ! ,polynesian & ,sundanesian dialects & languages c be d]iv$ f a common1 long s9ce ext9ct primval language1 :i* is n relat$ to any o!r language on e>?4 ,all ! o!r human species1 ,nubians1 ,dravidas1 ,au/ralians1 ,papuans1 ,hott5tots1 & ,kaffres are likewise monoglottonic4 7,comp>e p4 #ccc47 ,out ( spee*less primval man1 :om we consid] z ! common prim>y species ( all ! o!rs1 !re develop$ 9 ! fir/ place--probably by natural selection--v>i\s species ( m5 unkn[n to u1 & n[ long s9ce ext9ct1 & :o /ill rema9$ at ! /age ( spee*less ape-m5 7,alalus1 or ,pi!can?ropus74 ,two ( ^! species1 a woolly-hair$ & a /raight-hair$1 :i* 7 mo/ /rongly div]g5t1 & consequ5tly ov]p[]$ ! o!rs 9 ! /ruggle = life1 became ! prim>y =ms ( ! o!r rema9+ human species4 ,! ma9 bran* ( woolly-hair$ m5 7,ulotri*i7 at fir/ spread only ov] ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & !n emigrat$ p>tly ea/w>ds1 p>tly we/w>ds4 ,remnants ( ! ea/]n bran* are ! ,papuans 9 ,new ,gu9ea & ,melanesia1 :o 9 e>li] times 7 diffus$ mu* fur!r we/ 79 fur!r ,india & ,sundanesia71 & x 0 n until a late p]iod t !y 7 driv5 ea/w>ds by ! ,malays4 ,! ,hott5tots are ! b little *ang$ remnants ( ! we/]n bran*2 !y immigrat$ to _! pres5t home f ! nor?-ea/4 ,x 0 p]haps dur+ ?is migration t ! two ne>ly relat$ species ( ,caffres & ,negroes bran*$ (f f !m2 b x may be t !y owe _! orig9 to a peculi> bran* ( ape-l m54 ,! second ma9 bran* ( primval /raight-hair$ m5 7,lissotri*i71 :i* is m capable ( developm5t1 has probably left a b little *ang$ remnant ( its common prim>y =m--:i* migrat$ to ! s\?-ea/--9 ! ape-l natives ( ,au/ralia4 ,probably v closely relat$ to ^! latt] are ! ,s\? ,asiatic primval ,malays1 or ,promalays1 :i* "n we h previ\sly giv5 to ! ext9ct1 hypo!tical prim>y =m ( ! o!r six human species4 ,out ( ?is unkn[n common prim>y =m !re seem to h aris5 ?ree div]g+ bran*es1 namely1 ! true ,malays1 ! ,mongols1 & ! ,euplocomi2 ! fir/ spread to ! ea/1 ! second to ! nor?1 & ! ?ird we/w>ds4 ,! primval home1 or ! 8,c5tre ( ,creation10 ( ! ,malays mu/ be look$ = 9 ! s\?-ea/]n "p ( ! ,asiatic cont95t1 or possibly 9 ! m ext5sive cont95t :i* exi/$ at ! "t :5 fur!r ,india 0 directly connect$ ) ! ,sunda ,ar*ipelago & ea/]n ,lemuria4 ,f !nce ! ,malays spread t[>ds ! s\?-ea/1 ov] ! ,sunda ,ar*ipelago z f> z ,borneo1 !n w&]$1 driv+ ! ,papuans be=e !m1 ea/w>ds t[>ds ! ,samoa & ,tonga ,isl&s1 & !nce gradually diffus$ ov] ! :ole ( ! isl&s ( ! s\!rn ,pacific1 to ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s 9 ! nor?1 ! ,mang>eva 9 ! ea/1 & ,new ,zeal& 9 ! s\?4 ,a s+le bran* ( ! ,malayan tribe 0 driv5 f> we/w>ds & peopl$ ,madagasc>4 ,! second ma9 bran* ( primval ,malays1 t is1 ! ,mongols1 at fir/ also spread 9 ,s\!rn ,asia1 &1 radiat+ to ! ea/1 nor?1 & nor?-we/1 gradually peopl$ ! great] "p ( ! ,asiatic cont95t4 ,( ! f\r pr9cipal races ( ! ,mongol species1 ! ,indo-,*9ese mu/ p]haps be look$ ^u z ! prim>y gr\p1 out ( :i* at a lat] p]iod ! o!r ,coreo-,japanese & ,ural-,altaian races develop$ z div]g+ bran*es4 ,! ,mongols migrat$ 9 _m ways f we/]n ,asia into ,europe1 :]e ! species is /ill repres5t$ 9 nor!rn ,russia & ,sc&9avia by ! ,f9s & ,lapps1 9 ,hung>y by ! k9dr$ ,magy>s1 & 9 ,turkey by ! ,osmanlis4 ,,p$igree ,,( ,,semites ,amh>ites ,moors ,jews ,tigrites ,sam>itans 7,hebrews7 ,h>r>ites ,phnicians ,*aldeans -------v------_/ ,syrians ----v-----_/ ,abyss9ians ,canaanites ,ekilians 7,pale/9ese7 ---v---_/ ,himi>ites ,aramans ---v---_/ ,s\? ,nor? ----------v------------_/ ,arabians ,arabians ,primval ,jews ,nor?-,semites -------v-----------_/ ,arabians 7,s\? ,semites7 ---------------------------------------- v-----_/ ,guan*ites ,eusemites 7,primval ,semites7 ,s*uluhs ,alg]ians 7,semites 9 a n>r[ s5se7 ,tunese ------------------------v---_/ ,tripolitans ---v---_/ ,moroccans ----v----_/ ,tu>ic ,cabyles 7,imos*>h7 --------------v--------------_/ ,b]b]s 7,amazirh7 ,gallites ,somalites ------------v-------------_/ ---v---_/ ,b$s*ites ,libians ,babylonians ,eusemites ,egyptians ,primval 7,copts7 ,phnicians ,assyrians ----v-----_/ ,e?iopians ------------v----------_/ -------v------_/ ,anci5t ,egyptians ,mesopotamians 7ext9ct7 ------------v-----------------_/ ,hamites 7,dyssemites7 ---------------v--------------_/ ,semites ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,p$igree ,,( ,,! ,,indo-,,g]mani ,anci5t ,prussians ,anglo-,saxons ,high ,g]mans ,li?uanians ,l[ ,g]mans ,letts ,ne!rl&]s -----v----_/ ----v---_/ ,anci5t ,saxons -------v-_/ ,baltic ,races ------v----_/ ,sorbians1 or ,saxons ,friesians ,w5ds ,poles ----v----_/ ,czecs ,l[ ,g]mans --v-----------_/ ,sc&9avians -----v------_/ ,we/ ,sclavonians ,go?s ,g]mans ,russians ,s\? ,sclavonians ----v----------------------_/ ,primval ,g]mans ,anci5t ,britons ---v---_/ ,anci5t ,scots ,gauls ,s\?-ea/]n ,romans ,iri% ,sclavonians --v-_/ --v-_/ ,brittanese ,lat9s ,gaels ----v----_/ ,sclavonians --v--_/ ----v-----_/ ,italians ,kelts ------v------_/ ,sclavo-,letts --------v---------_/ ,italo-,kelts --v-----------------_/ ,sclavo-,g]mans ,albanese ,greeks ----v-----_/ ,primval ,?racians ,indians ,iranians -------v-------_/ ,grco-,romans ---v--_/ ,arians -----v----------_/ ,ario-,romans -------v-------_/ ,indo-,g]mans ,on ! o!r h&1 a bran* ( ! ,mongols migrat$ f nor?-ea/]n ,asia to ,am]ica1 :i* 0 probably 9 e>li] times connect$ ) ! =m] cont95t by a broad i/hmus4 ,! ,arctic tribes1 or ,pol> m51 ! ,hyp]boreans ( nor?-ea/]n ,asia1 & ! ,esquimaux ( ! extreme nor? ( ,am]ica1 mu/ probably be reg>d$ z an (f%oot ( ?is bran*1 :i* became peculi>ly deg5]at$ by unfav\rable conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,! pr9cipal portion ( ! ,mongolian immigrants1 h[ev]1 migrat$ to ! s\?1 & gradually spread ov] ! :ole ( ,am]ica1 fir/ ov] ! nor?1 lat] ov] ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,! ?ird & mo/ important ma9 bran* ( primval ,malays1 ! curly-hair$ races1 or ,euplocomi1 h probably left 9 ! ,dravidas ( ,h9do/an & ,ceylon1 t species ( man :i* diff]s lea/ f ! common prim>y =m ( ! ,euplocomi4 ,! pr9cipal portion ( ! latt]1 namely1 ! ,m$it]ranean species1 migrat$ f _! primval home 7,h9do/an87 we/w>ds1 & peopl$ ! %ores ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 s\?-we/]n ,asia1 nor? ,africa1 & ,europe4 ,! ,nubians1 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,africa1 mu/ p]haps be reg>d$ z an (f%oot ( ! primval ,semitic tribes1 :o migrat$ f> across c5tral ,africa almo/ to ! we/]n %ores4 ,! v>i\s bran*es ( ! ,indo-,g]manic race h deviat$ fur!/ f ! common prim>y =m ( ape-l m54 ,dur+ classic antiquity & ! middle ages1 ! ,romanic bran* 7! ,grco-,italo-,keltic gr\p71 "o ( ! two ma9 bran*es ( ! ,indo-,g]manic species1 out/ripp$ all o!r bran*es 9 ! c>e] ( civilization1 b at pres5t ! same position is occupi$ by ! ,g]manic4 ,its *ief repres5tatives are ! ,engli% & ,g]mans1 :o are 9 ! pres5t age lay+ ! f\ndation = a new p]iod ( high] m5tal developm5t1 9 ! recognition & completion ( ! !ory ( desc5t4 ,! recognition ( ! !ory ( developm5t & ! moni/ic philosophy bas$ ^u x1 =ms ! be/ crit]ion = ! degree ( man's m5tal developm5t4 ,,sy/ematic ,,survey ,,( ,,! ,,twelve ,,human ,,species4 ,n4,b4--,column ,a d5otes ! ,av]age ,numb] ( ! ,population 9 millions4 ,column ,b %[s ! ,degree ( ! ,phyletic ,developm5t ( ! ,species1 ?us ,pr ,progressive ,diffusion2 ,co ,comp>ative ,/ability2 ,re ,retrogression & ,ext9ction4 ,column ,c d5otes ! ,"* ( ! ,primval ,language2 ,mn 7,monoglottonic7 signifies t ! ,species _h "o ,simple ,primval ,language2 ,pl 7,polyglottonic7 a ,comp\nd ,primval ,language4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,tribe4 ,human ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,home4 ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,tuft-,,hair$ ,lophocomi #a4 ,,papuan #b ,re ,mn ,new ,gu9ea & ,melanesia1 ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 ,malacca 7ab\t #b millions7 #b4 ,,hott5tot #a_/bj ,re ,mn ,! extreme s\? ( ,africa 7,! ,cape7 ,,fleecy-,,hair$ #c4 ,,kaffre #bj ,pr ,mn ,s\? ,africa 7betwe5 #cj ,s4 ,lat4 & #e ,n4 ,lat47 ,eriocomi #d4 ,,negro #acj ,pr ,pl ,c5tral ,africa 7betwe5 ! ,equator & #cj ,n4 ,lat47 7ab\t #aej millions7 #e4 ,,au/ralian #a_/ab ,re ,mn ,au/ralia #f4 ,,malay #cj ,co ,mn ,malacca1 ,sundanesia1 ,polynesia1 & ,madagasc> ,,/raight-,,hair$ ,eu?ycomi #g4 ,,mongol #eej ,pr ,mn8 ,! great] "p ( ,asia & nor!rn ,europe 7ab\t #fjj millions7 #h4 ,,arctic #a_/be ,co ,pl8 ,! extreme nor?-ea/ ( ,,man ,asia & ! extreme nor? ( ,am]ica #i4 ,,am]ican #ab ,re ,mn8 ,! :ole ( ,am]ica ) ! exception ( ! extreme nor? #aj4 ,,dravidas #cd ,co ,mn ,s\? ,asia 7,h9do/an & ,ceylon7 #aa4 ,,nubian #aj ,co ,mn8 ,c5tral ,africa 7,nubia & ,fula-l&7 ,,curly-,,hair$ ,9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 hav+ migrat$ f ,s\? ,euplocomi #ab4 ,,m$it]ranean #eej ,pr ,pl ,asia to ,nor? ,africa & ,s\? ,europe 7ab\t #fjj millions7 ,9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 #ac4 ,,hybrids #aa ,pr ,pl b pr$om9at+ 9 ,am]ica ,,( ,,! & ,asia ,,species ---------------------------- ,,total #acej ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,objections ,,aga9/1 ,,& ,,pro(s ,,( ,,! ,,tru? ,,(1 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,desc5t4 ,objections to ! ,doctr9e ( ,filiation4--,objections ( ,fai? & ,reason4--,immeasurable ,l5g? ( ! ,geological ,p]iods4--,transition ,=ms betwe5 ,k9dr$ ,species4--,dep5d5ce ( ,/ability ( ,=m on ,inh]itance1 & ( ! ,v>iability ( ,=m on ,adaptation4--,orig9 ( v complicat$ ,arrangem5t ( ,organisation4--,gradual ,developm5t ( ,in/9cts & ,m5tal ,activities4--,orig9 ( a priori ,k f ,k a po/]iori4--,! ,k requisite = ! ,correct ,und]/&+ ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,filiation4--,necess>y ,int]action betwe5 ,empiricism & ,philosophy4--,pro(s ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,inn] ,causal ,connection betwe5 all ! ,biological ,s]ies ( ,ph5om5a4--,! ,direct ,pro( ( ! ,!ory ( ,selection4--,relation ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to ,an?ropology4--,pro(s ( ! ,animal ,orig9 ( ,man4--,! ,pi!coid ,!ory z an ,insep>able ,"p ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4--,induction & ,d$uction4--,gradual ,developm5t ( ! ,human ,m9d4--,body & ,m9d4--,human ,s\l & ,animal ,s\l4--,a ,glance at ! ,future4 ,if 9 ^! *apt]s ,i may hope to h made ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t seem m or less probable1 & to h ev5 conv9c$ "s ( my read]s ( its unassailable tru?1 yet ,i am by no means unconsci\s t1 to mo/ ( !m1 dur+ ! p]usal ( my explanations1 a numb] ( objections m or less well f\nd$ mu/ h occurr$4 ,h5ce x seems absolutely necess>y at ! conclusion ( our exam9ation to refute at lea/ ! mo/ important ( ^!1 & at ! same "t1 on ! o!r h&1 once m to set =? ! conv9c+ argum5ts :i* be> te/imony to ! tru? ( ! !ory ( developm5t4 ,! objections :i* are rais$ to ! doctr9e ( desc5t may be divid$ into two l>ge gr\ps3 objections ( fai? & objections ( reason4 ,! objections ( ! fir/ gr\p orig9ate 9 ! inf9itely v>i$ =ms ( fai? held by human individuals1 & ne$ n "h be tak5 into consid]ation at all4 ,=1 z ,i h already rem>k$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is book1 sci5ce1 z an objective result ( s5su\s exp]i5ce1 & ( ! /riv+ ( human reason aft] k1 has no?+ :atev] to d ) ! subjective ideas ( fai?1 :i* are prea*$ by a s+le man z ! direct inspirations or revelations ( ! ,creator1 & !n believ$ 9 by ! dep5d5t multitude4 ,?is belief1 v diff]5t 9 diff]5t nations1 only beg9s1 z is well kn[n1 :]e sci5ce ends4 ,natural ,sci5ce believes1 accord+ to ! maxim ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 8t e "o may g to heav5 9 8 own fa%ion10 & only necess>ily ent]s into conflict ) p>ticul> =ms ( fai? :]e !y appe> to set a limit to free inquiry & a goal to human k1 beyond :i* we are n to v5ture4 ,n[ ?is is c]ta9ly ! case "h 9 ! highe/ degree1 = ! ,!ory ( ,developm5t applies itself to ! solution ( ! greate/ ( sci5tific problems--t ( ! creation1 ! com+ into exi/5ce ( ?+s2 m especially ! orig9 ( organic =ms1 & ( man at _! head4 ,x is "h c]ta9ly ! "r z well z ! sacr$ duty ( free inquiry1 to fe> no human au?ority1 & c\rage\sly to raise ! veil f ! image ( ! ,creator1 unconc]n$ z to :at natural tru? may lie conceal$ b5ea?4 ,! only ,div9e revelation :i* we recognise z true1 is writt5 ev]y:]e 9 nature1 & to e "o ) heal?y s5ses & a heal?y reason x is giv5 to p>ticipate 9 ! un]r+ revelation ( ?is holy temple ( nature1 by 8 own inquiry & indep5d5t discov]y4 ,if we1 !re=e1 "h disreg>d all objections to ! ,doctr9e ( ,desc5t :i* may be rais$ by ! prie/s ( ! diff]5t religi\s fai?s1 we mu/ nev]!less endeav\r to refute ! mo/ important ( ^? objections :i* seem m or less f\nd$ on sci5ce1 & :i* we grant might1 at fir/ sight1 to a c]ta9 ext5t captivate u & det] u f adopt+ ! ,doctr9e ( ,desc5t4 ,_m p]sons seem to ?9k ! l5g? ( ! p]iods ( "t requir$ ! mo/ important ( ^! objections4 ,we are n accu/om$ to deal ) su* imm5se p]iods z are necess>y = ! hi/ory ( ! creation4 ,x has already be5 m5tion$ t ! p]iods1 dur+ :i* species orig9at$ by gradual transmutation1 mu/ n be calculat$ by s+le c5turies1 b by hundr$s & by millions ( c5turies4 ,ev5 ! ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ cru/ ( ! e>?1 ! consid]ation ( ! imm5se space ( "t :i* 0 requisite = its deposition f wat]1 tak5 toge!r ) ! p]iods ( elevation betwe5 ! p]iods ( depression1 indicate a duration ( "t ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? :i* ! human intellect _c realize4 ,we are "h 9 mu* ! same position z an a/ronom] 9 reg>d to inf9ite space4 ,9 ! same way z ! di/ances betwe5 ! diff]5t planet>y sy/ems are n calculat$ by miles b by ,sirius-di/ances1 ea* ( :i* comprises millions ( miles1 s ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? mu/ n be calculat$ by ?\s&s ( ye>s1 b by palontological or geological p]iods1 ea* ( :i* comprises _m ?\s&s ( ye>s1 & p]haps millions1 or ev51 milli>ds1 ( ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,x is ( little importance h[ high ! immeasurable l5g? ( ^! p]iods may be approximately e/imat$1 because we are 9 fact unable ) our limit$ p[] ( imag9ation to =m a true conception ( ^! p]iods1 & because we d n z 9 a/ronomy possess a secure ma!matical basis = fix+ ! approximate l5g? ( duration 9 numb]s4 ,b we mo/ positively d5y t we see any objection to ! !ory ( developm5t 9 ! extreme l5g? ( ^! p]iods :i* are s completely beyond ! p[] ( our imag9ation4 ,x is1 on ! contr>y1 z ,i h already expla9$ 9 "o ( ! prec$+ *apt]s1 mo/ advisable1 f a /rictly philosophical po9t ( view1 to conceive ^! p]iods ( creation to be z long z possible1 & we are by s mu* ! less 9 dang] ( los+ ourselves 9 improbable hypo!ses1 ! long] we conceive ! p]iods = organic processes ( developm5t to h be54 ,! long]1 = example1 we conceive ! ,p]mian p]iod to h be51 ! easi] x w be = u to und]/& h[ ! important transmutations took place )9 x :i* s ess5tially di/+ui% ! fauna & flora ( ! ,coal p]iod f t ( ! ,trias4 ,! great dis9cl9ation :i* mo/ p]sons h to assume su* immeasurable p]iods1 arises ma9ly f ! fact ( our hav+ 9 e>ly y\? be5 br\ght up 9 ! notion t ! :ole e>? is only "s ?\s&s ( ye>s old4 ,moreov]1 human life1 :i* at mo/ atta9s ! l5g? ( a c5tury1 is an extremely %ort space ( "t1 & is n suitable z a /&>d = ! measurem5t ( geological p]iods4 ,our life is a s+le drop 9 ! ocean ( et]nity4 ,! read] may call to m9d ! duration ( life ( _m trees :i* is m ?an fifty times z long2 = example1 ! dragon-trees 7,dracna7 & monkey bread-fruit trees 7,adansonia71 ^: individual life exce$s a p]iod ( five ?\s& ye>s2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! %ortness ( ! individual life ( _m ( ! l[] animals1 = example1 ! infusoria1 :]e ! individual1 z su*1 lives b a few days1 or ev5 b a few h\rs1 contra/s no less /rongly ) human longevity4 ,?is comp>ison br+s ! relative nature ( all measurem5t ( "t v cle>ly be=e u4 ,if ! !ory ( developm5t be true at all1 !re mu/ c]ta9ly h elaps$ imm5se p]iods1 utt]ly inconceivable to u1 dur+ :i* ! gradual hi/orical developm5t ( ! animal & vegetable k+dom proce$$ by ! sl[ trans=mation ( species4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 n a s+le reason = accept+ a def9ite limit = ! l5g? ( ^! p]iods ( developm5t4 ,a second ma9 objection :i* _m1 & m especially sy/ematic zoologi/s & botani/s1 raise aga9/ ! !ory ( desc5t1 is t no transition =ms betwe5 ! diff]5t species c be f\nd1 al?\gh accord+ to ! !ory ( desc5t !y ought to be f\nd 9 great numb]s4 ,?is objection is p>tly well f\nd$ & p>tly n s1 = !re does exi/ an extraord9>ily l>ge numb] ( transition =ms betwe5 liv+1 z well z betwe5 ext9ct species1 especially :]e we h an opportunity ( see+ & comp>+ v num]\s individuals ( k9dr$ species4 ,^? c>eful inve/igators ( individual species :o s frequ5tly raise ?is objection are ! v p]sons :om we con/antly f9d *eck$ 9 _! special s]ies ( inve/igations by ! really insup]able difficulty ( %>ply di/+ui%+ individual species4 ,9 all sy/ematic works1 :i* are 9 any degree ?or\gh1 "o meets ) endless compla9ts1 t "h & !re species _c be di/+ui%$ because ( ! excessive numb] ( transition =ms4 ,h5ce e naturali/ def9es ! limit & ! numb] ( individual species diff]5tly4 ,"s zoologi/s & botani/s1 z ,i m5tion$ 7vol4 i4 p4 #bgf71 assume 9 "o & ! same gr\p ( organisms t5 species1 o!rs tw5ty1 o!rs a hundr$ or m1 :ile o!r sy/ematic naturali/s aga9 look ^u ^! diff]5t =ms only z v>ieties ( a s+le 8good0 species4 ,9 mo/ gr\ps ( =ms !re is1 9 fact1 a sup]abundance ( transition =ms & int]m$iate /ages betwe5 ! individual species4 ,x is true t 9 _m species ! =ms ( transition are actually want+1 b ?is is easily expla9$ by ! pr9ciple ( div]g5ce or sep>ation1 ! importance ( :i* ,i h already expla9$4 ,! circum/ance t ! /ruggle = exi/5ce is ! m active betwe5 two k9dr$ =ms ! clos] !y /& to ea* o!r1 mu/ necess>ily fav\r ! spe$y ext9ction ( ! connect+ int]m$iate =ms betwe5 ! two div]g5t species4 ,if "o & ! same species produce div]g+ v>ieties 9 diff]5t directions1 :i* become new species1 ! /ruggle betwe5 ^! new =ms & ! common prim>y =m w be ! ke5] ! less !y diff] f "o ano!r2 b ! /rong] ! div]g5ce ! less dang]\s ! /ruggle4 ,naturally !re=e1 x is pr9cipally ! connect+ int]m$iate =ms :i* w 9 mo/ cases quietly die out1 :ile ! mo/ div]g5t =ms rema9 & reproduce !mselves z di/9ct 8new species40 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 we 9 fact no long] f9d =ms ( transition lead+ to ^? gr\ps :i* are becom+ ext9ct1 z1 = example1 among birds1 are ! o/ri*es2 & among mammals1 ! elephants1 giraffes1 ,semi-apes1 ,ed5tata1 & ,orni?orhyncus4 ,! gr\ps ( =ms approa*+ _! ext9ction no long] produce new v>ieties1 & naturally ! species are :at is call$ 8good10 t is1 ! species are di/9ctly diff]5t f "o ano!r4 ,b 9 ^? animal gr\ps :]e developm5t & progress are /ill active1 :]e ! exi/+ species deviate into _m new species by ! =mation ( new v>ieties1 we f9d an abundance ( transition =ms :i* cause ! greate/ difficulties to sy/ematic naturali/s4 ,?is is ! case1 = example1 among birds ) ! f9*es2 among mammals ) mo/ ( ! rod5ts 7m especially ) ^? ( ! m\se & rat k9d71 ) a numb] ( ! rum9ants & ) g5u9e apes1 m especially ) ! ,s\? ,am]ican =ms 7,cebus71 & _m o!rs4 ,! cont9ual developm5t ( species by ! =mation ( new v>ieties "h produces a mass ( int]m$iate =ms :i* connect ! s-call$ 8good0 species1 :i* efface _! b\nd>ies1 & r5d] _! %>p specific di/9ction completely illusory4 ,! reason t ?is nev]!less does n cause a complete confusion ( =ms1 nor a univ]sal *aos 9 ! /ructure ( animals & vegetables1 lies simply 9 ! fact t !re is a cont9ual c\nt]action at "w betwe5 progressive adaptation on ! "o h&1 & ! ret5tive p[] ( inh]itance on ! o!r h&4 ,! degree ( /ability & v>iability manife/$ by e organic =m is det]m9$ solely by ! actual condition ( ! equilibrium betwe5 ^! two opposite functions4 ,inh]itance is ! cause ( ! /ability ( species1 adaptation ! cause ( _! modification4 ,:5 !re=e "s naturali/s say t1 accord+ to ! !ory ( desc5t1 !re ought to be a mu* great] v>iety ( =ms1 & o!rs aga91 t !re ought to be a mu* great] equality ( =ms1 ! =m] "u-e/imate ! value ( inh]itance & ! latt] ! value ( adaptation4 ,! ratio ( ! int]action betwe5 inh]itance & adaptation det]m9es ! ratio ( ! /ability & v>iability ( organic species at any giv5 p]iod4 ,ano!r objection to ! !ory ( desc5t1 :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( _m naturali/s & philosoph]s is ( great weight1 is t x ascribes ! orig9 ( organs :i* act = a def9ite purpose to causes :i* are ei!r aimless or me*anical 9 _! op]ation4 ,?is objection seems to be especially important 9 reg>d to ^? organs :i* appe> s excell5tly adapt$ = a c]ta9 def9ite purpose t ! mo/ +5i\s me*anician c\ld n inv5t a m p]fect organ = ! purpose4 ,su* are1 above all1 ! high] s5se-organs ( animals1 ! eye & e>4 ,if ! eyes & auditory app>atus ( ! high] animals alone 7 kn[n to u1 !y w\ld inde$ cause great & p]haps insurm\ntable difficulties4 ,h[ c\ld we come to ! conclusion t ! extraord9>ily great & wond]ful degree ( p]fection & con=mity to purpose :i* we p]ceive 9 ! eyes & e>s ( high] animals1 is 9 e respect atta9$ solely by natural selection8 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 comp>ative anatomy & ! hi/ory ( developm5t help u "h ov] all ob/acles2 = :5 9 ! animal k+dom we foll[ ! gradual progress t[>ds p]fection ( ! eyes & e>s1 /ep by /ep1 we f9d su* a f9ely graduat$ s]ies ( improvem5t1 t we c cle>ly foll[ ! developm5t ( ! mo/ complex organs ?r\gh all ! /ages t[>ds p]fection4 ,?us1 = example1 ! eye 9 ! l[e/ animal is a simple spot ( pigm5t :i* does n yet reflect any image ( ext]nal objects1 b at mo/ p]ceives & di/+ui%es ! diff]5t rays ( light4 ,lat]1 we f9d 9 addition to ?is a s5sitive n]ve2 !n !re gradually develops )9 ! spot ( pigm5t ! fir/ beg9n+ ( ! l5s1 a refractive body :i* is n[ able to conc5trate ! rays ( light & to reflect a def9ite image4 ,b all ! composite app>atus = ! movem5t ( ! eye & its accommodation to v>iations ( light & di/ance are /ill abs5t1 namely1 ! v>i\s refractive m$ia1 ! highly diff]5tiat$ membrane ( ! optic n]ve1 etc41 :i* are s p]fectly con/ruct$ 9 high] animals4 ,comp>ative anatomy %[s u an un9t]rupt$ succession ( all possible /ages ( transition1 f ! simple/ organ to ! mo/ highly p]fect$ app>atus1 s t we c =m a pretty correct idea ( ! sl[ & gradual =mation ( ev5 su* an exce$+ly complex organ4 ,! l gradual progress :i* we obs]ve 9 ! developm5t ( ! organ dur+ ! c\rse ( individual developm5t1 mu/ h tak5 place 9 ! hi/orical 7phyletic7 orig9 ( ! organ4 ,_m p]sons :5 contemplat+ ^! mo/ p]fect organs--:i* app>5tly 7 purposely inv5t$ & con/ruct$ by an +5i\s ,creator = a def9ite function1 b :i* 9 reality h aris5 by ! aimless action ( natural selection--exp]i5ce difficulties 9 arriv+ at a rational und]/&+ ( !m1 :i* are simil> to ^? exp]i5c$ by ! unciviliz$ tribes ( nature :5 contemplat+ ! late/ complicat$ productions ( eng9e]+4 ,savages :o see a %ip ( ! l9e1 or a locomotive eng9e = ! fir/ "t1 look ^u ^! objects z ! productions ( a sup]natural be+1 & _c und]/& h[ a man1 an organism l !mselves1 c\ld h produc$ su* an eng9e4 ,ev5 ! un$ucat$ classes ( our own race _c compreh5d su* an intricate app>atus 9 its actual work+s1 nor c !y und]/& its purely me*anical nature4 ,mo/ naturali/s1 h[ev]1 z ,d>w9 v ju/ly rem>ks1 /& 9 mu* ! same position 9 reg>d to ! =ms ( organisms z d savages to %ips ( ! l9e & to locomotive eng9es4 ,a rational und]/&+ ( ! purely me*anical orig9 ( organic =ms c only be acquir$ by a ?or\gh & g5]al tra9+ 9 ,biology1 & by a special k ( comp>ative anatomy & ! hi/ory ( developm5t4 ,among ! rema9+ objections to ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 ,i %all "h f9ally ref] to & refute b "o m1 z 9 ! eyes ( _m unsci5tific m5 x seems to possess great weight4 ,h[ are we1 f ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 to conceive ( ! orig9 ( ! m5tal faculties ( animals1 & m especially _! specific expressions--! s-call$ in/9cts8 ,?is difficult subject has be5 s m9utely discuss$ by ,d>w9 9 a special *apt] ( 8 *ief "w 7! sev5?71 t ,i mu/ ref] ! read] to x4 ,we mu/ reg>d in/9cts z ess5tially ! habits ( ! s\l acquir$ by adaptation1 & transmitt$ & fix$ by inh]itance ?r\gh _m g5]ations4 ,in/9cts are1 !re=e1 l all o!r habits1 :i*1 accord+ to ! laws ( cumulative adaptation 7vol4 i4 p4 #bcc7 & e/abli%$ inh]itance 7vol4 i4 p4 #baf71 lead to ! orig9 ( new functions1 & ?us also to new =ms ( ! organs4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e1 ! int]action betwe5 function & organ goes h& 9 h&4 ,j z ! m5tal faculties ( man h be5 acquir$ by ! progressive adaptation ( ! bra91 & be5 fix$ by cont9ual transmission by inh]itance1 s ! in/9cts ( animals1 :i* diff] f !m only 9 quantity1 n 9 quality1 h aris5 by ! gradual p]fect+ ( _! m5tal organ1 t is1 _! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 by ! int]action ( ,adaptation & ,inh]itance4 ,in/9cts1 z is well kn[n1 are inh]it$1 b exp]i5ces &1 consequ5tly1 new adaptations ( ! animal m9d1 are also transmitt$ by inh]itance2 & ! tra9+ ( dome/ic animals to diff]5t m5tal activities1 :i* wild animals are incapable ( accompli%+1 re/s ^u ! possibility ( m5tal adaptation4 ,we already "k a s]ies ( examples1 9 :i* su* adaptations1 aft] !y _h be5 transmitt$ ?r\gh a succession ( g5]ations1 f9ally appe>$ z innate in/9cts1 & yet !y h only be5 acquir$ f ! ance/ors ( ! animals4 ,inh]itance has "h caus$ ! result ( tra9+ to become in/9ct4 ,! *>act]i/ic in/9cts ( sport+ dogs1 %eph]d's dogs1 & o!r dome/ic animals1 & ! natural in/9cts ( wild animals1 :i* !y possess at bir?1 7 9 ! fir/ place acquir$ by _! ance/ors by adaptation4 ,!y may 9 ?is respect be comp>$ to man's 8k a priori10 :i*1 l all o!r k1 0 orig9ally acquir$ by our remote ance/ors1 8a po/]iori10 by s5su\s exp]i5ce4 ,z ,i h already rem>k$1 x is evid5t t 8k a priori0 arose only by long-endur+ transmission1 by inh]itance ( acquir$ adaptations ( ! bra91 out ( orig9ally empiric or exp]i5tial 8k a po/]iori0 7vol4 i4 p4 #ca74 ,! objections to ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t "h discuss$ & refut$ are1 ,i believe1 ! mo/ important :i* h be5 rais$ aga9/ x2 ,i consid] also t ,i h suffici5tly prov$ to ! read] _! futility4 ,! num]\s o!r objections :i* besides ^! h be5 rais$ aga9/ ! ,!ory ( ,developm5t 9 g5]al1 or aga9/ its biological "p1 ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t 9 p>ticul>1 arise ei!r f su* a degree ( ignorance ( empirically e/abli%$ facts1 or f su* a want ( _! "r und]/&+1 & f su* an incapacity to draw ! necess>y conclusions1 t x is really n wor? ! tr\ble to g fur!r into ! refutation4 ,!re are only "s g5]al po9ts 9 reg>d to :i*1 ,i %\ld l1 9 a few words1 to draw att5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place ,i mu/ obs]ve1 t 9 ord] ?or\ghly to und]/& ! doctr9e ( desc5t1 & to be conv9c$ ( its absolute tru?1 x is indisp5sable to possess a g5]al k ( ! :ole ( ! doma9 ( biological ph5om5a4 ,! !ory ( desc5t is a biological !ory1 & h5ce x may ) fairness & ju/ice be dem&$ t ^? p]sons :o wi% to pass a valid judgm5t ^u x %\ld possess ! requisite degree ( biological k4 ,_! possess+ a special empiric k ( ?is or t doma9 ( zoology or botany1 is n suffici5t2 !y mu/ possess a g5]al insight into ! :ole s]ies ( ph5om5a1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( "o ( ! ?ree organic k+doms4 ,!y ought to "k :at univ]sal laws result f ! comp>ative morphology & physiology ( organisms1 b m especially f comp>ative anatomy1 f ! individual & ! palontological hi/ory ( developm5t1 etc42 & !y ought to h "s idea ( ! deep me*anical1 causal connection betwe5 all ^! s]ies ( ph5om5a4 ,x is self-evid5t t a c]ta9 degree ( g5]al culture1 & especially a philosophical education1 is requisite2 :i* is1 h[ev]1 un=tunately by _m p]sons 9 our day1 n consid]$ at all necess>y4 ,)\t ! necess>y connection ( empirical k & ! philosophical und]/&+ ( biological ph5om5a1 x is impossible to ga9 a ?or\gh conviction ( ! tru? ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,n[ ,i ask1 9 ! face ( ?is fir/ prelim9>y condition = a true und]/&+ ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 :at we are to ?9k ( ! confus$ mass ( p]sons :o h presum$ to pass a writt5 or oral judgm5t ^u x ( an adv]se "*8 ,mo/ ( !m are unsci5tific p]sons1 :o ei!r "k no?+ ( ! mo/ important ph5om5a ( ,biology1 or at lea/ possess no idea ( _! deep] significance4 ,:at %\ld we say ( an unsci5tific p]son :o presum$ to express an op9ion on ! cell-!ory1 )\t ev] hav+ se5 cells2 or ( "o :o presum$ to "q ! v]tebral-!ory1 )\t ev] hav+ /udi$ comp>ative anatomy8 ,& yet "o may meet ) su* ridicul\s arrogance any day 9 ! hi/ory ( ! biological ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,"o he>s ?\s&s ( unsci5tific & b half-educat$ p]sons pass a f9al judgm5t ^u x1 al?\gh !y "k no?+ ei!r ( botany or ( zoology1 ( comp>ative anatomy or ! !ory ( tissues1 ( palontology or embryology4 ,h5ce x happ5s1 z ,huxley well says1 t mo/ ( ! writ+s publi%$ aga9/ ,d>w9 are n wor? ! pap] ^u :i* !y are writt54 ,we might add t !re are _m naturali/s1 & ev5 celebrat$ zoologi/s & botani/s1 among ! oppon5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t2 b ^! latt] are mo/ly old /ag]s1 :o h gr[n grey 9 q opposite views1 & :om we _c expect1 9 ! ev5+ ( _! lives1 to submit to a re=m 9 _! conception ( ! univ]se1 :i* has become to !m a fix$ idea4 ,x is1 moreov]1 expressly to be rem>k$1 t n only a g5]al insight into ! :ole doma9 ( biological ph5om5a1 b also a philosophical und]/&+ ( x1 are ! necess>y prelim9>y conditions = becom+ conv9c$ ( & adopt+ ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,n[ we %all f9d t ^! indisp5sable prelim9>y conditions are1 un=tunately1 by no means fulfill$ by ! majority ( naturali/s ( ! pres5t day4 ,! imm5se am\nt ( empirical facts ) :i* ! gigantic advances ( mod]n natural sci5ce h rec5tly made u acqua9t$ has l$ to a prevail+ incl9ation = ! special /udy ( s+le ph5om5a & ( small & n>r[ doma9s4 ,?is causes ! k ( o!r pa?s1 & especially ( ,nature z a great compreh5sive :ole1 to be 9 mo/ cases completely neglect$4 ,e "o ) s\nd eyes & a microscope1 toge!r ) indu/ry & pati5ce = /udy1 c 9 our day atta9 a c]ta9 degree ( celebrity by microscopic 8discov]ies10 )\t1 h[ev]1 des]v+ ! "n ( a naturali/4 ,?is "n is des]v$ only by him :o n m]ely /rives to "k ! individual ph5om5a1 b :o also seeks to discov] _! causal connection4 ,ev5 9 our own day1 mo/ palontologi/s exam9e & describe fossils )\t kn[+ ! mo/ important facts ( embryology4 ,embryologi/s1 on ! o!r h&1 foll[ ! hi/ory ( developm5t ( a p>ticul> organic individual1 )\t hav+ an idea ( ! palontological hi/ory ( ! :ole tribe1 ( :i* fossils are ! records4 ,& yet ^! two bran*es ( ! organic hi/ory ( developm5t--ontog5y1 or ! hi/ory ( ! individual1 & phylog5y1 or ! hi/ory ( ! tribe--/& 9 ! close/ causal connection1 & ! "o _c be und]/ood )\t ! o!r4 ,! same may be said ( ! sy/ematic & ! anatomical "p ( ,biology4 ,!re are ev5 n[1 9 zoology & botany1 _m sy/ematic naturali/s :o "w ) ! errone\s idea t x is possible to con/ruct a natural sy/em ( animals & plants simply by a c>eful exam9ation ( ! ext]nal & readily accessible =ms ( bodies1 )\t a deep] k ( _! int]nal /ructure4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are anatomi/s & hi/ologi/s :o ?9k x possible to obta9 a true k ( animal & vegetable bodies m]ely by a mo/ c>eful exam9ation ( ! inn] /ructure ( ! body ( "s individual species1 )\t ! comp>ative exam9ation ( ! bodily =m ( all k9dr$ organisms4 ,& yet "h1 z ev]y:]e1 ! int]nal & ext]nal factors1 to wit1 ,inh]itance & ,adaptation1 /& 9 ! close/ mutual relation1 & ! individual c nev] be ?or\ghly und]/ood )\t a comp>ison ( x ) ! :ole ( :i* x is a "p4 ,to ^? "o-sid$ speciali/s we %\ld l 9 ,goe!'s words to say3-- ,we mu/1 contemplat+ ,nature1 ,"p z ,:ole1 give equal he$ to3 ,n\ght is inw>d1 n\ght is outw>d1 ,= ! inn] is ! out]4#f ,& aga93-- ,nature has nei!r k]nel nor %ell1 ,x is %e t is ,all & ,all at once4#g ,:at is ev5 m detrim5tal to ! g5]al und]/&+ ( nature z a :ole ?an ?is "o-sid$ t5d5cy1 is ! want ( a philosophical culture1 & ?is applies to mo/ ( ! naturali/s ( ! pres5t day4 ,! v>i\s errors ( ! e>li] speculative nature-philosophy made dur+ ! fir/ ?irty ye>s ( our c5tury1 h br\ght ! :ole ( philosophy into su* bad repute ) ! exact empirical naturali/s1 t !y live 9 ! /range delusion t x is possible to erect ! edifice ( natural sci5ce out ( m]e facts1 )\t _! philosophic connection2 9 %ort1 out ( m]e k1 )\t ! und]/&+ ( x4 ,b z a purely speculative & absolutely philosophical sy/em1 :i* does n conc]n itself ) ! indisp5sable f\ndation ( empirical facts1 becomes a ca/le 9 ! air1 :i* ! fir/ real exp]im5t ?r[s to ! w9ds2 s1 on ! o!r h&1 a purely empirical sy/em1 con/ruct$ ( no?+ b facts1 rema9s a disord]ly heap ( /ones1 :i* w nev] des]ve ! "n ( an edifice4 ,b>e facts e/abli%$ by exp]i5ce are no?+ b rude /ones1 & )\t _! ?\ghtful valuation1 )\t _! philosophic connection1 no sci5ce c be e/abli%$4 ,z ,i h already tri$ to impress ^u my read]1 ! /rong edifice ( true moni/ic sci5ce1 or :at is ! same ?+1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,nature1 exi/s only by ! close/ int]action1 & ! reciprocal p5etration ( philosophy & empirical k4 ,?is lam5table e/rangem5t betwe5 sci5ce & philosophy1 & ! rude empiricism :i* is n[-a-days un=tunately prais$ by mo/ naturali/s z 8exact sci5ce10 h giv5 rise to ^? /range freaks ( ! und]/&+1 to ^? gross insults aga9/ elem5t>y logic1 & to t incapacity = =m+ ! simple/ conclusions :i* "o may meet ) any day 9 all bran*es ( sci5ce1 b especially 9 zoology & botany4 ,x is "h t ! neglect ( a philosophical culture & tra9+ ( ! m9d1 directly av5ges itself mo/ pa9fully4 ,x is n to be wond]$ at t ! deep inn] tru? ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t rema9s a seal$ book to ^? rude empirici/s4 ,z ! common prov]b ju/ly says3 !y _c see ! wood = ! trees4 ,x is only by a m g5]al philosophical /udy1 & especially by a m /rictly logical tra9+ ( ! m9d1 t ?is sad /ate ( ?+s c be rem$i$4 7,comp>e ,g54 ,morph4 i4 #fc2 ii4 p4 #ddg47 ,if we rightly consid] ?is circum/ance1 & if we fur!r reflect ^u x 9 connection ) ! empirical f\ndation ( ! philosophical !ory ( developm5t1 we %all at once see h[ we are plac$ respect+ ! (t-dem&$ pro(s ( ! !ory ( desc5t4 ,! m ! doctr9e ( filiation has ( late ye>s made way = itself1 & ! m all ?\ghtful1 y\ng] naturali/s1 & all truly biologically-educat$ philosoph]s h become conv9c$ ( its inn] tru? & absolute necessity1 ! l\d] h its oppon5ts call$ = actual pro(s4 ,! same p]sons :o1 %ortly aft] ! publication ( ,d>w9's "w1 decl>$ x to be 8a gr\ndless1 fanta/ic sy/em10 an 8arbitr>y speculation10 an 8+5i\s dream10 n[ k9dly condesc5d to decl>e t ! !ory ( desc5t c]ta9ly is a sci5tific 8hypo!sis10 b t x /ill requires to be 8prov$40 ,:5 ^! rem>ks are made by p]sons :o d n possess ! requisite empirico-philosophical culture1 nor ! necess>y k 9 comp>ative anatomy1 embryology1 & palontology1 we _c be mu* (f5d$1 & we ref] !m to ! /udy ( ^? sci5ces4 ,b :5 simil> rem>ks are made by ackn[l$g$ speciali/s1 by tea*]s ( zoology & botany1 :o c]ta9ly ought to possess a g5]al insight into ! :ole doma9 ( _! sci5ce1 or :o are actually famili> ) ! facts ( ^? sci5tific doma9s1 !n we are really at a loss :at to say4 ,^? :o are n satisfi$ ) ! treasures ( our pres5t empirical k ( nature z a basis on :i* to e/abli% ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 w n be conv9c$ by any o!r facts :i* may h]eaft] be discov]$2 = we c conceive no circum/ances :i* w\ld furni% /rong] or a m complete te/imony to ! tru? ( ! doctr9e ( filiation ?an is ev5 n[ se51 = example1 9 ! well-kn[n facts ( comp>ative anatomy & ontog5y4 ,i mu/ "h aga9 direct att5tion to ! fact1 t all ! great & g5]al laws1 & all ! compreh5sive s]ies ( ph5om5a ( ! mo/ diff]5t doma9s ( biology c only be expla9$ & und]/ood by ! ,!ory ( ,developm5t 7& especially by its biological "p1 ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t71 & t )\t x !y rema9 completely inexplicable & incompreh5sible4 ,! int]nal causal connection betwe5 !m all proves ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t to be ! greate/ inductive law ( ,biology4 ,be=e conclud+1 ,i w once m "n all ^? s]ies ( inductions1 all ^? g5]al laws ( ,biology1 ^u :i* ?is compreh5sive law ( developm5t is firmly bas$4 7#a47 ,! palontological hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( organisms1 ! gradual appe>ance & ! hi/orical succession ( ! diff]5t species & gr\ps ( species1 ! empirical laws ( ! palontological *ange ( species1 z furni%$ to u by ! sci5ce ( fossils1 & m especially ! progressive diff]5tiation & p]fect+ ( animal & vegetable gr\ps 9 ! successive p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 7#b47 ,! individual hi/ory ( developm5t ( organisms1 embryology & metamorphology1 ! gradual *anges 9 ! sl[ developm5t ( ! body & its p>ticul> organs1 especially ! progressive diff]5tiation & p]fect+ ( ! organs & p>ts ( ! body 9 ! successive p]iods ( ! individual developm5t4 7#c47 ,! inn] causal connection betwe5 ontog5y & phylog5y1 ! p>allelism betwe5 ! individual hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( organisms1 & ! palontological hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( _! ance/ors1 a connection :i* is actually e/abli%$ by ! laws ( ,inh]itance & ,adaptation1 & :i* may be summ$ up 9 ! words3 ontog5y1 accord+ to ! laws ( inh]itance & adaptation1 repeats 9 its l>ge features ! outl9es ( phylog5y4 7#d47 ,! comp>ative anatomy ( organisms1 ! pro( ( ! ess5tial agreem5t ( ! inn] /ructure ( k9dr$ organisms1 9 spite ev5 ( ! greate/ diff]5ce ( ext]nal =m 9 ! v>i\s species2 _! explanation by ! causal dep5d5ce ( ! int]nal agreem5t ( ! /ructure on ,inh]itance1 ! ext]nal dissimil>ity ( ! bodily =m on ,adaptation4 7#e47 ,! inn] causal connection betwe5 comp>ative anatomy & ! hi/ory ( developm5t1 ! h>moni\s agreem5t betwe5 ! laws ( ! gradual developm5t1 ! progressive diff]5tiation & p]fect+1 z !y may be se5 9 comp>ative anatomy on ! "o h&1 9 ontog5y & palontology on ! o!r4 7#f47 ,dy/eleology1 or ! !ory ( purposelessness1 ! "n ,i h giv5 to ! sci5ce ( rudim5t>y organs1 ( suppress$ & deg5]at$1 aimless & inactive1 p>ts ( ! body2 "o ( ! mo/ important & mo/ int]e/+ bran*es ( comp>ative anatomy1 :i*1 :5 rightly e/imat$1 is alone suffici5t to refute ! fundam5tal error ( ! teleological & duali/ic conception ( ,nature1 & to s]ve z ! f\ndation ( ! me*anical & moni/ic conception ( ! univ]se4 7#g47 ,! natural sy/em ( organisms1 ! natural gr\p+ ( all ! diff]5t =ms ( ,animals1 ,plants1 & ,proti/a into num]\s small] or l>g] gr\ps1 arrang$ beside & above "o ano!r2 ! k9dr$ connection ( species1 g5]a1 families1 ord]s1 classes1 tribes1 etc41 m especially1 h[ev]1 ! arbori=m bran*+ "* ( ! natural sy/em1 :i* is ! spontane\s result ( a natural arrangem5t & classification ( all ^! graduat$ gr\ps or categories4 ,! result atta9$ 9 attempt+ to exhibit ! relation%ips ( ! m]e =ms ( organisms by a tabul> classification is only explicable :5 reg>d$ z ! expression ( _! actual blood relation%ip2 ! tree %ape ( ! natural sy/em c only be und]/ood z ! actual p$igree ( ! organisms4 7#h47 ,! *orology ( organisms1 ! sci5ce ( ! local di/ribution ( organic species1 ( _! geographical & topographical disp]sion ov] ! surface ( ! e>?1 ov] ! heights ( m\nta9s & 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 b especially ! important ph5om5on t e species ( organism proce$s f a s-call$ 8c5tre ( creation0 7m correctly a 8primval home0 or 8c5tre ( di/ribution072 t is1 f a s+le locality1 :]e x orig9at$ b once1 & :5ce x spread4 7#i47 ,! cology ( organisms1 ! k ( ! sum ( ! relations ( organisms to ! surr\nd+ out] _w1 to organic & inorganic conditions ( exi/5ce2 ! s-call$ 8economy ( nature10 ! correlations betwe5 all organisms liv+ toge!r 9 "o & ! same locality1 _! adaptation to _! surr\nd+s1 _! modification 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce1 especially ! circum/ances ( p>asitism1 etc4 ,x is j ^! ph5om5a 9 8! economy ( nature0 :i* ! unsci5tific1 on a sup]ficial consid]ation1 are wont to reg>d z ! wise arrangem5ts ( a ,creator act+ = a def9ite purpose1 b :i* on a m att5tive exam9ation %[ !mselves to be ! necess>y results ( me*anical causes4 7#aj47 ,! unity ( ,biology z a :ole1 ! deep inn] connection exi/+ betwe5 all ! ph5om5a nam$ & all ! o!r ph5om5a belong+ to zoology1 proti/ics1 & botany1 & :i* are simply & naturally expla9$ by a s+le common pr9ciple4 ,?is pr9ciple c be no o!r ?an ! common d]ivation ( all ! specifically diff]5t organisms f a s+le1 or f sev]al absolutely simple1 prim>y =ms l ! ,mon]a1 :i* possess no organs4 ,! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 by assum+ ?is common d]ivation1 ?r[s a cle> light ^u ^! individual s]ies ( ph5om5a1 z well z ^u _! totality1 )\t :i* _! deep] causal connection w\ld rema9 completely incompreh5sible to u4 ,! oppon5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t c 9 no way expla9 any s+le "o ( ^! s]ies ( ph5om5a or _! deep] connection ) "o ano!r4 ,s long z !y are unable to d ?is1 ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t rema9s ! "o adequate biological !ory4 ,we %\ld1 on acc\nt ( ! gr& pro(s j enum]at$1 h to adopt ,lam>ck's ,!ory ( ,desc5t = ! explanation ( biological ph5om5a1 ev5 if we did n possess ,d>w9's ,!ory ( ,selection4 ,! "o is s completely & directly prov$ by ! o!r1 & e/abli%$ by me*anical causes1 t !re rema9s no?+ to be desir$4 ,! laws ( ,inh]itance & ,adaptation are univ]sally ackn[l$g$ physiological facts1 ! =m] traceable to propagation1 ! latt] to ! nutrition ( organisms4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce is a biological fact1 :i* ) ma!matical necessity foll[s f ! g5]al disproportion betwe5 ! av]age numb] ( organic individuals & ! num]ical excess ( _! g]ms4 ,b z ,adaptation & ,inh]itance 9 ! /ruggle = life are 9 cont9ual int]action1 x inevitably foll[s t natural selection1 :i* ev]y:]e influ5ces & cont9ually *anges organic species1 mu/1 by mak+ use ( div]g5ce ( "*1 produce new species4 ,its influ5ce is fur!r especially fav\r$ by ! active & passive migrations ( organisms1 :i* g on ev]y:]e4 ,if we give ^! circum/ances due consid]ation1 ! cont9ual & gradual modification or transmutation ( organic species w appe> z a biological process1 :i* mu/1 accord+ to causal law1 ( necessity foll[ f ! actual nature ( organisms & _! mutual correlations4 ,t ev5 ! orig9 ( man mu/ be expla9$ by ?is g5]al organic process ( transmutation1 & t x is simply z well z naturally expla9$ by x1 has1 ,i believe1 be5 suffici5tly prov$ 9 my la/ *apt] b "o4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 avoid "h once m direct+ att5tion to ! insep>able connection betwe5 ?is s-call$ 8!ory ( apes10 or 8pi!coid !ory10 & ! :ole ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,if ! latt] is ! greate/ inductive law ( biology1 !n x ( necessity foll[s t ! =m] is its mo/ important d$uctive law4 ,!y /& & fall toge!r4 ,z all dep5ds ^u a "r und]/&+ ( ?is proposition1 :i* 9 my op9ion is v important1 & :i* ,i h !re=e sev]al times br\ght be=e ! read]1 ,i may be all[$ to expla9 x "h by an example4 ,9 all mammals kn[n to u ! c5tre ( ! n]v\s sy/em is ! sp9al m>r[ & ! bra91 & ! c5tre ( ! vascul> sy/em is a quadrupal he>t1 consi/+ ( two pr9cipal *amb]s & two ante-*amb]s4 ,f ?is we draw ! g5]al inductive conclusion t all mammals1 )\t exception1 ^? ext9ct1 toge!r ) all ^? liv+ species z yet unkn[n to u1 z well z ! species :i* we h exam9$1 possess a l organization1 a l he>t1 bra91 & sp9al m>r[4 ,n[ if1 z /ill happ5s e ye>1 !re be discov]$ 9 any "p ( ! e>? a new species ( mammal1 a new species ( m>supial1 or a new species ( de]1 or a new species ( ape1 e zoologi/ kn[s ) c]ta9ty at once1 )\t hav+ exam9$ its inn] /ructure1 t ?is species mu/ possess a quadruple he>t1 a bra9 & sp9al m>r[1 l all o!r mammals4 ,n a s+le naturali/ w\ld ev] ?9k ( suppos+ t ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em ( ?is new species ( mammal c\ld possibly consi/ ( a v5tral cord ) an sophageal coll> z 9 ! insects1 or ( scatt]$ pairs ( knots z 9 ! molluscs1 or t its he>t c\ld be _m-*amb]$ z 9 flies1 or "o-*amb]$ z 9 ! tunicates4 ,?is completely c]ta9 & safe conclusion1 al?\gh x is n bas$ ^u any direct exp]i5ce1 is a d$uctive conclusion4 ,9 ! same way1 z ,i h %[n 9 a previ\s *apt]1 ,goe!1 f ! comp>ative anatomy ( mammals1 e/abli%$ ! g5]al inductive conclusion t !y all possess a mid jawbone1 & aft]w>ds drew f x ! special d$uctive conclusion t man1 :o 9 all o!r respects does n ess5tially diff] f o!r mammals1 mu/ also possess a l mid jawbone4 ,he ma9ta9$ ?is conclusion )\t hav+ actually se5 ! human mid jawbone1 & only prov$ its exi/5ce subsequ5tly by actual obs]vation 7vol4 i4 p4 #hd74 ,! process ( induction is a logical sy/em ( =m+ conclusions f ! special to ! g5]al1 by :i* we advance f _m individual exp]i5ces to a g5]al law2 d$uction1 on ! o!r h&1 draws a conclusion f ! g5]al to ! special1 f a g5]al law ( nature to an individual case4 ,?us ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t is1 )\t d\bt1 a great inductive law1 empirically bas$ ^u all ! biological exp]i5ce cit$ above2 ! pi!coid !ory1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* ass]ts t man has develop$ out ( l[]1 & 9 ! fir/ place out ( ape-l mammals1 is a d$uctive law insep>ably connect$ ) ! g5]al inductive law4 ,! p$igree ( ! human race1 ! approximate outl9es ( :i* ,i gave 9 ! la/ *apt] b "o1 ( c\rse rema9s 9 detail 7l all ! p$igrees ( animals & plants previ\sly discuss$7 a m or less approximate g5]al hypo!sis4 ,?is h[ev] does n affect ! application ( ! !ory ( desc5t to man4 ,"h1 z 9 all inve/igations on ! d]ivation ( organisms1 "o mu/ cle>ly di/+ui% betwe5 ! g5]al !ory ( desc5t & ! special hypo!ses ( desc5t4 ,! g5]al !ory ( desc5t claims full & la/+ value1 because x is an inductive law1 bas$ ^u all ! :ole s]ies ( biological ph5om5a & _! inn] causal connection4 ,e special hypo!sis ( desc5t1 on ! o!r h&1 has its special value det]m9$ by ! exi/+ condition ( our biological k1 & by ! ext5t ( ! objective empirical basis ^u :i* we d$uctively e/abli% ?is p>ticul> hypo!sis4 ,h5ce1 all ! individual attempts to obta9 a k ( ! p$igree ( any "o gr\p ( organisms possesses b a tempor>y & conditional value1 & any special hypo!sis relat+ to x w become ! m & m p]fect ! great] ! advance we make 9 ! comp>ative anatomy1 ontog5y1 & palontology ( ! gr\p 9 "q4 ,! m1 h[ev]1 we ent] into g5ealogical details1 & ! fur!r we trace ! sep>ate (f-%oots & bran*es ( ! p$igree1 ! m unc]ta9 & subjective becomes our special hypo!sis ( desc5t on acc\nt ( ! incomplet5ess ( our empirical basis4 ,?is h[ev] does no injury to ! g5]al !ory ( desc5t1 :i* rema9s z ! indisp5sable f\ndation = really pr(\nd appreh5sion ( biological ph5om5a4 ,accord+ly1 !re c be no d\bt t we c & mu/1 ) full assurance1 reg>d ! d]ivation ( man--9 ! fir/ place1 f ape-l =ms2 f>!r back1 f l[] mammals1 & ?us cont9ually f>!r back to l[] /ages ( ! v]tebrata d[n to _! l[e/ inv]tebrate roots1 nay1 ev5 d[n to a simple pla/id--z a g5]al !ory4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! special trac+ ( ! human p$igree1 ! clos] def9ition ( ! animal =ms kn[n to u1 :i* ei!r actually belong to ! ance/ors ( man1 or at lea/ /& 9 v close blood relation%ip to !m1 w always rema9 a m or less approximate hypo!sis ( desc5t1 all ! m 9 dang] ( deviat+ f ! real p$igree ! ne>] x endeav\rs to approa* x by se>*+ = ! individual ance/ral =ms4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s results f ! imm5se gaps 9 our palontological k1 :i* c1 "u no circum/ances1 ev] atta9 to ev5 an approximate complet5ess4 ,a ?\ghtful consid]ation ( ?is important circum/ance at once furni%es ! answ] to a "q :i* is commonly rais$ 9 discuss+ ?is subject1 namely1 ! "q ( sci5tific pro(s = ! animal orig9 ( ! human race4 ,n only ! oppon5ts ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 b ev5 _m ( its adh]5ts :o are want+ 9 ! requisite philosophical culture1 look too mu* = 8signs0 & = special empirical advances 9 ! sci5ce ( nature4 ,!y await ! sudd5 discov]y ( a human race ) tails1 or ( a talk+ species ( ape1 or ( o!r liv+ or fossil transition =ms betwe5 man & ! ape1 :i* %all fill ! already n>r[ *asm betwe5 ! two1 & ?us empirically 8prove0 ! d]ivation ( man f apes4 ,su* special manife/ations1 7 !y ev] s conv9c+ & conclusive1 w\ld n furni% ! pro( desir$4 ,un?9k+ p]sons1 or ^? unacqua9t$ ) ! s]ies ( biological ph5om5a1 w\ld /ill be able to ma9ta9 ! objections to ^? special te/imonies :i* !y n[ ma9ta9 aga9/ our !ory4 ,! absolute c]ta9ty ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 ev5 9 its application to man1 is built on a m solid f\ndation2 & its true inn] value c nev] be te/$ simply by ref]5ce to individual exp]i5ce1 b only by a philosophical comp>ison & e/imation ( ! treasures ( all our biological exp]i5ces4 ,! ine/imable importance ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t is surely bas$ ^u ?is1 t ! !ory foll[s ( necessity 7z a g5]al inductive law7 f ! comp>ative syn!sis ( all organic ph5om5a ( nature1 & m especially f ! triple p>allelism ( comp>ative anatomy1 ( ontog5y1 & phylog5y2 & ! pi!coid !ory "u all circum/ances 7ap>t f all special pro(s7 rema9s z a special d$uctive conclusion :i* mu/ ( necessity be drawn f ! g5]al inductive law ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,9 my op9ion1 all dep5ds ^u a "r und]/&+ ( ?is philosophical f\ndation ( ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t & ( ! pi!coid !ory :i* is insep>able f x4 ,_m p]sons w probably admit ?is1 & yet at ! same "t ma9ta9 t all ?is applies only to ! bodily1 n to ! m5tal developm5t ( man4 ,n[1 z we h hi!rto be5 occupi$ only ) ! =m]1 x is p]haps necess>y "h to ca/ a glance at ! latt]1 9 ord] to %[ t x is also subject to ! great g5]al law ( developm5t4 ,9 do+ ?is x is above all necess>y to recollect t body & m9d c 9 fact nev] be consid]$ z di/9ct1 b r t bo? sides ( nature are insep>ably connect$1 & /& 9 ! close/ int]action4 ,z ev5 ,goe! has cle>ly express$ x--8matt] c nev] exi/ & act )\t m9d1 & m9d nev] )\t matt]40 ,! artificial discord betwe5 m9d & body1 betwe5 =ce & matt]1 :i* 0 ma9ta9$ by ! errone\s duali/ic & teleological philosophy ( pa/ times has be5 dispos$ ( by ! advances ( natural sci5ce1 & especially by ! !ory ( developm5t1 & c no long] exi/ 9 face ( ! prevail+ me*anical & moni/ic philosophy ( our day4 ,h[ human nature1 & its position 9 reg>d to ! re/ ( ! univ]se1 is to be conceiv$ ( accord+ to ! mod]n view1 has be5 m9utely discuss$ by ,rad5haus5 9 8 8,isis107#cc7 :i* is excell5t & well wor? p]usal4 ,) reg>d to ! orig9 ( ! human m9d or ! s\l ( man1 we1 9 ! fir/ place1 p]ceive t 9 e human individual x develops f ! beg9n+1 /ep by /ep & gradually1 j l ! body4 ,9 a newly born *ild we see t x possesses nei!r an indep5d5t consci\sness1 nor 9 fact cle> ideas4 ,^! arise only gradually :51 by means ( s5su\s exp]i5ce1 ! ph5om5a ( ! out] _w affect ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,b /ill ! little *ild is want+ 9 all ^? diff]5tiat$ emotions ( ! s\l :i* ! full-gr[n man acquires only by ! long exp]i5ce ( ye>s4 ,f ?is graduat$ developm5t ( ! human s\l 9 e s+le individual we c1 9 accordance ) ! inn] causal connection betwe5 ontog5y & phylog5y1 directly inf] ! gradual developm5t ( ! human s\l 9 all mank9d1 & fur!r1 9 ! :ole ( ! v]tebrate tribe4 ,9 its insep>able connection ) ! body1 ! human s\l or m9d has also _h to pass ?r\gh all ^? gradual /ages ( developm5t1 all ^? v>i\s degrees ( diff]5tiation & p]fect+1 ( :i* ! hypo!tical s]ies ( human ance/ors sket*$ 9 a late *apt] gives an approximate repres5tation4 ,x is true t ?is conception g5]ally greatly (f5ds mo/ p]sons on _! fir/ becom+ acqua9t$ ) ! ,!ory ( ,developm5t1 because m ?an all o!rs x mo/ /rongly contradicts ! traditional & my?ological ideas1 & ! prejudices :i* h be5 held sacr$ = ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,b l all o!r functions ( organisms1 ! human s\l mu/ necess>ily h hi/orically develop$1 & ! comp>ative or empirical /udy ( animal psy*ology cle>ly %[s t ?is developm5t c only be conceiv$ ( z a gradual evolution f ! s\l ( v]tebrate animals1 z a gradual diff]5tiation & p]fect+ :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( _m ?\s&s ( ye>s1 has l$ to ! glori\s triumph ( ! human m9d ov] its l[] animal ance/ral /ages4 ,"h1 z ev]y:]e1 ! only way to arrive at a k ( natural tru? is to comp>e k9dr$ ph5om5a1 & inve/igate _! developm5t4 ,h5ce we mu/ above all1 z we did 9 ! exam9ation ( ! bodily developm5t1 comp>e ! highe/ animal ph5om5a on ! "o h& ) ! l[e/ animal ph5om5a1 & on ! o!r ) ! l[e/ human ph5om5a4 ,! f9al result ( ?is comp>ison is ?is--t betwe5 ! mo/ highly develop$ animal s\ls1 & ! l[e/ develop$ human s\ls1 !re exi/s only a small quantitative1 b no qualitative diff]5ce1 & t ?is diff]5ce is mu* less ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! l[e/ & ! highe/ human s\ls1 or ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! highe/ & ! l[e/ animal s\ls4 ,9 ord] to be conv9c$ ( ?is important result1 x is above all ?+s necess>y to /udy & comp>e ! m5tal life ( wild savages & ( *ildr547#cb7 ,at ! l[e/ /age ( human m5tal developm5t are ! ,au/ralians1 "s tribes ( ! ,polynesians1 & ! ,bu%m51 ,hott5tots1 & "s ( ! ,negro tribes4 ,language1 ! *ief *>act]i/ic ( g5u9e m51 has ) !m rema9$ at ! l[e/ /age ( developm5t1 & h5ce also _! =mation ( ideas has rema9$ at a l[ /age4 ,_m ( ^! wild tribes h n ev5 a "n = animal1 plant1 col\r1 & su* mo/ simple ideas1 :]eas !y h a ^w = e s+le1 /rik+ =m ( animal & plant1 & = e s+le s\nd or col\r4 ,?us ev5 ! mo/ simple ab/ractions are want+4 ,9 _m ( ^! languages !re are num]als only = "o1 two1 & ?ree3 no ,au/ralian language c\nts beyond f\r4 ,v _m wild tribes c c\nt no fur!r ?an t5 or tw5ty1 :]eas "s v clev] dogs h be5 made to c\nt up to =ty & ev5 beyond sixty4 ,& yet ! faculty ( appreciat+ numb] is ! beg9n+ ( ma!matics6 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 is p]haps m rem>kable 9 ?is respect1 ?an t "s ( ! wilde/ tribes 9 s\!rn ,asia & ea/]n ,africa h no trace :atev] ( ! fir/ f\ndations ( all human civilization1 ( family life1 & m>riage4 ,!y live toge!r 9 h]ds1 l apes1 g5]ally climb+ on trees & eat+ fruits2 !y d n "k ( fire1 & use /ones & clubs z weapons1 j l ! high] apes4 ,all attempts to introduce civilization among ^!1 & _m ( ! o!r tribes ( ! l[e/ human species1 h hi!rto be5 ( no avail2 x is impossible to implant human culture :]e ! requisite soil1 namely1 ! p]fect+ ( ! bra91 is want+4 ,n "o ( ^! tribes has ev] be5 ennobl$ by civilization2 x r accel]ates _! ext9ction4 ,!y h b>ely ris5 above ! l[e/ /age ( transition f man-l apes to ape-l m51 a /age :i* ! prog5itors ( ! high] human species _h already pass$ ?r\gh ?\s&s ( ye>s ago47#dd7 ,n[ consid]1 on ! o!r h&1 ! highe/ /ages ( developm5t ( m5tal life 9 ! high] v]tebrate animals1 especially birds & mammals4 ,if1 z is usually done1 we divide ! diff]5t emotions ( ! s\l into ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps--s5sation1 w1 & ?\ght--we %all f9d 9 reg>d to e "o ( !m1 t ! mo/ highly develop$ birds & mammals are on a level ) ! l[e/ human be+s1 or ev5 decid$ly surpass !m4 ,! w is z di/9ctly & /rongly develop$ 9 high] animals z 9 m5 ( "*4 ,9 bo? cases x is nev] actually free1 b always det]m9$ by a causal *a9 ( ideas4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #bcg47 ,9 l mann]1 ! diff]5t degrees ( w1 en]gy1 & passion are z v>i\sly graduat$ 9 high] animals z 9 man4 ,! affections ( ! high] animals are n less t5d] & w>m ?an ^? ( man4 ,! fidelity & devotion ( ! dog1 ! mat]nal love ( ! lioness1 ! conjugal love & connubial fidelity ( doves & love-birds are prov]bial1 & might s]ve z examples to _m m54 ,if ^! virtues are to be call$ 8in/9cts10 !n !y des]ve ! same "n 9 mank9d4 ,la/ly1 ) reg>d to ?\ght1 ! comp>ative consid]ation ( :i* d\btless pres5ts ! mo/ difficulties1 ?is mu* may ) c]ta9ty be inf]r$--especially f an exam9ation ( ! comp>ative psy*ology ( cultivat$ dome/ic animals--t ! processes ( ?9k+1 "h foll[ ! same laws z 9 ourselves4 ,exp]i5ces ev]y:]e =m ! f\ndation ( conceptions1 & lead to ! recognition ( ! connection betwe5 cause & effect4 ,9 all cases1 z 9 man1 x is ! pa? ( induction & d$uction :i* leads to ! =mation ( conclusions4 ,x is evid5t t 9 all ^! respects ! mo/ highly develop$ animals /& mu* ne>] to man ?an to ! l[] animals1 al?\gh !y are also connect$ ) ! latt] by a *a9 ( gradual & int]m$iate /ages4 ,9 ,wundt's excell5t 8,lectures on ! ,human & ,animal ,s\l107#df7 !re are a numb] ( pro(s ( ?is4 ,n[1 if in/itut+ comp>isons 9 bo? directions1 we place ! l[e/ & mo/ ape-l m5 7! ,au/ral ,negroes1 ,bu%m51 & ,&amans1 etc471 on ! "o h&1 toge!r ) ! mo/ highly develop$ animals1 = in/ance1 ) apes1 dogs1 & elephants1 & on ! o!r h&1 ) ! mo/ highly develop$ m5--,ari/otle1 ,newton1 ,sp9oza1 ,kant1 ,lam>ck1 or ,goe!--we c !n no long] consid] ! ass]tion1 t ! m5tal life ( ! high] mammals has gradually develop$ up to t ( man1 z 9 any way exagg]at$4 ,if "o mu/ draw a %>p b\nd>y betwe5 !m1 x has to be drawn betwe5 ! mo/ highly develop$ & civiliz$ man on ! "o h&1 & ! rude/ savages on ! o!r1 & ! latt] h to be class$ ) ! animals4 ,?is is1 9 fact1 ! op9ion ( _m travell]s1 :o h long wat*$ ! l[e/ human races 9 _! native c\ntries4 ,?us1 = example1 a great ,engli% travell]1 :o liv$ = a consid]able "t on ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa1 says3 8,i consid] ! negro to be a l[] species ( man1 & _c make up my m9d to look ^u him z #8a man & a bro!r1' = ! gorilla w\ld !n also h to be admitt$ into ! family40 ,ev5 _m ,*ri/ian mission>ies1 :o1 aft] long ye>s ( fruitless endeav\rs to civilize ^! l[e/ races1 h ab&on$ ! attempt1 express ! same h>% judgm5t1 & ma9ta9 t x w\ld be easi] to tra9 ! mo/ intellig5t dome/ic animals to a moral & civiliz$ life1 ?an ^! unreason+ brute-l m54 ,= in/ance1 ! able ,au/rian mission>y ,morlang1 :o tri$ = _m ye>s )\t ! slighte/ success to civilize ! ape-l negro tribes on ! ,upp] ,nile1 expressly says3 8t any mission to su* savages is absolutely useless4 ,!y /& f> bel[ unreason+ animals2 ! latt] at lea/ %[ signs ( affection t[>ds ^? :o are k9d t[>ds !m1 :]eas ^! brutal natives are utt]ly incapable ( any feel+ ( gratitude40 ,n[1 x cle>ly foll[s f ^! & o!r te/imonies1 t ! m5tal diff]5ces betwe5 ! l[e/ m5 & ! animals are less ?an ^? betwe5 ! l[e/ & ! highe/ m52 & if1 toge!r ) ?is1 we take into consid]ation ! fact t 9 e s+le human *ild m5tal life develops sl[ly1 gradually1 & /ep by /ep1 f ! l[e/ condition ( animal unconsci\sness1 ne$ we /ill feel (f5d$ :5 told t ! m9d ( ! :ole human race has 9 l mann] gone ?r\gh a process ( sl[1 gradual1 & hi/orical developm5t8 ,c we f9d x 8degrad+0 to ! human s\l t1 by a long & sl[ process ( diff]5tiation & p]fect+1 x has v gradually develop$ out ( ! s\l ( v]tebrate animals8 ,i freely ackn[l$ge t ?is objection1 :i* is at pres5t rais$ by _m aga9/ ! pi!coid !ory1 is q incompreh5sible to me4 ,on ?is po9t ,b]nh>d ,cotta1 9 8 excell5t 8,geologie d] ,geg5w>t10 v ju/ly rem>ks3 8,our ance/ors may be a great hon\r to u2 b x is mu* bett] if we are an hon\r to !m607#ca7 ,our ,!ory ( ,developm5t expla9s ! orig9 ( man & ! c\rse ( 8 hi/orical developm5t 9 ! only natural mann]4 ,we see 9 8 gradually asc5sive developm5t out ( ! l[] v]tebrata1 ! greate/ triumph ( humanity ov] ! :ole ( ! re/ ( ,nature4 ,we are pr\d ( hav+ s imm5sely out/ripp$ our l[] animal ance/ors1 & d]ive f x ! consol+ assurance t 9 future also1 mank9d1 z a :ole1 w foll[ ! glori\s c>e] ( progressive developm5t1 & atta9 a /ill high] degree ( m5tal p]fection4 ,:5 view$ 9 ?is light1 ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t z appli$ to man op5s up ! mo/ enc\rag+ prospects = ! future1 & frees u f all ^? anxi\s fe>s :i* h be5 ! sc>ecr[s ( our oppon5ts4 ,we c ev5 n[ =esee ) c]ta9ty t ! complete victory ( our ,!ory ( ,developm5t w be> imm5sely ri* fruits--fruits :i* h no equal 9 ! :ole hi/ory ( ! civilization ( mank9d4 ,its fir/ & mo/ direct result--! complete re=m ( ,biology--w necess>ily be foll[$ by a /ill m important & fruitful re=m ( ,an?ropology4 ,f ?is new !ory ( man !re w be develop$ a new philosophy1 n l mo/ ( ! airy sy/ems ( metaphysical speculation hi!rto preval5t1 b "o f\nd$ ^u ! solid gr\nd ( ,comp>ative ,zoology4 ,a beg9n+ ( ?is has already be5 made by ! great ,engli% philosoph] ,h]b]t ,sp5c]47#de7 ,j z ?is new moni/ic philosophy fir/ op5s up to u a true und]/&+ ( ! real univ]se1 s its application to practical human life mu/ op5 up a new road t[>ds moral p]fection4 ,by its aid we %all at la/ beg9 to raise ourselves out ( ! /ate ( social b>b>ism 9 :i*1 not)/&+ ! mu* vaunt$ civilization ( our c5tury1 we are /ill plung$4 ,=1 un=tunately1 x is only too true1 z ,alfr$ ,wallace rem>ks ) reg>d to ?is1 at ! end ( 8 book ( travels3 8,comp>$ ) our wondr\s progress 9 physical sci5ce & its practical applications1 our sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 ( adm9i/]+ ju/ice1 ( national education1 & our :ole social & moral organisation rema9s 9 a /ate ( b>b>ism40 ,?is social & moral b>b>ism we %all nev] ov]come by ! artificial & p]v]se tra9+1 ! "o-sid$ & defective tea*+1 ! inn] untru? & ! ext]nal t9sel1 ( our pres5t /ate ( civilization4 ,x is above all ?+s necess>y to make a complete & hone/ return to ,nature & to natural relations4 ,?is return1 h[ev]1 w only become possible :5 man sees & und]/&s 8 true 8place 9 nature40 ,he w !n1 z ,fritz ,ratzel has excell5tly rem>k$17#dg7 8no long] consid] himself an exception to natural laws1 b beg9 to seek = :at is lawful 9 8 own actions & ?\ghts1 & endeav\r to lead a life accord+ to natural laws40 ,he w come to arrange 8 life ) 8 fell[-creatures--t is1 ! family & ! /ate--n accord+ to ! laws ( di/ant c5turies1 b accord+ to ! rational pr9ciples d$uc$ f k ( nature4 ,politics1 morals1 & ! pr9ciples ( ju/ice1 :i* are /ill drawn f all possible s\rces1 w h to be =m$ 9 accordance ) natural laws only4 ,an exi/5ce wor?y ( man1 :i* has be5 talk$ ( = ?\s&s ( ye>s1 w at l5g? become a reality4 ,! highe/ function ( ! human m9d is p]fect k1 fully develop$ consci\sness1 & ! moral activity aris+ f x4 8,"k ?yself60 0 ! cry ( ! philosoph]s ( antiquity to _! fell[-m5 :o 7 /riv+ to ennoble !mselves4 8,"k ?yself60 is ! cry ( ! ,!ory ( ,developm5t1 n m]ely to ! individual1 b to all mank9d4 ,& :il/ increas$ k ( self becomes1 9 ! case ( e individual man1 a /rong =ce urg+ to an increas$ att5tion to conduct1 mank9d z a :ole w be l$ to a high] pa? ( moral p]fection by ! k ( its true orig9 & its actual position 9 ,nature4 ,! simple religion ( ,nature1 :i* gr[s f a true k ( ,h]1 & ( ,h] inexhau/ible /ore ( revelations1 w 9 future ennoble & p]fect ! developm5t ( mank9d f> beyond t degree :i* c possibly be atta9$ "u ! influ5ce ( ! multif>i\s religions ( ! *ur*es ( ! v>i\s nations1--religions re/+ on a bl9d belief 9 ! vague secrets & my?ical revelations ( a sac]dotal ca/e4 ,future c5turies w celebrate our age1 :i* 0 occupi$ ) lay+ ! f\ndations ( ! ,doctr9e ( ,desc5t1 z ! new era 9 :i* began a p]iod ( human developm5t1 ri* 9 bless+s1--a p]iod :i* 0 *>act]iz$ by ! victory ( free inquiry ov] ! despotism ( au?ority1 & by ! p[]ful ennobl+ influ5ce ( ! ,moni/ic ,philosophy4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,) ! exception ( a s+le specim5 ( ! bones ( a foot1 pres]v$ 9 ! cab9et ( ,amh]/ ,college4--,e4 ,r4 ,l4 #b ,! prim>y /ock ( ! ,conif] divid$ into two bran*es at an e>ly p]iod1 into ! ,arauc>i on ! "o h&1 & ! ,taxace1 or yew-trees1 on ! o!r4 ,! majority ( rec5t ,conif] are d]iv$ f ! =m]4 ,out ( ! latt] ! ?ird class ( ! ,gymnosp]ms--! ,m5+os1 or ,gnetace--7 develop$4 ,?is small b v int]e/+ class conta9s only ?ree diff]5t g5]a--,gnetum1 ,welwits*ia1 & ,eph$ra2 x is1 h[ev]1 ( great importance1 z x =ms ! transition gr\p f ! ,conif] to ! ,angiosp]ms1 & m especially to ! ,dicotyl$ons4 #c 8,ueb] e9 ,aequival5t d] takonis*5 ,s*ief] ,nordam]ikas 9 ,deuts*l&40 #d ,! ,engli% ^w 8,insects0 might ) advantage be us$ 9 ! ,l9nan s5se = ! :ole gr\p ( ,ar?ropods4 ,9 ?is case ! ,hexapod ,insects might be spok5 ( z ! ,flies4--,e4 ,r4 ,l4 #e ,weisba*3 8,nov>a-,reise10 ,an?ropholog4 ,!il4 #f ,msset im ,naturbetra*t5 ,imm] ,e9s wie ,alles a*t54 ,ni*ts i/ dr9n51 ,ni*ts i/ drausz51 ,d5n 0 inn51 das i/ ausz54 #g ,natur hat w$] ,k]n no* ,s*ale1 ,alles i/ sie mit e9em ,male4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,! ,,works ,,ref]r$ ,,to ,,9 ,,! ,,text ,,by ,,figures1 ,,?us--7#a71 ,! /udy ( :i* is recomm5d$ to ! ,read]4 #a4 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,species by means ( ,natural ,selection2 or1 ! ,pres]vation ( ,fav\r$ ,races 9 ! ,/ruggle = ,life4 ,london1 #ahei4 #e? ,edition1 #ahfi4 #b4 ,jean ,lam>ck1 ,philosophie ,zoologique1 ou ,exposition des ,considrations relatives l'hi/oire naturelle des animaux2 la div]sit de leur organisation et des facults1 qu'ils en obti5n5t2 aux causes physiques1 qui ma9ti5n5t en eux la vie et donn5t lieu aux m\vem5s1 qu'ils excut5t2 enf91 celles qui produis5t1 les unes le s5tim5t1 et les autres l'intellig5ce de ceux qui en sont d\s4 #b ,tomes4 ,p>is1 #ahji4 #c4 ,wolfgang ,goe!1 ,zur ,morphologie3 ,bildung und ,umbildung organis*] ,natur54 ,die ,metamorphose d] ,pflanz51 #agij4 ,o/eologie1 #aghf4 ,vortrge b] die drei er/5 ,capitel des ,entwurfs e9] allgeme95 ,e9leitung 9 die v]glei*5de ,anatomie1 ausgeh5d von d] ,o/eologie1 #aghf4 ,zur ,naturwiss5s*aft im ,allgeme951 #aghj-ahcb4 7,wolfgang ,goe!1 ,contributions to ,morphology3 ,=mation & ,trans=mation ( ,organic ,natures4 ,! ,metamorphosis ( ,plants1 #agij4 ,o/eology1 #aghf4 ,lectures on ! fir/ ?ree *apt]s ( an ,attempt at a ,g5]al ,introduction to ,comp>ative ,anatomy1 beg9n+ ) ,o/eology1 #aghf4 ,contributions to ! ,sci5ce ( ,nature 9 g5]al1 #aghj-ahcb47 #d4 ,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,g5]elle ,morphologie d] ,organism53 ,allgeme9e ,grundzge d] organis*5 ,=m5wiss5s*aft1 me*anis* begrndet dur* die von ,*>les ,d>w9 re=mirte ,desc5d5z-!orie4 ,i4 ,b&1 ,allgeme9e ,anatomie d] ,organism51 od] ,wiss5s*aft von d5 entwickelt5 organis*5 ,=m54 ,,ii4 ,b&1 ,allgeme9e ,entwickelungsges*i*te d] ,organism51 od] ,wiss5s*aft von d5 ent/eh5d5 organis*5 ,=m54 ,b]l91 #ahff4 7,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,g5]al ,morphology ( ,organisms2 ,g5]al ,outl9es ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,organic ,=ms bas$ on ,me*anical ,pr9ciples ?r\gh ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t z re=m$ by ,*>les ,d>w94 ,vol4 ,i41 ,g5]al ,anatomy ( ,organisms2 or1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,fully ,develop$ ,organic ,=ms4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ! ,developm5t ( ,organisms2 or1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,organic ,=ms 9 _! ,orig94 ,b]l91 #ahff47 #e4 ,l\is ,agassiz1 ,an ,essay on ,classification4 ,contributions to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,bo/on4 ,vol4 ,i41 #aheg4 #f4 ,augu/ ,s*lei*]1 ,die ,d>w9's*e ,!orie und die ,spra*wiss5s*aft4 ,weim>1 #ahfc4 7,augu/ ,s*lei*]1 ,d>w9's ,!ory & ! ,sci5ce ( ,language4 ,weim>1 #ahfc47 #g4 ,m4 ,j4 ,s*leid51 ,grundzge d] wiss5s*aftli*5 ,botanik 7die ,botanik als inductive ,wiss5s*aft74 #b ,bnde4 ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 7,m4 ,j4 ,s*leid51 ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5tific ,botany 7,botany z an ,inductive ,sci5ce74 #b ,vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 ,translat$ by ,edw9 ,lanke/]1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #ahdi47 #h4 ,franz ,ung]1 ,v]su* e9] ,ges*i*te d] ,pflanz5welt4 ,wi51 #aheb4 7,franz ,ung]1 ,essay on ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom4 ,vi5na1 #aheb47 #i4 ,victor ,c>us1 ,sy/em d] ?i]is*5 ,morphologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahec4 7,victor ,c>us1 ,sy/em ( ,animal ,morphology4 ,leipzig1 #ahec47 #aj4 ,l\is ,b*n]1 ,kraft und ,/(f4 ,empiris*-naturphilosophis*e ,/udi5 9 allgeme9 v]/ndli*] ,d>/ellung1 ,frank=t1 #ahee1 #c ,auflage4 #ahfg1 #i ,auflage4 7,l\is ,b*n]1 ,=ce & ,matt]4 ,/udies 9 ! ,empirical ,philosophy ( ,nature1 treat$ popul>ly4 ,frank=t1 #ahee1 #crd ,edition4 #ahfg1 #i? ,edition47 #aa4 ,*>les ,lyell1 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology4 ,london1 #ahcj4 #aj? ,edition1 #ahfh4 #ab4 ,alb]t ,lange1 ,ges*i*te des ,mat]ialismus und ,kritik se9] ,b$eutung 9 d] ,geg5w>t4 ,is]lohn1 #ahff4 7,alb]t ,lange1 ,hi/ory ( ,mat]ialism1 & a ,criticism ( its ,importance at ! ,pres5t ,"t4 ,is]lohn1 #ahff47 #ac4 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,voyage ( ! ,beagle4 ,london4 #ad4 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,! ,v>iation ( ,animals & ,plants "u ,dome/ication4 #b ,vols4 ,london1 #ahfh4 #ae4 ,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,/udi5 b] ,mon]5 und &]e ,proti/51 neb/ e9] ,r$e b] ,entwickelungsgang und ,aufgabe d] ,zoologie4 ,mit #f ,kupf]tafeln4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 7,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,/udies on ! ,mon]a & o!r ,proti/a1 toge!r ) a ,disc\rse on ! ,evolution & ! ,problems ( ,zoology4 ,) #f ,copp]-plates4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj47 #af4 ,fritz ,mll]1 ,fr ,d>w94 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 7,fritz ,mll]1 ,= ,d>w94 ,translat$ by ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas4 ,london1 ,murray47 #ag4 ,?omas ,huxley1 ,on our ,k ( ! ,causes ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ,organic ,nature4 ,six ,popul> ,lectures4 ,london1 ,h>dwicke1 #ahfb4 #ah4 ,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,morphologis*e ,/udi5 b] die ,ge/altungsgesetze d] ,naturkrp] b]haupt1 und d] ,organis*5 insbesond]e4 ,leipzig und ,heidelb]g1 #aheh4 7,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,morphological ,/udies on ! ,laws ( ,=m ( ,natural ,bodies 9 ,g5]al1 & ( ,organic ,bodies 9 ,p>ticul>4 ,leipzig & ,heidelb]g1 #aheh47 #ai4 ,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,unt]su*ung5 b] die ,entwickelungsgesetze d] organis*5 ,welt whr5d d] ,bildungszeit uns]] ,erdob]fl*e4 ,/uttg>t1 #aheh4 7,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,inve/igations on ! ,laws ( ,developm5t ( ! ,organic ,_w dur+ ! ,"t ( ! ,=mation ( ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4 ,/uttg>t1 #aheh47 #bj4 ,c>l ,ern/ ,br1 ,ueb] ,entwickelungsges*i*te d] ,?i]e4 ,beoba*tung und ,reflexion4 #b ,bnde4 #ahbh4 7,c>l ,ern/ ,br1 ,on ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,developm5t ( ,animals4 ,obs]vation & ,reflection4 #b ,vols4 #ahbh47 #ba4 ,c>l ,geg5baur1 ,grundzge d] v]glei*5d5 ,anatomie4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #b 7,umge>beitete7 ,auflage1 #ahgj4 7,c>l ,geg5baur1 ,outl9es ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #bnd 7,revis$7 ,edition1 #ahgj47 #bb4 ,immanuel ,kant1 ,allgeme9e ,naturges*i*te und ,!orie des ,himmels1 od] ,v]su* von d] ,v]fassung und dem me*anis*5 ,ursprunge des ganz5 ,weltgebudes na* ,newton's*5 ,grundstz5 abgeh&elt4 ,knigsb]g1 #agee4 7,immanuel ,kant1 ,g5]al ,hi/ory ( ,nature & ,!ory ( ! ,heav5s2 or1 ,essay on ! ,con/itution & ! ,me*anical ,orig9 ( ! :ole ,univ]se treat$ accord+ to ,newton's ,pr9ciples4 ,knigsb]g1 #agee47 #bc4 ,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,die ,radiol>i54 ,e9e ,monographie4 ,mit e9em ,atlas von #ce ,kupf]tafeln4 ,b]l91 #ahfb4 7,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,! ,radiol>ia4 ,a ,monograph1 ) ,atlas conta9+ #ce ,copp]-plates4 ,b]l91 #ahfb47 #bd4 ,augu/ ,weismann1 ,ueb] d5 ,e9flusz d] ,isolirung auf die ,artbildung4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 7,augu/ ,weismann1 ,on ! ,influ5ce ( ,isolation on ! ,=mation ( ,species4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb47 #be4 ,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,ueb] die ,en/ehung und d5 ,/ammbaum des ,m5s*5ges*le*ts4 ,zwei ,vortrge 9 d] ,sammlung geme9v]/ndli*] wiss5s*aftli*] ,vortrge1 h]ausgegeb5 von ,vir*[ und ,holtz5dorff4 ,b]l91 #ahfh4 #b ,auflage1 #ahgj4 7,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,on ! ,orig9 & ! ,p$igree ( ! ,human ,race4 ,two ,lectures 9 ! ,collection ( ,popul> ,sci5tific ,lectures1 edit$ by ,vir*[ & ,holtz5dorff4 ,b]l91 #ahfh4 #bnd ,edition1 #ahgj47 #bf4 ,?omas ,huxley1 ,evid5ces z to ,man's ,place 9 ,nature4 ,?ree ,p>ts3 #a4 ,on ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,man-l ,apes4 #b4 ,on ! ,relations ( ,man to ! ,l[] ,animals4 #c4 ,on "s ,fossil ,rema9s ( ,man4 ,london1 ,williams ,norgate4 #bg4 ,c>l ,vogt1 ,vorlesung5 b] d5 ,m5s*51 se9e ,/ellung 9 d] ,s*pfung und 9 d] ,ges*i*te d] ,erde4 #b ,bnde4 ,giess51 #ahfc4 7,c>l ,vogt1 ,lectures on ,man1 8 ,place 9 ,creation & 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 #b ,vols4 ,giess51 #ahfc47 #bh4 ,fri$ri* ,rolle1 ,d] ,m5s*1 se9e ,ab/ammung und ,gesittung im ,li*te d] ,d>w9's*5 ,lehre von d] ,art-,ent/ehung1 und auf ,grund d] neu]5 geologis*5 ,entdeckung5 d>ge/ellt4 ,frankfurt-a-,m41 #ahff4 7,fri$ri* ,rolle1 ,man1 8 ,d]ivation & ,civilization1 9 ! ,light ( ,d>w9's ,!ory ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species1 bas$ on ,rec5t ,geological ,discov]ies4 ,frank=t-a-,m41 #ahff47 #bi4 ,edu>d ,rei*1 ,die allgeme9e ,naturlehre des ,m5s*54 ,giess51 #ahfe4 7,edu>d ,rei*1 ,! ,g5]al ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man4 ,giess51 #ahfe47 #cj4 ,*>les ,lyell1 ,! ,antiquity ( ,man4 ,london1 ,murray4 #ca4 ,b]nh>d ,cotta1 ,die ,geologie d] ,geg5w>t4 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 7,b]nh>d ,cotta1 ,! ,geology ( ! ,pres5t ,day47 #cb4 ,k>l ,zittel1 ,aus d] ,urzeit4 ,bild] aus d] ,s*pfungsges*i*te4 ,mn*51 #ahga4 7,k>l ,zittel1 ,primval ,times4 ,pictures f ! ,hi/ory ( ,creation4 ,muni*1 #ahga47 #cc4 ,c4 ,rad5haus51 ,isis4 ,d] ,m5s* und die ,welt4 #d ,bnde4 ,hamburg1 #ahfc4 #b ,auflage1 #ahga4 7,c4 ,rad5haus51 ,isis4 ,man & ! ,univ]se4 #d ,vols4 ,hamburg1 #ahfc4 #bnd ,edition1 #ahga47 #cd4 ,augu/ ,s*lei*]1 ,ueb] d] ,b$eutung d] ,spra*e fr die ,naturges*i*te des ,m5s*54 ,weim>1 #ahfe4 7,augu/ ,s*lei*]1 ,on ! ,importance ( ,language to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,man4 ,weim>1 #ahfe74 #ce4 ,wilhelm ,bleek1 ,ueb] d5 ,ursprung d] ,spra*e4 ,h]ausgegeb5 mit e9em ,vorwort von ,ern/ ,haeckel4 ,weim>1 #ahfh4 7,wilhelm ,bleek1 ,on ! ,orig9 ( ,language4 ,edit$ & ) a ,preface by ,ern/ ,haeckel4 ,weim>1 #ahfh47 #cf4 ,alfr$ ,russel ,wallace1 ,! ,malayan ,ar*ipelago4 ,london1 ,macmillan4 #cg4 ,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,ueb] ,arbeit/heilung 9 ,natur- und ,m5s*5leb54 ,sammlung geme9v]/ndli*] wiss5s*aftli*] ,vortrge1 h]ausgegeb5 von ,vir*[ und ,holtz5dorff4 #d ,s]ie4 #ahfi4 ,heft #gh4 7,ern/ ,haeckel1 ,on ,diff]5tiation 9 ,nature & 9 ,human ,life4 ,a ,collection ( ,popul> ,sci5tific ,lectures1 edit$ by ,vir*[ & ,holtz5dorff4 #d? ,s]ies4 #ahfi4 ,no4 #gh47 #ch4 ,h]mann ,helmholtz1 ,populre wiss5s*aftli*e ,vortrge4 ,brauns*weig1 #ahga4 7,h]mann ,helmholtz1 ,popul> ,sci5tific ,lectures4 ,brunswick1 #ahga47 #ci4 ,alex&] ,humboldt1 ,ansi*t5 d] ,natur4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahbf4 7,alex&] ,humboldt1 ,views ( ,nature4 ,/uttg>t1 #ahbf47 #dj4 ,moritz ,wagn]1 ,die ,d>w9's*e ,!orie und das ,migrationsgesetz d] ,organism54 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 7,moritz ,wagn]1 ,d>w9's ,!ory & ! ,law ( ! ,migration ( ,organisms4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh47 #da4 ,rudolf ,vir*[1 ,vi] ,r$5 b] ,leb5 und ,krankse94 ,b]l91 #ahfb4 7,rudolf ,vir*[1 ,f\r ,disc\rses on ,life & ,disease4 ,b]l91 #ahfb47 #db4 ,fri$ri* ,mll]1 ,e?nographie 7,reise d] /]rei*is*5 ,fregatte ,nov>a4 ,an?ropologis*] ,!il4 #c ,ab!ilung74 ,wi51 #ahfh4 7,fri$ri* ,mll]1 ,e?nography 7,voyage ( ! ,au/rian ,frigate ,nov>a4 ,an?ropological ,"p4 #crd ,"p74 ,vi5na1 #ahfh47 #dc4 ,ludwig ,b*n]1 ,die ,/ellung des ,m5s*5 9 d] ,natur1 9 ,v]gang5heit1 ,geg5w>t und ,zukunft4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 7,ludwig ,b*n]1 ,man's ,place 9 ,nature 9 ! ,pa/1 ! ,pres5t1 & ! ,future4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj47 #dd4 ,john ,lubbock1 ,prehi/oric ,times4 ,london1 #ahfg4 #de4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ,a ,sy/em ( ,philosophy4 7#a4 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples4 #b4 ,pr9ciples ( ,biology4 #c4 ,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 etc47 ,london1 #ahfg4 #bnd ,edition4 #df4 ,wilhelm ,wundt1 ,vorlesung5 b] die ,m5s*5- und ,?i]seele4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 7,wilhelm ,wundt1 ,lectures on ! ,human & ,animal ,s\l4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc47 #dg4 ,fritz ,ratzel1 ,se9 und ,w]d5 d] organis*5 ,welt4 ,e9e populre ,s*pfungsges*i*te4 ,leipzig1 #ahfi4 7,fritz ,ratzel1 ,nature & ,orig9 ( ! ,organic ,_w4 ,a ,popul> ,hi/ory ( ,creation4 ,leipzig1 #ahfi47 #dh4 ,*>les ,d>w91 ,! ,desc5t ( ,man1 & ,selection 9 ,relation to ,sex4 #b ,vols4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,,app5dix4 ,,explanation ,,( ,,! ,,plates4 ,,plate ,,fac+ ,,title-,,page4 ,developm5tal ,hi/ory ( a ,calc>e\s ,sponge 7,olyn?us74 ,comp>e vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4 ,! egg ( ! ,olyn?us 7,fig4 #i71 :i* repres5ts ! common ance/ral =m ( all ,calc>e\s ,sponges1 is a simple cell 7,fig4 #a74 ,f ?is !re arises1 by repeat$ division 7,fig4 #b71 a globul>1 mulb]ry-l heap ( num]\s equi-=mal cells 7,morula1 ,fig4 #c2 vol4 ii4 p4 #abe47 ,z ! result ( ! *ange ( ^! cells into an out] s]ies ( cle> ciliat$ cells 7,exod]m7 & an inn] s]ies ( d>k1 non-ciliat$ cells 7,entod]m71 ! ciliat$ l>va1 or ,planula1 makes its appe>ance4 ,?is is oval 9 %ape1 & =ms a cavity 9 its c5tre 7ga/ric cavity1 or primitive /oma*1 ,fig4 #f g1 ) an op5+ 7m\?-op5+1 or primitive m\?1 ,fig4 #f o72 ! wall ( ! ga/ric cavity consi/s ( two lay]s ( cells1 or g]m-lay]s1 ! out] ciliat$ ,exod]m 7e7 & ! inn] non-ciliat$ ,entod]m 7i74 ,?us arises ! exce$+ly important /oma*-l>va1 or ,ga/rula1 :i* reappe>s 9 ! mo/ diff]5t tribes ( animals z a common l>val =m 7,fig4 #e1 se5 f ! surface2 ,fig4 #f1 9 long section4 ,comp>e1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abf & #bha74 ,aft] ! ,ga/rula has swum ab\t = "s "t 9 ! sea1 x fa/5s itself securely to ! sea-bottom1 loses its out] vibratile processes1 or cilia1 & *anges into ! ,ascula 7,fig4 #g1 se5 f ! surface2 ,fig4 #h1 9 long section2 lett]s z 9 ,fig4 #f74 ,?is ,ascula is ! recapitulative =m1 accord+ to ! biog5etic fundam5tal law1 ! common ance/or ( all ,zoophytes1 namely1 ! ,protascus 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #abi1 #acc74 ,by ! developm5t ( pores 9 ! wall ( ! /oma* & ( ?ree-ray$ calc>e\s spicules1 ! ,ascula *anges into ! ,olyn?us 7,fig4 #i47 ,9 ,fig4 #i a piece is cut out f ! /oma*-wall ( ! ,olyn?us 9 ord] to %[ ! inside ( ! /oma*al cavity1 & ! eggs :i* are =m+ on ! surface 7g74 ,f ! ,olyn?us ! mo/ v>i\s =ms ( ,calc>e\s ,sponges c develop4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable is ! ,ascometra 7,fig4 #aj71 a /ock or colony f :i* diff]5t species1 & 9 fact diff]5t g5]ic =ms1 gr[ 7on ! left ,olyn?us1 9 ! middle ,n>dorus1 on ! "r ,sol5iscus1 etc41 etc474 ,fur!r details z to ^! mo/ int]e/+ =ms1 & _! high importance = ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 may be f\nd 9 my 8,monograph ( ! ,calc>e\s ,sponges0 7#ahgb71 especially 9 ! fir/ volume4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 pp4 #afj1 #afg74 ,,plate ,i4 7,betwe5 pages #ahd & #ahe1 ,vol4 ,i47 ,hi/ory ( ! ,life ( ! mo/ ,simple ,organism1 a ,mon]on 7,protomyxa aurantiaca74 ,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #ahd1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #ec4 ,! plate is a small] copy ( ! draw+ 9 my 8,monographie d] ,mon]50 7,biologis*e ,/udi51 #a ,heft1 #ahgj2 ,taf4 #a71 ( ! developm5tal hi/ory ( ! ,protomyxa aurantiaca2 ,i h !re also giv5 a detail$ description ( ?is rem>kable ,mon]on 7pp4 #aa-cj74 ,i discov]$ ?is mo/ simple organism 9 ,janu>y1 #ahfg1 dur+ a /ay 9 ,lanz>ote1 "o ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s2 & moreov] ,i f\nd x ei!r adh]+ to1 or creep+ ab\t on ! :ite calc>e\s %ells ( a small ,cephalopod 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afb71 ! ,spirula ,p]onii1 :i* float !re 9 masses on ! surface ( ! ocean1 or are ?r[n up on ! %ore4 ,! ,protomyxa aurantiaca is di/+ui%$ f ! o!r ,mon]a by ! beautiful & bright orange-r$ col\r ( its p]fectly simple body1 :i* consi/s m]ely ( primval slime1 or protoplasm4 ,! fully develop$ ,mon]on is repres5t$ 9 ,figs4 #aa & #ab1 v mu* enl>g$4 ,:5 x is hungry 7,fig4 #aa71 !re radiate f ! surface ( ! globul> corpuscule ( plasm1 quantities ( tree-%ap$1 bran*+ & mobile ?reads 7pseudo-feet1 or pseudopodia71 :i* d n become reti=mly connect$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! ,mon]on eats 7,fig4 #ab71 ! muc\s ?reads become v>i\sly connect$1 =m net-works & enclose ! extrane\s corpuscule :i* s]ves z food1 :i* ! ?reads aft]w>ds draw into ! int]ior ( ! ,protomyxa4 ,?us 9 ,fig4 #ab 7above on ! "r71 a silici\s & ciliat$ ,:ip-swimm] 7,p]id9ium1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ea1 #eg71 has j be5 caught by ! ext5d$ muc\s filam5ts1 & has be5 drawn into ! int]ior ( ! muc\s globule1 9 :i* !re already are sev]al half dige/$ silici\s infusoria 7,t9t9oida71 & ,diatome 7,i/hmia74 ,n[1 :5 ! ,protomyxa has eat5 & gr[n suffici5tly1 x draws 9 all its muc\s filam5ts 7,fig4 #ae71 & contracts into ! =m ( a globule 7,fig4 #af & ,fig4 #a74 ,9 ?is /ate ( repose ! globule secretes a simple gelat9\s cov]+ 7,fig4 #b71 & aft] a "t subdivides into a l>ge numb] ( small muc\s globules 7,fig4 #c74 ,^! soon comm5ce to move1 become pe>-%ap$ 7,fig4 #d71 break ?r\gh ! common cov]+ 7,fig4 #e71 & !n swim ab\t freely 9 ! ocean by means ( a delicate :ip-%ap$ process1 l ! ,flagellata 7vol4 ii4 p4 #eg1 ,fig4 #aa74 ,:5 !y meet a ,spirula %ell1 or any o!r suitable object1 !y adh]e to x1 draw 9 _! :ip1 & creep sl[ly ab\t on x by means ( =m-*ang+ processes 7,figs4 #f1 #g1 #h71 l ,protamb 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eb74 ,^! small muc\s corpuscules take food 7,figs4 #i1 #aj71 & atta9 _! full gr[n =m 7,figs4 #aa1 #ab71 ei!r by simple gr[? or by sev]al ( !m fus+ to =m a l>g] protoplasmic mass 7,plasmodium1 ,figs4 #ac1 #ad74 ,,plates ,,ii4 ,,& ,,iii4 7,betwe5 pages #bid & #bie1 ,vol4 ,i47 ,g]ms or ,embryos ( f\r diff]5t ,v]tebrate ,animals1 namely1 ,tortoise 7,a & ,e71 ,h5 7,b & ,f71 ,dog 7,c & ,g71 & ,man 7,d & ,h74 ,figs4 ,a1 ,d1 an e>ly /age ( developm5t2 ,figs4 ,e1 ,h1 a lat] /age4 ,all ! eight embryos are repres5t$ z se5 f ! "r side1 ! curv$ back turn$ to ! left4 ,figs4 ,a & ,b are sev5 times enl>g$1 ,figs4 ,c & ,d five times1 ,figs4 ,e & ,h f\r times4 ,plate ,,ii4 exhibits ! v close blood relation%ip betwe5 birds & reptiles2 ,plate ,,iii4 t betwe5 man & ! o!r mammals4 ,,plate ,,iv4 7,betwe5 pages #cd & #ce1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,! ,h&1 or ,=e ,foot1 ( n9e diff]5t ,mammals4 ,?is plate is int5d$ to %[ ! importance ( ,comp>ative ,anatomy to ,phylog5y1 9 z mu* z x proves h[ ! int]nal skeleton ( ! limbs is cont9ually pres]v$ by inh]itance1 al?\gh ! ext]nal =m is extremely *ang$ by adaptation4 ,! bones ( ! skeleton ( ! h& are drawn 9 :ite l9es on ! br[n fle% & sk9 :i* surr\nds !m4 ,all ! n9e h&s are repres5t$ 9 ! same position1 namely ! wri/ 7:]e ! arm w\ld be jo9$ to x7 is plac$ above1 :il/ ! ends ( ! f+]s or toes are turn$ d[nw>ds4 ,! ?umb1 or ! fir/ 7l>ge7 =e-toe is on ! left 9 e figure2 ! little f+]1 or fif? toe is to ! "r at ! edge ( ! h&4 ,ea* h& consi/s ( ?ree p>ts1 namely 7i47 ! wri/ 7c>pus71 compos$ ( two cross r[s ( %ort bones 7at ! upp] side ( ! h&72 7ii47 ! mid-h& 7metac>pus71 compos$ ( five long & /rong bones 7m>k$ 9 ! c5tre ( ! h& by ! numb]s #a-e72 & 7iii47 ! five f+]s1 or =e toes 7digiti71 e "o ( :i* aga9 consi/s ( sev]al 7mo/ly f two to ?ree71 toe-pieces1 or phalanges4 ,! h& ( man 7,fig4 #a71 9 reg>d to its entire =mation1 /&s midway betwe5 t ( ! two l>ge human apes1 namely1 t ( ! gorilla 7,fig4 #b71 & t ( ! orang 7,fig4 #c74 ,! =e paw ( ! dog 7,fig4 #d71 is m diff]5t1 & ! h& or brea/ f9 ( ! seal 7,fig4 #e7 /ill m s4 ,! adaptation ( ! h& to ! movem5t ( swimm+1 & its trans=mation into a f9 = /e]+1 is /ill m complete 9 ! dolph9 7,ziphius1 ,fig4 #f74 ,! ext5d$ f+]s & bones ( ! c5tral h& "h h rema9$ %ort & /rong 9 ! swimm+ membrane1 b !y h become extremely long & ?9 9 ! bat 7,fig4 #g71 :]e ! h& has develop$ into a w+4 ,! extreme opposite ( ! latt] =mation is ! h& ( ! mole 7,fig4 #h71 :i* has acquir$ a p[]ful spade-l =m = digg+1 ) f+]s :i* h become extremely %ort & ?ick4 ,:at is f> m l ! human h& ?an ^! latt] =ms1 is ! =e paw ( ! l[e/ & mo/ imp]fect ( all mammals1 ! ,au/ralian beak$ animal 7,orni?orhyn*us1 ,fig4 #i71 :i* 9 its :ole /ructure /&s ne>] to ! common1 ext9ct1 prim>y =m ( mammalia1 ?an any kn[n species4 ,h5ce man diff]s less 9 ! =mation ( ! h& f ?is common prim>y =m ?an f ! bat1 mole1 dolph91 seal1 & _m o!r mammals4 ,,plate ,v4 7,betwe5 pages #hd & #he1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,"o-root$ ,p$igree ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom1 repres5t+ ! hypo!sis ( ! common d]ivation ( all plants1 & ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! diff]5t gr\ps ( plants dur+ ! palontological p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,! horizontal l9es d5ote ! diff]5t small] & l>g] p]iods ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? 7:i* are spok5 ( 9 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad71 & dur+ :i* ! /rata conta9+ fossils 7 deposit$4 ,! v]tical l9es sep>ate ! diff]5t ma9-classes & classes ( ! vegetable k+dom f "o ano!r4 ,! arbori=m & bran*+ l9es indicate1 9 an approximate mann]1 by _! great] or less numb] & ?ickness1 ! great] or less degree ( developm5t1 diff]5tiation1 & p]fect+ :i* ea* class probably atta9$ 9 ea* geological p]iod4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 pp4 #hb1 #hc47 ,,plate ,,vi4 7,betwe5 pages #acj & #aca1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,"o-root$ ,p$igree ( ! ,animal ,k+dom1 repres5t+ ! hi/orical gr[? ( ! six animal tribes dur+ ! palontological p]iods ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,! horizontal l9es g h1 i k1 l m1 & n o divide ! five l>ge p]iods ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? "o f ano!r4 ,! field g a b h comprises ! ar*ili?ic1 ! field i g h k1 ! paloli?ic1 ! field l i k m ! mesoli?ic1 & ! field n l o m ! c5oli?ic p]iod4 ,! %ort1 an?ropoli?ic p]iod is indicat$ by ! l9e n o4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 p4 #ad47 ,! height ( ! sep>ate fields corresponds ) ! relative l5g? ( ! p]iods indicat$ by !m1 z !y may approximately be e/imat$ f ! relative ?ickness ( ! neptunic /rata deposit$ betwe5 !m4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 p4 #bb47 ,! ar*ili?ic & primordial p]iod alone1 dur+ :i* ! ,laur5tian1 ,cambrian1 & ,silurian /rata 7 deposit$1 0 probably consid]ably long] ?an ! f\r subsequ5t p]iods tak5 toge!r4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 pp4 #aj1 #bj47 ,9 all probability ! two tribes ( worms & ,zoophytes atta9$ _! full developm5t dur+ ! mid-primordial p]iod 79 ! ,cambrian sy/em72 ! />-fi%es & molluscs probably some:at lat] 79 ! ,silurian sy/em72 :]eas ! articulata & v]tebrata are /ill increas+ 9 v>iety & p]fection4 ,,plate ,,vii4 7,betwe5 pages #adf & #adg1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,gr\p ( ,animal-,trees 7,zoophytes1 or ,cl5t]ata7 9 ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,on ! upp] half ( ! plate is a sw>m ( swimm+ m$us & ct5ophora2 on ! l[] half a few bun*es ( corals & hydroid polyps adh]+ to ! bottom ( ! sea4 7,comp>e ! sy/em ( ,zoophytes1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acb1 & on ! opposite page _! p$igree47 ,among ! adh]+ ,zoophytes at ! bottom ( ! ocean !re is1 bel[ on ! "r h&1 a l>ge coral-colony 7#a71 :i* is closely ak9 to ! r$ preci\s coral 7,eucorallium71 & l ! latt] belongs to ! gr\p ( corals ) eight rays 7,octocoralla ,gorgonida72 ! s+le individuals 7or p]sons7 ( ! bran*+ /ock h ! =m ( a /> ) eight rays1 consi/+ ( eight t5tacles1 :i* surr\nd ! m\?4 7,octocoralla1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc47 ,directly bel[ & 9 front ( x 7q bel[ on ! "r71 is a small bu% ( hydroid polyps 7#b71 belong+ to ! gr\p ( bell-polyps1 or ,campanul>i 7vol4 ii4 p4 #adf74 ,a l>g] /ock ( hydroid polyps 7#c71 belong+ to ! gr\p ( tube-polyps1 or ,tubull>i1 rises1 to ! left1 on ! opposite side1 ) its long ?9 bran*es4 ,at its base is spread a /ock ( silici\s sponges 7,hali*ondria7 7#d71 ) %ort1 f+]-%ap$ bran*es 7vol4 ii4 p4 #aci74 ,beh9d x1 bel[ on ! left 7#e71 is a v l>ge m>9e rose 7,act9ia71 a s+le individual f ! class ( six-ray$ corals 7,hexacoralla1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc74 ,its l[1 cyl9drical body has a cr[n ( v num]\s & l>ge leaf-%ap$ t5tacles4 ,bel[1 9 ! c5tre ( ! gr\nd 7#f71 is a sea-anemone 7,c]ean?us7 f ! gr\p ( f\rfold corals 7,tetracoralla74 ,la/ly1 on a small hill on ! bottom ( ! sea1 !re rises1 on ! "r above ! corals 7#a7 a cup-polyp 7,luc]n>ia71 z ! repres5tative ( ! /alk$-jellies4 7,podact9>ia1 or ,calycozoa1 vol4 ii4 p4 #add47 ,its cup-%ap$1 /alk$ body 7#g7 has eight globul> clu/]s ( small1 knott$ t5tacles on its rim4 ,among ! swimm+ ,zoophytes :i* occupy ! upp] half ( ,plate ,,vii41 ! hydrom$us are especially rem>kable1 on acc\nt ( _! alt]ation ( g5]ation4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #bjf47 ,directly above ! ,luc]n>ia 7#g7 floats a small ti>a jelly 7,oceania71 ^: bell-%ap$ body has a process l a dome1 ! =m ( a papal ti>a 7#h74 ,f ! op5+ ( ! bell !re hangs a wrea? ( v f9e & long t5tacles4 ,?is ,oceania is ! (fspr+ ( a tube-polyp1 resembl+ ! adh]+ ,tubul>ia bel[ on ! left 7#c74 ,beside ?is latt]1 on ! left1 swims a l>ge b v delicate hair-jelly 7quorea74 ,its disc-%ap$1 slightly ar*$ body is j draw+ itself toge!r1 & press+ wat] out ( ! cavity ( ! cup ly+ bel[ 7#i74 ,! num]\s1 long1 & f9e hair-l t5tacles :i* hang d[n f ! rim ( ! cup are drawn by ! eject$ wat] into a conical bun*1 :i* t[>ds ! c5tre turns upw>ds l a coll>1 & is ?r[n into folds4 ,above1 9 ! middle ( ! cavity ( ! cup1 hangs ! /oma*1 ! m\? ( :i* is surr\nd$ by f\r lobes4 ,?is quorea is d]iv$ f a small bell-polyp1 resembl+ ! ,campanul>ia 7#b74 ,! small1 slightly ar*$ cap-jelly 7,eucope71 swimm+ above 9 ! c5tre 7#aj71 is likewise d]iv$ f a simil> bell-polyp4 ,9 ^! ?ree la/ cases 7#h1 #i1 #aj71 z 9 ! majority ( ! hydrom$us1 ! alt]nation ( g5]ation consi/s 9 ! freely swimm+ m$usa 7#h1 #i1 #aj71 aris+ by ! =mation ( buds 7!re=e by non-sexual g5]ation1 vol4 i4 p4 #aib71 f adh]+ hydroid polyps 7#b1 #c74 ,^! latt]1 h[ev]1 orig9ate out ( ! fructifi$ eggs ( ! m$us 7!re=e by sexual g5]ation1 vol4 i4 p4 #aie74 ,h5ce ! non-sexual1 adh]+ g5]ation ( polyps 7,i41 ,,iii41 ,v41 etc47 regul>ly alt]nates ) ! sexual1 freely swimm+ g5]ation ( m$us 7,,ii41 ,,iv41 ,,vi41 etc474 ,?is alt]ation ( g5]ation c only be expla9$ by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,! same rem>k applies to a k9dr$ =m ( propagation1 :i* is /ill m rem>kable1 & :i* ,i discov]$ 9 #ahfd1 ne> ,nice1 9 ! ,elephant-jellies 7,g]yonida71 & call$ allogony1 or allog5esis4 ,9 ?is case two completely di/9ct =ms ( m$usa are desc5d$ f "o ano!r2 ! l>g] & m highly develop$ g5]ation 7#aa71 ,g]yonia1 or ,c>m>9a1 is six-ray$1 ) six foliat$ sexual organs1 & six v movable m>g9al filam5ts4 ,f ! c5tre ( its bell-%ap$ cup1 l ! tongue ( a bell1 hangs a long proboscis1 at ! end ( :i* is ! op5+ ( ! m\? & /oma*4 ,9 ! cavity ( ! /oma* is a long1 tongue-%ap$ bun* ( buds 7:i* on ,plate ,,vii4 7n7 is ext5d$ f ! m\? on ! left l a tongue74 ,on ?is tongue1 :5 ! ,g]yonia is sexually ripe1 !re bud a numb] ( small m$us4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 n ,g]yoni1 b belong to an entirely di/9ct b v diff]5t =m ( m$usa1 namely1 to ! g5us ,cun9a1 ( ! family ( ! g9ida4 ,?is ,cun9a 7#ab7 is v diff]5tly con/ruct$2 x has a flat1 semi-globul> cup )\t proboscis1 consi/s 9 e>ly life ( six divisions1 lat] ( sixte51 & has sixte5 bag-%ap$ sexual organs1 & sixte5 %ort1 /iff1 & /rongly curv$ t5tacles4 ,a fur!r explanation ( ?is wond]ful allog5esis may be f\nd 9 my 8,contributions to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,hydrom$us40 7,leipzig1 ,englemann1 #ahfe71 ! fir/ "p ( :i* conta9s a monograph ( ! ,elephant-jellies1 or ,g]yonida1 illu/rat$ by six copp]-plates4 ,ev5 m int]e/+ & in/ructive ?an ^! rem>kable relations are ! vital ph5om5a ( ! ,siphonophora1 ^: wond]ful polymorphism ,i h frequ5tly spok5 (1 & describ$ 9 a popul> mann] 9 my lecture on 8,diff]5tiation 9 ,nature & ,human ,life407#cg7 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #bgj1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #adj47 ,an example ( ?is is giv5 9 ,plate ,,vii4 9 ! draw+ ( ! beautiful ,physophora 7#ac74 ,?is swimm+ /ock or colony ( hydrom$us is kept float+ on ! surface ( ! sea by a small swimm+ bladd] fill$ ) air1 :i* 9 ! draw+ is se5 ris+ above ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,bel[ x is a column ( f\r pairs ( swimm+ bells1 :i* eject wat]1 & !reby set ! :ole colony 9 motion4 ,at ! l[] end ( ! column ( swimm+ bells is a cr[n-%ap$ wrea? ( curv$ sp9dle-%ap$ s5sitive polyps1 :i* also s]ve z a cov]+1 "u ! protection ( :i* ! o!r individuals ( ! /ock 7! eat+1 cat*+1 & reproductive p]sons7 are hidd54 ,! ontog5esis ( ! ,siphonophora 7& especially ( ?is ,physophora71 ,i fir/ obs]v$ 9 ,lanz]ote1 "o ( ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 9 #ahff1 & describ$ 9 my 8,hi/ory ( ! ,developm5t ( ! ,siphonophora10 & add$ f\rte5 plates = its explanation4 7,utre*t1 #ahfi74 ,x is ri* 9 int]e/+ facts1 :i* c only be expla9$ by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t4 ,ano!r circum/ance1 :i* is also only explicable by ! ,!ory ( ,desc5t1 is ! rem>kable *ange ( g5]ation 9 ! high] m$us1 ! disc-jellies 7,discom$us1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acf71 a repres5tative ( :i* is giv5 at ! top ( ,plate ,,vii41 9 ! c5tre 7r 9 ! backgr\nd71 namely1 a ,pelagia 7#ad74 ,f ! bottom ( ! bell-%ap$ cup1 :i* is /rongly ar*$ & ! rim ( :i* is neatly ind5t$1 !re hang f\r v long & /rong arms4 ,! non-sexual polyps1 f :i* ^! disc-jellies are d]iv$1 are exce$+ly simple primval polyps1 diff]+ v little f ! common fre%-wat] polyp 7,hydra74 ,! alt]nation ( g5]ation 9 ^! ,discom$us has also be5 describ$ 9 my lecture on ,diff]5tiation17#cg7 & !re illu/rat$ by ! ,aurelia by way ( example4 ,f9ally1 ! la/ class ( ,zoophytes1 ! gr\p ( comb-jellies 7,ct5ophora1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adb71 has two repres5tatives on ,plate ,,vii4 ,to ! left1 9 ! c5tre1 betwe5 ! quorea 7#i71 ! ,physophora 7#ac71 & ! ,cun9a 7#ab71 is a long & ?9 b& l a belt 7#ae71 w9d+ l a snake2 ?is is ! l>ge & spl5did ,v5us' girdle ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7,ce/um71 ! col\rs ( :i* are z v>i$ z ^? ( ! ra9b[4 ,! actual body ( ! animal1 :i* lies 9 ! c5tre ( ! long belt1 is v small1 & con/ruct$ exactly l t ( ! melon-jelly 7,cydippe71 :i* floats above to ! left 7#af74 ,on ! latt] are visible ! eight *>act]i/ic fr+$ b&s1 or ciliat$ combs1 ( ! ct5ophora1 & also two long t5tacles :i* ext5d "r across ! page1 & are fr+$ ) /ill f9] ?reads4 ,,plates ,,viii4 ,,& ,,ix4 7,betwe5 pages #agj & #aga1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,hi/ory ( ! ,developm5t ( ,/>-fi%es 7,e*9od]ma1 or ,e/rella74 ,! two plates exhibit _! alt]nation ( g5]ation 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afh71 ) an example f ea* ( ! f\r classes ( ,/>-fi%es4 ,! sea-/>s 7,a/]ida7 are repres5t$ by ,ura/] 7,a71 ! sea-lilies 7,cr9oida7 by ,comatula 7,b71 ! sea-ur*9s 7,e*9ida7 by ,e*9us 7,c71 & f9ally1 ! sea-cucumb]s 7,holo?uri7 by ,synapta 7,d74 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 pp4 #aff & #agf47 ,! successive /ages ( developm5t are m>k$ by ! numb]s #a-f4 ,plate ,,viii4 repres5ts ! individual developm5t ( ! fir/ & non-sexual g5]ation ( ,/>-fi%es1 t is1 ( ! nurses 7usually1 b errone\sly1 call$ l>v74 ,^! nurses possess ! =m-value ( a simple1 unsegm5t$ worm-individual4 ,fig4 #a repres5ts ! egg ( ! f\r ,/>-fi%es2 & x1 9 all ess5tial po9ts1 agrees ) t ( man & ( o!r animals4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #big1 ,fig4 #e47 ,z 9 man1 ! protoplasm ( ! egg-cell 7! yolk7 is surr\nd$ by a ?ick1 /ructureless membrane 7zona pellucida71 & conta9s a globul>1 cell-k]nel 7nucleus71 z cle> z glass1 :i* aga9 encloses a nucleolus4 ,out ( ! f]tilis$ egg ( ! ,/>-fi% 7,fig4 ,a #a7 !re develops 9 ! fir/ place1 by ! repeat$ sub-division ( cells1 a globul> mass ( homog5e\s cells 7,fig4 #f1 vol4 i4 p4 #bii71 & ?is *anges into a v simple nurse1 :i* has almo/ ! same %ape z a wood5 %oe 7,fig4 ,a #b-;,d #b74 ,! edge ( ! op5+ ( ! %oe is bord]$ by a fr+e ( cilia1 ! cili>y movem5ts ( :i* keep ! microscopically small & transp>5t nurse swimm+ ab\t freely 9 ! sea4 ,?is fr+e ( cilia is m>k$ 9 ,fig4 ,a #b-;,a #d1 on ,plate ,,vii41 by ! n>r[ alt]nately light & d>k seam4 ,! nurse !n1 9 ! fir/ place1 =ms a p]fectly simple inte/9al canal = nutrition1 m\? 7o71 /oma* 7m7 & anus 7a74 ,lat]1 ! w9d+s ( ! fr+e ( cilia become m complicat$1 & !re arise arm-l processes 7,fig4 ,a #c-;,d #c74 ,9 sea-/>s 7,a #d7 & sea-ur*9s 7,c #d7 ^! arm-l processes1 :i* are fr+$ ) cilia1 aft]w>ds become v long4 ,b 9 ! case ( sea-lilies 7,b #c7 & sea-cucumb]s 7,d #d71 in/ead ( ?is1 ! fr+e ( cilia1 :i* at fir/1 ?r\gh w9d+ 9 & out1 =ms "o clos$ r+1 *anges subsequ5tly into a succession ( sep>ate ciliat$ girdles1 "o ly+ beh9d ! o!r4 ,9 ! int]ior ( ?is curi\s nurse !re !n develops1 by a non-sexual process ( g5]ation1 namely1 by ! =mation ( int]nal buds or g]m-buds 7r\nd ab\t ! /oma*71 ! second g5]ation ( ,/>-fi%es1 :i* lat] on become sexually ripe4 ,?is second g5]ation1 :i* is repres5t$ on ,plate ,,ix4 9 a fully develop$ condition1 exi/s orig9ally z a /ock or cormus ( five worms1 connect$ at "o end 9 ! =m ( a />1 z is mo/ cle>ly se5 9 ! sea-/>s1 ! mo/ anci5t & orig9al =m ( ! />-fi%es4 ,! second g5]ation1 :i* gr[s at ! exp5se ( ! fir/1 appropriates only ! /oma* & a small portion ( ! o!r organs ( ! latt]1 b =ms = itself a new m\? & anus4 ,! fr+e ( cilia1 & ! o!r p>ts ( ! body ( ! nurse1 aft]w>ds disappe>4 ,! second g5]ation 7,a #e-;,d #e71 is at fir/ small] or n mu* l>g] ?an ! nurse1 :]eas1 by gr[?1 x aft]w>ds becomes m ?an a hundr$ times1 or ev5 a ?\s& times1 z l>ge4 ,if ! ontog5y ( ! typical repres5tatives ( ! f\r classes ( ,/>-fi%es be comp>$1 x is easily se5 t ! orig9al k9d ( developm5t has be5 be/ pres]v$ 9 sea-/>s 7,a7 & sea-ur*9s 7,c7 by inh]itance1 :]eas 9 sea-lilies 7,b7 & sea-cucumb]s x has be5 suppress$ accord+ to ! laws ( abbreviat$ inh]itance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bab74 ,plate ,,ix4 %[s ! fully develop$ & sexually mature animals ( ! second g5]ation f ! m\? side1 :i*1 9 ! natural position ( ,/>-fi%es 7:5 creep+ at ! bottom ( ! sea71 9 sea-/>s 7,a #f7 & sea-ur*9s 7,c #f71 is bel[1 9 sea-lilies 7,b #f7 above1 & 9 sea-cucumb]s 7,d #f7 9 front4 ,9 ! c5tre we p]ceive1 9 all ! f\r ,/>-fi%es1 ! />-%ap$1 five-po9t$ op5+ ( ! m\?4 ,9 sea-/>s1 f ea* arm !re ext5d sev]al r[s ( little suck+ feet1 f ! c5tre ( ! "u-side ( ea* arm to ! end4 ,9 sea-lilies 7,b #f71 ea* arm is split & fea!r-l f its base upw>ds4 ,9 sea-ur*9s 7,c #f7 ! five r[s ( suck+ feet are divid$ by broad] fields ( sp9es4 ,9 sea-cucumb]s1 la/ly 7,d #f71 on ! worm-l body x is sometimes only ! five r[s ( little feet1 sometimes only ! fea!ry t5tacles surr\nd+ ! m\?1 f five to fifte5 79 ?is case t571 t are ext]nally visible4 ,,plates ,x4 ,,& ,,xi4 7,betwe5 pages #agd & #age1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,hi/orical ,developm5t ( ! ,crab-fi% 7,cru/acea74--,! two plates illu/rate ! developm5t ( ! diff]5t ,cru/acea f ! nauplius1 _! common primval =m4 ,on ,plate ,,xi4 six ,cru/acea1 f six diff]5t ord]s1 are repres5t$ 9 a fully develop$ /ate1 :]eas on ,plate ,x4 ! e>ly nauplius /ages are giv54 ,f ! ess5tial agreem5t betwe5 ! latt] we may1 on ! gr\nd ( ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y1 ) full assurance ma9ta9 ! d]ivation ( ! diff]5t ,cru/acea f a s+le1 common prim>y =m1 a long s9ce ext9ct ,nauplius1 z 0 fir/ %[n by ,fritz ,mll] 9 8 excell5t "w 8,fr ,d>w9407#af7 ,plate ,x4 repres5ts ! e>ly nauplius /ages f ! v5tral side1 s t ! ?ree pairs ( legs1 on ! %ort1 ?ree-jo9t$ trunk are di/9ctly visible4 ,! fir/ ( ^! pairs ( legs is simple & unsegm5t$1 :]eas ! second & ?ird pairs are =k$4 ,all ?ree pairs are furni%$ ) /iff bri/les1 :i*1 ?r\gh ! paddl+ motion ( ! legs1 s]ve z an app>atus = swimm+4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! body1 ! p]fectly simple1 /raight inte/9al canal is visible1 possess+ a m\? 9 front1 & an anal orifice beh9d4 ,9 front1 above ! m\?1 lies a simple1 s+le eye4 ,all ! six =ms ( nauplius entirely agree 9 all ^! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( organization1 :]eas ! six fully develop$ =ms ( ,cru/acea belong+ to !m1 ,plate ,,xi41 are extremely diff]5t 9 organisation4 ,! diff]5ces ( ! six nauplius =ms are conf9$ to q subord9ate & uness5tial relations 9 reg>d to size ( body1 & ! =mation ( ! cov]+ ( ! sk94 ,if !y c\ld be met ) 9 ?is =m 9 a sexually mature condition1 no zoologi/ w\ld hesitate to reg>d !m z six diff]5t species ( "o g5us4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 p4 #age47 ,plate ,,xi4 repres5ts ^? fully develop$ & sexually mature =ms ( ,cru/acea1 z se5 f ! "r side1 :i* h ontog5etically 7h5ce also phylog5etically7 develop$ out ( ! six k9ds ( nauplius4 ,fig4 ,a c %[s a freely swimm+ fre%-wat] crab 7,limnetis bra*yurus7 f ! ord] ( ! ,leaf-foot ,crabs 7,phyllopoda71 slightly enl>g$4 ,( all ! /ill liv+ ,cru/acea1 ?is ord]1 :i* belongs to ! legion ( ,gill-foot ,crabs 7,bran*iopoda71 /&s ne>e/ to ! orig9al1 common prim>y =m ( nauplius4 ,! ,limnetis is enclos$ 9 a bivalv$ %ell1 l a mussel4 ,our draw+ 7:i* is copi$ f ,grube7 repres5ts ! body ( a female animal ly+ 9 ! left %ell2 ! "r half ( ! %ell has be5 remov$4 ,9 front1 beh9d ! eye1 we see ! two feel]s 7ant5n71 & beh9d !m ! twelve leaf-%ap$ feet ( ! "r side ( ! body1 beh9d on ! back 7"u ! %ell71 ! eggs4 ,above1 9 front1 ! animal is fix$ to ! %ell4 ,fig4 ,b c repres5ts a common1 freely swimm+ fre%-wat] crab 7,cyclops quadricornis7 f ! ord] ( ,o>-legg$ crabs 7,eucopepoda71 highly magnifi$4 ,9 front1 bel[ ! eye1 we see ! two feel]s ( ! "r side1 ! =emo/ ( :i* is long] ?an ! h9d] "o4 ,beh9d ^! are ! gills1 & !n ! f\r paddl+ legs ( ! "r side4 ,beh9d ^! are ! two l>ge egg-sacks1 :i*1 9 ?is case1 are atta*$ to ! end ( ! h9d] "p ( ! body4 ,fig4 ,c c is a p>asitic ,o>-legg$ crab 7,l]noc]a esoc9a71 f ! ord] ( fi% lice 7,siphono/oma74 ,^! peculi> crabs1 :i* 7 =m]ly reg>d$ z worms1 h orig9at$1 by adaptation to a p>asitical life1 out ( freely swimm+1 ,o>-legg$ crabs 7,eucopepoda71 & belong to ! same legion 7,copepoda1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agf74 ,by adh]+ to ! gills on ! sk9 ( fi% or o!r crabs1 & fe$+ on ! juice ( ^! creatures1 !y =feit$ _! eyes1 legs1 & o!r organs1 & develop$ into =mless1 in>ticulat$ sacks1 :i*1 on a m]e ext]nal exam9ation1 we %\ld nev] suppose to be animals4 ,on ! v5tral side only !re exi/1 9 ! %ape ( %ort1 po9t$ bri/les1 ! la/ rema9s ( legs :i* h n[ almo/ entirely disappe>$4 ,two ( ^! rudim5t>y pairs ( legs 7! ?ird & f\r?7 are se5 9 our draw+ on ! "r4 ,above1 on ! head1 we see ?ick1 %apeless app5dages1 ! l[] ones ( :i* are split4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ! body is se5 ! inte/9al canal1 :i* is surr\nd$ by a d>k cov]+ ( fat4 ,at its po/]ior end is ! ov>y1 & ! cem5t-gl&s ( ! female sexual app>atus4 ,! two l>ge egg-sacks hang ext]nally 7z 9 ! ,cyclops1 ,fig4 ,b74 ,our ,l]noc]a is repres5t$ 9 half pr(ile1 & is copi$ f ,claus4 7,comp>e ,claus1 8,die ,copepod5-,fauna von ,nizza4 ,e9 ,beitrag zur ,*>act]i/ik d] ,=m5 und d]5 ,abnd]ung5 im ,s9ne ,d>w9s40 ,m>burg1 #ahff74 ,fig4 ,d c repres5ts a s-call$ 8duck mussel0 7,lepas anatif]a71 f ! ord] ( ! ,b>nacle crabs 7,cirrip$ia74 ,^! crabs1 ^u :i* ,d>w9 has writt5 a v c>eful monograph1 are1 l mussels1 enclos$ 9 a bivalv$1 calc>e\s case1 & h5ce 7 =m]ly 7ev5 by ,cuvi]7 univ]sally reg>d$ z a k9d ( mussel1 or mollusc4 ,x 0 only f a k ( _! ontog5y1 & _! e>ly nauplius =m 7,d n1 ,plate ,,viii471 t _! cru/acean nature 0 prov$4 ,our draw+ %[s a 8duck mussel0 ( ! natural size1 f ! "r side4 ,! "r half ( ! bivalv$ %ell has be5 remov$1 s t ! body is se5 ly+ 9 ! left half ( ! %ell4 ,f ! rudim5t>y head ( ! ,lepas !re issues a long1 fle%y /alk 7curv+ upw>ds 9 our draw+72 by means ( x ! ,b>nacle crab gr[s on rocks1 %ips1 etc4 ,on ! v5tral side are six pairs ( feet4 ,e foot is =k$ & divid$ into two long1 curv$1 or curl$ 8t5drils0 furni%$ ) bri/les4 ,above & beh9d ! la/ pair ( feet projects ! ?9 cyl9drical tail4 ,fig4 ,e c repres5ts a p>asitic sack-crab 7,saccul9a purpurea7 f ! ord] ( ,root-crabs 7,rhizocephala74 ,^! p>asites1 by adaptation to a p>asitical life1 h develop$ out ( ,b>nacle crabs 7,fig4 ,d c71 mu* 9 ! same way z ! fi%-lice 7,c c71 out ( ! freely swimm+ ,o>-legg$ crabs 7,b c74 ,h[ev]1 ! suppression1 & ! subsequ5t deg5]ation1 ( all ( ! organs1 has gone mu* fur!r 9 ! pres5t case ?an 9 mo/ ( ! fi%-lice4 ,out ( ! articulat$ crab1 possess+ legs1 inte/9e1 & eye1 & :i* 9 an e>ly /age z nauplius 7,e n1 ,plate ,,viii471 swam ab\t freely1 !re has develop$ a =mless1 unsegm5t$ sack1 a r$ sausage1 :i* n[ only conta9s sexual organs 7eggs & sp]m7 & an inte/9al rudim5t4 ,! legs & ! eye h completely disappe>$4 ,at ! po/]ior end is ! op5+ ( ! g5itals4 ,f ! m\? gr[s a ?ick bun* ( num]\s tree-%ap$ & bran*+ root-l fibres4 ,^! spread !mselves out 7l ! roots ( a plant 9 ! gr\nd7 9 ! s(t h9d] "p ( ! body ( ! h]mit-crab 7,pagurus71 ^u :i* ! root-crab lives z a p>asite1 & f :i* x draws its n\ri%m5t4 ,our draw+ 7,e c71 a copy ( ,fritz ,mll]'s1 is slightly enl>g$1 & %[s ! :ole ( ! sausage-%ap$ sack-crab1 ) all its root-fibres1 :5 drawn out ( ! body ^u :i* x lives4 ,fig4 ,f c is a %rimp 7,p5eus ,mll]i71 f ! ord] ( t5-foot crabs 7,decapoda71 to :i* our riv] cray-fi%1 & its ne>e/ relative1 ! lob/]1 & ! %ort-tail$ %ore-crabs also belong4 ,?is ord] conta9s ! l>ge/ &1 ga/ronomically1 ! mo/ important crabs1 & belongs1 toge!r ) ! m\?-legg$ & split-legg$ crabs1 to ! legion ( ! /alk-ey$ mail$ crabs 7,podoph?alma74 ,! %rimp1 z well z ! riv] crab1 has 9 front1 on ea* side bel[ ! eye1 two long feel]s 7! fir/ mu* %ort] ?an ! second71 !n ?ree jaws1 & ?ree jaw-feet1 !n five v long legs 7! ?ree =e ones ( :i*1 9 ! ,p5eus1 are furni%$ ) nipp]s1 & ! ?ird ( :i* is ! longe/74 ,f9ally1 on ! fir/ five jo9ts ( ! h9d] "p ( ! body !re are o!r five pairs ( feet4 ,?is %rimp1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ highly develop$ & p]fect crabs1 orig9ates 7accord+ to ,fritz ,mll]'s important discov]y7 out ( a nauplius 7,f n ,plate ,,viii471 & consequ5tly proves t ! high] ,cru/acea h develop$ out ( ! same =m z ! l[] ones1 namely1 ! nauplius4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 p4 #age47 ,,plates ,,xii4 ,,& ,,xiii4 7,betwe5 pages #bjj & #bja1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,blood relation%ip betwe5 ! ,v]tebrata & ! ,inv]tebrata4 7,comp>e vol4 ii4 pp4 #aeb & #bja47 ,x is def9itely e/abli%$ by ,k[alewski's important discov]y1 :i* 0 confirm$ by ,kupff]1 t ! ontog5y ( ! l[e/ v]tebrate animal--! ,lancelet1 or ,amphioxus--agrees 9 all ess5tial outl9es completely ) t ( ! inv]tebrate ,sea-squirts1 or ,ascidi1 f ! class ( ,sea-sacks1 or ,tunicata4 ,on our two plates1 ! ascidia is m>k$ by ,a1 ! amphioxus by ,b4 ,plate ,,xiii4 repres5ts ^! two v diff]5t animal-=ms 9 a fully develop$ /ate1 z se5 f ! left side1 ! end ( ! m\? above1 ! opposite end bel[4 ,h5ce1 9 bo? figures ! dorsal side is to ! "r1 ! v5tral to ! left4 ,bo? figures are slightly magnifi$1 & ! int]nal organisation ( ! animals is di/9ctly visible ?r\gh ! transp>5t sk94 ,! full-gr[n ascidia 7,fig4 ,a #f7 gr[s at ! bottom ( ! ocean1 f :5ce x _c move1 & cl+s to /ones & o!r objects by means ( peculi> roots 7w7 l a plant4 ,! full-gr[n amphioxus1 on ! o!r h& 7,fig4 ,b #f71 swims ab\t freely l a small fi%4 ,! lett]s on bo? figures indicate ! same p>ts3 7a7 orifice ( ! m\?2 7b7 orifice ( ! body1 or porus abdom9alis2 7c7 dorsal rod1 or *orda dorsalis2 7d7 inte/9e2 7e7 ov>y2 7f7 oviduct 7same z ! sp]m-duct72 7g7 sp9al m>r[2 7h7 he>t2 7i7 bl9d-sac ( ! inte/9e2 7k7 gill basket 7respiratory cavity72 7l7 cavity ( ! body2 7m7 muscles2 7n7 te/icle 79 ! ascidia unit$ ) ! ov>y into a h]maphrodite gl&72 7o7 anus2 7p7 g5ital orifice2 7q7 well-develop$ embryos 9 ! body cavity ( ! ascidia2 7r7 rays ( ! dorsal f9 ( ! amphioxus2 7s7 tail-f9 ( ! amphioxus2 7w7 roots ( ! ascidia4 ,plate ,,xii4 %[s ! ,ontog5esis1 or ! individual developm5t ( ! ,ascidia 7,a7 & ! ,amphioxus 7,b7 9 five diff]5t /ages 7#a-e74 ,fig4 #a is ! egg1 a simple cell l ! egg ( man & all o!r animals 7,fig4 ,a #a ! egg ( ! ascidia1 ,fig4 ,b #a ! egg ( ! amphioxus74 ,! actual cell-sub/ance1 or ! protoplasm ( ! egg-cell 7z71 ! s-call$ yolk1 is surr\nd$ by a cov]+ 7cell-membrane1 or yolk-membrane71 & encloses a globul> cell-k]nel1 or nucleus 7y71 ! latt]1 aga91 conta9s a k]nel-body1 or nucleolus 7x72 :5 ! egg beg9s to develop1 ! egg-cell fir/ subdivides into two cells4 ,by ano!r sub-division !re arise f\r cells 7,fig4 ,a #b1 ,b #b71 & out ( ^!1 by repeat$ sub-division1 eight cells 7vol4 i4 p4 #aij1 ,fig4 #d ,c1 ,d74 ,by fluid ga!r+ 9 ! int]ior ^! =m a globul> bladd] b\nd$ by a lay] ( cells4 ,on "o spot ( its surface ! bladd] is turn$ inw>ds 9 ! =m ( a pocket 7,fig4 ,a #d1 ,b #d74 ,?is depression is ! beg9n+ ( ! inte/9e1 ! cavity 7d #a7 ( :i* op5s ext]nally by ! provisional l>val-m\? 7d #d74 ,! body-wall1 :i* is at ! same "t ! /oma*-wall1 n[ consi/s ( two lay]s ( cells--! g]m-lay]s4 ,! globul> l>va 7,ga/rula71 n[ gr[s 9 l5g?4 ,fig4 ,a #e repres5ts ! l>va ( ! ascidia1 ,fig4 ,b #e t ( ! amphioxus1 z se5 f ! left side 9 a some:at m advanc$ /ate ( developm5t4 ,! orifice ( ! inte/9e 7d #a7 has clos$4 ,! dorsal side ( ! inte/9e 7d #b7 is concave1 ! v5tral side 7d #c7 convex4 ,above ! inte/9al tube1 on its dorsal side1 ! neural tube1 ! beg9n+ ( ! sp9al m>r[1 is be+ =m$1 its cavity /ill op5s ext]nally 9 front 7g #b74 ,betwe5 ! sp9al m>r[ & ! inte/9e has aris5 ! sp9al rod1 or *orda dorsalis 7,noto*ord7 7c71 ! axis ( ! inn] skeleton4 ,9 ! l>va ( ! ascidia ?is rod 7c7 proce$s along ! long rudd]-tail1 a l>val organ1 :i* is ca/ (f 9 lat] trans=mation4 ,yet !re /ill exi/ "s v small ascidi 7,app5dicul>ia7 :i* d n become trans=m$ & atta*$1 b :i* ?r\gh life swim ab\t freely 9 ! sea by means ( _! rudd]-tail4 ,! ontog5etic facts :i* are sy/ematically repres5t$ on ,plate ,,xii4 & :i* 7 fir/ discov]$ 9 #ahfg1 des]ve ! greate/ att5tion1 &1 inde$1 _c be too highly e/imat$4 ,!y fill up ! gap :i*1 accord+ to ! op9ion ( old] zoologi/s exi/$ betwe5 ! v]tebrate & ! s-call$ 8inv]tebrate0 animals4 ,?is gap 0 univ]sally reg>d$ z s important & s und5iable1 t ev5 em95t zoologi/s1 :o 7 n dis9cl9$ to adopt ! !ory ( desc5t1 saw 9 ?is gap "o ( ! *ief ob/acles aga9/ x4 ,n[ t ! ontog5y ( ! amphioxus & ! ascidia has set ?is ob/acle completely aside1 we are = ! fir/ "t enabl$ to trace ! p$igree ( man beyond ! amphioxus into ! _m-bran*+ tribe ( 8inv]tebrate0 worms1 f :i* all ! o!r high] animal tribes h orig9at$4 ,if our speculative philosoph]s1 in/ead ( occupy+ !mselves ) ca/les 9 ! air1 7 to give _! ?\ghts = "s ye>s to ! facts repres5t$ on ,plates ,,xii4 & ,,xiii41 z well z to ^? on ,plates ,,ii4 & ,,iii41 !y w\ld ga9 a f\ndation = true philosophy--= ! k ( ! univ]se firmly bas$ on exp]i5ce--:i* w\ld be sure to influ5ce all regions ( ?\ght4 ,^! facts ( ontog5esis are ! inde/ructible f\ndations ^u :i* ! moni/ic philosophy ( future times w erect its imp]i%able sy/em4 ,,plate ,,xiv4 7,betwe5 pages #bjf & #bjg1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,"o-root$ ,p$igree ( ! ,v]tebrate ,animal tribe1 repres5t+ ! hypo!sis ( ! common d]ivation ( all v]tebrate animals1 & ! hi/orical developm5t ( _! diff]5t classes dur+ ! palontological p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 7,comp>e ,*apt] ,,xx4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib47 ,! horizontal l9es indicate ! p]iods 7m5tion$ 9 vol4 ii4 p4 #ad7 ( ! organic hi/ory ( ! e>? dur+ :i* ! deposition ( ! /rata conta9+ fossils took place4 ,! v]tical l9es sep>ate ! classes & sub-classes ( v]tebrata f "o ano!r4 ,! tree-%ap$ & bran*+ l9es1 by _! great] or less] numb] & ?ickness1 indicate ! approximate degree ( developm5t1 v>iety1 & p]fection1 :i* ea* class probably atta9$ 9 ea* geological p]iod4 ,9 ^? classes :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! s(t nature ( _! bodies1 c\ld n leave any fossil rema9s 7:i* is especially ! case ) ,pro*ordata1 ,acrania1 ,monorrh9a1 & ,dipneu/a7 ! c\rse ( developm5t is hypo!tically sugge/$ on ! gr\nd ( argum5ts d]iv$ f ! ?ree records ( creation--comp>ative anatomy1 ontog5y1 & palontology4 ,! mo/ important />t+-po9ts = ! hypo!tical completion ( ! palontological gaps are "h1 z 9 all cases1 furni%$ by ! fundam5tal law ( biog5y1 :i* ass]ts ! inn] causal-nexus exi/+ betwe5 ontog5y & phylog5y4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #caj1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #bjj2 also ,plates ,,viii4-,,xiii47 ,9 all cases we h to reg>d ! individual developm5t 7det]m9$ by ! laws ( ,inh]itance b modifi$ by ! laws ( ,adaptation7 z %ort & quick repetitions ( ! palontological developm5t ( ! tribe4 ,?is proposition is ! 8cet]um c5seo0 ( our !ory ( developm5t4 ,! /atem5ts ( ! fir/ appe>ance1 or ! p]iod ( ! orig9 ( ! individual classes & sub-classes ( v]tebrate animals 7ap>t f ! hypo!tical fill+ 9 m5tion$ j n[71 are tak5 z /rictly z possible f palontological facts4 ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be obs]v$1 t 9 reality ! orig9 ( mo/ ( ! gr\ps probably took place "o or two p]iods e>li] ?an fossils n[ indicate4 ,9 ?is ,i agree ) ,huxley's views2 b on ,plates ,v4 & ,,xiv4 ,i h disreg>d$ ?is consid]ation 9 ord] n to g too f> f palontological facts4 ,! numb]s signify z foll[s 7comp>e also ,*apt] ,,xx4 & vol4 ii4 pp4 #bjd1 #bjf73--a4 ,animal ,mon]a2 #b4 ,animal ,amb2 #c4 ,community ( ,amb 7,synamb72 #d4 ,ciliat$ ,infusoria )\t m\?s2 #e4 ,ciliat$ ,infusoria ) m\?s2 #f4 ,glid+ worms 7,turbell>ia72 #g4 ,sea-sacks 7,tunicata72 #h4 ,lancelet 7,amphioxus72 #i4 ,hag 7,myx9oida72 #aj4 ,lamprey 7,petromyzontia72 #aa4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition f s+le-no/ril$ animals to primval fi%es2 #ab4 ,silurian primval fi% 7,on*us1 etc472 #ac4 ,liv+ primval fi%es 7%>ks1 rays1 ,*imr72 #ad4 ,mo/ anci5t 7,silurian7 enamell$ fi%es 7,pt]aspis72 #ae4 ,turtle fi%es 7,pamphracti72 #af4 ,/urgeons 7,/uriones72 #ag4 ,angul>-scal$ enamell$ fi%es 7,rhombif]i72 #ah4 ,bony pike 7,lepido/eus72 #ai4 ,f9ny pike 7,polypt]us72 #bj4 ,holl[-bon$ fi%es 7,closcolopes72 #ba4 ,solid bon$ fi%es 7,pycnoscolopes72 #bb4 ,bald pike 7,amia72 #bc4 ,primval bon$ fi%es 7,?rissopida72 #bd4 ,bony fi%es ) air passage to ! swimm+ bladd] 7,physo/omi72 #be4 ,bony fi%es )\t air passage to ! swimm+ bladd] 7,physocli/i72 #bf4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition betwe5 primval fi%es & amphibi\s fi%es2 #bg4 ,c]atodus2 #bg;a4 ,ext9ct ,c]atodus f ! ,trias2 #bg;b4 ,liv+ ,au/ralian ,c]atodus2 #bh4 ,african amphibi\s fi%es 7,protopt]us7 & ,am]ican amphibi\s fi%es 7,lepidosir572 #bi4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition betwe5 primval fi%es & amphibia2 #cj4 ,enamell$ heads 7,ganocephala72 #ca4 ,labyr9? too!d 7,labyr9?odonta72 #cb4 ,bl9d burr[]s 7,ccili72 #cc4 ,gill$ amphibia 7,sozobran*ia72 #cd4 ,tail$ amphibia 7,sozura72 #ce4 ,frog amphibia 7,anura72 #cf4 ,di*?acan?a 7,prot]osaurus72 #cg4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition betwe5 ,amphibia & ,protamnia2 #ch4 ,protamnia 7common prim>y =m ( all ,amnion animals72 #ci4 ,prim>y mammals 7,promammalia72 #dj4 ,primval reptiles 7,proreptilia72 #da4 7,!codontia72 #db4 ,primval dragons 7,simosauria72 #dc4 ,s]p5t dragons 7,plesiosauria72 #dd4 ,fi% dragons 7,i*?yosauria72 #de4 ,teleosauria 7,amphicla72 #df4 ,/5eosauria 7,opi/hocla72 #dg4 ,alligators & ,crocodiles 7,pro/hocla72 #dh4 ,c>nivor\s ,d9osauria 7,h>pagosauria72 #di4 ,h]bivor\s ,d9osauria 7,!rosauria72 #ej4 ,m/ri*t liz>ds 7,mosasauria72 #ea4 ,common prim>y =m ( ,s]p5ts 7,ophidia72 #eb4 ,dog-too!d beak$ liz>ds 7,cynodontia72 #ec4 ,too?less beak$ liz>ds 7,cryptodontia72 #ed4 ,long-tail$ fly+ liz>ds 7,rhamphorhyn*i72 #ee4 ,%ort-tail$ fly+ liz>ds 7,pt]odactyli72 #ef4 ,l& tortoises 7,*]sita72 #eg4 ,birds--reptiles 7,tocorni!s71 transition =m betwe5 reptiles & birds2 #eh4 ,primval griff9 7,ar*opt]yx72 #ei4 ,wat] beak$-animal 7,orni?orhyn*us72 #fj4 ,l& beak$-animal 7,e*idna72 #fa4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition betwe5 ,cloacals & ,m>supials2 #fb4 ,unkn[n =ms ( transition betwe5 ,m>supials & ,plac5tals2 #fc4 ,tuft ,plac5tals 7,villiplac5talia72 #fd4 ,girdle ,plac5tals 7,zonoplac5talia72 #fe4 ,disc ,plac5tals 7,discoplac5talia72 #ff4 ,man 7,homo pi!cog5es1 by ,l9nu errone\sly call$1 ,homo sapi5s47 ,,plate ,,xv4 7,aft] page #cfi1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,hypo!tical ,sket* ( ! ,monophyletic ,orig9 & ! ,diffusion ( ! ,twelve ,species ( ,m5 f ,lemuria ov] ! e>?4 ,! hypo!sis "h geographically sket*$ ( c\rse only claims an entirely provisional value1 z 9 ! pres5t imp]fect /ate ( our an?ropological k x is simply int5d$ to %[ h[ ! di/ribution ( ! human species1 f a s+le primval home1 may be approximately indicat$4 ,! probable primval home1 or 8,p>adise10 is "h assum$ to be ,lemuria1 a tropical cont95t at pres5t ly+ bel[ ! level ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 ! =m] exi/5ce ( :i* 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod seems v probable f num]\s facts 9 animal & vegetable geography4 7,comp>e vol4 i4 p4 #cfa1 & vol4 ii4 p4 #cae47 ,b x is also v possible t ! hypo!tical 8cradle ( ! human race0 lay fur!r to ! ea/ 79 ,h9do/an or ,fur!r ,india71 or fur!r to ! we/ 79 ea/]n ,africa74 ,future inve/igations1 especially 9 comp>ative an?ropology & palontology1 w1 x is to be hop$1 enable u to det]m9e ! probable position ( ! primval home ( man m def9itely ?an x is possible to d at pres5t4 ,if 9 opposition to our monophyletic hypo!sis1 ! polyphyletic hypo!sis--:i* ma9ta9s ! orig9 ( ! diff]5t human species f sev]al diff]5t species ( an?ropoid ape--be pref]r$ & adopt$1 !n1 f among ! _m possible hypo!ses :i* arise1 ! "o des]v+ mo/ confid5ce seems to be t :i* assumes a d\ble pi!coid root = ! human race namely1 an ,asiatic & an ,african root4 ,= x is a v rem>kable fact1 t ! ,african man-l apes 7gorilla & *impanzee7 are *>act]iz$ by a di/9ctly long-head$1 or doli*ocephal\s1 =m ( skull1 l ! human species peculi> to ,africa 7,hott5tots1 ,caffres1 ,negroes1 ,nubians74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,asiatic man-l apes 7especially ! small & l>ge orang71 by _! di/9ct1 %ort-head$1 or bra*ycephal\s1 =m ( skull agree ) human species especially *>act]i/ic ( ,asia 7,mongols & ,malays74 ,h5ce1 "o might be tempt$ to d]ive ! latt] 7! ,asiatic man-l apes & primval m57 f a common =m ( bra*ycephal\s ape1 & ! =m] 7! ,african man-l apes & primval m57 f a common doli*ocephal\s =m ( ape4 ,9 any case1 tropical ,africa & s\!rn ,asia 7& betwe5 !m ,lemuria1 :i* =m]ly connect$ !m7 are ^? portions ( ! e>? :i* des]ve ! fir/ consid]ation 9 ! discussion z to ! primval home ( ! human race2 ,am]ica & ,au/ralia are1 on ! o!r h&1 entirely exclud$ f x4 ,ev5 ,europe 7:i* is 9 fact b a we/]n p59sula ( ,asia7 is sc>cely ( any importance 9 reg>d to ! 8,p>adise "q40 ,x is self-evid5t t ! migrations ( ! diff]5t human species f _! primval home1 & _! geographical di/ribution1 c\ld on our ,plate ,,xv4 be indicat$ only 9 a v g5]al way1 & 9 ! r\ghe/ l9es4 ,! num]\s migrations ( ! _m bran*es & tribes 9 all directions1 z well z ! v important re-migrations1 _h to be entirely disreg>d$4 ,9 ord] to make ^! latt] 9 "s degree cle>1 our k w\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 ne$ to be mu* m complete1 & secondly1 we %\ld h to make use ( an atlas ) a numb] ( plates %[+ ! v>i\s migrations4 ,our ,plate ,,xv4 claims no m ?an to indicate1 9 a v g5]al way1 ! approximate geographical disp]sion ( ! twelve human species z x exi/$ 9 ! fifte5? c5tury 7be=e ! g5]al diffusion ( ! ,indo-,g]manic race71 & z x c be sket*$ out approximately1 s z to h>monize ) our hypo!sis ( desc5t4 ,! geographical b>ri]s to diffusion 7m\nta9s1 des]ts1 riv]s1 /raits1 etc471 h n be5 tak5 into consid]ation 9 ?is g5]al sket* ( migration1 because1 9 e>li] p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 !y 7 q diff]5t 9 size & =m f :at !y are to-day4 ,! gradual transmutation ( cat>rh9e apes into pi!coid m5 probably took place 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod 9 ! hypo!tical ,lemuria1 & ! b\nd>ies & =ms ( ! pres5t cont95ts & oceans mu/ !n h be5 completely diff]5t f :at !y are n[4 ,moreov]1 ! mighty influ5ce ( ! ice p]iod is ( great importance 9 ! "q ( ! migration & diffusion ( ! human species1 al?\gh x z yet _c be m accurately def9$ 9 detail4 ,i "h1 !re=e1 z 9 my o!r hypo!ses ( developm5t1 expressly gu>d myself aga9/ any dogmatic int]pretation2 !y are no?+ b fir/ attempts4 ,,index4 ,a ,,abyss9ians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,acaleph1 ii4 #ada ,aclomi1 ii4 #adh1 #aea ,acrania1 ii4 #aif1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjd ,acytt>ia1 ii4 #ea1 #fb ,adaptation1 i4 #ij1 #aef1 #bai ---- actual1 i4 #bbe1 #bca ---- correlative1 i4 #bda ---- cumulative1 i4 #bcc ---- direct1 i4 #bbe1 #bca ---- div]g5t1 i4 #bdg ---- indirect1 i4 #bbd1 #bbg ---- individual1 i4 #bbh ---- irregul>1 i4 #bbi ---- mon/r\s1 i4 #bbi ---- pot5tial1 i4 #bbd1 #bbg ---- sexual1 i4 #bcj ---- univ]sal1 i4 #bca ---- unlimit$1 i4 #bdi ,agassiz1 ,l\is1 i4 #fa ,agassiz's conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #fe ---- essay on classification1 i4 #fa ---- hi/ory ( creation1 i4 #fc ---- hi/ory ( developm5t1 i4 #fd ---- idea ( species1 i4 #fe ,album9\s bodies1 i4 #cca ,alg1 ii4 #ha1 #hb1 #hc ,alluvial sy/em1 ii4 #ae ,altaians1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,alt]nation ( g5]ations1 i4 #bjf ,am]icans1 ii4 #cji1 #cah ,amnion animals1 ii4 #bjd1 #bai ,amniota1 ii4 #bjd1 #bai ,amb1 ii4 #ec1 #bgi ,amboidea1 ii4 #ec ,amphibia1 ii4 #bji1 #baf ,amphioxus1 ii4 #aih1 #bhe ,amphirrh9a1 ii4 #bjc1 #bje ,anamnionata1 ii4 #bjd ,animal ,plants1 ii4 #add ,angiosp]m1 ii4 #hc1 #aaa ,annelida1 ii4 #acc1 #adi1 #aea ,anorgana1 i4 #e1 #cbh ,anorganology1 i4 #f ,an?ozoa1 ii4 #adc ,an?ropoc5tric conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #ch ,an?ropoides1 ii4 #bgj1 #bge1 #bib ,an?ropoli?ic p]iod1 ii4 #ae1 #ag ,an?ropology1 i4 #g ,an?ropomorphism1 i4 #ah1 #ff ,ape-l m51 ii4 #bic1 #cjj ,apes1 ii4 #bda1 #bfh1 #bgj ,arabians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,ara*nida1 ii4 #ahj1 #ahb ,ar*elm9!s1 ii4 #adh ,ar*ezoa1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,ar*igony1 i4 #ahc1 #cch ,ar*ili?ic p]iod1 ii4 #h1 #ad ,arians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,ari/otle1 i4 #ee1 #gf ,ar?ropoda1 ii4 #acb ,articulata1 ii4 #aai ,ascidia1 ii4 #aeb1 #bjj ,ascones1 ii4 #ada ,a/]ida1 ii4 #afd1 #aff ,atavism1 i4 #bjg ,au/ralians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cad ,autog5y1 i4 #cci ,b ,b,r1 ,,c>l ,,ern/1 i4 #aji ---- doctr9e ( filiation1 i4 #aji ---- !ory ( developm5t1 i4 #bid ---- types ( animals1 i4 #ec2 ii4 #aai ,basques1 ii4 #cbb ,ba?ybius1 i4 #ahd1 #cdd2 ii4 #ec ,batra*ians1 ii4 #bjd ,bats1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfa ,beak$ mammals1 ii4 #bcc1 #bci ---- reptiles1 ii4 #bbd1 #bbf ,belief1 i4 #i2 ii4 #cce ,b]b]s1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,biog5esis1 fundam5tal law (1 i4 #cji2 ii4 #cc ,biology1 i4 #f ,birds1 ii4 #bjd1 #bbf ,bra*iopoda1 ii4 #aeg ,bra91 bladd] (1 9 man1 i4 #cjd ---- developm5t (1 i4 #cjc ,bruno ,giordano1 i4 #bb1 #gj ,bryozoa1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,bu*1 ,leopold1 i4 #ajg ,b*n]1 ,l\is1 i4 #aaj ,buds1 =mation (1 i4 #aib ,c ,,caffres1 ii4 #cab1 #ccc ,calcispongi1 ii4 #adj1 #add ,cambrian sy/em1 ii4 #i1 #ae ,c>bon1 i4 #ccj1 #cce ---- !ory (1 i4 #cce ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 ii4 #aa1 #ae ,c>us ,victor1 i4 #aaj ,catallacta1 i4 #ea1 #ei ,cat>rh9i1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,caucasians1 ii4 #cji1 #cba ,causa f9alis1 i4 #cd1 #ge ,causal conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #ah1 #gd ,cells1 i4 #ahg1 #cdf ---- =mation (1 i4 #cdg ---- !ory (1 i4 #cdf ,cell-k]nel1 i4 #ahh ---- membrane1 i4 #ahh ---- sub/ance1 i4 #ahf ,cnoli?ic p]iod1 ii4 #ad1 #af ,cephalopoda1 ii4 #afj1 #afb ,*amisso1 ,adalb]t1 i4 #bjf ,*ange ( climate1 i4 #cfc ,*elophora1 ii4 #bdj1 #beg ,*9ese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,*orology1 i4 #cea ,cloacal animals1 ii4 #bcd1 #bci ,co*lides1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,cl5t]ata1 ii4 #acf1 #add ,clomati1 ii4 #adh1 #aea ,conif]1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,con/ructive =ces1 i4 #ij1 #bec1 #ccg ,cop]nicus1 i4 #ci ,corals1 ii4 #adb1 #add ,coreo-,japanese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,cormophytes1 ii4 #hj ,correlation ( p>ts1 i4 #bah ,cosmog5y1 i4 #cba ,cosmological gas !ory1 i4 #cbc ,crabs1 ii4 #agd1 #agf ,craniota1 ii4 #aih1 #bjd ,creation1 c5tres (1 i4 #ceb ---- !1 i4 #h ,creator1 !1 i4 #fd1 #gj ,cretace\s sy/em1 ii4 #ab1 #ae ,cr9oides1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,crocodiles1 ii4 #bbc1 #bbd ,cru/acea1 ii4 #agc1 #agf ,cryptogamia1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,ct5oph]a1 ii4 #adb1 #add ,cultivat$ plants1 i4 #acg ,curly-hair$ m51 ii4 #caj1 #ccc ,cuttles1 ii4 #afj1 #afb ,cuvi]1 ,george1 i4 #ej ,cuvi]'s dispute ) ,ge(froy1 i4 #hh ---- hi/ory ( creation1 i4 #ei ---- palontology1 i4 #ed ---- idea ( species1 i4 #ej ---- !ory ( cataclysms1 i4 #eh ---- !ory ( revolutions1 i4 #eh ---- types ( animals1 i4 #ec2 ii4 #aah ,cycade1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,cyclo/oma1 ii4 #bjb1 #bjd ,cytod1 i4 #cdf ,d ,,d>w91 ,,*>les1 i4 #aca ,d>w9ism1 i4 #adi ,d>w9's life1 i4 #acb ---- travels1 i4 #acb ---- !ory ( corals1 i4 #acc ---- !ory ( selection1 i4 #aej ---- /udy ( pigeons1 i4 #ada ,d>w91 ,erasmus1 i4 #aah ,deciduata1 ii4 #bdj1 #bee ,d$uction1 i4 #he2 ii4 #ceg ,democritus1 i4 #bb ,devonian sy/em1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,diatome1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,dicotyl1 ii4 #hb1 #aab ,didelphia1 ii4 #bci ,diff]5tiation1 i4 #bgj1 #bhc ,diluvial sy/em1 ii4 #ae ,dipneu/a1 ii4 #bjd1 #bab ,div]g5ce1 i4 #bgj ,division ( lab\r1 i4 #bdg ,dome/ic animals1 i4 #acg ,dragons1 ii4 #bbe ,dravidas1 ii4 #cjh1 #cai ,duali/ic conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #bj1 #ge ,dy/eleology1 i4 #ae2 ii4 #cec ,e ,,e*9ida1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,e*9od]ma1 ii4 #afc1 #aff ,ed5tata1 ii4 #bdj1 #bed ,egg ,animals1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,eggs1 i4 #aij1 #aih ,egg ( man1 i4 #aij1 #big2 ii4 #bgi ,egg1 cleavage ( !1 i4 #aij1 #bii2 ii4 #bhj ,egyptians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,elephants1 ii4 #beg ,empiricism1 i4 #gi2 ii4 #cdi ,eoc5e sy/em1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,e?iopians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,explanation ( ph5om5a1 i4 #bi ,f ,,f]ns1 ii4 #hb1 #aja ,fibr\s plants1 ii4 #hb ,f9al cause1 i4 #bb ,f9s1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,fi%es1 ii4 #bjf1 #bjh ,flagellata1 ii4 #ea1 #eg ,flat-nos$ apes1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,flat worms1 ii4 #adh1 #aej ,fl9t cells1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,fl[]+ plants1 ii4 #hb1 #ajh ,fl[] animals1 ii4 #adc ,fl[]less plants1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,fly+ animals1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfa ,freke1 i4 #aai ,fulatians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cbj ,fungi1 ii4 #hb ,g ,,ganoid ,,fi%1 ii4 #bjh1 #baj ,ga/ra1 ii4 #abg1 #abh1 #bha ,ga/rula1 ii4 #abf1 #abg ,geg5baur1 i4 #cab2 ii4 #agi1 #aic ,gemmation1 i4 #aib ,g5]ation1 i4 #bji ,g5us1 i4 #da ,geoc5tric conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #ch ,ge(froy ,s4 ,hilaire1 i4 #hf1 #aaf ,g]mans1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,g]m buds1 =mation (1 i4 #aic ---- cells1 =mation (1 i4 #aid ,gibbon1 ii4 #bgj1 #bge ,gill$ insects1 ii4 #agd1 #agf ,gill-ar*es 9 man1 i4 #cjg ,god1 conception (1 i4 #gj ,goe!1 ,wolfgang1 i4 #hj ,goe!'s conception ( nature1 i4 #bb ---- discov]y ( mid-jaw bone1 i4 #hd ---- =mative t5d5cy i4 #ia1 #bec ---- idea ( ,god1 i4 #ga ---- inve/igations 9 nature1 i4 #ha ---- mat]ialism1 i4 #bc ---- metamorphosis1 i4 #ij ---- metamorphosis ( plants1 i4 #hb ---- philosophy ( nature1 i4 #ha ---- !ory ( developm5t1 i4 #ib ---- v]tebr ( skull1 i4 #hc ,g5o*ori/us1 i4 #aif ,gono*orism1 i4 #aif ,gorilla1 ii4 #bgj ,grant1 i4 #aai ,greeks1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,greg>91 ii4 #acc1 #acd ,gynmosp]ms1 ii4 #hb1 #aji ,h ,,halisauria1 ii4 #bjd1 #bad ,h>e-rabbit1 i4 #adh1 #bge ,heliozoa1 ii4 #fd ,h]b]t1 i4 #aai ,h]$ity1 i4 #agf ,h]maphrodites1 i4 #aif ,h]s*el's cosmog5y1 i4 #cba ,holo?uri1 ii4 #aff1 #agb ,ho($ animals1 ii4 #bdi1 #beb ,hook]1 i4 #aai ,hott5tots1 ii4 #caa1 #ccc ,human races1 ii4 #bif1 #cje1 #cjh ---- s\l1 ii4 #cfa ,huxley1 i4 #aai1 #ade2 ii4 #bfh ,hybridism1 i4 #ade1 #baj1 #bge ,hydrom$us1 ii4 #adc1 #ade ,i ,,ice ,,p]iod1 i4 #cfg2 ii4 #ag ,indecidua1 ii4 #bda1 #bdi ,individual developm5t1 ii4 #bic ,indo-,*9ese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,indo-,g]manic1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,induction1 i4 #he2 ii4 #ceg ,infusoria1 ii4 #acb1 #ace ,inh]itance1 abridg$1 i4 #bab ,inh]itance1 acquir$1 i4 #bac ---- adapt$1 i4 #bac ---- amphigon\s1 i4 #baj ---- cons]vative1 i4 #bjd ---- con/itut$1 i4 #baf ---- contemporane\s1 i4 #bag ---- cont9u\s1 i4 #bje ---- e/abli%$1 i4 #baf ---- homo*ron\s1 i4 #bag ---- int]rupt$1 i4 #bje ---- lat5t1 i4 #bje ---- mix$1 i4 #baj ---- progressive1 i4 #bac ---- sexual1 i4 #bji ---- simplifi$1 i4 #bab ---- un9t]rupt$1 i4 #bje ---- laws (1 i4 #bjd ,inophyta1 ii4 #hb1 #ic ,insects1 ii4 #ahd ,insectivora1 ii4 #bda1 #bei ,in/9ct1 ii4 #cdc ,inv]tebrata1 ii4 #aah1 #aie ,iranians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,j ,,japanese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,jews1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,jura sy/em1 ii4 #ab1 #ad ,k ,,kant1 ,,immanuel1 i4 #aja1 #cba ,kant's ,criticism ( ! faculty ( judgm5t1 i4 #aje ---- me*anisms1 i4 #cg1 #ajb ---- philosophy ( nature1 i4 #aja ---- !ory ( desc5t1 i4 #ajc ---- !ory ( developm5t1 i4 #cba ---- !ory ( ! =mation ( ! univ]se1 i4 #aja ,k1 po/]iori1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #cde ---- priori1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #cdd ,l ,,labyr9?ule1 ii4 #ea ,lac]tilia1 ii4 #bbc ,lam>ck1 ,jean1 i4 #aaa ,lam>ck's an?ropology1 i4 #aae2 ii4 #bfd ---- philosophy ( nature1 i4 #aab ---- !ory ( desc5t1 i4 #aac ,lam>ckism1 i4 #aej ,lamellibran*ia1 ii4 #aeh1 #afj ,lancelet1 ii4 #aih1 #bjd1 #bhe ,laplace's cosmog5y1 i4 #cba ,laur5tian sy/em1 ii4 #i1 #ad ,lemuria1 i4 #cfa2 ii4 #cbf ,leon>do da ,v9ci1 i4 #ef ,leptoc>dia1 ii4 #aif1 #bjd ,leucones1 ii4 #ada ,l9nu1 ,*>les1 i4 #ci ,l9nu' classification ( animals1 ii4 #aah ---- classification ( plants1 ii4 #gh ---- designation ( species1 i4 #da ---- hi/ory ( creation1 i4 #dd ---- sy/em1 i4 #dj ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 ii4 #bih ,lyell1 ,*>les1 i4 #abf ,lyell's hi/ory ( creation1 i4 #abh ,m ,,magy>s1 ii4 #cji1 #caf ,malays1 ii4 #cjh1 #cae ,mal?us' !ory ( population1 i4 #afa ,mammalia1 ii4 #bca1 #bci ,man-apes1 ii4 #bga1 #bge1 #bib ,m>supials1 ii4 #bcf1 #bci1 #bij ,matag5esis1 i4 #bjf ,mat]ialism1 i4 #ce ,matt]1 i4 #bb2 ii4 #cfj ,me*anical causes1 i4 #cd1 #gd ,me*anical conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #ag1 #gd ,me*anism1 i4 #cg1 #ajb ,m$it]ranese1 ii4 #cjh1 #cba ,m$us1 ii4 #adc1 #add ,mesoli?ic p]iod1 ii4 #ad1 #bj ,metamorphosis ( ! e>?'s /rata1 ii4 #be ,metamorphosis1 i4 #ij ,migration1 laws (1 i4 #cgc ---- ( organisms1 i4 #ced ---- ( ! human species1 ii4 #cbe ---- !ory (1 i4 #cfg ,m9d1 i4 #bb2 ii4 #cfj ---- developm5t ( !1 ii4 #cdd1 #cfj ,mioc5e p]iod1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,miracles1 i4 #bb ,molluscs1 ii4 #aee1 #afj ,mon]a1 i4 #ahd1 #cdc2 ii4 #eb1 #bgh ,mongols1 ii4 #cjh1 #caf ,monism1 i4 #cd ,moni/ic conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #bj1 #gd ,monocottyl1 ii4 #hb1 #aab ,monoglottonic1 ii4 #cbg1 #ccc ,monogony1 i4 #ahc ,monophylites1 ii4 #dd ,monophyletic hypo!sis ( desc5t1 ii4 #dd ,monorrh9a1 ii4 #bjc1 #bjd ,monosporogonia1 i4 #aid ,monotrema1 ii4 #bcd1 #bci ,morphology1 i4 #ba ,morula1 ii4 #abe1 #abg ,moses' hi/ory ( creation1 i4 #cg ,moss animals1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,mosses1 ii4 #hb1 #ig ,mll]1 ,fritz1 i4 #di1 #gc2 ii4 #agd ,mll]1 ,johannes1 i4 #cab2 ii4 #bjc ,musc91 ii4 #hb1 #ii ,mussels1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,myriapoda1 ii4 #ahb1 #ahd ,myxomycetes1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,n ,,natural ,,philosophy1 i4 #gh ,negroes1 ii4 #cji1 #cac1 #ccc ,nema!lm9!s1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,newton1 i4 #be1 #ajf ,non-amnionate1 ii4 #bjd1 #bji ,nubians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cbj ,o ,,cology1 ii4 #ced ,ok51 ,lor5z1 i4 #ie ,ok5's hi/ory ( developm5t1 i4 #bic ---- philosophy ( nature1 i4 #if ---- !ory ( infusoria1 i4 #ig ---- ---- protoplasm1 i4 #ig ,olyn?us1 ii4 #ada ,ontog5esis1 i4 #bic ,ontog5y1 i4 #aj2 ii4 #cc ,orang1 ii4 #bga1 #bge ,organisms1 i4 #e1 #cbh ,organs1 i4 #e ,orig9 ( language1 ii4 #cjb1 #cbg ,osse\s fi%es1 ii4 #bjh1 #baa ,ovul>ia1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,p ,,pa*yc>dia1 ii4 #bja ,paloli?ic p]iod1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,palontology1 i4 #ed ,palissy1 i4 #ef ,palm f]ns1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,p&]1 ,*ri/ian1 i4 #bid ,papuans1 ii4 #caj1 #ccc ,p>adise1 ii4 #cbe ,p>allelism ( developm5t1 i4 #cac ,p>!nog5esis1 i4 #aig ,p$igree ( amphibia1 ii4 #bji ---- anamnia1 ii4 #bji ---- apes1 ii4 #bgj ,p]mean sy/em1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,petrifactions1 i4 #ed ,phan]ogama1 ii4 #hj1 #hb1 #ajh ,philosophy1 i4 #gi2 ii4 #cej ,phylog5y1 i4 #aj2 ii4 #cc ,phylum1 ii4 #db ,physiology1 i4 #ba ,pi!coid1 !ory1 ii4 #cef ,plac5talia1 ii4 #bdj1 #bdd ,planula1 ii4 #abf1 #ace1 #bha ,plana1 ii4 #abe1 #abg ,planada1 ii4 #bhj ,plasma1 i4 #ahe1 #ccj ,plasmogony1 i4 #cci ,pla/ids1 i4 #cdg ,pla/ids1 !ory (1 i4 #cdg ,platyelm9!s1 ii4 #adh1 #aej ,platyrrh9i1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,plei/oc5e sy/em1 ii4 #ae ,plioc5e sy/em1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,pol> man1 ii4 #cjh1 #cag ,polyglottal1 ii4 #cbg1 #ccc ,polynesians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cae ,polyphyletic !ory ( desc5t1 ii4 #de ,polyphylites1 ii4 #de1 #cjc ,polyps1 ii4 #adb ,polyp jellies1 ii4 #adc1 #add ,polysporogonia1 i4 #aic ,population1 numb] (1 ii4 #ccc ,porif]a1 ii4 #aci1 #add ,prim>y mammals1 ii4 #bci1 #bij ,prim>y p]iod1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,primval alg1 ii4 #hb1 #hd ---- animals1 ii4 #aca1 #acb ---- hi/ory ( man1 ii4 #bih ---- m51 ii4 #cbe ,primordial p]iod1 ii4 #i1 #ad ,pro*ordata1 ii4 #bgh ,prog5itors ( man1 ii4 #bgi1 #bie ,progress1 i4 #bgg1 #bhc ,promammalia1 ii4 #bcc1 #bci ,propagation1 i4 #ahc ---- amphigonic1 i4 #aie ---- monogonic1 i4 #ahc ---- non-sexual1 i4 #ahc ,propagation1 sexual1 i4 #aie ---- virg9al1 i4 #aig ,protamnia1 ii4 #bhi1 #bie ,protamb1 ii4 #eb ,pro?allophytes1 ii4 #hj1 #ig ,pro?allus plants1 ii4 #hj1 #ig ,proti/a1 ii4 #dh ,protophyta1 ii4 #hb1 #he ,protoplasma1 i4 #ahe1 #ccj ,protopla/s1 ii4 #ea1 #ec ,protozoa1 ii4 #aba1 #aca1 #acb ,purpose 9 nature1 i4 #ai ,purposelessness 9 nature1 i4 #bj ,r ,,radiata1 ii4 #abj ,radiol>ia1 i4 #ccc1 #cga2 ii4 #fe ,rapaci\s animals1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfj ,rec5t sy/em1 ii4 #ae ,reptiles1 ii4 #bbb1 #bbd ,rhizopoda1 ii4 #ea1 #fa ,r+$ worms1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rod5tia1 ii4 #bda1 #beg ,romans1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,rotatoria1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rotif]a1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,r\nd worms1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rudim5t>y eyes1 i4 #ac ---- gri/le1 i4 #ab ---- legs1 i4 #ad ---- lungs1 i4 #bhi ---- mamm>y gl&s1 i4 #bij ---- muscles1 i4 #ab ---- nictitat+ membrane1 i4 #ac ---- organs1 i4 #ab ---- pi/ils1 i4 #ae ---- /am5s1 i4 #ae ---- tails1 i4 #bhi ---- tee?1 i4 #ab ---- w+s1 i4 #bhg ,s ,,sack ,,worms1 ii4 #bhc1 #bie ,sauria1 ii4 #bbb ,s*aaffhaus51 i4 #aaj ,s*lei*]1 ,augu/1 i4 #ajh2 ii4 #cja ,s*leid51 ,j4 ,m41 i4 #aji ,sci5ce1 i4 #i2 ii4 #cce ,scolecida1 ii4 #bhc1 #bie ,sea />s1 ii4 #afd1 #aff ---- cucumb]s1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,sea dragons1 ii4 #bjd ---- lilies1 ii4 #aff1 #agg ---- nettles1 ii4 #ada1 #add ---- ur*9s1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,second>y p]iod1 ii4 #ad1 #bj ,selection /hetic1 i4 #bfh ---- artificial1 i4 #aeb1 #agj1 #bed ---- homo*romic1 i4 #bfc ---- m$ical1 i4 #agc ---- milit>y1 i4 #aga ---- musical1 i4 #bfg ---- natural1 i4 #afh1 #bee ---- psy*ical1 i4 #bfi ---- sexual1 i4 #bfe ---- ,sp>tan1 i4 #agj ,self-division1 i4 #aia ,semites1 ii4 #cbb1 #ccj ,s]p5ts1 ii4 #bbc ,sexes1 sep>ation (1 i4 #bdd ,sexual *>act]s1 i4 #bji1 #bfe ,silurian sy/em1 ii4 #h1 #ad ,slavonians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,snails1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,s\l1 !1 i4 #ga2 ii4 #cdc1 #cfb ,species1 i4 #da1 #bgc1 #cjd1 #caa ,specific developm5t1 i4 #caa ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t1 i4 #aai2 ii4 #cfg ,sp]ma1 i4 #aig ,spid]s1 i4 #ahj1 #ahb ,spirobran*ia1 ii4 #aeg1 #afj ,sponges1 ii4 #aci1 #add ,spores1 =mation (1 i4 #aid ,/emm$ plants1 ii4 #bhj ,/raight-hair$ m51 ii4 #cji1 #cad ,/ruggle = life1 i4 #afa1 #beb ,synamba1 ii4 #abe1 #bhj ,sy/ematic developm5t1 i4 #cac ,sy/em ( animals1 ii4 #acb ---- apes1 ii4 #bgj ---- ,arabians1 ii4 #ccj ---- ara*nida1 ii4 #ahb ---- ,arians1 ii4 #cca ---- ar?ropoda1 ii4 #acb ---- articulata1 ii4 #agg1 #ahc ---- cat>rh9i1 ii4 #bgj ---- cl5t]ata1 ii4 #add ---- cru/acea1 ii4 #agf ---- didelphia1 ii4 #bci ---- e*9od]ma1 ii4 #aff ---- ,egyptians1 ii4 #ccj ---- fi%es1 ii4 #bjh ---- =mations1 ii4 #ae ---- ,g]mans1 ii4 #cca ---- gill$ ,insects1 ii4 #agg ---- ,grco-,romans1 ii4 #cca ---- ,hamites1 ii4 #ccj ---- ho($ animals1 ii4 #beb ---- human ance/ors1 ii4 #bie ---- human races1 ii4 #cjh ---- human species1 ii4 #cjh1 #cji ---- ,indians1 ii4 #cca ---- ,indo-,g]mani1 ii4 #cca ---- insects1 ii4 #ahb ---- mammalia1 ii4 #bci ---- mank9d1 ii4 #bie ---- m>supials1 ii4 #bci ---- m5 & apes1 ii4 #bga ---- molluscs1 ii4 #afj ---- monodelphia1 ii4 #bda ---- organisms1 ii4 #gd1 #ge ---- plac5talia1 ii4 #bdj ---- plants1 ii4 #hb ---- platyrrh9i1 ii4 #bgj ---- proti/a1 ii4 #ea ---- reptiles1 ii4 #bbd ---- ,semites1 ii4 #ccj ---- ,slavonians1 ii4 #cca ---- spid]s1 ii4 #ahb ---- /> fi%es1 ii4 #afg ---- /rata ( ! e>?1 ii4 #ae ---- tra*eata1 ii4 #ahb ---- ungulata1 ii4 #beb ---- vegetable k+dom1 ii4 #hc ---- v]tebrata1 ii4 #bjd ---- worms1 ii4 #aej ---- zoophytes1 ii4 #add ,t ,,tail ,,( ,,man1 i4 #bhi1 #cjh ,tangles1 ii4 #fa1 #hb ,t>t>s1 ii4 #bji1 #cag ,teleology1 i4 #ajj1 #bia ,teleo/ei1 ii4 #bjh1 #baa ,teleological conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #bj1 #ge ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ii4 #ad1 #af ,?allophytes1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,?ickness ( ! e>?'s cru/1 ii4 #ai ,?\ght1 ii4 #cfd ,?read plants1 ii4 #hb1 #ic ,tocogony1 i4 #ahc ,tortoises1 ii4 #bbe ,tra*eata1 ii4 #ahb ,transition =ms1 ii4 #cch ,transmutation1 !ory (1 i4 #d ,treviranus1 i4 #ib ,trias sy/em1 ii4 #ab1 #ad ,tuft-hair$ m51 ii4 #cjg1 #cji ,tunicata1 ii4 #aeb1 #bjj ,turbell>ia1 ii4 #bhc ,turks1 ii4 #cji1 #caf ,u ,,ung]1 ,,franz1 i4 #aji ,ungulata1 ii4 #bdi1 #beb ,unity 9 nature1 i4 #bb1 #cch ,uralians1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,v ,v>iability1 i4 #bbj ,v>iation1 i4 #bai ,v>ieties1 i4 #bgf ,v]tebrata1 ii4 #aie1 #bje ,vital =ce1 i4 #bb1 #ccd ,vitali/ic conception ( ! univ]se1 i4 #ah ,w ,wagn]1 ,&reas1 i4 #ach ,wagn]1 ,moritz1 i4 #cfi ,wallace1 ,alfr$1 i4 #ace ,wallace's *orology1 i4 #cfa1 #cgc ---- !ory ( selection1 i4 #acf ,well's !ory ( selection1 i4 #aej ,:ales1 ii4 #bdj1 #bea ,w1 fre$om ( !1 i4 #aac1 #bcg1 #cfd ,wolff's !ory ( developm5t1 i4 #bic ,woolly-hair$ m51 ii4 #cjg1 #cji ,worms1 ii4 #adg1 #aej ,z ,,zoophytes1 ii4 #acf1 #add ,,works ,,( ,h4 ,,alleyne ,,ni*olson1 ,m4,d4 ,i4 ,text-,book ( ,zoology1 = ,s*ools & ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4ej4 ,,ii4 ,manual ( ,zoology1 = ! ,use ( ,/ud5ts1 ) a ,g5]al ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,zology4 ,second edition4 ,revis$ & enl>g$1 ) #bdc ,woodcuts4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #b4ej4 ,,iii4 ,text-,book ( ,geology1 = ,s*ools & ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4cj4 ,,iv4 ,introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,biology4 ,illu/rat$4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #fe c5ts4 ,v4 ,! ,anci5t ,life--,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,a ,compreh5sive ,outl9e ( ! ,pr9ciples & ,lead+ ,facts ( ,palontological ,sci5ce4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #b4jj4 ,! ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce4 8,a "w by a ma/] 9 ! sci5ce :o und]/&s ! significance ( e ph5om5on :i* he records1 & kn[s h[ to make x reveal its lessons4 ,z reg>ds its value !re c sc>cely exi/ two op9ions4 ,z a text-book ( ! hi/orical phase ( palontology x w be indisp5sable to /ud5ts1 :e!r specially pursu+ geology or biology2 & )\t x no man :o aspires ev5 to an outl9e k ( natural sci5ce c deem 8 libr>y complete40 ,a!neum4 8,! ,pr(essor ( ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,/4 ,&rews has1 by 8 previ\s works on zology & palontology1 s fully e/abli%$ 8 claim to be an exact ?9k] & a close reason]1 t sc>cely any recomm5dation ( ours c add to ! int]e/ ) :i* all /ud5ts 9 natural hi/ory w receive ! pres5t volume4 ,x is1 z its second title expresses x1 a compreh5sive outl9e ( ! pr9ciples & lead+ facts ( palontological sci5ce4 ,num]\s woodcut illu/rations v delicately execut$1 a copi\s gloss>y1 & an admirable index1 add mu* to ! value ( ?is volume40 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,/reet1 ,new ,york4 ,,works ,,( ,,h5ry ,,?omas ,,buckle4 ,i4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,h5ry ,?omas ,buckle4 ,by ,,alfr$ ,,h5ry ,,hu?4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 8,! book deals ) ,mr4 ,buckle less z a philosoph] ?an z a man4444 ,mr4 ,hu? has done 8 "p well & ?or\ghly40--,saturday ,review4 8,mr4 ,hu? has produc$ a /rik+ & di/9ct portrait out ( 8 mat]ials1 & he has done 8 "w ) a simplicity & mode/y :i* are highly effective40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 8,?is "w1 we ?9k1 w revolutionize popul> op9ion ab\t ! philosoph]40--,london ,daily ,news4 8,buckle 0 a man ^: /ory mu/ excite int]e/ & r\se sympa?y40--,scotsman4 ,,ii4 ,hi/ory ( ,civilization 9 ,engl&4 #b vols41 #hvo4 ,clo?1 #d4jj2 half calf1 extra1 #h4jj4 8,:oev] misses read+ ?is book w miss read+ :at is1 9 v>i\s respects1 to ! be/ ( our judgm5t & exp]i5ce1 ! mo/ rem>kable book ( ! day--"o1 inde$1 t no ?\ghtful1 inquir+ m9d w\ld miss read+ = a good deal4 ,let ! read] be z adv]se z he may be to ! writ]'s philosophy1 let him be z devot$ to ! ob/ructive z ,mr4 ,buckle is to ! progress p>ty1 let him be z or?odox 9 *ur* cre$ z ! o!r is het]odox1 z dogmatic z ! au?or is skeptical--let him1 9 %ort1 f9d 8 prejudices %ock$ at e turn ( ! argum5t1 & all 8 prepossessions :i/l$ d[n ! w9d--/ill1 !re is s mu* 9 ?is extraord9>y volume to /imulate reflection & excite to inquiry1 & provoke to e>ne/ inve/igation1 p]haps 7to ?is or t read]7 on a track hi!rto untrodd51 & across ! virg9 soil ( untill$ fields1 fre% woods & pa/ures new1 t we may fairly defy ! mo/ ho/ile _s1 ! mo/ mi/ru/ful & lea/ sympa!tic1 to read x ?r\gh )\t be+ glad ( hav+ done s1 or1 hav+ begun x1 or ev5 glanc$ at almo/ any "o ( its pages1 to pass away unread40--,london ,times4 8,we h read ,mr4 ,buckle's volumes ) ! deepe/ int]e/4 ,we owe him a pr(\nd debt ( gratitude4 ,8 influ5ce on ! ?\ght ( ! pres5t age c n b be enorm\s1 & if he gives u no m ?an we already h 9 ! two volumes ( ! magnus opus1 he w /ill be class$ among ! fa!rs & f\nd]s ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,hi/ory40--,new ,york ,times4 8,s+ul>ly acute1 possess$ ( r>e analytical p[]1 imag9ative b n fanciful1 unwe>i$ 9 rese>*1 & gift$ ) wond]ful tal5t 9 arrang+ & mold+ 8 mat]ial1 ! au?or is z fasc9at+ z he is le>n$4 ,8 erudition is imm5se--s imm5se z n to be cumb]some4 ,x is ! result ( a long & /eady gr[?--a "p ( himself40--,bo/on ,j\rnal4 ,,iii4 ,essays4 ,) a ,biography ( ! ,au?or4 ,portrait4 #abmo4 ,clo?1 #a4jj2 half calf1 extra1 #b4ej4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,/41 ,new ,york4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]'s ,late ,works ,,on ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,society4 ,i4 ,! ,/udy ( ,sociology4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,ii4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology4 vol4 ,i4 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #b4jj4 ,,iii4 ,c]emonial ,in/itutions4 7,fir/ "p ( ,vol4 ,,ii4 ( 8,pr9ciples ( ,sociology407 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4be4 ,,iv4 ,descriptive ,sociology2 ,or1 ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,sociological ,,facts4 ,six ,p>ts1 9 royal folio4 ,price1 #d4jj ea*4 8,( all our ?9k]s he is ! "o :o1 z x appe>s to me1 has =m$ = himself ! l>ge/ new s*eme ( a sy/ematic philosophy1 &1 9 relation to "s ( ! greate/ que/ions ( philosophy 9 _! mo/ rec5t =ms1 z set or reset by ! la/ speculations & revelations ( sci5ce1 has already %ot 8 ?\ghts ! f>!/40--,pr(4 ,,david ,,masson1 9 8,rec5t ,briti% ,philosophy40 8,8 bold g5]alizations are always in/ructive1 & "s ( !m may 9 ! end be e/abli%$ z ! pr(\nde/ laws ( ! kn[able univ]se40--,dr4 ,,james ,,mcco%1 9 ! 8,intuitions ( ,m9d40 8,"o :o1 :e!r = ! ext5t ( 8 positive k1 or = ! pr(undity ( 8 speculative insight1 has already a*iev$ a "n second to none 9 ! :ole range ( ,engli% philosophy40--,we/m9/] ,review4 8,! "w 7#8,descriptive ,sociology'7 is a gigantic "o2 its value1 :5 complete1 w be immeasurable2 & its actual influ5ce on ! /udy ( sociology1 & help to t /udy1 great] p]haps ?an any book yet publi%$4 ,x is a cyclopdia ( ,social ,sci5ce1 b a cyclopdia edit$ by ! greate/ ( sociologi/s40--,g4 ,w4 ,,smalley4 ,= sale by all booksell]s2 or s5t by mail1 po/-paid1 on receipt ( price4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 ,new ,york4 ,,important ,,works4 ,i4 ,! ,life & ,words ( ,*ri/4 ,by ,,cunn+ham ,,geikie1 ,d4,d4 ,new *eap edition4 ,f ! same /]eotype plates z ! two-volume illu/rat$ edition4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,?is edition ( ,geikie's ,life ( ,*ri/ is ! only *eap edition t conta9s ! copi\s notes ( ! au?or1 ! m>g9al ref]5ces1 & an index4 8,a "w ( ! highe/ rank1 brea?+ ! _s ( true fai? 9 ,*ri/40--,dr4 ,delitzs*1 ! ,comm5tator4 8,a mo/ valuable addition to sacr$ lit]ature40--,a4 ,n4 ,littlejohn1 ,d4,d41 ,bi%op ( ,long ,isl&4 ,,ii4 ,m9d 9 ! ,l[] ,animals1 9 ,heal? & ,disease4 ,by ,w4 ,,laud] ,,l9dsay1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 etc4 ,9 two volumes1 #hvo1 clo?4 ,price1 #d4jj4 8,i h /udi$ ! subject ( m9d 9 o!r animals1 z comp>$ ) t ( man1 = a s]ies ( ye>s1 simply z a physician-naturali/4444 ,reg>d+ ! :ole subject ( m9d 9 animals f a m$ical & natural-hi/ory po9t ( view1 ,i h /udi$ x f fir/ to la/ )\t any preconceiv$ ideas1 ) no !ory to def5d1 support1 or illu/rate4444 ,all t ,i attempt is to outl9e ! subject ( m9d 9 ! l[] animals1 to illu/rate _! possession ( ! high] m5tal faculties z !y occur 9 man40--,extract f ,introduction4 ,,iii4 ,memoirs ( ,madame de ,remusat4 ,complete 9 "o vol41 ) an ,index1 #abmo1 #gdj pages1 clo?1 price1 #b4jj4 ,9 ?ree vols41 octavo1 pap] cov]s1 price1 #a4ej2 or1 #ej c5ts ea*4 8#8,madame de ,rmusat's ,memoirs' w rema9 z ! mo/ f9i%$ picture ( ! ,napoleonic ,c\rt 9 its outw>d glory & its inn] pett9ess40--,london ,a!num4 ,,iv4 ,memoirs ( ,napoleon1 8 ,c\rt & ,family4 ,by ! ,,du*ess ,d',,abrantes 7,madame ,junot74 ,new edition4 ,9 two vols41 #abmo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #c4jj4 ,! int]e/ 9 ! fir/ ,napoleon & 8 ,c\rt1 :i* has rec5tly be5 s /imulat$ by ! 8,memoirs ( ,madame de ,rmusat10 has induc$ ! publi%]s to reissue ! fam\s 8,memoirs ( ! ,du*ess d',abrantes40 ,^! memoirs1 :i* hi!rto h appe>$ 9 co/ly #hvo volumes1 are n[ publi%$ at a mu* l[] price1 to correspond ) ! ,de ,rmusat #abmo volume4 ,! "w at ! pres5t juncture w be read ) att5tion1 especially z x pres5ts a mu* m favorable portrait ( ! great ,corsican ?an t limn$ by ,madame de ,rmusat4 ,v4 ,! ,life ( ,david ,glasg[ ,f>ragut1 ,fir/ ,admiral ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,navy1 embody+ 8 ,j\rnal & ,lett]s4 ,by 8 ,son1 ,,loyall ,,f>ragut4 ,) ,portraits1 ,maps1 & ,illu/rations4 #hvo4 ,clo?4 ,price1 #d4jj4 8,! book is a /irr+ "o1 ( c\rse2 ! /ory ( ,f>ragut's life is a tale ( adv5ture ( ! mo/ ravi%+ sort1 s t1 aside f ! value ( ?is "w z an au!ntic biography ( ! greate/ ( ,am]ican naval comm&]s1 ! book is "o ( surpass+ int]e/1 consid]$ m]ely z a n>rative ( difficult & dang]\s ent]prises & h]oic a*ievem5ts40--,new ,york ,ev5+ ,po/4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publi%]s1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,/reet1 ,n4 ,y4