,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,norway ,,david ,,allen ,,anderson1 ,ph4,d4 ,,richard ,g4 ,,badger ,,the ,,gorham ,,press ,,boston ,copyright1 #aiac1 by ,richard ,g4 ,badger ,all rights reserved ,the ,gorham ,press1 ,boston1 ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ,,author',s ,,preface ,this account is a descriptive statement of the organization1 management1 operation1 and efficiency of the public school system of ,norway4 ,the intent has been to consider only the more vital features1 those essentials which definitely shape the products of educational endeavor4 ,many topics of interest have been touched but briefly while others have been omitted altogether4 ,some attention has been given to pointing out good qualities of the ,norwegian schools and to indicating wherein we might improve our own4 ,the materials entering into the make-up of this dissertation were gathered during a summer and autumn devoted to travel and study in ,norway4 ,much time was spent in study at the ,university ,library in ,christiania and still more in the visitation of schools4 ,it was with pleasure that ,i availed myself of the opportunity to see the schools in operation4 ,i observed recitations throughout the entire program of study in every grade from the kindergarten to the ,university4 ,i also visited many special schools and other educational institutions both public and private4 ,further than this1 ,i was benefited by frequent conferences with the leading educators of the country and by almost constant associations with schoolmen1 patrons1 and students4 ,these personal investigations enabled me to become familiar with the spirit and work of the schools1 and they furnish background for a large part of the content of this treatise4 ,since no adequate account of the schools of ,norway is in print1 the authority for this work has been gained chiefly from school laws1 annual reports from the ,department of ,ecclesiastical and ,educational ,affairs 7chiefly statistical71 and the individual research referred to above4 ,it was my good fortune to be provided with official credentials as holder of a ,traveling ,fellowship for study in ,norway from the ,state ,university of ,iowa2 a commission to study the school system of ,norway from ,his ,excellency1 ,b4 ,f4 ,carroll1 the ,governor of the ,state of ,iowa2 and a letter of introduction to ,norway's educational executives from ,hon4 ,elmer ,ellsworth ,brown1 at that time ,commissioner of ,education for the ,united ,states4 ,these credentials had the effect of intensifying the already superior courtesy and obliging disposition of the ,norwegian officials and schoolmen1 who gave me free access to every facility for the pursuance of my work within the state and voluntarily offered their cooperation whenever ,i might desire it4 ,their gracious exemplification of the spirit of brotherly kindness made my work among them a constant delight4 ,i desire to express my gratitude to the ,norwegians wherever ,i traveled for the rare cordiality characterizing my reception among them and to acknowledge my obligations to ,j4 ,k4 ,qvigstad1 chef for ,kirk-og ,undervisningsdepartmentet2 ,knut ,johannes ,hougen1 byraachef for ,undervisningsvaesen2 ,a4 ,h4 ,raeder1 ,undervisningsraadets formand2 ,johan ,andreas ,johnsen1 ,skoledirektoren i ,kristiania stift2 ,otto ,andreas ,anderssen1 ,bestyrer og forstelaerer i det ,paedagogiske ,seminar for ,laerere red hoiere ,almenskoler1 for valuable suggestions and careful reading and criticism of the entire work in manuscript2 further to ,iowa's ,board of ,education and the ,graduate ,faculty of the ,state ,university of ,iowa for the appointment which made possible the investigation2 to ,professor ,f4 ,e4 ,bolton1 who first suggested that ,i make the study and who has constantly been to me a wise counsellor and a willing co-operator2 and finally to my wife who1 through all1 has been both critic and companion4 ,,david ,,allen ,,anderson4 ,the ,state ,university of ,iowa1 ,iowa ,city1 ,may1 #aiab4 ,,reviewer',s ,,preface ,kristiania den #af februar #aiab4 ,jeg har med stor fornoielse gjennemlaest ,mr4 ,david ,a4 ,andersons fremstilling av ,norges ,undervisningsvaesen og fundet den i all vaesentlige ting korrekt1 fuldstaendig og oplysende4 ,gjennem personlig iagttagelse1 samtale med kompetente maend og studium av den vigtigste litteratur er det lykkes forfatteren at danne sig en klar og noiagtig forestilling om de norske skolers ordning og saeregne arbeidsformer i deres historiske tilblivelse og nuvaerende vilkaar4 ,hans reflektioner og domme vedner om paedagogiske indsight og uavhaengig opfatning4 ,det er mulig at han nu og da er noget tilboielig til at domme vel gunstig om vore skoleinstitutioners effektivitet og vort folks interesse og offervillighed for at gjorc denne saa stor some mulig1 men dette for haenge sammen med at han ser tingene mot en bakgrund av amerikanske forhold1 som han onsker reformeret4 ,jeg har ikke havt anledning til at kontrollere i det enkelte de statistiske opgaver forfatteren meddeler1 men da disse er hentet ut fra officielle kilder tviler jeg ikke paa at de er rigtige4 ,,professor ,,dr ,,otto ,,anderssen1 ,principal of the ,pedagogical ,seminary annexed to the ,university of ,christiania4 ,,reviewer',s ,,preface 7,translation7 ,christiania1 ,february #af1 #aiab4 ,i have1 with great pleasure1 read through ,mr4 ,david ,a4 ,anderson's presentation of ,norway's school system and found it in all essentials correct1 complete and illuminating4 ,through personal observation1 conversation with competent men and study of the most important literature1 the author has succeeded in getting a clear and exact view of the ,norwegian school methods and characteristic forms of work in their historical development and present condition4 ,his reflections and judgments testify to pedagogical insight and independence of views4 ,it may be that now and then he is somewhat inclined to judge too favorably as to the efficiency of our institutions and the interest of our people and their readiness to sacrifice in order to make this efficiency as high as possible1 but this may be due to the fact that he views it against a background of ,american conditions1 which he desires to improve4 ,i have not taken occasion to verify in detail the statistical tables the author includes1 but since they have been gathered from official sources ,i do not doubt that they are correct4 ,,professor ,,dr4 ,,otto ,,anderssen1 ,principal of the ,pedagogical ,seminary1 affiliated with the ,university of ,christiania4 ,,editor',s ,,preface ,the most pressing problems of education at the present time are those of organization and administration of educational forces4 ,problems of method of instruction though important are entirely subsidiary1 for if all the people can be aroused to a desire for education and then be shown ways and means of attaining it the very desire for education will be the most important factor in learning4 ,no means of studying questions of organization and administration are so valuable as the comparative4 ,various studies of education in foreign countries have been made1 but there still exists a need for many more investigations4 ,norway has furnished a great many illustrious statesmen1 scientists and literary masters1 and is also a country abounding in men of a high type of valor1 physical prowess1 honesty and industry1 and consequently the educational ideals and practices which prevail there should be worthy of most careful consideration4 ,heretofore1 only fragmentary accounts of ,norway's educational system have been available in the ,english language4 ,at the writer's suggestion1 ,mr4 ,anderson made a trip abroad for the purpose of studying the system at first hand4 ,his intimate acquaintance with the language was a prime essential in acquiring an understanding through observation and reading4 ,that he has made an accurate interpretation is attested by the foreword of one of ,norway's eminent scholars and that he has made an interesting account will be conceded by all who peruse the pages4 ,it is hoped that many more studies of a similar nature will follow in the near future4 ,,frederick ,e4 ,,bolton1 ,state ,university of ,washington1 ,seattle1 ,april #h1 #aiac4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,background and ,organization ,i4 ,,introduction #ai #a4 ,history of ,norway 7brief sketch7 #ai #b4 ,geographical features #bb #c4 ,national characteristics1 aims and ideals #be ,,ii4 ,,differentiation ,,of ,,schools #bh #a4 ,primary school--rural and city #bh #b4 ,secondary #cj #c4 ,the ,university and other schools #cb ,,iii4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,pupils #cd #a4 ,primary--rural and city #cd #b4 ,secondary--middle school and gymnasium #da #c4 ,teachers' ,seminaries #da #d4 ,the ,university #da #e4 ,private schools #dc ,,iv4 ,,pupils #dd #a4 ,age in primary schools1 secondary schools and teachers' seminaries #dd #b4 ,comparisons with ,america in equipment and time spent in school #ej #c4 ,specialization #ea ,v4 ,,organization--,relation to state1 commune and city #ea #a4 ,the state department and its divisions #ea #b4 ,units of organization #ec #c4 ,the school board and school committees #ef #d4 ,city superintendent 7,inspector7 and ward principles 7,overlaererer7 #fj #e4 ,private citizens a factor #fa #f4 ,financial support of schools #fb ,,vi4 ,,buildings ,,and ,,grounds #fd #a4 ,general character of buildings #fd #b4 ,equipment #fd #c4 ,playgrounds #fi #d4 ,homes for principals and teachers #gj ,,vii4 ,,general ,,features ,,of ,,inner ,,organization #ga #a4 ,the teaching staff #ga #b4 ,plan of instruction #gb #c4 ,gymnastics #gd #d4 ,lunches #ge #e4 ,school discipline #gf #f4 ,attendance #gg #g4 ,health #gg ,,chapter ,,ii ,,teachers ,i4 ,,qualification ,,and ,,certification ,,of ,,teachers #gi #a4 ,general situation and tendencies #gi #b4 ,special teachers #hj ,,ii4 ,,training ,,of ,,teachers #ha #a4 ,introductory #ha #b4 ,seminaries--establishment and work #hc ,,iii4 ,,teachers' ,,official ,,titles #he #a4 ,in the several schools--significance #he ,,iv4 ,,teachers' ,,tenure ,,of ,,office #hf #a4 ,positions--,permanent and temporary #hg #b4 ,comparisons with conditions in ,america #hi #c4 ,changes in teaching staff 7with tables7 #hi ,v4 ,,teachers' ,,salaries #ia #a4 ,general statement #ia #b4 ,additional benefits #ib #c4 ,schedules 7with tables7 #id ,,chapter ,,iii ,,courses ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,state ,,schools ,i4 ,,introductory--,rise1 development1 and present form of the curriculum #if #a4 ,origin and evolution of the course of study #if a4 ,the early schools2 their work1 influence1 and development in ,norway #ig #b4 ,three sections of schools #ii ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primary ,,school #aja #a4 ,rural and city #aja #b4 ,schedules of courses #ajd a4 ,comparisons #ajf b4 ,subjects emphasized #ajg #c4 ,outline of subjects of instruction #ajh a4 ,religion #ajh b4 ,norwegian #aah c4 ,mathematics #abe d4 ,geography #abi e4 ,history #acd f4 ,nature study #aci g4 ,other subjects3 writing and drawing1 vocal music1 manual training1 gymnastics #adf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,middle ,,school #adi #a4 ,its standard1 aim1 and method #adi #b4 ,outline of subjects of instruction #aea ,,iv4 ,,the ,,gymnasium #afb #a4 ,outline of subjects of instruction #afb ,,chapter ,,iv ,,interpretative ,,conclusions #a4 ,the people and their ideals #aha #b4 ,facilities for education #ahd #c4 ,directing authority and management of schools #ahg #d4 ,teachers' training #aia #e4 ,the teacher's life #aie #f4 ,the curriculum #aig a4 ,religious instruction and education #aih b4 ,the classics #bja c4 ,physical culture #bjd d4 ,vocal music #bjf #g4 ,lines of instruction in the gymnasium #bjg #h4 ,co-education #baj #i4 ,the school year #bad #aj4 ,school lunches #bae #aa4 ,comparative attainments #bag #ab4 ,methods of instruction #bbj #ac4 ,continuity of effort #bbb ,bibliography #bbe ,index #bbi ,,the ,,school ,,system ,,of ,,norwa ,chapter ,i ,,background ,,and ,,organization ,i4 ,,introduction ,the history of mankind in ,norway covers a period of at least five thousand years and includes a great variety of interesting incidents and conditions4 ,the accounts of the earlier ages may be read only in archaeological formations1 while for more recent times1 these silent records are supplemented and enriched by traditions4 ,all such accounts are of deep interest and significance but only in a measure reliable4 ,we have no really authentic information regarding ,norway's political history until the reign of ,harald the ,fair ,haired 7#hfj-icj74 ,we do know1 however1 that1 previous to his establishment of the sovereign state of ,norway in #hgb1 the people had known only the rule of numerous petty1 warring earls and kings4 ,besides this1 the entire country had been subjected to the devastations of the vikings4 ,these sea robbers were the terror of all the coast countries in western ,europe and the ,british ,isles until about the year #ijj when sea robbery at home was abolished1 and the ,norsemen became colonizers1 migrating to surrounding islands1 the west and south of ,europe1 and probably ,america4 ,now when piracy began to decline the people rose to a higher plane of living1 and the prosperity attained through peace and industry was found to be the more desirable4 ,a long succession of kings1 some good and some evil1 ruled the land4 ,paganism was gradually overcome1 and about the year #a1jjj ,christianity was established4 ,from this time on1 for several centuries1 the country experienced only moderate visible progress though large gains were made in potential powers4 ,in #acha1 ,norway entered into a union with ,denmark and remained in large measure subject to her power until #ahad4 ,this period of more than four hundred years was a season of little good and of great hardships to the people4 ,their development received little attention1 the resources of the country and the cause of education were neglected1 and the masses were not recognized in a way that would tend to their enlightenment and progress4 ,the entire nation suffered from international difficulties as well as from oppression at home4 ,conditions remained unimproved and the latent powers of the people1 which had been accumulating for generations1 found no adequate means for expression4 ,when in #ahad the treaty of ,kiel1 sanctioned by the ,european powers1 forced ,norway into an unwilling union with ,sweden1 the ,norwegians revolted2 and1 in their attempt to liberate themselves1 adopted a constitution for their government4#a ,their revolt created ill feelings on the part of the ,swedes while the demands for complete sovereignty by ,sweden were resented by the ,norwegians4 ,the adoption of this constitution by the people of ,norway and their standing so tenaciously for its recognition are manifestations of the spirit which had been developing among them for centuries4 ,they believed that they were being imposed upon and stood firm for their rights4 ,they had felt the crushing hand of foreign rule1 they had observed the benefits of independence1 they had developed confidence in their own powers1 and now they were converted to the idea that the time for home rule was upon them4 ,civil liberty was their dream4 ,state rights came to be demanded4 ,their time to act in a decisive manner had come4 ,the people had grown into a nation deserving and in need of larger powers1 and their best advancement was in great measure dependent upon the exercise of these powers4 ,conditions then justified their demands and ,sweden1 appreciating the situation1 yielded1 acknowledged the independence of ,norway1 and agreed to govern in accordance with the newly adopted constitution4 ,on the other hand1 ,norway acceded to the demands of ,sweden in accepting the ,king of ,sweden as theirs also4 ,now for nearly one hundred years this union was maintained4 ,comparative peace and prosperity prevailed and the outlook seemed favorable for both nations4 ,sweden profited because of the new relations1 and ,norway gained in strength and power through her experience in individual initiative and governmental duties generally4 ,while the relations between the two countries were in the main friendly1 on various occasions ,norway felt that her rights were not always respected4 ,the people craved larger privileges1 more recognition among the nations of the world1 and the exercise of greater authority4 ,the functioning of capacities that had long lain dormant revealed to her the powers that were still latent4 ,norway became eager for absolute independence and these feelings rose to larger and larger proportions until desires became demands4 ,all the people were ready and offered their services1 their fortunes 7whether large or scant71 and their lives in the cause of freedom4 ,finally1 formally1 and without bloodshed1 the bonds uniting the two countries were severed in #aije and ,norway became an independent nation4 ,having briefly sketched the history of the country let us now turn our attention to its geography4 ,norway1 as we all know1 lies in the northwestern part of ,europe1 and measures over one thousand one hundred miles from north to south and from two hundred to nearly five hundred miles from east to west4 ,politically it is divided into eighteen counties 7,amter7 and the cities of ,christiania and ,bergen4 ,these counties are subdivided into six hundred sixty-six townships or communes 7,kommuner7 which are again divided into school districts or circles 7,kredser7 numbering in all five thousand nine hundred seventy4#b ,the area is approximately one hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles4 ,nearly all of it is made up of mountains which have no regularity in distribution1 a large portion of them being merely heaps of barren rock thrown up in conglomerate masses4 ,the valleys are as numerous and irregular as the mountains4 ,in them are lakes1 rivers1 and waterfalls1 their waters pure and clear as crystal4 ,the lakes differ greatly in outline and size4 ,the rivers in their windings dash furiously through precipitous1 rugged1 rocky channels1 or glide murmuringly through quiet valleys until they reach the fjords which appear like huge arms of the sea1 reaching deep into the earth and extending far inland4 ,the waterfalls vary from mere threads tinkling into tiny pools to great torrents gushing over dizzy precipices4 ,viewed in combination these features present an infinite variety of exquisitely beautiful scenes4 ,the climate of ,norway is greatly diversified owing to the wide range in latitude and the influence of the ,gulf stream4 ,in the northern part and on the highest mountains there are vast fields of snow during the entire year1 while in some of the sheltered portions along the western coast1 the climate is well adapted to the cultivation of some of the tropical plants4 ,it is1 of course1 essential that all plants that are cultivated be of rapid growth and of quick maturity1 since their seasons are quite short4 ,the atmospheric conditions are excelled nowhere4 ,few locations on the earth enjoy such freshness or provide so much mental and physical invigoration4 ,just the joy of living is more than recompense for all one's expense and trouble in going for a season into this summer home or nature4 ,being situated so far to the north the days of summer are very long while those of winter are extremely short4 ,this is noticeable even in the southern part of the country1 and as one goes farther north it is more and more striking until upon reaching the arctic circle the summer traveler has the unique experience of seeing the sun at midnight4 ,it is visible for weeks or months at a time1 according to whether one is near the circle or farther toward the pole4 ,for corresponding periods during the winter seasons the sun does not appear at all4 ,it should not be inferred that these sunless days are intensely dark and gloomy4 ,on the contrary1 they1 as well as the midnight sun1 have fascinations peculiar to themselves and are of deep interest1 especially to the novice in that latitude4 ,the glitter of the stars1 the glow of the moon1 and the palpitating brilliance of the northern lights1 combine with the light reflected from the vast snow fields and compensate in part for the absence of the direct rays from the sun4 ,the industries and occupations of the ,norwegians are dependent in large measure upon environing conditions4 ,nearly one-fourth of the country is covered with a heavy growth of timber2 hence1 lumbering affords a large part of the most profitable employment4 ,much of the mountainous land can be used only for pasturage and1 as a result1 dairying claims considerable attention4 ,only a very small portion of the area 7about four per cent7 is suitable for agriculture and owing to this limitation of opportunity1 comparatively few of the people are farmers4 ,their numerous fisheries supply cargoes1 and train loads of fresh and cured fish to the markets of the world4 ,fishing is1 in fact1 one of the most important industries1 and a large percentage of the wage earners of the country engage in it4 ,since the bulk of their travel and transportation is by water1 a great many become sailors4 ,a certain amount of manufacturing also is done1 and this provides another means of earning a livelihood4 ,the fact that nearly all of the people are gathered into cities1 towns1 and settlements along the coast1 is explained by a consideration of the activities and conditions herein set forth4 ,the people of ,norway are large of stature1 vigorous1 and alert in mind and body4 ,they have ever been undaunted in their efforts to overcome the great1 natural barriers to progress and to secure what they believed would be for their well-being4 ,toiling patiently and persistently1 suffering hardships on land and perils at sea1 they have developed the well-known characteristics of their sturdy race4 ,the long1 rigorous winters taught the people to provide amply for the needs of the future1 and they learned also the economy of making every endeavor count for permanency4 ,it has been and is still their aim and intent to so direct their efforts that their citizens may experience and enjoy not only in the present the best conditions made possible by the world's highest attainments1 but that later generations also may reap valuable benefits therefrom4 ,they realize that it is easily possible for today's provisions to supply the best for the present1 and at the same time to bless tomorrow and the next day and all the coming years4 ,the ,norwegians are as democratic in mind and disposition as any people of the earth4 ,they demand that the masses shall receive whatever benefit may come from prosperity at home1 from their relations with other nations1 or from legislation4 ,they advocate further that right now is the time to increase opportunities1 to multiply privileges1 to raise standards of living1 and to insure through conservative action a substantial basis on which the coming generations may safely build4 ,in accord with their aims and ideals they study the questions of education1 labor and capital1 and many others of vital interest to the people4 ,they seek out sources1 eliminating the undesirable and cultivating those of favorable growth and fruitage4 ,recognizing their own resourcefulness and ability1 the ,norsemen strive to gain for themselves and for their descendants material prosperity and true culture4 ,to these ends they foster educational advantages for all1 the development of the arts and sciences1 and the elevation of labor4 ,educationally1 they have ever been desirous of providing the best possible advantages4 ,during the latter part of the nineteenth century and the few years of the present one1 they have been in a position to put into execution a number of advance ideas which they have done without hesitation4 ,being observant of what other nations provide they have been ready to select from various sources whatever good they found1 to eliminate any undesirable features which revealed themselves1 and to strengthen the weaker points4 ,though they have been forced by conditions to assume and maintain a conservative attitude toward every new project or attempt at reform1 they have been also too democratic to permit tradition or precedent to bind them down or to hinder them in making changes in their school system1 which they were convinced by experience or study would be for their good4 ,in harmony with this they have been eager to make revisions where necessary2 to introduce new features1 which had been tested at home or abroad and found successful2 and to cast aside relics of the past1 unnecessary phases of work1 and those things which might be supplanted by materials of superior advantage or value to the people served4 ,they have become habituated to examining the new from every conceivable viewpoint1 to finding its foundations1 to testing its values1 and to weighing its effects4 ,when a thing has been thoroughly studied it is accepted or rejected according to whether it is adjudged desirable or undesirable for their use under existing conditions4 ,in their effort to answer the demands of the people and to supply their needs1 schools have been established according to local requirements4 ,that is to say1 every community enjoys school advantages1 and every child in the entire state is privileged to receive instruction for a certain number of weeks each year at the expense of the state4 ,all children are required to attend the schools of the state at least twelve weeks each year for seven years1 or to receive instruction elsewhere which is equivalent to the amount required4 ,in the more populous places higher schools also are provided for those who desire to take advantage of the opportunities afforded in them4 ,,ii4 ,,differentiation ,,of ,,schools4 ,it was early recognized by the ,norwegians that through the means of education1 better than any other way1 they could develop a people qualified to pursue the arts1 to cultivate the sciences1 to appreciate and enjoy the highest culture1 and to maintain and develop their noblest ideals of citizenship and richest conceptions of statehood4 ,having these objects in mind they endeavored to establish schools of instruction and training along every legitimate line4 ,beginning with the most essential they worked unceasingly1 providing additional worthy kinds of instruction as rapidly as possible1 until their efforts resulted in their present school system4 ,perhaps the most important feature of their work was the establishment of primary schools1 which furnish general education4 ,these schools provide seven years of elementary instruction for children between the ages of seven and fourteen years1 and are literally the people's schools 7,folkeskoler74 ,the law requires that pupils must be regular in attendance1 and that parents1 who fail to have their children in school in harmony with the provisions of the law1 be fined according to the seriousness and extent of the offense4 ,it is further provided that these schools shall be in operation for at least twelve weeks in the year1 and that this time may be extended according to local demands or needs4 ,as a matter of fact1 nearly all of them in the cities and many of them in the country operate forty weeks per year4 ,as a consequence of liberal provisions and enforced regulations1 ,norway has achieved an eminent place educationally among the nations of the world4 ,in the rural sections primary schools are held in comfortable1 well equipped1 and conveniently located schoolhouses and are taught by competent teachers who live near by in homes provided for them4 ,in a few remote1 rugged sections of the country1 where children are few and scattering or where locations accessible to all cannot be found1 they have no fixed schools1 but instead what are termed ambulatory schools 7,omgangskoler74 ,there are no schoolhouses in these districts but the officials designate certain houses#c as the places where children go at stated times to receive instruction4 ,the teacher meets the children of the neighborhood in a given home and teaches them for a specified time1 passes to the next designated place1 and continues until his rounds are completed4 ,formerly1 a very large number of these schools existed1 but as roadways were extended or improved and the people became able to erect and maintain schoolhouses1 the demand for ambulatory schools decreased until now nearly all of them are supplanted by fixed schools4 ,in #ahcg1 ninety-two per cent of the children attending school in the country were taught in ambulatory schools1 while in #aijg this was the case with less than one per cent of them4 ,in all the cities and towns excellent educational advantages are provided4 ,usually their school year consists of forty weeks of six days each4 ,every provision is made for the welfare of the children2 excellent instructors are secured1 and the equipment for teaching purposes is of the best procurable4 ,furthermore1 no pains are spared in guarding the children from physical discomfort and immoral conditions or associations4 ,simultaneously with the development of the elementary schools secondary education moved along advance lines4 ,in #ahad1 when ,norway became an independent state there were but four of the higher classical 7laerde7 schools within her borders4 ,these were the historic cathedral schools 7,kathedralskoler7 which had been established for centuries4 ,as time passed1 other secondary schools were organized4 ,higher education was reorganized in #ahfi and again in #ahif1 when by act of the ,storthing secondary education was made to include the middle school and the gymnasium4 ,the enactment defines these schools and states their aim as follows3 ,the middle school is a school for children1 which1 in union with the primary school1 gives its pupils a complete1 thorough1 general education1 adapted to the receptivity of childhood4 ,the gymnasium is a school for young people1 which on the foundation of the middle school1 leads on to a complete1 higher1 general education1 which may also serve as a basis for scientific studies4 ,both middle school and gymnasium shall contribute to the religions and moral training of the pupils1 and it should also be their common aim to develop the pupils both mentally and physically into competent young people4#d ,the act requires that the middle school shall be no longer than four years1 and that the gymnasial courses shall be of three years' duration4 ,the gymnasia of ,norway take up the work where the middle schools leave off1 and provide three years of instruction which concludes with the examen artium4 ,the passing of this examination entitles the individual to become a student in the university4 ,previous to the time of entering the gymnasium the subjects of instruction are uniform for all2 here they branch into two or three lines1 any one of which may be selected by the pupil and followed to its completion4 ,the main divisions of the work are represented in the names of the courses--the ,real and the ,linguistic-,historical4 ,the latter of these is again divided in some schools1 one of its two lines including ,latin4 ,the ,real course of instruction is largely scientific while the ,linguistic-,historical1 true to its name1 embodies a large amount of language and history4 ,in case the course including ,latin is offered1 ,latin replaces some of the work in modern languages and history4 ,the middle school1 then1 is the second step in the educational ladder and builds upon the work previously done in the primary school4 ,no middle school is privileged to include work lower down than the sixth grade4 ,in other words1 the primary schools are the only ones which are authorized to present the work of the first five grades or years of school instruction4 ,the courses of study are so arranged that a child may pass from the primary school after completing the fifth grade and enter directly upon the studies in the regular four year course of the middle school4 ,on the other hand a pupil may continue in the primary school until its completion--seven years--and then enter a middle school and finish its requirements in three years4 ,while nearly all middle schools present a four year course there are a few which offer only three years of instruction4 ,in order to enter these latter schools the child must have finished the seven years of instruction in the primary schools4 ,middle schools are under the inspection of state officials and a uniform standard of work is required of all of them4 ,the middle school examination which marks the completion of the middle school course is exactly the same for all pupils in the state4 ,in any given year all who take the examinations write on exactly the same questions on a specified hour of a certain day4 ,the ,royal ,frederik ,university1 established by ,king ,frederik in #ahaa1 furnishes the summit of educational endeavor4 ,its five faculties--7#a7 theology1 7#b7 law1 7#c7 medicine1 7#d7 mathematics and science1 and 7#e7 history and philosophy--represent the best products of the country and maintain standards of efficiency paralleling the achievements of the day4 ,besides the five faculties already mentioned there are 7#a7 ,the ,practical ,theological ,seminary for the training of ministers and 7#b7 ,the ,pedagogical ,seminary 7affiliated7 for special training of teachers4 ,through the endeavors of the faculties and seminaries enumerated1 the necessary professions1 scientific organizations1 and philosophic societies are supplied with men of eminent qualifications4 ,the state also is supplied from the same source with individuals capable of attending to the affairs of state in a dignified and competent manner4 ,to aid prospective teachers and to maintain high professional standards1 ,norway early established a ,teachers' ,seminary in each of its six dioceses 7,stifter74 ,having made this ample provision for the training of teachers1 they were in a position to require a certain amount of professional preparation of all candidates for appointment to teaching positions4 ,adherence to this laudable principle has saved the state from an overflow of incompetent instructors4 ,while requirements were very low for a long time1 the increasing supply of qualified candidates for positions warranted successive shiftings of them to higher and higher standards4 ,at present1 the teachers of ,norway1 as a body1 rank among the best in educational equipment1 professional training1 and morality4 ,technical1 agricultural1 military1 and naval schools have been established in order to keep pace with the world's developments along these lines4 ,the technical school in ,trondhjem opened in #aiaj1 sets the requirements for admission as high as those at the university4 ,its work promises to be of unquestioned quality and its prospects are very bright4 ,the students at this school come chiefly from the scientific course offered in the gymnasia or from the several preparatory technical schools of ,norway4 ,there are many of these lower technical schools doing excellent work and some of them are modeled after ,american schools4 ,the work of the agricultural college and of the military and naval schools is more or less technical along their respective lines and meets certain requirements not elsewhere provided for4 ,when one notes the variety of schools maintained by the ,norwegian state1 it is evident that it is the intent to provide for its citizens a very wide range of educational advantages1 and at the same time to develop the capacities of young people until they are able to perform the offices of state and nation4 ,,iii4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,pupils ,the laws of ,norway are specific in their requirements regarding education1 and the people are at hand to provide the essential means for carrying out the demands4 ,it is required that in each city or district in the entire realm there shall be the necessary number of schools to provide instruction for all children of school age4 ,this is in answer to the law which makes a requirement of a certain minimum amount of education of all such children4 ,the primary schools are distributed in the cities1 villages1 and rural communes to suit the convenience of pupils attending4 ,other and higher schools are provided where most needed4 ,as is true everywhere the bulk of work is done in the primary schools4 ,rural and city schools have their own laws and government1 and are admirably adapted to the needs of their respective constituencies4 ,as would be expected1 the rural schools and the pupils attending them far outnumber those in the cities and towns4 ,there are in the country five thousand1 nine hundred and seventy schools attended by two hundred seventy-five thousand1 one hundred and fifty-five pupils1 while there are but sixty-one city school systems having an enrollment of ninety thousand1 one hundred and twenty-nine pupils4#e ,it is seen that there are about three times as many pupils in the rural primary schools as are found in the city primary schools4 ,the distribution and care of the city school pupils are1 however1 much larger tasks than providing for those in the rural sections4 ,in order to show conditions in a given city we insert ,table ,i which indicates the number of classes and pupils in the several grades in the nineteen primary schools of ,christiania1 and also gives the totals for the entire city4 ,boys and girls attend the same school1 but in this particular city they are generally separated into different rooms where they are taught by themselves4 ,the schools are co-educational but not generally coinstructional4 ,as the table will show1 some of them are coinstructional through a part of the course while only one follows this plan throughout its work4 ,,table ,i ,pupils in the ,primary ,schools of ,christiania in the month of ,april1 #aijh ,,number ,,of ,,classes ,,and ,,pupils ,,in ,,them ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- #ast ,grade #bnd #crd #dth #eth #fth #gth ,schools ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,cl4 ,pu4 ,a4 ,boys #c #aab #c #ii #c #aad #d #acf #c #aae #c #if #c #ie ,girls #c #ajg #c #aac #c #aaf #c #aje #c #aaa #c #aia #b #hc ,b4 ,boys #e #ahc #e #aid #d #aeg #d #afj #e #aii #e #agg #d #add ,girls #e #agh #e #ahd #e #aif #d #adj #e #ahh #d #aea #d #adi ,c4 ,boys #b #hi #b #ij #b #ajj #b #ih #b #ih #b #gi #b #fd ,girls #ba #ii #ba #if #ba #aja #ba #ie #ba #ig #ba #hi #b #gg ,d4 ,boys #c #aci #c #abc #d #adj #c #abg #c #ajh #c #ajc #c #ic ,girls #ca #aai #ca #acb #c #aag #ca #aci #c #jbh #c #aaj #c #aja ,e4 ,boys #c #aba #d #adi #c #aac #b #gg #b #gd #b #gb #b #fe ,girls #c #aae #d #aeb #c #aja #c #aaf #c #aae #b #gg #b #fj ,f4 ,boys #c #ach #b #ic #b #hc #b #fg #c #ih #c #ajg #a #cg ,girls #ca #abb #ba #ajb #ba #ajd #c #ajd #b #gg #b #gi #b #fe ,g4 ,boys #d #aea #c #adj #b #aai #d #ach #c #aba #c #ii #c #aje ,girls #d #adg #da #aeg #da #adh #d #acd #c #ajf #b #hj #c #ic ,h4 ,boys #d #adb #d #acf #c #aai #c #aae #d #aci #c #aji #b #ff ,girls #c #aca #c #acf #d #aca #d #adb #c #ajb #b #hj #b #fi ,i4 ,boys #c #if #c #if #c #hf #b #gc #b #gg #b #fh #c #ajb ,girls #b #gi #b #fh #b #hb #b #gi #b #fh #b #ga #c #ajb ,j4 ,boys #b #ie #b #ia #b #ij #b #hj #b #ha #b #gj #b #fda ,girls #ba #hg #ba #aji #ba #ih #c #ic #b #ff #b #fh #b #ffa ,k4 ,boys #d #aec #d #ade #d #adc #c #aah #c #abj #c #aba #c #hd ,girls #e #agj #da #aec #d #aci #d #aed #c #abc #c #ajc #c #ic ,l4 ,boys #d #adc #d #ade #d #acd #d #add #d #abi #d #acb #b #ge ,girls #d #aeh #d #adh #d #ada #d #acb #d #acf #d #aeg #d #aca ,m4 ,boys #g #acc #f #aaa #e #ia #b #ii #b #ajb #b #gj #b #gd ,girls #acf #ajh #aae #bb #abd #bb #aae #c #ig #b #gb ,n4 ,boys #d #aea #a #ajf #a #ajh #b #aac #b #he #b #aje #b #gb ,girls #c #aji #ad #abe #ac #abg #bb #ajh #ba #ajj #bb #ajf #b #fd ,o4 ,boys #aaa #ih #abh #aah #ajb #ie #eg ,girls #e #ij #e #ih #g #abf #f #ajd #e #hh #e #ih #d #gc ,p4 ,boys #c #abf #b #hc #c #aaf #c #ajc #c #ajc #b #fh #c #if ,girls #c #aac #c #aag #c #aje #c #aac #c #ii #b #hj #c #ajj ,q4 ,boys #d #aee #e #aib #e #afh #d #aeh #d #aee #d #adi #c #aaf ,girls #d #aed #ea #ahi #d #afc #e #aga #d #add #c #aah #b #aaa ,r4 ,boys #aed #aei #aca #aab #c #ajg #b #hc #c #ajd ,girls #ahf #abh #ada #aae #c #aaj #ca #aca #b #gg ,s4 ,boys #e #ahe #d #aea #d #aci #d #ace #c #aaa #b #ge ,girls #d #aei #e #agb #d #adf #c #ajh #d #adh #b #gi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------ ,total 7,classes7 #acd #aca #abf #abb #aae #ajd #ia #b ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- -- 7,pupils7 #ejcf #dhgh #dfgf #ddeh #dbce #cgec #cjii #dc ,average number of pupils per class #cg4f #cg4c #cg4a #cf4e #cf4h #cf4a #cd4a ,schools for ,abnormals ,boys #dg #ed #eg #df #ff #fe #cj #ai #da #g #ea #fa #b ,girls #ah #ec #da #cg #dg #cc #ah #i ,cl4--,class4 ,pu4--,pupils4 #a4--;,classes made up of children requiring individual attention4 ,total ,condensed table ,total ,classes ,pupils of all groups ,schools ,boys' ,girls' ,coeds4 ,boys ,girls ,classes ,pupils ,average for class4 ,a4 #bb #bj #gfg #gcf #db #aejc #ce4h ,b4 #cb #cb #abad #aaie #fd #bdji #cg4f ,c4 #ad #ad #f #fah #fdd #cd #abfb #cg4a ,d4 #bb #ba #c #hcc #hdj #df #afgi #cf4e ,e4 #ah #bj #fga #gcf #ch #adjg #cg ,f4 #af #af #c #fbc #fec #ce #abgf #cf4e ,g4 #bb #bd #b #hgc #hfe #dh #agch #cf4b ,h4 #bc #ba #hbf #gha #dd #afjg #cf4e ,i4 #ah #ae #eih #edi #cc #aadg #cd4h ,j4 #ae #af #c #eie #fjf #cd #abja #ce4c ,k4 #bd #bf #hhd #ice #ej #ahaj #cf4d ,l4 #bf #bh #ijb #ajjc #ed #aije #ce4c ,m4 #h #i #bb #fhj #gfg #ci #addg #cg4a ,n4 #ad #ac #ac #gdj #ghi #dj #adgi #cg ,o4 #cg #gji #fgg #cg #achj #cg4e ,p4 #ai #bj #fie #gbg #ci #adbb #cf4e ,q4 #bi #bh #ajic #ajej #eg #badc #cg4f ,r4 #h #h #ca #hej #hhh #dg #agch #cg ,s4 #bb #bb #gif #hab #dd #afjh #cf4e ,total number --- --- --- ----- ----- --- ----- ---- of ,pupils #ceb #cec #abj #adifg #aebji #hbe #cjagf #cf4f ,schools for ,abnormals #c #ci #chd #bef #db #fdj #ae4f ,in addition to the special features in this table1 to which we have already called attention1 it may be observed that the total number of boys'1 girls'1 and co-educational classes2 the total number of boys and of girls in attendance at each school2 and the average number of pupils per class in each school are also included4 ,the law limits the number of pupils in a class to thirty-five1 except temporarily or in case of stringency in financial conditions1 and in no case must there be more than forty4#f ,it is seen in the table that the average is above thirty-five in all but one school1 but it has been exceedingly difficult in the rapidly growing city of ,christiania to avoid congestion in the schools4 ,in only one of the nineteen schools does the general average come within the rule4 ,if they plead economic stringency then the averages of all fall within the limits4 ,now a large percentage of children continue their education after the completion of the elementary course4 ,in #aijg1 there were nine thousand1 eight hundred and ninety-five pupils in the accredited middle schools1#g and one thousand1 five hundred and ninety-three in the gymnasia4 ,about eighteen thousand others attended non-accredited secondary schools and those of still lower standards--evening schools1 continuation schools1 and various preparatory schools4 ,approximately two thousand were in technical schools and about one thousand in teachers' seminaries4 ,nearly every town of any considerable consequence has a middle school where pupils from the town and surrounding territory may receive its benefits4 ,the larger cities have1 in addition to a liberal supply of middle schools1 one or more gymnasia1 according to their size4 ,the gymnasia draw from a wider territory than do the middle schools because they are fewer and farther apart4 ,in addition to the six teachers' seminaries maintained by the state1 there are four private ones--ten in all4 ,table ,,ii indicates the aggregate attendance at these institutions and the number of those who passed the advanced examinations during the years designated4 ,the university1 of course1 draws its students from all over the ,state4 ,it has an attendance of one thousand1 three hundred or more1 about five hundred and fifty of whom are annually enrolled direct from the gymnasia4 ,these students represent the best products of the country and generally they work with earnestness and zeal4 ,,table ,,ii ,table ,giving ,attendance at ,teachers' ,seminaries and the ,number ,passing ,advanced ,examinations4 ,took ,examination4 ,year4 ,attendance4 ,male4 ,female4 ,total4 #aija-jb #gee #bjd #ace #cci #aijb-jc #ihj #aib #abi #cba #aijc-jd #iec #baf #ahd #djj #aijd-je #ijb #agd #aai #bic #aije-jf #iee #bjh #adg #cee --- --- ----- ,totals #iid #gad #a1gjh ,annual ,average #aii #adc #cdb ,private schools have played an important role in ,norway4 ,they have had a long and interesting history4 ,a number of them do part or all of the work represented by the state primary and secondary schools and teachers' seminaries4 ,most of them are located in the larger cities and receive recognition and patronage from some of the best homes in the land4 ,their influence upon education generally has been wholesome4 ,the valuable and attractive features introduced by them have operated like spurs on those under state direction4 ,the cooperative activity which has characterized the relationship between the two kinds of schools has resulted in the betterment of both and in the rapid advancement of educational ideals and activities throughout the state4 ,there are1 of course1 some fundamental differences existing between them4 ,the private schools charge a regular tuition in every grade of primary and secondary work4 ,the state primary schools are free and the tuition in its secondary schools is less than that charged in the private schools4 ,it is self-evident that private schools are dependent upon tuition receipts for both running expenses and profits1 while the state and communal schools are supported largely by public taxation4#h ,paralleling so nearly the work of the state schools1 yet being more expensive1 the private schools have been under the necessity of offering certain inducements in order to secure pupils4 ,they have been made attractive in location1 in buildings1 in equipment1 in the personnel of their faculties1 and in other ways1 and their efforts have been richly rewarded as a rule4 ,all classes of schools are subject to state regulations and inspection4 ,certain definite requirements must be met before a private school may even begin to operate1 and still higher standards must be maintained in order for the work to be accredited by the state4 ,standards of excellence are naturally set by state schools and the requirements fixed by the state inhibit the starting of inferior schools under the pretense of offering something just as good4 ,during recent years some of the private schools--those well-known and respected because of the nature of work and high standards of excellence maintained--have been given special recognition by the state1 and a few of them receive annuities4 ,when advancement in nature or improvement in quality of school work is rewarded by increase in patronage from the state1 zest is furnished in the contest for first recognition4 ,though the history of the rise1 development and influence of the private schools of ,norway1 together with a discussion of their present status and worth1 might furnish an interesting chapter1 it becomes necessary to let this slight mention suffice and to confine this work to a treatise of the schools instituted and directed by the state4 ,it may be added1 however1 that the work of the accredited private schools equals in quality and receives the same recognition as that done in state schools4 ,for example1 all graduates from the private gymnasia pass the same examinations for artium as those who complete the work of the state gymnasia and enter the university on exactly the same footing4 ,,iv4 ,,pupils ,the compulsory school laws which operate in ,norway determine the age 7seven years7 at which children shall enter school and the regularity of their attendance4 ,with this in mind1 it is readily understood that as a rule each class marches steadily forward1 one grade each year1 until the completion of the school life4 ,as a consequence there is but little variation in the ages of pupils doing the work of any certain grade1 and the proportion of pupils of normal age in the several grades is very large4 ,in order to illustrate definitely1 a concrete situation is presented in ,table ,,iii1 which shows the exact conditions existing at a certain time in one of their representative cities4 ,,table ,,iii ,transcriber note3 table split to fit ,table showing the age of pupils on ,april #cj1 #aijh1 in the several grades1 also the number in each ,grade and relation to normal age4 ,age and year of birth4 ,grade ,no4 of #f-g #g-h #h-i #i-aj #aj-aa #aa-ab #ab-ac #ac-ad #ad-ae #ae-af #af-ag ,classes #aijb #aija #aijj #ahii #ahih #ahig #ahif #ahie #ahid #ahic #ahib ,total #a #acd #bg #cjdg #agij #afd #aj #ejch #b #acj #cc #bgcj #agie #bfc #ah #dhci #c #abf #bb #befd #agcj #cai #cf #e #b #dfgh #d #abb #cc #bbhg #afbj #cic #gg #ad #a #ddbe #e #aae #cb #bjji #aebh #eaa #acf #f #dbbb #f #aje #a #ci #ahef #acdb #efi #hj #chgh #g #ij #bh #aehb #aabi #bca #c #cjjc ,x#b #b #bj #bb #a #dc ,t#a #hbd #bg #cjhj #dedb #deef #dcbc #ciif #chda #cecg #aifb #aci #c #cjahf ,per ct4 #aijh #j4a #aj4b #ae4a #ae4a #ad4c #ac4b #ab4g #aa4g #f4e #a4a ---- #aijg #j4a #aa4c #ae4c #ae4j #ac4e #ac4a #ab4f #aa4i #f4b #a4j -- --- #aijf #j4a #aj4i #ae4e #ad4f #ad4j #ac4d #ab4e #aa4f #f4f #j4h -- --- #aije #j4a #aa4b #ae4c #ad4g #ad4j #ac4f #ab4g #aa4i #f4d #j4a -- --- ,no4 of ,pupils of ,per ,cent4 of ,normal ,age4 ,normal ,age4 ,grade ,under ,norm4 ,over ,under ,norm4 ,over #a #bg #dhcg #agd #j4e #if4j #c4e #b #cc #debe #bha #j4g #ic4e #e4h #c #bb #dbid #cfb #j4e #ia4i #g4f #d #cc #cijg #dhe #j4h #hh4c #aj4i #e #cb #cecg #fec #j4h #hc4h #ae4d #f #ca #caih #fdi #j4h #hb4b #ag4j #g #bh #bhja #bcd #j4i #ia4a #h4j ,x#b #db #a --- #ig4g #b4c ,t#a4 #bjf #bgada #bhci ,per ct4 #aijh ---- ---- ---- #j4g #hi4i #i4d #aijg ---- ---- ---- #j4h #ij4i #h4c #aijf ---- ---- ---- #j4i #ia4h #g4c #aije ---- ---- ---- #a4a #ia4g #g4b #a4 ,primary schools of ,kristiana exclusive of schools for abnormal children4 #b4 ,classes requiring special individual attention4 ,this table speaks for itself and needs no explanation4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that in comparatively few instances do the ages vary more than two or three years1 and that six years is the widest difference in age to be found among all the pupils of any given grade of work4 ,furthermore1 we call attention to the fact that those above normal age in no year aggregated as much as ten per cent of the entire number in attendance4 #aj4a per cent represents the entire number outside the normal age--those above plus those below--for the year #aijh4 ,during the three former years the percentage was still smaller4 ,the reduction in numbers of pupils in the sixth and seventh grades is due in large part to the fact that so many pass from the fifth grade into the middle school4 ,the same conditions of uniformity exist in the secondary schools4 ,having entered at the age of seven and having spent five or more years in the primary school1 the pupils upon entrance to the middle school are generally twelve or more years old4 ,in some middle schools the average age of those entering will at times be less than twelve years4 ,this latter condition is usually due to some local situation or rule regarding age at entrance upon school work4 ,in order to follow the age question to nearer its limits we will present ,table ,,iv4 ,,table ,,iv ,table showing the ages of pupils in ,state and ,communal ,secondary ,schools4 ,middle ,school ,gymnasium ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,date ,trondhjem7,a7 #ab-a7;,c7 #ac-c #ad-b #ae-f #af-aj #ag-ah #ah-a #i-a-jf ,kristiansand7,a7 #ab #ac-e #ad-b #ae-b #af-c #ag-g #ah-c #aj-a-jj ,kristiansund7,b7 #ab-g #ac-e #ad-h #ae-e #af-b #af-i #ah-d #i-a-ji ,fredrikkstad7,b7 #ab-g #ac-d #ad-b #ae-b #ae-aj #af-aj #ag-h #g-a-jh ,lillihammer7,b7 #ab-b #ac-b #ad #ae-c #af #af-f #ah-a #g-a-jf ,larvik7,b7 #ab-b #ac-c #ad-b #ae-a #ae-aj #af-aj #ah-b #h-a-jc ,note ,a3 ,state secondary school4 ,note ,b3 ,communal secondary schools4 ,note ,c3 ,age in years and months4 ,attention is called to the step from the last year in the middle school to the first year in the gymnasium4 ,in several instances there is considerably less than a year of difference in age4 ,this is but another illustration of the tendencies of the sifting that goes on in the natural process of selecting the fittest4 ,those of keenest intellect are the ones who reach a specific requirement in least time and then proceed in the pursuit of advance education4 ,the ones sifted out are more generally those whose advance has been more difficult1 or those who have lagged behind others of their own age4 ,the absence of these tends to lower the average age in the succeeding grade4 ,similar conditions in emphasized form are in evidence when we study the ages of those who enter the university from year to year4 ,while the ages of those just entering the third and final year of the gymnasium are on the average more than eighteen1 the ones who enter the university the following year in ,september average nineteen years of age or a little less4 ,in addition to the tables showing the ages of pupils throughout the several grades of preparatory and secondary education1 the following one is inserted to show the average age of those in attendance at four of the teachers' seminaries4 ,the advance in age with advance of grade is not as regular here as in the other schools4 ,,table ,v ,table ,showing ,age of ,pupils in the ,teachers' ,seminaries at the ,beginning of the ,year1 #aijf-g4 ,average age,a in grades4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,holmestrand #ai-g #ba-c #bb-a ,levanger #bj #ai-h #ba-d ,hamar #ai-b #bj-b #ba-g ,stord #ai-f #ai-aa #ba ,note ,a3 ,age in years and months4 ,there is not as close correspondence between age or grade and scholarship in the seminaries as we find in the other schools4 ,the greater variation is due to several causes1 among them are the following3 7#a7 ,the law requires that a teacher must be at least twenty years of age4#i 7#b7 ,the previous education of those in attendance varies greatly4 ,many are desirous of getting as thorough and complete preparation as their circumstances admit1 while others are seemingly anxious to enter on the lowest standard admissible4 7#c7 ,teachers who are eager to improve their qualifications frequently return to the seminary after a few years of teaching experience in order to complete the course and prepare for the better class of positions4 ,comparisons between the educational equipment of the ,american youth and that of his ,norwegian cousin at any given age are exceedingly difficult to make4 ,we have not yet established any specific units or norms by which education may be measured4 ,we can make neither definite nor satisfactory quantitative or qualitative measurements of accomplishment4 ,however1 a careful analysis of the respective courses of study1 the qualification of teachers1 and plans of work1 supported by the testimony of those who have been teachers in both countries1 seems to warrant the statement that the completion of the gymnasial course of study in ,norway is comparable to the completion of the sophomore year of work in our ,american colleges and universities4 ,the average age of students is about the same in both instances4 ,the ,american children spend a less portion of the year in school than do the children in ,norway4 ,while in our schools we generally have but thirty-six weeks of five days each in a year1 inclusive of all regular and special holidays1 the schools of ,norway are in operation forty weeks of six days each1 exclusive of holidays4 ,leaving out any consideration of holidays1 the ,american school year usually amounts to one hundred eighty days1 while in ,norway they have two hundred and forty days of school4 ,in other words1 eight years of primary school and four years of high school in ,america represent only three-fourths as many days of instruction and study as are included in five years of primary school1 four years of middle school1 and three years of gymnasium in ,norway4 ,that is to say1 to provide the same number of days of instruction it would take sixteen school years in ,america to equal twelve in ,norway4 ,the specialization which characterizes the work of the students upon entrance to the ,norwegian university brings their study within much narrower limits than that of our ordinary juniors in college4 ,their general cultural education concludes with the taking of artium while ours usually continues throughout the liberal arts course in college or until the degree of ,bachelor of ,arts has been received4 ,a certain amount of specialization is common among our students during the later years of their college education1 but it covers a wider range than in ,norway and the greater portion of it is reserved for post graduate courses4 ,in ,norway the professional studies are taken up without any preliminaries immediately upon entrance to the university4 ,in the better professional schools of ,america1 one1 two1 or three years of collegiate work is required as a preparation for entrance4 ,i4 ,,organization--,,relation ,,to ,,state1 ,,commune1 ,,and ,,city ,the highest educational authority of ,norway is vested in the ,department of ,ecclesiastical and ,educational ,affairs 7,kirke-og ,undervisnings-,departmentet71 and the chief functionary in this department of government is a member of the ,king's cabinet 7,statsraad74 ,the work of the department is separated into two divisions1 one of which supervises the ecclesiastical activities and the other the educational work of the country4 ,this latter division is again separated into two bureaus1 one having charge of primary education and the other being in control of secondary educational affairs4 ,these bureaus perform the functions usually devolving upon such offices1 the work being largely clerical4 ,in addition there are the diocesan directors 7,stift ,direktorer7 bearing the immediate responsibilities in primary education1 and a state educational commission 7,undervisningsraad7 having large authority in secondary education4 ,next to the department itself the school directors have authority over primary education4 ,in fact the director has all but complete control in his territory even though the department is recognized as having the higher authority or powers4 ,the ,king's cabinet appoints seven directors for the six dioceses into which the state is divided2 two for the most northern1 because of its greater extent1 and one for each of the other five4 ,the directors are paid by the state and are amenable only to the state1 hence they exercise their powers in an endeavor to effect the best possible results educationally without fear or favor of local influences4 ,they act independently in their respective territories and do not constitute a committee in any sense whatever4 ,the commission having chief oversight of secondary education consists of seven men appointed by the ,king's cabinet4 ,they are chosen because of their efficiency in educational affairs without regard to the part of the country to which they belong4#aj ,they work always as a committee1 and as experts serve the state for the general welfare of secondary education4 ,the many privileges and duties exercised by this commission may be grouped together under the heads of inspection and supervision of secondary schools1 and arrangements for having examinations4 ,several of the men constituting this commission are at the same time rectors of leading secondary schools in the country4 ,in fact they are chosen because of their familiarity with and expertness in just such kind of work4 ,when it becomes necessary to seek advice in hygienic questions a physician of recognized ability is added to the commission4 ,his judgment and instruction are respected and adhered to very closely4 ,the rural communes are divided into school districts or circles 7,skolekredser74 ,each district supports and maintains a primary school with at least two divisions--an infant school 7,smaaskole7 for children from seven to ten years of age1 and a higher one designed for children from ten to fourteen years of age4 ,in districts where distances are great or roadways difficult1 two or more infant schools are provided4 ,companies operating one or more manufacturing establishments or industrial concerns1 and generally employing thirty or more laborers1 are required to provide a primary school for the children of the men in their employ4 ,when once started these schools are to be kept up unless the number of the employed is reduced below twenty4 ,in case there are other children who desire to attend such school1 they shall have the right to do so providing it does not interfere with the instruction of those for whom the school was established4 ,in return for this the school treasury receives from the communal treasury a yearly amount proportioned to the total cost for all pupils in the school4#aa ,while the law requires that instruction shall be provided six days in the week for at least twelve weeks each year1 it also grants to the communes the privilege of extending the time to fifteen weeks4,b ,it further provides the right to maintain six weeks additional1 voluntary instruction each year4#ab ,these privileges are generally taken advantage of by both communes and pupils4 ,the communes desire the extension of time for school1 and the pupils are very glad of the opportunity to attend the extra time1 even though their presence is not compulsory4 ,in fact the compulsory education law has been so rigidly enforced for so long a time that regular attendance has become habitual1 and the exact provisions and requirements of the law are rarely thought of by the pupils4 ,there is1 in reality1 no law requiring children to attend the schools provided by the state1 but a certain amount of education is obligatory4 ,it is mandatory that schools be maintained in all of the districts1 but individual children may receive their instruction in private schools if they choose1 so long as educational requirements are met from year to year4 ,pupils who belong to the schools are required to be in attendance regularly1 and children who receive instruction elsewhere than in the state schools must meet the requirements calculated to bring them to a certain educational standard by the time they are fifteen years of age4 ,failure in this subjects parents1 guardians1 and those providing schools for children of laborers in their employ to fine or imprisonment4#ac ,the work in the infant school includes or amounts to thirty lessons per week while in the higher one there are thirty-six lessons4 ,accordingly1 the pupils in the lower grades receive a minimum of three hundred sixty lessons a year1 and this number may be increased to four hundred fifty or six hundred thirty4 ,in the higher grades they have at least four hundred thirty-two lessons a year1 and if the time is extended they have five hundred forty or seven hundred fifty-six lessons a year4 ,each rural commune has its own school board 7,skolestyret7 consisting of a priest2 the chairman of the municipal council2 one or two teachers#ad chosen by the body of teachers2 as many other members 7men or women7 as the communal council deems it advisable to select2 and the rectors of higher schools1 if there be any1 under the supervision and inspection of the school board4 ,in the towns and cities the school board consists of at least one priest#ae2 a member of the city's executive council2#af as many other members chosen for three years as the municipal council deems it advisable to select1 at least half of whom must be chosen from among parents who at the time of election have children in the city primary schools2 one or two teachers2#ag and1 wherever the school board controls higher schools1 the rectors of such schools4 ,the members of the school board select their own chairman and act together as a committee or board4 ,among its more important duties are appointment of teachers and special committees1 provision of course of study with specific instructions regarding its presentation1 and the estimation of sums of money necessary to meet demands in the maintenance of the schools for the year4 ,this estimate of expenses is sent by the board each year to the communal council which has charge of the dispensing of finances for the commune4 ,the course of study1 including the plan of instruction and directions regarding the supervision of the schools as given by the board1 is minutely detailed and specifically stated4 ,it includes a list of studies to be pursued1 the manner and order of their presentation1 and the number of hours per week to be devoted to each subject2 an outline of arrangements for entrance1 promotion1 and leaving examinations1 with provisions for exemption therefrom wherever such is deemed advisable2 all necessary arrangements for vacations2 and other matters considered essential in the maintenance and carrying on of a school4 ,for each primary school1 or for the several schools1 using the same building1 the board appoints a committee of inspection 7,tilsynsutvalg74 ,this committee consists of a member of the school board 7chosen by the board71 who is chairman of the committee1 and three other members4 ,these latter members are chosen in the city by the parents of children attending the school1 and in the rural districts by such parents and other taxpayers4 ,a priest appointed by church authority is added to committees serving town or city schools4 ,this committee of inspection exercises constant oversight of the school1 keeping the board informed with reference to all matters requiring attention by that body4 ,by the consent of the communal council this committee may have an amount provided from the school funds for its use in carrying out its work4 ,the inspection is with special reference to the physical and moral well-being of those connected with the institution4 ,among the special objects of its endeavors may be enumerated the solving of all hygienic questions1 regular attendance1 good discipline1 and proper moral conduct4 ,the committee must also see to it that children of school age1 not in attendance at the state primary schools1 receive instruction in such quantity and of such quality as to meet all state requirements4 ,in general it is an outstretched arm of the school board1 feeling after the betterment of the common schools in every possible direction4 ,another committee 7called the school committee--,skoleraad7 is appointed by the school board for each of the primary schools in the city4 ,the duties of the two committees are in a way complementary4 ,while the committee of inspection is occupied in matters external in large measure1 the school committee exercises functions more pedagogical in nature1 though it also has general watch care over the affairs of the school4 ,if there be a superintendent of schools 7,skoleinspektor71 he is a member ex officio of the school committee1 and its chairman4 ,under other conditions the school board designates which of the appointed members of the committee shall be its chairman4 ,in towns where the number of teachers exceeds sixty1 the school board may direct that the school committee shall consist of the superintendent and the principals of the several schools as ex officio members and any determined number of other teachers selected by the body of teachers4 ,the elected members are to be male and female in proportion to their respective numbers on the teaching staff1 exclusive of those who are ex officio members of the committee4 ,the sexes separate into special meetings for the purpose of election1 each choosing its allotted number of representatives4 ,election is for two years1 one-half retiring each year1 the first time according to lot4 ,members whose terms expire are required to serve longer in case of re-election4 ,this school committee holds regular meetings1 according to its own appointment1 at which the members are required to be present4 ,furthermore1 the chairman may call additional meetings in cases of necessity1 and he is required to call special meetings when requested by the school board to do so4 ,a majority vote of the members is sufficient for the passage of any proposition4 ,while the duties of this committee are not specifically outlined1 it is intended that its work shall concern chiefly the internal workings of the schools4 ,its functions are mainly pedagogical in character as already stated and as evidenced in the following provisions in the law4 ,the school board shall permit the school committee to voice its opinions in every affair which concerns3 7#a7 the general supervision of primary schools1 7#b7 general provisions concerning regulations and discipline1 and 7#c7 text books and outlines of instruction4 ,in addition the committee is required to express itself regarding any matter relating to the good of the school when asked by the board for advice4 ,the school board may also order that there be a teachers' commission 7,laererraad7 for each school or for the several schools using the same buildings1 consisting of the teachers in the school4 ,the chairman of this committee is the superintendent of schools1 a school principal1 or other member1 according to the determination of the board4 ,the duties devolving upon this commission are in each case outlined by the board4 ,the superintendent of schools 7,skoleinspektor7 has general direction of all the primary schools in the city system4 ,his duties are similar to those of the superintendent in ,american towns and cities4 ,he takes the lead in directing the policies of the schools and exercises large powers in making them efficient4 ,he is provided with well-equipped offices1 generally in one of the school buildings1 where he and his clerks1 supplied by the school board1 do the greater portion of their work4 ,a principal or headmaster 7,overlaerer7 is generally placed in charge of each school4 ,his duties are comparable to those performed by ward principals in the ,united ,states4 ,while the superintendent is the superior officer and exercises general control and authority1 the principal has immediate charge of the work of the school4 ,he controls its activities in harmony with and under the direction of the superintendent1 consulting the wishes of the higher official and respecting his opinions4 ,the superintendent recognizes that for the one in immediate charge of a school to have his hands tied or his liberties too circumscribed means the hampering of the work2 hence1 he gives to the principals working under him wide latitude in carrying out their ideas4 ,for example1 if the principal is a believer in coeducation or1 on the other hand1 a staunch advocate of segregation of the sexes for instructional purposes1 he is usually privileged to carry his policy into execution in his school1 even though the views of the superintendent are not wholly in accord therewith4 ,throughout their work they seek each other's counsel and advice1 and cooperate successfully4 ,the private citizen in ,norway plays only an indirect part in school affairs1 yet his interests are conserved in various ways4 ,the local pastor1 who is a member ex officio of the school board1 generally guards the interests of the masses4 ,his influence and vote may be regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind4 ,the chairman of the municipal council1 who also is a member of the board by virtue of his position1 is indirectly the choice of the people4 ,the teacher or teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly always work in harmony with the public will4 ,the committee of inspection has a majority of its members chosen directly by vote of the people immediately concerned4 ,the press is free and educational movements are continually discussed in the leading papers4 ,further than this1 educational affairs are common topics of conversation1 being talked of on all occasions under various circumstances and conditions4 ,it may be said to their credit that those discussing these subjects do so intelligently and critically4 ,the masses are alive to the educational situation1 are intensely interested in their schools1 and are acquainted with the provisions of the law concerning them4 ,the people being so democratic in tendency and so very frank in the expression of their feelings and opinions1 naturally reflect public sentiment2 which because of being understood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater factor in legislative activities4 ,the primary schools receive their financial support from the state1 county1 and commune4 ,the state provides for city schools one-third of straight salaries1 which range between twelve hundred and fourteen hundred crowns for men1 and between eight hundred and nine hundred crowns for women2 two-thirds of additional salary paid because of long service to the limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five hundred crowns per year for women2 and one-third of salaries paid for positions requiring only part time1 for teaching by the hour1 and for teaching in continuation schools4 ,in certain cases where the treasuries are depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty-five per cent of teachers' salaries within the fixed limits mentioned above4 ,in the rural communes the grant received from the state amounts to forty-five per cent of the teachers' salaries1 and where finances are low this amount may be increased to sixty per cent4 ,the amount of this state grant is figured on the basis of salaries that do not exceed twenty-four crowns per week in the second or higher division1 and nineteen crowns in the first or infant division of the primary school1 except in the county of ,finnmarken where the bases may be respectively twenty-eight crowns and twenty-two crowns per week4 ,in each county 7,amt7 the county council provides funds for the following purposes3 raising teachers' salaries in case of long service1 erecting school buildings1 supplying teachers' homes1 paying substitute teachers1 purchasing apparatus1 relieving communes and municipalities where school expenses are disproportionately high1 and maintaining continuation and artisan schools4 ,whatever is required to defray the expenses of the primary schools1 in addition to state and county grants1 tuition1 receipts from school lands or holdings1 etc41 is furnished by the commune or municipality through its council4 ,the secondary schools are either state or communal4 ,the state schools are provided with grounds1 buildings1 and equipment by the communes in which they are located2 the remaining expenses are met by state grants1 tuition fees1 etc4 ,the expense of maintaining communal schools falls largely upon the communes4 ,the state furnishes one-third of the salaries in both classes of schools1 and all additional amounts paid to teachers because of long service4 ,while most of the secondary schools charge regular tuition fees1 all of them have funds which supply free scholarships to a number of pupils each year4 ,in some communes they have been able already to provide free middle schools1 and it appears at least possible that all state and communal schools may sometime be free4 ,the aim in financing the school system is to equalize the burden of expense as far as possible1 and to recognize1 at the same time1 the efforts of those directly concerned4 ,in order to obtain the best results1 authority has been strongly centralized2 school boards1 communal and county councils1 and state officials exercise large discretionary powers4 ,,vi4 ,,buildings ,,and ,,grounds ,the school buildings of ,norway are justly reputed to be the most magnificent1 best located1 and finest edifices of the country4 ,they are built of substantial materials according to attractive architectural designs1 and are provided with liberal equipment4 ,the larger buildings are usually constructed of stone1 brick and stone1 or brick and cement2 while the smaller ones are built of lumber and stone4 ,in the erection of buildings1 great care is exercised to make them spacious and permanent4 ,all materials used are selected because of their durability and suitability to purpose4 ,in order to guarantee the best hygienic conditions1 the law provides that buildings must meet the approval of experts in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes4 ,this means that the services of these experts must be secured in getting out designs for school buildings1 whether in the erection of new or the remodeling of old ones4 ,the school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves4 ,the newer ones are modern in every respect and1 of course1 have excellent heating systems4 ,those which have done service for several decades are usually heated by stoves4 ,the buildings are divided into rooms in such a manner that the daylight nearly always enters from the left or the rear of the pupils when they are seated at their desks4 ,this rule is disregarded only in rare cases4 ,during the short days of winter it is essential to provide artificial light4 ,in cities and large towns they use electricity for lighting the school buildings2 in the country or in small towns1 where the municipalities do not maintain any central lighting plant1 various devices are installed4 ,sometimes gasoline is used and again ordinary oil lamps are common4 ,an abundance of light of the best procurable quality is generally provided4 ,besides admitting light the outside windows are of use in providing ventilation for the school rooms4 ,they are opened wide during intermissions between classes1 so that when the children come in from their exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere nearly as pure and fresh as that out of doors4 ,in addition1 many schoolhouses1 especially those built recently1 have regular ventilating devices4 ,the class room furniture in ,norway1 like that used in many other ,european schools1 is about as primitive in design and lacking in attractiveness as anything found in the whole country4 ,its evolution surely has been greatly retarded4 ,in each room there is a small platform high enough to enable the instructor to see all his pupils with ease4 ,on this platform is a desk and a high chair in which the teacher sits most of the time while giving instruction4 ,the pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy lumber and attached to a common base4 ,this makes them clumsy1 and they appear very queer to one accustomed to the better designs now in use in some countries4 ,those of recent make are for but one pupil1 though older ones1 some of which are still in use1 accommodate three or four4 ,in construction the seat is generally a solid flat bench with a low back4 ,the desk has a slightly sloping top1 a small inconvenient shelf for books1 and a receptacle for pencils1 pens1 rulers1 and other articles used by school children4 ,the ,norwegians deserve commendation for the care exercised in the arrangement of seats and desks4 ,the distance and proportion between them are regulated according to scientific principles looking to the physical welfare of the occupants4 ,the bodily posture of children in school determines in large measure what it will be out of school4 ,far too little attention has been given the physical side of education1 and one of the important problems in connection therewith is the proper construction of schoolroom furniture4 ,in the smaller buildings1 classrooms have commodious cupboards for apparatus 7maps1 charts1 globes1 plates1 etc471 and various things with which the children work 7sewing materials1 exercise books1 etc474 ,while they have a liberal supply of excellent illustrative material and teaching apparatus and the best of facilities for storing it1 mechanical appliances for its display and devices for its convenient use are woefully lacking4 ,maps and charts are held in the hand or hung on a nail or other fixture in the room2 while globes and the like are placed on chairs or improvised stands4 ,in general the apparatus is awkward to manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost4 ,blackboards of proper size are very rare in the schools of ,norway4 ,as a rule the board is about three by five feet in size and fastened to a clumsy easel which elevates it so high that it is out of reach of the pupils4 ,to enable the children to use such a board a small platform is provided4 ,the child mounts the platform by means of a few steps and there stands and does his blackboard work4 ,in only one instance did the writer during his visits to the schools find what appeared to him to be an adequate amount of blackboard space4 ,this exceptional condition was in one of the primary schools where special equipment was installed for the instruction of children below normal intelligence4 ,the ample provision of blackboard here is proof of a recognition of its value1 and the situation may also be regarded as an indictment against the prevalent neglect in this line4 ,school room decorations are not as prominent as might be expected4 ,despite the facts that the whole of ,norway is picturesque1 that her artists are quite numerous1 and that the masses of her people are more than ordinarily appreciative of the finer phases of life1 very few paintings or pieces of sculpture adorn her schools4 ,true1 exceptions as to this rule of scant provision of the artistic may be found2 but1 as in all countries1 they quite generally fail to appreciate the educative values of art4 ,while1 traditionally at least1 the study and recitation rooms have been considered of prime and greatest importance in school buildings1 there are others1 accessory to them1 which in their effects are productive of quite as good results4 ,among them may be mentioned3 offices1 teachers' rooms1 libraries1 laboratories1 and other rooms for special purposes4 ,some of these are not provided in all schools1 but commonly all of them are found in the city school buildings4 ,the offices for rectors1 inspectors1 head masters1 etc41 are admirably arranged and handsomely appointed4 ,they are provided with desks1 cabinets1 chairs1 settees1 tables1 and other furnishings which add to convenience and comfort4 ,the rooms for teachers are equipped and furnished in a way just as suitable to their purpose4 ,in these they spend their vacant periods in study1 reading1 or in leisure1 according to their choice4 ,here1 too1 officers and teachers are served with luncheons in the middle of forenoon and afternoon sessions4 ,there are libraries in nearly all school buildings4 ,while many of them are small some are of large consequence4 ,the one in the ,christiania ,cathedral ,school numbers thirty thousand volumes4 ,this is one of the oldest and perhaps the largest library in any school of the country1 and it is regarded with considerable justifiable pride4 ,the laboratories are furnished in harmony with their traditional plan of instruction4 ,instead of having a supply of apparatus so that most or all of the pupils may be occupied simultaneously in laboratory experimentation1 they have but one set of instruments4 ,however1 they do furnish liberal quantities of materials for laboratory experimentation4 ,the teacher is the chief operator1 one or two pupils assist in the work1 and the other members of the class are onlookers4 ,where domestic arts are taught1 rooms are fitted up especially for the purpose4 ,stoves1 cooking utensils1 and many other necessary articles are at hand ready for use4 ,the efficiency of the work is in no wise hindered by lack of supplies4 ,in many instances teachers go themselves to the markets and purchase provisions needed for the day4 ,an earnest effort is made to combine theory and practice in proportions suitable to obtaining the best possible results4 ,some of the larger buildings have special rooms for the storing of apparatus and illustrative materials 7,anskuelsesmidler74 ,racks1 cupboards1 cabinets1 drawers1 cases1 and the like provide convenient means for preserving these supplies and of rendering them easily accessible4 ,gymnastic halls and lunch rooms will be discussed in another section4 ,the playgrounds are generally small1 but some of the schools have1 in addition to the grounds immediately surrounding the buildings1 athletic parks of considerable proportions4 ,the grounds about the school buildings are arranged with a view of securing from them maximum returns4 ,they are enclosed by high board or wire fence1 or by stone or brick and cement walls4 ,a heavy coating of gravel is usually placed on the ground in order to avoid the growth of vegetation or an accumulation of dust4 ,keep off the grass signs are not in evidence1 for rarely do they attempt to have grassy lawns4 ,they recognize the need and value of physical exercise in the open1 and provide means for it in connection with every school4 ,it is specifically required that all pupils go on to the playgrounds during the intermissions 7fri ,krarterer7 which come between all lessons4 ,while the children are at play one or more of the teachers are detailed to supervise the grounds1 while others are to patrol the hallways4 ,large roofs are put up under which the children play when the weather is not favorable to being in the open4 ,on rare occasions when the weather is bitter1 pupils may be permitted to remain indoors4 ,children whose health is extremely delicate are dealt with in leniency1 and some of them are permitted to remain inside regularly4 ,near to the school buildings1 generally on a corner of the grounds1 homes are provided for the head master or principal and the janitor 7,vagtmester74 ,sometimes the janitor and his family live in an apartment in the school building4 ,generally1 however1 a double house is erected1 one part for the principal and the other for the janitor4 ,these homes are furnished rent free to these men4 ,teachers in rural districts1 as a rule1 are supplied with a house and sufficient ground for garden and the pasturage of two or three cows4 ,these provisions materially reduce living expenses1 and1 in a way1 recompense for the low salaries received4 ,in one rural school the writer found three hundred and fifty pupils taught in two divisions--forenoon and afternoon sessions--by six teachers4 ,the principal had been in charge of the school forty-three years4 ,one portion of the school building provided a residence for him and his family4 ,they had a small garden2 a fruit orchard2 a few acres of land for pasturage and hay2 and a barn and sheds for cow1 pig1 and chickens4 ,there are many similar situations throughout the country4 ,this particular one lay just outside a small city1 and this fact accounts in part for the large number of pupils in attendance4 ,as a rule the homes for rural school teachers compare very favorably with the better class of homes in the surrounding neighborhood4 ,they have sufficient room1 are comfortable1 and generally satisfy the occupants4 ,the majority of rural teachers have such homes provided1 though only a few city teachers enjoy this favor4 ,in #aije1 two thousand1 eight hundred and twenty-six rural teachers had homes furnished them free of cost4 ,,vii4 ,,general ,,features ,,of ,,inner ,,organization ,most of the teachers in the rural primary schools are men1 while the majority of them in the city are women4 ,during the year #aijg there were four thousand1 one hundred and twenty-three male and one thousand1 four hundred and seven female teachers occupying regular positions in the rural schools1 and in the city their numbers were respectively eight hundred and twenty-eight and one thousand1 six hundred and six4 ,although the law makes no requirements as to sex1 except that in city schools there must be at least one master and one governess1 there are certain forces operative which almost equal edicts of law4 ,traditionally1 teachers in the rural schools are men and1 as previously stated1 homes are provided for them and their families4 ,appointments to teaching positions are permanent4 ,teachers remain in their places until death removes them or until they choose to retire on pension1 which is1 all too often1 long after they pass the time of their efficiency4 ,it is difficult to break with the old customs and hence the entrance of women teachers into the rural school positions has been slow4 ,in the cities the conditions are different4 ,there only a small percentage of the teachers have homes furnished them1 the number of teaching positions without supervising responsibility is large1 and the salaries paid to women are lower than those paid to men4 ,as a consequence the female teachers have found easy entrance into the city schools1 and at present they outnumber the men two to one4 ,women have been teaching since #ahfi1 and the people are convinced that their ability as teachers is equal to that of the sterner sex4 ,in the secondary schools1 also1 the majority of the instructors are men4 ,in the gymnasia practically all of them are men1 but in the middle schools there are many women teachers4 ,even though the ,norwegians recognize woman's ingenuity and efficiency in teaching small children1 they have not yet become converted to the idea that she is man's equal in the more advanced educational fields4 ,it seems probable that tradition is the chief hindrance to the entrance of women into teaching positions in the gymnasia4 ,in their plan of instruction there is much to commend and some things to criticise4 ,the teachers do a large amount of teaching1 but they also provide opportunity for the children to do a great deal on their own initiative1 so that they too may know the joy of discovery and feel the triumph of mastery4 ,the ,norwegian pedagogue uses the recitation period1 nearly always fifty minutes1 in an endeavor to impart information1 both directly and indirectly2 directly by straightforward giving1 and indirectly through cooperative mental activities4 ,while they feel the importance of direct instruction1 they see1 also1 the advantage in shifting a part of the responsibility to the pupils4 ,they recognize the fact that the child has ability1 and that by himself he is capable of finding and recognizing problems1 and of working them out to satisfying conclusions4 ,they appreciate that even a small child is able to carry out many educative activities with a minimum of direction from the teacher1 and that the development which comes from this self-direction and initiative is one of the most valuable ends of education4 ,the intent is that the class period shall be devoted to exercises which will furnish information and1 at the same time1 make the children independent and able to direct themselves4 ,though the ideals and aims are excellent1 the means for attaining them are not the best4 ,there is a certain inherited aloofness on the part of the instructor which robs both teacher and pupils of some of the values which come from closer association4 ,during the recitation hour the teacher nearly always occupies the high chair on the elevated platform1 except while using the blackboard or doing other demonstrational work4 ,my observations convince me that the teachers1 especially the men1 do not get down and work among and with the children as much as seems essential to the accomplishment of the greatest good4 ,now the discipline and character of recitations also deserve attention4 ,when a pupil is called upon to recite1 he is expected to pass to the aisle and there stand erect until the recitation is completed4 ,only in rare cases are children allowed to sit while reciting4 ,i have seen children only eleven or twelve years of age called to the front of the room to analyze and develop a problem4 ,the smallest children are required to give only short answers to questions1 but responses rapidly increase in length1 as age advances1 until they amount to minute and extended discussions of topics4 ,recitations lasting ten to fifteen minutes are not uncommon1 and the children become quite expert in the relation of facts and in the development of problems presented4 ,this method of procedure is perhaps all right for a certain class of children1 but timid boys and girls are sometimes embarrassed to the extent that they are unable to do credit to themselves1 their teachers1 or the lessons4 ,on one occasion ,i saw a boy who was so frightened in an attempt to stand and recite1 being required at the same time to look into the face of a complaining teacher1 that he was unable to say anything whatever4 ,the teacher1 a man of advanced age1 finally awoke to the situation1 and placing his hand on the boy's head1 talked to him about the lesson until he calmed the lad's fears and obtained a very satisfactory response from him4 ,in addition to classroom activities connected with mental growth1 considerable work is done looking to physical development4 ,gymnastic exercise is required of all children in primary and secondary schools1 excepting those in first and second grades and a few who are physically disqualified for it4 ,to provide for this work1 the city schools furnish large halls with excellent equipment1 and special teachers to give instruction4 ,a ,swedish system of gymnastics is in vogue throughout the country4 ,there seems to be no criticism against the system1 and the benefits testify emphatically to its efficiency4 ,the apparatus is simple and inexpensive1 but the variety of movements and the numberless combinations of them seem to answer every demand4 ,certain conditions and customs prevailing in ,norway make it necessary to serve lunches at the school buildings4 ,the morning sessions are long and the dinner hour is far later than noon--generally two or three o'clock4 ,furthermore1 many children of poor parentage come to school underfed4 ,opportunity to obtain a light lunch of nourishing food and a warm drink at about #aj3cj or #aa o'clock is an appreciated necessity4 ,hence most buildings have lunch rooms arranged and equipped according to local demands4 ,here1 in the secondary schools1 the family of the janitor furnishes rolls1 buns1 cakes1 cocoa1 coffee1 milk1 etc41 at a reasonable rate4 ,as stated before1 the teachers have lunches served in their own rooms4 ,some cities provide children in the primary schools with one meal of wholesome food each day of school during the winter months--generally from the middle of ,october until the first of ,may4 ,this is free to the needy children1 and others obtain it at first cost4 ,in ,christiania they have a central kitchen from which the city primary schools receive supplies4 ,this kitchen has a capacity for steam cooking1 ten thousand liters at a time4 ,only the best food is purchased4 ,this is carefully prepared and delivered every day in tightly sealed cans to the several schools where it is served hot4 ,the maintenance of this kitchen is in answer to recommendations made by a committee1 appointed by the school board1 after visiting various similar ,european institutions and studying carefully into their operations4 ,in equipment1 management1 and good results it is not surpassed in any city in ,europe or ,america4 ,in some of the schools1 hundreds of free meals are dispensed every day throughout the long winter4 ,during the year #aijh-aiji1 from ,october #ai1 #aijh1 to ,april #cj1 #aiji1 7one hundred and thirty-two days71 the ,christiania central kitchen furnished #faf1hba free meals and #gg1gcc meals which were paid for by children in the schools4 ,this work stands as a testimonial to the beneficence of the people whose circumstances enable them to maintain it4 ,the discipline of the school borders on the military order4 ,the pupils form in line and march in passing to and from classrooms and playgrounds4 ,while the work of instruction proceeds strict discipline is maintained4 ,before entering a classroom where a recitation is in progress1 one invariably knocks at the door1 whoever he is and whatever his errand1 and by the time he enters teacher and pupils are on their feet4 ,turning to the one entering1 they bow and continue to face him until he is seated1 which is a signal to them to sit4 ,should the visitor withdraw before the class is dismissed1 the pupils again rise to their feet and bow him out2 but1 if he remains until they are dismissed1 they bow to him before taking their departure4 ,every activity indoors and out of doors is closely supervised1 and the control exercised over the pupils is praiseworthy4 ,attendance at school is regular in all grades4 ,when children are absent for any reason the case is inquired into without delay1 and1 unless satisfactory excuse or explanation is forthcoming1 the truant officers are on hand to enforce regulations4 ,failure to comply with the laws regarding absence from school1 subjects parents or guardians of children to a fine of from one to twenty-five crowns4#ah ,very rarely is an enforcement of these laws necessary1 for the people are generally law-abiding and peace-loving4 ,being eager for development1 they gladly comply with educational provisions without any compulsion1 and regularity in attendance is the universal practice4 ,sickness is perhaps the most common excuse given for absence and1 since excellent health is characteristic of the people1 this is infrequent4 ,pupils are nearly always healthy1 vigorous1 and robust4 ,one of the chief points calling attention to this is the rarity of cases where glasses are worn4 ,in visiting schools ,i noticed that spectacled children were very few4 ,i was at first inclined to criticise what ,i interpreted to be neglect of the eyes1 but soon found that eyesight1 as well as the general health of the children1 was being carefully guarded4 ,every school has its physician whose duty it is to regulate sanitation and to remedy physical defects of children4 ,i ascertained that in some schools special examinations had been conducted for the testing of eyesight1 and results showed that very few of the pupils were under the necessity of wearing glasses4 ,among the causes contributing to this favorable situation may be mentioned a healthful climate1 regular drill in gymnastics1 proper lighting of school rooms1 good ventilation1 physical exercise in the open between successive classes1 and1 in general1 the maintenance of a high state of physical vigor4 ,the ,norse take justifiable pride in their physical development1 and they pay considerable attention to this phase of education4 ,consequently the children are able to attack the strenuous activities of school life with vim1 and mastery of the course of study is not a hardship4 ,chapter ,,ii ,,teachers ,i4 ,,qualifications ,,and ,,certification ,teaching is a profession in ,norway4 ,those following it have chosen it as their life work4 ,the people thus engaged deserve and receive the recognition1 confidence1 and esteem of the masses1 and they maintain the dignity of their calling4 ,as a class they rank high educationally1 morally1 and professionally4 ,with the advance in social ideals it has been necessary to raise the standards of preparation for teaching1 and1 as the years pass1 further changes will be required4 ,for a long time1 professional training has been demanded of every appointee to a teaching position1 and indications point to a rapid development of the quality of this training until every resource is operative4 ,the law requires that to be eligible for appointment to a regular teaching position in the secondary schools 7middle school and gymnasium71 one must have had a course in the university and special training provided in the pedagogical seminary4 ,this means that the candidate has completed3 7#a7 the twelve years of work in the primary and secondary schools1 where a wide range of instruction and general culture are provided2 7#b7 a course in the university 7four to seven years in length71 devoted to exhaustive research in the particular branches of study which are subsequently to be taught2 and 7#c7 the course of training given in the pedagogical seminary4 ,it is the aim and function of this seminary to provide for the university graduates who are to become teachers the most practical and complete professional training possible within the limits of time 7six months74 ,it is readily evident that excellence in educational equipment and intelligent insight into the business of teaching are among the accomplishments of the profession4 ,in fact1 mastery of the field to be taught and professional training in its presentation are requisites4 ,the certificates or diplomas issued upon completion of the preparatory work just outlined are the only credentials required of the ,norwegian teachers4 ,being issued by the state they have a standard of value which is uniform1 recognized1 and honored throughout the realm4 ,without these papers it would be folly to seek appointment to a fixed 7permanent7 post4 ,besides the regular corps of instructors occupying on full time in the general lines of instruction1 there are many special teachers devoting their energies along particular lines of work1 such as home economics1 drawing1 music1 gymnastics1 and manual training2 and still others who teach some of the regular branches of study only part time1 whose positions are not permanent4 ,special preparation is required in order to obtain positions in these specific lines of work4 ,,ii4 ,,training ,,of ,,teachers ,norway early recognized the value of specific training for the work of the teacher4 ,the experiences of other nations served as object lessons illustrating the good coming from the services of properly equipped teachers and the dangers of proceeding without such4 ,the state was eager to lay substantial foundations1 to conserve and develop every resource1 to build permanently and economically1 and to profit by the experiences of other systems4 ,consequently1 the people moved forward in a conservative manner and planned for the future as well as for immediate needs4 ,utilizing the strong points of other systems and adapting them to local conditions1 the state established six teachers' seminaries1 locating one in each of the six dioceses into which the country is divided1 so that they would be within easy access of the people attending them4 ,besides these state seminaries1 four private institutions1 having almost identical functions1 have been established and are flourishing4 ,the private seminaries are located at vantage points not too close to the ,state ,schools yet where they will be within reach of a large number of people4 ,the favorable location of these schools makes it possible for a large number of the attendants to live in their own homes1 while the large majority need be but a short distance from their homes4 ,the work of the teachers' seminaries is1 of course1 to provide special preparation for teaching in the schools throughout the nation4 ,their curricula are similar to those used in the secondary schools4 ,the chief point of difference between them is the attitude taken toward the subjects of instruction4 ,in the secondary schools the aim is general and in a large measure cultural1 while in the seminaries the attempt is always to present the lesson or subjects of instruction in such a manner that the pupils shall get both intellectual development and the correct method of presentation4 ,it is the intent that this experience shall help to qualify for the successful teaching of the subjects studied4 ,the work corresponds closely with that done in the normal schools of ,america or similar teachers' schools in other lands4 ,it is everywhere true that teachers teach as they have been taught4 ,the principle of imitation is illustrated clearly every day in every school room4 ,teachers1 like pupils1 follow example more closely than precept4 ,providing schools designed to fit people for the teaching profession have ideal teachers1 they will be able to turn out from year to year groups of teachers1 who1 imitating their masters1 both in the application of scientific principles of method and in the exercise of individuality1 will in turn become ideal teachers4 ,if the curriculum and teaching of the training college are rich and varied1 its products will be characterized by efficiency and resourcefulness4 ,on the contrary1 should the work of the school be narrow because of a cramped curriculum1 or on account of biased and shrunken ideals of the faculty1 the results will be unsatisfactory4 ,the teachers who go out from such an institution will be unequal to the tasks awaiting them--they will be unable to meet the situation in the educational field4 ,since it is a chief occupation of the training school to instill methods of presentation1 there is great danger of becoming mechanical1 machine-made1 or stilted in one way or another4 ,quite the opposite must be the nature and work of the teacher4 ,the teacher should be able to come down from the high platform and cooperate with the children2 to find the individual child and his interests and1 in a genuinely sympathetic spirit1 to direct those interests2 to discard set rules1 hard and fast lines1 and pet theories2 and to open up to each child a vision of the fields before4 ,in order to do these things the instructor must be thoroughly familiar with child life3 its nature1 mental and physical make-up1 processes of development1 conditions of growth and activity1 instincts1 and hopes4 ,he must also cherish and manifest a sympathetic attitude towards youthful tendencies and aspirations1 and be able to inspire the pupils to noble purposes4 ,the seminaries of ,norway1 like those of other nations1 fall short of some of the conditions of excellence that we yearn for4 ,they do not include a sufficient amount of professional training nor is that which is provided always the ideal type4 ,nevertheless1 an earnest effort is being put forth to approach these higher conditions as rapidly as possible4 ,the course of three years1 besides furnishing a valuable fund of instruction1 provides a large amount of work in observation and extensive experience in teaching4 ,the training in observation generally consists of work in connection with the state schools 7primary and secondary7 in the immediate vicinity of the seminary4 ,into these state schools the seminary pupils are permitted to go and observe the teaching of the regularly employed instructors as they present the different subjects in the curriculum4 ,after having observed teaching for some time and having carefully discussed class room procedure with their own teachers1 they are required to specially prepare and present some lessons under the close1 yet sympathetic scrutiny and supervision of their masters4 ,as time passes1 more and more of this practice teaching is assigned until proficiency is attained in the presentation of subjects to be taught in subsequent years4 ,while these schools do not incorporate into their activities all things that seem important1 it must be said to their credit that they have done a great service in qualifying teachers for the class of instruction which has already raised the masses to their present place of literary distinction4 ,besides the institutions providing teachers' training above referred to1 there was established in #aijg the ,pedagogical seminary4 ,this seminary is affiliated with the university in ,christiania but is not an organic part of it4 ,it was founded by act of the ,stortbing and is supported by the state4 ,the function of the ,pedagogical ,seminary is to provide professional training of an especially practical type for graduates of the university who intend to make teaching their profession4 ,the length of the course is six months4 ,instruction and training provided in this institution includes3 7#a7 lectures in hygiene1 psychology1 history of education1 and principles of education2 7#b7 observation of class instruction by masters1 whose teaching is the highest representation of the art in the city2 7#c7 discussions1 formal and informal1 general and analytic1 with the headmaster of the seminary concerning methods of instruction1 class conduct1 and school management2 and 7#d7 practice teaching under the supervision of masters whose criticisms are given in such frank and sympathetic manner as to make them invaluable4 ,as a rule1 those trained in the teachers' seminaries are employed in the primary schools4 ,the students who avail themselves of the advantages of a university education and follow it by the training provided in the ,pedagogical ,seminary generally become teachers in the secondary schools4 ,the seminary training in general is of such character that it may be put into use immediately upon entrance into the work of teaching4 ,it also renders vital and usable for purposes of instruction the information and intellectual development gained during the long-continued and intensive schooling preceding such training4 ,,iii4 ,,teachers' ,,official ,,titles ,throughout the school system of ,norway teachers are given titles according to the nature of the positions occupied4 ,in the primary school the man who does the supervising work 7in ,america known as superintendent7 is called the ,inspektor2 the head teacher or principal is termed the ,overlaerer2 and the other teachers1 male and female1 are spoken of respectively as ,laerer and ,laererinde4 ,in the middle school and gymnasium the titles are ,rektor1 ,overlaerer1 and ,adjunkt4 ,the ,rektor has the supervisory work and some teaching to do2 the ,overlaerer is one of the principal teachers who has been given the title and ranking1 chiefly because of fitness and long service2 and the ,adjunkt is a regular teacher who has served the school for five years or more and has received permanent appointment4 ,titles do not correspond strictly to educational equipment nor do they depend wholly upon term of service1 though both of these may be and generally are contributory factors4 ,for example3 positions in the middle schools and gymnasia are open only to those who have certain educational fitness2 the teachers with especially strong qualifications and superior ability are the ones most liable to receive early promotion to the higher class positions2 and1 when promotions are made1 the persons who have taught for a long time enjoy some advantage over those with but slight experience4 ,titles correspond more definitely to classes of positions occupied than to any other thing that can be named4 ,when an individual is appointed to a position carrying a title1 that designation is invariably used in connection with his name4 ,he is no longer ,john ,johnson or ,herr ,johnson1 but ,rektor ,johnson1 ,overlaerer ,johnson1 ,inspektor ,johnson1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,,teachers' ,,tenure ,,of ,,office ,the teacher's tenure of office in ,norway is very different from what we are accustomed to in ,america4 ,positions are of two kinds--permanent and temporary4 ,nearly all appointments in the past have been to permanent posts4 ,this means that the individual occupies his place without molestation or any hint of insecurity until he chooses to resign or until he reaches the age of retirement4#ai ,some appointments now are to temporary positions though generally they lead to permanent ones4 ,rarely1 if ever1 does a person who makes reasonable success in a temporary position fail to secure an appointment to a permanent post4 ,permanency in position has a number of well-recognized advantages4 ,security of situation gives to the teacher a release from the uncertainty which constantly harasses the minds of so many where frequent change of position is the rule4 ,a lasting appointment enables one to get a firm grasp on the local situation1 and to utilize without waste all the momentum accumulated while occupying in a particular place4 ,furthermore1 the teacher who feels settled in a position is able to establish a home1 and to become identified with the community and its interest4 ,since teachers continue for so long a time in a position1 they and their pupils become as well acquainted with each other as with members of a common family4 ,it is interesting to note how minutely a teacher knows the daily life and habits of his pupils4 ,while the relations are not always the most congenial1 they are known to be practically inevitable and impossible of escape so they each make the best of the situation and get the most out of it4 ,again1 when children know that it will be their lot to come under the tuition of a certain instructor who occupies a permanent post under state appointment1 they work faithfully and usually eliminate any criticising attitude4 ,in fact1 long terms of service tend to inhibit the criticisms of both children and parents which sometimes attend teachers who occupy positions but for a short time4 ,the situation conduces to a condition of harmony and cooperative activity4 ,the children instinctively feel the authority of the teacher4 ,they know that he has the support of local and state authorities1 and that they will cooperate with him in carrying forward his projects4 ,the teacher1 in turn1 recognizes his responsibilities in the premises and endeavors to occupy acceptably4 ,now it is just as true that there are some disadvantages to permanency of positions4 ,teachers are apt to become non-progressive and in some cases1 little more than fixtures4 ,change of environment stimulates progress and development4 ,variety in teaching experience broadens the capabilities and increases the usefulness of teachers4 ,in addition1 children need the touch and influence of many lives4 ,they receive greater inspiration because of coming in contact with the personality of a large number of teachers4 ,however1 too frequent change is wasteful4 ,it dissipates the energy of teachers and breaks the continuity of the work of the children4 ,where the permanency of positions is absolutely uncertain1 the teaching profession is transitory and dwindling4 ,only a few remain for long time in the work under such conditions4 ,many efficient school men leave the profession annually because of this discouragement4 ,at present1 the feeling appears to be general that permanency in position should be conditioned upon improvement in efficiency4 ,evidently a recognition of this principle is a basic cause underlying the increase in number of appointments to temporary teaching positions4 ,this procedure affords an excellent opportunity for weeding out the unfit4 ,at the same time it acts as a spur inducing growth and development4 ,progressive tendencies1 along with other qualifications1 are regarded necessary to appointment even to temporary posts1 and1 as implied before1 success in such positions is a prerequisite to appointment to permanent ones4 ,in ,america1 teacher's tenure of office is very short4 ,each year there are many changes in the personnel of teachers throughout the country4 ,here we have the extreme of uncertainty1 while in ,norway they go to the limits of certainty in teaching positions4 ,both these extremes are unfortunate4 ,could a golden mean be reached which would include proper incentives to and recognition of continuous self-improvement and a reasonable sense of security in permanent occupation1 the profession would call into its ranks a large and more efficient body of men and women1 and the schools would make greater and more substantial progress4 ,in order to illustrate the permanency of positions in ,norway ,table ,,vi has been arranged4 ,,table ,,vi ,table indicating ,retirement from ,teaching ,staff and ,reasons for ,retirement4 ,year #ahij #ahie #aijj #aije ,sex ,male ,female ,male ,female ,male ,female ,male ,female ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ,total number of positions #cida #aahg #ddjb #baaf #dfgj #bfac #dhfe #bhhe ,total number leaving #aag #ag #hh #bb #ajf #hi #aaj #ij ,vacated after a period of service from #a to #aj years #ai #aa #ba #ac #bd #fe #bj #ec #aj to #bj years #bf #d #aj #g #aj #ac #ai #ai #bj to #cj years #ch #a #ah #af #e #ac #aj ,over #cj years #cd #a #ci #b #ef #f #eh #h ,reasons for leaving ,death #cj #a #bd #b #cj #f #cb #aa ,retirement on pension #ci #c #dh #c #ec #ba #ei #bb ,change in position #i #c #b #d #d ,marriage #i #aa #dg #dh ,various others #ci #d #af #f #bj #ac #ae #e ,it is immediately apparent that the changes in the body of teachers are rare4 ,it is also evident that nearly all who leave the profession do so on legitimate grounds4 ,a few changes result from transfers in position1 a large per cent of withdrawals are retirements after extended periods of service1 and many vacancies are due to death4 ,fifty per cent or more of the women who retire do so on account of marrying1 a few die at their posts1 and many retire on pensions4 ,very few of the women teachers retire to enter other lines of work4 ,while the table does not indicate how much longer than thirty years some teachers remain in the service1 it may be added here that examples are not rare where individuals continue teaching for more than half a century4 ,in most cases teachers occupy the same position throughout their teaching experience4 ,v4 ,,teachers' ,,salaries ,the salaries received by teachers do not average high in ,norway4 ,many provisions are made1 however1 for the reduction of their living expenses4 ,all those who serve the school authorities in ,norway receive certain benefits appertaining to the positions they hold4 ,for example3 ,there is advance in salaries on promotions and after specified periods of service2 teachers are exempt from expense incident to particular offices2 school authorities send all official communications through the mail free of postage2 teachers receive pensions on retirement from positions2 the rural school teachers frequently receive1 in addition to their salary1 a house to live in and sufficient land for the pasturage of two or three cows1 and in towns and cities some of the teachers have homes provided1 or are allowed a certain amount per year for living expenses4 ,these and similar concessions and provisions are extended to the teachers according to enactments of the state1 individual communes1 or municipalities4 ,generally1 a regular schedule is made out by which salaries are governed4 ,table ,,vii indicates the salaries for different positions in eight cities of ,norway3 ,the table is made up from the salary schedules of typical cities of various sizes4 ,the values are in kroner 7one krone is practically the equivalent of twenty-seven cents in ,united ,states money74 ,we note that salaries are medium in the beginning1 and that they increase at regular intervals until certain limits are reached4 ,when we consider these limiting salaries1 the long service generally rendered at the highest rate1 certainty of position1 and the pension to be received upon retirement1 we are prone to admit that the advantages are not altogether in favor of the higher salaries paid in our ,american schools4 ,true1 the ,american teacher generally receives larger returns in dollars and cents1 but the ,norwegian pedagogue is less mercenary than his ,american cousin4 ,he is satisfied when his wants and those of his family are liberally provided for4 ,his life is not strenuous4 ,it is happy and filled with the joys of service and the companionship of youthful souls4 ,anxieties are in large measure overcome by the assurance that the state will provide necessities when the time for retirement comes4 ,pensions are graduated according to individual necessity as well as with reference to position1 term of service1 and salary at the time of retirement4 ,,table ,,vii ,schedule of ,salaries paid to ,teachers in the ,primary ,schools of eight cities in ,norway4#bj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,salary ,after 7in ,kr47 ---------------------------------- ,begin'ng #c #e #f #i #aj #ab #ae ,city ,position ,salary yrs4 yrs4 yrs4 yrs4 yrs4 yrs4 yrs4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- #a4 ,christiania ,overlaerer #cjjj #cdjj #cgjj #djjj ,laerer1 h4g4 #cjjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #afjj #ahjj #bajj #bdjj #bgjj #cjjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #agjj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #aajj #abjj #acjj #adjj #aejj #agjj #b4 ,fredrikshald ,laerer1 h4g4 #bbjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #acjj #adej #afej #agej #aijj #bjjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #abej ,laererinde1 l4g4 #iej #ajjj #ajej #aajj #aaej #c4 ,sarpsborg ,laerer1 h4g4 #ahjj #bjjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #abjj #adjj #afjj #agjj #ahjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #aaej #abej ,laererinde1 l4g4 #ijj #ige #ajej #aaej #d4 ,fredrikstad ,laerer1 h4g4 #bajj ,laerer1 l4g4 #adjj #aeej #agjj #ahej #bjjj #bajj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #abjj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #ajjj #aajj #abjj #e4 ,drammen ,overlaerer #bfjj ,laerer1 h4g4 #bcjj #bdjj ,laerer1 lg4 #adjj #afjj #ahjj #bjjj #bajj #bcjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #acjj #adjj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #ijj #ajjj #aajj #abjj #acjj #f4 ,horten ,laerer1 h4g4 #bjjj #bbjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #acjj #aejj #agjj #ahej #bjjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #aajj #abjj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #ijj #iej #ajjj #ajej #aajj #g4 ,tonsberg ,overlaerer #bejj #bfej #bhjj ,laerer1 h4g4 #bdjj #afjj #ahjj #bjjj #bbjj #bdjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #adjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #acjj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #ijj #ihj #ajfj #aadj #abbj #acjj #h4 ,kongsberg ,laerer1 h4g4 #ahjj ,laerer1 l4g4 #acjj #adej #afjj #agjj #ahjj ,laererinde1 h4g4 #aajj ,laererinde1 l4g4 #gjj #hjj #ijj #ajjj #aajj ,chapter ,,iii ,,courses ,,of ,,study ,,in ,,state ,,schools ,i4 ,,introductory--,,rise1 ,,development1 ,,and ,,present ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,curriculum ,we come now to a consideration of the course of study in the school system as it has evolved and is now operative4 ,as was true throughout other parts of ,europe1 so in ,norway1 education during the middle ages issued almost exclusively from the cloister and cathedral schools 7,dom-og ,kathedral ,skoler71 and in them are found the germs of most modern courses of study4 ,inasmuch as the successive steps in the evolution of the recent schools of ,europe from the earlier forms vary but little in the several countries1 and since the subject is already familiar to nearly all students of education1 we omit any technical discussion of that interesting feature of history1 and refer the reader to any of the several works treating it fully4 ,suffice it to say1 the aim of the church in maintaining these earlier schools centered in the development of a qualified clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal following1 well-trained in the dogmas1 doctrines1 and traditions of the organization4 ,at this time the monk and a small company of disciples constituted the school4 ,the little group studied together from day to day in and about the cloister or cathedral4 ,among them1 very naturally1 certain new thoughts and ideals sprung up4 ,the masters saw the new developments if they were not themselves parties to them4 ,as the newer thoughts became fixed in the youthful minds1 individual interests pressed harder and harder still until provision was made for extending the work of instruction as well as for widening the scope of activities within the schools4 ,while the aim was at first to give instruction and discipline in lines necessary to a clerical career1 it changed by degrees until it included branches useful in legitimate occupations other than that of the clergy4 ,however1 the diversifying of school activities and the enrichment of the program of study did not keep pace with the changes that were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos4 ,a spirit of unrest grew to proportions almost ungovernable until the middle age renaissance in learning removed the fetters and brought relief by effecting systems of education very fitting to the requirements4 ,great credit is due to the leaders in the ,reformation for the part they played in placing means for instruction and education upon a more secure and permanent basis1 and for the service they rendered in giving to the schools certain vitality that had rarely1 if ever1 been characteristic of any similar institution4 ,the new type of school bore a stamp of general approval which enabled it to gain a momentum which was not soon to be overcome4 ,in fact1 the schools of all the more civilized countries are still largely dominated by traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of such men as ,erasmus1 ,luther1 ,melanchthon1 and ,sturm4 ,now the ideas of these famous educators were less subjected to change in ,norway than in the centers from whence they came4 ,until the union between this country and ,denmark came to an end in #ahad1 very little thought was given to advancing educational interests in ,norway4 ,the work of her cathedral schools had been little improved during the centuries that had passed since their establishment4 ,when at last ,norway became a free constitutional state and these ,norsemen breathed the air of freedom1 felt the exhilaration of greater personal liberties1 realized that their destiny was to be of their own making1 and fully sensed their important responsibilities in the situation1 they all1 ecclesiasts and politicians1 capitalists and laborers1 combined in developing their schools in ways calculated to lift the masses to higher intellectual planes4 ,the changes wrought were in relation to what was to be taught and to the extension of learning4 ,an opportunity for instruction was given to every youth in the land4 ,for a long time the ancient languages formed the bulk of higher learning1 while in the primary schools only the rudiments of a few subjects were attempted4 ,social tendencies soon required an increase in the number of branches to be taught1 and also laid added weight upon the importance of such study as would be of benefit in vocational activities4 ,accordingly1 mathematics1 history1 geography1 and nature study became more prominent features in all schools4 ,one of the best characteristics of the work throughout is that the mother-tongue has been at all times a dominating factor through every grade of their schools4 ,later in the process a demand for the modern foreign languages was responded to favorably and they took places in the curriculum of the higher school4 ,these changes bring us down through the last century to the recent forms in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader immediately into the present situation4 ,besides the institutions for higher learning there are now three distinct sections in the school system of ,norway1 viz43 ,primary ,school1 ,middle ,school1 and ,gymnasium4 ,the primary school is designed to provide education of an elementary type for every citizen of the country4 ,by vital cooperation and the exercise of great care in organization1 distribution1 supervision1 and inspection of these schools1 the people have overcome illiteracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum--almost to a negligible factor4 ,they are unitedly converted to the belief that an enlightened populace is a necessity to the continuity of desirable institutions1 to the development of resources1 and to the maintenance of worthy traditions4 ,to secure for all the essentials of good and intelligent citizenship1 an attempt has been made to have the curriculum for the primary schools include the branches of study which have meaning in every walk of life1 and which enhance the efficiency of each citizen in his individual activities4 ,in short1 it is the intent that all the people shall have the more abundant life which comes with a thorough1 general1 elementary education2 and1 at the same time1 that they shall be prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad foundation of the common school4 ,following the primary schools are the middle schools which lead still farther in the pathway of intellectual development those whose situation in life enables them to proceed with school work4 ,besides carrying forward the lines of study begun in the lower school with added vigor and exactitude1 they include a large amount of work in foreign modern languages4 ,thus we see that this second section in the great institution of learning fills in the elementary framework1 enriches the fund of information1 adds a considerable amount of culture1 and paves the way for the more liberal training to follow in the next section4 ,the ,gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon the work of the middle school4 ,its function is to provide a liberal culture and education suited to the needs and desires of those who become in large part the leaders in all phases of political1 professional1 or other social careers4 ,thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the educational ladder are in harmony with and dependent upon preceding work4 ,while only a correspondingly small number pass to the summit1 all the people enjoy the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generalizations which lie at the base of their educational system and equip very well for the common walks and vocations of life4 ,in our discussion we shall separate the work of the three sections and consider them one at a time4 ,it seems advisable to handle them in this way1 and we believe that a more adequate conception of the work as a whole will be obtained by offering first the part affecting all the people and dealing with the primary schools4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,primary ,,schools ,the primary schools are of two kinds1--those specially designed for the rural sections of the country and others provided for the towns and cities1 the latter being somewhat richer in curricula1 more complete in organization1 and more thorough in operation than the former4 ,considering the fact that such uniformity characterizes the courses of study in the various schools1 it will be necessary to present but one outline for each class of schools4 ,an effort has been made to select courses that are representative and which clearly set forth typical conditions4 ,table ,,viii gives the program of work offered in one of the rural communes1 and shows the number of hours per week devoted to each branch of study for the seven years in the course4 ,just after the legislative act of #ahhi1 the ,department sent out a normal plan which served as a guide in arranging the time-tables for rural municipalities4 ,as a result great uniformity exists4 ,,table ,,viii ,table ,showing the ,number of ,hours per ,week for ,each ,branch of ,instruction in the ,course of ,study in ,fredrikvaern ,commune4#ba ,year ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,total ,religion #g #g #e #f #f #f #f #dc ,norwegian #aj #h #h #h #h #f #f #ed ,mathematics #f #e #d #f #d #f #f #cg ,geography #b #b #c #c #c #ac ,history #b #b #c #c #c #ac ,nature ,study #b #c #a #b #b #b #b #ad ,writing #e #e #d #d #b #b #b #bd ,drawing #a #b #b #b #b #i ,vocal ,music #b #a #b #b #b #b #aa ,manual ,training #b #b #d #f #f #bj ,gymnastics #b #b #b #b #h -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- ,total #cj #cj #cj #ch #ch #dj #dj #bdf ,the program just above is normal and typical in every respect4 ,the schools are very uniform in their work and1 as previously stated1 no further tables are necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work generally presented in the rural districts of the entire country4 ,the second program selected is the one used in the primary schools of ,christiania4#bb ,the schools of this city are among the best and are taken as models for a number in other cities and towns4 ,,table ,,ix ,course of study showing weekly hours in ,christiania ,primary ,schools4 ,division ,first ,second ,third ,year ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,total ,sex,a ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,religion #f-b #f-b #f-b #f-b #f-b #f-b #d #c #d #c #d #d #c #c #bd #bb ,norwegian #ab #aa #aj #h #h #g #e #e #e #d #e #d #e #e #ej #dd ,mathematics #e #d #d #d #d #c #d #c #c #c #c #c #c #c #bf #bc ,geography #c #b #b #b #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #i #h ,history #b #b #b #b #a #a #a #a #b #b #h #h ,nature ,study #a #a #b #b #b #b #b #b #g #g ,writing #d #d #d #c #c #b #b #b #a #a #a #a #a #a #af #ad ,drawing #b #b #b #b #b #b #b #h #f ,vocal ,music #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #e #e ,manual ,training #b #d #d #d #b #d #b #d #b #d #f #bf ,gymnastics #b-b #j #b #b #b #b #b #a #b #i #e ,total #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #bd #afh #afh ,note3 ,year #aiaj-aiaa4 ,note ,a3 ,b refers to boys1 ,g to girls4 ,the comparative table on page #ajf clearly evidences the similarities already referred to and1 at the same time1 serves to indicate all variations4 ,however1 in the making of comparisons1 difference in the number and distribution of hours is more a matter of method or correlation between branches than an indication of actual difference in accomplishment4 ,for example1 a large number of hours for writing may mean exclusively work in practice writing1 but it is very probable that it will include a considerable amount of work in the mother-tongue or a definite correlation with nature study1 history1 or religion4 ,the fundamental standard by which work is judged or measured is whether it prepares the pupil fully for work in the middle school4 ,,table ,x ,comparative table of ,courses of ,study in ten cities4 ,religion ,norwegian ,mathematics ,geography ,history ,nature ,study ,writing ,drawing ,vocal ,music ,manual ,training ,gymnastics ,total ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,city ,sex7,a7 ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ,b ,g ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ,christiania #bd #bb #ej #dd #bf #bc #i #h #h #h #g #g #af #ad #h #f #e #e #f #bf #i #e #afh #afh ,bergen #ba #ba #ee #ec #bi #bh #h #h #i #i #h #g #aj #h #i #h #e #e #h #bd #aj #g #agb #agh ,trondhjem #bc #bb #eg #ea #ca #bg #ab #aa #aa #aa #h #h #ah #ae #g #d #d #e #h #bi #i #g #ahh #aij ,stavanger #bb #bb #fc #eg #cj #cj #h #h #aa #aa #g #g #ab #aj #d #d #e #e #aj #bc #h #e #ahj #ahb ,drammen #bd #bd #eb #dg #bi #be #h #h #h #h #f #e #ag #ac #e #c #e #e #f #be #h #e #afh #afh ,kristiansand #bb #bb #di #di #be #be #aj #aj #aa #aa #h #g #ac #ac #e #e #e #e #f #h #h #f #afb #afa ,aalesund #bg #bg #df #dd #bf #bb #f #f #aa #aa #f #e #af #ae #d #c #e #e #f #ba #i #e #afb #afd ,fredrikshald #ba #bb #eb #dd #be #bc #aj #i #i #g #e #f #ad #aa #e #f #f #f #h #bd #g #d #afb #afb ,skien #ba #ba #dg #dd #be #bd #aj #h #i #h #g #e #af #ad #d #d #e #e #aj #bd #h #e #afb #afb ,kristiansund #bd #bd #ej #dg #bg #bf #h #h #i #h #h #g #ah #ae #c #c #e #e #f #bj #aj #e #afh #afh ,note ,a3 ,b refers to boys1 ,g to girls4 ,,religion ,,reading ,,reckoning ,,riting ,the four ,r's in ,norway's educational system form the center of their educational endeavors4 ,only a superficial glance at the tables presented is necessary in order to notice their prominence throughout the course of study4 ,while the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a sufficiently strong indication of their predominance1 we must also carry in mind an allowance for closest possible correlation between them as constant and additional factors along the same line4 ,bearing these things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion of the course of study or school plan4 ,though the programs presented and digest of plans following or accompanying are taken from particular schools1 the discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise specified4 ,for varied reasons1 but chiefly because they are typical1 specific1 and concrete1 the courses of study used in ,christiania--primary and secondary--are chosen as illustrations4 ,the following is not a verbatim translation of ,christiania's plan of instruction but an abbreviated statement of the work as outlined in their published school plan 7,skoleplan74 ,i have endeavored to select the more vital points throughout and to represent them as exactly as a condensed version renders possible4 ,where inaccuracies or omissions occur they are due to a demand for economy--the things omitted not being regarded as absolute essentials to a correct representation of the intent and spirit of the work as carried on4 ,,outline ,,of ,,subjects ,,of ,,instruction ,religion ,aim4 ,the aims of instruction in religion are to develop the religious instincts of the children and to instill in them a recognition of ,christianity1 out of which may grow a healthy ,christian life and a clear conception of the church4 ,to attain these1 an effort is made to impart the following fund of information3 ,definite acquaintance with the more important parts of ,bible history1 with the chief events in church history1 and with the catechism according to the ,evangelical ,lutheran creed4 ,first ,division ,class ,i4 7,six half hour periods weekly47 ,instruction during the beginning weeks consists in simple stories1 songs1 hymns1 prayers1 and conversations designed to impart a knowledge of ,christianity1 ethics1 and morals2 to effect definite connections with previous home training2 and to awaken and develop religious and moral attitudes in the children preparatory to the more direct instruction to follow4 ,the real instruction in ,christianity or religion begins with ,bible stories selected from the ,old and ,new ,testaments and specially adapted to the understanding of the children and their ability to master the same4 ,the following stories are among the ones used3 ,the ,story of ,joseph1 ,samuel and ,hannah1 ,david and ,goliath1 ,the ,birth of ,jesus1 ,the ,three ,wise ,men1 ,jesus in the ,temple1 ,jesus ,feeding the ,five ,thousand1 ,jesus ,raising the ,widow's ,son1 ,jesus ,blessing the ,children1 ,jesus ,teaching the ,disciples ,how to ,pray4 ,the stories are presented orally and explained and elucidated in such a way that the children may receive clear and vivid pictures of the persons and events referred to1 appreciate their connections with the ,holy ,scriptures1 and be able to rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner4 ,whenever possible the religious or moral content of the conversation should be brought to a climax in a simple passage of ,scripture1 a response from the catechism1 or a verse of some hymn1 which should be memorized4 ,class ,,ii4 7,six half hour periods weekly47 ,bible stories from ,old and ,new ,testaments taken mainly from the time of the patriarchs and ,moses4 ,among them are the following3 ,from ,old ,testament3 ,the ,creation and ,eden1 ,the ,fall1 ,cain and ,abel1 ,the ,flood1 ,the ,call of ,abraham1 ,abraham and ,lot1 ,the ,birth and ,offering of ,isaac1 ,the ,marriage of ,isaac1 ,esau and ,jacob1 ,isaac ,blessing ,his ,sons1 ,jacob's ,flight1 ,the ,birth and ,rearing of ,moses1 ,the ,call of ,moses1 ,moses ,before ,pharaoh1 ,the ,exodus from ,egypt4 ,from ,new ,testament3 ,the ,birth of ,jesus1 ,jesus' ,entry into ,jerusalem1 ,jesus ,suffering in the ,garden of ,gethsemane1 ,jesus' ,death on the ,cross1 ,the ,burial of ,jesus1 ,the ,resurrection of ,jesus1 ,the ,outpouring of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,instruction is exclusively oral4 ,historical references are disregarded4 ,historical situations are frequently clarified by references to the history of civilization and geography4 ,new phases of ,god's dealings with men and their attitudes toward ,him are singled out and presented for consideration4 ,passages of ,scripture and others from the catechism or hymns are treated in connection with the ,bible stories as they are told4 ,class ,,iii4 7,six half hour periods weekly47 ,biblical history up to and including the time of ,solomon1 characteristic stories from the prophetic period1 and selections of ,scripture from the ,new ,testament designated officially for study in reference to certain church holidays4 ,among the topics included we find3 ,the ,tower of ,babel1 ,god's ,covenant with ,abraham1 ,the ,visit of the ,three ,men1 ,the ,lord ,visits ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 ,jacob ,serving ,laban1 ,jacob's ,return1 ,the ,travel to ,sinai1 ,the ,giving of the ,law1 ,the ,unfaithfulness of the ,people1 ,the ,travels from ,sinai to ,jordan1 ,the ,death of ,moses1 ,joshua ,leading the ,people into ,canaan1 ,gideon1 ,ruth1 ,samuel1 ,saul ,becomes ,king1 ,saul ,rejected1 ,god ,chooses ,david to be ,king1 ,david and ,jonathan1 ,saul ,pursuing ,david1 ,the ,death of ,saul1 ,david ,chosen to be ,king by the ,people1 ,the ,fall and ,restitution of ,david1 ,absalom1 ,the ,last ,days of ,david's ,life1 ,solomon1 ,elias1 ,jonah1 ,daniel4 ,the matter covered in ,classes ,i and ,,ii is again taken up1 to which the above is added in historical connection4 ,to this material ,biblical geography and cultural history are added as needed1 while hymns1 passages of ,scripture1 or selections from the catechism are continually used4 ,through constant reviews the moral and religious contents from the various sources are connected into successive groups1 each group centering around the life of some prominent ,biblical character4 ,instruction is chiefly oral1 though some reading from text is a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid4 ,a certain amount of catechismal work may be assigned as home lessons4 ,second ,division ,class ,,iv4 7,boys four hours1 girls three hours1 weekly47 ,new ,testament history centering in the stories of ,jesus' childhood1 ,his miracles1 and ,his easier parables4 ,new stories taken up3 ,the ,birth of ,john the ,baptist ,foretold1 ,the ,birth of ,jesus ,foretold1 ,the ,birth of ,john the ,baptist1 ,jesus ,presented in the ,temple1 ,the ,flight into ,egypt1 ,appearance of ,john the ,baptist1 ,the ,baptism of ,jesus1 ,jesus is ,tempted1 ,the ,first ,disciples ,come to ,jesus1 ,the ,marriage in ,cana1 ,jesus ,visits ,nazareth1 ,jesus ,choosing the ,twelve ,apostles1 ,jesus ,heals the ,centurion's ,servant1 ,the ,death of ,john the ,baptist1 ,jesus ,healing the ,palsied1 ,jesus ,raising ,jairus' ,daughter1 ,the ,woman of ,canaan1 ,parable of the ,unmerciful ,servant1 ,the ,good ,samaritan1 ,jesus at the ,house of ,martha and ,mary1 ,parables of the ,lost ,sheep and the ,lost ,coin1 ,parable of the ,prodigal ,son1 ,dives and ,lazarus1 ,healing of the ,ten ,lepers1 ,parable of the ,publican and ,pharisee1 ,parable of the ,marriage of the ,king's ,son1 ,easter1 ,pentecost4 ,the extent to which details of stories1 ,biblical geography1 cultural history1 and passages of ,scripture or catechism are included is governed by the maturity and education of the children4 ,in this class considerable attention is given to the reading of hymns and ,new ,testament ,scriptures from the four ,gospels 7elucidating obscure passages and difficult sentences71 to connections between ,bible stories and history1 and to chronological sequence4 ,class ,v4 7,boys four hours1 girls three hours1 weekly47 ,continued instruction in ,new ,testament history1 especially the parables of ,jesus and the story of his passion and resurrection4 ,to this is added the account of the founding of the first ,christian church and its spread by the efforts of the chief apostles4 ,the work includes the following new stories3 ,jesus and ,nichodemus1 ,jesus and the ,samaritan ,woman1 ,jesus ,commences to ,speak in ,parables1 ,the ,transfiguration of ,jesus1 ,peter's ,confession1 ,the ,man ,born ,blind1 ,jesus the ,good ,shepherd1 ,the ,raising of ,lazarus1 ,jesus in the ,house of ,zacchaeus1 ,jesus in ,bethany1 ,parable of the ,labourers in the ,vineyard1 ,parable of the ,ten ,virgins1 ,washing of ,feet1 ,the ,lord's ,supper1 ,jesus in ,gethsemane1 ,jesus ,before the ,high ,priest and the ,sanhedrin1 ,jesus ,before ,pilate and ,herod1 ,crucifixion of ,jesus1 ,christ's ,burial1 ,the ,resurrection1 ,jesus ,appears to the ,two ,disciples on the ,way to ,emmaus1 ,he ,appears to the ,disciples in ,jerusalem1 ,he ,appears at the ,sea of ,tiberias1 ,the ,great ,commission to the ,disciples1 ,his ,ascension1 ,the ,outpouring of the ,holy ,ghost on ,pentecost1 ,the ,first ,miracle and ,first ,persecution1 ,stephen1 ,the ,ethiopian ,eunuch1 ,saul1 ,cornelius1 ,paul ,preaching the ,gospel to the ,gentiles4 ,bible reading1 the catechism1 ,bible history1 and hymns are studied as in former classes1 but more intensively4 ,besides the catechism1 passages of ,scripture1 containing great ,christian and moral truths are to be impressed and memorized verbatim4 ,continuous reviews through the years enable the children to connect several stories into groups1 and to acquire complete information regarding the life and work of ,christ4 ,a small instruction book is used4 ,first part and ,article ,i of the second part are studied4 ,third ,division ,class ,,vi4 7,four hours weekly47 ,bible history and ,old ,testament taken up simultaneously--,bible reading and ecclesiastical history alternating4 ,a deeper knowledge of sacred history is sought4 ,striking illustrations of ,god's plan of salvation operating among the ,jews are given1 designed to enable the children to appreciate the redemptive meaning of ,old ,testament history4 ,emphasis is placed on the period just preceding the time of ,christ4 ,new stories introduced3 ,the ,division of the ,kingdom1 ,elisha1 ,the ,downfall of the ,kingdom of ,israel1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,the ,fall of the ,kingdom of ,judah1 ,the ,jews under ,babylonian ,captivity1 ,their ,return from ,captivity1 ,the ,last ,four ,hundred ,years4 ,familiarity with ,old ,testament ,scriptures and history1 ,biblical geography1 and cultural history is to be gained4 ,articles ,,ii and ,,iii of the second part1 and the third1 fourth1 and fifth parts of the instruction book are taken up4 ,class ,,vii4 7,three hours weekly47 ,one ,gospel--,matthew--is read connectedly and followed by a treatment of selected parts from the ,acts of the ,apostles in connection with the work of ,biblical history in the fourth and fifth grades4 ,all materials previously gathered from the various sources are again taken up1 applied1 and centered4 ,narratives relating to important periods of the church4 ,among them3--,the ,persecutions 7under ,nero1 ,polycarpus71 ,the ,victory of ,christianity 7,constantine71 ,the ,christian ,ceremonies1 ,augustine1 ,hermits and ,monks1 ,the ,spread of ,christianity1 ,the ,popes1 ,the ,crusades1 ,the ,preparation for the ,reformation1 ,the ,lutheran ,reformation 7,luther1 the ,jesuits1 the ,catholic ,mission71 ,the ,lutheran ,church in the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries1 in the ,eighteenth and ,nineteenth ,centuries1 ,the ,mission1 ,bible ,societies4 ,the aim in this division is to give information regarding the development of the church in general1 and of the ,lutheran church in particular4 ,narratives are grouped around great central characters--,christian personages4 ,a realization of the lofty aims of ,christianity on the part of the children together with an appreciation of their duties and responsibilities as members of the ,christian church is the intent4 ,by means of an instruction book the main divisions of church history1 general history1 and the history of ,norway are correlated4 ,information contained in the hymn book acquaints the children with the ceremonial order of the ecclesiastical year as well as with the contents and order of the book itself4 ,the study of previously memorized hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon4 ,it is to be remembered that in ,norway church and state are united4 ,religious and scholastic interests are under the direction of the ,department of ,ecclesiastical and ,educational affairs4 ,the minister of this department of ,state is one of the ,king's cabinet4 ,here we find one of the numerous attempts at the solution of the vexing question of moral instruction1 or1 to be more exact1 religious instruction in the public schools4 ,while the provisions for this teaching are not faultless1 and though their course of instruction could not be adopted for use in ,america with its medley of religious prejudices1 yet we must acknowledge that they are well adapted to the needs and desires of the people served4 ,the citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously1 almost universally ,lutheran1 and their traditions militate against any change in religious creed4 ,the teaching of religion in the schools has been the practice for generations1 the instruction is taken as a matter of course1 and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all4 ,there are a number of important features of this moral instruction which press their claims for special mention1 but we cannot discuss them all4 ,a few1 however1 demand some attention4 ,the statement of the proverb1 that as the twig is bent so will the tree be inclined1 has been borne out in practice times without number4 ,here1 it seems to me1 is one more illustration4 ,throughout their whole school life--that receptive1 appropriating1 formative period--the children have constantly before them ideals that are elevating1 examples that are inspiring1 and admonitions that tend to create and develop within them an ambition to excel in beauty of character4 ,that the morals of society are not kept more nearly pure by this procedure seems a psychological impossibility4 ,again a rather successful attempt is made to have the home and school cooperate along the lines of personal purity4 ,in fact the home1 the school1 and the church join hands and supplement each other in all efforts in religious and moral training4 ,true it is that striking examples of nobility of character1 high ideals1 and moral worth abound in profane history as well as in sacred1 in secular life as well as in religious1 in living characters as truly as in those of past ages1 but the school system of ,norway provides ample opportunity for presenting all of these things in connection with their regular instruction in the various subjects taught1 and1 in addition1 furnishes particularized instruction which makes a specialty of moral and religious development4 ,it seems imperative that1 when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly presented1 the powers of imitation and habit should combine in the creation of stronger and nobler characters4 ,nevertheless1 when religious instruction is made a requirement1 it too frequently becomes formal and literal rather than spiritual and lifegiving4 ,that this great misfortune is the case in some of the secondary schools of ,norway is an indictment which cannot be denied4 ,however1 in the primary schools the instruction is fruitful and important4 ,as a consequence of these conditions the statement is common among many that in looking back over the years of religious instruction they recall numerous happy instances of earnest1 heartfelt prayer and ,bible stories accompanied by intense feeling on the part of the teacher4 ,other experiences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profession had not the sincerity and feeling back of their instruction required in order to give vitality and meaning to the lessons presented4 ,the entire question of instruction in morals in our public schools is one of pressing importance4 ,it is being agitated in many lands today and a solution is sorely needed4 ,were all classes of society united as to what should be included in this instruction the matter would adjust itself very readily4 ,however1 social conditions in a single nation are more or less diverse1 and between different nations still greater breaks are to be found4 ,in fact the ideals and conceptions of society are so varied that no one present system would suffice for all4 ,could a code of ethics be formulated which would meet universal approval then its adoption and use might be hoped for4 ,until then each nation must necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted to its social requirements4 ,as already stated1 the people of ,norway are nearly all adherents to the ,lutheran creed so there are very few dissenters from the common rule4 ,provision is made in the law that those who do not adhere to the state church and object to receiving instruction in this particular line may1 upon request of parent or guardian1 be excused from such instruction4#bc ,norwegian ,aim4 ,it is the aim of the instruction in ,norwegian to further the mental development of children1 especially their linguistic ability4 ,in this course of activity they should acquire3 7#a7 ,efficiency in apprehending and assimilating what they hear or read1 confident readiness in reading1 plain articulation1 and correct and natural accentuation4 7#b7 ,efficiency in expressing themselves orally and in writing without making any serious errors in the common usage of language or the rules of composition4 7#c7 ,efficiency in the use of the grammar of the mother-tongue which is necessary for the above measure of attainments4 ,first ,division ,class ,i4 7,boys twelve hours1 girls eleven hours1 weekly47 ,a suitable number 7twelve or fifteen7 of interesting children's stories are told and utilized for the special purposes of widening the circle of the children's imagination and developing in them ability in observation1 conception1 and expression4 ,an effort is made to render the general contents of the stories lucid through explanations1 while the features arousing special interest in the minds of the pupils are made the objects of more detailed conversation4 ,an effort is made to train the children in correct1 free1 and easy expression in connected sentences1 and to develop in them the ability to rehearse their stories freely and connectedly4 ,reading4 ,the aim is ability to read the primer 7,,abc-en7 with assurance and in a clear tone1 properly articulating and accenting each word and syllable4 ,written exercises4 ,the object of the written work is to teach the children to write words and simple sentences which have just been read orally or have been seen in the primer or on the blackboard4 ,class ,,ii4 7,boys ten hours1 girls eight hours1 weekly47 ,twenty or thirty of the most interesting and valuable selections 7prose and poetry7 contained in the reader are made the objects of special and thorough treatment4 ,comments1 questions1 elucidating explanations1 and conversations are means employed in securing a vivid appreciation of the contents and in developing ability in their easy rehearsal4 ,the other pieces are treated in a more cursory manner1 only the larger views and the more general understanding of them being attempted4 ,special attention is given to having all readings slow with loud1 plain1 and correct articulation and proper accentuation4 ,habitual mistakes are carefully eliminated4 ,story telling is also a feature of the year's work4 ,written exercises1 made up of sentences and short parts of readings1 conversations1 or stories are given frequently and for short periods4 ,here the names of letters and spelling are attended to with great care4 ,class ,,iii4 7,boys eight hours1 girls seven hours1 weekly47 ,twenty or thirty paragraphs from the reader are given special attention--the remainder cursory4 ,the plan of work is about the same as for ,class ,,ii4 ,considerable attention is given to the rehearsing of the reading lesson by the pupils4 ,some reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact though they are not to be given in the exact words of the text4 ,still other selections receive more general treatment4 ,a few of the most pleasing poems should be memorized4 ,greater readiness in slow and even reading with loud and clear expression and proper natural accentuation should be sought4 ,written exercises4 ,selections from the language work giving special and rather extended attention to spelling1 punctuation1 and grammatical constructions and forms4 ,the teacher sets examples of correct punctuation1 etc4 ,second ,division ,class ,,iv4 7,five hours weekly47 ,a select number 7#bj-cj7 of pieces from the reader treated as in the former classes1 though more exhaustively2 and1 in addition1 quite a wide range of selections chosen for more cursory reading4 ,a considerable amount of information regarding the topics treated and explanations of literary expressions should form important parts of the instruction in this class4 ,here1 as in both preceding and succeeding classes1 it should be the aim to have the children make their meanings plain when conversing upon the selections read1 at least to the degree of their ability and development4 ,parts of former conversations on various topics should also be recalled and woven into their discussions4 ,written exercises4 ,these shall include features previously studied1 and introduce more detailed and finer discriminations in grammatical usages and forms4 ,class ,v4 7,boys four hours1 girls five hours1 weekly47 ,exhaustive study of a few selections and cursory reading in large quantities as before4 ,careful and abundant training in oral expression4 ,specific and detailed rehearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount of knowledge gained through study1 experience1 and thought is utilized4 ,short stories are read4 ,poems are memorized4 ,progress in clear and distinct articulation and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with refined speech is continuously a requirement4 ,written exercises4 ,a continuation of former exercises and a considerable amount of copying1 or the writing of abstracts of lesson content1 especially during the second half year4 ,orthographic1 grammatical1 and rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively and their niceties urged4 ,through continued practice in preparing and writing compositions1 extra work in copying1 and special study of orthography and punctuation1 the children1 by the close of this their fifth year of schooling1 should be quite capable in punctuation as well as spelling1 though they should not be expected to spell and punctuate independently with accuracy4 ,third ,division ,class ,,vi4 7,boys five hours1 girls six hours1 weekly47 ,reading from a selected portion of the reader4 ,conversations1 information1 explanations1 and linguistic elucidations are to be entered into according to necessity4 ,increasing stress is here laid on the work of drawing out the thoughts1 ideas1 and knowledge of the pupils1 and of inciting them to more independent1 intellectual effort4 ,written exercises4 ,continued as previously though introducing larger amounts of independently selected forms of expression and insisting on greater accuracy in punctuation4 ,letter writing is added4 ,class ,,vii4 7,five hours weekly47 ,selections from the reader and supplementary reading from recommended books calculated to awaken1 develop1 and educate4 ,special attention given to the most important authors4 ,written exercises4 ,compositions on topics of interest1 letter writing1 business correspondence including applications1 invoices1 advertisements1 and telegrams4 ,the methods employed in presenting the mother-tongue are quite plainly set forth in the foregoing outline4 ,though the content is not so specifically defined1 the general lines are indicated in such a way as to give very adequate insight thereinto4 ,some of the methods of presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather antiquated4 ,this impression is due chiefly to terminology4 ,the actual work in the schoolrooms is flexible1 free1 and1 as a rule1 attractive4 ,the latitude granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost unlimited individual initiative4 ,many of their teachers are quite expert in the most modern methods4 ,the utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of their school work is especially noticeable in the teaching of their own language4 ,in harmony with this idea1 let me call attention to the fact that1 from the first1 constant use is made of every attainment in both oral and written form4 ,the oral work embraces the reading of the text1 reading from the blackboard1 and conversational exercises on the special topics being considered4 ,written work on the same lessons include copying of certain selections or parts of them and original expressions in regard to the contents of lessons read4 ,in the advanced grades these written exercises become more and more extended and complicated until they amount to complete essays4 ,special attention is given to correct forms of expression and to the acquirement of habits of clear and distinct enunciation4 ,the child1 who from his earliest school days becomes habituated to exact pronunciations1 is very liable--almost sure--to spell correctly2 and1 when constant use is made of the language in written exercises1 the accepted and approved forms of expression become the fixed usages4 ,now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a combination of our reading1 spelling1 language lessons1 grammar1 rhetoric1 and literature1 all taught in their natural order as they arise through actual use4 ,incidentally1 vast amounts of biography1 history1 geography1 and natural science as well as writing are included4 ,the richness of content and thoroughness of treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing of courses and still more in their application4 ,specialization in phases of a single subject in lower schools nearly always means waste of energy1 scattering of forces1 and disappointment in the end4 ,on the contrary1 unification and close correlation result in economy of time and effort1 and issue in more worthy attainments4 ,the several fields of thought are already too much isolated from each other1 and unless some guards are erected the individual fields also will be broken up and their distinctive phases so divorced from one another that their cooperative tendencies and values will become void and their relationships will be lost sight of4 ,norwegian is easily the preponderant study in ,norway's schools1 but1 since it is so inclusive1 it probably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it4 ,the long lists of supplementary readings now provided in our ,american schools exert a wholesome influence4 ,their constant revision and extension furnish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers1 guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in the use of the mother-tongue4 ,the limitless resources in ,english literature1 ,america's lavish provision for higher education and professional training1 and the freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the teachers of our language without excuse4 ,the pupils studying ,english in ,america have a right to expect the best4 ,one condition which frequently militates against first class work in this line is that school boards all too frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of ,english means more than merely hearing lessons so many times a week4 ,a very large part of the most important work must be done aside from class exercises4 ,if there be any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours of instruction it is the teacher of the mother-tongue4 ,mathematics ,aim4 ,readiness in the four mathematical operations in whole numbers1 decimal numbers1 and simple fractions1 written and oral4 ,ability to independently solve various examples in the forms in which they generally appear in practical life1 also examples in proportion and examples in percentage1 together with problems of planes and solids4 ,course and mode of its execution as given in a text--,instruction in ,mathematics 7,regneundervisningen7--followed in all essentials4 ,first ,division ,class ,i4 7,boys five hours1 girls four hours1 weekly47 ,through constant use of illustrative material 7objects about the room1 wooden pins1 cubes1 the children's fingers1 etc47 the children are taught to gradually become acquainted with the numbers to ten1 twenty1 thirty1 and on up to one hundred2 and they are afforded continuous practice in reading1 writing1 and explaining the numbers1 as well as in performing simple solutions in the four arithmetical operations4 ,at the close of the year the children should be able to count to one hundred forward and backward4 ,they must know how to manipulate the numbers from one to ten in adding to or subtracting from any number less than one hundred1 and be able1 by the assistance of the tables1 to answer questions in multiplication 7two's to five's74 and some questions in division4 ,chief importance attaches to the ability of the children to use the numbers from one to thirty4 ,class ,,ii4 7,four hours weekly47 ,acquaintance with and ability to read and write any number up to one million4 ,mental arithmetic4 ,continuation of operations begun in ,class ,i4 ,when proficient in adding and subtracting units to and from one hundred1 tens and units are taken up in the same way4 ,examples in easy multiplication1 with occasional use of division1 carried on throughout the year4 ,tablet work4 ,addition and subtraction of numbers up to one million4 ,in the operations coin1 measure1 and weight denominations are used1 and are illustrated by coins1 measures1 and weights4 ,class ,,iii4 7,boys four hours1 girls three hours1 weekly47 ,acquaintance with the numeral system up to and including millions4 ,continuous practice in reading1 writing1 and using numbers4 ,mental operations4 ,addition and subtraction of numbers up to one hundred continued4 ,thereafter extend the numbers as far as the children can use them with certainty and rapidity4 ,multiplication of numbers up to one hundred by units4 ,tablet work4 ,more work in addition and subtraction going farther than to numbers with six ciphers4 ,multiplication of numbers with many ciphers by multipliers having one or more ciphers4 ,second ,division ,class ,,iv4 7,boys four hours1 girls three hours1 weekly47 ,division with divisors having one or more ciphers4 ,separation of numbers into their individual factors4 ,finding of the least common multiple4 ,after this a thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations with whole numbers--old and new exercises4 ,mental and tablet exercises in closest relation to each other4 ,in all mental operations1 here or later1 rapid and positive use should be made of the easier examples before the harder ones are fumbled or handled with uncertainty4 ,class ,v4 7,two hours weekly47 ,after the necessary preparation1 practice in the three operations with decimal numbers4 ,in connection with the consideration of plane surfaces the children should be given practice in measuring parallelograms1 triangles1 irregular quadrangles and many-sided surfaces--triangles should predominate4 ,mental and tablet exercises parallel each other and are in intimate relation4 ,third ,division ,class ,,vi4 7,three hours weekly47 ,preparatory practice in common fractions together with addition and subtraction of fractions having a common denominator and others which can easily be reduced to a common denominator4 ,multiplication and division using or including fractions4 ,further development with mental operations growing out of and in connection with tablet work4 ,class ,,vii4 7,three hours weekly47 ,percentage including interest1 rebate1 and discount4 ,the calculating of cubes1 prisms1 pyramids1 circles1 cylinders1 cones2 also shortened pyramids1 cones1 and cylinders4 ,after this a general review so far as time admits4 ,simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire field during the earlier years4 ,the elementary algebraic forms and methods of solution are introduced relatively early1 and minor geometric relations and operations are presented during the last 7seventh7 year of the lower schools4 ,these latter features are radically different from our general procedure in the ,united ,states4 ,we are in the habit of presenting the various mathematical subjects one at a time1 completing one before another is considered to any extent whatever4 ,for example1 arithmetic is taken up and gone through1 while parts of geometry and algebra which would be great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are studiously avoided or excluded until the formal study of that particular subject is finally begun4 ,the people of ,norway1 on the contrary1 enter the larger field of mathematics and1 in a more rational manner--a more psychological way--utilize available processes and forms at every opportunity4 ,the phases of mathematics are not specialized into isolation but coordinated into a working unity4 ,instead of studying one subject throughout its intricacies and side issues before admitting consideration of other phases of mathematics1 they make it the rule to utilize the elemental factors of the various mathematical subjects in every way possible4 ,they give recognition to the simpler and more fundamental principles and operations regardless of the special phase of the subject to which they belong1 and use the entire product as groundwork for succeeding steps in the science4 ,in this way parts of algebra and geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries to higher arithmetical operations4 ,the texts used by the pupils are little more than a series of exercises4 ,all teaching is done by the teacher and the texts are arranged in such a way that the children may have opportunity to become skilled in the principles evolved in class through application of them in the long lists of problems in their texts4 ,very little blackboard is provided for the pupils' use1 hence but little blackboard work is accomplished4 ,each room has a small board on which the teacher of a pupil may go through solutions4 ,never have ,i seen more than one at a time working at the blackboard4 ,while the limited use of blackboards generally calls for an increased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity and consequent increase in mental alertness1 the free use of blackboards relieves the mind of unnecessary burdens which may as well be borne by crayon1 and thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in pushing on the quest for the unknown4 ,geography ,aim4 ,to obtain 7#a7 ,a somewhat complete acquaintance with the fatherland2 its conditions1 commerce1 manner of life4 7#b7 ,acquaintance with the geography of ,europe1 especially the countries to the north and the other longer civilized countries4 7#c7 ,a view of the different continents and a closer acquaintance with lands and places which are of greatest importance to the fatherland4 7#d7 ,knowledge of the most important features of physical and mathematical geography4 ,first ,division ,class ,,ii4 7,boys three hours1 girls two hours1 weekly47 ,with continuous reference to local geography and places known to the children1 the pupils are brought to understand geographical forms and relations in general4 ,special attention is given to charts and maps4 ,instruction begins with drawings 7on blackboard and tablets7 of the schoolroom2 then extends to schoolgrounds1 to the immediate surroundings with streets and some of the more important buildings2 and then to the entire city with its environs1 etc41 etc4 ,the children should become acquainted with the more important features of topography1 soil1 valleys1 plains1 ridges1 mountains1 seas1 fjords1 rivers1 brooks1 seasons1 day and night1 rising and setting of planets 7sun1 moon1 and stars71 flora and fauna1 altitude1 sea level1 etc4 ,from familiarity with the city and its surroundings the work extends to the entire fatherland which is considered in an elementary fashion4 ,herein are included elementary studies of coast line1 principal systems of valleys1 and location and size of cities4 ,map drawing of small localities4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours weekly47 ,the map of ,europe4 ,beginning with the fatherland1 including its location with reference to other lands and seas as well as its relations thereto1 enter into a study of other ,european countries in the order in which they would naturally be entered if touring from the fatherland4 ,subdivisions of the sea and land1 also cities1 railways1 canals1 rivers1 and mountains are to be studied4 ,pictures are to be used in illustration4 ,by the use of globes and other illustrative material1 the discussion may be extended to other parts of the world4 ,each of the several divisions of the earth is to be treated in an elementary manner4 ,everything is to be outlined or indicated on the maps and charts--first by the teacher and later by the pupils4 ,second ,division ,class ,,iv4 7,one hour weekly47 ,on the foundation of what was done in ,class ,,iii the work shall be extended to the outlying divisions of ,europe--,norway1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,the ,british ,isles1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,russia4 ,the study of maps is emphasized both for review and new work4 ,every land is considered with reference to the fatherland1 other known lands1 the equator1 and the poles4 ,attention confined to typical aspects3 description of a typical city1 a manufacturing center1 etc41 special variations in climate1 flora and fauna1 chief natural scenery1 commercial activities1 products and conditions of the citizens4 ,readings on geographical topics are correlated with picture illustrations4 ,details and illustrations utilized as in ,class ,,iii4 ,class ,v4 7,one hour weekly47 ,holland1 ,belgium1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,austria1 ,hungary1 and the ,balkan peninsula are considered after the plan used in ,class ,,iv4 ,after these ,european countries1 foreign countries are discussed4 ,study and instruction in this class is in accord with the outlines of work in previous classes though more exhaustive and minute4 ,india1 ,china1 the large islands in the ,pacific ,ocean1 ,north ,africa with its ,sahara1 ,central ,africa1 ,the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,australia1 etc41 are also considered4 ,third ,division ,class ,,vi4 7,one hour weekly47 ,the geography of the fatherland is gone through thoroughly with the aim of imparting to the children a rather complete knowledge of their country's nature1 commerce1 and life in its various localities4 ,the chief points considered are3 coast line1 surface1 water channels1 climate--east and west--boundaries1 inhabitants1 life of the people1 political divisions4 ,this is to be constantly correlated with what has been learned previously of other ,european countries4 ,map drawing in detail4 ,review of former work4 ,class ,,vii4 7,one hour weekly47 ,the more important features of mathematical and physical geography are presented1 being continuously illustrated by charts1 maps1 globes1 astronomical plates1 etc4 ,the horizon1 earth formations1 zones1 yearly and daily rotations1 geographical breadth and length2 the moon1 its phases2 the planets1 etc41 are important topics for study4 ,others are positions of continents and oceans with reference to each other1 climate and physical features of the earth1 the air1 winds1 changes in temperature1 movements of the sea1 the more important ocean streams 7,gulf and ,polar streams71 etc4 ,throughout the study constant connections should be made between what is known in geography1 natural history1 and nature study4 ,the outline indicates both thoroughness and a close correlation with related fields of work4 ,beginning with the well-known in geography they gradually widen their horizon and establish connections with the more remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a moderately accurate appreciation and knowledge of this branch of study and get a view of its intricate relations with life and human activity4 ,while the work of the course is generally characterized by thoroughness1 their study of localities outside of ,europe is simply a skimming over or a skipping glance4 ,to be sure time is insufficient to enable them to exhaust all opportunities2 but1 it would seem more consistent with their general idea of concentrating on matters which directly concern the fatherland and its subjects1 did they bring the young into a more intimate acquaintance with ,america and a fuller appreciation of what ,america really means to ,norway and ,norwegians4 ,very few ,norsemen are without vital interests here4 ,nearly all1 it seems1 have immediate relatives or very dear friends who have migrated from the native land and have established homes in the ,united ,states4 ,it appears that it would be important for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren and acquaint themselves more fully with the geography of ,america4 ,its life1 topography1 commerce1 and other distinctive features would add to their geography a chapter of unsurpassed values4 ,the work which is done is commendable for many reasons4 ,the many-sided views obtained by varied methods of attack are rich and meaningful4 ,every pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a question relating to their own country4 ,furthermore1 they are informed with reference to the relationships existing between each country studied and the fatherland4 ,these have been clearly pointed out4 ,the perspective obtained through the study of physical and mathematical geography affords richer meaning to every day of life as well as to all the phenomena of nature4 ,history ,aim4 ,the chief aim of instruction in history is to inspire the children's historic instincts and love for their country and people4 ,in an effort to obtain this the following information is imparted3 7#a7 ,a somewhat connected knowledge of the history of the fatherland together with the fundamental tendencies of the social order4 7#b7 ,acquaintance with the most significant incidents in general history4 ,first ,division ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours weekly47 ,selected narratives from the history of the fatherland4 ,the collection of stories includes the following3 ,harald the ,fair ,haired1 ,haakon the ,good1 ,haakon ,jarl1 ,olaf ,trygveson1 ,olaf the ,holy1 ,sverre ,sigurdson1 ,haaken the ,aged1 ,margaret and ,albert1 ,christian the ,second1 ,christian the ,fourth1 ,tordenskjold1 ,the ,years #ahjg-ahad1 ,the ,time of ,pirates1 ,kristian ,august1 ,norway in #ahad1 ,kristian ,fredrik1 ,eidsvold1 #agth of ,may1 ,norway's decennial celebration4 ,the stories are presented orally and are so detailed that the children get clear pictures of persons and incidents4 ,the material of instruction is centered about particular and important persons and incidents in order to give them greater fixity4 ,the pupils rehearse the stories they have been taught4 ,historic poems and songs of the fatherland which refer especially to people or incidents are studied in connection with the history4 ,the material received through instruction in geography during the former year is utilized as groundwork in building up and enriching the historical ideas of the fatherland4 ,the more important phases of social institutions are presented in a way suited to the capacity of the pupils4 ,as the stories proceed1 an attempt is made to awaken a degree of appreciation of their historical sequence4 ,second ,division ,class ,,iv4 7,two hours weekly47 ,stories and descriptions regarding general history centering about the following points or topics3 ,ancient world kingdoms1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,germans1 ,norse1 ,papacy1 great discoveries and inventions4 ,treatment here is similar to that given in ,class ,,iii4 ,stories1 anecdotes and pictures add life to regular routine4 ,stories of the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are given in order to effect connection with general events in world history4 ,here again geography is made the groundwork of history4 ,class ,v4 7,one hour weekly47 ,work carried on as previously4 ,narratives of events chiefly during the time from the ,reformation to the ,french ,revolution4 ,central features studied3 ,luther and the time of the ,reformation 7,luther's childhood and youth1 ,karl ,v41 extension of the ,reformation1 and the ,thirty ,years' ,war71 the period of absolute monarchy1 the time preceding the ,revolution1 science and discovery4 ,presentation of topics the same as previously given4 ,here is included also a considerable amount of culture history1 descriptions from which are given in such a way that life among the higher classes1 as well as among the oppressed1 may be presented and appreciated4 ,third ,division ,class ,,vi4 7,one hour weekly47 ,work continued as heretofore4 ,stories from the time of the ,revolution down to modern times4 ,among the materials used are the following topics3 time of the ,revolution1 #aghi-ahjj2 ,napoleon1 #ahjj-ahae2 ,july and ,february ,revolutions1 ,napoleon ,,iii41 ,germany's consolidation1 discoveries and inventions1 delineations of the history of civilization1 and the advance of modern times in industries and means for communication4 ,class ,,vii4 7,two hours weekly47 ,the history of the fatherland gone through in great detail and in a definitely connected manner4 ,all work based upon what has been learned in former classes4 ,the following are among the more important points considered3 ,norway in ancient times1 ,norway organized into a ,christian kingdom1 ,norway's time of prosperity1 ,norway under internal wars1 ,norway under later kings of ,swedish family and descent1 ,norway in union with ,sweden and ,denmark1 ,norway united to ,denmark until #affa1 time of absolute monarchy 7#affa-ahad71 ,norway in #ahad1 ,norway since #ahad4 ,in addition1 the chief features of social institutions1 the condition of the state1 rights and obligations of citizens1 state administration1 communal affairs1 and similar topics are discussed at some length4 ,by the assistance of a suitable text the presentation should impart to the pupils a moderately connected knowledge of the historical development of the fatherland up to the present time4 ,the children should obtain clear insight into the inner historic situations2 persons1 events1 and specific dates standing as contributors in the background4 ,historic sagas and related selections are used in connection4 ,while attention centers in the history of the fatherland1 important contemporary events in general history are kept constantly before the eyes1 frequent reference being made to the studies in ,classes ,,iv-,,vi4 ,the stated aims1 enumerated means1 and outlined methods of presentation afford a fairly good idea of the work done in the study of history throughout the primary schools4 ,it has been observed1 perhaps by many1 that instruction in history has been preceded by one year's study of geography1 that the geography of the several countries precedes the history of the peoples inhabiting them1 and that geographical appreciation is utilized as a foundation for instruction in history4 ,the main purposes of instruction in history are3 development of patriotic and loyal citizens1 intellectual training1 and cultural information4 ,the prized traits of citizenship are read1 sung1 and drilled into the daily life of every child in the entire country1 and these impressions are fixed so definitely that they live through generations1 even when the subjects are transplanted to foreign soils4 ,story telling in the beginnings of history instruction affords an immediate appeal both to the children's interest in personal activities and to their liking for that form of instruction4 ,the characters whose biographies are delineated are the men around whom national activities have centered4 ,the bits of history related are of epoch-making incidents from the earliest times down to the present4 ,being presented through biography they have a personal touch and flavor which secure vital and immediate responses from the children4 ,there are still other features worthy of consideration4 ,incidents of historic interest are not only pointed out and studied but the scenes of these are actually visited4 ,here again we see the definite way in which history and geography are correlated4 ,too1 since ,norway has been favored by the gift of many literary geniuses1 most historic characters and events have found place in literary classics4 ,all along the way1 songs1 poems1 and dramas having relation to national history are brought into the instruction in a living1 real way4 ,the children are given abundant opportunity to attain proficiency in relating historic events with information gained from the fields of geography1 language1 and literature4 ,nature ,study ,aim4 ,instruction in nature study attempts to awaken the children's interest in and regard for nature in all its expressions1 and to exercise their thought powers and judgment so as to enable them to find or make connections between cause and effect4 ,in order that their attention be centered upon the suitability to purpose1 conformity to law1 harmony and beauty1 the children should have their thought directed to nature's creation and maintenance4 ,finally1 the children through this instruction should obtain a conception of how mankind attempts to control nature and to utilize its strength in the promotion of human welfare4 ,materials for instruction4 ,our bodily structure in the large or whole1 as necessary to an understanding of the general conditions in man's physical life and as fundamental to instruction in health4 ,the more important native and foreign animals and plants2 their growth and life1 together with their importance in nature's economy4 ,the natural forces which have greatest significance for organic life and for man's efficiency4 ,methods of instruction4 ,natural objects or representations of them in model or drawing1 and operations of natural forces illustrated by experiments observed and written up4 ,the accuracy of observations are tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what they see4 ,conditions and things familiar to the children in common life are the ones to be used above all others4 ,class ,,iv4 7,one hour weekly47 ,short synopsis over our bodily structure 7four hours74 ,present by oral instruction and through illustrative materials the skeleton1 muscles1 digestive organs1 skin1 circulation1 respiratory organs4 ,the same points may also be studied as they appear in the lower animals4 ,mammals4 7,twenty hours47 ,horse1 ass1 cow1 sheep1 goat1 reindeer1 deer1 elk1 camel1 cat1 wild-cat1 lion1 tiger1 dog1 wolf1 fox1 marten1 bear1 swine1 elephant1 seal1 whale1 hare1 rabbit1 squirrel1 rat1 beaver1 anteater1 bat1 monkey4 ,fowls4 7,ten hours47 ,tame chickens1 woodcock1 sparrow1 yellow hammer1 bullfinch1 lark1 swallow1 starling1 dove1 cuckoo1 parrot1 hawk1 falcon1 eagle1 owl1 heron1 stork1 duck1 goose1 swan1 gull1 ostrich1 and others4 ,instruction begins with typical animal forms which are illustrated by charts or drawings when the stuffed or mounted specimens are not at hand4 ,the children are required to depend upon themselves as much as possible in finding out individual characteristics in the bodily structures of the chosen forms4 ,then bodily structure and habits are related1 as are also their homes1 food1 color1 and environment4 ,finally1 the animal's meaning in the economy of nature and its value to man are the points studied4 ,along with the careful study of a typical form1 related animals are examined in a more general and cursory manner4 ,the children are taught to remember that while they have dominion over the animals they are at the same time under obligations to them4 ,disregard of these duties is looked upon as rudeness4 ,animal stories form a part of the instruction4 ,after studying the chosen types a review takes notice of common characters and separates animals into classes4 ,instruction is based on a text4 ,class ,v4 7,two hours weekly47 ,plants4 7,forty hours47 ,dicotyledonous plants4 ,bluebells1 buttercups1 strawberry1 apple trees1 pea1 clover1 beans1 cherry1 plum1 dandelion1 blueberry1 heather1 potato1 tobacco1 willow1 birch1 hazel1 and others1 studied under their regular headings or in their special families4 ,monocotyledonous plants4 ,rye1 barley1 wheat1 oats1 timothy1 lily of the valley1 pine1 fir1 juniper1 in connection with respective families4 ,flowerless plants4 ,ferns1 moss1 mushrooms4 ,foreign useful plants4 ,coffee1 tea1 cotton1 sugar cane1 rice1 maize1 orange1 palms1 spices4 ,all plants are studied carefully under their respective subdivisions4 ,as in the consideration of animals1 the growth1 vital organs1 habitat1 and use of plants are studied1 as are also their grouping1 fruit1 etc4 ,about fifty plants are studied carefully and others are related to them4 ,the children are taught not to injure plants or trees4 ,animals4 7,twenty hours47 ,adder1 lizard1 crocodile1 turtle1 frog1 toad1 mackerel1 pike1 salmon1 trout1 herring1 haddock1 flounder1 eel1 shark1 cabbage butterfly1 silk worm1 moth1 bee1 bumble-bee1 wasp1 ant1 fly1 gnat1 grasshopper1 spider1 lobster1 crab1 angleworm1 leech1 trichina1 snail1 mussel1 star-fish1 sea urchin1 coral1 sponge1 etc4 ,instruction along same line as in ,class ,,iv4 ,physics4 7,sixteen hours47 ,based on a text4 ,instruction to be accompanied by experiments whenever possible--otherwise illustrated by drawings and models4 ,solids4 ,resistance to change in form3 hardness1 elasticity4 ,resistance to change of extensity3 compressibility1 porosity1 adhesion1 cohesion4 ,liquids4 ,no fixed form1 apparent unchangeability of extensity1 adhesion to solids1 solution of solids1 mixing of liquids1 endosmose4 ,gases4 ,no definite form1 attraction1 diffusion1 absorption4 ,gravitation4 ,weight1 units of weight1 weighing1 relation between weight and size1 force of weight as a cause of movement1 hindrances to movement1 forces in equilibrium4 ,the lever4 ,balance1 hand presses1 on the principle of the lever4 ,class ,,vi4 7,two hours weekly47 ,liquids4 7,eight hours47 ,distribution of pressure1 ,archimedes' law1 specific gravity1 communicating shaft4 ,properties of air4 7,eight hours47 ,archimedes' law1 the atmosphere and its pressure1 barometer1 pumps and lifters1 ,mariotte's law4 ,heat4 7,twelve hours47 ,different temperatures1 effects of heat1 expansion of bodies1 the thermometer1 maximum density of water1 melting and freezing1 evaporation and condensation1 boiling1 degree of pressure at the boiling point4 ,transmission of heat by radiation and by conduction1 good and poor conductors1 temperature and humidity of the air1 downward pressure1 circulation of water1 atmospheric currents1 sources of heat1 heat as force1 steam pressure4 ,sound4 7,eight hours47 ,origin of sound1 its transmission1 rate of transmission1 the ear1 tones1 reflection of sound4 ,light4 7,ten hours47 ,self-illuminating and dark bodies1 transparent and opaque1 straight path of light1 shade1 rate of transmission1 reflection1 refraction1 diffusion of color1 convex and concave lenses1 microscope1 telescope1 camera1 the eye1 spectacles4 ,magnetism4 7,five hours47 ,the magnet and its poles1 their reciprocal relations1 magnetizing1 difference magnetically in iron and steel1 horseshoe magnet1 compass4 ,electricity4 7,fifteen hours47 ,electricity of friction1 two kinds of electrical condition1 conductors and insulators1 communicating and distributing1 electrical machines1 lightning and thunder1 lightning rods1 electrical current1 battery1 electric light1 electro-magnetism1 telegraph1 telephone1 electricity which generates power4 ,equilibrium and ,motion4 7,ten hours47 ,motion with uniform1 increasing1 or decreasing rapidity2 combination of motion and force 7the parallelogram of power1 center of gravity1 the three conditions of balance1 the beam1 the inclined plane72 work and vital force2 experiment with the pendulum4 ,class ,,vii4 7,two hours weekly47 ,physics4 7,sixteen hours47 ,machines1 block1 tackle1 windlass1 the curved pivot1 various driving forces 7water wheel1 steam engines1 dynamos71 application of machinery in the industries1 railways and steamboats4 ,chemistry4 7,sixteen hours47 ,ingredients of water and air1 coal1 carbonic acid1 burning and oxidation4 ,fundamental elements as material in all bodies4 ,examples of elements3 oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 carbon1 chlorine1 sulphur1 phosphorus1 aluminum1 iron1 silver1 and gold4 ,examples for combinations3 water1 ammonia1 sulphuric acid1 rust1 soda1 cooking salt1 lime1 chalk1 clay1 quartz1 ores4 ,examples of organic matter3 starch1 sugar1 albumen1 alchohol1 fats4 ,instruction in chemistry consists in illustrations and descriptions of materials and experiments4 ,structure and life of the human body4 ,study of health4 7,thirty hours47 ,based on text4 ,study of skeleton1 muscles1 nervous system1 work and rest1 sense organs and their use1 digestive organs and processes1 use of teeth1 blood and circulation1 breathing pure and impure air1 kidneys1 meaning of bodily exercise1 structure and use of the skin1 bathing1 clothing1 dwellings1 foods and pleasures 7under this intoxicating drinks1 tobacco1 etc47 ,something regarding contagious diseases and help in times of accidents4 ,inject instruction on health when convenient in connection with the study of the organs of the body4 ,illustrate by experiment when possible4 ,general review1 especially the points concerning the nourishment and respiration of plants and animals4 ,the outline in nature study impresses one with the inclusiveness of the course4 ,the elementary phases of animal life1 plant life1 physics1 chemistry1 and human physiology and health are made the objects of careful consideration4 ,true this study in some cases is stiff1 formal1 meaningless1 and without spirit because of not being connected with the vital interests of the pupils1 but on the whole the work is brought very close home to their daily life4 ,through it the children are able to see the contributions to life and human welfare made by the innumerable things in man's environment4 ,throughout the primary grades the work is mostly devoted to descriptive studies4 ,considerable attention is given also to the intrinsic value to man of animals1 plants1 and natural forces1 and the means he has found for utilizing them in his struggle forward4 ,the nature lessons throughout the grades are enriched and enlivened by the use of well selected and carefully prepared appliances and models for demonstration4 ,whenever possible the living animals and plants in their natural habitat1 forces as applied in the machinery of neighboring institutions1 and minerals in their successive processes of development and refinement are studied at first hand4 ,every school where the financial stringency is not too keen is provided with a liberal amount of apparatus for demonstrational purposes 7anskuelsesmidler74 ,as an instance1 every primary school in the city of ,christiania has at least one room of considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing of this material4 ,maps1 charts1 mounted specimens1 plates1 preserved articles1 and accessory materials are there in abundance1 and provide minute representations for most any point one might wish to make typical for illustration or study4 ,the more genuine phases of laboratory work are not provided1 though a considerable amount of crude experimentation is done in the grades4 ,the teacher presenting this course must be capable for he is the authority and guide back of all work done4 ,text books 7good ones though condensed7 play a part1 but a much smaller part than would be the case in our ,american schools were similar instruction approached in a formal way4 ,in other words1 their teachers furnish the course and teach the subject1 while too many of ours merely present the course provided in the adopted text book4 ,writing1 drawing1 vocal music1 manual training1 and gymnastics are also in the curriculum and each receives careful attention4 ,perhaps extended outlining of these courses and long discussions concerning them are unnecessary4 ,their importance and value are recognized4 ,their presentation in the schools of ,norway is commendable1 but some things must be passed without exhaustive treatment4 ,only general statements will be given4 ,the results in some lines--writing and drawing in particular--do not justify the amount of time devoted to them4 ,the writing is mechanical throughout1 and in the lower grade the requirements are altogether too exacting4 ,drawing is required of all alike4 ,those who have ability in this line of work perhaps receive too little instruction2 others1 without talent or liking for it1 regard it as a drudgery and1 in the minds of some of their teachers1 hinder the progress of the gifted4 ,the finer coordinations required in both writing and drawing are frequently in advance of the development of the pupils and work injury rather than benefit4 ,vocal music is required of all and injures none4 ,probably each one reaps considerable benefit from the instruction4 ,the class of music used in their teaching is very different from what is in vogue in our ,american schools4 ,the church has exercised a great deal of influence in this respect4 ,since church and state are united the music of the church forms a predominating portion of the music of the state schools4 ,psalms1 chants1 and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk of their selections1 while those of lighter strain are interspersed at intervals not too close together4 ,in ,america our children's songs are more attractive from the jingle point of view4 ,our children like them better and are more anxious to sing them4 ,the little ,norwegians1 too1 are delighted when permitted to swing into the lighter strains of music4 ,they love to sing4 ,their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell out whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies of their psalms4 ,common use of the better quality of music cultivates their ability to appreciate and to render works of higher order than one usually finds in the schools of our own country4 ,manual and industrial training has had an important place in their schools for many years4 ,every hour spent at the bench is a delight to the boys1 while the girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or cooking4 ,these activities are certainly valuable in the training of the young1 and their influences extend into the homes of all the pupils4 ,gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils4 ,a ,swedish system of exercises is used which requires little apparatus but yields large returns4 ,abundant well-directed exercises of various kinds are provided for every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with zest4 ,the regularity with which the gymnastic exercises are given doubtless has much to do in preserving the health of the children4 ,as a class they are not only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust4 ,another part of their gymnastic work is the outdoor exercise which is required of all the pupils between the class periods4 ,this doubtless adds much life and animation to the entire school program4 ,the course as a whole includes the fundamentals and chief essentials to educational activity4 ,those who pass through the primary schools obtain an intelligent appreciation of life and its meanings4 ,they are able to meet common needs successfully and to attend to general affairs in an approved manner4 ,the masses feel the necessity of the fuller life thus provided and in turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of developing loyal and capable citizens4 ,furthermore1 those who are so favorably situated that they may continue in school longer than seven years and desire fitness for entrance upon the work of higher education find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify their desires4 ,the connection between the lower and higher schools was not at all satisfactory until #ahif1 when the ,storthing readjusted the system4 ,since then pupils may pass regularly from the fifth grade of the primary school into the four year middle school1 or after the completion of the seven grades of the primary school they may enter either a three or a four year middle school and finish in three years4 ,since the number desiring entrance to the middle school from the fifth grade is larger than can be accommodated1 those of highest ranking educationally are admitted4 ,while the secondary school men claim perfect right to choose the fittest for entrance into their schools1 the primary school men feel that their work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice as a result of this selective process4 ,the connection between the schools is not yet perfect and some unrest is evidenced in reference to the matter4 ,the chief need seems to be an increase in the number of middle schools4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,middle ,,school ,the ,storthing1 in #ahif1 passed a law defining the limits and work of the middle school4 ,according to the enactment this school builds upon the foundation laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils a thorough general education suited to the needs and receptivity of childhood4 ,the course of study offered may be of varied length1 but in no case shall it exceed four years in duration4 ,the four year course aims at a very natural connection with the work done during the first five years in the common school4 ,where the connection can be made with the work of later grades in the primary school1 the course of the middle school may be correspondingly shorter4 ,the aim and methods are in general similar to those in the lower school2 though1 of course1 higher1 more thorough and inclusive1 and such as give deeper insight into all subjects of instruction4 ,it is required that instruction be given in religion1 ,norwegian1 ,german1 ,english1 history1 geography1 natural science1 mathematics1 writing1 drawing1 manual training1 and vocal music4 ,instruction in domestic economy may be provided for the girls4 ,formerly all of these schools charged tuition2 but1 as the conditions in the commune gradually improved1 provisions were made in some of them for the issuance of a certain number of free scholarships4 ,these were usually governed in such a way that those most in need were the first to receive the benefits4 ,from time to time scholarship funds were increased until now some communes provide free scholarships to all resident children4 ,the city of ,christiania has a three-year middle school building upon the foundation of seven years of primary work and charging no tuition whatsoever4 ,this provision together with the building up of scholarship funds are forerunners of free entrance1 probably1 to all of the state's middle schools4 ,as already stated1 the work of the middle school overlaps in part that of the primary school4 ,the course of study for ,classes ,i and ,,ii is in a large measure a duplication of that provided for ,classes ,,vi and ,,vii in the lower school4 ,however1 to present the work of the middle school adequately1 it is essential that the course for the entire four years be here included4 ,the state adopts a curriculum which is used in all of its secondary schools4 ,minor details such as texts vary in the different schools4 ,the following is an outline of the curriculum used in the ,christiania ,cathedral ,school4 ,religion ,class ,i4 7,two hours47 ,vogt's ,bible ,history to the fall of the ,kingdom of ,judah4 ,j4 ,sverdrup's ,commentary to ,article #b4 ,verses of hymns once each week4 ,class ,,ii4 7,two hours47 ,vogt's ,bible ,history from ,the ,exile to ,the ,story of the ,passion4 ,commentary from ,article #b to ,the ,sacraments4 ,verses from hymns4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours47 ,bible ,history and ,commentary completed and reviewed4 ,verses from hymns4 ,bible reading4 ,class ,,iv4 7,one hour47 ,y4 ,brun and ,th4 ,caspari's ,church ,history gone through and reviewed4 ,cursory study of the ecclesiastical year and the order of divine service4 ,here we note the beginnings of a more formal consideration of religion4 ,a large part of the work is historical4 ,texts and lectures covering practically identical grounds form the basis of the work in this branch of study4 ,the change to the more formal study of religion strikes the writer as a distinctive turn or transfer from moderately successful to useless endeavor4 ,the personal touch and human flavor attending the informal telling of ,bible stories afford some genuine inspiration4 ,life touches life4 ,when character is exemplified in a living person or is shown through story once to have had expression in a fellow mortal1 interest is awakened and the child instinctively imitates the vision before him4 ,he transforms it into life4 ,he enters into the spirit of the theme and the spirit giveth life4 ,on the other hand1 when religion is presented in a formal way1 when an abstract view is taken1 when the core of the subject is in the cold pages of texts1--then the letter killeth4 ,through force of habit the children retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and do go through the motions of study and recitation1 but the life of the subject is very soon extinguished and even respect for it vanishes in large measure4 ,however1 in rare instances good results are obtained through the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified for this work4 ,the ,mother-,tongue and ,old ,norse ,class ,i4 7,five hours47 ,pauss and ,lassen's ,reader ,,ii4 #b4 ,some of the ,songs of the ,fatherland learned by heart4 ,oral and written analysis4 ,hofgaard's ,norwegian ,school ,grammar1 ,paragraphs #a-ca1 #cd-ch1 #da1 #de1 #dh-ei1 #fa1 #fe1 #gf-gi4 ,the more important part of ,hougen's ,rules for ,correct ,writing4 ,written work 7dictation and composition7 each week4 ,class ,,ii4 7,four hours47 ,pauss and ,lassen's ,reader ,,ii4 #c4 ,poems--among them some of the ,songs of the ,fatherland learned by heart4 ,hofgaard's ,grammar continued1 also analyses4 ,one written exercise each week 7dictation and easy composition47 ,class ,,iii4 7,alternately three and four hours47 ,pauss and ,lassen's ,reader ,,iii4 ,poems learned by heart--partly from ,lassen's ,poems for ,middle ,schools1 partly from ,songs of the ,fatherland4 ,certain parts of the grammar reviewed4 ,analyses now and then4 ,about twenty written exercises1 among them some dictations4 ,class ,,iv4 7alternating three and four hours47 ,pauss and ,lassen's ,reader ,,iii4 ,that portion from which the examination is taken1 gone through and partly reviewed4 ,several poems committed to memory4 ,fourteen written exercises4 ,among the topics used the following are typical3 ,the summer vacation1 the location of our city1 ,denmark1 past and present lighting systems1 animal life in our forests1 reminiscences from my earlier school days1 birds and why we protect them1 the ,norsemen as seamen1 ,christiania in winter garb1 ,europe's natural conditions in preference to those of other continents4 ,in harmony with the indications of the plan of instruction1 the early part of the work in the study of the mother-tongue is devoted to reading from selected texts4 ,simultaneously1 grammar and rhetoric are carried along and put into use in written compositions which are frequent4 ,here1 as in the primary schools1 exact spelling1 correct grammatical and rhetorical forms1 and approved literary style are constant requirements4 ,the child is expected not only to read intelligently1 but to express himself orally and in writing in a comprehensive manner and in such form as to appeal to the intelligence of others4 ,thus both in oral speech and through written composition the pupil is privileged to put his attainments into continuous use4 ,they acquire the tools of thought and skill in handling them4 ,german ,class ,i4 7,six hours47 ,knudsen and ,kristiansen's ,reader from the beginning to the ,subjunctive4 ,written exercises4 ,class ,,ii4 7,five hours47 ,knudsen and ,kristiansen's ,reader from ,subjunctive to close of book4 ,voss' ,reader in section ,a1 seventy-six pages1 in section ,b1 fifty pages2 one-half of these shall be learned by heart4 ,hofgaard's ,short ,german ,grammar the most important forms4 ,written exercises4 ,rehearsals4 ,retroversions4 ,class ,,iii4 7,five hours47 ,voss' ,reader1 in section ,a1 seventy-five pages1 in section ,b1 fifty-eight4 ,hofgaard's ,short ,german ,grammar1 inflections4 ,in section ,b besides the above1 paragraphs #adj-adh1 #aef1 #afi1 #agi-aha4 ,in addition section ,b shall have thirty-six pages of ,o4 ,kristiansen's oral exercises and thirty-two compositions according to ,o4 ,kristiansen's exercises in written work4 ,in section ,a1 written exercises1 partly according to ,kristiansen's outlines for written work and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading book4 ,class ,,iv4 7,five hours47 ,voss' ,reader in section ,a1 twenty pages1 in section ,b1 seventy-five4 ,repetition of the portion designated for minutest study4 ,the grammar reviewed4 ,one or two written exercises each week according to ,kristiansen's outlines4 ,the instruction in ,german proceeds in a very natural manner4 ,the earlier lessons are devoted very largely to oral instruction in which the teacher takes the lead4 ,words1 phrases1 and sentences are given by the teacher for translation and concert repetition4 ,repetition and concert work are prominent in many places in the schools1 but nowhere stressed to the same extent as in their language instruction4 ,concert work seems to stimulate to freedom in pronunciation1 while repetition affords the drill which is necessary to the required accuracy4 ,having had at least five years of thorough instruction in the mother-tongue the children are able to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance of verb forms and other features of inflection so that they are ready to do consistent work in this phase of their study4 ,in addition to the translations referred to1 conversational exercises are soon introduced1 and at the end of the second year some facility in easy conversation is evidenced4 ,toward the close of the middle school the children are able to read the language with ease and to converse in it quite fluently4 ,english ,class ,,ii4 7,five hours47 ,brekke's ,elementary ,reader to page seventy-four1 studied and reviewed1 besides the grammar in the back of the book4 ,conversational exercises and written work on the blackboard4 ,during the last half year an occasional written exercise in a book4 ,class ,,iii4 7,five hours47 ,brekke's ,reader for the ,middle ,school1 sixty-five pages read and reviewed4 ,knap's ,grammar4 ,one narrative per week4 ,class ,,iv4 7,five hours47 ,brekke's ,reader for the ,middle ,school4 ,required portion read and reviewed1 while the remainder of the book is gone through and in part read ex tempore4 ,one narrative each week4 ,the study of ,english proceeds along lines parallel to those followed in the ,german4 ,the learning of the language is accomplished chiefly through its use4 ,explanations are made by using the more familiar words of the tongue studied1 by circumlocutions1 and by other similar practices4 ,grammar is resorted to as a means rather than an end4 ,it is used only in facilitating the acquisition of the language1 not as an end in itself4 ,however1 at the close of the course each pupil has become quite proficient in the grammar as well as in reading the language and in conversing in it4 ,history ,class ,i4 7,three hours47 ,nissen's ,history of the ,world by ,sehjoth1 from the beginning until ,scandinavia in the ,middle ,ages4 ,class ,,ii4 7,two hours47 ,text as in ,class ,i4 ,from ,scandinavia in the ,middle ,ages to ,modern ,times4 ,class ,,iii4 7,three hours47 ,same ,text4 ,from ,charles ,v to ,the ,february ,revolution4 ,review4 ,class ,,iv4 7,three hours47 ,same ,text4 ,reviewed in its entirety4 ,the course in history is very rich and its study is entered into with animation4 ,the teacher is usually a master in the subject and he makes the work of great profit4 ,a considerable amount of the class period is devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the work to be done at the next meeting of the class1 preparation for which shall be made in the meantime4 ,problems are presented and purposes are indicated so that the preparatory study may be done with some definite end in view4 ,all facts of history are placed in appropriate settings and perspective1 correlated into a unity1 and given vital meaning4 ,maps1 charts1 and pictorial illustrations are provided in abundance and used constantly4 ,frequently historic scenes near at hand or known to the pupils are pointed out1 minutely described1 and visited4 ,teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the aim of begetting loyalty for the fatherland in the hearts and minds of the young4 ,i have heard instructors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of ,norway's history1 and have noted the flushed cheeks and snapping eyes of the children that bespoke the national pride of the young hearts as familiar words1 slogans1 and songs of their heroes were quoted4 ,when given an opportunity--a common occurrence--the pupils enter into the rehearsal of historic events with enthusiasm4 ,every mind in the room is active4 ,they are awake to the situations and are familiar with the scenes and literature connected with the several stages of development4 ,replies given in response to questions from the teacher are nearly always in the form of narratives1 sometimes occupying ten or fifteen minutes4 ,general history or history of any foreign country is entered into in a spirit similar to that characterizing the consideration of their own4 ,on one occasion ,i listened to a review on ,american history4 ,among the characters taken up were ,grant1 ,lee1 ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 and ,lincoln4 ,the pupils discussed ,uncle ,tom's ,cabin with familiarity1 ,lee was considered as ,the ,napoleon of ,america1 but ,lincoln was the one to whom most of the class period was devoted4 ,at the close of the hour the teacher announced a lecture on ,abraham ,lincoln for the following ,sunday evening in the ,working-,men's ,college 7,arbeiderakademi7#bd of which he was the director4 ,this incident illustrates the way in which they correlate the work of different educational organizations1 and shows their interest in the important events connected with the history of other nations4 ,geography ,class ,i4 7,two hours47 ,arstal's ,geography4 ,norway and ,sweden4 ,review4 ,class ,,ii4 7,two hours47 ,arstal's ,geography4 ,from ,the ,central ,european ,mountains and ,rivers to ,asia4 ,studied and reviewed4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours47 ,arstal's ,geography4 ,the foreign continents4 ,studied and reviewed4 ,class ,,iv4 7,two hours47 ,arstal's ,geography4 ,repeated or reviewed in its entirety4 ,two books are used in the study of this subject4 ,one is made up entirely of well designed1 carefully drawn1 and thoroughly reliable maps1 printed on a good quality of paper4 ,the other is a text giving a good logical statement of what the course is calculated to include4 ,the teacher must provide the major portion of the information by his own initiative and through cooperation of pupils4 ,illustrative material 7,anskuelsesmidler7 is provided in great abundance and in diversified variety4 ,an effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfactory appreciation of the conditions prevailing in the countries considered4 ,their colonization1 commerce1 products1 topography1 political subdivisions1 cities1 population1 river and mountain systems1 climate1 etc41 are all carefully studied4 ,the course begins with the geography of ,norway4 ,next foreign lands and conditions are taken up and compared to situations at home4 ,when the various countries on the globe have been kept for a time before the eyes1 a thorough review is given which occupies the greater portion of the last year in the middle school course4 ,mathematics ,class ,i4 7,five hours47 ,numbers resolved into factors4 ,fractions4 ,some ,proportion4 ,class ,,ii4 7,five hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,eliassen's text4 ,from beginning to division4 ,geometry3 ,bonnevie and ,eliassen's text4 ,from beginning to right lines divided into equal parts4 ,arithmetic3 ,proportion and percentage4 ,class ,,iii4 7,five hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,eliassen's text4 ,from division to equations with two unknowns4 ,geometry3 ,bonnevie's text4 ,from parallelograms to ,book ,,iv4 ,drill in percentage and interest4 ,class ,,iv4 7,five hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,eliassen's text4 ,from equations with two unknowns to close of book4 ,geometry3 ,bonnevie's text4 ,from ,book ,,iv to close of text4 ,review of entire text4 ,drill in computing solids and other miscellaneous problems4 ,a few hours devoted to bookkeeping4 ,one of the most favorable features of their instruction in mathematics is the intimate connection they make between the several phases of the subject4 ,arithmetic1 algebra1 and geometry are never wholly separated from each other4 ,they are in reality interwoven and so definitely correlated that each contributes to the others4 ,by constant use the several processes become familiar tools in the mental activities of the pupils4 ,mastery of the principles of the science and ability in their use are the ends to be attained4 ,the outline of the course indicates the extent of the field receiving attention4 ,it is sufficient to say that the topics are all made to appear plain1 definite1 and vital2 and that they are assimilated1 and do become parts of the growing life4 ,nature ,study 7,natural ,science7 ,class ,i4 7,three hours47 ,botany3 ,sorensen's text4 ,written descriptions of about twenty-five plant forms4 ,zoology3 ,vertebrates according to ,sorensen's text4 ,class ,,ii4 7,two hours47 ,botany3 ,sorensen's text4 ,from ,the ,sunflower ,family to ,plant ,structure4 ,plant analysis4 ,zoology3 ,sorensen's text4 ,invertebrates4 ,review from treatise on insects to close of book4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours47 ,zoology and botany reviewed4 ,plant analysis4 ,henrichsen's ,physics4 ,from beginning to ,properties of ,air4 ,class ,,iv4 7,three hours47 ,henrichsen's ,physics studied through and reviewed with related laboratory work4 ,knudsen and ,falch's ,the ,human ,body ,i studied and reviewed4 ,the plan of work1 as noted1 includes botany1 zoology1 physics1 and human physiology4 ,each subject is taken up and pursued in a consistent manner4 ,in botany plant analysis and structure form the important part of the work4 ,a herbarium is made by each pupil4 ,the study is brought very definitely into the daily lives of the children with the intent of opening their eyes to the conditions in nature about them and of developing in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited provision made for man's welfare4 ,zoology and physiology are treated in a similar way4 ,they are calculated to enrich the life of the individual by bringing him into more sympathetic relations with all living forms4 ,in physics the child does some experimental work and thereby gets first hand experience to accompany1 clarify1 and assist in evaluating the elaborated instruction of the teacher regarding forces1 phenomena1 and laws4 ,it was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly devoted to experimental work that the language used in conversation was carefully scrutinized and that errors were corrected4 ,throughout the curriculum a very definite effort is made to utilize every phase of information possessed by the pupils4 ,,iv4 ,,gymnasium ,religion ,class ,i4 7,one hour47 ,selected hymns1 and chapters from the prophet ,isaiah4 ,class ,,ii4 7,one hour47 ,short survey of church history4 ,brandrud's text used by some of the pupils4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours47 ,short presentation of the ,christian faith and ethics1 without text4 ,survey of designated portions of ,john's ,gospel1 the ,epistle to the ,romans1 and ,revelations4 ,the instruction in religion is commonly given by the city pastors4 ,while all of these men are highly educated1 many of them lack the ability to awaken the minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject4 ,no examination in religion is required in the gymnasium4 ,as a result of the formality in this teaching and the lack of incentives generally1 the members of the classes are listless and inattentive4 ,i insert a note that ,i made in reference to one class in which ,i was a visitor4 ,most of the class was listless all of the time and all of them most of the time4 ,i have on a few occasions heard short and irrelevant remarks made by pupils in response to direct questions by the instructor1 and among the pupils it is accounted no reflection whatever if any of their number states that he knows nothing regarding the situation under discussion4 ,the work appears altogether void of interest and without profit4 ,it seems almost pathetic that a subject of such importance should have its richness of content dissipated and wasted through lack of incentives or by reason of unsuccessful methods of presentation4 ,my observation of the work from the beginning of the primary school through all the classes up to the completion of the gymnasium convinces me that the personal and concrete presentations in the lower grades are very successful but that the formal1 authoritative work in the secondary schools is little more than failure4 ,norwegian ,class ,i4 ,a and ,b 7,four hours47 ,pauss and ,lassen's ,reader ,,iv4 #a4 ,njael's saga4 ,holberg's ,the ,busybodies and ,peter ,paars4 ,part of ,ohlenschlager's ,aladdin4 ,baggesen's ,noureddin to ,aladdin4 ,hertz's ,svend ,dyring's ,house4 ,also in ,a1 ,ibsen's ,vikings at ,helgeland2 in ,b1 ,ibsen's ,the ,feast at ,solhaug2 ,bjornson's ,synnove ,solbakken4 ,landsmaal4 ,garborg and ,mortensen's ,reader for ,higher ,schools4 ,about forty pages from ,aasen1 ,janson1 ,sivle1 etc4 ,fourteen compositions in each class4 ,assigned exercises3 ,impressions from the summer vacations2 what do we learn from ,njaal's saga regarding life and customs in ,iceland about the year one thousand2 a characteristic of the ,busybodies by ,holberg2 ,christiania as a city of manufacture and industry2 a comparison between the east and west of ,norway with references to nature and commerce2 a painting ,i like2 ,norway as a tourist land2 do not put off until tomorrow what you can do today2 why could not the ,persians conquer the ,greeks2 the dark sides of city life2 what circumstances have combined in giving the ,norsemen high ranking as seamen8 ,class ,,ii4 ,r4 ,g4 7,five hours47 ,history of ,literature through the literature of the ,north1 folk songs1 a collection of ,danish and ,norwegian ballads1 selections from ,asbjornsen1 ,moe1 and ,holberg4 ,romance poetry1 some read minutely and the rest cursorily4 ,consideration of ,aasen and the ,landsmaal movement4 ,sixty pages of ,garborg and ,mortenson's ,landsmaal4 ,about twenty pages of ,old ,norse from ,nygaard's beginner's book4 ,written exercises1 frequently on topics of interest4 ,besides all this each pupil must give a discussion on a self-selected theme before the class4 ,class ,,ii4 ,l-,h4 7,six and five hours47 ,holberg's ,erasmus ,montanus4 ,wessel's ,kjaerlighed uden ,stromper 7,love without ,stockings47 ,history of literature to about one thousand1 eight hundred4 ,shakespeare's ,julius ,caesar4 ,in the ,landsmaal selections from ,garborg and ,mortenson's ,reader 7excepting folk songs47 ,old ,norse3 ,nygaard's beginner's book4 ,some pages from ,thor to ,utgard4 ,twelve written exercises on important literary1 historical1 and industrial subjects4 ,class ,,iii4 ,r4 ,g4 7,four hours47 ,history of literature from ,holberg down to the present4 ,read scrutinizingly selected writings of ,holberg1 ,ohlenschlager1 ,wergeland1 ,welhaven1 ,asbjornsen and ,ibsen4 ,in the ,landsmaal read from ,garborg and ,mortenson's ,reader and the writings of ,vinje4 ,in the ,old ,norse read the remainder of ,nygaard's beginner's book4 ,history of language and history of literature4 ,many written exercises1 largely literary and historical topics4 ,class ,,iii4 ,l-,h4 7,five and four hours47 ,special study of selections specified as examination material including the writings of ,holberg1 ,wergeland1 and ,welhaven4 ,landsmaal from ,garborg and ,mortenson's ,reader4 ,history of ,literature4 ,history of ,language4 ,twelve written compositions on important topics4 ,the work in literature throughout the gymnasium deals with the masterpieces of the language in an analytic and critical way4 ,the aims are to familiarize the pupils with the best productions in the language1 to acquaint them with the lives and historical relations of their authors1 and to develop literary appreciation and style4 ,accordingly many writers are included1 translations of world classics are utilized1 history of literature in its connections with general history receives attention1 and ability in composition is encouraged and required4 ,eddas1 sagas1 and the more important productions from successive periods are studied in minute detail4 ,the ,landsmaal is not neglected4 ,when any piece of literature is under discussion1 related historical events2 references to other literary productions1 characters1 myths1 etc42 the life of the author2 and many other important points are considered exhaustively4 ,the intricacies of the language are sought out in patience and made familiar4 ,every known device for completing the literary background is utilized4 ,since the literature of the country is a part of the life of its citizens1 no effort is required to secure intense interest in the work4 ,in the linguistic-historical course more time is devoted to this branch of instruction than is given to it in the real and ,latin courses4 ,the quality or class of work is essentially the same though the quantity is necessarily less in the two latter courses4 ,a definite effort is made to place each pupil in possession of the culture represented in the national literature4 ,german ,class ,i4 ,a and ,b 7,three hours47 ,gundersen's ,german for the ,gymnasiums4 ,a1 sixty-seven pages1 ,b1 seventy-five pages1 consisting of the following titles3 ,die ,sanger1 ,die ,burgschaft1 ,der ,ring des ,polykrates ,der ,handschuh1 ,die ,sonne ,bringt es an den ,tag1 ,die ,goldene ,repetieruhr1 ,wie der ,meisenseppe ,gestorben ist1 ,umzingelt1 ,der ,stumme ,ratsherr1 ,zur ,geschichte des #cj-;jahrigen ,krieges1 ,landsknecht and ,soldat4 ,in ,b review the more important features of syntax in ,o4 ,kristiansen's ,grammatical ,exercises4 ,once every week a written review of a lesson read4 ,class ,,ii4 7,three hours47 ,gundersen's ,german for ,gymnasiums1 about one hundred pages4 ,fifteen written exercises1 partly reproductions of new matter and partly write-ups of what has been studied4 ,in real gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addition 7,das ,schneeschuhlaufen1 ,die ,lage ,kristianias1 etc47 ,class ,,iii4 7,alternating three and four hours47 ,gundersen's ,german for ,gymnasiums4 ,reading finished and the greater part of it reviewed4 ,every second week a written review covering two consecutive hours4 ,german is recognized as the language of a great neighbor nation and is assiduously studied4 ,much time has been spent in the middle school in acquiring the language and now three years are used in introducing the pupils into the thought-life and culture of the nation through the inner contact of its literature4 ,some of ,germany's more important authors are studied rather exhaustively4 ,an endeavor is also put forth to become familiar with the most remarkable events in the history of that ,empire4 ,through this advanced treatment they perfect their knowledge of the language as such1 and further their ability to converse in the foreign tongue4 ,french ,class ,i4 ,a 7,four hours47 ,after the more important parts of phonology1 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader in ,french for the ,gymnasium ,i4 pp4 #ah-ajh4 ,the most essential parts of the grammar1 together with many exercises in translation4 ,while reviewing1 special emphasis is placed upon reading exercises4 ,class ,i4 ,b 7,four hours47 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader ,i pp4 #a-ee read and reviewed1 together with the corresponding translations from ,norwegian p4 #aji ff4 ,in addition pages #ih-ajh are read and reviewed and most of the remaining exercises are gone through cursorily4 ,wallem's ,vocabulary ,part ,i4 #a and ,part ,v4 #f-i are studied4 ,class ,,ii4 ,r4 ,g4 7,two hours47 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader ,,ii pp4 #a-ca and #ajd-aab4 ,grammar drill by references to synopses of grammar in the beginner's book4 ,wallem's ,vocabulary ,part ,i4 #a and ,v4 #f-aj studied and reviewed4 ,class ,,ii4 ,lang4 7,with ,latin five hours1 without ,latin four hours47 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader4 ,division without ,latin about eighty pages1 consisting of ,part ,i41 the last section and ,part ,,ii selections for ,a1 ,i-,,vi for ,b1 ,,iii1 ,,iv1 ,,vii1 ,,xi4 ,division with ,latin1 the same amount excepting ,b1 ,,vii and ,,xi4 ,wallem's ,vocabulary1 review ,v4 #f-i4 ,class ,,iii4 ,r4 ,g4 7,two hours47 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader1 about eighty pages4 ,class ,,iii4 ,lang4 7,three hours47 ,hermanstorff and ,wallem's ,reader ,i1 the last section and ,,ii for ,a1 ,i-,x and for ,b1 ,i-,,xiii with the exception of a few selections such as ,x in ,a which is read only cursorily4 ,as exercise in ex tempore translation use ,duruy's ,history of ,france4 ,about the same amount of ,french is taken in the ,latin as in the real course of study though it is carried but for two years in the former and three in the latter4#be ,more time is provided for it in the linguistic-historical course then in either of the others4 ,reference to the table on page #aga will indicate exactly the amount of time used and its distribution throughout the years4 ,the ,french language is not as closely related to the ,norwegian as are the ,german and ,english4 ,greater variations are noted both in pronunciation and in vocabulary4 ,almost universally the ,norwegians regard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages to acquire4 ,the study of ,french is not begun until the pupils enter the gymnasium when they are fourteen or fifteen years old4 ,english and ,german are begun three and four years before ,french4 ,the teachers believe that a mistake is made in not beginning the study of ,french earlier4 ,it is worthy of note that the ,norwegian pedagogues who have tried beginning instruction in the languages at different times in the school course are definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a foreign language early is a distinct advantage4 ,it seems to the writer that ,american schools might profit by this experience and introduce the study of languages in the lower grades4 ,,table ,,xi ,course of study showing weekly hours in ,christiania ,cathedral ,school 7#aiaj-aiaa74 ,,gymnasium ,courses ,real ,language-,history ,latin ,middle ,school ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,classes #c #b #a #c #b #a #c #b #a ,,iv4 ,,iii4 ,,ii4 ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,religion #b #a #a #b #a #a #b #a #a #a #b #b #b ,norwegian #d #e #d #e #f #d #d #e #d #c-a_/b #c-a_/b #d #e ,german #c-a_/b #c #c #c-a_/b #c #c #c-a_/b #c #c #e #e #e #f ,french #b #b #d #c #d #d #j #e #d ,english #b #b #d #g #g #d #b #b #d #e #e #e ,latin #aa #g ,history #c #c #c #e #e #c #c #c #c #c #c #b #c ,geography #b #a #a #b #a #a #b #a #a #b #b #b #b ,mathematics #f #f #d #b #b #d #b #b #d #e #e #e #e ,natural ,science #e #e #d #a #a #d #a #a #d #c #b #b #c ,writing #a_/b #a_/b #a #b ,drawing #a #b #b #b #b #b #b #b #b ,vocal ,music #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a ,gymnastics #d #d #d #d #d #d #d #d #d #d #c #c #c ,manual ,training #b #b #b #b ------ -- -- ------ -- -- ------ -- -- -- -- -- -- ,total #ce-a_/b #ce #ce #ce-a_/b #ce #ce #ce-a_/b #ce #ce #cf #cf #cf #cf ,english ,class ,i4 7,four hours47 ,brekke and ,western's ,selections from ,english ,authors for the ,first ,gymnasium4 ,the regulation sixty pages 7matter from which examination is taken7 is read and reviewed4 ,forty pages ex tempore4 ,one synopsis or reproduction each second week4 ,knudsen's ,english ,prepositions and ,synonyms4 ,class ,,ii4 ,r4 ,g4 and ,latin 7,two hours47 ,brekke and ,western's ,selections for ,second and ,third ,classes in the ,real ,gymnasium4 ,sixty-seven pages read and reviewed in part4 ,ex tempore3 ,called ,back of ,conwoy4 ,class ,,ii4 ,l-,h4 7,seven hours47 ,brekke and ,western's ,selections from ,english ,authors for ,second and ,third ,linguistic-,historical ,classes1 one hundred and sixty pages4 ,merchant of ,venice1 ,act ,i4 ,most of ,brigadier ,gerard by ,conan ,doyle4 ,western's ,english ,institutions gone through4 ,otto ,anderssen's ,history of ,literature to ,bacon4 ,written exercises each week4 ,class ,,iii4 ,r4 ,g4 7,two hours47 ,anderssen and ,eitrem's ,selection of ,english ,classics1 thirty-three pages4 ,the portion from which selections are taken for the final examination 7,artium ,examen7 reviewed in its entirety4 ,ex tempore3 ,called ,back of ,conwoy4 ,class ,,iii4 ,l-,h4 7,seven hours47 ,brekke and ,western's ,reader4 ,obligatory1 ,selections #c1 #d1 #af1 #ag1 #aa1 #ai4 ,from ,otto ,anderssen's ,english ,literature the required amount3 ,swift1 ,byron1 ,thackeray1 ,merchant of ,venice4 ,o4 ,anderssen's ,history of ,english ,literature4 ,western's ,english ,institutions4 ,written work each week4 ,class ,,iii4 ,latin 7,two hours47 ,anderssen and ,eitrem's ,selection of ,english ,classics1 forty-five pages4 ,review of selections from which examinations are taken4 ,the connections the ,norwegians sustain with the ,english speaking world are1 perhaps1 stronger than those binding them to any other people4 ,norway has close commercial associations with both ,england and ,america1 and rarely does one find a family in ,norway without near relatives in one or both countries4 ,as a consequence1 more than usual interest attaches to the study of ,english4 ,strenuous efforts are now being made to introduce it into the curriculum of the elementary school1 and such change will probably be effected at an early date4 ,according to the present plan those who graduate from the gymnasium have studied ,english six or seven years and have gained a fairly definite knowledge of it4 ,they are able to read fluently and converse with ease4 ,they have become familiar also with much of the best ,english literature1 and through it have been brought into close touch with the life and culture of the ,english speaking peoples4 ,latin ,class ,,ii4 ,latin 7,seven hours47 ,schreiner's ,short ,grammar4 ,inflection and some of the rules of syntax4 ,ording's elementary book4 ,ording's ,latin ,reading ,selections1 pp4 #a-cf4 ,written exercises each week4 ,class ,,iii4 ,latin 7,eleven hours47 ,schreiner's ,latin ,reading ,selections1 pp4 #cj-fg and #gc-hh4 ,livy ,,xxii41 chapters #d1 #i-ae1 #af-ah1 #ai-bh1 #db-ee4 ,cicero in ,verrem ,,iv41 sections #a-ad1 #fj-gj1 #gb-ha1 #aje-aae4 ,schreiner's ,short ,grammar3 ,syntax4 ,forty written translations4 ,latin is included in the curricula of only about one-half of the gymnasia of ,norway4#bf ,it is taught by competent teachers who appeal to the interests of the pupils through related history and literature1 and through promise of linguistic excellence4 ,the work is gone into thoroughly1 drill is constant1 and readiness in response is demanded4 ,despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a general feeling among the ,norwegians that the study of ,latin does not yield the immediate and substantial returns coming from other kinds of study4 ,while they recognize that for advanced work in certain lines ,latin is a prerequisite1 they are convinced that1 outside of those special lines of learning1 contemporary tongues1 history1 biology1 industrial chemistry1 and other scientific subjects are more beneficial4 ,as a consequence this branch of study is on the decline4 ,history ,class ,i4 7,three hours47 ,ancient history as treated in ,raeder's text4 ,history of the middle ages up to the second division from ,schjoth and ,lange's ,general ,history4 ,class ,,ii4 ,r4 ,g4 and ,latin 7,three hours47 ,schjoth and ,lange's ,general ,history4 ,history of the ,middle ,ages and of ,modern times until the ,vienna ,congress4 ,history of ,scandinavia until #agbj4 ,survey of its more important portions--oral or written4 ,class ,,ii4 ,l-,h4 7,five hours47 ,history of the ,middle ages down to the ,french ,revolution from ,schjoth and ,lange's ,general ,history4 ,history of ,scandinavia to #agbj4 ,in addition use two hours per week in historical readings including such topics as the feudal system1 medieval poetry1 the university1 ,venice1 craftsmen and merchants in the middle ages1 ,fredrik ,,ii41 ,hanseatics and aristocracy in the north1 ,william ,pitt4 ,class ,,iii4 ,l-,h4 7,five hours47 ,schjoth and ,lange's ,general ,history finished4 ,scandinavian history in the nineteenth century4 ,review of all requirements4 ,taranger's ,social ,conditions or ,civics4 ,historical readings including introduction to the ,french ,revolution1 state rights in ,norway1 general culture and political development in our time1 ,norway in #ahad1 historical events4 ,class ,,iii4 ,real and ,latin4 7,three hours47 ,history of ,norway since the treaty of ,kiel in #ahad1 and the history of ,europe after the ,vienna ,congress1 using ,schjoth and ,lange's ,general ,history4 ,the more important features are presented in oral synopses4 ,besides this ,taranger's ,civil ,government of ,norway4 ,the study of history in the gymnasium builds very definitely upon the foundations laid in the primary and middle schools4 ,the supposition is that the pupils are by this time capable of getting from texts the information they contain4 ,the class periods are devoted partially to texts of lesson preparation1 but mostly to free discussion and to presentation of relevant material by the instructor4 ,bits of information regarding the private life of historical characters1 minor incidents in their careers1 and varied personal touches given by the teacher infuse spirit and vitality into the entire course4 ,the lessons are brought directly home to the pupils and they are able to appreciate the fact that they are inheritors of past accomplishments and participants in present activities4 ,some of the most interesting and enthusiastic recitations ,i visited were in history4 ,all through the course in history ,norway is given first attention and consideration4 ,its history is begun first1 all along it is made the center around which the history of other nations is grouped1 and finally it is given the concentrated1 mature1 and crowning efforts of those pursuing the long course of instruction4 ,the closing year is generally devoted to a study of social and political conditions in the fatherland4 ,norway's constitution with its many provisions and administrative features of government 7general and local7 is given to the youths in clear1 concrete1 and concise presentations4 ,upon leaving the gymnasium the young people1 therefore1 are in a position to appreciate the meaning1 privileges1 and responsibilities of citizenship4 ,while they have their affections centered in their native land1 they are able to comprehend the relative accomplishments1 standing1 and conditions of other countries4 ,geography ,class ,i4 7,one hour47 ,haffner's ,physical ,geography4 ,class ,,ii4 7,one hour47 ,steen's ,mathematical ,geography4 ,completed and reviewed4 ,class ,,iii4 7,two hours47 ,arstal's ,economic ,geography4 ,review all requirements4 ,the gymnasial course in geography includes physical geography1 astronomy1 and political geography4 ,it is rich and profitable4 ,under the head of physical geography are included such topics as physiography1 petrography1 dynamic geology1 history of the world's development1 the earth's surface1 oceanography1 and the atmosphere4 ,while only a general survey of the respective fields is possible1 the pupils obtain a pretty fair grasp of fundamentals and feel that they have a very good and adequate idea of what their home--the earth--really is4 ,the work in astronomy or mathematical geography1 as it is frequently called1 is concerned chiefly with the earth's place in the universe1 the ,copernican system1 ,keppler's laws1 the moon1 the earth 7form1 size1 and motion71 the celestial world in general1 the sun's apparent motion1 the sun as a measurer of time1 etc41 etc4 ,political geography provides acquaintance with the earth in special reference to man's presence and welfare4 ,it treats of his means of livelihood1 ways of communication1 and the conditions under which he colonizes1 builds up cities1 and develops generally4 ,mathematics ,class ,i4 7,four hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,berg's text4 ,from beginning to ,series4 ,geometry3 ,bonnevie and ,sorensen's text4 ,entire text covered and reviewed4 ,examples at home and at school4 ,class ,,ii4 ,real 7,six hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,berg's text4 ,from ,series to end of text4 ,trigonometry3 ,johannesen's text4 ,completed and reviewed4 ,stereometry3 ,guldberg's text4 ,completed and reviewed4 ,analytical ,geometry3 ,guldberg's text4 ,from beginning to ,the ,ellipse4 ,problems at home and at school4 ,class ,,ii4 ,linguistic 7,two hours47 ,algebra3 ,bonnevie and ,berg's text4 ,series4 ,trigonometry3 ,o4 ,johannesen's text4 ,solving of problems4 ,class ,,iii4 ,real 7,six hours47 ,guldberg's ,analytical ,geometry4 ,e4 ,holst's ,higher ,arithmetical ,series4 ,review of all requirements in real course4 ,solution of problems4 ,class ,,iii4 ,linguistic 7,two hours47 ,review of the entire requirement4 ,examples at home and at school4 ,in addition to completing the work begun in the middle school in arithmetic1 algebra1 and geometry2 instruction in the gymnasium includes trigonometry1 stereometry1 analytical geometry1 and higher arithmetical series4 ,the methods of instruction are the same as those used in the middle school though1 of course1 adapted to the greater maturity and stronger mentality of the pupils4 ,by the time pupils enter the gymnasium considerable ability should have been gained in working independently4 ,where necessary1 the teacher cooperates in solving problems and makes sure that the principles involved are thoroughly understood4 ,frequently during the recitation period several members of the class are called to the blackboard1 one at a time1 to perform operations under consideration4 ,as the pupil develops the problem he explains every step taken as he proceeds4 ,the other pupils observe closely1 take notes1 and offer suggestions4 ,the instructor carefully supervises every move1 giving explanations when necessary not permitting erasures or leaving any operation until all in the class understand fully4 ,in this way hearty cooperation is secured4 ,every mind is actively engaged and the excellent results testify of the validity of the method4 ,work in analytical geometry and higher arithmetical series is taken only by those in the real course of instruction4 ,natural ,history ,class ,i4 7,four hours47 ,chemistry3 ,waage's ,the ,chemistry of ,daily ,life4 ,gone through and reviewed4 ,physiology3 ,knudsen and ,falch's ,the ,human ,body ,,ii4 ,studied and reviewed4 ,class ,,ii4 ,real 7,five hours47 ,isaachsen's ,physics4 ,from the beginning to ,heat4 ,review after having carefully studied4 ,exercises at home and at school4 ,botany3 ,th4 ,resvoll's text4 ,completed and reviewed4 ,class ,,ii4 ,linguistic 7,one hour47 ,botany3 ,resvoll's text4 ,completed and reviewed4 ,class ,,iii4 ,real 7,five hours47 ,isaachsen's ,physics4 ,from ,heat to end of text4 ,entire text reviewed4 ,zoology3 ,chr4 ,bonnevie's text4 ,studied and reviewed4 ,botany3 ,th4 ,resvoll's text reviewed4 ,class ,,iii4 ,linguistic 7,one hour47 ,zoology3 ,chr4 ,bonnevie's text4 ,studied and reviewed4 ,botany3 ,th4 ,resvoll's text reviewed4 ,natural ,science or ,nature ,study in the earlier years of school life is less differentiated than it becomes in the gymnasium4 ,here we find the fields very definitely separated4 ,the more important chemical laws1 animal and vegetable development and growth 7botany and zoology71 and the more essential features of human physiology and hygiene form centers of attention throughout the three years4 ,in the real course physics also is stressed1 though in the other courses of study little time is provided for it4 ,not as much is made of the laboratory method as seems advisable4 ,while every school has some provision for it they do not go at it in real earnest4 ,only one or two at a time can do first hand work4 ,the others cooperate mentally and get some benefit1 but they cannot reap the greater results which immediate individual experimentation yields4 ,one day during the progress of a lesson in zoology 7where ,i was a visitor7 a supply of live specimens arrived from the marine biological station at ,drobak1 and the remaining portion of the hour was devoted to investigations at close range4 ,interest was intense4 ,pupils dipped in 7literally7 and investigated at their own pleasure quite informally4 ,the material was soon divided up into several receptacles1 and around each of these gathered an eager group in an effort to use1 handle1 and examine every specimen4 ,those who had no interfering appointments for the succeeding hour accounted it a great favor to be privileged to continue this study for an extra class period4 ,this is but one illustration of the interest attending laboratory work where each pupil may handle and examine for himself--where he may be a doer1 an active participant instead of merely an observer4 ,chapter ,,iv ,,interpretative ,,conclusions ,this chapter is for the consideration of some of the more important phases of the school system presented in greater detail in the foregoing chapters4 ,the aim is to bring some features of ,norway's system under close inspection1 to interpret them in the light of commonly accepted pedagogical principles1 to make comparisons between them and our own1 and to suggest possible improvements where they seem to be needed4 ,it is clearly evident that school practices admirably adapted to the social conditions in one country may be far from desirable in another4 ,on the other hand1 it is well-known that some educational means may be equally suitable in more than one country4 ,furthermore1 certain fundamental principles are effectual wherever education is attempted4 ,we shall hope to find some things worthy of being adopted bodily by us and others capable of transformation into shapes calculated to improve our educational practices4 ,,the ,,people ,,and ,,their ,,ideals ,the ,norse are a sturdy race having potentialities capable of great accomplishment when once aroused and rightly directed4 ,conditions prevented these capacities from functioning with freedom until the middle of the last century when the store of energy which had accumulated during preceding decades and centuries asserted itself and effected a rapid rise in the political and intellectual status of the nation4 ,it is believed that ,norway is now in a period of transition from a condition of mediocrity to one of eminence among the nations of the world4 ,politically1 ethically1 and educationally she assumes larger proportions daily4 ,as individuals the ,norwegians are recognized among the leaders in literature1 art1 and science1 and equal to any as pioneers in the development of the rich frontiers4 ,as citizens they are enthusiastically welcomed everywhere4 ,climatic conditions and habits of life have given them the sturdiness of physique and vigor of mind which make them fearless and undaunted in the face of great undertakings and critical situations4 ,they have become habituated to overcoming all obstacles in their way1 and they naturally concentrate their energies for the achievement of their desired ends4 ,it is reasonable to expect similar traits in them as a nation4 ,their past actions declare these same tendencies and their present attitudes confirm the observer in the belief that the history of ,norway will continue the story of regular and ever higher development4 ,their strongly democratic individuality seems to have been a factor in enabling them to realize and recognize their self in a very successful way4 ,matters of importance put the entire state into action and it ploughs through to the bottom of things4 ,while very conservative1 the state will not permit precedent to stand in the way of accepting new conditions when they are proven superior to the old4 ,after thorough examination of every detail it passes judgment on the situation and then stands on that solution4 ,conservation has been an operating principle with them all along the line4 ,a step in advance1 some worthy achievement1 new or loftier ideals1 greater political freedom1 and the like when once gained are always retained4 ,the union of church and state for example has been to their advantage4 ,matters of religion and politics were handled by the same hands and as a consequence both were strengthened4 ,each found in the other sources of inspiration and power4 ,they both recognized education as a necessary fundamental means for their preservation and advancement4 ,acting in the main on the educational ideals of ,martin ,luther the church accepted the chief responsibilities in the direction of school activities1 while the state very cheerfully undertook the burden of their support4 ,through the processes of growth direct responsibilities have been more and more shifted to the state1 though the church continues to exert very strong influence and render every possible assistance4 ,resulting from this cooperative activity a system of education has evolved which is effectual in the improvement of the state and in the maintenance of the noblest ideals of the church4 ,according to its design this system of schools qualifies all children in the land for intelligent citizenship1 and prepares them severally for the performance of every function of state1 the service of the church1 and for the various arts1 professions1 and other occupations of life4 ,in other words1 ,norway provides for her children educational advantages suitable to every legitimate requirement or desire4 ,thus its school system develops a loyal1 well-trained citizenship capable of maintaining its highest ideals and eager to cooperate in moving the fatherland forward into greater and nobler achievement4 ,,facilities ,,for ,,education ,to satisfy the varied requirements of the nation along the line of educational facilities it has been necessary to establish a complex system of diversified schools4 ,fundamental in the system are the primary schools providing the thorough elementary training so essential and effectual in the qualifying of citizens4 ,following these are the secondary schools--middle school and gymnasium--which afford the advantages of higher education along the more liberal lines4 ,besides these are the many institutions--public and private--for technical and professional study4 ,there are general technical schools1 schools of trades and manual arts1 agricultural and horticultural institutions1 naval and military academies1 schools of art1 teachers' colleges1 a technical high school--an engineering college and institute of technology of high rank--in the city of ,trondhjem1 and the ,royal ,frederik ,university in ,christiania which is devoted to specialized study and research in science1 letters1 and learned professions1 including theology1 law1 medicine1 and education4 ,the last is provided for in the affiliated ,pedagogical ,seminary recently established4 ,at this point we may speak a word in commendation of the important part played by private institutions in ,norway4 ,among them may be enumerated primary and secondary schools1 teachers' seminaries1 and technical institutes4 ,being of high merit and operating side by side with the state schools1 they have rendered valuable service and exerted a wholesome influence4 ,the state has recognized their work and expressed its appreciation of their efforts by giving them standing and by voting annuities to certain of them4 ,the uniformly high standard of preparation required for entrance to and the close correlation between the several special schools make easy the passage from one to another when it is desired1 and give solidarity and unity wherein cooperation is natural and mutually beneficial4 ,it should be noted that provision is made for the proper care of the exceptional child in ,norway4 ,this is more particularly true of the defective4 ,the child who is dull of comprehension along some lines receives individual assistance from his regular teacher or another who is employed to do the work4 ,recognition is given to disparity in physiological and mental age of children4 ,those who are definitely lacking in mentality are segregated into classes in the large schools and into separate schools in the larger cities1 where they are provided with abundant1 well-selected equipment and expert teachers who exert every effort to improve the conditions and to overcome the handicaps of the unfortunates4 ,morally delinquent children are placed in children's homes--homes for correction--where they are supervised and taught4 ,each child is placed under the conditions best suited to his needs--where he will be most profited4 ,all of this work comes under the authority of the school officials1 and as a result there is close coordination between the regular and the special schools4 ,not only do these officials care for the mentally and morally delinquent but they are also authorized and required to take children from environments that are likely to develop evil and lawless traits4 ,unfit parents may be deprived of the control and authority over their offspring who are taken and placed in private homes of moral influence or in children's homes where they receive proper care and training4 ,being vested with such authority the school officials are able to do much toward the prevention of delinquency as well as to attend specifically to the individual cases where a lack of moral responsibility is evidenced4 ,here are wholesome lessons for our ,american schools4 ,instead of giving sufficient individual help or providing expert teachers for the less intelligent1 we permit them to become repeaters or to drop out altogether2 in place of taking the child from an evil environment before he becomes a moral delinquent and placing him under moral surroundings in some good home1 we hesitate to interfere with parental rights--as though they were greater than social--and permit him to become a law-breaker2 and rather than give to school officials the authority and necessary equipment to care rightfully for the child who has committed some error1 we place him in the hands of the law and he is probably sent to a reformatory having neither facility for his proper treatment nor any connection with the schools whatsoever4 ,closer co-ordination of these educational functions and institutions would prevent much misfortune1 cure a vast amount of misery1 and accomplish more efficient results4 ,,directing ,,authority ,,and ,,management ,,of ,,schools ,norway's educational authority is definitely centralized in the person at the head of the ,department of ,ecclesiastical and ,educational ,affairs1 who is a member of the ,king's cabinet4 ,the several departments1 bureaus1 commissions1 and boards for control are radiations from this central focus4 ,furthermore1 their schools are parts and parcels of one very definite1 though somewhat complex1 system2 each class of schools1 in its respective field1 is ordered according to certain specifications2 and all are coordinated so as to result in a unified whole without overlapping1 or exposure of ragged and loose ends4 ,the controlling features of greater importance such as curriculum1 appointment of teachers1 plans of instruction1 and the determination of qualifications for teaching positions are in the hands of the higher authorities4 ,in effect the state determines the policies1 the officers are expected to respect them1 and the patrons exercise but little direct control4 ,for example1 the law provides that completion of certain grades of school work shall mean practically the same throughout the country1 that the middle school and gymnasium examinations shall be uniform everywhere in the state1 that standards of academic fitness for teaching positions must be the same1 and that teachers' salaries shall not be below a certain minimum amount4 ,local opinion never has a thought of departing from these requirements4 ,being vested with considerable authority the school officials are able not only to make suggestions and recommendations1 but also to enforce all school regulations4 ,this plan is successful in securing the most efficient service of which the officials are capable4 ,they are expected to pursue their duties and perform their obligations according to directions without being too largely influenced by the opinions of individuals or community sentiment4 ,local politics plays a very small part in determining what shall be the educational trend1 though the patrons of the school do enjoy considerable liberty and bear some responsibilities in arranging minor factors with reference to local situations4 ,we ,americans might avoid a vast amount of leakage and unnecessary expenditure by improved organization of our educational institutions4 ,a unified system of education1 manned by competent officials with some authority1 might easily raise the standard of efficiency of our schools several grades1 and at the same time reduce the proportional cost4 ,president ,hall has given optimistic expression along this line4 ,he writes3--,the time is not far off when we shall coordinate all educational agencies for all classes of children of school age4444 ,all444 institutions for the care and betterment of the bodies1 minds or morals of children should correlate their work so that eventually it may all become so consolidated that each child can be placed in that position in the whole great system which will do most and best for it at each stage and so that changes from one to the other can be made whenever it becomes for the welfare of the child4444 ,diversities of agencies1 aims and method should increase2 and incorrigibles1 defectives1 homeless1 neglected1 backward children and the rest should each have special provision2 but integration should keep pace with this differentiation4#bg ,were our public schools1 reformatories1 schools for defectives1 etc41 etc41 all combined into one system they might perform their offices more effectively than they do now4 ,instead of permitting each to run along independent of the rest1 they should be made to supplement each other4 ,again1 it is a matter of common knowledge that in our own country high school graduation1 qualifications for teaching positions in the several grades of school work1 college entrance requirements1 college degrees1 etc41 are without uniform standardization4 ,at present even a college degree has meaning only when the work and equipment of the institution granting it have been carefully estimated2 state teachers' certificates may or may not be valid in other states2 and reciprocity among the states in recognizing certificates is not in operation generally4 ,while state certificates are not always demanded1 some of the states are now requiring that all teachers in the high schools must be college graduates4 ,in all too many instances the only effectual prerequisite to obtaining a position as teacher in the schools--primary or secondary--is the vote of the school directors4 ,the gradation of educational activity according to a fixed basis and the raising of standards in academic and pedagogical preparation and in personal fitness for teaching positions would make the schools vastly greater factors in the country's progress and do the nation an inestimable service4 ,centralization and uniformity in authority and purpose are distinctly evident in every school activity in ,norway4 ,the authority of the state is clearly stamped on the work of every official from the directing head to the last in position4 ,everyone connected with the system feels the obligations of the position occupied and1 at the same time1 recognizes his own security while keeping within the limits of the law4 ,they all concentrate their energies in an earnest endeavor to realize the ends which the educational system is designed to reach4 ,even individual subjects of instruction are presented for specific purposes which in turn contribute to the general end to be reached through the course of study as a whole4 ,purposes1 aims1 and ends are always in the foreground of attention1 and when teacher and pupils cooperate and are actuated by common ideals1 their efforts are sure to be vital and successful4 ,,teachers' ,,training ,proper pedagogical training is perhaps the most potent factor for good in educational activity4 ,but few systems1 if any1 adequately meet the needs along this line4 ,some are well supplied with institutions devoted to the training of teachers so far as their number and distribution are concerned but they are lacking in quality2 others have training schools very high in quality but they are poorly distributed and insufficient in number4 ,the ideals and equipment of these special institutions are factors of prime importance in determining their real values4 ,these center in the personnel of the directing and teaching force4 ,too frequently thorough scientific preparation for the specific work of supervising and instructing in teachers' seminaries is wanting4 ,natural endowment coupled with long1 varied1 and successful experience has been regarded as sufficient qualification4 ,to be sure1 native ability is an absolute essential2 experience is of immeasurable value2 but intensive scientific research in the fields of child nature and development1 psychology1 and pedagogical principles1 together with scientific methods1 are equally indispensable4 ,now it is a truism that teachers teach as they have been taught4 ,hence1 to achieve greatest results1 prospective teachers should secure their education 7general and professional7 from ideal teachers as far as possible and obtain experience through practice teaching under the personal supervision of masters in education4 ,preparing under such conditions1 their natural capabilities would be brought more nearly to maximum efficiency and they would become powers for good in the profession4 ,to have seminaries so distributed and equipped that all prospective teachers might have the best training within easy access would be an ideal condition4 ,germany affords an unparalleled example in the development of teachers' seminaries4 ,no other nation ever had a system of training schools as efficient as the one there provided4 ,her right to the title of ,school mistress of the world is in large measure traceable to the excellent training provided for and required of the teachers in the schools4 ,norway early recognized the importance of this phase of school work and established six teachers' seminaries4 ,subsequently four private seminaries have been opened and the state has instituted the ,pedagogical ,seminary in affiliation with the university in ,christiania4 ,this gives them a liberal number of training colleges well distributed4 ,while they are subject to some adverse criticism for failure to keep pace with the development of their school system as a whole1 we must admit that the excellent results achieved by the schools of ,norway are due largely to the early provision of these seminaries and insistence upon special training for teaching positions4 ,it is probable that certain normal schools of the ,united ,states deserve the honors so far as ideals and results are concerned even though we have accorded first ranking in system to ,germany4 ,our plan1 however1 is too individual in nature to accomplish greatest good4 ,we lack a centralized authority with power to do things4 ,we have practically no co-ordination between state systems and no uniformity4 ,even in certain states the several schools do not cooperate or supplement each other as they should4 ,the waste occasioned by the looseness of our system is enormous4 ,could we unify our resources1 systematize our equipment1 and provide efficient direction along cooperative lines of activity1 the ,american schools would advance by leaps and bounds such as have not been known up to the present time in any nation4 ,a word is in place here with reference to the process of obtaining professional preparation4 ,one of the best things to be gained by special training is a professional attitude toward the work of teaching4 ,this cannot be attained by spasmodic effort but must be grown into4 ,it comes rather as a result of long-continued study and application of principles than by intensive training for a short while4 ,direct instruction and experiment extended over a long period of time affords opportunity for innumerable associations and interrelations which no hurry-up process can provide4 ,when professional training and study along the general lines of academic learning parallel each other they become interwoven in such a way that each contributes to the other1 and simultaneously the proper attitude with respect to educational processes becomes a very real part of the student's life4 ,there are a number of important pedagogical principles which should become ingrained in the life of the individual in order that he make a success in the teaching profession4 ,it is a generally conceded and commonly practiced rule in education that to thoroughly master any field of knowledge and really get into its vital parts it is necessary to keep the mind acting upon it1 at least intermittently1 through several years of time4 ,principles acted and reacted upon1 viewed in this light and that1 examined under a certain condition and then another1 and tested in various ways may result very differently in one's life than when given a hurried1 even though intensive1 examination4 ,they are certain in the one instance to sink deep into the life of the individual while in the other case they may or may not affect his behavior4 ,it seems1 therefore1 that if the excellent features which now characterize ,norway's ,pedagogical ,seminary might be carried along through the whole or a large part of the college course1 or if the work of the seminary might be supplemented by studies such as principles of education1 history of education1 child study1 and psychology1 carried along with the college work the results would be more effectual--the preparation for teaching more thorough4 ,however1 considering the short time that has elapsed since the founding of this ,seminary1 its work is of high order and its ideals are praiseworthy4 ,the expressed intent of the director is to develop the field as rapidly as possible until it shall be characterized by the best means of professional training known to the science4 ,,the ,,teachers' ,,life ,the life of the teacher is one of service1 calling for an expenditure of the self to an extent perhaps greater than any other profession4 ,among the ,norse1 however1 it is not as strenuous as that experienced in ,american schools4 ,the ,norwegian teachers have more time than we for recreation1 self-improvement1 or any of the activities opened up by leisure hours4 ,life generally is set at a more moderate pace with the ,norsemen than with the rushing ,americans1 and the schoolmen enjoy the attendant advantages along with those in other professions or occupations4 ,while leisure among certain classes leads to idleness and corruption1 it has quite opposite results among the better class of citizens4 ,windelband says that ,the cultured man is he who in his leisure does not become a mere idler4 ,the cultured men of the past have in their leisure developed science1 art1 literature1 and philosophy4 ,they have had reserve energy after the performance of their regular labors to use in fruitful1 self-selected activities4 ,there are always innumerable avenues through any one of which an earnest servant of the state may bring great gain to its people4 ,there is no nobler profession than that devoted to the development of youth2 neither is there any occupation which brings more satisfying recompenses4 ,the child is the most precious asset of the nation and deserves the maximum service possible for teachers to render4 ,to perform the most efficient service the teacher should have health1 vigor1 and time for recreation in addition to scholastic and professional qualifications4 ,when school authorities make conditions conducive to these ends1 the results will be of such character that teachers1 pupils1 patrons1 and community will all obtain greater profits4 ,where school activities are not overtaxing1 the teacher has opportunity to build up his physical being1 increase the buoyancy of his spirits so as to enthuse his pupils to a greater extent1 or improve his educational qualifications4 ,one may concentrate his efforts along some given line of research and from day to day give the pupils under his tuition the benefits derived from these specialized efforts4 ,an individual by persistent study may become the discoverer of new laws or truths which reach the ends of the earth and profoundly influence human affairs4 ,whatever the particular activity1 leisure consecrated to the uplift of mankind is sure to result in great good4 ,when institutions drive their servants to the limit of their powers they must inevitably be the losers in the long run4 ,they extinguish the light of ambition1 reduce to machines the individuals who should be contributors to human progress1 and make legion the man with the hoe4 ,such practice in our schools results in waste of energy1 depletion of our teaching force1 and irretrievable loss in many ways4 ,it is my candid opinion that the rapidity of the evolution of the ,norwegian school system1 its excellencies1 and the highly satisfactory results coming from it are in large measure due to the fact that it does not overtax the powers of its teachers and educational leaders1 but on the contrary allows them opportunity for the exercise of initiative and encourages a professional attitude towards their work4 ,,the ,,curriculum ,the course of instruction in the primary and secondary schools of ,norway is uniform for all pupils except in the second and third years of the gymnasium where diverse lines of study are offered4 ,the arrangement is unfortunate in that the individual is sometimes required to pursue subjects of study for which he has no adaptability and in which he can develop no interest4 ,teachers in ,norway tell me that this requirement is a great handicap2 retarding the progress of the class1 demoralizing the individual1 and increasing the burden of the teacher4 ,more flexibility in this regard would doubtless be an advantage4 ,the elective system1 so common in our own schools1 when rightly supervised preserves sufficient coherence between the studies taken up and gives opportunity for more perfect adjustment4 ,not only in the course of study but also in organization1 plans of instruction1 and equipment1 the schools of ,norway are too uniform to result in the freest development of the intellect1 the richest growth of individuality1 or the greatest conservation of time1 energy1 or money4 ,there are a few variations from their regular routine but these are not sufficiently numerous4 ,one favorable innovation is the promotion of teachers along with classes through a part or all of the primary school4 ,the consensus of opinion seems to be that better results accrue when a teacher continues with a class through several years of work4 ,this plan is generally followed unless the special fitness of a teacher for work within particular limits renders it highly advisable for assignment to be made to such place4 ,while special aptness for a particular class of instruction should be recognized1 the promoting of teachers along with classes generally obviates any tendency to staleness and usually emphasizes special qualifications4 ,while it would be interesting to discuss the methods used in presenting each subject in the curriculum a few must suffice4 ,religious ,instruction and ,moral ,education ,the church was first to establish schools in ,norway1 putting them into operation in connection with their cathedrals1 probably about the middle of the twelfth century4 ,the chief aim was to prepare the pupils for a religious life1 either as ministers or as faithful disciples4 ,having these as definite ends1 the materials for study were selected because of their fitness to contribute along these lines4 ,instruction was almost wholly in religion4 ,since morality is such a fundamental part of religion1 moral education in large amount was given indirectly4 ,the aim was religion and the result was both morality and religion4 ,schools came to be generally regarded as institutions wherein moral and religious instruction were the prevailing if not the dominating features4 ,this phase of work early became traditional and gained such momentum that it has ever formed a conspicuous part of every grade of instruction throughout the primary and secondary schools4 ,during the formative period the instruction in religion maintained a vitality which was quite in keeping with the demands of the times4 ,however1 as the school system developed1 especially during the closing half of the last century1 it became necessary to arrange more definite plans of instruction in religion as well as in other subjects in the school curriculum4 ,the adapting of instruction to the various grades of school work was a difficult task4 ,the adjustment made to needs in the primary schools seems a very happy one4 ,in this elementary section of the school system the instruction in religion consists mainly in story telling4 ,the work is made concrete and personal1 and its influence is most excellent4 ,not so fortunate has been the attempt to present the great truths and ideals of religion in the secondary grades4 ,the human appeal1 so fruitful in the lower classes1 does not appear in the higher1 at least to the same degree4 ,instead the work is formal and prescribed4 ,interest dies out and even respect for the work rapidly wanes as the pupil passes into more advanced grades4 ,i have often thought while observing the listlessness of the pupils during the period for religious teaching that the effects upon morals and religion would be better by far without the instruction as now provided4 ,to find lodgment in the heart and expression in the experiences of youth1 religious principles must be made to appear practical and vital4 ,they must be shown to be desirable in themselves and in their ends4 ,to teach religion successfully one must be a living example of its true values1 an earnest interpreter of its meaning and power1 and a sympathetic friend of the pupils4 ,besides this he must be a genuine teacher with a knowledge of youth and ability to help others obtain a clear conception of the beauty and worth of the nobler life4 ,religion and morality are so intimately bound up with life's activities that it is difficult to consider them in and of themselves4 ,it is quite impossible to curriculize and present them as subjects for study and instruction without building up in consciousness the idea that they may or may not be phases of life4 ,when this is attempted it is liable to diminish rather than to increase their true meaning4 ,it is at least possible that the most favorable results come through specific occasions which arise apart from set requirements4 ,a genuine experience in real life is the best illustration of what morality and religion mean1 and it furnishes the most secure foundation for instruction along these lines4 ,few lessons and no subjects of instruction can be fully presented without giving considerable attention to their moral and religious phases4 ,if a lesson is completely mastered its moral and religious contributions will have been taken over and appropriated along with any and all other contents4 ,when the moral and religious values inherent in school studies receive their proportionate emphasis there will be no crying need of arranging special courses for their study4 ,the seriousness of the situation at present lies not in the fact that there are no special courses of instruction in morality and religion1 but rather in the condition that teachers fail to recognize their opportunities for giving such instruction4 ,they should impress the children with the fact that morality and religion are component parts of life and that they give meaning and reality to every human experience4 ,while it would be gratifying to see these subjects taught as separate branches by individuals who could make them profitable1 it is much more imperative that all teachers recognize their own responsibility in this regard1 whatever subjects they have to teach4 ,the ,classics ,in common with those of many other countries1 the school curricula of ,norway have been saturated with the classics4 ,for a long time the secondary schools were devoted largely to the presentation of the ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin languages4 ,about #ahej1 there arose a demand for an education which was more utilitarian4 ,nature study1 the sciences1 manual training1 modern foreign languages1 and home economics pressed their claims for recognition and the people became convinced of their values4 ,the masses then began to investigate what right the languages of the ancients had for occupying so large a proportion of attention in school work4 ,gradually the ancient classics were replaced by more modern educational materials4 ,hebrew and ,greek were in their turn dropped from the list of required subjects and the time thus saved was given to work regarded as more vital and beneficial4 ,in #ahif1 a very decisive step was taken when by legislative enactment ,latin--the last of the dead languages--was omitted from the list of subjects required in the school curriculum4 ,this act of the ,storthing has been severely criticised by some4 ,however1 the people whose right and duty it was to decide studied the matter carefully and thoroughly at home and abroad1 and after calm consideration1 acted in harmony with their best judgment1 passed the law1 and put in into immediate execution4 ,the momentum of former practices1 the force of tradition1 or the example of other nations was not sufficient to control the ,norwegian state in its action4 ,it does not permit precedent to determine its policies1 foreign nations to do its thinking1 nor well-enough systems to prevent reform4 ,when higher ground is seen clearly ,norway moves forward with all its power1 determined to occupy and utilize the greater opportunities4 ,such was the condition of the state in its consideration of the classics in their school curriculum4 ,they were willing that those individuals who might elect to pursue the study of the ancient languages should have the privilege to do so and they provided for them such opportunity4 ,however1 they were definitely convinced that to require all pupils to study these subjects in order to complete courses of study or enter the university was an injustice4 ,to their credit be it said that when they are convinced that a certain course of procedure is best they have the moral courage to pursue it4 ,in this particular instance the people were fully aware of the fact that they were taking a step which was a decided deviation from the straightforward course pursued for centuries by the leading national educational systems4 ,yet they became converted to the idea that for their own good1 under their own conditions1 and looking forward to their future as a state and nation1 it would be the wiser solution to leave the classics behind and devote more time and energy to studies which they conceived to be more efficacious4 ,it is interesting to note the recent tendencies in this direction in other countries4 ,in the ,united ,states ,latin is becoming less and less a required subject of instruction in the high schools1 and each year lengthens the list of colleges which do not require it for entrance4 ,even conservative and classic-loving ,germany has recently opened the doors of her universities to those who have finished the ,real-gymnasia4 ,thus they1 too1 acknowledge that the way of the classics is not the only road to higher culture and learning4 ,it has come to be almost universally recognized that the schools exist for the learner rather than the learner for the schools4 ,to debar an individual from privileges for which he is prepared simply because he has not met certain inherited traditional prescriptions is rapidly becoming unorthodox4 ,norway seems to have set the pace for other nations in at least this one respect1 and her clearsighted move in displacing the classics by the introduction of larger amounts of modern foreign languages and other branches of greatest present utility is being followed by other nations of sound pedagogical principles4 ,physical ,culture ,few are the instances where the physical development of the children is so effectually provided for as among the ,norwegians4 ,gymnastics is a regular feature throughout the entire course of study until the completion of the gymnasium4 ,in addition to this the universal rule of requiring the pupils to go into the open air during the intermissions which follow every class meeting has its good effects4 ,athletic sports also have recently become more important features of school life4 ,fortunately they have not reached a point of specialization where their values are open to question4 ,buildings and grounds are constructed and laid out with the physical welfare of children in mind4 ,as a consequence we find gymnastic halls well equipped and grounds supplied with the advantages most essential in the accomplishment of the desired end1 viz41 a strong and vigorous body in which to develop a sound mind4 ,their school grounds are small1 making a crowded condition the rule in the larger schools4 ,strange as it may seem1 the same unfortunate condition prevails almost universally in our own land where there appears to be little excuse for congestion4 ,however1 the size of the grounds is perhaps a matter of minor importance1 especially when compared to their use4 ,space and equipment may be regarded as incidental2 use is the all-important part4 ,our grounds are not used4 ,we rarely have but one1 if any1 intermission except the noon hour1 the greater portion of which is occupied in going for the midday meal4 ,the results of the ,norwegians' enforced1 frequent1 and regular use of the playgrounds are in evidence on every hand4 ,robust1 vigorous1 buoyant1 active1 healthy1 sound1 alert1 and the like adjectives are the appropriate ones to use in speaking of the physiques of their pupils4 ,were the influences of bodily conditions upon mental growth and activity fully appreciated1 the schools would doubtless make a sudden shift toward providing adequately for physical education4 ,physical development has been regarded with considerable favor for some time1 but it has usually been a secondary affair when it should have been introduced as a vital feature4 ,educational systems should provide for the training and development of the physical as well as the mental life4 ,they are dependent upon each other and are in fact two phases of the same life ,it is obviously wasteful to seek to develop the one without regard to the other1 or to attempt the cultivation of one at the expense of the other4 ,vocal ,music ,music is among the most potent factors in developing national spirit and loyalty4 ,plato wrote3 ,any musical innovation is full of danger to the whole state1 and ought to be prohibited4444 ,when modes of music change1 the fundamental laws of the state always change with them4#bh ,napoleon stated that if he might write the nation's songs he cared not who might write its laws4 ,music in the better forms has moved individuals and nations to great accomplishments1 and its efficacy is generally recognized4 ,as a means of education1 however1 it receives far too little attention4 ,the quality of music sung in the schools of ,norway has some points of superiority4 ,one feature in making it a powerful contributor in developing loyal and competent citizens is the use they make of the best compositions from their own writers4 ,their poets and musicians have furnished large amounts of excellent productions4 ,they sing of their heroes and of their national ideals and achievements4 ,the spirit in their songs reflects the soul of their fatherland4 ,the influence upon the lives of the pupils contributes to solidarity of the nation and to love for its institutions4 ,contrast this with the results of the rattle of rag-time and jigs4 ,too much of our public school1 ,sunday school1 and church music has been of this order4 ,public school music and education along this line are matters deserving more attention than they receive4 ,recent introduction into many schools of victrolas with records of masterpieces produced by the leading artists of the world point to a recognition of the educative value of the better quality of selections4 ,to hear the same productions direct from the soul of the artist would be many times as effectual as any mechanical reproduction1 but this is beyond the reach of the masses4 ,present indications give assurance that the near future will see music more nearly occupying its legitimate place in our educational provisions4 ,,lines ,,of ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,gymnasium ,in the second and third years of gymnasial work three courses of study are open1 viz41 ,real1 ,language-,history1 and ,language-,history with ,latin4 ,here pupils get their first experience in electing the line of work wherein their study shall center4 ,this seems a rather fortunate provision1 for by this time likes and dislikes for certain subjects of study1 special aptitudes along specific lines1 and choice of life work are coming into the foreground of consciousness4 ,the pupils' likes and aptitudes working together influence their decisions concerning life's activities4 ,again the disposition and nature of individuals render one line of study more attractive and beneficial than either of the others4 ,there are1 indeed1 many influences at work upon pupils of such age which make it appear highly advisable to follow some particular line of study4 ,whether pupils go into the chosen line of life work directly from the gymnasium or by way of the university1 it is of distinct advantage to specialize along the line for which they are preparing4 ,should they intend to teach1 they would doubtless prefer studying most the subjects to be taught4 ,in these they would have deepest interest1 and from their pursuit they would derive greatest profit4 ,if they determined to study theology1 law1 medicine1 or some other special phase of learning1 they would make selection of gymnasial course with that object in view4 ,whatever the work to follow completion of the gymnasium1 the different courses prepare for the narrower specialization which characterizes life's activities and all their university study4 ,the following table presents the exact work represented by the three courses in form convenient for comparisons4 ,,table ,,xii4 ,the ,three ,courses of ,study in the ,gymnasia of ,norway ,showing ,weekly ,hours ,given to ,each ,subject4,a #a #b #c ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,i ,,ii ,,iii ,i ,,ii ,,iii ---------- ----------- ----------- ,religion #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a ,norwegian #e #f #f #e #f #g #e #f #f ,german #d #c #c #d #c #c #d #c #c ,english #d #b #a #d #g #g #d #b #a ,french #d #b #b #d #c #e #d #c #c ,latin #g #aa ,history #c #c #c #c #e #e #c #c #c ,geography #b #a #b #b ,natural ,science #d #e #g #d #b #d #b ,mathematics #e #f #f #e #c #e #c ,drawing #a #a -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #cj #ca #ca #cj #cj #cj #cj #cj #cj ,note ,a3 #a4 ,singing and gymnastics--#e or #f hours per week are omitted from the table4 #b4 #a1 ,real course1 #b1 ,language-,history course1 #c1 ,language-,history course with ,latin4 ,as the table shows1 the three courses are identical during the first year and uniform in religion and ,german throughout the three years4 ,the ,language-,history course lends itself favorably for purposes of comparison4 ,it stresses the importance of several modern languages and history1 giving to them a preeminence over all other work4 ,the ,real course reduces the work in ,english1 ,french1 ,norwegian1 and ,history and increases the amount of science and mathematics4 ,the course including ,latin makes similar reductions but emphasizes ,latin instead of the sciences and mathematics4 ,the ,norwegians believe it better and cheaper to offer the different courses in the same school than to provide separate schools4 ,this plan necessitates less duplication and at the same time affords quite as adequate facilities for whatever specialization the different courses represent4 ,,co-,,education ,whether schools should be co-educational has been a live question among many nations for generations1 and considerable time will yet elapse before unanimity of opinion is reached4 ,nearly all the schools of ,norway are co-educational4 ,however1 in some of the city systems boys and girls use different playgrounds1 and in certain schools they are segregated also for purposes of instruction4 ,these matters are governed according to the wishes of the inspector or the desires of the principals of the different schools4 ,the aim is to combine the better phases represented in various methods and to adopt the plan best suited to the local situation1 or the one to which the person in charge is converted and in which he can1 because of his convictions1 accomplish best results4 ,the separation of the sexes is complete in all the schools of ,germany excepting some of the primary classes4 ,the advisability of this is a large question1 but by no means a settled one4444 ,germany feels that she has the proper solution1 while in ,america1 with an opposite answer1 we feel for the most part satisfied4#bi ,in ,american public schools co-education is almost universally practiced4 ,in reference to this matter we give the opinions of some prominent educators4 ,the lamented ,dr4 ,harris1 while engaged in the ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo41 schools1 wrote3 ,discipline has improved continually with the adoption of mixed schools2444 the mixing of the male and female departments of a school has always been followed by improvement in discipline1 not merely on the part of the boys1 but on that of the girls as well4 ,the rudeness and abandon which prevail among boys when separate at once give place to self-restraint in the presence of girls4 ,the prurient sentimentality engendered by educating girls apart from boys444 disappears almost entirely in mixed schools4#cj ,the ,honorable ,john ,eaton while ,commissioner of ,education of the ,united ,states made report concerning the co-education of the sexes in several hundred large and small cities in the ,union4 ,the tenor of the entire report is well summarized in the following sentence3 ,we are created male and female2 all the impulses and activities of nature enforce co-education2 if we must live together we must be educated to that end2 to educate separately is an attempt to change the natural order of human economy4#ca ,in our higher institutions of learning the situation is much the same4 ,the ,commissioner of ,education1 referring to the ,state ,university of ,iowa1 writes1 ,the report of the president says that the experience of the institution has uniformly been favorable to the co-education of the sexes2 that their influence on each other in the acquisition of learning has been most beneficial as well as conducive to orderly habits4 ,the presence of both sexes is considered 'an invaluable feature' in restraining indecorum and an 'inducement to every virtue4'#cb ,the practice has continued with similar results throughout the entire country4 ,instances favorable to co-education might be multiplied4 ,its adoption has become a foregone conclusion so far as our general system of education is concerned4 ,true we do have some colleges and a few secondary schools devoting themselves exclusively to the education of one or the other of the sexes4 ,not many of them are state institutions4 ,they are usually private schools and they answer a certain demand whether well founded or not4 ,there are certain questions in connection with the education of the sexes which are fundamental and need considerable attention4 ,however1 no attempt can be made here to solve the many important problems suggested4 ,it is the intent only to emphasize the necessity of being awake to real conditions and to indicate the fact that herein lies a field for the educator's most careful consideration4 ,the questions arise3 ,are the natural functions of man and woman enough alike to justify making their education identical1 and will the adoption of such a plan of education result in the advancement or deterioration of the race8 ,a recent article referring to the endeavor to use women industrially1 socially1 and politically on the same footing as men sounds a warning note1 crying out against the present tendencies which are taking from the flower of womankind thousands who are eminently fitted for motherhood1 woman's essential function on the globe1 and diverting their lives to other and less noble pursuits4 ,it is therefore essential to the race1 say the authors1 that the ablest1 healthiest1 and finest women should be encouraged1 tempted1 compelled1 if necessary1 by circumstances to devote themselves to family life by becoming wives and mothers1 and it is doubtful how far it is expedient to draw them off1 even for a time to other occupations4#cc ,while co-education is in agreement with conditions of family life1 is economic1 and continues to be entirely practicable1 the question still remains whether there may not be justification in a demand for certain fundamental differences to be made in adapting educational means and matter to the two sexes4 ,co-education1 however1 may continue without making the education of the sexes identical4 ,in fact it is very easily possible to make the education of the sexes fundamentally different even though both institutions and class activities are co-educational in practice4 ,a difference in the amount of work in certain groups of subjects required of men and women1 respectively1 might furnish a satisfying solution of this question4 ,and if there are certain branches of study which should belong exclusively to one or the other of the sexes1 it is a simple matter to separate for such work4 ,on the whole it seems to the writer highly advisable to educate the sexes together as far as possible4 ,,the ,,school ,,year ,the regular school year in ,norway has forty weeks of six days each4 ,the plan of having school on ,saturdays furnishes an additional day of fruitful1 well directed activity to the children1 who might otherwise be permitted to spend the time in idleness or misguided conduct4 ,in ,america we have so many vacations and holidays that our schools are in session only about #ge or #hj per cent of the time utilized in ,norway4 ,we may be justified in having the long summer vacations because of the inconvenience and depletion of strength occasioned by the heat1 but several of our vacations during the year and the practice of having no school on ,saturdays are inheritances without much justification4 ,school activities1 when rightly conducted1 should be invigorating and exhilarating instead of producing a state of prolonged fatigue requiring seasons of inactivity or other changes in order to regain lost vitality4 ,again1 the relaxation occasioned by diversion of thought and change of activity on ,sunday is certainly sufficient to counteract any necessity of using ,saturday for recuperation4 ,it appears evident that we are not as frugal in this matter as sound judgment demands that we should be4 ,,school ,,lunches ,it has been found that mental activity is very greatly affected by conditions of nutrition4 ,the quality1 quantity1 and preparation of foods1 together with regularity in eating1 determine to a considerable extent what may be the progress of the pupil in his growth1 both mental and physical4 ,the child who is improperly fed or underfed is thereby handicapped1 while the one who receives intelligent care along the same line is placed at a distinct advantage4 ,that in all large cities there are hundreds and thousands of underfed children is a fact of common knowledge4 ,in many cities provisions have been made for supplying at least one meal per day free of charge to all needy pupils4 ,norway has been in the forefront in this paternalistic movement4 ,several of her cities have undertaken this noble work and probably no city in the world can boast of more adequate facilities for carrying it on than ,christiania4 ,they purchase the best procurable quality of the most nutritious food1 prepare it in a wholesome and palatable manner1 and send it out from a central kitchen to the several primary schools of the city in such quantities as are needed to liberally supply the demands4 ,the food is served hot in the regular lunch rooms absolutely free to all children whose parents ask it and at first cost to others4 ,this work in ,christiania is typical of the provisions made in other cities but the equipment1 and possibly the system of distribution1 is superior to that found elsewhere4 ,in addition to this1 nutritious and easily digested foods and drinks are provided at other schools and served at a moderate cost in the lunch rooms at stated hours in the day4 ,this latter provision is generally in charge of the family of the janitor of the building and is most common in the private and secondary schools to which the previously mentioned plan does not extend4 ,experiment has demonstrated in our own land that it is entirely practicable to provide at a minimum cost warm1 well-cooked1 wholesome foods to either supplement or replace the cold indigestible lunches so commonly carried by school children4 ,the cities and towns enjoy few if any advantages over the rural districts in this regard4 ,the plan is workable and advisable1 and it should be more commonly adopted4 ,,comparative ,,attainments ,in the study of the school system of ,norway it is interesting to compare the school life and attainments of the pupils with those of ,american children4 ,it is true that until we have established norms for measuring the results of education1 we cannot make accurate statements regarding the relative standing of pupils nor estimate precisely their accomplishments4 ,however1 we are able to single out some features of importance and compare them in a general way4 ,it has been noted that the ,norwegian pupils begin school at seven years of age1 while the ,american children commence at five or six4 ,many prominent educators believe that our ,american children start to school too young4 ,they are of the opinion that their development1 physical and mental1 would be better if they did not begin formal school work until at least seven or eight years of age4 ,the greater physical development of the ,norwegians1 due to their later start1 gives them a distinct advantage4 ,their bodily strength and vigor supplement and aid their mental growth4 ,passing through ,norway's successive grades of school to the completion of the gymnasium requires twelve years4 ,the same length of time is used in reaching graduation from our ,american high school4 ,now it is generally conceded that a graduate of the gymnasium in ,norway is two years in advance of a graduate of the ,american high school2 or in other words a student entering the university from ,norway's gymnasial course has an education equivalent to that of an individual entering the junior year of work in an ,american college or university4 ,some would rank the ,norwegian even higher than ,i have here suggested2 however1 only a very general comparison can be made4 ,in consideration of these conditions the question arises3 ,how shall we account for the fact that we use two extra years in order to reach approximately the same standard8 ,it is recalled that the ,norwegian entering school at seven and progressing at the normal rate are ready for university work at nineteen while the ,americans begin two years earlier in order to reach the same attainments at the same age4 ,if the ,norwegian pupils accomplish as much in twelve years1 beginning at seven years of age1 as our ,american children do in fourteen years1 commencing at five1 should we rest satisfied1 or should we modify our system so as to profit by their experience8 ,why permit traditions or precedent to rob us of choice benefits within our reach8 ,again1 the students entering the ,norwegian university are older and more mature both physically and mentally than are ours4 ,being older1 their habits of life are more definitely formed1 and they are better fitted to undertake the responsibility of self-direction4 ,it has been suggested by some that we extend the work of the high school in order to keep our children under parental guidance until they are sufficiently mature to care for themselves at less hazard4 ,the course pursued by ,norwegian pupils is uniform for all until the last two years of the secondary school1 when certain branches of study may be chosen for major attention4 ,when students start to the university they enter immediately upon specialized lines of work and pursue them to their limits4 ,the ,american pupils are privileged to elect a considerable proportion of their secondary school work1 yet they do not generally specialize at all until their junior year in college2 frequently they postpone definite specialization until the beginning of graduate courses4 ,fundamental social characteristics enter into educational ideals1 and each nation1 very naturally1 develops a system of schools peculiarly adapted to its needs4 ,there are1 of course1 general underlying principles which operate in all educational systems and place them on similar bases2 there are also certain features1 essential in the make-up of the individual systems1 which are not common4 ,these peculiar factors give distinctive character to the various systems and are of telling effect in determining their excellencies4 ,whether these special phases affect the life and accomplishments of the pupils1 the nature of their work1 the management of school affairs1 or other educational activities2 they render the different systems almost impossible of comparison4 ,however1 they are suggestive1 and frequently they may be modified and used in improving the systems of other countries4 ,,methods ,,of ,,instruction ,every successful teacher presents his subject in conformity with some universal principles of method4 ,while these cannot be mechanically systematized and used according to unchanging rules1 they form a necessary part of an instructor's equipment4 ,the teacher who knows the subject and is master of the technique of instruction is sure of success1 while the one without method will fail4 ,it seems that the pedagogues of ,norway have formed a happy combination of some methods of instruction4 ,they appreciate the value of the class meeting and with them teaching goes on chiefly in what we call the recitation4 ,this is the teacher's point of contact with his pupils2 here he meets them face to face and mind to mind2 here he succeeds or fails in his function of teaching4#cd ,the excellence of the work of instruction in ,germany has long been recognized4 ,that the ,german teacher teaches is very generally known4 ,he transcends all texts and is an authority on the subjects he presents4 ,by pedagogic training he has been exalted to a place of eminence in his profession4 ,it is possible that they over-emphasize the work of the instructor and neglect the part that pupils should play4 ,in ,america various methods of instruction are in use4 ,one plan is to regard teacher and pupils as cooperators in activities wherein interests are common4 ,the teacher1 having had experience1 exercises control and serves as chief guide through the most critical places in the way of progress4 ,so far as possible the pupils are encouraged to exercise individual initiative and to become independent4 ,they are not to be merely recipients from the teacher's vast store of knowledge1 but with him they are to become genuine participators in the world's thoughts and activities4 ,another plan in all too common use may be designated as the text book method4 ,according to it the major portion of information comes from the voluminous1 logically developed1 well-arranged1 and somewhat attractively printed and bound readable text4 ,the function of the teacher is largely testing knowledge gained from books1 assigning lessons in the text1 supplementing the work of the pupils from his own store or by reference to other works on the subject1 and stimulating them to earnest effort in every possible way4 ,president ,hall would not regard this text book plan of work as very worthy procedure4 ,he writes that some teachers take time telling pupils what to do and testing to see if they have done it4 ,but this is not teaching2 but a device of ignorance1 laziness1 or physical weakness1 or all combined4 ,the real teacher teaches and reduces recitation to a minimum4 ,whoever has visited the best continental schools or studied comparatively such national educational exhibitions as those of ,st4 ,louis must have been acutely impressed with the fact that we exhibit what the pupil does1 ,europe what the teacher does4 ,here he says1 ',go1 do this1 and prove to me that you have done it4' ,there he says1 ',come1 let us study together2 ,i know and will inform1 interest and inspire you to go on4'#ce ,the instructors in the schools of ,norway are true teachers but they do not rely wholly upon their own activity4 ,the text finds a place not so large as in ,american schools but of some consequence4 ,the pupils are privileged to act on their own initiative to some extent though they are not granted unlimited freedom4 ,they cooperate with the teachers in many lines of school work where they find interest and profit4 ,demonstration is largely in the hands of the teachers4 ,the testing of lessons studied is a common exercise with them1 and their class hours are given to intensive activity in which every individual member is expected to be a participant and contributor4 ,they1 like we in ,america1 aim to suit instruction to pupils of average ability rather than to the brightest as they do in ,germany and ,france4 ,,continuity ,,of ,,effort ,by referring to the programs of work arranged for the successive years in the schools of ,norway1 one readily sees that there is but little variation in subjects of study from the first grades of the primary school to the completion of the gymnasium4 ,the change of greatest importance is the introduction of foreign languages--,german and ,english the first and second years in the middle schools and ,french the first year in the gymnasium4 ,when the child enters school he begins subjects of study which represent the several fields of knowledge4 ,the teaching aims to keep him in touch with these in ways adapted to his stage of development4 ,as the pupil grows the scope of each subject enlarges4 ,they advance together4 ,keeping the subject definitely in mind for a long time tends to the creation of permanent interests and at the same time makes possible its assimilation into the very life of the learner4 ,it becomes vital and usable after being acted upon in the various stages and conditions of life through which the child passes4 ,inter-relations and associations with other subjects of study and various phases of life are affected1 which give to it distinct values4 ,too often we find in our own schools that hurried and intensive study of certain subjects does not create permanent interests nor prove of real worth4 ,if natural forces in the child are recognized and utilized they facilitate the learning process and make school activities profitable and delightful4 ,it is a well attested fact that at certain periods in the psychological development of a child mastery of special phases of learning is easy for him4 ,courses of study and plans of instruction should be prepared in such a way that the different phases of work included may be presented and stressed while the nascent period of interest is on4 ,we ,americans are given to dividing a subject into its separate phases1 studying them consecutively for short periods of time1 and then forgetting them4 ,the plan is wasteful and unpedagogic4 ,note the manner in which we break up the work in mathematics and in the mother tongue4 ,it is questionable whether there be a single valid argument favoring such practice4 ,the ,norwegians present mathematics as a single and comprehensive subject4 ,the same is true in their teaching of the mother tongue4 ,the plan is advantageous from every view point4 ,it is certainly conducive to economy of time and efficient results4 ,instead of breaking up subjects of instruction and isolating their several phases from each other1 we ought rather to keep them intact and set about coordinating the several branches of instruction as closely as possible4 ,education should seek to associate and interrelate the truths we obtain and to organize our knowledge into an effectual system4 ,the formation of a comprehensive curriculum1 with arrangements for its presentation in harmony with sound psychological and pedagogical principles1 is a matter of pressing importance4 ,while the school systems of the present are evidently superior to what any past generation has known1 yet the investigations of psychologists and educationists stress the fact that in many ways they are weak and inefficient4 ,the accumulated experience of the past needs overhauling by masters with insight and foresight4 ,educational methods and principles which have been tested and proven worthy should be put into operation4 ,each nation should devise and adopt the most perfect educational system possible1 and this then should be carried into execution by an army of qualified teachers responsive to the call for truly consecrated service4 ,,bibliography ,,books ,erichsen1 ,a4 ,e41 ,bergers ,kathedralskoles ,historie4 ,hertzberg1 ,n41 ,paedagogiskens ,historie4 ,holst1 ,axel1 ,skolehygiene4 ,monroe1 ,w4 ,s41 ,in ,viking ,land4 ,norway3 ,its ,people1 ,its ,fjords and ,its ,fjelds4 ,paludan1 ,j41 ,det ,hoiere ,skolevaesen i ,danmark1 ,norge og ,sverig4 ,salmonsens ,store1 ,illustrerede ,konversationsleksikon4 ,thieste1 ,j4 ,schaan1 ,byskoleloven med ,forklarende ,anmerkninger4 ,thieste1 ,j4 ,schaan1 ,landskoleloven med ,forklarende ,anmerkninger4 ,,periodicals ,,and ,,reports ,anderssen1 ,otto1 ,fra ,norske ,skoleforhold i #aijh1 ,vor ,ungdom1 #aiji4 ,anderssen1 ,otto1 ,fra ,norske ,skoleforhold i #aiji1 ,vor ,ungdom1 #aiaj4 ,anderssen1 ,otto1 ,norwegisches ,schulwesen1 ,sonderabdruck aus ,w4 ,reins ,encyklopadischem ,handbuch der ,pdagogik1 #b4 ,auflage4 ,anderssen1 ,otto1 ,skolen for ,skolens ,opgaver4 ,anderssen1 ,otto1 ,the ,new ,laws for the ,secondary ,schools in ,norway1 ,special ,reports on ,educational ,subjects1 ,gt4 ,britain1 #h3 #afh4 ,heiberg1 ,j4 ,v41 ,education in ,norway1 ,norway 7,official ,publication for the ,paris ,exhibition #aijj71 pp4 #bff-bid4 ,nissen1 ,hartvig1 ,public ,instruction in ,norway1 ,the ,american ,journal of ,education1 #h3 #bie-cjd4 ,norsk ,skoletidende1 ,published since #ahfi4 ,pogue1 ,belle ,c41 ,education and ,schools of ,norway1 ,education1 #aj3 #dbj-dbd4 ,report of the ,commissioner of ,education of the ,united ,states1 #ahga1 #ahgc1 #ahgh1 #ahha1 #ahhb-c1 #ahhe-f1 #ahhh-i1 #ahhi-ij1 #ahia-b1 #ahid-e1 #ahif-g1 #ahig-h1 #aijb1 #aijc1 #aijf1 #aiaj4 ,skolebladet1 ,published since #ahih4 ,thornton1 ,j4 ,s41 ,schools ,public and ,private in the ,north of ,europe1 ,special ,reports on ,educational ,subjects1 ,great ,britain1 #ag3 #cf-fe4 ,vold1 ,j4 ,mourly1 ,report of ,royal ,commission of ,secondary ,education1 ,great ,britain1 #e3 #fdj-fdd4 ,,official ,,publications ,beretning om ,skolevaesenets tilstand i ,kongeriget ,norge4 ,yearly since #ahfa4 ,forslag til en forandret ,ordning af den hiere ,almenskole af den ved kgl4 ,resolutions af #c die ,september #ahij nedsatte ,kommission4 ,gymnasiet3 ,lov om hiere ,almenskoler2 ,reglement for de hiere ,almenskoler2 ,undervisningssplan2 ,eksamensreglement2 #aiaa4 ,lov af #i;de ,june #aijc om forandret ,prver ved ,universitetet4 ,lov om abnrme ,brns ,undervisning4 ,lov om behandling af forsmte ,brn4 ,lov om det ,kongelige ,frederiks ,universitet4 ,lov om ,folkeskolen i ,kjbstaederne4 ,lov om ,folkeskolen paa ,landet4 ,lov om hiere ,almenskoler4 ,lov om ,laererskoler og ,prver for ,laerere og ,laererinder i ,folkeskolen4 ,middelskolen3 ,lov om hiere ,almenskoler2 ,reglement for de hiere ,almenskoler2 ,undervisningsplan2 ,eksamensreglement4 #aiaa4 ,naermere ,bestemmelser angaaende de offentlige ,laererskoler og ,laererprver4 ,norwege3 ,lois sur ,l',enseignement ,public4 ,odelsthings ,proposition ,nr4 #cf 7#aiji7 om forandringer i ,lov om hiere ,almenskoler av #bg;de ,juli #ahif4 ,odelsthing ,proposition ,nr4 #ab 7#aiaj73 ,a4 ,om forandringer i lov om hiere ,almenskoler av #bg;de ,juli #ahif4 ,b4 ,om forandring i lov om forberedende prver ved ,universitet av #i;de ,juni #aijc4 ,reglement for ,aarsprver1 ,middelskole-eksamen1 og ,eksamen ,artium4 ,reglement for de hiere ,almenskoler og ,undervisningsplan for ,middelskolen1 #aijc4 ,reglement for den ved ,lov af #ah de ,januar #aijb anordnede ,optagelsesprve ved ,laererskolerne4 ,reglement for det ,paedagogiske ,seminar og ,paedagogisk ,eksamen4 ,statistisk ,aarbok for ,kongeriket ,norge4 ,yearly4 ,sorthings ,proposition ,nr4 #a1 ,hovedpost ,v4 7#aiaj7 om bevilgning til det hiere ,skolevaesen4 ,undervisningsplan for ,gymnasiet1 #aijc4 ,universitets-og ,skole-,annaler4 ,yearly4 ,,index ,age of pupils1 #dd-di2 completing secondary schools1 #dh2 on entering the university1 #dh2 in teachers' seminaries1 #di4 ,age of teachers1 #di4 ,agriculture1 #bd4 ,america of interest to the ,norwegians1 #agc4 ,apparatus1 #ade-adf4 ,astronomy1 #agg4 ,attendance at school1 #ed1 #gg4 ,authority1 #ahi4 ,certificates1 #hj4 ,centralization of authority1 #aia4 ,christiania's central kitchen1 #ge1 #gf4 ,christianity established1 #bj4 ,church and state united1 #aae1 #ahd4 ,classes1 size of1 #dj4 ,classics1 in ,america1 #bjd2 in ,germany1 #bjd2 their decline1 #bjb4 ,climate1 effects of1 #ahc4 ,co-education1 #dj1 #baj-bad2 in ,america1 #baa-bac2 in ,germany1 #baa4 ,cooking1 #adh4 ,co-ordination1 between grades1 #adi2 between subjects1 #afb2 of educational agencies1 #ahf4 ,correlation1 #bbc2 between schools #ahi1 #aij4 ,course of study1 #eg1 #if-aha1 #aig-bjg1 #bji1 #bah1 #bai2 aim of1 #adh2 changes in1 #ig2 development of1 #ig-aja1 #bbb1 #bbc2 during middle ages1 #if2 linguistic-historical1 #ca2 ,latin1 #ca2 real1 #ca2 secondary1 #aga2 suited to people served1 #bai2 uniformity of1 #aih4 ,defective children1 #ahf4 ,department of ,ecclesiastical and ,educational ,affairs1 #ea4 ,delinquents1 mental1 #ahg2 moral1 #ahg4 ,diocesan directors1 #eb4 ,discipline in school1 #gf1 #gg4 ,distribution of schools1 #cd1 #ce4 ,drawing1 #adf1 #adg4 ,educational commission1 #eb4 ,educational attainments1 ,norway and ,america compared1 #baf-bai2 time required1 #bag1 #bah4 ,educational authority1 #ahh4 ,educational equipment1 ,norway and ,america compared1 #di1 #ej4 ,educational requirements1 #bg1 #cd2 parents held responsible for1 #ee4 ,educational standards1 #ed1 #ee4 ,educational system1 #ahd1 #ahh4 ,electives1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,english1 #aef1 #agb1 #agc2 in elementary schools1 #agc2 its grammar1 #aef2 length of course1 #agc2 methods in1 #aef4 ,examen artium1 #ca4 ,examinations1 uniformity in1 #ahh4 ,exceptional child1 #ahf4 ,eyesight1 #gg1 #gh4 ,fisheries1 #bd4 ,french1 #afh-agj2 difficulties in study of1 #agj2 length of course1 #afi4 ,geography1 #abi-acd1 #aeh1 #aei1 #agg2 aim in1 #abi1 #aei2 methods of presenting1 #acj-acc2 of ,america1 #acc2 texts1 #aei4 ,german1 #aed1 #aee1 #afg1 #afh2 authors studied1 #afh2 methods in1 #aee4 ,grammar1 #aec1 #aed1 #aef4 ,gymnasium1 #ajj1 #afc-aha1 #bjg-baj4 ,gymnastic halls1 #fi4 ,gymnastics1 #fi1 #gj1 #gd1 #ge1 #adh1 #bjd-bjf2 apparatus1 #adh2 during intermissions1 #fi1 #gj2 ,swedish system of1 #ge4 ,hall1 ,g4 ,s41 #ahi1 #aij4 ,harold1 the ,fair-,haired1 #ai4 ,health of pupils1 #gg1 #gh1 #adh1 #bje4 ,history1 #ai1 #acd-aci1 #aef-aeh1 #agd-agg2 aim of1 #acd1 #ach2 beginnings in1 #acd2 methods in1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agf2 of ,norway1 #agf2 nature of work in1 #aeg2 related to geography1 #ace2 stories1 #acd1 #ace1 #ach4 ,houses for janitors1 #gj2 for principals1 #gj2 for teachers in the rural districts1 #gj1 #ga4 ,ideals of the people1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,illustrative materials1 #ff4 ,imitation1 law of1 #hb4 ,industrial training1 #adg1 #adh4 ,industries and occupations1 #bd4 ,infant schools1 #ec4 ,intermissions1 #fi1 #gj4 ,laboratories1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi4 ,latin1 #agc-agd1 #bjb2 courses in1 #afg2 length of course in1 #agd2 methods in1 #agd4 ,libraries1 #fg1 #fh4 ,lumbering1 #bd4 ,lunches1 #ge1 #gf1 #bae1 #baf4 ,lunch rooms1 #fi2 in ,christiania1 #bae1 #baf4 ,luther1 influence of1 on education1 #ahd4 ,lutheran church1 #aad1 #aae4 ,management of schools1 #ahh-aia4 ,manual training1 #adg1 #adh4 ,martin ,luther's influence in education1 #ahd4 ,mathematics1 #abe-abi1 #afj1 #agh1 #agi1 #bbc2 aim in1 #abe2 connection between phases of the subject1 #afj2 co-ordination in1 #abh2 methods in1 #abh1 #abi2 texts in1 #abi2 thoroughness in1 #afj2 use of1 #abh4 ,medical inspection1 #gg1 #gh4 ,mental delinquency1 #ahg4 ,methods1 #gb1 #gc1 #gd1 #hb1 #hc1 #bai-bbb2 in ,german1 #aee2 in history1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #agf2 in mother tongue1 #aah1 #aai2 in nature study1 #adj2 in religion1 #afc1 #afd1 #bjj4 ,middle school1 #ca1 #cb1 #ajj1 #adi-afb2 its aim1 #adi1 #aej2 its foundation1 #adi2 length of course in1 #adi1 #aej2 its limits1 #adi2 work of1 #ca1 #cb4 ,moral delinquents1 prevention and care of1 #ahg4 ,mother tongue1 #aah-abd1 #aeb-aed1 #afd-afg2 aim on instruction in1 #aah2 correct use of1 #abc2 in ,america1 #abd2 inclusiveness of work in1 #abc1 #abd2 methods in1 #aah1 #aai2 nature of work in1 #aff1 #afg4 ,natural history1 #agi-aha2 laboratory work in1 #ahj1 #aha4 ,nature study1 #aci-adf1 #afa1 #afb1 #agi-aha2 aim of1 #aci2 illustrative material in1 #adj-adf2 character1 #afa1 #afb2 laboratory work in1 #ahj1 #aha2 methods in1 #adj2 scope of1 #aci4 ,norway1 adopts constitution1 #bj2 area of1 #bb2 becomes independent1 #bb2 climate of1 #bc2 development of1 #bj1 #ahc2 geography of1 #bb2 history of1 #ai2 nights in1 #bd2 period of transition in1 #ahc2 political divisions of1 #bb2 revolt of1 #bj2 its union with ,denmark1 #bj2 its union with ,sweden1 #bj4 ,normal schools in the ,united ,states1 #aic1 #aid4 ,norwegians1 characteristics of1 #be1 #bf1 #bg2 as colonizers1 #bj2 as sailors1 #be2 conservative1 #ahd1 #ahe2 democratic1 #ahd1 #ahe4 ,observation and practice1 #hc1 #hd4 ,occupations1 #bd4 ,offices1 #fg1 #fh4 ,officials1 duties of1 #ahh2 efficiency of1 #ahi4 ,organization1 needed in ,america1 #ahi4 ,paganism overcome1 #bj4 ,pedagogical seminary1 #hd1 #he1 #ahe1 #aic1 #aie4 ,pensions1 #ib1 #ic4 ,people1 ideals of1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,permanency of teaching positions1 #hg-hi2 advantages of1 #hg2 objections to1 #hh2 present tendencies with reference to1 #hi4 ,physical culture1 #bjd-bjg4 ,physician1 #gg1 #gh4 ,physical geography1 #agg4 ,political geography1 #agg4 ,practice teaching1 #hc1 #hd4 ,private citizens1 their part in school affairs1 #fa1 #fb4 ,primary education1 #eb4 ,private institutions1 #ha4 ,private schools1 #db-dd1 #ed1 #ahf2 equipment of1 #dc2 inspection of1 #dc2 recognition of1 #dd2 secondary1 #ahf2 teachers' seminaries1 #ahf2 technical institutes1 #ahf2 tuition in1 #dc4 ,primary schools1 #cf-ci1 #ahe2 attendance in1 #cf-ci2 course of study in1 #ajb1 #ajd1 #ajf2 curriculum in1 #ii2 rural and city1 #aja2 their financing1 #fb4 ,professional 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appointed by board1 #ef2 duties of1 #eg1 #eh1 #ei4 ,school curriculum1 #aig-bjg4 ,school discipline1 #gf1 #gg4 ,school districts1 #ec4 ,school funds1 #fb4 ,school grounds1 #bje4 ,school life1 in ,norway1 #bag1 #bah2 in ,america1 #bag1 #bah4 ,school physician1 #gg1 #gh4 ,school principal1 #fj2 duties of1 #fj1 #fa4 ,school room decoration1 #fg4 ,school system1 its development1 #aig4 ,school year1 #ed1 #ee2 compared with ,american1 #ej2 length of1 #bh2 in ,america1 #bad4 ,secondary schools1 #eb1 #adi1 #ahe2 select strongest pupils1 #adi4 ,sewing1 #adh4 ,special classes for defectives1 #ahf4 ,special teachers1 #hj4 ,specialization in university1 #ea4 ,standards of work1 #aij4 ,superintendent1 #fj1 #he2 duties of1 #fj4 ,teachers1 attitude toward youth1 #hc2 certificates1 #hj2 life of1 #aie-aig2 rooms for1 #fg1 #fh2 salaries of1 #fc1 #ia-ie2 sex of1 #ga1 #gb2 special considerations1 #ia1 #ib2 their tenure of office1 #ga1 #gb4 ,teacher's qualifications1 #gi1 #hj1 #adf1 #aif2 improvement of1 #aif2 in secondary schools1 #gi1 #hj4 ,teachers' seminaries1 #hc1 #aic2 attendance at1 #db2 curricula in1 #hb2 private1 #da2 weaknesses of1 #hc2 work of1 #ha4 ,teachers' tenure of office1 #hf-ia2 in ,america1 #hi4 ,teachers' titles1 #he-hf2 significance of1 #hf2 use of1 #hf4 ,teachers' training1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #aia-aie2 for secondary schools1 #he2 in ,germany1 #aib-aic4 ,teaching as a profession1 in ,norway1 #gi1 #hj2 its value1 #aif4 ,technical schools1 #ahe4 ,vikings1 #ai4 ,vocal music1 in ,america1 #bjg2 its influence1 #bjf2 ,napoleon on1 #bjf2 nature of1 in ,norway1 #adg4 ,writing1 #adf4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,constitution 7,grundlov7 adopted at ,eidsvold1 ,norway1 ,may #ag1 #ahad4 #b ,statistics for #aijg--the last published4 #c ,the law requires the opening of residences having sufficient room for the accommodation of these groups of pupils for instructional purposes4 ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #da4 #d ,law for ,higher ,state ,schools1 ,sec4 #b4 #e ,statistics for #aijg4 #f ,law for ,city ,schools1 ,sec4 #e1 as amended on ,august #ae1 #aijh4 #g ,schools undertaking educational work of this character must meet specified standards in course of study1 equipment1 teaching staff1 etc41 to have their work accredited by the state4 #h ,the only difference between state and communal schools consists in the fact that in the one case the state and in the other a commune takes the initial step in the establishment of the school and bears the larger portion of the burden in its maintenance4 ,the work of the two is uniform in every particular4 ,they are together referred to as state schools in contrast to private schools4 #i ,law for ,city ,schools1 ,sec4 #bh as revised in #aijh4 ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #bf as revised in #aijh4 #aj ,some are always appointed from outside the city of ,christiania4 #aa ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #db4 #ab ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #e4 #ac ,gathered from ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sections #e1 #ae1 #af1 #ef1 #eg1 and #ei4 #ad ,in communes where the number of regular teaching positions in the primary schools is fifteen or over1 of which at least five are positions for females1 one male and one female teacher occupying regular posts are chosen4 ,in communes where the number of positions is under fifteen1 one male or female teacher occupying a regular post is chosen4 ,where a male and a female teacher are to be chosen1 the elections take place in separate meetings of the male and the female teachers1 each selecting its representative2 in the other communes election takes place in a common meeting4 ,election is for two years4 ,the meetings are conducted by the chairman of the school board4 ,schools provided and sustained by the owners of industrial concerns within the communes may each be represented in the meetings of the school board1 by an owner of such establishment1 while matters pertaining to the school in which he is interested are being considered4 ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #dg4 #ae ,the law provides that there shall be on the school board a priest for each pastorate within the commune1 though not to exceed three4 ,in all cases of necessity the bishop having direction of church affairs in the locality appoints the ministerial members of the board4 ,their appointments are for three years4 #af ,the executive board of the communal council each year elects one of its members to act on the school board for one year4 #ag ,in cities where the number of regular teaching positions is fifteen or more there are elected one male and one female teacher2 and in cities where the number of regular teaching positions is less than fifteen1 but at least five1 one male or one female teacher4 ,in cases where two teachers are elected1 the sexes separate1 each selecting its own representative2 but where only one is elected they all meet together and choose one of their number4 ,election is for two years4 ,the meetings are conducted by the chairman of the school board4 ,the above notes are from3 ,law for ,city ,schools1 ,sec4 #dj4 #ah ,law for ,rural ,schools1 ,sec4 #ae4 ,a crown is equal to about twenty-seven cents4 #ai ,law for ,secondary ,schools1 ,sec4 #cc4 #bj ,reported in #aije as already effective or to become effective immediately4 #ba ,year #aije4 #bb ,year #aiaj-aiaa4 #bc ,law for ,city ,schools1 ,sec4 #d4 #bd ,an organization providing a series of weekly lectures by men of prominence from various places1 for the populace and especially adapted to the working classes4 #be ,the course with ,latin includes #d hours of ,french in the first year and #e hours in the second2 the real course offers it #d hours in the first year1 and #b hours in the second and third years4 #bf ,a school law passed in #ahif omitted ,latin from the course of study4 ,another act of the same ,storthing granted privilege of offering ,latin as an elective in several schools4 #bg ,hall1 ,g4 ,stanley1 ,educational ,problems4 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bid4 #bh ,plato1 ,the ,republic1 p4 #dbd4 #bi ,bolton1 ,f4 ,e41 ,the ,secondary ,school ,system of ,germany1 #cge4 #cj ,report of ,bureau of ,education1 #ahia-ahib1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #hjg4 #ca ,special ,report1 ,no4 #b1 #ahhc4 #cb ,report of ,commissioner of ,education1 #ahgh1 p4 #ga4 #cc ,whetham1 ,w4 ,c4 ,d4 and ,c4 ,d41 ,decadence and ,civilization1 ,the ,hibbert ,journal1 ,vol4 ,x4 ,no4 #a4 #cd ,betts1 ,g4 ,h41 ,the ,recitation1 p4 #b4 #ce ,hall1 ,g4 ,stanley1 ,educational ,problems1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #bie4