---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,transcriber's note3 ,this book was published in two volumes1 of which this is the ,numbers enclosed in square brackets1 e4g4 #a1 relate to footnotes1 which have been placed at the end of the text4 ,numbers enclosed in parentheses1 e4g4 7#a71 relate to works referred to in the text and listed at the end of this volume4 ,in the text versions of these two volumes1 words in italics are enclosed in underscores1 bold words are enclosed in plus signs1 and words in ,gothic script are enclosed in equal signs4 ,curly brackets are used to represent subscripts1 e4g4 k#a4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,creation4 ,illustration3 ,hypothetical ,sketch of the ,monophyletic ,origin of ,man4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,creation3 ,,or ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,its ,,inhabitants ,,by ,,the ,,action ,,of ,,natural ,,causes4 ,a ,,popular ,,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,evolution ,,in ,,general1 ,,and ,,of ,,that ,,of ,,darwin1 ,,goethe1 ,,and ,,lamarck ,,in ,,particular4 ,,from ,,the ,,german ,,of ,,ernst ,,haeckel1 ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,jena4 ,,the ,,translation ,,revised ,,by ,,professor ,e4 ,,ray ,,lankester1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,,fellow ,,of ,,exeter ,,college1 ,,oxford4 ,,in ,,two ,,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #a1 #c1 ,,and #e ,,bond ,,street4 #ahhj4 ,a sense sublime ,of something far more deeply interfused1 ,whose dwelling is the light of setting suns1 ,and the round ocean1 and the living air1 ,and the blue sky1 and in the mind of man2 ,a motion and a spirit that impels ,all thinking things1 all objects of all thought1 ,and rolls through all things4 ,in all things1 in all natures1 in the stars ,of azure heaven1 the unenduring clouds1 ,in flower and tree1 in every pebbly stone ,that paves the brooks1 the stationary rocks1 ,the moving waters and the invisible air4 ,,wordsworth4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,page ,,periods ,,of ,,creation ,,and ,,records ,,of ,,creation4 ,reform of ,systems by the ,theory of ,descent4--,the ,natural ,system as a ,pedigree4--,palontological ,records of the ,pedigree4--,petrifactions as ,records of ,creation4--,deposits of the ,neptunic ,strata and the ,enclosure of ,organic ,remains4--,division of the ,organic ,history of the ,earth into ,five ,main ,periods3 ,period of the ,tangle ,forests1 ,fern ,forests1 ,pine ,forests1 ,foliaceous ,forests1 and of ,cultivation4--,the ,series of ,neptunic ,strata4--,immeasurable ,duration of the ,periods which have elapsed during their ,formation4--,deposits of ,strata only during the ,sinking1 not during the ,elevation of the ,ground4--,other ,gaps in the ,records of ,creation4--,metamorphic ,condition of the most ,ancient ,neptunic ,strata4--,small ,extent of ,palontological ,experience4--,small proportion of ,organisms and of ,parts of ,organisms ,capable of ,petrifying4--,rarity of many ,petrified ,species4--,want of ,fossilised ,intermediate ,forms4--,records of the ,creation in ,ontogeny and in ,comparative ,anatomy #a ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,the ,,protista4 ,special ,mode of ,carrying out the ,theory of ,descent in the ,natural ,system of ,organisms4--,construction of ,pedigrees4--,descent of all ,many-celled from ,single-celled ,organisms4--,descent of ,cells from ,monera4--,meaning of ,organic ,tribes1 or ,phyla4--,number of the ,tribes in the ,animal and ,vegetable ,kingdoms4--,the ,monophyletic ,hypothesis of ,descent1 or the ,hypothesis of one ,common ,progenitor1 and the ,polyphyletic ,hypothesis of ,descent1 or the ,hypothesis of many ,progenitors4--,the ,kingdom of ,protista1 or ,primval ,beings4--,eight ,classes of the ,protista ,kingdom3 ,monera1 ,amb1 or ,protoplast2 ,whip-swimmers1 or ,flagellata2 ,ciliated-balls1 ,cili ,catallacta2 ,labyrinth-streamers1 or ,labyrinthule2 ,flint-cells1 or ,diatome2 ,mucous-moulds1 or ,myxomycetes2 ,root-footers 7,rhizopoda74--,remarks on the ,general ,natural ,history of the ,protista3 ,their ,vital ,phenomena1 ,chemical ,composition1 and ,formation 7,individuality and ,fundamental ,form74--,phylogeny of the ,prostista ,kingdom #cf ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,the ,natural ,system of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4--,division of the ,vegetable ,kingdom into ,six ,branches and ,eighteen ,classes4--,the ,flowerless ,plants 7,cryptogamia74--,sub-kingdom of the ,thallus ,plants4--,the ,tangles1 or ,alg 7,primary ,alg1 ,green ,alg1 ,brown ,alg1 ,red ,alg74--,the ,thread-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,lichens and ,fungi74--,sub-kingdom of the ,prothallus ,plants4--,the ,mosses1 or ,muscin 7,water-mosses1 ,liverworts1 ,leaf-mosses1 ,bog-mosses74--,the ,ferns1 or ,filicin 7,leaf-ferns1 ,bamboo-ferns1 ,water-ferns1 ,scale-ferns74--,sub kingdom of ,flowering ,plants 7,phanerogamia74--,the ,gymnosperms1 or ,plants with ,naked ,seeds 7,palm-ferns ,cycade2 ,pines ,conifer74--,the ,angiosperms1 or ,plants with ,enclosed ,seeds4--,monocotyl4--,dicotyl4--,cup-bl ossoms 7,apetal74--,star-blossoms 7,diapetal74--,bell-blossoms 7,gamopetal7 #gg ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,i4 ,,animal-,,plants ,,and ,,worms4 ,the ,natural ,system of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,linnus' and ,lamarck's ,systems4--,the ,four ,types of ,br and ,cuvier4--,their ,increase to ,seven ,types4--,genealogical ,importance of the ,seven ,types as ,independent ,tribes of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,derivation of ,zoophytes and ,worms from ,primval ,animals4--,monophyletic and ,polyphyletic ,hypothesis of the ,descent of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,common ,origin of the ,four ,higher ,animal ,tribes out of the ,worm ,tribe4--,division of the ,seven ,animal ,tribes into ,sixteen ,main ,classes1 and ,thirty-eight ,classes4--,primval ,animals 7,monera1 ,amb1 ,synamb71 ,gregarines1 ,infusoria1 ,planades1 and ,gastrades 7,planula and ,gastrula74--,tribe of ,zoophytes4--,spongi 7,mucous ,sponges1 ,fibrous ,sponges1 ,calcareous ,sponges74--,sea ,nettles1 or ,acaleph 7,corals1 ,hood-jellies1 ,comb-jellies74--,tribe of ,worms #aag ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,ii4 ,,mollusca1 ,,star-,,fishes1 ,,and ,,articulated ,,animals4 ,tribe of ,molluscs4--,four ,classes of ,molluscs3 ,lamp-shells 7,spirobranchia72 ,mussels 7,lamellibranchia72 ,snails 7,cochlides72 ,cuttle-fish 7,cephalopoda74--,tribe of ,star-fishes1 or ,echinoderma4--,their ,derivation from ,ringed ,worms 7,mailed ,worms1 or ,phracthelminthes74--,the ,alternation of ,generation in the ,echinoderma4--,four ,classes of ,star-fish3 ,sea-stars 7,asteridea72 ,sea-lilies 7,crinoidea72 ,sea-urchins 7,echinidea72 ,sea-cucumbers 7,holothuridea74--,tribe of ,articulated ,animals1 or ,arthropoda4--,four ,classes of ,articulated ,animals3 ,branchiata1 or ,crustacea1 breathing through gills2 ,jointed ,crabs2 ,mailed ,crabs2 ,articulata ,tracheata1 breathing through ,air ,tubes4--,spiders 7,long ,spiders1 ,round ,spiders74--,myriopods4--,insects4--,che wing and ,sucking ,insects4--,pedigree and ,history of the ,eight ,orders of ,insects #aed ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,iii4 ,,vertebrate ,,animals4 ,the ,records of the ,creation of ,vertebrate ,animals 7,comparative ,anatomy1 ,embryology1 and ,palontology74--,the ,natural ,system of ,vertebrate ,animals4--,the ,four ,classes of ,vertebrate ,animals1 according to ,linnus and ,lamarck4--,their ,increase to ,nine ,classes4--,main ,class of the ,tube-hearted1 or ,skull-less ,animals 7the ,lancelet74--,blood ,relationship between the ,skull-less ,fish and the ,tunicates4--,agreement in the ,embryological ,development of ,amphioxus and ,ascidi4--,origin of the ,vertebrate ,tribe out of the ,worm ,tribe4--,main ,class of ,single-nostriled1 or ,round-mouthed ,animals 7,hag and ,lampreys74--,main ,class of ,anamnionate ,animals1 devoid of ,amnion4--,fishes 7,primval ,fish1 ,cartilaginous ,fish1 ,osseous ,fish74--,mud-fish1 or ,dipneusta4--,sea ,dragons1 or ,halisauria4--,frogs and ,salamanders1 or ,amphibia 7,mailed ,amphibia1 ,naked ,amphibia74--,main ,class of ,amnionate ,animals1 or ,amniota4--,reptiles 7,primary ,reptiles1 ,lizards1 ,serpents1 ,crocodiles1 ,tortoises1 ,flying ,reptiles1 ,dragons1 ,beaked ,reptiles74--,birds 7,feather-tailed1 ,fan-tailed1 ,bush-tailed7 #aib ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,iv4 ,,mammals4 ,the ,system of ,mammals according to ,linnus and ,blainville4--,three ,sub-classes of ,mammals 7,ornithodelphia1 ,didelphia1 ,monodelphia74--,ornithodelphia1 or ,monotrema4--,beaked ,animals 7,ornithostoma74--,didelphia1 or ,marsupials4--,herbivorous and ,carnivorous ,marsupials4--,monodelphia1 or ,placentalia 7,placental ,animals74--,meaning of the ,placenta4--,tuft ,placentalia4--,girdle ,placentalia4--,disc ,placentalia4--,non-deciduates1 or ,indeciduata4--,hoofed ,animals4--,single and ,double-hoofed ,animals4--,whales4--,toothless ,animals4--,deciduates1 or ,animals with ,decidua4--,semi-apes4--,gnawing ,animals4--,pseudo-hoofed ,animals4--,insectivora4--,beasts of ,prey4--,bats4--,apes #bca ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,origin ,,and ,,pedigree ,,of ,,man4 ,the ,application of the ,theory of ,descent to ,man4--,its ,immense ,importance and ,logical ,necessity4--,man's ,position in the ,natural ,system of ,animals1 among ,disco-placental ,animals4--,incorrect ,separation of the ,bimana and ,quadrumana4--,correct ,separation of ,semi-apes from ,apes4--,man's ,position in the ,order of ,apes4--,narrow-nosed ,apes 7of the ,old ,world7 and ,flat-nosed ,apes 7of ,america74--,difference of the two ,groups4--,origin of ,man from ,narrow-nosed ,apes4--,human ,apes1 or ,anthropoides4--,african ,human-apes 7,gorilla and ,chimpanzee74--,asiatic ,human-apes 7,orang and ,gibbon74--,comparison between the different ,human ,apes and the different ,races of ,men4--,survey of the ,series of the ,progenitors of ,man4--,invertebrate ,progenitors 7,prochordata7 and ,vertebrate ,progenitors #bfc ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,migration ,,and ,,distribution ,,of ,,mankind4 ,,human ,,species ,,and ,,human ,,races4 ,age of the ,human ,race4--,causes of its ,origin4--,the ,origin of ,human ,language4--,monophyletic or ,single1 ,polyphyletic or ,multiple ,origin of the ,human ,race4--,derivation of ,man from many ,pairs4--,classification of the ,human ,races4--,system of ,twelve ,species of ,men4--,woolly-,haired ,men1 or ,ulotrichis4--,bushy-,haired 7,papuans1 ,hottentots74--,fleecy-haired 7,caffres1 ,negroes74--,straight-haired ,men1 or ,lissotrichi4--,stiff-haired 7,australians1 ,malays1 ,mongols1 ,arctic1 and ,american ,tribes74--,curly-haired 7,dravidas1 ,nubians1 ,midlanders74--,number of ,population4--,primval ,home of ,man 7,south ,asia1 or ,lemuria74--,nature of ,primval ,men4--,number of ,primval ,languages 7,monoglottists and ,polyglottists74--,divergence and ,migration of the ,human ,race4--,geographical ,distribution of the ,human ,species #bif ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,objections ,,against1 ,,and ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,truth ,,of1 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,descent4 ,objections to the ,doctrine of ,filiation4--,objections of ,faith and ,reason4--,immeasurable ,length of the ,geological ,periods4--,transition ,forms between ,kindred ,species4--,dependence of ,stability of ,form on ,inheritance1 and of the ,variability of ,form on ,adaptation4--,origin of very ,complicated ,arrangement of ,organisation4--,gradual ,development of ,instincts and ,mental ,activities4--,origin of priori ,knowledge from ,knowledge a posteriori4--,the ,knowledge requisite for the ,correct ,understanding of the ,doctrine of ,filiation4--,necessary ,interaction between ,empiricism and ,philosophy4--,proofs of the ,theory of ,descent4--,inner ,causal-,connection between all the ,biological ,series of ,phenomena4--,the ,direct ,proof of the ,theory of ,selection4--,relation of the ,theory of ,descent to ,anthropology4--,proofs of the ,animal ,origin of ,man4--,the ,pithecoid ,theory as an ,inseparable ,part of the ,theory of ,descent4--,induction and ,deduction4--,gradual ,development of the ,human ,mind4--,body and ,mind4--,human ,soul and ,animal ,soul4--,a ,glance at the ,future #ccd ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,text #cga ,,appendix 7,explanation of the ,plates7 #cgi ,,index #djb ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,plates4 ,,xv4--,hypothetical ,sketch of the ,monophyletic ,origin of ,man ,frontispiece ,,iv4--,hand of ,nine different ,mammals ,to face page #cd ,v4--,single-,stemmed1 or ,monophyletic1 ,pedigree of the ,vegetable ,kingdom 0 #aab ,,vi4--,historical ,growth of the ,six ,great ,stems of ,animals 0 #abb ,,vii4--,animal ,plants1 or ,zoophytes 0 #adj ,,viii4--,star ,fishes--,first ,generation ,between pp4 #agj1 #aga ,,ix4--,star ,fishes--,second ,generation 0 0 0 ,x4--,nauplius-,youth-,form of ,six ,crab ,fish 0 #agd1 #age ,,xi4--,adult-,form of the same ,six ,crab ,fish 0 0 0 ,,xii4--,ascidia and ,amphioxus 0 #bja1 #bjb ,,xiii4--,ascidia and ,amphioxus 0 0 0 ,,xiv4--,single1 or ,monophyletic1 ,pedigree of ,back-boned ,animals ,to face page #bbb ,,figures4 #h4--,protamba ,primitiva #eb #i4--;,bathybius ,hckelii #ec #aj4--;,amba ,sphrococcus #ed #aa4--;,euglena ,striata #eg #ab4--,magosphra ,planula #eh #ac4--,labyrinthula ,macrocystis #ei #ad4--,navicula ,hippocampus #fj #ae4--,physarum ,albipes #fa #af4--;,cyrtidosphra ,echinoides #ff #ag4--;,caulerpa ,denticulata #hg #ah4--;,euastrum ,rota #hh #ai4--;,fucus ,vesiculosus 7egg of7 #ij ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,creation4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,periods ,,of ,,creation ,,and ,,records ,,of ,,creation4 ,reform of ,systems by the ,theory of ,descent4--,the ,natural ,system as a ,pedigree4--,palontological ,records of the ,pedigree4--,petrifactions as ,records of ,creation4--,deposits of the ,neptunic ,strata and the ,enclosure of ,organic ,remains4--,division of the ,organic ,history of the ,earth into ,five ,main ,periods3 ,period of the ,tangle ,forests1 ,fern ,forests1 ,pine ,forests1 ,foliaceous ,forests1 and of ,cultivation4--,the ,series of ,neptunic ,strata4--,immeasurable ,duration of the ,periods which have elapsed during their ,formation4--,deposits of ,strata only during the ,sinking1 not during the ,elevation of the ,ground4--,other ,gaps in the ,records of ,creation4--,metamorphic ,condition of the most ,ancient ,neptunic ,strata4--,small ,extent of ,palontological ,experience4--,small proportion of ,organisms and of ,parts of ,organisms ,capable of ,petrifying4--,rarity of many ,petrified ,species4--,want of ,fossilised ,intermediate ,forms4--,records of the ,creation in ,ontogeny and in ,comparative ,anatomy4 ,the revolutionary influence which the ,theory of ,descent must exercise upon all sciences1 will in all probability affect no branch of science1 excepting ,anthropology1 so much as the descriptive portion of natural history1 that which is known as systematic ,zoology and ,botany4 ,most naturalists who have hitherto occupied themselves with arranging the different systems of animals and plants1 have collected1 named1 and arranged the different species of these natural bodies with much the same interest as antiquarians and ethnographers collect the weapons and utensils of different nations4 ,many have not even risen above the degree of intelligence with which people usually collect1 label1 and arrange crests1 stamps1 and similar curiosities4 ,in the same manner as some collectors find their pleasure in the similarity of forms1 the beauty or rarity of the crests or stamps1 and admire in them the inventive art of man1 so many naturalists take a delight in the manifold forms of animals and plants1 and marvel at the rich imagination of the ,creator1 at ,his unwearied creative activity1 and at ,his curious fancy for forming1 by the side of so many beautiful and useful organisms1 also a number of ugly and useless ones4 ,this childlike treatment of systematic ,zoology and ,botany is completely annihilated by the ,theory of ,descent4 ,in the place of the superficial and playful interest with which most naturalists have hitherto regarded organic structures1 we now have the much higher interest of the intelligent understanding which detects in the related forms of organisms their true blood relationships4 ,the ,natural ,system of animals and plants1 which was formerly valued either only as a registry of names1 to facilitate the survey of the different forms1 or as a table of contents for the short expression of their degrees of similarity1 receives from the ,theory of ,descent the incomparably higher value of a true pedigree of organisms4 ,this pedigree is to disclose to us the genealogical connection of the smaller and larger groups4 ,it has to show us in what way the different classes1 orders1 families1 genera1 and species of the animal and vegetable kingdoms correspond with the different branches1 twigs1 and groups of twigs of the pedigree4 ,every wider and higher category or stage of the system 7for example a class1 or an order7 comprises a number of larger and stronger branches of the pedigree2 every narrower and lower category 7for example a genus1 or a species7 only a smaller and thinner group of twigs4 ,it is only when we thus view the natural system as a pedigree that we perceive its true value4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,xvii4 p4 #cig47 ,since we hold fast this genealogical conception of the ,organic ,system1 to which alone undoubtedly the future of classificatory ,zoology and ,botany belongs1 we should now turn our attention to one of the most essential1 but also one of the most difficult1 tasks of the 8non-miraculous history of creation10 namely1 to the actual construction of the ,organic ,pedigree4 ,let us see how far we are already able to point out all the different organic forms as the divergent descendants of a single or of some few common original forms4 ,but how can we construct the actual pedigree of the animal and vegetable group of forms from our knowledge of them1 at present so scanty and fragmentary8 ,the answer to this question lies in what we have already remarked of the parallelism of the three series of development--in the important causal relation which connects the palontological development of all organic tribes with the embryological development of individuals1 and with the systematic development of groups4 ,in order to accomplish our task we shall first have to direct our attention to palontology1 or the science of petrifactions4 ,for if the ,theory of ,descent is really true1 if the petrified remains of formerly living animals and plants really proceed from the extinct primval ancestors and progenitors of the present organisms1 then1 without anything else1 the knowledge and comparison of petrifactions ought to disclose to us the pedigree of organisms4 ,however simple and clear this may seem in theory1 the task becomes extremely hard and complicated when it is actually taken in hand4 ,its practical solution would be very difficult even if the petrifactions were to any extent completely preserved4 ,but this is by no means the case4 ,the obvious records of creation which lie buried in petrifactions are imperfect beyond all measure4 ,hence it is necessary critically to examine these records1 and to determine the value which petrifactions possess for the history of the development of organic tribes4 ,as ,i have previously discussed the general importance of petrifactions as the records of creation1 when we were considering ,cuvier's merits in the science of fossils1 we may now at once examine the conditions and circumstances under which the remains of organic bodies became petrified and preserved in a more or less recognizable form4 ,as a rule we find petrifactions or fossils enclosed only in those stones which have been deposited in layers as mud by water1 and which are on that account called neptunic1 stratified1 or sedimentary rocks4 ,the deposition of such strata could of course only commence after the condensation of watery vapour into liquid water had taken place in the course of the earth's history4 ,after that period1 which we considered in our last chapter1 not only did life begin on the earth1 but also an uninterrupted and exceedingly important transformation of the rigid inorganic crust of the earth4 ,the water began that extremely important mechanical action by which the surface of the earth is perpetually1 though slowly1 transformed4 ,i may surely presume that it is generally known what an extremely important influence1 in this respect1 is even yet exercised by water at every moment4 ,as it falls down as rain1 trickling through the upper strata of the earth's crust1 and flowing down from heights into hollows1 it chemically dissolves different mineral parts of the ground1 and mechanically washes away the loose particles4 ,in flowing down from mountains water carries their debris into the plains1 or deposits it as mud in stagnant lakes4 ,thus it continually works at lowering mountains and filling up valleys4 ,in like manner the breakers of the sea work uninterruptedly at the destruction of the coasts and at filling up the bottom of the sea with the debris they wash down4 ,the action of water alone1 if it were not counteracted by other circumstances1 would in time level the whole earth4 ,there can be no doubt that the mountain masses--which are annually carried down as mud into the sea1 and deposited on its floor--are so great that in the course of a longer or shorter period1 say a few millions of years1 the surface of the earth would be completely levelled and become enclosed by a continuous sheet of water4 ,that this does not happen is owing to the perpetual volcanic action of the fiery-fluid centre of the earth4 ,the surging of the melted nucleus against the firm crust necessitates continual alternations of elevation and depression on the different parts of the earth's surface4 ,these elevations and depressions for the most part take place very slowly2 but1 as they continue for thousands of years1 by the combined effect of small1 interrupted movements1 they produce results no less grand than does the counteracting and levelling action of water4 ,since the elevations and depressions of the different parts of the earth alternate with one another in the course of millions of years1 first this and then that part of the earth's surface is above or below the level of the sea4 ,i have already given examples of this in the preceding chapter 7vol4 i4 p4 #cfa74 ,hence1 in all probability1 there is no part of the outer crust of the earth which has not been repeatedly above and also below the level of the sea4 ,this repeated change explains the variety and the different composition of the numerous neptunic strata of rocks1 which in most places have been deposited one above another in considerable thickness4 ,in the different periods of the earth's history during which these deposits took place there lived various and different populations of animals and plants4 ,when their dead bodies sank to the bottom of the waters1 the forms of the bodies impressed themselves upon the soft mud1 and imperishable parts1 such as hard bones1 teeth1 shells1 etc41 became enclosed in it uninjured4 ,these were preserved in the mud1 which condensed them into neptunic rock1 and as petrifactions they now serve to characterise the respective strata4 ,by a careful comparison of the different strata lying one above another1 and the petrifactions preserved in them1 it has become possible to decide the relative age of the strata and groups of strata1 and to establish1 by direct observation1 the principal eras of phylogeny1 that is to say1 the stages in history of the development of animal and vegetable tribes4 ,the different strata of neptunic rocks deposited one above another1 which are composed in very various ways of limestone1 clay1 and sand1 geologists have grouped together into an ideal ,system or ,series1 which corresponds with the whole course of the organic history of the earth1 or with that portion of the earth's history during which organic life existed4 ,just as so-called 8universal history0 falls into larger and smaller periods1 which are characterized by the conditions of development of the most important nations at the respective epochs1 and are separated from one another by great events1 so we also divide the infinitely longer organic history of the earth into a series of greater and less periods4 ,each of these periods is distinguished by a characteristic flora and fauna1 and by the specially strong development of certain vegetable or animal groups1 and each is separated from the preceding and succeeding period by a striking change in the character of its animal and vegetable inhabitants4 ,in relation to the following survey of the historical course of development which the large animal and vegetable tribes have passed through1 it will be desirable to say a few words first as to the systematic classification of the neptunic groups of strata1 and the larger and smaller periods corresponding to them4 ,as will be seen directly1 we are able to divide the whole of the sedimentary rocks lying one above another into five main groups or periods1 each period into several subordinate groups of strata or systems1 and each system of strata again into still smaller groups or formations2 finally1 each formation can again be divided into stages or sub-formations1 and each of these again into still smaller layers or beds4 ,each of the five great rock-groups was deposited during a great division of the earth's history1 during a long era or epoch2 each system during a shorter period2 each formation during a still shorter period4 ,in thus reducing the periods of the organic history of the earth1 and the neptunic strata containing petrifactions deposited during those periods into a connected system1 we proceed exactly like the historian who divides the history of nations into the three main divisions of ,antiquity1 the ,middle ,ages1 and ,modern ,times1 and each of those sections again into subordinate periods and epochs4 ,but the historian by this sharp systematic division1 and by fixing the boundary of the periods by particular dates1 only seeks to facilitate his survey1 and in no way means to deny the uninterrupted connection of events and the development of nations4 ,exactly the same qualification applies to our systematic division1 specification1 or classification of the organic history of the earth4 ,here1 too1 a continuous thread runs through the series of events unbroken4 ,we must therefore distinctly protest against the idea that by sharply bounding the larger and smaller groups of strata1 and the periods corresponding with them1 we in any way wish to adopt ,cuvier's doctrine of terrestrial revolutions1 and of repeated new creations of organic populations4 ,that this erroneous doctrine has long since been completely refuted by ,lyell1 ,i have already mentioned4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #abg47 ,the five great main divisions of the organic history of the earth1 or the palontological history of development1 we call the primordial1 primary1 secondary1 tertiary1 and quaternary epochs4 ,each is distinctly characterized by the predominating development of certain animal and vegetable groups in it1 and we might accordingly symbolically designate the five epochs1 on the one hand by the names of the groups of the vegetable kingdom1 and on the other hand by those of the different classes of vertebrate animals4 ,in this case the first1 or primordial epoch1 would be the era of the ,tangles 7,alg7 and skull-less ,vertebrates2 the second1 or primary epoch1 that of the ,ferns and ,fishes2 the third1 or secondary epoch1 that of ,pine ,forests and ,reptiles2 the fourth1 or tertiary epoch1 that of ,foliaceous ,forests and of ,mammals2 finally1 the fifth1 or quaternary epoch1 the era of ,man1 and his ,civilization4 ,the divisions or periods which we distinguish in each of the five long eras 7p4 #ad7 are determined by the different systems of strata into which each of the five great rock-groups is divided 7p4 #ae74 ,we shall now take a cursory glance at the series of these systems1 and at the same time at the populations of the five great epochs4 ,the first and longest division of the organic history of the earth is formed by the primordial epoch1 or the era of the ,tangle ,forests4 ,it comprises the immense period from the first spontaneous generation1 from the origin of the first terrestrial organism1 to the end of the ,silurian system of deposits4 ,during this immeasurable space of time1 which in all probability was much longer than all the other four epochs taken together1 the three most extensive of all the neptunic systems of strata were deposited1 namely1 the ,laurentian1 upon that the ,cambrian1 and upon that the ,silurian system4 ,the approximate thickness or size of these three systems together amounts to #gj1jjj feet4 ,of these about #cj1jjj belong to the ,laurentian1 #ah1jjj to the ,cambrian1 and #bb1jjj to the ,silurian system4 ,the average thickness of all the four other rock groups1 the primary1 secondary1 tertiary1 and quaternary1 taken together1 may amount at most to #fj1jjj feet2 and from this fact alone1 apart from many other reasons1 it is evident that the duration of the primordial period was probably much longer than the duration of all the subsequent periods down to the present day4 ,many thousands of millions of years were required to deposit such masses of strata4 ,unfortunately1 by far the largest portion of the primordial group of strata is in the metamorphic state 7which we shall directly explain71 and consequently the petrifactions contained in them--the most ancient and most important of all--have1 to a great extent1 been destroyed and become unrecognisable4 ,only in one portion of the ,cambrian strata have petrifactions been preserved in a recognizable condition and in large quantities4 ,the most ancient of all distinctly preserved petrifactions has been found in the lowest ,laurentian strata 7in the ,ottawa formation71 which ,i shall afterwards have to speak of as the 8,canadian ,life's-dawn0 7,eozoon canadense74 ,although only by far the smaller portion of the primordial or archilithic petrifactions are preserved to us in a recognizable condition1 still they possess the value of inestimable documents of the most ancient and obscure times of the organic history of the earth4 ,what seems to be shown by them1 in the first place1 is that during the whole of this immense period there existed only inhabitants of the waters4 ,as yet1 at any rate1 among all archilithic petrifactions1 not a single one has been found which can with certainty be regarded as an organism which has lived on land4 ,all the vegetable remains we possess of the primordial period belong to the lowest of all groups of plants1 to the class of ,tangles or ,alg1 living in water4 ,in the warm primval sea1 these constituted the forests of the period1 of the richness of which in forms and density we may form an approximate idea from their present descendants1 the tangle forests of the ,atlantic ,sargasso sea4 ,the colossal tangle forests of the archilithic period supplied the place of the forest vegetation of the mainland1 which was then utterly wanting4 ,all the animals1 also1 whose remains have been found in archilithic strata1 like the plants1 lived in water4 ,only crustacea are met with among the animals with articulated feet1 as yet no spiders and no insects4 ,of vertebrate animals1 only a very few remains of fishes are known as having been found in the most recent of all primordial strata1 in the upper ,silurian4 ,but the headless vertebrate animals1 which we call skull-less1 or ,acrania1 and out of which fishes must have been developed1 we suppose to have lived in great numbers during the primordial epoch4 ,hence we may call it after the ,acrania as well as after the ,tangles4 ,the primary epoch1 or the era of ,fern ,forests1 the second main division of the organic history of the earth1 which is also called the palolithic or palozoic period1 lasted from the end of the ,silurian formation of strata to the end of the ,permian formation4 ,this epoch was also of very long duration1 and again falls into three shorter periods1 during which three great systems of strata were deposited1 namely1 first1 the ,devonian system1 or the old red sandstone2 upon that1 the ,carboniferous1 or coal system2 and upon this1 the ,permian system4 ,the average thickness of these three systems taken together may amount to about #db1jjj feet1 from which we may infer the immense length of time requisite for their formation4 ,the ,devonian and ,permian formations are especially rich in remains of fishes1 of primval fish as well as enamelled fish 7,ganoids71 but the bony fish 7,teleostei7 are absent from the strata of the primary epoch4 ,in coal are found the most ancient remains of animals living on land1 both of articulated animals 7spiders and insects7 as well as of vertebrate animals 7amphibious animals1 like newts and frogs74 ,in the ,permian system there occur1 in addition to the amphibious animals1 the more highly-developed reptiles1 and1 indeed1 forms nearly related to our lizards 7,proterosaurus1 etc474 ,but1 nevertheless1 we may call the primary epoch that of ,fishes1 because these few amphibious animals and reptiles are insignificant in comparison with the immense mass of palozoic fishes4 ,just as ,fishes predominate over the other vertebrate animals1 so ,ferns1 or ,filices1 predominate among the plants of this epoch1 and1 in fact1 real ferns and tree ferns 7leafed ferns1 or ,phylopterid71 as well as bamboo ferns 7,calamophyt7 and scaled ferns 7,lepidophyt74 ,these ferns1 which grew on land1 formed the chief part of the dense palolithic island forests1 the fossil remains of which are preserved to us in the enormously large strata of coal of the ,carboniferous system1 and in the smaller strata of coal of the ,devonian and ,permian systems4 ,we are thus justified in calling the primary epoch either the era of ,ferns or that of ,fishes4 ,the third great division of the palontological history of development is formed by the secondary epoch1 or the era of ,pine ,forests1 which is also called the mesolithic or mesozoic epoch4 ,it extends from the end of the ,permian system to the end of the ,chalk formation1 and is again divided into three great periods4 ,the stratified systems deposited during this period are1 first and lowest1 the ,triassic system1 in the middle the ,jura system1 and at the top the ,cretaceous system4 ,the average thickness of these three systems taken together is much less than that of the primary group1 and amounts as a whole only to about #ae1jjj feet4 ,the secondary epoch can accordingly in all probability not have been half so long as the primary epoch4 ,just as ,fishes prevailed in the primary epoch1 ,reptiles predominated in the secondary epoch over all other vertebrate animals4 ,it is true that during this period the first birds and mammals originated2 at that time1 also1 there existed important amphibious animals1 especially the gigantic ,labyrinthodonts1 in the sea the wonderful sea-dragons1 or ,halisaurii1 swam about1 and the first fish with bones were associated with the many primval fishes 7,sharks7 and enamelled fish 7,ganoids7 of the earlier times2 but the very variously developed kinds of reptiles formed the predominating and characteristic class of vertebrate animals of the secondary epoch4 ,besides those reptiles which were very nearly related to the present living lizards1 crocodiles1 and turtles1 there were1 during the mesolithic period1 swarms of grotesquely shaped dragons4 ,the remarkable flying lizards1 or ,pterosaurii1 and the colossal land-dragons1 or ,dinosaurii1 of the secondary epoch1 are peculiar1 as they occur neither in the preceding nor in the succeeding epochs4 ,the secondary epoch may be called the era of ,reptiles2 but on the other hand1 it may also be called the era of ,pine ,forests1 or more accurately1 of the ,gymnosperms1 that is1 the epoch of plants having naked seeds4 ,for this group of plants1 especially as represented by the two important classes--the pines1 or ,conifer1 and the palm-ferns1 or ,cycade--during the secondary epoch constituted a predominant part of the forests4 ,but towards the end of the epoch 7in the ,chalk period7 the plants of the pine tribe gave place to the leaf-bearing forests which then developed for the first time4 ,,survey ,of the ,palontological ,periods1 or of the ,greater ,divisions of the ,organic ,history of the ,earth4 ,i4 ,first ,epoch3 ,,archilithic ,,era4 ,primordial ,epoch4 7,era of ,skull-less ,animals and ,forests of ,tangles47 #a4 ,older ,primordial ,period or ,laurentian ,period4 #b4 ,middle ,primordial ,period 0 ,cambrian ,period4 #c4 ,later ,primordial ,period 0 ,silurian ,period4 ,,ii4 ,second ,epoch3 ,,pal,,olithic ,,era4 ,primary ,epoch4 7,era of ,fish and ,fern ,forests47 #d4 ,older ,primary ,period or ,devonian ,period4 #e4 ,mid ,primary ,period 0 ,coal ,period4 #f4 ,later ,primary ,period 0 ,permian ,period4 ,,iii4 ,third ,epoch3 ,,mesolithic ,,era4 ,secondary ,epoch4 7,era of ,reptiles and ,pine ,forests47 #g4 ,older ,secondary ,period or ,trias ,period4 #h4 ,middle ,secondary ,period 0 ,jura ,period4 #i4 ,later ,secondary ,period 0 ,chalk ,period4 ,,iv4 ,fourth ,epoch3 ,c,,nolithic ,,era4 ,tertiary ,epoch4 7,era of ,mammals and ,leaf ,forests47 #aj4 ,older ,tertiary ,period or ,eocene ,period4 #aa4 ,newer ,tertiary ,period 0 ,miocene ,period4 #ab4 ,recent ,tertiary ,period 0 ,pliocene ,period4 ,v4 ,fifth ,epoch3 ,,anthropolithic ,,era4 ,quaternary ,epoch4 7,era of ,man and ,cultivated ,forests47 #ac4 ,older ,quaternary ,period or ,ice or ,glacial ,period4 #ad4 ,newer ,quaternary ,period 0 ,post ,glacial ,period4 #ae4 ,recent ,quaternary ,period 0 ,period of ,culture4 7,the ,period of ,culture is the ,historical ,period1 or the ,period of ,tradition47 ,,survey ,of the ,palontological ,formations1 or those ,strata of the ,earth's ,crust containing ,petrifactions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,rock-,groups4 ,systems4 ,formations4 ,synonyms of ,formations4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,v4 ,quaternary ,group1 ,,xiv4 ,recent #cf4 ,present ,upper alluvial or 7,alluvium7 #ce4 ,recent ,lower alluvial ,anthropolithic 7,anthropozoic7 ,,xiii4 ,pleistocene #cd4 ,post glacial ,upper diluvial groups of 7,diluvium7 #cc4 ,glacial ,lower diluvial strata ,,iv4 ,tertiary ,,xii4 ,pliocene #cb4 ,arvernian ,upper pliocene ,group1 7,late tertiary7 #ca4 ,sub-,appenine ,lower pliocene or ,cnolithic ,,xi4 ,miocene #cj4 ,falunian ,upper miocene 7,cnozoic7 7,new tertiary7 #bi4 ,limburgian ,lower miocene groups of strata #bh4 ,gypsum ,upper eocene ,x4 ,eocene #bg4 ,nummulitic ,mid eocene 7,old tertiary7 #bf4 ,london clay ,lower eocene #be4 ,white chalk ,upper cretaceous ,,ix4 ,cretaceous #bd4 ,green sand ,mid cretaceous #bc4 ,neocomian ,lower cretaceous ,,iii4 ,secondary #bb4 ,wealden ,the ,kentish ,weald ,group1 or #ba4 ,portlandian ,upper oolite ,mesolithic ,,viii4 ,jura #bj4 ,oxfordian ,mid oolite 7,mesozoic7 #ai4 ,bath ,lower oolite groups of #ah4 ,lias ,lias formation strata #ag4 ,keuper ,upper trias ,,vii4 ,trias #af4 ,muschel-kalk ,mid trias #ae4 ,bunter sand ,lower trias ,,vi4 ,permian #ad4 ,zechstein ,upper ,permian ,,ii4 ,primary #ac4 ,lower ,permian ,group1 #ab4 ,carboniferous or ,v4 ,carbonic sandstone ,upper carbonic ,palolithic 7coal7 #aa4 ,carboniferous 7,palozoic7 limestone ,lower carbonic groups of ,,iv4 ,devonian #aj4 ,pilton ,upper ,devonian strata 7,old red sandstone7 #i4 ,ilfracombe ,mid ,devonian #h4 ,linton ,lower ,devonian ,i4 ,primordial #g4 ,ludlow ,upper ,silurian ,group1 ,,iii4 ,silurian #f4 ,llandovery ,mid ,silurian or #e4 ,llandeilo ,lower ,silurian ,archilithic 7,archizoic7 ,,ii4 ,cambrian #d4 ,potsdam ,upper ,cambrian groups of #c4 ,longmynd ,lower ,cambrian strata ,i4 ,laurentian #b4 ,labrador ,upper ,laurentian #a4 ,ottawa ,lower ,laurentian ,the fourth main division of the organic history of the earth1 the tertiary epoch1 or era of ,leafed ,forests1 is much shorter and less peculiar than the three first epochs4 ,this epoch1 which is also called the cnolithic or cnozoic epoch1 extended from the end of the cretaceous system to the end of the pliocene system4 ,the strata deposited during it amount only to a thickness of about #cjjj feet1 and consequently are much inferior to the three first great groups4 ,the three systems also into which the tertiary period is subdivided are very difficult to distinguish from one another4 ,the oldest of them is called eocene1 or old tertiary2 the newer miocene1 or mid tertiary2 and the last is the pliocene1 or later tertiary system4 ,the whole population of the tertiary epoch approaches much nearer1 on the whole as well as in detail1 to that of the present time than is the case in the preceding epochs4 ,from this time the class of ,mammals greatly predominates over all other vertebrate animals4 ,in like manner1 in the vegetable kingdom1 the group--so rich in forms--of the ,angiosperms1 or plants with covered seeds1 predominates1 and its leafy forests constitute the characteristic feature of the tertiary epoch4 ,the group of the ,angiosperms consists of the two classes of single-seed-lobed plants1 or ,monocotyledons1 and the double-seed-lobed plants1 or ,dicotyledons4 ,the ,angiosperms of both classes had1 it is true1 made their appearance in the ,cretaceous period1 and mammals had already occurred in the ,jurassic period1 and even in the ,triassic period2 but both groups1 the mammals and the plants with enclosed seeds1 did not attain their peculiar development and supremacy until the tertiary epoch1 so that it may justly be called after them4 ,the fifth and last main division of the organic history of the earth is the quaternary epoch1 or era of ,civilization1 which in comparison with the length of the four other epochs almost vanishes into nothing1 though with a comical conceit we usually call its record the 8history of the world40 ,as the period is characterized by the development of ,man and his ,culture1 which has influenced the organic world more powerfully and with greater transforming effect than have all previous conditions1 it may also be called the era of ,man1 the anthropolithic or anthropozoic period4 ,it might also be called the era of ,cultivated ,forests1 or ,gardens1 because even at the lowest stage of human civilization man's influence is already perceptible in the utilization of forests and their products1 and therefore also in the physiognomy of the landscape4 ,the commencement of this era1 which extends down to the present time1 is geologically bounded by the end of the pliocene stratification4 ,the neptunic strata which have been deposited during the comparatively short quaternary epoch are very different in different parts of the earth1 but they are mostly of very slight thickness4 ,they are reduced to two 8systems10 the older of which is designated the diluvial1 or pleistocene1 and the later the alluvial1 or recent4 ,the diluvial system is again divided into two 8formations10 the older glacial and the more recent post glacial formations4 ,for during the older diluvial period there occurred that extremely remarkable decrease of the temperature of the earth which led to an extensive glaciation of the temperate zones4 ,the great importance which this 8ice0 or 8glacial period0 has exercised on the geographical and topographical distribution of organisms has already been explained in the preceding chapter 7vol4 i4 p4 #cfe74 ,but the post glacial period1 or the more recent diluvial period1 during which the temperature again increased and the ice retreated towards the poles1 was also highly important in regard to the present state of chorological relations4 ,the biological characteristic of the quaternary epoch lies essentially in the development and dispersion of the human organism and his culture4 ,man has acted with a greater transforming1 destructive1 and modifying influence upon the animal and vegetable population of the earth than any other organism4 ,for this reason1 and not because we assign to man a privileged exceptional position in nature in other matters1 we may with full justice designate the development of man and his civilization as the beginning of a special and last main division of the organic history of the earth4 ,it is probable indeed that the corporeal development of primval man out of man-like apes took place as far back as the earlier pliocene period1 perhaps even in the miocene tertiary period4 ,but the actual development of human speech1 which we look upon as the most powerful agency in the development of the peculiar characteristics of man and his dominion over other organisms1 probably belongs to that period which on geological grounds is distinguished from the preceding pliocene period as the pleistocene or diluvial4 ,in fact the time which has elapsed from the development of human speech down to the present day1 though it may comprise many thousands and perhaps hundreds of thousands of years1 almost vanishes into nothing as compared with the immeasurable length of the periods which have passed from the beginning of organic life on the earth down to the origin of the human race4 ,the tabular view given on page #ae shows the succession of the palontological rock-groups1 systems1 and formations1 that is1 the larger and smaller neptunic groups of strata1 which contain petrifactions1 from the uppermost1 or ,alluvial1 down to the lowest1 or ,laurentian1 deposits4 ,the table on page #ad presents the historical division of the corresponding eras of the larger and smaller palontological periods1 and in a reversed succession1 from the most ancient ,laurentian up to the most recent ,quaternary period4 ,many attempts have been made to make an approximate calculation of the number of thousands of years constituting these periods4 ,the thickness of the strata has been compared1 which1 according to experience1 is deposited during a century1 and which amounts only to some few lines or inches1 with the whole thickness of the stratified masses of rock1 the succession of which we have just surveyed4 ,this thickness1 on the whole1 may on an average amount to about #acj1jjj feet2 of these #gj1jjj belong to the primordial1 or archilithic2 #db1jjj to the primary1 or palolithic2 #ae1jjj to the secondary1 or mesolithic2 and finally only #c1jjj to the tertiary1 or cnolithic group4 ,the very small and scarcely appreciable thickness of the quaternary1 or anthropolithic deposit cannot here come into consideration at all4 ,on an average1 it may at most be computed as from #ejj to #gjj feet4 ,but it is self evident that all these measurements have only an average and approximate value1 and are meant to give only a rough survey of the relative proportion of the systems of strata and of the spaces of time corresponding with them4 ,now1 if we divide the whole period of the organic history of the earth--that is1 from the beginning of life on the earth down to the present day--into a hundred equal parts1 and if then1 corresponding to the thickness of the systems of strata1 we calculate the relative duration of the time of the five main divisions or periods according to percentages1 we obtain the following result3-- ,i4 ,archilithic1 or primordial period #ec4f ,,ii4 ,palolithic1 or primary period #cb4a ,,iii4 ,mesolithic1 or secondary period #aa4e ,,iv4 ,cnolithic1 or tertiary period #b4c ,v4 ,anthropolithic1 or quaternary period #j4e ----- ,total #ajj4j ,according to this1 the length of the archilithic period1 during which no land-living animals or plants as yet existed1 amounts to more than one half1 more than #ec per cent42 on the other hand the length of the anthropolithic era1 during which man has existed1 amounts to scarcely one-half per cent4 of the whole length of the organic history of the earth4 ,it is1 however1 quite impossible to calculate the length of these periods1 even approximately1 by years4 ,the thickness of the strata of mud at present deposited during a century1 and which has been used as a basis for this calculation1 is of course quite different in different parts of the earth under the different conditions in which these deposits take place4 ,it is very slight at the bottom of the deep sea1 in the beds of broad rivers with a short course1 and in inland seas which receive very scanty supplies of water4 ,it is comparatively great on the sea-shores exposed to strong breakers1 at the estuaries of large rivers with long courses1 and in inland seas with copious supplies of water4 ,at the mouth of the ,mississippi1 which carries with it a considerable amount of mud1 in the course of #ajj1jjj years about #fjj feet would be deposited4 ,at the bottom of the open sea1 far away from the coasts1 during this long period only some few feet of mud would be deposited4 ,even on the sea-shores where a comparatively large quantity of mud is deposited the thickness of the strata formed during the course of a century may after all amount to no more than a few inches or lines when condensed into solid stone4 ,in any case1 however1 all calculations based upon these comparisons are very unsafe1 and we cannot even approximately conceive the enormous length of the periods which were requisite for the formation of the systems of neptunic strata4 ,here we can apply only relative1 not absolute1 measurements of time4 ,moreover1 we should entirely err were we to consider the size of these systems of strata alone as the measure of the actual space of time which has elapsed during the earth's history4 ,for the elevations and depressions of the earth's crust have perpetually alternated with one another1 and the mineralogical and palontological difference--which is perceived between each two succeeding systems of strata1 and between each two of their formations at any particular spot--corresponds in all probability with a considerable intermediate space of many thousands of years1 during which that particular part of the earth's crust was raised above the water4 ,it was only after the lapse of this intermediate period1 when a new depression again laid the part in question under water1 that there occurred a new deposit of earth4 ,as1 in the mean time1 the inorganic and organic conditions on this part had undergone a considerable transformation1 the newly-formed layer of mud was necessarily composed of different earthy constituents and enclosed different petrifactions4 ,,iv4 ,tertiary ,group of ,strata1 #c1jjj feet4 ,eocene1 ,miocene1 ,pliocene4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,ix4 ,chalk ,system4 ,,iii4 ,mesolithic ,group of ,strata4 ,deposits of the ,,viii4 ,jura ,system4 ,secondary ,epoch1 about #ae1jjj feet4 ,,vii4 ,trias ,system4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,vi4 ,permian ,system4 ,,ii4 ,palolithic ,group of ,strata4 ,deposits of the ,v4 ,coal ,system4 ,primary ,epoch1 about #db1jjj feet4 ,,iv4 ,devonian ,system4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,iii4 ,silurian ,system1 about #bb1jjj feet4 ,i4 ,archilithic ,group of ,strata4 ,deposits of the ,,ii4 ,cambrian ,system1 about ,primordial ,epoch1 about #ah1jjj feet4 #gj1jjj feet4 ,i4 ,laurentian ,system1 about #cj1jjj feet4 ,the striking differences which so frequently occur between the petrifactions of two strata1 lying one above another1 are to be explained in a simple and easy manner by the supposition that the same part of the earth's surface has been exposed to repeated depressions and elevations4 ,such alternating elevations and depressions take place even now extensively1 and are ascribed to the heaving of the fiery fluid nucleus against the rigid crust4 ,thus1 for example1 the coast of ,sweden and a portion of the west coast of ,south ,america are constantly though slowly rising1 while the coast of ,holland and a portion of the east coast of ,south ,america are gradually sinking4 ,the rising as well as the sinking takes place very slowly1 and in the course of a century sometimes only amounts to some few lines1 sometimes to a few inches1 or at most a few feet4 ,but if this action continues uninterruptedly throughout hundreds of thousands of years it is capable of forming the highest mountains4 ,it is evident that elevations and depressions1 such as now can be measured in these places1 have uninterruptedly alternated one with another in different places during the whole course of the organic history of the earth4 ,this may be inferred with certainty from the geographical distribution of organisms4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cej47 ,but to form a judgment of our palontological records of creation it is extremely important to show that permanent strata can only be deposited during a slow sinking of the ground under water1 but not during its continued rising4 ,when the ground slowly sinks more and more below the level of the sea1 the deposited layers of mud get into continually deeper and quieter water1 where they can become condensed into stone undisturbed4 ,but when1 on the other hand1 the ground slowly rises1 the newly-deposited layers of mud1 which enclose the remains of plants and animals1 again immediately come within the reach of the play of the waves1 and are soon worn away by the force of the breakers1 together with the organic remains which they on close4 ,for this simple but very important reason1 therefore1 abundant layers1 in which organic remains are preserved1 can only be deposited during a continuous sinking of the ground4 ,when any two different formations or strata1 lying one above the other1 correspond with two different periods of depression1 we must assume a long period of rising between them1 of which period we know nothing1 because no fossil remains of the then living animals and plants could be preserved4 ,it is evident1 however1 that those periods of elevation1 which have passed without leaving any trace behind them1 deserve a no less careful consideration than the greater or less alternating periods of depression1 of whose organic population we can form an approximate idea from the strata containing petrifactions4 ,probably the former were not of shorter duration than the latter4 ,from this alone it is apparent how imperfect our records must necessarily be1 and all the more so since it can be theoretically proved that the variety of animal and vegetable life must have increased greatly during those very periods of elevation4 ,for as new tracts of land are raised above the water1 new islands are formed4 ,every new island1 however1 is a new centre of creation1 because the animals and plants accidentally cast ashore there1 find in the new territory1 in the struggle for life1 abundant opportunity of developing themselves peculiarly1 and of forming new species4 ,the formation of new species has evidently taken place pre-eminently during these intermediate periods1 of which1 unfortunately1 no petrifactions could be preserved1 whereas1 on the contrary1 during the slow sinking of the ground there was more chance of numerous species dying out1 and of a retrogression into fewer specific forms4 ,the intermediate forms between the old and the newly-forming species must also have lived during the periods of elevation1 and consequently could likewise leave no fossil remains4 ,in addition to the great and deplorable gaps in the palontological records of creation--which are caused by the periods of elevation--there are1 unfortunately1 many other circumstances which immensely diminish their value4 ,i must mention here especially the metamorphic state of the most ancient formations1 of those strata which contain the remains of the most ancient flora and fauna1 the original forms of all subsequent organisms1 and which1 therefore1 would be of especial interest4 ,it is just these rocks--and1 indeed1 the greater part of the primordial1 or archilithic strata1 almost the whole of the ,laurentian1 and a large part of the ,cambrian systems--which no longer contain any recognizable remains1 and for the simple reason that these strata have been subsequently changed or metamorphosed by the influence of the fiery fluid interior of the earth4 ,these deepest neptunic strata of the crust have been completely changed from their original condition by the heat of the glowing nucleus of the earth1 and have assumed a crystalline state4 ,in this process1 however1 the form of the organic remains enclosed in them has been entirely destroyed4 ,it has been preserved only here and there by a happy chance1 as in the case of the most ancient petrifactions known1 the ,eozoon canadense1 from the lowest ,laurentian strata4 ,however1 from the layers of crystalline charcoal 7graphite7 and crystalline limestone 7marble71 which are found deposited in the metamorphic rocks1 we may with certainty conclude that petrified animal and vegetable remains existed in them in earlier times4 ,our record of creation is also extremely imperfect from the circumstance that only a small portion of the earth's surface has been accurately investigated by geologists1 namely1 ,england1 ,germany1 and ,france4 ,but we know very little of the other parts of ,europe1 of ,russia1 ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,turkey4 ,in the whole of ,europe1 only some few parts of the earth's crust have been laid open1 by far the largest portion of it is unknown to us4 ,the same applies to ,north ,america and to the ,east ,indies4 ,there some few tracts have been investigated2 but of the larger portion of ,asia1 the most extensive of all continents1 we know almost nothing2 of ,africa nothing1 excepting the ,cape of ,good ,hope and the shores of the ,mediterranean2 of ,australia almost nothing2 and of ,south ,america but very little4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that only quite a small portion1 perhaps scarcely the thousandth part of the whole surface of the earth1 has been palontologically investigated4 ,we may therefore reasonably hope1 when more extensive geological investigations are made1 which are greatly assisted by the constructions of railroads and mines1 to find a great number of other important petrifactions4 ,a hint that this will be the case is given by the remarkable petrifactions found in those parts of ,africa and ,asia which have been minutely investigated1--the ,cape districts and the ,himalaya mountains4 ,a series of entirely new and very peculiar animal forms have become known to us from the rocks of these localities4 ,but we must bear in mind that the vast bottom of the existing oceans is at the present time quite inaccessible to palontological investigations1 and that the greater part of the petrifactions which have lain there from primval times will either never be known to us1 or at best only after the course of many thousands of years1 when the present bottom of the ocean shall have become accessible by gradual elevation4 ,if we call to mind the fact that three-fifths of the whole surface of the earth consists of water1 and only two-fifths of land1 it becomes plain that on this account the palontological record must always present an immense gap4 ,but1 in addition to these1 there exists another series of difficulties in the way of palontology which arises from the nature of the organisms themselves4 ,in the first place1 as a rule only the hard and solid parts of organisms can fall to the bottom of the sea or of fresh waters1 and be there enclosed in the mud and petrified4 ,hence it is only the bones and teeth of vertebrate animals1 the calcareous shells of molluscs1 the chitinous skeletons of articulated animals1 the calcareous skeletons of star-fishes and corals1 and the woody and solid parts of plants1 that are capable of being petrified4 ,but soft and delicate parts1 which constitute by far the greater portion of the bodies of most organisms1 are very rarely deposited in the mud under circumstances favourable to their becoming petrified1 or distinctly impressing their external form upon the hardening mud4 ,now1 it must be borne in mind that large classes of organisms1 as for example the ,medus1 the naked molluscs without shells1 a large portion of the articulated animals1 almost all worms1 and even the lowest vertebrate animals1 possess no firm and hard parts capable of being petrified4 ,in like manner the most important parts of plants1 such as the flowers1 are for the most part so soft and tender that they cannot be preserved in a recognizable form4 ,we therefore cannot expect to find any petrified remains of these important organisms4 ,moreover1 all organisms at an early stage of life are so soft and tender that they are quite incapable of being petrified4 ,consequently all the petrifactions found in the neptunic stratifications of the earth's crust comprise altogether but a very few forms1 and of these for the most part only isolated fragments4 ,we must next bear in mind that the dead bodies of the inhabitants of the sea are much more likely to be preserved and petrified in the deposits of mud than those of the inhabitants of fresh water and of the land4 ,organisms living on land can1 as a rule1 become petrified only when their corpses fall accidentally into the water and are buried at the bottom in the hardening layers of mud4 ,but this event depends upon very many conditions4 ,we cannot therefore be astonished that by far the majority of petrifactions belong to organisms which have lived in the sea1 and that of the inhabitants of the land proportionately only very few are preserved in a fossil state4 ,how many contingencies come into play here we may infer from the single fact that of many fossil mammals1 in fact of all the mammals of the secondary1 or mesozoic epoch1 nothing is known except the lower jawbone4 ,this bone is in the first place comparatively solid1 and in the second place very easily separates itself from the dead body1 which floats on the water4 ,whilst the body is driven away and dissolved by the water1 the lower jawbone falls down to the bottom of the water and is there enclosed in the mud4 ,this explains the remarkable fact that in a stratum of limestone of the ,jurassic system near ,oxford1 in the slates of ,stonesfield1 as yet only the lower jawbones of numerous pouched animals 7,marsupials7 have been found4 ,they are the most ancient mammals known1 and of the whole of the rest of their bodies not a single bone exists4 ,the opponents of the theory of development1 according to their usual logic1 would from this fact be obliged to draw the conclusion that the lower jawbone was the only bone in the body of those animals4 ,footprints are very instructive when we attempt to estimate the many accidents which so arbitrarily influence our knowledge of fossils2 they are found in great numbers in different extensive layers of sandstone2 for example1 in the red sandstone of ,connecticut1 in ,north ,america4 ,these footprints were evidently made by vertebrate animals1 probably by reptiles1 of whose bodies not the slightest trace has been preserved4#a ,the impressions which their feet have left on the mud alone betray the former existence of these otherwise unknown animals4 ,the accidents which1 besides these1 determine the limits of our palontological knowledge1 may be inferred from the fact that we know of only one or two specimens of very many important petrifactions4 ,it is not ten years since we became acquainted with the imperfect impression of a bird in the ,jurassic or ,oolitic system1 the knowledge of which has been of the very greatest importance for the phylogeny of the whole class of birds4 ,all birds previously known presented a very uniformly organized group1 and showed no striking transitional forms to other vertebrate classes1 not even to the nearly related reptiles4 ,but that fossil bird from the ,jura possessed not an ordinary bird's tail1 but a lizard's tail1 and thus confirmed what had been conjectured upon other grounds1 namely1 the derivation of birds from lizards4 ,this single fossil has thus essentially extended not only our knowledge of the age of the class of birds1 but also of their blood relationship to reptiles4 ,in like manner our knowledge of other animal groups has been often essentially modified by the accidental discovery of a single fossil4 ,the palontological records must necessarily be exceedingly imperfect1 because we know of so very few examples1 or only mere fragments of very many important fossils4 ,another and very sensible gap in these records is caused by the circumstance that the intermediate forms which connect the different species have1 as a rule1 not been preserved1 and for the simple reason that 7according to the principle of divergence of character7 they were less favoured in the struggle for life than the most divergent varieties1 which had developed out of one and the same original form4 ,the intermediate links have1 on the whole1 always died out rapidly1 and have but rarely been preserved as fossils4 ,on the other hand1 the most divergent forms were able to maintain themselves in life for a longer period as independent species1 to propagate more numerously1 and consequently to be more readily petrified4 ,but this does not exclude the fact that in some cases the connecting intermediate forms of the species have been preserved so perfectly petrified1 that even now they cause the greatest perplexity and occasion endless disputes among systematic palontologists about the arbitrary limits of species4 ,an excellent example of this is furnished by the celebrated and very variable fresh-water snail from the ,stuben ,valley1 near ,steinheim1 in ,wrtemburg1 which has been described sometimes as ,paludina1 sometimes as ,valvata1 and sometimes as ,planorbis multiformis4 ,the snow-white shells of these small snails constitute more than half of the mass of the tertiary limestone hills1 and in this one locality show such an astonishing variety of forms1 that the most divergent extremes might be referred to at least twenty entirely different species4 ,but all these extreme forms are united by such innumerable intermediate forms1 and they lie so regularly above and beside one another1 that ,hilgendorf was able1 in the clearest manner1 to unravel the pedigree of the whole group of forms4 ,in like manner1 among very many other fossil species 7for example1 many ammonites1 terebratul1 sea urchins1 lily encrinites1 etc47 there are such masses of connecting intermediate forms1 that they reduce the 8dealers in fossil species0 to despair4 ,when we weigh all the circumstances here mentioned1 the number of which might easily be increased1 it does not appear astonishing that the natural accounts or records of creation formed by petrifactions are extremely defective and incomplete4 ,but nevertheless1 the petrifactions actually discovered are of the greatest value4 ,their significance is of no less importance to the natural history of creation than the celebrated inscription on the ,rosetta stone1 and the decree of ,canopus1 are to the history of nations--to archology and philology4 ,just as it has become possible by means of these two most ancient inscriptions to reconstruct the history of ancient ,egypt1 and to decipher all hieroglyphic writings1 so in many cases a few bones of an animal1 or imperfect impressions of a lower animal or vegetable form1 are sufficient for us to gain the most important starting-points in the history of the whole group1 and in the search after their pedigree4 ,a couple of small back teeth1 which have been found in the ,keuper formation of the ,trias1 have of themselves alone furnished a sure proof that mammals existed even in the ,triassic period4 ,of the incompleteness of the geological accounts of creation1 ,darwin1 agreeing with ,lyell1 the greatest of all recent geologists1 says3-- 8,i look at the geological record as a history of the world imperfectly kept1 and written in a changing dialect2 of this history we possess the last volume alone1 relating only to two or three countries4 ,of this volume1 only here and there a short chapter has been preserved2 and of each page1 only here and there a few lines4 ,each word of the slowly-changing language1 more or less different in the successive chapters1 may represent the forms of life which are entombed in our consecutive formations1 and which falsely appear to us to have been abruptly introduced4 ,on this view1 the difficulties above discussed are greatly diminished1 or even disappear40--,origin of ,species1 #fth ,edition1 p4 #bhi4 ,if we bear in mind the exceeding incompleteness of palontological records1 we shall not be surprised that we are still dependent upon so many uncertain hypotheses when actually endeavouring to sketch the pedigree of the different organic groups4 ,however1 we fortunately possess1 besides fossils1 other records of the history of the origin of organisms1 which in many cases are of no less value1 nay1 in several cases are of much greater value1 than fossils4 ,by far the most important of these other records of creation is1 without doubt1 ontogeny1 that is1 the history of the development of the organic individual 7embryology and metamorphology74 ,it briefly repeats in great and marked features the series of forms which the ancestors of the respective individuals have passed through from the beginning of their tribe4 ,we have designated the palontological history of the development of the ancestors of a living form as the history of a tribe1 or phylogeny1 and we may therefore thus enunciate this exceedingly important biogenetic fundamental principle3 8,ontogeny is a short and quick repetition1 or recapitulation1 of ,phylogeny1 determined by the laws of ,inheritance and ,adaptation40 ,as every animal and every plant from the beginning of its individual existence passes through a series of different forms1 it indicates in rapid succession and in general outlines the long and slowly changing series of states of form which its progenitors have passed through from the most ancient times4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 #f1 #aaj1 #cjj47 ,it is true that the sketch which the ontogeny of organisms gives us of their phylogeny is in most cases more or less obscured1 and all the more so the more ,adaptation1 in the course of time1 has predominated over ,inheritance1 and the more powerfully the law of abbreviated inheritance1 and the law of correlative adaptation1 have exerted their influence4 ,however1 this does not lessen the great value which the actual and faithfully preserved features of that sketch possess4 ,ontogeny is of the most inestimable value for the knowledge of the earliest palontological conditions of development1 just because no petrified remains of the most ancient conditions of the development of tribes and classes have been preserved4 ,these1 indeed1 could not have been preserved on account of the soft and tender nature of their bodies4 ,no petrifactions could inform us of the fundamental and important fact which ontogeny reveals to us1 that the most ancient common ancestors of all the different animal and vegetable species were quite simple cells like the egg-cell4 ,no petrifaction could prove to us the immensely important fact1 established by ontogeny1 that the simple increase1 the formation of cell-aggregates and the differentiation of those cells1 produced the infinitely manifold forms of multicellular organisms4 ,thus ontogeny helps us over many and large gaps in palontology4 ,illustration3 ,hand of ,nine different ,mammals4 ,pl4 ,,iv4 #a4 ,man1 #b4 ,gorilla1 #c4 ,orang1 #d4 ,dog1 #e4 ,seal1 #f4 ,porpoise1 #g4 ,bat1 #h4 ,mole1 #i4 ,duck-bill4 ,to the invaluable records of creation furnished by palontology and ontogeny are added the no less important evidences for the blood relationship of organisms furnished by comparative anatomy4 ,when organisms1 externally very different1 nearly agree in their internal structure1 one may with certainty conclude that the agreement has its foundation in ,inheritance1 the dissimilarity its foundation in ,adaptation4 ,compare1 for example1 the hands and fore paws of the nine different animals which are represented on ,plate ,,iv41 in which the bony skeleton in the interior of the hand and of the five fingers is visible4 ,everywhere we find1 though the external forms are most different1 the same bones1 and among them the same number1 position1 and connection4 ,it will perhaps appear very natural that the hand of man 7,fig4 #a7 differs very little from that of the gorilla 7,fig4 #b7 and of the orang-outang 7,fig4 #c71 his nearest relations4 ,but it will be more surprising if the fore feet of the dog also 7,fig4 #d71 as well as the breast-fin 7the hand7 of the seal 7,fig4 #e71 and of the dolphin 7,fig4 #f71 show essentially the same structure4 ,and it will appear still more wonderful that even the wing of the bat 7,fig4 #g71 the shovel-feet of the mole 7,fig4 #h71 and the fore feet of the duck-bill 7,ornithorhynchus7 7,fig4 #i71 the most imperfect of all mammals1 is composed of entirely the same bones1 only their size and form being variously changed4 ,their number1 the manner of their arrangement and connection has remained the same4 7,compare also the explanation of ,plate ,,iv41 in the ,appendix47 ,it is quite inconceivable that any other cause1 except the common inheritance of the part in question from common ancestors1 could have occasioned this wonderful homology or similarity in the essential inner structure with such different external forms4 ,now1 if we go down further in the system below the mammals1 and find that even the wings of birds1 the fore feet of reptiles and amphibious animals1 are composed of essentially the same bones as the arms of man and the fore legs of the other mammals1 we can1 from this circumstance alone1 with perfect certainty1 infer the common origin of all these vertebrate animals4 ,here1 as in all other cases1 the degree of the internal agreement in the form discloses to us the degree of blood relationship4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,the ,,protista4 ,special ,mode of ,carrying out the ,theory of ,descent in the ,natural ,system of ,organisms4--,construction of ,pedigrees4--,descent of all ,many-,celled from ,single-,celled ,organisms4--,descent of ,cells from ,monera4--,meaning of ,organic ,tribes1 or ,phyla4--,number of the ,tribes in the ,animal and ,vegetable ,kingdoms4--,the ,monophyletic ,hypothesis of ,descent1 or the ,hypothesis of one ,common ,progenitor1 and the ,polyphyletic ,hypothesis of ,descent1 or the ,hypothesis of ,many ,progenitors4--,the ,kingdom of ,protista1 or ,primval ,beings4--,eight ,classes of the ,protista ,kingdom4--,monera1 ,amb1 or ,protoplast4--,whip-swimmers1 or ,flagellata4--,ciliated-balls1 or ,catallacta4--,labyrinth-streamers1 or ,labyrinthule4--,flint-cells1 or ,diatome4--,mucous-moulds1 or ,myxomycetes4--,root-footers 7,rhizopoda74--,remarks on the ,general ,natural ,history of the ,protista3 ,their ,vital ,phenomena1 ,chemical ,composition1 and ,formation 7,individuality and ,fundamental ,form74--,phylogeny of the ,protista ,kingdom ,by a careful comparison of the individual and the palontological development1 as also by the comparative anatomy of organisms1 by the comparative examination of their fully developed structural characteristics1 we arrive at the knowledge of the degrees of their different structural relationships4 ,by this1 however1 we at the same time obtain an insight into their true blood relationship1 which1 according to the ,theory of ,descent1 is the real reason of the structural relationship4 ,hence by collecting1 comparing1 and employing the empirical results of embryology1 palontology1 and anatomy for supplementing each other1 we arrive at an approximate knowledge of 8the ,natural ,system10 which1 according to our views1 is the pedigree of organisms4 ,it is true that our human knowledge1 in all things fragmentary1 is especially so in this case1 on account of the extreme incompleteness and defectiveness of the records of creation4 ,however1 we must not allow this to discourage us1 or to deter us from undertaking this highest problem of biology4 ,let us rather see how far it may even now be possible1 in spite of the imperfect state of our embryological1 palontological1 and anatomical knowledge1 to establish a probable scheme of the genealogical relationships of organisms4 ,darwin in his book gives us no answer to these special questions of the ,theory of ,descent2 at the conclusion he only expresses his conjecture 8that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors1 and plants from an equal or less number40 ,but as these few aboriginal forms still show traces of relationship1 and as the animal and vegetable kingdoms are connected by intermediate transitional forms1 he arrives afterwards at the opinion 8that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on the earth have descended from some one primordial form1 into which life was first breathed by the ,creator40 ,like ,darwin1 all other adherents of the ,theory of ,descent have only treated it in a general way1 and not made the attempt to carry it out specially1 and to treat the 8,natural ,system0 actually as the pedigree of organisms4 ,if1 therefore1 we venture upon this difficult undertaking1 we must take up independent ground4 ,four years ago ,i set up a number of hypothetical genealogies for the larger groups of organisms in the systematic introduction to my ,general ,history of ,development 7,gen4 ,morph4 vol4 ii471 and thereby1 in fact1 made the first attempt actually to construct the pedigrees of organisms in the manner required by the theory of development4 ,i was quite conscious of the extreme difficulty of the task1 and as ,i undertook it in spite of all discouraging obstacles1 ,i claim no more than the merit of having made the first attempt and given a stimulus for other and better attempts4 ,probably most zoologists and botanists were but little satisfied with this beginning1 and least so in reference to the special domain in which each one is specially at work4 ,however1 it is certainly in this case much easier to blame than to produce something better1 and what best proves the immense difficulty of this infinitely complicated task is the fact that no naturalist has as yet supplied the place of my pedigrees by better ones4 ,but1 like all other scientific hypotheses which serve to explain facts1 my genealogical hypotheses may claim to be taken into consideration until they are replaced by better ones4 ,i hope that this replacement will very soon take place2 and ,i wish for nothing more than that my first attempt may induce very many naturalists to establish more accurate pedigrees for the individual groups1 at least in the special domain of the animal and vegetable kingdom which happens to be well known to one or other of them4 ,by numerous attempts of this kind our genealogical knowledge1 in the course of time1 will slowly advance and approach more towards perfection1 although it can with certainty be foreseen that we shall never arrive at a complete pedigree4 ,we lack1 and shall ever lack1 the indispensable palontological foundations4 ,the most ancient records will ever remain sealed to us1 for reasons which have been previously mentioned4 ,the most ancient organisms which arose by spontaneous generation--the original parents of all subsequent organisms--must necessarily be supposed to have been ,monera--simple1 soft1 albuminous lumps1 without structure1 without any definite forms1 and entirely without any hard and formed parts4 ,they and their next offspring were consequently not in any way capable of being preserved in a petrified condition4 ,but we also lack1 for reasons discussed in detail in the preceding chapter1 by far the greater portion of the innumerable palontological documents1 which are really requisite for a safe reconstruction of the history of animal tribes1 or phylogeny1 and for the true knowledge of the pedigree of organisms4 ,if we1 therefore1 in spite of this1 venture to undertake their hypothetical construction1 we must chiefly depend for guidance on the two other series of records which most essentially supplement the palontological archives4 ,these are ontogeny and comparative anatomy4 ,if thoughtfully and carefully we consult these most valuable records1 we at once perceive what is exceedingly significant1 namely1 that by far the greater number of organisms1 especially all higher animals and plants1 are composed of a great number of cells1 and that they originate out of an egg1 and that this egg1 in animals as well as in plants1 is a single1 perfectly simple cell--a little lump of albuminous constitution1 in which another albuminous corpuscle1 the cell-kernel1 is enclosed4 ,this cell containing its kernel grows and becomes enlarged4 ,by division it forms an accumulation of cells1 and out of these1 by division of labour 7as has previously been described71 there arise the numberless different forms which are presented to us in the fully developed animal and vegetable species4 ,this immensely important process--which we may follow step by step1 with our own eyes1 any day in the embryological development of any animal or vegetable individual1 and which as a rule is by no means considered with the reverence it deserves--informs us more surely and completely than all petrifactions could do as to the original palontological development of all many-celled organisms1 that is1 of all higher animals and plants4 ,for as ontogeny1 or the embryological development of every single individual1 is essentially only a recapitulation of phylogeny1 or the palontological development of its chain of ancestors1 we may at once1 with full assurance1 draw the simple and important conclusion1 that all many-celled animals and plants were originally derived from single-celled organisms4 ,the primval ancestors of man1 as well as of all other animals1 and of all plants composed of many cells1 were simple cells living isolated4 ,this invaluable secret of the organic pedigree is revealed to us with infallible certainty by the egg of animals1 and by the true egg-cell of plants4 ,when the opponents of the ,theory of ,descent assert it to be miraculous and inconceivable that an exceedingly complicated many-celled organism could1 in the course of time1 have proceeded from a simple single-celled organism1 we at once reply that we may see this incredible miracle at any moment1 and follow it with our own eyes4 ,for the embryology of animals and plants visibly presents to our eyes in the shortest space of time the same process as that which has taken place in the origin of the whole tribe during the course of enormous periods of time4 ,upon the ground of embryological records1 therefore1 we can with full assurance maintain that all many-celled1 as well as single-celled1 organisms are originally descended from simple cells2 connected with this1 of course1 is the conclusion that the most ancient root of the animal and vegetable kingdom was common to both4 ,for the different primval 8original cells0 out of which the few different main groups or tribes have developed1 only acquired their differences after a time1 and were descended from a common 8primval cell40 ,but where did those few 8original cells10 or the one primval cell1 come from8 ,for the answer to this fundamental genealogical question we must return to the theory of plastids and the hypothesis of spontaneous generation which we have already discussed 7vol4 i4 p4 #cbg74 ,as was then shown1 we cannot imagine cells to have arisen by spontaneous generation1 but only ,monera1 those primval creatures of the simplest kind conceivable1 like the still living ,protamb1 ,protomyx1 etc4 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 ,fig4 #a74 ,only such corpuscules of mucus without component parts--whose whole albuminous body is as homogeneous in itself as an inorganic crystal1 but which nevertheless fulfills the two organic fundamental functions of nutrition and propagation--could have directly arisen out of inorganic matter by autogeny at the beginning 7we may suppose7 of the ,laurentian period4 ,while some ,monera remained at the original simple stage of formation1 others gradually developed into cells by the inner kernel of the albuminous mass becoming separated from the external cell-substance4 ,in others1 by differentiation of the outermost layer of the cell-substance1 an external covering 7membrane1 or skin7 was formed round simple cytods 7without kernel71 as well as round naked cells 7containing a kernel74 ,by these two processes of separation in the simple primval mucus of the ,moneron body1 by the formation of a kernel in the interior and a covering on the outer surface of the mass of plasma1 there arose out of the original most simple cytods1 or ,monera1 those four different species of plastids1 or individuals1 of the first order1 from which1 by differentiation and combination1 all other organisms could afterwards develop themselves4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cdg47 ,the question now forces itself upon us1 ,are all organic cytods and cells1 and consequently also those 8original cells0 which we previously considered to be the primary parents of the few great main groups of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 descended from a single original form of ,moneron1 or were there several different organic primary forms1 each traceable to a peculiar independent species of ,moneron which originated by spontaneous generation8 ,in other words1 ,is the whole organic world of a common origin1 or does it owe its origin to several acts of spontaneous generation8 ,this fundamental question of genealogy seems at first sight to be of exceeding importance4 ,but on a more accurate examination1 we shall soon see that this is not the case1 and that it is in reality a matter of very subordinate importance4 ,let us now pass on to examine and clearly limit our conception of an organic tribe4 ,by tribe1 or phylum1 we understand all those organisms of whose blood relationship and descent from a common primary form there can be no doubt1 or whose relationship1 at least1 is most probable from anatomical reasons1 as well as from reasons founded on historical development4 ,our tribes1 or phyla1 according to this idea1 essentially coincide with those few 8great classes10 or 8main classes10 of which ,darwin also thinks that each contains only organisms related by blood1 and of which1 both in the animal and in the vegetable kingdoms1 he only assumes either four or five4 ,in the animal kingdom these tribes would essentially coincide with those four1 five1 or six main divisions which zoologists1 since ,br and ,cuvier1 have distinguished as 8main forms1 general plans1 branches1 or sub-kingdoms0 of the animal kingdom4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #ec47 ,br and ,cuvier distinguished only four of them1 namely3--#a4 ,the vertebrate animals 7,vertebrata72 #b4 ,the articulated animals 7,articulata72 #c4 ,the molluscous animals 7,mollusca72 and #d4 ,the radiated animals 7,radiata74 ,at present six are generally distinguished1 since the tribe of the articulated animals is divided into two tribes1 those possessing articulated feet 7,arthropoda71 and the worms 7,vermes72 and in like manner the tribe of radiated animals is subdivided into the two tribes of the star animals 7,echinodermata7 and the animal-plants 7,zoophyta74 ,within each of these six tribes1 all the included animals1 in spite of great variety in external form and inner structure1 nevertheless possess such numerous and important characteristics in common1 that there can be no doubt of their blood relationship4 ,the same applies also to the six great main classes which modern botany distinguishes in the vegetable kingdom1 namely3--#a4 ,flowering plants 7,phanerogamia72 #b4 ,ferns 7,filicin72 #c4 ,mosses 7,muscin72 #d4 ,lichens 7,lichenes72 #e4 ,fungi 7,fungi72 and #f4 ,water-weeds 7,alg74 ,the last three groups1 again1 show such close relations to one another1 that by the name of 8,thallus plants0 they may be contrasted with the three first main classes1 and consequently the number of phyla1 or main groups1 of the vegetable kingdom may be reduced to the number of four4 ,mosses and ferns may likewise be comprised as 8,prothallus plants0 7,prothallophyta71 and thereby the number of plant tribes reduced to three--,flowering plants1 ,prothallus plants1 and ,thallus plants4 ,very important facts in the anatomy and the history of development1 both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 support the supposition that even these few main classes or tribes are connected at their roots1 that is1 that the lowest and most ancient primary forms of all three are related by blood to one another4 ,nay1 by a further examination we are obliged to go still a step further1 and to agree with ,darwin's supposition1 that even the two pedigrees of the animal and vegetable kingdom are connected at their lowest roots1 and that the lowest and most ancient animals and plants are derived from a single common primary creature4 ,according to our view1 this common primval organism can have been nothing but a ,moneron which took its origin by spontaneous generation4 ,in the mean time we shall at all events be acting cautiously if we avoid this last step1 and assume true blood relationship only within each tribe1 or phylum1 where it has been undeniably and surely established by facts in comparative anatomy1 ontogeny1 and phylogeny4 ,but we may here point to the fact that two different fundamental forms of genealogical hypothesis are possible1 and that all the different investigations of the ,theory of ,descent in relation to the origin of organic groups of forms will1 in future1 tend more and more in one or the other of these directions4 ,the unitary1 or monophyletic1 hypothesis of descent will endeavour to trace the first origin of all individual groups of organisms1 as well as their totality1 to a single common species of ,moneron which originated by spontaneous generation 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdc74 ,the multiple1 or polyphyletic1 hypothesis of descent1 on the other hand1 will assume that several different species of ,monera have arisen by spontaneous generation1 and that these gave rise to several different main classes 7tribes1 or phyla7 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdh74 ,the apparently great contrast between these two hypotheses is in reality of very little importance4 ,for both the monophyletic and the polyphyletic hypothesis of descent must necessarily go back to the ,monera as the most ancient root of the one or of the many organic tribes4 ,but as the whole body of a ,moneron consists only of a simple1 formless mass1 without component particles1 made up of a single albuminous combination of carbon1 it follows that the differences of the different ,monera can only be of a chemical nature1 and can only consist in a different atomic composition of that mucous albuminous combination4 ,but these subtle and complicated differences of mixture of the infinitely manifold combinations of albumen are not appreciable by the rude and imperfect means of human observation and are1 consequently1 at present of no further interest to the task we have in hand4 ,the question of the monophyletic or polyphyletic origin will constantly recur within each individual tribe1 where the origin of a smaller or of a larger group is discussed4 ,in the vegetable kingdom1 for example1 some botanists will be inclined to derive all flowering plants from a single form of fern1 while others will prefer the idea that several different groups of ,phanerogama have sprung from several different groups of ferns4 ,in like manner1 in the animal kingdom1 some zoologists will be more in favour of the supposition that all placental animals are derived from a single pouched animal2 others will be more in favour of the opposite supposition1 that several different groups of placental animals have proceeded from several different pouched animals4 ,in regard to the human race itself1 some will prefer to derive it from a single form of ape1 while others will be more inclined to the idea that several different races of men have arisen1 independently of one another1 out of several different species of ape4 ,without here expressing our opinion in favour of either the one or the other conception1 we must1 nevertheless1 remark that in general the monophyletic hypothesis of descent deserves to be preferred to the polyphyletic hypothesis of descent4 ,in accordance with the chorological proposition of a single 8centre of creation0 or of a single primval home for most species 7which has already been discussed71 we may be permitted to assume that the original form of every larger or smaller natural group only originated once in the course of time1 and only in one part of the earth4 ,we may safely assume this simple original root1 that is1 the monophyletic origin1 in the case of all the more highly developed groups of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cec47 ,but it is very possible that the more complete ,theory of ,descent of the future will involve the polyphyletic origin of very many of the low and imperfect groups of the two organic kingdoms4 ,for these reasons ,i consider it best1 in the mean time1 to adopt the monophyletic hypothesis of descent both for the animal and for the vegetable kingdom4 ,accordingly1 the above-mentioned six tribes1 or phyla1 of the animal kingdom must be connected at their lowest root1 and likewise the three or six main classes1 or phyla1 of the vegetable kingdom must be traced to a common and most ancient original form4 ,how the connection of these tribes is to be conceived ,i shall explain in the succeeding chapters4 ,but before proceeding to this1 we must occupy ourselves with a very remarkable group of organisms1 which cannot without artificial constraint be assigned either to the pedigree of the vegetable or to that of the animal kingdom4 ,these interesting and important organisms are the primary creatures1 or ,protista4 ,all organisms which we comprise under the name of ,protista show in their external form1 in their inner structure1 and in all their vital phenomena1 such a remarkable mixture of animal and vegetable properties1 that they cannot with perfect justice be assigned either to the animal or to the vegetable kingdom2 and for more than twenty years an endless and fruitless dispute has been carried on as to whether they are to be assigned to this or that kingdom4 ,most of ,protista are so small that they can scarcely1 if at all1 be perceived with the naked eye4 ,hence the majority of them have only become known during the last fifty years1 since by the help of the improved and general use of the microscope these minute organisms have been more frequently observed and more accurately examined4 ,however1 no sooner were they better known than endless disputes arose about their real nature and their position in the natural system of organisms4 ,many of these doubtful primary creatures botanists defined as animals1 and zoologists as plants2 neither of the two would own them4 ,others1 again1 were declared by botanists to be plants1 and by zoologists to be animals2 each claimed them4 ,these contradictions are not altogether caused by our imperfect knowledge of the ,protista1 but in reality by their true nature4 ,indeed1 most ,protista present such a confused mixture of several animal and vegetable characteristics1 that each investigator may arbitrarily assign them either to the animal or vegetable kingdom4 ,accordingly as he defines these two kingdoms1 and as he looks upon this or that characteristic as determining the animal or vegetable nature1 he will assign the individual classes of ,protista in one case to the animal and in another to the vegetable kingdom4 ,but this systematic difficulty has become an inextricable knot by the fact that all more recent investigations on the lowest organisms have completely effaced1 or at least destroyed1 the sharp boundary between the animal and vegetable kingdom which had hitherto existed1 and to such a degree that its restoration is possible only by means of a completely artificial definition of the two kingdoms4 ,but this definition could not be made so as to apply to many of the ,protista4 ,for this and other reasons it is1 in the mean time1 best to exclude the doubtful beings from the animal as well as from the vegetable kingdom1 and to comprise them in a third organic kingdom standing midway between the two others4 ,this intermediate kingdom ,i have established as the ,kingdom of the ,primary ,creatures 7,protista71 when discussing general anatomy in the first volume of my ,general ,morphology1 pp4 #aia-bch4 ,in my ,monograph of the ,monera17#ae7 ,i have recently treated of this kingdom1 having somewhat changed its limits1 and given it a more accurate definition4 ,of independent classes of the kingdom ,protista1 we may at present distinguish the following3-- #a4 ,the still living ,monera2 #b4 ,the ,amboidea1 or ,protoplasts2 #c4 ,the ,whip-swimmers1 or ,flagellata2 #d4 ,the ,flimmer-balls1 or ,catallacta2 #e4 ,the ,tram-weavers1 or ,labyrinthule2 #f4 ,the ,flint-cells1 or ,diatome2 #g4 ,the ,slime-moulds1 or ,myxomycetes2 #h4 ,the ,ray-streamers1 or ,rhizopoda4 ,the most important groups at present distinguishable in these eight classes of ,protista are named in the systematic table on p4 #ea4 ,probably the number of these ,protista will be considerably increased in future days by the progressive investigations of the ontogeny of the simplest forms of life1 which have only lately been carried on with any great zeal4 ,with most of the classes named we have become intimately acquainted only during the last ten years4 ,the exceedingly interesting ,monera and ,labyrinthule1 as also the ,catallacta1 were indeed discovered only a few years ago4 ,it is probable also that very numerous groups of ,protista have died out in earlier periods1 without having left any fossil remains1 owing to the very soft nature of their bodies4 ,we might add to the ,protista from the still living lowest groups of organisms--the ,fungi2 and in so doing should make a very large addition to its domain4 ,provisionally we shall leave them among plants1 though many naturalists have separated them altogether from the vegetable kingdom4 ,the pedigree of the kingdom ,protista is still enveloped in the greatest obscurity4 ,the peculiar combination of animal and vegetable properties1 the indifferent and uncertain character of their relations of forms and vital phenomena1 together with a number of several very peculiar features which separate most of the subordinate classes sharply from the others1 at present baffle every attempt distinctly to make out their blood relationships with one another1 or with the lowest animals on the one hand1 and with the lowest plants on the other hand4 ,it is not improbable that the classes specified1 and many other unknown classes of ,protista1 represent quite independent organic tribes1 or phyla1 each of which has independently developed from one1 perhaps from various1 ,monera which have arisen by spontaneous generation4 ,if we do not agree to this polyphyletic hypothesis of descent1 and prefer the monophyletic hypothesis of the blood relationship of all organisms1 we shall have to ,look upon the different classes of protista as the lower small off-shoots of the root1 springing from the same simple monera root1 out of which arose the two mighty and many-branched pedigrees of the animal kingdom on the one hand1 and of the vegetable kingdom on the other4 7compare pp4 #gd1 #ge47 before i enter into this difficult question more accurately1 it will be appropriate to premise something further as to the contents of the classes of protista given on the next page1 and their general natural history4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the ,larger and ,smaller ,groups of the ,kingdom ,protista4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,classes of ,systematic ,name ,orders of ,a name of a the ,protista of the ,classes4 ,families of the ,genus ,kingdom4 ,classes4 as an example4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a4 ,gymnomonera ,protogenes #a4 ,,moners ,monera #b4 ,lepomonera ,protomyxa #a4 ,gymnamb ,amba #b4 ,,protoplasts ,amboida #b4 ,leptamb ,arcella #c4 ,gregarin ,monocystis #a4 ,nudiflagellata ,euglena #c4 ,,whip-,,swimmers ,flagellata #b4 ,cilioflagellata ,peridinium #d4 ,,flimmer-,,balls ,catallacta #a4 ,catallacta ,magosphra #e4 ,,tram-,,weavers ,labyrinthule #a4 ,labyrinthule ,labyrinthula #a4 ,striata ,navicula #f4 ,,flint-,,cells ,diatomea #b4 ,vittata ,tabellaria #c4 ,areolata ,coscinodiscus #a4 ,physare thalium #g4 ,,slime-,,moulds ,myxomycetes #b4 ,stemonite ,stemonitis #c4 ,trichiace ,arcyria #d4 ,lycogale ,reticularia ,i4 ,acyttaria #a4 ,monothalamia ,gromia #b4 ,polythalamia ,nummulina #h4 ,,ray-,,streamers ,,or ,,rhizopods4 ,,ii4 ,heliozoa #a4 ,heliozoa ,actinosphrium 7,root-feet7 #a4 ,monocyttaria ,cyrtidosphra ,,iii4 ,radiolaria #b4 ,polycyttaria ,collosphra ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,protamba primitiva1 a fresh-water ,moneron1 much enlarged4 ,a4 ,the entire ,moneron with its form-changing processes4 ,b4 ,it begins to divide itself into two halves4 ,c4 ,the division of the two halves is completed1 and each now represents an independent individual4 ,it will perhaps seem strange that ,i should here again begin with the remarkable ,monera as the first class of the ,protista kingdom1 as ,i of course look upon them as the most ancient primary forms of all organisms without exception4 ,still1 what are we otherwise to do with the still living ,monera8 ,we know nothing of their palontological origin1 we know nothing of any of their relations to lower animals or plants1 and we know nothing of their possible capability of developing into higher organisms4 ,the simple and homogeneous little lump of slime or mucus which constitutes their entire body 7,fig4 #h7 is the most ancient and original form of animal as well as of vegetable plastids4 ,hence it would evidently be just as arbitrary and unreasonable to assign them to the animal as it would be to assign them to the vegetable kingdom4 ,in any case we shall for the present be acting more cautiously and critically if we comprise the still living ,monera--whose number and distribution is probably very great--as a special and independent class1 contrasting them with the other classes of the kingdom ,protista1 as well as with the animal kingdom4 ,morphologically considered1 the ,monera--on account of the perfect homogeneity of the albuminous substance of their bodies1 on account of their utter want of heterogeneous particles--are more closely connected with anorgana than with organisms1 and evidently form the transition between the inorganic and organic world of bodies1 as is necessitated by the hypothesis of spontaneous generation4 ,i have described and given illustrations of the forms and vital phenomena of the still living ,monera 7,protamba1 ,protogenes1 ,protomyxa1 etc47 in my ,monograph of the ,monera17#ae7 and have briefly mentioned the most important facts in the eighth chapter 7vol4 i4 pp4 #ahc-ahg74 ,therefore1 only by way of a specimen1 ,i here repeat the drawing of the fresh-water ,protamba 7,fig4 #h74 ,the history of the life of an orange-red ,protomyxa adrantiaca1 which ,i observed at ,lanzerote1 one of the ,canary ,islands1 is given in ,plate ,i4 7see its explanation in the ,appendix74 ,besides this1 ,i here add a drawing of the form of ,bathybius1 that remarkable ,moneron discovered by ,huxley1 which lives in the greatest depths of the sea in the shape of naked lumps of protoplasm and reticular mucus 7vol4 i4 p4 #cdd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,bathybius ,hckelii1 the 8creature of primval slime10 from the greatest depths of the sea4 ,the figure1 which is greatly magnified1 only shows that form of the ,bathybius which consists of a naked network of protoplasm1 without the discoliths and cyatholiths which are found in other forms of the same ,moneron1 and which perhaps may be considered as the products of its secretion4 ,the ,amb of the present day1 and the organisms most closely connected with them1 ,arcellid and ,gregarin1 which we here unite as a second class of ,protista under the name of ,amboidea 7,protoplasta71 present no fewer genealogical difficulties than the ,monera4 ,these primary creatures are at present usually placed in the animal kingdom without its in reality being understood why4 ,for simple naked cells--that is1 shell-less plastids with a kernel--occur as well among real plants as real animals4 ,the generative cells1 for example1 in many ,alg 7spores and eggs7 exist for a longer or shorter time in water in the form of naked cells with a kernel1 which cannot be distinguished at all from the naked eggs of many animals 7for example1 those of the ,siphonophorous ,medus74 7,compare the figure of a naked egg of a bladder-wrack in ,chapter xvii4 p4 #ij47 ,in reality every naked simple cell1 whether it proceeds from an animal or vegetable body1 cannot be distinguished from an independent ,amba4 ,for an ,amba is nothing but a simple primary cell1 a naked little lump of cell-matter1 or plasma1 containing a kernel4 ,the contractility of this plasma1 which the free ,amba shows in stretching out and drawing in its changing processes1 is a general vital property of the organic plasma of all animal as well as of all vegetable plastids4 ,when a freely moving ,amba1 which perpetually changes its form1 passes into a state of rest1 it draws itself together into the form of a globule1 and surrounds itself with a secreted membrane4 ,it can then be as little distinguished from an animal egg as from a simple globular vegetable cell 7,fig4 #aj ,a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,amba sphrococcus1 greatly magnified4 ,a fresh-water ,amba without a contractile vacuole4 ,a4 ,the enclosed ,amba in the state of a globular lump of plasma 7c7 enclosing a kernel and a kernel-speck 7a74 ,the simple cell is surrounded by a cyst1 or cell membrane 7d74 ,b4 ,the free ,amba1 which has burst and left the cyst1 or cell-membrane4 ,c4 ,it begins to divide by its kernel parting into two kernels1 and the cell-substance between the two contracting4 ,d4 ,the division is completed1 and the cell-substance has entirely separated into two bodies4 7,da and ,db74 ,naked cells1 with kernels1 like those represented in ,fig4 #aj ,b1 which are continuously changing1 stretching out and drawing in formless1 finger-like processes1 and which are on this account called amboid1 are found frequently and widely dispersed in fresh water and in the sea2 nay1 are even found creeping on land4 ,they take their food in the same way as was previously described in the case of the ,protamba 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf74 ,their propagation by division can sometimes be observed4 7,fig4 #aj ,c1 ,d47 ,i have described the processes in an earlier chapter 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahg74 ,many of these formless ,amb have lately been recognized as the early stages of development of other ,protista 7especially the ,myxomycet71 or as the freed cells of lower animals and plants4 ,the colourless blood-cells of animals1 for example1 those of human blood1 cannot be distinguished from ,amb4 ,they1 like the latter1 can receive solid corpuscles into their interior1 as ,i was the first to show by feeding them with finely divided colouring matters 7,gen4 ,morph4 i4 #bga74 ,however1 other ,amb 7like the one given in ,fig4 #aj7 seem to be independent 8good species10 since they propagate themselves unchanged throughout many generations4 ,besides the real1 or naked1 ,amb 7,gymnamb71 we also find widely diffused in fresh water case-bearing ,amb 7,lepamb71 whose naked plasma body is partially protected by a more or less solid shell 7,arcella71 sometimes even by a case 7,difflugia7 composed of small stones4 ,lastly1 we frequently find in the body of many lower animals parasitic ,amb 7,gregarin71 which1 adapting themselves to a parasitic life1 have surrounded their plasma-body with a delicate closed membrane4 ,the simple naked ,amb are1 next to the ,monera1 the most important of all organisms to the whole science of biology1 and especially to general genealogy4 ,for it is evident that the ,amb originally arose out of simple ,monera 7,protamb71 by the important process of segregation taking place in their homogeneous viscid body--the differentiation of an inner kernel from the surrounding plasma4 ,by this means the great progress from a simple cytod 7without kernel7 into a real cell 7with kernel7 was accomplished 7compare ,fig4 #h ,a and ,fig4 #aj ,b74 ,as some of these cells at an early stage encased themselves by secreting a hardened membrane1 they formed the first vegetable cells1 while others1 remaining naked1 developed into the first aggregates of animal cells4 ,the presence or absence of an encircling hard membrane forms the most important1 although by no means the entire1 difference of form between animal and vegetable cells4 ,as vegetable cells even at an early stage enclose themselves within their hard1 thick1 and solid cellular shell1 like that of the ,amb in a state of rest 7,fig4 #aj ,a71 they remain more independent and less accessible to the influences of the outer world than are the soft animal cells1 which are in most cases naked1 or merely covered by a thin pliable membrane4 ,but in consequence of this the vegetable cells cannot combine1 as do the animal cells1 for the construction of higher and composite fibrous tracts1 for example1 the nervous and muscular tissues4 ,it is probable that1 in the case of the most ancient single-celled organisms1 there must have developed at an early stage the very important difference in the animal and vegetable mode of receiving food4 ,the most ancient single-celled animals1 being naked cells1 could admit solid particles into the interior of their soft bodies1 as do the ,amb 7,fig4 #aj ,b7 and the colourless blood-cells2 whereas the most ancient single-celled plants encased by their membranes were no longer able to do this1 and could admit through it only fluid nutrition 7by means of diffusion74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,a single ,whip-swimmer 7,euglena striata71 greatly magnified4 ,above a thread-like lashing whip is visible2 in the centre the round cellular kernel1 with its kernel speck4 ,the ,whip-swimmers 7,flagellata71 which we consider as a third class of the kingdom ,protista1 are of no less doubtful nature than the ,amb4 ,they often show as close and important relations to the vegetable as to the animal kingdom4 ,some ,flagellata at an early stage1 when freely moving about1 cannot be distinguished from real plants1 especially from the spores of many ,alg2 whereas others are directly allied to real animals1 namely1 to the fringed ,infusoria 7,ciliata74 ,the ,flagellata are simple cells which live in fresh or salt water1 either singly or united in colonies4 ,the characteristic part of their body is a very movable simple or compound whip-like appendage 7whip1 or flagellum7 by means of which they actively swim about in the water4 ,this class is divided into two orders4 ,among the fringed whip-swimmers 7,cilioflagellata7 there exists1 in addition to the long whip1 a short fringe of vibrating hairs1 which is wanting in the unfringed whip-swimmers 7,nudoflagellata74 ,to the former belong the flint-shelled yellow ,peridinia1 which are largely active in causing the phosphorescence of the sea2 to the latter belong the green ,euglen1 immense masses of which frequently make our ponds in spring quite green4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,the ,norwegian ,flimmer-ball 7,magosphra planula7 swimming by means of its vibratile fringes1 as seen from the surface4 ,a very remarkable new form of ,protista1 which ,i have named ,flimmer-ball 7,magosphra71 ,i discovered only three years ago 7in ,september1 #ahfi71 on the ,norwegian coast 7,fig4 #ab71 and have more accurately described in my ,biological ,studies7#ae7 7p4 #acg1 ,plate ,v474 ,off the island of ,gis-oe1 near ,bergen1 ,i found swimming about1 on the surface of the sea1 extremely neat little balls composed of a number 7between thirty and forty7 of fringed pear-shaped cells1 the pointed ends of which were united in the centre like radii4 ,after a time the ball dissolved4 ,the individual cells swarmed about independently in the water like fringed ,infusoria1 or ,ciliata4 ,these afterwards sank to the bottom1 drew their fringes into their bodies1 and gradually changed into the form of creeping ,amb 7like ,fig #aj ,b74 ,these last afterwards encased themselves 7as in ,fig4 #aj ,a71 and then divided by repeated halvings into a large number of cells 7exactly as in the case of the cleavage of the egg1 ,fig4 #f1 vol4 i4 p4 #bii74 ,the cells became covered with vibratile hairs1 broke through the case enclosing them1 and now again swam about in the shape of a fringed ball 7,fig4 #ab74 ,this wonderful organism1 which sometimes appears like a simple ,amba1 sometimes as a single fringed cell1 sometimes as a many-celled fringed ball1 can evidently be classed with none of the other ,protista1 and must be considered as the representative of a new independent group4 ,as this group stands midway between several ,protista1 and links them together1 it may bear the name of ,mediator1 or ,catallacta4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,labyrinthula macrocystis 7much enlarged74 ,below is a large group of accumulated cells1 one of which1 on the left1 is separating itself2 above are two single cells which are gliding along the threads of the retiform labyrinth which form their 8tramways40 ,the ,protista of the fifth class1 the ,tram-weavers1 or ,labyrinthule1 are of a no less puzzling nature2 they were lately discovered by ,cienkowski on piles in sea water 7,fig4 #ac74 ,they are spindle-shaped cells1 mostly of a yellow-ochre colour1 which are sometimes united into a dense mass1 sometimes move about in a very peculiar way4 ,they form1 in a manner not yet explained1 a retiform frame of entangled threads 7compared to a labyrinth71 and on the dense filamentous 8tramways0 of this frame they glide about4 ,from the shape of the cells of the ,labyrinthule we might consider them as the simplest plants1 from their motion as the simplest animals1 but in reality they are neither animals nor plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,navicula hippocampus 7greatly magnified74 ,in the middle of the cell the cell-kernel 7nucleus7 is visible1 together with its kernel speck 7nucleolus74 ,the ,flint-cells 7,diatome71 a sixth class of ,protista1 are perhaps the most closely related to the ,labyrinthule4 ,these primary creatures--which at present are generally considered as plants1 although some celebrated naturalists still look upon them as animals--inhabit the sea and fresh waters in immense masses1 and offer an endless variety of the most elegant forms4 ,they are mostly small microscopic cells1 which either live singly 7,fig4 #ad71 or united in great numbers1 and occur either attached to objects1 or glide and creep about in a peculiar manner4 ,their soft cell-substance1 which is of a characteristic brownish yellow colour1 is always enclosed by a solid and hard flinty shell1 possessing the neatest and most varied forms4 ,this flinty covering is open to the exterior only by one or two slits1 through which the enclosed soft plasma-body communicates with the outer world4 ,the flinty cases are found petrified in masses1 and many rocks--for example1 the ,tripoli slate polish1 the ,swedish mountain meal1 etc41--are in a great measure composed of them4 ,a seventh class of ,protista is formed by the remarkable ,slime-moulds 7,myxomycetes74 ,they were formerly universally considered as plants1 as real ,fungi1 until ten years ago the botanist ,de ,bary1 by discovering their ontogeny1 proved them to be quite distinct from ,fungi1 and rather to be akin to the lower animals4 ,the mature body is a roundish bladder1 often several inches in size1 filled with fine spore-dust and soft flakes 7,fig4 #ae71 as in the case of the well-known puff-balls 7,gastromycetes74 ,however1 the characteristic cellular threads1 or hyph1 of a real fungus do not arise from the germinal corpuscles1 or spores1 of the ,myxomycetes1 but merely naked masses of plasma1 or cells1 which at first swim about in the form of ,flagellata 7,fig4 #aa71 afterwards creep about like the ,amb 7,fig4 #aj ,b71 and finally combine with others of the same kind to form large masses of 8slime10 or 8plasmodia40 ,out of these1 again1 there arises1 by-and-by1 the bladder-shaped fruit-body4 ,many of my readers probably know one of these plasmodia1 the thalium septicum1 which in summer forms a beautiful yellow mass of soft mucus1 often several feet in breadth1 known by the name of 8tan flowers10 and penetrates tan-heaps and tan-beds4 ,at an early stage these slimy1 freely-creeping ,myxomycetes1 which live for the most part in damp forests1 upon decaying vegetable substances1 bark of trees1 etc41 are with equal justice or injustice declared by zoologists to be animals1 while in the mature1 bladder-shaped condition of fructification they are by botanists defined as plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,a stalked fruit-body 7spore-bladder1 filled with spores7 of one of the ,myxomycetes 7,physarum albipes7 not much enlarged4 ,the nature of the ,ray-streamers 7,rhizopoda71 the eighth class of the kingdom ,protista1 is equally obscure4 ,these remarkable organisms have peopled the sea from the most ancient times of the organic history of the earth1 in an immense variety of forms1 sometimes creeping at the bottom of the sea1 sometimes swimming on the surface4 ,only very few live in fresh water 7,gromia1 ,actinosphrium74 ,most of them possess solid calcareous or flinty shells of an extremely beautiful construction1 which can be perfectly preserved in a fossil state4 ,they have frequently accumulated in such huge numbers as to form mountain masses1 although the single individuals are very small1 and often scarcely visible1 or completely invisible to the naked eye4 ,a very few attain the diameter of a few lines1 or even as much as a couple of inches4 ,the name which the class bears is given because thousands of exceedingly fine threads of protoplasm radiate from the entire surface of their naked slimy body2 these rays are quasi-feet1 or pseudopodia1 which branch off like roots 7whence the term ,rhizopoda1 signifying root-footed71 unite like nets1 and are observed continually to change form1 as in the case of the simpler plasmic feet of the ,amboidea1 or ,protoplasts4 ,these ever-changing little pseudo-feet serve both for locomotion and for taking food4 ,the class of the ,rhizopoda is divided into three different legions1 viz4 the chamber-shells1 or ,acyttaria1 the sun-animalcules1 or ,heliozoa1 and the basket-shells1 or ,radiolaria4 ,the ,chamber-shells 7,acyttaria7 constitute the first and lowest of these three legions2 for the whole of their soft body consists merely of simple mucous or slimy cell-matter1 or protoplasm1 which has not differentiated into cells4 ,however1 in spite of this most primitive nature of body1 most of the ,acyttaria secrete a solid shell composed of calcareous earth1 which presents a great variety of exquisite forms4 ,in the more ancient and more simple ,acyttaria this shell is a simple chamber1 bell-shaped1 tubular1 or like the shell of a snail1 from the mouth of which a bundle of plasmic threads issues4 ,in contrast to these single-chambered forms 7,monothalamia71 the many-chambered forms 7,polythalamia7--to which the great majority of the ,acyttaria belong--possess a house1 which is composed in an artistic manner of numerous chambers4 ,these chambers sometimes lie in a row one behind the other1 sometimes in concentric circles or spirals1 in the form of a ring round a central point1 and then frequently one above another in many tiers1 like the boxes of an amphitheatre4 ,this formation1 for example1 is found in the nummulites1 whose calcareous shells1 of the size of a lentil1 have accumulated to the number of millions1 and form whole mountains on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the stones of which some of the ,egyptian pyramids are built consist of such nummulitic limestone4 ,in most cases the chambers of the shells of the ,polythalamia are wound round one another in a spiral line4 ,the chambers are connected with one another by passages and doors1 like rooms of a large palace1 and are generally open towards the outside by numerous little windows1 out of which the plasmic body can stream or strain forth its little pseudo-feet1 or rays of slime1 which are always changing form4 ,but in spite of the exceedingly complicated and elegant structure of this calcareous labyrinth1 in spite of the endless variety in the structure and the decoration of its numerous chambers1 and in spite of the regularity and elegance of their execution1 the whole of this artistic palace is found to be the secreted product of a perfectly formless1 slimy mass1 devoid of any component parts6 ,verily1 if the whole of the recent anatomy of animal and vegetable textures did not support our theory of plastids1 if all its important results did not unanimously corroborate the fact that the whole miracle of vital phenomena and vital forms is traceable to the active agency of the formless albuminous combinations of protoplasm1 the ,polythalamia alone would secure the triumph of that theory4 ,for we may here at any moment1 by means of the microscope1 point out the wonderful fact1 first established by ,dujardin and ,max ,schulze1 that the formless mucus of the soft plasma-body1 this true 8matter of life10 is able to secrete the neatest1 most regular1 and most complicated structures4 ,this secretive skill is simply a result of inherited adaptation1 and by it we learn to understand how this same 8primval slime0--this same protoplasm--can produce in the bodies of animals and plants the most different and most complicated cellular forms4 ,it is1 moreover1 a matter of special interest that the most ancient organism1 the remains of which are found in a petrified condition1 belongs to the ,polythalamia4 ,this organism is the 8,canadian ,life's-dawn0 7,eozoon canadense71 which has already been mentioned1 and which was found a few years ago in the ,ottawa formation 7in the deepest strata of the ,laurentian system71 on the ,ottawa river in ,canada4 ,if we expected to find organic remains at all in these most ancient deposits of the primordial period1 we should certainly look for such of the most simple ,protista as are covered with a solid shell1 and in the organization of which the difference between animal and plant is as yet not indicated4 ,we know of but few species of the ,sun-animalcules 7,heliozoa71 the second class of the ,rhizopoda4 ,one species is very frequently found in our fresh waters4 ,it was observed even in the last century by a clergyman in ,dantzig1 ,eichhorn by name1 and it has been called after him1 ,actinosphrium ,eichhornii4 ,to the naked eye it appears as a gelatinous grey globule of mucus1 about the size of a pin's head4 ,looking at it through the microscope1 we see hundreds or thousands of fine mucous threads radiating from the central plasma body1 and perceive that the inner layer of its cell-substance is different from the outer layer1 which forms a bladder-like membrane4 ,in consequence of its structure1 this1 the little sun-animalcule1 although wanting a shell1 really rises above the structureless ,acyttaria1 and forms the transition from these to the ,radiolaria4 ,the genus ,cystophrys is of a nature akin to it4 ,the ,basket-shells 7,radiolaria7 form the third and last class of the ,rhizopoda4 ,their lower forms are closely allied to the ,heliozoa and ,acyttaria1 whereas their higher forms rise far above them4 ,they are essentially distinguished from both by the fact that the central part of their body is composed of many cells1 and surrounded by a solid membrane4 ,this closed 8central capsule10 generally of a globular shape1 is covered by a mucous layer of plasma1 out of which there radiate on all sides thousands of exceedingly fine threads1 the branching and confluent so-called pseudopodia4 ,between these are scattered numerous yellow cells of unknown function1 containing grains of starch4 ,most ,radiolaria are characterized by a highly developed skeleton1 which consists of flint1 and displays a wonderful richness of the neatest and most curious forms4 ,sometimes this flinty skeleton forms a simple trellice-work ball 7,fig4 #af s71 sometimes a marvellous system of several concentric trelliced balls1 encased in one another1 and connected by radial staves4 ,in most cases delicate spikes1 which are frequently branched like a tree1 radiate from the surface of the balls4 ,in other cases the whole skeleton consists of only one flinty star1 and is then generally composed of twenty staves1 distributed according to definite mathematical laws1 and united in a common central point4 ,the skeletons of other ,radiolaria again form symmetrical many-chambered structures1 as in the case of the ,polythalamia4 ,perhaps no other group of organisms develop in the formation of their skeletons such an amount of various fundamental forms1 such geometrical regularity1 and such elegant architecture4 ,most of the forms as yet discovered1 ,i have given in the atlas accompanying my ,monograph of the ,radiolaria47#bc7 ,here ,i shall only give as an example the picture of one of the simplest forms1 the ,cyrtidosphra echinoides of ,nice4 ,the skeleton in this case consists only of a simple trelliced ball 7s71 with short radial spikes 7a71 which loosely surround the central capsule 7c74 ,out of the mucous covering1 enclosing the latter1 radiate a great number of delicate little pseudopodia 7p71 which are partly drawn back underneath the shell1 and fused into a lumpy mass of mucus4 ,between these are scattered a number of yellow cells 7l74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,cyrtidosphra echinoides1 #djj times enlarged4 c4 ,globular central capsule4 s4 ,basket-work of the perforated flinty shell4 a4 ,radial spikes1 which radiate from the latter4 p4 ,the pseudo-feet radiating from the mucous covering surrounding the central capsule4 l4 ,yellow globular cells1 scattered between the latter1 containing grains of starch4 ,most ,acyttaria live only at the bottom of the sea1 on stones and seaweeds1 or creep about in sand and mud by means of their pseudopodia1 but most ,radiolaria swim on the surface of the sea by means of long pseudopodia extending in all directions4 ,they live together there in immense numbers1 but are mostly so small that they have been almost completely overlooked1 and have only become accurately known during the last fourteen years4 ,certain ,radiolaria living in communities 7,polycyttaria7 form gelatinous lumps of some lines in diameter4 ,on the other hand1 most of those living isolated 7,monocyttaria7 are invisible to the naked eye2 but still their petrified shells are found accumulated in such masses that in many places they form entire mountains2 for example1 the ,nicobar ,islands in the ,indian ,archipelago1 and the ,island of ,barbadoes in the ,antilles4 ,as most readers are probably but little acquainted with the eight classes of the ,protista just mentioned1 ,i shall now add some further general observations on their natural history4 ,the great majority of all ,protista live in the sea1 some swimming freely on the surface1 some creeping at the bottom1 and others attached to stones1 shells1 plants1 etc4 ,many species of ,protista also live in fresh water1 but only a very small number on dry land 7for example1 ,myxomycetes and some ,protoplasta74 ,most of them can be seen only through the microscope1 except when millions of individuals are found accumulated4 ,only a few of them attain a diameter of some lines1 or as much as an inch4 ,what they lack in size of body they make up for by producing astonishing numbers of individuals1 and they very considerably influence in this way the economy of nature4 ,the imperishable remains of dead ,protista1 for instance1 the flinty shells of the ,diatome and ,radiolaria and the calcareous shells of the ,acyttaria1 often form large rock masses4 ,in regard to their vital phenomena1 especially those of nutrition and propagation1 some ,protista are more allied to plants1 others more to animals4 ,both in their mode of taking food and in the chemical changes of their living substance1 they sometimes more resemble the lower animals1 at others the lower plants4 ,free locomotion is possessed by many ,protista1 while others are without it2 but this does not constitute a characteristic distinction1 as we know of undoubted animals which entirely lack free locomotion1 and of genuine plants which possess it4 ,all ,protista have a soul--that is to say1 are 8animate0--as well as all animals and all plants4 ,the soul's activity in the ,protista manifests itself in their irritability1 that is1 in the movements and other changes which take place in consequence of mechanical1 electrical1 and chemical irritation of their contractile protoplasm4 ,consciousness and the capability of will and thought are probably wanting in all ,protista4 ,however1 the same qualities are in the same degree also wanting in many of the lower animals1 whereas many of the higher animals in these respects are scarcely inferior to the lower races of human beings4 ,in the ,protista1 as in all other organisms1 the activities of the soul are traceable to molecular motions in the protoplasm4 ,the most important physiological characteristic of the kingdom ,protista lies in the exclusively non-sexual propagation of all the organisms belonging to it4 ,the higher animals and plants multiply almost exclusively in a sexual manner4 ,the lower animals and plants multiply also1 in many cases1 in a non-sexual manner1 by division1 the formation of buds1 the formation of germs1 etc4 ,but sexual propagation almost always exists by the side of it1 and often regularly alternates with it in succeeding generations 7,metagenesis1 vol4 i4 p4 #bjf74 ,all ,protista1 on the other hand1 propagate themselves exclusively in a non-sexual manner1 and in fact1 the distinction of the two sexes among them has not been effected--there are neither male nor female ,protista4 ,the ,protista in regard to their vital phenomena stand midway between animals and plants1 that is to say1 between their lowest forms2 and the same must be said in regard to the chemical composition of their bodies4 ,one of the most important distinctions between the chemical composition of animal and vegetable bodies consists in the characteristic formation of the skeleton4 ,the skeleton1 or the solid scaffolding of the body in most genuine plants1 consists of a substance called cellulose1 devoid of nitrogen1 but secreted by the nitrogenous cell-substance1 or protoplasm4 ,in most genuine animals1 on the other hand1 the skeleton generally consists either of nitrogenous combinations 7chitin1 etc47 or of calcareous earth4 ,in this respect some ,protista are more like plants1 others more like animals4 ,in many of them the skeleton is principally or entirely formed of calcareous earth1 which is met with both in animal and vegetable bodies4 ,but the active vital substance in all cases is the mucous protoplasm4 ,in regard to the form of the ,protista1 it is to be remarked that the individuality of their body almost always remains at an extremely low stage of development4 ,very many ,protista remain for life simple plastids or individuals of the first order4 ,others1 indeed1 form colonies or republics of plastids by the union of several individuals4 ,but even these higher individuals of the second order1 formed by the combination of simple plastids1 for the most part remain at a very low stage of development4 ,the members of such communities among the ,protista remain very similar one to another1 and never1 or only in a slight degree1 commence a division of labour1 and are consequently as little able to render their community fit for higher functions as are1 for example1 the savages of ,australia4 ,the community of the plastids remains in most cases very loose1 and each single plastid retains in a great measure its own individual independence4 ,a second structural characteristic1 which next to their low stage of individuality especially distinguishes the ,protista1 is the low stage of development of their stereometrical fundamental forms4 ,as ,i have shown in my theory of fundamental forms 7in the fourth book of the ,general ,morphology71 a definite geometrical fundamental form can be pointed out in most organisms1 both in the general form of the body and in the form of the individual parts4 ,this ideal fundamental form1 or type1 which is determined by the number1 position1 combination1 and differentiation of the component parts1 stands in just the same relation to the real organic form as the ideal geometrical fundamental form of crystals does to their imperfect real form4 ,in most bodies and parts of the bodies of animals and plants this fundamental form is a pyramid4 ,it is a regular pyramid in the so-called 8regular radiate0 forms1 and an irregular pyramid in the more highly differentiated1 so-called 8bilaterally symmetrical0 forms4 7,compare the plates in the first volume of my ,general ,morphology1 pp4 #eef-eeh47 ,among the ,protista this pyramidal type1 which prevails in the animal and vegetable kingdom1 is on the whole rare1 and instead of it we have either quite irregular 7amorphous7 or more simple1 regular geometrical types2 especially frequent are the sphere1 the cylinder1 the ellipsoid1 the spheroid1 the double cone1 the cone1 the regular polygon 7tetrahedron1 hexahedron1 octahedron1 dodecahedron1 icosahedron71 etc4 ,all the fundamental forms of the pro-morphological system1 which are of a low rank in that system1 prevail in the ,protista4 ,however1 in many ,protista there occur also the higher1 regular1 and bilateral types1 fundamental forms which predominate in the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,in this respect some of the ,protista are frequently more closely allied to animals 7as the ,acyttaria71 others more so to plants 7as the ,radiolaria74 ,with regard to the palontological development of the kingdom ,protista1 we may form various1 but necessarily very unsafe1 genealogical hypotheses4 ,perhaps the individual classes of the kingdom are independent tribes1 or phyla1 which have developed independently of one another and independently of the animal and the vegetable kingdoms4 ,even if we adopt the monophyletic hypothesis of descent1 and maintain a common origin from a single form of ,moneron for all organisms1 without exception1 which ever have lived and still live upon the earth1 even in this case the connection of the neutral ,protista on the one hand with the vegetable kingdom1 and on the other hand with the animal kingdom1 must be considered as very vague4 ,we must regard them 7compare p4 #gd7 as lower off-shoots which have developed directly out of the root of the great double-branched organic pedigree1 or perhaps out of the lowest tribe of ,protista1 which may be supposed to have shot up midway between the two diverging high and vigorous trunks of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,the individual classes of the ,protista1 whether they are more closely connected at their roots in groups1 or only form a loose bunch of root offsets1 must in this case be regarded as having nothing to do either with the diverging groups of organisms belonging to the animal kingdom on the right1 or to the vegetable kingdom on the left4 ,they must be supposed to have retained the original simple character of the common primval living thing more than have genuine animals and genuine plants4 ,but if we adopt the polyphyletic hypothesis of descent1 we have to imagine a number of organic tribes1 or phyla1 which all shoot up by spontaneous generation out of the same ground1 by the side of and independent of one another4 7,compare p4 #ge47 ,in that case numbers of different ,monera must have arisen by spontaneous generation whose differences would depend only upon slight1 to us imperceptible1 differences in their chemical composition1 and consequently upon differences in their capability of development4 ,a small number of ,monera would then have given origin to the animal kingdom1 and1 again1 a small number would have produced the vegetable kingdom4 ,between these two groups1 however1 there would have developed1 independently of them1 a large number of independent tribes1 which have remained at a lower stage of organization1 and which have neither developed into genuine plants nor into genuine animals4 ,a safe means of deciding between the monophyletic and polyphyletic hypotheses is as yet quite impossible1 considering the imperfect state of our phylogenetic knowledge4 ,the different groups of ,protista1 and those lowest forms of the animal kingdom and of the vegetable kingdom which are scarcely distinguishable from the ,protista1 show such a close connection with one another and such a confused mixture of characteristics1 that at present any systematic division and arrangement of the groups of forms seem more or less artificial and forced4 ,hence the attempt here offered must be regarded as entirely provisional4 ,but the more deeply we penetrate into the genealogical secrets of this obscure domain of inquiry1 the more probable appears the idea that the vegetable kingdom and the animal kingdom are each of independent origin1 and that midway between these two great pedigrees a number of other independent small groups of organisms have arisen by repeated acts of spontaneous generation1 which on account of their indifferent neutral character1 and in consequence of their mixture of animal and vegetable properties1 may lay claim to the designation of independent ,protista4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,vegetable ,kingdom ,animal ,kingdom ,plant ,animalia _/------------------ _/-------------------------------------- ----- ,flowering ,plants ,vertebrate ,animals ,phanerogamia ,vertebrata -----v-------_/ ,articulated ,animals ,arthropoda -----v------_/ ,star-fishes ,molluscous ,animals ,ferns ,echinoderma ,mollusca ,filicin -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,mosses -------------------v---------------_/ ,muscin ,lichens ,worms ,lichenes ,vermes ,animal-trees ,zoophytes ---- ,fungi ,alg ,fungi -------v-----_/ -----v---_/ ,neutral ,primval ,plants ,primval ,creatures ,primval ,animals ,protophyta ,protista ,protozoa -----v------_/ -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,vegetable ,monera ,neutral ,monera ,animal ,monera --------------------------v------------_ / ,archigonic ,monera 7,pieces of ,protoplasm which have originated by ,spontaneous ,generation7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,polyphyletic ,,pedigree4 ,,ii4 ,i4 ,,iii4 ,vegetable ,protista ,animal ,kingdom ,kingdom ,kingdom ,vegetabilia ,protista ,animalia ------v------_/ -----v----_/ _/-------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,slime-moulds1 or ,mucous ,fungi ,ray-streamers ,myxomycetes ,rhizopoda -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,flint-cells ,flimmer-balls ,diatom ,catallacta -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,whip-swimmers ,flagellata -----v------_/ ,tram-weavers ,labyrinthulea -----v------_/ ,amb1 ,primval ,primval ,plants or ,animals ,protophyta ,protoplasta ,protozoa ------v------_/ -----v------_/ -----v------_/ ,vegetable ,neutral ,animal ,monera ,monera ,monera ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,n4,b4--,the lines marked with a indicate extinct tribes of ,protista1 which have arisen independently by repeated acts of ,spontaneous ,generation4 ,thus1 if we assume one entirely independent trunk for the vegetable kingdom1 and a second for the animal kingdom1 we may set up a number of independent stems of ,protista1 each of which has developed1 quite independently of other stems and trunks1 from a special archigonic form of ,monera4 ,in order to make this relation more clear1 we may imagine the whole world of organisms as an immense meadow which is partially withered1 and upon which two many-branched and mighty trees are standing1 likewise partially withered4 ,the two great trees represent the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 their fresh and still green branches the living animals and plants2 the dead branches with withered leaves represent the extinct groups4 ,the withered grass of the meadow corresponds to the numerous extinct tribes1 and the few stalks1 still green1 to the still living phyla of the kingdom ,protista4 ,but the common soil of the meadow1 from which all have sprung up1 is primval by protoplasm4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom4 ,the ,natural ,system of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4--,division of the ,vegetable ,kingdom into ,six ,branches and ,eighteen ,classes4--,the ,flowerless ,plants 7,cryptogamia74--,sub-kingdom of the ,thallus ,plants4--,the ,tangles1 or ,alg 7,primary ,alg1 ,green ,alg1 ,brown ,alg1 ,red ,alg74--,the ,thread-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,lichens and ,fungi74--,sub-kingdom of the ,prothallus ,plants4--,the ,mosses1 or ,muscin 7,water-mosses1 ,liverworts1 ,leaf-mosses1 ,bog-mosses74--,the ,ferns1 or ,filicin 7,leaf-ferns1 ,bamboo-ferns1 ,water-ferns1 ,scale-ferns74--,sub-kingdom of ,flowering ,plants 7,phanerogamia74--,the ,gymnosperms1 or ,plants with ,naked ,seeds 7,palm-ferns ,cycade2 ,pines ,conifer74--,the ,angiosperms1 or ,plants with ,enclosed ,seeds4--,monocotyl4--,dicotyl4--,cup-bl ossoms 7,apetal74--,star-blossoms 7,diapetal74--,bell-blossoms 7,gamopetal74 ,every attempt that we make to gain a knowledge of the pedigree of any small or large group of organisms related by blood must1 in the first instance1 start with the evidence afforded by the existing 8natural system0 of this group4 ,for although the natural system of animals and plants will never become finally settled1 but will always represent a merely approximate knowledge of true blood relationship1 still it will always possess great importance as a hypothetical pedigree4 ,it is true1 by a 8natural system0 most zoologists and botanists only endeavour to express in a concise way the subjective conceptions which each has formed of the objective 8form-relationships0 of organisms4 ,these form-relationships1 however1 as the reader has seen1 are in reality the necessary result of true blood relationship4 ,consequently1 every morphologist in promoting our knowledge of the natural system1 at the same time promotes our knowledge of the pedigree1 whether he wishes it or not4 ,the more the natural system deserves its name1 and the more firmly it is established upon the concordance of results obtained from the study of comparative anatomy1 ontogeny1 and palontology1 the more surely may we consider it as the approximate expression of the true pedigree of the organic world4 ,in entering upon the task contemplated in this chapter1 the genealogy of the vegetable kingdom1 we shall have1 according to this principle1 first to glance at the natural system of the vegetable kingdom as it is at present 7with more or less important modifications7 adopted by most botanists4 ,according to the system generally in vogue1 the whole series of vegetable forms is divided into two main groups4 ,these main divisions1 or sub-kingdoms1 are the same as were distinguished more than a century ago by ,charles ,linnus1 the founder of systematic natural history1 and which he called ,cryptogamia1 or secretly-blossoming plants1 and ,phanerogamia1 or openly-flowering plants4 ,the latter1 ,linnus1 in his artificial system of plants1 divided1 according to the different number1 formation1 and combination of the anthers1 and also according to the distribution of the sexual organs1 into twenty-three different classes1 and then added the ,cryptogamia to these as the twenty-fourth and last class4 ,the ,cryptogamia1 the secretly-blossoming or flowerless plants1 which were formerly but little observed1 have in consequence of the careful investigations of recent times been proved to present such a great variety of forms1 and such a marked difference in their coarser and finer structure1 that we must distinguish no less than fourteen different classes of them2 whereas the number of classes of flowering plants1 or ,phanerogamia1 may be limited to four4 ,however1 these eighteen classes of the vegetable kingdom can again be naturally grouped in such a manner that we are able to distinguish in all six main divisions or branches of the vegetable kingdom4 ,two of these six branches belong to the flowering1 and four to the flowerless plants4 ,the table on page #hb shows how the eighteen classes are distributed among the six branches1 and how these again fall under the sub-kingdoms of the vegetable kingdom4 ,the one sub-kingdom of the ,cryptogamia may now be naturally divided into two divisions1 or sub-kingdoms1 differing very essentially in their internal structure and in their external form1 namely1 the ,thallus plants and the ,prothallus plants4 ,the group of ,thallus plants comprises the two large branches of ,tangles1 or ,alg1 which live in water1 and the ,thread-plants1 or ,inophytes 7,lichens and ,fungi71 which grow on land1 upon stones1 bark of trees1 upon decaying bodies1 etc4 ,the group of ,prothallus plants1 on the other hand1 comprises the two branches of ,mosses and ,ferns1 containing a great variety of forms4 ,all ,thallus plants1 or ,thallophytes1 can be directly recognized from the fact that the two morphological fundamental organs of all other plants1 stem and leaves1 cannot be distinguished in their structure4 ,the complete body of all ,alg and of all ,thread-plants is a mass composed of simple cells1 which is called a lobe1 or thallus4 ,this thallus is as yet not differentiated into axial-organs 7stem and root7 and leaf-organs4 ,on this account1 as well as through many other peculiarities1 the ,thallophytes contrast strongly with all remaining plants--those comprised under the two sub-kingdoms of ,prothallus plants and ,flowering plants--and for this reason the two latter sub-kingdoms are frequently classed together under the name of ,stemmed plants1 or ,cormophytes4 ,the following table will explain the relation of these three sub-kingdoms to one another according to the two different views3-- ,a4 ,thallus ,plants ,i4 ,thallus ,plants 7,thallophyta7 7,thallophyta7 ,i4 ,flowerless ,plants4 7,cryptogamia7 ,b4 ,prothallus ,plants 7,prothallophyta7 ,,ii4 ,stemmed ,plants 7,cormophyta7 ,,ii4 ,flowering ,plants ,c4 ,flowering ,plants 7,phanerogamia7 7,phanerogamia7 ,the stemmed plants1 or ,cormophytes1 in the organization of which the difference of axial-organs 7stem and root7 and leaf-organs is already developed1 form at present1 and have1 indeed1 for a very long period formed1 the principal portion of the vegetable world4 ,however1 this was not always the case4 ,in fact1 stemmed plants1 not only of the flowering group1 but even of the prothallus group1 did not exist at all during that immeasurably long space of time which forms the beginning of the first great division of the organic history of the earth1 under the name of the archilithic1 or primordial period4 ,the reader will recollect that during this period the ,laurentian1 ,cambrian1 and ,silurian systems of strata were deposited1 the thickness of which1 taken as a whole1 amounts to about #gj1jjj feet4 ,now1 as the thickness of all the more recent super-incumbent strata1 from the ,devonian to the deposits of the present time1 taken together1 amounts to only about #fj1jjj feet1 we were enabled from this fact alone to draw the conclusion--which is probable also for other reasons--that the archilithic1 or primordial1 period was of longer duration than the whole succeeding period down to the present time4 ,during the whole of this immeasurable space of time1 which probably comprises many millions of centuries1 vegetable life on our earth seems to have been represented exclusively by the sub-kingdom of ,thallus plants1 and1 moreover1 only by the class of marine ,thallus plants1 that is to say1 the ,alg4 ,at least all the petrified remains which are positively known to be of the primordial period belong exclusively to this class4 ,as all the animal remains of this immense period also belong exclusively to animals that lived in water1 we come to the conclusion that at that time organisms adapted to a life on land did not exist at all4 ,for these reasons the first and most imperfect of the great provinces or branches of the vegetable kingdom1 the division of the ,alg1 or ,tangles1 must be of special interest to us4 ,but1 in addition1 there is the interest which this group offers when viewed by itself4 ,in spite of the exceedingly simple composition of their constituent cells1 which are but little differentiated1 the ,alg show an extraordinary variety of different forms4 ,to them belong the simplest and most imperfect of all forms1 as well as very highly developed and peculiar forms4 ,the different groups of ,alg are distinguished as much by size of body as by the perfection and variety of their outer form4 ,at the lowest stage we find such species as the minute ,protococcus1 several hundred thousands of which occupy a space no larger than a pin's head4 ,at the highest stage we marvel at the gigantic ,macrocysts1 which attain a length of from #cjj to #djj feet1 the longest of all forms in the vegetable kingdom4 ,it is possible that a large portion of the coal has been formed out of ,alg4 ,if not for these reasons1 yet the ,alg must excite our special attention from the fact that they form the beginning of vegetable life1 and contain the original forms of all other groups of plants1 supposing that our monophyletic hypothesis of a common origin for all groups of plants is correct4 7,compare p4 #hc47 ,,systematic ,,view ,of the ,six ,branches and ,eighteen ,classes of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,primary ,groups or ,sub-,kingdoms ,branches or ,clades ,classes ,systematic ,name of the of the of the of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,classes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- #a4 ,primval alg #a4 ,archephyce 7,protophyta7 ,i4 #b4 ,green alg #b4 ,chlorophyce ,a4 ,tangles 7,chloroalg7 ,thallus ,plants ,alg ,thallophyta #c4 ,brown alg #c4 ,phophyce 7,fucoide7 #d4 ,red alg #d4 ,rhodophyce 7,floride7 ,,ii4 #e4 ,lichens #e4 ,lichenes ,thread-plants ,inophyta #f4 ,fungi #f4 ,fungi #g4 ,tangle-mosses #g4 ,charobrya 7,charace7 ,,iii4 #h4 ,liverworts #h4 ,thallobrya ,mosses 7,hepatic7 ,muscin #i4 ,frondose-mosses #i4 ,phyllobrya ,b4 7,frondos7 ,prothallus ,plants #aj4 ,turf-mosses #aj4 ,sphagnobrya ,prothallophyta 7,sphagnace7 #aa4 ,shaft-ferns #aa4 ,calamari 7,calamophyta7 ,,iv4 ,ferns #ab4 ,frondose-ferns #ab4 ,filices ,felicin 7,pteride7 #ac4 ,aquatic ferns #ac4 ,rhizocarpe 7,hydropterides7 #ad4 ,scale-ferns #ad4 ,selagine 7,lepidophyta7 ,v4 ,plants with #ae4 ,palm-ferns #ae4 ,cycade ,c4 ,naked ,seeds ,flowering ,plants ,gymnosperma #af4 ,pines #af4 ,conifer ,phanerogamia ,,vi4 #ag4 ,plants with #ag4 ,monocotyl ,plants with one seed lobe ,enclosed ,seeds ,angiosperma #ah4 ,plants with #ah4 ,dicotyl two seed lobes ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,gamopetal 7,flowers with corolla7 ,dialypetal 7,star-shaped flowers7 ,monochlamyde ,,monocotyledon 7,flowers with calyx7 7,one seed-lobed plants7 ,,dicotyledon 7,two seed-lobed plants7 --------------------v-------------_/ ,,conifer ,angiosperm ,,cycade 7,pines7 7,plants with enclosed seeds7 7,palm-ferns7 ,,gnetace -----------v-----------------------_/ ,gymnosperm 7,plants with naked seeds7 ,phanerogam 7,flowering plants7 ,pteride ,selagine ,rhizocarpe 7,frondose-ferns7 7,scaled-ferns7 7,water-ferns7 ,calamari 7,shaft-ferns7 -------------------------------v-------- ----------------_/ ,filicin ,frondos ,sphagnace 7,ferns7 7,leaf-mosses7 7,turf-mosses7 ,,charace ----------------v------------_/ 7,tangle-mosses7 ,hepatic 7,liverworts7 ------------------v--------------------_ / ,muscin 7,mosses7 ,fucoide ,floride 7,brown ,alg7 ,lichenes 7,red ,alg7 ,chlorophyce 7,lichens7 7,green ,alg7 ------------------v-----------------_/ ,fungi ,inophyta ,alg 7,tangles7 7,thread-plants7 -------v------------------------------_/ ,protophyta 7,primval ,plants7 ,vegetable ,monera ,most people living inland can form but a very imperfect idea of this exceedingly interesting branch of the vegetable kingdom1 because they know only its proportionately small and simple representatives living in fresh water4 ,the slimy green aquatic filaments and flakes of our pools and ditches and springs1 the light green slimy coverings of all kinds of wood which have for any length of time been in contact with water1 the yellowish green1 frothy1 and oozy growths of our village ponds1 the green filaments resembling tufts of hair which occur everywhere in fresh water1 stagnant and flowing1 are for the most part composed of different species of ,alg4 ,only those who have visited the sea-shore1 and wondered at the immense masses of cast-up seaweed1 and who1 from the rocky coast of the ,mediterranean1 have seen through the clear blue waters the beautifully-formed and highly-coloured vegetation of ,alg at the bottom1 know how to estimate the importance of the class of ,alg4 ,and yet1 even these marine ,alg-forests of ,european shores1 so rich in forms1 give only a faint idea of the colossal forests of ,sargasso in the ,atlantic ocean1 those immense banks of ,alg1 covering a space of about #dj1jjj square miles--the same which made ,columbus1 on his voyage of discovery1 believe that a continent was near4 ,similar but far more extensive forests of ,alg grew in the primval ocean1 probably in dense masses1 and what countless generations of these archilithic ,alg have died out one after another is attested1 among other facts1 by the vast thickness of ,silurian alum schists in ,sweden1 the peculiar composition of which proceeds from those masses of submarine ,alg4 ,according to the recently expressed opinion of ,frederick ,mohr1 a geologist of ,bonn1 even the greater part of our coal seams have arisen out of the accumulated dead bodies of the ,alg forests of the ocean4 ,within the branch of the ,alg we distinguish four different classes1 each of which is again divided into several orders and families4 ,these again contain a large number of different genera and species4 ,we designate these four classes as ,primval ,alg1 or ,archephyce1 ,green ,alg1 or ,chlorophyce1 ,brown ,alg1 or ,phophyce1 and ,red ,alg1 or ,rhodophyce4 ,the first class of ,alg1 the ,primval ,alg 7,archephyce71 might also be called primval plants1 because they contain the simplest and most imperfect of all plants1 and1 among them1 those most ancient of all vegetable organisms out of which all other plants have originated4 ,to them therefore belong those most ancient of all vegetable ,monera which arose by spontaneous generation in the beginning of the ,laurentian period4 ,further1 we have to reckon among them all those vegetable forms of the simplest organization which first developed out of the ,monera in the ,laurentian period1 and which possessed the form of a single plastid4 ,at first the entire body of one of these small primary plants consisted only of a most simple cytod 7a plastid without kernel71 and afterwards attained the higher form of a simple cell1 by the separation of a kernel in the plasma4 7,compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cde47 ,even at the present day there exist various most simple forms of ,alg which have deviated but little from the original primary plants4 ,among them are the ,alg of the families ,codiolace1 ,protococcace1 ,desmidiace1 ,palmellace1 ,hydrodictye1 and several others4 ,the remarkable group of ,phycochromace 7,chroococcace and ,oscillarine7 might also be comprised among them1 unless we prefer to consider them as an independent tribe of the kingdom ,protista4 ,the monoplastic ,protophyta--that is1 those primary ,alg formed by a single plastid--are of the greatest interest1 because the vegetable organism in this case completes its whole course of life as a perfectly simple 8individual of the first order10 either as a cytod without kernel1 or as a cell containing a kernel4 ,among the primary plants consisting of a single cytod are the exceedingly remarkable ,siphone1 which are of considerable size1 and strangely 8mimic0 the forms of higher plants4 ,many of the ,siphone attain a size of several feet1 and resemble an elegant moss 7,bryopsis71 or in some cases a perfect flowering plant with stalks1 roots1 and leaves 7,caulerpa7 7,fig4 #ag74 ,yet the whole of this large body1 externally so variously differentiated1 consists internally of an entirely simple sack1 possessing the negative characters of a simple cytod4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,caulerpa denticulata1 a monoplastic ,siphonean of the natural size4 ,the entire branching primary plant1 which appears to consist of a creeping stalk with fibrous roots and indented leaves1 is in reality only a single plastid1 and moreover a cytod 7without a kernel71 not even attaining the grade of a cell with nucleus4 ,these curious ,siphone1 ,vaucheri1 and ,caulerp show us to how great a degree of elaboration a single cytod1 although a most simple individual of the first order1 can develop by continuous adaptation to the relations of the outer world4 ,even the single-celled primary plants--which are distinguished from the monocytods by possessing a kernel--develop into a great variety of exquisite forms by adaptation2 this is the case especially with the beautiful ,desmidiace1 of which a species of ,euastrum is represented in ,fig4 #ah as a specimen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,euastrum rota1 a single-celled ,desmid1 much enlarged4 ,the whole of the star-shaped body of this primval plant has the formal value of a simple cell4 ,in its centre lies the kernel1 and within this the kernel corpuscle1 or speck4 ,it is very probable that similar primval plants1 the soft body of which1 however1 was not capable of being preserved in a fossil state1 at one time peopled the ,laurentian primval sea in great masses and varieties1 and in a great abundance of forms1 without1 however1 going beyond the stage of individuality of a simple plastid4 ,the group of ,green ,tangles 7,chlorophyce71 or ,green ,alg 7,cloroalg71 are the second class1 and the most closely allied to the primval group4 ,like the majority of the ,archephyce1 all the ,chlorophyce are coloured green1 and by the same colouring matter--the substance called leaf-green1 or chlorophyll--which colours the leaves of all the higher plants4 ,to this class belong1 besides a great number of low marine ,alg1 most of the ,alg of fresh water1 the common water hair-weeds1 or ,conferv1 the green slime-balls1 or ,glosphr1 the bright green water-lettuce1 or ,ulva1 which resembles a very thin and long lettuce leaf1 and also numerous small microscopic alg1 dense masses of which form a light green shiny covering to all sorts of objects lying in water--wood1 stones1 etc4 ,these forms1 however1 rise above the simple primary ,alg in the composition and differentiation of their body4 ,as the green ,alg1 like the primval ,alg1 mostly possess a very soft body1 they are but rarely capable of being petrified4 ,however1 it can scarcely be doubted that this class of ,alg--which was the first to develop out of the preceding one--most extensively and variously peopled the fresh and salt waters of the earth in early times4 ,in the third class1 that of the ,brown ,tangles 7,phophyce71 or ,black ,alg 7,fucoide71 the branch of the ,alg attains its highest stage of development1 at least in regard to size and body4 ,the characteristic colour of the ,fucoid is more or less dark brown1 sometimes tending more to an olive green or yellowish green1 sometimes more to a brownish red or black colour4 ,among these are the largest of all ,alg1 which are at the same time the longest of all plants1 namely1 the colossal giant ,alg1 amongst which the ,macrocystis pyrifera1 on the coast of ,california1 attains a length of #djj feet4 ,also1 among our indigenous ,alg1 the largest forms belong to this group4 ,especially ,i may mention here the stately sugar-tangle 7,laminaria71 whose slimy1 olive green thallus-body1 resembling gigantic leaves of from #aj to #ae feet in length1 and from a half to one foot in breadth1 are thrown up in great masses on the coasts of the ,north and ,baltic seas4 ,to this class belongs also the bladder-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus7 common in our seas1 whose fork-shaped1 deeply-cut leaves are kept floating on the water by numerous air bladders 7as is the case1 too1 with many other brown ,alg74 ,the freely floating ,sargasso ,alga 7,sargasso bacciferum71 which forms the meadows or forests of the ,sargasso ,sea1 also belongs to this class4 ,although each individual of these large alga-trees is composed of many millions of cells1 yet at the beginning of its existence it consists1 like all higher plants1 of a single cell--a simple egg4 ,this egg--for example1 in the case of our common bladder-wrack--is a naked1 uncovered cell1 and as such is so like the naked egg-cells of lower marine animals--for example1 those of the ,medus--that they might easily be mistaken one for another 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,the egg of the common bladder-wrack 7,fucus vesiculosus71 a simple naked cell1 much enlarged4 ,in the centre of the naked globule of protoplasm the bright kernel is visible4 ,it was probably the ,fucoide1 or ,brown ,alg1 which during the primordial period1 to a great extent constituted the characteristic alga-forests of that immense space of time4 ,their petrified remains1 especially those of the ,silurian period1 which have been preserved1 can1 it is true1 give us but a faint idea of them1 because the material of these ,alg1 like that of most others1 is ill-suited for preservation in a fossil state4 ,as has already been remarked1 a large portion of coal is perhaps composed of them4 ,less important is the fourth class of ,alg1 that of the ,rose-coloured ,alg 7,rhodophyce71 or ,red ,sea-weeds 7,floride74 ,this class1 it is true1 presents a great number of different forms2 but most of them are of much smaller size than the ,brown ,alg4 ,although they are inferior to the latter in perfection and differentiation1 they far surpass them in some other respects4 ,to them belong the most beautiful and elegant of all ,alg1 which on account of the fine plumose division of their leaf-like bodies1 and also on account of their pure and delicate red colour1 are among the most charming of plants4 ,the characteristic red colour sometimes appears as a deep purple1 sometimes as a glowing scarlet1 sometimes as a delicate rose tint1 and may verge into violet and bluish purple1 or on the other hand into brown and green tints of marvellous splendour4 ,whoever has visited one of our sea-coast watering places1 must have admired the lovely forms of the ,floride1 which are frequently dried on white paper and offered for sale4 ,most of the ,red ,alg are so delicate1 that they are quite incapable of being petrified2 this is the case with the splendid ,ptilotes1 ,plocamia1 ,delesseria1 etc4 ,however1 there are individual forms1 like the ,chondria and ,sphrococca1 which possess a harder thallus1 often almost as hard as cartilage1 and of these fossil remains have been preserved--principally in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous strata1 and later in the oolites4 ,it is probable that this class also had an important share in the composition of the archilithic ,alg flora4 ,if we now again take into consideration the flora of the primordial period1 which was exclusively formed by the group of ,alg1 we can see that it is not improbable that its four subordinate classes had a share in the composition of those submarine forests of the primval oceans1 similar to that which the four types of vegetation--trees with trunks1 flowering shrubs1 grass1 and tender leaf-ferns and mosses--at present take in the composition of our recent land forests4 ,we may suppose that the submarine tree forests of the primordial period were formed by the huge ,brown ,alg1 or ,fucoide4 ,the many-coloured flowers at the foot of these gigantic trees were represented by the gay ,red ,alg1 or ,floride4 ,the green grass between was formed by the hair-like bunches of ,green ,alg1 or ,chloroalg4 ,finally1 the tender foliage of ferns and mosses1 which at present cover the ground of our forests1 fill the crevices left by other plants1 and even settle on the trunks of the trees1 at that time probably had representatives in the moss and fern-like ,siphone1 in the ,caulerpa and ,bryopsis1 from among the class of the primary ,alg1 ,protophyta1 or ,archephyce4 ,with regard to the relationships of the different classes of ,alg to one another and to other plants1 it is exceedingly probable that the ,primary ,alg1 or ,archephyce1 as already remarked1 form the common root of the pedigree1 not merely for the different classes of ,alg1 but for the whole vegetable kingdom4 ,on this account they may with justice be designated as primval plants1 or ,protophyta4 ,out of the naked vegetable ,monera1 in the beginning of the ,laurentian period1 enclosed cytods were probably the first to arise 7vol4 i4 p4 #cde71 by the naked1 structureless1 albuminous substance of the ,monera becoming condensed in the form of a pellicle on the surface1 or by secreting a membrane4 ,at a later period1 out of these enclosed cytods genuine vegetable cells probably arose1 as a kernel or nucleus separated itself in the interior from the surrounding cell-substance or plasma4 ,the three classes of ,green ,alg1 ,brown ,alg1 and ,red ,alg1 are perhaps three distinct classes1 which have arisen independently of one another out of the common radical group of ,primval ,alg1 and then developed themselves further 7each according to its kind71 and have variously branched off into orders and families4 ,the ,brown and ,red ,alg possess no close blood relationship to the other classes of the vegetable kingdom4 ,these latter have most probably arisen out of the ,primval ,alg1 either directly or by the intermediate step of the ,green ,alg4 ,it is probable that ,mosses 7out of which1 at a later time1 ,ferns developed7 proceeded from a group of ,green ,alg1 and that ,fungi and ,lichens proceeded from a group of ,primval ,alg4 ,the ,phanerogamia developed at a much later period out of ,ferns4 ,as a second class of the ,vegetable ,kingdom we have above mentioned the ,thread-plants 7,inophyta74 ,we understood by this term the two closely related classes of ,lichens and ,fungi4 ,it is possible that these ,thallus plants have not arisen out of the ,primval ,alg1 but out of one or more ,monera1 which1 independently of the latter1 arose by spontaneous generation4 ,it appears conceivable that many of the lowest ,fungi1 as for example1 many ferment-causing fungi 7forms of ,micrococcus1 etc471 owe their origin to a number of different archigonic ,monera 7that is1 ,monera originating by spontaneous generation74 ,in any case the ,thread-plants cannot be considered as the progenitors of any of the higher vegetable classes4 ,lichens1 as well as fungi1 are distinct from the higher plants in the composition of their soft bodies1 consisting as it does of a dense felt-work of very long1 variously interwoven1 and peculiar threads or chains of cells--the so-called hyph1 on which account we distinguish them as a province under the name ,thread-plants4 ,from their peculiar nature they could not leave any important fossil remains1 and consequently we can form only a very vague guess at their palontological development4 ,the first class of ,thread-plants1 the ,fungi1 exhibit a very close relationship to the lowest ,alg2 the ,algo-fungi1 or ,phycomycetes 7the ,saprolegni and ,peronospor7 in reality only differ from the bladder-wracks and ,siphone 7the ,vaucheria and ,caulerpa7 mentioned previously by the want of leaf-green1 or chlorophyll4 ,but1 on the other hand1 all genuine ,fungi have so many peculiarities1 and deviate so much from other plants1 especially in their mode of taking food1 that they might be considered as an entirely distinct province of the vegetable kingdom4 ,other plants live mostly upon inorganic food1 upon simple combinations which they render more complicated4 ,they produce protoplasm by the combination of water1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia4 ,they take in carbonic acid and give out oxygen4 ,but the ,fungi1 like animals1 live upon organic food1 consisting of complicated combinations of carbon1 which they receive from other organisms and assimilate4 ,they inhale oxygen and give out carbonic acid like animals4 ,they also never form leaf-green1 or chlorophyll1 which is so characteristic of most other plants4 ,in like manner they never produce starch4 ,hence many eminent botanists have repeatedly proposed to remove the ,fungi completely out of the vegetable kingdom1 and to regard them as a special and third kingdom1 between that of animals and plants4 ,by this means our kingdom of ,protista would be considerably increased4 ,the ,fungi in this case would1 in the first place1 be allied to the so-called 8slime moulds10 or ,myxomycetes 7which1 however1 never form any hyph74 ,but as many ,fungi propagate in a sexual manner1 and as most botanists1 according to the prevalent opinion1 look upon ,fungi as genuine plants1 we shall here leave them in the vegetable kingdom1 and connect them with lichens1 to which they are at all events most nearly related4 ,the phyletic origin of ,fungi will probably long remain obscure4 ,the close relationship already hinted at between the ,phycomycetes and ,siphone 7especially between the ,saprolegni and ,vaucheri7 suggests to us that they are derived from the latter4 ,fungi would then have to be considered as ,alg1 which by adaptation to a parasitical life have become very peculiarly transformed4 ,many facts1 however1 support the supposition that the lowest fungi have originated independently from archigonic ,monera4 ,the second class of ,inophyta1 the ,lichens 7,lichenes71 are very remarkable in relation to phylogeny2 for the surprising discoveries of late years have taught us that every ,lichen is really composed of two distinct plants--of a low form of ,alga 7,nostochace1 ,chroococcace71 and of a parasitic form of ,fungus 7,ascomycetes71 which lives as a parasite upon the former1 and upon the nutritive substances prepared by it4 ,the green cells1 containing chlorophyll 7gonidia71 which are found in every lichen1 belong to the ,alga4 ,but the colourless threads 7hyph7 which1 densely interwoven1 form the principal mass of the body of ,lichens1 belong to the parasitic ,fungus4 ,but in all cases the two forms of plants--,fungus and ,alga--which are always considered as members of two quite distinct provinces of the vegetable kingdom1 are so firmly united1 and so thoroughly interwoven1 that nearly every one looks upon a ,lichen as a single organism4 ,most ,lichens form small1 more or less formless or irregularly indented1 crust-like coverings to stones1 bark of trees1 etc4 ,their colour varies through all possible tints1 from the purest white to yellow1 red1 green1 brown1 and the deepest black4 ,many lichens are important in the economy of nature from the fact that they can settle in the driest and most barren localities1 especially on naked rocks upon which no other plant can live4 ,the hard black lava1 which covers many square miles of ground in volcanic regions1 and which for centuries frequently presents the most determined opposition to the life of every kind of vegetation1 is always first occupied by ,lichens4 ,it is the white or grey ,lichens 7,stereocaulon7 which1 in the most desolate and barren fields of lava1 always begin to prepare the naked rocky ground for cultivation1 and conquer it for subsequent higher vegetation4 ,their decaying bodies form the first mould in which mosses1 ferns1 and flowering plants can afterwards take firm root4 ,hardy ,lichens are also less affected by the severity of climate than any other plants4 ,hence the naked rocks1 even in the highest mountains--for the most part covered by eternal snow1 on which no plant could thrive--are encrusted by the dry bodies of ,lichens4 ,leaving now the ,fungi1 ,lichens1 and ,alg1 which are comprised under the name of ,thallus plants1 we enter upon the second sub-kingdom of the vegetable kingdom1 that of the ,prothallus plants 7,prothallophyta71 which by some botanists are called phyllogonic ,cryptogamia 7in contradistinction to the ,thallus plants1 or thallogonic ,cryptogamia74 ,this sub-kingdom comprises the two provinces of ,mosses and ,ferns4 ,here we meet with 7except in a few of the lowest forms7 the separation of the vegetable body into two different fundamental organs1 axial-organs 7stem and root7 and leaves 7or lateral organs74 ,in this the ,prothallus plants resemble the ,flowering plants1 and hence the two groups have recently often been classed together as stemmed plants1 or ,cormophytes4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,mosses and ,ferns resemble the ,thallus plants1 in the absence of the development of flowers and seeds1 and even ,linnus classed them with these1 as ,cryptogamia1 in contradistinction to the plants forming seeds2 that is1 flowering plants 7,anthophyta or ,phanerogamia74 ,under the name of 8,prothallus plants0 we combine the closely-related ,mosses and ,ferns1 because both exhibit a peculiar and characteristic 8alternation of generation0 in the course of their individual development4 ,for every species exhibits two different generations1 of which the one is usually called the ,prothallium1 or ,fore-growth1 the other is spoken of as the ,cormus1 or actual ,stem of the moss or fern4 ,the first and original generation1 the ,fore-growth1 or ,prothallus1 also called ,protonema1 still remains in that lower stage of elaboration manifested throughout life by all ,thallus plants2 that is to say1 stem and leaf-organs have as yet not differentiated1 and the entire cell-mass of the ,fore-growth corresponds to a simple thallus4 ,the second and more perfect generation of mosses and ferns--the ,stem1 or ,cormus--develops a much more highly elaborate body1 which has differentiated into stalk and leaf 7as in the case of flowering plants71 except in the lowest mosses1 where this generation also remains in the lower stage of the thallus4 ,with the exception of these latter forms the first generation of ,mosses and ,ferns 7the thallus-shaped ,fore-growth7 always produces a second generation with stem and leaves2 the latter in its turn produces the thallus of the first generation1 and so on4 ,thus1 in this case1 as in the ordinary cases of alternation of generation in animals1 the first generation is like the third1 fifth1 etc41 the second like the fourth1 sixth1 etc4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #bjf47 ,of the two main classes of ,prothallus plants1 the ,mosses in general are at a much lower stage of development than the ,ferns1 and their lowest forms 7especially in an anatomical respect7 form the transition from the ,thallus plants through the ,alg to ,ferns4 ,the genealogical connection of ,mosses and ,ferns which is indicated by this fact can1 however1 be inferred only from the case of the most imperfect forms of the two classes2 for the more perfect and higher groups of mosses and ferns do not stand in any close relation to one another1 and develop in completely opposite directions4 ,in any case ,mosses have arisen directly out of ,thallus plants1 and probably out of ,green ,alg4 ,ferns1 on the other hand1 are probably derived from extinct unknown ,mosses1 which were very nearly related to the lowest liverworts of the present day4 ,in the history of creation1 ,ferns are of greater importance than ,mosses4 ,the branch of ,mosses 7,muscin1 also called ,musci1 or ,bryophyta7 contains the lower and more imperfect plants of the group of ,prothallophytes1 which as yet do not possess vessels4 ,their bodies are mostly so tender and perishable that they are very ill-suited for being preserved in a recognizable state as fossils4 ,hence the fossil remains of all classes of ,mosses are rare and insignificant4 ,it is probable that ,mosses developed in very early times out of the ,thallus plants1 or1 to be more precise1 out of the ,green ,alg4 ,it is probable that in the primordial period there existed aquatic forms of transition from the latter to ,mosses1 and in the primary period to those living on land4 ,the ,mosses of the present day--out of the gradually differentiating development of which comparative anatomy may draw some inferences as to their genealogy--are divided into two different classes1 namely3 7#a7 ,liverworts2 7#b7 ,leafy ,mosses4 ,the first and oldest class of ,mosses1 which is directly allied to the ,green ,alg1 or ,conferv1 is formed by the ,liverworts 7,hepatic1 or ,thallobrya74 ,the mosses belonging to them are1 for the most part1 small and insignificant in form1 and are little known4 ,their lowest forms still possess1 in both generations1 a simple thallus like the ,thallus plants2 as for example1 the ,ricci and ,marchantiace4 ,but the more highly developed liverworts1 the ,jungermanniace and those akin to them1 gradually commence to differentiate stem and leaf1 and their most highly-developed forms are closely allied to leaf-mosses4 ,by this transitional series the liverworts show their direct derivation from the ,thallophytes1 and more especially from the ,green ,alg4 ,the ,mosses1 which are generally the only ones known to the uninitiated--and which1 in fact1 form the principal portion of the whole branch--belong to the second class1 or ,leafy ,mosses 7,musci frondosi1 called ,musci in a narrow sense1 also ,phyllobrya74 ,among them are most of those pretty little plants which1 united in dense groups1 form the bright glossy carpet of moss in our woods1 or which1 in company with liverworts and lichens1 cover the bark of trees4 ,as reservoirs1 carefully storing up moisture1 they are of the greatest importance in the economy of nature4 ,wherever man mercilessly cuts down and destroys forests1 there1 as a consequence1 disappear the leafy mosses which covered the bark of the trees1 or1 protected by their shade1 clothed the ground1 and filled the spaces between the larger plants4 ,together with the leafy mosses disappear the useful reservoirs which stored up rain and dew for times of drought4 ,thus arises a disastrous dryness of the ground1 which prevents the growth of any rich vegetation4 ,in the greater part of ,southern ,europe--in ,greece1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 and ,spain--mosses have been destroyed by the inconsiderate extirpation of forests1 and the ground has thereby been robbed of its most useful stores of moisture2 once flourishing and rich tracts of land have been changed into dry and barren wastes4 ,unfortunately in ,germany1 also1 this rude barbarism is beginning to prevail more and more4 ,it is probable that the small frondose mosses have played this exceedingly important part in nature for a very long time1 possibly from the beginning of the primary period4 ,but as their tender bodies are as little suited as those of all other mosses for being preserved in a fossil state1 palontology can give us no information about this4 ,we learn from the science of petrifactions much more than we do in the case of ,mosses of the importance which the second branch of ,prothallus plants--that is1 ,ferns--have had in the history of the vegetable world4 ,ferns1 or more strictly speaking1 the 8plants of the fern tribe0 7,filicine1 or ,pteride1 also called ,pteridophyta1 or ,vascular ,cryptogams71 formed during an extremely long period1 namely1 during the whole primary or palolithic period1 the principal portion of the vegetable world1 so that we may without hesitation call it the era of ,fern ,forests4 ,from the beginning of the ,devonian period1 in which organisms living on land appeared for the first time1 namely1 during the deposits of the ,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,permian strata1 plants like ,ferns predominated so much over all others1 that we are justified in giving this name to that period4 ,in the stratifications just mentioned1 but above all1 in the immense layers of coal of the ,carboniferous or coal period1 we find such numerous and occasionally well preserved remains of ,ferns1 that we can form a tolerable vivid picture of the very peculiar land flora of the palolithic period4 ,in the year #ahee the total number of the then known palolithic species of plants amounted to about a thousand1 and among these there were no less than #hgb ,ferns4 ,among the remaining #abh species were #gg ,gymnosperms 7pines and palm-ferns71 #dj ,thallus plants 7mostly ,alg71 and about #bj not accurately definable ,cormophyta 7stem-plants74 ,as already remarked1 ,ferns probably developed out of the lower liverworts in the beginning of the primary period4 ,in their organization ,ferns rise considerably above ,mosses1 and in their more highly developed forms even approach the flowering plants4 ,in ,mosses1 as in ,thallus plants1 the entire body is composed of almost equi-formal cells1 little if at all differentiated2 but in the tissues of ,ferns we find those peculiarly differentiated strings of cells which are called the vessels of plants1 and which are universally met with in flowering plants4 ,hence ,ferns are sometimes united as 8vascular ,cryptogams0 with ,phanerogams1 and the group so formed is contrasted as that of the 8vascular plants0 with 8cellular plants10--that is1 with 8cellular cryptogams0 7,mosses and ,thallus plants74 ,this very important process in the organization of plants--the formation of vessels--first occurred1 therefore1 in the ,devonian period1 consequently in the beginning of the second and smaller half of the organic history of the earth4 ,the branch of ,ferns1 or ,filicin1 is divided into five distinct classes3 7#a7 ,frondose ,ferns1 or ,pterid2 7#b7 ,reed ,ferns1 or ,calamari2 7#c7 ,aquatic ,ferns1 or ,rhizocarpe2 7#d7 ,snakes ,tongues1 or ,ophiogloss2 and 7#e7 ,scale ,ferns1 or ,lepidophyta4 ,by far the most important of these five classes1 and also the richest in forms1 were first the ,frondose ,ferns1 and then the ,scale-ferns1 which formed the principal portion of the palolithic forests4 ,the ,reed ,ferns1 on the other hand1 had at that time already somewhat diminished in number2 and of the ,aquatic ,ferns1 we do not even know with certainty whether they then existed4 ,it is difficult for us to form any idea of the very peculiar character of those gloomy palolithic fern forests1 in which the whole of the gay abundance of flowers of our present flora was entirely wanting1 and which were not enlivened by any birds4 ,of the flowering plants there then existed only the two lowest classes1 the pines and palm ferns1 with naked seeds1 whose simple and insignificant blossoms scarcely deserve the name of flowers4 ,the phylogeny of ,ferns1 and of the ,gymnosperms which have developed out of them1 has been made especially clear by the excellent investigations which ,edward ,strasburger published in #ahgb1 on 8,the ,conifer and ,gnetace10 as also 8,on ,azolla40 ,this thoughtful naturalist and ,charles ,martins1 of ,montpellier1 are among the few botanists who have thoroughly understood the fundamental value of the ,theory of ,descent1 and the mechanical-causal connection between ontogeny and phylogeny4 ,the majority of botanists do not even yet know the important difference between homology and analogy1 between the morphological and physiological comparison of parts--which has long since been recognized in zoology--but ,strasburger has employed this distinction and the principle of evolution in his 8,comparative ,anatomy of the ,gymnosperms10 in order to sketch the outlines of the blood relationship of this important group of plants4 ,the class among ,ferns which has developed most directly out of the ,liverworts is the class of real ,ferns1 in the narrow sense of the word1 the ,frondose ,ferns 7,filices1 or ,phyllopterides1 also called ,pterid74 ,in the present flora of the temperate zones this class forms only a subordinate part1 for it is in most cases represented only by low forms without trunks4 ,but in the torrid zones1 especially in the moist1 steaming forests of tropical regions1 this class presents us with the lofty palm-like fern trees4 ,these beautiful tree-ferns of the present day1 which form the chief ornament of our hot-houses1 can however give us but a faint idea of the stately and splendid frondose ferns of the primary period1 whose mighty trunks1 densely crowded together1 then formed entire forests4 ,these trunks1 accumulated in super-incumbent masses1 are found in the coal seams of the ,carboniferous period1 and between them1 in an excellent state of preservation1 are found the impressions of the elegant fan-shaped leaves1 crowning the top of the trunk in an umbrella-like bush4 ,the varied outlines and the feather-like forms of these fronds1 the elegant shape of the branching veins or bunches of vessels in their tender foliage1 can still be as distinctly recognized in the impressions of the palolithic fronds as in the fronds of ferns of the present day4 ,in many cases even the clusters of fruit1 which are distributed on the lower surface of the fronds1 are distinctly preserved4 ,after the ,carboniferous period1 the predominance of frondose ferns diminished1 and towards the end of the secondary period they played almost as subordinate a part as they do at the present time4 ,the ,calamari1 ,ophiogloss1 and ,rhizocarpe seem to have developed as three diverging branches out of the ,frondose ,ferns1 or ,pterid4 ,the ,calamari1 or ,calamophyta1 have remained at the lowest level among these three classes4 ,the ,calamari comprise three different orders1 of which only one now exists1 namely1 the ,horse-tails 7,equisetace74 ,the two other orders1 the ,giant ,reeds 7,calamite71 and the ,star-leaf ,reeds 7,asterophyllite71 are long since extinct4 ,all ,calamari are characterized by a hollow and jointed stalk1 stem1 or trunk1 upon which the branches and leaves 7in cases where they exist7 are set so as to encircle the jointed stem in whorls4 ,the hollow joints of the stalk are separated from one another by partition walls4 ,in ,horse-tails and ,calamite the surface is traversed by longitudinal ribs running parallel1 as in the case of a fluted column1 and the outer skin contains so much silicious earth in the living forms1 that it is used for cleansing and polishing4 ,in the ,asterophyllite1 the star-shaped whorls of leaves were more strongly developed than in the two other orders4 ,there exist1 at present1 of the ,calamari only the insignificant ,horse-tails 7,equisetum71 which grow in marshes and on moors2 but during the whole of the primary and secondary periods they were represented by great trees of the genus ,equisetites4 ,there existed1 at the same time1 the closely related order of the ,giant ,reeds 7,calamites71 whose strong trunks grew to a height of about fifty feet4 ,the order of the ,asterophyllites1 on the other hand1 contained smaller and prettier plants1 of a very peculiar form1 and belongs exclusively to the primary period4 ,among all ,ferns1 the history of the third class1 that of the ,root1 or ,aquatic ,ferns 7,rhizocarpe1 or ,hydropterid71 is least known to us4 ,in their structure these ferns1 which live in fresh water1 are on the one hand allied to the frond ferns1 and on the other to the scaly ferns1 but they are more closely related to the latter4 ,among them are the but little known moss ferns 7,salvinia71 clover ferns 7,marsilea71 and pill ferns 7,pilularia7 of our fresh waters2 further1 the large ,azolla which floats in tropical ponds4 ,most of the aquatic ferns are of a delicate nature1 and hence ill-suited for being petrified4 ,this is probably the reason of their fossil remains being so scarce1 and of the oldest of those known to us having been found in the ,jura system4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the class is much older1 and that it was already developed during the palolithic period out of other ferns by adaptation to an aquatic life4 ,the fourth class of ferns is formed by the ,tongue ,ferns 7,ophiogloss1 or ,glossopterides74 ,these ferns1 to which belongs the ,botrychium1 as well as the ,ophioglossum 7adder's-tongue7 of our native genera1 were formerly considered as forming but a small sub-division of the frondose ferns4 ,but they deserve to form a special class1 because they represent important transitional forms from the ,pteride and ,lepidophytes towards higher plants1 and must be regarded as among the direct progenitors of the flowering plants4 ,the fifth and last class is formed by the ,scale ,ferns 7,lepidophytes1 or ,selagines74 ,in the same way as the ,ophiogloss arose out of the frondose forms1 the scale ferns arose out of the ,ophiogloss4 ,they were more highly developed than all other ferns1 and form the transition to flowering plants1 which must have developed out of them4 ,next to the frondose ferns they took the largest part in the composition of the palolithic fern forests4 ,this class also contains1 as does the class of reed ferns1 three nearly related but still very different orders1 of which only one now exists1 the two others having become extinct towards the end of the ,carboniferous period4 ,the scaled ferns still existing belong to the order of the club-mosses 7,lycopodiace74 ,they are mostly small1 pretty moss-like plants1 whose tender1 many-branched stalk creeps in curves on the ground like a snake1 and is densely encompassed and covered by small scaly leaves4 ,the pretty creeping ,lycopodium of our woods1 which mountain tourists twine round their hats1 is known to all1 as also the still more delicate ,selaginella1 which under the name of creeping moss is used to adorn the soil of our hot-houses in the form of a thick carpet4 ,the largest club-mosses of the present day are found in the ,sunda ,islands1 where their stalks rise to the height of twenty-five feet1 and attain half a foot in thickness4 ,but in the primary and secondary periods even larger trees of this kind were widely distributed1 the most ancient of which probably were the progenitors of the pines 7,lycopodites74 ,the most important dimensions were1 however1 attained by the class of scale trees 7,lepidodendre71 and by the seal trees 7,sigillarie74 ,these two orders1 with a few species1 appear in the ,devonian period1 but do not attain their immense and astonishing development until the ,carboniferous period1 and become extinct towards the end of it1 or in the ,permian period directly following upon it4 ,the scale trees1 or ,lepidodendre1 were probably more closely related to club-mosses than to ,sigillarie4 ,they grew into splendid1 straight1 unbranching trunks which divided at the top into numerous forked branches4 ,they bore a large crown of scaly leaves1 and like the trunk were marked in elegant spiral lines by the scars left at the base of the leaf stalks which had fallen off4 ,we know of scale-marked trees from forty to sixty feet in length1 and from twelve to fifteen feet in diameter at the root4 ,some trunks are said to be even more than a hundred feet in length4 ,in the coal are found still larger accumulations of the no less highly developed but more slender trunks of the remarkable seal trees1 ,sigillarie1 which in many places form the principal part of coal seams4 ,their roots were formerly described as quite a distinct vegetable form 7under the name of ,stigmaria74 ,the ,sigillarie are in many respects very like the scale-trees1 but differ from them and from ferns in general in many ways4 ,they were possibly closely related to the extinct ,devonian ,lycopteride1 combining characteristic peculiarities of the club-mosses and the frondose ferns1 which ,strasburger considers as the hypothetical primary form of flowering plants4 ,in leaving the dense forests of the primary period1 which were principally composed of frond ferns 7,lepidodendre and ,sigillarie71 we pass onwards to the no less characteristic pine forests of the secondary period4 ,thus we leave the domain of the ,cryptogamia1 the plants forming neither flowers nor seeds1 and enter the second main division of the vegetable kingdom1 namely1 the sub-kingdom of the ,phanerogamia1 flowering plants forming seeds4 ,this division1 so rich in forms1 containing the principal portion of the present vegetable world1 and especially the majority of plants living on land1 is certainly of a much more recent date than the division of ,cryptogamia4 ,for it can have developed out of the latter only in the course of the palolithic period4 ,we can with full assurance maintain that1 during the whole archilithic period1 hence during the first and longer half of the organic history of the earth1 no flowering plants as yet existed1 and that they first developed during the primary period out of ,cryptogamia of the fern kind4 ,the anatomical and embryological relation of ,phanerogamia to the latter is so close1 that from it we can with certainty infer their genealogical connection1 that is1 their true blood relationship4 ,flowering plants cannot have directly arisen out of thallus plants1 nor out of mosses2 but only out of ferns1 or ,filicines4 ,most probably the scaled ferns1 or ,lepidophyta1 and more especially amongst these the ,lycopodiace1 forms closely related to the ,selaginella of the present day1 have been the direct progenitors of the ,phanerogamia4 ,on account of its anatomical structure and its embryological development1 the sub-kingdom of the ,phanerogamia has for a long time been divided into two large branches1 into the ,gymnosperms1 or plants with naked seeds1 and the ,angiosperms1 or plants with enclosed seeds4 ,the latter are in every respect more perfect and more highly organized than the former1 and developed out of them only at a late date during the secondary period4 ,the ,gymnosperms1 both anatomically and embryologically1 form the transition group from ,ferns to ,angiosperms4 ,the lower1 more imperfect1 and the older of the two main classes of flowering plants1 that of the ,archisperme1 or ,gymnosperms 7with naked seeds71 attained its most varied development and widest distribution during the mesolithic or secondary epoch4 ,it was no less characteristic of this period1 than was the fern group of the preceding primary1 and the ,angiosperms of the succeeding tertiary1 epoch4 ,hence we might call the secondary epoch that of ,gymnosperms1 or after its most important representatives1 the era of ,pine ,forests4 ,the ,gymnosperms are divided into three classes3 the ,conifer1 ,cycade1 and ,gnetace4 ,we find fossil remains of the pines1 or ,conifers1 and of the ,cycads1 even in coal1 and must infer from this that the transition from scaled ferns to ,gymnosperms took place during the ,coal1 or possibly even in the ,devonian period4 ,however1 the ,gymnosperms play but a very subordinate part during the whole of the primary epoch1 and do not predominate over ,ferns until the beginning of the secondary epoch4 ,of the two classes of ,gymnosperms just mentioned1 that of the ,palm ,ferns 7,zami1 or ,cycade7 stands at the lowest stage1 and is directly allied to ferns1 as the name implies1 so that some botanists have actually included them in the fern group4 ,in their external form they resemble palms1 as well as tree ferns 7or tree-like frond ferns71 and are adorned by a crown of feathery leaves1 which is placed either on a thick1 short trunk1 or on a slender1 simple trunk like a pillar4 ,at the present day this class1 once so rich in forms1 is but scantily represented by a few forms living in the torrid zones1 namely1 by the coniferous ferns 7,zamia71 the thick-trunked bread-tree 7,encephalartos71 and the slender-trunked ,caffir bread-tree 7,cycas74 ,they may frequently be seen in hot-houses1 and are generally mistaken for palms4 ,a much greater variety of forms than occurs among the still existing palm ferns 7,cycade7 is presented by the extinct and fossil ,cycads1 which occurred in great numbers more towards the middle of the secondary period1 during the ,jura1 and which at that time principally determined the character of the forests4 ,the class of ,pines1 or coniferous trees 7,conifer71 has preserved down to our day a greater variety of forms than have the palm ferns4 ,even at the present time the trees belonging to it--cypresses1 juniper trees1 and trees of life 7,thuja71 the box and ginko trees 7,salisburya71 the araucaria and cedars1 but above all the genus ,pinus1 which is so rich in forms1 with its numerous and important species1 spruces1 pines1 firs1 larches1 etc4--still play a very important part in the most different parts of the earth1 and almost of themselves constitute extensive forests4 ,yet this development of pines seems but weak in comparison with the predominance which the class had attained over other plants during the early secondary period1 that of the ,trias4 ,at that time mighty coniferous trees--with but proportionately few genera and species1 but standing together in immense masses of individuals--formed the principal part of the mesolithic forests4 ,this fact justifies us in calling the secondary period the 8era of the pine forests10 although the remains of ,cycade predominate over those of coniferous trees in the ,jura period4#b ,from the pine forests of the mesolithic1 or secondary period1 we pass on into the leafy forests of the cnolithic1 or tertiary period1 and we arrive thus at the consideration of the sixth and last class of the vegetable kingdom1 that of the ,metasperm1 ,angiosperm1 or plants with enclosed seeds4 ,the first certain and undoubted fossils of plants with enclosed seeds are found in the strata of the chalk system1 and indeed we here find1 side by side1 remains of the two classes into which the main class of ,angiosperms is generally divided1 namely1 the one seed-lobed plants1 or monocotyl1 and the two seed-lobed plants1 or dicotyl4 ,however1 the whole group probably originated at an earlier period during the ,trias4 ,for we know of a number of doubtful and not accurately definable fossil remains of plants from the ,oolitic and ,trias 7sic7 periods1 which some botanists consider to be ,monocotyl1 whilst others consider them as ,gymnosperms4 ,in regard to the two classes of plants with enclosed seeds1 the ,monocotyl and ,dicotyl1 it is exceedingly probable that the ,dicotyledons developed out of the ,gnetace1 but that the ,monocotyledons developed later out of a branch of the dicotyledons4 ,the class of one seed-lobed plants 7,monocotyl1 or ,monocotyledons1 also called ,endogen7 comprises those flowering plants whose seeds possess but one germ leaf or seed lobe 7cotyledon74 ,each whorl of its flower contains in most cases three leaves1 and it is very probable that the mother plants of all ,monocotyledons possessed a regular triple blossom4 ,the leaves are mostly simple1 and traversed by simple1 straight bunches of vessels or 8nerves40 ,to this class belong the extensive families of the rushes1 grasses1 lilies1 irids1 and orchids1 further a number of indigenous aquatic plants1 the water-onions1 sea grasses1 etc41 and finally the splendid and highly developed families of the ,aroide and ,pandane1 the bananas and palms4 ,on the whole1 the class of ,monocotyledons--in spite of the great variety of forms which it developed1 both in the tertiary and the present period--is much more simply organized than the class of the ,dicotyledons1 and its history of development also offers much less of interest4 ,as their fossil remains are for the most part difficult to recognize1 it still remains at present an open question in which of the three great secondary periods--the ,trias1 ,jura1 or chalk period--the ,monocotyledons originated4 ,at all events they existed in the chalk period as surely as did the ,dicotyledons4 ,illustration3 ,haeckel ,history of ,creation4 ,,pl4 ,v4 ,relative lengths of the #e ,epochs in percentages4 ,quarternary ,epoch #j4e ,tertiary ,epoch #b4c ,secondary ,epoch #aa4e ,primary ,epoch #cb4a ,primordial ,epoch #ec4f ----- ,total #ajj4j ,single-stemmed or ,,monophyletic ,,pedigree of the ,,vegetable ,,kingdom based on ,palontology4 ,the second class of plants with enclosed seeds1 the two seed-lobed 7,dicotyl1 or ,dicotyledons1 also called ,exogen7 presents much greater historical and anatomical interest in the development of its subordinate groups4 ,the flowering plants of this class generally possess1 as their name indicates1 two seed lobes or germ leaves 7cotyledons74 ,the number of leaves composing its blossom is generally not three1 as in most ,monocotyledons1 but four1 five1 or a multiple of those numbers4 ,their leaves1 moreover1 are generally more highly differentiated and more composite than those of the ,monocotyledons2 they are traversed by crooked1 branching bunches of vessels or 8veins40 ,to this class belong most of the leafed trees1 and as they predominate in the tertiary period as well as1 at present1 over the ,gymnosperms and ,ferns1 we may call the cnolithic period that of leafed forests4 ,although the majority of ,dicotyledons belong to the most highly developed and most perfect plants1 still the lowest division of them is directly allied to the ,gymnosperms1 and particularly to the ,gnetace4 ,in the lower ,dicotyledons1 as in the case of the ,monocotyledons1 calyx and corolla are as yet not differentiated4 ,hence they are called ,apetalous 7,monochlamyde1 or ,apetal74 ,this sub-class must therefore doubtless be looked upon as the original group of the ,angiosperms1 and existed probably even during the ,trias and ,jura periods4 ,among them are most of the leafed trees bearing catkins--birches and alders1 willows and poplars1 beeches and oaks2 further1 the plants of the nettle kind--nettles1 hemp1 and hops1 figs1 mulberries1 and elms2 finally1 plants like the spurges1 laurels1 and amaranth4 ,it was not until the chalk period that the second and more perfect class of the ,dicotyledons appeared1 namely1 the group with corollas 7,dichlamyde1 or ,corolliflor74 ,these arose out of the ,apetal from the simple cover of the blossoms of the latter becoming differentiated into calyx and corolla4 ,the sub-class of the ,corolliflor is again divided into two large main divisions or legions1 each of which contains a large number of different orders1 families1 genera1 and species4 ,the first legion bears the name of star-flowers1 or ,diapetal1 the second that of the bell-flowers1 or ,gamopetal4 ,the lower and less perfect of the two legions of the ,corolliflor are the star-flowers 7also called ,diapetal or ,dialypetal74 ,to them belong the extensive families of the ,umbellifer1 or umbrella-worts 7wild carrot1 etc471 the ,crucifer1 or cruciform blossoms 7cabbage1 etc472 further1 the ,ranunculace 7buttercups7 and ,crassulace1 the ,mallows and ,geraniums1 and1 besides many others1 the large group of ,roses 7which comprise1 besides roses1 most of our fruit trees71 and the ,pea-blossoms 7containing1 among others1 beans1 clover1 genista1 acacia1 and mimosa74 ,in all these ,diapetal the blossom-leaves remain separate1 and never grow together1 as is the case in the ,gamopetal4 ,these latter developed first in the tertiary period out of the ,diapetal1 whereas the ,diapetal appeared in the chalk period together with the ,apetal4 ,the highest and most perfect group of the vegetable kingdom is formed by the second division of the ,corolliflor1 namely1 the legion of bell-flowers 7,gamopetal1 also called ,monopetal or ,sympetal74 ,in this group the blossom-leaves1 which in other plants generally remain separate1 grow regularly together into a more or less bell-like1 funnel-shaped1 or tubular flower4 ,to them belong1 among others1 the ,bell-flowers and ,convolvulus1 ,primroses and ,heaths1 ,gentian and ,honeysuckle1 further the family of the ,olives 7olive trees1 privet1 elder1 and ash71 and finally1 besides many other families1 the extensive division of the ,lip-blossoms 7,labiat7 and the ,composites4 ,in these last the differentiation and perfection of the ,phanerogamic blossoms attain their highest stage of development1 and we must therefore place them at the head of the vegetable kingdom1 as the most perfect of all plants4 ,in accordance with this1 the legion of the ,gamopetal appear in the organic history of the earth later than all the main groups of the vegetable kingdom--in fact1 not until the cnolithic or tertiary epoch4 ,in the earliest tertiary period the legion is still very rare1 but it gradually increases in the mid-tertiary1 and attains its full development only in the latest tertiary and the quaternary period4 ,now if1 having reached our own time1 we look back upon the whole history of the development of the vegetable kingdom1 we cannot but perceive in it a grand confirmation of the ,theory of ,descent4 ,the two great principles of organic development which have been pointed out as the necessary results of natural selection in the ,struggle for ,life1 namely1 the laws of differentiation and perfecting1 manifest themselves everywhere in the development of the larger and smaller groups of the natural system of plants4 ,in each larger or smaller period of the organic history of the earth1 the vegetable kingdom increases both in variety and perfection1 as a glance at ,plate ,,iv4 will clearly show4 ,during the whole of the long primordial period there existed only the lowest and most imperfect group1 that of the ,alg4 ,to these are added1 in the primary period1 the higher and more perfect ,cryptogamia1 especially the main-class of ,ferns4 ,during the coal period the ,phanerogamia begin to develop out of the latter2 at first1 however1 they are represented only by the lower main-class1 that of ,gymnosperms4 ,it was not until the secondary period that the higher main-class1 that of ,angiosperms1 arose out of them4 ,of these also there existed at first only the lower groups without distinct corollas1 the ,monocotyledons and the ,apetal4 ,it was not until the chalk period that the higher ,corolliflor developed out of the latter4 ,but even this most highly developed group is represented1 in the chalk period1 only by the lower stage of ,star-flowers1 or ,diapetal1 and only at quite a late date1 in the tertiary period1 did the more highly developed ,bell-blossoms1 ,gamopetal1 arise out of them1 which at the same time are the most perfect of all flowering plants4 ,thus1 in each succeeding later division of the organic history of the earth the vegetable kingdom gradually rose to a higher degree of perfection and variety4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,i4 ,,animal-,,plants ,,and ,,worms4 ,the ,natural ,system of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,linnus and ,lamarck's ,systems4--,the ,four ,types of ,br and ,cuvier4--,their ,increase to ,seven ,types4--,genealogical ,importance of the ,seven ,types as ,independent ,tribes of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,derivation of ,zoophytes and ,worms from ,primval ,animals4--,monophyletic and ,polyphyletic ,hypothesis of the ,descent of the ,animal ,kingdom4--,common ,origin of the ,four ,higher ,animal ,tribes out of the ,worm ,tribe4--,division of the ,seven ,animal ,tribes into ,sixteen ,main ,classes1 and ,thirty-eight ,classes4--,primval ,animals 7,monera1 ,amb1 ,synamb71 ,gregarines1 ,infusoria1 ,planades1 and ,gastrades 7,planula and ,gastrula74--,tribe of ,zoophytes4--,spongi 7,mucous ,sponges1 ,fibrous ,sponges1 ,calcareous ,sponges74--,sea ,nettles1 or ,acaleph 7,corals1 ,hood-jellies1 ,comb-jellies74--,tribe of ,worms4 ,the natural system of organisms which we must employ in the animal as well as in the vegetable kingdom1 as a guide in our genealogical investigations1 is in both cases of but recent origin1 and essentially determined by the progress of comparative anatomy and ontogeny 7the history of individual development7 during the present century4 ,almost all the attempts at classification made in the last century followed the path of the artificial system1 which was first established in a consistent manner by ,charles ,linnus4 ,the artificial system differs essentially from the natural one1 in the fact that it does not make the whole organization and the internal structure 7depending upon the blood relationship7 the basis of classification1 but only employs individual1 and for the most part external1 characteristics1 which readily strike the eye4 ,thus ,linnus distinguished his twenty-four classes of the vegetable kingdom principally by the number1 formation1 and combination of the stamens4 ,in like manner he distinguished six classes in the animal kingdom principally by the nature of the heart and blood4 ,these six classes were3 7#a7 ,mammals2 7#b7 ,birds2 7#c7 ,amphibious ,animals2 7#d7 ,fishes2 7#e7 ,insects2 and 7#f7 ,worms4 ,but these six animal classes of ,linnus are by no means of equal value1 and it was an important advance when1 at the end of the last century1 ,lamarck comprised the first four classes as vertebrate animals 7,vertebrata71 and put them in contrast with the remaining animals 7the insects and worms of ,linnus71 of which he made a second main division--the invertebrate animals 7,invertebrata74 ,in reality ,lamarck thus agreed with ,aristotle1 the father of ,natural ,history1 who had distinguished these two main groups1 and called the former blood-bearing animals1 the latter bloodless animals4 ,the next important progress towards a natural system of the animal kingdom was made some decades later by two most illustrious zoologists1 ,carl ,ernst ,br and ,george ,cuvier4 ,as has already been remarked1 they established1 almost simultaneously and independently of one another1 the proposition that it was necessary to distinguish several completely distinct main groups in the animal kingdom1 each of which possessed an entirely peculiar type or structure 7compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ec74 ,in each of these main divisions there is a tree-shaped and branching gradation from most simple and imperfect forms to those which are exceedingly composite and highly developed4 ,the degree of development within each type is quite independent of the peculiar plan of structure1 which forms the basis of the type and gives it a special characteristic4 ,the 8type0 is determined by the peculiar relations in position of the most important parts of the body1 and the manner in which the organs are connected4 ,the degree of development1 however1 is dependent upon the greater or less division of labour among organs1 and on the differentiation of the plastids and organs4 ,this extremely important and fruitful idea was established by ,br1 who relied more distinctly and thoroughly upon the history of individual development than did ,cuvier4 ,cuvier based his argument upon the results of comparative anatomy4 ,but neither of them recognized the true cause of the remarkable relationships pointed out by them1 which is first revealed to us by the ,theory of ,descent4 ,it shows us that the common type or plan of structure is determined by inheritance1 and the degree of development or differentiation by adaptation4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 #aj74 ,both ,br and ,cuvier distinguished four different types in the animal kingdom1 and divided it accordingly into four great main divisions 7branches or circles74 ,the first of these is formed by the vertebrate animals 7,vertebrata71 and comprises ,linnus' first four classes--mammals1 birds1 amphibious animals1 and fishes4 ,the second type is formed by the articulated animals 7,articulata71 containing ,linnus' insects1 consequently the six-legged insects1 and also the myriopods1 spiders1 and crustacea1 but besides these1 a large number of the worms1 especially the ringed worms4 ,the third main division comprises the molluscous animals 7,mollusca7--slugs1 snails1 mussels1 and some kindred groups4 ,finally1 the fourth and last circle of the animal kingdom comprises the various radiated animals 7,radiata71 which at first sight differ from the three preceding types by their radiated1 flower-like form of body4 ,for while the bodies of molluscs1 articulated animals1 and vertebrated animals consist of two symmetrical lateral halves--of two counterparts or antimera1 of which the one is the mirror of the other--the bodies of the so-called radiated animals are composed of more than two1 generally of four1 five1 or six counterparts grouped round a common central axis1 as in the case of a flower4 ,however striking this difference may seem at first1 it is1 in reality1 a very subordinate one1 and the radial form has by no means the same importance in all 8radiated animals40 ,the establishment of these natural main groups or types of the animal kingdom by ,br and ,cuvier was the greatest advance in the classification of animals since the time of ,linnus4 ,the three groups of vertebrated animals1 articulated animals1 and molluscs are so much in accordance with nature that they are retained1 even at the present day1 little altered in extent4 ,but a more accurate knowledge soon showed the utterly unnatural character of the group of the radiated animals4 ,leuckart1 in #ahdh1 first pointed out that two perfectly distinct types were confounded under the name1 namely1 the ,star-fishes 7,echinoderma7--the sea-stars1 lily encrinites1 sea-urchins1 and sea-cucumbers2 and1 on the other hand1 the ,animal-plants1 or ,zoophytes 7,clenterata or ,zoophyta7--the sponges1 corals1 hood-jellies1 and comb-jellies4 ,at the same time1 ,siebold united the ,infusoria with the ,rhizopoda1 under the name of ,protozoa 7lowest animals71 into a special main division of the animal kingdom4 ,by this the number of animal types was increased to six4 ,it was finally increased to seven by the fact that modern zoologists separated the main division of the articulated animals into two groups3 7a7 those possessing articulated feet 7,arthropoda71 corresponding to ,linnus' ,insects1 namely1 the ,flies 7with six legs71 ,myriopods1 ,spiders1 and ,crustacea2 and 7b7 the footless ,worms 7,vermes71 or those possessing non-articulated feet4 ,these latter comprise only the real or genuine ,worms 7ring-worms1 round worms1 planarian worms1 etc471 and therefore in no way correspond with the ,worms of ,linnus1 who had included the molluscs1 the radiates1 and many other lower animals under this name4 ,thus1 according to the views of modern zoologists1 which are given in all recent manuals and treatises on zoology1 the animal kingdom is composed of seven completely distinct main divisions or types1 each of which is distinguished by a characteristic plan of structure peculiar to it1 and perfectly distinct from every one of the others4 ,in the natural system of the animal kingdom--which ,i shall now proceed to explain as its probable pedigree--,i shall on the whole agree with this usual division1 but not without some modifications1 which ,i consider very important in connection with genealogy1 and which are rendered absolutely necessary in consequence of our view as to the history of the development of animals4 ,we evidently obtain the greatest amount of information concerning the pedigree of the animal kingdom 7as well as concerning that of the vegetable kingdom7 from comparative anatomy and ontogeny4 ,besides these1 palontology also throws much valuable light upon the historical succession of many of the groups4 ,from numerous facts in comparative anatomy1 we may1 in the first place1 infer the common origin of all those animals which belong to one of the seven 8types40 ,for in spite of all the variety in the external form developed within each of these types1 the essential relative position of the parts of the body which determines the type1 is so constant1 and agrees so completely in all the members of every type1 that on account of their relations of form alone we are obliged to unite them1 in the natural system1 into a single main group4 ,but we must certainly conclude1 moreover1 that this conjunction also has its expression in the pedigree of the animal kingdom4 ,for the true cause of the intimate agreement in structure can only be the actual blood relationship4 ,hence we may1 without further discussion1 lay down the important proposition that all animals belonging to one and the same circle or type must be descended from one and the same original primary form4 ,in other words1 the idea of the circle or type1 as it is employed in zoology since ,br and ,cuvier's time to designate the few principal main groups or 8sub-kingdoms0 of the animal kingdoms1 coincides with the idea of 8tribe0 or 8phylum10 as employed by the ,theory of ,descent4 ,if1 then1 we can trace all the varieties of animal forms to these seven fundamental forms1 the following question next presents itself to us as a second phylogenetic problem--,where do these seven animal tribes come from8 ,are they seven original primary forms of an entirely independent origin1 or are they also distantly related by blood to one another8 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,vi4 ,historical ,growth of the six great stems of ,animals4 ,see the ,explanation4 ,at first we might be inclined to answer this question in a polyphyletic sense1 by saying that we must assume1 for each of the seven great animal tribes1 at least one independent primary form completely distinct from the others4 ,on further considering this difficult problem1 we arrive in the end at the notion of a monophyletic origin of the animal kingdom1 viz41 that these seven primary forms are connected at their lowest roots1 and that they are derived from a single1 common primval form4 ,in the animal as well as in the vegetable kingdom1 when closely and accurately considered1 the monophyletic hypothesis of descent is found to be more satisfactory than the polyphyletic hypothesis4 ,it is comparative ontogeny 7embryology7 which first and foremost leads to the assumption of the monophyletic origin of the whole animal kingdom 7the ,protista excepted of course74 ,the zoologist who has thoughtfully compared the history of the individual development of various animals1 and has understood the importance of the biogenetic principle 7p4 #cc71 cannot but be convinced that a common root must be assumed for the seven different animal tribes1 and that all animals1 including man1 are derived from a single1 common primary form4 ,the result of the consideration of the facts of embryology1 or ontogeny1 is the following genealogical or phylogenetic hypothesis1 which ,i have put forward and explained in detail in my 8,philosophy of ,calcareous ,sponges0 7,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges1 vol4 i4 pp4 #dfd1 #dfe1 etc41--8the ,theory of the ,layers of the ,embryo1 and the ,pedigree of ,animals074 ,the first stage of organic life in the ,animal kingdom 7as in the ,vegetable and ,protista kingdoms7 was formed by perfectly simple ,monera1 originating by spontaneous generation4 ,the former existence of this simplest animal form is1 even at present1 attested by the fact that the egg-cell of many animals loses its kernel directly after becoming fructified1 and thus relapses to the lower stage of development of a cytod without a kernel1 like a ,moneron4 ,this remarkable occurrence ,i have interpreted1 according to the law of latent inheritance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bje71 as a phylogenetic relapse of the cellular form into the original form of a cytod4 ,the ,monerula1 as we may call this egg-cytod without a kernel1 repeats then1 according to the biogenetic principle 7vol4 ii4 p4 #cc71 the most ancient of all animal forms1 the common primary form of the animal kingdom1 namely1 the ,moneron4 ,the second ontogenetic process consists in a new kernel being formed in the ,monerula1 or egg-cytod1 which thus returns again to the value of a true egg-cell4 ,according to this1 we must look upon the simple animal cell1 containing a kernel1 or the single-celled primval animal--which may still be seen in a living state in the ,amb of the present day--as the second step in the series of phylogenetic forms of the animal kingdom4 ,like the still living simple ,amb1 and like the naked egg-cells of many lower animals 7for example1 of ,sponges and ,medus1 etc471 which cannot be distinguished from them1 the remote phyletic primary ,amb also were perfectly simple naked-cells1 which moved about in the ,laurentian primval ocean1 creeping by means of the ever-changing processes of their body-substance1 and nourishing and propagating themselves in the same way as the ,amb of the present day4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #ahh1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #ed47 ,the existence of this ,amba-like1 single-celled primary form of the whole animal kingdom is unmistakably indicated by the exceedingly important fact that the egg of all animals1 from those of sponges and worms up to those of the ant and man1 is a simple cell4 ,thirdly1 from the 8single-cell0 state arose the simplest multicellular state1 namely1 a heap or a small community of simple1 equi-formal1 and equivalent cells4 ,even at the present day1 in the ontogenetic development of every animal egg-cell1 there first arises a globular heap of equi-formal naked cells1 by the repeated self-division of the primary cell4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #aij and the ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #c47 ,we called this accumulation of cells the mulberry state 7,morula71 because it resembles a mulberry or blackberry4 ,this ,morula-body occurs in the same simple form in all the different tribes of animals1 and on account of this most important circumstance we may infer--according to the biogenetic principle--that the most ancient1 many-celled1 primary form of the animal kingdom resembled a ,morula like this1 and was in fact a simple heap of ,amba-like primval cells1 one similar to the other4 ,we shall call this most ancient community of ,amb--this most simple accumulation of animal cells--which is recapitulated in individual development by the ,morula--the ,synamba4 ,out of the ,synamb1 in the early ,laurentian period1 there afterwards developed a fourth primary form of the animal kingdom1 which we shall call the ciliated germ 7,plana74 ,this arose out of the ,synamba by the outer cells on the surface of the cellular community beginning to extend vibrating fringes called cilia1 and becoming 8ciliated cells10 and thus differentiating from the inner and unchanged cells4 ,the ,synamb consisted of completely equi-formed and naked cells1 and crept about slowly1 at the bottom of the ,laurentian primval ocean1 by means of movements like those of an ,amba4 ,the ,plana1 on the other hand1 consisted of two kinds of different cells--inner ones like the ,amb1 and external 8ciliated cells40 ,by the vibrating movements of the cilia the entire multicellular body acquired a more rapid and stronger motion1 and passed over from the creeping to the swimming mode of locomotion4 ,in exactly the same manner the ,morula1 in the ontogenesis of lower animals1 still changes into a ciliated form of larva1 which has been known1 since the year #ahdg1 under the name of ,planula4 ,this ,planula is sometimes a globular1 sometimes an oval body1 which swims about in the water by means of a vibrating movement2 the fringed 7ciliated7 and smaller cells of the surface differ from the larger inner cells1 which are unfringed4 7,fig4 #d of the ,frontispiece47 ,out of this ,planula1 or fringed larva1 there then develops1 in animals of all tribes1 an exceedingly important and interesting animal form1 which1 in my ,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges1 ,i have named ,gastrula 7that is1 larva with a stomach or intestine74 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #e1 #f74 ,this ,gastrula externally resembles the ,planula1 but differs essentially from it in the fact that it encloses a cavity which opens to the outside by a mouth4 ,the cavity is the 8primary intestine10 or 8primary stomach10 the progaster1 the first beginning of the alimentary canal2 its opening is the 8primary mouth0 7prostoma74 ,the wall of the progaster consists of two layers of cells3 an outer layer of smaller ciliated cells 7outer skin1 or ectoderm71 and of an inner layer of larger non-ciliated cells 7inner skin1 or entoderm74 ,this exceedingly important larval form1 the 8,gastrula10 makes its appearance in the ontogenesis of all tribes of animals--in ,sponges1 ,medus1 ,corals1 ,worms1 ,sea-squirts1 ,radiated animals1 ,molluscs1 and even in the lowest ,vertebrata 7,amphioxus3 compare p4 #bjj1 ,plate ,,xii41 ,fig4 ,b #d2 see also in the same place the ,ascidian1 ,fig4 ,a #d74 ,definition of the forms ,ontogenesis4 ,phylogenesis4 of the five first stages ,the five first stages ,the five first stages of the development of of the individual of the phyletic or the animal body4 development4 historical development4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,first ,stage of ,development4 #a4 #a4 ,monerula4 ,moneron4 ,a simple cytod 7a plastid without a kernel47 ,animal egg without a ,most ancient animal kernel 7when the egg-kernel ,monera1 originating by has disappeared1 spontaneous generation4 after being fructified74 ,second ,stage of ,development4 #b4 #b4 ,ovulum4 ,amb4 ,a simple cell 7a plastid containing a ,animal egg with kernel ,animal ,amb4 kernel47 7a simple egg-cell74 ,third ,stage of ,development4 #c4 #c4 ,morula4 ,synamba4 ,a community 7an 7,mulberry form47 aggregation of identical ,an aggregation of simple cells74 ,globular heap of homogeneous ,amb4 8cleavage spheres40 ,fourth ,stage of ,development4 #d4 #d4 ,planula4 ,plana4 ,a solid or bladder-shaped1 7,ciliated larva47 globular1 or oval ,many-celled primval body1 composed of two ,many-celled larva animal without kinds of different cells3 without mouth1 composed mouth1 composed of externally ciliated1 of different cells4 two kinds of different internally non-ciliated cells4 cells4 ,fifth ,stage of ,development4 #e4 #e4 ,gastrula4 ,gastra4 ,a globular or oval 7,larva with mouth47 body with simple intestinal ,many-celled with intestines ,many-celled primval cavity and mouth-opening4 and mouth2 intestinal animal with intestine ,body wall composed wall with two and mouth2 intestinal of two layers2 an layers4 wall with two externally ciliated ectoderm layers4 7,primary form 7dermal layer71 an of zoophytes and internally non-ciliated worms47 entoderm 7gastral layer74 ,from the ontogenetic occurrence of the ,gastrula in the most different animal classes1 from ,zoophytes up to ,vertebrata1 we may1 according to the biogenetic principle1 safely draw the conclusion that during the ,laurentian period there existed a common primary form of the six higher animal tribes1 which in all essential points was formed like the ,gastrula1 and which we shall call the ,gastra4 ,this ,gastra possessed a perfectly simple globular or oval body1 which enclosed a simple cavity of like form1 namely1 the progaster2 at one of the poles of the longitudinal axis the primary intestine opened by a mouth which served for the reception of nutrition4 ,the body wall 7which was also the intestinal wall7 consisted of two layers of cells1 the unfringed entoderm1 or intestinal layer1 and the fringed ectoderm1 or skin-layer2 by the motion of the cilia or fringes of the latter the ,gastra swam about freely in the ,laurentian ocean4 ,even in those higher animals1 in the ontogenesis of which the original ,gastrula form has disappeared1 according to the laws of abbreviated inheritance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bab71 the composition of the ,gastra body has been transmitted to the phase of development which directly arises out of the ,morula4 ,this phase is an oval or round disc consisting of two cell-layers or membranes3 the outer cell-layer1 the animal or dermal layer 7ectoblast71 corresponds to the ectoderm of the ,gastra2 out of it develops the external1 loose skin 7epidermis71 with its glands and appendages1 as well as the central nervous system4 ,the inner cell-layer1 the vegetative or intestinal layer 7hypoblast71 is originally the entoderm of the ,gastra2 out of it develops the inner membrane 7epithelium7 of the intestinal canal and its glands4 7,compare my ,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges1 vol4 i4 p4 #dff1 etc47 ,by ontogeny we have already gained five primordial stages of development of the animal kingdom3 7#a7 the ,moneron2 7#b7 the ,amba2 7#c7 the ,synamba2 7#d7 the ,plana2 and 7#e7 the ,gastra4 ,the former existence of these five oldest primary forms1 which succeeded one another1 and which must have lived in the ,laurentian period1 follows as a consequence of the biogenetic principle2 that is to say1 from the parallelism and the mechanico-causal connection of ontogenesis and phylogenesis4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cji47 ,in our genealogical system of the animal kingdom we may class all these animal forms1 long since extinct1 and1 which on account of the soft nature of their bodies could leave no fossil remains1 among the tribe of ,primval animals 7,protozoa71 which also comprises the still living ,infusoria and ,gregarin4 ,the phyletic development of the six higher animal tribes1 which are all derived from the ,gastra1 deviated at this point in two directions4 ,in other words1 the ,gastrads 7as we may call the group of forms characterized by the ,gastra-type of structure71 divided into two divergent lines or branches2 the one branch of ,gastrads gave up free locomotion1 adhered to the bottom of the sea1 and thus1 by adopting an adhesive mode of life1 gave rise to the ,protascus1 the common primary form of the ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta74 ,the other branch of the ,gastrads retained free locomotion1 did not become adherent and later on developed into the ,prothelmis1 the common primary form of ,worms 7,vermes74 7,compare p4 #acc47 ,this latter tribe 7as limited by modern zoology7 is of the greatest interest in the study of genealogy4 ,for among ,worms1 as we shall see later1 there are1 besides very numerous peculiar families1 and besides many independent classes1 also very remarkable forms1 which may be considered as forms of direct transition to the four higher animal tribes4 ,both comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of these worms enable us to recognize in them the nearest blood relations of those extinct animal forms which were the original primary forms of the four higher animal tribes4 ,hence these latter1 the ,molluscs1 ,star-fishes1 ,articulated animals1 and ,vertebrate animals1 do not stand in any close blood relationship to one another1 but have originated independently in four different places out of the tribe of ,worms4 ,in this way comparative anatomy and phylogeny lead us to the monophyletic pedigree of the animal kingdom1 the outlines of which are given on p4 #acc4 ,according to it the seven phyla1 or tribes1 of the animal kingdom are of different value in regard to genealogy4 ,the original primary group of the whole animal kingdom is formed by the ,primval animals 7,protozoa71 including the ,infusoria and ,gastrads4 ,out of these latter arose the two tribes of ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta7 and ,worms as diverging branches4 ,out of four different groups of the ,worm tribe1 the four higher tribes of the animal kingdom were developed--the ,star-fishes 7,echinoderma7 and ,insects 7,arthropoda7 on the one hand1 and the ,molluscs 7,mollusca7 and ,vertebrated animals 7,vertebrata7 on the other4 ,having thus sketched out the monophyletic pedigree of the animal kingdom in its most important features1 we must now turn to a closer examination of the historical course of development which the seven tribes of the animal kingdom1 and the classes distinguished in them1 have passed through 7p4 #acb74 ,there is a much larger number of classes in the animal than in the vegetable kingdom1 owing to the simple reason that the animal body1 in consequence of its more varied and perfect vital activity1 could differentiate and develop in very many more different directions than could the vegetable body4 ,thus1 while we were able to divide the whole vegetable kingdom into six main classes and nineteen classes1 we have to distinguish1 at least1 sixteen main classes and thirty-eight classes in the animal kingdom4 ,these are distributed among the seven different tribes of the animal kingdom in the way shown in the ,systematic ,survey on pages #acb and #acc4 ,the group of ,primval animals 7,protozoa7 within the compass which we here assign to this tribe1 comprises the most ancient and the simplest primary forms of the animal kingdom2 for example1 the five oldest phyletic stages of development previously mentioned1 and besides these the ,infusoria and ,gregarin1 as well as all those imperfect animal forms1 for which1 on account of their simple and indifferent organization1 no place can be found in any of the other six animal tribes4 ,most zoologists1 in addition to these1 include among the ,protozoa a larger or smaller portion of those lowest organisms1 which we mentioned in our neutral kingdom of ,protista 7in ,chapter ,,xvi474 ,but these ,protista1 especially the large division of the ,rhizopoda1 which are so rich in forms1 cannot be considered as real animals for reasons previously given4 ,hence1 if we here leave them out of the question1 we may accept two main classes or provinces of real ,protozoa1 namely1 ,egg animals 7,ovularia7 and ,germ animals 7,blastularia74 ,to the former belong the three classes of ,archezoa1 ,gregarin1 and ,infusoria1 to the latter the two classes of ,planads and ,gastrads4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #af ,main ,classes and #ch ,classes of the ,animal ,kingdom4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,tribes or ,phyla ,main ,classes1 ,classes ,systematic ,name of the ,branches or ,clades of the of the ,animal ,kingdom4 of the ,animal ,kingdom4 ,classes4 ,animal ,kingdom4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,a4 ,primval ,i4 ,egg-animals #a4 ,archaic animals #a4 ,archezoa ,animals ,ovularia #b4 ,gregarines #b4 ,gregarin #c4 ,infusoria #c4 ,infusoria ,protozoa ,,ii4 ,mulberry animals #d4 ,planads #d4 ,planadas ,blastularia #e4 ,gastrads #e4 ,gastradas ,b4 ,animal ,,iii4 ,sponges #f4 ,sponges #f4 ,porifera ,plants ,spongi ,zoophyta ,,iv4 ,sea-nettles #g4 ,corals #g4 ,coralla ,acaleph #h4 ,hood-jellies #h4 ,hydromedus #i4 ,comb-jellies #i4 ,ctenophora ,c4 ,v4 ,bloodless worms #aj4 ,planary worms #aj4 ,platyhelminthes ,worms ,aclomi #aa4 ,round worms #aa4 ,nemathelminthes ,vermes ,,vi4 ,blood-bearing #ab4 ,moss-polyps #ab4 ,bryozoa worms #ac4 ,sac-worms #ac4 ,tunicata ,clomati #ad4 ,proboscideans #ad4 ,rhynchocla #ae4 ,star-worms #ae4 ,gephyrea #af4 ,wheel animalcules #af4 ,rotatoria #ag4 ,ring-worms #ag4 ,annelida ,d4 ,,vii4 ,headless shellfish #ah4 ,lamp-shells #ah4 ,spirobranchia ,molluscs ,acephala #ai4 ,mussels #ai4 ,lamellibranchia ,mollusca ,,viii4 ,head-bearing #bj4 ,snails #bj4 ,cochlides ,eucephala #ba4 ,cuttles #ba4 ,cephalopoda ,e4 ,,ix4 ,ringed-arms #bb4 ,sea-stars #bb4 ,asterida ,star-fishes ,colobrachia #bc4 ,lily-stars #bc4 ,crinoida ,echinoderma ,x4 ,armless #bd4 ,sea-urchins #bd4 ,echinida ,lipobrachia #be4 ,sea-cucumbers #be4 ,holothuri ,f4 ,,xi4 ,gill-breathers #bf4 ,crab-fish #bf4 ,crustacea ,articulated ,carides ,animals ,,xii4 ,tube-breathers #bg4 ,spiders #bg4 ,arachnida ,arthropoda ,tracheata #bh4 ,centipedes #bh4 ,myriopoda #bi4 ,flies #bi4 ,insecta ,,xiii4 ,skull-less #cj4 ,lancelets #cj4 ,leptocardia ,acrania ,g4 ,vertebrate ,,xiv4 ,single-nostriled #ca4 ,lampreys #ca4 ,cyclostoma ,animals ,monorrhina ,vertebrata ,,xv4 ,amnion-less #cb4 ,fishes #cb4 ,pisces ,anamnia #cc4 ,mud-fish #cc4 ,dipneusta #cd4 ,sea dragons #cd4 ,halisauria #ce4 ,amphibians #ce4 ,amphibia ,,xvi4 ,amnion-bearing #cf4 ,reptiles #cf4 ,reptilia ,amniota #cg4 ,birds #cg4 ,aves #ch4 ,mammals #ch4 ,mammalia ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,vertebrata 7,vertebrated animals7 ,craniota ,arthropoda ,mollusca 7,articulated ,animals7 7,molluscs7 ,echinoderma ,tracheata ,eucephala 7,star-fishes7 ,lipobrachia ,crustacea ,acrania ,annelida ,tunicata ,acephala ,bryozoa ,colobrachia ,gephyrea ,rotatoria --v---_/ --v---_/ ---------v-------------------_/ ------v-----_/ ,vermes 7,worms7 ------------------v-------------------_/ ,c,,lomati 7,worms with a body-cavity7 ,platyhelminthes -----v------_/ ,zoophyta 7,animal-,plants7 ,,ac,,lomi ,spongi ,acaleph 7,worms without body-cavity7 ------v-------_/ ,protascus ,prothelmis -----------v---------------_/ ,protozoa 7,primval animals7 _/-------------------------- ,,gastr,a ,infusoria ,,plan,a ,gregarin ,,synam,b ----v---_/ ---------v--------_/ ,,am,b ,,monera ,the first province of the ,protozoa consists of the ,egg animals 7,ovularia72 we include among them all single-celled animals1 all animals whose body1 in the fully developed state1 possesses the form-value of a simple plastid 7of a cytod or a cell71 also those simple animal forms whose body consists of an aggregation of several cells perfectly similar one to another4 ,the ,archaic animals 7,archezoa7 form the first class in the series of ,egg animals4 ,it contains only the most simple and most ancient primary forms of the animal kingdom1 whose former existence we have proved by means of the fundamental law of biogenesis2 they are1 7#a7 ,animal ,monera2 7#b7 ,animal ,amb2 7#c7 ,animal ,synamb4 ,we may1 if we choose1 include among them a portion of the still living ,monera and ,amb1 but another portion 7according to the discussion in ,chapter ,,xvi47 must on account of their neutral nature be considered as ,protista1 and a third portion1 on account of their vegetable nature1 must be considered as plants4 ,a second class of the egg animals consists of the ,gregarines 7,gregarin71 which live as parasites in the intestines and body-cavities of many animals4 ,some of these ,gregarines are perfectly simple cells like the ,amb2 some form chains of two or three identical cells1 one lying behind the other4 ,they differ from the naked ,amb by possessing a thick1 simple membrane1 which surrounds their cell-body2 they can be considered as animal ,amb which have adopted a parasitical mode of life1 and in consequence have surrounded themselves with a secreted covering4 ,as a third class of egg animals1 we adopt the real ,infusoria 7,infusoria71 embracing those forms to which modern zoology almost universally limits this class of animals4 ,the principal portion of them consists of the small ciliated ,infusoria 7,ciliata71 which inhabit all the fresh and salt waters of the earth in great numbers1 and which swim about by means of a delicate garb of vibratile fringes4 ,a second and smaller division consists of the adherent sucking ,infusoria 7,acinet71 which take their food by means of fine sucking-tubes4 ,although during the last thirty years numerous and very careful investigations have been made on these small animalcules1--which are mostly invisible to the naked eye1--still we are even now not very sure about their development and form-value4 ,we do not even yet know whether the ,infusoria are single or many-celled2 but as no investigator has as yet proved their body to be a combination of cells1 we are1 in the mean time1 justified in considering them as single-celled1 like the ,gregarines and the ,amb4 ,the second main class of primval animals consists of the ,germ animals 7,blastularia74 ,this name we give to those extinct ,protozoa which correspond to the two ontogenetic embryonic forms of the six higher animal tribes1 namely1 the ,planula and the ,gastrula4 ,the body of these ,blastularia1 in a perfectly developed state1 was composed of many cells1 and these cells moreover differentiated--in two ways at least--into an external 7animal or dermal7 and an internal 7vegetative or gastral7 mass4 ,whether there still exist representatives of this group is uncertain4 ,their former existence is undoubtedly proved by the two exceedingly important ontogenetic animal forms which we have already described as ,planula and ,gastrula1 and which still occur as a transient stage of development in the ontogeny of the most different tribes of animals4 ,corresponding to these1 we may1 according to the biogenetic principle1 assume the former existence of two distinct classes of ,blastularia1 namely1 the ,planada and ,gastrada4 ,the type of the ,planada is the ,plana--long since extinct--but whose historical portrait is still presented to us at the present day in the widely distributed ciliated larva 7,planula74 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #d47 ,the type of the ,gastrada is the ,gastra1 of whose original nature the mouth-and-stomach larva 7,gastrula71 which recurs in the most different animal tribes1 still gives a faithful representation4 7,frontispiece ,fig4 #e1 #f47 ,out of the ,gastra1 as we have previously mentioned1 there were at one time developed two different primary forms1 the ,protascus and ,prothelmis2 the former must be looked upon as the primary form of the ,zoophytes1 the latter as the primary form of ,worms4 7,compare the enunciation of this hypothesis in my ,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges1 vol i4 p4 #dfd47 ,the ,animal-plants 7,zoophyta1 or ,clenterata7 which constitute the second tribe of the animal kingdom1 rise considerably above the primitive animals in the characters of their whole organisation1 while they remain far below most of the higher animals4 ,for in the latter 7with the exception only of the lowest forms7 the four distinct functions of nutrition--namely1 digestion1 circulation of the blood1 respiration1 and excretion--are universally accomplished by four perfectly different systems of organs3 by the intestines1 the vascular system1 the organs of respiration1 and the urinary apparatus4 ,in ,zoophytes1 however1 these functions and their organs are not yet separate1 and are all performed by a single system of alimentary canals1 by the so-called gastro-vascular system1 or the clenteric apparatus of the intestinal cavity4 ,the mouth1 which is also the anus1 leads into a stomach1 into which the other cavities of the body also open4 ,in ,zoophytes the body-cavity1 or 8cloma10 possessed by the four higher tribes of animals is still completely wanting1 likewise the vascular system and blood1 as also the organs of respiration1 etc4 ,all ,zoophytes live in water2 most of them in the sea1 only a very few in fresh water1 such as fresh-water sponges 7,spongilla7 and some primval polyps 7,hydra1 ,cordylophora74 ,a specimen of the pretty flower-like forms which are met with in great variety among ,zoophytes is given on ,plate ,,vii4 7,compare its explanation in the ,appendix47 ,the tribe of animal-plants1 or ,zoophytes1 is divided into two distinct provinces1 the ,sponges1 or ,spongi1 and the ,sea-nettles1 or ,acaleph 7p4 #add74 ,the latter are much richer in forms and more highly organized than the former4 ,in all ,sponges the entire body1 as well as the individual organs1 are differentiated and perfected to a much less extent than in ,sea-nettles4 ,all ,sponges lack the characteristic nettle-organs which all ,sea-nettles possess4 ,the common primary form of all ,zoophytes must be looked for in the ,protascus1 an animal form long since extinct1 but whose existence is proved according to the biogenetic principle by the ,ascula4 ,this ,ascula is an ontogenetical development form which1 in ,sponges as well as in ,sea-nettles1 proceeds from the ,gastrula4 7,compare the ,ascula of the calcareous sponge on the ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #g1 #h47 ,for after the ,gastrula of zoophytes has for a time swum about in the water it sinks to the bottom1 and there adheres by that pole of its axis which is opposite to the opening of the mouth4 ,the external cells of the ectoderm draw in their vibrating1 ciliary hairs1 whereas1 on the contrary1 the inner cells of the entoderm begin to form them4 ,thus the ,ascula1 as we call this changed form of larva1 is a simple sack1 its cavity 7the cavity of the stomach or intestine7 opening by a mouth externally1 at the upper pole of the longitudinal axis 7opposite the basal point of fixture74 ,the entire body is here in a certain sense a mere stomach or intestinal canal1 as in the case of the ,gastrula4 ,the wall of the sack1 which is both body wall and intestinal wall1 consists of two layers or coats of cells1 a fringed entoderm1 or gastral layer 7corresponding with the inner or vegetative germ-layer of the higher animals71 and an unfringed exoderm or dermal layer 7corresponding with the external or animal germ-layer of the higher animals74 ,the original ,protascus1 a true likeness of which is still furnished by the ,ascula1 probably formed egg-cells and sperm-cells out of its gastral layer4 ,the ,protascads--as we will call the most ancient group of vegetable animals1 represented by the ,protascus-type--divided into two lines or branches1 the ,spongi and the ,sea-nettles1 or ,acaleph4 ,i have shown in my ,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges 7vol4 i4 p4 #dhe7 how closely these two main classes of ,zoophytes are related1 and how they must both be derived1 as two diverging forms1 from the ,protascus-form4 ,the primary form of ,spongi1 which ,i have there called ,archispongia1 arose out of the ,protascus by the formation of pores through its body-wall2 the primary form of ,sea-nettles1 which ,i there called ,archydra1 developed out of the ,protascus by the formation of nettle-organs1 as also by the formation of feelers or tentacles4 ,the main-class or branch of the ,sponges1 ,spongi1 or ,porifera1 lives in the sea1 with the single exception of the green fresh-water ,sponge 7,spongilla74 ,these animals were long considered as plants1 later as ,protista2 in most ,manuals they are still classed among the primval animals1 or ,protozoa4 ,but since ,i have demonstrated their development out of the ,gastrula1 and the construction of their bodies of two cellular germ-layers 7as in all higher animals71 their close relationship to ,sea-nettles1 and especially to the ,hydrapolyps1 seems finally to be established4 ,the ,olynthus especially1 which ,i consider as the common primary form of calcareous sponges1 has thrown a complete and unmistakable light upon this point4 ,the numerous forms comprised in the class of ,spongi have as yet been but little examined2 they may be divided into three legions and eight orders4 ,the first legion consists of the soft1 gelatinous ,mucous ,sponges 7,myxospongi71 which are characterized by the absence of any hard skeleton4 ,among them are1 on the one hand1 the long-since-extinct primary forms of the whole class1 the type of which ,i consider to be the ,archispongia2 on the other hand there are the still living1 gelatinous sponges1 of which the ,halisarca is best known4 ,we can obtain a notion of the ,archispongia1 the most ancient primval sponge1 if we imagine the ,olynthus 7see ,frontispiece71 to be deprived of its radiating calcareous spicul4 ,the second legion of ,spongi contains the ,fibrous ,sponges 7,fibrospongi71 the soft body of which is supported by a firm1 fibrous skeleton4 ,this fibrous skeleton often consists merely of so-called 8horny fibres10 formed of a very elastic1 not readily destructible1 organic substance4 ,this is the case for instance in our common bathing ,sponge 7,euspongia officinalis71 the purified skeleton of which we use every morning when washing4 ,blended with the horny1 fibrous skeleton of many of these ,sponges1 there are numerous flinty spicula2 this is the case for example with the fresh-water ,sponge 7,spongilla74 ,in others the whole skeleton consists of only calcareous or silicious spicula which are frequently interwoven into an extremely beautiful lattice-work1 as in the celebrated ,venus' ,flower ,basket 7,euplectella74 ,three orders of fibrous sponges may be distinguished according to the different formation of the spicula1 namely1 ,chalynthina1 ,geodina1 and ,hexactinella4 ,the natural history of the fibrous sponges is of especial interest to the ,theory of ,descent1 as was first shown by ,oscar ,schmidt1 the greatest authority on this group of animals4 ,in no other group1 perhaps1 can the unlimited pliability of the specific form1 and its relation to ,adaptation and ,inheritance1 be so clearly followed step by step2 perhaps in no other group is the species so difficult to limit and define4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,lagesse sc4 ,this proposition1 which applies to the great legion of the ,fibrous ,sponges1 applies in a still higher degree to the smaller but exceedingly interesting legion of the calcareous sponges 7,calcispongi71 on which in #ahgb1 after five years' careful examination1 ,i published a comprehensive ,monograph4 ,the sixty plates of figures accompanying this ,monograph explain the extreme pliability of these small sponges 8good species0 of which1 in fact1 cannot be spoken of in the usual systematic sense4 ,we find among them only varying series of forms1 which do not even completely transmit their specific form to their nearest descendants1 but by adaptation to subordinate1 external conditions of existence1 perpetually change4 ,it frequently occurs here1 that there arise out of one and the same stock different form-species1 which according to the usual system would belong to several quite distinct genera2 this is the case1 for instance1 with the remarkable ,ascometra 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #aj47 ,the entire external bodily form is much more pliable and protean in ,calcareous ,sponges than in the silicious sponges1 which are characterized by possessing silicious spicula1 forming a beautiful skeleton4 ,through the study of the comparative anatomy and ontogeny of calcareous sponges1 we can recognise1 with the greatest certainty1 the common primary form of the whole group1 namely1 the sack-shaped ,olynthus1 whose development is represented in the ,frontispiece 7compare its explanation in the ,appendix74 ,out of the ,olynthus 7,fig4 #i on the ,frontispiece71 the order of the ,ascones was the first to develop1 out of which1 at a later period1 the two other orders of ,calcareous ,sponges1 the ,leucones and ,sycones1 arose as diverging branches4 ,within these orders1 the descent of the individual forms can again be followed step by step4 ,thus the ,calcareous ,sponges in every respect confirm the proposition which ,i have elsewhere maintained3 that 8the natural history of sponges forms a connected and striking argument in favour of ,darwin40 ,the second main class or branch in the tribe of ,zoophytes is formed by the ,sea-nettles 7,acaleph1 or ,cnid74 ,this interesting group of animals1 so rich in forms1 is composed of three different classes1 namely1 the ,hood-jellies 7,hydromedus71 the ,comb-jellies 7,ctenophora71 and the ,corals 7,coralla74 ,the hypothetical1 extinct ,archydra must be looked upon as the common primary form of the whole group2 it has left two near relations in the still living fresh-water polyps 7,hydra and ,cordylophora74 ,the ,archydra was very closely related to the simplest forms of ,spongi 7,archispongia and ,olynthus71 and probably differed from them only by possessing nettle organs1 and by the absence of cutaneous pores4 ,out of the ,archydra there first developed the different ,hydroid polyps1 some of which became the primary forms of ,corals1 others the primary forms of ,hydromedus4 ,the ,ctenophora developed later out of a branch of the latter4 ,the ,sea-nettles differ from the ,spongi 7with which they agree in the characteristic formation of the system of the alimentary canal7 principally by the constant possession of nettle organs4 ,these are small bladders filled with poison1 large numbers--generally millions--of which are dispersed over the skin of the sea nettles1 and which burst and empty their contents when touched4 ,small animals are killed by this2 in larger animals this nettle poison causes a slight inflammation of the skin1 just as does the poison of our common nettles4 ,any one who has often bathed in the sea1 will probably have at times come in contact with large ,hood-jellies 7,jelly-fish71 and become acquainted with the unpleasant burning feeling which their nettle organs can produce4 ,the poison in the splendid blue ,jelly-fish1 ,physalia1 or ,portuguese ,man-of-war1 acts so powerfully that it may lead to the death of a human being4 ,the class of ,corals 7,coralla7 lives exclusively in the sea1 and is more especially represented in the warm seas by an abundance of beautiful and highly-coloured forms like flowers4 ,hence they are also called ,flower-animals 7,anthozoa74 ,most of them are attached to the bottom of the sea1 and contain an internal calcareous skeleton4 ,many of them by continued growth produce such immense stocks that their calcareous skeletons have formed the foundation of whole islands1 as is the case with the celebrated coral reefs and atolls of the ,south ,seas1 the remarkable forms of which were first explained by ,darwin47#ac7 ,in corals the counterparts1 or antimera--that is1 the corresponding divisions of the body which radiate from and surround the central main axis of the body--exist sometimes to the number of four1 sometimes to the number of six or eight4 ,according to this we distinguish three legions1 the ,fourfold 7,tetracoralla71 ,sixfold 7,hexacoralla71 and ,eightfold corals 7,octocoralla74 ,the fourfold corals form the common primary group of the class1 out of which the sixfold and eightfold have developed as two diverging branches4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #d ,classes and #cj ,orders of the ,animal ,plants1 or ,zoophytes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,class of the ,legions of the ,orders of the ,a ,genus ,name ,zoophytes4 ,zoophytes4 ,zoophytes4 as example4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,i4 ,i4 ,myxospongi #a4 ,archispongina ,archispongia ,mucous ,sponges #b4 ,halisarcina ,halisarca ,sponges ,,ii4 ,fibrospongi #c4 ,chalynthina ,spongilla ,spongi ,fibrous ,sponges #d4 ,geodina ,ancorina or #e4 ,hexactinella ,euplectella ,porifera ,,iii4 ,calcispongi #f4 ,ascones ,olynthus ,calcareous ,sponges #g4 ,leucones ,dyssycus #h4 ,sycones ,sycurus ,,ii4 ,,iv4 ,tetracoralla #i4 ,rugosa ,cyathophyllum ,fourfold ,corals #aj4 ,paranemeta ,cereanthus ,corals ,v4 ,hexacoralla #aa4 ,cauliculata ,antipathes ,coralla ,sixfold ,corals #ab4 ,madreporaria ,astra or #ac4 ,halirhoda ,actinia ,anthozoa ,,vi4 ,octocoralla #ad4 ,alcyonida ,lobularia ,eightfold ,corals #ae4 ,gorgonida ,isis #af4 ,pennatulida ,veretillum ,,iii4 ,,vii4 ,archydr #ag4 ,hydraria ,hydra ,primval ,polyps ,jelly-polyps ,,viii4 ,leptomedus #ah4 ,vesiculata ,sertularia ,hydromedus ,soft ,jelly-fish #ai4 ,ocellata ,tubularia #bj4 ,siphonophora ,physophora or ,,ix4 ,trachymedus #ba4 ,marsiporchida ,trachynema ,hood-jellies ,hard ,jelly-fish #bb4 ,phyllorchida ,geryonia #bc4 ,elasmorchida ,charybd ,medusa ,x4 ,calycozoa #bd4 ,podactinaria ,lucernaria ,stalked ,jellies ,,xi4 ,discomedus #be4 ,semostome ,aurelia ,disc-jellies #bf4 ,rhizostome ,crambessa ,,iv4 ,,xii4 ,eurystoma #bg4 ,beroida ,beroe ,wide-mouthed ,comb-jellies ,,xiii4 ,stenostoma #bh4 ,saccata ,cydippe ,ctenophora ,narrow-mouthed #bi4 ,lobata ,eucharis #cj4 ,tniata ,cestum ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ctenophora ,hydromedus ,tniata ,lobata ,rhizostome ---v----_/ ,semostome ,saccata ,,discomedus ,,stenostoma ,trachymedus ,siphonophora ,lucernaria ,,eurystoma ,calycozoa -------------------------v-------------- --_/ ,,leptomedus ,coralla ,octocoralla ,hexacoralla ----v----_/ ,tetracoralla ,spongi ,fibrospongi ,calcispongi ,chalynthina ,leucones ,sycones ,hexactinella,geodina ,dyssycus ,sycurus ,hydroida ,cordylophora ,hydra ------v---_/ -----v--_/ ,ascones ,myxospongia -----v-------_/ ,halisarcina ,,hydroida ,procorallum ,,chalynthus ,,olynthus -----v--------_/ ------v----------_/ ,hydroida ,archispongi ,archydra --------------v--------_/ ,protascus ,gastra ,the second class of ,sea-nettles is formed by the ,hood-jellies 7,medus7 or ,polyp-jellies 7,hydromedus74 ,while most corals form stocks like plants1 and are attached to the bottom of the sea1 the ,hood-jellies generally swim about freely in the form of gelatinous bells4 ,there are1 however1 numbers of them1 especially the lower forms1 which adhere to the bottom of the sea1 and resemble pretty little trees4 ,the lowest and simplest members of this class are the little fresh-water polyps 7,hydra and ,cordylophora74 ,we may look upon them as but little changed descendants of those ,primval polyps 7,archydr71 from which1 during the primordial period1 the whole division of the ,sea-nettles originated4 ,scarcely distinguishable from the ,hydra are the adherent ,hydroid polyps 7,campanularia1 ,tubularia71 which produce freely swimming medus by budding1 and out of the eggs of these there again arise adherent polyps4 ,these freely swimming ,hood-jellies are mostly of the form of a mushroom1 or of an umbrella1 from the rim of which many long and delicate tentacles hang4 ,they are among the most beautiful and most interesting inhabitants of the sea4 ,the remarkable history of their lives1 and especially the complicated alternation of generation of polyps and medus1 are among the strongest proofs of the truth of the theory of descent4 ,for just as ,medus still daily arise out of the ,hydroids1 did the freely swimming medusa-form originally proceed1 phylogenetically1 out of the adherent polyp-form4 ,equally important for the theory of descent is the remarkable division of labour of the individuals1 which among some of them is developed to an astonishingly high degree1 more especially in the splendid ,siphonophora47#cg7 7,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #ac47 ,the third class of ,sea-nettles--the peculiar division of ,comb-jellies 7,ctenophora71 probably developed out of a branch of the ,hood-jellies4 ,the ,ctenophora1 which are also called ,ribbed-jellies1 possess a body of the form of a cucumber1 which1 like the body of most ,hood-jellies1 is as clear and transparent as crystal or cut glass4 ,comb or ,ribbed-jellies are characterized by their peculiar organs of motion1 namely1 by eight rows of paddling1 ciliated leaflets1 which run in the form of eight ribs from one end of the longitudinal axis 7from the mouth7 to the opposite end4 ,those with narrow mouths 7,stenostoma7 probably developed later out of those with wide mouths 7,eurystoma74 7,compare ,plate ,,vii4 ,fig4 #af47 ,the third tribe of the animal kingdom1 the phylum of ,worms or worm-like animals 7,vermes1 or ,helminthes71 contains a number of diverging branches4 ,some of these numerous branches have developed into well-marked and perfectly independent classes of ,worms1 but others changed long since into the original1 radical forms of the four higher tribes of animals4 ,each of these four higher tribes 7and likewise the tribe of ,zoophytes7 we may picture to ourselves in the form of a lofty tree1 whose branches represent the different classes1 orders1 families1 etc4 ,the phylum of ,worms1 on the other hand1 we have to conceive as a low bush or shrub1 out of whose root a mass of independent branches shoot up in different directions4 ,from this densely branched shrub1 most of the branches of which are dead1 there rise four high stems with many branches4 ,these are the four lofty trees just mentioned as representing the higher phyla--the ,echinoderma1 ,articulata1 ,mollusca1 and ,vertebrata4 ,these four stems are directly connected with one another at the root only1 to wit1 by the common primary group of the ,worm tribe4 ,the extraordinary difficulties which the systematic arrangement of ,worms presents1 for this reason merely1 are still more increased by the fact that we do not possess any fossil remains of them4 ,most of the ,worms had and still have such soft bodies that they could not leave any characteristic traces in the neptunic strata of the earth4 ,hence in this case again we are entirely confined to the records of creation furnished by ontogeny and comparative anatomy4 ,in making then the exceedingly difficult attempt to throw a few hypothetical rays of light upon the obscurity of the pedigree of ,worms1 ,i must therefore expressly remark that this sketch1 like all similar attempts possesses only a provisional value4 ,the numerous classes distinguished in the tribe of ,worms1 and which almost every zoologist groups and defines according to his own personal views1 are1 in the first place1 divided into two essentially different groups or branches1 which in my ,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges ,i have termed ,aclomi and ,clomati4 ,for all the lower ,worms which are comprised in the class of ,flat-worms 7,platyhelminthes71 7the ,gliding-worms1 ,sucker-worms1 ,tape-worms71 differ very strikingly from other ,worms1 in the fact that they possess neither blood nor body-cavity 7no clome72 they are1 therefore1 called ,aclomi4 ,the true cavity1 or clome1 is completely absent in them as in all the ,zoophytes2 in this important respect the two groups are directly allied4 ,but all other ,worms 7like the four higher tribes of animals7 possess a genuine body-cavity and a vascular system connected with it1 which is filled with blood2 hence we class them together as ,clomati4 ,the main division of ,bloodless ,worms 7,aclomi7 contains1 according to our phylogenetic views1 besides the still living ,flat-worms1 the unknown and extinct primary forms of the whole tribe of ,worms1 which we shall call the ,primval ,worms 7,archelminthes74 ,the type of these ,primval ,worms1 the ancient ,prothelmis1 may be directly derived from the ,gastra 7p4 #acc74 ,even at present the ,gastrula-form--the faithful historical portrait of the ,gastra--recurs in the ontogenesis of the most different kinds of worms as a transient larva-form4 ,the ciliated ,gliding-worms 7,turbellaria71 the primary group of the present ,planary or ,flat-worms 7,platyhelminthes71 are the nearest akin to the ,primval ,worms4 ,the parasitical ,sucker-worms 7,trematoda7 arose out of the ,gliding-worms1 which live freely in water1 by adaptation to a parasitical mode of life2 and out of them later on--by an increasing parasitism--arose the ,tape-worms 7,cestoda74 ,out of a branch of the ,aclomi arose the second main division of the ,worm tribe1 the ,worms with blood and body-cavity 7,clomati73 of these there are seven different classes4 ,the ,pedigree on p4 #aea shows how the obscure phylogeny of the seven classes of ,clomati may be supposed to stand4 ,we shall1 however1 mention these classes here quite briefly1 as their relationships and derivation are1 at present1 still very complicated and obscure4 ,more numerous and more accurate investigations of the ontogeny of the different ,clomati will at some future time throw light upon their phylogenesis4 ,the ,round ,worms 7,nemathelminthes7 which we mention as the first class of the ,clomati1 and which are characterized by their cylindrical form1 consist principally of parasitical ,worms which live in the interior of other animals4 ,of human parasites1 the celebrated ,trichin1 the ,maw-worms1 ,whip-worms1 etc41 for example1 belong to them4 ,the ,star-worms 7,gephyrea7 which live exclusively in the sea are allied to round worms1 and the comprehensive class of ,ring-worms 7,annelida7 are allied to the former4 ,to the ,ring-worms1 whose long body is composed of a number of segments1 all alike in structure1 belong the ,leeches 7,hirudinea71 ,earth-worms 7,lumbricina71 and all the marine bristle-footed ,worms 7,chtopoda74 ,nearly akin to them are the ,snout-worms 7,rhynchocla71 and the small microscopic ,wheel-worms 7,rotifera74 ,the unknown1 extinct1 primary forms of the tribe of ,sea-stars 7,echinoderma71 and of the tribe of the articulated animals 7,arthropoda71 were nearest akin to the ,ring-worms4 ,on the other hand1 we must probably look for the primary forms of the great tribe of ,molluscs in extinct ,worms1 which were very closely related to the ,moss-polyps 7,bryozoa7 of the present day2 and for the primary forms of the ,vertebrata in the unknown ,clomati1 whose nearest kin of the present day are the ,sea-sacs1 especially the ,ascidia4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #h ,classes and #bb ,orders of the ,worm ,tribe4 7,compare ,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,v4 pp4 #ge-gg47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,classes ,systematic of the ,orders of the ,name of the ,name of a ,genus ,worm ,tribe4 ,worm ,tribe4 ,orders of ,worms4 as example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #a4 ,flat #a4 ,primval worms #a4 ,archelminthes ,prothelmis ,worms #b4 ,gliding-worms #b4 ,turbellaria ,planaria ,platyhel- #c4 ,sucker-worms #c4 ,trematoda ,distoma minthes #d4 ,tape-worms #d4 ,cestoda ,tnia #b4 ,round #e4 ,arrow-worms #e4 ,chtognatha ,sagitta ,worms #f4 ,thread-worms #f4 ,nematoda ,trichina ,nemathel- #g4 ,hook-headed #g4 ,acanthocephala ,echinorhynchus minthes worms #c4 ,moss #h4 ,horse-shoe-lipped #h4 ,lophopoda ,alcyonella ,polyps #i4 ,circle-lipped #i4 ,stelmopoda ,retepora ,bryozoa #d4 ,sea-sacs #aj4 ,sea-squirts #aj4 ,ascidia ,phallusia ,tunicata #aa4 ,sea-barrels #aa4 ,thaliacea ,salpa #e4 ,proboscideans #ab4 ,tongue-worms #ab4 ,enteropneusta ,balanoglossus ,rhynchocla #ac4 ,cord-worms #ac4 ,nemertina ,borlasia #ad4 ,star-worms without #ad4 ,sipunculida ,sipunculus #f4 ,star-,worms bristles ,gephyrea #ae4 ,star-worms with #ae4 ,echiurida ,echiurus bristles #g4 ,wheel ,animalcule #af4 ,wheel-worms #af4 ,rotatoria ,hydatina ,rotifera #ag4 ,bear-worms #ag4 ,arctisca ,macrobiotus #ah4 ,worms with claws #ah4 ,onychophora ,peripatus #h4 ,ring #ai4 ,leeches #ai4 ,hirudinea ,hirudo ,worms #bj4 ,land-worms #bj4 ,drilomorpha ,lumbricus ,annelida #ba4 ,mailed worms #ba4 ,phracthelminthes ,crossopodia #bb4 ,bristle-footed #bb4 ,chtopoda ,aphrodite worms ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,chtopoda ,drilomorpha -------v-------_/ ,phracthelminthes ,echiurida ,hirudinea ,sipunculida ,onychophora ----v---_/ ,gephyrea ,arctisca --v---_/ ,chtognatha --v-----_/ -----v-----_/ ,nematoda ---------v---------_/ --v--_/ ,annelida ,acantho- cephala ,stelmopoda ,enteropneusta --v--_/ ,nemathelminthes ,lophopoda ,ascidia ,bryozoa ,thalicea ,nemertina ,rotifera ---v-_/ ,rhynchocla --v---_/ ----v---_/ ,tunicata -----------------------v---------------- -------------_/ ,clomati 7worms with body-cavity7 ,cestoda ,trematoda ,turbellaria ,platyhelminthes -------v---------_/ ,aclomi 7worms without body-cavity7 ,archelminthes ,prothelmis ,gastra ,the class of ,sea-sacs 7,tunicata7 is one of the most remarkable among ,worms4 ,they all live in the ocean1 where some of the ,ascidi adhere to the bottom1 while others 7the sea-barrels1 or ,thaliacea7 swim about freely4 ,in all of them the non-jointed body has the form of a simple barrel-shaped sack1 which is surrounded by a thick cartilaginous mantle4 ,this mantle consists of the same non-nitrogenous combination of carbon1 which1 under the name of cellulose1 plays an important part in the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 and forms the largest portion of vegetable cellular membranes1 and consequently also the greater part of wood4 ,the barrel-shaped body generally possesses no external appendages4 ,no one would recognise in them a trace of relationship to the highly differentiated vertebrate animals4 ,and yet this can no longer be doubted1 since ,kowalewsky's investigations1 which in the year #ahfg suddenly threw an exceedingly surprising and unmistakable light upon them4 ,from these investigations it has become clear that the individual development of the adherent simple ,ascidian ,phallusia agrees in most points with that of the lowest vertebrate animal1 namely1 the ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus74 ,the early stages of the ,ascidia possess the beginnings of the spinal marrow and the spinal column 7chorda dorsalis7 lying beneath it1 which are the two most essential and most characteristic organs of the vertebrate animal4 ,accordingly1 of all invertebrate animals known to us1 the ,tunicates are without doubt the nearest blood relations of the ,vertebrates1 and must be considered as the nearest relations of those ,worms out of which the vertebrate tribe has developed4 7,compare ,plates ,,xii4 and ,,xiii47 ,while thus different branches of the ,clomatous group of the ,worms furnish us with several genealogical links leading to the four higher tribes of animals1 and give us important phylogenetic indications of their origin1 the lower group of ,aclomi1 on the other hand1 show close relationships to the ,zoophytes1 and to the ,primval animals4 ,the great phylogenetic interest of the ,worm tribe rests upon this peculiar intermediate position4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,ii4 ,,mollusca1 ,,star-,,fishes1 ,,and ,,articulated ,,animals4 ,tribe of ,molluscs4--,four ,classes of ,molluscs3 ,lamp-shells 7,spirobranchia72 ,mussels 7,lamellibranchia72 ,snails 7,cochlides72 ,cuttle-fish 7,cephalopoda74--,tribe of ,star-fishes1 or ,echinoderma4--,their ,derivation from ,ringed ,worms 7,mailed ,worms1 or ,phracthelminthes74--,the ,alternation of ,generation in the ,echinoderma4--,four ,classes of ,star-fish3 ,sea-stars 7,asteridea72 ,sea-lilies 7,crinoidea72 ,sea-urchins 7,echinidea72 ,sea-cucumbers 7,holothuridea74--,tribe of ,articulated ,animals1 or ,arthropoda4--,four ,classes of ,articulated ,animals3 ,branchiata1 or ,crustacea1 breathing through gills2 ,jointed ,crabs2 ,mailed ,crabs2 ,articulata ,tracheata1 breathing through ,air ,tubes4--,spiders 7,long ,spiders1 ,round ,spiders74--,myriopods4--,insects4--,che wing and ,sucking ,insects4--,pedigree and ,history of the ,eight ,orders of ,insects4 ,the great natural main groups of the animal kingdom1 which we have distinguished as ,,tribes1 or ,,phyla 78types0 according to ,br and ,cuvier71 are not all of equal systematic importance for our phylogeny or history of the pedigree of the living world4 ,they can neither be classed in a single series of stages1 one above another1 nor be considered as entirely independent stems1 nor as equal branches of a single family-tree4 ,it seems rather 7as we saw in the last chapter7 that the tribe of ,protozoa1 the so-called primval animals1 is the common radical group of the whole animal kingdom4 ,out of the ,gastrada--which we class among the ,protozoa--the ,zoophytes and the ,worms have developed1 as two diverging branches4 ,we must now in turn look upon the varied and much-branching tribe of ,worms as the common primary group1 out of which 7from perfectly distinct branches7 arose the remaining tribes1 the four higher phyla of the animal kingdom4 7,compare the ,pedigree1 p4 #acc47 ,let us now take a genealogical look at these four higher tribes of animals1 and try whether we cannot make out the most important outlines of their pedigree4 ,even should this attempt prove defective and imperfect1 we shall at all events have made a beginning1 and paved the road for subsequent and more satisfactory attempts4 ,it does not matter in what succession we take up the examination of the four higher tribes4 ,for these four phyla have no close relationship whatever among one another1 but have grown out from entirely distinct branches of the group of ,worms 7p4 #acc74 ,we may consider the tribe of ,molluscs as the most imperfect and the lowest in point of morphological development4 ,we nowhere meet among them with the characteristic articulation or segmented formation of the body1 which distinguishes even the ,ring-worms1 and which in the other three higher tribes--the ,echinoderma1 ,articulata1 and ,vertebrata--is most essentially connected with the high development of their forms1 their differentiation1 and perfection4 ,the body in all ,molluscs--in mussels1 snails1 etc4--is a simple non-jointed sack1 in the cavity of which lie the intestines4 ,the nervous system consists not of a cord but of several distinct 7generally three7 pairs of knots loosely connected with one another4 ,for these and many other anatomical reasons1 ,i consider the tribe of ,molluscs 7in spite of the high physiological development of its most perfect forms7 to be morphologically the lowest among the four higher tribes of animals4 ,whilst1 for reasons already given1 we exclude the ,moss-polyps1 and ,tunicates--which have hitherto been generally classed with the tribe of ,molluscs--we retain as genuine ,molluscs the following four classes3 ,lamp-shells1 ,mussels1 ,snails1 and ,cuttles4 ,the two lower classes of ,molluscs1 the ,lamp-shells and ,mussels1 possess neither head nor teeth1 and they can therefore be comprised under one main class1 or branch1 as headless animals 7,acephala71 or toothless animals 7,anodontoda74 ,this branch is also frequently called that of the clam-shells 7,conchifera1 or ,bivalvia71 because all its members possess a two-valved calcareous shell4 ,in contrast to these the two higher classes of ,molluscs1 the snails and cuttles1 may be represented as a second branch with the name of ,head-bearers 7,cephalophora71 or ,tooth-bearers 7,odontophora71 because both head and teeth are developed in them4 ,the soft1 sack-shaped body in most ,molluscs is protected by a calcareous shell or house1 which in the ,acephala 7lamp-shells and mussels7 consists of two valves1 but in the ,cephalophora 7snails and cuttles7 is generally a spiral tube 7the so-called snail's house74 ,although these hard skeletons are found in large quantities in a petrified state in all the neptunic strata1 yet they tell us but little of the historical development of the tribe1 which must have taken place for the most part in the primordial period4 ,even in the ,silurian strata we find fossil remains of all the four classes of ,molluscs1 one beside the other1 and this1 conjointly with much other evidence1 distinctly proves that the tribe of ,molluscs had then obtained a strong development1 when the higher tribes1 especially the ,articulates and ,vertebrates1 had scarcely got beyond the beginning of their historical development4 ,in subsequent periods1 especially in the primary and secondary periods1 these higher tribes increased in importance more and more at the expense of ,molluscs and ,worms1 which were no match for them in the struggle for life1 and accordingly decreased in number4 ,the still living ,molluscs and ,worms must be considered as only a proportionately small remnant of the vast molluscan fauna1 which greatly predominated in the primordial and primary periods over the other tribes4 7,compare ,plate ,,vi4 and explanation in the ,appendix47 ,no tribe of animals shows more distinctly than do the ,molluscs1 how very different the value of fossils is in geology and in phylogeny4 ,in geology the different species of the fossil shells of ,molluscs are of the greatest importance because they serve as excellent marks whereby to characterize the different groups of strata1 and to fix their relative ages4 ,as far as relates to the genealogy of ,molluscs1 however1 they are of very little value1 because1 on the one hand1 the shells are parts of quite subordinate morphological importance1 and because the actual development of the tribe belongs to the earlier primordial period1 from which no distinct fossils have been preserved4 ,if therefore we wish to construct the pedigree of ,molluscs1 we are mainly dependent upon the records of ontogeny and comparative anatomy from which we obtain something like the following result4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,vi4 pp4 #ajb-aaf47 ,the lowest stage of the four classes of genuine ,molluscs known to us1 is occupied by the ,lamp-shells or ,spiral-gills 7,spirobranchia71 frequently but inappropriately called ,arm-footers 7,brachiopoda71 which have become attached to the bottom of the sea4 ,there now exist but few forms of this class2 for instance1 some species of ,lingula1 ,terebratula1 and others akin to them1 which are but feeble remnants of the great variety of forms which represented the ,lamp-shells in earlier periods of the earth's history4 ,in the ,silurian period they constituted the principal portion of the whole ,mollusc tribe4 ,from the agreement which1 in many respects1 their early stage of development presents with the ,moss animals1 it has been concluded that they have developed out of ,worms1 which were nearly related to this class4 ,of the two sub-classes of ,lamp-shells1 the ,hinge-less 7,ecardines7 must be looked upon as the lower and more imperfect1 the ,hinged 7,testicardines7 as the higher and more fully developed group4 ,the anatomical difference between the ,lamp-shells and the three other classes of ,molluscs is so considerable that the latter may be distinguished from the former by the name of ,otocardia4 ,all the ,otocardia have a heart with chamber 7ventricle7 and ante-chamber 7auricle71 whereas ,lamp-shells do not possess the ante-chamber4 ,moreover1 the central nervous system is developed only in the former 7and not in the latter7 in the shape of a complete pharyngeal ring4 ,hence the four classes of ,molluscs may be grouped in the following manner3-- #a4 ,lamp-shells ,i4 ,haplocardia ,i4 ,molluscs 7,spirobranchia74 7with simple heart74 without head4 ,acephala4 #b4 ,mussels 7,lamellibranchia74 ,,ii4 ,otocardia 7with chamber ,,ii4 ,molluscs #c4 ,snails and ante-chamber with head4 7,cochlides74 to the heart74 ,cephalophora4 #d4 ,cuttles 7,cephalopoda74 ,the result of these structural dispositions for the history of the pedigree of ,molluscs1 which is confirmed by palontology1 is that ,lamp-shells stand much nearer to the primval root of the whole tribe of ,molluscs than do the ,otocardia4 ,probably ,mussels and ,snails developed as two diverging branches out of ,molluscs1 which were nearly akin to the ,lamp-shells4 ,mussels1 or ,plate-gills 7,lamellibranchia71 possess a bivalved shell like the ,lamp-shells4 ,in the latter1 one of the two valves covers the back1 the other the belly of the animal2 whereas in ,mussels the two valves lie symmetrically on the right and left side of the body4 ,most ,mussels live in the sea1 only a few in fresh water4 ,the class is divided into two sub-classes1 ,asiphonia and ,siphonida1 of which the latter were developed at a later period out of the former4 ,among the ,asiphonia are ,oysters1 mother-of-pearl ,shells1 and fresh water ,mussels2 among the ,siphonida1 which are characterized by a respiratory tube1 are the ,venus-shells1 ,razor-shells1 and ,burrowing ,clams4 ,the higher ,molluscs seem to have developed at a later period out of those without head and teeth2 they are distinguished from the latter by the distinct formation of the head1 and more especially by a peculiar kind of tooth apparatus4 ,their tongue presents a curious plate1 armed with a great number of teeth4 ,in our common ,vineyard ,snail 7,helix pomatia7 the number of teeth amount to #ba1jjj1 and in the large ,garden ,slug 7,limax maximus7 to #bf1hjj4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #d ,classes1 #h ,sub-classes1 and #ba ,orders of ,molluscs4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,classes of ,sub-classes of ,orders of ,systematic ,name ,molluscs4 ,molluscs4 ,molluscs4 of the ,orders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,i4 ,molluscs without head or teeth3 ,,acephala or ,,anodontoda4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i4 ,i4 ,ecardines #a4 ,stalked #a4 ,lingulida ,lamp-shells ,hinge-less #b4 ,flattened #b4 ,craniada ,spirobranchia or ,brachiopoda ,,ii4 ,testicardines #c4 ,fleshy armed #c4 ,sarcobrachia ,hinge-less #d4 ,calcareous-armed #d4 ,sclerobrachia ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,asiphonia #e4 ,one-muscled #e4 ,monomya ,mussels ,mussels without #f4 ,uneven-muscled #f4 ,heteromya or respiratory tubes #g4 ,even-muscled #g4 ,isomya ,plate-gills ,lamellibranchia ,,iv4 ,siphonida #h4 ,round-mantled #h4 ,integripallia or ,mussels with #i4 ,ray-mantled #i4 ,sinupalliata ,phyllobranchia respiratory tubes #aj4 ,tube-mussels #aj4 ,inclusa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,,ii4 ,molluscs with head and teeth3 ,,cephalophora or ,,odontophora4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,v4 ,stump-headed #aa4 ,tube-snails #aa4 ,scaphopoda ,,iii4 ,perocephala #ab4 ,butterfly-snails #ab4 ,pteropoda ,snails #ac4 ,with hind gills #ac4 ,opisthobranchia ,cochlides #ad4 ,with fore gills #ad4 ,prosobranchia or ,,vi4 ,large-headed #ae4 ,swimming-snails #ae4 ,heteropoda ,gasteropoda ,delocephala #af4 ,beetle-snails #af4 ,chitonoida #ag4 ,snails with lungs #ag4 ,pulmonata ,,vii4 ,chamber-,poulps #ah4 ,pearl boats #ah4 ,nautilida ,,iv4 with four gills #ai4 ,ammon's horns #ai4 ,ammonitida ,cuttles ,tetrabranchia or ,poulps ,,viii4 ,ink-,poulps with #bj4 ,ten-armed #bj4 ,decabrachiones two gills ,cephalopoda ,dibranchia #ba4 ,eight-armed #ba4 ,octobrachiones ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,dibranchia ,heteropoda ,prosobranchia ,pulmonata ,tetrabranchia ,lipobranchia ,cephalopoda 7,cuttles or ,poulps7 ,gymnobranchia -------v------_/ ,pleurobranchia ,chitonides ,opisthobranchia ---------------------------------v------ ---_/ ,delocephala --------v----------_/ ,pteropoda ,inclusa ------v-----_/ ,sinupalliata ,scaphopoda ,integripalliata ---v--_/ ,sclerobrachia ,siphoniata ,perocephala ,cochlides 7,snails7 ,sarcobrachia ,asiphonia ,testicardines ,lamellibranchia 7,mussels7 ,ecardines ----------v-------------_/ ,spirobranchia 7,lamp-shells7 ,otocardia 7,molluscs with chamber and ante-chamber to the heart7 -----------------v--------------_/ ,promollusca 7,primval ,molluscs7 ,molluscs with simple heart 7,worms7 ,gastra ,we distinguish two sub-classes among the ,snails 7,cochlides1 or ,gasteropoda71 namely1 the ,stump-headed and the ,large-headed ,snails4 ,the ,stump-headed ,snails 7,perocephala7 are very closely allied to ,mussels 7through the ,tooth-shells71 and also to the ,cuttle-fish 7through the ,butterfly-snails74 ,the more highly developed ,snails1 with large heads 7,delocephala71 can be divided into ,snails with gills 7,branchiata7 and ,snails with lungs 7,pulmonata74 ,among the latter are the ,land-snails1 the only ,molluscs which have left the water and become habituated to a life on land4 ,the great majority of ,snails live in the sea1 only a few live in fresh water4 ,some ,river-snails in the tropics 7the ,ampullaria7 are amphibious1 living sometimes on land1 sometimes in water1 and at one time they breathe through gills1 at another through lungs4 ,they have both kinds of respiratory organs1 like the ,mud-fish and ,gilled ,newts among the ,vertebrata4 ,the fourth and last class1 and at the same time the most highly developed class of ,molluscs1 is that of the ,cuttles1 or ,poulps1 also called ,cephalopoda 7foot attached to the head74 ,they all live in the sea1 and are distinguished from ,snails by eight1 ten1 or more long arms1 which surround the mouth in a circle4 ,the ,cuttles existing in our recent oceans--the ,sepia1 ,calamary1 ,argonaut1 and ,pearly ,nautilus--are1 like the few ,spiral-gill ,lamp-shells of the present time1 but a poor remnant of the host which represents this class in the oceans of the primordial1 primary1 and secondary periods4 ,the numerous fossil 8,ammon's horns0 7,ammonites71 8pearl boats0 7,nautilus71 and 8thunderbolts0 7,belemnites7 are evidences of the long since extinct splendour of the tribe4 ,the ,poulps1 or ,cuttles1 have probably developed out of a low branch of the snail class1 out of the ,butterfly-snails 7,pteropoda7 or kindred forms4 ,the different sub-classes and orders1 distinguished in the four classes of ,molluscs1 whose systematic succession is given on the ,table 7p4 #afj71 furnish various proofs of the validity of the law of progress by their historical development and by the systematic development corresponding to it4 ,as however these subordinate groups of ,molluscs are in themselves of no further special interest1 ,i must refer to the sketch of their pedigree on p4 #afa1 and to the detailed pedigree of ,molluscs which ,i have given in my ,general ,morphology1 and ,i shall now at once turn to the consideration of the tribe of ,star-fishes4 ,the ,star-fishes 7,echinoderma1 or ,estrell7 among which are the four classes of ,sea-stars1 ,sea-lilies1 ,sea-urchins1 and ,sea-cucumbers are one of the most interesting divisions of the animal kingdom1 and yet we know less about them than about any4 ,they all live in the sea4 ,every one who has been at the sea shore must have seen at least two of their forms1 the ,sea-stars and the ,sea-urchins4 ,the tribe of ,star-fishes must be considered as a completely independent tribe of the animal kingdom on account of its very peculiar organization1 and must be carefully distinguished from the ,animal-plants--,zoophytes1 or ,clenterata1 with which it is still frequently but erroneously classed under the name ,radiata 7as for example1 by ,agassiz1 who even to this day defends this error of ,cuvier's1 together with many others74 ,all ,echinoderma are characterized1 and at the same time distinguished from all other animals1 by a very remarkable apparatus for locomotion1 which consists of a complicated system of canals or tubes1 filled with sea water from without4 ,the sea water in these aqueducts is moved partly by the strokes of the cilia1 or vibratile hairs lining their walls1 and partly by the contractions of the muscular walls of the tubes themselves1 which resemble india-rubber bags4 ,the water is pressed from the tubes into a number of little hollow feet1 which thereby become widely distended1 and are then employed for walking and suction4 ,the ,sea-stars are moreover characterized by a peculiar calcareous formation in the skin1 which in most cases forms a firm1 well-closed coat of mail1 composed of a number of plates4 ,in almost all ,echinoderma the body consists of five radii 7counterparts1 or antimera7 standing round the main axis of the body1 where they meet4 ,it is only in some species of ,sea-stars that the number of these radii amount to more than five--to #f-i1 #aj-ab1 or even to #bj-dj2 and in this case the number of radii is generally not constant1 but varies in different individuals of one species4 ,the historical development and the pedigree of the ,echinoderma are completely revealed to us by their numerous and1 in most cases1 excellently preserved fossil remains1 by their very remarkable individual developmental history1 and by their interesting comparative anatomy2 this is the case with no other tribe of animals1 even the ,vertebrata themselves are not to be excepted4 ,by a critical use of those three archives1 and by a careful comparison of the results derived from their study1 we obtain the following genealogy of the ,star-fishes1 which ,i have already published in my ,general ,morphology 7vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,iv4 pp4 #fb-gg47 ,the most ancient and original group of the ,star-fishes1 the primary form of the whole phylum1 consists of the class of the true ,sea-stars 7,asterida74 ,this is established by numerous and important arguments in anatomy and the history of development1 but above all by the irregular and varying number of the radii1 or antimera1 which in all other ,echinoderma is limited1 without exception1 to five4 ,every ,star-fish consists of a central1 small1 body-disc1 all round the circumference of which are attached five or several long articulated arms4 ,each arm of the ,star-fish essentially corresponds in its organisation with an articulated worm of the class of ,ring-worms1 or ,annelida 7p4 #adi74 ,i therefore consider the ,star-fish as a genuine stock or cormus of five or more articulated worms1 which have arisen by the star-wise growth of a number of buds out of a central mother-worm4 ,the connected members1 thus grouped like the rays of a star1 have inherited from the mother-worm the common opening of the mouth1 and the common digestive cavity 7stomach7 lying in the central body-disc4 ,the end by which they have grown together1 and which fuses in the common central disc1 probably corresponds to the posterior end of the original independent worms4 ,in exactly the same way several individuals of certain kinds of worms are united so as to form a star-like cormus4 ,this is the case in the ,botryllid1 compound ,ascidians1 belonging to the class of the ,tunicata4 ,here also the posterior ends of the individual worms have grown together1 and have formed a common outlet for discharges1 a central cloaca2 whereas at the anterior end each worm still possesses its own mouth4 ,in ,star-fishes the original mouths have probably become closed in the course of the historical development of the cormus1 or colony1 whereas the cloaca has developed into a common mouth for the whole cormus4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #d ,classes1 #i ,sub-classes1 and #bj ,orders of ,star-fishes4 7,compare ,gen4 ,morph4 ,,ii4 ,plate ,,iv4 pp4 #fb-fg47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,classes of the ,sub-classes of the ,orders of the ,systematic ,name ,star-fishes4 ,star-fishes4 ,star-fishes4 of the ,orders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,i4 #a4 ,primary ,stars #a4 ,tecastra ,sea ,stars with radiated #b4 ,articulated ,stars #b4 ,colastra ,i4 stomach #c4 ,brisinga ,stars #c4 ,brisingastra ,sea ,stars ,actinogastra ,asterida ,,ii4 #d4 ,serpent ,stars #d4 ,ophiastra ,sea ,stars with disc- #e4 ,tree ,stars #e4 ,phytastra shaped stomach #f4 ,lily ,stars #f4 ,crinastra ,discogastra ,,iii4 #g4 ,plated ,lilies with #g4 ,phatnocrinida ,lilies with arms arms ,brachiata #h4 ,articulated ,lilies #h4 ,colocrinida with arms ,,ii4 ,,iv4 #i4 ,regularly budding #i4 ,pentremitida ,sea ,lilies ,lilies with buds ,lilies ,crinoida ,blastoidea #aj4 ,lilies budding on #aj4 ,eleutherocrina two sides ,v4 #aa4 ,bladder ,lilies #aa4 ,agelacrinida ,bladder ,lilies without stalks ,cystidea #ab4 ,bladder ,lilies #ab4 ,sphronitida with stalks ,,vi4 #ac4 ,palechinida with #ac4 ,melonitida ,older ,sea ,urchins more than #aj 7with more than rows of ambulacral #bj rows of plates7 plates ,,iii4 ,palechinida #ad4 ,palechinida with #ad4 ,eocidaria ,sea ,urchins #aj rows of ,echinida ,,vii4 ambulacral plates ,more recent ,sea #ae4 ,autechinida with #ae4 ,desmosticha ,urchins 7with #bj band-like ambulacra rows of plates7 #af4 ,autechnidia with #af4 ,petalosticha ,autechinida leaf-like ambulacra ,,viii4 #ag4 ,eupodia with scuti- #ag4 ,aspidochirota ,sea ,cucumbers form tentacles with aquatic feet #ah4 ,eupodia with #ah4 ,dendrochirota ,,iv4 ,eupodia branching tentacles ,sea ,cucumbers ,,ix4 ,holothuri ,sea ,cucumbers #ai4 ,apodia with water- #ai4 ,liodermatida without aquatic lungs feet #bj4 ,apodia without #bj4 ,synaptida ,apodia water-lungs ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,clypeastrid ,spatangid ,dysasterid ,aspidochirota ------v------_/ ,synaptida ,cassidulid ,petalosticha ,liodermatida ,apodia ------v-------_/ ,echinonid ,galeritid ,echinometrid ---------v-----------_/ ------v---------_/ ,dendrochirota ,eupodia ,latistell ,holothuri ,salenid ------v------_/ ------v------------_/ ,angustistell ,desmosticha ,autechinida ,colocrin ,sphronitid ,phytastra ,eocidarid ,eleutherocrina ,ophiastra ,agelacrin ,discogastra ,cystidea ,melonitida ,phatnocrin ,brisingastra ,palechinida ,brahiata ,pentremitida ,echinida ,blastoidea ,colastra ----------v-----------------_/ -------v-----------_/ ,brachiata ,crinoida ,crinastra -------------------------v-------------- --------------------_/ ,tocastra ,actinogastra ,asterida ,phracthelminthes ,clomati ,gastra ,hence the ,star-fishes would be compound stocks of worms which1 by the radial formation of buds1 have developed out of true articulated worms1 or ,annelids4 ,this hypothesis is most strongly supported by the comparative anatomy1 and by the ontogeny of some ,star-fishes 7,colastra71 and of segmented worms4 ,the many-jointed ,ring-worms 7,annelida7 in their inner structure are closely allied to the individual arms or radii of the ,star-fishes1 that is to the original single worms1 which each arm represents4 ,each of the five worms of the ,star-fish is a chain composed of a great number of equi-formal members1 or metamera1 lying one behind the other1 like every segmented ,worm1 and every ,arthropod4 ,as in the latter a central nervous cord1 the ventral nerve cord runs along the central line of the ventral wall of each segment4 ,on each metameron there is a pair of non-jointed feet1 and besides these1 in most cases1 one or more hard thorns or bristles similar to those of many ,ring-worms4 ,a detached arm of a ,star-fish can lead an independent life1 and can then1 by the radially-directed growth of buds at one end1 again become a complete star4 ,the most important proofs1 however1 of the truth of my hypothesis are furnished by the ontogeny or the individual development of the ,echinoderma4 ,the most remarkable facts of this ontogeny were first discovered in the year #ahdh by the great zoologist1 ,johannes ,mller of ,berlin4 ,some of its most important stages are represented on ,plates ,,viii4 and ,,ix4 7,compare their explanation in the ,appendix47 ,fig4 ,a on ,plate ,,ix4 shows us a common ,sea-star 7,uraster71 ,fig4 ,b1 a ,sea-lily 7,comatula71 ,fig4 ,c1 a ,sea-urchin 7,echinus71 and ,fig4 ,d1 a ,sea-cucumber 7,synapta74 ,in spite of the extraordinary difference of form manifested by these four representatives of the different classes of ,star-fishes1 yet the beginning of their development is identical in all cases4 ,out of the egg an animal-form develops which is utterly different from the fully developed ,star-fish1 but very like the ciliated larv of certain segmented ,worms 7,star-worms and ,ring-worms74 ,this peculiar animal-form is generally called the 8larva10 but more correctly the 8nurse0 of these ,star-fish4 ,it is very small and transparent1 swims about by means of a fringe of cilia1 and is always composed of two equal symmetrical halves or sides4 ,the fully grown ,echinoderm1 however--which is frequently more than a hundred times larger1 and quite opaque--creeps at the bottom of the sea1 and is always composed of at least five co-ordinate pieces1 or antimera1 in the form of radii4 ,plate ,,viii4 shows the development of the 8nurses0 of the four ,echinoderms represented on ,plate ,,ix4 ,the fully developed ,echinoderm arises by a very remarkable process of budding in the interior of the 8nurse10 of which it retains little more than the stomach4 ,the nurse1 erroneously called the 8larva10 of the ,echinoderm1 must accordingly be regarded as a solitary worm1 which by internal budding produces a second generation1 in the form of a stock of star-shaped and connected worms4 ,the whole of this process is a genuine alternation of generations1 or metagenesis1 not a 8metamorphosis10 as is generally though erroneously stated4 ,a similar alternation of generations also occurs in many other worms1 especially in some star worms 7,sipunculid71 and cord worms 7,nemertin74 ,now if1 bearing in mind the fundamental law of biogeny1 we refer the ontogeny of ,echinoderma to their phylogeny1 then the whole historical development of the ,star-fishes suddenly becomes clear and intelligible to us1 whereas without this hypothesis it remains an insoluble mystery4 7,compare ,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 pp4 #ie-ii47 ,besides the reasons mentioned1 there are many other facts 7principally from the comparative anatomy of ,echinoderma7 which most distinctly prove the correctness of my hypothesis4 ,i established this hypothesis in #ahff1 without having any idea that fossil articulated worms still existed1 apparently answering to the hypothetical primary forms4 ,such have in the mean time1 however1 really been discovered4 ,in a treatise 8,on the ,equivalent of the ,north ,american ,taconic ,schist in ,germany10#c ,geinitz and ,liebe1 in #ahfg1 have described a number of articulated ,silurian worms1 which completely confirm my suppositions4 ,numbers of these very remarkable worms are found in an excellent state of preservation in the slates of ,wrzbach1 in the upper districts of ,reusz4 ,they are of the same structure as the articulated arm of a ,star-fish1 and evidently possessed a hard coat of mail1 a much denser1 more solid cutaneous skeleton than other worms in general4 ,the number of body-segments1 or metamera1 is very considerable1 so that the worms1 although no more than a quarter or half an inch in breadth1 attained a length of from two to three feet4 ,the excellently preserved impressions1 especially those of the ,phyllodocites thuringiacus and ,crossopodia ,henrici1 are so like the arms of many ,star-fish 7,colastra7 that their true blood relationship seems very probable4 ,this primval group of worms1 which are most probably the ancestors of ,star-fish1 ,i call ,mailed worms 7,phracthelminthes1 p4 #aej47 ,illustration3 ,pl4 viii4 ,,star ,,fishes4 ,,first ,,generation4 ,,worm ,,person4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ix4 ,,star ,,fishes4 ,,second ,,generation4 ,,worm ,,stock4 ,the three other classes of ,echinoderma evidently arose at a later period out of the class of ,sea-stars which have most faithfully retained the original form of the stellate colony of worms4 ,the ,sea-lilies1 or ,crinoida1 differ least from them1 but having given up the free1 slow motion possessed by other ,sea-stars1 they have become adherent to rocks1 etc41 and form for themselves a long stalk4 ,some ,encrinites1 however 7for example1 the ,comatul1 ,fig4 ,b1 on ,plates ,,viii4 and ,,ix471 afterwards detach themselves from their stalk4 ,the original worm individuals in the ,crinoida are indeed no longer preserved in the same independent condition as in the case of the common star-fish2 but they nevertheless always possess articulated arms extending from a common central disc4 ,hence we may unite the ,sea-lilies and ,sea-stars into a main-class1 or branch1 characterized as possessing articulated arms 7,colobrachia74 ,in the other two classes of ,echinoderma1 the ,sea-urchins and ,sea-cucumbers1 the articulated arms are no longer present as independent parts1 but1 by the increased centralization of the stock1 have completely fused so as to form a common1 inflated1 central disc1 which now looks like a simple box or capsule without arms4 ,the original stock of five individuals has apparently degenerated to the form-value of a simple individual1 a single person4 ,hence we may represent these two classes as a branch characterized as being without arms 7,lipobrachia71 equivalent to those which possess articulated arms4 ,the first of these two classes1 that of ,sea-urchins 7,echinida7 takes its name from the numerous and frequently very large thorns which cover the hard shell1 which is itself artistically built up of calcareous plates4 7,fig4 ,c1 ,plates ,,viii4 and ,,ix47 ,the fundamental form of the shell itself is a pentagonal pyramid4 ,the ,sea-urchins probably developed directly out of the group of ,sea-stars4 ,the different classes and orders of marine lilies and stars which are given in the following table1 illustrate the laws of progress and differentiation in a striking manner4 ,in each succeeding period of the earth's history we see the individual classes continually increasing in variety and perfection4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,,iv47 ,the history of three of these classes of ,star-fish is very minutely recorded by numerous and excellently preserved fossils1 but on the other hand1 we know almost nothing of the historical development of the fourth class1 that of the ,sea-cucumbers 7,holothuri74 ,these curious sausage-shaped ,star-fish manifest externally a deceptive similarity to worms4 7,fig4 ,d1 ,plates ,,viii4 and ,,ix47 ,the skeletal structures in their skin are very imperfect1 and hence no distinct remains of their elongated1 cylindrical1 worm-like body could be preserved in a fossil state4 ,however1 from the comparative anatomy of the ,holothuri1 we can infer that they have arisen1 by the softening of the cutaneous skeleton1 from members of the class of ,sea-urchins4 ,from the ,star-fish we turn to the fifth and most highly developed tribe of the invertebrate animals1 namely1 the phylum of ,articulata1 or those with jointed feet 7,arthropoda74 ,as has already been remarked1 this tribe corresponds to ,linnus' class of ,insects4 ,it contains four classes3 7#a7 the genuine six-legged ,insects1 or ,flies2 7#b7 the eight-legged ,spiders2 7#c7 the ,centipedes1 with numerous pairs of legs2 and 7#d7 the ,crabs1 or ,crustacea1 whose legs vary in number4 ,the last class breathe water through gills1 and may therefore be contrasted as the main-class of gill-breathing ,arthropoda1 or ,gilled ,insects 7,carides71 with the three first classes4 ,the latter breathe air by means of peculiar wind-pipes1 or trache1 and may therefore appropriately be united to form the main-class of the trachea-breathing ,arthropoda1 or ,tracheate ,insects 7,tracheata74 ,in all animals with articulated feet1 as the name indicates1 the legs are distinctly articulated1 and by this1 as well as by the strong differentiation of the separate parts of the body1 or metamera1 they are sharply distinguished from ,ringed worms1 with which ,br and ,cuvier classed them4 ,they are1 however1 in every respect so like the ,ringed worms that they can scarcely be considered altogether distinct from them4 ,they1 like the ,ringed worms1 possess a very characteristic form of the central nervous system1 the so-called ventral marrow1 which commences in a gullet-ring encircling the mouth4 ,from other facts also1 it is evident that the ,arthropoda developed at a late period out of articulated worms4 ,probably either the ,wheel ,animalcules or the ,ringed worms are their nearest blood relations in the ,worm tribe4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 ,plate ,v4 pp4 #he-ajb47 ,now1 although the derivation of the ,arthropoda from ringed ,worms may be considered as certain1 still it cannot with equal assurance be maintained that the whole tribe of the former has arisen out of one branch of the latter4 ,for several reasons seem to support the supposition that the ,gilled ,arthropods have developed out of a branch of articulated worms1 different from that which gave rise to the ,tracheate ,arthropods4 ,but on the whole it remains more probable that both main-classes have arisen out of one and the same group of ,worms4 ,in this case the ,tracheate ,insects--,spiders1 ,flies1 and ,centipedes--must have branched off at a later period from the gill-breathing ,insects1 or ,crustacea4 ,the pedigree of the ,arthropoda can on the whole be clearly made out from the palontology1 comparative anatomy1 and ontogeny of its four classes1 although here1 as everywhere else1 many details remain very obscure4 ,not until the history of the individual development of all the different groups has become more accurately known than it is at present1 can this obscurity be removed4 ,the history of the class of ,gilled ,insects1 or ,crabs 7,carides71 is at present that best known to us2 they are also called encrusted animals 7,crustacea71 on account of the hard crust or covering of their body4 ,the ontogeny of these animals is extremely interesting and1 like that of ,vertebrate animals1 distinctly reveals the essential outlines of the history of their tribe1 that is1 their phylogeny4 ,fritz ,mller1 in his work1 8,fr ,darwin107#af7 which has already been referred to1 has explained this remarkable series of facts in a very able manner4 ,illustration3 ,nauplius4 ,youth-form of six ,crab-fish4 ,pl4 ,x4 ,a4 ,limnetis4 ,b4 ,cyclops4 ,c4 ,lernacocera4 ,d4 ,lepas4 ,e4 ,sacculina4 ,f4 ,peneus4 ,illustration3 ,adult form of the same six ,crab-fish4 ,pl4 ,,xi4 ,a4 ,limnetis4 ,b4 ,cyclops4 ,c4 ,lernacocera4 ,d4 ,lepas4 ,e4 ,sacculina4 ,f4 ,peneus4 ,the common primary form of all ,crabs1 which in most cases is even now the first to develop out of the egg1 is originally one and the same1 the so-called ,nauplius4 ,this remarkable primval crab represents a very simple form of articulated animal1 the body of which in general has the form of a roundish1 oval1 or pear-shaped disc1 and has on its ventral side only three pairs of legs4 ,the first of these is uncloven1 the two subsequent pairs are forked4 ,in front1 above the mouth1 lies a simple1 single eye4 ,although the different orders of the ,crustacean class differ very widely from one another in the structure of their body and its appendages1 yet the early ,nauplius form always remains essentially the same4 ,in order to be convinced of this1 let the reader look attentively at ,plates ,x4 and ,,xi41 a more detailed explanation of which is given in the ,appendix4 ,on ,plate ,,xi4 we see the fully developed representatives of six different orders of ,crabs1 a ,leaf-footed ,crab 7,limnetis1 ,fig4 ,a c72 a ,stalked ,crab 7,lepas1 ,fig4 ,d c72 a ,root ,crab 7,sacculina1 ,fig4 ,e c72 a ,boatman ,crab 7,cyclops1 ,fig4 ,b c72 a ,fish ,louse 7,lernocera1 ,fig4 ,c c72 and1 lastly1 a highly developed ,shrimp 7,peneus1 ,fig4 ,f c74 ,these six crabs vary very much1 as we see1 in the entire form of body1 in the number and formation of the legs1 etc4 ,when1 however1 we look at the earliest stages1 or 8nauplius10 of these six different classes1 after they have crept out of the egg--those marked with corresponding letters on ,plate ,x4 7,fig4 ,a n-,f n7--we shall be surprised to find how much they agree4 ,the different forms of ,nauplius of these six orders differ no more from one another than would six different 8good species0 of one genus4 ,consequently1 we may with assurance infer a common derivation of all those orders from a common ,primval ,crab1 which was essentially like the ,nauplius of the present day4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #g ,legions and #bj ,orders of ,crabs1 or ,crustacea4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,legions of the ,orders of the ,systema ,name ,name of a ,crustace4 ,crustace4 of the ,orders4 ,genus as an example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,i4 ,,entomostraca1 ,lower ,crustacea1 or ,segmented ,crabs 7not passing through the actual ,zoa form in youth74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,i4 ,branchiopoda #a4 ,primval ,crabs #a4 ,archicarida ,nauplius ,gill-footed ,crabs #b4 ,leaf-foot ,crabs #b4 ,phyllopoda ,limnetis #c4 ,trilobites #c4 ,trilobita ,paradoxides #d4 ,water ,fleas #d4 ,cladocera ,daphnia #e4 ,bivalve ,crabs #e4 ,ostracoda ,cypris ,,ii4 ,pectostraca #f4 ,barnacle ,crabs #f4 ,cirripedia ,lepas ,fixed ,crabs #g4 ,root ,crabs #g4 ,rhizocephala ,sacculina ,,iii4 ,copepoda #h4 ,boatmen ,crabs #h4 ,eucopepoda ,cyclops ,oar-footed ,crabs #i4 ,fish ,lice #i4 ,siphonostoma ,lernocera ,,iv4 ,pantopoda #aj4 ,no-body ,crabs #aj4 ,pycnogonida ,nymphon ,no-body ,crabs ,v4 ,pcilopoda #aa4 ,spear-tails #aa4 ,xiphosura ,limulus ,shield ,crabs #ab4 ,giant ,crabs #ab4 ,gigantostraca ,eurypterus ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,ii4 ,,malacostraca1 ,higher ,crustacea1 or ,mailed ,crabs 7passing through the ,zoa form in youth74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,vi4 ,podophthalma #ac4 ,zoa ,crabs #ac4 ,zopoda ,zoa ,stalk-eyed ,mailed #ad4 ,split-legged ,crabs #ad4 ,schizopoda ,mysis ,crabs #ae4 ,mouth-footed ,crabs #ae4 ,stomatopoda ,squilla #af4 ,ten-footed ,crabs #af4 ,decapoda ,peneus ,,vii4 ,edriophthalma #ag4 ,cuma ,crabs #ag4 ,cumacea ,cuma ,mailed ,crabs with #ah4 ,flea ,crabs #ah4 ,amphipoda ,gammarus sessile eyes #ai4 ,wizard ,crabs #ai4 ,lmodipoda ,caprella #bj4 ,louse ,crabs #bj4 ,isopoda ,oniscus ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,brachyura ,isopoda ,lmodipoda ,anomura ,amphipoda -----v----_/ ,macrura ,decapoda ,stomatopoda ,cumacea ,edriophthalma ----v----_/ ---------------------------v------------ _/ ,schizopoda ,podophthalma ,zopoda ,malacostraca ,gigantostraca ,rhizocephala ,siphonostoma ,xiphosur ,zoa ,cirripedi ,pectostraca ------v------_/ ,pcilopoda ,nebali ,eucopepoda ,belinur ,copepoda ,pycnogonida ,pantopoda ,trilobita ,phyllopoda ,ostracoda ,cladocer -----------------v-------_/ ---v---_/ ,branchiopoda ----------------------v----------------- --------_/ ,nauplius ,archicarid 7,articulated ,worms7 ,the pedigree on p4 #agg will show how we may at present approximately conceive the derivation of the twenty orders of ,crustacea enumerated on p4 #agf1 from the common primary form of the ,nauplius4 ,out of the ,nauplius form--which originally existed as an independent genus--the five legions of lower ,crabs developed as diverging branches in different directions1 which in the systematic survey of the class are united as ,segmented ,crabs 7,entomostraca74 ,the higher division of ,mailed ,crabs 7,malacostraca7 have likewise originated out of the common ,nauplius form4 ,the ,nebalia is still a direct form of transition from the ,phyllopods to the ,schizopods1 that is1 to the primary form of the stalk-eyed and sessile-eyed ,mailed ,crabs4 ,the ,nauplius at this stage gives rise to another larva form1 the so-called ,zoa1 which is of great importance4 ,the order of ,schizopoda1 those with cloven feet 7,mysis1 etc471 probably originated from this curious ,zoa2 they are at present still directly allied1 through the ,nebalia to the ,phyllopoda1 those with foliaceous feet4 ,but of all living crabs the ,phyllopods are the most closely allied to the original primary form of the ,nauplius4 ,out of the ,schizopoda the stalk-eyed and sessile-eyed ,mailed ,crabs1 or ,malacostraca1 developed as two diverging branches in different directions3 the former through shrimps 7,peneus1 etc471 the latter through the ,cumacea 7,cuma1 etc471 which are still living and closely allied to the ,schizopoda4 ,among those with stalked eyes is the river crab 7cray-fish71 the lobster1 and the others with long tails1 or the ,macrura1 out of which1 in the chalk period1 the short-tailed crabs1 or ,brachyura1 developed by the degeneration of the tail4 ,those with sessile eyes divide into the two branches of ,flea-crabs 7,amphipoda7 and ,louse-crabs 7,isopoda72 among the latter are our common ,rock-slaters and ,wood-lice4 ,the second main-class of ,articulated animals1 that of the ,tracheata1 or air-breathing ,tracheate ,insects#d 7,spiders1 ,centipedes1 and ,flies7 did not develop until the beginning of the palolithic era1 after the close of the archilithic period1 because all these animals 7in contrast with the aquatic crabs7 are originally inhabitants of land4 ,it is evident that the ,tracheata can have developed only after the lapse of the ,silurian period when terrestrial life first began4 ,but as fossil remains of spiders and insects have been found1 even in the carboniferous beds1 we can pretty accurately determine the time of their origin4 ,the development of the first ,tracheate ,insects out of gill-bearing ,zoa-crabs1 must have taken place between the end of the ,silurian and the beginning of the coal period1 that is1 in the ,devonian period4 ,gegenbaur1 in his excellent 8,outlines of ,comparative ,anatomy107#ba7 has lately endeavoured to explain the origin of the ,tracheata by an ingenious hypothesis4 ,the system of trache1 or air pipes1 and the modifications of organization dependent upon it1 distinguish ,flies1 ,centipedes1 and ,spiders so much from other animals1 that the conception of its first origin presents no inconsiderable difficulties to phylogeny4 ,according to ,gegenbaur1 of all living ,tracheate ,insects1 the ,primval ,flies1 or ,archiptera1 are most closely allied to the common primary form of the ,tracheata4 ,these insects--among which we may especially mention the delicate ,day flies 7,ephemera71 and the agile dragon-flies 7,libellula7--in their earliest youth1 as larv1 frequently possess external tracheate gills which lie in two rows on the back of the body1 and are shaped like a leaf or paint-brush4 ,similar leaf or paint-brush shaped organs are met with as real water-breathing organs or gills1 in many crabs and ringed worms1 and1 moreover1 in the latter as real dorsal appendages or limbs4 ,the 8tracheate gills10 found in the larv of many primval winged insects1 must in all probability be explained as 8dorsal limbs10 and as having developed out of the corresponding appendages of the ,annelida1 or possibly as having really arisen out of similar parts in ,crustacea long since extinct4 ,the present tracheal respiration of the ,tracheata developed at a later period out of respiration through the 8tracheate gills40 ,the tracheate gills themselves1 however1 have in some cases disappeared1 and in others become transformed into the wings of the ,flies4 ,they have disappeared entirely in the classes of ,spiders and ,centipedes1 and these groups must accordingly be conceived of as degenerated or peculiarly developed lateral branches of the ,fly class1 which at an early period branched off from the common primary form of ,flies2 ,spiders probably did so at an earlier period than ,centipedes4 ,whether that common primary form of all ,tracheata1 which in my ,general ,morphology ,i have named ,protracheata1 did develop directly out of genuine ,ringed worms1 or at first out of ,crustacea of the ,zoa form 7,zopoda1 p4 #agg7 will probably be settled at some future time by a more accurate knowledge and comparison of the ontogeny of the ,tracheata1 ,crustacea1 and ,annelida4 ,however1 the root of the ,tracheata1 as well as that of the ,crustacea1 must in any case be looked for in the group of ,ringed worms4 ,the genuine ,spiders 7,arachnida7 are distinguished from ,flies by the absence of wings1 and by four pairs of legs2 but1 as is distinctly seen in the ,scorpion-spiders and ,tarantul1 they1 like ,flies1 possess in reality only three pairs of genuine legs4 ,the apparent 8fourth pair of legs0 in spiders 7the foremost7 are in reality a pair of feelers4 ,among the still existing ,spiders1 there is a small group which is probably very closely allied to the common primary form of the whole class2 this is the order of ,scorpion-spiders1 or ,solifug1 7,solpuga1 ,galeodes71 of which several large species live in ,africa and ,asia1 and are dreaded on account of their poisonous bite4 ,their body consists--as we suppose to have been the case in the common ancestor of the ,tracheata--of a head possessing several pairs of feelers like legs1 of a thorax1 to the three rings of which are attached three pairs of legs1 and of a hinder body1 or abdomen1 consisting of many distinct rings4 ,in the articulation of their body1 the ,solifug are therefore in reality more closely related to flies than to other spiders4 ,out of the ,devonian ,primval ,spiders1 which were nearly related to the ,solifug of the present day1 the ,long ,spiders1 the ,tailor ,spiders1 and the ,round ,spiders probably developed as three diverging branches4 ,the ,long ,spiders 7,arthrogastres71 in which the earlier articulation of body has been better preserved than in ,round ,spiders1 appear to be the older and more original forms4 ,the most important members of this sub-class are the scorpions1 which are connected with the ,solifug through the ,tarantella 7or ,phrynid74 ,the small book scorpions1 which inhabit our libraries and herbariums1 appear as a degenerate lateral branch from the true scorpions4 ,midway between the ,scorpions and ,round ,spiders are the long-legged ,tailor-spiders 7,opiliones7 which have possibly arisen out of a special branch of the ,solifug4 ,the ,pycnogonida1 or ,no-body ,crabs1 and the ,arctisca1 or ,bear ,worms--still generally included among ,long ,spiders--must be completely excluded from the class of ,spiders2 the former belong to the ,crustacea1 the latter to ,ringed worms4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #c ,classes and #ag ,orders of the ,tracheata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,classes of the ,sub-,classes of the ,order of the ,two ,names of ,tracheata4 ,tracheata4 ,tracheata4 ,genera as examples4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #a4 ,scorpion spiders ,solpuga ,solifug ,galeodes #b4 ,tarantella ,phrynus ,phrynida ,thelyphonus ,i4 ,i4 ,long spiders #c4 ,scorpions ,scorpio ,spiders ,arthrogastres ,scorpioda ,buthus ,arachnida #d4 ,book scorpions ,obisium ,pseudoscorpioda ,chelifer #e4 ,tailor spiders ,phalangium ,opilionida ,opilio ,,ii4 #f4 ,spinning spiders ,epeira ,round spiders ,arane ,mygale ,sphrogastres #g4 ,mites ,sarcoptes ,acarida ,demodex ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,centipedes ,simple-footed #h4 ,simple-footed ,scolopendra ,chilopoda ,chilopoda ,geophilus ,scolopendria ,,iv4 #i4 ,double-footed ,julus or ,double-footed ,diplopoda ,polydesmus ,myriapoda ,diplopoda #aj4 ,primitive flies ,ephemera ,archiptera ,libellula #aa4 ,gauze-wings ,hemerobius ,neuroptera ,phryganea ,v4 ,chewing #ab4 ,straight-wings ,locusta ,masticantia ,orthoptera ,forficula ,,iii4 #ac4 ,beetles ,cicindela ,flies ,coleoptera ,melolontha ,hexapoda #ad4 ,bee-wings ,apis ,hymenoptera ,formica #ae4 ,bugs ,aphis ,,vi4 ,hemiptera ,cimex ,sucking ,sugentia #af4 ,two-wings ,culex ,diptera ,musca #ag4 ,butterflies ,bombyx ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,butterflies ,lepidoptera ,bees ,two-wings ,hymenoptera ,diptera ,beetles ,bugs ,coleoptera -------v-----_/ ,hemiptera ,gauze wings ,straight-wings ,neuroptera -------v------_/ ,orthoptera ----------------------v----------------- ------------_/ ,primval ,flies ,archiptera ,scorpions ,double-footed ,scorpioda ,diplopoda ,tailor ,spiders ,opiliones ,book ,scorpions ,mites ,pseudoscorpioda ,acarida -----v-----_/ ,tarantella ,weaving ,spiders ,phrynida ,simple-footed ,arane ,chilopoda ,centipedes ,myriapoda -------------v--------_/ ,scorpion ,spiders ,solifug ,spiders4 ,arachnida ,flies ,insecta ,hexapoda --------------------v------------------- --_/ ,primary ,air-breathing ,arthropods ,protracheata ,articulated ,worms ,coelminthes ,fossil remains of ,long ,spiders are found in the ,coal4 ,the second sub-class of the ,arachnida1 the ,round ,spiders 7,sphrogastres71 first appear in the fossil state in the ,jura1 that is1 at a very much later period4 ,they have developed out of a branch of the ,solifuga1 by the rings of the body becoming more and more united with one another4 ,in the true ,spinning ,spiders 7,arane71 which we admire on account of their delicate skill in weaving1 the union of the joints of the trunk1 or metamera1 goes so far1 that the trunk now consists of only two pieces1 of a head-breast 7cephalo-thorax7 with jaws1 feelers1 and four pairs of legs1 and of a hinder body without appendages1 where the spinning warts are placed4 ,in ,mites 7,acarida71 which have probably arisen by degeneration 7especially by parasitism7 out of a lateral branch of ,spinning ,spiders1 even these two trunk pieces have become united and now form an unsegmented mass4 ,the class of ,scolopendria1 ,myriapoda1 or ,centipedes1 the smallest and poorest in forms of the four classes of ,arthropoda1 is characterized by a very elongated body1 like that of a segmented ,ringed worm1 and often possesses more than a hundred pairs of legs4 ,but these animals also originally developed out of a six-legged form of ,tracheata1 as is distinctly proved by the individual development of the millipede in the egg4 ,their embryos have at first only three pairs of legs1 like genuine insects1 and only at a later period do the posterior pairs of legs bud1 one by one1 from the growing rings of the hinder body4 ,of the two orders of ,centipedes 7which in our country live under barks of trees1 in moss1 etc47 the round1 double-footed ones 7,diplopoda7 probably did not develop until a later period out of the older flat1 single-footed ones 7,chilopoda71 by successive pairs of rings of the body uniting together4 ,fossil remains of the ,chilopoda are first met with in the ,jura period4 ,the third and last class of the ,arthropoda breathing through trache1 is that of the ,flies1 or ,insects1 in the narrow sense of the word 7,insecta1 or ,hexapoda71 the largest of all classes of animals1 and next to that of ,mammalia1 also the most important4 ,although ,flies develop a greater variety of genera and species than all other animals taken together1 yet these are all in reality only superficial variations of a single type1 which is entirely and constantly preserved in its essential characteristics4 ,in all ,flies the three divisions of the trunk--head1 breast 7thorax71 and hinder body are quite distinct4 ,the hinder body1 or abdomen1 as in the case of spiders1 has no articulated appendages4 ,the central division1 the breast or thorax1 has on its ventral side three pairs of legs1 on its back two pairs of wings4 ,it is true that1 in very many ,flies1 one or both pairs of wings have become reduced in size or have even entirely disappeared2 but the comparative anatomy of ,flies distinctly shows that this deficiency has arisen only gradually by the degeneration of the wings1 and that all the ,flies existing at present are derived from a common1 primary ,fly1 which possessed three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings4 7,compare p4 #bef47 ,these wings1 which so strikingly distinguish ,flies from all other ,arthropoda1 probably arose1 as has been already shown1 out of the tracheate gills which may still be observed in the larv of the ephemeral flies 7,ephemera7 which live in water4 ,the head of ,flies universally possesses1 besides the eyes1 a pair of articulated feelers1 or antenn1 and also three jaws upon each side of the mouth4 ,these three pairs of jaws1 although they have arisen in all ,flies from the same original basis1 by different kinds of adaptation1 have become changed to very varied and remarkable forms in the various orders1 and are therefore employed for distinguishing and characterizing the main divisions of the class4 ,in the first place1 we may distinguish two main divisions1 namely1 ,flies with chewing mandibles 7,masticantia7 and ,flies with sucking mouths 7,sugentia74 ,on a closer examination each of these two divisions may again be divided into two sub-groups4 ,among chewing ,flies1 or ,masticantia1 we may distinguish the biting and the licking ones4 ,biting flies 7,mordentia7 comprise the most ancient and primval winged ,flies1 the gauzy-winged 7,neuroptera71 straight-winged 7,orthoptera71 and beetles 7,coleoptera74 ,licking flies 7,lambentia7 are represented by the one order of skin-winged 7,hymenoptera7 ,flies4 ,we distinguish two groups of ,sucking ,flies1 or ,sugentia1 namely1 those which prick and those which sip4 ,there are two orders of pricking ,flies 7,pungentia71 those with half wings 7,hemiptera7 and gnats and blow-flies 7,diptera72 butterflies are the only sipping ,flies 7,sorbentia71 ,lepidoptera4 ,biting ,flies1 and indeed the order of ,primval ,flies 7,archiptera1 or ,pseudoneuroptera7 are nearest akin to the still living ,flies1 and include the most ancient of all ,flies1 the primary forms of the whole class 7hence also those of all ,tracheata74 ,among them are1 first of all1 the ,ephemeral ,flies 7,ephemera7 whose larv which live in water1 in all probability still show us in their trache-gills the organs out of which the wings of ,flies were originally developed4 ,this order further contains the well known dragon-flies1 or ,libellula1 the wine-glass sugar mites 7,lepisma71 the hopping ,flies with bladder-like feet 7,physopoda71 and the dreaded ,termites1 fossil remains of which are found even in coal4 ,the order of ,gauze-winged ,flies 7,neuroptera71 probably developed directly out of the primval ,flies1 which differ from them only by their perfect series of transformations4 ,among them are the gauze-flies 7,planipennia71 caddis-flies 7,phryganida71 and fan-flies 7,strepsiptera74 ,fossil ,flies1 which form the transition from the primval ,flies 7,libellula7 to the gauze-winged 7,sialid71 are found even in coal 7,dictyophylebia74 ,the order of ,straight-winged ,flies 7,orthoptera7 developed at an early period out of another branch of the primval ,flies by differentiation of the two pairs of wings4 ,this division is composed of one group with a great variety of forms--cockroaches1 grasshoppers1 crickets1 etc4 7,ulonata7--and of a smaller group consisting only of the well-known earwigs 7,labidura71 which are characterised by nippers at the hinder end of their bodies4 ,fossil remains of cockroaches1 as well as of crickets and grasshoppers1 have been found in coal4 ,fossil remains of the fourth order of ,biting ,flies1 beetles 7,coleoptera7 likewise occur in coal4 ,this extremely comprehensive order--the favourite one of amateurs and collectors--shows more clearly than any other what infinite variety of forms can be developed externally by adaptation to different conditions of life1 without the internal structure and the original form of the body being in any way essentially changed4 ,beetles have probably developed out of a branch of the straight-winged ,flies1 from which they differ only in their transformations 7larva1 pupa1 etc474 ,the one order of ,licking ,flies1 namely1 the interesting group of the ,bees1 or ,skin-winged ,flies 7,hymenoptera71 is closely allied to the four orders of biting ,flies4 ,among them are those ,flies which have risen to such an astonishing degree of mental development1 of intellectual perfection1 and strength of character1 by their extensive division of labour1 formation of communities and states1 and surpass in this not merely most invertebrate animals1 but even most animals in general4 ,this may be said especially of all ants and bees1 also of wasps1 leaf-wasps1 wood-wasps1 gall-wasps1 etc4 ,they are first met with in a fossil state in the oolites1 but they do not appear in greater numbers until the tertiary period4 ,probably these insects developed either out of a branch of the primval ,flies or the gauze-winged ,flies4 ,of the two orders of ,pricking ,flies 7,hemiptera and ,diptera71 that containing the ,half-winged ,flies 7,hemiptera71 also called ,beaked ,flies 7,rhynchota71 is the older of the two4 ,it includes three sub-orders1 viz41 the leaf-lice 7,homoptera71 the bugs 7,heteroptera71 and lice 7,pediculina74 ,fossil remains of the first two classes are found in the oolites2 but an ancient ,fly 7,eugereon7 is found in the ,permian system1 and seems to indicate the derivation of the ,hemiptera from the ,neuroptera4 ,probably the most ancient of the three sub-orders of the ,hemiptera are the ,homoptera1 among which1 besides the actual leaf-lice1 are the shield-lice1 leaf-fleas1 and leaf-crickets1 or ,cicad4 ,lice have probably developed out of two different branches of ,homoptera1 by continued degeneration 7especially by the loss of wings72 bugs1 on the other hand1 by the perfecting and differentiation of the two pairs of wings4 ,the second order of pricking flies1 namely1 the ,two-winged ,flies 7,diptera71 are also found in a fossil state in the oolites1 together with ,half-winged ,flies2 but they probably developed out of the ,hemiptera by the degeneration of the hind wings4 ,in ,diptera the fore wings alone have remained perfect4 ,the principal portion of this order consists of the elongated gnats 7,nemocera7 and of the compact blow-flies and house-flies 7,brachycera71 the former of which are probably the older of the two4 ,however1 remains of both are found in the oolitic period4 ,the two small groups of lice-flies 7,pupipara7 forming chrysales1 and the hopping-fleas 7,aphaniptera71 probably developed out of the ,diptera by degeneration resulting from parasitism4 ,the eighth and last order of ,flies1 and at the same time the only one with mouth-parts adapted to sipping liquids1 consists of moths and butterflies 7,lepidoptera74 ,this order appears1 in several morphological respects1 to be the most perfect class of ,flies1 and accordingly was the last to develop4 ,for we only know of fossil remains of this order from the tertiary period1 whereas the three preceding orders extend back to the oolites1 and the four biting orders even to the coal period4 ,the close relationship between some moths 7,tine7 and 7,noctu71 and some caddis-flies 7,phryganida7 renders it probable that butterflies have developed from this group1 that is1 out of the order of ,gauze-winged ,flies1 or ,neuroptera4 ,the whole history of ,flies1 and1 moreover1 the history of the whole tribe of ,arthropoda1 essentially confirms the great laws of differentiation and perfecting which1 according to ,darwin's theory of selection1 must be considered as the necessary results of ,natural ,selection4 ,the whole tribe1 so rich in forms1 begins in the ,archilithic period with the class of ,crabs breathing by gills1 and with the lowest ,primval ,crabs1 or ,archicarid4 ,the form of these ,primval ,crabs1 which were developed out of segmented worms1 is still approximately preserved by the remarkable ,nauplius1 in the common larval stage of so many ,crabs4 ,out of the ,nauplius1 at a later period1 the curious ,zoa was developed1 which is the common larval form of all the higher or mailed crabs 7,malacostraca71 and1 at the same time1 possibly of that ,arthopod which at first breathed through trache1 and became the common ancestor of all ,tracheata4 ,this ,devonian ancestor1 which must have originated between the end of the ,silurian and the beginning of the ,coal period1 was probably most closely related to the still living ,primval ,flies1 or ,archiptera4 ,out of these there developed1 as the main tribe of the ,tracheata1 the class of ,flies1 from the lowest stage of which the spiders and centipedes separated as two diverging branches4 ,throughout a long period there existed only the four biting orders of ,flies--the ,primval flies1 ,gauze-wings1 ,straight-wings1 and the ,beetles1 the first of which is probably the common primary form of the three others4 ,it was only at a much later period that the ,licking1 ,pricking1 and ,sipping flies developed out of the ,biting ones1 which retained the original form of the three pairs of jaws most distinctly4 ,the following table will show once more how these orders succeeded one another in the history of the earth4 ,,classification ,,of ,,flies4 #a4 ,primval winged ,m4,i4 ,archiptera ,a4,a4 ,i4 #b4 ,gauze-winged ,m4,c4 ,a4 ,biting ,flies ,neuroptera ,a4,a4 ,flies ,mordentia #c4 ,straight-winged ,m4,i4 with ,chewing ,orthoptera ,a4,d4 ,mouths #d4 ,beetles ,m4,c4 ,masticantia ,coleoptera ,a4,d4 ,,ii4 #e4 ,skin-winged ,m4,c4 ,licking ,flies ,hymenoptera ,a4,a4 ,lambentia #f4 ,half-winged ,m4,i4 ,,iii4 ,hemiptera ,a4,a4 ,b4 ,stinging ,flies ,flies #g4 ,tway-flies ,m4,c4 with ,sucking ,pungentia ,diptera ,a4,d4 ,mouths ,sugentia ,,iv4 #h4 ,butterflies ,m4,c4 ,sipping ,flies ,lepidoptera ,a4,a4 ,sorbentia ,note4--,the difference in the metamorphosis or transformation and in the development of the wings of the eight individual orders of ,flies is also specified by the following letters3 ,m4,i4 ,imperfect ,metamorphosis4 ,m4,c4 ,perfect ,metamorphosis4 7,compare ,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 p4 #ii47 ,a4,a4 ,equal wings 7fore and hinder wings are the same1 or differ but little74 ,a4,d4 ,unequal wings 7fore and hinder wings very different in structure and texture1 occasioned by strong differentiation74 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,iii4 ,,vertebrate ,,animals4 ,the ,records of the ,creation of ,vertebrate ,animals 7,comparative ,anatomy1 ,embryology1 and ,palontology74--,the ,natural ,system of ,vertebrate ,animals4--,the ,four ,classes of ,vertebrate ,animals1 according to ,linnus and ,lamarck4--,their increase to ,nine ,classes4--,main ,class of the ,tube-hearted1 or ,skull-less ,animals 7the ,lancelet74--,blood ,relationship between the ,skull-less ,fish and the ,tunicates4--,agreement in the ,embryological ,development of ,amphioxus and ,ascidi4--,origin of the ,vertebrate ,tribe out of the ,worm ,tribe4--,main ,class of ,single-nostriled1 or ,round-mouthed ,animals 7,hag and ,lampreys74--,main ,class of ,anamnionate ,animals1 devoid of ,amnion4--,fishes 7,primval ,fish1 ,cartilaginous ,fish1 ,osseous ,fish74--,mud-fish1 or ,dipneusta4--,sea ,dragons1 or ,halisauria4--,frogs and ,salamanders1 or ,amphibia 7,mailed ,amphibia1 ,naked ,amphibia74--,main ,class of ,amnionate ,animals1 or ,amniota4--,reptiles 7,primary ,reptiles1 ,lizards1 ,serpents1 ,crocodiles1 ,tortoises1 ,flying-,reptiles1 ,dragons1 ,beaked ,reptiles74--,birds 7,feather-tailed1 ,fan-tailed1 ,bush-tailed74 ,not one of the natural groups of organisms--which1 we have designated as tribes1 or phyla1 on account of the blood-relationship of all the species included in them--is of such great and exceeding importance as the tribe of ,vertebrate ,animals4 ,for1 according to the unanimous opinion of all zoologists1 man also is a member of the tribe2 and his whole organization and development cannot possibly be distinguished from that of other ,vertebrate animals4 ,but as from the individual history of human development1 we have already recognized the undeniable fact that1 in developing out of the egg1 man at first does not differ from other ,vertebrate animals1 and especially from ,mammals1 we must necessarily come to the conclusion1 in regard to the palontological history of his development1 that man has1 historically1 actually developed out of the lower ,vertebrata1 and that he is directly derived from lower mammals4 ,this circumstance1 together with the many high interests which1 in other respects1 entitle the ,vertebrata to more consideration than other organisms1 justifies us in examining the pedigree of the ,vertebrata and its expression in the natural system1 with special care4 ,fortunately1 the records of creation1 which must in all cases be our guide in establishing pedigrees1 are especially complete in this important animal tribe1 from which our own race has arisen4 ,even at the beginning of our century ,cuvier's comparative anatomy and palontology1 and ,br's ontogeny of the ,vertebrate animals1 had brought us to a high level of accurate knowledge on this matter4 ,since then it is especially due to ,johannes ,mller's and ,rathke's investigations in comparative anatomy1 and most recently to those of ,gegenbaur and ,huxley1 that our knowledge of the natural relationships among the different groups of ,vertebrata has become enlarged4 ,it is especially ,gegenbaur's classical works1 penetrated as they are throughout with the fundamental principles of the ,theory of ,descent1 which have demonstrated that the material of comparative anatomy receives its true importance and value only by the application of the ,theory of ,descent1 and this in the case of all animals1 but especially in that in the ,vertebrate tribe4 ,here1 as everywhere else1 analogies must be traced to ,adaptation1 homologies to ,transmission by ,inheritance4 ,when we see that the limbs of the most different ,vertebrata1 in spite of their exceedingly different external forms1 nevertheless possess essentially the same internal structure2 when we see that in the arm of a man and ape1 in the wing of a man or a bird1 in the breast fins of whales and sea-dragons1 in the fore-legs of hoofed animals and frogs1 the same bones always lie in the same characteristic position1 articulation and connection--we can only explain this wonderful agreement and homology by the supposition of a common transmission by inheritance from a single primary form4 ,on the other hand1 the striking differences of these homologous bodily parts proceed from adaptation to different conditions of existence4 7,compare ,plate ,,iv47 ,ontogeny1 or the individual history of development1 like comparative anatomy1 is of especial importance to the pedigree of the ,vertebrata4 ,the first stages of development arising out of the egg are essentially identical in all ,vertebrate animals1 and retain their agreement the longer1 the nearer the respective ,vertebrate animal forms1 when fully developed1 stand to one another in the natural system1 that is1 in the pedigree4 ,how far this agreement of germ forms1 or embryos1 extends1 even in the most highly developed ,vertebrate animals1 ,i have already had occasion to explain 7vol i4 pp4 #cjf-cji74 ,the complete agreement in form and structure1 for example1 in the embryos of a man and a dog1 of a bird and a tortoise1 existing in the stages of development represented on ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 is a fact of incalculable importance1 and furnishes us with the most important data for the construction of their pedigree4 ,finally1 the palontological records of creation are also of especial value in the case of these same ,vertebrate animals2 for their fossil remains belong for the most part to the bony skeleton1 a system of organs which is of the utmost importance for understanding their general organization4 ,it is true that here1 as in all other cases1 the fossil records are exceedingly imperfect and incomplete1 but more important remains of extinct ,vertebrate animals have been preserved in a fossil state1 than of most other groups of animals2 and single fragments frequently furnish the most important hints as to the relationship and the historical succession of the groups4 ,the name of ,vertebrate ,animals 7,vertebrata71 as ,i have already said1 originated with the great ,lamarck1 who towards the end of the last century comprised under this name1 ,linnus' four higher classes of animals1 viz4 ,mammals1 ,birds1 ,amphibious animals1 and ,fishes1 ,linnus' two lower classes1 ,insects and ,worms1 ,lamarck contrasted to the ,vertebrata as ,invertebrata1 later also called ,evertebrata4 ,the division of the ,vertebrata into the four classes above named was retained also by ,cuvier and his followers1 and in consequence by many zoologists down to the present day4 ,but in #ahbb ,blanville1 the distinguished anatomist1 found out by comparative anatomy--which ,br did almost at the same time from the ontogeny of ,vertebrata--that ,linnus' class of ,amphibious animals was an unnatural union of two very different classes4 ,these two classes were separated as early as #ahbj1 by ,merrin1 as two main groups of ,amphibious animals1 under the names of ,pholidota and ,batrachia4 ,the ,batrachia1 which are at present 7in a restricted sense7 called ,amphibious animals1 comprise ,frogs1 ,salamanders1 gilled ,salamanders1 ,ccilia1 and the extinct ,labyrinthodonta4 ,their entire organization is closely allied to that of ,fishes4 ,the ,pholidota1 or ,reptiles1 on the other hand1 are much more closely allied to ,birds4 ,they comprise lizards1 serpents1 crocodiles1 and tortoises1 and the groups of the mesolithic ,dragons1 ,flying reptiles1 etc4 ,in conformity with this natural division of ,amphibious animals into two classes1 the whole tribe of ,vertebrate animals was divided into two main groups4 ,the first main group1 containing ,amphibious animals and ,fishes1 breathe throughout their lives1 or in early life1 by means of gills1 and are therefore called gilled ,vertebrata 7,branchiata1 or ,anallantoida74 ,the second main group--,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals--breathe at no period of their lives through gills1 but exclusively through lungs1 and hence may appropriately be called ,gill-less1 or ,vertebrata with lungs 7,abranchiata1 or ,allantoida74 ,however correct this distinction may be1 still we cannot remain satisfied with it if we wish to arrive at a true natural system of the vertebrate tribe1 and at a right understanding of its pedigree4 ,in this case1 as ,i have shown in my ,general ,morphology1 we are obliged to distinguish three other classes of ,vertebrate animals1 by dividing what has hitherto been regarded as the class of fishes into four distinct classes4 7,gen4 ,morph4 vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,vii4 pp4 #aaf-afj47 ,the first and lowest of these classes comprises the ,skull-less animals 7,acrania71 or animals with tubular hearts 7,leptocardia71 of which only one representative now exists1 namely1 the remarkable little ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus74 ,nearly allied to this is the second class1 that of the ,single-nostriled animals 7,monorrhina71 or ,round-mouthed animals 7,cyclostoma71 which includes the ,hags 7,myxinoida7 and ,lampreys 7,petromyzonta74 ,the third class contains only the genuine ,fish 7,pisces73 the ,mud-fishes 7,dipneusta7 are added to these as a fourth class1 and form the transition from ,fish to ,amphibious animals4 ,this distinction1 which1 as will be seen immediately1 is very important for the genealogy of the ,vertebrate animals1 increases the original number of ,vertebrate classes from four to eight4 ,in most recent times a ninth class of ,vertebrata has been added to these eight classes4 ,gegenbaur's recently published investigations in comparative anatomy prove that the remarkable class of ,sea-dragons 7,halisauria71 which have hitherto been included among ,reptiles1 must be considered quite distinct from these1 and as a separate class which branched off from the ,vertebrate stock1 even before the ,amphibious animals4 ,to it belong the celebrated large ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri of the oolitic and chalk periods1 and the older ,simosauri of the ,trias period1 all of which are more closely allied to ,fish than to ,amphibious animals4 ,these nine classes of ,vertebrate animals are1 however1 by no means of the same genealogical value4 ,hence we must divide them1 as ,i have already shown in the ,systematic ,survey on p4 #acc1 into four distinct main-classes or tribes4 ,in the first place1 the three highest classes1 ,mammals1 ,birds1 and ,reptiles1 may be comprised as a natural main-class under the name of ,amnion animals 7,amnionata74 ,the ,amnion-less animals 7,anamnionata71 naturally opposed to them as a second main-class1 include the four classes of ,batrachians1 ,sea-dragons1 ,mud-fish1 and ,fishes4 ,the seven classes just named1 the ,anamnionata as well as the ,amnionata1 agree among one another in numerous characteristics1 which distinguish them from the two lowest classes 7the single-nostriled and tubular-hearted animals74 ,hence we may unite them in the natural main group of ,double-nostriled animals 7,amphirrhina74 ,finally1 these ,amphirrhina on the whole are much more closely related to those animals with round mouths or single nostrils than to the skull-less or tube-hearted animals4 ,we may1 therefore1 with full justice class the single and double-nostriled animals into one principal main group1 and contrast them as animals with skulls 7,craniota71 or bulbular hearts 7,pachycardia71 to the one class of skull-less animals1 or animals with tubular hearts4 ,this classification of the ,vertebrate animals proposed by me renders it possible to obtain a clear survey of the nine classes in their most important genealogical relations4 ,the systematic relationship of these groups to one another may be briefly expressed by the following table4 ,a4 ,skull-less ,animals #a4 ,tubular hearts #a4 ,leptocardia 7,acrania7 a4 ,single nostriled animals #b4 ,round-mouths #b4 ,cyclostoma ,b4 ,monorrhina ,animals with ,skulls b4 ,double #c4 ,fish #c4 ,pisces 7,craniota7 nostriled ,i4 ,non-,amnionate #d4 ,mud-fish #d4 ,dipneusta animals ,anamnia #e4 ,sea-dragons #e4 ,halisauria or #f4 ,batrachians #f4 ,amphibia ,amphirrhina ,thick ,hearts ,,ii4 ,amnionate4 #g4 ,reptiles #g4 ,reptilia 7,pachycardia7 ,amniota #h4 ,birds #h4 ,aves #i4 ,mammals #i4 ,mammalia ,the only one representative of the first class1 the small lanceolate fish1 or ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus7 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,b71 stands at the lowest stage of organization of all the ,vertebrate animals known to us4 ,this exceedingly interesting and important animal1 which throws a surprising light upon the older roots of our pedigree1 is evidently the last of the ,mohicans--the last surviving representative of a lower class of ,vertebrate animals1 very rich in forms1 and very highly developed during the primordial period1 but which unfortunately could leave no fossil remains on account of the absence of all solid skeleton4 ,the ,lancelet still lives widely distributed in different seas2 for instance1 in the ,baltic1 ,north ,sea1 and ,mediterranean1 where it generally lies buried in the sand on flat shores4 ,the body1 as the name indicates1 has the form of a narrow lanceolate leaf1 pointed at both extremities4 ,when full grown it is about two inches long1 of a white colour and semi-transparent4 ,externally1 the little lanceolate animal is so little like a vertebrate animal that ,pallas1 who first discovered it1 regarded it as an imperfect naked snail4 ,it has no legs1 and neither head1 skull1 nor brain4 ,externally1 the fore end of the body can be distinguished from the hinder end only by the open mouth4 ,but still the ,amphioxus in its internal structure possesses those most important features1 which distinguish all ,vertebrate animals from all ,invertebrate animals1 namely1 the spinal rod and spinal marrow4 ,the spinal rod 7,chorda dorsalis7 is a straight1 cylindrical1 cartilaginous staff1 pointed at both ends1 forming the central axis of the internal skeleton1 and the basis of the vertebral column4 ,directly above the spinal rod1 on its dorsal side1 lies the spinal marrow 7medulla spinalis71 likewise originally a straight but internally hollow cord1 pointed at both ends4 ,this forms the principal piece and centre of the nervous system in all ,vertebrate animals4 7,compare above vol4 i4 p4 #cjc47 ,in all ,vertebrate animals without exception1 man included1 these important parts of the body during the embryological development out of the egg1 originally begin in the same simple form1 which is retained throughout life by the ,amphioxus4 ,it is only at a later period that the brain develops by the expansion of the fore end of the spinal marrow1 and out of the spinal rod the skull which encloses the brain4 ,as these two important organs do not develop at all in the ,amphioxus1 we may justly call the class represented by it1 ,skull-less animals 7,acrania71 in opposition to all the others1 namely1 to the animals with skulls 7,craniota74 ,the ,skull-less animals are generally called tubular-hearted 7,leptocardia71 because a centralized heart does not as yet exist1 and the blood is circulated in the body by the contractions of the tubular blood-vessels themselves4 ,the ,skulled animals1 which possess a centralized1 thick-walled1 bulb-shaped heart1 ought then by way of contrast to be called bulbular-hearted animals 7,pachycardia74 ,illustration3 ,ascidia 7,a47 and ,amphioxus 7,b47 ,pl4 ,,xii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,legesse sc4 ,animals with skulls and central hearts evidently developed gradually in the later primordial period out of those without skulls and with tubular hearts4 ,of this the ontogeny of skulled animals leaves no doubt4 ,but whence are these same skull-less animals derived8 ,it is only very lately that an exceedingly surprising answer has been given to this important question4 ,from ,kowalewsky's investigations1 published in #ahfg1 on the individual development of the ,amphioxus and the adhering ,sea-squirts 7,ascidia7 belonging to the class of mantled animals 7,tunicata71 it has been proved that the ontogenies of these two entirely different looking animal-forms agree in the first stage of development in a most remarkable manner4 ,the freely swimming larv of the ,ascidians 7,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 ,a7 develop the undeniable beginning of a spinal marrow 7,fig4 #e g7 and of a spinal rod 7,fig4 #e c71 and this moreover in entirely the same way as does the ,amphioxus4 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,b47 ,it is true that in the ,ascidians these most important organs of the ,vertebrate animal-body do not afterwards develop further4 ,the ,ascidians take on a retrograde transformation1 become attached to the bottom of the sea1 and develop into shapeless lumps1 which when looked upon externally would scarcely be supposed to be animals4 7,plate ,,xiii4 ,fig4 ,a47 ,but the spinal marrow1 as the beginning of the central nervous system1 and the spinal rod1 as the first basis of the vertebral column1 are such important organs1 so exclusively characteristic of ,vertebrate animals1 that we may from them with certitude infer the true blood relationship of ,vertebrate with ,tunicate animals4 ,of course we do not mean to say by this1 that ,vertebrate animals are derived from ,tunicate animals1 but merely that both groups have arisen out of a common root1 and that the ,tunicates1 of all the ,invertebrata1 are the nearest blood relations of the ,vertebrates4 ,it is quite evident that genuine ,vertebrate animals developed progressively during the primordial period 7and the skull-less animals first7 out of a group of worms1 from which the degenerate ,tunicate animals arose in another and a retrograde direction4 7,compare the more detailed explanation of ,plates ,,xii4 and ,,xiii4 in the ,appendix47 ,out of the ,skull-less animals there developed1 in the first instance1 a second low class of ,vertebrate animals1 which still stands far below that of fish1 and which is now represented only by the ,hags 7,myxinoida7 and ,lampreys 7,petromyzonta74 ,this class also1 on account of the absence of all solid parts1 could1 unfortunately1 as little as the ,skull-less animals leave fossil remains4 ,from its whole organization and ontogeny it is quite evident that it represents a very important intermediate stage between the ,skull-less animals and ,fishes1 and that its few still existing members are only the last surviving remains of a probably very highly developed animal group which existed towards the end of the primordial period4 ,on account of the curious mouth possessed by the ,hags and ,lampreys1 which they use for sucking1 the whole class is usually called ,round-mouthed animals 7,cyclostoma74 ,the name of ,single-nostriled animals 7,monorrhina7 is still more characteristic4 ,for all ,cyclostoma possess a simple1 single nasal tube1 whereas1 in all other ,vertebrate animals 7with the exception of the ,amphioxus7 the nose consists of two lateral halves1 a right and a left nostril4 ,we are therefore enabled to comprise these latter 7,anamnionata and ,amnionata7 under the heading1 double-nostriled animals 7,amphirrhina74 ,all the ,amphirrhina possess a fully developed jaw-skeleton 7upper and under jaw71 whereas it is completely wanting in the ,monorrhina4 ,apart also from the peculiar nasal formation1 and the absence of jaws1 the ,single-nostriled animals are distinguished from those with double nostrils by many peculiarities4 ,thus they want the important sympathetic nervous system1 and the spleen which the ,amphirrhina possess4 ,of the swimming bladder1 and the two pairs of legs--which all double-nostriled animals have1 at least in their embryonic conditions--not a trace exists in the ,single-nostriled animals1 which is the case also in the ,skull-less animals4 ,hence1 we are surely justified in completely separating the ,monorrhina1 as we have separated the ,skull-less animals1 from the ,fishes1 with which they have hitherto been erroneously classed4 ,illustration3 ,ascidia 7,a47 and ,amphioxus 7,b47 ,pl4 ,,xiii4 ,e4 ,haeckel del4 ,lagesse sc4 ,we owe our first accurate knowledge of the ,monorrhina1 or ,cyclostoma1 to the great zoologist1 ,johannes ,mller of ,berlin2 his classical work on the 8,comparative ,anatomy of the ,myxinoida0 forms the foundation of our modern views on the structure of the ,vertebrate animals4 ,he distinguished two distinct groups among the ,cyclostoma1 which we shall consider as sub-classes4 ,the first sub-class consists of the ,hags 7,hyperotreta1 or ,myxinoida74 ,they live in the sea as parasites upon other fish1 into whose skin they penetrate 7,myxine1 ,bdellostoma74 ,their organ of hearing has only one annular canal1 and their single nasal tube penetrates the palate4 ,the second sub-class1 that of ,lampreys1 or ,prides 7,hyperoartia1 or ,petromyzontia7 is more highly developed4 ,it includes the well-known ,lamperns1 or ,nine-eyes1 of our rivers 7,petromyzon fluviatilis71 with which most persons are acquainted4 ,they are represented in the sea by the frequently larger marine or genuine ,lampreys 7,petromyzon marinus74 ,the nasal tube of these single-nostriled animals does not penetrate the palate1 and in the auricular organ there are two annular canals4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #d ,main-classes1 #i ,classes1 and #bf ,sub-classes of ,vertebrata4 ,gen4 ,morph4 vol4 ii4 ,plate ,,vii4 pp4 #aaf-afj4 ,i4 ,skull-less 7,acrania71 or ,tube-hearted 7,leptocardia74 ,vertebrata without head1 without skull and brain1 without centralized heart4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #a4 ,skull-less ,i4 ,tube-hearted #a4 ,lancelet #a4 ,amphioxus ,acrania ,leptocardia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,ii4 ,animals with skulls 7,craniota7 and with thick-walled hearts 7,pachycardia74 ,vertebrata with head1 with skull and brain1 with centralized heart4 ,main-classes ,classes ,sub-classes ,systematic ,name of the ,skulled of the of the of the ,animals4 ,skulled ,animals4 ,skulled ,animals4 ,sub-classes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #b4 ,single-,nostriled ,,ii4 ,round mouths #b4 ,hags1 or ,mucous #b4 ,hyperotreta ,monorrhina ,cyclostoma ,fish 7,myxinoida7 #c4 ,lampreys1 or #c4 ,hyperoartia ,pride 7,petromyzontia7 ,,iii4 ,fish #d4 ,primval fish #d4 ,selachii ,pisces #e4 ,ganoid fish #e4 ,ganoides #f4 ,osseous fish #f4 ,teleostei ,,iv4 ,mud-fish #g4 ,mud-fish #g4 ,protopteri #c4 ,non-amnionate ,dipneusta ,anamnionata #h4 ,primval #h4 ,simosauria ,v4 ,sea-dragons dragons ,halisauri #i4 ,snake-dragons #i4 ,plesiosauria #aj4 ,fish-dragons #aj4 ,ichthyosauria ,,vi4 ,batrachians #aa4 ,mailed ,batrachians #aa4 ,phractamphibia ,amphibia #ab4 ,naked ,batrachians #ab4 ,lissamphibia #d4 ,amnion ,,vii4 ,reptiles #ac4 ,primary reptiles #ac4 ,tocosauria ,animals ,reptilia #ad4 ,lizards #ad4 ,lacertilia ,amnionata #ae4 ,serpents #ae4 ,ophidia #af4 ,crocodiles #af4 ,crocodilia #ag4 ,tortoises #ag4 ,chelonia #ah4 ,flying reptiles #ah4 ,pterosauria #ai4 ,dragons #ai4 ,dinosauria #bj4 ,beaked reptiles #bj4 ,anomodontia ,,viii4 ,birds #ba4 ,long-tailed #ba4 ,saurur ,aves #bb4 ,fan-tailed #bb4 ,carinat #bc4 ,bush-tailed #bc4 ,ratit ,,ix4 ,mammals #bd4 ,cloacal animals #bd4 ,monotrema ,mammalia #be4 ,pouched animals #be4 ,marsupialia #bf4 ,placental animals #bf4 ,placentalia ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #i4 ,mammals ,mammalia #h4 ,birds ,aves #g4 ,reptiles ,reptilia #e4 ,sea-dragons ,halisauria -------v--------_/ ,osseous fish ,amnion ,animals ,teleostei #d4 ,mud-fish ,amniota ,dipneusta #f4 ,batrachians ,ganoid fish ,amphibia ,ganoidei --------------v--------------_/ ,vertebrate animals breathing through lungs ,amphipneumones ------------v-----------------_/ ,primval fish ,selachii #c4 ,fishes ,pisces ,double-nostriled ,amphirrhina #b4 ,round-mouthed ,cyclostoma --------------------v-------------_/ ,single-nostriled ,monorrhina ,animals with skulls ,craniota #a4 ,tube-hearted ,leptocardia ---------v------_/ ,ascidi ,sea-barrels ,skull-less ,animals ,thaliacea ,acrania ,vertebrate ,animals ,vertebrata ----v----_/ ,tunicate ,animals ,tunicata -----------v---------_/ ,worms ,vermes ,all existing ,vertebrate animals1 with the exception of the ,monorrhina and ,amphioxus just mentioned1 belong to the group which we designate as ,double-nostriled animals 7,amphirrhina74 ,all these animals possess 7in spite of the great variety in the rest of their forms7 a nose consisting of two lateral halves1 a jaw-skeleton1 a sympathetic nervous system1 three annular canals connected with the auricular sac1 and a spleen4 ,further1 all ,double-nostriled animals possess a bladder-shaped expansion of the gullet1 which1 in ,fish1 has developed into the swimming bladder1 but in all other ,double-nostriled animals into lungs4 ,finally1 in all ,double-nostriled animals there exist in the youngest stage of growth the beginnings of two pairs of extremities1 or limbs1 a pair of fore legs1 or breast fins1 and a pair of hinder legs1 or ventral fins4 ,one of these pairs of legs sometimes degenerates 7as in the case of eels1 whales1 etc471 or both pairs of legs 7as in ,ccili and serpents7 either degenerate or entirely disappear2 but even in these cases there exists some trace of their original beginning in an early embryonic period1 or the useless remains of them may be found in the form of rudimentary organs4 7,compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #ac47 ,from all these important indications we may conclude with full assurance that all double-nostriled animals are derived from a single common primary form1 which developed either directly or indirectly during the primordial period out of the ,monorrhina4 ,this primary form must have possessed the organs above mentioned1 and also the beginning of a swimming bladder and of two pairs of legs or fins4 ,it is evident1 that of all still living double-nostriled animals1 the lowest forms of sharks are most closely allied to this long since extinct1 unknown1 and hypothetical primary form1 which we may call the ,primary ,double-nostriled animals 7,proselachii74 ,we may therefore look upon the group of primval fish1 or ,selachii1 to which the ,proselachii probably belonged1 as a primary group1 not only of the ,fish class1 but of the whole main-class of double-nostriled animals4 ,the class of ,fish 7,pisces7 with which we accordingly begin the series of ,double-nostriled animals1 is distinguished from the other six classes of the series by the swimming bladder never developing into lungs1 but acting only as a hydrostatic apparatus4 ,agreeing with this1 we find that in fish the nose is formed by two blind holes in front of the mouth1 which never pierce the palate so as to open into the cavity of the mouth4 ,in the other six classes of double-nostriled animals1 both nostrils are changed into air passages which pierce the palate1 and thus conduct air to the lungs4 ,genuine fish 7after the exclusion of the ,dipneusta7 are accordingly the only double-nostriled animals which exclusively breathe through gills and never through lungs4 ,in accordance with this1 they all live in water1 and both pairs of their legs have retained the original form of paddling fins4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #g ,legions and #ae ,orders of the ,fishes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,sub-classes ,legions ,orders ,examples of of of from ,fishes4 ,fishes4 ,fishes4 the ,orders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - #a4 ,sharks ,sharks1 dog-fish ,i4 ,transverse ,squalacei ,a4 mouths #b4 ,rays ,spiked rays1 electric ,primval ,plagiostomi ,rajacei rays1 etc4 ,fish ,selachii ,,ii4 ,sea-,cats #c4 ,sea-,cats ,chimra1 ,calorrhynchias ,holocephali ,chimracei #d4 ,buckler-heads ,cephalaspid1 ,placoderma1 ,,iii4 ,mailed ,ganoid ,pamphracte etc4 ,fish #e4 ,sturgeons ,spoon-sturgeons1 sturgeons1 ,tabuliferi ,sturiones sterlet1 etc4 #f4 ,efulcri ,double-finned ,b4 ,,iv4 ,angular-scaled #g4 ,fulcrati ,paloniscus1 bony pike1 ,ganoid ,ganoid ,fish etc4 ,fish ,rhombiferi #h4 ,semopteri ,african finny pike1 etc4 ,ganoides ,v4 ,round-scaled #i4 ,closcolopes ,holoptychius1 ,clacanthides1 ,ganoid ,fish etc4 ,cycliferi #aj4 ,pycnoscolopes ,coccolepida1 ,amiad1 etc4 ,,vi4 ,osseous ,fish with an air #aa4 ,herring species ,herrings1 salmon1 carp1 passage to the ,thrissogenes etc4 ,c4 swimming #ab4 ,eel species ,eels1 snake eels1 electric ,osseous bladder ,enchelygenes eels1 etc4 ,fish ,physostomi ,teleostei ,,vii4 ,osseous ,fish #ac4 ,stichobranchii ,perch1 wrasse1 turbot1 without an air etc4 passage to the #ad4 ,plectognathi ,trunk fish1 globe fish1 swimming etc4 bladder #ae4 ,lophobranchii ,pipe fish1 sea horses1 ,physoclisti etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,pedigree ,,of ,,the ,,non-,,amnionate ,,craniota4 ,plectognathi ,anura ,lophobranchia ,peromela ,sozura -------v-----_/ ,labyrinthodonta ,stichobranchia ,physoclisti --v-----_/ ,enchelygenes ,ganocephala ,sozobranchia ,phractamphibia ,lissamphibia --v---_/ -------v-------_/ ,thrissogenes ,amphibia ,physostomi ,semopteri ,teleostei ,protopteri ,fulcrati ,plesiosauria ,pycnoscolopes ,icthyosauria ,closcolopes ,efulcri ,cycliferi ,rhombiferi 7,cycloganoides7 7,rhomboganoides7 ---------v--------_/ ----v-----_/ ,dipneusta ,placoderma ,simosauria ,sturiones ,halisauria ,cephalaspid ,rajacei -----------v--------_/ ,amphipneumona -----v-------_/ ,pamphracti ,tabuliferi 7,placoganoides7 ,chimracei ,ganoides ,holocephali ,squalacei --------v---------_/ ,plagiostomi -------------v---------------------_/ ,selachii ,fish ,amphirrhina ,cyclostoma ,monorrhina -------v---------_/ ,craniota ,genuine fish are divided into three distinct sub-classes1 namely1 ,primval fish1 ,ganoid fish1 and ,osseous fish4 ,the oldest of these1 where the original form has been most faithfully preserved1 is that of the ,primval fish 7,selachii74 ,of these there still exist ,sharks 7,squali71 and ,rays 7,raj71 which are classed together as cross-mouthed fishes 7,plagiostomi71 and the strange and grotesquely formed ,sea-cats1 or ,chimracei 7,holocephali74 ,these primary fish of the present day1 which are met with in all seas1 are only poor remains of the prevailing animal groups1 rich in forms1 which the ,selachii formed in the earlier periods of the earth's history1 and especially during the palolithic period4 ,unfortunately all ,primval fish possess a cartilaginous1 never a completely osseous skeleton1 which is but little1 if at all1 capable of being petrified4 ,the only hard parts of the body which could be preserved in a fossil state1 are the teeth and fin-spikes4 ,these are found in the older formations in such quantities1 varieties1 and sizes1 that we may1 with certainty1 infer a very considerable development of ,primval fish in those remote ages4 ,they are even found in the ,silurian strata1 which contain but few remains of other ,vertebrata1 such as ,enamelled fish 7and these only in the most recent part1 that is1 in the upper ,silurian74 ,by far the most important and interesting of the three orders of ,primval fish are ,sharks2 of all still living double-nostriled animals1 they are probably most closely allied to the original primary form of the whole group1 namely1 to the ,proselachii4 ,out of these ,proselachii1 which probably differed but little from genuine ,sharks1 ,enamelled fish1 and the present ,primval fish1 in all probability1 developed in one direction1 and the ,dipneusta1 ,sea-dragons1 and ,amphibia in another4 ,the ,ganoid1 or ,enamelled fish 7,ganoides71 in regard to their anatomy stand midway between the ,primval and the ,osseous fish4 ,in many characteristics they agree with the former1 and in many others with the latter4 ,hence1 we infer that genealogically they form the transition from ,primval to ,osseous fish4 ,the ,ganoids are for the most part extinct1 and more nearly so than the ,primval fish1 whereas they were developed in great force during the entire palolithic and mesolithic periods4 ,ganoid fish are divided into three legions according to the form of their external covering1 namely1 ,mailed1 ,angular-scaled1 and ,round-scaled4 ,the ,mailed ,ganoid fish 7,tabuliferi7 are the oldest1 and are directly allied to the ,selachii1 out of which they originated4 ,fossil remains of them1 though rare1 are found even in the upper ,silurian 7,pteraspis ludensis of the ,ludlow strata74 ,gigantic species of them1 coated with strong bony plates1 are found in the ,devonian system4 ,but of this legion there now lives only the small order of ,sturgeons 7,sturiones71 including the ,spade-sturgeons 7,spatularid71 and those ,sturgeons 7,accipenserid7 to which belong1 among others1 the ,huso1 which yields isinglass1 or sturgeon's sound1 and the ,caviar-sturgeon1 whose eggs we eat in the shape of caviar1 etc4 ,out of the mailed ,ganoid fish1 the angular and round-scaled ones probably developed as two diverging branches4 ,the ,angular-scaled ,ganoid fish 7,rhombiferi7--which can be distinguished at first sight from all other fish by their square or rhombic scales--are at present represented only by a few survivors1 namely1 the ,finny ,pike 7,polypterus7 in ,african rivers 7especially the ,nile71 and by the ,bony ,pike 7,lepidosteus7 in ,american rivers4 ,yet during the palolithic and the first half of the mesolithic epochs this legion formed the most numerous group of fishes4 ,the third legion1 that of ,round-scaled ,ganoid fish 7,cycliferi71 was no less rich in forms1 and lived principally during the ,devonian and ,coal periods4 ,this legion1 of which the ,bald ,pike 7,amia71 in ,north ,american rivers1 is the only survivor1 was especially important1 inasmuch as the third sub-class of fish1 namely1 ,osseous fish1 developed out of it4 ,osseous fish 7,teleostei7 include the greater portion of the fish of the present day4 ,among these are by far the greater portion of marine fish1 and all of our fresh-water fish except the ,ganoid fish just mentioned4 ,this class is distinctly proved by numerous fossils to have arisen about the middle of the ,mesolithic epoch out of ,ganoid fish1 and moreover out of the ,round-scaled1 or ,cycliferi4 ,the ,thrissopid of the ,oolitic period 7,thrissops1 ,leptolepis1 ,tharsis71 which are most closely allied to the herrings of the present day1 are probably the oldest of all ,osseous fish1 and have directly arisen out of ,round-scaled ,ganoid fish1 closely allied to the existing ,amia4 ,in the older ,osseous fish of the legion called ,physostomi1 as also in the ,ganoides1 the swimming bladder throughout life was connected with the throat by a permanent air passage 7a kind of windpipe74 ,this is still the case with all the fish belonging to this legion1 namely1 with herrings1 salmon1 carp1 shad1 eels1 etc4 ,however1 during the chalk period this air passage1 in some of the ,physostomi1 became constricted and closed1 and the swimming bladder was thus completely separated from the throat4 ,hence there arose a second legion of ,osseous fish1 the ,physoclisti1 which did not attain their actual development until the tertiary epoch1 and soon far surpassed the ,physostomi in variety4 ,to this legion belong most of the sea fish of the present day1 especially the large families of the ,turbot1 ,tunny1 ,wrasse1 ,crowfish1 etc41 further1 the ,lock-jaws 7,plectognathi71 ,trunk fish1 and ,globe-fish and the ,bushy-gills 7,lophobranchi71 viz41 ,pipe-fish1 and ,sea-horses4 ,there are1 however1 only very few ,physoclisti among our river fish1 for instance1 ,perch and ,sticklebacks2 the majority of river fish are ,physostomi4 ,midway between genuine ,fish and ,amphibia is the remarkable class of ,mud-fish1 or ,scaly ,sirens 7,dipneusta1 or ,protopteri74 ,there now exist only a few representatives of this class1 namely1 the ,american ,mud-fish 7,lepidosiren paradoxa7 in the region of the river ,amazon1 and the ,african ,mud-fish 7,protopterus annectens7 in different parts of ,africa4 ,a third large ,salamander-fish 7,ceratodus ,fosteri7 has lately been discovered in ,australia4 ,during the dry season1 that is in summer1 these strange animals bury themselves in a nest of leaves in the dry mud1 and then breathe air through lungs like the ,amphibia4 ,but during the wet season1 in winter1 they live in rivers and bogs1 and breathe water through gills like fish4 ,externally1 they resemble fish of the eel kind1 and are like them covered with scales2 in many other characteristics also--in their internal structure1 their skeleton1 extremities1 etc4--they resemble ,fish more than ,amphibia4 ,but in certain features they resemble the ,amphibia1 especially in the formation of their lungs1 nose1 and heart4 ,there is consequently an endless dispute among zoologists1 as to whether the ,mud-fish are genuine ,fish or ,amphibia4 ,distinguished zoologists have expressed themselves in favour of both opinions4 ,but in fact1 owing to the complete blending of characteristics which they present1 they belong neither to the one nor to the other class1 and are probably most correctly dealt with as a special class of ,vertebrata1 forming the transition between ,fishes and ,amphibians4 ,the still living ,dipneusta are probably the last surviving remains of a group which was formerly rich in forms1 but has left no fossil traces on account of the want of a solid skeleton4 ,in this respect1 these animals are exactly like the ,monorrhina and the ,leptocardia4 ,however1 teeth are found in the ,trias which resemble those of the living ,ceratodus4 ,possibly the extinct ,dipneusta of the palolithic period1 which developed in the ,devonian epoch out of primval fish1 must be looked upon as the primary forms of the ,amphibia1 and thus also of all higher ,vertebrata4 ,at all events the unknown forms of transition--from ,primval fish to ,amphibia--were probably very like the ,dipneusta4 ,a very peculiar class of ,vertebrate animals1 long since extinct1 and which appears to have lived only during the secondary epoch1 is formed by the remarkable ,sea-dragons 7,halisauria1 or ,enaliosauria1 also called ,nexipoda1 or ,swimming-footed animals74 ,these formidable animals of prey inhabited the mesolithic oceans in great numbers1 and were of most peculiar forms1 sometimes from thirty to forty feet in length4 ,from many and excellently preserved fossil remains and impressions1 both of the entire body of ,sea-dragons as well as of single parts1 we have become very accurately acquainted with the structure of their bodies4 ,they are usually classed among ,reptiles1 whilst some anatomists have placed them in a much lower rank1 as directly allied to ,fish4 ,gegenbaur's recently published investigations1 which place the structure of their limbs in a true light1 have led to the surprising conclusion that the ,sea-dragons form quite an isolated group1 differing widely both from ,reptiles and ,amphibia as well as from ,fish4 ,the skeleton of their four legs1 which are transformed into short1 broad1 paddling fins 7like those of fish and whales7 furnishes us with a clear proof that the ,halisauria branched off from the main-stock of ,vertebrata at an earlier period than the ,amphibia4 ,for ,amphibia1 as well as the three higher classes of ,vertebrata1 are all derived from a common primary form1 which possessed only five toes or fingers on each leg4 ,but the ,sea-dragons have 7either distinctly developed or in a rudimentary condition as parts of the skeleton of the foot7 more than five fingers1 as have also the ,selachians or ,primval fish4 ,on the other hand1 they breathed air through lungs1 like the ,dipneusta1 although they always swam about in the sea4 ,they1 therefore1 perhaps1 in conjunction with the ,dipneusta1 branched off from the ,selachii1 but did not develop into higher ,vertebrata2 they form an extinct lateral line of the pedigree1 which has died out4 ,the more accurately known ,sea-dragons are classed into three orders1 distinct enough one from the other1 namely1 ,primval ,dragons1 ,fish ,dragons1 and ,serpent ,dragons4 ,the ,primval ,dragons 7,simosauria7 are the oldest ,sea-dragons1 and lived only during the ,trias period4 ,the skeletons of many different genera of them are met with in the ,german limestone known as 8,muschel-kalk40 ,they seem upon the whole to have been very like the ,plesiosauria1 and are1 consequently1 sometimes united with them into one order as ,sauropterygia4 ,the ,serpent ,dragons 7,plesiosauria7 lived in the oolitic and chalk periods together with the ,ichthyosauria4 ,they were characterised by an uncommonly long thin neck1 which was frequently longer than the whole body1 and carried a small head with a short snout4 ,when their arched neck was raised they must have looked very like a swan2 but in place of wings and legs they had two pairs of short1 flat1 oval-paddling fins4 ,the body of the ,fish ,dragons 7,ichthyosauria7 was of an entirely different form2 these animals may be opposed to the two preceding orders under the name of ,fish-finners 7,ichthyopterygia74 ,they possessed a very long extended body1 like a fish1 and a heavy head with an elongated1 flat snout1 but a very short neck4 ,externally1 they were probably very like porpoises4 ,their tail was very long1 whereas it was very short in the members of the preceding orders4 ,also both pairs of paddling fins are broader and show very different structure from that seen in the other two orders4 ,probably the ,fish ,dragons and ,serpent ,dragons developed as two diverging branches out of the ,primval ,dragons2 but it is also possible that the ,plesiosauria alone originated out of the ,simosauria1 and that the ,ichthyosauria were lower off-shoots from the common stock4 ,at all events1 they must all be directly1 or indirectly derived from the ,selachii1 or ,primval fish4 ,the succeeding classes of ,vertebrata1 the ,amphibia and the ,amniota 7,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals71 owing to the characteristic structure which they all exhibit of five toes to each foot1 may all be derived from a common primary form1 which originated from the ,selachii1 and which possessed five toes on each of its four limbs4 ,when we find a less number of toes than five1 we can show that the missing ones must have been lost in the course of time by adaptation4 ,the oldest known ,vertebrata with five toes are the ,batrachias 7,amphibia74 ,we divide this class into two sub-classes1 namely1 mailed ,batrachians and naked ,batrachians1 the first of which is distinguished by the body being covered with bony plates or scales4 ,the first and elder sub-class of ,amphibia consists of the ,mailed ,batrachians 7,phractamphibia71 the oldest land living ,vertebrata of which fossil remains exist4 ,well-preserved fossil remains of them occur in the coal1 especially of those with ,enamelled heads 7,ganocephala71 which are most closely allied to fish1 namely1 the ,archegosaurus of ,saarbruck1 and the ,dendrerpeton of ,north ,america4 ,there then follow at a later period the gigantic ,labyrinth-toothed animals 7,labyrinthodonta71 which are represented in the ,permian system by ,zygosaurus1 but at a later period1 more especially in the ,trias1 by ,mastodonsaurus1 ,trematosaurus1 ,capitosaurus1 etc4 ,the shape of these formidable rapacious animals seems to have been between that of crocodiles1 salamanders1 and frogs1 but in their internal structure they were more closely related to the two latter1 while by their solid coat of mail1 formed of strong bony plates1 they resembled the first animals4 ,these gigantic mailed ,batrachians seem to have become extinct towards the end of the ,triassic period4 ,no fossil remains of mailed ,batrachia are known during the whole of the subsequent periods4 ,however1 the still living blind ,snakes1 or ,ccili 7,peromela7--small-scaled ,phractamphibia of the form and the same mode of life as the earth-worm--prove that this sub-class continued to exist1 and never became completely extinct4 ,the second sub-class of ,amphibia1 the naked ,batrachia 7,lissamphibia71 probably originated even during the primary and secondary epochs1 although fossil remains of them are first found in the tertiary epoch4 ,they are distinguished from mailed ,batrachia by possessing a naked smooth1 and slimy skin1 entirely without scales or coat of mail4 ,they probably developed either out of a branch of the ,phractamphibia1 or out of the same common root with them4 ,the ontogeny of the three still living orders of naked ,batrachia--the gilled ,batrachia1 tailed ,batrachia1 and frog ,batrachia--distinctly repeats the historical course of development of the whole sub-class4 ,the oldest forms are the gilled ,batrachia 7,sozobranchia71 which retain throughout life the original primary form of naked ,batrachia1 and possess a long tail1 together with water-breathing gills4 ,they are most closely allied to the ,dipneusta1 from which1 however1 they differ externally by the absence of the coat of scales4 ,most gilled ,batrachia live in ,north ,america3 among others of the class is the ,axolotl1 or ,siredon1 already mentioned4 7,compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bda47 ,in ,europe the order is only represented by one form1 the celebrated 8,olm0 7,proteus anguinus71 which inhabits the grotto of ,adelsberg and other caves in ,carinthia1 and which1 from living in the dark1 has acquired rudimentary eyes which can no longer see 7vol4 i4 p4 #ac74 ,the order of ,tailed ,batrachia 7,sozura7 have developed out of the gilled ,batrachia by the loss of external gills2 the order includes our black and yellow spotted land ,salamander 7,salamandra maculata71 and our nimble aquatic ,salamanders 7,tritons74 ,many of them--for instance1 the celebrated giant ,salamanders in ,japan 7,cryptobranchus ,japonicus7--still retain the gill-slits1 although the gills themselves have disappeared4 ,all of them1 however1 retain the tail throughout life4 ,tritons occasionally--when forced to remain in water always--retain their gills1 and thus remain at the same stage of development as gilled ,batrachia4 7,compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #bda47 ,the third order1 the tailless or frog-like ,batrachia 7,anura71 during their metamorphosis1 not only lose their gills1 with which in early life 7as so-called tadpoles7 they breathe in water1 but also the tail with which they swim about4 ,during their ontogeny1 therefore1 they pass through the course of development of the whole sub-class1 they being at first ,gilled ,batrachia1 then ,tailed ,batrachia1 and finally ,frog-like ,batrachia4 ,the inference from this is evidently1 that ,frog-like ,batrachia developed at a later period out of ,tailed ,batrachia1 as the latter had developed out of ,gilled ,batrachia which originally existed alone4 ,in passing from the ,amphibia to the next class of ,vertebrata1 namely1 ,reptiles1 we observe a very considerable advance in the progress of organization4 ,all the double-nostriled animals 7,amphirrhina7 up to this time considered1 and more especially the two larger classes of ,fish and ,batrachia1 agree in a number of important characteristics1 which essentially distinguish them from the three remaining classes of ,vertebrata--,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals4 ,during the embryological development of these latter1 a peculiarly delicate covering1 the first ftal membrane1 or amnion1 which commences at the navel1 is formed round the embryo2 this membrane is filled with the amnion-water1 and encloses the embryo or germ in the form of a bladder4 ,on account of this very important and characteristic formation1 we may comprise the three most highly developed classes of ,vertebrata under the term ,amnion-animals 7,amniota74 ,the four classes of double-nostriled animals which we have just considered1 in which the amnion is wanting 7as is the case in all lower ,vertebrate animals1 single-nostriled and skull-less animals71 may on the other hand be opposed to the others as amnion-less animals 7,anamnia74 ,the formation of the ftal membrane1 or amnion1 which distinguishes reptiles1 birds1 and mammals from all other ,vertebrata1 is evidently a very important process in their ontogeny1 and in the phylogeny which corresponds with it4 ,it coincides with a series of other processes1 which essentially determine the higher development of ,amnionate animals4 ,the first of these important processes is the total loss of gills1 for which reason the ,amniota1 under the name of ,gill-less animals 7,ebranchiata71 were formerly opposed to all other ,vertebrate animals which breathed through gills 7,branchiata74 ,in all the ,vertebrate already discussed1 we found that they either always breathed through gills1 or at least did so in early life1 as in the case of ,frogs and ,salamanders4 ,on the other hand1 we never meet with a ,reptile1 ,bird1 or ,mammal which at any period of its existence breathes through gills1 and the gill-arches and openings which do exist in the embryos1 are1 during the course of the ontogeny1 changed into entirely different structures1 viz41 into parts of the jaw-apparatus and the organ of hearing4 7,compare above1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjg47 ,all ,amnionate animals have a so-called cochlea in the organ of hearing1 and a 8round window0 corresponding with it4 ,these parts are wanting in the ,amnion-less animals2 moreover1 their skull lies in a straight line with the axis of the vertebral column4 ,in ,amniotic animals the base of the skull appears bent in on the abdominal side1 so that the head sinks upon the breast4 7,plate ,,iii4 ,fig4 ,c1 ,d1 ,g1 ,h47 ,the organs of tears at the side of the eye also first develop in the ,amniota4 ,the question now is1 ,when did this important advance take place in the course of the organic history of the earth8 ,when did the common ancestor of all ,amniota develop out of a branch of the ,non-amniota1 to wit1 out of the branch of the ,amphibia8 ,to this question1 the fossil remains of ,vertebrata do not give us a very definite1 but still they do give an approximate1 answer4 ,for with the exception of two lizard-like animals found in the ,permian system 7the ,proterosaurus and ,rhopalodon71 all the fossil remains of ,amniota1 as yet known1 belong to the secondary1 tertiary1 and quaternary epochs4 ,with regard to the two ,vertebrata just named1 it is still doubtful whether they are genuine reptiles1 or perhaps ,amphibia of the salamander kind4 ,their skeleton alone is known to us1 and even this not perfectly4 ,now as we know nothing of the characteristic features of their soft parts1 it is quite possible that the ,proterosaurus and ,rhopalodon were non-amnionate animals more closely allied to ,amphibia than to ,reptiles2 possibly they belonged to the transition form between the two classes4 ,but1 on the other hand1 as undoubted fossil remains of ,amniota have been found as early as the ,trias1 it is probable that the main class of ,amniota first developed in the ,trias1 that is1 in the beginning of the ,mesolithic epoch4 ,as we have already seen1 this very period is evidently one of the most important turning points in the organic history of the earth4 ,the palolithic fern forests were then replaced by the pine forests of the ,trias period2 important transformations then took place in many of the classes of ,invertebrata4 ,articulated marine lilies 7,colocrina7 developed out of the plated ones 7,phatnocrina47 ,the ,autechinid1 or sea-urchins with only twenty rows of plates1 took the place of the palolithic ,palechinid1 the sea-urchins with more than twenty rows of plates4 ,the ,cystide1 ,blastoide1 ,trilobita1 and other characteristic groups of ,invertebrata of the primary period became extinct4 ,it is no wonder that transforming conditions of adaptation powerfully influenced the ,vertebrate tribes also in the beginning of the ,trias period1 and caused the origin of ,amniotic animals4 ,if1 however1 the two ,lizard and ,salamander-like animals of the ,permian system1 the ,proterosaurus and ,rhopalodon1 are considered genuine ,reptiles1 and consequently the most ancient ,amniota1 then the origin of this main class must necessarily have taken place in the preceding period1 towards the end of the primary1 namely1 in the ,permian period4 ,however1 all other remains of ,reptiles1 which were formerly believed to have been found in the ,permian and the ,coal system1 or even in the ,devonian system1 have been proved to be either not remains of ,reptiles at all1 or to belong to a more recent date 7for the most part to the ,trias74 7,compare ,plate ,,xiv47 ,the common hypothetical primary form of all ,amniotic animals1 which we may call ,protamnion1 and which was possibly nearly related to the ,proterosaurus1 very probably stood upon the whole midway between salamanders and lizards1 in regard to its bodily formation4 ,its descendants divided at an early period into two different lines1 one of which became the common primary form of ,reptiles and ,birds1 the other the primary form of ,mammals4 ,of all the three classes of ,amniota1 ,reptiles 7,reptilia1 or ,pholidota1 also called ,sauria in the widest sense71 remain at the lowest stage of development1 and differ least from their ancestors1 the ,amphibia4 ,hence they were formerly universally included among them1 although their whole organization is much more like that of ,birds than ,amphibia4 ,there now exist only four orders of ,reptiles1 namely1--,lizards1 ,serpents1 ,crocodiles1 and ,tortoises4 ,they1 however1 form but a poor remnant of the exceedingly various and highly developed host of ,reptiles which lived during the ,mesolithic1 or ,secondary epoch1 and predominated over all other ,vertebrata4 ,the immense development of ,reptiles during the ,secondary epoch is so characteristic that we could as well name it after those animals as after the ,gymnosperms 7p4 #aaa74 ,twelve of the twenty-seven sub-orders1 given on the accompanying table1 and four of the eight orders1 belong exclusively to the secondary period4 ,these mesolithic groups are marked by an asterisk4 ,all the orders1 with the exception of ,serpents1 are found fossilized even in the ,jura and ,trias periods4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 ,,xiv4 ,horizontal axis3 ,branches1 ,classes1 and ,sub-,classes1 of the ,vertebrate ,stem4 ,prochordata ,evertebrate ,forefathers of the ,vertebrate ,skull-less 7,acrania7 or ,tube-hearted ,fish1 7,leptocardia7 ,single nostrilled 7,monorrhina7 or ,round-mouthed ,fishes 7,cyclostoma7 ,anamnia ,paired-nostrilled forms or ,amphirrhina with gills1 without ,amnion4 ,fish1 ,pisces ,primeval ,fish1 ,selachii4 ,enamelled ,fish1 ,ganoides4 ,bony ,fish1 ,teleostei4 ,mud ,fish1 ,dipneusta4 ,sea-,dragons1 ,halisauria4 ,frogs and ,newts1 ,amphibia4 ,amniota ,paired nostrilled or ,amphirrhina with ,amnion1 without gills4 ,reptiles1 ,reptilia4 ,primval ,reptiles1 ,tocosauria4 ,lizards1 ,lacertilia4 ,snakes1 ,ophidia4 ,crocodiles1 ,crocodilia4 ,tortoises1 ,chelonia4 ,flying ,reptiles1 ,pterosauria4 ,dragons1 ,dinosauria4 ,billed ,reptiles1 ,anomodontia4 ,birds1 ,aves4 ,suckling animals1 ,mammalia4 ,billed ,animals1 ,monotrema4 ,pouched ,animals1 ,marsupialia4 ,placental ,animals1 ,placentalia4 ,vertical axis3 ,cenolithic or ,tertiary ,epoch4 ,pliocene ,age4 ,miocene ,age4 ,eocene ,age4 ,mesolithic or ,secondary ,epoch4 ,chalk ,period4 ,jurassic ,period4 ,triassic ,period4 ,palolithic or ,primary ,epoch4 ,permian ,period4 ,coal ,period4 ,devonian ,period4 ,archilithic or ,primordial ,epoch4 ,silurian ,period4 ,cambrian ,period4 ,laurentian ,period4 ,legend3 ,single or ,,monophyletic ,,pedigree of the ,stem of the ,,back-,,boned ,,animals ,based on ,palontology4 ,relative lengths of the #e ,epochs in per centages4 ,quarternary ,epoch #j4e ,tertiary ,epoch #b4c ,secondary ,epoch #aa4e ,primary ,epoch #cb4a ,primordial ,epoch #ec4f ------ ,total #ajj4j ,in the first order1 that of ,primary ,reptiles1 or ,primary ,creepers 7,tocosauria71 we class the extinct ,thecodontia of the ,trias1 together with those ,reptiles which we may look upon as the common primary form of the whole class4 ,to the latter1 which we may call ,primval ,reptiles 7,proreptilia71 the ,proterosaurus of the ,permian system very probably belongs4 ,the seven remaining orders must be considered as diverging branches1 which have developed in different directions out of that common primary form4 ,the ,thecodontia of the ,trias1 the only positively known fossil forms of ,tocosauria1 were ,lizards which seem to have been like the still living monitor lizards 7,monitor1 ,varanus74 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #h ,orders and #bg ,sub-orders of ,reptiles4 7,those groups marked with 99 became extinct even during the ,secondary ,period47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,sub-orders ,systematic ,name ,a ,generic ,name ,orders of of the as of ,reptiles4 ,reptiles4 ,sub-orders4 an example4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,i4 ,primary #a4 ,primval reptiles #a4 ,proreptilia 99 7,proterosaurus87 ,reptiles ,tocosauria #b4 #b4 ,thecodontia 99 ,palosaurus #c4 ,cleft-tongued #c4 ,fissilingues ,monitor #d4 ,thick-tongued #d4 ,crassilingues ,iguana ,,ii4 ,lizards #e4 ,short-tongued #e4 ,brevilingues ,anguis ,lacertilia #f4 ,ringed lizards #f4 ,glyptodermata ,amphisbna #g4 ,chameleons #g4 ,vermilingues ,chamleo #h4 ,adders #h4 ,aglyphodonta ,coluber #i4 ,tree serpents #i4 ,opisthoglypha ,dipsas ,,iii4 ,serpents #aj4 #aj4 ,proteroglypha ,hydrophis ,ophidia #aa4 ,vipers #aa4 ,solenoglypha ,vipera #ab4 ,worm serpents #ab4 ,opoterodonta ,typhlops #ac4 ,amphicla #ac4 ,teleosauria 99 ,teleosaurus ,,iv4 ,crocodiles #ad4 ,opisthocla #ad4 ,steneosauria 99 ,steneosaurus ,crocodilia #ae4 ,prosthocla #ae4 ,alligatores ,alligator #af4 ,sea tortoises #af4 ,thalassita ,chelone ,v4 ,tortoises #ag4 ,river tortoises #ag4 ,potamita ,trionyx ,chelonia #ah4 ,marsh tortoises #ah4 ,elodita ,emys #ai4 ,land tortoises #ai4 ,chersita ,testudo #bj4 ,long-tailed #bj4 ,rhamphorhynchi 99 ,rhamphorhynchus ,,vi4 ,flying ,flying lizards ,reptiles #ba4 ,short-tailed #ba4 ,pterodactyli 99 ,pterodactylus ,pterosauria99 ,flying lizards #bb4 ,giant dragons #bb4 ,harpagosauria 99 ,megalosaurus ,,vii4 ,dragons #bc4 ,elephantine #bc4 ,therosauria 99 ,iguanodon ,dinosauria99 dragons #bd4 ,dog-toothed #bd4 ,cynodontia 99 ,dicynodon ,,viii4 ,beaked #be4 ,toothless #be4 ,cryptodontia 99 ,udenodon ,reptiles #bf4 ,kangaroo reptiles #bf4 ,hypsosauria 99 ,compsognathus ,anomodontia99 #bg4 ,bird reptiles #bg4 ,tocornithes 99 7,tocornis7 ,of the four orders of reptiles now existing1 and which1 moreover1 have alone represented the class since the beginning of the tertiary epoch1 that of ,lizards 7,lacertilia7 is probably most closely allied to the extinct ,primary ,reptiles1 and especially through the monitors already named4 ,the class of ,serpents 7,ophidia7 developed out of a branch of the order of lizards1 and this probably not until the beginning of the tertiary epoch4 ,at least we at present only know of fossil remains of serpents from the tertiary strata4 ,crocodiles 7,crocodilia7 existed much earlier2 the ,teleosauria and ,steneosauria belonging to the class are found fossil in large quantities even in the ,jura2 but the still living alligators are first met with in a fossil state in the chalk and tertiary strata4 ,the most isolated of the four existing orders of reptiles consists of the remarkable group of ,tortoises 7,chelonia72 fossils of these strange animals are first met with in the ,jura4 ,in some characteristics they are allied to ,amphibia1 in others1 to ,crocodiles1 and by certain peculiarities even to ,birds1 so that their true position in the pedigree of ,reptiles is probably far down at the root4 ,the extraordinary resemblance of their embryos to ,birds1 manifested even at later stages of the ontogenesis1 is exceedingly striking4 ,the four extinct orders of ,reptiles show among one another1 and1 with the four existing orders just mentioned1 such various and complicated relationships1 that in the present state of our knowledge we are obliged to give up the attempt at establishing their pedigree4 ,the most deviating and most curious forms are the ,flying ,reptiles 7,pterosauria72 flying lizards1 in which the extremely elongated fifth finger of the hand served to support an enormous flying membrane4 ,they probably flew about1 in the secondary period1 much in the same way as the bats of the present day4 ,the smallest flying lizards were about the size of a sparrow2 the largest1 however1 with a breadth of wing of more than sixteen feet1 exceeded the largest of our living flying birds in stretch of wing 7condor and albatross74 ,numerous fossil remains of them1 of the long-tailed ,rhamphorhynchia and of the short-tailed ,pterodactyl are found in all the strata of the ,jura and ,chalk periods1 but in these only4 ,not less remarkable and characteristic of the ,mesolithic epoch was the group of ,dragons 7,dinosauria1 or ,pachypoda74 ,these colossal reptiles1 which attained a length of more than fifty feet1 are the largest inhabitants of the land which have ever existed on our globe2 they lived exclusively in the secondary epoch4 ,most of their remains are found in the lower cretaceous system1 more especially in the ,wealden formations of ,england4 ,the majority of them were fearful beasts of prey 7the ,megalosaurus from twenty to thirty1 the ,pelorosaurus from forty to fifty feet in length74 ,the ,iguanodon1 however1 and some others lived on vegetable food1 and probably played a part in the forests of the chalk period similar to that of the unwieldy but smaller elephants1 hippopotami1 and rhinoceroses of the present day4 ,the ,beaked ,reptiles 7,anomodontia71 likewise also long since extinct1 but of which very many remarkable remains are found in the ,trias and ,jura1 were perhaps closely related to the ,dragons4 ,their jaws1 like those of most ,flying ,reptiles and ,tortoises1 had become changed into a beak1 which either possessed only degenerated rudimentary teeth1 or no teeth at all4 ,in this order1 if not in the preceding one1 we must look for the primary parents of the bird class1 which we may call ,bird ,reptiles 7,tocornithes74 ,probably very closely related to them was the curious1 kangaroo-like ,compsognathus from the ,jura1 which in very important characteristics already shows an approximation to the structure of birds4 ,the class of ,birds 7,aves71 as already remarked1 is so closely allied to ,reptiles in internal structure and by embryonal development1 that they undoubtedly originated out of a branch of this class4 ,even a glance at ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 will show that the embryos of birds at a time when they already essentially differ from the embryos of ,mammals1 are still scarcely distinguishable from those of ,tortoises and other ,reptiles4 ,the cleavage of the yolk is partial in the case of ,birds and ,reptiles1 in ,mammals it is total4 ,the red blood-cells of the former possess a kernel1 those of the latter do not4 ,the hair of ,mammals develops in closed follicles in the skin1 but the feathers of birds and also the scales of reptiles develop in hillocks on the skin4 ,the lower jaw of the latter is much more complicated than that of ,mammals2 the latter do not possess the quadrate bone of the former4 ,whereas in ,mammals 7as in the case of ,amphibia7 the connection between the skull and the first neck vertebra is formed by two knobbed joints1 or condyles1 in ,birds and ,reptiles those have become united into a single condyle4 ,the two last classes may therefore justly be united into one group as ,monocondylia1 and contrasted to ,mammals1 or ,dicondylia4 ,the deviation of ,birds from ,reptiles1 in any case1 first took place in the mesolithic epoch1 and this moreover probably during the ,trias4 ,the oldest fossil remains of birds are found in the upper ,jura 7,archopteryx74 ,but there existed1 even in the ,trias period1 different ,saurians 7,anomodonta7 which in many respects seem to form the transition from the ,tocosauria to the primary ancestors of ,birds1 the hypothetical ,tocornithes4 ,probably these ,tocornithes were scarcely distinguishable from other beaked lizards in the system1 and were closely related to the kangaroo-like ,compsognathus from the ,jura of ,solenhofen4 ,huxley classes the latter with the ,dinosauria1 and believes them to be the nearest relations to the ,tocornithes4 ,the great majority of ,birds--in spite of all the variety in the colouring of their beautiful feathery dress1 and in the formation of their beaks and feet--are of an exceedingly uniform organization1 in much the same way as are the class of insects4 ,the bird form has adapted itself on all sides to the external conditions of existence1 without having thereby in any way essentially deviated from the strict hereditary type of its characteristic structure4 ,there are only two small groups1 the feather-tailed birds 7,saurur7 and those of the ostrich kind1 which differ considerably from the usual type of bird1 namely1 from those with keel-shaped breasts 7,carinat71 and hence the whole class may be divided into three sub-classes4 ,the first sub-class1 the ,reptile-tailed1 or ,feather-tailed ,birds 7,saurur71 are as yet known only through a single1 and that an imperfect1 fossil impression1 which1 however1 in being the oldest and also a very peculiar fossil bird1 is of great importance4 ,this fossil is the ,primval ,griffin1 or ,archopteryx lithographica1 of which as yet only one specimen has been found in the lithographic slate at ,solenhofen1 in the ,upper ,jura system of ,bavaria4 ,this remarkable bird seems on the whole to have been of the size and form of a large raven1 especially as regards the legs1 which are in a good state of preservation2 head and breast unfortunately are wanting4 ,the formation of the wings deviates somewhat from that of other birds1 but that of the tail still more so4 ,in all other birds the tail is very short and composed of but few short vertebr2 the last of these have grown together into a thin1 bony plate standing perpendicularly1 upon which the rudder-feathers of the tail are attached in the form of a fan4 ,the ,archopteryx1 however1 has a long tail like a lizard1 composed of numerous 7#bj7 long thin vertebr1 and on every vertebra are attached the strong rudder-feathers in twos1 so that the whole tail appears regularly feathered4 ,this same formation of the tail part of the vertebral column occurs transiently in the embryos of other birds1 so that the tail of the ,archopteryx evidently represents the original form of bird-tail inherited from reptiles4 ,large numbers of similar birds with lizard-tails probably lived during the middle of the secondary period2 accident has as yet1 however1 only revealed this one fossil4 ,the ,fan-tailed1 or ,keel-breasted birds 7,carinat71 which form the second sub-class1 comprise all living ,birds of the present day1 with the exception of those of the ostrich kind1 or ,ratit4 ,they probably developed out of ,feather-tailed ,birds during the first half of the secondary period1 namely1 in the ,jura or ,chalk period1 by the hinder tail vertebr growing together1 and by the tail becoming shortened4 ,only very few remains of them are known from the secondary period1 and these moreover only out of the last section of it1 namely1 from the ,chalk4 ,these remains belong to a swimming bird of the albatross species1 and a wading bird like a snipe4 ,all the other fossil remains of birds as yet known have been found in the tertiary strata4 ,the ,bushy-tailed1 or ,ostrich-like ,birds 7,ratit71 also called ,running ,birds 7,cursores71 the third and last sub-class1 is now represented only by a few living species1 by the ,african ostrich with two toes1 the ,american and ,australian ostrich with three toes1 by the ,indian cassowary and the four-toed kiwi1 or ,apteryx1 in ,new ,zealand4 ,the extinct giant birds of ,madagascar 7pyornis7 and the ,new ,zealand ,dinornis1 which were much larger than the still living ostriches1 also belong to this group4 ,the ,birds of the ostrich kind--by giving up the habit of flying1 by the degeneration of the muscles for flying resulting from this1 and of the breast bone which serves as their support1 and by the corresponding stronger development of the hinder legs for running--have probably arisen out of a branch of the ,keel-breasted birds4 ,but possibly1 as ,huxley thinks1 they may be the nearest relations of the ,dinosauria and of the ,reptiles akin to them1 especially of the ,compsognathus2 at all events1 the common primary form of all ,birds must be looked for among the extinct ,reptiles4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,pedigree ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 ,,iv4 ,,mammals4 ,the ,system of ,mammals according to ,linnus and ,blainville4--,three ,sub-classes of ,mammals 7,ornithodelphia1 ,didelphia1 ,monodelphia74--,ornithodelphia1 or ,monotrema4--,beaked ,animals 7,ornithostoma74--,didelphia1 or ,marsupials4--,herbivorous and ,carnivorous ,marsupials4--,monodelphia1 or ,placentalia 7,placental ,animals74--,meaning of the ,placenta4--,tuft ,placentalia4--,girdle ,placentalia4--,disc ,placentalia4--,non-deciduates1 or ,indeciduata4--,hoofed ,animals4--,single and ,double-hoofed ,animals4--,whales4--,toothless ,animals4--,deciduates1 or ,animals with ,decidua4--,semi-apes4--,gnawing ,animals4--,pseudo-hoofed ,animals4--,insectivora4--,beasts of ,prey4--,bats4--,apes4 ,there are only a few points in the classification of organisms upon which naturalists have always agreed4 ,one of these few undisputed points is the privileged position of the class of ,mammals at the head of the animal kingdom4 ,the reason of this privilege consists partly in the special interest1 also in the various uses and the many pleasures1 which ,mammals1 more than all other animals1 offer to man1 and partly in the circumstance that man himself is a member of this class4 ,for however differently in other respects man's position in nature and in the system of animals may have been regarded1 yet no naturalist has ever doubted that man1 at least from a purely morphological point of view1 belongs to the class of ,mammals4 ,from this there directly follows the exceedingly important inference that man1 by consanguinity also1 is a member of this class of animals1 and has historically developed out of long since extinct forms of ,mammals4 ,this circumstance alone justifies us here in turning our especial attention to the history and the pedigree of ,mammals4 ,let us1 therefore1 for this purpose first examine the groups of this class of animals4 ,older naturalists1 especially considering the formation of the jaw and feet1 divided the class of ,mammals into a series of from eight to sixteen orders4 ,the lowest stage of the series was occupied by the whales1 which seemed to differ most from man1 who stands at the highest stage1 by their fish-like form of body4 ,thus ,linnus distinguished the following eight orders3 7#a7 ,cet 7whales72 7#b7 ,bellu 7hippopotami and horses72 7#c7 ,pecora 7ruminating animals72 7#d7 ,glires 7gnawing animals and rhinoceroses72 7#e7 ,besti 7insectivora1 marsupials1 and various others72 7#f7 ,fer 7beasts of prey72 7#g7 ,bruta 7toothless animals and elephants72 7#h7 ,primates 7bats1 semi-apes1 apes1 and men74 ,cuvier's classification1 which became the standard of most subsequent zoologists1 did not rise much above that of ,linnus4 ,cuvier distinguished the following eight orders3 7#a7 ,cetacea 7whales72 7#b7 ,ruminantia 7ruminating animals72 7#c7 ,pachyderma 7hoofed animals1 with the exclusion of ruminating animals72 7#d7 ,edentata 7animals poor in teeth72 7#e7 ,rodentia 7gnawing animals72 7#f7 ,carnassia 7marsupials1 beasts of prey1 insectivora1 and bats72 7#g7 ,quadrumana 7semi-apes and apes72 7#h7 ,bimana 7man74 ,the most important advance in the classification of ,mammals was made as early as #ahaf by the eminent anatomist ,blainville1 who has already been mentioned1 and who first clearly recognised the three natural main groups or sub-classes of ,mammals1 and distinguished them according to the formation of their generative organs as ,ornithodelphia1 ,didelphia1 and ,monodelphia4 ,as this division is now justly considered by all scientific zoologists to be the best1 on account of solid foundation on the history of development1 let us here keep to it also4 ,the first sub-class consists of the ,cloacal ,animals1 or ,breastless animals1 also called ,forked animals 7,monotrema1 or ,ornithodelphia74 ,this class is now represented only by two species of living mammals1 both of which are confined to ,australia and the neighbouring island of ,van ,diemen's land1 namely1 the well-known ,water ,duck-bill 7,ornithorhynchus paradoxus7 with the beak of a bird1 and the less known ,beaked ,mole 7,echidna hystrix71 resembling a hedgehog4 ,both of these curious animals1 which are classed in the order of ,beaked ,animals 7,ornithostoma71 are evidently the last surviving remnants of an animal group formerly rich in forms1 which alone represented the ,mammalia in the secondary epoch1 and out of which the second sub-class1 the ,didelphia1 developed later1 probably in the ,jurassic period4 ,unfortunately1 we as yet do not know with certainty of any fossil remains of this most ancient primary group of ,mammals1 which we will call ,primary ,mammals 7,promammalia74 ,yet they possibly comprise the oldest of all the fossil ,mammalia known1 namely1 the ,microlestes antiquus1 of which animals1 however1 we as yet only know some few small molar teeth4 ,these have been found in the uppermost strata of the ,trias1 in the ,keuper1 first in ,germany 7at ,degerloch1 near ,stuttgart1 in #ahdg71 later also in ,england 7at ,frome71 in #aheh4 ,similar teeth have lately been found also in the ,north ,american ,trias1 and have been described as ,dromatherium sylvestre4 ,these remarkable teeth1 from the characteristic form of which we can conclude that they belonged to an insectivorous mammal1 are the only remains of mammals as yet found in the older secondary strata1 namely1 in the ,trias4 ,it is possible1 however1 that besides these many of the other mammalian teeth found in the ,jura and ,chalk systems1 which are still generally ascribed to ,marsupials1 in reality belong to ,cloacal ,animals4 ,this cannot be decided with certainty owing to the absence of the characteristic soft parts4 ,in any case1 numerous ,monotrema1 with well-developed teeth and cloaca1 must have preceded the advent of ,marsupial animals4 ,the designation1 8,cloacal animals0 7,monotrema71 has been given to the ,ornithodelphia on account of the cloaca which distinguishes them from all other ,mammals2 but which on the other hand makes them agree with ,birds1 ,reptiles1 and ,amphibia1 in fact1 with the lower ,vertebrata4 ,the formation of the cloaca consists in the last portion of the intestinal canal receiving the mouth of the urogenital apparatus1 that is1 the united urinary and genital organs1 whereas in all other ,mammals 7,didelphia as well ,monodelphia7 these organs have an opening distinct from that of the rectum4 ,however1 in these latter also the cloaca formation exists during the first period of their embryonal life1 and the separation of the two openings takes place only at a later date 7in man about the twelfth week of development74 ,the ,cloacal animals have also been called 8,forked animals10 because the collar-bones1 by means of the breast bone1 have become united into one piece1 similar to the well-known fork-bone1 or merry-thought1 in birds4 ,in all other ,mammals the two collar-bones remain separated in front and do not fuse with the breast bone4 ,moreover1 the coracoid bones are much more strongly developed in the ,cloacal animals than in the other ,mammalia1 and are connected with the breast bone4 ,in many other characteristics also--especially in the formation of their internal genital organs1 their auricular labyrinth1 and their brain--,beaked animals are more closely allied to the other ,vertebrata than to ,mammals1 so that some naturalists have been inclined to separate them from the latter as a special class4 ,however1 like all other ,mammals1 they bring forth living young ones1 which for a time are nourished with milk from the mother4 ,but whereas in all other ,mammals the milk issues through nipples1 or teats1 from the mammary glands1 teats are completely wanting in beaked animals1 and the milk comes simply out of a flat1 sieve-like1 perforated patch of the skin4 ,hence they may also be called ,breastless or ,teatless animals 7,amasta74 ,the curious formation of the beak in the two still living ,beaked animals1 which is connected with the suppression of the teeth1 must evidently not be looked upon as an essential feature of the whole sub-class of ,cloacal animals1 but as an accidental character of adaptation distinguishing the last remnant of the class as much from the extinct main group1 as the formation of a similar toothless snout distinguishes many toothless animals 7for instance1 the ant-eater7 from the other placental animals4 ,the unknown1 extinct ,primary ,mammals1 or ,promammalia--which lived during the ,trias period1 and of which the two still living orders of ,beaked animals represent but a single degenerated branch developed on one side--probably possessed a very highly developed jaw like the marsupial animals1 which developed from them4 ,marsupial1 or ,pouched ,animals 7,didelphia1 or ,marsupialia71 the second of the three sub-classes of ,mammals1 form in every respect--both as regards their anatomy and embryology1 as well as their genealogy and history--the transition between the other sub-classes--the ,cloacal and ,placental ,animals4 ,numerous representatives of this group still exist1 especially the well-known kangaroos1 pouched rats1 and pouched dogs2 but on the whole this sub-class1 like the preceding one1 is evidently approaching its complete extinction1 and the living members of the class are the last surviving remnants of a large group rich in forms1 which represented the ,mammalia during the more recent secondary and the earlier tertiary periods4 ,the ,marsupial ,animals probably developed towards the middle of the ,mesolithic epoch 7during the ,jura7 out of a branch of the ,cloacal ,animals1 and in the beginning of the ,tertiary epoch again1 the group of ,placental ,animals arose out of the ,marsupials1 and the latter then succumbed to the former in the struggle for life4 ,all the fossil remains of ,mammals known to us from the ,secondary epoch1 belong either exclusively to ,marsupials1 or partly perhaps to ,cloacal animals4 ,at that time ,marsupials seem to have been distributed over the whole earth2 even in ,europe 7,france and ,england71 well-preserved fossil remains of them have been found4 ,on the other hand1 the last off-shoots of the sub-class now living are confined to a very narrow tract of distribution1 namely1 to ,australia1 the ,australasian1 and a small part of the ,asiatic ,archipelago4 ,there are also a few species still living in ,america1 but at the present day not a single marsupial animal lives on the continent of ,asia1 ,africa1 or ,europe4 ,the name of pouched animals is given to the class on account of the purse-shaped pouch 7marsupium7 existing in most instances on the abdominal side of the female animals1 in which the mother carries about her young for a considerable time after their birth4 ,this pouch is supported by two characteristic marsupial bones1 also existing in ,cloacal animals1 but not in ,placental animals4 ,the young ,marsupial animal is born in a much more imperfect form than the young ,placental animal1 and only attains the same degree of development which the latter possesses directly at its birth1 after it has developed in the pouch for some time4 ,in the case of the giant kangaroo1 which attains the height of a man1 the newly born young one1 which has been carried in the maternal womb not much longer than five weeks1 is not more than an inch in length1 and only attains its essential development subsequently1 in the pouch of the mother1 where it remains about nine months attached to the nipple of the mammary gland4 ,the different divisions generally distinguished as families in the sub-class of ,marsupial animals1 deserve in reality the rank of independent orders1 for they differ from one another in manifold differentiations of the jaw and limbs1 in much the same manner1 although not so sharply1 as the various orders of ,placental animals4 ,in part they perfectly agree with the latter4 ,it is evident that adaptation to similar conditions of life has effected entirely coincident or analogous transformations of the original fundamental form in the two sub-classes of ,marsupials4 ,according to this1 about eight orders of ,marsupial animals may be distinguished1 the one half of the main group or legion of which are herbivorous1 the other half carnivorous4 ,the oldest fossil remains of the two legions 7if the previously mentioned ,microlestes and the ,dromatherium are not included7 occur in the ,jurassic strata1 namely1 in the slates of ,stonesfield1 near ,oxford4 ,the slates belong to the ,bath1 or the ,lower ,oolite formation--strata which lie directly above the ,lias1 the oldest ,jura formation4 7,compare p4 #ae47 ,it is true that the remains of ,marsupials found in the slates of ,stonesfield1 as well as those which were found later in the ,purbeck strata1 consist only of lower jaws4 7,compare p4 #bi47 ,but fortunately the lower jaw is just one of the most characteristic parts of the skeleton of ,marsupials4 ,for it is distinguished by a hook-shaped process of the lower corner of the jaw turning downwards and backwards1 which neither occurs in ,placental nor in the 7still living7 ,cloacal animals1 and from the existence of this process on the lower jaws from ,stonesfield1 we may infer that they belonged to ,marsupials4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,,of ,,cloacal ,,and ,,marsupial ,,mammalia4 ,i4 ,first ,sub-class of ,mammalia3 ,forked or ,cloacal ,animals 7,monotrema1 or ,ornithodelphia74 ,mammals with ,cloaca1 without ,placenta1 with ,marsupial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,i4 ,primary ,mammals ,unknown extinct ,mammalia from the 7,microlestes87 ,promammalia ,trias ,period 7,dromatherium87 ,,ii4 #a4 ,aquatic beaked #a4 ,ornithorhynchida #a4 ,ornithorhynchus ,beaked ,animals animals paradoxus ,ornithostoma #b4 ,terrestrial #b4 ,echidnida #b4 ,echidna hystrix beaked animals ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,,ii4 ,second ,sub-class of ,mammalia3 ,pouched or ,marsupial ,animals 7,marsupialia1 or ,didelphia74 ,mammals without ,cloaca1 without ,placenta1 with ,marsupial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,legions ,orders ,systematic ,name ,families of the of of of ,marsupialia4 ,marsupialia4 ,marsupialia4 the ,orders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #a4 ,hoofed #a4 ,barypoda #a4 ,stereognathida ,marsupial animals #b4 ,nototherida ,,iii4 #c4 ,diprotodontia ,herbivorous ,marsupial #b4 ,kangaroo #b4 ,macropoda #d4 ,plagiaulacida ,animals ,marsupial animals #e4 ,halmaturida 7,leaping pouched #f4 ,dendrolagida ,marsupialia animals7 ,botanophaga #c4 ,root-eating #c4 ,rhizophaga ,marsupial animals 7,gnawing pouched #g4 ,phascolomyida animals7 #d4 ,fruit eating #d4 ,carpophaga ,marsupial animals #h4 ,phascolarctida 7,climbing pouched #i4 ,phalangistida animals7 #aj4 ,petaurida #e4 ,insectivorous #e4 ,cantharophaga #aa4 ,thylacotherida ,marsupial animals #ab4 ,spalacotherida 7,primval pouched #ac4 ,myrmecobida animals7 #ad4 ,peramelida ,,iv4 ,carnivorous #f4 ,marsupial animals #f4 ,edentula ,marsupial poor in teeth ,animals 7,pouched animals #ae4 ,tarsipedina with trunks7 #g4 ,rapacious marsupial #g4 ,creophaga #af4 ,dasyurida animals #ag4 ,thylacinida ,marsupialia 7,rapacious pouched #ah4 ,thylacoleonida ,zoophaga animals7 #h4 ,ape-footed #h4 ,pedimana ,marsupial animals #ai4 ,chironectida 7,pouched animals #bj4 ,didelphyida with hands7 ,,systematic ,,survey ,,of ,,placental ,,animals4 ,,iii4 ,third ,sub-class of ,mammalia3 ,placentalia1 or ,monodelphia 7,placental ,animals74 ,mammals without ,cloaca1 with ,placenta1 without ,marsupial ,bones4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,legions of ,orders of ,sub-orders of ,systematic ,name the the the of ,placental ,animals4,placental ,animals4,placental ,animals4 the ,sub-orders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,iii4 #a4 ,,indecidua4 ,placental ,animals without ,decidua4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,v4 ,i4 ,single-hoofed #a4 ,tapirs #a4 ,tapiromorpha ,hoofed ,animals ,perissodactyla #b4 ,horses #b4 ,solidungula ,ungulata ,,ii4 ,double-hoofed #c4 ,pigs #c4 ,choeromorpha ,artiodactyla #d4 ,ruminating #d4 ,ruminantia ,,iii4 ,herbivorous ,,vi4 ,whales #e4 ,sea cows #e4 ,sirenia ,whales ,phycoceta ,cetacea ,,iv4 ,carnivorous #f4 ,whales #f4 ,autoceta ,whales #g4 ,zeuglodonta #g4 ,zeugloceta ,sarcoceta ,,vii4 ,v4 ,digging ,animals #h4 ,ant-eaters #h4 ,vermilinguia ,animals ,effodientia #i4 ,armadilloes #i4 ,cingulata poor in teeth ,edentata ,,vi4 ,sloths #aj4 ,giant ,sloths #aj4 ,gravigrada ,bradypoda #aa4 ,dwarf ,sloths #aa4 ,tardigrada ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,iii4 #b4 ,,deciduata4 ,placental ,animals with ,decidua4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,viii4 ,,vii4 ,rapacious #ab4 ,rapacious land #ab4 ,carnivora ,placental ,animals ,animals animals ,zonoplacentalia ,carnaria #ac4 ,rapacious sea #ac4 ,pinnipedia animals ,,viii4 ,false-hoofed #ad4 ,hyrax #ad4 ,lamnungia ,animals #ae4 ,toxodonts #ae4 ,toxodontia ,chelophora #af4 ,dinotheria #af4 ,gonyognatha #ag4 ,elephants #ag4 ,proboscidea ,,xi4 ,,ix4 ,semi-apes #ah4 ,fingered animals #ah4 ,leptodactyla ,disc ,placental ,prosimi #ai4 ,flying lemur #ai4 ,ptenopleura ,animals #bj4 ,long-footed #bj4 ,macrotarsi ,discoplacentalia #ba4 ,short-footed #ba4 ,brachytarsi ,x4 ,gnawing ,animals #bb4 ,squirrel species #bb4 ,sciuromorpha ,rodentia #bc4 ,mouse species #bc4 ,myomorpha #bd4 ,porcupine species #bd4 ,hystrichomorpha #be4 ,hare species #be4 ,lagomorpha ,,xi4 ,insect-eating #bf4 ,with a ccum #bf4 ,menotyphla ,animals #bg4 ,without a #bg4 ,lipotyphla ,insectivora ccum ,,xii4 ,flying ,animals#bh4 ,flying foxes #bh4 ,pterocynes ,chiroptera #bi4 ,bats #bi4 ,nycterides ,,xiii4 ,apes #cj4 ,clawed apes #cj4 ,arctopitheci ,simi #ca4 ,flat-nosed #ca4 ,platyrrhin #cb4 ,narrow-nosed #cb4 ,catarrhin ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,man ,homines ,elephants ,proboscidea ,bats ,nycterides ,rock ,conies ,marine animals of prey ,lamnungia ,narrow-nosed ,pinnipedia ,catarrhin ,flying foxes ------v-----_/ ,flat-nosed ,pterocynes ,pseudo-hoofed ,platyrrhin ,flying ,animals ,chelophora ,chiroptera ----v---_/ ,land animals of prey ,apes ,carnivora ,gnawing ,animals ,simi ,animals of ,prey ,rodentia ,carnaria ,fingered animals ,lemurs ,leptodactyla ,brachytarsi ,true -------v---------_/ whales ,insect eaters ,sarcoceta -----v----_/ ---v----_/ ,insectivora ------------------v--------------------- _/ ,sea cows ,semi-apes ,sirenia ,prosimi ,whales ,deciduous ,animals ,cetacea ,deciduata ,poor in teeth ,hoofed ,animals ,edentata ,ungulata -------v--------_/ ,indeciduous ,indeciduata -------------v-------------_/ ,placental ,animals ,placentalia ,herbivorous marsupials ,carnivorous marsupials ,marsupialia botanophaga ,marsupialia zoophaga --------------v-----------------_/ ,marsupial ,marsupialia ,beaked animals ,ornithostoma ---------v--------_/ ,primary mammals ,promammalia ,cloacal ,animals ,monotrema ,of ,herbivorous marsupials 7,botanophaga71 only two fossils are as yet known from the ,jura1 namely1 the ,stereognathus ooliticus1 from the slates of ,stonesfield 7,lower ,oolite71 and the ,plagiaulax ,becklesii1 from the middle ,purbeck strata 7,upper ,oolite74 ,but in ,australia there are gigantic fossil remains of extinct herbivorous ,marsupials from the diluvial period 7,diprotodon and ,nototherium7 which were far larger than the largest of the still living ,marsupials4 ,the ,diprotodon ,australis1 whose skull alone is three feet long1 exceeded even the river-horse1 or ,hippopotamus1 in size and upon the whole resembled it in the unwieldy and clumsy form of body4 ,this extinct group1 which probably corresponded with the gigantic placental hoofed animals of the present day--the hippopotami and rhinoceroses--may be called ,hoofed ,marsupials 7,barypoda74 ,closely allied to them is the order of kangaroos1 or ,leaping ,marsupials 7,macropoda71 which all have seen in zoological gardens4 ,in their shortened fore legs1 their very lengthened hind legs1 and very strong tail1 which serves as a jumping pole1 they correspond with the leaping mice in the class of ,rodents4 ,their jaw1 however1 resembles that of horses1 and their complex stomach that of ,ruminants4 ,a third order of ,herbivorous ,marsupials corresponds in its jaws to ,rodents1 and in its subterranean mode of life1 especially1 to digging mice4 ,hence they may be termed ,rodent ,marsupials1 or root-eating pouched animals 7,rhizophaga74 ,they are now represented only by the ,australian wombat 7,phascolomys74 ,a fourth and last order of ,herbivorous ,marsupials is formed by the climbing or ,fruit-eating ,marsupials 7,carpophaga71 whose mode of life and structure resembles partly that of squirrels1 partly that of apes 7,phalangista1 ,phascolarctus74 ,the second legion of ,marsupials1 the ,carnivorous ,marsupials 7,zoophaga71 is likewise divided into four main groups or orders4 ,the most ancient of these is that of the primval1 or ,insectivorous ,marsupials 7,cantharophaga74 ,it probably includes the primary forms of the whole legion1 and possibly also those of the whole sub-class4 ,at least1 all the lower jaws from ,stonesfield 7with the exception of the ,stereognathus7 belong to ,insectivorous ,marsupials1 and the still living ,myrmecobius is their nearest relative4 ,but some of those oolitic ,primval ,marsupials possessed a larger number of teeth than all the other known mammals1 for each half of the lower jaw of the ,thylacotherium contained sixteen teeth 7three incisors1 one canine tooth1 six pseudo1 and six genuine molars74 ,if the upper jaw1 which is unknown1 had as many teeth1 then the ,thylacotherium had no less than sixty-four teeth1 just double the number possessed by man4 ,the ,primval ,marsupials correspond1 on the whole1 with the ,insectivora among ,placental animals1 which order includes hedgehogs1 moles1 and shrew-mice4 ,a second order1 which has probably developed out of a branch of the last1 consists of the ,snouted1 or ,toothless ,marsupials 7,edentula71 which resemble the ,toothless animals1 or ,edentata1 among the ,placental animals by their tube-shaped snout1 their degenerated jaws1 and their corresponding mode of life4 ,on the other hand1 the mode of life and formation of the jaws of ,rapacious marsupials 7,creophaga7 correspond with those of the genuine ,beasts of ,prey1 or ,carnivora1 among ,placental animals4 ,this order includes the pouched marten 7,dasyurus7 and the pouched wolf 7,thylacinus7 in ,australia4 ,although the latter attains to the size of a wolf1 it is but a dwarf in comparison with the extinct ,australian pouched lions 7,thylacoleo7 which were at least as large as a lion1 and possessed huge canine teeth more than two inches in length4 ,finally1 the eighth and last order is formed by the marsupials with hands1 or the ,ape-footed ,pouched animals 7,pedimana71 which live both in ,australia and ,america4 ,they are frequently kept in zoological gardens1 especially the different species of the genus ,didelphys1 and are known by the name of pouched rats1 bush rats1 or opossums4 ,the thumb on their hinder feet is opposable to the four other toes1 as in a hand1 and by this they are directly allied to the ,semi-apes1 or ,prosimia1 among ,placental animals4 ,it is possible that these latter are really next akin to the marsupials with hands1 and that they have developed out of their long since extinct ancestors4 ,it is very difficult to discover the genealogy of ,marsupials1 and this more especially because we are but very imperfectly acquainted with the whole sub-class2 and the ,marsupials of the present day are evidently only the last remnants of a group that was at one time rich in forms4 ,it is possible that ,marsupials with hands1 those with snouts1 as well as rapacious ,marsupials1 developed as three diverging branches out of the common primary group of ,primval ,marsupials4 ,in a similar manner1 on the other hand1 the rodent1 leaping1 and hoofed ,marsupials have perhaps arisen as three diverging branches out of the common herbivorous primary group1 that is1 out of the ,climbing ,marsupials4 ,climbing and ,primval ,marsupials might1 however1 be two diverging branches of the common primary forms of all ,marsupials1 that is1 of the ,primary ,marsupials 7,prodidelphia71 which originated during the older secondary period out of ,cloacal animals4 ,the third and last sub-class of mammals comprises the ,placental animals1 or ,placentals 7,monodelphia1 or ,placentalia74 ,it is by far the most important1 comprehensive1 and most perfect of the three sub-classes2 for the class includes all the known mammalia1 with the exception of ,marsupials and ,beaked animals4 ,man also belongs to this sub-class1 and has developed out of its lower members4 ,placental animals1 as their name indicates1 are distinguished from all other mammals1 more especially by the formation of a so called placenta4 ,this is a very peculiar and remarkable organ1 which plays an exceedingly important part in nourishing the young one developing in the maternal body4 ,the placenta 7also called after-birth7 is a soft1 spongy1 red body1 which differs very much in form and size1 but which consists for the most part of an intricate network of veins and blood vessels4 ,its importance lies in the exchange of substance between the nutritive blood of the maternal womb1 or uterus1 and the body of the germ1 or embryo4 7,see vol4 i4 p4 #bih47 ,this very important organ is developed neither in marsupials nor in beaked animals4 ,but placental animals are also distinguished from these two sub-classes by many other peculiarities1 thus more especially by the absence of marsupial bones1 by the higher development of the internal sexual organs1 and by the more perfect development of the brain1 especially of the so-called callous body or beam 7corpus callosum71 which1 as the intermediate commissure1 or transverse bridge1 connects the two hemispheres of the large brain with each other4 ,placental animals also do not possess the peculiar hooked process of the lower jaw which characterizes ,marsupials4 ,the following classification 7p4 #bdf7 of the most important characteristics of the three sub-classes will best explain how ,marsupials1 in these anatomical respects1 stand midway between ,cloacal and ,placental animals4 ,placental animals are more variously differentiated and perfected1 and this1 moreover1 in a far higher degree1 than ,marsupials1 and they have1 on this account1 long since been arranged into a number of orders1 differing principally in the formation of the jaws and feet4 ,but what is even of more importance than these1 is the different development of the placenta1 and the manner of its connection with the maternal uterus4 ,for in the three lower orders of ,placental animals1 in ,hoofed animals1 ,whales1 and ,toothless animals1 the peculiar spongy membrane1 which is called the deciduous membrane1 or decidua1 and which connects the maternal and the ftal portions of the placenta1 does not become developed4 ,this takes place exclusively in the seven higher orders of ,placental animals1 and we may1 therefore1 according to ,huxley1 class them in the main group of ,deciduata1 or animals with decidua4 ,they are contrasted with the three first-mentioned legions of indeciduous animals1 or ,indeciduata4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,cloacal ,animals ,pouched ,animals ,placental ,animals ,three ,sub-,classes ,,monotrema ,,marsupialia ,,placentalia of or or or ,mammals4 ,,ornithodelphia ,,didelphia ,,monodelphia ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #a4 ,cloaca formation ,constant ,embryonal ,embryonal #b4 ,nipples of the pectoral ,wanting ,existing ,existing glands1 or milk warts #c4 ,fore collar bones1 ,united ,not united ,not united or clavicles1 grown together in the middle1 with the breast bone1 and forming a forked bone #d4 ,marsupial bones ,existing ,existing ,wanting #e4 ,corpus callosum of ,feebly ,feebly ,strongly developed the brain developed developed #f4 ,placenta ,wanting ,wanting ,existing ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,but in the various orders of ,placental animals the placenta differs not only in important internal differences of structure1 which are connected with the absence or the presence of a decidua1 but also in the external form of the placenta itself4 ,in the ,indeciduata it consists1 in most cases1 of numerous1 single1 scattered bunches or tufts of vessels1 and hence this group may be called tufted placental animals 7,villiplacentalia74 ,in the ,deciduata1 however1 the single tufts of vessels are united into a cake1 which appears in two different forms4 ,in the one case it surrounds the embryo in the form of a closed band or ring1 so that only the two poles of the oval egg bladder are free of tufts2 this is the case in animals of prey 7,carnaria7 and the pseudo-hoofed animals 7,chelophora71 which may consequently be comprised as girdled-placental animals 7,zonoplacentalia74 ,in the other ,deciduata1 to which man also belongs1 the placenta is a simple round disc1 and we therefore call them disc-placentals 7,discoplacentalia74 ,this group includes the five orders of ,semi-apes1 ,gnawing animals1 ,insectivora1 ,bats1 and ,apes1 from the latter of which1 in the zoological system1 man cannot be separated4 ,it may be considered as quite certain1 from reasons based upon their comparative anatomy and their history of development1 that ,placental animals first developed out of ,marsupials1 and that this very important development--the first origin of the placenta--probably took place in the beginning of the tertiary epoch1 during the eocene period4 ,but one of the most difficult questions in the genealogy of animals is the important consideration whether all ,placental animals have arisen out of one or out of several distinct branches of ,marsupials2 in other words1 whether the origin of the placenta occurred but once1 or several times4 ,when1 in my ,general ,morphology1 ,i for the first time endeavoured to establish the pedigree of ,mammals1 ,i here1 as in most cases1 preferred the monophyletic1 or one-rooted1 to the polyphyletic1 or many-rooted1 hypothesis of descent4 ,i assumed that all ,placental animals were derived from a single form of ,marsupial animal1 which1 for the first time1 began to form a placenta4 ,in this case the ,villiplacentals1 ,zonoplacentals1 and ,discoplacentals would perhaps have to be considered as three diverging branches of the common primary form of ,placentals1 or it might also be conceived that the two latter1 the ,deciduata1 had developed only at a later period out of the ,indeciduata1 which on their part had arisen directly out of the ,marsupials4 ,however1 there are also important reasons for the alternative2 namely1 that several groups of ,placentals1 differing from the beginning1 arose out of several distinct groups of ,marsupials1 so that the placenta itself was formed several times independently4 ,this opinion is maintained by ,huxley1 the most eminent ,english zoologist1 and by many others4 ,in this case the ,indeciduata and the ,deciduata would perhaps have to be considered as two completely distinct groups2 then the order of ,hoofed animals1 as the primary group of the ,indeciduata1 might be supposed to have originated out of the ,marsupial hoofed animals 7,barypoda74 ,among the ,deciduata1 on the other hand1 the order of ,semi-apes1 as the common primary form of the other orders1 might possibly have arisen out of ,handed ,marsupials 7,pedimana74 ,but it is also conceivable that the ,deciduata themselves have arisen out of several different orders of ,marsupials1 ,animals of ,prey out of ,rapacious ,marsupials1 ,gnawing animals out of ,gnawing ,marsupials1 ,semi-apes out of ,handed ,marsupials1 etc4 ,as we do not at present possess sufficient empiric material to solve this most difficult question1 we must leave it and turn our attention to the history of the different orders of ,placental animals1 whose pedigree can often be very accurately established in detail4 ,we must1 as already remarked1 consider the order of ,hoofed animals 7,ungulata7 as the primary group of the ,indeciduata1 or ,tuft-placentals2 the two other orders1 ,whales and ,toothless animals1 developed out of them1 as two diverging groups1 probably only at a later period1 by adaptation to very different modes of life4 ,but it is also possible that the animals poor in teeth 7,edentata7 may be of quite a different origin4 ,hoofed animals are in many respects among the most important and the most interesting ,mammals4 ,they distinctly show that a true understanding of the natural relationship of animals can never be revealed to us merely by the study of living forms1 but in all cases only by an equal consideration of their extinct and fossil blood-relations and ancestors4 ,if1 as is usually done1 only the living ,hoofed animals are taken into consideration1 it seems quite natural to divide them into three entirely distinct orders1 namely3 7#a7 ,horses1 or ,single-hoofed animals 7,solidungula1 or ,equina72 7#b7 ,ruminating animals1 or ,double-hoofed 7,bisulca1 or ,ruminantia72 and 7#c7 ,thick-skinned1 or ,many-hoofed 7,multungula1 or ,pachyderma74 ,but as soon as the extinct ,hoofed animals of the tertiary period are taken into consideration--of which animals we possess very numerous and important remains--it is seen that this division1 but more especially the limitation of the ,thick-skinned animals1 is completely artificial1 and that these three groups are merely top branches lopped from the pedigree of ,hoofed animals1 which are most closely connected by extinct intermediate forms4 ,the one half of the ,thick-skinned animals--rhinoceroses1 tapirs1 and palotheria--manifest the closest relationships to horses1 and have like them odd-toed feet2 whereas the other half of the ,thick-skinned animals--pigs1 hippopotami1 and anoplotheria--on account of their double-toed feet are much more closely allied to ruminating animals than to the former4 ,hence we must1 in the first place1 among ,hoofed animals distinguish the two orders of ,paired-hoofs and ,odd-hoofs1 as two natural groups1 which developed as diverging branches out of the old tertiary primary group of ,primary ,hoofed animals1 or ,prochela4 ,the order of ,odd-hoofed animals 7,perissodactyla7 comprises those ,ungulata in which the middle 7or third7 toe of the foot is much more strongly developed than the others1 so that it forms the actual centre of the hoof4 ,this order includes the very ancient1 common1 primary group of all ,hoofed animals1 that is1 the ,primary-hoofed animals 7,prochela71 which are found in a fossil state in the oldest ,eocene strata 7,lophiodon1 ,coryphodon1 ,pliolophus74 ,directly allied to this group is that branch which is the actual primary form of the ,odd-hoofed animals1 namely1 the ,palotheria1 fossils of which occur in the upper ,eocene and lower ,miocene4 ,out of the ,palotheria1 at a later period1 the rhinoceroses 7,nasicornia7 and rhinoceros-horses 7,elasmotherida7 on the one hand1 and the tapirs1 lama-tapirs1 and primval horses1 on the other1 developed as two diverging branches4 ,the long since extinct primval horses1 or ,anchitheria1 formed the transition from the ,palotheria and tapirs to the ,miocene horses1 or hipparions1 which are closely allied to the genuine living horses4 ,the second main group of ,hoofed animals1 the order of ,pair-hoofed animals 7,artiodactyla71 comprises those hoofed animals in which the middle 7third7 and fourth toe of the foot are almost equally developed1 so that the space between the two forms the central line of the entire foot4 ,the order is divided into two sub-orders--the ,pig-shaped and the ,cud-chewing1 or ,ruminating4 ,the ,pig-shaped 7,chromorpha7 comprise in the first place the other branch of ,primary-,hoofed-animals1 the ,anoplotheria1 which we consider as the common primary form of all ,pair-hoofed animals1 or ,artiodactyla 7,dichobune1 etc474 ,out of the ,anoplotheria arose1 as two diverging branches1 the primval swine1 or ,anthracotheria1 on the one hand1 forming the transition to swine and river-horses1 and the ,xiphodonta on the other hand1 forming the transition to ,ruminating animals4 ,the oldest ,ruminating animals 7,ruminantia7 are the ,primval ,stags1 or ,dremotheria1 out of which1 possibly1 the stag-shaped 7,elaphia71 the hollow-horned 7,cavicornia71 and camels 7,tylopoda71 have developed as three diverging branches4 ,yet these latter are1 in many respects1 more allied to the ,odd-hoofs than to the genuine ,pair-hoofs4 ,the accompanying systematic survey on p4 #beb1 will show how the numerous families of ,hoofed animals are grouped1 in correspondence with this genealogical hypothesis4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the ,sections and ,families of ,hoofed ,animals1 or ,ungulata4 7,n4,b4 ,those families that are extinct are marked with an asterisk47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,orders of ,sections ,families ,systematic ,name ,hoofed of of of animals4 ,hoofed ,animals4 ,hoofed ,animals4 the ,families4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,i4 ,i4 ,primary ,hoofed #a4 ,lophiodonta #a4 ,lophiodontia99 ,odd-toed ,animals499 #b4 ,pliolophida #b4 ,pliolophida99 ,hoofed ,prochela ,animals #c4 ,primary #c4 ,palotherida99 ,odd-hoofs ,ungulata ,,ii4 ,tapir-shaped #d4 ,lama-tapirs #d4 ,macrauchenida99 ,tapiromorpha #e4 ,tapirs #e4 ,tapirida ,perissodactyla #f4 ,rhinoceroses #f4 ,nasicornia #g4 ,rhinoceros-horses #g4 ,elasmotherida99 ,,iii4 ,single-hoofs #h4 ,primval #h4 ,anchitherida99 ,solidungula horses #i4 ,horses #i4 ,equina #aj4 ,primary #aj4 ,anoplotherida99 ,pair-hoofs #aa4 ,primval #aa4 ,anthracotherida99 ,,iv4 ,pig-shaped pigs ,chromorpha #ab4 ,pigs #ab4 ,setigera #ac4 ,river horses #ac4 ,obesa #ad4 ,primval #ad4 ,xiphodontia99 ruminants #ae4 ,primval #ae4 ,dremotherida99 deer ,,ii4 ,a4 ,stag-shaped a4 #af4 ,pseudo #af4 ,tragulida ,pair-toed ,elaphia musk deer ,hoofed ,animals b4 #ag4 ,musk deer #ag4 ,moschida #ah4 ,deer #ah4 ,cervina ,ungulata ,v4 c4 #ai4 ,primval #ai4 ,sivatherida99 ,artiodactyla ,ruminating giraffes animals #bj4 ,giraffes #bj4 ,devexa ,ruminantia #ba4 ,primval #ba4 ,antilocaprina99 d4 gazelles #bb4 ,gazelles #bb4 ,antilopina ,b4 ,hollow-horned #bc4 ,goats #bc4 ,caprina ,caricornia e4 #bd4 ,sheep #bd4 ,ovina #be4 ,oxen #be4 ,bovina ,c4 ,pad-footed #bf4 ,lamas #bf4 ,auchenida ,tylopoda #bg4 ,camels #bg4 ,camelida ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,oxen ,giraffes ,sheep ,deer --v---_/ ,goats ---v---_/ ,musk deer ,horses ,equi ---v-----_/ ,antelopes ,camels ----v-----_/ and ,lamas ,intermediate horses ,deer-shaped ,tylopoda ,hippariones -----v------_/ ,elaphia ,hollow-horned ,cavicornia ,primval horses -------v--------_/ ,anchitherida ,primval deer ,dremotherida ,single ,hoofers ,solidungula --v------------------_/ ,ruminating ,animals ,ruminantia ,sea-oxen ,tapirs ,sirenia ,tapirida ,river-horses ,lama-tapirs ,obesa ,macrauchenida ,pigs ----v-----_/ ,setigera --------------v--_/ ,rhinoceros-horses ,elasmotherida ------v-------_/ ,primval pigs ,rhinoceruses ,anthracotherida ,nasicornia ---v-----_/ ,primval ruminants ,xiphodontia ---v---_/ ------v------_/ --------v--------_/ ,primary ,pair-hoofs ,primary ,odd-hoofs ,anoplotherida ,palotherida ------------v-------------_/ ,prochela ,primary-hoofed-animals 7,lophiodontia and ,pliophida7 7,hoofed marsupials8 ,barypoda87 ,it is probable that the remarkable legion of ,whales 7,cetacea7 originated out of ,hoofed animals1 which accustomed themselves exclusively to an aquatic life1 and thereby became transformed into the shape of fish4 ,although these animals seem externally very like many genuine ,fish1 yet they are1 as even ,aristotle perceived1 genuine ,mammals4 ,by their whole internal structure--in so far as it has not become changed by adaptation to an aquatic life--they1 of all known ,mammals1 are most closely allied to ,hoofed animals1 and more especially agree with them in the absence of the decidua and in the tufted placenta4 ,even at the present day the river-horse 7,hippopotamus7 constitutes a kind of transition form to the ,sea ,cows 7,sirenia71 and from this it seems most probable that the extinct primary forms of the ,cetacea are most closely allied to the ,sea ,cows of the present day1 and that they developed out of ,pair-hoofed animals1 which were related to the hippopotamus4 ,out of the order of ,herbivorous whales 7,phycoceta7--to which the sea cows belong1 and which accordingly1 very probably1 contain the primary forms of the legion--the other order of ,carnivorous whales 7,sarcoceta7 appears to have developed at a later period4 ,but ,huxley thinks that these latter were of quite a different origin1 and that they arose out of the ,carnaria through the ,seals4 ,among the ,sarcoceta1 the extinct gigantic ,zeuglodonta 7,zeugloceta7--whose fossil skeletons some time ago excited great interest1 it being thought that they were 8sea serpents0--are probably only a peculiarly developed lateral branch of genuine whales 7,autoceta71 which comprise1 besides the colossal whalebone whales1 the cachalot or spermaceti whales1 dolphins1 narwhals1 porpoises1 etc4 ,the third legion of the ,indeciduata1 or ,sparsi-placentalia1 comprises the strange group of the animals poor in teeth 7,edentata72 it is composed of the two orders of burrowers and sloths4 ,the order of ,burrowers 7,effodientia7 consists of the two sub-orders of ant eaters 7,vermilinguia71 to which the scaled animals also belong1 and the girdle animals 7,cingulata71 which were formerly represented by the gigantic ,glyptodons4 ,the order of ,sloths 7,tardigrada7 consists of the two sub-orders of the small1 still living dwarf sloths 7,bradypoda71 and of the extinct unwieldy giant sloths 7,gravigrada74 ,the enormous fossil remains of these colossal herbivora suggest that the whole legion is becoming extinct1 and that the ,edentata of the present day are but a poor remnant of the mighty order of the diluvial period4 ,the close relations between the still living ,south ,american ,edentata and the extinct gigantic forms which are found beside the latter on the same part of the globe1 made such an impression upon ,darwin on his first visit to ,south ,america1 that they even then suggested to him the fundamental idea of the ,theory of ,descent4 7,see above1 vol4 i4 p4 #acd47 ,but it is precisely the genealogy of this legion which is most difficult4 ,the ,edentata are perhaps nothing but a peculiarly developed lateral branch of the ,ungulata2 but it may also be that their root lies in quite another direction4 ,we now leave the first main group of ,placental animals1 the ,indeciduata1 and turn to the second main group1 namely1 the ,deciduata1 or animals with decidua1 which are distinguished from the former by possessing a deciduous membrane1 or decidua1 during their embryonal life4 ,we here meet with a very remarkable small group of animals1 for the most part extinct1 and which probably were the old tertiary 7or eocene7 ancestors of man4 ,these are the ,semi-apes1 or ,lemurs 7,prosimi72 these curious animals are probably the but little changed descendants of the primval group of ,placentalia which we have to consider as the common primary form of all ,deciduata4 ,they have hitherto been classed together in the same order with ,apes which ,blumenbach called ,quadrumana 7four-handed74 ,however1 ,i regard them as entirely distinct from these1 not merely because they differ from all ,apes1 much more than do the most different ,apes from one another1 but also because they comprise most interesting transitional forms leading to the other orders of ,deciduata4 ,i conclude from this that the few still living ,semi-apes1 which moreover differ very much among one another1 are the last surviving remnants of a primary group now almost extinct1 but which was at one time rich in forms1 and out of which all the other ,deciduata 7possibly with the single exception of ,beasts of ,prey1 and ,pseudo-hoofed animals7 have developed as diverging branches4 ,the old primary group of ,semi-apes has probably developed out of ,handed or ,ape-footed ,marsupials 7,pedimana71 which are surprisingly like them in the transformation of their hinder feet into grasping hands4 ,the primval primary forms themselves 7which probably originated in the eocene period7 are of course long since extinct1 as are also the greater portion of the transition-forms between them and all the other orders of ,deciduata4 ,however1 individual remnants of the latter are preserved among the ,semi-apes of the present day4 ,among these1 the remarkable ,finger-animal of ,madagascar 7,chiromys madagascariensis7 constitutes the remnant of the group of the ,leptodactyla and the transition to ,rodents4 ,the strange flying lemur in the ,south ,sea and ,sunda islands 7,galeopithecus71 the only remnant of the group of ,pteropleura1 forms a perfect intermediate stage between ,semi-apes and ,bats4 ,the long-footed ,semi-apes 7,tarsius1 ,otolicnus7 constitute the last remnant of that primary branch 7,macrotarsi7 out of which the ,insectivora developed4 ,the short-footed forms 7,brachytarsi7 are the medium of connection between them and genuine ,apes4 ,the ,short-footed ,semi-apes comprise the long-tailed ,lemur1 the short-tailed ,lichanotus1 and the ,stenops1 the latter of which seems to be very closely allied to the probable ancestors of man among the ,semi-apes4 ,the short-footed as well as the long-footed ,prosimi live widely distributed over the islands of southern ,asia and ,africa1 more especially in ,madagascar2 some live also on the continent of ,africa4 ,no ,semi-ape1 either living or in a fossil state1 has as yet been found in ,america4 ,they all lead a solitary1 nocturnal kind of life1 and climb about on trees4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cfa47 ,among the six remaining orders of ,deciduata1 all of which are probably derived from long since extinct ,semi-apes1 the order of ,gnawing animals 7,rodentia71 which is rich in forms1 has remained at the lowest stage4 ,among these the squirrel-like animals 7,sciuromorpha7 stand nearest akin to the ,pedimanous ,marsupials4 ,out of this primary group the mouse-like animals 7,myomorpha7 and the porcupine-like animals 7,hystricomorpha7 developed probably as two diverging branches1 the former of which are directly connected with the squirrel-like animals1 by the eocene ,myoxida1 the latter by the eocene ,psammoryctida4 ,the fourth sub-order1 the hare-like animals 7,lagomorpha71 probably developed only at a later period out of one of the other three sub-orders4 ,very closely allied to the ,rodentia is the remarkable order of ,pseudo-hoofed animals 7,chelophora74 ,of these there now live but two genera1 indigenous to ,asia and ,africa1 namely1 ,elephants 7,elephas71 and ,rock ,conies 7,hyrax74 ,both have hitherto generally been classed among real ,hoofed animals1 or ,ungulata1 with which they agree in the formation of the feet4 ,but an identical transformation of nails or claws into hoofs occurs also in genuine ,rodentia and in certain hoofed ,rodentia 7,subungulata7 which live exclusively in ,south ,america4 ,beside smaller forms 7for example1 guinea pigs and gold hares7 the ,subungulata also include the largest of all ,rodentia1 namely1 the ,capybara ,rats1 which are about four feet in length4 ,the ,rock ,conies1 which are externally very nearly akin to ,rodents1 especially to the hoofed ,rodents1 were formerly classed among ,rodentia by some celebrated zoologists1 as an especial sub-class 7,lamnungia74 ,elephants1 on the other hand1 when not classed among ,hoofed animals1 were generally considered as the representatives of a special order which were called ,trunked animals 7,proboscidea74 ,but the formation of the placentas of ,elephants and of ,hyrax agree in a remarkable manner1 and are entirely distinct from those of ,hoofed animals4 ,these latter never possess a decidua1 whereas ,elephants and ,hyrax are genuine ,deciduata4 ,their placenta is indeed not of the form of a disc1 but of a girdle1 as in the case of ,animals of ,prey2 it is very possible that the girdle-shaped placenta is but a secondary development of the discoplacenta4 ,thus1 then1 it might be thought that the ,pseudo-hoofed animals have developed out of a branch of the ,rodentia1 and in a similar manner perhaps the ,carnivora out of a branch of the ,insectivora4 ,at all events1 ,elephants and ,hyrax in many respects1 especially in the formation of important skeletal parts1 of the limbs1 etc41 are more closely allied to the ,rodentia1 and more especially to hoofed ,rodentia1 than to genuine ,hoofed animals4 ,moreover several extinct forms1 especially the remarkable ,south ,american ,arrow-toothed animals 7,toxodontia71 stand in many respects midway between ,elephants and ,rodentia4 ,that the still living ,elephants and ,hyrax are but the last survivors of a group of ,pseudo-hoofed animals1 which was once rich in forms1 is proved not only by the very numerous fossil species of ,elephants and ,mastodon 7some of which are even larger1 others also much smaller than the ,elephants of the present day71 but also by the remarkable miocene ,dinotheria 7,gonyognatha71 between which and their next kindred1 the ,elephants1 there must be a long series of unknown connecting intermediate forms4 ,taking all things into consideration1 the most probable hypothesis which can be established at present as to the origin and the relationship of ,elephants1 ,dinotheria1 ,toxodon1 and ,hyrax is1 that they are the last survivors of a group of ,pseudo-hoofed animals rich in forms1 which developed out of the ,rodentia1 and probably out of relatives of the ,subungulata4 ,the order of ,insect ,eaters 7,insectivora7 is a very ancient group1 and is next akin to the common extinct primary form of the ,deciduata1 as well as to the ,semi-apes of the present day4 ,it has probably developed out of ,semi-apes which were closely allied to the ,long-footed ,lemurs 7,macrotarsi7 of the present day4 ,it is separated into two orders1 ,menotyphla and ,lipotyphla2 the ,menotyphla are probably the older of the two1 and are distinguished from the ,lipotyphla by possessing an intestinal ccum1 or typhlon4 ,the ,menotyphla include the climbing ,tupajas of the ,sunda ,isles1 and the leaping ,macroscelides of ,africa4 ,the ,lipotyphla are represented in our country by shrew mice1 moles1 and hedgehogs4 ,the ,insectivora1 in the formation of their jaws and their mode of life1 are nearly akin to ,carnivora1 but are1 on the other hand1 by their discoplacentas and by their large seminal vesicles1 allied to ,rodents4 ,it is probable that the order of ,rapacious animals 7,carnaria7 developed out of a long since extinct branch of ,insectivora1 at the beginning of the ,eocene period4 ,it is a natural group1 very rich in forms1 but still of very uniform organization4 ,the ,rapacious animals are sometimes also called ,girdle-placentals 7,zonoplacentals71 although the ,pseudo-hoofed animals 7,chelophora71 in the same way1 also deserve this designation4 ,but as the latter1 in other respects1 are more closely allied to the ,rodentia than to ,carnaria1 we have already discussed them in connection with the former4 ,animals of prey are divided into two1 externally very different1 but internally very closely related1 sub-orders1 namely1 ,land animals of prey and ,marine animals of prey4 ,the ,land animals of prey 7,carnivora7 comprise bears1 dogs1 cats1 etc41 whose pedigree can be approximately guessed at by means of many extinct intermediate forms4 ,the ,marine animals of prey1 or ,seals 7,pinnipedia71 comprise sea bears1 sea dogs1 sea lions1 and walruses4 ,although marine animals of prey appear externally very unlike land animals of prey1 yet by their internal structure1 their jaw and their peculiar girdle-shaped placenta1 they are very nearly akin to them1 and have evidently originated out of a branch of them1 probably out of a kind of weasel 7,mustelina74 ,even at the present day the fish otters 7,lutra71 and still more so the sea otters 7,enhydris71 present a direct form of transition to ,seals1 and clearly show how the bodies of land ,carnivora are transformed into the shape of a ,seal1 by adaptation to an aquatic life1 and how the steering fins of marine rapacious animals have arisen out of the legs of the former4 ,the latter consequently stand in the same relation to the former as do the ,whales to ,hoofed animals among the ,indeciduata4 ,in the same way as the river-horse at present stands midway between the extreme branches of oxen and sea oxen1 the sea otter still forms a surviving intermediate stage between the widely separated branches of dogs and sea dogs4 ,in both cases the complete transformation of the external form1 consequent upon adaptation to entirely different conditions of life1 has not been able to efface the solid foundation of the inherited internal peculiarities4 ,according to ,huxley's opinion1 which has already been quoted1 only the ,herbivorous ,whales 7,sirenia7 are derived from ,hoofed animals2 on the other hand1 the ,carnivorous ,cetacea 7,sarcoceta7 are derived from the marine animals of prey2 the ,zeuglodonts would form a transition between the two latter4 ,but in this case it would be difficult to understand the close anatomical relations which exist between the ,herbivorous and ,carnivorous ,cetacea4 ,the strange peculiarities in the internal and external structure which so strikingly distinguish the two groups from all other mammals would then have to be regarded only as analogies 7caused by the same kinds of adaptation71 not as homologies 7transmitted from a common primary form74 ,the latter1 however1 strikes me as being by far the more probable1 and hence ,i have left all the ,cetacea among the ,indeciduata as one group of kindred origin4 ,the remarkable order of ,flying ,mammals1 or ,bats 7,chiroptera71 stands near to the ,carnaria as well as to the ,insectivora4 ,it has become strikingly transformed by adaptation to a flying mode of life1 just as marine animals of prey have become modified by adaptation to a swimming mode of life4 ,this order probably also originated out of the ,semi-apes1 with which it is even at present closely allied1 through the flying lemurs 7,galeopithecus74 ,of the two orders of flying animals1 the insect-eating forms1 or flying mice 7,nycterides71 probably developed out of those eating fruits1 or flying foxes 7,pterocynes72 for the latter are1 in many ways1 more closely allied to ,semi-apes than are the former4 ,we have now still to discuss the genuine ,apes 7,simi7 as the last order of ,mammals2 but as1 according to the zoological system1 the human race belongs to this order1 and as it undoubtedly developed historically out of a branch of this order1 we shall devote a special chapter to a more careful examination of its pedigree and history4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,origin ,,and ,,pedigree ,,of ,,man4 ,the ,application of the ,theory of ,descent to ,man4--,its ,immense ,importance and ,logical ,necessity4--,man's ,position in the ,natural ,system of ,animals1 among ,disco-placental ,animals4--,incorrect ,separation of the ,bimana and ,quadrumana4--,correct ,separation of ,semi-apes from ,apes4--,man's ,position in the ,order of ,apes4--,narrow-nosed ,apes 7of the ,old ,world7 and ,flat-nosed ,apes 7of ,america74--,difference of the two ,groups4--,origin of ,man from ,narrow-nosed ,apes4--,human ,apes1 or ,anthropoides4--,african ,human ,apes 7,gorilla and ,chimpanzee74--,asiatic ,human ,apes 7,orang and ,gibbon74--,comparison between the different ,human ,apes and the different ,races of ,men4--,survey of the ,series of the ,progenitors of ,man4--,invertebrate ,progenitors 7,prochordata7 and ,vertebrate ,progenitors4 ,of all the individual questions answered by the ,theory of ,descent1 of all the special inferences drawn from it1 there is none of such importance as the application of this doctrine to ,man himself4 ,as ,i remarked at the beginning of this treatise1 the inexorable necessity of the strictest logic forces us to draw the special deductive conclusion from the general inductive law of the theory1 that ,man has developed gradually1 and step by step1 out of the lower ,vertebrata1 and more immediately out of ,ape-like ,mammals4 ,that this doctrine is an inseparable part of the ,theory of ,descent1 and hence also of the universal ,theory of ,development in general1 is recognized by all thoughtful adherents of the theory1 as well as by all its opponents who reason logically4 ,but if the doctrine be true1 then the recognition of the animal origin and pedigree of the human race will necessarily affect more deeply than any other progress of the human mind the views we form of all human relations1 and the aims of all human science4 ,it must sooner or later produce a complete revolution in the conception entertained by man of the entire universe4 ,i am firmly convinced that in future this immense advance in our knowledge will be regarded as the beginning of a new period of the development of ,mankind4 ,it can only be compared to the discovery made by ,copernicus1 who was the first who ventured distinctly to express the opinion1 that it was not the sun which moved round the earth1 but the earth round the sun4 ,just as the geocentric conception of the universe--namely1 the false opinion that the earth was the centre of the universe1 and that all its other portions revolved round the earth--was overthrown by the system of the universe established by ,copernicus and his followers1 so the anthropocentric conception of the universe--the vain delusion that ,man is the centre of terrestrial nature1 and that its whole aim is merely to serve him--is overthrown by the application 7attempted long since by ,lamarck7 of the theory of descent to ,man4 ,as ,copernicus' system of the universe was mechanically established by ,newton's theory of gravitation1 we see ,lamarck's theory of descent attain its causal establishment by ,darwin's theory of selection4 ,this comparison1 which is very interesting in many respects1 ,i have discussed in detail elsewhere4 ,in order to carry out this extremely important application of the ,theory of ,descent to man1 with the necessary impartiality and objectivity1 ,i must above all beg the reader 7at least for a short time7 to lay aside all traditional and customary ideas on the 8,creation of ,man10 and to divest himself of the deep-rooted prejudices concerning it1 which are implanted in the mind in earliest youth4 ,if he fail to do this1 he cannot objectively estimate the weight of the scientific arguments which ,i shall bring forward in favour of the animal derivation of ,man1 that is1 of his origin out of ,ape-like ,mammals4 ,we cannot here do better than imagine ourselves with ,huxley to be the inhabitants of another planet1 who1 taking the opportunity of a scientific journey through the universe1 have arrived upon the earth and have there met with a peculiar two-legged mammal called ,man1 diffused over the whole earth in great numbers4 ,in order to examine him zoologically1 we should pack a number of the individuals of different ages and from different lands 7as we should do with the other animals collected on the earth7 into large vessels filled with spirits of wine1 and on our return to our own planet we should commence the comparative anatomy of all these terrestrial animals quite objectively4 ,as we should have no personal interest in ,man1 in a creature so entirely different from ourselves1 we should examine and criticise him as impartially and objectively as we should the other terrestrial animals4 ,in doing this we should1 of course1 in the first place refrain from all conjectures and speculations on the nature of his soul1 or on the spiritual side of his nature1 as it is usually called4 ,we should occupy ourselves solely with his bodily structure1 and with that natural conception of it which is offered by the history of his individual development4 ,it is evident that in order correctly to determine ,man's position among the other terrestrial organisms we must1 in the first place1 follow the guidance of the natural system4 ,we must endeavour to determine the position which belongs to ,man in the natural system of animals as accurately and distinctly as possible4 ,we shall then1 if in fact the theory of descent be correct1 be able from his position in the system to determine the real primary relationship1 and the degree of consanguinity connecting ,man with the animals most like him4 ,the hypothetical pedigree of the human race will then follow naturally as the final result of this anatomical and systematic inquiry4 ,now if1 by means of comparative anatomy and ontogeny1 we seek for man's position in that ,natural ,system of animals which formed the subject of the last two chapters1 the incontrovertible fact will at once present itself to us1 that man belongs to the tribe1 or phylum1 of the ,vertebrata4 ,every one of the characteristics1 which so strikingly distinguish all the ,vertebrata from all ,invertebrata1 is possessed by him4 ,it has also never been doubted that of all the ,vertebrata the ,mammals are most closely allied to ,man1 and that he possesses all the characteristic features distinguishing them from all other ,vertebrata4 ,if then we further carefully examine the three different main groups or sub-classes of ,mammals--the inter-connections of which were discussed in our last chapter--there cannot be the slightest doubt that ,man belongs to the ,placentals1 and shares with all other ,placentals1 the important characteristics which distinguish them from ,marsupials and from ,cloacals4 ,finally1 of the two main groups of placental ,mammals1 the ,deciduata and the ,indeciduata1 the group of ,deciduata doubtless includes ,man4 ,for the human embryo is developed with a genuine decidua1 and is thus absolutely distinguished from all the ,indeciduata4 ,among the ,deciduata we distinguish two legions1 the ,zonoplacentalia1 with girdle-shaped placenta 7,beasts of ,prey and ,pseudo-hoofed animals71 and the ,discoplacentalia1 with disc-shaped placenta 7all the remaining ,deciduata74 ,man possesses a disc-shaped placenta1 like all ,discoplacentalia2 and thus our next question must be1 ,what is man's position in this group8 ,in the last chapter we distinguished the following five orders of ,discoplacentalia3 7#a7 ,semi-apes2 7#b7 ,rodents2 7#c7 ,insectivora2 7#d7 ,bats2 7#e7 ,apes4 ,the last of these five orders1 that of ,apes1 is1 as every one knows1 in every bodily feature far more closely allied to ,man than the four others4 ,hence the only remaining question now is1 whether1 in the system of animals1 ,man is to be directly classed in the order of genuine ,apes1 or whether he is to be considered as the representative of a special sixth order of ,discoplacentalia1 allied to1 but more advanced than1 that of the ,apes4 ,linnus in his system classed ,man in the same order with genuine ,apes1 ,semi-apes1 and ,bats1 which he called ,primates2 that is1 lords1 as it were the highest dignitaries of the animal kingdom4 ,but ,blumenbach1 of ,gttingen1 separated ,man as a special order1 under the name of ,bimana1 or two-handed1 and contrasted him with the ,apes and ,semi-apes under the name of ,quadrumana1 or four-handed4 ,this classification was also adopted by ,cuvier and1 consequently1 by most subsequent zoologists4 ,it was not until #ahfc that ,huxley1 in his excellent work1 the 8,evidence as to ,man's ,place in ,nature107#bf7 showed that this classification was based upon erroneous ideas1 and that the so-called 8four-handed0 ,apes and ,semi-apes are 8two-handed0 as much as man is himself4 ,the difference between the foot and hand does not consist in the physiological peculiarity that the first digit or thumb is opposable to the four other digits or fingers in the hand1 and is not so in the foot1 for there are wild tribes of men who can oppose the first or large toe to the other four1 just as if it were a thumb4 ,they can therefore use their 8grasping foot0 as well as a so-called 8hinder hand10 like ,apes4 ,the ,chinese boatmen row with this hinder hand1 the ,bengal workmen weave with it4 ,the ,negro1 in whom the big toe is especially strong and freely moveable1 when climbing seizes hold of the branches of the trees with it1 just like the 8four-handed0 ,apes4 ,nay1 even the newly born children of the most highly developed races of men1 during the first months of their life1 grasp as easily with the 8hinder hand0 as with the 8fore hand10 and hold a spoon placed in its clutch as firmly with their big toe as with the thumb6 ,on the other hand1 among the higher ,apes1 especially the gorilla1 hand and foot are differentiated as in man4 7,compare ,plate ,,iv47 ,the essential difference between hand and foot is therefore not physiological1 but morphological1 and is determined by the characteristic structure of the bony skeleton and of the muscles attached to it4 ,the ankle-bones differ from the wrist-bones in arrangement1 and the foot possesses three special muscles not existing in the hand 7a short flexor muscle1 a short extensor muscle1 and a long fibular muscle74 ,in all these respects1 ,apes and ,semi-apes entirely agree with man1 and hence it was quite erroneous to separate him from them as a special order on account of the stronger differentiation of his hand and foot4 ,it is the same also with all the other structural features by means of which it was attempted to distinguish ,man from ,apes2 for example1 the relative length of the limbs1 the structure of the skull1 of the brain1 etc4 ,in all these respects1 without exception1 the differences between ,man and the higher ,apes are less than the corresponding differences between the higher and the lower ,apes4 ,hence ,huxley1 for reasons based on the most careful and most accurate anatomical comparisons1 arrives at the extremely important conclusion--8,thus1 whatever system of organs be studied1 the comparison of their modifications in the ,ape series leads to one and the same result1 that the structural differences which separate ,man from the ,gorilla and ,chimpanzee are not so great as those which separate the ,gorilla from the lower ,apes40 ,in accordance with this1 ,huxley1 strictly following the demands of logic1 classes ,man1 ,apes1 and ,semi-apes in a single order1 ,primates1 and divides it into the following seven families1 which are of almost equal systematic value3 7#a7 ,anthropini 7,man72 7#b7 ,catarrhini 7genuine ,apes of the ,old ,world72 7#c7 ,platyrrhini 7genuine ,american ,apes72 7#d7 ,arctopitheci 7,american clawed ,apes72 7#e7 ,lemurini 7short-footed and long-footed ,semi-apes1 p4 #bee72 7#f7 ,chiromyini 7p4 #bef72 7#g7 ,galeopithecini 7,flying ,lemurs1 p4 #bef74 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the ,families and ,genera of ,apes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,sections ,families ,genera ,systematic ,name of of of of ,apes4 ,apes4 ,apes4 the ,genera4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,i4 ,,apes ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world 7,hesperopitheci71 ,,or ,,flat-,,nosed ,,apes 7,platyrrhini74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,a4 ,platyrrhini ,i4 ,silky apes #a4 ,brush ape #a4 ,midas with claws ,hapalida #b4 ,lion ape #b4 ,jacchus ,arctopitheci ,,ii4 ,flat-nosed1 #c4 ,squirrel ape #c4 ,chrysothrix without prehensile #d4 ,leaping ape #d4 ,callithrix ,b4 ,platyrrhini tail #e4 ,nocturnal ape #e4 ,nyctipithecus with blunt ,aphyocerca #f4 ,tail ape #f4 ,pithecia nails ,,iii4 ,flat-nosed1 #g4 ,rolling ape #g4 ,cebus ,dysmopitheci with prehensile #h4 ,climbing ape #h4 ,ateles tail #i4 ,woolly ape #i4 ,lagothrix ,labidocerca #aj4 ,howling ape #aj4 ,mycetes ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,,ii4 ,,apes ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,world 7,heopitheci71 ,,or ,,narrow-,,nosed ,,apes 7,catarrhini74 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,,iv4 ,tailed ,catarrhini1 with #aa4 ,pavian #aa4 ,cynocephalus ,c4 ,tailed cheek-pouches #ab4 ,macaque #ab4 ,innus ,catarrhini ,ascoparea #ac4 ,sea cat #ac4 ,cercopithecus ,menocerca ,v4 ,tailed ,catarrhini1 without #ad4 ,holy ape #ad4 ,semnopithecus cheek-pouches #ae4 ,short ape #ae4 ,colobus ,anasca #af4 ,nose ape #af4 ,nasalis #ag4 ,gibbon #ag4 ,hylobates ,,vi4 ,human apes #ah4 ,orang-,outan #ah4 ,satyrus ,d4 ,tailless ,anthropoides #ai4 ,chimpanzee #ai4 ,engeco ,catarrhini #bj4 ,gorilla #bj4 ,gorilla ,lipocerca ,,vii4 ,men #ba4 ,ape-like man1 #ba4 ,pithecanthropus ,erecti or speechless man 7,alalus7 7,anthropi7 #bb4 ,talking man #bb4 ,homo ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,straight-haired men ,lissotrichi ,woolly-haired men ,ulotrichi -------------v-------------_/ ,speechless men 7,alali71 or ,ape-like men 7,pithecanthropi7 ,gorilla ,gorilla ,orang ,chimpanzee ,satyrus ,engeco ,gibbon ,hylobates ------v------_/ ,african -------v--------_/ ,man-like ,apes ,asiatic ,man-like ,apes ----------v-----------_/ ,man-like ,apes ,nose apes ,anthropoides ,nasalis ,silk apes ,tall apes ,arctopitheci ,semnopithecus ,clutch-tails ,labidocerca -v----------_/ ,sea cat ,pavian -----v-------_/ ,cercopithecus ,cynocephalus ,flap-tails ,aphyocerca --------------v--------------_/ ,flat-nosed ,apes ,tailed ,narrow-nosed apes ,platyrrhini ,catarrhina menocerca ,narrow-nosed ,catarrhini --------------v---------------_/ ,apes ,simi ,semi-apes ,prosimi ,if we wish to arrive at a natural system1 and consequently at the pedigree of the ,primates1 we must go a step further still1 and entirely separate the ,semi-apes1 or ,prosimi1 7,huxley's last three families71 from ,genuine ,apes1 or ,simi 7the first four families74 ,for1 as ,i have already shown in my ,general ,morphology1 and explained in the last chapter1 the ,semi-apes differ in many and important respects from ,genuine ,apes1 and in their individual forms are more closely allied to the various other orders of ,discoplacentalia4 ,hence the ,semi-apes must probably be considered as the remnants of the common primary group1 out of which the other orders of ,discoplacentalia1 and1 it may be1 all ,deciduata1 have developed as two diverging branches4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 pp4 #adh and #aec47 ,but man cannot be separated from the order of ,genuine ,apes1 or ,simi1 as he is in every respect more closely allied to the higher ,genuine ,apes than the latter are to the lower ,genuine ,apes4 ,genuine ,apes 7,simi7 are universally divided into two perfectly natural groups1 namely1 the ,apes of the ,new ,world1 or ,american ,apes1 and the ,apes of the ,old ,world1 which are indigenous to ,asia and ,africa1 and which formerly also existed in ,europe4 ,these two classes differ principally in the formation of the nose1 and they have been named accordingly4 ,american ,apes have flat noses1 so that the nostrils are in front1 not below2 hence they are called ,flat ,noses 7,platyrrhini74 ,on the other hand1 the ,apes of the ,old ,world have a narrow cartilaginous bridge1 and the nostrils turned downwards1 as in man2 they are1 therefore1 called ,narrow ,noses 7,catarrhini74 ,further1 the jaw1 which plays an important part in the classification of ,mammals1 is essentially distinct in these two groups4 ,all ,catarrhin1 or ,apes of the ,old ,world1 have exactly the same jaws as ,man1 namely1 in each jaw four incisors above and below1 then on each side a canine tooth and five cheek teeth1 of which two are pre-molars and three molars1 altogether thirty-two teeth4 ,but all ,apes of the ,new ,world1 all ,platyrrhini1 have four more cheek teeth1 namely1 three pre-molars and three molars on each side1 above and below3 they consequently possess thirty-six teeth4 ,only one small group forms an exception to this rule1 namely1 the ,arctopitheci1 or ,clawed ,apes1 in whom the third molar has degenerated1 and they accordingly have on each half of their jaw three pre-molars and two molars4 ,they also differ from the other ,platyrrhini by having claws on the fingers of their hands and the toes of their feet1 not nails like ,man and the other ,apes4 ,this small group of ,south ,american ,apes1 which includes among others the well-known pretty little ,midas-monkey and the ,jacchus1 must probably be considered only as a peculiarly developed lateral branch of the ,platyrrhini4 ,now1 if we ask what evidence can be drawn1 as to the pedigree of ,apes1 from the above facts1 we must conclude that all the ,apes of the ,new ,world have developed out of one tribe1 for they all possess the characteristic jaw and the nasal formation of the ,platyrrhini4 ,in like manner it follows that all the ,apes of the ,old ,world must be derived from one and the same common primary form1 which possessed the same formation of nose and jaw as all the still living ,catarrhini4 ,further1 it can scarcely be doubted that the ,apes of the ,new ,world1 taken as an entire tribe1 are either derived from those of the ,old ,world1 or 7to express it more vaguely and cautiously7 both are diverging branches of one and the same tribe of ,apes4 ,we also arrive at the exceedingly important conclusion--which is of the utmost significance in regard to ,man's distribution on the earth's surface--that ,man has developed out of the ,catarrhini4 ,for we cannot discover a zoological character distinguishing him in a higher degree from the allied ,apes of the ,old ,world than that in which the most divergent forms of this group are distinguished from one another4 ,this is the important result of ,huxley's careful anatomical examination of the question1 and it cannot be too highly estimated4 ,the anatomical differences between ,man and the most human-like ,catarrhini 7,orang1 ,gorilla1 ,chimpanzee7 are in every respect less than the anatomical differences between the latter and the lowest stages of ,catarrhini1 more especially the ,dog-like ,baboon4 ,this exceedingly important conclusion is the result of an impartial anatomical comparison of the different forms of ,catarrhini4 ,if1 therefore1 we recognise the natural system of animals as the guide to our speculations1 and establish upon it our pedigree1 we must necessarily come to the conclusion that the human race is a small branch of the group of ,catarrhini1 and has developed out of long since extinct ,apes of this group in the ,old ,world4 ,some adherents of the ,theory of ,descent have thought that the ,american races of ,men have developed1 independently of those of the ,old ,world1 out of ,american ,apes4 ,i consider this hypothesis to be quite erroneous1 for the complete agreement of all mankind with the ,catarrhini1 in regard to the characteristic formation of the nose and jaws1 distinctly proves that they are of the same origin1 and that they developed out of a common root after the ,platyrrhini1 or ,american ,apes1 had already branched off from them4 ,the primval inhabitants of ,america1 as is proved by numerous ethnographical facts1 immigrated from ,asia1 and partly perhaps from ,polynesia 7or even from ,europe74 ,there still exist great difficulties in establishing an accurate pedigree of the ,human ,race2 this only can we further assert1 that the nearest progenitors of man were tail-less ,catarrhini 7,lipocerca71 resembling the still living ,man-like ,apes4 ,these evidently developed at a late period out of tailed ,catarrhini 7,menocerca71 the original form of ,ape4 ,of those tail-less ,catarrhini1 which are now frequently called ,man-like ,apes1 or ,anthropoides1 there still exist four different genera containing about a dozen different species4 ,the largest ,man-like ,ape is the famous ,gorilla 7called ,gorilla engena1 or ,pongo gorilla71 which is indigenous to the tropics of western ,africa1 and was first discovered by the missionary1 ,dr4 ,savage1 in #ahdg1 on the banks of the river ,gaboon4 ,its nearest relative is the ,chimpanzee 7,engeco troglodytes1 or ,pongo troglodytes71 also indigenous to western ,africa1 but considerably smaller than the ,gorilla1 which surpasses man in size and strength4 ,the third of the three large ,man-like ,apes is the ,orang1 or ,orang ,outang1 indigenous to ,borneo and the other ,sunda ,islands1 of which two kindred species have recently been distinguished1 namely1 the large ,orang 7,satyrus orang1 or ,pithecus satyrus7 and the small ,orang 7,satyrus morio1 or ,pithecus morio74 ,lastly1 there still exists in southern ,asia the genus ,gibbon 7,hylobates71 of which from four to eight different species are distinguished4 ,they are considerably smaller than the three first-named ,anthropoides1 and in most characteristics differ more from ,man4 ,the tail-less ,man-like ,apes--especially since we have become more intimately acquainted with the ,gorilla1 and its connection with ,man by the application of the ,theory of ,descent--have excited such universal interest1 and called forth such a flood of writings1 that there is no occasion for me here to enter into any detail about them4 ,the reader will find their relations to ,man fully discussed in the excellent works of ,huxley17#bf7 ,carl ,vogt17#bg7 ,bchner17#dc7 and ,rolle47#bh7 ,i shall therefore confine myself to stating the most important general conclusion resulting from their thorough comparison with ,man1 namely1 that each one of the four ,man-like ,apes stands nearer to ,man in one or several respects than the rest1 but that no one of them can in every respect be called absolutely the most like ,man4 ,the ,orang stands nearest to ,man in regard to the formation of the brain1 the ,chimpanzee in important characteristics in the formation of the skull1 the ,gorilla in the development of the feet and hands1 and1 lastly1 the ,gibbon in the formation of the thorax4 ,thus1 from a careful examination of the comparative anatomy of the ,anthropoides1 we obtain a similar result to that obtained by ,weisbach1 from a statistical classification and a thoughtful comparison of the very numerous and careful measurements which ,scherzer and ,schwarz made of the different races of ,men during their voyage in the ,austrian frigate ,novara round the earth4 ,weisbach comprises the final result of his investigations in the following words3 8,the ape-like characteristics of ,man are by no means concentrated in one or another race1 but are distributed in particular parts of the body1 among the different races1 in such a manner that each is endowed with some heirloom of this relationship--one race more so1 another less1 and even we ,europeans cannot claim to be entirely free from evidences of this relationship40#e ,i must here also point out1 what in fact is self-evident1 that not one of all the still living ,apes1 and consequently not one of the so-called ,man-like ,apes1 can be the progenitor of the ,human ,race4 ,this opinion1 in fact1 has never been maintained by thoughtful adherents of the ,theory of ,descent1 but it has been assigned to them by their thoughtless opponents4 ,the ,ape-like progenitors of the ,human ,race are long since extinct4 ,we may possibly still find their fossil bones in the tertiary rocks of southern ,asia or ,africa4 ,in any case they will1 in the zoological system1 have to be classed in the group of tail-less ,narrow-nosed ,apes 7,catarrhini ,lipocerci1 or ,anthropoides74 ,the genealogical hypotheses1 to which we have thus far been led by the application of the ,theory of ,descent to ,man1 present themselves to every clearly and logically reasoning person as the direct results from the facts of comparative anatomy1 ontogeny1 and palontology4 ,of course our phylogeny can indicate only in a very general way the outlines of the human pedigree4 ,phylogeny is the more in danger of becoming erroneous the more rigorously it is applied in detail to special animal forms known to us4 ,however1 we can1 even now1 with approximate certainty distinguish at least the following twenty-two stages of the ancestors of ,man4 ,fourteen of these stages belong to the ,vertebrata1 and eight to the ,invertebrate ancestors of ,man 7,prochordata47 ,,the ,,chain ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,ancestors1 ,,or ,,the ,,series ,,of ,,the ,,progenitors1 ,,of ,,man4 7,comp4 ,ch4 ,,xx41 ,,xxi42 ,plate ,,xiv4 and p4 #bb47 ,,first ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,series ,,of ,,the ,,ancestors ,,of ,,man4 ,,invertebrate ,,ancestors ,,of ,,man 7,prochordata74 ,,first ,,stage3 ,monera4 ,the most ancient ancestors of ,man1 as of all other organisms1 were living creatures of the simplest kind imaginable1 organisms without organs1 like the still living ,monera4 ,they consisted of simple1 homogeneous1 structureless and formless little lumps of mucous or albuminous matter 7protoplasm71 like the still living ,protamba primitiva4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 ,fig4 #a47 ,the form value of these most ancient ancestors of man was not even equal to that of a cell1 but merely that of a cytod 7compare vol4 i4 p4 #cdg72 for1 as in the case of all ,monera1 the little lump of protoplasm did not as yet possess a cell-kernel4 ,the first of these ,monera originated in the beginning of the ,laurentian period by spontaneous generation1 or archigony1 out of so-called 8inorganic combinations10 namely1 out of simple combinations of carbon1 oxygen1 hydrogen1 and nitrogen4 ,the assumption of this spontaneous generation1 that is1 of a mechanical origin of the first organisms from inorganic matter1 has been proved in our thirteenth chapter to be a necessary hypothesis4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cch47 ,a direct proof of the earlier existence of this most ancient ancestral stage1 based upon the fundamental law of biogeny1 is possibly still furnished by the circumstance that1 according to the assertions of many investigators1 in the beginning of the development of the egg1 the cell-kernel1 or nucleus1 disappears1 and the egg-cell thus relapses to the lower stage of the cytod 7,monerula1 p4 #abd2 relapse of the nucleated plastid into a non-nucleated condition74 ,the assumption of this first stage is necessary for most important general reasons4 ,,second ,,stage3 ,amb4 ,the second ancestral stage of ,man1 as of all the higher animals and plants1 is formed by a simple cell1 that is1 a little piece of protoplasm enclosing a kernel4 ,there still exist large numbers of similar 8single-celled organisms40 ,among them the common1 simple ,amb 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahh1 ,fig4 #b7 cannot have been essentially different from these progenitors4 ,the form value of every ,amba is essentially the same as that still possessed by the egg of ,man1 and by the egg of all other animals4 7,vol4 i4 p4 #ahi1 ,fig4 #c47 ,the naked egg-cells of ,sponges1 which creep about exactly like ,amb1 cannot be distinguished from them4 ,the egg-cell of ,man1 which like that of most other animals is surrounded by a membrane1 resembles an enclosed ,amba4 ,the first single-celled animals of this kind arose out of ,monera by the differentiation of the inner kernel and the external protoplasm2 they lived in the earlier ,primordial period4 ,an irrefutable proof that such single-celled primval animals really existed as the direct ancestors of ,man1 is furnished according to the fundamental law of biogeny 7vol4 i4 p4 #cji7 by the fact that the human egg is nothing more than a simple cell4 7,compare p4 #abd47 ,,third ,,stage3 ,synamb4 ,in order to form an approximate conception of the organisation of those ancestors of ,man which first developed out of the single-celled ,primval animals1 it is necessary to trace the changes undergone by the human egg in the beginning of its individual development4 ,it is just here that ontogeny guides us with the greatest certainty on to the track of phylogeny4 ,we have already seen that the egg of ,man 7in the same way as that of all other ,mammals71 after fructification has taken place1 falls by self-division into a mass of simple and equi-formal ,amba-like cells 7vol4 i4 p4 #aij1 ,fig4 #d ,d74 ,all these divided globules are at first exactly like one another1 naked cells containing a kernel1 but without covering2 in many animals they show movements like those of the ,amb4 ,this ontogenetic stage of development which we called ,morula 7p4 #abe71 on account of its mulberry shape1 is a certain proof that in the early primordial period there existed ancestors of man which possessed the form value of a mass of homogeneous1 loosely connected cells4 ,they may be called a community of ,amb 7,synamb74 7,compare p4 #abg47 ,they originated out of the single-celled ,primval animals of the second stage by repeated self-division and by the permanent union of the products of this division4 ,,fourth ,,stage3 ,ciliated ,larva 7,planada74 ,in the course of the ontogenesis of most of the lower animals1 and also in that of the lowest ,vertebrate animals1 the ,lanceolate ,animals1 or ,amphioxus1 there first develops out of the ,morula 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #c7 a ciliated larva 7planula74 ,those cells1 lying on the surface of the homogeneous mass of cells1 extend hair-like processes1 or fringes of hairs1 which by striking against the water keep the whole body rotating4 ,the round many-celled body thus becomes differentiated1 in that the external cells covered with cilia differ from the non-ciliated internal cells 7,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #d74 ,in ,man and in all other ,vertebrate animals 7with the exception of the ,amphioxus71 as well as in all ,arthropoda1 this stage of the ciliated larva has been lost1 in the course of time1 by abbreviated inheritance4 ,there must1 however1 have existed ancestors of ,man in the early ,primordial period which possessed the form value of these ciliated larv 7,plana1 p4 #abe74 ,a certain proof of this is furnished by the ,amphioxus1 which is on the one hand related by blood to ,man1 but on the other has retained down to the present day the stage of the planula4 ,,fifth ,,stage3 ,primval ,stomach ,animals 7,gastrada74 ,in the course of the individual development of ,amphioxus1 as well as in the most different lower animals1 there first arises out of the planula the extremely important form of larva which we have named stomach larva1 or gastrula 7p4 #abf2 ,frontispiece1 ,fig4 #e1 #f74 ,according to the fundamental law of biogeny this gastrula proves the former existence of an independent form of primval animal of the same structure1 and this we have named primval stomach animal1 or ,gastra 7pp4 #abg1 #abh74 ,these ,gastrada must have existed during the older ,primordial period1 and they must have also included the ancestors of man4 ,a certain proof of this is furnished by the ,amphioxus1 which in spite of its blood relationship to ,man still passes through the stage of the gastrula with a simple intestine and a double intestinal wall4 7,compare ,plate ,x4 ,fig4 ,b #d47 ,,sixth ,,stage3 ,gliding ,worms 7,turbellaria74 ,the human ancestors of the sixth stage which originated out of the ,gastrada of the fifth stage1 were low worms1 which1 of all the forms of worms known to us1 were most closely allied to the ,gliding ,worms1 or ,turbellaria1 or at least upon the whole possessed their form value4 ,like the ,turbellaria of the present day1 the whole surface of their body was covered with cilia1 and they possessed a simple body of an oval shape1 entirely without appendages4 ,these aclomatous worms did not as yet possess a true body-cavity 7clom7 nor blood4 ,they originated in the early primordial period out of the ,gastrada1 by the formation of a middle germ-layer1 or muscular layer1 and also by the further differentiation of the internal parts into various organs2 more especially the first formation of a nervous system1 the simplest organs of sense1 the simplest organs for secretion 7kidneys7 and generation 7sexual organs74 ,the proof that human ancestors existed of a similar formation1 is to be looked for in the circumstance that comparative anatomy and ontogeny point to the lower aclomatous ,worms as the common primary form1 not merely of all higher ,worms1 but also of the four higher tribes of animals4 ,now1 of all the animals known to us1 the ,turbellaria1 which possess neither a body-cavity nor blood1 are most closely allied to these primval aclomatous ,primary ,worms4 ,,seventh ,,stage3 ,soft ,worms 7,scolecida74 ,between the ,turbellaria of the preceding stage and the ,sack ,worms of the next stage1 we must necessarily assume at least one connecting intermediate stage4 ,for the ,tunicata1 which of all known animals stand nearest to the eighth stage1 and the ,turbellaria which most resemble the sixth stage1 indeed both belong to the lower division of the unsegmented ,worms2 but still these two divisions differ so much from one another in their organization1 that we must necessarily assume the earlier existence of extinct intermediate forms between the two4 ,these connecting links1 of which no fossil remains exist1 owing to the soft nature of their bodies1 we may comprise as ,soft ,worms1 or ,scolecida4 ,they developed out of the ,turbellaria of the sixth stage by forming a true body-cavity 7a clom7 and blood in their interior4 ,it is difficult to say which of the still living ,clomati are nearest akin to these extinct ,scolecida2 it may be the ,acorn-worms 7,balanoglossus74 ,the proof that even the direct ancestors of man belonged to these ,scolecida1 is furnished by the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,worms and of the ,amphioxus4 ,the form value of this stage must moreover have been represented by several very different intermediate stages1 in the wide gap between ,turbellaria and ,tunicata4 ,,eighth ,,stage3 ,sack ,worms 7,himatega74 ,under the name of ,sack worms1 or ,himatega1 we here allude in the eighth place to those ,clomati1 out of which the most ancient skull-less ,vertebrata were directly developed4 ,among the ,clomati of the present day1 the ,ascidians are the nearest relatives of these exceedingly remarkable ,worms1 which connect the widely differing classes of ,invertebrate and ,vertebrate animals4 ,that the ancestors of man really existed during the primordial period in the form of these ,himatega1 is distinctly proved by the exceedingly remarkable and important agreement presented by the ontogeny of the ,amphioxus and the ,ascidia4 7,compare ,plates ,,xii4 and ,,xiii41 also pp4 #aeb1 #bjj1 etc47 ,from this fact the earlier existence of ,sack ,worms may be inferred2 they of all known worms were most closely related to our recent ,tunicates1 especially to the freely swimming young forms or larv of the simple ,sea-squirts 7,ascidia1 ,phallusia74 ,they originated out of the worms of the seventh stage by the formation of a dorsal nerve-marrow 7medulla tube71 and by the formation of the spinal rod 7chorda dorsalis7 which lies below it4 ,it is just the position of this central spinal rod1 or axial skeleton1 between the dorsal marrow on the dorsal side1 and the intestinal canal on the ventral side1 which is most characteristic of all ,vertebrate animals1 including man1 but also of the larv of the ,ascidia4 ,the form value of this stage nearly corresponds with that which the larv of the simple ,sea-squirts possess at the time when they show the beginning of the dorsal marrow and spinal rod4 7,plate ,,xii4 ,fig4 ,a #e3 compare the explanation of these figures in the ,appendix47 ,,second ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,series ,,of ,,human ,,ancestors4 ,,vertebrate ,,animal ,,ancestors ,,of ,,man 7,vertebrata74 ,,ninth ,,stage3 ,skull-less ,animals 7,acrania74 ,the series of human ancestors1 which in accordance with their whole organisation we have to consider as ,vertebrate animals1 begins with the ,skull-less animals1 or ,acrania1 of whose nature the still living ,lancelet 7,amphioxus lanceolatus1 ,plate ,,xii4 ,b1 ,,xiii4 ,b7 gives us a faint idea4 ,since this little animal in its earliest embryonal state entirely agrees with the ,ascidia1 and in its further development shows itself to be a true ,vertebrate animal1 it forms a direct transition from the ,vertebrata to the ,invertebrata4 ,even if the human ancestors of the ninth stage in many respects differed from the ,amphioxus--the last surviving representative of the ,skull-less animals--yet they must have resembled it in its most essential characteristics1 in the absence of head1 skull1 and brain4 ,skull-less animals of such structure--out of which animals with skulls developed at a later period--lived during the primordial period1 and originated out of the ,himatega of the eighth stage by the formation of the metamera1 or body segments1 as also by the further differentiation of all organs1 especially the more perfect development of the dorsal nerve-marrow and the spinal rod lying below it4 ,probably the separation of the two sexes 7gonochorism7 also began at this stage1 whereas all the previously mentioned invertebrate ancestors 7apart from the #c--d first neutral stages7 exhibited the condition of hermaphrodites 7hermaphroditism74 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #aif47 ,the certain proof of the former existence of these skull-less and brainless ancestors of man1 is furnished by the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of the ,amphioxus and of the ,craniota4 ,,tenth ,,stage3 ,single-nostriled ,animals 7,monorrhina74 ,out of the ,skull-less ancestors of man there arose in the first place animals with skulls1 or ,craniota1 of the most imperfect nature4 ,the lowest stage of all still living ,craniota is occupied by the class of round-mouthed animals1 or ,cyclostoma1 namely1 the ,hag 7,myxinoidea7 and ,lampreys 7,petromyzontia74 ,from the internal organization of these single-nostriled animals1 or ,monorrhina1 we can form an approximate idea of the nature of the human ancestors of the tenth stage4 ,in the former1 as also in the latter1 skull and brain must have been of the simplest form1 and many important organs1 as for example1 the swimming bladder1 the sympathetic nerve1 the spleen1 the jaw skeleton1 and both pairs of legs1 may probably as yet not have existed4 ,however1 the pouch gills and the round sucking mouth of the ,cyclostoma must probably be looked upon as purely adaptive characteristics1 which did not exist in the corresponding stage of ancestors4 ,the single-nostriled animals originated during the primordial period out of the skull-less animals by the anterior end of the dorsal marrow developing into the brain1 and the anterior end of the dorsal chord into the skull4 ,the certain proof that such single-nostriled and jawless ancestors of man did exist1 is found in the 8comparative anatomy of the ,myxinoidea40 ,,eleventh ,,stage3 ,primval ,fish 7,selachii474 ,of all known ,vertebrate animals1 the ancestors of the ,primval ,fish probably showed most resemblance to the still living ,sharks 7,squalacei74 ,they originated out of the single-nostriled animals by the division of the single nostril into two lateral halves1 by the formation of a sympathetic nervous system1 a jaw skeleton1 a swimming bladder1 and two pairs of legs 7breast fins or fore-legs1 and ventral fins or hind-legs74 ,the internal organisation of this stage may probably1 upon the whole1 have corresponded to the lowest species of ,sharks known to us2 the swimming bladder was however more strongly developed2 in the case of the latter it exists only as a rudimentary organ4 ,they lived as early as the ,silurian period1 as is proved by the fossil remains of sharks 7teeth and fin spines7 from the ,silurian strata4 ,a certain proof that the ,silurian ancestors of man and of all the other double-nostriled animals were nearest akin to the ,selachii1 is furnished by the comparative anatomy of the latter2 it shows that the relations of organisation in all ,amphirrhina can be derived from those of the ,selachii4 ,,twelfth ,,stage3 ,mud ,fish 7,dipneusta74 ,our twelfth ancestral stage is formed by ,vertebrate animals which probably possessed a remote resemblance to the still living ,salamander fish 7,ceratodus1 ,protopterus1 ,lepidosiren1 p4 #bab74 ,they originated out of the ,primval fish 7probably at the beginning of the palolithic1 or primary period7 by adaptation to life on land1 and by the transformation of the swimming bladder into an air-breathing lung1 and of the nasal cavity 7which now opened into the cavity of the mouth7 into air passages4 ,the series of the ancestors of man which breathed air through lungs began at this stage4 ,their organisation may probably in many respects have agreed with that of the still living ,ceratodus and ,protopterus1 but at the same time may have been very different4 ,they probably lived at the beginning of the ,devonian period4 ,their existence is proved by comparative anatomy1 which shows the ,dipneusta to be an intermediate stage between the ,selachii and ,amphibia4 ,,thirteenth ,,stage3 ,gilled ,amphibians 7,sozobranchia74 ,out of those ,mud ,fish1 which we considered the primary forms of all the ,vertebrata which breathe through lungs1 there developed the class of ,amphibia as the main line 7pp4 #bje1 #baf74 ,here began the five-toed formation of the foot 7the ,pentadactyla71 which was thence transmitted to the higher ,vertebrata1 and finally also to ,man4 ,the gilled ,amphibians must be looked upon as our most ancient ancestors of the class of ,amphibia2 besides possessing lungs they retained throughout life regular gills1 like the still living ,proteus and ,axolotl 7p4 #bah74 ,they originated out of the ,dipneusta by the transformation of the paddling fins into five-toed legs1 and also by the more perfect differentiation of various organs1 especially of the vertebral column4 ,in any case they existed about the middle of the palolithic1 or primary period1 possibly even before the ,coal period2 for fossil ,amphibia are found in coal4 ,the proof that similar gilled ,amphibians were our direct ancestors1 is given by the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,amphibia and ,mammals4 ,,fourteenth ,,stage3 ,tailed ,amphibians 7,sozura74 ,our amphibious ancestors which retained their gills throughout life1 were replaced at a later period by other ,amphibia1 which1 by metamorphosis1 lost the gills which they had possessed in early life1 but retained the tail1 as in the case of the salamanders and newts of the present day4 7,compare p4 #bah47 ,they originated out of the gilled ,amphibians by accustoming themselves in early life to breathe only through gills1 and later in life only through lungs4 ,they probably existed even in the second half of the primary1 namely1 during the ,permian period1 but possibly even during the ,coal period4 ,the proof of their existence lies in the fact that tailed ,amphibians form a necessary intermediate link between the preceding and succeeding stages4 ,,fifteenth ,,stage3 ,primval ,amniota 7,protamnia74 ,the name ,protamnion we have given to the primary form of the three higher classes of ,vertebrate animals1 out of which the ,proreptilia and the ,promammalia developed as two diverging branches 7p4 #bbb74 ,it originated out of unknown tailed ,amphibia by the complete loss of the gills1 by the formation of the amnion1 of the cochlea1 and of the round window in the auditory organ1 and of the organs of tears4 ,it probably originated in the beginning of the mesolithic or secondary period1 perhaps even towards the end of the primary1 in the ,permian period4 ,the certain proof that it once existed lies in the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of the ,amniota2 for all ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals1 including ,man1 agree in so many important characteristics that they must1 with full assurance1 be admitted to be the descendants of a single common primary form1 namely1 of the ,protamnion4 ,,sixteenth ,,stage3 ,primary ,mammals 7,promammalia74 ,we now find ourselves more at home with our ancestors4 ,from the sixteenth up to the twenty-second stage they all belong to the large and well known class of ,mammals1 the confines of which we ourselves have as yet not transgressed4 ,the common1 long since extinct and unknown primary forms of all ,mammalia1 which we have named ,promammalia1 were at all events1 of all still living animals1 of the class most closely related to the ,beaked animals1 or ,ornithostoma 7,ornithorhynchus1 ,echidna1 p4 #bcc74 ,they differed from the latter1 however1 by the teeth present in their jaws4 ,the formation of the beak in the ,beaked animals of the present day must be looked upon as an adaptive characteristic which developed at a later period4 ,the ,promammalia arose out of the ,protamnia 7probably only at the beginning of the secondary period1 namely1 in the ,trias7 by various advances in their internal organisation1 as also by the transformation of the epidermal scales into hairs1 and by the formation of a mammary gland which furnished milk for the nourishment of the young ones4 ,the certain proof that the ,promammalia--inasmuch as they are the common primary forms of all ,mammals--also belong to our ancestors1 lies in the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,mammalia and ,man4 ,,seventeenth ,,stage3 ,pouched ,animals 7,marsupialia74 ,the three sub-classes of ,mammalia--as we have already seen--stand in such a relation to one another that the ,marsupials1 both as regards their anatomy and their ontogeny and phylogeny1 form the direct transition from the ,monotrema to ,placental animals 7p4 #bdg74 ,consequently1 human ancestors must also have existed among ,marsupials4 ,they originated out of the ,monotrema--which include the primary ,mammalia1 or ,promammalia--by the division of the cloaca into the rectum and the urogenital sinus1 by the formation of a nipple on the mammary gland1 and by the partial suppression of the clavicles4 ,the oldest ,marsupials at all events existed as early as the ,jura period 7perhaps even in the ,trias72 during the ,chalk period they passed through a series of stages preparing the way for the origin of ,placentalia4 ,the certain proof of our derivation from ,marsupials--nearly akin to the still living opossum and kangaroo in their essential inner structure--is furnished by the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,mammalia4 ,,eighteenth ,,stage3 ,semi-apes 7,prosimi74 ,the small group of ,semi-apes1 as we have already seen1 is one of the most important and most interesting orders of ,mammalia4 ,it contains the direct primary forms of ,genuine ,apes1 and thus also of ,man4 ,our ,semi-ape ancestors probably possessed only a very faint external resemblance to the still living1 short-footed ,semi-apes 7,brachytarsi71 especially the ,maki1 ,indri1 and ,lori 7p4 #bef74 ,they originated 7probably at the beginning of the ,cenolithic1 or ,tertiary period7 out of ,marsupials of ,rat-like appearance by the formation of a placenta1 the loss of the marsupium and the marsupial bones1 and by the higher development of the commissures of the brain4 ,the certain proof that ,genuine ,apes1 and hence also our own race1 are the direct descendants of ,semi-apes1 is to be found in the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,placental animals4 ,,nineteenth ,,stage3 ,tailed ,apes 7,menocerca74 ,of the two classes of ,genuine ,apes which developed out of the ,semi-apes1 it is only the narrow-nosed1 or ,catarrhini1 which are closely related by blood to ,man4 ,our older ancestors from this group probably resembled the still living ,nose-apes and ,holy-apes 7,semnopithecus71 which possess jaws and narrow noses like ,man1 but have a long tail1 and their bodies densely covered with hair 7p4 #bga74 ,the ,tailed ,apes with narrow noses 7,catarrhini ,menocerci7 originated out of ,semi-apes by the transformation of the jaw1 and by the claws on their toes becoming changed into nails2 this probably took place as early as the older ,tertiary period4 ,the certain proof of our derivation from ,tailed ,catarrhini is to be found in the comparative anatomy and the ontogeny of ,apes and of ,man4 ,,twentieth ,,stage3 ,man-like ,apes 7,anthropoides74 ,of all still living ,apes the large tail-less1 narrow-nosed ,apes1 namely1 the ,orang and ,gibbon in ,asia1 the ,gorilla and ,chimpanzee in ,africa1 are most nearly akin to ,man4 ,it is probable that these ,man-like ,apes1 or ,anthropoides1 originated during the ,mid-tertiary period1 namely1 in the ,miocene period4 ,they developed out of the ,tailed ,catarrhini of the preceding stage--with which they essentially agree--by the loss of the tail1 the partial loss of the hairy covering and by the excessive development of that portion of the brain just above the facial portion of the skull4 ,there do not exist direct human ancestors among the ,anthropoides of the present day1 but they certainly existed among the unknown extinct ,human ,apes of the ,miocene period4 ,the certain proof of their former existence is furnished by the comparative anatomy of ,man-like ,apes and of ,man4 ,,twenty-,,first ,,stage3 ,ape-like ,men 7,pithecanthropi74 ,although the preceding ancestral stage is already so nearly akin to genuine ,men that we scarcely require to assume an intermediate connecting stage1 still we can look upon the speechless ,primval ,men 7,alali7 as this intermediate link4 ,these ,ape-like men1 or ,pithecanthropi1 very probably existed towards the end of the ,tertiary period4 ,they originated out of the ,man-like ,apes1 or ,anthropoides1 by becoming completely habituated to an upright walk1 and by the corresponding stronger differentiation of both pairs of legs4 ,the fore hand of the ,anthropoides became the human hand1 their hinder hand became a foot for walking4 ,although these ,ape-like ,men must not merely by the external formation of their bodies1 but also by their internal mental development1 have been much more akin to real ,men than the ,man-like ,apes could have been1 yet they did not possess the real and chief characteristic of man1 namely1 the articulate human language of words1 the corresponding development of a higher consciousness1 and the formation of ideas4 ,the certain proof that such ,primval ,men without the power of speech1 or ,ape-like ,men1 must have preceded men possessing speech1 is the result arrived at by an inquiring mind from comparative philology 7from the 8comparative anatomy0 of language71 and especially from the history of the development of language in every child 78glottal ontogenesis07 as well as in every nation 78glottal phylogenesis074 ,,twenty-,,second ,,stage3 ,men 7,homines74 ,genuine ,men developed out of the ,ape-like ,men of the preceding stage by the gradual development of the animal language of sounds into a connected or articulate language1 of words4 ,the development of this function1 of course1 went hand in hand with the development of its organs1 namely1 the higher differentiation of the larynx and the brain4 ,the transition from speechless ,ape-like ,men to ,genuine or ,talking ,men probably took place at the beginning of the ,quaternary period1 namely1 in the ,diluvial period1 but possibly even at an earlier date1 in the more recent ,tertiary4 ,as1 according to the unanimous opinion of most eminent philologists1 all human languages are not derived from a common primval language1 we must assume a polyphyletic origin of language1 and in accordance with this a polyphyletic transition from speechless ,ape-like ,men to ,genuine ,men4 ,,ancestral ,,series ,,of ,,the ,,human ,,pedigree4 ,m ,n ,boundary between the ,invertebrate and ,vertebrate ,ancestors4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,epochs of the ,geological ,periods ,animal ,nearest ,living ,organic of the ,ancestral ,stages ,relatives of the ,history of the ,organic ,history of ,ancestral ,stages4 ,earth4 of the ,earth4 ,man4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #a4 ,monera ,protogenes 7,monera7 ,protamba #b4 ,single-celled ,simple ,amb ,primval animals 7,automb7 #c4 ,many-celled ,communities of ,primval animals ,amb 7,synamb7 #d4 ,ciliated planul ,planula larv 7,planada7 ,i4 ,,archilithic #a4 ,laurentian ,period #e4 ,primval ,intestinal ,gastrula larv ,,or animals 7,gastrada7 #b4 ,cambrian ,period ,,primordial #f4 ,gliding ,worms ,rhabdocla ,,epoch #c4 ,silurian ,period 7,turbellaria7 ,dendrocla #g4 ,soft-worms 8,between the ,sea-squirts 7,scolecida7 and ,gliding worms #h4 ,sack worms ,sea-squirts 7,himatega7 7,ascidi7 ,m44444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444,n #i4 ,skull-less ,lancelets 7,acrania7 7,amphioxi7 #aj4 ,single-nostriled ,lampreys 7,monorrhina7 7,petromyzonta7 7,compare p4 #bb1 and ,plate ,,xiv4 and its #aa4 ,primval fish ,sharks explanation47 7,selachii7 7,squalacei7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #d4 ,devonian ,period #ab4 ,salamander fish ,mud fish ,,ii4 7,dipneusta7 7,protopteri7 ,,pal,,olithic #e4 ,coal ,period ,,or #ac4 ,gilled ,amphibia 7,proteus7 #f4 ,permian ,period 7,sozobranchia7 ,axolotl 7,siredon7 ,,primary ,,epoch #ad4 ,tailed ,amphibia ,water-newts 7,sozura7 7,tritons7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ae4 ,primval ,amniota 8,between the ,tailed-,amphibia ,,iii4 7,protamnia7 and ,primary ,,mesolithic #g4 ,trias ,period mammals ,,or #h4 ,jura ,period #af4 ,primary ,mammals ,beaked animals ,,secondary 7,promammalia7 7,monotrema7 ,,epoch #i4 ,chalk ,period #ag4 ,pouched animals ,pouched rats 7,marsupialia7 7,didelphys7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ah4 ,semi-apes ,lori 7,stenops7 7,prosimi7 ,maki 7,lemur7 ,,iv4 #ai4 ,tailed ,narrow-nosed ,nose apes ,,cenolithic #aj4 ,eocene ,period ,apes ,holy apes ,,or #aa4 ,miocene ,period #bj4 ,men-like ,apes or ,gorilla1 ,chimpanzee1 ,,tertiary ,tail-less ,narrow-nosed ,orang1 ,,epoch #ab4 ,pliocene ,period ,apes ,gibbon #ba4 ,speechless ,men or ,deaf and ,dumb1 ,ape-like ,men ,cretins or ,microcephali ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,v4 ,,quaternary #ac4 ,diluvial ,period #bb4 ,talking ,men ,australians and ,,epoch #ad4 ,alluvial ,period ,papuans ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,migration ,,and ,,distribution ,,of ,,mankind4 ,,human ,,species ,,and ,,human ,,races4 ,age of the ,human ,race4--,causes of its ,origin4--,the ,origin of ,human ,language4--,monophyletic or ,single1 ,polyphyletic or ,multiple ,origin of the ,human ,race4--,derivation of ,man from many ,pairs4--,classification of the ,human ,races4--,system of ,twelve ,species of ,men4--,woolly-haired ,men1 or ,ulotrichis4--,bushy-haired 7,papuans1 ,hottentots74--,fleecy-haired 7,caffres1 ,negroes74--,straight-haired men1 or ,lissotrichi4--,stiff-haired 7,australians1 ,malays1 ,mongols1 ,arctic1 and ,american ,tribes74--,curly-haired 7,dravidas1 ,nubians1 ,midlanders74--,number of ,population4--,primval ,home of ,man 7,south ,asia1 or ,lemuria74--,nature of ,primval ,men4--,number of ,primval ,languages 7,monoglottists and ,polyglottists74--,divergence and ,migration of the ,human ,race4--,geographical ,distribution of the ,human ,species4 ,the rich treasure of knowledge we possess in the comparative anatomy and the history of the development of ,vertebrate animals1 enables us even now to establish the most important outlines of the human pedigree in the way we have done in the last chapter4 ,one must1 however1 not expect to be able to survey satisfactorily in every detail the history or phylogeny of the human species which will henceforth form the basis of ,anthropology1 and of all other sciences4 ,the complete development of this most important science--of which we can only lay the first foundation--must remain reserved for the more accurate and extensive investigations of a future time4 ,this applies also to those more special questions of human phylogeny at which it is desirable before concluding to take a cursory glance1 namely1 the question of the time and place of the origin of the human race1 as also of the different species and races into which it has differentiated4 ,in the first place1 the period of the earth's history1 within which the slow and gradual transmutation of the most man-like apes into the most ape-like men took place1 can of course not be determined by years1 nor even by centuries4 ,this much can1 however1 with full assurance be maintained1 for reasons given in the last chapter1 that ,man is derived from ,placental animals4 ,now1 as fossil remains of these ,placentalia are found only in the tertiary rocks1 the human race can at the earliest have developed only within the ,tertiary period out of perfected man-like apes4 ,what seems most probable is that this most important process in the history of terrestrial creation occurred towards the end of the ,tertiary period1 that is in the ,pliocene1 perhaps even in the ,miocene period1 but possibly also not until the beginning of the ,diluvial period4 ,at all events ,man1 as such1 lived in central ,europe as early as the ,diluvial period1 contemporaneously with many large1 long since extinct mammals1 especially with the diluvial elephant1 or mammoth 7,elephas primigenius71 the woolly-haired rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros tichorrhinus71 the giant deer 7,cervus euryceros71 the cave bear 7,ursus spelus71 the cave hyna 7,hyna spela71 the cave lion 7,felis spelus71 etc4 ,the results brought to light by recent geology and archology as to these fossil men and their animal contemporaries of the diluvial period1 are of the greatest interest4 ,but as a closer examination of them would occupy too much of my limited space1 ,i must confine myself here to setting forth their great general importance1 and refer for particulars to the numerous writings which have recently been published on the ,primval ,history of ,man1 more especially to the excellent works of ,charles ,lyell17#cj7 ,carl ,vogt17#bg7 ,friedrich ,rolle17#bh7 ,john ,lubbock17#dd7 ,l4 ,bchner17#dc7 etc4 ,the numerous and interesting discoveries presented to us by these extensive investigations of late years on the primval history of the human race1 place the important fact 7long since probable for many other reasons7 beyond a doubt1 that the human race1 as such1 has existed for more than twenty thousand years4 ,but it is also probable that more than a hundred thousand years1 perhaps many hundred thousands of years1 have elapsed since its first appearance2 and1 in contrast to this1 it must seem very absurd that our calendars still represent the 8,creation of the ,world1 according to ,calvisius10 to have taken place #ehba years ago4 ,now1 whether we reckon the period during which the human race1 as such1 has existed and diffused itself over the earth1 as twenty thousand1 a hundred thousand1 or many hundred thousands of years1 the lapse of time is in any case immensely small in comparison with the inconceivable length of time which was requisite for the gradual development of the long chain of human ancestors4 ,this is evident even from the small thickness of all ,diluvial deposits in comparison with the ,tertiary1 and of these again in comparison with the preceding deposits4 7,compare p4 #bb47 ,but the infinitely long series of slowly and gradually developing animal forms from the simplest ,moneron to the ,amphioxus1 from this to the ,primval ,fish1 from the ,primval ,fish to the first ,mammal1 and again1 from the latter to ,man1 also require for their historical development a succession of periods probably comprising many thousands of millions of years4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #abi47 ,those processes of development which led to the origin of the most ,ape-like ,men out of the most ,man-like ,apes must be looked for in the two adaptational changes which1 above all others1 are distinctive of ,man1 namely1 upright walk and articulate speech4 ,these two physiological functions necessarily originated together with two corresponding morphological transmutations1 with which they stand in the closest correlation1 namely1 the differentiation of the two pairs of limbs and the differentiation of the larynx4 ,the important perfecting of these organs and their functions must have necessarily and powerfully reacted upon the differentiation of the brain and the mental activities dependent upon it1 and thus have paved the way for the endless career in which ,man has since progressively developed1 and in which he has far outstripped his animal ancestors4 7,gen4 ,morph4 ii4 p4 #dcj47 ,the first and earliest of these three great processes in the development of the human organism probably was the higher differentiation and the perfecting of the extremities which was effected by the habit of an upright walk4 ,by the fore feet more and more exclusively adopting and retaining the function of grasping and handling1 and the hinder feet more and more exclusively the function of standing and walking1 there was developed that contrast between the hand and foot which is indeed not exclusively characteristic of man1 but which is much more strongly developed in him than in the apes most like men4 ,this differentiation of the fore and hinder extremities was1 however1 not merely most advantageous for their own development and perfecting1 but it was followed at the same time by a whole series of very important changes in other parts of the body4 ,the whole vertebral column1 and more especially the girdle of the pelvis and shoulders1 as also the muscles belonging to them1 thereby experienced those changes which distinguish the human body from that of the most man-like apes4 ,these transmutations were probably accomplished long before the origin of articulate speech2 and the human race thus existed for long1 with an upright walk and the characteristic human form of body connected with it1 before the actual development of human language1 which would have completed the second and the more important part of human development4 ,we may therefore distinguish a special 7#bast7 stage in the series of our human ancestors1 namely1 ,speechless ,man 7,alalus71 or ,ape-man 7,pithecanthropus71 whose body was indeed formed exactly like that of ,man in all essential characteristics1 but who did not as yet possess articulate speech4 ,the origin of articulate language1 and the higher differentiation and perfecting of the larynx connected with it1 must be looked upon as only a later1 and the most important stage in the process of the development of ,man4 ,it was1 doubtless1 this process which above all others helped to create the deep chasm between man and animal1 and which also first caused the most important progress in the mental activity and the perfecting of the brain connected with it4 ,there indeed exists in very many animals a language for communicating sensations1 desires1 and thoughts1 partly a language of gestures1 partly a language of feeling or touch1 partly a language of cries or sounds1 but a real language of words or ideas1 a so-called 8articulate0 language1 which by abstraction changes sounds into words1 and words into sentences1 belongs1 as far as we know1 exclusively to ,man4 ,the origin of human language must1 more than anything else1 have had an ennobling and transforming influence upon the mental life of ,man1 and consequently upon his brain4 ,the higher differentiation and perfecting of the brain and mental life as its highest function developed in direct correlation with its expression by means of speech4 ,hence1 the highest authorities in comparative philology justly see in the development of human speech the most important process which distinguishes ,man from his animal ancestors4 ,this has been especially set forth by ,august ,schleicher1 in his treatise 8,on the ,importance of ,speech for the ,natural ,history of ,man407#cd7 ,in this relation we see one of the closest connections between comparative zoology and comparative philology2 and here the theory of development assigns to the latter the task of following the origin of language step by step4 ,this task1 as interesting as it is important1 has of late years been successfully undertaken by many inquirers1 but more especially by ,wilhelm ,bleek1 who has been occupied for seventeen years in ,south ,africa with the study of the languages of the lowest races of men1 and hence has been enabled to solve the question4 ,august ,schleicher more especially discusses1 in accordance with the theory of selection1 how the various forms of speech1 like all other organic forms and functions1 have developed by the process of natural selection1 and have divided into many species and dialects4 ,i have no space here to follow the process of the formation of language1 and must refer in regard to this to the above-mentioned important work of ,wilhelm ,bleek1 8,on the ,origin of ,language407#ce7 ,but we have still to mention one of the most important results of comparative philology1 which is of the highest importance to the genealogy of the human species1 that is1 that human language was probably of a multiple1 or polyphyletic origin4 ,human speech1 as such1 did not develop probably until the genus of ,speechless or ,primval ,man1 or ,ape ,man1 had separated into several kinds or species4 ,in each of these human species1 and perhaps even in the different sub-species and varieties of this species1 language developed freely and independently of the others4 ,at least ,schleicher1 one of the first authorities on the subject1 maintains that 8even the beginnings of language--in sounds as well as in regard to ideas and views which were reflected in sounds1 and further1 in regard to their capability of development--must have been different4 ,for it is positively impossible to trace all languages to one and the same primval language4 ,an impartial investigation rather shows that there are as many primval languages as there are races407#cd7 ,in like manner1 ,friederich ,mller7#da7 and other eminent linguists assume a free and independent origin of the families of languages and their primval stocks4 ,it is well known1 however1 that the boundaries of these tribes of languages and their ramifications are by no means always the boundaries of the different human species1 or the so-called 8races10 distinguished by us on account of their bodily characteristics4 ,this1 as well as the complicated relations of the mixture of races1 and the various forms of hybrids1 is the great difficulty lying in the way of tracing the human pedigree in its individual branches1 species1 races1 varieties1 etc4 ,in spite of these great and serious difficulties1 we cannot here refrain from taking one more cursory glance at the ramification of the human pedigree1 and at the same time considering1 from the point of view of the theory of descent1 the much discussed question of the monophyletic or polyphyletic origin of the human race1 and its species or races4 ,as is well known1 two great parties have for a long time been at war with each other upon this question2 the monophylists 7or monogenists7 maintain the unity of origin and the blood relationship of all races of men4 ,the polyphylists 7or polygenists71 on the other hand1 are of opinion that the different races of men are of independent origin4 ,according to our previous genealogical investigations we cannot doubt that1 at least in a wide sense1 the monophyletic opinion is the right one4 ,for even supposing that the transmutation of ,man-like ,apes into ,men had taken place several times1 yet those ,apes themselves would again be allied by the one pedigree common to the whole order of ,apes4 ,the question therefore would always be merely about a nearer or remoter degree of blood relationship4 ,in a narrower sense1 on the other hand1 the polyphylist's opinion would probably be right1 inasmuch as the different primval languages have developed quite independently of one another4 ,hence1 if the origin of an articulate language is considered as the real and principal act of humanification1 and the species of the human race are distinguished according to the roots of their language1 it might be said that the different races of men had originated1 independently of one another1 by different branches of primval1 speechless men directly springing from apes1 and forming their own primval language4 ,still they would of course be connected further up or lower down at their root1 and thus all would finally be derived from a common primval stock4 ,while we hold the latter of these convictions1 and while we for many reasons believe that the different species of speechless primval men were all derived from a common ape-like human form1 we do not of course mean to say that all men are descended from one pair4 ,this latter supposition1 which our modern ,indo-,germanic culture has taken from the ,semitic myth of the ,mosaic history of creation1 is by no means tenable4 ,the whole of the celebrated dispute1 as to whether the human race is descended from a single pair or not1 rests upon a completely false way of putting the question4 ,it is just as senseless as the dispute as to whether all sporting dogs or all race-horses are descended from a single pair4 ,we might with equal justice ask whether all ,germans or all ,englishmen are 8descended from a single pair10 etc4 ,a 8first human pair10 or 8a first man10 has in fact never existed1 any more than there ever existed a first pair or a first individual of ,englishmen1 ,germans1 race-horses1 or sporting dogs4 ,the origin of a new species1 of course1 always results from an existing species1 by a long chain of many different individuals sharing the slow process of transformation4 ,supposing that we had all the different pairs of ,human ,apes and ,ape-like ,men before us--which belong to the true ancestors of the human race--it would even then be quite impossible 7without doing so most arbitrarily7 to call any one of these pairs of ape-like men 8the first pair40 ,as little can we derive each of the twelve races or species of men1 which we shall consider directly1 from a 8first pair40 ,the difficulties met with in classifying the different races or species of men are quite the same as those which we discover in classifying animal and vegetable species4 ,in both cases forms apparently quite different are connected with one another by a chain of intermediate forms of transition4 ,in both cases the dispute as to what is a kind or a species1 what a race or a variety1 can never be determined4 ,since ,blumenbach's time1 as is well known1 it has been thought that mankind may be divided into five races or varieties1 namely3 7#a7 the ,ethiopian1 or black race 7,african negro72 7#b7 the ,malayan1 or brown race 7,malays1 ,polynesians1 and ,australians72 7#c7 the ,mongolian1 or yellow race 7the principal inhabitants of ,asia and the ,esquimaux of ,north ,america72 7#d7 the ,americans1 or red race 7the aborigines of ,america72 and 7#e7 the ,caucasian1 or white race 7,europeans1 north ,africans1 and south-western ,asiatics74 ,all of these five races of men1 according to the ,jewish legend of creation1 are said to have been descended from 8a single pair0--,adam and ,eve1--and in accordance with this are said to be varieties of one kind or species4 ,if1 however1 we compare them without prejudice1 there can be no doubt that the differences of these five races are as great and even greater than the 8specific differences0 by which zoologists and botanists distinguish recognised 8good0 animal and vegetable species 78bon species074 ,the excellent palontologist ,quenstedt is right in maintaining that1 8if ,negroes and ,caucasians were snails1 zoologists would universally agree that they represented two very excellent species1 which could never have originated from one pair by gradual divergence40 ,the characteristics by which the races of men are gradually distinguished are partly taken from the formation of the hair1 partly from the colour of the skin1 and partly from the formation of the skull4 ,in regard to the last character1 two extremes are distinguished1 namely1 long heads and short heads4 ,in long-headed men 7,dolichocephali71 whose strongest development is found in ,negroes and ,australians1 the skull is extended1 narrow1 and compressed on the right and left4 ,in short-headed men 7,brachycephali71 on the other hand1 the skull is compressed in an exactly opposite manner1 from the front to the back1 is short and broad1 which is especially striking in the case of the ,mongolians4 ,medium-headed men 7,mesocephali71 standing between the two extremes1 predominate especially among ,americans4 ,in every one of these three groups we find men with slanting teeth 7,prognathi71 whose jaws1 like those of the animal snout1 strongly project1 and whose front teeth therefore slope in front1 and men with straight teeth 7,orthognathi71 whose jaws project but little1 and whose front teeth stand perpendicularly4 ,during the last ten years a great deal of time and trouble have been devoted to the careful examination and measurement of the forms of skulls1 which have1 however1 not been rewarded by corresponding results4 ,for within a single species1 as for example within the ,mediterranean species1 the form of the skull may vary so much that both extremes are met with in the same species4 ,much better starting-points for the classification of the human species are furnished by the nature of the hair and speech1 because they are much more strictly hereditary than the form of the skull4 ,comparative philology seems especially to be becoming an authority in this matter4 ,in the latest great work on the races of men1 which ,friederich ,mller has published in his excellent 8,ethnography107#db7 he justly places language in the fore-ground4 ,next to it the nature of the hair of the head is of great importance2 for although it is in itself of course only a subordinate morphological character1 yet it seems to be strictly transmitted within the race4 ,of the twelve species of men distinguished on the following table 7p4 #cjh71 the four lower species are characterised by the woolly nature of the hair of their heads2 every hair is flattened like a tape1 and thus its section is oval4 ,these four species of woolly-haired men 7,ulotrichi7 we may reduce into two groups--tuft-haired and fleecy-haired4 ,the hair on the head of tuft-haired men 7,lophocomi71 ,papuans and ,hottentots1 grows in unequally divided small tufts4 ,the woolly hair of fleecy-haired men 7,eriocomi71 on the other hand1 in ,caffres and ,negroes1 grows equally all over the skin of the head4 ,all ,ulotrichi1 or woolly-haired men1 have slanting teeth and long heads1 and the colour of their skin1 hair1 and eyes is always very dark4 ,all are inhabitants of the ,southern ,hemisphere2 it is only in ,africa that they come north of the equator4 ,they are on the whole at a much lower stage of development1 and more like apes1 than most of the ,lissotrichi1 or straight-haired men4 ,the ,ulotrichi are incapable of a true inner culture and of a higher mental development1 even under the favourable conditions of adaptation now offered to them in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,no woolly-haired nation has ever had an important 8history40 ,,systematic ,,survey ,of the #ab ,species of ,men and their #cf ,races4 7,compare ,plate ,,xv47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,species4 ,races4 ,home4 ,immigrated from the ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ #a4 ,papuan #a4 ,nigritos ,malacca1 ,philippine ,west ,homo ,papua ,islands #b4 ,new ,guinea men ,new ,guinea ,west #b4 ,hottentot #c4 ,melanesians ,melanesia ,north-west ,homo #d4 ,tasmanians ,van ,diemen's ,land ,north-east ,hottentottus #e4 ,hottentots ,the ,cape ,north-east #f4 ,bushmen ,the ,cape ,north-east #c4 ,kaffre #g4 ,zulu ,kaffres ,eastern ,south ,africa ,north ,homo ,cafer #h4 ,beschuanas ,central ,south ,africa ,north-east #i4 ,congo ,kaffres ,western ,south ,africa ,east #d4 ,negro #aj4 ,tibu negroes ,tibu district ,south-east ,homo ,niger #aa4 ,soudan negroes ,soudan ,east #ab4 ,senegambians ,senegambia ,east #ac4 ,nigritians ,nigritia ,east 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #e4 ,australian #ad4 ,north ,australians ,north ,australia ,north ,h4 ,australis #ae4 ,south ,australians ,south ,australia ,north #f4 ,malay #af4 ,sundanesians ,sunda ,archipelago ,west ,homo ,malayus #ag4 ,polynesians ,pacific ,archipelago ,west #ah4 ,natives of ,madagascar ,madagascar ,east #g4 ,mongolian #ai4 ,indo-,chinese ,tibet1 ,china ,south ,homo #bj4 ,coreo-,japanese ,corea1 ,japan ,south-west ,mongolus #ba4 ,altaians ,central ,asia1 ,north ,asia ,south #bb4 ,uralians ,north-western ,asia1 ,south-east ,northern ,europe1 ,hungary #h4 ,arctic ,men #bc4 ,hyperboreans ,extreme ,n4,e4 of ,asia ,south-west ,homo ,arcticus #bd4 ,esquimaux ,the extreme north of ,west ,america #i4 ,american #be4 ,north ,americans ,north ,america ,north-west ,homo #bf4 ,central ,americans ,central ,america ,north ,americanus #bg4 ,south ,americans ,south ,america ,north #bh4 ,patagonians ,the extreme south of ,north ,south ,america #aj4 ,dravidas #bi4 ,deccans ,hindostan ,east8 ,homo ,dravida #cj4 ,singalese ,ceylon ,north8 #aa4 ,nubian #ca4 ,dongolese ,nubia ,east ,homo ,nuba #cb4 ,fulatians ,fulu-land 7,central ,east ,africa7 #ab4 #cc4 ,caucasians ,caucasus ,south-east ,mediterranese #cd4 ,basque ,extreme north of ,spain ,south8 ,homo #ce4 ,semites ,arabia1 ,north ,africa1 etc4 ,east ,mediterraneus #cf4 ,indo-germanic ,south-western ,asia1 ,south-east tribes ,europe1 etc4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,indo-,germanians #i4 ,americans ,semites ,magyars ,caucasians ,esquimaux ,basques ,fins ---v---_/ ----v----_/ ,hyperboreans #h4 ,arctic ,men ,samoides ,tartars -------v-------_/ ---v----_/ #ab4 ,mediterranese ,calmucks ,singalese ,tungusians ,fulatians ,deccans --------v---------_/ ---v---_/ #aj4 ,dravidas ,dongolese ,altaians ,uralians #aa4 ,nubians ,japanese --------v---------_/ -------v--------_/ ,ural-,altaians ,euplocomi ,chinese ,coreans ,siamese ,madagascars ,tibet ,polynesians #d4 ,negroes #c4 ,kaffres ,coreo-,japanese ---v----_/ -----v-----_/ ,indo-,chinese ,sundanesians ---v-----_/ ,eriocomi -----------v-------------_/ #f4 ,malays #g4 ,mongols -------v-------------------------------- -----_/ ,promalays #b4 ,hottentots #a4 ,papuans #e4 ,australians ----v---_/ -----v-----_/ ,lophocomi ,euthycomi ---------v---------_/ ,woolly-haired ,straight-haired ,ulotrichi ,lissotrichi --------------v-----------------_/ ,primval ,men ,in the eight higher races of men1 which we comprise as straight-haired 7,lissotrichi71 the hair of the head is never actually woolly1 although it is very much frizzled in some individuals4 ,every separate hair is cylindrical 7not like a tape71 and hence its section is circular 7not oval74 ,the eight races of ,lissotrichi may likewise be divided into two groups--stiff-haired and curly-haired4 ,stiff-haired men 7,euthycomi71 the hair of whose heads is quite smooth and straight1 and not frizzled1 include ,australians1 ,malays1 ,mongolians1 ,arctic tribes1 and ,americans4 ,curly-haired men1 on the other hand1 the hair of whose heads is more or less curly1 and in whom the beard is more developed than in all other species1 include the ,dravidas1 ,nubians1 and ,mediterranean races4 7,compare ,plate ,,xv47 ,now1 before we venture upon the attempt hypothetically to explain the phyletic divergence of mankind1 and the genealogical connection of its different species1 we will premise a short description of the twelve named species and of their distribution4 ,in order clearly to survey their geographical distribution1 we must go back some three or four centuries1 to the time when the ,indian ,islands and ,america were first discovered1 and when the present great mingling of species1 and more especially the influx of the ,indo-,germanic race1 had as yet not made great progress4 ,we begin with the lowest stages1 with the woolly-haired men 7,ulotrichi71 all of whom are prognathic ,dolichocephali4 ,the ,papuan 7,homo ,papua71 of all the still living human species1 is perhaps most closely related to the original primary form of woolly-haired men4 ,this species now inhabits only the large island of ,new ,guinea and the ,archipelago of ,melanesia lying to the east of it 7,solomon's ,islands1 ,new ,caledonia1 the ,new ,hebrides1 etc474 ,but scattered remnants of it are also still found in the interior of the peninsula of ,malacca1 and likewise in many other islands of the large ,pacific ,archipelago2 mostly in the inaccessible mountainous parts of the interior1 and especially in the ,philippine ,islands4 ,the but lately extinct ,tasmanians1 or the natives of ,van ,diemen's ,land1 belonged to this group4 ,from these and other circumstances it is clear that the ,papuans in former times possessed a much larger area of distribution in south-eastern ,asia4 ,they were driven out by the ,malays and forced eastwards4 ,the skin of all ,papuans is of a black colour1 sometimes more inclining to brown1 sometimes more to blue4 ,their woolly hair grows in tufts1 is spirally twisted in screws1 and often more than a foot in length1 so that it forms a strong woolly wig1 which stands far out from the head4 ,their face1 below the narrow depressed forehead1 has a large turned-up nose and thick protruding lips4 ,the peculiar form of their hair and speech so essentially distinguishes the ,papuans from their straight-haired neighbours1 from the ,malays as well as from the ,australians1 that they must be regarded as an entirely distinct species4 ,closely related to the ,papuans by the tufted growth of hair1 but geographically widely separated from them1 are the ,hottentots 7,homo ,hottentottus74 ,they inhabit exclusively the southernmost part of ,africa1 the ,cape and the adjacent parts1 and have immigrated there from the north-east4 ,the ,hottentots1 like their original kinsmen the ,papuans1 occupied in former times a much larger area 7probably the whole of ,eastern ,africa71 and are now approaching their extinction4 ,besides the genuine ,hottentots--of whom there now exist only the two tribes of the ,coraca 7in the eastern ,cape districts7 and the ,namaca 7in the western portion of the ,cape7--this species also includes the ,bushmen 7in the mountainous interior of the ,cape74 ,the woolly hair of all ,hottentots grows in tufts1 like brushes1 as in the case of ,papuans4 ,both species also agree in the posterior part of the body1 in the female sex being specially inclined to form a great accumulation of fat 7,steatopygia74 ,but the skin of ,hottentots is much lighter1 of a yellowish brown colour4 ,their very flat face is remarkable for its small forehead and nose1 and large nostrils4 ,the mouth is very broad with big lips1 the chin small and pointed4 ,their speech is characterised by several quite peculiar guttural sounds4 ,the next neighbours and kinsmen of ,hottentots are ,kaffres 7,homo ,cafer74 ,this woolly-haired human species is1 however1 distinguished1 like the following one 7the genuine ,negro71 from ,hottentots and ,papuans by the woolly hair not being divided into tufts1 but covering the head as a thick fleece4 ,the colour of their skin varies through all shades1 from the yellowish black of the ,hottentot to the brown black or pure black of the genuine ,negro4 ,while in former times the race of ,kaffres was assigned to a very small area of distribution1 and was generally looked upon only as a variety of the genuine ,negro1 this species is now considered to include almost the whole of the inhabitants of equatorial ,africa1 from the #bjth degree south latitude to the #dth degree north2 consequently1 all ,south ,africans1 with the exception of the ,hottentots4 ,they include especially the inhabitants of the ,zulu1 ,zambesi1 and ,mozambique districts on the east coast1 the large human families of the ,beschuans or ,setschuans in the interior1 and the ,herrero and ,congo tribes of the west coast4 ,they too1 like the ,hottentots1 have immigrated from the north-east4 ,kaffres1 who were usually classed with ,negroes1 differ very essentially from them by the formation of their skull and by their speech4 ,their face is long and narrow1 their forehead high1 and their nose prominent and frequently curved1 their lips not so protruding1 and their chin pointed4 ,the many languages of the different tribes of ,kaffres can all be derived from an extinct primval language1 namely1 from the ,bantu language4 ,the genuine ,negro 7,homo ,niger7--when ,kaffres1 ,hottentots1 and ,nubians are separated from him--at present forms a much less comprehensive human species than was formerly supposed4 ,they now only include the ,tibus1 in the eastern parts of the ,sahara2 the ,sudan people1 or ,sudians1 who inhabit the south of that large desert2 also the inhabitants of the ,western ,coast of ,africa1 from the mouth of the ,senegal in the north1 to beyond the estuary of the ,niger in the south 7,senegambians and ,nigritians74 ,genuine ,negroes are accordingly confined between the equator and the ,tropic of ,capricorn1 and only a small portion of the ,tibu tribe in the east have gone beyond this boundary4 ,the ,negro species has spread within this zone1 coming from the east4 ,the colour of the skin of genuine negroes is always more or less of a pure black4 ,their skin is velvety to the touch1 and characterised by a peculiar offensive exhalation4 ,although ,negroes agree with ,kaffres in the formation of the woolly hair of the head1 yet they differ essentially in the formation of their face4 ,their forehead is flatter and lower1 their nose broad and thick1 not prominent1 their lips large and protruding1 and their chin very short4 ,genuine ,negroes are moreover distinguished by very thin calves and very long arms4 ,this species of men must have branched into many separate tribes at a very early period1 for their numerous and entirely distinct languages can in no way be traced to one primval language4 ,to the four woolly-haired species of men just discussed1 straight-haired men 7,homines ,lissotrichi7 stand in strong contrast1 as another main branch of the genus4 ,five of the eight species of the latter1 as we have seen1 can be comprised as stiff-haired 7,euthycomi7 and three as curly-haired 7,euplocomi74 ,we shall in the first place consider the former1 which includes the primval inhabitants of the greater part of ,asia and the whole of ,america4 ,the lowest stage of all straight-haired men1 and on the whole perhaps of all the still living human species1 is occupied by the ,australian1 or ,austral-negro 7,homo ,australis74 ,this species seems to be exclusively confined to the large island of ,australia2 it resembles the genuine ,african ,negro by its black or brownish black hair1 and the offensive smell of the skin1 by its very slanting teeth and long-headed form of skull1 the receding forehead1 broad nose1 protruding lips1 and also by the entire absence of calves4 ,on the other hand ,australians differ from genuine ,negroes as well as from their nearest neighbours the ,papuans1 by the much weaker and more delicate structure of their bones1 and more especially by the formation of the hair of their heads1 which is not woolly and frizzled1 but either quite lank or only slightly curled4 ,the very low stage of bodily and mental development of the ,australian is perhaps not altogether original1 but has arisen by degeneration1 that is1 by adaptation to the very unfavourable conditions of existence in ,australia4 ,they probably immigrated to their present home from the north or north-west1 as a very early offshoot of the ,euthycomi4 ,they are probably more closely related to the ,dravidas1 and hence to the ,euplocomi1 than the other ,euthycomi4 ,the very peculiar language of the ,australians is broken up into numerous small branches1 which are grouped into a northern and a southern class4 ,the ,malay 7,homo ,malayus71 the brown race of ethnographers1 although not a large species1 is important in regard to its genealogy4 ,an extinct south ,asiatic human species1 very closely related to the ,malays of the present day1 must probably be looked upon as the common primary form of this and the following higher human species4 ,we will call this hypothetical primary species1 ,primval ,malays1 or ,promalays4 ,the ,malays of the present day are divided into two widely dispersed races1 the ,sundanesians1 who inhabit ,malacca1 the ,sunda ,islands 7,sumatra1 ,java1 ,borneo1 etc47 and the ,philippine ,islands1 and the ,polynesians1 who are dispersed over the greater portion of the ,pacific ,archipelago4 ,the northern boundary of their wide tract of distribution is formed on the east by the ,sandwich ,islands 7,hawai71 and on the west by the ,marian ,islands 7,ladrones72 the southern boundary on the east is formed by the ,mangareva ,archipelago1 and on the west by ,new ,zealand4 ,the inhabitants of ,madagascar are an especial branch of ,sundanesians who have been driven to the far west4 ,this wide pelagic distribution of the ,malays is explained by their partiality for nautical life4 ,their primval home is the south-eastern portion of the ,asiatic continent1 from whence they spread to the east and south1 and drove the ,papuans before them4 ,the ,malays1 in the formation of body1 are nearest akin to the ,mongols1 but are also nearly allied to the curly-haired ,mediterranese4 ,they are generally short-headed1 more rarely medium-headed1 and very rarely long-headed4 ,their hair is black and stiff1 but frequently somewhat curled4 ,the colour of their skin is brown1 sometimes yellowish1 or of a cinnamon colour1 sometimes reddish or copper brown1 more rarely dark brown4 ,in regard to the formation of face1 ,malays in a great measure form an intermediate stage between the ,mongols and the ,mediterranese2 they can frequently not be distinguished from the latter4 ,their face is generally broad1 with prominent nose and thick lips1 the opening for their eyes not so narrowly cut and slanting as in ,mongols4 ,the near relationship between all ,malays and ,polynesians is proved by their language1 which indeed broke up at an early period into many small branches1 but still can always be traced to a common and quite peculiar primval language4 ,the ,mongol 7,homo ,mongolus7 is1 next to the ,mediterranese1 the richest in individuals4 ,among them are all the inhabitants of the ,asiatic ,continent1 excepting the ,hyperboreans in the north1 the few ,malays in the south-east 7,malacca71 the ,dravidas in ,western ,india1 and the ,mediterranese in the south-west4 ,in ,europe this species of men is represented by the ,fins and ,lapps in the north1 by the ,osmanlis in ,turkey1 and the ,magyars in ,hungary4 ,the colour of the ,mongol is always distinguished by a yellow tone1 sometimes a light pea green1 or even white1 sometimes a darker brownish yellow4 ,their hair is always stiff and black4 ,the form of their skull is1 in the great majority of cases1 decidedly short 7especially in ,kalmucks1 ,baschkirs1 etc47 but frequently of medium length 7,tartars1 ,chinese1 etc47 ,but among them we never meet with genuine long-headed men4 ,the narrow openings of their eyes1 which are generally slanting1 their prominent cheek bones1 broad noses1 and thick lips are very striking1 as well as the round form of their faces4 ,the language of the ,mongols is probably traceable to a common primval language2 but the monosyllabic languages of the ,indo-,chinese races1 and the polysyllabic languages of the other ,mongol races1 stand in contrast as two main branches which separated at an early time4 ,the monosyllabic tribes of the ,indo-,chinese include the ,tibetans1 ,birmans1 ,siamese1 and ,chinese4 ,the other polysyllabic ,mongols are divided into three races1 namely3 7#a7 the ,coreo-,japanese 7,coreans and ,japanese72 7#b7 the ,altaians 7,tartars1 ,kirgises1 ,kalmucks1 ,buriats1 ,tungusians72 and 7#c7 the ,uralians 7,samoiedes1 ,fins74 ,the ,magyars of ,hungary are descended from the ,fins4 ,the ,polar men 7,homo ,arcticus7 must be looked upon as a branch of the ,mongolian human species4 ,we comprise under this name the inhabitants of the ,arctic ,polar lands of both hemispheres1 the ,esquimaux 7and ,greenlanders7 in ,north ,america1 and the ,hyperboreans in north-eastern ,asia 7,jukagirs1 ,tschuksches1 ,kuriaks1 and ,kamtschads74 ,by adaptation to the ,polar climate1 this human race has become so peculiarly transformed that it may be considered as a distinct species4 ,their stature is low and of a square build2 the formation of their skull of medium size or even long2 their eyes narrow and slanting like the ,mongols2 their cheek-bones prominent1 and their mouth wide4 ,their hair is stiff and black2 the colour of their skin is of a light or dark brown tinge1 sometimes more inclined to white or to yellow1 like that of the ,mongols1 sometimes more to red1 like that of the ,americans4 ,the languages of ,polar men are as yet little known1 but they differ both from the ,mongolian and from the ,american4 ,polar men must probably be regarded as a remnant and a peculiarly adapted branch of that tribe of ,mongols which emigrated from north-eastern ,asia to ,north ,america1 and populated that part of the earth4 ,at the time of the discovery of ,america1 that part of the earth was peopled 7setting aside the ,esquimaux7 only by a single human species1 namely1 by the ,redskins1 or ,americans 7,homo ,americanus74 ,of all other human species they are most closely related to the two preceding4 ,the form of their skull is generally a medium one1 rarely short or long-headed4 ,their forehead broad and very low2 their nose large1 prominent1 and frequently aquiline2 their cheek-bones prominent2 their lips rather thin than thick4 ,the colour of their skin is characterised by a red fundamental tint1 which is1 however1 sometimes pure copper-red1 or light red1 sometimes a deeper reddish brown1 yellow brown or olive brown4 ,the numerous languages of the various ,american races and tribes are extremely different1 yet they agree in their original foundation4 ,probably ,america was first peopled from north-eastern ,asia by the same tribe of ,mongols from whom the ,polar men 7,hyperboreans and ,esquimaux7 have also branched4 ,this tribe first spread in ,north ,america1 and from thence migrated over the isthmus of ,central ,america down to ,south ,america1 at the extreme south of which the species degenerated very much by adaptation to the very unfavourable conditions of existence4 ,but it is also possible that ,mongols and ,polynesians immigrated from the west and mixed with the former tribe4 ,in any case the aborigines of ,america came over from the ,old ,world1 and did not1 as some suppose1 in any way originate out of ,american apes4 ,catarrhini1 or ,narrow-nosed ,apes1 never at any period existed in ,america4 ,the three human species still to be considered--the ,dravidas1 ,nubians1 and ,mediterranese--agree in several characteristics which seem to establish a close relationship between them1 and distinguish them from the preceding species4 ,the chief of these characteristics is the strong development of the beard1 which in all other species is either entirely wanting or but very scanty4 ,the hair of their heads is generally not so lank and smooth as in the five preceding species1 but in most cases more or less curly4 ,other characteristics also seem to favour our classing them in one main group of curly-haired men 7,euplocomi74 ,the ,dravida man 7,homo ,dravida7 seems to stand very near the common primary form of the ,euplocomi1 and perhaps of ,lissotrichi4 ,at present this primval species is only represented by the ,deccan tribes in the southern part of ,hindostan1 and by the neighbouring inhabitants of the mountains on the north-east of ,ceylon4 ,but in earlier times this race seems to have occupied the whole of ,hindostan1 and to have spread even further4 ,it shows1 on the one hand1 traits of relationship to the ,australians and ,malays2 on the other1 to the ,mongols and ,mediterranese4 ,their skin is either of a light or dark brown colour2 in some tribes1 of a yellowish brown1 in others1 almost black brown4 ,the hair of their heads1 as in ,mediterranese1 is more or less curled1 neither quite smooth1 like that of the ,euthycomi1 nor actually woolly1 like that of the ,ulotrichi4 ,the strong development of the beard is also like that of the ,mediterranese4 ,the oval form of face seems partly to be akin to that of the ,malays1 partly to that of the ,mediterranese4 ,their forehead is generally high1 their nose prominent and narrow1 their lips slightly protruding4 ,their language is now very much mixed with ,indo-,germanic elements1 but seems to have been originally derived from a very peculiar primval language4 ,the ,nubian 7,homo ,nuba7 has caused ethnographers no fewer difficulties than the ,dravida species4 ,by this name we understand not merely the real ,nubians 7,schangallas1 or ,dongolese71 but also their near kinsmen1 the ,fulas1 or ,fellatas4 ,the real ,nubians inhabit the countries of the ,upper ,nile 7,dongola1 ,schangalla1 ,barabra1 ,cordofan72 the ,fulas1 or ,fellatas1 on the other hand1 have thence migrated far westward1 and now inhabit a broad tract in the south of the western ,sahara1 hemmed in between the ,soudanians in the north and the ,nigritos in the south4 ,the ,nubian and ,fula races are generally either classed with negroes or with the ,hamitic races 7thus with ,mediterranese71 but are so essentially different from both that they must be regarded as a distinct species4 ,in former times they very probably occupied a large part of north-eastern ,africa4 ,the skin of the ,nubian and ,fula races is of a yellowish or reddish brown colour1 more rarely dark brown or approaching to black4 ,their hair is not woolly but curled1 frequently even quite smooth2 its colour is dark brown or black4 ,their beard is much more strongly developed than in negroes4 ,the oval formation of their faces approaches more to the ,mediterranean than to the ,negro type4 ,their forehead is high and broad1 their nose prominent and not flat1 their lips not so protruding as in the negro4 ,the language of the ,nubian races seems to possess no relationship to those of genuine negroes4 ,the ,caucasian1 or ,mediterranean man 7,homo ,mediterraneus71 has from time immemorial been placed at the head of all races of men1 as the most highly developed and perfect4 ,it is generally called the ,caucasian race1 but as among all the varieties of the species1 the ,caucasian branch is the least important1 we prefer the much more suitable appellation proposed by ,friedrich ,mller1 namely1 that of ,mediterranean1 or ,midland men4 ,for the most important varieties of this species1 which are moreover the most eminent actors in what is called 8,universal ,history10 first rose to a flourishing condition on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the former area of the distribution of this species is expressed by the name of 8,indo-,atlantic0 species1 whereas at present it is spread over the whole earth1 and is overcoming most of the other species in the struggle for existence4 ,in bodily as well as in mental qualities1 no other human species can equal the ,mediterranean4 ,this species alone 7with the exception of the ,mongolian7 has had an actual history2 it alone has attained to that degree of civilization which seems to raise man above the rest of nature4 ,the characteristics which distinguish the ,mediterranean from the other species of the race are well known4 ,the chief of the external features is the light colour of the skin1 which however exhibits all shades1 from pure white or reddish white1 through yellow or yellowish brown to dark brown or even black brown4 ,the growth of the hair is generally strong1 the hair of the head more or less curly1 the hair of the beard stronger than in any of the other species4 ,the form of the skull shows a great development in breadth2 medium heads predominate upon the whole1 but long and short heads are also widely distributed4 ,it is only in this one species of men that the body as a whole attains that symmetry in all parts1 and that equal development1 which we call the type of perfect human beauty4 ,the languages of all the races of this species can by no means be traced to a single common primval language2 we must at least assume four radically different primval languages4 ,in accordance with this we must also assume within this one species four different races1 which are only connected at their root4 ,two of these races1 the ,basques and ,caucasians1 now exist only as small remnants4 ,the ,basques1 which in earlier times peopled the whole of ,spain and the south of ,france1 now inhabit but a narrow tract of land on the northern coast of ,spain1 on the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,the remnant of the ,caucasian race 7the ,daghestans1 ,tschercassians1 ,mingrelians1 and ,georgians7 are now confined to the districts of ,mount ,caucasus4 ,the language of the ,caucasians as well as that of the ,basques is entirely peculiar1 and can be traced neither to the ,semitic nor to the ,indo-,germanic primval languages4 ,even the languages of the two principal races of the ,mediterranean species--the ,semitic and ,indo-,germanic--cannot be traced to a common origin1 and consequently these two races must have separated at a very early period4 ,semites and ,indo-,germani are descended from different ape-like men4 ,the ,semitic race likewise separated at a very early period into two diverging branches1 namely1 into the ,egyptian and ,arabic branches4 ,the ,egyptian1 or ,african branch1 the ,dyssemites--which sometimes under the name of ,hamites are entirely separated from the ,semites--embraces the large group of ,berbers1 who occupy the whole of north ,africa1 and in earlier times also peopled the ,canary ,islands1 and1 finally1 also the group of the ,ethiopians1 the ,bedsha1 ,galla1 ,danakil1 ,somali1 and other tribes which occupy all the north-eastern shores of ,africa as far as the equator4 ,the ,arabic1 or ,asiatic branch1 that is1 the ,eusemites1 also called ,semites in a narrow sense1 embrace the inhabitants of the large ,arabian peninsula1 the primval family of genuine ,arabians 78primval type of the ,semites071 and also the most highly developed ,semitic groups1 the ,jews1 or ,hebrews1 and the ,aramans--the ,syrians and ,chaldans4 ,a colony of the southern ,arabs 7the ,himjarites71 which crossed the ,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 has peopled ,abyssinia4 ,lastly1 the ,indo-,germanic race1 which has far surpassed all the other races of men in mental development1 separated at a very early period1 like the ,semitic1 into two diverging branches1 the ,ario-,romaic and the ,slavo-,germanic branches4 ,out of the former arose on the one hand the ,arians 7,indians and ,iranians71 on the other the ,grco-,roman 7,greeks and ,albanians1 ,italians and ,kelts74 ,out of the ,slavo-,germanic branch were developed on the one hand the ,slavonians 7,russian1 ,bulgarian1 ,tchec1 and ,baltic tribes71 on the other the ,germani 7,scandinavians and ,germans1 ,netherlanders and ,anglo-,saxons74 ,august ,schleicher has explained1 in a very clear genealogical form1 how the further ramifications of the ,indo-,germanic race may be accurately traced in detail on the basis of comparative philology47#f7 7,compare p4 #cca47 ,the total number of human individuals at present amounts to between #a1cjj and #a1djj millions4 ,in our ,tabular ,survey 7p4 #ccc7 #a1cej millions has been assumed as the mean number4 ,according to an approximate estimate1 as far as such a thing is possible1 #a1bjj millions of these are straight-haired men1 only about #aej millions woolly-haired4 ,the most highly developed species1 ,mongols and ,mediterranese1 far surpass all the other human species in numbers of individuals1 for each of them alone comprises about #eej millions4 7,compare ,friederich ,mller's ,ethnography1 p4 #cj47 ,of course the relative number of the twelve species fluctuates every year1 and that too according to the law developed by ,darwin1 that in the struggle for life the more highly developed1 the more favoured and larger groups of forms1 possess the positive inclination and the certain tendency to spread more and more at the expense of the lower1 more backward1 and smaller groups4 ,thus the ,mediterranean species1 and within it the ,indo-,germanic1 have by means of the higher development of their brain surpassed all the other races and species in the struggle for life1 and have already spread the net of their dominion over the whole globe4 ,it is only the ,mongolian species which can at all successfully1 at least in certain respects1 compete with the ,mediterranean4 ,within the tropical regions1 ,negroes1 ,kaffres1 and ,nubians1 as also the ,malays and ,dravidas1 are in some measure protected against the encroachments of the ,indo-,germanic tribes by their being better adapted for a hot climate2 the case of the arctic tribes of the polar regions is similar4 ,but the other races1 which as it is are very much diminished in number1 will sooner or later completely succumb in the struggle for existence to the superiority of the ,mediterranean races4 ,the ,american and ,australian tribes are even now fast approaching their complete extinction1 and the same may be said of the ,papuans and ,hottentots4 ,in now turning to the equally interesting and difficult question of the relative connection1 migration1 and primval home of the twelve species of men1 ,i must premise the remark that1 in the present state of our anthropological knowledge1 any answer to this question must be regarded only as a provisional hypothesis4 ,this is much the same as with any genealogical hypothesis which we may form of the origin of kindred animal and vegetable species1 on the basis of the 8,natural ,system40 ,but the necessary uncertainty of these special hypotheses of descent1 in no way shakes the absolute certainty of the general theory of descent4 ,man1 we may feel certain1 is descended from ,catarrhini1 or narrow-nosed apes1 whether we agree with the polyphylites1 and suppose each human species1 in its primval home1 to have originated out of a special kind of ape2 or whether1 agreeing with the monophylites1 we suppose that all the human species arose only by differentiation from a single species of primval man 7,homo primigenius74 ,for many and weighty reasons we hold the monophyletic hypothesis to be the more correct1 and we therefore assume a single primval home for mankind1 where he developed out of a long since extinct anthropoid species of ape4 ,of the five now existing continents1 neither ,australia1 nor ,america1 nor ,europe can have been this primval home1 or the so-called 8,paradise10 the 8cradle of the human race40 ,most circumstances indicate southern ,asia as the locality in question4 ,besides southern ,asia1 the only other of the now existing continents which might be viewed in this light is ,africa4 ,but there are a number of circumstances 7especially chorological facts7 which suggest that the primval home of man was a continent now sunk below the surface of the ,indian ,ocean1 which extended along the south of ,asia1 as it is at present 7and probably in direct connection with it71 towards the east1 as far as further ,india and the ,sunda ,islands2 towards the west1 as far as ,madagascar and the south-eastern shores of ,africa4 ,we have already mentioned that many facts in animal and vegetable geography render the former existence of such a south ,indian continent very probable4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cfa47 ,sclater has given this continent the name of ,lemuria1 from the ,semi-apes which were characteristic of it4 ,by assuming this ,lemuria to have been man's primval home1 we greatly facilitate the explanation of the geographical distribution of the human species by migration4 7,compare the ,table of ,migrations ,,xv41 and its explanation at the end47 ,we as yet know of no fossil remains of the hypothetical primval man 7,homo primigenius7 who developed out of anthropoid apes during the tertiary period1 either in ,lemuria or in southern ,asia1 or possibly in ,africa4 ,but considering the extraordinary resemblance between the lowest woolly-haired men1 and the highest man-like apes1 which still exist at the present day1 it requires but a slight stretch of the imagination to conceive an intermediate form connecting the two1 and to see in it an approximate likeness to the supposed primval men1 or ape-like men4 ,the form of their skull was probably very long1 with slanting teeth2 their hair woolly2 the colour of their skin dark1 of a brownish tint4 ,the hair covering the whole body was probably thicker than in any of the still living human species2 their arms comparatively longer and stronger2 their legs1 on the other hand1 knock-kneed1 shorter and thinner1 with entirely undeveloped calves2 their walk but half erect4 ,this ape-like man very probably did not as yet possess an actual human language1 that is1 an articulate language of ideas4 ,human speech1 as has already been remarked1 most likely originated after the divergence of the primval species of men into different species4 ,the number of primval languages is1 however1 considerably larger than the number of the species of men above discussed4 ,for philologists have hitherto not been able to trace the four primval languages of the ,mediterranean species1 namely1 the ,basque1 ,caucasian1 ,semitic1 and ,indo-,germanic to a single primval language4 ,as little can the different ,negro languages be derived from a common primval language2 hence both these species1 ,mediterranean and ,negro1 are certainly polyglottonic1 that is1 their respective languages originated after the divergence of the speechless primary species into several races had already taken place4 ,perhaps the ,mongols1 the ,arctic and ,american tribes1 are likewise polyglottonic4 ,the ,malayan species is1 however1 monoglottonic2 all the ,polynesian and ,sundanesian dialects and languages can be derived from a common1 long since extinct primval language1 which is not related to any other language on earth4 ,all the other human species1 ,nubians1 ,dravidas1 ,australians1 ,papuans1 ,hottentots1 and ,kaffres are likewise monoglottonic4 7,compare p4 #ccc47 ,out of speechless primval man1 whom we consider as the common primary species of all the others1 there developed in the first place--probably by natural selection--various species of men unknown to us1 and now long since extinct1 and who still remained at the stage of speechless ape-men 7,alalus1 or ,pithecanthropus74 ,two of these species1 a woolly-haired and a straight-haired1 which were most strongly divergent1 and consequently overpowered the others in the struggle for life1 became the primary forms of the other remaining human species4 ,the main branch of woolly-haired men 7,ulotrichi7 at first spread only over the southern hemisphere1 and then emigrated partly eastwards1 partly westwards4 ,remnants of the eastern branch are the ,papuans in ,new ,guinea and ,melanesia1 who in earlier times were diffused much further west 7in further ,india and ,sundanesia71 and it was not until a late period that they were driven eastwards by the ,malays4 ,the ,hottentots are the but little changed remnants of the western branch2 they immigrated to their present home from the north-east4 ,it was perhaps during this migration that the two nearly related species of ,caffres and ,negroes branched off from them2 but it may be that they owe their origin to a peculiar branch of ape-like men4 ,the second main branch of primval straight-haired men 7,lissotrichi71 which is more capable of development1 has probably left a but little changed remnant of its common primary form--which migrated to the south-east--in the ape-like natives of ,australia4 ,probably very closely related to these latter are the ,south ,asiatic primval ,malays1 or ,promalays1 which name we have previously given to the extinct1 hypothetical primary form of the other six human species4 ,out of this unknown common primary form there seem to have arisen three diverging branches1 namely1 the true ,malays1 the ,mongols1 and the ,euplocomi2 the first spread to the east1 the second to the north1 and the third westwards4 ,the primval home1 or the 8,centre of ,creation10 of the ,malays must be looked for in the south-eastern part of the ,asiatic continent1 or possibly in the more extensive continent which existed at the time when further ,india was directly connected with the ,sunda ,archipelago and eastern ,lemuria4 ,from thence the ,malays spread towards the south-east1 over the ,sunda ,archipelago as far as ,borneo1 then wandered1 driving the ,papuans before them1 eastwards towards the ,samoa and ,tonga ,islands1 and thence gradually diffused over the whole of the islands of the southern ,pacific1 to the ,sandwich ,islands in the north1 the ,mangareva in the east1 and ,new ,zealand in the south4 ,a single branch of the ,malayan tribe was driven far westwards and peopled ,madagascar4 ,the second main branch of primval ,malays1 that is1 the ,mongols1 at first also spread in ,southern ,asia1 and1 radiating to the east1 north1 and north-west1 gradually peopled the greater part of the ,asiatic continent4 ,of the four principal races of the ,mongol species1 the ,indo-,chinese must perhaps be looked upon as the primary group1 out of which at a later period the other ,coreo-,japanese and ,ural-,altaian races developed as diverging branches4 ,the ,mongols migrated in many ways from western ,asia into ,europe1 where the species is still represented in northern ,russia and ,scandinavia by the ,fins and ,lapps1 in ,hungary by the kindred ,magyars1 and in ,turkey by the ,osmanlis4 ,,pedigree ,,of ,,semites ,amharites ,moors ,jews ,tigrites ,samaritans 7,hebrews7 ,harrarites ,phnicians ,chaldeans -------v------_/ ,syrians ----v-----_/ ,abyssinians ,canaanites ,ekilians 7,palestinese7 ---v---_/ ,himiarites ,aramans ---v---_/ ,south ,north ----------v------------_/ ,arabians ,arabians ,primval ,jews ,north-,semites -------v-----------_/ ,arabians 7,south ,semites7 ---------------------------------------- v-----_/ ,guanchites ,eusemites 7,primval ,semites7 ,schuluhs ,algerians 7,semites in a narrow sense7 ,tunese ------------------------v---_/ ,tripolitans ---v---_/ ,moroccans ----v----_/ ,tuaric ,cabyles 7,imoscharh7 --------------v--------------_/ ,berbers 7,amazirh7 ,gallites ,somalites ------------v-------------_/ ---v---_/ ,bedschites ,libians ,babylonians ,eusemites ,egyptians ,primval 7,copts7 ,phnicians ,assyrians ----v-----_/ ,ethiopians ------------v----------_/ -------v------_/ ,ancient ,egyptians ,mesopotamians 7extinct7 ------------v-----------------_/ ,hamites 7,dyssemites7 ---------------v--------------_/ ,semites ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,pedigree ,,of ,,the ,,indo-,,germani ,ancient ,prussians ,anglo-,saxons ,high ,germans ,lithuanians ,low ,germans ,letts ,netherlanders -----v----_/ ----v---_/ ,ancient ,saxons -------v-_/ ,baltic ,races ------v----_/ ,sorbians1 or ,saxons ,friesians ,wends ,poles ----v----_/ ,czecs ,low ,germans --v-----------_/ ,scandinavians -----v------_/ ,west ,sclavonians ,goths ,germans ,russians ,south ,sclavonians ----v----------------------_/ ,primval ,germans ,ancient ,britons ---v---_/ ,ancient ,scots ,gauls ,south-eastern ,romans ,irish ,sclavonians --v-_/ --v-_/ ,brittanese ,latins ,gaels ----v----_/ ,sclavonians --v--_/ ----v-----_/ ,italians ,kelts ------v------_/ ,sclavo-,letts --------v---------_/ ,italo-,kelts --v-----------------_/ ,sclavo-,germans ,albanese ,greeks ----v-----_/ ,primval ,thracians ,indians ,iranians -------v-------_/ ,grco-,romans ---v--_/ ,arians -----v----------_/ ,ario-,romans -------v-------_/ ,indo-,germans ,on the other hand1 a branch of the ,mongols migrated from north-eastern ,asia to ,america1 which was probably in earlier times connected with the former continent by a broad isthmus4 ,the ,arctic tribes1 or ,polar men1 the ,hyperboreans of north-eastern ,asia1 and the ,esquimaux of the extreme north of ,america1 must probably be regarded as an offshoot of this branch1 which became peculiarly degenerated by unfavourable conditions of existence4 ,the principal portion of the ,mongolian immigrants1 however1 migrated to the south1 and gradually spread over the whole of ,america1 first over the north1 later over ,south ,america4 ,the third and most important main branch of primval ,malays1 the curly-haired races1 or ,euplocomi1 have probably left in the ,dravidas of ,hindostan and ,ceylon1 that species of man which differs least from the common primary form of the ,euplocomi4 ,the principal portion of the latter1 namely1 the ,mediterranean species1 migrated from their primval home 7,hindostan87 westwards1 and peopled the shores of the ,mediterranean1 south-western ,asia1 north ,africa1 and ,europe4 ,the ,nubians1 in the north-east of ,africa1 must perhaps be regarded as an offshoot of the primval ,semitic tribes1 who migrated far across central ,africa almost to the western shores4 ,the various branches of the ,indo-,germanic race have deviated furthest from the common primary form of ape-like men4 ,during classic antiquity and the middle ages1 the ,romanic branch 7the ,grco-,italo-,keltic group71 one of the two main branches of the ,indo-,germanic species1 outstripped all other branches in the career of civilization1 but at present the same position is occupied by the ,germanic4 ,its chief representatives are the ,english and ,germans1 who are in the present age laying the foundation for a new period of higher mental development1 in the recognition and completion of the theory of descent4 ,the recognition of the theory of development and the monistic philosophy based upon it1 forms the best criterion for the degree of man's mental development4 ,,systematic ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,twelve ,,human ,,species4 ,n4,b4--,column ,a denotes the ,average ,number of the ,population in millions4 ,column ,b shows the ,degree of the ,phyletic ,development of the ,species1 thus ,pr ,progressive ,diffusion2 ,co ,comparative ,stability2 ,re ,retrogression and ,extinction4 ,column ,c denotes the ,character of the ,primval ,language2 ,mn 7,monoglottonic7 signifies that the ,species had one ,simple ,primval ,language2 ,pl 7,polyglottonic7 a ,compound ,primval ,language4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,tribe4 ,human ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,home4 ,species4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,tuft-,,haired ,lophocomi #a4 ,,papuan #b ,re ,mn ,new ,guinea and ,melanesia1 ,philippine ,islands1 ,malacca 7about #b millions7 #b4 ,,hottentot #a_/bj ,re ,mn ,the extreme south of ,africa 7,the ,cape7 ,,fleecy-,,haired #c4 ,,kaffre #bj ,pr ,mn ,south ,africa 7between #cj ,s4 ,lat4 and #e ,n4 ,lat47 ,eriocomi #d4 ,,negro #acj ,pr ,pl ,central ,africa 7between the ,equator and #cj ,n4 ,lat47 7about #aej millions7 #e4 ,,australian #a_/ab ,re ,mn ,australia #f4 ,,malay #cj ,co ,mn ,malacca1 ,sundanesia1 ,polynesia1 and ,madagascar ,,straight-,,haired ,euthycomi #g4 ,,mongol #eej ,pr ,mn8 ,the greater part of ,asia and northern ,europe 7about #fjj millions7 #h4 ,,arctic #a_/be ,co ,pl8 ,the extreme north-east of ,,man ,asia and the extreme north of ,america #i4 ,,american #ab ,re ,mn8 ,the whole of ,america with the exception of the extreme north #aj4 ,,dravidas #cd ,co ,mn ,south ,asia 7,hindostan and ,ceylon7 #aa4 ,,nubian #aj ,co ,mn8 ,central ,africa 7,nubia and ,fula-land7 ,,curly-,,haired ,in all parts of the world1 having migrated from ,south ,euplocomi #ab4 ,,mediterranean #eej ,pr ,pl ,asia to ,north ,africa and ,south ,europe 7about #fjj millions7 ,in all parts of the world1 #ac4 ,,hybrids #aa ,pr ,pl but predominating in ,america ,,of ,,the and ,asia ,,species ---------------------------- ,,total #acej ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,objections ,,against1 ,,and ,,proofs ,,of ,,the ,,truth ,,of1 ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,descent4 ,objections to the ,doctrine of ,filiation4--,objections of ,faith and ,reason4--,immeasurable ,length of the ,geological ,periods4--,transition ,forms between ,kindred ,species4--,dependence of ,stability of ,form on ,inheritance1 and of the ,variability of ,form on ,adaptation4--,origin of very complicated ,arrangement of ,organisation4--,gradual ,development of ,instincts and ,mental ,activities4--,origin of a priori ,knowledge from ,knowledge a posteriori4--,the ,knowledge requisite for the ,correct ,understanding of the ,doctrine of ,filiation4--,necessary ,interaction between ,empiricism and ,philosophy4--,proofs of the ,theory of ,descent4--,inner ,causal ,connection between all the ,biological ,series of ,phenomena4--,the ,direct ,proof of the ,theory of ,selection4--,relation of the ,theory of ,descent to ,anthropology4--,proofs of the ,animal ,origin of ,man4--,the ,pithecoid ,theory as an ,inseparable ,part of the ,theory of ,descent4--,induction and ,deduction4--,gradual ,development of the ,human ,mind4--,body and ,mind4--,human ,soul and ,animal ,soul4--,a ,glance at the ,future4 ,if in these chapters ,i may hope to have made the ,theory of ,descent seem more or less probable1 and to have even convinced some of my readers of its unassailable truth1 yet ,i am by no means unconscious that1 to most of them1 during the perusal of my explanations1 a number of objections more or less well founded must have occurred4 ,hence it seems absolutely necessary at the conclusion of our examination to refute at least the most important of these1 and at the same time1 on the other hand1 once more to set forth the convincing arguments which bear testimony to the truth of the theory of development4 ,the objections which are raised to the doctrine of descent may be divided into two large groups3 objections of faith and objections of reason4 ,the objections of the first group originate in the infinitely varied forms of faith held by human individuals1 and need not here be taken into consideration at all4 ,for1 as ,i have already remarked at the beginning of this book1 science1 as an objective result of sensuous experience1 and of the striving of human reason after knowledge1 has nothing whatever to do with the subjective ideas of faith1 which are preached by a single man as the direct inspirations or revelations of the ,creator1 and then believed in by the dependent multitude4 ,this belief1 very different in different nations1 only begins1 as is well known1 where science ends4 ,natural ,science believes1 according to the maxim of ,frederick the ,great1 8that every one may go to heaven in his own fashion10 and only necessarily enters into conflict with particular forms of faith where they appear to set a limit to free inquiry and a goal to human knowledge1 beyond which we are not to venture4 ,now this is certainly the case here in the highest degree1 for the ,theory of ,development applies itself to the solution of the greatest of scientific problems--that of the creation1 the coming into existence of things2 more especially the origin of organic forms1 and of man at their head4 ,it is here certainly the right as well as the sacred duty of free inquiry1 to fear no human authority1 and courageously to raise the veil from the image of the ,creator1 unconcerned as to what natural truth may lie concealed beneath4 ,the only ,divine revelation which we recognise as true1 is written everywhere in nature1 and to every one with healthy senses and a healthy reason it is given to participate in the unerring revelation of this holy temple of nature1 by his own inquiry and independent discovery4 ,if we1 therefore1 here disregard all objections to the ,doctrine of ,descent which may be raised by the priests of the different religious faiths1 we must nevertheless endeavour to refute the most important of those objections which seem more or less founded on science1 and which we grant might1 at first sight1 to a certain extent captivate us and deter us from adopting the ,doctrine of ,descent4 ,many persons seem to think the length of the periods of time required the most important of these objections4 ,we are not accustomed to deal with such immense periods as are necessary for the history of the creation4 ,it has already been mentioned that the periods1 during which species originated by gradual transmutation1 must not be calculated by single centuries1 but by hundreds and by millions of centuries4 ,even the thickness of the stratified crust of the earth1 the consideration of the immense space of time which was requisite for its deposition from water1 taken together with the periods of elevation between the periods of depression1 indicate a duration of time of the organic history of the earth which the human intellect cannot realize4 ,we are here in much the same position as an astronomer in regard to infinite space4 ,in the same way as the distances between the different planetary systems are not calculated by miles but by ,sirius-distances1 each of which comprises millions of miles1 so the organic history of the earth must not be calculated by thousands of years1 but by palontological or geological periods1 each of which comprises many thousands of years1 and perhaps millions1 or even1 milliards1 of thousands of years4 ,it is of little importance how high the immeasurable length of these periods may be approximately estimated1 because we are in fact unable with our limited power of imagination to form a true conception of these periods1 and because we do not as in astronomy possess a secure mathematical basis for fixing the approximate length of duration in numbers4 ,but we most positively deny that we see any objection to the theory of development in the extreme length of these periods which are so completely beyond the power of our imagination4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 as ,i have already explained in one of the preceding chapters1 most advisable1 from a strictly philosophical point of view1 to conceive these periods of creation to be as long as possible1 and we are by so much the less in danger of losing ourselves in improbable hypotheses1 the longer we conceive the periods for organic processes of development to have been4 ,the longer1 for example1 we conceive the ,permian period to have been1 the easier it will be for us to understand how the important transmutations took place within it which so essentially distinguish the fauna and flora of the ,coal period from that of the ,trias4 ,the great disinclination which most persons have to assume such immeasurable periods1 arises mainly from the fact of our having in early youth been brought up in the notion that the whole earth is only some thousands of years old4 ,moreover1 human life1 which at most attains the length of a century1 is an extremely short space of time1 and is not suitable as a standard for the measurement of geological periods4 ,our life is a single drop in the ocean of eternity4 ,the reader may call to mind the duration of life of many trees which is more than fifty times as long2 for example1 the dragon-trees 7,dracna7 and monkey bread-fruit trees 7,adansonia71 whose individual life exceeds a period of five thousand years2 and1 on the other hand1 the shortness of the individual life of many of the lower animals1 for example1 the infusoria1 where the individual1 as such1 lives but a few days1 or even but a few hours1 contrasts no less strongly with human longevity4 ,this comparison brings the relative nature of all measurement of time very clearly before us4 ,if the theory of development be true at all1 there must certainly have elapsed immense periods1 utterly inconceivable to us1 during which the gradual historical development of the animal and vegetable kingdom proceeded by the slow transformation of species4 ,there is1 however1 not a single reason for accepting a definite limit for the length of these periods of development4 ,a second main objection which many1 and more especially systematic zoologists and botanists1 raise against the theory of descent1 is that no transition forms between the different species can be found1 although according to the theory of descent they ought to be found in great numbers4 ,this objection is partly well founded and partly not so1 for there does exist an extraordinarily large number of transition forms between living1 as well as between extinct species1 especially where we have an opportunity of seeing and comparing very numerous individuals of kindred species4 ,those careful investigators of individual species who so frequently raise this objection are the very persons whom we constantly find checked in their special series of investigations by the really insuperable difficulty of sharply distinguishing individual species4 ,in all systematic works1 which are in any degree thorough1 one meets with endless complaints1 that here and there species cannot be distinguished because of the excessive number of transition forms4 ,hence every naturalist defines the limit and the number of individual species differently4 ,some zoologists and botanists1 as ,i mentioned 7vol4 i4 p4 #bgf71 assume in one and the same group of organisms ten species1 others twenty1 others a hundred or more1 while other systematic naturalists again look upon these different forms only as varieties of a single 8good0 species4 ,in most groups of forms there is1 in fact1 a superabundance of transition forms and intermediate stages between the individual species4 ,it is true that in many species the forms of transition are actually wanting1 but this is easily explained by the principle of divergence or separation1 the importance of which ,i have already explained4 ,the circumstance that the struggle for existence is the more active between two kindred forms the closer they stand to each other1 must necessarily favour the speedy extinction of the connecting intermediate forms between the two divergent species4 ,if one and the same species produce diverging varieties in different directions1 which become new species1 the struggle between these new forms and the common primary form will be the keener the less they differ from one another2 but the stronger the divergence the less dangerous the struggle4 ,naturally therefore1 it is principally the connecting intermediate forms which will in most cases quietly die out1 while the most divergent forms remain and reproduce themselves as distinct 8new species40 ,in accordance with this1 we in fact no longer find forms of transition leading to those groups which are becoming extinct1 as1 for example1 among birds1 are the ostriches2 and among mammals1 the elephants1 giraffes1 ,semi-apes1 ,edentata1 and ,ornithorhyncus4 ,the groups of forms approaching their extinction no longer produce new varieties1 and naturally the species are what is called 8good10 that is1 the species are distinctly different from one another4 ,but in those animal groups where development and progress are still active1 where the existing species deviate into many new species by the formation of new varieties1 we find an abundance of transition forms which cause the greatest difficulties to systematic naturalists4 ,this is the case1 for example1 among birds with the finches2 among mammals with most of the rodents 7more especially with those of the mouse and rat kind71 with a number of the ruminants and with genuine apes1 more especially with the ,south ,american forms 7,cebus71 and many others4 ,the continual development of species by the formation of new varieties here produces a mass of intermediate forms which connect the so-called 8good0 species1 which efface their boundaries1 and render their sharp specific distinction completely illusory4 ,the reason that this nevertheless does not cause a complete confusion of forms1 nor a universal chaos in the structure of animals and vegetables1 lies simply in the fact that there is a continual counteraction at work between progressive adaptation on the one hand1 and the retentive power of inheritance on the other hand4 ,the degree of stability and variability manifested by every organic form is determined solely by the actual condition of the equilibrium between these two opposite functions4 ,inheritance is the cause of the stability of species1 adaptation the cause of their modification4 ,when therefore some naturalists say that1 according to the theory of descent1 there ought to be a much greater variety of forms1 and others again1 that there ought to be a much greater equality of forms1 the former under-estimate the value of inheritance and the latter the value of adaptation4 ,the ratio of the interaction between inheritance and adaptation determines the ratio of the stability and variability of organic species at any given period4 ,another objection to the theory of descent1 which1 in the opinion of many naturalists and philosophers is of great weight1 is that it ascribes the origin of organs which act for a definite purpose to causes which are either aimless or mechanical in their operation4 ,this objection seems to be especially important in regard to those organs which appear so excellently adapted for a certain definite purpose that the most ingenious mechanician could not invent a more perfect organ for the purpose4 ,such are1 above all1 the higher sense-organs of animals1 the eye and ear4 ,if the eyes and auditory apparatus of the higher animals alone were known to us1 they would indeed cause great and perhaps insurmountable difficulties4 ,how could we come to the conclusion that the extraordinarily great and wonderful degree of perfection and conformity to purpose which we perceive in the eyes and ears of higher animals1 is in every respect attained solely by natural selection8 ,fortunately1 however1 comparative anatomy and the history of development help us here over all obstacles2 for when in the animal kingdom we follow the gradual progress towards perfection of the eyes and ears1 step by step1 we find such a finely graduated series of improvement1 that we can clearly follow the development of the most complex organs through all the stages towards perfection4 ,thus1 for example1 the eye in the lowest animal is a simple spot of pigment which does not yet reflect any image of external objects1 but at most perceives and distinguishes the different rays of light4 ,later1 we find in addition to this a sensitive nerve2 then there gradually develops within the spot of pigment the first beginning of the lens1 a refractive body which is now able to concentrate the rays of light and to reflect a definite image4 ,but all the composite apparatus for the movement of the eye and its accommodation to variations of light and distance are still absent1 namely1 the various refractive media1 the highly differentiated membrane of the optic nerve1 etc41 which are so perfectly constructed in higher animals4 ,comparative anatomy shows us an uninterrupted succession of all possible stages of transition1 from the simplest organ to the most highly perfected apparatus1 so that we can form a pretty correct idea of the slow and gradual formation of even such an exceedingly complex organ4 ,the like gradual progress which we observe in the development of the organ during the course of individual development1 must have taken place in the historical 7phyletic7 origin of the organ4 ,many persons when contemplating these most perfect organs--which apparently were purposely invented and constructed by an ingenious ,creator for a definite function1 but which in reality have arisen by the aimless action of natural selection--experience difficulties in arriving at a rational understanding of them1 which are similar to those experienced by the uncivilized tribes of nature when contemplating the latest complicated productions of engineering4 ,savages who see a ship of the line1 or a locomotive engine for the first time1 look upon these objects as the productions of a supernatural being1 and cannot understand how a man1 an organism like themselves1 could have produced such an engine4 ,even the uneducated classes of our own race cannot comprehend such an intricate apparatus in its actual workings1 nor can they understand its purely mechanical nature4 ,most naturalists1 however1 as ,darwin very justly remarks1 stand in much the same position in regard to the forms of organisms as do savages to ships of the line and to locomotive engines4 ,a rational understanding of the purely mechanical origin of organic forms can only be acquired by a thorough and general training in ,biology1 and by a special knowledge of comparative anatomy and the history of development4 ,among the remaining objections to the ,theory of ,descent1 ,i shall here finally refer to and refute but one more1 as in the eyes of many unscientific men it seems to possess great weight4 ,how are we1 from the ,theory of ,descent1 to conceive of the origin of the mental faculties of animals1 and more especially their specific expressions--the so-called instincts8 ,this difficult subject has been so minutely discussed by ,darwin in a special chapter of his chief work 7the seventh71 that ,i must refer the reader to it4 ,we must regard instincts as essentially the habits of the soul acquired by adaptation1 and transmitted and fixed by inheritance through many generations4 ,instincts are1 therefore1 like all other habits1 which1 according to the laws of cumulative adaptation 7vol4 i4 p4 #bcc7 and established inheritance 7vol4 i4 p4 #baf71 lead to the origin of new functions1 and thus also to new forms of the organs4 ,here1 as everywhere1 the interaction between function and organ goes hand in hand4 ,just as the mental faculties of man have been acquired by the progressive adaptation of the brain1 and been fixed by continual transmission by inheritance1 so the instincts of animals1 which differ from them only in quantity1 not in quality1 have arisen by the gradual perfecting of their mental organ1 that is1 their central nervous system1 by the interaction of ,adaptation and ,inheritance4 ,instincts1 as is well known1 are inherited1 but experiences and1 consequently1 new adaptations of the animal mind1 are also transmitted by inheritance2 and the training of domestic animals to different mental activities1 which wild animals are incapable of accomplishing1 rests upon the possibility of mental adaptation4 ,we already know a series of examples1 in which such adaptations1 after they had been transmitted through a succession of generations1 finally appeared as innate instincts1 and yet they have only been acquired from the ancestors of the animals4 ,inheritance has here caused the result of training to become instinct4 ,the characteristic instincts of sporting dogs1 shepherd's dogs1 and other domestic animals1 and the natural instincts of wild animals1 which they possess at birth1 were in the first place acquired by their ancestors by adaptation4 ,they may in this respect be compared to man's 8knowledge a priori10 which1 like all other knowledge1 was originally acquired by our remote ancestors1 8a posteriori10 by sensuous experience4 ,as ,i have already remarked1 it is evident that 8knowledge a priori0 arose only by long-enduring transmission1 by inheritance of acquired adaptations of the brain1 out of originally empiric or experiential 8knowledge a posteriori0 7vol4 i4 p4 #ca74 ,the objections to the ,theory of ,descent here discussed and refuted are1 ,i believe1 the most important which have been raised against it2 ,i consider also that ,i have sufficiently proved to the reader their futility4 ,the numerous other objections which besides these have been raised against the ,theory of ,development in general1 or against its biological part1 the ,theory of ,descent in particular1 arise either from such a degree of ignorance of empirically established facts1 or from such a want of their right understanding1 and from such an incapacity to draw the necessary conclusions1 that it is really not worth the trouble to go further into the refutation4 ,there are only some general points in regard to which1 ,i should like1 in a few words1 to draw attention4 ,in the first place ,i must observe1 that in order thoroughly to understand the doctrine of descent1 and to be convinced of its absolute truth1 it is indispensable to possess a general knowledge of the whole of the domain of biological phenomena4 ,the theory of descent is a biological theory1 and hence it may with fairness and justice be demanded that those persons who wish to pass a valid judgment upon it should possess the requisite degree of biological knowledge4 ,their possessing a special empiric knowledge of this or that domain of zoology or botany1 is not sufficient2 they must possess a general insight into the whole series of phenomena1 at least in the case of one of the three organic kingdoms4 ,they ought to know what universal laws result from the comparative morphology and physiology of organisms1 but more especially from comparative anatomy1 from the individual and the palontological history of development1 etc42 and they ought to have some idea of the deep mechanical1 causal connection between all these series of phenomena4 ,it is self-evident that a certain degree of general culture1 and especially a philosophical education1 is requisite2 which is1 however1 unfortunately by many persons in our day1 not considered at all necessary4 ,without the necessary connection of empirical knowledge and the philosophical understanding of biological phenomena1 it is impossible to gain a thorough conviction of the truth of the ,theory of ,descent4 ,now ,i ask1 in the face of this first preliminary condition for a true understanding of the ,theory of ,descent1 what we are to think of the confused mass of persons who have presumed to pass a written or oral judgment upon it of an adverse character8 ,most of them are unscientific persons1 who either know nothing of the most important phenomena of ,biology1 or at least possess no idea of their deeper significance4 ,what should we say of an unscientific person who presumed to express an opinion on the cell-theory1 without ever having seen cells2 or of one who presumed to question the vertebral-theory1 without ever having studied comparative anatomy8 ,and yet one may meet with such ridiculous arrogance any day in the history of the biological ,theory of ,descent4 ,one hears thousands of unscientific and but half-educated persons pass a final judgment upon it1 although they know nothing either of botany or of zoology1 of comparative anatomy or the theory of tissues1 of palontology or embryology4 ,hence it happens1 as ,huxley well says1 that most of the writings published against ,darwin are not worth the paper upon which they are written4 ,we might add that there are many naturalists1 and even celebrated zoologists and botanists1 among the opponents of the ,theory of ,descent2 but these latter are mostly old stagers1 who have grown grey in quite opposite views1 and whom we cannot expect1 in the evening of their lives1 to submit to a reform in their conception of the universe1 which has become to them a fixed idea4 ,it is1 moreover1 expressly to be remarked1 that not only a general insight into the whole domain of biological phenomena1 but also a philosophical understanding of it1 are the necessary preliminary conditions for becoming convinced of and adopting the ,theory of ,descent4 ,now we shall find that these indispensable preliminary conditions are1 unfortunately1 by no means fulfilled by the majority of naturalists of the present day4 ,the immense amount of empirical facts with which the gigantic advances of modern natural science have recently made us acquainted has led to a prevailing inclination for the special study of single phenomena and of small and narrow domains4 ,this causes the knowledge of other paths1 and especially of ,nature as a great comprehensive whole1 to be in most cases completely neglected4 ,every one with sound eyes and a microscope1 together with industry and patience for study1 can in our day attain a certain degree of celebrity by microscopic 8discoveries10 without1 however1 deserving the name of a naturalist4 ,this name is deserved only by him who not merely strives to know the individual phenomena1 but who also seeks to discover their causal connection4 ,even in our own day1 most palontologists examine and describe fossils without knowing the most important facts of embryology4 ,embryologists1 on the other hand1 follow the history of development of a particular organic individual1 without having an idea of the palontological history of the whole tribe1 of which fossils are the records4 ,and yet these two branches of the organic history of development--ontogeny1 or the history of the individual1 and phylogeny1 or the history of the tribe--stand in the closest causal connection1 and the one cannot be understood without the other4 ,the same may be said of the systematic and the anatomical part of ,biology4 ,there are even now1 in zoology and botany1 many systematic naturalists who work with the erroneous idea that it is possible to construct a natural system of animals and plants simply by a careful examination of the external and readily accessible forms of bodies1 without a deeper knowledge of their internal structure4 ,on the other hand1 there are anatomists and histologists who think it possible to obtain a true knowledge of animal and vegetable bodies merely by a most careful examination of the inner structure of the body of some individual species1 without the comparative examination of the bodily form of all kindred organisms4 ,and yet here1 as everywhere1 the internal and external factors1 to wit1 ,inheritance and ,adaptation1 stand in the closest mutual relation1 and the individual can never be thoroughly understood without a comparison of it with the whole of which it is a part4 ,to those one-sided specialists we should like in ,goethe's words to say3-- ,we must1 contemplating ,nature1 ,part as ,whole1 give equal heed to3 ,nought is inward1 nought is outward1 ,for the inner is the outer4#f ,and again3-- ,nature has neither kernel nor shell1 ,it is she that is ,all and ,all at once4#g ,what is even more detrimental to the general understanding of nature as a whole than this one-sided tendency1 is the want of a philosophical culture1 and this applies to most of the naturalists of the present day4 ,the various errors of the earlier speculative nature-philosophy made during the first thirty years of our century1 have brought the whole of philosophy into such bad repute with the exact empirical naturalists1 that they live in the strange delusion that it is possible to erect the edifice of natural science out of mere facts1 without their philosophic connection2 in short1 out of mere knowledge1 without the understanding of it4 ,but as a purely speculative and absolutely philosophical system1 which does not concern itself with the indispensable foundation of empirical facts1 becomes a castle in the air1 which the first real experiment throws to the winds2 so1 on the other hand1 a purely empirical system1 constructed of nothing but facts1 remains a disorderly heap of stones1 which will never deserve the name of an edifice4 ,bare facts established by experience are nothing but rude stones1 and without their thoughtful valuation1 without their philosophic connection1 no science can be established4 ,as ,i have already tried to impress upon my reader1 the strong edifice of true monistic science1 or what is the same thing1 the ,science of ,nature1 exists only by the closest interaction1 and the reciprocal penetration of philosophy and empirical knowledge4 ,this lamentable estrangement between science and philosophy1 and the rude empiricism which is now-a-days unfortunately praised by most naturalists as 8exact science10 have given rise to those strange freaks of the understanding1 to those gross insults against elementary logic1 and to that incapacity for forming the simplest conclusions which one may meet with any day in all branches of science1 but especially in zoology and botany4 ,it is here that the neglect of a philosophical culture and training of the mind1 directly avenges itself most painfully4 ,it is not to be wondered at that the deep inner truth of the ,theory of ,descent remains a sealed book to those rude empiricists4 ,as the common proverb justly says3 they cannot see the wood for the trees4 ,it is only by a more general philosophical study1 and especially by a more strictly logical training of the mind1 that this sad state of things can be remedied4 7,compare ,gen4 ,morph4 i4 #fc2 ii4 p4 #ddg47 ,if we rightly consider this circumstance1 and if we further reflect upon it in connection with the empirical foundation of the philosophical theory of development1 we shall at once see how we are placed respecting the oft-demanded proofs of the theory of descent4 ,the more the doctrine of filiation has of late years made way for itself1 and the more all thoughtful1 younger naturalists1 and all truly biologically-educated philosophers have become convinced of its inner truth and absolute necessity1 the louder have its opponents called for actual proofs4 ,the same persons who1 shortly after the publication of ,darwin's work1 declared it to be 8a groundless1 fantastic system10 an 8arbitrary speculation10 an 8ingenious dream10 now kindly condescend to declare that the theory of descent certainly is a scientific 8hypothesis10 but that it still requires to be 8proved40 ,when these remarks are made by persons who do not possess the requisite empirico-philosophical culture1 nor the necessary knowledge in comparative anatomy1 embryology1 and palontology1 we cannot be much offended1 and we refer them to the study of those sciences4 ,but when similar remarks are made by acknowledged specialists1 by teachers of zoology and botany1 who certainly ought to possess a general insight into the whole domain of their science1 or who are actually familiar with the facts of those scientific domains1 then we are really at a loss what to say4 ,those who are not satisfied with the treasures of our present empirical knowledge of nature as a basis on which to establish the ,theory of ,descent1 will not be convinced by any other facts which may hereafter be discovered2 for we can conceive no circumstances which would furnish stronger or a more complete testimony to the truth of the doctrine of filiation than is even now seen1 for example1 in the well-known facts of comparative anatomy and ontogeny4 ,i must here again direct attention to the fact1 that all the great and general laws1 and all the comprehensive series of phenomena of the most different domains of biology can only be explained and understood by the ,theory of ,development 7and especially by its biological part1 the ,theory of ,descent71 and that without it they remain completely inexplicable and incomprehensible4 ,the internal causal connection between them all proves the ,theory of ,descent to be the greatest inductive law of ,biology4 ,before concluding1 ,i will once more name all those series of inductions1 all those general laws of ,biology1 upon which this comprehensive law of development is firmly based4 7#a47 ,the palontological history of the development of organisms1 the gradual appearance and the historical succession of the different species and groups of species1 the empirical laws of the palontological change of species1 as furnished to us by the science of fossils1 and more especially the progressive differentiation and perfecting of animal and vegetable groups in the successive periods of the earth's history4 7#b47 ,the individual history of development of organisms1 embryology and metamorphology1 the gradual changes in the slow development of the body and its particular organs1 especially the progressive differentiation and perfecting of the organs and parts of the body in the successive periods of the individual development4 7#c47 ,the inner causal connection between ontogeny and phylogeny1 the parallelism between the individual history of the development of organisms1 and the palontological history of the development of their ancestors1 a connection which is actually established by the laws of ,inheritance and ,adaptation1 and which may be summed up in the words3 ontogeny1 according to the laws of inheritance and adaptation1 repeats in its large features the outlines of phylogeny4 7#d47 ,the comparative anatomy of organisms1 the proof of the essential agreement of the inner structure of kindred organisms1 in spite even of the greatest difference of external form in the various species2 their explanation by the causal dependence of the internal agreement of the structure on ,inheritance1 the external dissimilarity of the bodily form on ,adaptation4 7#e47 ,the inner causal connection between comparative anatomy and the history of development1 the harmonious agreement between the laws of the gradual development1 the progressive differentiation and perfecting1 as they may be seen in comparative anatomy on the one hand1 in ontogeny and palontology on the other4 7#f47 ,dysteleology1 or the theory of purposelessness1 the name ,i have given to the science of rudimentary organs1 of suppressed and degenerated1 aimless and inactive1 parts of the body2 one of the most important and most interesting branches of comparative anatomy1 which1 when rightly estimated1 is alone sufficient to refute the fundamental error of the teleological and dualistic conception of ,nature1 and to serve as the foundation of the mechanical and monistic conception of the universe4 7#g47 ,the natural system of organisms1 the natural grouping of all the different forms of ,animals1 ,plants1 and ,protista into numerous smaller or larger groups1 arranged beside and above one another2 the kindred connection of species1 genera1 families1 orders1 classes1 tribes1 etc41 more especially1 however1 the arboriform branching character of the natural system1 which is the spontaneous result of a natural arrangement and classification of all these graduated groups or categories4 ,the result attained in attempting to exhibit the relationships of the mere forms of organisms by a tabular classification is only explicable when regarded as the expression of their actual blood relationship2 the tree shape of the natural system can only be understood as the actual pedigree of the organisms4 7#h47 ,the chorology of organisms1 the science of the local distribution of organic species1 of their geographical and topographical dispersion over the surface of the earth1 over the heights of mountains and in the depths of the ocean1 but especially the important phenomenon that every species of organism proceeds from a so-called 8centre of creation0 7more correctly a 8primval home0 or 8centre of distribution072 that is1 from a single locality1 where it originated but once1 and whence it spread4 7#i47 ,the cology of organisms1 the knowledge of the sum of the relations of organisms to the surrounding outer world1 to organic and inorganic conditions of existence2 the so-called 8economy of nature10 the correlations between all organisms living together in one and the same locality1 their adaptation to their surroundings1 their modification in the struggle for existence1 especially the circumstances of parasitism1 etc4 ,it is just these phenomena in 8the economy of nature0 which the unscientific1 on a superficial consideration1 are wont to regard as the wise arrangements of a ,creator acting for a definite purpose1 but which on a more attentive examination show themselves to be the necessary results of mechanical causes4 7#aj47 ,the unity of ,biology as a whole1 the deep inner connection existing between all the phenomena named and all the other phenomena belonging to zoology1 protistics1 and botany1 and which are simply and naturally explained by a single common principle4 ,this principle can be no other than the common derivation of all the specifically different organisms from a single1 or from several absolutely simple1 primary forms like the ,monera1 which possess no organs4 ,the ,theory of ,descent1 by assuming this common derivation1 throws a clear light upon these individual series of phenomena1 as well as upon their totality1 without which their deeper causal connection would remain completely incomprehensible to us4 ,the opponents of the ,theory of ,descent can in no way explain any single one of these series of phenomena or their deeper connection with one another4 ,so long as they are unable to do this1 the ,theory of ,descent remains the one adequate biological theory4 ,we should1 on account of the grand proofs just enumerated1 have to adopt ,lamarck's ,theory of ,descent for the explanation of biological phenomena1 even if we did not possess ,darwin's ,theory of ,selection4 ,the one is so completely and directly proved by the other1 and established by mechanical causes1 that there remains nothing to be desired4 ,the laws of ,inheritance and ,adaptation are universally acknowledged physiological facts1 the former traceable to propagation1 the latter to the nutrition of organisms4 ,on the other hand1 the struggle for existence is a biological fact1 which with mathematical necessity follows from the general disproportion between the average number of organic individuals and the numerical excess of their germs4 ,but as ,adaptation and ,inheritance in the struggle for life are in continual interaction1 it inevitably follows that natural selection1 which everywhere influences and continually changes organic species1 must1 by making use of divergence of character1 produce new species4 ,its influence is further especially favoured by the active and passive migrations of organisms1 which go on everywhere4 ,if we give these circumstances due consideration1 the continual and gradual modification or transmutation of organic species will appear as a biological process1 which must1 according to causal law1 of necessity follow from the actual nature of organisms and their mutual correlations4 ,that even the origin of man must be explained by this general organic process of transmutation1 and that it is simply as well as naturally explained by it1 has1 ,i believe1 been sufficiently proved in my last chapter but one4 ,i cannot1 however1 avoid here once more directing attention to the inseparable connection between this so-called 8theory of apes10 or 8pithecoid theory10 and the whole ,theory of ,descent4 ,if the latter is the greatest inductive law of biology1 then it of necessity follows that the former is its most important deductive law4 ,they stand and fall together4 ,as all depends upon a right understanding of this proposition1 which in my opinion is very important1 and which ,i have therefore several times brought before the reader1 ,i may be allowed to explain it here by an example4 ,in all mammals known to us the centre of the nervous system is the spinal marrow and the brain1 and the centre of the vascular system is a quadrupal heart1 consisting of two principal chambers and two ante-chambers4 ,from this we draw the general inductive conclusion that all mammals1 without exception1 those extinct1 together with all those living species as yet unknown to us1 as well as the species which we have examined1 possess a like organization1 a like heart1 brain1 and spinal marrow4 ,now if1 as still happens every year1 there be discovered in any part of the earth a new species of mammal1 a new species of marsupial1 or a new species of deer1 or a new species of ape1 every zoologist knows with certainty at once1 without having examined its inner structure1 that this species must possess a quadruple heart1 a brain and spinal marrow1 like all other mammals4 ,not a single naturalist would ever think of supposing that the central nervous system of this new species of mammal could possibly consist of a ventral cord with an sophageal collar as in the insects1 or of scattered pairs of knots as in the molluscs1 or that its heart could be many-chambered as in flies1 or one-chambered as in the tunicates4 ,this completely certain and safe conclusion1 although it is not based upon any direct experience1 is a deductive conclusion4 ,in the same way1 as ,i have shown in a previous chapter1 ,goethe1 from the comparative anatomy of mammals1 established the general inductive conclusion that they all possess a mid jawbone1 and afterwards drew from it the special deductive conclusion that man1 who in all other respects does not essentially differ from other mammals1 must also possess a like mid jawbone4 ,he maintained this conclusion without having actually seen the human mid jawbone1 and only proved its existence subsequently by actual observation 7vol4 i4 p4 #hd74 ,the process of induction is a logical system of forming conclusions from the special to the general1 by which we advance from many individual experiences to a general law2 deduction1 on the other hand1 draws a conclusion from the general to the special1 from a general law of nature to an individual case4 ,thus the ,theory of ,descent is1 without doubt1 a great inductive law1 empirically based upon all the biological experience cited above2 the pithecoid theory1 on the other hand1 which asserts that man has developed out of lower1 and in the first place out of ape-like mammals1 is a deductive law inseparably connected with the general inductive law4 ,the pedigree of the human race1 the approximate outlines of which ,i gave in the last chapter but one1 of course remains in detail 7like all the pedigrees of animals and plants previously discussed7 a more or less approximate general hypothesis4 ,this however does not affect the application of the theory of descent to man4 ,here1 as in all investigations on the derivation of organisms1 one must clearly distinguish between the general theory of descent and the special hypotheses of descent4 ,the general theory of descent claims full and lasting value1 because it is an inductive law1 based upon all the whole series of biological phenomena and their inner causal connection4 ,every special hypothesis of descent1 on the other hand1 has its special value determined by the existing condition of our biological knowledge1 and by the extent of the objective empirical basis upon which we deductively establish this particular hypothesis4 ,hence1 all the individual attempts to obtain a knowledge of the pedigree of any one group of organisms possesses but a temporary and conditional value1 and any special hypothesis relating to it will become the more and more perfect the greater the advance we make in the comparative anatomy1 ontogeny1 and palontology of the group in question4 ,the more1 however1 we enter into genealogical details1 and the further we trace the separate off-shoots and branches of the pedigree1 the more uncertain and subjective becomes our special hypothesis of descent on account of the incompleteness of our empirical basis4 ,this however does no injury to the general theory of descent1 which remains as the indispensable foundation for really profound apprehension of biological phenomena4 ,accordingly1 there can be no doubt that we can and must1 with full assurance1 regard the derivation of man--in the first place1 from ape-like forms2 farther back1 from lower mammals1 and thus continually farther back to lower stages of the vertebrata down to their lowest invertebrate roots1 nay1 even down to a simple plastid--as a general theory4 ,on the other hand1 the special tracing of the human pedigree1 the closer definition of the animal forms known to us1 which either actually belong to the ancestors of man1 or at least stand in very close blood relationship to them1 will always remain a more or less approximate hypothesis of descent1 all the more in danger of deviating from the real pedigree the nearer it endeavours to approach it by searching for the individual ancestral forms4 ,this state of things results from the immense gaps in our palontological knowledge1 which can1 under no circumstances1 ever attain to even an approximate completeness4 ,a thoughtful consideration of this important circumstance at once furnishes the answer to a question which is commonly raised in discussing this subject1 namely1 the question of scientific proofs for the animal origin of the human race4 ,not only the opponents of the ,theory of ,descent1 but even many of its adherents who are wanting in the requisite philosophical culture1 look too much for 8signs0 and for special empirical advances in the science of nature4 ,they await the sudden discovery of a human race with tails1 or of a talking species of ape1 or of other living or fossil transition forms between man and the ape1 which shall fill the already narrow chasm between the two1 and thus empirically 8prove0 the derivation of man from apes4 ,such special manifestations1 were they ever so convincing and conclusive1 would not furnish the proof desired4 ,unthinking persons1 or those unacquainted with the series of biological phenomena1 would still be able to maintain the objections to those special testimonies which they now maintain against our theory4 ,the absolute certainty of the ,theory of ,descent1 even in its application to man1 is built on a more solid foundation2 and its true inner value can never be tested simply by reference to individual experience1 but only by a philosophical comparison and estimation of the treasures of all our biological experiences4 ,the inestimable importance of the ,theory of ,descent is surely based upon this1 that the theory follows of necessity 7as a general inductive law7 from the comparative synthesis of all organic phenomena of nature1 and more especially from the triple parallelism of comparative anatomy1 of ontogeny1 and phylogeny2 and the pithecoid theory under all circumstances 7apart from all special proofs7 remains as a special deductive conclusion which must of necessity be drawn from the general inductive law of the ,theory of ,descent4 ,in my opinion1 all depends upon a right understanding of this philosophical foundation of the ,theory of ,descent and of the pithecoid theory which is inseparable from it4 ,many persons will probably admit this1 and yet at the same time maintain that all this applies only to the bodily1 not to the mental development of man4 ,now1 as we have hitherto been occupied only with the former1 it is perhaps necessary here to cast a glance at the latter1 in order to show that it is also subject to the great general law of development4 ,in doing this it is above all necessary to recollect that body and mind can in fact never be considered as distinct1 but rather that both sides of nature are inseparably connected1 and stand in the closest interaction4 ,as even ,goethe has clearly expressed it--8matter can never exist and act without mind1 and mind never without matter40 ,the artificial discord between mind and body1 between force and matter1 which was maintained by the erroneous dualistic and teleological philosophy of past times has been disposed of by the advances of natural science1 and especially by the theory of development1 and can no longer exist in face of the prevailing mechanical and monistic philosophy of our day4 ,how human nature1 and its position in regard to the rest of the universe1 is to be conceived of according to the modern view1 has been minutely discussed by ,radenhausen in his 8,isis107#cc7 which is excellent and well worth perusal4 ,with regard to the origin of the human mind or the soul of man1 we1 in the first place1 perceive that in every human individual it develops from the beginning1 step by step and gradually1 just like the body4 ,in a newly born child we see that it possesses neither an independent consciousness1 nor in fact clear ideas4 ,these arise only gradually when1 by means of sensuous experience1 the phenomena of the outer world affect the central nervous system4 ,but still the little child is wanting in all those differentiated emotions of the soul which the full-grown man acquires only by the long experience of years4 ,from this graduated development of the human soul in every single individual we can1 in accordance with the inner causal connection between ontogeny and phylogeny1 directly infer the gradual development of the human soul in all mankind1 and further1 in the whole of the vertebrate tribe4 ,in its inseparable connection with the body1 the human soul or mind has also had to pass through all those gradual stages of development1 all those various degrees of differentiation and perfecting1 of which the hypothetical series of human ancestors sketched in a late chapter gives an approximate representation4 ,it is true that this conception generally greatly offends most persons on their first becoming acquainted with the ,theory of ,development1 because more than all others it most strongly contradicts the traditional and mythological ideas1 and the prejudices which have been held sacred for thousands of years4 ,but like all other functions of organisms1 the human soul must necessarily have historically developed1 and the comparative or empirical study of animal psychology clearly shows that this development can only be conceived of as a gradual evolution from the soul of vertebrate animals1 as a gradual differentiation and perfecting which1 in the course of many thousands of years1 has led to the glorious triumph of the human mind over its lower animal ancestral stages4 ,here1 as everywhere1 the only way to arrive at a knowledge of natural truth is to compare kindred phenomena1 and investigate their development4 ,hence we must above all1 as we did in the examination of the bodily development1 compare the highest animal phenomena on the one hand with the lowest animal phenomena1 and on the other with the lowest human phenomena4 ,the final result of this comparison is this--that between the most highly developed animal souls1 and the lowest developed human souls1 there exists only a small quantitative1 but no qualitative difference1 and that this difference is much less than the difference between the lowest and the highest human souls1 or than the difference between the highest and the lowest animal souls4 ,in order to be convinced of this important result1 it is above all things necessary to study and compare the mental life of wild savages and of children47#cb7 ,at the lowest stage of human mental development are the ,australians1 some tribes of the ,polynesians1 and the ,bushmen1 ,hottentots1 and some of the ,negro tribes4 ,language1 the chief characteristic of genuine men1 has with them remained at the lowest stage of development1 and hence also their formation of ideas has remained at a low stage4 ,many of these wild tribes have not even a name for animal1 plant1 colour1 and such most simple ideas1 whereas they have a word for every single1 striking form of animal and plant1 and for every single sound or colour4 ,thus even the most simple abstractions are wanting4 ,in many of these languages there are numerals only for one1 two1 and three3 no ,australian language counts beyond four4 ,very many wild tribes can count no further than ten or twenty1 whereas some very clever dogs have been made to count up to forty and even beyond sixty4 ,and yet the faculty of appreciating number is the beginning of mathematics6 ,nothing1 however1 is perhaps more remarkable in this respect1 than that some of the wildest tribes in southern ,asia and eastern ,africa have no trace whatever of the first foundations of all human civilization1 of family life1 and marriage4 ,they live together in herds1 like apes1 generally climbing on trees and eating fruits2 they do not know of fire1 and use stones and clubs as weapons1 just like the higher apes4 ,all attempts to introduce civilization among these1 and many of the other tribes of the lowest human species1 have hitherto been of no avail2 it is impossible to implant human culture where the requisite soil1 namely1 the perfecting of the brain1 is wanting4 ,not one of these tribes has ever been ennobled by civilization2 it rather accelerates their extinction4 ,they have barely risen above the lowest stage of transition from man-like apes to ape-like men1 a stage which the progenitors of the higher human species had already passed through thousands of years ago47#dd7 ,now consider1 on the other hand1 the highest stages of development of mental life in the higher vertebrate animals1 especially birds and mammals4 ,if1 as is usually done1 we divide the different emotions of the soul into three principal groups--sensation1 will1 and thought--we shall find in regard to every one of them1 that the most highly developed birds and mammals are on a level with the lowest human beings1 or even decidedly surpass them4 ,the will is as distinctly and strongly developed in higher animals as in men of character4 ,in both cases it is never actually free1 but always determined by a causal chain of ideas4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #bcg47 ,in like manner1 the different degrees of will1 energy1 and passion are as variously graduated in higher animals as in man4 ,the affections of the higher animals are not less tender and warm than those of man4 ,the fidelity and devotion of the dog1 the maternal love of the lioness1 the conjugal love and connubial fidelity of doves and love-birds are proverbial1 and might serve as examples to many men4 ,if these virtues are to be called 8instincts10 then they deserve the same name in mankind4 ,lastly1 with regard to thought1 the comparative consideration of which doubtless presents the most difficulties1 this much may with certainty be inferred--especially from an examination of the comparative psychology of cultivated domestic animals--that the processes of thinking1 here follow the same laws as in ourselves4 ,experiences everywhere form the foundation of conceptions1 and lead to the recognition of the connection between cause and effect4 ,in all cases1 as in man1 it is the path of induction and deduction which leads to the formation of conclusions4 ,it is evident that in all these respects the most highly developed animals stand much nearer to man than to the lower animals1 although they are also connected with the latter by a chain of gradual and intermediate stages4 ,in ,wundt's excellent 8,lectures on the ,human and ,animal ,soul107#df7 there are a number of proofs of this4 ,now1 if instituting comparisons in both directions1 we place the lowest and most ape-like men 7the ,austral ,negroes1 ,bushmen1 and ,andamans1 etc471 on the one hand1 together with the most highly developed animals1 for instance1 with apes1 dogs1 and elephants1 and on the other hand1 with the most highly developed men--,aristotle1 ,newton1 ,spinoza1 ,kant1 ,lamarck1 or ,goethe--we can then no longer consider the assertion1 that the mental life of the higher mammals has gradually developed up to that of man1 as in any way exaggerated4 ,if one must draw a sharp boundary between them1 it has to be drawn between the most highly developed and civilized man on the one hand1 and the rudest savages on the other1 and the latter have to be classed with the animals4 ,this is1 in fact1 the opinion of many travellers1 who have long watched the lowest human races in their native countries4 ,thus1 for example1 a great ,english traveller1 who lived for a considerable time on the west coast of ,africa1 says3 8,i consider the negro to be a lower species of man1 and cannot make up my mind to look upon him as #8a man and a brother1' for the gorilla would then also have to be admitted into the family40 ,even many ,christian missionaries1 who1 after long years of fruitless endeavours to civilize these lowest races1 have abandoned the attempt1 express the same harsh judgment1 and maintain that it would be easier to train the most intelligent domestic animals to a moral and civilized life1 than these unreasoning brute-like men4 ,for instance1 the able ,austrian missionary ,morlang1 who tried for many years without the slightest success to civilize the ape-like negro tribes on the ,upper ,nile1 expressly says3 8that any mission to such savages is absolutely useless4 ,they stand far below unreasoning animals2 the latter at least show signs of affection towards those who are kind towards them1 whereas these brutal natives are utterly incapable of any feeling of gratitude40 ,now1 it clearly follows from these and other testimonies1 that the mental differences between the lowest men and the animals are less than those between the lowest and the highest men2 and if1 together with this1 we take into consideration the fact that in every single human child mental life develops slowly1 gradually1 and step by step1 from the lowest condition of animal unconsciousness1 need we still feel offended when told that the mind of the whole human race has in like manner gone through a process of slow1 gradual1 and historical development8 ,can we find it 8degrading0 to the human soul that1 by a long and slow process of differentiation and perfecting1 it has very gradually developed out of the soul of vertebrate animals8 ,i freely acknowledge that this objection1 which is at present raised by many against the pithecoid theory1 is quite incomprehensible to me4 ,on this point ,bernhard ,cotta1 in his excellent 8,geologie der ,gegenwart10 very justly remarks3 8,our ancestors may be a great honour to us2 but it is much better if we are an honour to them607#ca7 ,our ,theory of ,development explains the origin of man and the course of his historical development in the only natural manner4 ,we see in his gradually ascensive development out of the lower vertebrata1 the greatest triumph of humanity over the whole of the rest of ,nature4 ,we are proud of having so immensely outstripped our lower animal ancestors1 and derive from it the consoling assurance that in future also1 mankind1 as a whole1 will follow the glorious career of progressive development1 and attain a still higher degree of mental perfection4 ,when viewed in this light1 the ,theory of ,descent as applied to man opens up the most encouraging prospects for the future1 and frees us from all those anxious fears which have been the scarecrows of our opponents4 ,we can even now foresee with certainty that the complete victory of our ,theory of ,development will bear immensely rich fruits--fruits which have no equal in the whole history of the civilization of mankind4 ,its first and most direct result--the complete reform of ,biology--will necessarily be followed by a still more important and fruitful reform of ,anthropology4 ,from this new theory of man there will be developed a new philosophy1 not like most of the airy systems of metaphysical speculation hitherto prevalent1 but one founded upon the solid ground of ,comparative ,zoology4 ,a beginning of this has already been made by the great ,english philosopher ,herbert ,spencer47#de7 ,just as this new monistic philosophy first opens up to us a true understanding of the real universe1 so its application to practical human life must open up a new road towards moral perfection4 ,by its aid we shall at last begin to raise ourselves out of the state of social barbarism in which1 notwithstanding the much vaunted civilization of our century1 we are still plunged4 ,for1 unfortunately1 it is only too true1 as ,alfred ,wallace remarks with regard to this1 at the end of his book of travels3 8,compared with our wondrous progress in physical science and its practical applications1 our system of government1 of administering justice1 of national education1 and our whole social and moral organisation remains in a state of barbarism40 ,this social and moral barbarism we shall never overcome by the artificial and perverse training1 the one-sided and defective teaching1 the inner untruth and the external tinsel1 of our present state of civilization4 ,it is above all things necessary to make a complete and honest return to ,nature and to natural relations4 ,this return1 however1 will only become possible when man sees and understands his true 8place in nature40 ,he will then1 as ,fritz ,ratzel has excellently remarked17#dg7 8no longer consider himself an exception to natural laws1 but begin to seek for what is lawful in his own actions and thoughts1 and endeavour to lead a life according to natural laws40 ,he will come to arrange his life with his fellow-creatures--that is1 the family and the state--not according to the laws of distant centuries1 but according to the rational principles deduced from knowledge of nature4 ,politics1 morals1 and the principles of justice1 which are still drawn from all possible sources1 will have to be formed in accordance with natural laws only4 ,an existence worthy of man1 which has been talked of for thousands of years1 will at length become a reality4 ,the highest function of the human mind is perfect knowledge1 fully developed consciousness1 and the moral activity arising from it4 8,know thyself60 was the cry of the philosophers of antiquity to their fellow-men who were striving to ennoble themselves4 8,know thyself60 is the cry of the ,theory of ,development1 not merely to the individual1 but to all mankind4 ,and whilst increased knowledge of self becomes1 in the case of every individual man1 a strong force urging to an increased attention to conduct1 mankind as a whole will be led to a higher path of moral perfection by the knowledge of its true origin and its actual position in ,nature4 ,the simple religion of ,nature1 which grows from a true knowledge of ,her1 and of ,her inexhaustible store of revelations1 will in future ennoble and perfect the development of mankind far beyond that degree which can possibly be attained under the influence of the multifarious religions of the churches of the various nations1--religions resting on a blind belief in the vague secrets and mythical revelations of a sacerdotal caste4 ,future centuries will celebrate our age1 which was occupied with laying the foundations of the ,doctrine of ,descent1 as the new era in which began a period of human development1 rich in blessings1--a period which was characterized by the victory of free inquiry over the despotism of authority1 and by the powerful ennobling influence of the ,monistic ,philosophy4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,with the exception of a single specimen of the bones of a foot1 preserved in the cabinet of ,amherst ,college4--,e4 ,r4 ,l4 #b ,the primary stock of the ,conifer divided into two branches at an early period1 into the ,araucari on the one hand1 and the ,taxace1 or yew-trees1 on the other4 ,the majority of recent ,conifer are derived from the former4 ,out of the latter the third class of the ,gymnosperms--the ,meningos1 or ,gnetace--were developed4 ,this small but very interesting class contains only three different genera--,gnetum1 ,welwitschia1 and ,ephedra2 it is1 however1 of great importance1 as it forms the transition group from the ,conifer to the ,angiosperms1 and more especially to the ,dicotyledons4 #c 8,ueber ein ,aequivalent der takonischen ,schiefer ,nordamerikas in ,deutschland40 #d ,the ,english word 8,insects0 might with advantage be used in the ,linnan sense for the whole group of ,arthropods4 ,in this case the ,hexapod ,insects might be spoken of as the ,flies4--,e4 ,r4 ,l4 #e ,weisbach3 8,novara-,reise10 ,anthropholog4 ,theil4 #f ,msset im ,naturbetrachten ,immer ,eins wie ,alles achten4 ,nichts ist drinnen1 ,nichts ist drauszen1 ,denn was innen1 das ist auszen4 #g ,natur hat weder ,kern noch ,schale1 ,alles ist sie mit einem ,male4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,works ,,referred ,,to ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,by ,,figures1 ,,thus--7#a71 ,the study of which is recommended to the ,reader4 #a4 ,charles ,darwin1 ,on the ,origin of ,species by means of ,natural ,selection2 or1 the ,preservation of ,favoured ,races in the ,struggle for ,life4 ,london1 #ahei4 #eth ,edition1 #ahfi4 #b4 ,jean ,lamarck1 ,philosophie ,zoologique1 ou ,exposition des ,considrations relatives l'histoire naturelle des animaux2 la diversit de leur organisation et des facults1 qu'ils en obtiennent2 aux causes physiques1 qui maintiennent en eux la vie et donnent lieu aux mouvemens1 qu'ils excutent2 enfin1 celles qui produisent1 les unes le sentiment1 et les autres l'intelligence de ceux qui en sont dous4 #b ,tomes4 ,paris1 #ahji4 #c4 ,wolfgang ,goethe1 ,zur ,morphologie3 ,bildung und ,umbildung organischer ,naturen4 ,die ,metamorphose der ,pflanzen1 #agij4 ,osteologie1 #aghf4 ,vortrge ber die drei ersten ,capitel des ,entwurfs einer allgemeinen ,einleitung in die vergleichende ,anatomie1 ausgehend von der ,osteologie1 #aghf4 ,zur ,naturwissenschaft im ,allgemeinen1 #aghj-ahcb4 7,wolfgang ,goethe1 ,contributions to ,morphology3 ,formation and ,transformation of ,organic ,natures4 ,the ,metamorphosis of ,plants1 #agij4 ,osteology1 #aghf4 ,lectures on the first three chapters of an ,attempt at a ,general ,introduction to ,comparative ,anatomy1 beginning with ,osteology1 #aghf4 ,contributions to the ,science of ,nature in general1 #aghj-ahcb47 #d4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,generelle ,morphologie der ,organismen3 ,allgemeine ,grundzge der organischen ,formenwissenschaft1 mechanisch begrndet durch die von ,charles ,darwin reformirte ,descendenz-theorie4 ,i4 ,band1 ,allgemeine ,anatomie der ,organismen1 oder ,wissenschaft von den entwickelten organischen ,formen4 ,,ii4 ,band1 ,allgemeine ,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,organismen1 oder ,wissenschaft von den entstehenden organischen ,formen4 ,berlin1 #ahff4 7,ernst ,haeckel1 ,general ,morphology of ,organisms2 ,general ,outlines of the ,science of ,organic ,forms based on ,mechanical ,principles through the ,theory of ,descent as reformed by ,charles ,darwin4 ,vol4 ,i41 ,general ,anatomy of ,organisms2 or1 the ,science of ,fully ,developed ,organic ,forms4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 ,general ,history of the ,development of ,organisms2 or1 the ,science of ,organic ,forms in their ,origin4 ,berlin1 #ahff47 #e4 ,louis ,agassiz1 ,an ,essay on ,classification4 ,contributions to the ,natural ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,boston4 ,vol4 ,i41 #aheg4 #f4 ,august ,schleicher1 ,die ,darwin'sche ,theorie und die ,sprachwissenschaft4 ,weimar1 #ahfc4 7,august ,schleicher1 ,darwin's ,theory and the ,science of ,language4 ,weimar1 #ahfc47 #g4 ,m4 ,j4 ,schleiden1 ,grundzge der wissenschaftlichen ,botanik 7die ,botanik als inductive ,wissenschaft74 #b ,bnde4 ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 7,m4 ,j4 ,schleiden1 ,principles of ,scientific ,botany 7,botany as an ,inductive ,science74 #b ,vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahdi4 ,translated by ,edwin ,lankester1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,london1 #ahdi47 #h4 ,franz ,unger1 ,versuch einer ,geschichte der ,pflanzenwelt4 ,wien1 #aheb4 7,franz ,unger1 ,essay on the ,history of the ,vegetable ,kingdom4 ,vienna1 #aheb47 #i4 ,victor ,carus1 ,system der thierischen ,morphologie4 ,leipzig1 #ahec4 7,victor ,carus1 ,system of ,animal ,morphology4 ,leipzig1 #ahec47 #aj4 ,louis ,bchner1 ,kraft und ,stoff4 ,empirisch-naturphilosophische ,studien in allgemein verstndlicher ,darstellung1 ,frankfort1 #ahee1 #c ,auflage4 #ahfg1 #i ,auflage4 7,louis ,bchner1 ,force and ,matter4 ,studies in the ,empirical ,philosophy of ,nature1 treated popularly4 ,frankfort1 #ahee1 #crd ,edition4 #ahfg1 #ith ,edition47 #aa4 ,charles ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology4 ,london1 #ahcj4 #ajth ,edition1 #ahfh4 #ab4 ,albert ,lange1 ,geschichte des ,materialismus und ,kritik seiner ,bedeutung in der ,gegenwart4 ,iserlohn1 #ahff4 7,albert ,lange1 ,history of ,materialism1 and a ,criticism of its ,importance at the ,present ,time4 ,iserlohn1 #ahff47 #ac4 ,charles ,darwin1 ,voyage of the ,beagle4 ,london4 #ad4 ,charles ,darwin1 ,the ,variation of ,animals and ,plants under ,domestication4 #b ,vols4 ,london1 #ahfh4 #ae4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,studien ber ,moneren und andere ,protisten1 nebst einer ,rede ber ,entwickelungsgang und ,aufgabe der ,zoologie4 ,mit #f ,kupfertafeln4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 7,ernst ,haeckel1 ,studies on the ,monera and other ,protista1 together with a ,discourse on the ,evolution and the ,problems of ,zoology4 ,with #f ,copper-plates4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj47 #af4 ,fritz ,mller1 ,fr ,darwin4 ,leipzig1 #ahfd4 7,fritz ,mller1 ,for ,darwin4 ,translated by ,w4 ,s4 ,dallas4 ,london1 ,murray47 #ag4 ,thomas ,huxley1 ,on our ,knowledge of the ,causes of the ,phenomena of ,organic ,nature4 ,six ,popular ,lectures4 ,london1 ,hardwicke1 #ahfb4 #ah4 ,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,morphologische ,studien ber die ,gestaltungsgesetze der ,naturkrper berhaupt1 und der ,organischen insbesondere4 ,leipzig und ,heidelberg1 #aheh4 7,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,morphological ,studies on the ,laws of ,form of ,natural ,bodies in ,general1 and of ,organic ,bodies in ,particular4 ,leipzig and ,heidelberg1 #aheh47 #ai4 ,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,untersuchungen ber die ,entwickelungsgesetze der organischen ,welt whrend der ,bildungszeit unserer ,erdoberflche4 ,stuttgart1 #aheh4 7,h4 ,g4 ,brnn1 ,investigations on the ,laws of ,development of the ,organic ,world during the ,time of the ,formation of the ,earth's ,crust4 ,stuttgart1 #aheh47 #bj4 ,carl ,ernst ,br1 ,ueber ,entwickelungsgeschichte der ,thiere4 ,beobachtung und ,reflexion4 #b ,bnde4 #ahbh4 7,carl ,ernst ,br1 ,on the ,history of the ,development of ,animals4 ,observation and ,reflection4 #b ,vols4 #ahbh47 #ba4 ,carl ,gegenbaur1 ,grundzge der vergleichenden ,anatomie4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #b 7,umgearbeitete7 ,auflage1 #ahgj4 7,carl ,gegenbaur1 ,outlines of ,comparative ,anatomy4 ,leipzig1 #ahei4 #bnd 7,revised7 ,edition1 #ahgj47 #bb4 ,immanuel ,kant1 ,allgemeine ,naturgeschichte und ,theorie des ,himmels1 oder ,versuch von der ,verfassung und dem mechanischen ,ursprunge des ganzen ,weltgebudes nach ,newton'schen ,grundstzen abgehandelt4 ,knigsberg1 #agee4 7,immanuel ,kant1 ,general ,history of ,nature and ,theory of the ,heavens2 or1 ,essay on the ,constitution and the ,mechanical ,origin of the whole ,universe treated according to ,newton's ,principles4 ,knigsberg1 #agee47 #bc4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,die ,radiolarien4 ,eine ,monographie4 ,mit einem ,atlas von #ce ,kupfertafeln4 ,berlin1 #ahfb4 7,ernst ,haeckel1 ,the ,radiolaria4 ,a ,monograph1 with ,atlas containing #ce ,copper-plates4 ,berlin1 #ahfb47 #bd4 ,august ,weismann1 ,ueber den ,einflusz der ,isolirung auf die ,artbildung4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 7,august ,weismann1 ,on the ,influence of ,isolation on the ,formation of ,species4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb47 #be4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,ueber die ,enstehung und den ,stammbaum des ,menschengeschlechts4 ,zwei ,vortrge in der ,sammlung gemeinverstndlicher wissenschaftlicher ,vortrge1 herausgegeben von ,virchow und ,holtzendorff4 ,berlin1 #ahfh4 #b ,auflage1 #ahgj4 7,ernst ,haeckel1 ,on the ,origin and the ,pedigree of the ,human ,race4 ,two ,lectures in the ,collection of ,popular ,scientific ,lectures1 edited by ,virchow and ,holtzendorff4 ,berlin1 #ahfh4 #bnd ,edition1 #ahgj47 #bf4 ,thomas ,huxley1 ,evidences as to ,man's ,place in ,nature4 ,three ,parts3 #a4 ,on the ,natural ,history of the ,man-like ,apes4 #b4 ,on the ,relations of ,man to the ,lower ,animals4 #c4 ,on some ,fossil ,remains of ,man4 ,london1 ,williams ,norgate4 #bg4 ,carl ,vogt1 ,vorlesungen ber den ,menschen1 seine ,stellung in der ,schpfung und in der ,geschichte der ,erde4 #b ,bnde4 ,giessen1 #ahfc4 7,carl ,vogt1 ,lectures on ,man1 his ,place in ,creation and in the ,history of the ,earth4 #b ,vols4 ,giessen1 #ahfc47 #bh4 ,friedrich ,rolle1 ,der ,mensch1 seine ,abstammung und ,gesittung im ,lichte der ,darwin'schen ,lehre von der ,art-,entstehung1 und auf ,grund der neueren geologischen ,entdeckungen dargestellt4 ,frankfurt-a-,m41 #ahff4 7,friedrich ,rolle1 ,man1 his ,derivation and ,civilization1 in the ,light of ,darwin's ,theory of the ,origin of ,species1 based on ,recent ,geological ,discoveries4 ,frankfort-a-,m41 #ahff47 #bi4 ,eduard ,reich1 ,die allgemeine ,naturlehre des ,menschen4 ,giessen1 #ahfe4 7,eduard ,reich1 ,the ,general ,natural ,history of ,man4 ,giessen1 #ahfe47 #cj4 ,charles ,lyell1 ,the ,antiquity of ,man4 ,london1 ,murray4 #ca4 ,bernhard ,cotta1 ,die ,geologie der ,gegenwart4 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 7,bernhard ,cotta1 ,the ,geology of the ,present ,day47 #cb4 ,karl ,zittel1 ,aus der ,urzeit4 ,bilder aus der ,schpfungsgeschichte4 ,mnchen1 #ahga4 7,karl ,zittel1 ,primval ,times4 ,pictures from the ,history of ,creation4 ,munich1 #ahga47 #cc4 ,c4 ,radenhausen1 ,isis4 ,der ,mensch und die ,welt4 #d ,bnde4 ,hamburg1 #ahfc4 #b ,auflage1 #ahga4 7,c4 ,radenhausen1 ,isis4 ,man and the ,universe4 #d ,vols4 ,hamburg1 #ahfc4 #bnd ,edition1 #ahga47 #cd4 ,august ,schleicher1 ,ueber der ,bedeutung der ,sprache fr die ,naturgeschichte des ,menschen4 ,weimar1 #ahfe4 7,august ,schleicher1 ,on the ,importance of ,language to the ,natural ,history of ,man4 ,weimar1 #ahfe74 #ce4 ,wilhelm ,bleek1 ,ueber den ,ursprung der ,sprache4 ,herausgegeben mit einem ,vorwort von ,ernst ,haeckel4 ,weimar1 #ahfh4 7,wilhelm ,bleek1 ,on the ,origin of ,language4 ,edited and with a ,preface by ,ernst ,haeckel4 ,weimar1 #ahfh47 #cf4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 ,the ,malayan ,archipelago4 ,london1 ,macmillan4 #cg4 ,ernst ,haeckel1 ,ueber ,arbeitstheilung in ,natur- und ,menschenleben4 ,sammlung gemeinverstndlicher wissenschaftlicher ,vortrge1 herausgegeben von ,virchow und ,holtzendorff4 #d ,serie4 #ahfi4 ,heft #gh4 7,ernst ,haeckel1 ,on ,differentiation in ,nature and in ,human ,life4 ,a ,collection of ,popular ,scientific ,lectures1 edited by ,virchow and ,holtzendorff4 #dth ,series4 #ahfi4 ,no4 #gh47 #ch4 ,hermann ,helmholtz1 ,populre wissenschaftliche ,vortrge4 ,braunschweig1 #ahga4 7,hermann ,helmholtz1 ,popular ,scientific ,lectures4 ,brunswick1 #ahga47 #ci4 ,alexander ,humboldt1 ,ansichten der ,natur4 ,stuttgart1 #ahbf4 7,alexander ,humboldt1 ,views of ,nature4 ,stuttgart1 #ahbf47 #dj4 ,moritz ,wagner1 ,die ,darwin'sche ,theorie und das ,migrationsgesetz der ,organismen4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 7,moritz ,wagner1 ,darwin's ,theory and the ,law of the ,migration of ,organisms4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh47 #da4 ,rudolf ,virchow1 ,vier ,reden ber ,leben und ,kranksein4 ,berlin1 #ahfb4 7,rudolf ,virchow1 ,four ,discourses on ,life and ,disease4 ,berlin1 #ahfb47 #db4 ,friedrich ,mller1 ,ethnographie 7,reise der sterreichischen ,fregatte ,novara4 ,anthropologischer ,theil4 #c ,abtheilung74 ,wien1 #ahfh4 7,friedrich ,mller1 ,ethnography 7,voyage of the ,austrian ,frigate ,novara4 ,anthropological ,part4 #crd ,part74 ,vienna1 #ahfh47 #dc4 ,ludwig ,bchner1 ,die ,stellung des ,menschen in der ,natur1 in ,vergangenheit1 ,gegenwart und ,zukunft4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj4 7,ludwig ,bchner1 ,man's ,place in ,nature in the ,past1 the ,present1 and the ,future4 ,leipzig1 #ahgj47 #dd4 ,john ,lubbock1 ,prehistoric ,times4 ,london1 #ahfg4 #de4 ,herbert ,spencer1 ,a ,system of ,philosophy4 7#a4 ,first ,principles4 #b4 ,principles of ,biology4 #c4 ,principles of ,psychology1 etc47 ,london1 #ahfg4 #bnd ,edition4 #df4 ,wilhelm ,wundt1 ,vorlesungen ber die ,menschen- und ,thierseele4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 7,wilhelm ,wundt1 ,lectures on the ,human and ,animal ,soul4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc47 #dg4 ,fritz ,ratzel1 ,sein und ,werden der organischen ,welt4 ,eine populre ,schpfungsgeschichte4 ,leipzig1 #ahfi4 7,fritz ,ratzel1 ,nature and ,origin of the ,organic ,world4 ,a ,popular ,history of ,creation4 ,leipzig1 #ahfi47 #dh4 ,charles ,darwin1 ,the ,descent of ,man1 and ,selection in ,relation to ,sex4 #b ,vols4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,,appendix4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,the ,,plates4 ,,plate ,,facing ,,title-,,page4 ,developmental ,history of a ,calcareous ,sponge 7,olynthus74 ,compare vol4 ii4 p4 #adj4 ,the egg of the ,olynthus 7,fig4 #i71 which represents the common ancestral form of all ,calcareous ,sponges1 is a simple cell 7,fig4 #a74 ,from this there arises1 by repeated division 7,fig4 #b71 a globular1 mulberry-like heap of numerous equi-formal cells 7,morula1 ,fig4 #c2 vol4 ii4 p4 #abe47 ,as the result of the change of these cells into an outer series of clear ciliated cells 7,exoderm7 and an inner series of dark1 non-ciliated cells 7,entoderm71 the ciliated larva1 or ,planula1 makes its appearance4 ,this is oval in shape1 and forms a cavity in its centre 7gastric cavity1 or primitive stomach1 ,fig4 #f g1 with an opening 7mouth-opening1 or primitive mouth1 ,fig4 #f o72 the wall of the gastric cavity consists of two layers of cells1 or germ-layers1 the outer ciliated ,exoderm 7e7 and the inner non-ciliated ,entoderm 7i74 ,thus arises the exceedingly important stomach-larva1 or ,gastrula1 which reappears in the most different tribes of animals as a common larval form 7,fig4 #e1 seen from the surface2 ,fig4 #f1 in long section4 ,compare1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #abf and #bha74 ,after the ,gastrula has swum about for some time in the sea1 it fastens itself securely to the sea-bottom1 loses its outer vibratile processes1 or cilia1 and changes into the ,ascula 7,fig4 #g1 seen from the surface2 ,fig4 #h1 in long section2 letters as in ,fig4 #f74 ,this ,ascula is the recapitulative form1 according to the biogenetic fundamental law1 the common ancestor of all ,zoophytes1 namely1 the ,protascus 7vol4 ii4 pp4 #abi1 #acc74 ,by the development of pores in the wall of the stomach and of three-rayed calcareous spicules1 the ,ascula changes into the ,olynthus 7,fig4 #i47 ,in ,fig4 #i a piece is cut out from the stomach-wall of the ,olynthus in order to show the inside of the stomachal cavity1 and the eggs which are forming on the surface 7g74 ,from the ,olynthus the most various forms of ,calcareous ,sponges can develop4 ,one of the most remarkable is the ,ascometra 7,fig4 #aj71 a stock or colony from which different species1 and in fact different generic forms1 grow 7on the left ,olynthus1 in the middle ,nardorus1 on the right ,soleniscus1 etc41 etc474 ,further details as to these most interesting forms1 and their high importance for the ,theory of ,descent1 may be found in my 8,monograph of the ,calcareous ,sponges0 7#ahgb71 especially in the first volume4 7,compare vol4 ii4 pp4 #afj1 #afg74 ,,plate ,i4 7,between pages #ahd and #ahe1 ,vol4 ,i47 ,history of the ,life of the most ,simple ,organism1 a ,moneron 7,protomyxa aurantiaca74 ,compare vol4 i4 p4 #ahd1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #ec4 ,the plate is a smaller copy of the drawing in my 8,monographie der ,moneren0 7,biologische ,studien1 #a ,heft1 #ahgj2 ,taf4 #a71 of the developmental history of the ,protomyxa aurantiaca2 ,i have there also given a detailed description of this remarkable ,moneron 7pp4 #aa-cj74 ,i discovered this most simple organism in ,january1 #ahfg1 during a stay in ,lanzarote1 one of the ,canary ,islands2 and moreover ,i found it either adhering to1 or creeping about on the white calcareous shells of a small ,cephalopod 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afb71 the ,spirula ,peronii1 which float there in masses on the surface of the ocean1 or are thrown up on the shore4 ,the ,protomyxa aurantiaca is distinguished from the other ,monera by the beautiful and bright orange-red colour of its perfectly simple body1 which consists merely of primval slime1 or protoplasm4 ,the fully developed ,moneron is represented in ,figs4 #aa and #ab1 very much enlarged4 ,when it is hungry 7,fig4 #aa71 there radiate from the surface of the globular corpuscule of plasm1 quantities of tree-shaped1 branching and mobile threads 7pseudo-feet1 or pseudopodia71 which do not become retiformly connected4 ,when1 however1 the ,moneron eats 7,fig4 #ab71 the mucous threads become variously connected1 form net-works and enclose the extraneous corpuscule which serves as food1 which the threads afterwards draw into the interior of the ,protomyxa4 ,thus in ,fig4 #ab 7above on the right71 a silicious and ciliated ,whip-swimmer 7,peridinium1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #ea1 #eg71 has just been caught by the extended mucous filaments1 and has been drawn into the interior of the mucous globule1 in which there already are several half digested silicious infusoria 7,tintinoida71 and ,diatome 7,isthmia74 ,now1 when the ,protomyxa has eaten and grown sufficiently1 it draws in all its mucous filaments 7,fig4 #ae71 and contracts into the form of a globule 7,fig4 #af and ,fig4 #a74 ,in this state of repose the globule secretes a simple gelatinous covering 7,fig4 #b71 and after a time subdivides into a large number of small mucous globules 7,fig4 #c74 ,these soon commence to move1 become pear-shaped 7,fig4 #d71 break through the common covering 7,fig4 #e71 and then swim about freely in the ocean by means of a delicate whip-shaped process1 like the ,flagellata 7vol4 ii4 p4 #eg1 ,fig4 #aa74 ,when they meet a ,spirula shell1 or any other suitable object1 they adhere to it1 draw in their whip1 and creep slowly about on it by means of form-changing processes 7,figs4 #f1 #g1 #h71 like ,protamb 7vol4 i4 p4 #ahf1 vol4 ii4 p4 #eb74 ,these small mucous corpuscules take food 7,figs4 #i1 #aj71 and attain their full grown form 7,figs4 #aa1 #ab71 either by simple growth or by several of them fusing to form a larger protoplasmic mass 7,plasmodium1 ,figs4 #ac1 #ad74 ,,plates ,,ii4 ,,and ,,iii4 7,between pages #bid and #bie1 ,vol4 ,i47 ,germs or ,embryos of four different ,vertebrate ,animals1 namely1 ,tortoise 7,a and ,e71 ,hen 7,b and ,f71 ,dog 7,c and ,g71 and ,man 7,d and ,h74 ,figs4 ,a1 ,d1 an early stage of development2 ,figs4 ,e1 ,h1 a later stage4 ,all the eight embryos are represented as seen from the right side1 the curved back turned to the left4 ,figs4 ,a and ,b are seven times enlarged1 ,figs4 ,c and ,d five times1 ,figs4 ,e and ,h four times4 ,plate ,,ii4 exhibits the very close blood relationship between birds and reptiles2 ,plate ,,iii4 that between man and the other mammals4 ,,plate ,,iv4 7,between pages #cd and #ce1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,the ,hand1 or ,fore ,foot1 of nine different ,mammals4 ,this plate is intended to show the importance of ,comparative ,anatomy to ,phylogeny1 in as much as it proves how the internal skeleton of the limbs is continually preserved by inheritance1 although the external form is extremely changed by adaptation4 ,the bones of the skeleton of the hand are drawn in white lines on the brown flesh and skin which surrounds them4 ,all the nine hands are represented in the same position1 namely the wrist 7where the arm would be joined to it7 is placed above1 whilst the ends of the fingers or toes are turned downwards4 ,the thumb1 or the first 7large7 fore-toe is on the left in every figure2 the little finger1 or fifth toe is to the right at the edge of the hand4 ,each hand consists of three parts1 namely 7i47 the wrist 7carpus71 composed of two cross rows of short bones 7at the upper side of the hand72 7ii47 the mid-hand 7metacarpus71 composed of five long and strong bones 7marked in the centre of the hand by the numbers #a-e72 and 7iii47 the five fingers1 or fore toes 7digiti71 every one of which again consists of several 7mostly from two to three71 toe-pieces1 or phalanges4 ,the hand of man 7,fig4 #a71 in regard to its entire formation1 stands midway between that of the two large human apes1 namely1 that of the gorilla 7,fig4 #b71 and that of the orang 7,fig4 #c74 ,the fore paw of the dog 7,fig4 #d71 is more different1 and the hand or breast fin of the seal 7,fig4 #e7 still more so4 ,the adaptation of the hand to the movement of swimming1 and its transformation into a fin for steering1 is still more complete in the dolphin 7,ziphius1 ,fig4 #f74 ,the extended fingers and bones of the central hand here have remained short and strong in the swimming membrane1 but they have become extremely long and thin in the bat 7,fig4 #g71 where the hand has developed into a wing4 ,the extreme opposite of the latter formation is the hand of the mole 7,fig4 #h71 which has acquired a powerful spade-like form for digging1 with fingers which have become extremely short and thick4 ,what is far more like the human hand than these latter forms1 is the fore paw of the lowest and most imperfect of all mammals1 the ,australian beaked animal 7,ornithorhynchus1 ,fig4 #i71 which in its whole structure stands nearer to the common1 extinct1 primary form of mammalia1 than any known species4 ,hence man differs less in the formation of the hand from this common primary form than from the bat1 mole1 dolphin1 seal1 and many other mammals4 ,,plate ,v4 7,between pages #hd and #he1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,one-rooted ,pedigree of the ,vegetable ,kingdom1 representing the hypothesis of the common derivation of all plants1 and the historical development of the different groups of plants during the palontological periods of the earth's history4 ,the horizontal lines denote the different smaller and larger periods of the organic history of the earth 7which are spoken of in vol4 ii4 p4 #ad71 and during which the strata containing fossils were deposited4 ,the vertical lines separate the different main-classes and classes of the vegetable kingdom from one another4 ,the arboriform and branching lines indicate1 in an approximate manner1 by their greater or less number and thickness1 the greater or less degree of development1 differentiation1 and perfecting which each class probably attained in each geological period4 7,compare vol4 ii4 pp4 #hb1 #hc47 ,,plate ,,vi4 7,between pages #acj and #aca1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,one-rooted ,pedigree of the ,animal ,kingdom1 representing the historical growth of the six animal tribes during the palontological periods of the organic history of the earth4 ,the horizontal lines g h1 i k1 l m1 and n o divide the five large periods of the organic history of the earth one from another4 ,the field g a b h comprises the archilithic1 the field i g h k1 the palolithic1 the field l i k m the mesolithic1 and the field n l o m the cenolithic period4 ,the short1 anthropolithic period is indicated by the line n o4 7,compare vol4 ii4 p4 #ad47 ,the height of the separate fields corresponds with the relative length of the periods indicated by them1 as they may approximately be estimated from the relative thickness of the neptunic strata deposited between them4 7,compare vol4 ii4 p4 #bb47 ,the archilithic and primordial period alone1 during which the ,laurentian1 ,cambrian1 and ,silurian strata were deposited1 was probably considerably longer than the four subsequent periods taken together4 7,compare vol4 ii4 pp4 #aj1 #bj47 ,in all probability the two tribes of worms and ,zoophytes attained their full development during the mid-primordial period 7in the ,cambrian system72 the star-fishes and molluscs probably somewhat later 7in the ,silurian system72 whereas the articulata and vertebrata are still increasing in variety and perfection4 ,,plate ,,vii4 7,between pages #adf and #adg1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,group of ,animal-,trees 7,zoophytes1 or ,clenterata7 in the ,mediterranean4 ,on the upper half of the plate is a swarm of swimming medus and ctenophora2 on the lower half a few bunches of corals and hydroid polyps adhering to the bottom of the sea4 7,compare the system of ,zoophytes1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acb1 and on the opposite page their pedigree47 ,among the adhering ,zoophytes at the bottom of the ocean there is1 below on the right hand1 a large coral-colony 7#a71 which is closely akin to the red precious coral 7,eucorallium71 and like the latter belongs to the group of corals with eight rays 7,octocoralla ,gorgonida72 the single individuals 7or persons7 of the branching stock have the form of a star with eight rays1 consisting of eight tentacles1 which surround the mouth4 7,octocoralla1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc47 ,directly below and in front of it 7quite below on the right71 is a small bush of hydroid polyps 7#b71 belonging to the group of bell-polyps1 or ,campanulari 7vol4 ii4 p4 #adf74 ,a larger stock of hydroid polyps 7#c71 belonging to the group of tube-polyps1 or ,tubullari1 rises1 to the left1 on the opposite side1 with its long thin branches4 ,at its base is spread a stock of silicious sponges 7,halichondria7 7#d71 with short1 finger-shaped branches 7vol4 ii4 p4 #aci74 ,behind it1 below on the left 7#e71 is a very large marine rose 7,actinia71 a single individual from the class of six-rayed corals 7,hexacoralla1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adc74 ,its low1 cylindrical body has a crown of very numerous and large leaf-shaped tentacles4 ,below1 in the centre of the ground 7#f71 is a sea-anemone 7,cereanthus7 from the group of fourfold corals 7,tetracoralla74 ,lastly1 on a small hill on the bottom of the sea1 there rises1 on the right above the corals 7#a7 a cup-polyp 7,lucernaria71 as the representative of the stalked-jellies4 7,podactinaria1 or ,calycozoa1 vol4 ii4 p4 #add47 ,its cup-shaped1 stalked body 7#g7 has eight globular clusters of small1 knotted tentacles on its rim4 ,among the swimming ,zoophytes which occupy the upper half of ,plate ,,vii41 the hydromedus are especially remarkable1 on account of their alteration of generation4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #bjf47 ,directly above the ,lucernaria 7#g7 floats a small tiara jelly 7,oceania71 whose bell-shaped body has a process like a dome1 the form of a papal tiara 7#h74 ,from the opening of the bell there hangs a wreath of very fine and long tentacles4 ,this ,oceania is the offspring of a tube-polyp1 resembling the adhering ,tubularia below on the left 7#c74 ,beside this latter1 on the left1 swims a large but very delicate hair-jelly 7quorea74 ,its disc-shaped1 slightly arched body is just drawing itself together1 and pressing water out of the cavity of the cup lying below 7#i74 ,the numerous1 long1 and fine hair-like tentacles which hang down from the rim of the cup are drawn by the ejected water into a conical bunch1 which towards the centre turns upwards like a collar1 and is thrown into folds4 ,above1 in the middle of the cavity of the cup1 hangs the stomach1 the mouth of which is surrounded by four lobes4 ,this quorea is derived from a small bell-polyp1 resembling the ,campanularia 7#b74 ,the small1 slightly arched cap-jelly 7,eucope71 swimming above in the centre 7#aj71 is likewise derived from a similar bell-polyp4 ,in these three last cases 7#h1 #i1 #aj71 as in the majority of the hydromedus1 the alternation of generation consists in the freely swimming medusa 7#h1 #i1 #aj71 arising by the formation of buds 7therefore by non-sexual generation1 vol4 i4 p4 #aib71 from adhering hydroid polyps 7#b1 #c74 ,these latter1 however1 originate out of the fructified eggs of the medus 7therefore by sexual generation1 vol4 i4 p4 #aie74 ,hence the non-sexual1 adhering generation of polyps 7,i41 ,,iii41 ,v41 etc47 regularly alternates with the sexual1 freely swimming generation of medus 7,,ii41 ,,iv41 ,,vi41 etc474 ,this alteration of generation can only be explained by the ,theory of ,descent4 ,the same remark applies to a kindred form of propagation1 which is still more remarkable1 and which ,i discovered in #ahfd1 near ,nice1 in the ,elephant-jellies 7,geryonida71 and called allogony1 or allogenesis4 ,in this case two completely distinct forms of medusa are descended from one another2 the larger and more highly developed generation 7#aa71 ,geryonia1 or ,carmarina1 is six-rayed1 with six foliated sexual organs1 and six very movable marginal filaments4 ,from the centre of its bell-shaped cup1 like the tongue of a bell1 hangs a long proboscis1 at the end of which is the opening of the mouth and stomach4 ,in the cavity of the stomach is a long1 tongue-shaped bunch of buds 7which on ,plate ,,vii4 7n7 is extended from the mouth on the left like a tongue74 ,on this tongue1 when the ,geryonia is sexually ripe1 there bud a number of small medus4 ,they are1 however1 not ,geryoni1 but belong to an entirely distinct but very different form of medusa1 namely1 to the genus ,cunina1 of the family of the ginida4 ,this ,cunina 7#ab7 is very differently constructed2 it has a flat1 semi-globular cup without proboscis1 consists in early life of six divisions1 later of sixteen1 and has sixteen bag-shaped sexual organs1 and sixteen short1 stiff1 and strongly curved tentacles4 ,a further explanation of this wonderful allogenesis may be found in my 8,contributions to the ,natural ,history of the ,hydromedus40 7,leipzig1 ,englemann1 #ahfe71 the first part of which contains a monograph of the ,elephant-jellies1 or ,geryonida1 illustrated by six copper-plates4 ,even more interesting and instructive than these remarkable relations are the vital phenomena of the ,siphonophora1 whose wonderful polymorphism ,i have frequently spoken of1 and described in a popular manner in my lecture on 8,differentiation in ,nature and ,human ,life407#cg7 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #bgj1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #adj47 ,an example of this is given in ,plate ,,vii4 in the drawing of the beautiful ,physophora 7#ac74 ,this swimming stock or colony of hydromedus is kept floating on the surface of the sea by a small swimming bladder filled with air1 which in the drawing is seen rising above the surface of the water4 ,below it is a column of four pairs of swimming bells1 which eject water1 and thereby set the whole colony in motion4 ,at the lower end of the column of swimming bells is a crown-shaped wreath of curved spindle-shaped sensitive polyps1 which also serve as a covering1 under the protection of which the other individuals of the stock 7the eating1 catching1 and reproductive persons7 are hidden4 ,the ontogenesis of the ,siphonophora 7and especially of this ,physophora71 ,i first observed in ,lanzerote1 one of the ,canary ,islands1 in #ahff1 and described in my 8,history of the ,development of the ,siphonophora10 and added fourteen plates for its explanation4 7,utrecht1 #ahfi74 ,it is rich in interesting facts1 which can only be explained by the ,theory of ,descent4 ,another circumstance1 which is also only explicable by the ,theory of ,descent1 is the remarkable change of generation in the higher medus1 the disc-jellies 7,discomedus1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acf71 a representative of which is given at the top of ,plate ,,vii41 in the centre 7rather in the background71 namely1 a ,pelagia 7#ad74 ,from the bottom of the bell-shaped cup1 which is strongly arched and the rim of which is neatly indented1 there hang four very long and strong arms4 ,the non-sexual polyps1 from which these disc-jellies are derived1 are exceedingly simple primval polyps1 differing very little from the common fresh-water polyp 7,hydra74 ,the alternation of generation in these ,discomedus has also been described in my lecture on ,differentiation17#cg7 and there illustrated by the ,aurelia by way of example4 ,finally1 the last class of ,zoophytes1 the group of comb-jellies 7,ctenophora1 vol4 ii4 p4 #adb71 has two representatives on ,plate ,,vii4 ,to the left1 in the centre1 between the quorea 7#i71 the ,physophora 7#ac71 and the ,cunina 7#ab71 is a long and thin band like a belt 7#ae71 winding like a snake2 this is the large and splendid ,venus' girdle of the ,mediterranean 7,cestum71 the colours of which are as varied as those of the rainbow4 ,the actual body of the animal1 which lies in the centre of the long belt1 is very small1 and constructed exactly like that of the melon-jelly 7,cydippe71 which floats above to the left 7#af74 ,on the latter are visible the eight characteristic fringed bands1 or ciliated combs1 of the ctenophora1 and also two long tentacles which extend right across the page1 and are fringed with still finer threads4 ,,plates ,,viii4 ,,and ,,ix4 7,between pages #agj and #aga1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,history of the ,development of ,star-fishes 7,echinoderma1 or ,estrella74 ,the two plates exhibit their alternation of generation 7vol4 ii4 p4 #afh71 with an example from each of the four classes of ,star-fishes4 ,the sea-stars 7,asterida7 are represented by ,uraster 7,a71 the sea-lilies 7,crinoida7 by ,comatula 7,b71 the sea-urchins 7,echinida7 by ,echinus 7,c71 and finally1 the sea-cucumbers 7,holothuri7 by ,synapta 7,d74 7,compare vol4 ii4 pp4 #aff and #agf47 ,the successive stages of development are marked by the numbers #a-f4 ,plate ,,viii4 represents the individual development of the first and non-sexual generation of ,star-fishes1 that is1 of the nurses 7usually1 but erroneously1 called larv74 ,these nurses possess the form-value of a simple1 unsegmented worm-individual4 ,fig4 #a represents the egg of the four ,star-fishes2 and it1 in all essential points1 agrees with that of man and of other animals4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #big1 ,fig4 #e47 ,as in man1 the protoplasm of the egg-cell 7the yolk7 is surrounded by a thick1 structureless membrane 7zona pellucida71 and contains a globular1 cell-kernel 7nucleus71 as clear as glass1 which again encloses a nucleolus4 ,out of the fertilised egg of the ,star-fish 7,fig4 ,a #a7 there develops in the first place1 by the repeated sub-division of cells1 a globular mass of homogeneous cells 7,fig4 #f1 vol4 i4 p4 #bii71 and this changes into a very simple nurse1 which has almost the same shape as a wooden shoe 7,fig4 ,a #b-;,d #b74 ,the edge of the opening of the shoe is bordered by a fringe of cilia1 the ciliary movements of which keep the microscopically small and transparent nurse swimming about freely in the sea4 ,this fringe of cilia is marked in ,fig4 ,a #b-;,a #d1 on ,plate ,,vii41 by the narrow alternately light and dark seam4 ,the nurse then1 in the first place1 forms a perfectly simple intestinal canal for nutrition1 mouth 7o71 stomach 7m7 and anus 7a74 ,later1 the windings of the fringe of cilia become more complicated1 and there arise arm-like processes 7,fig4 ,a #c-;,d #c74 ,in sea-stars 7,a #d7 and sea-urchins 7,c #d7 these arm-like processes1 which are fringed with cilia1 afterwards become very long4 ,but in the case of sea-lilies 7,b #c7 and sea-cucumbers 7,d #d71 instead of this1 the fringe of cilia1 which at first1 through winding in and out1 forms one closed ring1 changes subsequently into a succession of separate ciliated girdles1 one lying behind the other4 ,in the interior of this curious nurse there then develops1 by a non-sexual process of generation1 namely1 by the formation of internal buds or germ-buds 7round about the stomach71 the second generation of ,star-fishes1 which later on become sexually ripe4 ,this second generation1 which is represented on ,plate ,,ix4 in a fully developed condition1 exists originally as a stock or cormus of five worms1 connected at one end in the form of a star1 as is most clearly seen in the sea-stars1 the most ancient and original form of the star-fishes4 ,the second generation1 which grows at the expense of the first1 appropriates only the stomach and a small portion of the other organs of the latter1 but forms for itself a new mouth and anus4 ,the fringe of cilia1 and the other parts of the body of the nurse1 afterwards disappear4 ,the second generation 7,a #e-;,d #e71 is at first smaller or not much larger than the nurse1 whereas1 by growth1 it afterwards becomes more than a hundred times1 or even a thousand times1 as large4 ,if the ontogeny of the typical representatives of the four classes of ,star-fishes be compared1 it is easily seen that the original kind of development has been best preserved in sea-stars 7,a7 and sea-urchins 7,c7 by inheritance1 whereas in sea-lilies 7,b7 and sea-cucumbers it has been suppressed according to the laws of abbreviated inheritance 7vol4 i4 p4 #bab74 ,plate ,,ix4 shows the fully developed and sexually mature animals of the second generation from the mouth side1 which1 in the natural position of ,star-fishes 7when creeping at the bottom of the sea71 in sea-stars 7,a #f7 and sea-urchins 7,c #f71 is below1 in sea-lilies 7,b #f7 above1 and in sea-cucumbers 7,d #f7 in front4 ,in the centre we perceive1 in all the four ,star-fishes1 the star-shaped1 five-pointed opening of the mouth4 ,in sea-stars1 from each arm there extend several rows of little sucking feet1 from the centre of the under-side of each arm to the end4 ,in sea-lilies 7,b #f71 each arm is split and feather-like from its base upwards4 ,in sea-urchins 7,c #f7 the five rows of sucking feet are divided by broader fields of spines4 ,in sea-cucumbers1 lastly 7,d #f71 on the worm-like body it is sometimes only the five rows of little feet1 sometimes only the feathery tentacles surrounding the mouth1 from five to fifteen 7in this case ten71 that are externally visible4 ,,plates ,x4 ,,and ,,xi4 7,between pages #agd and #age1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,historical ,development of the ,crab-fish 7,crustacea74--,the two plates illustrate the development of the different ,crustacea from the nauplius1 their common primval form4 ,on ,plate ,,xi4 six ,crustacea1 from six different orders1 are represented in a fully developed state1 whereas on ,plate ,x4 the early nauplius stages are given4 ,from the essential agreement between the latter we may1 on the ground of the fundamental law of biogeny1 with full assurance maintain the derivation of the different ,crustacea from a single1 common primary form1 a long since extinct ,nauplius1 as was first shown by ,fritz ,mller in his excellent work 8,fr ,darwin407#af7 ,plate ,x4 represents the early nauplius stages from the ventral side1 so that the three pairs of legs1 on the short1 three-jointed trunk are distinctly visible4 ,the first of these pairs of legs is simple and unsegmented1 whereas the second and third pairs are forked4 ,all three pairs are furnished with stiff bristles1 which1 through the paddling motion of the legs1 serve as an apparatus for swimming4 ,in the centre of the body1 the perfectly simple1 straight intestinal canal is visible1 possessing a mouth in front1 and an anal orifice behind4 ,in front1 above the mouth1 lies a simple1 single eye4 ,all the six forms of nauplius entirely agree in all these essential characteristics of organization1 whereas the six fully developed forms of ,crustacea belonging to them1 ,plate ,,xi41 are extremely different in organisation4 ,the differences of the six nauplius forms are confined to quite subordinate and unessential relations in regard to size of body1 and the formation of the covering of the skin4 ,if they could be met with in this form in a sexually mature condition1 no zoologist would hesitate to regard them as six different species of one genus4 7,compare vol4 ii4 p4 #age47 ,plate ,,xi4 represents those fully developed and sexually mature forms of ,crustacea1 as seen from the right side1 which have ontogenetically 7hence also phylogenetically7 developed out of the six kinds of nauplius4 ,fig4 ,a c shows a freely swimming fresh-water crab 7,limnetis brachyurus7 from the order of the ,leaf-foot ,crabs 7,phyllopoda71 slightly enlarged4 ,of all the still living ,crustacea1 this order1 which belongs to the legion of ,gill-foot ,crabs 7,branchiopoda71 stands nearest to the original1 common primary form of nauplius4 ,the ,limnetis is enclosed in a bivalved shell1 like a mussel4 ,our drawing 7which is copied from ,grube7 represents the body of a female animal lying in the left shell2 the right half of the shell has been removed4 ,in front1 behind the eye1 we see the two feelers 7antenn71 and behind them the twelve leaf-shaped feet of the right side of the body1 behind on the back 7under the shell71 the eggs4 ,above1 in front1 the animal is fixed to the shell4 ,fig4 ,b c represents a common1 freely swimming fresh-water crab 7,cyclops quadricornis7 from the order of ,oar-legged crabs 7,eucopepoda71 highly magnified4 ,in front1 below the eye1 we see the two feelers of the right side1 the foremost of which is longer than the hinder one4 ,behind these are the gills1 and then the four paddling legs of the right side4 ,behind these are the two large egg-sacks1 which1 in this case1 are attached to the end of the hinder part of the body4 ,fig4 ,c c is a parasitic ,oar-legged crab 7,lernocera esocina71 from the order of fish lice 7,siphonostoma74 ,these peculiar crabs1 which were formerly regarded as worms1 have originated1 by adaptation to a parasitical life1 out of freely swimming1 ,oar-legged crabs 7,eucopepoda71 and belong to the same legion 7,copepoda1 vol4 ii4 p4 #agf74 ,by adhering to the gills on the skin of fish or other crabs1 and feeding on the juice of these creatures1 they forfeited their eyes1 legs1 and other organs1 and developed into formless1 inarticulated sacks1 which1 on a mere external examination1 we should never suppose to be animals4 ,on the ventral side only there exist1 in the shape of short1 pointed bristles1 the last remains of legs which have now almost entirely disappeared4 ,two of these rudimentary pairs of legs 7the third and fourth7 are seen in our drawing on the right4 ,above1 on the head1 we see thick1 shapeless appendages1 the lower ones of which are split4 ,in the centre of the body is seen the intestinal canal1 which is surrounded by a dark covering of fat4 ,at its posterior end is the ovary1 and the cement-glands of the female sexual apparatus4 ,the two large egg-sacks hang externally 7as in the ,cyclops1 ,fig4 ,b74 ,our ,lernocera is represented in half profile1 and is copied from ,claus4 7,compare ,claus1 8,die ,copepoden-,fauna von ,nizza4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,characteristik der ,formen und deren ,abnderungen im ,sinne ,darwins40 ,marburg1 #ahff74 ,fig4 ,d c represents a so-called 8duck mussel0 7,lepas anatifera71 from the order of the ,barnacle crabs 7,cirripedia74 ,these crabs1 upon which ,darwin has written a very careful monograph1 are1 like mussels1 enclosed in a bivalved1 calcareous case1 and hence were formerly 7even by ,cuvier7 universally regarded as a kind of mussel1 or mollusc4 ,it was only from a knowledge of their ontogeny1 and their early nauplius form 7,d n1 ,plate ,,viii471 that their crustacean nature was proved4 ,our drawing shows a 8duck mussel0 of the natural size1 from the right side4 ,the right half of the bivalved shell has been removed1 so that the body is seen lying in the left half of the shell4 ,from the rudimentary head of the ,lepas there issues a long1 fleshy stalk 7curving upwards in our drawing72 by means of it the ,barnacle crab grows on rocks1 ships1 etc4 ,on the ventral side are six pairs of feet4 ,every foot is forked and divided into two long1 curved1 or curled 8tendrils0 furnished with bristles4 ,above and behind the last pair of feet projects the thin cylindrical tail4 ,fig4 ,e c represents a parasitic sack-crab 7,sacculina purpurea7 from the order of ,root-crabs 7,rhizocephala74 ,these parasites1 by adaptation to a parasitical life1 have developed out of ,barnacle crabs 7,fig4 ,d c71 much in the same way as the fish-lice 7,c c71 out of the freely swimming ,oar-legged crabs 7,b c74 ,however1 the suppression1 and the subsequent degeneration1 of all of the organs1 has gone much further in the present case than in most of the fish-lice4 ,out of the articulated crab1 possessing legs1 intestine1 and eye1 and which in an early stage as nauplius 7,e n1 ,plate ,,viii471 swam about freely1 there has developed a formless1 unsegmented sack1 a red sausage1 which now only contains sexual organs 7eggs and sperm7 and an intestinal rudiment4 ,the legs and the eye have completely disappeared4 ,at the posterior end is the opening of the genitals4 ,from the mouth grows a thick bunch of numerous tree-shaped and branching root-like fibres4 ,these spread themselves out 7like the roots of a plant in the ground7 in the soft hinder part of the body of the hermit-crab 7,pagurus71 upon which the root-crab lives as a parasite1 and from which it draws its nourishment4 ,our drawing 7,e c71 a copy of ,fritz ,mller's1 is slightly enlarged1 and shows the whole of the sausage-shaped sack-crab1 with all its root-fibres1 when drawn out of the body upon which it lives4 ,fig4 ,f c is a shrimp 7,peneus ,mlleri71 from the order of ten-foot crabs 7,decapoda71 to which our river cray-fish1 and its nearest relative1 the lobster1 and the short-tailed shore-crabs also belong4 ,this order contains the largest and1 gastronomically1 the most important crabs1 and belongs1 together with the mouth-legged and split-legged crabs1 to the legion of the stalk-eyed mailed crabs 7,podophthalma74 ,the shrimp1 as well as the river crab1 has in front1 on each side below the eye1 two long feelers 7the first much shorter than the second71 then three jaws1 and three jaw-feet1 then five very long legs 7the three fore ones of which1 in the ,peneus1 are furnished with nippers1 and the third of which is the longest74 ,finally1 on the first five joints of the hinder part of the body there are other five pairs of feet4 ,this shrimp1 which is one of the most highly developed and perfect crabs1 originates 7according to ,fritz ,mller's important discovery7 out of a nauplius 7,f n ,plate ,,viii471 and consequently proves that the higher ,crustacea have developed out of the same form as the lower ones1 namely1 the nauplius4 7,compare vol4 ii4 p4 #age47 ,,plates ,,xii4 ,,and ,,xiii4 7,between pages #bjj and #bja1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,blood relationship between the ,vertebrata and the ,invertebrata4 7,compare vol4 ii4 pp4 #aeb and #bja47 ,it is definitely established by ,kowalewski's important discovery1 which was confirmed by ,kupffer1 that the ontogeny of the lowest vertebrate animal--the ,lancelet1 or ,amphioxus--agrees in all essential outlines completely with that of the invertebrate ,sea-squirts1 or ,ascidi1 from the class of ,sea-sacks1 or ,tunicata4 ,on our two plates1 the ascidia is marked by ,a1 the amphioxus by ,b4 ,plate ,,xiii4 represents these two very different animal-forms in a fully developed state1 as seen from the left side1 the end of the mouth above1 the opposite end below4 ,hence1 in both figures the dorsal side is to the right1 the ventral to the left4 ,both figures are slightly magnified1 and the internal organisation of the animals is distinctly visible through the transparent skin4 ,the full-grown ascidia 7,fig4 ,a #f7 grows at the bottom of the ocean1 from whence it cannot move1 and clings to stones and other objects by means of peculiar roots 7w7 like a plant4 ,the full-grown amphioxus1 on the other hand 7,fig4 ,b #f71 swims about freely like a small fish4 ,the letters on both figures indicate the same parts3 7a7 orifice of the mouth2 7b7 orifice of the body1 or porus abdominalis2 7c7 dorsal rod1 or chorda dorsalis2 7d7 intestine2 7e7 ovary2 7f7 oviduct 7same as the sperm-duct72 7g7 spinal marrow2 7h7 heart2 7i7 blind-sac of the intestine2 7k7 gill basket 7respiratory cavity72 7l7 cavity of the body2 7m7 muscles2 7n7 testicle 7in the ascidia united with the ovary into a hermaphrodite gland72 7o7 anus2 7p7 genital orifice2 7q7 well-developed embryos in the body cavity of the ascidia2 7r7 rays of the dorsal fin of the amphioxus2 7s7 tail-fin of the amphioxus2 7w7 roots of the ascidia4 ,plate ,,xii4 shows the ,ontogenesis1 or the individual development of the ,ascidia 7,a7 and the ,amphioxus 7,b7 in five different stages 7#a-e74 ,fig4 #a is the egg1 a simple cell like the egg of man and all other animals 7,fig4 ,a #a the egg of the ascidia1 ,fig4 ,b #a the egg of the amphioxus74 ,the actual cell-substance1 or the protoplasm of the egg-cell 7z71 the so-called yolk1 is surrounded by a covering 7cell-membrane1 or yolk-membrane71 and encloses a globular cell-kernel1 or nucleus 7y71 the latter1 again1 contains a kernel-body1 or nucleolus 7x72 when the egg begins to develop1 the egg-cell first subdivides into two cells4 ,by another sub-division there arise four cells 7,fig4 ,a #b1 ,b #b71 and out of these1 by repeated sub-division1 eight cells 7vol4 i4 p4 #aij1 ,fig4 #d ,c1 ,d74 ,by fluid gathering in the interior these form a globular bladder bounded by a layer of cells4 ,on one spot of its surface the bladder is turned inwards in the form of a pocket 7,fig4 ,a #d1 ,b #d74 ,this depression is the beginning of the intestine1 the cavity 7d #a7 of which opens externally by the provisional larval-mouth 7d #d74 ,the body-wall1 which is at the same time the stomach-wall1 now consists of two layers of cells--the germ-layers4 ,the globular larva 7,gastrula71 now grows in length4 ,fig4 ,a #e represents the larva of the ascidia1 ,fig4 ,b #e that of the amphioxus1 as seen from the left side in a somewhat more advanced state of development4 ,the orifice of the intestine 7d #a7 has closed4 ,the dorsal side of the intestine 7d #b7 is concave1 the ventral side 7d #c7 convex4 ,above the intestinal tube1 on its dorsal side1 the neural tube1 the beginning of the spinal marrow1 is being formed1 its cavity still opens externally in front 7g #b74 ,between the spinal marrow and the intestine has arisen the spinal rod1 or chorda dorsalis 7,notochord7 7c71 the axis of the inner skeleton4 ,in the larva of the ascidia this rod 7c7 proceeds along the long rudder-tail1 a larval organ1 which is cast off in later transformation4 ,yet there still exist some very small ascidi 7,appendicularia7 which do not become transformed and attached1 but which through life swim about freely in the sea by means of their rudder-tail4 ,the ontogenetic facts which are systematically represented on ,plate ,,xii4 and which were first discovered in #ahfg1 deserve the greatest attention1 and1 indeed1 cannot be too highly estimated4 ,they fill up the gap which1 according to the opinion of older zoologists existed between the vertebrate and the so-called 8invertebrate0 animals4 ,this gap was universally regarded as so important and so undeniable1 that even eminent zoologists1 who were not disinclined to adopt the theory of descent1 saw in this gap one of the chief obstacles against it4 ,now that the ontogeny of the amphioxus and the ascidia has set this obstacle completely aside1 we are for the first time enabled to trace the pedigree of man beyond the amphioxus into the many-branching tribe of 8invertebrate0 worms1 from which all the other higher animal tribes have originated4 ,if our speculative philosophers1 instead of occupying themselves with castles in the air1 were to give their thoughts for some years to the facts represented on ,plates ,,xii4 and ,,xiii41 as well as to those on ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii41 they would gain a foundation for true philosophy--for the knowledge of the universe firmly based on experience--which would be sure to influence all regions of thought4 ,these facts of ontogenesis are the indestructible foundations upon which the monistic philosophy of future times will erect its imperishable system4 ,,plate ,,xiv4 7,between pages #bjf and #bjg1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,monophyletic1 or ,one-rooted ,pedigree of the ,vertebrate ,animal tribe1 representing the hypothesis of the common derivation of all vertebrate animals1 and the historical development of their different classes during the palontological periods of the earth's history4 7,compare ,chapter ,,xx4 vol4 ii4 p4 #aib47 ,the horizontal lines indicate the periods 7mentioned in vol4 ii4 p4 #ad7 of the organic history of the earth during which the deposition of the strata containing fossils took place4 ,the vertical lines separate the classes and sub-classes of vertebrata from one another4 ,the tree-shaped and branching lines1 by their greater or lesser number and thickness1 indicate the approximate degree of development1 variety1 and perfection1 which each class probably attained in each geological period4 ,in those classes which1 on account of the soft nature of their bodies1 could not leave any fossil remains 7which is especially the case with ,prochordata1 ,acrania1 ,monorrhina1 and ,dipneusta7 the course of development is hypothetically suggested on the ground of arguments derived from the three records of creation--comparative anatomy1 ontogeny1 and palontology4 ,the most important starting-points for the hypothetical completion of the palontological gaps are here1 as in all cases1 furnished by the fundamental law of biogeny1 which asserts the inner causal-nexus existing between ontogeny and phylogeny4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #caj1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #bjj2 also ,plates ,,viii4-,,xiii47 ,in all cases we have to regard the individual development 7determined by the laws of ,inheritance but modified by the laws of ,adaptation7 as short and quick repetitions of the palontological development of the tribe4 ,this proposition is the 8ceterum censeo0 of our theory of development4 ,the statements of the first appearance1 or the period of the origin of the individual classes and sub-classes of vertebrate animals 7apart from the hypothetical filling in mentioned just now71 are taken as strictly as possible from palontological facts4 ,it must1 however1 be observed1 that in reality the origin of most of the groups probably took place one or two periods earlier than fossils now indicate4 ,in this ,i agree with ,huxley's views2 but on ,plates ,v4 and ,,xiv4 ,i have disregarded this consideration in order not to go too far from palontological facts4 ,the numbers signify as follows 7compare also ,chapter ,,xx4 and vol4 ii4 pp4 #bjd1 #bjf73--a4 ,animal ,monera2 #b4 ,animal ,amb2 #c4 ,community of ,amb 7,synamb72 #d4 ,ciliated ,infusoria without mouths2 #e4 ,ciliated ,infusoria with mouths2 #f4 ,gliding worms 7,turbellaria72 #g4 ,sea-sacks 7,tunicata72 #h4 ,lancelet 7,amphioxus72 #i4 ,hag 7,myxinoida72 #aj4 ,lamprey 7,petromyzontia72 #aa4 ,unknown forms of transition from single-nostriled animals to primval fishes2 #ab4 ,silurian primval fish 7,onchus1 etc472 #ac4 ,living primval fishes 7sharks1 rays1 ,chimr72 #ad4 ,most ancient 7,silurian7 enamelled fishes 7,pteraspis72 #ae4 ,turtle fishes 7,pamphracti72 #af4 ,sturgeons 7,sturiones72 #ag4 ,angular-scaled enamelled fishes 7,rhombiferi72 #ah4 ,bony pike 7,lepidosteus72 #ai4 ,finny pike 7,polypterus72 #bj4 ,hollow-boned fishes 7,closcolopes72 #ba4 ,solid boned fishes 7,pycnoscolopes72 #bb4 ,bald pike 7,amia72 #bc4 ,primval boned fishes 7,thrissopida72 #bd4 ,bony fishes with air passage to the swimming bladder 7,physostomi72 #be4 ,bony fishes without air passage to the swimming bladder 7,physoclisti72 #bf4 ,unknown forms of transition between primval fishes and amphibious fishes2 #bg4 ,ceratodus2 #bg;a4 ,extinct ,ceratodus from the ,trias2 #bg;b4 ,living ,australian ,ceratodus2 #bh4 ,african amphibious fishes 7,protopterus7 and ,american amphibious fishes 7,lepidosiren72 #bi4 ,unknown forms of transition between primval fishes and amphibia2 #cj4 ,enamelled heads 7,ganocephala72 #ca4 ,labyrinth toothed 7,labyrinthodonta72 #cb4 ,blind burrowers 7,ccili72 #cc4 ,gilled amphibia 7,sozobranchia72 #cd4 ,tailed amphibia 7,sozura72 #ce4 ,frog amphibia 7,anura72 #cf4 ,dichthacantha 7,proterosaurus72 #cg4 ,unknown forms of transition between ,amphibia and ,protamnia2 #ch4 ,protamnia 7common primary form of all ,amnion animals72 #ci4 ,primary mammals 7,promammalia72 #dj4 ,primval reptiles 7,proreptilia72 #da4 7,thecodontia72 #db4 ,primval dragons 7,simosauria72 #dc4 ,serpent dragons 7,plesiosauria72 #dd4 ,fish dragons 7,ichthyosauria72 #de4 ,teleosauria 7,amphicla72 #df4 ,steneosauria 7,opisthocla72 #dg4 ,alligators and ,crocodiles 7,prosthocla72 #dh4 ,carnivorous ,dinosauria 7,harpagosauria72 #di4 ,herbivorous ,dinosauria 7,therosauria72 #ej4 ,mstricht lizards 7,mosasauria72 #ea4 ,common primary form of ,serpents 7,ophidia72 #eb4 ,dog-toothed beaked lizards 7,cynodontia72 #ec4 ,toothless beaked lizards 7,cryptodontia72 #ed4 ,long-tailed flying lizards 7,rhamphorhynchi72 #ee4 ,short-tailed flying lizards 7,pterodactyli72 #ef4 ,land tortoises 7,chersita72 #eg4 ,birds--reptiles 7,tocornithes71 transition form between reptiles and birds2 #eh4 ,primval griffin 7,archopteryx72 #ei4 ,water beaked-animal 7,ornithorhynchus72 #fj4 ,land beaked-animal 7,echidna72 #fa4 ,unknown forms of transition between ,cloacals and ,marsupials2 #fb4 ,unknown forms of transition between ,marsupials and ,placentals2 #fc4 ,tuft ,placentals 7,villiplacentalia72 #fd4 ,girdle ,placentals 7,zonoplacentalia72 #fe4 ,disc ,placentals 7,discoplacentalia72 #ff4 ,man 7,homo pithecogenes1 by ,linnus erroneously called1 ,homo sapiens47 ,,plate ,,xv4 7,after page #cfi1 ,vol4 ,,ii47 ,hypothetical ,sketch of the ,monophyletic ,origin and the ,diffusion of the ,twelve ,species of ,men from ,lemuria over the earth4 ,the hypothesis here geographically sketched of course only claims an entirely provisional value1 as in the present imperfect state of our anthropological knowledge it is simply intended to show how the distribution of the human species1 from a single primval home1 may be approximately indicated4 ,the probable primval home1 or 8,paradise10 is here assumed to be ,lemuria1 a tropical continent at present lying below the level of the ,indian ,ocean1 the former existence of which in the tertiary period seems very probable from numerous facts in animal and vegetable geography4 7,compare vol4 i4 p4 #cfa1 and vol4 ii4 p4 #cae47 ,but it is also very possible that the hypothetical 8cradle of the human race0 lay further to the east 7in ,hindostan or ,further ,india71 or further to the west 7in eastern ,africa74 ,future investigations1 especially in comparative anthropology and palontology1 will1 it is to be hoped1 enable us to determine the probable position of the primval home of man more definitely than it is possible to do at present4 ,if in opposition to our monophyletic hypothesis1 the polyphyletic hypothesis--which maintains the origin of the different human species from several different species of anthropoid ape--be preferred and adopted1 then1 from among the many possible hypotheses which arise1 the one deserving most confidence seems to be that which assumes a double pithecoid root for the human race namely1 an ,asiatic and an ,african root4 ,for it is a very remarkable fact1 that the ,african man-like apes 7gorilla and chimpanzee7 are characterized by a distinctly long-headed1 or dolichocephalous1 form of skull1 like the human species peculiar to ,africa 7,hottentots1 ,caffres1 ,negroes1 ,nubians74 ,on the other hand1 the ,asiatic man-like apes 7especially the small and large orang71 by their distinct1 short-headed1 or brachycephalous1 form of skull agree with human species especially characteristic of ,asia 7,mongols and ,malays74 ,hence1 one might be tempted to derive the latter 7the ,asiatic man-like apes and primval men7 from a common form of brachycephalous ape1 and the former 7the ,african man-like apes and primval men7 from a common dolichocephalous form of ape4 ,in any case1 tropical ,africa and southern ,asia 7and between them ,lemuria1 which formerly connected them7 are those portions of the earth which deserve the first consideration in the discussion as to the primval home of the human race2 ,america and ,australia are1 on the other hand1 entirely excluded from it4 ,even ,europe 7which is in fact but a western peninsula of ,asia7 is scarcely of any importance in regard to the 8,paradise question40 ,it is self-evident that the migrations of the different human species from their primval home1 and their geographical distribution1 could on our ,plate ,,xv4 be indicated only in a very general way1 and in the roughest lines4 ,the numerous migrations of the many branches and tribes in all directions1 as well as the very important re-migrations1 had to be entirely disregarded4 ,in order to make these latter in some degree clear1 our knowledge would1 in the first place1 need to be much more complete1 and secondly1 we should have to make use of an atlas with a number of plates showing the various migrations4 ,our ,plate ,,xv4 claims no more than to indicate1 in a very general way1 the approximate geographical dispersion of the twelve human species as it existed in the fifteenth century 7before the general diffusion of the ,indo-,germanic race71 and as it can be sketched out approximately1 so as to harmonize with our hypothesis of descent4 ,the geographical barriers to diffusion 7mountains1 deserts1 rivers1 straits1 etc471 have not been taken into consideration in this general sketch of migration1 because1 in earlier periods of the earth's history1 they were quite different in size and form from what they are to-day4 ,the gradual transmutation of catarrhine apes into pithecoid men probably took place in the tertiary period in the hypothetical ,lemuria1 and the boundaries and forms of the present continents and oceans must then have been completely different from what they are now4 ,moreover1 the mighty influence of the ice period is of great importance in the question of the migration and diffusion of the human species1 although it as yet cannot be more accurately defined in detail4 ,i here1 therefore1 as in my other hypotheses of development1 expressly guard myself against any dogmatic interpretation2 they are nothing but first attempts4 ,,index4 ,a ,,abyssinians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,acaleph1 ii4 #ada ,aclomi1 ii4 #adh1 #aea ,acrania1 ii4 #aif1 #aih1 #bjj1 #bjd ,acyttaria1 ii4 #ea1 #fb ,adaptation1 i4 #ij1 #aef1 #bai ---- actual1 i4 #bbe1 #bca ---- correlative1 i4 #bda ---- cumulative1 i4 #bcc ---- direct1 i4 #bbe1 #bca ---- divergent1 i4 #bdg ---- indirect1 i4 #bbd1 #bbg ---- individual1 i4 #bbh ---- irregular1 i4 #bbi ---- monstrous1 i4 #bbi ---- potential1 i4 #bbd1 #bbg ---- sexual1 i4 #bcj ---- universal1 i4 #bca ---- unlimited1 i4 #bdi ,agassiz1 ,louis1 i4 #fa ,agassiz's conception of the universe1 i4 #fe ---- essay on classification1 i4 #fa ---- history of creation1 i4 #fc ---- history of development1 i4 #fd ---- idea of species1 i4 #fe ,albuminous bodies1 i4 #cca ,alg1 ii4 #ha1 #hb1 #hc ,alluvial system1 ii4 #ae ,altaians1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,alternation of generations1 i4 #bjf ,americans1 ii4 #cji1 #cah ,amnion animals1 ii4 #bjd1 #bai ,amniota1 ii4 #bjd1 #bai ,amb1 ii4 #ec1 #bgi ,amboidea1 ii4 #ec ,amphibia1 ii4 #bji1 #baf ,amphioxus1 ii4 #aih1 #bhe ,amphirrhina1 ii4 #bjc1 #bje ,anamnionata1 ii4 #bjd ,animal ,plants1 ii4 #add ,angiosperm1 ii4 #hc1 #aaa ,annelida1 ii4 #acc1 #adi1 #aea ,anorgana1 i4 #e1 #cbh ,anorganology1 i4 #f ,anthozoa1 ii4 #adc ,anthropocentric conception of the universe1 i4 #ch ,anthropoides1 ii4 #bgj1 #bge1 #bib ,anthropolithic period1 ii4 #ae1 #ag ,anthropology1 i4 #g ,anthropomorphism1 i4 #ah1 #ff ,ape-like men1 ii4 #bic1 #cjj ,apes1 ii4 #bda1 #bfh1 #bgj ,arabians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,arachnida1 ii4 #ahj1 #ahb ,archelminthes1 ii4 #adh ,archezoa1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,archigony1 i4 #ahc1 #cch ,archilithic period1 ii4 #h1 #ad ,arians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,aristotle1 i4 #ee1 #gf ,arthropoda1 ii4 #acb ,articulata1 ii4 #aai ,ascidia1 ii4 #aeb1 #bjj ,ascones1 ii4 #ada ,asterida1 ii4 #afd1 #aff ,atavism1 i4 #bjg ,australians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cad ,autogeny1 i4 #cci ,b ,b,r1 ,,carl ,,ernst1 i4 #aji ---- doctrine of filiation1 i4 #aji ---- theory of development1 i4 #bid ---- types of animals1 i4 #ec2 ii4 #aai ,basques1 ii4 #cbb ,bathybius1 i4 #ahd1 #cdd2 ii4 #ec ,batrachians1 ii4 #bjd ,bats1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfa ,beaked mammals1 ii4 #bcc1 #bci ---- reptiles1 ii4 #bbd1 #bbf ,belief1 i4 #i2 ii4 #cce ,berbers1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,biogenesis1 fundamental law of1 i4 #cji2 ii4 #cc ,biology1 i4 #f ,birds1 ii4 #bjd1 #bbf ,brachiopoda1 ii4 #aeg ,brain1 bladder of1 in man1 i4 #cjd ---- development of1 i4 #cjc ,bruno ,giordano1 i4 #bb1 #gj ,bryozoa1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,buch1 ,leopold1 i4 #ajg ,bchner1 ,louis1 i4 #aaj ,buds1 formation of1 i4 #aib ,c ,,caffres1 ii4 #cab1 #ccc ,calcispongi1 ii4 #adj1 #add ,cambrian system1 ii4 #i1 #ae ,carbon1 i4 #ccj1 #cce ---- theory of1 i4 #cce ,carboniferous system1 ii4 #aa1 #ae ,carus ,victor1 i4 #aaj ,catallacta1 i4 #ea1 #ei ,catarrhini1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,caucasians1 ii4 #cji1 #cba ,causa finalis1 i4 #cd1 #ge ,causal conception of the universe1 i4 #ah1 #gd ,cells1 i4 #ahg1 #cdf ---- formation of1 i4 #cdg ---- theory of1 i4 #cdf ,cell-kernel1 i4 #ahh ---- membrane1 i4 #ahh ---- substance1 i4 #ahf ,cnolithic period1 ii4 #ad1 #af ,cephalopoda1 ii4 #afj1 #afb ,chamisso1 ,adalbert1 i4 #bjf ,change of climate1 i4 #cfc ,chelophora1 ii4 #bdj1 #beg ,chinese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,chorology1 i4 #cea ,cloacal animals1 ii4 #bcd1 #bci ,cochlides1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,clenterata1 ii4 #acf1 #add ,clomati1 ii4 #adh1 #aea ,conifer1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,constructive forces1 i4 #ij1 #bec1 #ccg ,copernicus1 i4 #ci ,corals1 ii4 #adb1 #add ,coreo-,japanese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,cormophytes1 ii4 #hj ,correlation of parts1 i4 #bah ,cosmogeny1 i4 #cba ,cosmological gas theory1 i4 #cbc ,crabs1 ii4 #agd1 #agf ,craniota1 ii4 #aih1 #bjd ,creation1 centres of1 i4 #ceb ---- the1 i4 #h ,creator1 the1 i4 #fd1 #gj ,cretaceous system1 ii4 #ab1 #ae ,crinoides1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,crocodiles1 ii4 #bbc1 #bbd ,crustacea1 ii4 #agc1 #agf ,cryptogamia1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,ctenophera1 ii4 #adb1 #add ,cultivated plants1 i4 #acg ,curly-haired men1 ii4 #caj1 #ccc ,cuttles1 ii4 #afj1 #afb ,cuvier1 ,george1 i4 #ej ,cuvier's dispute with ,geoffroy1 i4 #hh ---- history of creation1 i4 #ei ---- palontology1 i4 #ed ---- idea of species1 i4 #ej ---- theory of cataclysms1 i4 #eh ---- theory of revolutions1 i4 #eh ---- types of animals1 i4 #ec2 ii4 #aah ,cycade1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,cyclostoma1 ii4 #bjb1 #bjd ,cytod1 i4 #cdf ,d ,,darwin1 ,,charles1 i4 #aca ,darwinism1 i4 #adi ,darwin's life1 i4 #acb ---- travels1 i4 #acb ---- theory of corals1 i4 #acc ---- theory of selection1 i4 #aej ---- study of pigeons1 i4 #ada ,darwin1 ,erasmus1 i4 #aah ,deciduata1 ii4 #bdj1 #bee ,deduction1 i4 #he2 ii4 #ceg ,democritus1 i4 #bb ,devonian system1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,diatome1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,dicotyl1 ii4 #hb1 #aab ,didelphia1 ii4 #bci ,differentiation1 i4 #bgj1 #bhc ,diluvial system1 ii4 #ae ,dipneusta1 ii4 #bjd1 #bab ,divergence1 i4 #bgj ,division of labour1 i4 #bdg ,domestic animals1 i4 #acg ,dragons1 ii4 #bbe ,dravidas1 ii4 #cjh1 #cai ,dualistic conception of the universe1 i4 #bj1 #ge ,dysteleology1 i4 #ae2 ii4 #cec ,e ,,echinida1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,echinoderma1 ii4 #afc1 #aff ,edentata1 ii4 #bdj1 #bed ,egg ,animals1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,eggs1 i4 #aij1 #aih ,egg of man1 i4 #aij1 #big2 ii4 #bgi ,egg1 cleavage of the1 i4 #aij1 #bii2 ii4 #bhj ,egyptians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,elephants1 ii4 #beg ,empiricism1 i4 #gi2 ii4 #cdi ,eocene system1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,ethiopians1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,explanation of phenomena1 i4 #bi ,f ,,ferns1 ii4 #hb1 #aja ,fibrous plants1 ii4 #hb ,final cause1 i4 #bb ,fins1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,fishes1 ii4 #bjf1 #bjh ,flagellata1 ii4 #ea1 #eg ,flat-nosed apes1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,flat worms1 ii4 #adh1 #aej ,flint cells1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,flowering plants1 ii4 #hb1 #ajh ,flower animals1 ii4 #adc ,flowerless plants1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,flying animals1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfa ,freke1 i4 #aai ,fulatians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cbj ,fungi1 ii4 #hb ,g ,,ganoid ,,fish1 ii4 #bjh1 #baj ,gastra1 ii4 #abg1 #abh1 #bha ,gastrula1 ii4 #abf1 #abg ,gegenbaur1 i4 #cab2 ii4 #agi1 #aic ,gemmation1 i4 #aib ,generation1 i4 #bji ,genus1 i4 #da ,geocentric conception of the universe1 i4 #ch ,geoffroy ,s4 ,hilaire1 i4 #hf1 #aaf ,germans1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,germ buds1 formation of1 i4 #aic ---- cells1 formation of1 i4 #aid ,gibbon1 ii4 #bgj1 #bge ,gilled insects1 ii4 #agd1 #agf ,gill-arches in man1 i4 #cjg ,god1 conception of1 i4 #gj ,goethe1 ,wolfgang1 i4 #hj ,goethe's conception of nature1 i4 #bb ---- discovery of mid-jaw bone1 i4 #hd ---- formative tendency i4 #ia1 #bec ---- idea of ,god1 i4 #ga ---- investigations in nature1 i4 #ha ---- materialism1 i4 #bc ---- metamorphosis1 i4 #ij ---- metamorphosis of plants1 i4 #hb ---- philosophy of nature1 i4 #ha ---- theory of development1 i4 #ib ---- vertebr of skull1 i4 #hc ,genochoristus1 i4 #aif ,gonochorism1 i4 #aif ,gorilla1 ii4 #bgj ,grant1 i4 #aai ,greeks1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,gregarin1 ii4 #acc1 #acd ,gynmosperms1 ii4 #hb1 #aji ,h ,,halisauria1 ii4 #bjd1 #bad ,hare-rabbit1 i4 #adh1 #bge ,heliozoa1 ii4 #fd ,herbert1 i4 #aai ,heredity1 i4 #agf ,hermaphrodites1 i4 #aif ,herschel's cosmogeny1 i4 #cba ,holothuri1 ii4 #aff1 #agb ,hoofed animals1 ii4 #bdi1 #beb ,hooker1 i4 #aai ,hottentots1 ii4 #caa1 #ccc ,human races1 ii4 #bif1 #cje1 #cjh ---- soul1 ii4 #cfa ,huxley1 i4 #aai1 #ade2 ii4 #bfh ,hybridism1 i4 #ade1 #baj1 #bge ,hydromedus1 ii4 #adc1 #ade ,i ,,ice ,,period1 i4 #cfg2 ii4 #ag ,indecidua1 ii4 #bda1 #bdi ,individual development1 ii4 #bic ,indo-,chinese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,indo-,germanic1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,induction1 i4 #he2 ii4 #ceg ,infusoria1 ii4 #acb1 #ace ,inheritance1 abridged1 i4 #bab ,inheritance1 acquired1 i4 #bac ---- adapted1 i4 #bac ---- amphigonous1 i4 #baj ---- conservative1 i4 #bjd ---- constituted1 i4 #baf ---- contemporaneous1 i4 #bag ---- continuous1 i4 #bje ---- established1 i4 #baf ---- homochronous1 i4 #bag ---- interrupted1 i4 #bje ---- latent1 i4 #bje ---- mixed1 i4 #baj ---- progressive1 i4 #bac ---- sexual1 i4 #bji ---- simplified1 i4 #bab ---- uninterrupted1 i4 #bje ---- laws of1 i4 #bjd ,inophyta1 ii4 #hb1 #ic ,insects1 ii4 #ahd ,insectivora1 ii4 #bda1 #bei ,instinct1 ii4 #cdc ,invertebrata1 ii4 #aah1 #aie ,iranians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,j ,,japanese1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,jews1 ii4 #cbc1 #ccj ,jura system1 ii4 #ab1 #ad ,k ,,kant1 ,,immanuel1 i4 #aja1 #cba ,kant's ,criticism of the faculty of judgment1 i4 #aje ---- mechanisms1 i4 #cg1 #ajb ---- philosophy of nature1 i4 #aja ---- theory of descent1 i4 #ajc ---- theory of development1 i4 #cba ---- theory of the formation of the universe1 i4 #aja ,knowledge1 posteriori1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #cde ---- priori1 i4 #ca2 ii4 #cdd ,l ,,labyrinthule1 ii4 #ea ,lacertilia1 ii4 #bbc ,lamarck1 ,jean1 i4 #aaa ,lamarck's anthropology1 i4 #aae2 ii4 #bfd ---- philosophy of nature1 i4 #aab ---- theory of descent1 i4 #aac ,lamarckism1 i4 #aej ,lamellibranchia1 ii4 #aeh1 #afj ,lancelet1 ii4 #aih1 #bjd1 #bhe ,laplace's cosmogeny1 i4 #cba ,laurentian system1 ii4 #i1 #ad ,lemuria1 i4 #cfa2 ii4 #cbf ,leonardo da ,vinci1 i4 #ef ,leptocardia1 ii4 #aif1 #bjd ,leucones1 ii4 #ada ,linnus1 ,charles1 i4 #ci ,linnus' classification of animals1 ii4 #aah ---- classification of plants1 ii4 #gh ---- designation of species1 i4 #da ---- history of creation1 i4 #dd ---- system1 i4 #dj ,lubbock1 ,sir ,john1 ii4 #bih ,lyell1 ,charles1 i4 #abf ,lyell's history of creation1 i4 #abh ,m ,,magyars1 ii4 #cji1 #caf ,malays1 ii4 #cjh1 #cae ,malthus' theory of population1 i4 #afa ,mammalia1 ii4 #bca1 #bci ,man-apes1 ii4 #bga1 #bge1 #bib ,marsupials1 ii4 #bcf1 #bci1 #bij ,matagenesis1 i4 #bjf ,materialism1 i4 #ce ,matter1 i4 #bb2 ii4 #cfj ,mechanical causes1 i4 #cd1 #gd ,mechanical conception of the universe1 i4 #ag1 #gd ,mechanism1 i4 #cg1 #ajb ,mediterranese1 ii4 #cjh1 #cba ,medus1 ii4 #adc1 #add ,mesolithic period1 ii4 #ad1 #bj ,metamorphosis of the earth's strata1 ii4 #be ,metamorphosis1 i4 #ij ,migration1 laws of1 i4 #cgc ---- of organisms1 i4 #ced ---- of the human species1 ii4 #cbe ---- theory of1 i4 #cfg ,mind1 i4 #bb2 ii4 #cfj ---- development of the1 ii4 #cdd1 #cfj ,miocene period1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,miracles1 i4 #bb ,molluscs1 ii4 #aee1 #afj ,monera1 i4 #ahd1 #cdc2 ii4 #eb1 #bgh ,mongols1 ii4 #cjh1 #caf ,monism1 i4 #cd ,monistic conception of the universe1 i4 #bj1 #gd ,monocottyl1 ii4 #hb1 #aab ,monoglottonic1 ii4 #cbg1 #ccc ,monogony1 i4 #ahc ,monophylites1 ii4 #dd ,monophyletic hypothesis of descent1 ii4 #dd ,monorrhina1 ii4 #bjc1 #bjd ,monosporogonia1 i4 #aid ,monotrema1 ii4 #bcd1 #bci ,morphology1 i4 #ba ,morula1 ii4 #abe1 #abg ,moses' history of creation1 i4 #cg ,moss animals1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,mosses1 ii4 #hb1 #ig ,mller1 ,fritz1 i4 #di1 #gc2 ii4 #agd ,mller1 ,johannes1 i4 #cab2 ii4 #bjc ,muscin1 ii4 #hb1 #ii ,mussels1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,myriapoda1 ii4 #ahb1 #ahd ,myxomycetes1 ii4 #ea1 #fj ,n ,,natural ,,philosophy1 i4 #gh ,negroes1 ii4 #cji1 #cac1 #ccc ,nemathelminthes1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,newton1 i4 #be1 #ajf ,non-amnionate1 ii4 #bjd1 #bji ,nubians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cbj ,o ,,cology1 ii4 #ced ,oken1 ,lorenz1 i4 #ie ,oken's history of development1 i4 #bic ---- philosophy of nature1 i4 #if ---- theory of infusoria1 i4 #ig ---- ---- protoplasm1 i4 #ig ,olynthus1 ii4 #ada ,ontogenesis1 i4 #bic ,ontogeny1 i4 #aj2 ii4 #cc ,orang1 ii4 #bga1 #bge ,organisms1 i4 #e1 #cbh ,organs1 i4 #e ,origin of language1 ii4 #cjb1 #cbg ,osseous fishes1 ii4 #bjh1 #baa ,ovularia1 ii4 #acb1 #acd ,p ,,pachycardia1 ii4 #bja ,palolithic period1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,palontology1 i4 #ed ,palissy1 i4 #ef ,palm ferns1 ii4 #hb1 #aaj ,pander1 ,christian1 i4 #bid ,papuans1 ii4 #caj1 #ccc ,paradise1 ii4 #cbe ,parallelism of development1 i4 #cac ,parthenogenesis1 i4 #aig ,pedigree of amphibia1 ii4 #bji ---- anamnia1 ii4 #bji ---- apes1 ii4 #bgj ,permean system1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,petrifactions1 i4 #ed ,phanerogama1 ii4 #hj1 #hb1 #ajh ,philosophy1 i4 #gi2 ii4 #cej ,phylogeny1 i4 #aj2 ii4 #cc ,phylum1 ii4 #db ,physiology1 i4 #ba ,pithecoid1 theory1 ii4 #cef ,placentalia1 ii4 #bdj1 #bdd ,planula1 ii4 #abf1 #ace1 #bha ,plana1 ii4 #abe1 #abg ,planada1 ii4 #bhj ,plasma1 i4 #ahe1 #ccj ,plasmogony1 i4 #cci ,plastids1 i4 #cdg ,plastids1 theory of1 i4 #cdg ,platyelminthes1 ii4 #adh1 #aej ,platyrrhini1 ii4 #bgj1 #bgb ,pleistocene system1 ii4 #ae ,pliocene system1 ii4 #ae1 #af ,polar man1 ii4 #cjh1 #cag ,polyglottal1 ii4 #cbg1 #ccc ,polynesians1 ii4 #cjh1 #cae ,polyphyletic theory of descent1 ii4 #de ,polyphylites1 ii4 #de1 #cjc ,polyps1 ii4 #adb ,polyp jellies1 ii4 #adc1 #add ,polysporogonia1 i4 #aic ,population1 number of1 ii4 #ccc ,porifera1 ii4 #aci1 #add ,primary mammals1 ii4 #bci1 #bij ,primary period1 ii4 #aa1 #ad ,primval alg1 ii4 #hb1 #hd ---- animals1 ii4 #aca1 #acb ---- history of man1 ii4 #bih ---- men1 ii4 #cbe ,primordial period1 ii4 #i1 #ad ,prochordata1 ii4 #bgh ,progenitors of man1 ii4 #bgi1 #bie ,progress1 i4 #bgg1 #bhc ,promammalia1 ii4 #bcc1 #bci ,propagation1 i4 #ahc ---- amphigonic1 i4 #aie ---- monogonic1 i4 #ahc ---- non-sexual1 i4 #ahc ,propagation1 sexual1 i4 #aie ---- virginal1 i4 #aig ,protamnia1 ii4 #bhi1 #bie ,protamb1 ii4 #eb ,prothallophytes1 ii4 #hj1 #ig ,prothallus plants1 ii4 #hj1 #ig ,protista1 ii4 #dh ,protophyta1 ii4 #hb1 #he ,protoplasma1 i4 #ahe1 #ccj ,protoplasts1 ii4 #ea1 #ec ,protozoa1 ii4 #aba1 #aca1 #acb ,purpose in nature1 i4 #ai ,purposelessness in nature1 i4 #bj ,r ,,radiata1 ii4 #abj ,radiolaria1 i4 #ccc1 #cga2 ii4 #fe ,rapacious animals1 ii4 #bdj1 #bfj ,recent system1 ii4 #ae ,reptiles1 ii4 #bbb1 #bbd ,rhizopoda1 ii4 #ea1 #fa ,ringed worms1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rodentia1 ii4 #bda1 #beg ,romans1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,rotatoria1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rotifera1 ii4 #aej1 #aeb ,round worms1 ii4 #adi1 #aej ,rudimentary eyes1 i4 #ac ---- gristle1 i4 #ab ---- legs1 i4 #ad ---- lungs1 i4 #bhi ---- mammary glands1 i4 #bij ---- muscles1 i4 #ab ---- nictitating membrane1 i4 #ac ---- organs1 i4 #ab ---- pistils1 i4 #ae ---- stamens1 i4 #ae ---- tails1 i4 #bhi ---- teeth1 i4 #ab ---- wings1 i4 #bhg ,s ,,sack ,,worms1 ii4 #bhc1 #bie ,sauria1 ii4 #bbb ,schaaffhausen1 i4 #aaj ,schleicher1 ,august1 i4 #ajh2 ii4 #cja ,schleiden1 ,j4 ,m41 i4 #aji ,science1 i4 #i2 ii4 #cce ,scolecida1 ii4 #bhc1 #bie ,sea stars1 ii4 #afd1 #aff ---- cucumbers1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,sea dragons1 ii4 #bjd ---- lilies1 ii4 #aff1 #agg ---- nettles1 ii4 #ada1 #add ---- urchins1 ii4 #aff1 #aga ,secondary period1 ii4 #ad1 #bj ,selection sthetic1 i4 #bfh ---- artificial1 i4 #aeb1 #agj1 #bed ---- homochromic1 i4 #bfc ---- medical1 i4 #agc ---- military1 i4 #aga ---- musical1 i4 #bfg ---- natural1 i4 #afh1 #bee ---- psychical1 i4 #bfi ---- sexual1 i4 #bfe ---- ,spartan1 i4 #agj ,self-division1 i4 #aia ,semites1 ii4 #cbb1 #ccj ,serpents1 ii4 #bbc ,sexes1 separation of1 i4 #bdd ,sexual characters1 i4 #bji1 #bfe ,silurian system1 ii4 #h1 #ad ,slavonians1 ii4 #cbc1 #cca ,snails1 ii4 #aei1 #afj ,soul1 the1 i4 #ga2 ii4 #cdc1 #cfb ,species1 i4 #da1 #bgc1 #cjd1 #caa ,specific development1 i4 #caa ,spencer1 ,herbert1 i4 #aai2 ii4 #cfg ,sperma1 i4 #aig ,spiders1 i4 #ahj1 #ahb ,spirobranchia1 ii4 #aeg1 #afj ,sponges1 ii4 #aci1 #add ,spores1 formation of1 i4 #aid ,stemmed plants1 ii4 #bhj ,straight-haired men1 ii4 #cji1 #cad ,struggle for life1 i4 #afa1 #beb ,synamba1 ii4 #abe1 #bhj ,systematic development1 i4 #cac ,system of animals1 ii4 #acb ---- apes1 ii4 #bgj ---- ,arabians1 ii4 #ccj ---- arachnida1 ii4 #ahb ---- ,arians1 ii4 #cca ---- arthropoda1 ii4 #acb ---- articulata1 ii4 #agg1 #ahc ---- catarrhini1 ii4 #bgj ---- clenterata1 ii4 #add ---- crustacea1 ii4 #agf ---- didelphia1 ii4 #bci ---- echinoderma1 ii4 #aff ---- ,egyptians1 ii4 #ccj ---- fishes1 ii4 #bjh ---- formations1 ii4 #ae ---- ,germans1 ii4 #cca ---- gilled ,insects1 ii4 #agg ---- ,grco-,romans1 ii4 #cca ---- ,hamites1 ii4 #ccj ---- hoofed animals1 ii4 #beb ---- human ancestors1 ii4 #bie ---- human races1 ii4 #cjh ---- human species1 ii4 #cjh1 #cji ---- ,indians1 ii4 #cca ---- ,indo-,germani1 ii4 #cca ---- insects1 ii4 #ahb ---- mammalia1 ii4 #bci ---- mankind1 ii4 #bie ---- marsupials1 ii4 #bci ---- men and apes1 ii4 #bga ---- molluscs1 ii4 #afj ---- monodelphia1 ii4 #bda ---- organisms1 ii4 #gd1 #ge ---- placentalia1 ii4 #bdj ---- plants1 ii4 #hb ---- platyrrhini1 ii4 #bgj ---- protista1 ii4 #ea ---- reptiles1 ii4 #bbd ---- ,semites1 ii4 #ccj ---- ,slavonians1 ii4 #cca ---- spiders1 ii4 #ahb ---- star fishes1 ii4 #afg ---- strata of the earth1 ii4 #ae ---- tracheata1 ii4 #ahb ---- ungulata1 ii4 #beb ---- vegetable kingdom1 ii4 #hc ---- vertebrata1 ii4 #bjd ---- worms1 ii4 #aej ---- zoophytes1 ii4 #add ,t ,,tail ,,of ,,man1 i4 #bhi1 #cjh ,tangles1 ii4 #fa1 #hb ,tartars1 ii4 #bji1 #cag ,teleology1 i4 #ajj1 #bia ,teleostei1 ii4 #bjh1 #baa ,teleological conception of the universe1 i4 #bj1 #ge ,tertiary period1 ii4 #ad1 #af ,thallophytes1 ii4 #hj1 #hb ,thickness of the earth's crust1 ii4 #ai ,thought1 ii4 #cfd ,thread plants1 ii4 #hb1 #ic ,tocogony1 i4 #ahc ,tortoises1 ii4 #bbe ,tracheata1 ii4 #ahb ,transition forms1 ii4 #cch ,transmutation1 theory of1 i4 #d ,treviranus1 i4 #ib ,trias system1 ii4 #ab1 #ad ,tuft-haired men1 ii4 #cjg1 #cji ,tunicata1 ii4 #aeb1 #bjj ,turbellaria1 ii4 #bhc ,turks1 ii4 #cji1 #caf ,u ,,unger1 ,,franz1 i4 #aji ,ungulata1 ii4 #bdi1 #beb ,unity in nature1 i4 #bb1 #cch ,uralians1 ii4 #cji1 #cag ,v ,variability1 i4 #bbj ,variation1 i4 #bai ,varieties1 i4 #bgf ,vertebrata1 ii4 #aie1 #bje ,vital force1 i4 #bb1 #ccd ,vitalistic conception of the universe1 i4 #ah ,w ,wagner1 ,andreas1 i4 #ach ,wagner1 ,moritz1 i4 #cfi ,wallace1 ,alfred1 i4 #ace ,wallace's chorology1 i4 #cfa1 #cgc ---- theory of selection1 i4 #acf ,well's theory of selection1 i4 #aej ,whales1 ii4 #bdj1 #bea ,will1 freedom of the1 i4 #aac1 #bcg1 #cfd ,wolff's theory of development1 i4 #bic ,woolly-haired men1 ii4 #cjg1 #cji ,worms1 ii4 #adg1 #aej ,z ,,zoophytes1 ii4 #acf1 #add ,,works ,,of ,h4 ,,alleyne ,,nicholson1 ,m4,d4 ,i4 ,text-,book of ,zoology1 for ,schools and ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4ej4 ,,ii4 ,manual of ,zoology1 for the ,use of ,students1 with a ,general ,introduction to the ,principles of ,zology4 ,second edition4 ,revised and enlarged1 with #bdc ,woodcuts4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4ej4 ,,iii4 ,text-,book of ,geology1 for ,schools and ,colleges4 #abmo4 ,half roan1 #a4cj4 ,,iv4 ,introduction to the ,study of ,biology4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #fe cents4 ,v4 ,the ,ancient ,life--,history of the ,earth4 ,a ,comprehensive ,outline of the ,principles and ,leading ,facts of ,palontological ,science4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #b4jj4 ,the ,quarterly ,journal of ,science4 8,a work by a master in the science who understands the significance of every phenomenon which he records1 and knows how to make it reveal its lessons4 ,as regards its value there can scarcely exist two opinions4 ,as a text-book of the historical phase of palontology it will be indispensable to students1 whether specially pursuing geology or biology2 and without it no man who aspires even to an outline knowledge of natural science can deem his library complete40 ,atheneum4 8,the ,professor of ,natural ,history in the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews has1 by his previous works on zology and palontology1 so fully established his claim to be an exact thinker and a close reasoner1 that scarcely any recommendation of ours can add to the interest with which all students in natural history will receive the present volume4 ,it is1 as its second title expresses it1 a comprehensive outline of the principles and leading facts of palontological science4 ,numerous woodcut illustrations very delicately executed1 a copious glossary1 and an admirable index1 add much to the value of this volume40 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street1 ,new ,york4 ,,works ,,of ,,henry ,,thomas ,,buckle4 ,i4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,by ,,alfred ,,henry ,,huth4 #abmo4 ,cloth4 8,the book deals with ,mr4 ,buckle less as a philosopher than as a man4444 ,mr4 ,huth has done his part well and thoroughly40--,saturday ,review4 8,mr4 ,huth has produced a striking and distinct portrait out of his materials1 and he has done his work with a simplicity and modesty which are highly effective40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 8,this work1 we think1 will revolutionize popular opinion about the philosopher40--,london ,daily ,news4 8,buckle was a man whose story must excite interest and rouse sympathy40--,scotsman4 ,,ii4 ,history of ,civilization in ,england4 #b vols41 #hvo4 ,cloth1 #d4jj2 half calf1 extra1 #h4jj4 8,whoever misses reading this book will miss reading what is1 in various respects1 to the best of our judgment and experience1 the most remarkable book of the day--one1 indeed1 that no thoughtful1 inquiring mind would miss reading for a good deal4 ,let the reader be as adverse as he may be to the writer's philosophy1 let him be as devoted to the obstructive as ,mr4 ,buckle is to the progress party1 let him be as orthodox in church creed as the other is heterodox1 as dogmatic as the author is skeptical--let him1 in short1 find his prejudices shocked at every turn of the argument1 and all his prepossessions whistled down the wind--still1 there is so much in this extraordinary volume to stimulate reflection and excite to inquiry1 and provoke to earnest investigation1 perhaps 7to this or that reader7 on a track hitherto untrodden1 and across the virgin soil of untilled fields1 fresh woods and pastures new1 that we may fairly defy the most hostile spirit1 the most mistrustful and least sympathetic1 to read it through without being glad of having done so1 or1 having begun it1 or even glanced at almost any one of its pages1 to pass away unread40--,london ,times4 8,we have read ,mr4 ,buckle's volumes with the deepest interest4 ,we owe him a profound debt of gratitude4 ,his influence on the thought of the present age can not but be enormous1 and if he gives us no more than we already have in the two volumes of the magnus opus1 he will still be classed among the fathers and founders of the ,science of ,history40--,new ,york ,times4 8,singularly acute1 possessed of rare analytical power1 imaginative but not fanciful1 unwearied in research1 and gifted with wonderful talent in arranging and molding his material1 the author is as fascinating as he is learned4 ,his erudition is immense--so immense as not to be cumbersome4 ,it is the result of a long and steady growth--a part of himself40--,boston ,journal4 ,,iii4 ,essays4 ,with a ,biography of the ,author4 ,portrait4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4jj2 half calf1 extra1 #b4ej4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,st41 ,new ,york4 ,herbert ,spencer's ,late ,works ,,on ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,society4 ,i4 ,the ,study of ,sociology4 #a vol41 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,ii4 ,the ,principles of ,sociology4 vol4 ,i4 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #b4jj4 ,,iii4 ,ceremonial ,institutions4 7,first part of ,vol4 ,,ii4 of 8,principles of ,sociology407 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #a4be4 ,,iv4 ,descriptive ,sociology2 ,or1 ,,groups ,,of ,,sociological ,,facts4 ,six ,parts1 in royal folio4 ,price1 #d4jj each4 8,of all our thinkers he is the one who1 as it appears to me1 has formed for himself the largest new scheme of a systematic philosophy1 and1 in relation to some of the greatest questions of philosophy in their most recent forms1 as set or reset by the last speculations and revelations of science1 has already shot his thoughts the farthest40--,prof4 ,,david ,,masson1 in 8,recent ,british ,philosophy40 8,his bold generalizations are always instructive1 and some of them may in the end be established as the profoundest laws of the knowable universe40--,dr4 ,,james ,,mccosh1 in the 8,intuitions of ,mind40 8,one who1 whether for the extent of his positive knowledge1 or for the profundity of his speculative insight1 has already achieved a name second to none in the whole range of ,english philosophy40--,westminster ,review4 8,the work 7#8,descriptive ,sociology'7 is a gigantic one2 its value1 when complete1 will be immeasurable2 and its actual influence on the study of sociology1 and help to that study1 greater perhaps than any book yet published4 ,it is a cyclopdia of ,social ,science1 but a cyclopdia edited by the greatest of sociologists40--,g4 ,w4 ,,smalley4 ,for sale by all booksellers2 or sent by mail1 post-paid1 on receipt of price4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 ,new ,york4 ,,important ,,works4 ,i4 ,the ,life and ,words of ,christ4 ,by ,,cunningham ,,geikie1 ,d4,d4 ,new cheap edition4 ,from the same stereotype plates as the two-volume illustrated edition4 #hvo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,this edition of ,geikie's ,life of ,christ is the only cheap edition that contains the copious notes of the author1 the marginal references1 and an index4 8,a work of the highest rank1 breathing the spirit of true faith in ,christ40--,dr4 ,delitzsch1 the ,commentator4 8,a most valuable addition to sacred literature40--,a4 ,n4 ,littlejohn1 ,d4,d41 ,bishop of ,long ,island4 ,,ii4 ,mind in the ,lower ,animals1 in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,w4 ,,lauder ,,lindsay1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 etc4 ,in two volumes1 #hvo1 cloth4 ,price1 #d4jj4 8,i have studied the subject of mind in other animals1 as compared with that of man1 for a series of years1 simply as a physician-naturalist4444 ,regarding the whole subject of mind in animals from a medical and natural-history point of view1 ,i have studied it from first to last without any preconceived ideas1 with no theory to defend1 support1 or illustrate4444 ,all that ,i attempt is to outline the subject of mind in the lower animals1 to illustrate their possession of the higher mental faculties as they occur in man40--,extract from ,introduction4 ,,iii4 ,memoirs of ,madame de ,remusat4 ,complete in one vol41 with an ,index1 #abmo1 #gdj pages1 cloth1 price1 #b4jj4 ,in three vols41 octavo1 paper covers1 price1 #a4ej2 or1 #ej cents each4 8#8,madame de ,rmusat's ,memoirs' will remain as the most finished picture of the ,napoleonic ,court in its outward glory and its inner pettiness40--,london ,athenum4 ,,iv4 ,memoirs of ,napoleon1 his ,court and ,family4 ,by the ,,duchess ,d',,abrantes 7,madame ,junot74 ,new edition4 ,in two vols41 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #c4jj4 ,the interest in the first ,napoleon and his ,court1 which has recently been so stimulated by the 8,memoirs of ,madame de ,rmusat10 has induced the publishers to reissue the famous 8,memoirs of the ,duchess d',abrantes40 ,these memoirs1 which hitherto have appeared in costly #hvo volumes1 are now published at a much lower price1 to correspond with the ,de ,rmusat #abmo volume4 ,the work at the present juncture will be read with attention1 especially as it presents a much more favorable portrait of the great ,corsican than that limned by ,madame de ,rmusat4 ,v4 ,the ,life of ,david ,glasgow ,farragut1 ,first ,admiral of the ,united ,states ,navy1 embodying his ,journal and ,letters4 ,by his ,son1 ,,loyall ,,farragut4 ,with ,portraits1 ,maps1 and ,illustrations4 #hvo4 ,cloth4 ,price1 #d4jj4 8,the book is a stirring one1 of course2 the story of ,farragut's life is a tale of adventure of the most ravishing sort1 so that1 aside from the value of this work as an authentic biography of the greatest of ,american naval commanders1 the book is one of surpassing interest1 considered merely as a narrative of difficult and dangerous enterprises and heroic achievements40--,new ,york ,evening ,post4 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,co41 ,publishers1 #a1 #c1 #e ,bond ,street1 ,n4 ,y4