,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,,anarchy ,by ,errico ,malatesta ,published by the ,free ,society ,library in #aijj ,,anarchy4 ---------- ,,anarchy is a word which comes from the ,greek1 and signifies1 strictly speaking1 without government3 the state of a people without any constituted authority1 that is1 without government4 ,before such an organization had begun to be considered possible and desirable by a whole class of thinkers1 so as to be taken as the aim of a party 7which party has now become one of the most important factors in modern social warfare71 the word ,anarchy was taken universally in the sense of disorder and confusion2 and it is still adopted in that sense by the ignorant and by adversaries interested in distorting the truth4 ,we shall not enter into philological discussions2 for the question is not philological but historical4 ,the common meaning of the word does not misconceive its true etymological signification1 but is derived from this meaning1 owing to the prejudice that government must be a necessity of the organization of social life2 and that consequently a society without government must be given up to disorder1 and oscillate between the unbridled dominion of some and the blind vengeance of others4 ,the existence of this prejudice1 and its influence on the meaning which the public has given the word1 is easily explained4 ,man1 like all living beings1 adapts and habituates himself to the conditions in which he lives1 and transmits by inheritance his acquired habits4 ,thus being born and having lived in bondage1 being the descendant of a long line of slaves1 man1 when he began to think1 believed that slavery was an essential condition of life2 and liberty seemed to him an impossible thing4 ,in like manner1 the workman1 forced for centuries1 and thus habituated1 to depend upon the good will of his employer for work1 that is1 for bread1 and accustomed to see his own life at the disposal of those who possess the land and the capital1 has ended in believing that it is his master who gives him to eat1 and demands ingenuously how it would be possible to live1 if there were no master over him8 ,in the same way1 a man who had had his limbs bound from his birth1 but had nevertheless found out how to hobble about1 might attribute to the very hands that bound him his ability to move1 while1 on the contrary1 they would be diminishing and paralyzing the muscular energy of his limbs4 ,if1 then1 we add to the natural effect of habit the education given him by his masters1 the parson1 teacher1 etc41 who are all interested in teaching that the employer and the government are necessary2 if also we add the judge and the bailiff to force those who think differently--and might try to propagate their opinions --to keep silence1 we shall understand how the prejudice as to the utility and necessity of masters and governments has become established4 ,suppose a doctor brings forward a complete theory1 with a thousand ably invented illustrations1 to persuade that man with the bound limb whom we were describing1 that1 if his limb were freed1 he could not walk1 could not even live4 ,the man would defend his bands furiously1 and consider any one his enemy who tried to tear them off4 ,thus1 since it is believed that government is necessary1 and that without government there must be disorder and confusion1 it is natural and logical to suppose that ,anarchy1 which signifies without government1 must also mean absence of order4 ,nor is this fact without parallel in the history of words4 ,in those epochs and countries where people have considered government by one man 7monarchy7 necessary1 the word republic 7that is1 the government of many7 has been used precisely like ,anarchy1 to imply disorder and confusion4 ,traces of this signification of the word are still to be found in the popular language of almost all countries4 ,when this opinion is changed1 and the public convinced that government is not necessary1 but extremely harmful1 the word ,anarchy1 precisely because it signifies without government1 will become equal to saying natural order1 harmony of the needs and interests of all1 complete liberty with complete solidarity4 ,therefore1 those are wrong who say that ,anarchists have chosen their name badly1 because it is erroneously understood by the masses and leads to a false interpretation4 ,the error does not come from the word1 but from the thing4 ,the difficulty which ,anarchists meet with in spreading their views does not depend upon the name they have given themselves1 but upon the fact that their conceptions strike at all the inveterate prejudices that people have about the function of government1 or the ,state1 as it is called4 ,before proceeding further1 it will be well to explain this last word 7the ,state7 which1 in our opinion1 is the real cause of much misunderstanding4 ,anarchists1 and we among them1 have made use1 and still generally make use of the word ,state1 meaning thereby that collection of institutions1 political1 legislative1 judicial1 military1 financial1 etc41 by means of which the management of their own affairs1 the guidance of their personal conduct and the care of ensuring their own safety are taken from the people and confided to certain individuals4 ,and these1 whether by usurpation or delegation1 are invested with the right to make laws over and for all1 and to constrain the public to respect them1 making use of the collective force of the community to this end4 ,in this case the word ,state means government1 or1 if you like1 it is the impersonal expression1 abstracted from the state of things1 of which the government is the personification4 ,then such expressions as abolition of the ,state1 or society without the ,state1 agree perfectly with the conception which ,anarchists wish to express of the destruction of every political institution based on authority1 and of the constitution of a free and equal society1 based upon harmony of interests1 and the voluntary contribution of all to the satisfaction of social needs4 ,however1 the word ,state has many other significations1 and among these some which lend themselves to misconstruction1 particularly when used among men whose sad social position has not afforded them leisure to become accustomed to the delicate distinctions of scientific language1 or1 still worse1 when adopted treacherously by adversaries1 who are interested in confounding the sense1 or do not wish to comprehend4 ,thus the word ,state is often used to indicate any given society1 or collection of human beings1 united on a given territory and constituting what is called a social unit1 independently of the way in which the members of the said body are grouped1 or of the relations existing between them4 ,state is used also simply as a synonym for society4 ,owing to these significations of the word1 our adversaries believe1 or rather profess to believe1 that ,anarchists wish to abolish every social relation and all collective work1 and to reduce man to a condition of isolation1 that is1 to a state worse than savagery4 ,by ,state again is meant only the supreme administration of a country1 the central power1 distinct from provincial or communal power2 and therefore others think that ,anarchists wish merely for a territorial decentralization1 leaving the principle of government intact1 and thus confounding ,anarchy with cantonal or communal government4 ,finally1 state signifies condition1 mode of living1 the order of social life1 etc41 and therefore we say1 for example1 that it is necessary to change the economic state of the working classes1 or that the ,anarchical state is the only state founded on the principles of solidarity1 and other similar phrases4 ,so that if we say also in another sense that we wish to abolish the ,state1 we may at once appear absurd or contradictory4 ,for these reasons1 we believe it would be better to use the expression abolition of the ,state as little as possible1 and to substitute for it another clearer and more concrete--abolition of government4 ,in any case1 the latter will be the expression used in the course of this little work4 -------------------- ,we have said that ,anarchy is society without government4 ,but is the suppression of government possible1 desirable1 or wise8 ,let us see4 ,what is the government8 ,there is a disease of the human mind called the metaphysical tendency1 causing man1 after he has by a logical process abstracted the quality from an object1 to be subject to a kind of hallucination which makes him take the abstraction for the real thing4 ,this metaphysical tendency1 in spite of the blows of positive science1 has still strong root in the minds of the majority of our contemporary fellow men4 ,it has such an influence that many consider government an actual entity1 with certain given attributes of reason1 justice1 equity1 independently of the people who compose the government4 ,for those who think in this way1 government1 or the ,state1 is the abstract social power1 and it represents1 always in the abstract1 the general interest4 ,it is the expression of the right of all1 and considered as limited by the rights of each4 ,this way of understanding government is supported by those interested1 to whom it is an urgent necessity that the principle of authority should be maintained1 and should always survive the faults and errors of the persons who succeed to the exercise of power4 ,for us1 the government is the aggregate of the governors2 and the governors--kings1 presidents1 ministers1 members of parliament1 and what not--are those who have the power to make laws1 to regulate the relations between men1 and to force obedience to these laws4 ,they are those who decide upon and claim the taxes1 enforce military service1 judge and punish transgressions of the laws4 ,they subject men to regulations1 and supervise and sanction private contracts4 ,they monopolize certain branches of production and public services1 or1 if they wish1 all production and public service4 ,they promote or hinder the exchange of goods4 ,they make war or peace with the governments of other countries4 ,they concede or withhold free trade and many things else4 ,in short1 the governors are those who have the power1 in a greater or less degree1 to make use of the collective force of society1 that is1 of the physical1 intellectual1 and economic force of all1 to oblige each to do the said governor's wish4 ,and this power constitutes1 in our opinion1 the very principle of government1 the principle of authority4 ,but what reason is there for the existence of government8 ,why abdicate one's own liberty1 one's own initiative in favor of other individuals8 ,why give them the power to be the masters1 with or contrary to the wish of each1 to dispose of the forces of all in their own way8 ,are the governors such very exceptionally gifted men as to enable them1 with some show of reason1 to represent the masses1 and act in the interest of all men better than all men would be able to do for themselves8 ,are they so infallible and incorruptible that one can confide to them1 with any semblance of prudence1 the fate of each and all1 trusting to their knowledge and their goodness8 ,and even if there existed men of infinite goodness and knowledge1 even if we assume what has never been verified in history1 and what we believe it would be impossible to verify1 namely1 that the government might devolve upon the ablest and best1 would the possession of governmental power add anything to their beneficent influence8 ,would it not rather paralyze or destroy it8 ,for those who govern find it necessary to occupy themselves with things which they do not understand1 and1 above all1 to waste the greater part of their energy in keeping themselves in power1 striving to satisfy their friends1 holding the discontented in check1 and mastering the rebellious4 ,again1 be the governors good or bad1 wise or ignorant1 who is it that appoints them to their office8 ,do they impose themselves by right of war1 conquest1 or revolution8 ,then1 what guarantees have the public that their rulers have the general good at heart8 ,in this case it is simply a question of usurpation2 and if the subjects are discontented1 nothing is left to them but to throw off the yoke1 by an appeal to arms4 ,are the governors chosen from a certain class or party8 ,then certainly the ideas and interests of that class or party will triumph1 and the wishes and interests of the others will be sacrificed4 ,are they elected by universal suffrage8 ,now numbers are the sole criterion2 and numbers are certainly no proof of reason1 justice or capacity4 ,under universal suffrage1 the elected are those who know best how to take in the masses4 ,the minority1 which may happen to be half minus one1 is sacrificed4 ,and that without considering that there is another thing to take into account4 ,experience has shown it is impossible to hit upon an electoral system which really ensures election by the actual majority4 ,many and various are the theories by which men have sought to justify the existence of government4 ,all1 however1 are founded1 confessedly or not1 on the assumption that the individuals of a society have contrary interests1 and that an external superior power is necessary to oblige some to respect the interests of others1 by prescribing and imposing a rule of conduct1 according to which the interests at strife may be harmonized as much as possible1 and according to which each obtains the maximum of satisfaction with the minimum of sacrifice4 ,if1 say the theorists of the authoritarian school1 the interests1 tendencies1 and desires of an individual are in opposition to those of another individual1 or mayhap all society1 who will have the right and the power to oblige the one to respect the interests of the others8 ,who will be able to prevent the individual citizen from offending the general will8 ,the liberty of each1 say they1 has for its limit the liberty of others2 but who will establish those limits1 and who will cause them to be respected8 ,the natural antagonism of interests and passions creates the necessity for government1 and justifies authority4 ,authority intervenes as moderator of the social strife1 and defines the limits of the rights and duties of each4 ,this is the theory2 but the theory1 to be sound1 ought to be based upon facts1 and to explain them4 ,we know well how in social economy theories are too often invented to justify facts1 that is1 to defend privilege and cause it to be accepted tranquilly by those who are its victims4 ,let us here look at the facts themselves4 ,in all the course of history1 as at the present epoch1 government is either the brutal1 violent1 arbitrary domination of the few over the many1 or it is an instrument ordained to secure domination and privilege to those who1 by force1 or cunning1 or inheritance1 have taken to themselves all the means of life1 and first and foremost the soil1 whereby they hold the people in servitude1 making them work for their advantage4 ,governments oppress mankind in two ways1 either directly1 by brute force1 that is physical violence1 or indirectly1 by depriving them of the means of subsistence and thus reducing them to helplessness at discretion4 ,political power originated in the first method2 economic privilege arose from the second4 ,governments can also oppress man by acting on his emotional nature1 and in this way constitute religious authority4 ,but there is no reason for the propagation of religious superstitions except that they defend and consolidate political and economic privileges4 ,in primitive society1 when the world was not so densely populated as now1 and social relations were less complicated1 when any circumstance prevented the formation of habits and customs of solidarity1 or destroyed those which already existed1 and established the domination of man over man1 the two powers1 the political and the economical1 were united in the same hands --and often also in those of one single individual4 ,those who had by force conquered and impoverished the others1 constrained them to become their servants1 and perform all things for them according to their caprice4 ,the victors were at once proprietors1 legislators1 kings1 judges1 and executioners4 ,but with the increase of population1 with the growth of needs1 with the complication of social relationships1 the prolonged continuance of such despotism became impossible4 ,for their own security1 the rulers1 often much against their will1 were obliged to depend upon a privileged class1 that is1 a certain number of co-interested individuals1 and were also obliged to let each of these individuals provide for his own sustenance4 ,nevertheless they reserved to themselves the supreme or ultimate control4 ,in other words1 the rulers reserved to themselves the right to exploit all at their own convenience1 and so to satisfy their kingly vanity4 ,thus private wealth was developed under the shadow of the ruling power1 for its protection and--often unconsciously--as its accomplice4 ,thus the class of proprietors rose4 ,and they1 concentrating little by little the means of wealth in their own hands1 all the means of production1 the very fountains of life--agriculture1 industry1 and exchange--ended by becoming a power in themselves4 ,this power1 by the superiority of its means of action1 and the great mass of interests it embraces1 always ends by more or less openly subjugating the political power1 that is1 the government1 which it makes its policeman4 ,this phenomenon has been reproduced often in history4 ,every time that1 by invasion or any military enterprise whatever1 physical brute force has taken the upper hand in society1 the conquerors have shown the tendency to concentrate government and property in their own hands4 ,in every case1 however1 as the government cannot attend to the production of wealth1 and overlook and direct everything1 it finds it needful to conciliate a powerful class1 and private property is again established4 ,with it comes the division of the two sorts of power1 that of the persons who control the collective force of society1 and that of the proprietors1 upon whom these governors become essentially independent1 because the proprietors command the sources of the said collective force4 ,but never has this state of things been so accentuated as in modern times4 ,the development of production1 the immense extension of commerce1 the extensive power that money has acquired1 and all the economic results flowing from the discovery of ,america1 the invention of machinery1 etc41 have secured such supremacy to the capitalist class that it is no longer content to trust to the support of the government1 and has come to wish that the government shall emanate from itself2 a government composed of members of its own class1 continually under its control and especially organized to defend its class against the possible revenge of the disinherited4 ,hence the origin of the modern parliamentary system4 ,today the government is composed of proprietors1 or people of their class so entirely under their influence that the richest of them do not find it necessary to take an active part in it themselves4 ,rothschild1 for instance1 does not need to be either ,m4,p4 or minister1 it is enough for him to keep ,m4,p4's and ministers dependent upon himself4 ,in many countries1 the proletariat participates nominally1 more or less1 in the election of the government4 ,this is a concession which the bourgeois 7i4 e41 proprietory7 class have made1 either to avail themselves of popular support in the strife against royal or aristocratic power1 or to divert the attention of the people from their own emancipation by giving them an apparent share in political power4 ,however1 whether the bourgeoisie foresaw it or not1 when first they conceded to the people the right to vote1 the fact is that the right has proved in reality a mockery1 serving only to consolidate the power of the bourgeois1 while giving to the most energetic only of the proletariat the illusory hope of arriving at power4 ,so also with universal suffrage--we might say1 especially with universal suffrage--the government has remained the servant and police of the bourgeois class4 ,how could it be otherwise8 ,if the government should reach the point of becoming hostile1 if the hope of democracy should ever be more than a delusion deceiving the people1 the proprietory class1 menaced in its interests1 would at once rebel1 and would use all the force and influence which come from the possession of wealth1 to reduce the government to the simple function of acting as policeman4 ,in all times and in all places1 whatever may be the name that the government takes1 whatever has been its origin1 or its organization1 its essential function is always that of oppressing and exploiting the masses1 and of defending the oppressors and exploiters4 ,its principal characteristic and indispensable instruments are the bailiff and the tax collector1 the soldier and the prison4 ,and to these are necessarily added the time-serving priest or teacher1 as the case may be1 supported and protected by the government1 to render the spirit of the people servile and make them docile under the yoke4 ,certainly1 in addition to this primary business1 to this essential department of governmental action other departments have been added in the course of time4 ,we even admit that never1 or hardly ever1 has a government been able to exist in a country that was at all civilized without adding to its oppressing and exploiting functions others useful and indispensable to social life4 ,but this fact makes it none the less true that government is in its nature oppressive and a means of exploitation1 and that its origin and position doom it to be the defence and hot-bed of a dominant class1 thus confirming and increasing the evils of domination4 ,the government assumes the business of protecting1 more or less vigilantly1 the life of citizens against direct and brutal attacks2 acknowledges and legalizes a certain number of rights and primitive usages and customs1 without which it is impossible to live in society4 ,it organizes and directs certain public services1 as the post1 preservation and construction of roads1 care of the public health1 benevolent institutions1 workhouses and such like2 and it pleases it to pose as the protector and benefactor of the poor and weak4 ,but it is sufficient to notice how and why it fulfils these functions to prove our point4 ,the fact is that everything the government undertakes it is always inspired with the spirit of domination1 and ordained to defend1 enlarge1 and perpetuate the privileges of property1 and those classes of which government is the representative and defender4 ,a government cannot rule for any length of time without hiding its true nature behind the pretence of general utility4 ,it cannot respect the lives of the privileged without assuming the air of wishing to respect the lives of all4 ,it cannot cause the privileges of some to be tolerated without appearing as the custodian of the rights of everybody4 ,the law 7and1 of course1 those that have made the law1 that is1 the government7 has utilized1 says ,kropotkin1 the social sentiments of man1 working into them those precepts of morality1 which man has accepted1 together with arrangements useful to the minority--the exploiters--and opposed to the interests of those who might have rebelled1 had it not been for this show of a moral ground4 ,a government cannot wish the destruction of the community1 for then it and the dominant class could not claim their exploitation-gained wealth2 nor could the government leave the community to manage its own affairs2 for then the people would soon discover that it 7the government7 was necessary for no other end than to defend the proprietory class who impoverish them1 and would hasten to rid themselves of both government and proprietory class4 ,today in the face of the persistent and menacing demands of the proletariat1 governments show a tendency to interfere in the relations between employers and work people4 ,thus they try to arrest the labor movement1 and to impede with delusive reforms the attempts of the poor to take to themselves that which is due to them1 namely an equal share of the good things of life which others enjoy4 ,we must also remember that on the one hand the bourgeois1 that is1 the proprietory class1 make war among themselves1 and destroy one another continually1 and on the other hand that the government1 although composed of the bourgeois and1 acting as their servant and protector1 is still1 like every other servant or protector1 continually striving to emancipate itself and to domineer over its charge4 ,thus this see-saw game1 this swaying between conceding and withdrawing1 this seeking allies among the people against the classes1 and among the classes against the masses1 forms the science of the governors1 and blinds the ingenuous and phlegmatic1 who are always expecting that salvation is coming to them from on high4 ,with all this1 the government does not change its nature4 ,if it acts as regulator or guarantor of the rights and duties of each1 it perverts the sentiment of justice4 ,it justifies wrong and punishes every act which offends or menaces the privileges of the governors and proprietors4 ,it declares just1 legal1 the most atrocious exploitation of the miserable1 which means a slow and continuous material and moral murder1 perpetrated by those who have on those who have not4 ,again1 if it administrates public services1 it always considers the interests of the governors and proprietors1 not occupying itself with the interests of the working masses1 except in so far as is necessary to make the masses willing to endure their share of taxation4 ,if it instructs1 it fetters and curtails the truth1 and tends to prepare the mind and heart of the young to become either implacable tyrants or docile slaves1 according to the class to which they belong4 ,in the hands of the government everything becomes a means of exploitation1 everything serves as a police measure1 useful to hold the people in check4 ,and it must be thus4 ,if the life of mankind consists in strife between man and man1 naturally there must be conquerors and conquered2 and the government1 which is the prize of the strife1 or is a means of securing to the victors the results of their victory1 and perpetuating those results1 will certainly never fall to those who have lost1 whether the battle be on the grounds of physical or intellectual strength1 or in the field of economics4 ,and those who have fought to conquer1 that is1 to secure to themselves better conditions than others can have1 to conquer privilege and add dominion to power1 and have attained the victory1 will certainly not use it to defend the rights of the vanquished1 and to place limits to their own power and to that of their friends and partizans4 ,the government--or the ,state1 if you will--as judge1 moderator of social strife1 impartial administrator of the public interests1 is a lie4 ,it is an illusion1 a ,utopia1 never realized and never realizable4 ,if in truth1 the interests of men must always be contrary to one another2 if indeed1 the strife between mankind has made laws necessary to human society1 and the liberty of the individual must be limited by the liberty of other individuals2 then each one would always seek to make his interests triumph over those of others4 ,each would strive to enlarge his own liberty at the cost of the liberty of others1 and there would be government4 ,not simply because it was more or less useful to the totality of the members of society to have a government1 but because the conquerors would wish to secure to themselves the fruits of victory4 ,they would wish effectually to subject the vanquished1 and relieve themselves of the trouble of being always on the defensive1 and they would appoint men1 specially adapted to the business1 to act as police4 ,were this indeed actually the case1 then humanity would be destined to perish amidst periodical contests between the tyranny of the dominators and the rebellion of the conquered4 ,but fortunately the future of humanity is a happier one1 because the law which governs it is milder4 ,this law is the law of solidarity4 -------------------- ,i4 ,man has two necessary fundamental characteristics1 the instinct of his own preservation1 without which no being could exist1 and the instinct of the preservation of his species1 without which no species could have been formed or have continued to exist4 ,he is naturally driven to defend his own existence and well-being and that of his offspring against every danger4 ,in nature1 living beings find two ways of securing their existence1 and rendering it pleasanter4 ,the one is in individual strife with the elements1 and with other individuals of the same or different species2 the other is mutual support1 or co-operation1 which might also be described as association for strife against all natural factors1 destructive to existence1 or to the development and well-being of the associated4 ,we do not need to investigate in these pages--and we cannot for lack of space--what respective proportions in the evolution of the organic world these two principles of strife and co-operation take4 ,it will suffice to note how co-operation among men 7whether forced or voluntary7 has become the sole means of progress1 of improvement or of securing safety2 and how strife--relic of an earlier stage of existence--has become thoroughly unsuitable as a means of securing the well-being of individuals1 and produces instead injury to all1 both the conquerors and the conquered4 ,the accumulated and transmitted experience of successive generations has taught man that by uniting with other men his preservation is better secured and his well-being increased4 ,thus out of this same strife for existence1 carried on against surrounding nature1 and against individuals of their own species1 the social instinct has been developed among men1 and has completely transformed the conditions of their life4 ,through co-operation man has been enabled to evolve out of animalism1 has risen to great power1 and elevated himself to such a degree above the other animals1 that metaphysical philosophers have believed it necessary to invent for him an immaterial and immortal soul4 ,many concurrent causes have contributed to the formation of this social instinct1 that starting from the animal basis of the instinct for the preservation of the species1 has now become so extended and so intense that it constitutes the essential element of man's moral nature4 ,man1 however he evolved from inferior animal types1 was a physically weak being1 unarmed for the fight against carnivorous beasts4 ,but he was possessed of a brain capable of great development1 and a vocal organ1 able to express the various cerebral vibrations1 by means of diverse sounds1 and hands adapted to give the desired form to matter4 ,he must have very soon felt the need and advantages of association with his fellows4 ,indeed it may even be said that he could only rise out of animalism when he became social1 and had acquired the use of language1 which is at the same time a consequence and a potent factor of sociability4 ,the relatively scanty number of the human species rendered the strife for existence between man and man1 even beyond the limits of association1 less sharp1 less continuous1 and less necessary4 ,at the same time1 it must have greatly favored the development of sympathetic sentiments1 and have left time for the discovery and appreciation of the utility of mutual support4 ,in short1 social life became the necessary condition of man's existence1 in consequence of his capacity to modify his external surroundings and adapt them to his own wants1 by the exercise of his primeval power in co-operation with a greater or less number of associates4 ,his desires have multiplied with the means of satisfying them1 and have become needs4 ,and division of labor has arisen from man's methodical use of nature for his own advantage4 ,therefore1 as now evolved1 man could not live apart from his fellows without falling back into a state of animalism4 ,through the refinement of sensibility1 with the multiplication of social relationships1 and through habit impressed on the species by hereditary transmission for thousands of centuries1 this need of social life1 this interchange of thought and of affection between man and man1 has become a mode of being necessary for our organism4 ,it has been transformed into sympathy1 friendship and love1 and subsists independently of the material advantages that association procures4 ,so much is this the case1 that man will often face suffering of every kind1 and even death1 for the satisfaction of these sentiments4 ,the fact is that a totally different character has been given to the strife for existence between man and man1 and between the inferior animals1 by the enormous advantages that association gives to man2 by the fact that his physical powers are altogether disproportionate to his intellectual superiority over the beasts1 so long as he remains isolated2 by his possibility of associating with an ever increasing number of individuals1 and entering into more and more intricate and complex relationships1 until he reaches association with all humanity2 and1 finally1 perhaps more than all1 by his ability to produce1 working in co-operation with others1 more than he needs to live upon4 ,it is evident that these causes1 together with the sentiments of affection derived from them1 must give quite a peculiar character to the struggle for existence among human beings4 ,although it is now known--and the researches of modern naturalists bring us every day new proofs--that co-operation has played1 and still plays1 a most important part in the development of the organic world1 nevertheless1 the difference between the human struggle for existence and that of the inferior animals is enormous4 ,it is in fact proportionate to the distance separating man from the other animals4 ,and this is none the less true because of that ,darwinian theory1 which the bourgeois class have ridden to death1 little suspecting the extent to which mutual co-operation has assisted in the development of the lower animals4 ,the lower animals fight either individually1 or1 more often1 in little permanent or transitory groups1 against all nature1 the other individuals of their own species included4 ,some of the more social animals1 such as ants1 bees1 etc41 associate together in the same anthill1 or beehive1 but are at war with1 or indifferent towards1 other communities of their own species4 ,human strife with nature1 on the contrary1 tends always to broaden association among men1 to unite their interests1 and to develop each individual's sentiments of affection towards all others1 so that united they may conquer and dominate the dangers of external nature by and for humanity4 ,all strife directed towards obtaining advantages independently of other men1 and in opposition to them1 contradicts the social nature of modern man1 and tends to lead it back to a more animal condition4 ,solidarity1 that is1 harmony of interests and sentiments1 the sharing of each in the good of all1 and of all in the good of each1 is the state in which alone man can be true to his own nature1 and attain to the highest development and happiness4 ,it is the aim towards which human development tends4 ,it is the one great principle1 capable of reconciling all present antagonisms in society1 otherwise irreconcilable4 ,it causes the liberty of each to find not its limits1 but its complement1 the necessary condition of its continual existence--in the liberty of all4 ,no man1 says ,michael ,bakunin1 can recognize his own human worth1 nor in consequence realize his full development1 if he does not recognize the worth of his fellow men1 and in co-operation with them1 realize his own development through them4 ,no man can emancipate himself1 unless at the same time he emancipates those around him4 ,my freedom is the freedom of all2 for ,i am not really free--free not only in thought1 but in deed--if my freedom and my right do not find their confirmation and sanction in the liberty and right of all men my equals4 ,it matters much to me what all other men are1 for however independent ,i may seem1 or may believe myself to be1 by virtue of my social position1 whether as pope1 czar1 emperor1 or prime minister1 ,i am all the while the product of those who are the least among men4 ,if these are ignorant1 miserable1 or enslaved1 my existence is limited by their ignorance1 misery1 or slavery4 ,i1 though an intelligent and enlightened man1 am made stupid by their stupidity2 though brave1 am enslaved by their slavery2 though rich1 tremble before their poverty2 though privileged1 grow pale at the thought of possible justice for them4 ,i1 who wish to be free1 cannot be so1 because around me are men who do not yet desire freedom1 and1 not desiring it1 become1 as opposed to me1 the instruments of my oppression4 ,solidarity1 then1 is the condition in which man can attain the highest degree of security and of well-being4 ,therefore1 egoism itself1 that is1 the exclusive consideration of individual interests1 impels man and human society towards solidarity4 ,or rather egoism and altruism 7consideration of the interests of others7 are united in this one sentiment1 as the interest of the individual is one with the interests of society4 ,however1 man could not pass at once from animalism to humanity2 from brutal strife between man and man to the collective strife of all mankind1 united in one brotherhood of mutual aid against external nature4 ,guided by the advantages that association and the consequent division of labor offer1 man evolved towards solidarity1 but his evolution encountered an obstacle which led him1 and still leads him1 away from his aim4 ,he discovered that he could realize the advantages of co-operation1 at least up to a certain point1 and for the material and primitive wants that then comprised all his needs1 by making other men subject to himself1 instead of associating on an equality with them4 ,thus the ferocious and anti-social instincts1 inherited from his bestial ancestry1 again obtained the upper hand4 ,he forced the weaker to work for him1 preferring to domineer over rather than to associate fraternally with his fellows4 ,perhaps also in most cases it was by exploiting the conquered in war that man learnt for the first time the benefits of association and the help that can be obtained from mutual support4 ,thus it has come about that the establishment of the utility of co-operation1 which ought to lead to the triumph of solidarity in all human concerns1 has turned to the advantage of private property and of government2 in other words1 to the exploitation of the labor of the many1 for the sake of the privileged few4 ,there has always been association and co-operation1 without which human life would be impossible2 but it has been co-operation imposed and regulated by the few in their own particular interest4 ,from this fact arises a great contradiction with which the history of mankind is filled4 ,on the one hand1 we find the tendency to associate and fraternize for the purpose of conquering and adapting the external world to human needs1 and for the satisfaction of the human affections2 while1 on the other hand we see the tendency to divide into as many separate and hostile factions as there are different conditions of life4 ,these factions are determined1 for instance1 by geographical and ethnological conditions1 by differences in economic position1 by privileges acquired by some and sought to be secured by others1 or by suffering endured1 with the ever recurring desire to rebel4 ,the principle of each for himself1 that is1 of war of all against all1 has come in the course of time to complicate1 lead astray1 and paralyze the war of all combined against nature1 for the common advantage of the human race1 which could only be completely successful by acting on the principle of all for each1 and each for all4 ,great have been the evils which humanity has suffered by this intermingling of domination and exploitation with human association4 ,but in spite of the atrocious oppression to which the masses submit1 of the misery1 vice1 crime1 and degradation which oppression and slavery produce1 among the slaves and their masters1 and in spite of the hatreds1 the exterminating wars1 and the antagonisms of artificially created interests1 the social instinct has survived and even developed4 ,co-operation1 having been always the necessary condition for successful combat against external nature1 has therefore been the permanent cause of men's coming together1 and consequently of the development of their sympathetic sentiments4 ,even the oppression of the masses has itself caused the oppressed to fraternize among themselves4 ,indeed it has been solely owing to this feeling of solidarity1 more or less conscious and more or less widespread among the oppressed1 that they have been able to endure the oppression1 and that man has resisted the causes of death in his midst4 ,in the present1 the immense development of production1 the growth of human needs which cannot be satisfied except by the united efforts of a large number of men in all countries1 the extended means of communication1 habits of travel1 science1 literature1 commerce1 even war itself--all these have drawn and are still drawing humanity into a compact body1 every section of which1 closely knit together1 can find its satisfaction and liberty only in the development and health of all other sections composing the whole4 ,the inhabitant of ,naples is as much interested in the amelioration of the hygienic condition of the peoples on the banks of the ,ganges1 from whence the cholera is brought to him1 as in the improvement of the sewerage of his own town4 ,the well-being1 liberty1 or fortune of the mountaineer1 lost among the precipices of the ,appenines1 does not depend alone on the state of well-being or of misery in which the inhabitants of his own village live1 or even on the general condition of the ,italian people1 but also on the condition of the workers in ,america1 or ,australia1 on the discovery of a ,swedish scientist1 on the moral and material conditions of the ,chinese1 on war or peace in ,africa2 in short1 it depends on all the great and small circumstances which affect the human being in any spot whatever of the world4 ,in the present condition of society1 the vast solidarity which unites all men is in a great degree unconscious1 since it arises spontaneously from the friction of particular interests1 while men occupy themselves little or not at all with general interests4 ,and this is the most evident proof that solidarity is the natural law of human life1 which imposes itself1 so to speak1 in spite of all obstacles1 and even those artificially created by society as at present constituted4 ,on the other hand1 the oppressed masses1 never wholly resigned to oppression and misery1 who today more than ever show themselves ardent for justice1 liberty1 and well-being1 are beginning to understand that they cannot emancipate themselves except by uniting1 through solidarity with all the oppressed and exploited over the whole world4 ,and they understand also that the indispensable condition of their emancipation is the possession of the means of production1 of the soil and of the instruments of labor1 and further the abolition of private property4 ,science and the observation of social phenomena show that this abolition would be of immense advantage in the end1 even to the privileged classes1 if only they could bring themselves to renounce the spirit of domination1 and concur with all their fellow men in laboring for the common good4 ---------- ,now1 should the oppressed masses some day refuse to work for their oppressors1 should they take possession of the soil and the instruments of labor1 and apply them for their own use and advantage1 and that of all who work1 should they no longer submit to the domination1 either of brute force or economic privilege2 should the spirit of human fellowship and the sentiment of human solidarity1 strengthened by common interests1 grow among the people1 and put an end to strife between nations2 then what ground would there be for the existence of a government8 ,private property abolished1 government--which is its defender --must disappear4 ,should it survive1 it would continually tend to reconstruct1 under one form or another1 a privileged and oppressive class4 ,and the abolition of government does not1 nor cannot1 signify the doing away with human association4 ,far otherwise1 for that co-operation which today is enforced1 and directed to the advantage of the few1 would be free and voluntary1 directed to the advantage of all4 ,therefore it would become more intense and efficacious4 ,the social instinct and the sentiment of solidarity would develop to the highest degree2 and every individual would do all in his power for the good of others1 as much for the satisfaction of his own well understood interests as for the gratification of his sympathetic sentiments4 ,by the free association of all1 a social organization would arise through the spontaneous grouping of men according to their needs and sympathies1 from the low to the high1 from the simple to the complex1 starting from the more immediate to arrive at the more distant and general interests4 ,this organization would have for its aim the greatest good and fullest liberty to all2 it would embrace all humanity in one common brotherhood1 and would be modified and improved as circumstances were modified and changed1 according to the teachings of experience4 ,this society of free men1 this society of friends would be ,anarchy4 -------------------- ,,ii4 ,we have hitherto considered government as it is1 and as it necessarily must be in a society founded upon privilege1 upon the exploitation and oppression of man by man1 upon antagonism of interests and social strife1 in a word1 upon private property4 ,we have seen how this state of strife1 far from being a necessary condition of human life1 is contrary to the interests of the individual and of the species4 ,we have observed how co-operation1 solidarity 7of interest7 is the law of human progress1 and we have concluded that1 with the abolition of private property and the cessation of all domination of man over man1 there1 would be no reason for government to exist--therefore it ought to be abolished4 ,but1 it may be objected1 if the principle on which social organization is now founded were to be changed1 and solidarity substituted for strife1 common property for private property1 the government also would change its nature4 ,instead of being the protector and representative of the interests of one class1 it would become1 if there were no longer any classes1 representative of all society4 ,its mission would be to secure and regulate social co-operation in the interests of all1 and to fulfil public services of general utility4 ,it would defend society against possible attempts to re-establish privilege1 and prevent or repress all attacks1 by whomsoever set on foot1 against the life1 well-being1 or liberty of each4 ,there are in society certain matters too important1 requiring too much constant1 regular attention1 for them to be left to the voluntary management of individuals1 without danger of everything getting into disorder4 ,if there were no government1 who would organize the supply and distribution of provisions8 ,who regulate matters pertaining to public hygiene1 the postal1 telegraph1 and railway services1 etc48 ,who would direct public instruction8 ,who undertake those great works of exploration1 improvement on a large scale1 scientific enterprise1 etc41 which transform the face of the earth and augment a hundredfold the power of man8 ,who would care for the preservation and increase of capital1 that it might be transmitted to posterity1 enriched and improved8 ,who would prevent the destruction of the forests1 or the irrational exploitation1 and therefore impoverishment of the soil8 ,who would there be to prevent and repress crimes1 that is1 anti-social acts8 ,what of those who1 disregarding the law of solidarity1 would not work8 ,or of those who might spread infectious disease in a country1 by refusing to submit to the regulation of hygiene by science8 ,or what again could be done with those who1 whether insane or no1 might set fire to the harvest1 injure children1 or abuse and take advantage of the weak8 ,to destroy private property and abolish existing government1 without reconstituting a government that would organize collective life and secure social solidarity1 would not be to abolish privilege1 and bring peace and prosperity upon earth4 ,it would be to destroy1 every social bond1 to leave humanity to fall back into barbarism1 to begin again the reign of each for himself2 which would establish the triumph1 firstly1 of brute force1 and1 secondly1 of economic privilege4 ---------- ,such are the objections brought forward by authoritarians1 even by those who are ,socialists1 that is1 who wish to abolish private property1 and class government founded upon the system of private property4 ,we reply3 ,in the first place1 it is not true that with a change of social conditions1 the nature of the government and its functions would also change4 ,organs and functions are inseparable terms4 ,take from an organ its function1 and either the organ will die1 or the function will reinstate itself4 ,place an army in a country where there is no reason for or fear of foreign war1 and this army will provoke war1 or1 if it do not succeed in doing that1 it will disband4 ,a police force1 where there are no crimes to discover1 and delinquents to arrest1 will provoke or invent crimes1 or will cease to exist4 ,for centuries1 there existed in ,france an institution1 now included in the administration of the forests1 for the extermination of the wolves and other noxious beasts4 ,no one will be surprised to learn that1 just on account of this institution1 wolves still exist in ,france1 and that1 in rigorous seasons1 they do great damage4 ,the public take little heed of the wolves1 because there are the appointed officials1 whose duty it is to think about them4 ,and the officials do hunt them1 but in an intelligent manner1 sparing their caves1 and allowing time for reproduction1 that they may not run the risk of entirely destroying such an interesting species4 ,the ,french peasants have indeed little confidence in these official wolf-hunters1 and regard them rather as the wolf-preservers4 ,and1 of course1 what would these officials do if there were no longer any wolves to exterminate8 ,a government1 that is1 a number of persons deputed to make the laws1 and entitled to use the collective forces of society to make every individual to respect these laws1 already constitutes a class privileged and separated from the rest of the community4 ,such a class1 like every elected body1 will seek instinctively to4 enlarge its powers2 to place itself above the control of the people2 to impose its tendencies1 and to make its own interests predominate4 ,placed in a privileged position1 the government always finds itself in antagonism to the masses1 of whose force it disposes4 ,furthermore1 a government1 with the best intention1 could never satisfy everybody1 even if it succeeded in satisfying some4 ,it must therefore always be defending itself against the discontented1 and for that reason must ally itself with the satisfied section of the community for necessary support4 ,and in this manner will arise again the old story of a privileged class1 which cannot help but be developed in conjunction with the government4 ,this class1 if it could not again acquire possession of the soil1 would certainly monopolize the most favored spots1 and would not be in the end less oppressive1 or less an instrument of exploitation than the capitalist class4 ,the governors1 accustomed to command1 would never wish to mix with the common crowd4 ,if they could not retain the power in their own hands1 they would at least secure to themselves privileged positions for the time when they would be out of office4 ,they would use all the means they have in their power to get their own friends elected as their successors1 who would in their turn be supported and protected by their predecessors4 ,and thus the government would pass and repass into the same hands1 and the democracy1 that is1 the government presumably of the whole people1 would end1 as it always has done1 in becoming an oligarchy1 or the government of a few1 the government of a class4 ,and this all-powerful1 oppressive1 all-absorbing oligarchy would have always in its care1 that is1 at its disposition1 every bit of social capital1 all public services1 from the production and distribution of provisions to the manufacture of matches1 from the control of the university to that of the music hall4 ---------- ,but let us even suppose that the government did not necessarily constitute a privileged class1 and could exist without forming around itself a new privileged class4 ,let us imagine that it could remain truly representative1 the servant--if you will--of all society4 ,what purpose would it then serve8 ,in what particular and in what manner would it augment the power1 intelligence1 spirit of solidarity1 care of the general welfare1 present and to come1 that at any given moment existed in a given society8 ,it is always the old story of the man with bound limbs1 who1 having managed to live in spite of his bands1 believes that he lives by means of them4 ,we are accustomed to live under a government1 which makes use of all that energy1 that intelligence1 and that will which it can direct to its own ends2 but which hinders1 paralyzes and suppresses those that are useless or hostile to it4 ,and we imagine that all that is done in society is done by virtue of the government1 and that without the government there would be neither energy1 intelligence1 nor good will in society4 ,so it happens 7as we have already said7 that the proprietor who has possessed himself of the soil1 has it cultivated for his own particular profit1 leaving the laborer the barest necessities of life for which he can and will continue to labor4 ,while the enslaved laborer thinks that he could not live without his master1 as though it were he who created the earth and the forces of nature4 ,what can government of itself add to the moral and material forces which exist in a society8 ,unless it be like the ,god of the ,bible1 who created the universe out of nothing8 ,as nothing is created in the so-called material world1 so in this more complicated form of the material world1 which is the social world1 nothing can be created4 ,and therefore governors can dispose of no other force than that which is already in society4 ,and indeed not by any means of all of that1 as much force is necessarily paralyzed and destroyed by governmental methods of action1 while more again is wasted in the friction with rebellious elements1 inevitably great in such an artificial mechanism4 ,whenever governors originate anything of themselves1 it is as men and not as governors1 that they do so4 ,and of that amount of force1 both material and moral1 which does remain at the disposition of the government1 only an infinitesimally small part achieves an end really useful to society4 ,the remainder is either consumed in actively repressing rebellious opposition1 or is otherwise diverted from the aim of general utility1 and turned to the profit of the few1 and to the injury of the majority of men4 ,so much has been made of the part that individual initiative and social action play respectively in the life and progress of human society2 and such is the confusion of metaphysical language1 that those who affirm that individual initiative is the source and agency of all action seem to be asserting something quite preposterous4 ,in reality1 it is a truism1 which becomes apparent directly we begin to explain the actual facts represented by these words4 ,the real being is the man1 the individual2 society or the collectivity1 and the ,state or government which professes to represent it1 if not hollow abstractions1 can be nothing else than aggregates of individuals4 ,and it is within the individual organism that all thoughts and all human action necessarily have their origin4 ,originally individual1 they become collective thoughts and actions1 when shared in common by many individuals4 ,social action1 then1 is not the negation1 nor the complement of individual initiative1 but it is the sum total of the initiatives1 thoughts and actions of all the individuals composing society3 a result which1 other things equal1 is more or less great according as the individual forces tend toward the same aim1 or are divergent and opposed4 ,if1 on the other hand1 as the authoritarians make out1 by social action is meant governmental action1 then it is again the result of individual forces1 but only of those individuals who either form part of the government1 or by virtue of their position are enabled to influence the conduct of the government4 ,thus1 in the contest of centuries between liberty and authority1 or1 in other words1 between social equality and social castes1 the question at issue has not really been the relations between society and the individual1 nor the increase of individual independence at the cost of social control1 or vice versa4 ,rather it has had to do with preventing any one individual from oppressing the others2 with giving to everyone the same rights and the same means of action4 ,it has had to do with substituting the initiative of all1 which must naturally result in the advantage of all1 for the initiative of the few1 which necessarily results in the suppression of all the others4 ,it is always1 in short1 the question of putting an end to the domination and exploitation of man by man in such a way that all are interested in the common welfare2 and that the individual force of each1 instead of oppressing1 combating or suppressing others1 will find the possibility of complete development1 and every one will seek to associate with others for the greater advantage of all4 ,from what we have said1 it follows that the existence of a government1 even upon the hypothesis that the ideal government of authoritarian ,socialists were possible1 far from producing an increase of productive force1 would immensely diminish it2 because the government would restrict initiative to the few4 ,it would give these few the right to do all things1 without being able1 of course1 to endow them with the knowledge or understanding of all things4 ,in fact1 if you divest legislation and all the operations of government of what is intended to protect the privileged1 and what represents the wishes of the privileged classes alone1 nothing remains but the aggregate of individual governors4 ,the ,state1 says ,sismondi1 is always a conservative power that authorizes1 regulates and organizes the conquests of progress 7and history testifies that it applies them to the profit of its own and the other privileged classes7 but never does inaugurate them4 ,new ideas always originate from beneath1 are conceived in the foundations of society1 and then1 when divulged1 they become opinion and grow4 ,but they must always meet on their path1 and combat the constituted powers of tradition1 custom1 privilege and error4 ---------- ,in order to understand how society could exist without a government1 it is sufficient to turn our attention for a short space to what actually goes on in our present society4 ,we shall see that in reality the most important social functions are fulfilled even now-a-days outside the intervention of government4 ,also that government only interferes to exploit the masses1 or defend the privileged class1 or1 lastly1 to sanction1 most unnecessarily1 all that has been done without its aid1 often in spite of and in opposition to it4 ,men work1 exchange1 study1 travel1 follow as they choose the current rules of morality1 or hygiene2 they profit by the progress of science and art1 have numberless mutual interests without ever feeling the need of anyone to direct them how to conduct themselves in regard to these matters4 ,on the contrary1 it is just those things in which there is no governmental interference that prosper best1 and that give rise to the least contention1 being unconsciously adapted to the wish of all in the way found most useful and agreeable4 ,nor is government more necessary in the case of large undertakings1 or for those public services which require the constant co-operation of many people of different conditions and countries4 ,thousands of these undertakings are even now the work of voluntarily formed associations4 ,and these are1 by the acknowledgment of every one1 the undertakings which succeed the best4 ,nor do we refer to the association of capitalists1 organized by means of exploitation1 although even they show capabilities and powers of free association1 which may extend ad libitum until it embraces all the peoples of all lands1 and includes the widest and most varying interests4 ,but we speak rather of those associations inspired by the love of humanity1 or by the passion for knowledge1 or even simply by the desire for amusement and love of applause1 as these better represent such grouping as will exist in a society where1 private property and internal strife between men being abolished1 each will find his interests synonymous with the interests of every one else1 and his greatest satisfaction in doing good and pleasing others4 ,scientific societies and congresses1 international life-boat and ,red ,cross associations1 etc41 laborers' unions1 peace societies1 volunteers who hasten to the rescue at times of great public calamity are all examples1 among thousands1 of that power of the spirit of association1 which always shows itself when a need arises1 or an enthusiasm takes hold1 and the means do not fail4 ,that voluntary associations do not cover the world1 and do not embrace every branch of material and moral activity1 is the fault of the obstacles placed in their way by governments1 of the antagonisms created by the possession of private property1 and of the impotence and degradation to which the monopolizing of wealth on the part of the few reduces the majority of mankind4 ,the government takes charge1 for instance1 of the postal and telegraphic services4 ,but in what way does it really assist them8 ,when the people are in such a condition as to be able to enjoy1 and feel the need of such services1 they will think about organizing them2 and the man with the necessary technical knowledge will not require a certificate from the government to enable him to set to work4 ,the more general and urgent the need1 the more volunteers will offer to satisfy it4 ,would the people have the ability necessary to provide and distribute provisions8 ,oh6 never fear1 they will not die of hunger1 waiting for a government to pass laws on the subject4 ,wherever a government exists1 it must wait until the people have first organized everything1 and then come with its laws to sanction and exploit that which has been already done4 ,it is evident that private interest is the great motive for all activity4 ,that being so1 when the interest of every one becomes the interest of each 7and it necessarily will become so as soon as private property is abolished7 then all will be active4 ,and if now they work in the interest of the few1 so much the more and so much the better will they work to satisfy the interests of all4 ,it is hard to understand how anyone can believe that public services indispensable to social life can be better secured by order of a government than through the workers themselves1 who by their own choice or by agreement made with others1 carry them out under the immediate control of all interested4 ,certainly in every collective undertaking on a large scale1 there is need for division of labor1 for technical direction1 administration1 etc4 ,but the authoritarians are merely playing with words1 when they deduce a reason for the existence of government1 from the very real necessity for organization of labor4 ,the government1 we must repeat1 is the aggregate of the individuals who have had given them1 or have taken the right or the means to make laws1 and force the people to obey them4 ,the administrators1 engineers1 etc41 on the other hand1 are men who receive or assume the charge of doing a certain work1 and who do it4 ,government signifies delegation of power1 that is1 abdication of the initiative and sovereignty of every one into the hands of the few4 ,administration signifies delegation of work1 that is1 a charge given and accepted1 the free exchange of services founded on free agreement4 ,a governor is a privileged person1 because he has the right to command others1 and to avail himself of the force of others1 to make his own ideas and desires triumph4 ,an administrator or technical director is a worker like others1 in a society1 of course1 where all have equal opportunities of development1 and all are1 or can be1 at the same time intellectual and manual workers2 when there are no other differences between men than those derived from diversity of talents1 and all work and all social functions give an equal right to the enjoyment of social advantages4 ,the functions of government are1 in short1 not to be confounded with administrative functions1 as they are essentially different4 ,that they are today so often confused is entirely on account of the existence of economic and political privilege4 ---------- ,but let us hasten to pass on to those functions for which government is thought indispensable by all who are not ,anarchists4 ,these are the internal and external defence of society1 that is1 ,war1 ,police and ,justice4 ,government being abolished1 and social wealth at the disposal of every one1 all antagonism between various nations would soon cease2 and there would consequently be no more cause for war4 ,moreover1 in the present state of the world1 in any country where the spirit of rebellion is growing1 even if it do not find an echo throughout the land1 it will be certain of so much sympathy that the government will not dare to send all its troops to a foreign war1 for fear the revolution should break out at home4 ,but even supposing that the rulers of countries not yet emancipated would wish and could attempt to reduce a free people to servitude1 would these require a government to enable them to defend themselves8 ,to make war1 we need men who have the necessary geographical and technical knowledge1 and1 above all1 people willing to fight4 ,a government has no means of augmenting the ability of the former1 or the willingness or courage of the latter4 ,and the experience of history teaches that a people really desirous of defending their own country are invincible4 ,in ,italy every one knows how thrones tremble1 and regular armies of hired soldiers vanish before troops of volunteers1 that is1 armies ,anarchically formed4 ---------- ,and as to the police and justice1 many imagine that if it were not for the police and the judges1 everybody would be free to kill1 violate or injure others as the humor took him2 that ,anarchists1 if they are true to their principles1 would like to see this strange kind of liberty respected2 liberty that violates or destroys the life and freedom of others unrestrained4 ,such people believe that we1 having overthrown the government and private property1 shall then tranquilly allow the re-establishment of both1 out of respect for the liberty of those who may feel the need of having a government and private property4 ,a strange mode indeed of construing our ideas6 ,in truth1 one may better answer such notions with a shrug of the shoulders than by taking the trouble to confute them4 ,the liberty we wish for1 for ourselves and others1 is not an absolute1 abstract1 metaphysical liberty1 which in practice can only amount to the oppression of the weak4 ,but we wish for a tangible liberty1 the possible liberty1 which is the conscious communion of interests1 that is1 voluntary solidarity4 ,we proclaim the maxim3 ,do as you will2 and in this our program is almost entirely contained1 because1 as may be easily understood1 we hold that in a society without government or property1 each one will wish that which he should4 ,but if1 in consequence of a false education1 received in the present society1 or of physical disease1 or whatever other cause1 an individual should wish to injure others1 you may be sure we should adopt all the means in our power to prevent him4 ,as we know that a man's character is the consequence of his physical organism1 and of the cosmic and social influences surrounding him1 we certainly shall not confound the sacred right of self-defence1 with the absurdly assumed right to punish4 ,also1 we shall not regard the delinquent1 that is1 the man who commits anti-social acts1 as the rebel he seems in the eyes of the judges nowadays4 ,we shall regard him as a sick brother in need of cure4 ,we therefore shall not act towards him in the spirit of hatred1 when repressing him1 but shall confine ourselves solely to self-protection4 ,we shall not seek to revenge ourselves1 but rather to rescue the unfortunate one by every means that science suggests4 ,in theory1 ,anarchists may go astray like others1 losing sight of the reality under a semblance of logic2 but it is quite certain that the emancipated people will not let their dearly bought liberty and welfare be attacked with impunity4 ,if the necessity arose1 they would provide for their own defence against the anti-social tendencies of certain amongst them4 ,but how do those whose business it now is to make the laws1 protect society8 ,or those others who live by seeking for and inventing new infringements of law8 ,even now1 when the masses of the people really disapprove of anything and think it injurious1 they always find a way to prevent it very much more effectually than all the professional legislators1 constables or judges4 ,during insurrections1 the people1 though very mistakenly1 have enforced the respect for private property2 and they have secured this respect far better than an army of policemen could have done4 ,customs always follow the needs and sentiments of the majority2 and they are always the more respected1 the less they are subject to the sanction of law4 ,this is because every one sees and comprehends their utility1 and because the interested parties1 not deluding themselves with the idea that government will protect them1 are themselves concerned in seeing the custom respected4 ,the economical use of water is of very great importance to a caravan crossing the deserts of ,africa4 ,under these circumstances1 water is a sacred thing2 and no sane man dreams of wasting it4 ,conspirators are obliged to act secretly2 so secrecy is preserved among them1 and obloquy rests on whosoever violates it4 ,gambling debts are not guaranteed by law2 but among gamblers it is considered dishonorable not to pay them1 and the delinquent feels himself dishonored by not fulfilling his obligations4 ,is it on account of the police that more people are not murdered8 ,the greater part of the ,italian people never see the police except at long intervals4 ,millions of men go over the mountains and through the country1 far from the protecting eye of authority1 where they might be attacked without the slightest fear of their assailants being traced2 but they run no greater risk than those who live in the best guarded spots4 ,statistics show that the number of crimes rise in proportion to the increase of repressive measures2 while they vary rapidly with the fluctuations of economic conditions and with the state of public opinion4 ,preventive laws1 however1 only concern unusual1 exceptional acts4 ,every-day life goes on beyond the limits of the criminal code1 and is regulated almost unconsciously by the tacit and voluntary assent of all1 by means of a number of usages and customs much more important to social life than the dictates of law4 ,and they are also much better observed1 although completely divested of any sanction beyond the natural odium which falls upon those who violate them1 and such injury as this odium brings with it4 ,when disputes arise1 would not voluntarily accepted arbitration or the pressure of public opinion be far more likely to bring about a just settlement of the difficulties in question than an irresponsible magistrate1 who has the right to pass judgment upon everybody and everything1 and who is necessarily incompetent and therefore unjust8 ,as every form of government only serves to protect the privileged classes1 so do police and judges only aim at repressing those crimes1 often not considered criminal by the masses1 which offend only the privileges of the rulers or property-owners4 ,for the real defence of society1 the defence of the welfare and liberty of all1 there can be nothing more pernicious than the formation of this class of functionaries1 who exist on the pretence of defending all1 and therefore habitually regard every man as game to be hunted down1 often striking at the command of a superior officer1 without themselves even knowing why1 like hired assassins and mercenaries4 ---------- ,all that you have said may be true1 say some2 ,anarchy may be a perfect form of social life2 but we have no desire to take a leap in the dark4 ,therefore1 tell us how your society will be organized4 ,then follows a long string of questions1 which would be very interesting if it were our business to study the problems that might arise in an emancipated society1 but of which it is useless and absurd to imagine that we could now offer a definite solution4 ,according to what method will children be taught8 ,how will production and distribution be organized8 ,will there still be large cities1 or will people spread equally over all the surface of the earth8 ,will all the inhabitants of ,siberia winter at ,nice8 ,will every one dine on partridges and drink champagne8 ,who will be the miners and sailors8 ,who will clear the drains8 ,will the sick be nursed at home or in hospitals8 ,who will arrange the railway time-table8 ,what will happen if the engine-driver falls ill while the train is on its way8 ,and so on1 without end1 as though we could prophesy all the knowledge and experience of the future time1 or could1 in the name of ,anarchy1 prescribe for the coming man what time he should go to bed1 and on what days he should cut his nails6 ,indeed if our readers expect from us an answer to these questions1 or even to those among them really serious and important1 which cannot be anything more than our own private opinion at this present hour1 we must have succeeded badly in our endeavor to explain what ,anarchy is4 ,we are no more prophets than other men2 and should we pretend to give an official solution to all the problems that will arise in the life of the future society1 we should have indeed a curious idea of the abolition of government4 ,we should then be describing a government1 dictating1 like the clergy1 a universal code for the present and all future time4 ,seeing that we have neither police nor prisons to enforce our doctrine1 humanity might laugh with impunity at us and our pretensions4 ,nevertheless1 we consider seriously all the problems of social life which now suggest themselves1 on account of their scientific interest1 and because1 hoping to see ,anarchy realized1 we wish to help towards the organization of the new society4 ,we have therefore our own ideas on these subjects1 ideas which are to our minds likely to be permanent or transitory1 according to the respective cases4 ,and did space permit1 we might add somewhat more on these points4 ,but the fact that we today think in a certain way on a given question is no proof that such will be the mode of procedure in the future4 ,who can foresee the activities which may develop in humanity when it is emancipated from misery and oppression8 ,when all have the means of instruction and self-development8 ,when the strife between men1 with the hatred and rancour it breeds1 will be no longer a necessary condition of existence8 ,who can foresee the progress of science1 the new sources of production1 means of communication1 etc48 ,the one essential is that a society be constituted in which the exploitation and domination of man by man are impossible4 ,that the society1 in other words1 be such that the means of existence and development of labor be free and open to every one1 and all be able to co-operate1 according to their wishes and their knowledge1 in the organization of social life4 ,under such conditions1 everything will necessarily be performed in compliance with the needs of all1 according to the knowledge and possibilities of the moment4 ,and everything will improve with the increase of knowledge and power4 ,in fact1 a program which would touch the basis of the new social constitution could not do more1 after all1 than indicate a method4 ,and method1 more than anything else1 defines parties and determines their importance in history4 ,method apart1 every one says he wishes for the good of mankind2 and many do truly wish for it4 ,as parties disappear1 every organized action directed to a definite end disappears likewise4 ,it is therefore necessary to consider ,anarchy as1 above all1 a method4 ,there are two methods by which the different parties1 not ,anarchistic1 expect1 or say they expect1 to bring about the greatest good of each and all4 ,these are the authoritarian or ,state ,socialist and the individualist methods4 ,the former entrusts the direction of social life to a few2 and it would result in the exploitation and oppression of the masses by that few4 ,the second party trusts to the free initiative of individuals1 and proclaims1 if not the abolition1 the reduction of government4 ,however1 as it respects private property1 and is founded on the principle of each for himself1 and therefore on competition1 its liberty is only the liberty of the strong1 the license of those who have1 to oppress and exploit the weak who have nothing4 ,far from producing harmony1 it would tend always to augment the distance between the rich and the poor1 and end also through exploitation and domination in authority4 ,this second method1 ,individualism1 is in theory a kind of ,anarchy without ,socialism4 ,it is therefore no better than a lie1 because liberty is not possible without equality1 and true ,anarchy cannot be without ,solidarity1 without ,socialism4 ,the criticism which ,individualists pass on government is merely the wish to deprive it of certain functions1 to virtually hand them over to the capitalist4 ,but it cannot attack those repressive functions which form the essence of government2 for without an armed force the proprietary system could not be upheld4 ,nay1 even more1 under ,individualism1 the repressive power of government must always increase1 in proportion to the increase1 by means of free competition1 of the want of equality and harmony4 ,anarchists present a new method2 the free initiative of all and free agreement2 then1 after the revolutionary abolition of private property1 every one will have equal power to dispose of social wealth4 ,this method1 not admitting the re-establishment of private property1 must lead1 by means of free association1 to the complete triumph of the principles of solidarity4 ,thus we see that all the problems put forward to combat the ,anarchistic idea are on the contrary arguments in favor of ,anarchy2 because it alone indicates the way in which1 by experience1 those solutions which correspond to the dicta of science1 and to the needs and wishes of all1 can best be found4 ,how will children be educated8 ,we do not know4 ,what then8 ,the parents1 teachers and all who are interested in the progress of the rising generation1 will meet1 discuss1 agree and differ1 and then divide according to their various opinions1 putting into practice the methods which they respectively hold to be best4 ,that method which1 when tried1 produces the best results1 will triumph in the end4 ,and so for all the problems that may arise4 ---------- ,according to what we have so far said1 it is evident that ,anarchy1 as the ,anarchists conceive it1 and as alone it can be comprehended1 is based on ,socialism4 ,furthermore1 were it not for that school of ,socialists who artificially divide the natural unity of the social question1 considering only some detached points1 and were it not also for the equivocations with which they strive to hinder the social revolution1 we might say right away that ,anarchy is synonymous with ,socialism4 ,because both signify the abolition of exploitation and of the domination of man over man1 whether maintained by the force of arms or by the monopolization of the means of life4 ,anarchy1 like ,socialism1 has for its basis and necessary point of departure equality of conditions4 ,its aim is solidarity1 and its method liberty4 ,it is not perfection1 nor is it the absolute ideal1 which1 like the horizon1 always recedes as we advance towards it4 ,but it is the open road to all progress and to all improvement1 made in the interest of all humanity4 ---------- ,there are authoritarians who grant that ,anarchy is the mode of social life which alone opens the way to the attainment of the highest possible good for mankind1 because it alone can put an end to every class interested in keeping the masses oppressed and miserable4 ,they also grant that ,anarchy is possible1 because it does nothing more than release humanity from an obstacle--government--against which it has always had to fight its painful way towards progress4 ,nevertheless1 these authoritarians1 reinforced by many warm lovers of liberty and justice in theory1 retire into their last entrenchments1 because they are afraid of liberty1 and cannot be persuaded that mankind could live and prosper without teachers and pastors2 still1 hard pressed by the truth1 they pitifully demand to have the reign of liberty put off for a while1 indeed for as long as possible4 ,such is the substance of the arguments that meet us at this stage4 ,a society without a government1 which would act by free1 voluntary co-operation1 trusting entirely to the spontaneous action of those interested1 and founded altogether on solidarity and sympathy1 is certainly1 they say1 a very beautiful ideal1 but1 like all ideals1 it is a castle in the air4 ,we find ourselves placed in a human society1 which has always been divided into oppressors and oppressed2 and if the former are full of the spirit of domination1 and have all the vices of tyrants1 the latter are corrupted by servility1 and have those still worse vices1 which are the result of enslavement4 ,the sentiment of solidarity is far from being dominant in man at the present day2 and if it is true that the different classes of men are becoming more and more unanimous among themselves1 it is none the less true that that which is most conspicuous and impresses itself most on human character today is the struggle for existence4 ,it is a fact that each fights daily against every one else1 and competition presses upon all1 workmen and masters1 causing every man to become a wolf towards every other man4 ,how can these men1 educated in a society based upon antagonism between individuals as well as classes1 be transformed in a moment and become capable of living in a society in which each shall do as he likes1 and as he should1 without external coercion1 caring for the good of others1 simply by the impulse of their own nature8 ,and with what heart or what common sense can you trust to a revolution on the part of an ignorant1 turbulent mass1 weakened by misery1 stupefied by priestcraft1 who are today blindly sanguinary and tomorrow will let themselves be humbugged by any knave1 who dares to call himself their master8 ,would it not be more prudent to advance gradually towards the ,anarchistic ideal1 passing through ,republican1 ,democratic and ,socialistic stages8 ,will not an educative government1 composed of the best men1 be necessary to prepare the advancing generations for their future destiny8 ,these objections also ought not to appear valid if we have succeeded in making our readers understand what we have already said1 and in convincing them of it4 ,but in any case1 even at the risk of repetition1 it may be as well to answer them4 ,we find ourselves continually met by the false notion that government is in itself a new force1 sprung up one knows not whence1 which of itself adds something to the sum of the force and capability of those whom it is composed and of those who obey it4 ,while1 on the contrary1 all that is done is done by individual men4 ,the government1 as a government1 adds nothing save the tendency to monopolize for the advantage of certain parties or classes1 and to repress all initiative from beyond its own circle4 ,to abolish authority or government does not mean to destroy the individual or collective forces1 which are at work in society1 nor the influence men exert over one another4 ,that would be to reduce humanity to an aggregate of inert and separate atoms2 an impossibility which1 if it could be performed1 would be the destruction of any society1 the death blow to mankind4 ,to abolish authority1 means to abolish the monopoly of force and of influence4 ,it means to abolish that state of things by which social force1 that is1 the collective force of all in a society1 is made the instrument of the thought1 will and interests of a small number of individuals4 ,these1 by means of the collective force1 suppress the liberty of every one else1 to the advantage of their own ideas4 ,in other words1 it means to destroy a mode of organization by means of which the future is exploited1 between one revolution and another1 to the profit of those who have been the victors of the moment4 ,michael ,bakunin1 in an article published in #ahgb1 asserts that the great means of action of the ,international were the propagating of their ideas1 and the organization of the spontaneous action of its members in regard to the masses4 ,he then adds3 ,to whoever might pretend that action so organized would be an outrage on the liberty of the masses1 or an attempt to create a new authoritative power1 we would reply that he is a sophist and a fool4 ,so much the worse for those who ignore the natural1 social law of human solidarity1 to the extent of imagining that an absolute mutual independence of individuals and of masses is a possible or even desirable thing4 ,to desire it1 would be to wish for the destruction of society2 for all social life is nothing else than this mutual and incessant interdependence among individuals and masses4 ,all individuals1 even the most gifted and strongest1 indeed most of all the most gifted and strongest1 are at every moment of their lives1 at the same time1 producers and products4 ,equal liberty for every individual is only the resultant1 continually reproduced1 of this mass of material1 intellectual and moral influence exercised on him by all the individuals around him1 belonging to the society in which he was born1 has developed and dies4 ,to wish to escape this influence in the name of a transcendental liberty1 divine1 absolutely egoistic and sufficient to itself1 is the tendency to annihilation4 ,to refrain from influencing others1 would mean to refrain from all social action1 indeed to abstain from all expression of one's thoughts and sentiments1 and simply to become non-existent4 ,this independence1 so much extolled by idealists and metaphysicians1 individual liberty conceived in this sense would amount to self-annihilation4 ,in nature1 as in human society1 which is also a part of this same nature1 all that exists lives only by complying with the supreme conditions of interaction1 which is more or less positive and potent with regard to the lives of other beings1 according to the nature of the individual4 ,and when we vindicate the liberty of the masses1 we do not pretend to abolish anything of the natural influences that individuals or groups of individuals exert upon one another4 ,what we wish for is the abolition of artificial influences1 which are privileged1 legal and official4 ,certainly1 in the present state of mankind1 oppressed by misery1 stupefied by superstition and sunk in degradation1 the human lot depends upon a relatively small number of individuals4 ,of course1 all men will not be able to rise in a moment to the height of perceiving their duty1 or even the enjoyment of so regulating their own action that others also will derive the greatest possible benefit from it4 ,but because nowadays the thoughtful and guiding forces at work in society are few1 that is no reason for paralyzing them still more1 and for the subjection of many individuals to the direction of a few4 ,it is no reason for constituting society in such a manner that the most active forces1 the highest capacities are1 in the end1 found outside the government1 and almost deprived of influence on social life4 ,all this now happens owing to the inertia that secured positions foster1 to heredity1 to protectionism1 to party spirit and to all the mechanism of government4 ,for those in government office1 taken out of their former social position1 primarily concerned in retaining power1 lose all power to act spontaneously1 and become only an obstacle to the free action of others4 ,with the abolition of this negative potency constituting government1 society will become that which it can be1 with the given forces and capabilities of the moment4 ,if there are educated men desirous of spreading education1 they will organize the schools1 and will be constrained to make the use and enjoyment to be derived from education felt4 ,and if there are no such men1 or only a few of them1 a government cannot create them4 ,all it can do1 as in fact it does nowadays1 is to take these few away from practical1 fruitful work in the sphere of education1 and put them to direct from above what has to be imposed by the help of a police system4 ,so they make out of intelligent and impassionate teachers mere politicians1 who become useless parasites1 entirely absorbed in imposing their own hobbies1 and in maintaining themselves in power4 ,if there are doctors and teachers of hygiene1 they will organize themselves for the service of health4 ,and if there are none1 a government cannot create them2 all that it can do is to discredit them in the eyes of the people1 who are inclined to entertain suspicions1 sometimes only too well founded1 with regard to everything which is imposed upon them4 ,if there are engineers and mechanics1 they will organize the railways1 etc2 and if there are none1 a government cannot create them4 ,the revolution1 by abolishing government and private property1 will not create force which does not exist2 but it will leave a free field for the exercise of all available force and of all existent capacity4 ,while it will destroy every class interested in keeping the masses degraded1 it will act in such a way that every one will be free to work and make his influence felt1 in proportion to his own capacity1 and in conformity with his sentiments and interests4 ,and it is only thus that the elevation of the masses is possible2 for it is only with liberty that one can learn to be free1 as it is only by working that one can learn to work4 ,a government1 even had it no other advantages1 must always have that of habituating the governed to subjection1 and must also tend to become more oppressive and more necessary1 in proportion as its subjects are more obedient and docile4 ,but suppose government were the direction of affairs by the best people4 ,who are the best8 ,and how shall we recognize their superiority4 ,the majority are generally attached to old prejudices1 and have ideas and instincts already outgrown by the more favored minority4 ,but of the various minorities1 who all believe themselves in the right1 as no doubt many of them are in part1 which shall be chosen to rule8 ,and by whom8 ,and by what criterion8 ,seeing that the future alone can prove which among them is the must superior4 ,if you choose a hundred partisans of dictatorship1 you will discover that each one of the hundred believes himself capable of being1 if not sole dictator1 at least of assisting very materially in the dictatorial government4 ,the dictators would be those who1 by one means or another1 succeeded in imposing themselves on society4 ,and1 in course of time1 all their energy would inevitably be employed in defending themselves against the attacks of their adversaries1 totally oblivious of their desire1 if ever they had had it1 to be merely an educative power4 ,should government be1 on the other hand1 elected by universal suffrage1 and so be the emanation1 more or less sincere1 of the wish of the majority8 ,but if you consider these worthy electors as incapable of providing for their own interests1 how can they ever be capable of themselves choosing directors to guide them wisely8 ,how solve this problem of social alchemy3 ,to elect a government of geniuses by the votes of a mass of fools8 ,and what will be the lot of the minority1 who are the most intelligent1 most active and most advanced in society8 ---------- ,to solve the social problem to the advantage of all1 there is only one way4 ,to expel the government by revolutionary means1 to expropriate the holders of social wealth1 putting everything at the disposition of all1 and to leave all existing force1 capacity and good-will among men free to provide for the needs of all4 ,we fight for ,anarchy and for ,socialism2 because we believe that ,anarchy and ,socialism ought to be brought into operation as soon as possible4 ,which means that the revolution must drive away the government1 abolish private property1 and entrust all public service1 which will then embrace all social life1 to the spontaneous1 free1 unofficial and unauthorized operation of all those interested and all those willing volunteers4 ,there will certainly be difficulties and inconveniences2 but the people will be resolute2 and they alone can solve all difficulties ,anarchically1 that is1 by direct action of those interested and by free agreement4 ,we cannot say whether ,anarchy and ,socialism will triumph after the next revolutionary attempt2 but this is certain1 that if any of the so-called transition programs triumph1 it will be because we have been temporarily beaten1 and never because we have thought it wise to leave in existence any one part of that evil system under which humanity groans4 ,whatever happens1 we shall have some influence on events1 by our numbers1 our energy1 our intelligence and our steadfastness4 ,also1 even if we are now conquered1 our work will not have been in vain2 for the more decided we shall have been in aiming at the realization of all our demands1 the less there will be of government and of private property in the new society4 ,and we shall have done a great work2 for human progress is measured by the degree in which government and private property are administered4 ,if today we fall without lowering our colors1 our cause is certain of victory tomorrow4 --------------------