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,,transcriber',s ,,notes                
99 ,where the original work uses text in
 italics or bold face1 this             
e-text uses text and text1 respectively4
 ,small caps in the          original   
work are represented here in all        
capitals4 ,subscripts          are      
represented as subscript4               
99 ,ditto marks are left double quotes  
in the original work and                
have been retained4                     
99 ,footnotes have been renumbered and  
moved to directly below              the
 paragraph to which they belong4        
,more ,transcriber's ,notes will be     
found at the end of this text4          
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,illustration3 ,,gathering ,,corkwood   
,,cork3    ,its ,origin and ,industrial 
,uses      ,,by    ,,gilbert ,e4        
,,stecher      ,illustrated             
,illustration        ,,new ,,york    ,d4

 ,,van ,,nostrand ,,company    #be      
,,park ,,place    #aiad                 
,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by    ,d4 ,,van   
,,nostrand ,,company          ,,preface 
,this monograph is not an attempt to put
 before the reading public a  scientific
 exposition of the merits and qualities 
of the ,quercus ,suber  or ,quercus     
,liber 7,linnus71 and carry it up into  
the heights of learning  where none but 
the learned may go2 but to set forth in 
as concise a  manner as possible1 the   
plain story of the corkwood stopper so  
well  known to all4 ,the corkwood as    
seen in the stopper and in many other   
articles of trade1 has long been of     
service to man1 and remained  unnoticed 
in journals of science1 but for a word  
here and there--and in  trying to       
acquaint myself with its generalities1  
found it most difficult  to get even    
these4 ,this rather impressed me as     
being singular1 a  material so largely  
used and so little to its credit1 in    
literature1  that ,i pressed my         

investigations only to find that the    
farther ,i  searched the less ,i found4 
,the few facts gleaned were of interest1
 and it occurred to me to put  them     
together in some readable form1 for     
future reference4 ,but as ,i  reflected 
upon the unsuccessful attempt to get    
information1 which was  made in behalf  
of my studies1 ,i promptly decided to go
 into the subject  deep enough to cover 
all the facts and the result is this    
monograph--,quercus ,suber--    ,it is  
presented with the hope that it will    
help others who seek a  knowledge of    
corkwood and is only intended as a rsum 
of a very  interesting subject4 ,i have 
endeavored to give credit to those to   
whom  it is due and offer my results as 
a tribute to a material that stands in  
a class worthy of the scientists' as    
well as the commercialists' esteem4     
,g4 ,e4 ,,stecher4    ,june #ae1 #aiad4 
,,contents                              
,,page    ,quercus ,suber 7,cork7       
#c      ,quercus ,liber 7,linnus7       

#e      ,cork                           
#g      ,origin                         
#i      ,including the territory of     
growth and      attempts to transplant  
the seed4      ,the ,tree and ,growth   
#ab      ,diseases                      
#af      ,stripping                     
#ag      ,botany and ,chemistry         
#bb      ,including compression diagram4
      ,uses and ,application            
#ci      ,substitutes                   
#ec      ,manufacture                   
#ee      ,raw stock4      ,sorting4     
,stopper making4      ,cork ,disc       
making4      ,waste utilization4        
,extent of the ,manufacturing ,industry 
#ga      ,appendix                      
#gf            ,,cork3    ,its ,origin  
and ,industrial ,uses          ,,quercus
 ,,suber--    8,,cork0      ,the        
material of which this monograph treats 
has become of double  interest because  
of its shrouded mystery1 which has never
 been pierced  to the extent of giving  
the world a complete and comprehensive  

story4  ,the mysticism does not         
encompass its utility and general uses  
nor its  native land1 as these are well 
known1 but is more associated with its  
character1 composition and chemical     
makeup4    ,its uses may be traced far  
back into the misty past that is dim to 
us1  but from the faint scroll of       
history looms up in the mind's eye as an
  epoch that we may have been glad to   
know1 and although the references  are  
few1 by carefully analyzing them we may 
glean somewhat of its  lineage4    ,the 
arcana attending it have been revealed  
to a few1 who no doubt1  through        
curiosity1 have endeavored to penetrate 
its obscurity1 but  unfortunately have  
not written extensively upon the        
subject1 instead  leaving a meager      
memorandum of their findings4 ,the years
 of its use have  given very little     
knowledge of it to us1 the reason       
perhaps being the  lack of competition  
and therefore no necessity for a close  
scrutiny to  find additional qualities  

to recommend it above others4 ,and an   
additional mystery is that it has been  
in use for so many years and so  little 
said about it4 ,its latent qualities    
have mystified those who have  handled  
it for years1 and from them we can learn
 very little2 so it will  be of interest
 to peruse practically all that has been
 written1  incorporated in this         
treatise1 with the addition of the      
latest  investigations upon the subject4
 ,to present this in a form which will  
give credit to the small but            
authoritative references and place them 
in  their proper order1 together with   
other recent data1 was no small task1   
and in presenting the total matter in   
concise style meant the weeding  out of 
all extraneous language or superfluous  
description4    ,in considering this    
material1 it may be well to start with a
 few  precursory remarks as to the      
etymology of the words by which it has  
been  designated in the past and is now 
known1 as by so doing it will convey a  

better understanding of the material to 
follow4      ,,quercus ,,liber 7,linnus7
    ,the above name is the true one of  
the material under discussion and is    
derived from the ,latin4 ,quercus2      
,italian or esculent oak sacred to      
,jupiter4 ,liber2 binding or            
surrounding2 hence surrounding of the   
oak or  bark of the oak1 sacred to      
,jupiter4      8,,quercus ,,suber0      
,this1 its definite name1 undoubtedly   
conveyed some particular meaning to  the
 ancients1 but research fails to reveal 
any definition of the word  8,suber40#a 
8,the word is so far a puzzle to        
philologists4 ,forcellini in  his great 
dictionary of ,latin says that it is    
perhaps connected with the  ,greek word 
7  suphar71 which means #8an old        
wrinkled skin1 as1 for  instance1 the   
cast-off skin of a snake4' ,if this     
derivation be sound1  the ,romans1 in   
using the word1 thought at the outset   
primarily of the  rough bark of the tree
 and then of the tree as a whole4       

,forcellini  quotes also an opinion of  
,isidorus ,hispalensis upon the longer  
form of  #8,suber1' i4e41 ,suberies1 to 
the effect that this form is derived    
from  #8sus' 7swine7 and #8edo' 7eat7   
because swine eat the acorns4 ,but this 
is  a purely popular etymology4 ,i find 
too that ,scaliger derived it from the  
verb #8,subio' #8to come up from below' 
because cork will not stay down in      
water4 ,vaniek1 in his ,etymologisches  
,wrterbuch1 classes #8,suber' among  the
 dunkel words1 and in the new and most  
elaborate ,historische  ,grammatic of   
,stolz the word is not mentioned at all 
in the treatment of  roots4 ,even ,otto 
,keller in his work on ,etymologies has 
nothing to say  about it40      #a      
,letter from ,prof4 ,nelson ,g4 ,mc,crea
 of ,columbia ,university1 ,june        
#ab1 #aiaj1 to writer4          8,,cork0
      ,this name is as much of a mystery
 as the word 8,suber0 and its origin can
  only be guesswork4 ,in the opinion of 
the writer it is the broadening of  the 

first syllable of the word 8,quercus0   
and has no bearing upon its  usage1     
composition or lineage4 ,some           
dictionaries give other derivations1    
such as the mutilation of the ,spanish  
8,corcho0 or the ,french 8,calk10 and   
others that it is taken from the ,latin 
,cortex1#b meaning the outer  shell or  
husk1 the external part1 but they do not
 present any convincing  argument4      
#b ,according to 8,spanish ,dictionary0 
of ,lopes et ,bensley2 ,cortex3 8,la    
,parte exterior del ,arbol40 ,arbol in  
botany meaning 8a tree40    ,the meaning
 of the word 8cork0 as applied to-day is
 derived from the  ,arabic 8,kalafa10 to
 stop the seams of ships2 the ,latin    
8,stipo10 to  suppress2 the ,french1    
8,calfeutrer10 to stop4 ,but these do   
not bear upon  the origin of the word   
8cork10 as in all probability the word  
was coined  independent of these        
sources1 but as we apply the word to a  
definite  act1 that of 8stopping10 the  
definition as given above is applicable1

  although the proper name would be     
8stopper10 regardless of what material  
it is made4 ,it is therefore plain that 
the word 8cork0 is a ,latin  phonetic   
abbreviation1 for it appears to be the  
only logical root for  the word4    ,the
 cork tree is called 8,alcornoque0 in   
,castilian language2 ,surn in           
,castalan2 ,sobreiro1 ,gallician2 ,suvi 
y ,sioure in provincialism2 ,chne  ,lige
 in ,french2 ,keonge fernam or only     
fernam1 in ,argeline2 ,kork-baum or     
,korkeiche in ,german2 and1 as before   
stated1 cork in ,english4#c      #c     
,consul ,schenck's ,report4             
,,origin      ,the study of its origin  
leads us to that romantic part of the   
world  bordering the ,mediterranean ,sea
 from which we have already received so 
much in all branches4 ,the              
cork-producing country practically      
covering  the whole of ,portugal        
sweeping toward the ,east through the   
southern  districts known as ,andalusia 
and ,estremadura1 thence northeast1     

embracing thousands of acres of forests 
in ,catalonia4 ,spain and ,portugal     
dividing honors among the nations in the
 annual yield of raw material1  with    
perhaps the advantage leaning slightly  
to the latter4#d ,this being  partly due
 to increased area1 no doubt1 as the    
geographical situation is  the same but 
with the irrigation feature slightly in 
favor of ,spain1 as  through the        
corkwood country flows the ,guadalquivir
 ,river in addition to  the three which 
also pass through ,portugal1 consisting 
of the ,douro1  ,tagus and ,guadiana in 
the west1 and the ,ebro in the ,gerona  
district4      #d ,armstrong ,cork      
,co4's pamphlet4    ,tunis and          
,algeria#e rank next in importance with 
,southern ,france1  including ,corsica  
following closely4 ,italy 7,tuscany7 too
 with the help  of ,sardinia and ,sicily
 continuing to be quite a factor in     
meeting the  demand for the crude       
material1 while across the ,strait of   
,gibraltar the  sun-scorched forests of 

,morocco at ,el-araish are as yet       
undeveloped1  although rapidly being    
pressed into service4      #e ,there are
 large forests of cork on the ,french   
,colony of ,algeria1        particularly
 on an estate granted by the ,emperor   
,napoleon ,,iii to        ,m4 le duc de 
,montebello4--,h4 ,g4 ,,glasspoole4     
,the geographical formation of ,portugal
 is extremely favorable for the  rearing
 of cork trees1 every evidence of this  
characteristic being well  marked by the
 densely thick groups of cork trees to  
be seen in certain  regions1 especially 
in the ,valley of the ,tagus and the    
,sierra de  ,portalegre provinces of    
,alemtejo and ,algarve1 which are the   
chief  bearing centers of this          
country1#f the area devoted to their    
cultivation being approximately #cff1jjj
 hectares4      #f ,chambers ,journal4  
,in ,spain it is found in the ,provinces
 of ,gerona1 ,caceres1 ,andalusia1      
,huelvas1 ,seville1 ,cadiz1 ,ciudad     
,real1 ,malaga1 ,cordoba and ,toledo in 

the  order named4    ,according to a    
calculation made by the administration  
of forests the  extent of cork forests  
in ,spain is about #bee1jjj hectares1#g 
viz4  #hj1jjj in the ,province of       
,gerona1 #ed1jjj in ,huelvas1 #cb1ejj in
 ,caceres1  #bh1jjj in ,seville1 #bj1jjj
 in ,cadiz1 #aa1ejj in ,ciudad ,real and
 #iejj in  ,cordoba4 ,the remainder is  
distributed between ten other           
provinces4#h      #g ,one hectare       
#b4dga acres4      #h ,consul ,schenck's
 ,report4    ,in the ,province of       
,gerona is included a large territory   
stretching  northward towards the       
,pyrenees to the ,valley of the ,muge   
and ,ter4 ,in  ,france1 according to    
,consul ,goldschmidt of ,nantes1 the    
cork-producing  territory is divided as 
follows3 ,var1 #bhj acres2              
,lot-et-,garonne1 #bg  acres2 ,landes1  
#cb acres2 ,corsica1 #dj acres2 making  
about #cgi acres in  all4    ,this rsum 
of the cork-producing countries of      
,europe will convey some  idea of the   

extent of the forests1 and will also    
show the climate sort  by the tree2 for 
it is proven that it flourishes best in 
an altitude of  #afjj to #cjjj feet1 in 
an average mean temperature of #ee      
,fahrenheit2 and  at points beyond #de  
north latitude its successful           
propagation is  doubtful4    ,the       
,mediterranean ,basin is particularly   
suitable for the rearing of  corkwood1  
and although many attempts have been    
made to transplant the  seed1 the       
results have proven fatal4    ,notable  
among these attempts being the ,american
 ambition to introduce  the tree in the 
,united ,states4 ,portuguese acorns were
 brought to ,wayne  ,county1            
,mississippi1 and planted in #ahei2 the 
result1 as far as the  growth was       
concerned1 was splendid2 but after a    
wait of eleven years1  the final crop   
was not a commercial success4 ,another  
attempt was made in  #ahgb1 in southern 
,california1 but with no better outcome 
than the first1  in which some of the   

trees attained to a height of thirteen  
feet 7#c4ife  meters7 and the stem1 to a
 diameter of eleven inches 7#b4gid      
decimeters71  including the cork1 which 
attained a thickness of one inch 7#b4edj
  centimeters74 ,this evidently rapid   
growth would infer that the ,american   
zone was all that could be desired for  
the favorable rearing of cork  trees2   
but strange to say this was not the     
case4 ,although the growth of  the tree 
had been exceptionally strong1 the      
quality of its salient  product turned  
out to be of an inferior character4 ,the
 cork generally  improves with the age  
of the tree2 in this instance1 however1 
even after  years of maturity the cork  
harvest did not improve to any great    
extent1  and indeed is still of a       
second-rate quality4#i ,and ,consul ,s4 
,c4 ,reat1  writing from ,tamsui1       
recently reports the efforts of the     
,japanese  ,government to plant cork    
trees in ,formosa and the ,ogasawara    
,isles1 in  the endeavor to supply small

 corks to the ,japanese merchants1 the  
result  of which1 is yet to be learned4 
#i ,chambers ,journal4      ,,the ,,tree
 ,,and ,,growth    ,many botanists      
consider the cork oak of ,europe as     
belonging to two  species1 one chiefly  
characterized by annual fructification  
and the  persistence of the leaves for  
two or three years 7,quercus ,suber1    
,linnus72 the other by biennial         
fructification and annual persistence of
  the leaves 7,quercus ,occidentalis1   
,gay74#aj      #aj ,garden and ,forest1 
,vol4 ,,viii1 #eb4    ,in the ,french   
departments of the ,landes and ,gironde 
the ,quercus  ,occidentalis forms       
extensive woods1 as also in ,spain1     
,algeria and  in some parts of ,italy1  
while the ,quercus ,suber is a native of
 the  ,atlantic side of ,france and     
,portugal1 where this tree grows to the 
greatest perfection1 and to which       
countries we are indebted for the  major
 part of our supply4 ,the cork tree     
bears a general resemblance to  the     

broad-leaved kind of 7,quercus ,ilex1   
,holm7 or evergreen oak1 of which       
species some authors consider it only a 
variety2 but when full grown it  forms a
 much handsomer tree4    8,in the       
localities to the north the cork is     
better than those exposed to  the south4
 ,it grows and develops in ground of    
very little depth1 and  sometimes in    
ground1 in appearance very stony4 ,it is
 seldom found in  calcareous soil1      
preferring always a soil of feldspar1   
and like the  chestnut flourishes best  
in a sandy one40#aa      #aa ,consul    
,schenck's ,report4    ,the cork-oak    
attains a height of from six to eighteen
 meters1 at times  reaching fifty       
meters#ab and measures as much as #a4bb 
meters in  diameter4#ac ,its branches   
are covered with small evergreen leaves1
  which are rather spongy and velvety to
 the touch1 have a glossy  appearance   
and a saw-tooth edge1 measuring about   
three to five  centimeters#ad long and  
one and one-half to two wide4 ,the roots

 are  strong and spread considerably1   
and frequently are to be seen on the    
surface of the ground4 ,the flowers or  
blossoms make their appearance in  ,may2
 the fruit ripens in the fall or winter1
 from ,september to ,january1  and      
falling from the tree as soon as ripe4  
,three qualities of acorns are  to be   
observed according to their time of     
ripening and are called1  8brevas       
primerizas de ,san ,miguel10 which ripen
 in ,september2 the second  or middling 
8,martinencas10 which ripen in ,october 
and ,november2 and  finally the 8tardias
  palo-,meras10 which ripen in ,december
 and ,january4  ,these acorns form one  
of the forest's chief sources of        
revenue1 since  fed to swine1 they give 
a peculiarly piquant flavor to the meat1
 ,spanish  mountain hams being noted for
 their excellence4#ae      #ab ,meter   
#c4bh feet4      #ac ,in a cork-wood of 
,montenegro 7municipal district of      
,quart1         ,province of ,gerona7   
the property of ,d4 ,romulo ,bosch1 and 

near the         place called ,la ,mina1
 we measured in ,august1 #ahgg1 a tree  
that         was #d4ie meters in        
circumference1 breast high1 and the     
trunk of         the tree five meters   
high1 calculating its age between one   
hundred and fifty and two hundred years 
old4 ,consul ,schenck's         ,report1
 #ahij4      #ad ,centimeter  4#cicg    
inch4      #ae ,consul ,schenck's       
,report1 #ahij4 ,authority ,m4 ,fee4    
,in the following paragraphs ,i will    
quote principally from ,consul          
,schenck's ,report1 #ahij1 relating to  
the growing and procuring of the  bark  
for shipment1 with interpolated         
sentences and slight changes1 made      
necessary by other data at hand4 ,the   
most common practice is to  cultivate   
this plant by sowing1 which is          
frequently done1 above all1 in  ground  
somewhat manured1 making alternate      
furrows with vines4 ,up to  their       
twentieth or twenty-fifth year the      
ground is cultivated as if it  were a   

vineyard1 rooting up at that age the    
vines on account of  producing less     
fruit1 and also on account of the cork  
trees being pretty  well grown up and no
 longer requiring the shelter of the    
vines4 ,at the  end of even one year it 
is difficult to transplant the cork tree
 on  account of the length of the roots1
 principally the central one1 and if    
the trees are put out with the intention
 of transplanting they are  generally   
sewn in a false ground bottom made      
artificially at a certain  depth with   
layers of stones or bricks4 ,french     
silviculturists recommend  about #aaj to
 #abj trees to the hectare 7#b4dga      
acres74    ,the cork tree gives but     
little shade1 which contributes greatly 
in  causing the soil to become dry4 ,to 
avoid all these inconveniences1 which   
are highly unfavorable to the good      
production of cork1 it is requisite     
that young plants grow up with          
sufficient foliage1 so that the branches
  touch each other1 and even overreach1 

till they are about twenty-five  years  
old4 ,it may be convenient1 if there is 
not sufficient foliage from  the cork   
trees themselves1 to introduce secondary
 species1 such as the  elm tree1 ash and
 pine1 known as 7pi meli71 these being  
depended upon to  supply the requisite  
coolness and manure to the ground4 ,if  
the soil is  poor1 the cork is thin but 
of fine quality and very appropriate to 
make  the best stoppers4 ,if1 on the    
contrary1 it is rich1 the cork is thick 
but spongy4 ,consequently it is         
requisite to treat the cork tree in such
  a manner that whilst the cork grows   
thick it will at the same time be  fine 
in texture4 ,this is of course an       
agricultural problem and may  differ    
from year to year in the necessary      
details4          ,,diseases      ,the  
cork tree has in no wise escaped from   
disease and infections2 on the  contrary
 it has its full allotted share which   
worries the growers more  than the      
acquiring of a perfect texture1 and     

unless great care is taken  will greatly
 reduce the value of a crop4 ,the larva 
of the ,coroebus  undatus 7corch7       
attacks the interior of the cork1       
penetrating frequently  into the tree   
itself1 which causes an undervaluation  
in the quality of  the cork1 and1       
moreover1 these perforations unite so   
closely and in such  a manner even in   
the trunk of the tree that in peeling   
off the cork1  part of the skin of the  
trunk itself comes off1 causing much    
damage to  the tree4    ,the larva of   
the ,cerambyx cerdo1 as well as the ant1
 ,formica rufa ,l4  hormigas1 destroys  
the fine cork with their numerous       
borings and  galleries4 ,jaspered       
7,jasperado7 is the name by which is    
known one of the  defects of the cork   
which reduces it greatly in value and as
 far as  can be learned comes from the  
tree itself4 ,the porosity of cork is   
greatly increased by the presence of    
cork-meal1 resulting from the           
disintegration of the ,sclerenchyma1 or 

stone cells1 which penetrate  the cork  
fiber and falling to a powder facilitate
 the entrance of  infection4#af      #af
 ,scientific ,american1 #aijf4          
,,stripping      #ag ,the corkwood or   
cork of commerce is the external part or
 8periderm0  of the cork-oak2 and when  
it has attained a diameter of           
approximately  #ab4g centimeters or the 
tree measures forty centimeters in      
circumference  according to the ,spanish
 governmental regulations1 which the    
tree does  usually by the time it is    
twenty years old1 the bark may be       
removed4 ,the  stripping generally takes
 place during ,july and ,august1 and it 
is a  process which demands skill and   
care1 if injury to the bark is to be    
avoided4 ,in ,algeria the ,french       
strippers sometimes use crescent-shaped 
saws1 but under the usual ,spanish      
method a hatchet1 with a long handle1   
is the only implement employed4 ,the    
bark is cut clear through1 around  the  
base of the tree1 and a similar incision

 is made around the trunk1  just below  
the spring of the main branches2 the two
 incisions are then  connected by one or
 two longitudinal cuts1 following1 so   
far as  possible1 the deepest of the    
natural cracks in the bark4 ,inserting  
the  wedge-shaped handle1 the tree's    
covering is then pried off4 ,the larger 
branches are stripped in the same       
manner1 yielding1 generally1 a finer    
grade of cork than that of the trunk4   
,the thickness of the bark ranges  from 
#a4bg centimeters to #f4he centimeters1 
while the yield also varies  greatly    
from twenty to #ge kilograms#ah per     
tree1 depending upon its  size and age4 
,after the first stripping the tree is  
left in the  juvenescent state to       
regenerate1 and great care must be taken
 in the  stripping not to injure the    
inner skin or epidermis at any stage of 
the  process1 for the life of the tree  
depends upon its proper preservation1   
for if injured at any point1 growth     
there ceases and the spot remains       

forever afterward scarred and uncovered4
 ,it is also necessary to avoid         
stripping during the prevalence of a    
sirocco1 which would dry the inner  skin
 too rapidly and therefore exclude all  
further formation of cork4      #ag     
,armstrong ,cork ,co4's pamphlet4       
#ah ,kilogram  #b4bje pounds4    ,the   
,capgrand-,mothe system1 which1 as      
known1 consists of dressing the  trunk  
with the same cork just removed1 and    
leaving it so dressed for a  couple of  
months1 has not met with approval1 as   
being impracticable on a  large scale4  
,after the stripping1 the phellogen1 the
 seat of the growing  processes1        
undertakes at once the formation of a   
new covering of finer  texture1 and each
 year this1 the real skin1 with its     
life-giving sap1  forms two layers of   
cells1 one within1 increasing the       
diameter of the  trunk1 the other       
without1 adding thickness to the        
sheathing of bark4  ,after eight or ten 
years this sheathing is removed1 and    

while more  valuable than the first     
stripping1 it is not as fine in quality 
as that  of the third and subsequent    
strippings1 which follow at regular     
intervals of about nine years4 ,at the  
age of about forty years the oak  begins
 to yield its best bark1 continuing     
productive as a rule for  almost a      
century4#ai ,the cork of the first      
barking is called  ,corcho-,bornio1     
,borniza or virgin1 and is so coarse1   
rough1 and dense in  texture that it is 
of little commercial value4 ,the second 
barking is  called 8pelas10 or secondary
 cork1 and this and subsequent barkings 
constitute the cork of commerce4 ,as the
 bark is removed it is gathered  up in  
piles 7rusque7 and left for a few days  
to dry4 ,having been  weighed1 it is    
next carried either in wagons or on the 
backs of burros  to the boiling station1
 where it is stacked and allowed to     
season for a  few weeks4 ,it is then    
ready for the boiling process4 ,the     
outside of the  bark in its natural     

state is1 as may well be imagined1 rough
 and woody1  owing to exposure to the   
weather4 ,after boiling this useless    
outer  coating is readily scraped off1  
thereby reducing the weight of the      
material almost twenty per cent4 ,the   
boiling process also serves to  remove  
the tannic acid1 increases the volume   
and elasticity of the bark1  renders it 
soft and pliable and flattens it out for
 convenient packing4  ,after being      
roughly sorted as to quality and        
thickness1 the bark is then  ready for  
its first long journey1 and as the      
forests are generally  located in hilly 
or even mountainous country1 the        
faithful burro must  again be called    
into service4 ,truly the ,spaniards'    
best friend1 though  the worst treated  
of all1 these patient little animals    
present a most  grotesque appearance    
when loaded from head to hind quarters  
with a huge  mass of the light bark4    
,down from the hills they go in trains  
of thirty1  forty or even a hundred1    

threading the rocky bridle paths in     
single file  and wending their way      
through the narrow streets of quaint    
villages  where traces of ,moorish      
occupancy may still be seen1 to the     
nearest  railway station4 ,the corkwood 
is there freighted to the various       
sea-port  warehouses in ,spain and      
,portugal1 ,seville1 ,spain being       
perhaps the  largest depository and user
 of raw material4#bj ,this historic     
city1  situated on the banks of the     
,guadalquivir1 presents a very animated 
sight in the summer months1 and plays a 
very important part in the cork         
industry1 for besides the numerous      
warehouses for storing and shipping     
there are factories for the manipulation
 of cork and its conversion into  the   
many useful forms in which it has proven
 of value4 ,before shipping1  the bales 
are opened1 the edges of the bark       
trimmed and the bark then  sorted into  
the various grades of quality and       
thickness again4 ,the  importance of    

this last mentioned operation cannot be 
overemphasized1 as  the whole problem of
 the successful and economical          
manufacture of corks  center about it4  
,after sorting it is ready to be rebaled
 for shipment1  this generally being    
done by placing the large1 flat pieces  
called  planks or tables1 at the bottom 
of the bales1 and above them the small  
pieces which are covered in turn with   
larger sections2 then the whole  mass   
being subjected to pressure to render it
 compact1 afterward being  bound up     
securely with steel hoops or wires4     
,each bale carefully marked  indicating 
the grade or quality1 loaded directly   
into ocean-going  steamers and shipped  
to the ports of the world4      #ai ,mr4
 ,lamey1 the author of a study upon cork
 in ,algeria1 published         some    
interesting tables in this work         
regarding the annual         increase   
and the mean thickness of cork4         
,according to him         cork-bark     
should not be removed before it has     

attained a         thickness of #b4jcb  
cm41 and the formation of new cork has  
been         well explained by ,mr4     
,mathieu in his 8,forestry ,flora40     
#bj ,armstrong ,cork ,co4's pamphlet4   
,from this meager description we at     
least can learn what 8corkwood0 is1  the
 limited sphere of its growth1 the      
constant care necessary to insure  a    
successful harvest or gathering1 the    
peculiarities of the tree1 its          
longevity and the general mode of       
preparing the bark for shipment2 the    
narration in no wise doing justice to   
this most interesting material1 in  its 
natural state1 for its growing is a     
fascinating tale in itself2 but  for the
 purpose of this writing the foregoing  
has been deemed sufficient  to convey an
 understanding of it4    ,as we have now
 seen how this wonderful material grows1
 its haunts and  dwellings1 we will look
 at it more closely and see what it     
really is1  how this particular         
formation comes about and its           

peculiarities4          ,,botany ,,and  
,,chemistry      ,in considering 8cork0 
for the purpose of ascertaining its     
characteristics1 texture and composition
 we will1 instead of analyzing  the     
material after it has reached the       
market1 look at it from the  standpoint 
of botany and learn of its formation    
upon the tree1 from  which it is        
procured4 ,it appears that the word     
8cork0#ba in botany  signifies a growth 
peculiar to all plants and pertaining to
 none in  particular1 being described as
 8a peculiar tissue in the higher plants
  forming the division of the bark      
7which name is sometimes restricted to  
the dead tissues lying outside the      
cork72 consisting of closely packed     
air-cells nearly impervious to air and  
water and protects the underlying       
tissues40#bb ,again1 8,it is produced by
 the activity and division of  certain  
merismatic cells known as phellogen or  
cork cambium which are  situated        
immediately within the epidermal        

covering of the young growth4  ,as the  
cork cells grow older1 their            
protoplasmic contents disappear and  are
 replaced by air4 ,in order that this   
formation may be clearly  understood1 ,i
 will quote from a paragraph entitled   
8,cork and ,epidermal  ,formations      
,produced by ,it0 contained in 8,a ,text
 ,book on ,botany10 by  ,sacks4      #ba
 ,see 8,etymology of ,word0 in preceding
 chapter4      #bb 8,new ,english       
,dictionary10 ,murray4    8,when        
succulent organs of the higher plants1  
no longer in the bud  condition1 are    
injured1 the wound generally becomes    
closed up by cork  tissue1 i4e41 new    
cells arise near the wounded surface by 
repeated  division of those which are   
yet sound1 and these forming a firm skin
  separate the inner tissue from the    
outer injured layers of cells4 ,the     
walls of this tissue offer the strongest
 resistance to the most various         
agencies1 similar to the cuticular      
layers of the epidermis in their        

physical behavior1 flexible and elastic1
 permeable only with difficulty  by air 
and water1 they for the most part soon  
lose their contents and  become filled  
with air4 ,they are arranged in rows    
lying at right angles  to the surface or
 parallelopipedal form1 and form a close
 tissue without  intercellular spaces4  
,these are the general distinguishing   
features of  cork tissue4 ,it is formed 
not only on wounded surfaces1 but arises
 in  much greater mass where succulent  
organs require an effectual protection  
7e4g41 potato tubers7 or where the      
epidermis is unable to keep up with  the
 increase of circumference where growth 
in thickness continues for a  long      
period4 ,in these cases the cork tissue 
is formed even before the  destruction  
of the epidermis1 and when this splits  
under the action of  the weather and    
falls off1 the new envelope formed by   
the cork is  already present4 ,the cork 
tissue is the result of repeated        
bipartitions  of the cells by partition 

walls1 rarely in the epidermis cells    
themselves1 more often in the subjacent 
tissue4 ,the partition walls lie        
parallel to the surface of the organ1   
divisions also taking place in a        
vertical direction1 by which the number 
of the rows of cells is  increased4     
,from the two newly formed thin-walled  
cells of each radial  row one remains   
thin walled and rich in protoplasm1 and 
in a condition  capable of division2 the
 other becomes transformed into a       
permanent cork  cell4 ,thus arises1     
usually parallel to the surface of the  
organ1 a layer  of cells capable of     
division1 which continues to form new   
cork cells1  the cork cambium or layer  
of phellogen4 ,in general this is the   
innermost  layer of the whole cork      
tissue1 so that the production of cork  
advances  outwardly and new layers of   
cork are constantly formed out of the   
phellogen on the inner surface of those 
already in existence4 ,when in  this    
manner a continuous layer of cork       

arises1 steadily increasing from  the   
inside1 it is termed 8periderm40 ,as the
 epidermis is at first  replaced by the 
periderm1 so in turn is this replaced by
 cork 7the dead  tissue74 ,the          
development and configuration of the    
cork cells may change  periodically     
during the formation of periderm4       
,alternate layers of  narrow1           
thick-walled and broad1 thin-walled cork
 cells are formed2 the  periderm then   
appearing stratified1 like wood1 showing
 annual rings as  in the periderm of the
 ,quercus ,suber1 ,betula ,alba1 etc40  
,mr4 ,sacks1 as a botanist1 has clearly 
set forth the explanation of the        
formation of the periderm of the        
,quercus ,suber in the foregoing1 and   
although the story of the life producing
 this formation would be an  acceptable 
sequel to this explanation1 it would in 
no wise assist in the  ultimate         
findings1 and therefore it is dispensed 
with4 ,mr4 ,william  ,anderson1 in a    
paper read at the ,royal ,institution of

 ,great ,britain in  #ahhf1 has the     
following to say on cork formation1     
which is very  interesting3 8,in        
considering the properties of most      
substances1 our  search for the cause of
 their properties is baffled by our     
imperfect  powers and the feeble        
instruments we possess for investigating
 molecular  structure4 ,with cork1      
happily1 this is not the case2 an       
examination of  its structure is easy   
and perfectly explains the cause of its 
peculiar  and valuable properties4 ,all 
plants are built up of minute cells of  
various forms and dimensions4 ,their    
walls or sides are composed chiefly  of 
a substance called cellulose1 frequently
 associated with lignine1 or  woody     
matter1 and with cork1 which last is a  
nitrogenous substance found  in many    
portions of plants1 but is especially   
developed in the outer  cork of         
exogenous trees1 that is1 belonging to  
an order1 the stems of  which grow by   
the addition of layers of fresh         

cellulose tissue outside  the woody part
 and inside the bark4 ,between the bark 
and the wood is  interposed a thin      
fibrous layer1 which in some trees is   
very much  developed4 ,the corky part of
 the bark which is outside is composed  
of  closed cells1 exclusively1 so built 
together that no connection of a        
tubular nature runs up and down the     
tree1 although horizontal passages      
radiating toward the woody parts of the 
tree are numerous4 ,in the woody  part  
of the tree1 on the contrary1 and in the
 inner bark1 vertical  passages or tubes
 exist1 while a connection is kept up   
with the pith of  the tree by means of  
medullary rays4 ,in one species of tree1
 known as  the cork-oak1 this is        
strongly developed40 ,it appears that   
,mr4 ,anderson  enlivened his lecture by
 microscopic projections1 for he goes on
 to say3  8,first ,i project on the     
screen a microscopic section of the wood
 of the  cork tree4 ,it is taken in a   
horizontal plane1 and ,i ask you to     

notice  the diversity of the structure  
and especially the presence of large    
tubes or pipes4 ,i next exhibit a       
section taken in the same plane of the  
corky portion of the bark4 ,you see the 
whole substance is made up of  minute   
many-sided cells about #a_/gej of an    
inch in diameter and about  twice as    
long1 the long way being disposed       
radically to the trunk4 ,the  walls of  
the cells are extremely thin and yet    
they are wonderfully  impervious to     
liquids4 ,looked at by reflected light1 
bands of silvery  light alternate with  
bands of comparative darkness1 showing  
that the  cells are built on end to end 
in regular order4 ,the vertical section 
next exhibited shows a cross section of 
the cells like a minute  honeycomb4 ,in 
some specimens large crystals are found4
 ,these could not  be distinguished from
 the detached elementary spindle-shaped 
cells1 of  which woody fiber is made up1
 were it not for the powerful means of  
analysis we have in polarized light4 ,i 

need hardly explain that light  passed  
through a ,nicol's prism becomes        
polarized1 that is to say1 the          
vibrations of the luminiferous ether are
 all reduced to vibrations in  one plane
 and consequently if a second prism be  
interposed and placed at  right angles  
to the first1 the light will be unable  
to get through2 but  if we introduce    
between the crossed ,nicol a substance  
capable of turning  the plane of        
vibration again1 then a certain light   
will pass4 ,i have now  projected on the
 screen the feeble light emerging from  
the crossed  ,nicol4 ,i introduce the   
microscopic preparation of cork cells   
between  them1 and you see the crystals 
glowing with many colored lights on a   
dark ground4 ,minute though these cells 
are1 they are very numerous and  hard1  
and it is partly to them that is due the
 extraordinary rapidity  with which cork
 blunts the cutting instruments used in 
shaping it40 ,in  his research or       
experimentations ,mr4 ,anderson was most

 deeply impressed  with the elasticity  
of cork1 and has the following to say   
upon his  findings3 8,it would seem     
difficult to discover any new properties
 in a  substance so familiar as cork1   
and yet it possesses qualities which    
distinguish it from all other solid or  
liquid bodies1 namely1 its power  of    
altering its volume in a very marked    
degree in consequence of change  of     
pressure4 ,all liquids and solids are   
capable of cubical compression  or      
extension1 but to a very small extent2  
thus water is reduced in  volume by only
 4#jjjje part by the pressure of one    
atmosphere4 ,liquid  carbonic acid      
yields to pressure much more than any   
other fluid1 but  still the rate is very
 small4 ,solid substances1 with the     
exception of  cork1 offer equally       
obstinate resistance to change of bulk2 
even ,india  rubber1 which most people  
would suppose capable of very           
considerable  change of volume1 we find 
it really very rigid4 ,metals1 when     

subjected  to pressure which exceed     
their elastic limits so that they are   
permanently deformed1 as in forging or  
wire drawing1 remain practically        
unchanged in volume per unit of weight4 
,not so with cork1 its elasticity  has  
not only a very considerable range1 but 
it is very persistent4 ,thus  in the    
better kind of corks used in bottling   
champagne and other  effervescing wines1
 you are familiar with the extent to    
which the corks  expand the instant they
 escape from the bottles4 ,i have       
measured this  expansion and find it to 
amount to an increase of volume of      
seventy-five  per cent2 even after the  
corks have been kept in a state of      
compression  in the bottles for ten     
years4#bc ,when cork is subjected to    
pressure1  either in one direction or   
from every direction1 a certain amount  
of  permanent deformation or permanent  
set takes place4 ,this property is      
common to all solid elastic substances  
when strained beyond their  elastic     

limits1 but with cork the limits are    
comparatively low40 ,to take  advantage 
of the peculiar properties of cork in   
mechanical applications  it is necessary
 to determine accurately the law of its 
resistance to  compression1 and for this
 purpose ,mr4 ,anderson instituted a    
series of  experiments of this kind4    
,into a strong iron vessel of five and  
one  half gallons' capacity he          
introduced a quantity of cork and filled
 the  interstices with water1 carefully 
getting out all the air4 ,he then       
proceeded to pump in water until        
definite pressures up to one thousand   
pounds per square inch had been reached1
 and at every one hundred pounds  the   
weight of the water pumped in was       
determined4 ,in this way1 after  many   
repetitions1 he obtained the decrease of
 volume due to any given  increase of   
pressure4 ,the observations have been   
plotted into the form  of a curve which 
is discernible on the accompanying      
diagram4      #bc ,showing a permanent  

set of #ab4e per cent4    ,illustration3
 ,,volume ,,of ,,cork    ,the base line 
represents a cylinder containing one    
cubic foot of cork  divided by the      
vertical lines into ten parts2 the black
 horizontal  lines1 according to the    
scale on the left-hand side1 represent  
the  pressures in pounds per square inch
 which were necessary to compress the   
cork to the corresponding volume4 ,thus 
to reduce the volume to one half1       
required a pressure of two hundred and  
fifty pounds per square inch4 ,at       
sixteen hundred pounds per square inch  
the volume was reduced to  forty-four   
per cent1 the yielding then becoming    
very little1 showing  that the solid    
parts of the cells had come together and
 formed a solid1  compact mass1 thus    
corroborating ,mr4 ,ogston's            
determination that the  gaseous part of 
cork constitutes about fifty-three per  
cent of its bulk4    ,in further study  
it has been found that no matter what   
compression is  used1 providing there is

 no disintegration1 the corkwood will   
retain  just that slight spongy         
character that so marks its growth4     
,in analyzing this solid matter1 ,ure   
found by treating it with nitric  acid  
the yielding was3      ,white fibrous   
matter 7cellulose74  #j4ah parts        
,resin 444444444444444444444444444      
#ad4gb   8    ,oxalic acid              
444444444444444444444 #af4jj   8        
,suberic acid 44444444444444444444 #ad4d
    8                                   
#de4cj parts    ,chevruel in an analysis
 of corkwood states that he found the   
following  constitutents1 but he does   
not give percentages3      ,cerin1 a    
soft fragrant resin4    ,yellow and red 
coloring matter4    ,quercitannic acid4 
,gallic acid4    ,a brown nitrogenous   
substance4    ,salts of vegetable acids4
    ,calcium4    ,water4    ,suberic    
acid4    ,suberin 7cellulose74    ,i am 
inclined to think that ,chevruel        
selected a poor grade of cork1 full  of 
stone cells and ,jasperado1 as his      

findings include much that would        
indicate that was the case4    ,in      
further defining the various substances 
which go to make up the body  of        
corkwood the one that is most impressive
 is that substance that is  peculiar to 
cork itself1 the others being readily   
known1 but suberic  acid is the one of  
interest1 and this is described by      
,fownes as a  product of the oxidation  
of cork by nitric acid2 is a white      
crystalline  powder1 sparingly soluble  
in cold water1 fusible and volatile by  
heat1  the chemical formula given being 
7,c#d;,h#ad,o#d74 ,suberic acid is  also
 described as a dibasic acid which forms
 small granular crystals  very soluble  
in boiling water1 alcohol and ether4 ,it
 fuses at #cjj  degrees ,fahrenheit and 
sublimes in acidular crystals4 ,it is   
also  produced when nitric acid acts on 
stearic1 margaric or oleic acid4 ,the   
chemical analysis is given as           
7,c#h;,h#ad,o#d7 and ,i am inclined to  
believe it is the truer one1 as it is   

much later than ,fownes'4    ,this      
suberic acid has been further broken up 
to ascertain its  fundamental           
characteristics and it was found to     
partake of the two  compounds suberone  
and suberate4    ,suberone              
7,c#ad;,h#bd,o#b7 being regarded as the 
ketone of suberic  acid1 an aromatic    
liquid compound obtained when suberic   
acid is  distilled with an excess of    
lime4#bd ,also described as a colorless 
oil  with an odor of peppermint and a   
boiling point of #agi to #aha degrees   
,centigrade1 chemical formula1          
,suberone--,cycloheptanone--            
,,ch#b 4 ,,ch#b 4 ,,ch#b      _/    ,,co
             ,,ch#b 4 ,,ch#b 4 ,,ch#b   
#bd 8,standard ,dictionary40            
,suberate 7,c#h;,h#ab,m#b,o#d7 is known 
as the salt of suberic acid  having a   
metal cast1#be and ,suberin or          
cellulose#bf--;is that portion          
remaining after nitration and is        
chemically expressed by the formula     
7,c#f;,h#aj,o#e74 ,dr4 ,robert ,k4      

,duncan1 ,prof4 of ,industrial          
,chemistry  in the ,university of       
,kansas1 informs us that this material  
is the  commonest of common things#bg   
and when dry1 forms one third of all the
  vegetable matter in the world4 ,this  
mysterious substance is the  structural 
basis of the wood1 but with all its     
prominence and use1 we  know nothing    
more about it than that which is        
expressed in the formula4      #be      
8,watt's ,dictionary0 78,m0 signifying  
metal74      #bf 8,century ,dictionary40
      #bg ,review of ,reviews1          
,september1 #aijf4    ,the presence of  
this cellulose is only a natural fact1  
as the greater  part of plant life is   
cellulose2 nor is the list of elements  
that go to  make up the solid matter so 
strange and unaccountable1 but the      
quality  that makes it a wonderful      
growth and so popular above its fellows 
is its  lightness--this is its          
commendable feature and it is light     
indeed4    ,ure puts the specific       

gravity at 4#bd and this is concurred in
 by  ,brisbane4      ,,test ,,of        
,,corkwood ,,for ,,ascertaining ,,the   
,,possible ,,presence ,,of ,,an         
,,essential  ,,oil1 ,,by ,,steam        
,,distillation    ,two tests were made  
on this material to ascertain the       
presence of an  essential oil4 ,the     
first showed the presence of an oily    
film1  resplendent in colorings1        
opalescent1 variegated and beautiful1   
but  odorless and of such small quantity
 that it may safely be said 8,no ,oil40 
,the second proved the same as the      
first1 and although the strong odor of  
cork or suberic acid was present1 no oil
 appeared4    ,the results of these     
tests indicate that there is no         
essential oil in  corkwood obtainable by
 steam distillation4    ,,test ,,no4 #a 
#d-d-aiac4    ,a copper still1 supported
 on two trunnions1 fitted with a dome   
and  goose-neck1 which terminated in a  
tin coil 7water cooled71 and with a     
perforated bottom through which the     

steam passed1 was used4    ,this        
measured two inches in diameter and two 
inches high1 from the  perforated plate 
to the top of the pot1 the dome being   
about one foot  higher4    ,into this   
still was placed #da pounds of corkwood1
 as it comes from the  cutters and      
punchers 7scrap pieces71 no preliminary 
washing or preparing  being done2 this  
#da pounds filled the pot or the still4 
,all things made tight1 using an        
asbestos packing1 the steam was turned  
on at #gj pounds and run for one hour4  
,,test ,,no4 #b    #d-ae-aiac4    ,same 
still used as in ,test ,no4 #a1 thirty  
pounds of a clean1 good grade           
,granulated ,cork1 of a fineness to pass
 a #a_/af mesh1 was put into the        
still--this half filling same4    ,steam
 turned on at #gj pounds and run for one
 hour4    ,tests made at ,a4 ,j4        
,crombie  ,co41 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,anderson1 ,ure1 ,chevruel1 ,fownes1    
,watts1 ,brisbane1 men of science2 to   

these we are indebted for the little    
that is known of corkwood1 and  although
 perhaps much more could be said by     
elaboration1 it will suffice  to record 
the facts in this monograph for the     
purpose involved4    ,but to the data   
assembled may be added much in          
commentation1 for the  material becomes 
more interesting the more it is studied1
 and most  naturally excites comparison 
with other materials and substitutes1 as
  well as calling forth a discussion as 
to the dangers involved by its  presence
 in the places where1 by skill of hand  
and machinery1 it is  transformed into  
the many commercial forms1 noted in this
 article4 ,we  comment upon its growth1 
which is truly wonderful and            
all-absorbing in  its many interesting  
phases2 it takes us to the romance of   
the ,east and  the enchantment of the   
,moorish occupation2 through which these
 forests  of cork-producing trees passed
 and yet remain to furnish the present  
generation4 ,we comment upon its        

lightness and buoyancy1 due to the      
presence of air and excess of hydrogen1 
known to be lighter than air2  and the  
small percentage of other matter which1 
being of less  importance1 make its     
other quality so renowned as to make it 
the most  wonderful growth of its kind4 
,its imperviousness to water and other  
liquids have given us moments of        
reflection1 upon this phenomenon1 but   
now known to be because of the cellulose
 composing the cell walls and  which1   
when the substance is under compression1
 practically is all that  remains1      
except for the small quantity of resin1 
etc41 to resist the  passage of liquids 
or gases4 ,but heretofore when these    
commentations  have reached the burning 
point1 its physical nature was entirely 
eliminated from the conjecturing and the
 important part neglected1 that  as the 
cork contained fifty-three per cent of  
air1 heat of #dej degrees  expands to   
the point of explosion1 the contents of 
those cells nearest  the surface1 which 

giving up their oxygen feed the flames  
and in their  passage help to           
disintegrate the cell walls and make    
them more easily  ignited4 ,thus causing
 a rapid burning1 flash fire which1 in  
its fury1  ,pluto could not rival1 only 
racing over the surface of the cork1    
burning  but slightly1 yet helped by    
other conditions1 resulting in a fire   
destructive and fierce4 ,this rapid     
burning leaves the outer surface of  the
 cork charred and flaky and causes a    
discoloration beneath it  attributed to 
the dissolving of the resins1 etc4 ,of  
course where there  is a large quantity 
of corkwood the extent of the burning   
must  necessarily be greater and the    
depth of the char increased4 ,but it    
appears that the first flash burning    
produces a sort of protection coat  of  
carbon around the remaining unburned    
portions which a subsequent  flame      
penetrates with difficulty4#bh      #bh 
,in the making of insulation material1  
the carbonization of the         cork is

 accomplished without destruction of    
fibre and stands a         high flame   
test4    ,a simple experiment to show   
this depth of burning1 and one that is  
easy  to do1 is the flash and flame test
 which was found of interest4    ,two   
pieces of cork were taken1 having the   
following measurements--#h_/af   #g_/af 
#aa_/af--;and the first piece held so   
that the flame of a gas  jet would cause
 a flash over its surface2 then the     
second piece is taken  and held within  
the flame for a minute4    ,it will be  
found that the corkwood has expanded and
 the dimensions  increased to the       
following3            ,flash            
,flame    #h_/af  #ac_/af  #aa_/af      
#aj_/af  #ad_/af  #aa_/af    showing the
 effects of the heat upon the tissue and
 contents of the  cells4    ,now in     
scraping these samples clean of all char
 the dimensions will  return to the     
following3            ,flash            
,flame    #f_/af  #aa_/af  #aa_/af      
#h_/af  #aj_/af  #aa_/af    clearly     

setting forth the fact that the char is 
comparatively light in  both cases1     
ranging from #a_/h to #a_/d4    ,to this
 cause is ascribed the burnability of   
cork having by careful  observation and 
experiment1 extending over a period of  
two years1  studied the results of      
numerous fires in premises where cork   
was being  worked and also conducted    
heat applications on various grades of  
cork#bi resulting in the foregoing      
findings4#cj ,thus it is found that     
cork contains sufficient air to supply  
any fire in it and precludes the        
necessity of free access to any outside 
supply which makes it a material  worthy
 to be watched4 ,to its many qualities  
of great service to man1  giving him a  
material which from the ages past1 till 
now1 has proven of  such value1 must be 
added this one1 no less important than  
others1 which  heretofore have been its 
commendable features4      #bi ,using   
ordinary glass 7armoured7 thermometer   
for ascertaining         degrees4       

#cj ,one thousand degrees ,fahrenheit1  
causing no greater combustion           
than the lower degree1 other than the   
increased burning of         remaining  
substance after the flash1 due to the   
higher         temperature4    ,rather  
than attend the 8cork0 through the many 
passages of commerce and  manufacture1  
it is deemed propitious to deviate a    
little from a natural  course1 i4e41    
from the growing to manufacture and     
rather advance to a  knowledge of the   
many uses to which this material is put 
and its  application to the innumerable 
arts1 and then take up the manufacture4 
,,uses ,,and ,,application      ,mr4 ,h4
 ,g4 ,glasspoole1#ca writing regarding  
the uses of cork by the  ancients1      
states3 8,the cork-tree1 and the        
application of its bark to  useful      
purposes1 was well known to the         
,egyptians1 ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the   
former used this material in the        
construction of the coffins for their   
dead4 ,theophrastus1 the ,greek         

philosopher1 who wrote on botany four   
centuries ,b4,c41 mentions this tree    
among the oaks1 under the name of       
#8,phellus' in ,book ,two of his        
#8,historia ,plantarum1' and stated that
 it  was a native of the ,pyrenees1     
having a thick fleshy bark which must be
  stripped off every three years to     
prevent it from perishing4 ,he adds     
that it was so light as never to sink in
 water1 and on that account  might be   
used for many purposes40 ,it is the     
opinion of the writer that  the         
attention of the ancients was           
undoubtedly called to this particular   
bark by its buoyancy1 and as their      
fisheries were extensive its  usefulness
 became readily apparent to float nets1 
etc41 or to use  even in the            
construction of their boats1 and its    
sponginess and  water-repellent         
properties not escaping their notice1 it
 became a most  likely material for     
stoppers of casks or amphorae as noted  
by ,horace in  ,ode iii1 #h3 8,corticem 

adstrictum pice dimovebit amphorae40    
,pliny1 in his  8,natural ,history10    
,,xvi1 #ah1 describes the tree under the
 name of ,suber  and relates everything 
said by ,theophrastus of ,phellus4 ,from
 his account  we learn that the ,roman  
fishermen used it as floats to their    
nets and  fishing tackle1 and as buoys  
to their anchors4 ,the use of these     
buoys in  saving life appears to have   
been well known to the ancients1 for    
,lucian1  ,epist4 i1 #ag1 mentions that 
when two men1 one of whom had fallen    
into  the sea1 and another who jumped   
after to afford him assistance1 both    
were saved by means of an anchor buoy4  
,the use of this substance in  assisting
 swimmers was not unknown to the        
,romans1 for ,plutarch in his  ,life of 
,camillus1 who flourished in ,rome #djj 
,b4,c41 gives an account of  its use by 
a messenger1 sent to the ,capitol1 then 
besieged by the ,gauls3  8,pontius      
,cominius having dressed himself in mean
 attire under which he  concealed some  

pieces of cork4 ,he could not pass the  
river by the  bridge1 therefore took off
 his clothes1 which he fastened upon his
 head1  and having laid himself upon the
 pieces of cork swam over and reached   
the city40 ,the use of cork as stoppers 
was entirely unknown to the  ,romans1   
but instances of its being employed may 
be seen in ,cato's 8,de ,re  ,rustica10 
,cap4 #abj1 but this did not happen     
frequently or more would be  said of it4
      #ca ,scientific ,american         
,supplement4    ,the convivial customs  
of those days had no connection with the
 bottle1  glass bottles being of a much 
later invention4 ,instead of having     
champagne or hock to be liberated from  
the bottle by the corkscrew at  their   
feasts1 the guests filled their drinking
 cups of gold1 silver1  crystal or      
beechwood from a two-handled amphora1 a 
kind of earthenware  pitcher1 in which  
their choice wines used to be kept4 ,the
 mouths of  these vessels were stopped  
with wood and covered with a mastic1    

composed  of pitch1 chalk and oil to    
prevent air spoiling the wine or        
evaporation  taking place4 ,columella1  
who wrote one of the earliest works on  
agriculture1 gives directions for       
preparing this cement4    ,the          
employment of cork for stoppers of      
bottles appears to have come into  use  
about the seventeenth century1 when     
glass bottles1 of which no  mention is  
made before the fifteenth century1 began
 to be generally  introduced4 ,before   
that period apothecaries used stoppers  
of wax1 which  were not only much more  
expensive but far more troublesome4 ,in 
#aeec1  when ,c4 ,stephanus wrote his   
8,praedium ,rusticum10 cork stoppers    
appear to  have been very little known  
in ,france1 for he states that this     
material  was used principally for soles
 in that country4 ,it is not known when 
cork and corks began to be generally    
used1 but in that very amusing and      
instructive diary of ,mr4 ,samuel ,pepys
 the following entry is found3 8#ad     

,july #afff0 ,after having written to   
the ,duke of ,york for money for the    
fleet1 ,i went down ,thames ,street and 
there agreed for four or five tons  of  
cork to be sent to the fleet1 being a   
new device to make barricados  with     
instead of junts 7old cable710 but he   
does not inform us how the  material    
answered4#cb      #cb ,i have           
subsequently learned that this proved a 
failure4    ,in ,evelyn's time 7#affd7  
cork was much used by old persons for   
linings to the soles of their shoes1    
whence the ,german name for it1         
8,pantoffelholtz0 or slipper wood4 ,the 
,venetian dames1 ,evelyn says1 used  it 
for their choppings or high-heeled shoes
 to make them appear taller  than nature
 intended they should be4 ,the poor of  
,spain lay planks of  cork by their     
bedside to tread on instead of carpets4 
,sometimes they  line the inside of     
their houses1 built with stone1 with    
this bark1 which  renders them very warm
 and corrects the moisture of the air4  

,loudon  relates that in the celebrated 
convent at ,cintra1 ,portugal1 several  
articles of furniture are made of this  
tree4 ,virgin cork1 or the first  bark  
of the tree1 is now very much used for  
window flower boxes1  grottoes1 etc41   
while the subsequent grades are used for
 small  architectural and geognostic    
models4 ,cork was formerly employed in  
medicine even as far back as the time of
 ,pliny1 as he tells us that the  bark  
of the cork tree1 pulverized and taken  
in warm water1 arrests  hemorrhage at   
the mouth and nostrils1 and the ashes of
 it taken in warm  wine are highly      
extolled as a cure for spitting blood   
7see ,pliny1 8,nat4  ,hist40 b4 #abd74  
,in modern time powdered cork has been  
applied as a  styptic and hung about the
 necks of nurses4 ,it was thought to    
possess  the power of stopping the      
secretion of milk4 ,burnt cork mixed    
with sugar  of lead has been used as an 
application to piles4 ,see ,pereira's   
8,materia  ,medica40    ,ground cork and

 ,india rubber formed the basis of      
,kamptulicon1 the soft  unresounding    
material which covered the floor of the 
reading rooms of  the ,british ,museum40
 ,in further describing the many uses to
 which cork  is applied1 reference is   
made to the rsum of ,mr4 ,good in 8,la  
,nature10  which is incorporated with a 
few slight changes4    8,the various    
applications of cork that we are now    
going to pass in  review are worthy of  
description1 as each of such            
applications has its  raison d'tre in   
one or more of the physical or chemical 
properties of  cork bark4 ,the          
manufacture of stoppers utilizes1 in the
 first place1 the  impermeability of the
 bark1 and1 in the second1 the latter's 
elasticity  and imputrescibility1 the   
remarkable lightness playing no rle     
therein4    ,before entering upon a     
study of the industrial applications of 
cork1 in  grouping them according to the
 various qualities of this product1 we  
must return to the 8male0 cork1 derived 

from the first barking of the  tree4 ,it
 has been said1 because of its slight   
elasticity and numerous  fissures1 this 
product has but little commercial value1
 and shall have  mentioned its principal
 application when we have stated that it
 is used  in the decoration of parks and
 gardens4 ,an endeavor has been made1   
but  without success1 to manufacture    
from it1 mills for decorticating rice4  
,certain parts of it can be converted   
into small stoppers4 ,in the country    
where it is produced1 it is used for    
making water conduits1 beehives and     
shelves on which to preserve objects    
from dampness4 ,mixed with a mortar  of 
clay1 the ,kabyles use it for the walls 
of their dwellings1 and also1  in lieu  
of tiles1 as a roofing material for     
their primitive habitations4  ,it is    
used also by fishermen as floats for    
their nets4    ,these various           
applications were known to the ,greeks  
and ,romans1 as shown  by the works of  
,theophrastus and ,pliny4 ,the latter   

says of the cork-oak3  8,nothing is     
utilized but its bark1 which is very    
thick1 and which is  renewed in measure 
as it is removed4 ,this bark is often   
used for the  buoys of anchors and ships
 and of fishermen's nets1 for the bungs 
of  casks1 and for women's winter foot  
gear4 ,the ,greeks called the cork-oak  
the #8bark tree'4444 ,cork bark is used 
as a covering for roofs40 78,hist4      
,nat410 xvi1 #ah47 ,as for the chips1   
they can be used as an isolating        
material to prevent freezing4 ,reduced  
to fragments1 they furnish an  excellent
 material for covering circus rings4    
,let us return to 8female0 cork1 which  
is much better adapted for being        
worked1 and the grain of which is much  
more homogeneous4 ,in this form  cork   
bark constitutes a very bad conductor of
 heat and sound1 and  renders valuable  
services in the industries as a material
 for  preventing the cooling of steam   
pipes and generators1 and preventing    
the melting of ice in ice houses1 or the

 heating of apparatus for  producing    
cold4    ,it is the basis of a certain  
number of cements1 and coatings for     
preventing the escape of heat1 which are
 applied to pipes1 steam domes1  hot    
water reservoirs1 etc41 and upon the    
composition of which we shall  not dwell
 here4 ,as for jacketing with cork      
alone2 the first method  consists in    
placing narrow strips of cork1 whose    
edges touch each other1  along steam    
pipes and cylinders1 and fastening them 
by means of wire4 ,a  pipe thus jacketed
 is tangent internally to all these     
strips1 and a  section of the whole     
shows a circle inscribed in a polygon4  
,in the  second system thin strips of   
cork1 fastened to canvas with ,india    
rubber  cement1 are wound around the    
pipe spirally4 ,finally1 a third method 
of  jacketing consists in the use of two
 half cylinders that exactly fit the    
exterior of the steam pipe4 ,these      
cylinders1 which can be made of any     
desired length1 are made of powdered    

cork and starch1 and are covered  with a
 spirally wound strip of calico1 which  
may be coated with tar or  any suitable 
kind of paint4 ,each of these systems   
permits of obtaining a  great saving in 
fuel4    ,as cork is likewise a very bad
 conductor of sound1 it is successfully 
used on the doors of consulting rooms1  
and for making floors for  hospitals1   
etc4 ,finally1 in the manufacture of    
certain stringed  instruments1 it is    
used to prevent a loss of sound4    ,the
 slight density of cork1 as compared    
with water1 and its  impermeability to  
liquids1 make it an excellent float1    
capable not only  of remaining on the   
surface1 but also of supporting quite   
heavy bodies  thereon4 ,we shall be     
content to mention the annular cork     
float used in  night lamps1 the square  
block in which bath thermometers are    
fixed1 and  the fisherman's dobber4     
,it is cork1 too1 that is used by       
preference in the manufacture of        
swimming and life-saving apparatus1 to  

which inventors have devoted much       
thought4 ,very many vessels are provided
 with cork mattresses1 which1 in  cases 
of shipwreck1 render the greatest       
services4 ,for example1 the ship        
,constant1 which sailed from ,anvers for
 ,brazil in #ahde1 was wrecked on  the  
night of ,october #abth1 at twelve miles
 from ,st4 ,thanes1 but1 thanks  to the 
cork life preservers and mattresses that
 she had on board1 not  one of the crew 
was lost4 ,as for life-saving buoys1    
properly so called1  they consist of    
several cork planks which are given an  
annular form1 and  are provided with    
free ropes that are knotted here and    
there so that  they may be easily       
grasped4 ,from the stern of every vessel
 a buoy of  this kind is suspended by a 
rope that may be at once cut when the   
cry of  8,a man overboard60 is heard4   
,these buoys are usually covered with   
canvas  coated with a paint that serves 
to preserve it4 ,it is also possible to 
save a person who has fallen into the   

water at a certain distance from a      
wharf by means of floats4 ,this device  
consists of a piece of rattan  provided 
with points around which molten lead has
 been poured1 and the  whole is then    
surrounded with cork in chips1 and      
covered externally with  canvas and a   
network to protect the affair against   
wear4    ,fenders are canvas bags that  
are filled with cork and are placed     
along  the sides of ships or along docks
 in order to deaden the shock in case   
of a collision4 ,such are the principal 
uses rendered to navigation by  cork4   
,it has already been seen1 by the       
extract from ,pliny1 that ,roman ladies 
preserved their feet from cold by means 
of cork soles4 ,such a use of  cork is  
still in vogue4 ,in addition to these   
soles1 which are flat1  there are others
 that have nothing to do with hygiene1  
and are merely  connected with fashion4 
,such are the ,louis ,quatorze          
talonettes1 designed  to increase the   
stature without exaggerating the heel of

 the shoe4  ,female dancers wear linings
 of this kind in their shoes1 which1 as 
well  known1 have flat soles4 ,a thin   
sheet of cork enclosed in the sole of   
the  shoe would1 we think1 prove very   
useful to troops on a march during bad  
weather4    ,cork is not only useful as 
an application to foot gear1 but also   
renders  great service in head gear1    
and1 in the form of helmets1 has        
preserved a  large number of soldiers   
from death by sunstroke in tropical     
countries4  ,we find it again1 in the   
form of very thin sheets1 in the        
interior of  beaver hats1 where it is   
used as a protection against heat4 ,it  
is also  used in these same hats as a   
sweat band1 in lieu of leather4 ,in     
ladies'  toilets1 the cork serves to    
make the carcasses of the birds that    
decorate their head gear4 ,manufacturers
 of dress trimmings use cork  molds1    
which they cover with silk or cotton1   
for ornamenting cloaks1  etc4 ,the      
lightness of cork can alone explain the 

great size of these  balls1 olives1     
etc41 some of which are larger than a   
hen's egg4    ,a few years ago1 a ,paris
 house sold cork cravats1 and we have   
recently  seen1 exposed in a show case1 
some children's costumes1 in which the  
sailor's collar was of thin sheet cork  
decorated with colored designs4         
,although cork gowns have not yet       
appeared1 we have waterproofs composed  
of thin sheet cork cemented between two 
pieces of silk4 ,these cloaks  have the 
advantage over those made of rubber of  
not allowing air to pass  through them4 
,there is also a curious application of 
cork in the manufacture of a  fabric    
that renders those who are clothed with 
it insubmergible4    ,we can mention but
 few of the many applications of cork1  
new ones of  which are being discovered 
every day1 so shall confine ourselves to
  recalling the services rendered by    
this valuable product in surgical       
prosthesis and for the use of           
naturalists1 etc4 ,in domestic life1 it 

is  used for bath steps1 and for making 
rolling pins for crushing almonds       
without absorbing the oils as wood would
 do4 ,thin sheets of it are used  for   
making fancy labels for wines4 ,the ease
 with which it may be cut1  turned and  
worked causes it to be employed in the  
manufacture of small  objects1 such as  
rural landscapes and the reproductions  
of monuments1  some of which are genuine
 works of art4 ,we may likewise mention1
 among  objects made of cork1 cases of  
various forms for sending bottles by    
mail1 spools for allowing of the cheap  
carriage of silk1 the  old-fashioned    
inkstand1 the thick penholder for       
preventing writer's  cramp1 the cigar   
holder and many fancy objects that would
 take too long  to enumerate4 ,there is 
perhaps no calling that does not have to
 make  more or less use of cork4        
,polishers of gold have used it from    
time  immemorial1 in the form of narrow 
strips1 for rubbing their work with     
rouge4 ,the wheels with which crystals  

are polished are faced with it1  and    
watchmaker's lens mounted in cork1 the  
lightness of which prevents  the muscles
 of the face from tiring4    ,in the    
industries1 driving pulleys are now     
beginning to be provided with  cork in  
order to secure an adhesion of the      
belting4 ,in carpenter shops  these     
bands of cork are now advantageously    
replacing rubber ones for  covering the 
pulleys over which the band saw runs4   
,the stoppers of  nursing bottles are   
now being replaced by hygienic ones of  
cork1 which1  being very cheap1 can be  
changed as soon as the presence of      
ferments is  suspected4 ,cork is        
likewise employed in the manufacture of 
children's  toys2 it serves1 for        
example1 for fixing the wig on dolls'   
heads4 ,is it  necessary to recall the  
cork of pop-guns and pistols1 and the   
cork  battledores and shuttlecocks used 
for playing with indoors8 ,these few    
data will serve to show that but few    
products are capable of so many  diverse

 applications as cork is2 and the       
question may be asked whether  it would 
be possible to substitute anything else 
for it1 in case the  supply should      
become exhausted4    ,the manufacture of
 stoppers and of the various objects    
that we have just  enumerated furnishes 
a considerable quantity of chips1 which 
along with  the waste derived from the  
collecting of the material1 and with    
old1  second-hand corks1 constitutes the
 crude material destined to supply      
certain important industries1 which1 for
 the sake of completeness1 must  be     
mentioned4    ,we have first the cork   
powder industry1 which manufactures     
powders of  various degrees of fineness4
 ,the coarsest powder is used for       
packing  fragile objects1 on account of 
its elasticity1 coupled with its        
lightness1 which permits of a great     
saving in freight charges4    ,the      
finest powder forms1 8liegine0 or       
8suberine10 whose balsamic  properties  
are well known to hygienists1 and which 

may be used as a  substitute for        
lycopodium1 starch and fecula as an     
application to the  skin of babes4      
,under the name of 8zifa powder10 an    
insect powder has  been made composed of
 cork and phenol4 ,fire lighters have   
likewise been  made from cork powder2   
but this and the last named application 
have not  amounted to much4    ,we      
cannot enter into much detail in regard 
to the manufacture of  linoleum1        
notwithstanding the interest that it    
presents4 ,the manufacture  began in    
,scotland1 and is tending to settle in  
our own country4 ,linoleum  is made by  
intimately mixing cork powder with      
oxidized linseed oil4 ,the  paste thus  
prepared is spread over canvas if the   
intention is to  manufacture carpets1   
but over paper if it is desired to make 
hangings4  ,the color of linoleum1 which
 is the same as that of cork1 only a    
shade  darker1 can be enlivened by      
colored designs4 ,when applied to damp  
walls1  linoleum is capable of receiving

 oil paintings of a more stable nature  
than those executed upon wood1 which    
warps1 or upon other building           
materials1 which crack1 such as plaster1
 for example4 ,it can also be  used for 
decorated ceilings for public halls1    
cafes1 etc42 and when such  ceilings    
become black through smoke and dust1    
they can be washed4    ,as a carpet1    
linoleum renders flooring perfectly     
insonorous4 ,it converts  damp and      
unhealthy apartments into healthy and   
warm places of  habitation4 ,used in    
kitchens and offices1 it has the        
advantage of not  being spotted by fatty
 matters4 ,it has been generally adopted
 in our  naval and merchant ships1 where
 the use of it has given a great setback
  to the oil cloth industry4    ,a new  
decorative product1 8lino-burgau10      
obtained by embossing linoleum1         
possesses the iridescent reflections of 
nacre1 due to the application of        
colored varnish along with a bronzing of
 certain parts4 ,notwithstanding  its   

expensive nature1 we believe that there 
is a great future in store  for it4     
,the manufacture of agglomerates of cork
 is becoming very widespread in         
,france4 ,we have already mentioned the 
use of artificial cork for  jacketing   
steam pipes1 and we have stated that    
this product is obtained  by mixing cork
 powder and starch under pressure4 ,this
 dried paste can be  given the most     
diverse forms1 and be made of any       
thickness4 ,another  substance1 called  
brick paste1 is obtained by mixing the  
coarsest cork  powder with milk of lime1
 and1 after compression and drying1     
constitutes1 under the form of bricks   
and slabs1 an excellent material  for   
the construction of party walls1 for    
covering damp walls and sloping  roofs4 
,in the cellars of breweries1 these     
bricks diminish the melting of the  ice4
 ,in gunpowder works1 they prevent the  
caking of the powder through  dampness1 
and1 in case of an explosion1 their     
friability and lightness  lessen the    

importance of the catastrophe4 ,they are
 also used as a  foundation for flooring
 in order to destroy its disagreeable   
sonorousness4 ,in the spinning mills of 
,alsace and the west of ,france1  they  
have given excellent results1 both as   
regards their resistance to  the passage
 of sound1 heat and cold1 and their     
cheapness4    ,cork chips and waste1    
when distilled1 furnish an illuminating 
gas that  burns with more brilliancy    
than that made from coal1 and does not1 
like  the latter1 give off sulphureous  
emanations that tarnish frames and      
other gilded objects4 ,the city of      
,nerac was lighted with cork gas for a  
certain length of time1 but the use of  
it had to be given up on account  of the
 difficulty of storing the chips1 which1
 with but little weight1  took up an    
enormous space4 ,this gas1 in view of   
its slight density and  its purity1     
would prove an excellent one for the    
inflation of balloons4    ,finally1 cork
 parings and waste1 properly carbonized1

 produce ,spanish or  cork black1 one of
 the most beautiful and durable blacks  
known in  painting40    ,the recent uses
 for corkwood are1 as a float in the    
carburetter of an  automobile1 the cork 
insert in the periphery of a pulley1#cc 
cork paper  for cigarette tips1 a       
wadding for shot-gun cartridges1        
cork-coated  fabric for balloons1 as a  
filling for automobile tires1 as a disk 
in the  non-refillable bottle1 for the  
making of casks and barrels in which to 
store wine1 and the ground cork wood for
 shipping fruit1 etc4 in1 to  prevent   
spoiling4      #cc ,see ,lawrence       
,whitcomb's article in ,industrial      
,engineering1         ,september1 #aiaj4
      ,,substitutes    ,of course1 no   
matter what the substance1 a substitute 
is always sought  for1 and this has been
 the case with cork1 but with very      
unfruitful  results4 8,a primitive      
material used for bottle stoppers       
consisted of the  roots of liquorice2   
the spongy substance of another tree    

called  #8,spondies ,lutea1' which      
abounds throughout the marshy regions of
 ,south  ,america and there called      
#8,monbia1' was also used in the same   
way1 as  also a product called          
#8,myssa1' which contains some of the   
elements of  cork4#cd ,another          
substitute is mentioned in ,henley's    
8,twentieth ,century  ,receipts0 as     
follows3 ,wood pulp three parts2        
cornstarch pith one part2  gelatin one  
part2 glycerine one part2 water four    
parts2 #bj per cent  solution formic    
aldehyde2 and still another in the      
8,handyman's #8,inquire  ,within1'0 by  
,haslock1 called 8,phellosene10 a       
,french invention consisting  of        
powdered cork mixed with a solution of  
nitro-cellulose in acetone3  compressed 
and dried4 ,the wood of ,anona palustris
 growing in the ,west  ,indies1 and     
called the alligator's apple1 is used by
 the negroes to stop  their jugs and    
calabashes also1 and a ,mr4 ,brockedon  
invented a  substitute as noted in      

8,knight's ,cyclopedia10 the core of    
which was  cotton twisted into strands1 
wound with flax and the whole covered   
with  ,india rubber4 ,cork's competitor 
in buoyancy1 8balsa wood10 is in no wise
  constituted to take its place1        
although #bj per cent lighter2 as it is 
a  fibrous growth and hygroscopic1      
requiring a coat of water-proofing      
solution before it can be used even for 
life-preservers2 rubber1 its  close     
second1 in the manufacture of stoppers  
is not to be compared with  it1 and     
although there have been many patent    
devices for sealing  bottles1 such as   
the porcelain stopper1 crimped metal    
stoppers1 etc41  the cork stopper still 
reigns as the best of them all4      #cd
 ,chambers ,journal4                    
,,manufacture      ,in describing the   
manner and process of converting the    
corkwood into the  various commercial   
forms1 no attempt will be made to give a
 scientific  exposition of all the      
details1 as being inconsistent with the 

character  of this monograph1 nor will  
any other processes be described than   
the  ones in which the material being   
worked1 is cork4 ,this may exclude much 
of interest to the reader1 but the      
intent of this little work is purely  a 
corkwood exposition1 and the desire to  
keep it so must prevail4                
,,cork-,,wood                        _/ 
_/                        _/            
_/                          _/          
_/                            _/        
_/                              _/      
,,virgin-,,cork ,,wood               _/ 
_/              _/                _/    
_/                _/            _/,,of  
_/    ,,stoppers ,,standard      _/     
,,size         _/                       
_/                        _/            
_/                      _/              
_/                      _/ ,,cork       
,,disks          ,,waste     _/         
_/  ,,waste                 _/    _/    
_/    _/               _/    _/         
_/    _/                 _/    _/       

_/    _/                 ,,cork ,,board 
,,cork ,,disks                          
_/                        _/            
_/                          _/          
,,granulated ,,packing                  
_/           ,,material                 
_/                       _/             
,,cork                      ,,flour     
,,spanish ,,black                       
,,novelties    ,in taking up the        
processes of manipulation we naturally  
start from the  beginning1 but the      
beginning in this case has a peculiar   
significance as  relating to the whole1 
for it is apparent to utilize corkwood  
to the  fullest extent its qualities    
must be studied and the best1 used      
first1  so that the beginning of the    
corkwood industry is peculiar in this   
fact1  that it takes the best part and  
leaves but scrap1 which must be studied 
carefully to realize the value lost in  
the first process2 therefore1 in  the   
manufacture of one article of corkwood  
it is necessary to make  provision for  

the scrap created1 and this is a        
characteristic of all  such             
establishments4      ,,raw ,,stock      
,the baled cork1 as received1 is our    
first consideration1 for its bulk1      
being out of all proportion to its      
value1 attracts the attention at  once4 
,as in all business where the raw stock 
is conveyed from a distance and  there  
is a possibility of delay in shipments1 
a large stock must  necessarily be kept 
on hand1 and this feature is very       
pronounced in and  about a 8cork        
factory40 ,great piles appear in the    
open or within large  sheds1 covering   
much space1 and sometimes in the factory
 itself4    ,this stock is carefully    
watched and care taken to keep it large 
enough  to supply all needs for a long  
time as a shortage in raw material would
  not only mean no work1 but the loss of
 business1 due to the inability to      
supply first-grade material1 for this is
 the prime factor1 the various  other   
grades being compelled to await a       

favorable market4 ,appended is a        
diagram that will give some idea of the 
utilization of corkwood4    ,the        
corkwood bale as received1 measures as a
 general rule #b  #bg  #d  and is       
securely strapped with iron bands about 
one inch in width and a  thickness of   
#a_/af to #a_/cb1 and the weight        
depending upon the quality  of corkwood 
ranging from #aej pounds to #bjj pounds 
per bale4      ,,sorting    ,the first  
operation1 that is1 the first thing done
 with the corkwood1 is  the sorting4    
,this is becoming more important as the 
uses of cork  increase1 as various      
grades can be used for so many          
particular things  now1 without the     
necessity of being called a by-product2 
but the  principal divisions are3       
superfine1 fine1 common and coarse4     
,these of course are now extended to    
many classes1 and is resulting in       
careful scrutiny of the shipments and   
stock1 the sorter becoming an  expert1  
and an increasing factor in the         

business4 ,his knowledge not only       
including the grades of corkwood1 but   
the uses to which the various  grades   
may be put so that waste is avoided and 
the full value gotten out  of all4      
,,cork ,,stopper ,,making    ,after the 
sorting1 the slabs are placed in steam  
boxes and subjected to  a steam bath1   
which it is claimed softens the material
 and also prepares  it for the scraper1 
who cleans and removes the dirt and     
callous or  8raspa0 accumulated in its  
mountain home4 ,this scraping is done   
either  by hand or machine1 the handwork
 being done with a short handle1 curved 
bladed knife called a 8doladera10       
raspador or raspeta3 a workman being    
able to scrape from two to three metric 
quintals of cork in a day1 or  ten      
hours4 ,the scraper machine being a     
vertical steel shaft carrying  several  
knives placed at a very slight helix and
 making about #adjj  revolutions per    
minute and will scrape from ten to      
twelve metric  quintals#ce per day or   

ten hours4 ,cutting the slabs into      
strips or  fillets 7tiras 'rebanadas7 is
 the next step4 ,these strips1 the width
 of  which is equal to the length of the
 cork to be cut1 as the cutting is  done
 across and not with the grain1 were    
formerly cut by hand with a  knife      
having a flat surface and curved edge   
called 8cuchilla de  rebanar10 but now  
replaced by the circular knife1 which   
operates the  same as a rip-saw4 ,from  
here the strips go to the               
stopper-makers'  punches or blocking    
machines4 ,this machine has a rotating  
tubular die  with sharpened edges of the
 diameter of the cork to be cut1 made to
  revolve about two thousand revolutions
 per minute1 the operator having a  foot
 lever attachment which permits him to  
thrust the die through the  strips of   
cork as he holds it against a resisting 
piece parallel with  the operating plane
 of the die4 ,thus1 he can punch out    
many thousands of  corks a day1 the     
noise of the punches being a very       

characteristic sound  in all such       
establishments4 ,the operator1 of       
course1 must use care to  avoid         
defective spots in the bark1 and also to
 cut the corks out as  closely together 
as possible so as to reduce waste to a  
minimum4 ,for it  is here that the cork 
manufacturer seems to lay his particular
 lament4  ,if he could but make his     
corks the sizes most in demand1 ship    
them and  thereby do a business that    
would clearly figure up the year's work1
 and  perhaps keep a surplus on hand for
 unexpected orders4 ,but this he cannot 
do1 for almost every cork he cuts there 
is enough waste material to make  three 
or four smaller sizes1 and this he fain 
would discard if it were  not for the   
possible profit there is in it2 and     
consequently in almost  every cork      
factory will be found a large surplus   
stock of all sizes1 and  the owner      
anxiously hoping that some one will take
 them off his hands4      #ce ,the      
metric quintal is used officially in    

,spain1 which is equal         to       
#bbj4cf pounds1 the ,catalon quintal    
equaling #ia4ga pounds4    ,the stoppers
 which come from these machines are     
round with parallel  sides4 ,if tapered 
corks are desired1 larger at the upper  
end than at the  lower1 the cylindrical 
or straight pieces must be passed       
through another  machine which handles  
them deftly1 holding them against the   
edge of  another circular knife2        
seemingly motionless1 the only outward  
indication of the speed with which the  
keen blade is revolving being a         
delicate shaving which curls upward for 
an instant1 and then is drawn  away by  
air suction to the waste bin1 where this
 material is all  collected and used in 
various1 useful ways as will be shown   
later4 ,in  cutting the corks1 although 
care is exercised1 many will be         
imperfect  and defective1 and in order  
to utilize them they are cut into       
smaller  sizes by men who sit at low    
tables and deftly handle the sharp-edged

  knife1 which with one stroke reduces  
the cork to the size that it can  fill1 
using a scale which is apparently       
standard with all cork dealers4    ,the 
general standard of corks or stoppers1  
known as the ,united ,states  standard1 
is as follows3    ,,scale ,,of          
,,diameter ,,of ,,stoppers    ,united   
,states ,standard1 showing ,diameter at 
,large ,end      ,no4 #j       #c_/h    
inch      ,no4 #a       #g_/h  inch4    
8  #b       #a_/b   8        8  #c      
#i_/af   8     8  #d       #e_/h   8    
8  #e      #aa_/af   8     8  #f        
#c_/d   8        8  #g      #ac_/af   8 
8  #h       #g_/h   8        8  #i      
#ae_/af   8     8 #aj     #a       8    
8 #aa     #a-a_/af   8     8 #ab        
#a-a_/h   8        8 #ac     #a-c_/af   
8     8 #ad     #a-a_/d   8        8 #ae
     #a-e_/af   8     8 #af     #a-c_/h 
8        8 #ag     #a-g_/af   8     8   
#ah     #a-a_/b   8        8 #ai        
#a-i_/af   8     8 #bj     #a-e_/h   8  
8 #bd     #a-g_/h    8     8 #bb        

#a-c_/d   8        8 #bf     #b        8
    ,length is generally designated as  
short1 regular1 extra long1 and the     
shape as tapered1 or straight4    ,this 
classification of necessity applies to  
the trade and gives a size  for almost  
any character of work there is1 though  
another general  classification that is 
used principally abroad1 is as          
follows3--      ,thick corks having more
 than #ca millimeters#cf in diameter4   
,ordinary or commercial1 from #be to #ca
 millimeters4    ,bastard corks1 from   
#bc to #be millimeters4    ,thin corks1 
having less than #bc millimeters4       
#cf ,millimeter  4#jcid inch4    ,these 
classes of sizes are of course divided  
again and again by the  manufacturers4  
,to this size classification must be    
added a quality  distinction1 and this  
generally takes the same as before      
described1 in  sorting the cork-board1  
grading down from the best which is     
tawny or  pink in color1 with a fine    
texture1 free from cracks1 stone cells1 

or  other blemishes4    ,as has been    
stated1 the punch is now employed in    
most corkwood  establishments1 but there
 are still a few who do the work by hand
 and  maintain that the best results are
 obtained in this manner4    ,hand-cut  
corks or stoppers are used mostly for   
the high-class wine trade  and are a    
little more expensive than machine cut4 
,there is also a hand  machine for      
shaping corks1 which consists of a      
knife1 the blade of which  is placed    
horizontally1 joined generally to a     
piece of wood1 to which a  back and     
forward movement is given similar to    
that of a carpenter's  plane4 ,in       
moving1 the knife turns the square cork1
 or whatever shape it  may be1 by a     
series of belt attachments1 and takes   
off a strip of cork  7palilla7 more or  
less thick1 according to the distance   
from the axis of  the cork and the edge 
of the blade2 the principle being the   
same in the  power machine1 if these are
 parallel the resulting cork will be    

cylindrical1 and if not1 it becomes     
conical4    ,the standard size stopper  
is the prime use to which corkwood has  
been  put1 and in the making of it the  
best material is used2 this material    
coming in varying thicknesses1 it       
sometimes is difficult to secure  enough
 for making 8champagnes10 so some       
manufacturers produce a stopper  that   
answers the requirements by fastening   
two pieces of thin superfine  corkwood  
together with a rubber cement made by   
dissolving pure ,para  rubber in        
disulphide of carbon1 which makes a very
 good binder and not  lessening the     
quality service to any appreciable      
degree4    ,after the corks are cut1 the
 ends are not always as even and as     
smooth  as desired1 so they are taken to
 a sandpaper wheel which revolves very  
rapidly in an upright position1 and     
against this the corks are held for  a  
few seconds until the surface becomes   
smooth and straight1 the dust  created  
being collected and used in various     

ways4 7,see 8,waste  ,utilization407    
,,cork-,,disk ,,making    7,see 8,waste 
,utilization07    ,since the ,crown     
,seal stopper1 for beer bottles         
particularly1 has come  into vogue1     
there has been a great demand for cork  
disks which form the  medium for air    
tightness and this has given the        
cork-worker an  opportunity to utilize a
 grade of corkwood that usually had but 
little  commercial value1 that is1 a    
thin bark4    ,it may be well to state  
here for the uninitiated that the ,crown
 ,seal is  made up of a tin cap1        
corrugated on the lapped edge1 for      
gripping the  top of the bottle1 a      
corkwood disk and a water-proof paper   
between the  disk and cap1 a very       
ingenious device4    ,as you have       
already read in a previous chapter that 
corks are cut  vertical parallel1 or1 to
 state more clearly1 the axis of the    
stopper  must be parallel with the axis 
of the tree that furnished the bark2 and
  the desired direction is easily       

recognizable by the colored striae due  
to the annual layers of suberous        
substance that are observed in the      
direction of its axis1 this rule being  
followed because cork is found to  be   
more impervious to liquids if cut in    
this manner4 ,it will be readily  seen  
that if disks are cut horizontally      
parallel1 that is1 the annual  layers   
running at right angles to the axis of  
the disk1 this grade of  cork can be    
utilized to great advantage4 ,the mode  
of cutting is by a  horizontal revolving
 blade1 which slices the cork to the    
desired  thickness1 usually a quarter of
 an inch1 and then it follows the usual 
course of punching1 etc4 ,from these    
operations a great deal of waste        
accumulates1 and this would be a great  
loss if methods were not devised  for   
its utilization4 ,many firms work up    
this waste on the premises1 but  most of
 it is shipped out and its conversion   
forms a separate part of  the corkwood  
industry1 which will be described later4

 ,we might say now  that the cork is    
made1 for it has been cut and shaped    
into the desired  commercial size2 and  
all that remains is to sort them and    
ship them  away4 ,but if commerce       
desires sizes and quality1 it has also  
exacted  many other requirements of a   
cork before it is acceptable and we will
  now take up the further manipulation  
of cork before it leaves the  factory4  
,naturally1 this corkwood1 coming such a
 distance and being  handled by so many 
in the general processes just described1
 gets more or  less dirty1 and aside    
from that perhaps in the growing the    
tissue has  not remained as white as is 
desired1 so before the cork can leave   
the  factory it has to be washed or     
cleaned4 ,and in this washing ,i will   
not  say that there is not an attempt to
 improve the looks of the corks in      
order to get a better price4 ,now this  
washing or bleaching is carried on  in  
the simplest manner and is just soaking 
the corks in water and a  chemical and  

then placing them in a centrifugal      
spinner1 which is  nothing more than a  
perforated receptacle made to revolve   
within an iron  jacket1 which is        
connected to a drain1 naturally forcing 
the material  against the periphery and 
thereby causing the excess water and    
acid to  pass out through the           
perforations1 this system becoming quite
 common in  cork factories to-day1      
greatly facilitating the drying1 which  
is done  mostly by the atmosphere4 ,this
 is all there is to the mechanical part1
  but curiosity prompts us to inquire   
what chemicals are used to clean the    
corks1 so ,i have ascertained the       
principal ones1 but of course every     
manufacturer will have his own way of   
doing this part of the work1  although  
the principle remains the same4 ,an old 
way was to wash them in  water          
containing chloride of tin or oxalic    
acid and then subjecting them  to the   
fumes of burning sulphur1 but the       
sulphur bleach has been  discontinued4  

,bioxalate of potash has also been used 
in solution1 as  also chloride of lime1 
ammonia and sulphuric acid4 ,another way
 is to  wash in a #aj per cent solution 
of hydrochloric acid and then immerse in
  a solution of sodium hyposulphate and 
hydrochloric acid1 finally washing  with
 a solution of soda and water4 ,all of  
these produce the desired  effect when  
mere cleaning and bleaching is all that 
is required3 but in  the poorer grade of
 cork1 mostly a thick cork that has been
 jaspered or  contains micro-organisms1 
a system of treatment with formol or    
methylal1  ethyl alcohol or spirit wine 
and formaldehyde and impregnating with  
casein has been used4 ,these bleaches   
are applied to regular stoppers and     
disks alike1 but in addition to this the
 disks are given a bath of hot          
paraffin1 or glycerine and paraffin1    
which improves their resistance and     
retards discoloration4 ,this generally  
being done in a steam-jacketed  kettle1 
or tumbling barrel1 and then placed in a

 centrifugal to remove  the excess of   
water and paraffin4    ,in some         
factories1 and when the customer        
requests it1 the name is  branded upon  
the stopper by irons heated by gas1     
gasolene or in a coal  fire1 automatic  
gas heated machines being most general4 
,in the foregoing it has been shown how 
the stopper and disk are made1  and     
although there are many different       
manufacturers of corkwood  stoppers1 it 
will be found that the modus operandi   
just described is  followed generally1  
with perhaps a variation in the details4
 ,the waste  material1 8recortes0 as    
stated is collected and used in various 
ways1  but either in conjunction with   
other materials or alone in a granulated
  or powdered state4    ,the following  
chapter will enumerate the three        
principal uses of waste  corkwood1 and  
as these cover the fundamentals of the  
other uses it will  not be necessary to 
describe them1 e4g41 linoleum1 made by  
mixing  cork-flour and linseed oil4     

,,waste ,,utilization      ,in giving   
the processes of the methods used in the
 conversion of the  corkwood waste and  
virgin corkwood1 which is classed as    
waste1 it will  not be possible to go   
too far into the details1 as most of    
them are  secret1 and in justice to     
those who use them a rsum is all that   
will  be incorporated in this monograph4
 ,but this will give a good idea and    
understanding of the utilization1 which 
is all that is intended4 ,as in  the    
first processes of corkwood manipulation
 the best is taken first2  so1 in the   
department of waste utilization1 a      
process is now used  whereby the best   
scrap is made into cork disks for the   
,crown seal as  described1 and serves   
its purpose well4    ,this scrap is     
taken and granulated in an iron rotary  
cutter mill1 to a  degree of fineness   
that will pass a #a_/h mesh1 it is then 
screened and  mixed with a secret binder
 that has a wonderful holding quality2  
it is  then dried by steam and pressed  

into sheets by hydraulic presses1 dried 
again1 and then stamped out in the usual
 manner4 ,there is no waste to  this    
process as the unused portions go back  
to the grinders again and  through the  
usual process4    ,granulated cork is   
made by grinding the waste in ordinary  
metal roller1  cage or bur mills1 and   
then screening same for the various     
degrees of  fineness2 if cork-flour is  
desired1 a tube mill may be used4       
,these two uses are generally confined  
to the best scrap1 but there still      
remains a large quantity which has a    
great value4 ,a portion of this is  made
 into ,spanish black by carbonizing same
 in a closed iron kettle1 or  retort1   
and then grinding same in a regulation  
ball mill1 until the  desired fineness  
is obtained2 this process producing a   
very fine black4    ,the above uses in  
no degree exhaust the amount of scrap   
corkwood that  leaves the various       
factories here and abroad1 nor is its   
usefulness  expended1 for there is one  

use to which cork scrap is being put    
that  bids fair to rival the stopper    
industry in importance1 and that is in  
the form of cork-board for insulating   
purposes4    ,the processes for the     
making of cork-board differ in many     
ways1 widely  divergent in principle4   
,the corkwood waste and virgin cork are 
broken up  and chipped in an ordinary   
iron mill as a preliminary to all       
processes2  in one1 claimed to be the   
best1 this chipped material is poured   
into  iron molds the desired shape of   
the slab1 subjected to heavy pressure   
and run into an oven kept at about #hjj 
to #ijj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,this      
oven1 being a low brick type1 resembling
 a lear and heated by coal  fires1 the  
slab molds being drawn through on an    
endless chain1 which  runs at a speed to
 keep the cork in just long enough1 for 
the resin in  same to exude and bind the
 little particles together2 the cork is 
also  charred in this process1 thereby  
converting it into a carbonized         

cellulose which makes it an excellent   
material for insulation4  ,steam-heated 
hydraulic presses are also used for     
making small tile1  etc41 being the same
 principle as above1 without the        
charring4    ,the other process involves
 the use of tar1 pitch or asphaltum1 as 
a  binder for the cork particles1 and in
 one1 the cork is mixed with a clay     
before being mixed with the asphaltum4  
,the binder being heated in steam       
jacketed kettles1 and in one it is mixed
 in the proportion of one to  four1     
while in the other it is forced into the
 mass under pressure and  then drawn out
 again by vacuum1 both mixtures being   
poured into molds of  the desired shape 
of the slab or in large molds1 to be cut
 up after1 and  subjected to heavy      
pressure1 the sawing being done by an   
ordinary  rip-saw1 cutting the block    
into any desired thickness of slab4     
,the above described processes do not   
include all of the various              
manipulations of corkwood1 for there are

 innumerable things as stated  under the
 8,uses0 for which there is a necessity 
of mechanical operation1  in their      
making2 but the general processes are as
 stated and will cover  most all4       
,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,manufacturing     
,,industry      ,the cork stopper       
industry had its permanent origin in    
,spain1 in the  ,province of ,gerona1   
town of ,llacostera1 towards the latter 
part of #agej  and was contemporaneous  
with the inception of the glass bottle1 
although  corkwood was used many years  
before as a stopper for amphora1 etc41  
as  noted in a previous chapter4    ,the
 trade flourished there until wars and  
schisms rent the country and  drove the 
industry to the mountains4 ,there it    
slumbered and struggled  for many years 
until the peace was restored and the    
people assured that  the dangers were   
passed4 ,its revival was not very       
sudden1 but slowly and  surely it grew1 
and won itself a place in the trade life
 of ,spain and  finally became a        

necessity1 so much so1 that it began to 
attract  attention and other countries  
sought to secure the secret4 ,about     
#ahbh  the ,french agents at ,catalonia 
found enough information to warrant them
  returning to ,france and there set up 
for themselves1 the rivalry between  the
 two becoming very keen1 causing much   
excitement among the ,spanish           
manufacturers2 for up to that time they 
monopolized the trade and had a  nice   
time of it4 ,this lasted until #ahdi1   
when the trade assumed such  proportions
 that both had all they could attend to 
and more4 ,this  insured a steady       
increase of the trade1 and before long  
it assumed  proportions that has        
surpassed the dreams of its founders4   
,the industry  spread until the raw     
material began to show a shortage due to
 the heavy  demands made upon it4 ,more 
frequent cuttings were compulsory to    
supply  the market1 and in consequence  
the grade became poorer4    ,the        
realization of this caused the ,spanish 

,government to step in and  protect the 
forests as a national necessity1 and the
 result was the  passing of laws to     
govern the cutting of corkwood from the 
trees4 ,but  the trade kept on growing  
in other countries and the raw stock was
 in  great demand4    ,the result of the
 heavy exportation of corkwood again    
caused some  notable alarm among the    
manufacturers and trades-workers in     
,spain and  ,portugal1 but principally  
in the former1 as most of the largest   
factories  are located in its cities2 so
 that the principal representatives of  
the  cork industry convened at ,madrid  
in ,december of #aiaa1 at which         
convention resolutions were passed to   
urge upon the ,government the  necessity
 of imposing an export tax or duty on   
corkwood ranging from  five to fifty    
gold pesetas 74#jife to #i4fe7 per #ajj 
kilos 7#bbj pounds74  ,by so doing it   
was thought to remedy the shortage in   
the home market4    ,the competition    
between the foreign and ,spanish buyers 

for the raw  corkwood output was largely
 in favor of the foreigner in #aiaa1    
owing to  the unprotective export       
duties1 and the result has been that the
 once  flourishing national industry is 
now very badly handicapped for want of  
working material4    ,so simultaneously 
with the tariff revision1 which went    
into effect on  ,january #a1 #aiab1 an  
endeavor was made to put in force the   
increase on  export corkwood1 but owing 
to the efforts of the ,american cork    
manufacturers1 who have a great         
influence over the ,spanish cork        
industry1 the proposed increase did not 
meet with the desired success4    ,in   
the attempt to restrict the importation 
of raw material the ,spaniards  have    
failed1 for its usefulness makes the    
demand too great and the  foreigners    
have invaded the ,iberian ,peninsula and
 are now buying up even  the raw stock  
on the trees4 ,the corkwood markets are 
no longer confined  to two or three1 but
 extend round the world1 the principal  

ones being3  ,london1 ,paris1 ,rheims1  
,epernay1 ,maguncia1 ,dresden1 ,new     
,york1 ,pittsburgh1  ,san ,francisco1   
,buenos ,ayres1 ,calcutta1 ,sydney1     
,melbourne and ,yeddo4 ,so  it will be  
seen that a great demand is being made  
upon the forests1  which must be        
cultivated for increased growth and     
production or an early  investigation   
made for the growing of the trees in    
other countries4    ,of course the      
industry remains very strong throughout 
,spain and  ,portugal1 and particularly 
in the ,andalusia ,district of ,spain1  
where the  manufacturing establishments 
play an important part in converting the
  corkwood into useful articles of      
commerce4 ,the ,spanish yield of raw    
material has remained slightly behind   
,portugal1 but this does not affect  the
 former's influence in the trade4 7,see 
,appendix47    ,it is inevitable that   
the greatest bulk of the trade should   
center  around the countries in which   
the raw material is grown1 for the      

greatest advantage is thus gained by    
those1 so fortunate in their  location4 
,but the spread of the corkwood's fame  
has aroused others to action1 and  it   
appears as though the monopoly will     
suffer because of that fame4 ,the       
demand grows daily1 and the rapid growth
 of the ,american trade bids fair  to   
being a very close rival to the         
long-established ,european  manufactures
 at least4    ,the waste is rapidly     
assuming great importance and to this   
the newer  entrant in the business is   
turning all his energy4 ,the doctrine of
  conservation and utilization has been 
heeded by the corkwood industry  and the
 waste is no longer such1 rather        
standing as a cork product  second only 
to the stopper1 when the fact is        
considered that the grower  or farmer   
receives about #eh per ton for raw      
corkwood and the waste  sells from #bb  
to #cb per ton2 its value is apparent4  
,a notable feature of the shipments from
 ,spain is the waste and shavings1      

which doubled from #aijf to #aiaj1 viz43
      #aijf -- #ad1fbd tons    #aijg -- 
#ag1eeg  8    #aijh -- #ab1bja  8       
#aiji -- #bj1aih  8    #aiaj -- #bi1beg 
8    ,the uses to which corkwood may be 
put are unlimited1 and as has been  seen
 the uses already known are sufficient1 
in themselves1 to make it a  very       
important commodity4 ,and yet when we   
speak of uses it is only those  that    
have developed by reason of the         
corkwood's own peculiarity that  makes  
it the subject of discussion1 and not   
the great number that it has  been      
adapted to1 for perhaps its utility will
 have no end1 and in my  estimation its 
particular qualities are but little     
appreciated4 ,of  course its application
 as a stopper is ideal for that purpose1
 but it  appears most certain that this 
wonderful growth is designed to be of   
greater service to man than the mere    
function of filling the neck of a       
bottle4 ,chemically1 ,i think it has    
possibilities2 the ancients found it    

useful in ,materia ,medica1 and there   
may still be a use in this line4 ,at    
any rate1 it is the most wonderful bark 
of its kind1 its service has  been a    
long one1 and its benefits1 even as a   
stopper1 have been many4 ,a  wonderful  
material truly1 and of interest1 so full
 that it seems ,i have  failed to do it 
justice in these few words presented in 
my endeavor to  describe the ,quercus   
,suber of ,linnus4          ,,appendix  
,for those who may be interested in a   
few statistics of the trade is  appended
 the following figures relating to the  
,spanish and ,american  industry3       
,,spanish ,,industry1 #aiab    ,there   
were #hib factories throughout ,spain in
 #aiab1 in #ajg towns and  cities1      
divided as follows3      ,seville       
,district       #cje in #dh towns       
,barcelona ,district     #ejg in #ca   8
    ,other ,districts         #hj in #bh
   8    ,these factories employ         
approximately #dj1jjj people in the     
various  branches of the industry at an 

average daily wage of #fg cents4    ,the
 raw material yield for #aiab is        
reported as3 #ghjj short tons1 valued   
at #eg4ij per ton to the grower1 or     
#d1eaf1bjj4    ,it will also be of      
interest to show a few comparisons of   
values1 for  various years1 in shipments
 to foreign parts1 viz43                
#aiji                 ,description      
,pounds        ,value        ,cork in   
sheets 4444444444444   #aa1jji1ici      
#dje1cff    ,cork squares               
444444444444444    #a1ahj1dhi           
#bfe1faj    ,corks                      
4444444444444444444444   #aa1ifj1gfj    
#d1hgj1idh    ,cork shavings            
44444444444444   #ff1dce1dbf            
#cfc1efc    ,other manufactured cork    
4444      #hfd1hbj       #dj1fef        
,total 44444444444444444444             
#ia1dea1dcd   #e1idf1adc                
#aiaj                 ,description      
,pounds        ,value        ,cork in   
sheets 4444444444444   #af1gih1dib      
#fah1dhi    ,cork squares               

444444444444444    #b1jee1hfe           
#dfb1dgb    ,corks                      
4444444444444444444444   #ad1ibd1jeb    
#f1aje1bid    ,cork shavings            
44444444444444   #fd1cfg1ddh            
#ebf1fdb    ,other manufactured cork    
4444    #a1aij1ghi       #eg1chb        
,total 44444444444444444444             
#ii1ccf1fdf   #g1ggj1bgi    ,corrected  
figures showing                         
totals as 4444444444444444  #aji1ccf1fdf
   #g1idb1fgg                           
#aiaa                 ,description      
,pounds        ,value        ,cork in   
sheets 4444444444444   #ba1efd1cdg      
#gda1jbi    ,cork squares               
444444444444444    #b1jgf1hha           
#dfg1bih    ,corks                      
4444444444444444444444   #ag1hag1jcg    
#g1bhh1ghg    ,cork waste               
44444444444444444   #gc1eaj1dgc         
#eia1dfh    ,cork1 manufactured in      
other forms 44444444444444    #a1hbh1jcj
       #hi1gbc                          
,total 44444444444444444444             

#aaf1gif1gfh   #i1agh1cje               
#aiab                 ,description      
,pounds        ,value        ,corkwood  
4444444444444444444   #ag1ibh1jjj       
#ebh1haj    ,cork squares               
444444444444444    #a1dib1jjj           
#cef1bbi    ,corks mfrd4                
#g1hfd1bii    ,cork waste               
444444444444444  #ajj1cif1jjj           
#ged1hdh    ,other                      
mfrs444444444444444444    #a1aff1jjj    
#di1ghc                                 
#abj1ihb1jjj   #i1eec1ifi               
,the following is a comparison of the   
first six months of #aiji1 #aiaj  and   
#aiaa4                                  
#aiji                  ,articles        
,tons      ,value        ,corkwood      
4444444444444444444   #a1fhf            
#aeh1fdd    ,cork squares               
444444444444444     #bfb      #abi1fdf  
,corks 4444444444444444444444   #b1fbd  
#b1cfa1fbj    ,cork waste and shavings  
4444   #i1ehi      #agb1fjd    ,cork1   
other manufactures 444     #baa         

#be1ihg                                 
#aiaj           ,articles               
,tons     ,value        ,corkwood       
4444444444444444444   #c1aeg            
#bee1gah    ,cork squares               
444444444444444     #dhe      #bdj1jeg  
,corks 4444444444444444444444   #c1fbi  
#c1bfe1gfj    ,cork waste and shavings  
4444  #ac1ice      #bje1hbb    ,cork1   
other manufactures 444     #bea         
#bg1acc                                 
#aiaa        ,articles                  
,tons     ,value        ,corkwood       
4444444444444444444   #e1abi            
#dae1dcb    ,cork squares               
444444444444444     #ddb      #bah1gee  
,corks 4444444444444444444444   #d1jeg  
#c1ffi1jge    ,cork waste and shavings  
4444  #ah1adc      #cbf1egc    ,cork1   
other manufactures 444     #bdh         
#cb1feg                                 
,the statistics showing the shipments to
 various countries are for #aiji3       
,cork  ,cork                            
,waste  in       ,countries             

,corkwood,cork ,corks  and  ,other      
,total                          ,sqs4   
,shav4 ,forms                           
,tons  ,tons  ,tons  ,tons ,tons   ,tons
    ,united ,states   #b1jfe   --       
#aeh  #g1eid #bhj  #aj1jig    ,great    
,britain     #hdb    #d #a1jid  #g1eci  
#ch   #i1eah    ,germany 444444      #e 
#ah   #gae  #d1eee  --    #e1bic        
,france 4444444  #a1bef  #bgf #b1jdd    
#ahi  #ef   #c1hba    ,italy 44444444   
#f   #gi   #dce     #aa  --      #ecb   
,belgium 444444    #afd   --    #acf    
#bae  #aa     #ebf    ,russia 4444444   
#dfc   --      #a     --   --      #dfd 
,aust,hungary       --    #cj   #cdf    
--   --      #cgf    ,argentina 4444    
#afd  #abc    #eg     --   --      #cdd 
,other 44444444     #dj    #g   #dbf    
#ie   #i     #ege                       
,total 44444444  #e1jje  #ecg #e1dab    
#bj1aih #cid  #ca1edf                   
,,american ,,industry    ,in #ahii1     
there were #fb factories in the ,united 
,states of varying sizes  and located in

 the following states3 ,new ,york       
7,brooklyn71 ,pennsylvania1  ,new       
,jersey1 ,illinois1 ,massachusetts1     
,rhode ,island1 ,wisconsin and ,ohio4   
,employing #bcdj wage earners4          
,importing a raw stock of #b1djd1jjj1   
and  making products valued at          
#d1cib1jjj4    ,in #aijd1 the factories 
decreased to #ej in number1 the wage    
earners  increased to #bhie1 the        
imported raw material to #b1dei1aig and 
the  products to #d1dij1ieb4    ,in     
#aiji1 the factories increasing again to
 #fb in number1 the wage  earners to    
#cadb1 the imported raw material to     
#c1dce1jjj and the  products to         
#e1idj1jjj3 corks selling from #c cents 
to #dj cents per  pound4    ,this of    
course does not appear to be a very     
extensive business1 but the  nature of  
the commodity will readily convince that
 the money figures are  not at all in   
comparison to the bulk of corkwood1 for 
it would really  seem that if the trade 
should increase to an amount sufficient 

to vie  with other prominent ones1 the  
ships would be at loss how to stow the  
other freight4 ,the imports of corkwood 
into this country and the  exports1 for 
comparison1 may be seen in the following
 tables3    ,,imports                   
,january               ,seven ,months   
ending ,january                         
#aiab         #aiac         #aiaa       
#aiab         #aiac                     
,corkwood1 ,free3                       
#dej1jhb     #cfg1hhd    #b1bfe1cgc     
#a1hdi1eej   #a1gjg1afd    ,corks mfrd41
 ,dutiable3         #aha1beb            
#acj1ehj     #a1chj1aji    #a1acg1ejd   
#a1ahj1haf                              
,,exports                               
,seven ,months ending                   
,january            ,january            
#aiab    #aiac      #aiab      #aiac    
,corkwood1 ,free3        #a1eah  #a1aie 
#ai1gie   #bb1cic    ,corks mfrd41      
,dutiable3    #bji   #a1jhf      #c1jgh 
#b1agj                                  
,and the periods ending ,december1 #aiac

 will be of interest also4    ,,imports 
,december              ,twelve ,months  
ending ,december                        
#aiab         #aiac         #aiaa       
#aiab         #aiac                     
,corkwood1 ,free3                       
#cjj1bec     #dfh1icg    #c1hai1fea     
#c1ahb1aca   #c1faf1agg    ,corks mfrd41
 ,dutiable3         #afd1gaa            
#aid1deg     #b1jgj1fgb    #b1ddj1cii   
#b1cgj1ebg                              
,,exports                               
,twelve ,months ending                  
,december            ,december          
#aiab    #aiac      #aiab      #aiac    
,corkwood1 ,free3        #b1ifj     --  
#cd1djd   #be1jia    ,corks mfrd41      
,dutiable3    --    #h1cce      #e1eeb  
#e1cib                                  
,a ,,selected ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on  
,,chemistry ,,and ,,chemical            
,,technology    ,published by    ,d4    
,,van ,,nostrand ,,company  #be ,park   
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,institute of ,chemical ,engineers4     

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net1 #f4jj      ,annual ,reports on the 
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net1 #b4jj      ,,asch1 ,w41 and ,,asch1
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theory of general application4          
,translated1 with      critical notes   
and additions1 by ,alfred ,b4 ,searle4  
,illus4 #f-c_/d x      #aj4 cloth4 #dgf 
pp4                                     
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#abmo4 cloth4 #fij pp4                  
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,alfred ,b4 ,searle4 #cjh illustrations4
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#bic pp4 7,outlines of ,industrial      
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net1 #a4ej      ,,caven1 ,r4 ,m41 and   
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,,church',s ,laboratory ,guide4 ,a      
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colleges and schools1 specially arranged
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by ,edward ,kinch4      ,illustrated4   
#hvo4 cloth4 #cfe pp4                   
net1 #b4ej      ,,cornwall1 ,h4 ,b4     
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revised4 #gj illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth4
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pp4           net1 #d4jj      ,,ermen1  
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valuation4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4 cloth4  
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pp4                                     
net1 #d4jj      ,,fernbach1 ,r4 ,l4     
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net1 #a4jj      ---- ,glue and          
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net1 #c4jj      ,,fischer1 ,e4          
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#abmo4 cloth4 #aid pp4                  
net1 #a4be      ,,foye1 ,j4 ,c4         
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#j4ej      ,,franzen1 ,h4 ,exercises in 
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corrections and additions by the author1
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 x #g-a_/d4 cloth4 #abg pp4     net1    
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illus41 #ajh tables4      #hvo4 cloth4  
#cee pp4                                
net1 #d4jj      ,,grossmann1 ,j4        
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pp4                                     
net1 #a4be      ,,hale1 ,,william ,j4   
,calculations in ,general ,chemistry4   
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net1 #a4jj      ,,hall1 ,,clare ,h4     
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,concise ,history of ,chemistry4 #af    
diagrams4 #abmo4      cloth4 #bgc pp4   
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 ,evolution of the ,sciences4 #hvo4     

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net1 #b4jj      ,h,,bner1 ,,julius4     
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pp4     net1 #e4jj      ,,hudson1 ,o4   
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net1 #b4jj      ,,hurst1 ,,geo4 ,h4     
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net1 #d4jj      ,,hurst1 ,g4 ,h41 and   
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,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry4  
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 #abmo4 cloth4 #ejb pp4                 
#b4fj      ,,jones1 ,,harry ,c4 ,a ,new 
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pp4                                net1 
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net1 #c4jj      ,,knox1 ,,joseph4       
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net1 #a4jj      ----,fixation of        
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net1 #j4ge      ,,koller1 ,t4           
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cloth4 #bfb pp4                         
net1 #b4ej      ---- ,utilization of    
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#e-c_/d x      #h-c_/d4 cloth4 #ccf pp4 
net1 #c4jj      ,,kremann1 ,r4 ,the     
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illus4 #hvo4 cloth4 #bec pp4  net1 #c4jj
      ,,lassar-,,cohn4 ,introduction to 
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#cef pp4             #b4jj      ,,letts1
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net1 #b4jj      ,,lunge1 ,,george4      
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parts74 #ih illustrations4 #f-a_/b x    
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#bgf pp4                                
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net1 #ae4jj      ---- ,the ,manufacture 
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net1 #ah4jj      ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,sulphate  
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net1 #ae4jj      ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,ammonia  
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cloth4 #ghd pp4                         
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net1 #d4jj      ,mc,i,n,t,o,s,h1 ,,john 
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illus4 #dib pp4                         
net1 #d4ej      ,,martin1 ,g4 ,triumphs 
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illustrations4 #abmo4 cloth4 #ceh pp4   
net1 #b4jj      ,,melick1 ,,charles ,w4 
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pp4                                     
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#ff illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth4 #bjh pp4
                                        

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,introduction to the ,chemistry and     
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revised with      additions4 #abmo4     
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net1 #a4jj      ,,olsen1 ,j4 ,c4 ,a     
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net1 #d4jj      ,,pakes1 ,w4 ,c4 ,g41   
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net1 #a4ge      ,,parry1 ,,ernest ,j4   
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#ahgc-aijg4 #ahd pp4                    
net1 #c4jj      ,,partington1 ,,james   
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#eej pp4                                
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pp4                                     
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,,plattner',s ,manual of ,qualitative   
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net1 #b4jj      ,,prescott1 ,a4 ,b4     
,organic ,analysis4 ,a manual of the    
descriptive and      analytical         
chemistry of certain carbon compounds in
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net1 #c4ej      ,,prescott1 ,a4 ,b41 and
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action4 ,eleventh      ,edition1        
entirely rewritten4 #abmo4 cloth4 #aef  
pp4      net1 #a4ej      ,,prideaux1 ,e4
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,,prost1 ,e4 ,manual of ,chemical       
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,illus4 #hvo4 cloth4      #cjj pp4      
net1 #d4ej      ,,pynchon1 ,t4 ,r4      
,introduction to ,chemical ,physics4    

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cloth4 #ege pp4                         
#c4jj      ,,richards1 ,w4 ,a41 and     
,,north1 ,h4 ,b4 ,a ,manual of ,cement  
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field4 #ef      illustrations4 #abmo4   
cloth4 #adg pp4                     net1
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net1 #d4jj      ,,rogers1 ,,allen4 ,a   
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cloth4 #agj pp4                         
net1 #a4ej      ,,rogers1 ,,allen       
7,editor74 ,industrial ,chemistry4 ,a   
manual for the      student and         
manufacturer4 ,second ,edition1         
thoroughly revised and      enlarged4   
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specialists4 #cjd      illustrations1   

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net1 #e4jj      ,,rohland1 ,,paul4 ,the 
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net1 #a4be      ,,roth1 ,w4 ,a4         
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cloth4 #bjh pp4 net1 #b4jj              
,,scherer1 ,r4 ,casein3 ,its            
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,its ,production and ,industrial ,uses4 
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#cbj pp4                           net1 
#e4jj      ,,schweizer1 ,v4             
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 #hvo4 cloth4 #ahc pp4                  

net1 #c4ej      ,,scott1 ,w4 ,w4        
,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 ,a    
laboratory manual4      ,second         
,edition1 thoroughly revised4 ,illus4   
#hvo4 cloth4 #ahj pp4                   
net1 #a4ej      ,,scudder1 ,,heyward4   
,electrical ,conductivity and           
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illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth4      #ddi   
pp4                                     
net1 #e4jj      ---- ,cement1 ,concrete 
and ,bricks4 #aac illustrations4 #e-a_/b
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net1 #c4jj      ,,seidell1 ,a4          
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determinations4 ,second ,printing1      
corrected4 #hvo4 cloth4 #cfg pp4        
net1 #c4jj      ,,senter1 ,g4 ,outlines 
of ,physical ,chemistry4 ,second        
,edition1      revised4 ,illus4 #abmo4  

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#a4ge      ---- ,a ,text-book of        
,inorganic ,chemistry4 #ij              
illustrations4 #abmo4      cloth4 #eie  
pp4                                     
net1 #a4ge      ,,sexton1 ,a4 ,h4 ,fuel 
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cloth4 #cgd pp4                         
net1 #b4jj      ---- ,chemistry of the  
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#abmo4 cloth4      #cdd pp4             
net1 #b4ej      ,,simmons1 ,w4 ,h41 and 
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net1 #c4jj      ,,sindall1 ,r4 ,w4 ,the 
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 cloth4      #bhe pp4 7,van ,nostrand's 
,westminster ,series47            net1  
#b4jj      ,,sindall1 ,r4 ,w41 and      
,,bacon1 ,w4 ,n4 ,the ,testing of ,wood 
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the pulp and paper trades4 ,illus4 #hvo4

      cloth4 #aej pp4                   
net1 #b4ej      ,,smith1 ,j4 ,c4 ,the   
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enlarged4 #hj illustrations4 #e-a_/b x  
#h-c_/d4 cloth4 #bhf pp4                
net1 #c4ej      ,,smith1 ,w4 ,the       
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 pp4         net1 #c4jj                 
,,southcombe1 ,j4 ,e4 ,chemistry of the 
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cloth4 #bji pp4                         
net1 #c4jj      ,,speyers1 ,c4 ,l4      
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illustrations4      #hvo4 cloth4 #bcj   
pp4                                     
net1 #b4be      ,,spiegel1 ,l4 ,chemical
 ,constitution and ,physiological       
,action4      ,translated by ,c4        
,luedeking and ,a4 ,c4 ,boynton4        
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,paper ,mill ,chemist4 #fg              

illustrations4 #hb tables4      #afmo4  
cloth4 #bhj pp4                         
net1 #b4ej      ,,sudborough1 ,j4 ,j41  
and ,,james1 ,j4 ,c4 ,practical ,organic
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net1 #b4jj      ,,terry1 ,h4 ,l4 ,india 
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illustrations4      #hvo4 cloth4 #cjc   
pp4 7,van ,nostrand's ,westminster      
,series47                               
net1 #b4jj      ,,titherley1 ,a4 ,w4    
,laboratory ,course of ,organic         
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 cloth4 #bce pp4                        
net1 #b4jj      ,,toch1 ,m4 ,chemistry  
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,edition4                               
,in ,preparation4      ,,toch1 ,m4      
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manual for      manufacturers1 art      
dealers1 artists1 and collectors4 ,with 
full-page plates4 ,illustrated4 #abmo4  
cloth4 #bjh pp4     net1 #b4jj          

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illustrations4 #hvo4 cloth4 #cec pp4    
#c4ej      ,,underwood1 ,n41 and        
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illustrations4 #f x #i4 cloth4 #ade pp4 
net1 #c4jj      ,,van ,,nostrand',s     
,chemical ,annual4 ,edited by ,john ,c4 
,olsen and ,alfred      ,melhado4 ,a    
handbook of useful data for analytical  
manufacturing      and investigating    
chemists and chemical students4 ,third  
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leather4 #fhc pp4                  net1 
#b4ej      ,,vincent1 ,c4 ,ammonia and  
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uses4      ,translated from the ,french 
by ,m4 ,j4 ,salter4 #cb ill4 #hvo4      
cloth4      #aac pp4                    
net1 #b4jj      ,,von ,,georgievics1 ,g4
 ,chemical ,technology of ,textile      
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illustrations4      #hvo4 cloth4 #cbj   

pp4                                     
net1 #d4ej      ---- ,chemistry of      
,dyestuffs4 ,translated from the ,second
 ,german      ,edition by ,charles      
,salter4 #hvo4 cloth4 #dab pp4          
net1 #d4ej      ,,vosmaer1 ,a4 ,ozone1  
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,elementary ,chemical ,theory4 ,illus4  
#abmo4 cloth4      #bhf pp4             
net1 #a4ej      ,,walker1 ,,james4      
,organic ,chemistry for ,students of    
,medicine4 ,illus4      #f x #i4 cloth4 
#cbh pp4                                
net1 #b4ej      ,,walsh1 ,j4 ,j4 ,the   
,chemistry of ,mining and ,mine         
,ventilation4 ,in ,press4      ,,warnes1
 ,a4 ,r4 ,coal ,tar ,distillation and   
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 illustrations4 #e-c_/d x #h-c_/d4      
cloth4 #aig pp4         net1 #b4ej      
,,white1 ,c4 ,h4 ,methods in            
,metallurgical ,analysis4 #ajf          
illustrations4      #e x #g-a_/b4 cloth4
 #cfe pp4                               

net1 #b4ej      ,,wilson1 ,e4 ,j41 and  
,,heilbron1 ,i4 ,m4 ,chemical ,theory   
and ,calculations4      ,an elementary  
text-book4 ,illus41 #c folding plates4  
#abmo4 cloth4      #ade pp4             
net1 #a4jj      ,,wood1 ,j4 ,k4 ,the    
,chemistry of ,dyeing4 #e x #g-a_/b4    
cloth4 #hg pp4 7,van      ,nostrand's   
,chemical ,monographs47                 
net1 #j4ge      ,,worden1 ,e4 ,c4 ,the  
,nitrocellulose ,industry4 ,a compendium
 of the      history1 chemistry1        
manufacture1 commercial application1 and
      analysis of nitrates1 acetates1   
and xanthates of cellulose as           
applied to the peaceful arts4 ,with a   
chapter on gun cotton1      smokeless   
powder and explosive cellulose nitrates4
 ,illustrated4      #hvo4 cloth4 ,two   
volumes4 #abci pp4                      
net1 #aj4jj      ---- ,technology of    
,cellulose ,esters4 ,a theoretical and  
practical      treatise on the origin1  
history1 chemistry1 manufacture1        
technical      application and analysis 

of the products of acylation and        
alkylation      of normal and modified  
cellulose1 including nitrocellulose1    
celluloid1 pyroxylin1 collodion1        
celloidin1 gun-cotton1                  
acetycellulose and viscose1 as applied  
to technology1 pharmacy1                
microscopy1 medicine1 photography and   
the warlike and peaceful arts4      ,in 
ten volumes4 #fjj ill41 #ab plates1     
containing upwards of #aaj1jjj          
patent and literature references to the 
work of #ab1jjj different               
investigators4 ,an ,exhaustive          
,treatise4 #djjj pp4      ,vol4 ,,viii4 
,carbohydrate ,carboxylates 7,cellulose 
,acetate74      ,illustrated4 #f-a_/b x 
#i-a_/b4 #eae pp4                       
net1 #e4jj      7,other volumes to      
follow at short intervals47      ,,wren1
 ,,henry4 ,organometallic ,compounds of 
,zinc and ,magnesium4 #e x      #g-a_/b4
 cloth4 #ajh pp4 7,van ,nostrand's      
,chemical ,monographs47                 
net1 #j4ge                              

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,,transcriber',s ,,notes                
99 ,page numbers referenced herein are  
those in the original work           and
 are for information4 ,actual location  
may be found by                searching
 for the relevant text4                 
99 ,contents3 8,quercus ,liber0 appears 
in ,contents as a chapter but           
is typeset in the original work 7page   
#e7 as a section4 ,the                  
original work formatting has been       
retained4                           99  
,contents3 8,the ,tree and ,growth0     
appears in ,contents as a               
chapter but is typeset in the original  
work 7page #ab7 as a                    
section4 ,the original work formatting  
has been retained4              99      
,contents3 8,substitutes0 appears in    
,contents as a chapter but            is
 typeset in the original work 7page #ec7
 as a section4 ,the             original
 work formatting has been retained4     

99 ,contents3 8,waste utilization0      
appears in ,contents as a section       
but is typeset in the original work     
7page #fh7 as a chapter4 ,the           
original work formatting has been       
retained4                           99  
,page #e3 ,vaniek may be misspelled4    
99 ,page #f3 ,grammatic may be          
misspelled4                             
99 ,page #cb1 molecular structure       
diagram3 ,the right-hand ,,ch#b         
groups should be connected4             
99 ,footnote #ba3 8,etymology of ,word0 
is not found in the original            
work4 ,the chapter in ,contents entitled
 8,quercus ,liber 7,linnus70        et  
seq4 gives the etymology4               
99 ,unmatched quotation marks have been 
retained4 ,the original work            
text is shown below in curly brackets1  
1 for clarity4                99 ,page  
#bb3 ,the closing quotation mark for    
,again1 8,it is                         
produced was not found4                 
99 ,page #da3 ,the quotation mark at    

,july #afff0 ,after is                  
apparently used to set off the date from
 the diary entry4 ,the           closing
 quotation mark for the diary entry is  
at junts 7old            cable710 but4  
99 ,page #dc3 ,the opening quotation    
mark for the ,british ,museum40         
was not found4                          
99 ,page #dc3 ,the closing quotation    
mark for 8,the various                  
applications is possibly at blacks known
 in painting40               on page    
#ec4 ,otherwise1 both quotation marks   
are likely                  unmatched4  
99 ,page #ec3 ,the closing quotation    
mark for results4 8,a                   
primitive material was not found        
definitively but possibly               
could be located immediately after the  
elements of cork4              on page  
#ed4                                    
99 ,this work has been preserved as in  
the original1 including                 
archaic and inconsistent spelling1      
punctuation and grammar1                

except as noted below4                  
99 ,changes made to the main text3      
99 ,preface3 #87,linneus7' changed to   
#87,linnus7'4                           
99 ,page #e3 #8,etymologische           
,worterbuch' changed to                 
#8,etymologisches           ,wrterbuch'4
                                        
99 ,page #h3 #8korkeiche' changed to    
#8,korkeiche'4                          
99 ,page #aa3 #8,farenheit' changed to  
#8,fahrenheit'4                         
99 ,page #af3 #8tree iself1 which'      
changed to #8tree itself1 which'4       
99 ,page #cb3 #8,cyclohaptanone' changed
 to #8,cycloheptanone'4                 
99 ,page #cf3 #8#g_/af' changed to      
#8#g_/af'4                              
99 ,page #ed3 #8actetone' changed to    
#8acetone'4                             
99 ,page #ee3 ,the cork manufacturing   
chart moved from within                 
the paragraph to immediately below the  
paragraph4                     99 ,page 
#fi3 #8insultaing' changed to           

#8insulating'4                        99
 ,page #ge3 ,the table for waste and    
shavings changed from two               
columns to one column4                  
99 ,footnote #be3 #88m0 signifying      
metal' changed to #88,m0                
signifying metal'4                      
99 ,changes made to 8,a ,,selected      
,,list ,,of ,,books ,,on ,,chemistry    
,,and              ,,chemical           
,,technology0                           
99 ,page #d1 ,church's ,laboratory      
,guide3 #8cloth1' changed to            
#8cloth4'                               
99 ,page #aj1 ,olsen3 #8cloth41' changed
 to #8cloth4'                           
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