,the ,freedom of ,science ,by ,joseph ,donat1 ,s4,j41 ,d4,d4 ,professor ,innsbruck ,university ,new ,york ,joseph ,f4 ,wagner #aiad ,,contents ,imprimatur4 ,author's ,preface ,to ,the ,english ,edition4 ,translator's ,note4 ,first ,section4 ,the ,freedom of ,science and its ,philosophical ,basis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,science ,and ,freedom4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,two ,views ,of ,the ,world ,and ,their ,freedom4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,subjectivism ,and ,its ,freedom4 ,second ,section4 ,freedom of ,research and ,faith4 ,chapter ,i4 ,research ,and ,faith ,in ,general4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,authority ,of ,faith ,and ,the ,free ,exercise ,of ,research4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,unprepossession ,of ,research4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,accusations ,and ,objections4 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,witnesses of the ,incompatibility ,of ,science ,and ,faith4 ,third ,section4 ,the ,liberal ,freedom of ,research4 ,chapter ,i4 ,free ,from ,the ,yoke ,of ,the ,supernatural4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,unscientific ,method4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,bitter ,fruit4 ,fourth ,section4 ,freedom of ,teaching4 ,chapter ,i4 ,freedom ,of ,teaching ,and ,ethics4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,freedom ,of ,teaching ,and ,the ,state4 ,fifth ,section4 ,theology4 ,chapter ,i4 ,theology ,and ,science4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,theology ,and ,university4 ,index4 ,footnotes ,,imprimatur4 ,nihil ,obstat ,,remigius ,,lafort1 ,d4,d4 ,censor ,imprimatur ,,john ,,cardinal ,,farley ,archbishop of ,new ,york ,,new ,,york1 ,january #bb1 #aiad4 ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,joseph ,f4 ,,wagner1 ,,new ,,york ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,english ,,edition4 ,the present work has already secured many friends in ,german ,europe4 ,an invitation has now been extended for its reception among the ,english-speaking countries1 with the object that there1 too1 it may seek readers and friends1 and communicate to them its thoughts--the ideas it has to convey and to interpret4 ,while wishing it heartfelt success and good fortune on its journey1 the ,author desires it to convey his greetings to its new readers4 ,this book has issued from the throes of dissension and strife1 seeing the light at a time when1 in ,austria and ,germany1 the bitter forces of opposition1 that range themselves about the shibboleth ,freedom of ,science1 were seen engaging in a combat of fiercer intensity than ever4 ,yet1 notwithstanding1 this ,child of ,strife has learned the language of ,peace only4 ,it speaks the language of an impartial objectivity which endeavours1 in a spirit of unimpassioned1 though earnest1 calm1 to range itself over the burning questions of the day--over those great ,weltanschauung questions1 that stand in such close relation with the compendious motto3 ,freedom of ,science4 ,yes1 ,freedom and ,science serve1 in our age and on both sides of the ,atlantic1 as trumpet-calls1 to summon together--often indeed to pit in deadly combat--the rival forces of opposition4 ,they are catch-words that tend to hold at fever-pitch the intellectual life of modern civilization--agents as they are of such mighty and far-reaching influences4 ,on the one hand1 ,science1 whence the moving and leading ideas of the time take shape and form to go forth in turn and subject to their sway the intellect of man2 on the other1 ,freedom--that ,freedom of sovereign emancipation1 that ,christian ,freedom of well-ordered self-development1 which determine the actions1 the strivings of the human spirit1 even as they control imperceptibly the march of ,science4 ,while the present volume is connected with this chain of profound problems1 it becomes1 of itself1 a representation of the intellectual life of our day1 with its far-reaching philosophical questions1 its forces of struggle and opposition1 its dangers1 and deep-seated evils4 ,the ,author has a lively recollection of an expression which he heard a few years ago1 in a conversation with an ,american professor1 then journeying in ,europe4 8,here1 they talk of tolerance10 he observed1 8while in ,america we put it into practice40 ,the catch-word ,freedom of ,science will not1 therefore1 in every quarter of the world1 serve as a call to arms1 causing the opposing columns to engage in mutual conflict1 as is the case in many portions of ,europe4 ,but certain it is that everywhere alike--in the new world of ,america1 as well as in the old world of ,europe--the human spirit has its attention engaged with the same identical questions--those topics of nerve-straining interest that sway and surge about this same catch-word like so many opposing forces4 ,everywhere we shall have those tense oppositions between sovereign ,humanity and ,christianity1 between ,knowledge and ,faith1 between ,law and ,freedom2 everywhere those questions on the ,rights and ,obligations of ,science1 on ,catholic ,thought1 and on ,catholic ,doctrinal ,beliefs and ,duties4 ,may it fall to the lot of this book to be able to communicate to many a reader1 interested in such topics1 words of enlightenment and explanation--to some for the strengthening of their convictions1 to others for the correction1 perhaps1 of their erroneous views4 ,at home1 while winning the sympathy of many readers1 it has not failed to encounter also antagonism4 ,this was to be expected4 ,the resolute championing of the principles of the ,christian view of the world1 as well as many a candid expression of views touching the intellectual impoverishment and the ever-shifting position of unshackled ,freethinking1 must necessarily arouse such antagonism4 ,may the present volume meet on the other side of the ,atlantic with a large share of that tolerance which is put into actual practice there1 and is there not merely an empty phrase on the lips of men6 ,may it contribute something to the better and fuller understanding of the saying of that great ,english scientist1 ,,william ,,thomson3 8,do not be afraid of being free-thinkers6 ,if you think strongly enough1 you will be forced by science to the belief in ,god1 which is the foundation of all religion40 ,finally1 ,i may be allowed to express my sincere thanks to the publisher for undertaking the work of this translation4 ,may it accomplish much good4 ,j4 ,donat4 ,,university ,,innsbruck1 ,,christmas1 #aiac4 ,,translator',s ,,note4 ,the ,german original is replete with references to works especially in the ,german language1 the author having with great care quoted title and page whenever referring to an author4 ,since many of these references are of value only to those familiar with the ,german1 they have been abbreviated or omitted in this ,english version1 whenever they would seem to needlessly encumber its pages4 ,those desirous of verifying quotations will be enabled to do so in all instances by a reference to the ,german original4 ,,first ,,section4 ,,the ,,freedom ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,its ,,philosophical ,,basis4 ,chapter ,i4 ,science ,and ,freedom4 ,if a question is destined to agitate and divide for considerable length of time the minds of men1 it must undoubtedly have its root deep in the entire intellectual life of the times2 it must be anchored in profound philosophical thought1 in theories of life4 ,from this source it derives its power of captivating the minds4 ,all this applies to the question of the ,freedom of ,science4 ,if1 then1 we desire a thorough understanding of this question1 we must first of all seek and examine its deeper lying philosophical basis2 we must trace the threads which so closely unite it to the intellectual life and effort of the times4 ,but before we begin our study1 let us remember a rule of the great orator and philosopher of ancient ,rome2 a rule only too often forgotten in our times3 8,every philosophical discussion1 of anything whatsoever1 should begin with a definition1 in order to make clear what the discussion is about0 7,cicero1 ,de ,officiis1 ,i1 #b74 ,if we would form a judgment as to the demand of science for freedom1 as to the justification of this demand1 as to its compatibility or incompatibility with the duty of faith1 the first question that naturally arises is3 ,what is the purport of this demand1 what does it mean8 ,only after we have clearly circumscribed this demand can we approach its philosophical presumptions and test its basis4 ,what1 then1 do we understand by ,science1 and what freedom may be granted to it8 ,science4 ,when a man of ,northern or ,central ,europe hears of science1 his thoughts generally turn to the universities and their teachers4 ,to him the university is the home of science1 there its numerous branches dwell in good fellowship1 there hundreds of men have consecrated themselves to its service4 ,in those parts of ,europe it is customary for men of science to be university professors4 ,of what university is he8 is asked4 ,celebrated scientists1 like ,helmholtz1 ,liebig1 ,hertz1 ,kirchhoff2 philosophers1 like ,kant1 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 ,hegel1 ,herbart2 great philologists1 historians1 and so on1 were university professors4 ,for all that1 science and university are not necessarily inseparable things4 ,the university needs science1 but science does not absolutely need the university4 ,science was in the world before the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 the time when ,france and ,italy built their first universities2 and also since then science has been enriched by the achievements of many a genius who never occupied a university chair4 ,pythagoras1 ,aristotle1 ,st4 ,augustine belonged to no universities2 ,copernicus1 ,newton1 and ,kepler never taught in the higher schools4 ,in the countries of ,western ,europe and ,america the man of science and the university professor are to this day not so much identical in person4 ,therefore1 if the freedom of science applies principally to the higher schools and their teachers1 this is not its exclusive application4 ,science and university are not identical terms4 ,what1 then1 is science8 ,at the sound of this magic word there arises in the minds of many the image of a superhuman being3 open on his lap lies the book of wisdom in which all mysteries are solved2 in his hand is the flaming torch which enlightens the path down into the lowest depths of research1 dispelling all darkness4 ,this1 in the minds of many1 is what science means4 ,the mere appeal to this infallible being suffices to settle all problems1 to silence every contradiction2 woe to him who dares open his profane mouth to utter an ,if or a ,but6 ,were this science1 there would be no dispute4 ,we should have to admit that there could be no limit set to the freedom of this being2 he must share the privileges of divine ,intelligence1 for no command to keep silent can be imposed on ,infallible ,truth2 there can be no amendment4 ,but1 alas6 in the world of reality this personified ,science is nowhere to be found1 it exists solely in the realm of rhetoric and poetry4 ,science1 as it exists among men1 has its seat1 after all1 nowhere else than in the human mind4 ,it is1 indeed1 nothing else but the well-ordered summary of knowledge and of the research for the causes of things4 ,natural science is the summary of knowledge and research in the realm of natural phenomena1 arranged in an orderly way1 as a text-book will give it2 that is1 an investigation of phenomena and their causes4 ,a mere description of natural phenomena1 without any explanation1 or reference of them to the laws of nature1 would indeed be teaching about nature1 but not natural science4 ,similarly1 the science of history is the well-ordered summary of knowledge and research in the domain of human events1 derived from their sources1 with the statement of facts according to cause and effect4 ,and not all this knowledge is certain1 and free from doubt4 ,the modern conception of science1 as we now have it--the ancients had a much narrower conception--includes certain as well as uncertain knowledge1 results and hypotheses1 and even the activity of research1 together with its methods4 ,astronomy was thus in ,ptolemy's time the summary of what was then known with more or less certainty about the stars2 included in this1 as is well known1 was the opinion that the sun circles around the earth4 ,and the philosophy of ,aristotle embraced his philosophical ideas about ,god1 the world and man2 hence many errors4 ,further1 when speaking of science in general1 we mean the whole number of the individual sciences4 ,it is the freedom of science in this sense that we have to investigate here4 ,the individual sciences are distinguished one from another principally by the subjects of which they treat4 ,astronomy is distinguished from palontology and philosophy by the fact that it treats of the stars1 not of fossils1 or of the fundamental truths of reason4 ,from this brief analysis of concepts it is clear that science and scientific research are not superhuman beings1 but an activity or condition of the human mind1 distinguished from the ordinary thought of the individual only by system and method1 and1 commonly1 by greater thoroughness and by the united effort of many4 ,it is subject to all the limitations of the human mind4 ,what follows from this8 ,two things4 ,let us at once make a brief reference to both of them1 because in our discussion they are of the greatest importance4 ,since1 then1 science is an activity of the human mind1 it must1 like it1 always and everywhere be subject to the ,truth and subject to ,god4 ,subject to the ,truth3 whenever science comes in contact with it1 it must reverently bow to the truth4 ,and subject to ,god3 if ,god is the ,creator of man and of his spiritual and bodily activity1 ,he is also the master of his whole being1 and man is subject to ,him in all his activity and development1 therefore in his intellectual life1 and in his artistic and scientific pursuits4 ,everything is and remains the activity of the creature4 ,as gravitation rules the entire planet and its material activity1 attracts it towards the sun and makes it circle around it1 so does the law of dependence on ,god rule the whole life of the creature4 ,man cannot therefore1 even in his scientific research1 ignore his ,creator1 cannot emancipate himself from ,his authority2 and if ,god has given a revelation and demands faith1 the man of science1 too1 must believe4 ,there cannot be an emancipated1 free1 science in this sense4 ,another consequence is this3 since science is an activity of the human mind1 it shares all its imperfections and weaknesses4 ,it is truly flesh of its flesh4 ,the fruit cannot be more perfect than the tree that produces it1 nor the flower better than the plant on which it blossomed4 ,now1 as the human mind is throughout limited in its nature1 so is it also in its research4 ,it is not given to man to soar aloft on eagle wings to the heights of knowledge1 thence to gaze upon truth with unerring intuition2 the ascent must be slow1 with constant dangers of stumbling1 even of falling headlong4 ,to these dangers must be added his latent likes and dislikes1 which imperceptibly guide his thought1 especially in forming opinions on questions of the world and of life1 which the human heart cannot view with indifference3 they influence his thought4 ,hence ignorance1 darkness1 and error1 everywhere accompany the investigator individually1 and science as a whole1 all the more the loftier the questions that present themselves4 ,already the philosopher of the dim past gave expression to the complaint1 that our reason is no more capable of knowing the divine than the eyes of the owl are of seeing in broad daylight4 ,it is ,aristotle who so complains4 ,and the great ,newton1 in the evening of his life1 thus estimates the worth of his knowledge3 8,what the world may think about my labour1 ,i do not know2 ,i feel like a child that plays on the strand of the sea3 now and then ,i may perhaps find a pebble or shell more beautiful than those of my playmates1 while the boundless ocean lies ever before me with its undiscovered treasures0 7apud ,o4 ,zoeckler1 ,gottes ,zeugen im ,reich der ,natur 7#aijf71 #agc74 ,the same sorrowful plaint is heard from all serious investigators1 especially those in the domain of the natural sciences1 who should have more reason than others to be proud of their achievements4 8,however great the amount of human knowledge may seem to the multitude10 writes the well-known chemist ,schoenbein1 8the most experienced scientist feels the incompleteness and patchwork of it1 and realizes that man so far has been able to learn but infinitely little of what nature is1 and of what can be known40 8,the more exact the investigation10 says the geologist ,quenstedt1 8so much the more obscure is its beginning4 ,indeed1 the deeper we think to have understood the single parts1 the further the original plan of the ,creator seems to escape us0 7cf4 ,kneller1 ,das ,christentum und die ,vertreter der neueren ,naturwissenschaften 7#aijd71 #bjh1 #bha74 8,although science10 so we are assured by another modern savant1 8has brought to light many a treasure1 still1 compared with what we do not yet know1 it is as a drop to the ocean4 ,in all our knowledge there will always be the danger of error40 ,we are probably not very far in advance of the time of ,albrecht von ,haller1 who said3 8,we1 all of us1 err1 only each errs in a different way4 ,every passage that has been illuminated by science is surrounded by dense darkness2 beyond the visible lies the invisible40 ,and ,prof4 ,j4 ,reinke continues3 8,as early as the day of ,socrates1 the beginning of philosophy was to know that we know nothing2 the end of philosophy1 to know that we must believe3 such is the inevitable fate of human wisdom0 7,naturwissenschaft und ,religion1 in ,natur und ,kultur ,,iv 7#aijg71 #dah1 #dbe4 ,printed also separately74 ,some years ago ,sir ,w4 ,ramsay1 a noted scientist1 concluded a discourse on his scientific labour with the words3 8,when a man has reached the middle of his life1 he begins to believe that the longer he lives the less he knows6 ,this is my excuse for having molested you for an hour with my ignorance0 7,einige ,betrachtungen ueber das periodische ,gesetz der ,elemente4 ,vortrag auf der #ge4 ,versammlung ,deutscher ,naturforscher und rzte zu ,cassel 7#aijc774 ,if science1 then1 can only with difficulty lift from visible nature the veils that hide the truth--and even this is often beyond its power--no wonder it is confronted with still greater obstacles when it approaches the truths that are beyond visible nature4 ,moreover1 it is an old truth that here it is led not by reason only1 but also1 and even more energetically1 by self-interest4 8,most men10 says ,cicero1 8are swayed in their judgments by either love or hatred1 likes or dislikes0 7,de ,oratore1 ,,ii1 #db74 ,if this is the nature of human science1 its adepts would be badly deceiving themselves1 if1 in the pride of learning1 they would reject every correction1 even proudly pushing aside the hand of ,god that reaches down into the darkness of man's intellectual life to offer its guidance4 ,he who realizes that he is in danger of losing his way in the dark1 will not reject a reliable guide2 and he who fears to stumble will not refuse a helping hand4 ,self-knowledge is the sister of wisdom1 and the mother of modesty4 ,freedom4 ,such1 then1 is science3 not the goddess that emanated from the head of immortal ,jove1 but the offspring of the puny mind of man1 bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh4 ,and this science cries for freedom4 ,it would be free and act freely2 it urges its claim in the name of truth1 which must not be slighted2 in the name of the progress of civilization1 which must not be hindered4 ,freedom clearly means nothing less than to be untrammeled and free from restraint1 from fetter and check1 in action1 thought1 and desire4 ,the prisoner is free when his chains drop off1 a people is free when it has cast off the yoke of serfdom1 the eagle is free and can spread out its wings in lofty flight when not bound down to the earth4 ,science1 therefore1 should be free in its activity from bond1 fetter1 and restraint4 ,does this mean it must be free from all restraint and law8 ,should the historian be given the right to make ,solon a member of the ,french ,academy1 or of the heroes of ,troy medival knights8 ,should the scientist be given the right to break every rule of logic1 to ignore all progress1 and perhaps in his capriciousness return to the four elements of ,aristotle1 or the astronomical chart of primitive ages8 ,nobody demands this4 ,no1 science must be bound by the truth4 ,freedom indeed should not mean lawlessness4 ,science remains bound by the general laws of logic1 and by positive facts4 ,truth is the irremovable barrier set in restraint of the freedom of everything1 even of scientific thought4 ,the freedom of science therefore can only be freedom from unreasonable restraint and fetters2 from such that hinder it unreasonably in its inquiry after the truth1 and in the communication of the results of its investigation4 ,it should be free1 not from the internal bondage of truth1 but from the restraint by external authority1 the restraint which would hinder it1 in an improper way1 from approaching those questions1 and using those methods1 that lead to the discovery of truth1 and from acknowledging the results it has found to be true2 or which would unlawfully keep it from making known1 for the benefit of others1 the results of its investigation4 ,it should be free from any unjust restriction1 imposed by state or ,church1 by popular opinion1 by party spirit1 by hampering protectorate1 or servility of any kind4 ,from any unjust restriction1 we said4 ,for this is clear3 if under certain circumstances there might be warrant for a just restriction by external authority1 such a restriction could not be refused in the name of freedom4 ,so long1 then1 as we understand by freedom a lawful freedom1 there cannot be included in this the freedom from every external authority1 but only from unlawful interference4 ,there is1 then1 the question whether there may be a legitimate restraint1 imposed by external authority1 which man must not evade1 and what the nature of such restraint may be4 ,we must1 moreover1 take into consideration two elements1 which are distinguished in the above definitions1 both belonging to the modern idea of scientific freedom4 ,we will call them freedom of research1 and freedom of teaching4 ,the investigator and the scientist claim the one2 the teacher1 the other4 ,searching after truth1 and communicating the truth found1 are1 as is known1 the principal occupations of science4 ,the scientist should first of all be an investigator4 ,he should not be content to appropriate to himself the knowledge of others1 he should also make his own additions to knowledge4 ,he is also commonly a teacher1 by word of mouth1 as at the university1 or by his writing1 in his literary activity4 ,research1 as such1 imparts directly a certain knowledge only to the investigator2 it is of a private nature and as such does not reach beyond him4 ,but by teaching1 his ideas are communicated to others1 and then begin to influence their thought1 will1 and action1 often very strongly4 ,teaching is a social factor2 with it are bound up the weal and woe of others4 ,suppose a man of influence conceives in his study the idea that monogamy is an infringement upon the universal rights of man2 should he be given without any ado the right of disseminating1 by teaching1 the imagined results of his investigation1 to the confusion of men1 and with serious danger to the peace of society8 ,we shall therefore have to distinguish between freedom of research and freedom of teaching4 ,the neglect of this distinction causes not a little confusion2 thus1 if one complains of his convictions being trammeled or his liberty of conscience being violated1 when he is hindered from immediately proclaiming whatever he calls his convictions4 ,private opinion1 and the public propaganda of this opinion1 are evidently very different things4 ,it may be that an opinion seems to me the right one1 but1 in spite of that1 public dissemination of it may1 always or under certain circumstances1 mean danger to my fellow-men4 ,if ,i am for this reason prevented from publishing it1 ,i am not thereby hindered from giving it my own private assent4 ,it is1 moreover1 quite clear that the state--we disregard here religious authority--cannot at all directly restrict research1 which is something personal4 ,it can only impose restrictions on the communication of one's ideas by teaching them to others1 which is a social function4 ,from these few remarks will be followed the impropriety of the following1 or similar1 observations3 8,the fostering of science and its teaching are not separate functions 444 to insinuate a twofold function of freedom1 viz41 that of the savant and that of the teacher1 would be to dissolve the unity of the moral personality0 7,w4 ,kahl1 ,bekenntnissgebundenheit und ,lehrfreiheit 7#ahig71 #bb74 ,it is not at all double-dealing if some one does not publicly proclaim one's private knowledge4 ,is it double-dealing1 is it a violation of 8the unity of the moral personality10 if one is1 and must be1 silent about official secrets8 ,and if one does not tell1 and is not allowed to tell1 official secrets1 if one prevents an anarchist from spreading his revolutionary ideas1 is this a violation of the unity of the moral personality8 ,it is true that 8to deny one's convictions is a violation of one of the most indubitable principles of moral conduct0 7,k4 v4 ,amira1 ,die ,stellung des akademischen ,lehrers zur ,freiheit in ,forschung und ,lehre4 ,beilage der ,muenchener ,neuesten ,nachrichten4 #i4 ,juli1 #aijh74 ,but it is logically incorrect to conclude therefrom that the freedom of teaching should not be restricted4 ,to keep silence is not denying one's convictions4 ,later on1 when speaking of freedom in teaching1 we shall return to this thought and deal with it more thoroughly4 ,so far there can be no serious diversity of opinion4 ,freedom from unjust restraint is demanded1 and rightly demanded1 for science4 ,the very object of science requires it4 ,in scientific research man's power of discernment should freely develop2 his inclination towards truth should exert itself2 and by communication of acquired knowledge mankind should advance in mental and material culture4 ,the bud bursts forth and freely unfolds its splendour2 the butterfly grows unhindered in beauty2 the tree1 too1 wants freedom1 in order to develop its boughs and branches according to its nature1 and if you try to bind and tie it1 it resists as much as it can4 ,just so is freedom needful for the development of the noblest aspirations of human nature1 for its progress in knowledge4 ,every friend of humanity1 every one who loves his own kind1 must be in sympathy with its progress4 ,who will not rejoice to see the mind of man happily trace the laws of nature1 laid down by the ,spirit of ,god in the stillness of eternity when as yet there was no creature to heed1 the laws ,he then placed in nature in order that the reasonable creature might discern the marks of his ,creator8 ,who would not rejoice to see man1 diligently following the facts of history and studying the works of literature and art1 find therein the ideas of ,god reflected1 as the rays of the sun in the trembling drop of dew1 and1 finally1 trying to solve the difficult problems of life8 ,to this end has the ,creator enkindled in the mind of man a spark of ,his own intelligence2 to this end has ,he put in him a desire to inquire and learn1 a desire which has exerted itself most in the noblest of men4 ,man is destined to find his ultimate gratification in beholding the ,eternal ,truth and ,beauty1 a vision which will be the completion of human science and culture1 the highest perfection of created life4 ,thus man's noble desire for knowledge and truth must develop1 it must be able to produce leaves and blossoms4 ,for this he needs freedom1 free air1 and free light4 ,if science is to attain its high purpose1 it must have freedom also to impart the knowledge acquired4 ,it should indeed further the progress of mankind4 ,by its discovery it should enhance the beauty of human life1 should enrich the treasure of human knowledge1 should promote education and morality1 to the honour of the ,creator4 ,for this end1 too1 freedom is necessary3 freedom to impart newly acquired knowledge1 else there would be no pleasure in work1 stagnation rather than progress4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,two ,views ,of ,the ,world ,and ,their ,freedom4 ,there can1 then1 be no difference of opinion on this matter among sober-minded men3 science must be free from all unjust hindrances and restraint4 ,but we have not yet finished4 ,we have not even proceeded very far on our way4 ,the further question at once presents itself3 ,which are those unjust hindrances and restraints that scientific research and teaching may reject8 ,may there not perhaps be such which it must respect8 ,there is little meaning in the cry3 ,freedom6 ,freedom6 ,this attractive word1 which always finds an enthusiastic echo in man1 may easily prove a misleading catchword1 and become a dangerous weapon of the thoughtless and the unscrupulous4 ,the question is not1 whether our science1 or1 to speak more generally1 our intellectual life1 must be free--of that there can be no doubt4 ,no life can spring up and thrive without due freedom4 ,the question is3 ,what sort of freedom8 how can it be more precisely defined8 ,we all1 indeed1 demand freedom for the citizen2 but what kind of freedom8 ,he should be free from the fetters of tyranny and despotism4 ,do we also demand that he be free from the laws of the state8 ,by no means6 ,on the contrary1 he must be subject to these1 for the very reason that he is a citizen and not the inhabitant of an uncivilized world4 ,we demand freedom for the artist2 he should not be bound by the tyranny of fashion4 ,do we also demand that he be exempt from the laws of beauty and art8 ,not at all4 ,he must subject himself to these if he means to be an artist and not a quack4 ,that would not be true freedom1 but lawlessness and license1 the privilege of barbarism4 ,freedom therefore is a very ambiguous word4 ,there are two kinds of freedom1 lawful and unlawful3 the latter is freedom from just laws1 the former from unjust laws4 ,we ask again1 what is that lawful freedom which man may claim for his scientific activity8 ,in other words1 what are the restraints which he may reject as unjust1 and as enslaving the mind8--,here the ways part4 ,here1 too1 our question goes deeper1 and touches something which moves men's minds very powerfully4 ,two different views of the world1 two opposite conceptions of man and his thought1 come here in collision4 ,the ,christian ,view of the ,world and its ,freedom4 ,on the one hand there is the ,christian view of the world3 it is essentially also the one which appears self-evident to every unbiassed mind4 ,in this view man is a creature1 limited in every way1 therefore in many ways dependent upon external rules1 forces1 and authorities4 ,to ,god alone is it reserved to be infinite1 and1 therefore1 to possess in ,himself all perfection1 goodness1 and truth2 for which reason there is nothing above ,him on which ,he could be dependent4 ,this is not the case with man4 ,as a creature man is subject to his ,creator4 ,the latter is master over man's life and therefore at the same time its ultimate aim4 ,for this reason religion is of obligation to man1 that is1 he must honour ,god as ,he demands it2 if ,god requires faith in a revelation1 if ,he established a ,church and duly authorized it to guide us1 we must submit to it4 ,in the same way the intellect of man is bound by the laws of objective truth1 which is not of his making1 but presents itself to him as a norm3 he must always be subject to it whether he wishes or not4 ,man is1 finally1 a factor in social life2 he lives in the family1 state1 and ,church1 in the great society of mankind2 upon them he is dependent for his education and development4 ,and society requires that man be subject to a ruling authority1 that in many things his own interests be subordinated to the welfare of the community4 ,this is the order that ,god has established and wishes observed4 ,hence all human authority is a participation in ,god's supreme government4 ,thus it comes about that limits may be set to the scientist's free expression of his views1 if the interest of the community require it4 ,man is1 nevertheless1 free4 ,but his freedom does not mean complete independence2 nor freedom from all restraint1 but only from those external restraints which are opposed to his nature and position1 which hinder his legitimate development and activity4 ,he possesses freedom1 but only such a freedom as is his due1 by which he can unfold and develop his physical and mental powers4 ,to keep his place of subordination to1 and dependence on1 these higher authorities and powers of truth and order1 tends not to injure but to improve his being1 not to dwarf but to develop his personality2 for they are sources of life to him1 they impart to his existence order and harmony1 they raise him above himself and his own littleness1 they free him from the prison of his own narrowness and selfishness1 from the chains of his unruly desires4 ,if a man emancipates himself from these bonds1 which he ought to bear1 he has freedom of course1 but an unnatural freedom1 which will be harmful and perhaps ruinous to him4 ,take the tree1 for instance4 ,it should have freedom for its natural growth4 ,if you force it to creep along the ground instead of growing upward1 if you deny it air and light1 you infringe on the freedom it should have4 ,still it cannot have absolute freedom1 for it is dependent on the ground from which it derives its nourishment1 dependent on the laws of light and atmosphere and gravitation1 on the laws of season2 it must adapt itself to climate and soil4 ,it may not say to the light3 ,away with you6--a stunted growth and deformity would be the result of such emancipation4 ,it may not say to the ground3 ,away with you6--a sad but quick death would be its fate4 ,it has its freedom1 and in this freedom it grows and thrives4 ,if it desires greater freedom1 it would be an unnatural one1 and it would tend1 not to its development1 but to its destruction4 ,such is the ,christian view of man and his thought4 ,here1 then1 there is but one question to solve3 ,are the external restraints imposed on me in my investigation and teaching against my nature2 against the right of my mind to truth2 against my position in human society8 ,if so1 then ,i reject them1 because they mean serfdom1 not duty2 unjust bonds1 not natural restraint4 ,but if not1 then ,i do not refuse them my submission4 ,freedom ,i want1 but only the freedom of man4 ,here we pause4 ,suffice it at present to have formulated the question2 we shall return to this topic later and discuss it at greater length4 ,the ,modern ,idea of ,freedom4 ,the ,christian view of man and his freedom1 which to past ages appeared self-evident1 has grown obscure to many minds1 and given place to another1 a more modern view47#a7 ,for the modern man1 freedom1 especially freedom of intellectual life1 means independence from external ties1 from all authority1 or1 to express it positively1 absolute right of self-determination1 autonomy4 ,he does not recognize any law or rule which he has not imposed upon himself4 ,in civil life1 of course1 it is a principle that man must submit to external1 legal restraint in many things that do not directly concern his own person1 but only so far as is necessary in order that others1 too1 may enjoy the same freedom2 but also here every citizen must be able to share in the legislation1 according to the rules of constitutional or republican government4 ,but he must be free from every external restraint in whatever touches the core of his personality1 his feeling1 desire1 thought1 and the expression of his thought4 ,it should now be clear1 from what has been said1 what is meant by freedom of science4 ,it means independence from every external authority and restraint in research and teaching1 the unhindered development and assertion of one's own intellectual personality4 ,man must let himself be directed only by his own judgment and his instinct for the truth1 or his personal need1 without heeding dogmas1 ,church laws1 tradition1 or any other external norm whatsoever4 ,this is particularly true in the domain of philosophy and religion1 in questions regarding the world and life1 and in fundamental social questions4 ,this is principally1 and almost exclusively1 the field in which an authoritative influence of the ,church1 or state1 or society in general1 is to be feared4 ,hence the importance of the question of the freedom of science in this field4 ,this is also the manner in which the advocates of modern freedom of science unanimously describe it4 ,for the academic teacher1 says ,g4 ,kaufmann1 there are 8strictly speaking only the barriers drawn by his own instinct for the truth4 ,it is in this sense that we demand freedom of science to-day for the university teacher4 ,the freedom of the scientist and of the academic teacher must not be limited by patented truth1 nor by faint-hearted consideration0 7,die ,lehrfreiheit an den deutschen ,universitaeten im neunzehnten ,jahrhundert 7#ahih71 #cf74 ,the first resolution proposed at the ,second ,conference of ,german ,university ,teachers1 at ,jena1 in ,september1 #aijh1 was this3 8,the purpose of scientific research1 and the communication of its results1 demand that it be independent of every consideration foreign to scientific method itself40 ,of this resolution we have from another source the following explanation3 8,therefore1 it should be independent especially of tradition and the prejudices of the masses1 independent of authority and social bodies1 independent of party interest40 7,this was the addition to the thesis as originally formulated by ,prof4 von ,amira4 ,beilage der ,muenchener ,neuesten ,nachrichten1 ,july #i1 #aijh47 ,and ,prof4 ,f4 ,paulsen writes3 8,no thought can be commanded or forbidden the academic teacher or his audience0 7,die deutschen ,universitaeten und das ,universitaets-studium1 #aijb1 #bhh74 ,a4 ,harnack likewise teaches that 8,in regard to research and knowledge there must be unlimited freedom10 especially in matters of religion4 ,here 8man must fully understand his own innermost being2 the soul must recognize its own needs and the indicated way to their satisfaction4 ,this it can do only when it is entirely free40 8,the fear that thereby the door to serious error is thrown open should not in the least deter it1 for the most serious error of all is the opinion that man should not enjoy perfect freedom in the determination of his state0 7,neue ,freie ,presse1 #g ,juni1 #aijh74 ,the same demands are made by free-thinkers1 who are always and everywhere in favor of free science4 ,the ,international ,congress of ,free-thinkers1 held at ,rome in ,june1 #aijd1 thus defines free-thought3 8,since free-thought cannot concede to any authority whatever the right to oppose human reason1 or even to supersede it1 it demands that its advocates reject directly not only any compulsory belief1 but also every authority that tries to enforce its dogmas1 even though such an authority be based on revelation1 or though it command obedience to dogmas or a-priori principles of philosophy1 or to the decisions of public authority or the vote of a majority40--,we shall have frequent occasion to speak of this freedom in these pages4 ,hence it is easily seen that this view differs from the one we considered before4 ,freedom from all external restraint has superseded freedom from unjust restraint4 ,the presumption has found acceptance that every interference by authority is unjust1 a violation of the natural rights of man and his thought4 ,on what is this presumption based8 ,in other words3 ,what are the philosophical premises of modern freedom of science8 ,we shall be occupied with this question now for some time4 ,for only after we have attentively considered it1 can we gain an intelligent idea of the nature of this freedom1 of its methods1 and of the justice of its claims4 ,advocates of this view not infrequently think they have exhausted its meaning when they have protested against ecclesiastical encroachments1 when they have held forth against ,syllabus and ,index4 ,of the deeper thoughts it contains they have scarcely any idea4 ,the ,humanitarian ,view of the ,world4 ,we may distinguish a twofold basis for this view1 a general and a particular one4 ,the latter1 which is connected with the former1 is subjectivism in thought4 ,the former1 the more general1 at the same time the real basis of the modern freedom of science1 is that particular view of man and his position in the world1 which we may call the theory of humanitarianism4 ,we are familiar with this word--it has its history4 ,the word of itself conveys a good meaning3 it means human nature and dignity1 thought and desire worthy of man1 nobility of culture4 ,during the ,renaissance the so-called 8humanists0 identified culture with knowledge of the ancient classical literature4 ,many of them1 however1 added to the admiration of classical literature also preference for pagan tastes1 to the contempt of the ,christian spirit4 ,since that time the word humanitarian has never lost its unchristian sense2 it has ever been made the motto of men who emancipated themselves from ,god and ,christianity4 ,hence it is extensively the motto of our times4 ,it has changed the position of man4 ,it has forgotten that man is a created1 limited1 even a fallen being1 withal destined for eternal existence4 ,to it man is everything2 man left to himself and to his life in this world1 severed from ,god and his eternal destiny1 an absolute1 purely worldly being4 ,no longer does he look up to ,heaven1 no longer does he get from above his laws1 his hope for help1 and strength1 and eternal life4 ,he is his own and only end3 he and his earthly happiness and advancement4 ,in himself alone he sees the source of his strength1 in himself he finds his law1 to himself alone is he responsible1 the inherited corruption of his nature he has forgotten4 ,what ,god once was to our fathers--the end and rule of their life--that now is ,man to their sons4 ,the anthropocentric has succeeded the theocentric view of the world4 ,diis extinctis successit humanitas 7,man has succeeded the fallen gods74 8,out of the corrupted nations and decaying religions let there arise a more beautiful humanity60 is the radical cry of this humanitarian religion4 ,when in #ahib the battle for a new school law was raging in ,prussia1 ,caprivi1 the ,chancellor of the ,empire1 said3 8,it is here question of a contrast between ,christianity and atheism4 ,essential to man is his relation to ,god40 ,scarcely had these words been uttered when a champion of modern thought1 ,prof4 ,fr4 ,jodl1 took up his pen and wrote3 8,no sharper contrast with the convictions of the modern world is imaginable than that expressed by the words of the imperial ,chancellor1 #8essential to man is his relation to ,god4' ,to this sentence1 which might be expected in a speech of ,cromwell1 or in a papal encyclical1 rather than from a statesman of modern ,germany1 liberalism must with all possible emphasis oppose this other sentence3 ,what determines the real worth of a man1 is1 first and last1 his relation to humanity0 7,moral1 ,religion und ,schule1 #ahib1 #ad;f474 ,diis extinctis successit humanitas4 ,we shall not deny that the modern spirit is a complicated structure3 but neither can any one deny that its chief characteristic is the humanitarian view1 with its emancipation from ,god1 its decided emphasis of the things of this world1 and its boundless overestimation of man4 ,an attentive observer of these days1 should he chance to come from an old1 ,catholic town1 and saunter with observant eye through one of our great modern cities1 particularly a ,protestant one1 would behold a vivid realization of this modern view of the world4 ,the most prominent feature of the ,catholic town of old was the ,house of ,god4 ,it towered high above the city1 its spires reached heavenward2 the houses of the faithful clung around the ,house of ,god like chicks about the mother hen4 ,the mere sight told the beholder that here dwelt a people whose thoughts were directed towards the other world2 over their lives ruled the sacred peace of eternity4 ,but here all is different4 ,here the most prominent feature is no longer the ,house of ,god2 worldly edifices have usurped its place2 railroad depots1 barracks1 city-hall and court-house dominate the city4 ,the state house bears no longer on its front the ,christian motto1 ,nisi ,dominus custodierit 78,unless the ,lord keep the city he watcheth in vain that keepeth it074 ,it would be considered a degradation should the state base its existence upon religion4 ,should1 then1 the observer enter the legislature he would learn the modern principles of state wisdom4 ,the state as such has no relation to religion2 the principle is the separation of state and ,church4 ,in the public squares he beholds mighty monuments1 erected1 not to religious heroes and leaders1 as perhaps of old1 but to great men of the world1 champions of national progress4 ,at their feet lie wreaths of homage4 ,they have brought modern humanity to its full stature1 maturity1 and self-consciousness4 ,here it is ,man who is standing everywhere in the foreground4 8,it is ,i10 says he1 8that lives here4 ,here ,i have pitched my tent1 from this earth come all my joys1 and this sun is shining upon my sorrows40 ,our observer1 wandering about1 finds everywhere magnificent state-schools1 scientific institutes1 splendid colleges and universities4 ,in years gone by a cross or a word of divine wisdom was probably found here somewhere4 ,it is seen no more4 ,often it would seem that we can almost hear the words3 8,we will not have this ,one rule over us40 ,here a new race is being reared1 which no longer follows blindly the 8old tradition10 it believes in its own self and its own reason3 culture and science take the place of the old religion4 ,he finds but few churches2 and where found they are mostly overshadowed by great palaces1 and--mostly empty4 ,the modern man passes them by4 ,he has no longer any understanding for the truths of the ,christian religion4 ,it fails to satisfy him because it does not appeal to modern ways of thinking and feeling1 because it does not symbolize the humanitarian creed4 ,his desire is no longer for ,heaven2 his aspirations are earthward4 8,the life beyond concerns me little3 my joys come from this world40 ,contemplating modern civilization he exclaims1 with the king of ,babylon3 8,is not this the great ,babylon1 which ,i have built to be the seat of the kingdom1 by the strength of my power1 and in the glory of my excellence80 7,dan4 iv4 #bg74 ,the doctrine of a nature corrupted by original sin1 of a darkened intellect that needs divine revelation1 of a weakened will that needs strength from above1 of sin that demands atonement1--all this has become meaningless to him1 it offends his higher sentiments1 his human dignity4 ,he has no longer any understanding for a ,saviour of the world1 in whom alone salvation is to be sought1 much less for a ,cross4 ,this sign of redemption1 as a certain herald of modern thought remarked1 weighs like a mountain upon the mind of our day4 ,he has no longer any understanding for the saving institution of the ,church1 by whom he should be led3 she is to him an institution of intellectual serfdom4 ,he makes his own religion1 free from dogma1 just as his individuality desires1 just as he 8lives0 it4 ,should our observer1 while visiting the ,protestant city1 make a final visit to its university1 he will find there the thoughts1 which hitherto he had but vaguely felt1 clothed in scientific language4 ,there they meet his gaze1 defined sharply on the pedestal of ,research as the ,modern ,philosophy1 protected1 often exclusively privileged1 by the state license of teaching4 ,it is the modern scientific view of the world1 the only one that men of modern times may hold4 ,from here it is to find its way to wider circles4 8,man10 we are told by a pupil of ,feuerbach1 in accord with his master's teaching1 8man is man's god4 ,and only by the enthronement of this human god can the super-human and ultra-human ,god be made superfluous4 ,what ,christianity was and claimed to be in times gone by1 that now is claimed by humanity40 8,the being which man in religion and theology reveres10 continues ,jodl with ,feuerbach1 8is his own being1 the essence of his own desires and ideals4 ,if you eliminate from this conception all that is mere fancy and contrary to the laws of nature1 what is left is a cultural ideal of civilization1 a refined humanity1 which will become a reality by its own independent strength and labour0 7,ludwig ,feuerbach1 #aijd1 #aaa f41 #aid74 8,the greatest achievement of modern times10 says another panegyrist of emancipated humanity1 8is the deliverance from the traditional bondage of a direct revelation4444 ,neither revelation nor redemption approach man from without2 he is bound rather to struggle for his perfection by his own strength4 ,what he knows about ,god1 nature1 and his own self1 is of his own doing4 ,he is in reality #8the measure of all things1 of those that are1 and why they are2 of those that are not1 and why they are not4' ,of his dignity as an image of ,god1 he has therefore not lost anything2 on the contrary1 he has come nearer to his resemblance to ,god1 his highest end1 by his consciousness of being self-existent and of having the destiny to produce everything of himself2 from a receptive being he has become a spontaneous one2 he has at last come to a clear knowledge of his own real importance and destiny0 7,spicker1 ,der ,kampf zweier ,weltanschauungen1 #ahih1 #acd74 ,hence 8not to make man religious10 to quote again the above-mentioned exponent of modern wisdom of life1 8but to educate1 to promote culture among all classes and professions1 this is the task of the present time40 8,religion cannot therefore be the watchword of a progressive humanity2 neither the religion of the past nor the religion that is to be looked for in the future1 but ethics0 7,jodl1 ibid41 #ajh1 #aab74 ,ethics1 to be sure1 the fundamental principles of which are not the commandments of ,god1 by the keeping of which we are to reach our eternal happiness1 but human laws1 which are observed for the sake of man4 8,morality and religion10 we are told1 8shall no longer give us a narrow ladder on which we1 each one for himself1 climb to the heights of the other world2 we are vaulting a majestic dome above this earth under which the generations come and go1 succeeding each other in continuous procession4444 ,the day will come when the rays of thought which are now dawning upon the highest and freest mountain-tops will bring the light of noonday down to mankind40 ,woe to us1 if from these high mountain-tops1 where the bare rocks no longer take life and fecundity from the heavens1 the sad desert of estrangement from ,god should extend into the fresh green of the valleys6 ,the central ideas of the humanitarian view of the world appear again1 though under different form1 among ,freemasons and free-thinkers1 agitators for free religion and free schools4 ,it is well known that ,freemasonry has emblazoned 8humanity0 upon its standard4 8,one word of the highest meaning10 so wrote an official authority some years ago1 8contains in itself the principle1 the purpose1 and the whole tenor of ,freemasonry1 this word is humanity4 ,humanity is indeed everything to us40 8,what is humanity8 ,it is all1 and only that1 which is human0 7,freiburger ,ritual1 #bd4 ,pachtler1 ,der ,goetze der ,humanitaet1 #ahge1 #bdi f474 8,that which is essentially human is the sublime1 divine1 and the only ,christian ideal10 adds another authority1 addressing the aspirant to ,freemasonry4 8,leave behind you in the world your different church-formulas when you enter our temple1 but let there always be with you the sense for what is holy in man1 the religion which alone makes us happy0 7,latomia1 #ahfh1 p4 #afg1 ,pachtler1 #bdh74 ,as early as #ahbc the 8,zeitschrift fuer ,freimauerei0 wrote3 8,we should be accused of idolatry should we personify the idea of humanity in the way in which the ,divinity is usually personified4 ,this is indeed our reason for withholding from the eyes of profane persons the humanitarian cult1 till the time has come when1 from east to west1 from noon to midnight1 its high ideal will be pondered and its cult propagated everywhere0 7,pachtler1 #bee74 ,the time has already come when 8the rays of thought that dawned upon the mountain-tops0 are descending into the valley4 ,the ,twenty-second ,convention of ,german ,free-religionists1 at ,goerlitz1 at the end of ,may1 #aijg1 passed this resolution3 8,the ,convention sees one of its chief tasks in the alliance of all anti-clericals and free-thinkers1 and tries by united effort to obtain this common end and interest by promoting culture1 liberty of mind1 and humanitarianism40 ,there was1 moreover1 taken up for discussion the thesis3 8,free-religionists reject the teaching that declares man lost by original sin1 unable to raise himself of his own strength and reason1 that directs him to revelation1 redemption1 and grace from above40 ,this view of the world finds its most characteristic expression in pantheism1 which1 though expressed in various and often fantastic forms1 is eminently the religion of modern man4 ,from this gloomy depth of autotheism the apotheosis of man and his earthly life1 the modern consciousness of freedom1 draws its strength and determination4 ,to find this modern view of man expressed in the language of consistent radicalism1 let us hear ,fr4 ,nietzsche1 the most modern of all philosophers4 ,his ideal is the transcendental man1 who knows that ,god is dead1 that now there is no bar to stepping forth in unrestricted freedom to superhuman greatness and independence4 ,to this 8masterman10 who deems himself superior to others1 everything is licit that serves his egotism and will1 everything that will promote his interest to the disadvantage of the rabble2 probity is cowardice6 8,but now this god is dead4 ,ye superior men1 this god was your greatest danger40 ,thus spoke ,zarathustra4 8,only since this god is buried do you begin to rise4 ,now at length the great ,noon is in its zenith4 ,now the superior man becomes master4 ,onward and upward1 then1 ye superior men6 ,at last the mountain of man's future is in travail4 ,god is dead2 let the superior man arise and live40 7,also sprach ,zarathustra1 ,w4 ,w4 ,,vi1 #dah47 ,and1 in the consciousness that the ,christian religion condemns this self-exaltation1 he breaks out in this blasphemous charge3 8,i call ,christianity the one great curse1 the one great internal corruption4444 ,i call it the one immortal1 disgraceful1 blot on mankind0 7,antichrist1 ,w4 ,w4 ,,viii1 #cac74 ,this is independent humanity in the cloak of fanaticism4 ,nietzsche has carried the modern view of the world to its final consequences2 the autonomous man has developed into the god-like superman who carries into effect the behest3 ,ye shall be as gods2 his code of ethics is that of the autocrat who is above the notions of good and bad4 ,and 8let no one deceive himself10 writes an intelligent observer of the times1 8the spirit of our time is attuned to ,nietzsche's idea40 ,consciously or unconsciously this sentiment dominates more minds than many a man learned in the wisdom of the schools may dream of4 ,did ,nietzsche create this spirit8 ,certainly not3 he grew out of it1 he has only given it a philosophical setting4 ,nietzsche would never have caused that tremendous sensation1 never have gathered around him his enthusiastic followers1 had not the soil been prepared4 ,as it was1 he appeared to 8his0 men as the ,messiah 8in the fulness of time40 ,he1 too1 in his own way 8loosened the tongue of the dumb and opened the eyes of the blind40 ,the veiled anti-,christian spirit1 the unconscious religious and ethical nihilism1 which no one before dared profess openly1 though it was hatching in the minds1 now had found its 8master10 its 8scientific system0 7,von ,grotthuss1 ,tuermer1 ,,vii1 #aije1 #gi74 ,it is1 asserts ,wundt1 8the new ideal of free personality1 dependent on precarious moods and chance influences1 that has found in ,nietzsche's philosophy a fantastic expression0 7,ethik1 ed4 #c4 #aije1 p4 #ebb74 ,the ,autonomous ,man4 ,now we have a clearer idea of modern freedom4 ,it is known as autonomism4 ,the individual wants to be a law to himself1 his own court of last appeal2 he wants to develop his personality1 feeling1 desires1 and thought1 independently of all authority4 ,too long1 it is said1 have man's aspirations been directed upward1 away from things1 of this world1 to a supernatural world4 ,religion and ,church seek to determine his thought and desire1 to subject him to dogma4 ,too long has he clung like a child to the apron-strings of authority4 ,man has at last awoken to self-consciousness and to a sense of his own dignity1 after a period of estrangement1 so to say1 from himself2 he has become himself again1 as the poet sang when the century of the 8illuminati0 was closing3 8,how beautiful1 with palm of victory1 ,o man1 thou standest at the century's close1 ,the mightiest son thy ,time has given birth1 ,by reason free1 by law and precept strong1 ,alike in meekness great and treasure rich1 ,so long unknown concealed within thy breast40 ,yes1 man has discovered the treasure that long lay hidden in his breast1 the seed and bud that longed to burst forth into life and blossom4 ,now the motto is3 ,independent self-development2 no more restraint1 but living out one's personality4 ,the eagle is not given wings to be bound down upon the earth2 nor does the bud come forth never to unfold4 ,full freedom1 therefore1 too1 for everything human6 ,and modern man leaps to the fatal conclusion3 therefore all interference of external authority is unjust1 is force1 constraint upon my being2 the same error that boys fall into when life begins to tingle with its fulness of strength4 ,being ignorant of their nature1 they feel any kind of dependence a chain2 only themselves1 their judgments and desires1 are law4 ,just so modern man1 in his deplorable want of self-knowledge1 fails to see how he is cutting himself off from the source and support of life2 how he is pulling himself out by the roots from the soil whence he derives his strength2 how1 left to his own littleness1 he withers away2 how1 abandoned to his own diseased nature1 he condemns himself to intellectual decay4 ,autonomism1 individualism1 independent personality--these have become the ideals that permeate the man of this age1 and influence the thought of thousands without their knowing it4 ,the well-known1 ,protestant1 theologian1 ,a4 ,sabatier1 writes3 8,it is not difficult to find the common principle to which all the expressions and tendencies of the spirit of modern times can be reduced in any field whatever4 ,one word expresses it--the word1 #8autonomy4' ,by autonomy ,i understand the firm confidence1 which the mind of man has attained in his present stage of development1 that he contains in himself his own rule of life and norm of thought1 and that he harbours the ardent desire of realizing himself by obeying his own law0 7,la ,religion de la ,culture moderne1 #aj74 8,modern times10 writes ,r4 ,eucken1 8have changed the position of the human subject 444 it has become to them the centre of his life and the ultimate end of his endeavours0 7,zeitschrift fuer ,philosophie und philosophische ,kritik1 #aab 7#ahih71 #afe s474 ,still clearer are the following words of ,g4 ,spicker3 8,man depended formerly either on nature or on revelation1 or on both at once2 now it is just the opposite3 man is in every way1 theoretically as well as practically1 an autonomist4 ,if anything can denote clearly the characteristic difference between the modern and the old scholastic view1 it is this absolute1 subjective1 standpoint40 8,as we in principle do not intend to depend on any objectivity or authority1 there is nothing left but the autonomy of the subject0 7,der ,kampf zweier ,weltanschauungen 7#ahih71 #adc1 #ade74 ,a noted apostle of modern freedom exclaims enthusiastically3 8,this after all is freedom3 an unconditional appreciation of human greatness1 no matter how it asserts itself4 ,this greatest happiness1 as ,goethe called it1 the humanists have restored to us4 ,henceforth we must with all our strength retain it4 ,whoever wants to rob us of it1 even should he descend from heaven1 is our deadliest enemy40 7,h4 ,st4 ,chamberlain47 ,it is true1 of course1 that man should strive for perfection of self in every respect2 for the harmonious development of all the faculties and good inclinations of his own being1 and1 in this sense1 for a nobler humanity2 he should also develop and assert his own peculiar disposition and originality1 so far as they are in order1 and thus promote a healthy individualism4 ,but all this he should do within the moral bonds of his created and limited nature1 being convinced that only by keeping within the right limits of his being can he develop his ability and personality harmoniously2 he dare not reach out1 in reckless venture after independence1 to free himself from ,god and his eternal end1 and from the yoke of truth2 he dare not transform the divine sovereignty into the distorted image of created autotheism4 ,he who professes a ,christian view of the world1 can see in such a view of man and his freedom only an utter misunderstanding of human nature and an overthrow of the right order of things4 ,this overthrow1 again1 can only produce calamity1 interior and exterior disorder4 ,woe to the planet that feels its orbit a tyrannical restraint1 and leaves it to move in sovereign freedom through the universe6 ,it will move along free1 and free will it go to ruin4 ,woe to the speeding train that leaves its track2 it will speed on free1 but invariably dash itself to pieces6 ,a nature that abandons the prescribed safeguards can only degenerate into a wild sprout4 ,we shall see how these principles have actually become in modern intellectual life the principles of negation and intellectual degeneration4 ,st4 ,augustine states the history of mankind in the following1 thoughtful words3 8,a twofold love divides mankind into the ,city of the ,world and the ,city of ,god4 ,man's self-love and his self-exaltation pushed to the contempt of ,god constitute the ,city of the ,world2 but the love of ,god pushed to contempt of self is the foundation of the ,city of ,god40 7,fecerunt itaque civitates duas amores duo1 terrenam scilicet amor sui usque ad contemptum ,dei1 coelestem vero amor ,dei usque ad contemptum sui4 ,de civ4 ,dei ,,xiv1 #bh47 ,thus ,st4 ,augustine1 while contemplating the time when the war between heathenism and ,christianity was raging4 ,the same spectacle is presented to our own eyes to-day1 probably more thoroughly than ever before in history4 ,the ,period of ,man's ,emancipation4 ,the modern view of man and his freedom has shaped itself gradually in recent times2 the present is ever the child of the past4 ,the most important factor in this development was undoubtedly the ,reformation4 ,it emancipated man in the most important affair1 religious life1 from the authority of the ,church1 and made him independent4 8,all have the right to try and to judge what is right and wrong in belief10 so ,luther told the ,christian nobility of the ,german nation2 8everybody shall according to his believing mind interpret the ,scriptures1 it is the duty of every believing ,christian to espouse the faith1 to understand and defend it1 and to condemn all errors40 ,protestantism means even to the modern man 8the thinking mind's break with authority1 a protest against being fettered by anything positive1 the mind's return to itself from self-alienation0 7,schwegler1 ,geschichte der ,philosophie 7#ahhg71 #afg73 8it puts out of joint the ,christian ,church organization1 and overturns its supernatural foundation1 quite against its will1 but with an actual1 and ever more plainly visible1 effect0 7,e4 ,troeltsch1 ,die ,bedeutung des ,protestantismus fuer die ,entstehung der modernen ,welt 7#aijf71 #bi74 ,the first step towards full autonomy was taken with energy2 the emancipation from external authority then progressed rapidly in the domain of politics1 sociology1 economy1 and especially of religion1 to the very elimination of everything supernatural4 ,there came the ,english individualism of the seventeenth century4 ,the liberty of 8individual conviction10 termed also 8tolerance10 in the sense of rejecting every authoritative interference in the sanctuary of man's thought and feeling1 was extolled2 of course at first only as the privilege of those who were intellectually superior4 ,soon the ,deism of a ,herbert of ,cherbury and ,locke was reached2 it was the religion of natural reason1 with belief in ,god and the obligation to moral action4 ,whatever is added by positive religions1 and therefore by the ,christian religion1 is superfluous2 hence not dogma1 but freedom6 ,locke1 indeed1 denied to atheists state toleration2 but ,j4 ,toland already advised full freedom of thought1 even to the tolerance of atheism4 ,in the year #agag ,freemasonry came into existence in ,england4 ,adam ,smith originated the idea of a liberal political economy which frees the individual from all bond1 even in the economic field4 ,the views prevailing in ,england then exert great influence in ,france4 ,rousseau and ,voltaire appear4 ,in ,france and ,germany the enlightenment of the eighteenth century makes rapid strides in the direction of emancipation4 8,the enlightenment of the eighteenth century10 writes ,h4 ,heltner1 8not only resumes the prematurely interrupted work of the sixteenth century1 the ,reformation1 but carries it on independently1 and in its own way4 ,the thoughts and demands of the #8enlightened' are bolder and more aggressive1 more unscrupulous and daring4444 ,with ,luther the idea of revelation remained intact2 the new method of thought rejects the idea of a divine revelation1 and bases all religious knowledge on merely human thought and sentiment4444 ,it is only the free1 entirely independent thought that decides in truth and justice1 moral and political rights and duties4 ,reason has regained its self-glory2 man comes to his senses again0 7,literaturgeschichte des #ah4 ,jahrhunderts ,,ii 7#ahid71 #eec74 ,kant gave it a philosophical setting4 ,then the ,french ,revolution breaks into fierce blaze1 writing on the skies of ,europe with flaming letters the ideas of emancipated humanity2 the adherents to the old religion are sent to the guillotine4 ,on ,august #bg1 #aghi1 the proclamation of the 8rights of man0 is made4 8,the principles of #aghi10 as they are now called1 henceforth dominate the nineteenth century4 ,the system which adopted these principles called itself1 and still calls itself1 ,liberalism4 ,liberalism as a principle--we are speaking of the principles of liberalism1 not of its adherents1 who for the most part do not carry out these principles in their consequences1 and occasionally do not even grasp them completely--tried to accomplish man's utter emancipation from all external and superior authority4 ,it sought to accomplish this in the political field1 by instituting constitutional1 and1 wherever possible1 a republican form of government2 in the field of economy1 by granting freedom to labour and possession1 to capital and commerce2 but especially in the field of morals and religion1 by emancipating thought and science1 and the entire life of man1--school1 marriage1 state1--from every religious influence and direction1 and in this sense it aimed at humanizing the whole life of man4 ,this is its purpose4 ,to achieve this1 it aims at establishing itself in the state1 by gaining political power through the aid of compulsory laws1 of course against all principles of freedom2 it tries to attain this by compulsory state-education1 by obligatory civil marriage1 and so on4 ,at first there appeared only a moderate liberalism1 which gradually gave place to a more radical tendency1 striving more directly and openly toward the enfeeblement and1 if possible1 the destruction of the ,christian view of the world and its chief representative1 the ,church4 ,in #ahdh the well-known materialist ,k4 ,vogt said at the national assembly in ,frankfort3 8,every church is opposed to a free development of mankind1 in that it demands faith above all4 ,every church is an obstacle in the way of man's free intellectual development1 and since ,i am for such intellectual development of man1 ,i am against every church0 7cf4 ,rothenbuecher1 ,trennung von ,staat und ,kirche 7#aijh71 #ajf74 ,in the field of economics1 every one can see how liberalism has failed4 ,in some countries people were ashamed to retain its name any longer4 ,it suddenly disappeared from public life1 and gave place to its translation1--free thought4 ,this shows that nobody cares to boast of its success4 ,all barriers of safety had been removed in a night2 crises1 confusion1 and the serious danger of the social question were the consequence4 ,in the field of actual economics it became clear that the principle of unlimited freedom could not be carried out1 because it was utterly ruinous1 and it really means a complete misunderstanding of human nature4 ,therefore liberalism has disappeared from this field1 leaving to others to solve the problem it created1 and to heal the wounds it inflicted4 ,it is otherwise in the field of theoretical economics4 ,here it still strives to dominate1 often more thoroughly than before1 no matter what name it may assume4 ,the consequences do not appear so gross to the eyes as they would in the tangible sphere of sociology4 ,especially science it wants to hold in subjection to its principles of freedom in undiminished severity4 ,that freedom which is identified with absolute independence from all authority1 especially in the intellectual sphere1 we shall here know as ,liberal freedom1 in contradistinction to ,christian freedom1 which is satisfied with independence from unjust restraint4 ,in the foregoing discussion it has been shown how deeply the liberal idea of freedom is imbedded in the unchristian philosophical view of the world4 ,the inevitable result is a freedom of science which considers every authoritative interference in research and teaching as an encroachment upon the rights of free development in man's personality1 especially in the sphere of philosophy and religion4 ,moreover1 the humanitarian view of the world1 insisting on the independence of man and his earthly life1 naturally demands the exclusion of ,god and the other world1 it orders the rejection of 8dualism0 as unscientific1 and the adoption of the monistic view in its stead2 an autonomous science can hardly be reconciled with a superior1 restricting authority4 ,later on we shall demonstrate that the main law of modern science is that the supernatural is inadmissible4 ,furthermore1 since science is not a superhuman being1 but has its seat in the intellect of man1 subject to the psychology of man1 every one who knows the heart of man will suspect from the outset that man cannot stop at merely ignoring1 but will often proceed to combat and explain away faith1 the ,church1 and all authority that might be considered an oppressor of the truth4 ,this undue love of liberty will of itself become a struggle for freedom against the oppressor4 ,how far this is actually the case we shall have occasion to discuss later on4 ,we have heard ,nietzsche's haughty and proud boast4 ,shortly after the philosopher had penned these words he was stricken 7#ahhi7 with permanent1 incurable insanity1 with which he was afflicted till his death in #aijj4 ,the 8transcendental man0 was dethroned4 ,the strength of the ,titan was shattered4 ,he that said with ,prometheus1 ,i am not a god1 still ,i am in strength the equal of any of them1 received the ironical answer1 8,behold he has become as one of us0 7,gen4 iii4 #bb74 ,he that cursed ,christian charity towards the poor and suffering1 was now cast helpless upon charity4 ,his grave at ,roecken1 the place also of his birth1 is a sign of warning to the modern world4 ,to the believing ,christian a different grave opens on ,easter day4 ,from it comes the risen ,god-man2 in ,his hand the banner of immortal victory4 ,it points the way to true human greatness1 to a superior humanity according to the will of ,god4 ,man longs for perfection2 he longs to go beyond the narrow limits of his present condition4 ,but modern man wants to rise to greatness by his own strength1 without help from above2 he would rise with giant bounds1 without law4 ,in his weakness he falls2 error and scepticism and the loss of morality are the bitter fruit4 ,another way is pointed out by the great ,friend of ,man4 ,humanity is to be led on the way of progress by the hand of ,god1 by faith in ,god1 supported by ,his grace2 thus man shall participate in ,god's nature1 shall one day attain his highest perfection in eternal life1 far beyond the limits of his present condition4 8,i am the way1 the truth1 and the life40 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,subjectivism ,and ,its ,freedom4 ,the tendency of the modern intellect to independence in its own peculiar sphere of thinking and knowing1 cannot fail to work itself out energetically4 ,in this sphere it leads naturally to that view of human reasoning called subjectivism3 the thinking or reasoning subject is its own law1 the autonomous creator and guide of its thought4 ,herein lies the essential presumption1 the very core1 of the liberal freedom of science4 ,wherever we turn we meet subjectivism with its autonomous rejection of all authority1 its arbitrary separation of knowledge from faith1 its agnosticism1 its relativity to truth as the moving factor of1 and the ostensible warrant for1 this freedom1 especially in the sphere which it considers peculiarly its own1 philosophy and religion4 ,only when we look closer into its philosophical premises will it be possible to form a judgment of the 8scientific method0 it employs in this1 its peculiar sphere1 and of the justice of its claim to be the sole administrator of man's ideal possessions1 and to be altogether 8independent of every view not conforming to this scientific method40 ,before considering subjectivism let us by way of preface set down a few considerations on the nature of human1 intellectual perception4 ,objectivism and ,subjectivism4 ,it always has been1 and still is1 the firm conviction of unbiassed men1--a conviction which irresistibly forces itself upon us1--that in our intellectual perception and thought we grasp an objective1 exterior order of things1 an existence distinct from our thought2 of this objective reality we reproduce an image in our minds1 and thus grasp it intellectually4 ,cognitio est similitudo rei1 says the old school2 that is1 ,knowledge is the reproduction of an objective reality1 which thus becomes the criterion of cognition4 ,the reproduction is a counterpart of the original4 ,in this perfect resemblance of our cognition to the objective reality there has ever been recognized the truth of knowledge4 ,when the thinking mind has arrived at the mathematical truth that the circumference of a circle is the product of the diameter multiplied by ,ludolph's number1 it knows--unless indeed it has lost its natural candour--that it has not of itself produced this result of reasoning1 but that it has recognized in it an objective reality of truth1 distinct from its own thought1 and has reproduced that truth in itself4 ,and because this reproduction corresponds to the reality1 it is called true cognition4 ,similarly1 when the intellect expresses the general law of causality1 namely1 everything that happens has a cause1 the intellect is again convinced that it has not of itself produced this result of reasoning1 but has only reproduced it by assimilating to itself an objective truth which is necessarily so and cannot be otherwise1 and which the mind must assimilate if it wants to think aright4 ,this is true not only when the mind is dealing with concrete things1 but also when it would give expression to general principles1 as in the present instance2 these1 too1 are not subjective projections1 but are independent of the thinking subject1 and are eternal laws4 ,this view of the nature of human cognition and thought has gradually undergone an essential change1 not indeed with those outside the influence of philosophical speculation1 but with the representatives of modern philosophy1 and those subject to its influence4 ,objectivism has been superseded by subjectivism4 ,its principle is this3 cognition1 imagination1 and thought are not the intellectual apprehension of an objective world existing independent of us1 of which we reproduce in ourselves a counterpart4 ,no1 the mind creates its own results of reason and cognition2 the objects before us are the creatures of the imagining subject4 ,at the utmost1 we can but say that our reasoning is the manner in which a hidden exterior world appears to us4 ,this manner must necessarily conform to the peculiarity of the subject1 to his faculties and stage of development2 but the exterior world as it is in itself we can never apprehend4 ,descartes1 starting with the premise that consciousness is the beginning of all certainty1 was the first modern philosopher to enter upon the way of subjectivism4 ,he was followed by ,locke1 ,berkeley1 and ,kant4 ,it is due to them that in the modern theory of cognition the fundamental principle of idealistic subjectivism1 no matter how difficult and unreasonable it may appear to an ordinary thinker1 has obtained so many advocates who1 nevertheless1 cannot adhere to it1 but contradict it at every step4 8,the world10 ,schopenhauer is convinced1 8is the projection of my idea4444 ,no truth is more certain1 more independent of all others1 less in need of proof1 than this1 that all there is to be known1 hence the whole world1 is an object only in relation to a subject1 a vision of the beholder2 in a word1 the projection of my own idea4 ,hence the subject is the bearer of the world0 7,die ,welt als ,wille und ,vorstellung1 ,i1 #a-b74 8,it is evidently true that knowledge cannot go beyond our consciousness1 and hence the existence of things outside of our sphere of consciousness must1 to say the least1 remain problematical0 7,der ,gegenstand der ,erkenntniss1 #ahib1 p4 #b74 ,in like manner ,o4 ,liebmann says3 8,we can never go beyond our individual sphere of ideas 7projection of our ideas71 even though we apprehend what is independent of us1 still the absolute reality of it is known to us only as our own idea0 7,zur ,analysis der ,wirklichkeit1 #aijj1 p4 #bh74 ,therefore 8the contrast between #8,i' and the world10 says ,e4 ,mach1 8between feeling or apprehension and the reality1 falls away0 7,die ,analysis der ,empfindungen1 #b;d ed41 #aijj1 p4 #i74 ,and a disciple of ,mach says3 8,it is important to hold fast to the idea that a self-existent1 divine ,truth1 independent of the subject1 objectively binding1 enthroned1 so to say1 above men and gods1 is meaningless4444 ,such a ,truth is nonsense0 7,h4 ,kleinpeter1 ,kantstudien1 ,,viii1 #aijc1 p4 #cad74 ,none of these representatives of worldly wisdom are able to fulfil the first duty of the wise man3 8,live according to what you teach40 ,even the sceptic ,hume has to admit that in the common affairs of life he feels himself compelled of necessity to talk and act like other people4 ,subjectivism is really nothing but scepticism1 for it eliminates the knowableness of objective truth4 ,but it is a masked--if you will1 a reformed--scepticism4 ,cognition is given another purpose2 its task is not at all1 so it is said1 to reproduce or assimilate a world distinct from itself1 but to create its own contents4 ,the very nature of cognition is reversed4 ,the ,autonomy of ,reason4 ,it was ,kant1 the herald of a new era in philosophy1 who gave to this gradually maturing subjectivism its scientific form and basis4 ,at the same time he gave prominence to that element of subjectivism which seems to give justification to freedom of thought1 to wit1 autonomism1 the creative power of the intellect which makes its own laws4 ,independence of reason and free thought have become catchwords since ,kant's time4 ,they are a precious ingredient of the autonomy of modern man4 ,when the flaming blaze of the ,french ,revolution was reddening the skies of ,europe1 and inaugurating the restoration of the rights of man1 ,kant was sitting in his study at ,knigsberg1 his heart beating strongly in sympathy with the ,revolution1 for he saw in it a hopeful turn of the times4 ,an old man of nearly seventy1 he followed the events with most passionate interest4 ,varnhagen records in his ,memoirs1 based on the stories of ,staegemann1 that1 when the proclamation of the ,republic was announced in the newspapers1 ,kant1 with tears in his eyes1 said to some friends3 8,now can ,i say with ,simeon1 #8,now dost ,thou1 ,o ,lord1 dismiss ,thy servant in peace1 because mine eyes have seen ,thy ,salvation' 0 7,h4 ,hettner1 ,literaturgeschichte des #ah4 ,jahrh4 ,,iii1 #dth ed41 #c1 #b1 #ahid1 p4 #ch74 ,while on the other side of the ,rhine the ,jacobins were doing their bloody work of political liberation1 the ,german philosopher1 the herald of a new era and an ardent admirer of ,rousseau1 sat in his study labouring for man's intellectual liberation4 ,to give man the right of autonomous self-determination in action and thought was the work of his life4 ,autonomy was indeed to him 8 #8the source' of all dignity of man and of every rational nature0 7,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik der ,sitten1 ,,ii74 ,and hence it was that his ardent followers beheld in him 8the first perfect model of a really free ,german1 one who had purged himself from every trace of ,roman absolutism1 dogmatism1 and anti-individualism0 7,h4 ,st4 ,chamberlain1 ,die ,grundlagen des #ai4 ,jahrh41 #hth ed41 #aijg1 ,,ii1 #aabg74 ,in his 8,grundlegung zur ,metaphysik der ,sitten0 7,the ,foundation of the ,metaphysics of ,ethics7 and 8,kritik der praktischen ,vernunft0 7,critique of ,practical ,reason7 ,kant sought to establish autonomy in moral life and action4 ,man himself1 his practical reason1 is the ultimate foundation of all moral obligation2 did man lead a good life out of obedience to ,god it would be a heteronomy unworthy of the name of 8moral40 8,the autonomy of the will10 he teaches1 8is the sole principle of all moral laws and the duties allied to them2 all arbitrary heteronomy1 on the contrary1 far from having any binding force1 is contrary to the principle of morality of the will0 7,kritik der prakt4 ,vern41 ,elementarlehre1 ,i1 #a1 #d4 ,lehrsatz74 ,or1 as amplified by a faithful interpreter of the master3 8,in the moral world the individual should be not only a member but also a ruler2 he is a member of the moral order when he obeys its law2 he is its ruler when he enacts the law4444 ,the distinction between autonomy and heteronomy separates true from false ethics1 the system of ,kant from all other systems4 ,all moral systems1 except that of ,kant1 are based on the principles of heteronomy2 they can have no other4 ,and critical philosophy was the first to grasp the principle of autonomy0 7,kuno ,fischer1 ,geschichte der neuen ,philosophie1 ,,iv1 #b;d ed41 #ahfi1 p4 #aad seq474 ,kant's just man no longer prays 8,thy will be done02 he identifies the law with himself4 ,nietzsche's transcendental man is seen in the background4 ,autonomy of thought is the result of the 8,critique of ,pure ,reason10 and in spite of its inconsistency of expression1 its involved sentences1 its extremely tiresome style1 it is and will long continue to be the text-book of modern philosophy4 ,according to ,kant our cognition consists in our fashioning the substance of our perceptions and reasoning after innate1 purely subjective1 views and conceptions4 ,time and place1 and especially the abstract notions of existence and non-existence1 necessity1 causality1 substance1 have no truth independent of our thought2 they are but forms and patterns according to which we are forced to picture the world4 ,their first matter is supplied by sense experience1 such as sound1 colour1 feeling2 but these1 too1 according to ,kant1 are not objective4 ,nothing then remains to our cognition that is not purely subjective1 having existence in ourselves alone4 ,our cognition is no longer a reproduction1 but a creation of its object2 our thought is no longer subject to an external truth that may be forced upon it4 8,hitherto10 says ,kant1 8it has been generally supposed that our cognition must be governed by objects4444 ,let us see if we cannot make better headway in the province of metaphysics by supposing that objects must be governed by our cognition0 7,kritik der ,reinen ,vernunft1 ,vorrede zur zweiten ,ausgabe74 ,this is1 indeed1 nothing but a complete falsification of human cognition4 ,it is evident to an unbiassed mind that there must be a reason for everything1 not because ,i so think1 but ,i think so because such is the fact2 that the multiplication table is right1 not because ,i think so1 but ,i must multiply according to it simply because it is right4 ,my thought is subject to objective truth4 ,but ,kant's autonomy means emancipation from objective truth1 and hence1 though ,kant himself held fast to the unchangeable laws of thinking and acting1 he energetically opened the way for subjectivism with all its consequences4 ,this was ,kant's doing1 and history credits him with it4 ,it was one of those events which have made men famous3 the giving to the ideas and sentiments of a period their scientific formula1 and thereby also their apparent justification4 ,schiller wrote in #ahje to ,w4 von ,humboldt3 8,the profound fundamental ideas of ideal philosophy remain an enduring treasure1 and for this reason alone one should think himself fortunate for having lived at the present time4444 ,finally1 we are both idealists1 and should be ashamed to have it said of us that things made us and not we the things40 ,fr4 ,paulsen gives expression to the opinion of many when he says3 8,kant gives to the intellect the self-determination that is essential to it1 and the position in the world which it deserves4 ,he has raised the intellect's creative power to a position of honour3 the essence of the intellect is freedom0 7,immanuel ,kant1 #ahih1 p4 #chf74 8,the autonomy of reason 444 we cannot give up0 7,kant1 ,der ,philosoph des ,protestantismus1 in ,philosophia militans1 #b;d ed41 #aija1 p4 #ea74 8,it is indeed the offspring of ,protestantism40 8,to me it is beyond doubt10 ,paulsen continues1 8that the fundamental tendency of primitive ,protestantism has here been carried out in all clearness0 7,ibid4 #dc74 ,luther1 too1 found in the heart of the individual the unfailing source of truth4 ,for that reason ,kant has been called the philosopher of ,protestantism4 ,hence the well-known historian1 ,j4 ,scherr1 may not be wrong when he calls the philosophy of ,kant 8the foundation of granite whereon is built the freedom of the ,german intellect40 ,now1 indeed1 we easily understand the demand for freedom of thought4 ,it is unintelligible how an external authority1 a divine revelation or infallible ,church1 could have ever approached man1 assured him of the truth of its teaching1 and laid upon him in consequence of this testimony the obligation of accepting it as true4 8,an external authority10 we are assured1 8be it ever so great1 will never succeed in arousing in us a sense of obligation2 its laws1 be they ever so lofty and earnest1 will be deemed arbitrary1 simply because they come from without0 7,sabatier1 ,la ,religion et la ,culture moderne1 apud ,fonsegrive1 ,die ,stellung der ,katholiken gegenueber der ,wissenschaft1 ,deutsch von ,schieser 7#aijc71 #aj74 ,man accepts only what he himself has produced1 what is congenial to his individuality1 what is in harmony with his personal intellectual life4 ,in the place of truth steps 8personal conviction10 the shaping of one's views and ideals2 in the place of unselfish submission to the truth steps the 8development of one's intellectual individuality10 the 8evolution of one's intellectual personality02 in a word1 free-thought4 ,exterior authority can no longer impose an obligation4 8,is there on earth10 asks ,paulsen1 8an instance where authority can decide for us in matters of belief and thought80 ,and he answers3 8,there is none2 there cannot be on this earth an infallible teaching authority40 ,and why not8 8,philosophy and science must refuse to recognize such an authority4444 ,if ,i could believe all that the ,church or the ,pope teaches1 this one thing ,i could never believe1 that they are infallible2 it would include a resolution1 once for all1 to renounce my own judgment regarding whatever they declare true or false1 good or bad2 it would be the utter renunciation of the use of my reason and conscience40 7,ibid4 #ea-ec4 ,we shall often cite the testimony of ,paulsen for the purpose of illustrating modern thought1 partly because he is no longer living1 partly because he is quite an outspoken representative of the modern view of the world1 though generally regarded as moderate4 ,moreover1 he is without doubt one of the most widely read of the modern ,german philosophers47 ,the demonstration of all this is quite unique4 ,here it is in brief3 ,were there an infallible authority1 one which necessarily taught the truth1 then thought and science would be irrevocably subjected to this authority3 that will not do2 therefore there is no such authority4 ,or thus3 ,were there an infallible teaching1 then we should have to accept it without contradiction3 that is impossible2 therefore there is no infallibility4 ,hence it is clear1 the protest against an infallible authority1 even though divine1--for the argument holds good also in regard to such an authority1--is not based on the impossibility of teaching the truth1 for the authority is supposed to be infallible1 but on man's refusal to be taught4 ,and this refusal is made in accordance with that sovereign freedom of thought which is the natural offspring of subjectivism2 the principal renunciation is based on its denial of objective truth4 ,it is the rejection of the truth4 8,in advanced progress10 ,paulsen continues1 8the individual is also separating himself from the intellectual mass of the people in order to enjoy a separate mental existence4444 ,the individual is beginning to have his own ideas about things2 he is no longer satisfied with the common opinions and notions about the world and life which have been dealt out to him by religion and mythology3 all philosophy begins with freeing the individual from common notions40 8,if the individual ideals of a personality1 gifted with extraordinary power of mind and will1 happen to come in conflict with the objective morality of the time1 then there results one of those struggles which cause the dramatic crises of history4 ,they who thus struggled were the real heroes of mankind4 ,they rose against the conventional and indifferent ideals which had grown obsolete1 against untrue appearances1 against the salt that had lost its savour2 they preached a new truth1 pointed out new aspirations and ideals which breathed a new strength into life and raised it to a higher plane0 7,system der ,ethik1 #hth ed41 #aijf1 ,i1 #cgb f474 ,truly encouraging words for the modern agitator and reformer4 ,to summon the courage to rise above the level of the masses1 to feel within himself the centre of gravity1 and to fashion his thoughts regardless of the whole world1 this is nothing less than the beginning of philosophy and wisdom4 ,and should he feel himself strong-minded he may simply change all moral and religious values which do not square with his individual judgments4 8,to remain faithful to one's own self10 we are told again1 8that is the essence of this ideal bravery4 ,no one can possess this virtue who does not feel within himself the centre about which life gravitates2 whoever pursues exterior things as his ultimate end cannot penetrate to interior freedom4 ,spinoza1 by life and teaching1 is a great preacher of this freedom0 7,ibid4 ,,ii1 p4 #bg74 ,self-consciousness as arrogant as that of a pantheist like ,spinoza1 who indeed did not pursue 8exterior things as the ultimate end10 nor ,god either2 the self-consciousness in which man feels himself the centre about which world and life revolve2 the will which now directs thought on its way1--these are the life-nerves of autonomous free-thought4 ,in fact1 inclination and will1 not objective truth1 are the measure and norm of free-thought4 ,this ,paulsen again expresses with astonishing candour4 ,according to him1 intelligence is after all nothing else than a transformation of the will1 this doctrine is rooted in the more modern voluntaristic monism1 and is akin to subjectivism4 ,if our cognition itself forms its object1 then the real concept of cognition has been lost to us1 and in its place we have the will determining the action even of the intellect4 ,paulsen says emphatically1 8,intelligence is an instrument of the will in the service of preservation of life4444 ,perhaps it can be said that even the elementary formations of thought1 the logical and metaphysical forms of reality1 are already codetermined by the will4 ,if the forms of abstract thought are at all the result of biological evolution1 then this must be accepted3 they are formations and conceptions of reality1 which have proved effective and life-preserving1 and have therefore attained their object4 ,the principle of identity is in reality not a mere statement1 not an indicative1 but an imperative3 ,a is ,a2 that is1 what ,i have put down as ,a shall be ,a and remain ,a4444 ,if this be so1 if thought and cognition be determined fundamentally by the will1 then it is altogether unintelligible how it might finally turn against the will1 and force upon it a view against its will0 7,kant's ,verhaeltniss zur ,metaphysik1 #aijj1 p4 #ca f474 ,we have to do here with a confusion of ideas possible only when correct reasoning has sunk to a surprisingly low level4 ,to think with the will1 to draw conclusions with intention1 is degenerate thinking4 ,but now we understand better what is meant by autonomy of thought4 ,it gives man license to disregard by shallow reasoning everything that clashes with his own will4 8,what ,i have put down as ,a shall be ,a and remain ,a60 ,it is now clear that subjectivism and autonomism in thinking are rooted in the positive disregard of objective truth1 in the refusal of an unconditional subjection to it2 they mean emancipation from the truth4 ,here we have the most striking and deepest difference between modern subjectivistic and ,christian objective thought4 ,the latter adheres to the old conviction that our thoughts do not make the truth1 but are subject to an objective order of things as a norm4 ,for this reason autonomous freedom and subjective caprice1 a manner of reasoning that would approach truth as a lawgiver1 and even change it according to time and circumstance1 are unintelligible in the ,christian objective thought4 ,this thought submits unselfishly to truth wherever met1 be it without a divine revelation or with it1 if the revelation be but vouched for4 ,and the reward of this unselfishness is the preservation of the truth4 ,but subjectivism1 with its freedom1 leads inevitably to the loss of the truth2 it is scepticism in principle1 in fact1 if my thoughts are not a counterpart of an objective world1 but only a subjectively produced image2 not knowledge of an external reality1 but only a figment of the imagination1 a projection1 then ,i can have no assurance that they are more than an empty dream4 ,the ,modern ,separation of ,knowledge and ,faith4 ,of course it would be too much to expect that subjectivism in modern thought and scientific work should go to the very limit1 viz41 to disregard all reasoning1 to advance at will any theory whatever1 to silence disagreeable critics by merely referring to one's autonomy in thinking1 and denying that any one can attain to absolute truth4 ,errors in empirical speculation never prosper as others do2 the power of natural evidence asserts itself at every step1 and tears down the artificial cobwebs of apparently scientific scepticism4 ,it asserts itself less strongly where the opposing power of natural evidence is weaker1 than is the case in matters of actual sense-experience4 ,here indeed one sees the objective reality before him1 which he cannot fashion according to his caprice4 ,the astronomer has no thought of creating his own starry sky1 nor does the archologist wish to create out of his own mind the history of ancient nations4 ,they both desire to know and to reveal the reality4 ,but in the suprasensible sphere1 in dealing with questions of the whence and whither of human life1 where there is question of religion and morals1 there autonomy and scepticism assert themselves as though they were in their own country1 there the free-thinker steps in1 boasting of his independence and taking for his motto the axiom of ancient sophistry3 the measure of all things is man4 ,here at the same time the natural product of subjectivism1 sceptic agnosticism1 has full sway4 ,in such matters1 we are told1 there is no certain truth2 nothing can be proved1 nothing refuted3 they are all matters of faith--not faith1 of course1 in the ,catholic sense4 ,the latter is the acceptance by reason of recognized divine testimony1 hence an act of the intellect4 ,the modern so-called faith1 on the contrary1 is not an act of the intellect1 but is supposed to be a vague feeling1 a want1 a longing and striving after the divine in one's innermost soul1 which divine is then to be grasped by the soul in some mysterious way as something immediately present in it4 ,this feeling is said to emerge from the subconsciousness of the soul1 and to raise in the mind those images and symbols which we encounter in the doctrines of the various religions1 varying according to times and men4 ,they are only the symbols for that unutterable experience of the divine1 which can be as little expressed by definitions and tenets as sounds can by colour4 ,it is a conviction of the ideal and divine1 but different from the conviction of reason2 it is an inner1 actual experience4 ,hence there can no longer be absolute religious truth1 no unchangeable dogmas1 which would have to be adhered to forever4 ,in religion1 in views of the world and life1 the free feeling of the human subject holds sway1 a feeling that experiences and weaves together those thoughts and ideals that are in accord with his individuality4 ,this is the modern doctrine4 ,the dark mysticism of the ancient ,east and the agnosticism of modern times here join hands4 ,this modern method of separating knowledge and faith is1 as we all know1 a prominent feature of modern thought4 ,knowledge1 that is1 cognition by reason1 is said to exist only in the domain of the natural sciences and history4 ,of what may be beyond these we can have no true knowledge4 ,here1 too1 ,kant has led the way2 for the important result of his criticism is his incessant injunction3 we can have true knowledge only of empiric objects1 never of things lying beyond the experience of the senses2 our ideas are merely subjective constructions of the reason which obtain weight and meaning only by applying them to objects of sense experiment4 ,hence ,god1 immortality1 freedom1 and the like1 remain forever outside the field of our theoretical or cognitive reason4 ,nevertheless ,kant did not like to drop these truths4 ,hence he constructed for himself a conviction of another kind4 ,the 8practical reason0 is to guide man's action in accomplishing the task in which her more timid sister1 theoretical reason1 failed4 ,and it does it1 too4 ,it simply 8postulates0 these truths2 they are its 8postulates10 since without them moral life and moral order1 which it is bound to recognize1 would be impossible4 ,no one knows1 of course1 whether this be truth1 but it ought to be truth4 ,stat pro ratione voluntas4 ,the ,gordian knot is cut4 8,it is so10 the will now cries from the depths of the soul1 8,i believe it02 while the intellect stands hesitatingly by protesting 8,i don't know whether it is so or not40 ,doubt and conviction embrace each other2 ,yes and ,no meet peacefully4 8,i had to suspend knowledge10 ,kant suggests1 8in order to make room for faith0 7,kritik der reinen ,vernunft1 #b4 ,vorrede74 8,it is an exigency of pure practical reason based on duty10 he further comments on his postulate1 8to make something the highest good1 the object of my will1 in order to further it with all my power4 ,herein1 however1 ,i have to assume its possibility1 and therefore its conditions1 viz41 ,god1 freedom1 and immortality1 because ,i cannot prove them by speculative reason1 nor yet disprove them40 ,thus 8the just man may say ,i wish that there be a ,god2 ,i insist upon it1 ,i will not have my faith taken from me0 7,kritik der prakt4 ,vernunft1 #a4 ,teil1 #b4 ,buch1 #b ,,viii74 ,others have followed the lead of ,kant4 ,for philosophers1 ,protestant theologians1 and modernists1 he has become the pilot in whom they trust4 8,kant's critical philosophy10 says ,paulsen1 8gives to knowledge what belongs to it--the entire world of phenomena1 for the freest investigation2 on the other hand1 it gives to faith its eternal right1 viz41 the interpretation of life and the world according to their value0 7,immanuel ,kant1 #ahih1 #f74 8,faith does not simply rest upon proofs1 but upon practical necessity02 8it does not come from the intellect1 but from the heart and will0 7,einleitung in die ,philosophie1 #ajth ed41 #aijc1 #bga1 #bfi74 8,religion is not a science1 hence it cannot be proved nor disproved40 8,therefore man's view of the world does not depend on the intellect1 but solely on his will4444 ,the ultimate and highest truths1 truths by which man lives and for which he dies1 have not their source in scientific knowledge1 but come from the heart and from the individual will40 ,in a similar strain ,r4 ,falkenberg writes3 8,the views of the world growing out of the chronology of the human race1 as the blossoms of a general process of civilization1 are not so much thoughts as rhythms of thinking1 not theories but views1 saturated with appreciations4444 ,not only optimism and pessimism1 determinism and doctrine of freedom1 but also pantheism and individualism1 idealism and materialism1 even rationalism and sensualism1 have their roots ultimately in the affections1 and even while working with the tools of reason remain for the most part matters of faith1 sentiment1 and resolve0 7,geschichte der neuen ,philosophie1 #eth ed41 #aije1 p4 #c74 ,you may look up any books or magazines of modern philosophy or ,protestant theology1 and you will find in all of them 8that faith is a kind of conviction for which there is no need of proof0 7,h4 ,luedemann1 ,prot4 ,monatshefte ,,ix1 #aijc1 #cfg74 ,this emotional faith has been introduced into ,protestant theology especially by ,schleiermacher4 ,it is also this view of the more recent philosophy that the modernists have adopted4 ,they themselves confess3 8,the modernists in accord with modern psychology distinguish clearly between knowledge and faith4 ,the intellectual processes which lead to them appear to the modernists altogether foreign to and independent of one another4 ,this is one of our fundamental principles0 7,programma dei ,modernisti 7#aijh71 #aba74 ,religious instruction for children will then have to become altogether different4 ,the demand is already made for 8a recast of thought from the sphere of the intellect into the sphere of affection40 ,away1 so they clamour1 away with the dogmas of creation1 of ,christ as the ,son of ,god1 of ,his miracles1 as taught in the old schools6 ,for all these are religious ideas4 ,pupils of the higher grades should be told 8the plain truth about the degree of historicity in elementary religious principles4444 ,the fundamental idea of religion can neither be created nor destroyed by teaching1 it has its seat in sentiment1 like--excuse the term--an insane idea0 7,fr4 ,niebergall1 ,christliche ,welt1 #aiji1 p4 #dc74 ,this dualism of 8faith0 and knowledge is as untenable as it is common4 ,it is a psychological impossibility as well as a sad degradation of religion4 ,how can ,i seriously believe1 and seriously hold for true1 a view of the world of which ,i do not know whether it be really true1 when the intellect unceasingly whispers in my ear3 it is all imagination6 ,as long as faith is a conviction so long must it be an activity of the intellect4 ,with my feeling and will ,i may indeed wish that something be true2 but to wish simply that there be a ,god is not to be convinced that there actually is a ,god4 ,by merely longing and desiring ,i can be as little convinced as ,i can make progress in virtue by the use of my feet1 or repent of sins by a toothache4 ,it is 4 ,a dualism of this kind1 between head and heart1 doubt and belief1 between the ,no of the mind and the ,yes of the heart1 is a process incompatible with logic and psychology4 ,how could such a dualism be maintained for any length of time8 ,it may perhaps last longer in one in whom a vivid imagination has dimmed the clearness of intellect2 but where the intellectual life is clear1 reason will very soon emancipate itself from a deceptive imagination4 ,one may go on dreaming of ideal images1 but as soon as the intellect awakens they vanish4 ,hallucinations are taken for real while the mind is affected1 but they pass away the moment it sees clearly4 ,kant himself1 the father of modern agnostic mysticism1 has made it quite clear that his postulates of faith concerning the existence of ,god and the immortality of the soul1 have never taken in him the place of earnest conviction4 ,thus in the first place ,kant holds that there are no duties towards ,god1 since ,he is merely a creature of our mind4 8,since this idea proceeds entirely from ourselves1 and is a product of ours1 we have here before us a postulated being towards whom we cannot have an obligation2 for its reality would have to be proved first by experience 7or revealed702 but 8to have religion is a duty man owes to himself40 ,again1 he dislikes an oath1 he asks whether an oath be possible and binding1 since we swear only on condition that there is a ,god 7without1 however1 stipulating it1 as did ,protagoras74 ,and he thinks that 8in fact all oaths taken honestly and discreetly have been taken in no other sense0 7,metaphysik der ,sitten1 ,,ii1 #ah1 ,beschluss74 ,prayer he dislikes still more4 8,prayer10 he says1 8as an internal form of cult1 and therefore considered as a means of grace1 is a superstitious delusion 7feticism74444 ,a hearty wish to please ,god in all our actions1 that is1 a disposition present in all our actions to perform them as if in the service of ,god1 is a spirit of prayer that can and ought to be our perpetual guide40 8,by this desire1 the spirit of prayer1 man seeks to influence only himself2 by prayer1 since man expresses himself in words1 hence outwardly1 he seeks to influence ,god4 ,in the former sense a prayer can be made with all sincerity1 though man does not pretend to assert the existence of ,god fully established2 in the latter form1 as an address1 he assumes this highest ,being as personally present1 or at least pretends that he is convinced of its presence1 in the belief that even if it should not be so it can do him no harm1 on the contrary it may win him favour2 hence in the latter form of actual prayer we shall not find the sincerity as perfect as in the former4 ,the truth of this last remark any one will find confirmed when he imagines to himself a pious and well-meaning man1 but rather backward in regard to such advanced religious ideas1 surprised by another man while1 ,i will not say praying aloud1 but only in an attitude of prayer2 any one will expect1 without my saying so1 that that man will be confused1 as if he were in a condition of which he ought to be ashamed4 ,but why this8 ,a man caught talking aloud to himself raises at once the suspicion that his mind is slightly deranged2 and not altogether wrongly1 because one would seem out of mind if found all alone making gestures as though he had somebody else before him2 that1 however1 is the case in the example given0 7,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 #d4 ,stueck1 #b1 #d1 ,allgemeine ,anmerkung74 ,thus it happens that in his opinion those who have advanced in perfection cease to pray4 ,nor does it seem that ,kant is serious about his postulate of the immortality of the soul4 ,asked by ,lacharpe what he thought of the soul1 he did not answer at first1 but remarked1 when the question was repeated3 8,we must not make too much boast of it0 7,h4 ,hettner1 ,literat4 ,gesch4 des #ah4 ,jahrh41 ,,iii1 #d4 ed41 #c1 p4 #bf4 ,from ,varnhausen's ,denkwuerdigkeiten74 ,thousands have with ,kant destroyed their religious conviction by a boastful scepticism1 and1 like him1 finally given it up to replace its lack by artificial autosuggestions4 ,and is not the religious life of man thereby made completely valueless8 ,the highest truths on which the mind of man lives1 and which from the first stage of his existence not only interested but deeply stirred him1 become fiction1 pictures of the fancy1 suggestions of an effeminate mind1 that cannot make a lasting impression on stronger minds4 ,and how can the products of autosuggestion give comfort and strength in hours of need and trial8 ,it is true they do not impose any obligations4 ,every one is free to form his own notions of life2 they are not to be taken seriously anyway1 whether they be this or that2 they are all equally true and equally false4 ,buddhism is just as true as ,christianity1 ,materialism as true as ,spiritualism1 ,mohammedanism as true as ,quakerism1 the wisdom of the ,saints as true as the philosophy of the worldly4 8,the most beautiful flower is growing on the same soil 7that of the emotions7 with the rankest weed0 7,hegel74 ,the decision rests with sentiments which admit of no arguing4 ,thus all is made over to scepticism1 to that constant doubting which degrades and unnerves the higher life of modern times1 to that modern agnosticism which1 though bearing the distinction of aristocratic reserve1 is in reality dulness and poverty of intellect2 not a perfection of the human intellect1 but a hideous disease1 all the more dangerous because difficult to cure4 ,it is the neurasthenia of the intellect of which the physical neurasthenia of our generation is the counterpart4 ,the distinguishing mark between man and the lower animals has ever been held to be that the former could knowingly step beyond the sphere of the senses1 into that world of which his intellect is a part4 ,the conviction has always prevailed that man by means of his own valid laws of thought1 for instance1 the principle of causality1 could safely ascend from the visible world to an invisible one4 ,thus also the physician concludes the interior cause of the disease from the exterior symptoms1 the physicist thus comes to the knowledge of the existence of atoms and ions which he has never seen1 and the astronomer calculates with ,leverrier the existence and location of stars which no eye has yet detected4 ,one thing has certainly been established3 a free sentiment can now assert itself with sovereignty in the most important spheres of intellectual life1 without any barriers of stationary truths and immovable ,christian dogmas2 one is now free to fashion his religion and ideals to suit the individuum ineffabile4 ,the latter asks no longer what religion demands of him1 but rather how religion can serve his purposes4 8,for the gods10 it is said1 8which we now acknowledge1 are those we need1 which we can use1 whose demands confirm and strengthen our own personal demands and those of our fellow-men4444 ,we apply thereby only the principle of elimination of everything unsuitable to man1 and of the survival of the fittest1 to our own religious convictions02 8we turn to that religion which best suits our own individuality0 7,w4 ,james74 ,arrogant doubt can now undermine all fundamental truths of ,christian faith until they crumble to pieces2 beside it rises the free genius of the new religion1 on whose emblem the name of ,god is no longer emblazoned1 but the glittering seal of an independent humanity4 ,relative ,truth4 ,freedom of thought appears still more justified when we take a further step which brings us to the consequence of subjectivism2 i4e41 when we advance so far as to assert that there are no unchangeable and in this sense no absolute truths1 but only temporary1 changeable1 relative truths4 ,and modern thought does profess this3 there is no absolute truth1 no religio et philosophia perennis2 different principles and views are justified and even necessary for different times and even classes4 ,this removes another barrier to freedom of thought1 viz41 allegiance to generally accepted truths and to the convictions of bygone ages4 ,the logicalness of this further step can hardly be denied4 ,if the human intellect1 independent of the laws of objective truth1 fashions its own object and truth1 especially in things above the senses1 why can it not form for itself1 at different periods and in different stages of life1 a different religion and another view of the world8 ,cannot the human subject pass through different phases8 ,he indeed changes his costume and style of architecture2 why not also his thoughts8 ,every product of thought would then be the right one for the time1 but would be untenable for a further stage of his intellectual genesis and growth1 and would have to be replaced by a new one4 ,the nature of subjectivistic thought is no longer an obstacle to this4 ,besides1 we have the modern idea of evolution1 already predominant in all fields3 the world1 the species of plants and animals1 man himself with his whole life1 his language1 right1 family1 all of them the products of a perpetual evolution1 everything constantly changing4 ,why not also his religion1 morality1 and view of the world8 ,they are only reflexes of a temporary state of civilization4 ,hence also here motion and change1 evolution into new shapes6 ,therefore1 so it is said1 we have now broken definitely with the 8dogmatic method of reasoning0 of the belief in revelation1 and of scholastic philosophy which adhered to absolute truth4 ,they are replaced by the historical-genetical reasoning of the saeculum historicum which 8has discarded absolute truth3 there are only relative1 no eternal truths0 7,paulsen1 ,immanuel ,kant1 #ahih1 #chi74 ,we are further assured that 8this treatment of the history of thought prevails in the scientific world2 the ,catholic ,church alone has not adopted it4 ,she still clings to dogmatic reasoning1 and that is natural to her2 she is sure that she is in possession of the absolute truth0 7,idem1 ,philosophia militans1 #b;d ed41 #aija1 #e74 ,outside of this ,church every period of time is free to construct its own theories1 which will eventually go with it as they came with it4 ,we meet this relative truth1 and all the indefinable hazy notions identified with it1 in all spheres4 ,the modern history of philosophy and religion concedes to every system and religion the right to their historic position3 they are necessary phases of evolution4 ,the notion of immutable problems and truths by which any system of thought would have to be measured has been lost4 8,the appearance and rejection of a system10 says ,j4 ,e4 ,erdmann1 8is a necessity of world-history4 ,the former was demanded by the character of the time which the system reflected1 the latter again is demanded by the fact that the time has changed0 7,grundriss der ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 #crd1 ,i1 #ahgh1 #d74 ,and ,professor ,eucken says3 8,despite all its advantages1 such a view and construction of life is not a definite truth1 it remains an attempt1 a problem that always causes new discord among minds0 7,grundlinien einer neuen ,lebensanschauung1 #aijg1 #b74 8,thus1 if according to ,hegel the coming into being constitutes the truth of being1 the ideals and aims also must share in the mobility1 and truth becomes a child of the times 7veritas temporis filia74 ,that apparently subjects life to a full-blown relativism1 but such a relativism has lost all its terror by the deterioration of the older method of reasoning4 ,for agreement with existing truth is no longer its chief object40 7,geistige ,stroemungen der ,gegenwart1 #aijd1 p4 #aig74 ,the new theory of knowledge assures us quite generally3 8,it is a vain attempt to single out certain lasting primitive forms of consciousness1 acknowledged constant elements of the mind1 to retain them4 ,every #8a-priori' principle which is thus maintained as an unalienable dowry of thought1 as a necessary result of its psychological and physiological #8disposition1' will prove an obstacle of which the progress of science will steer clear sooner or later0 7,e4 ,cassirer1 ,das ,erkenntnissproblem in der ,philosophie und ,wissenschaft der neueren ,zeit1 #aijf1 #f74 ,that this relativism is also laying hand1 more and more firmly1 upon modern ethics is well known4 ,one often gets the conviction that1 as ,e4 ,westermark teaches1 8there is no absolute standard of morality10 that 8there are no general truths10 8that all moral values10 as ,prof4 ,r4 ,broda writes1 8are relative and varying with every people1 every civilization1 every society1 every free person0 7,dokumente des ,fortschritts1 #aijh1 #cfb74 ,thus modern subjectivism has lost all sense for definite rules of thought2 in its frantic rush for freedom and in its confused excitement it seeks to upset all barriers4 ,now1 of course1 we may disregard convictions thousands of years old1 by simply observing that they suited former ages but not the present2 that they perhaps suit the uneducated but not the educated4 ,henceforth one may also reject the dogmas of ,christianity by merely pointing out that they were at one time of importance1 but are not suited to the modern man4 ,that is an idea readily grasped1 one which has already become quite general with those who are mentally tired of ,christianity4 ,what is demanded is a further evolution also of the ,christian religion1 a continuous cultivation of freer1 higher forms1 an undogmatic ,christianity without duty to believe1 without a ,church3 nothing else1 in the end1 but a veiled humanitarian religion4 8,it will be difficult for coming generations to understand10 says ,paulsen1 in the same sense1 8how our time could cling in religious instruction with such peace of mind to a system which1 having originated several centuries ago under entirely different conditions of intellectual life1 stands in striking contrast to facts and ideas accepted by our time everywhere outside the schools40 ,hence a revision of the fundamental truths of ,christianity is needed4 ,away with everything supernatural and miraculous1 obedience to faith1 original sin1 redemption3 all this sounds strange to the modern man4 8,so there remains but one way3 to adapt the doctrine of the ,church to the theories and views of our times0 7,system der ,ethik1 #hth ed41 #aijf1 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdg1 #bej74 ,and ,eucken says similarly3 8,we can adopt the doctrinal system of the ,church only by retiring from the present back to the past0 7,zeitschr4 fuer ,philosophie u4 ,phil4 ,kritik #aab1 #ahih1 #afe74 ,therefore we demand evolution of the ,christian religion6 8,let us not blindly follow antiquated doctrines disposed of by science10 we are exhorted4 8,let there be no fear lest our belief in ,god and true piety suffer by it6 ,let us remember that everything earthly is in continual motion1 carried along by the rushing river of life40 ,onward1 therefore1 to advancement6 444 cheerfully avowing the watchword3 8evolution of religion0 7,fr4 ,delitzsch1 ,zweiter ,vortrag ueber ,babel u4 ,bibel1 #de4 thousand1 #aijd1 #db74 ,modern ,protestant theology has achieved a great deal in this direction2 its evolution has progressed to a complete disintegration of ,christianity1 by adapting it to modern ideas so thoroughly that there is not a single thought left which this ,christianity1 reduced to meaningless words1 might not accept4 ,this is the relativism of the present subjectivistic reasoning and its consequences4 ,now1 it is true that there is room for a certain relativity and evolution in the field of thought and truth4 ,there is a relative truth in the sense that our knowledge of it is never exhaustive4 ,even the eternal truths of the ,christian religion we always know only imperfectly1 and we ought to perfect our knowledge continually2 established facts of history can also be known1 if studied1 in greater detail4 ,thus there is progress and evolution4 ,but from this we may not conclude that there can be no fixed truths at all4 ,in the astronomy of to-day one can surely have the conviction that the fundamental truths of ,copernicus's ,system of the ,universe must remain an unchangeable truth1 and that the time will never come when we shall go back to the obsolete doctrines of old ,ptolemy1 who made the sun revolve around the earth4 ,is astronomy therefore excluded from progress and evolution8 ,it is moreover true that the individual as well as the community pass through an intellectual evolution in the sense that they gradually increase their knowledge and correct their errors1 that literature and the schools gradually enhance the energy and wealth of our ideas and thoughts4 ,but a progressive change of the laws of thought1 to the effect that we must now hold to a proposition which at another time we should naturally reject as untenable1 can be maintained only upon the supposition that the thought of evolution has driven all others out of the intellect4 ,it would be absurd to hold that the same view could be true at one time and false at another1 that the same views about the world and life could be right to-day and wrong to-morrow1 to be accepted to-day and rejected to-morrow4 ,a view is either true or false4 ,if true1 it is always true and warranted4 ,or was old ,thales right when he declared the world to consist of water2 were ,plato and ,aristotle right in maintaining that it consisted of ideas1 or forms1 with real existences2 was ,fichte and his time right with his ,ego1 and are finally ,schopenhauer1 ,wundt1 and ,paulsen right in claiming the world to be the work of the will8 ,were our heroic ancestors right1 as the theories of evolution claim1 in holding that trees are inhabited by ghosts2 were then the ,greeks right with their idea of a host of gods dwelling in the ,olympus2 and later on1 was the civilized world right in holding that there is but one ,god1 a personal one2 and1 after that1 are many others of to-day right when they tell us that the world1 and nature itself1 is god8 ,these are conclusions that threaten confusion to the human brain4 ,and yet they are the logical consequences of 8relative truth10 and any one reluctant to accept these consequences would prove thereby that he has never realized what absurdities are marketed as relative truth4 ,or shall we give it up1 as entirely impossible1 to judge of the truth or falseness of doctrines and views8 ,are we to value them only so far as they are adapted to a period1 and as moulding and benefiting that period8 ,this opinion indeed is held4 8,the values of science and philosophy10 says ,paulsen1 8of our arts and poetry1 consist in what they give us2 whether a distant future will still use them is very questionable4 ,scholastic philosophy has passed away2 we use it no longer2 that is1 however1 no proof against its value2 if it has made the generations living in the latter half of the ,middle ,ages more intelligent and wise 444 then it has done all that could rightfully be expected of it3 having served its purpose1 it may be laid with the dead3 there is no philosophy of enduring value40 8,whatever new ideas a people produces from its own inner nature will be beneficial to it4 ,nature may be confidently expected to produce here and everywhere at the right time what is proper and necessary0 7,system der ,ethik1 #hth ed41 #aijf1 ,i1 #cci1 seq41 ,,ii1 #bda74 ,we have here a very deplorable misconception of the real value of truth1 degrading it to suit passing interests and to promote them4 ,this also is in conformity with subjectivism4 ,but what could be answered to the straight question3 suppose the opinions which some prefer to call 8false0 are more useful and valuable than 8truth08 ,none but ,nietzsche had the courage to say that 8the falsity of a judgment is not yet a sufficient prejudice against it2 here our new speech will perhaps sound strangest4 ,the question is3 ,how far is that judgment life-promoting1 life-sustaining1 preservative1 even creative of species1 and we are inclined1 on principle1 to say that the falsest judgments are to us the most indispensable0 7,jenseits von ,gut und ,boese1 ,i1 #d1 ,w4 ,w4 ,,vii1 #ab47 ,the view that doctrines and opinions become especially or exclusively true and valuable by their usefulness for practical life1 has become in our times the principle of pragmatism4 ,what others thought out only half way1 ,nietzsche reasons out to the end4 ,to what lengths this contempt of objective truth may lead a man of such an honest character as ,paulsen1 is learned from his advice to the modern ,protestant preacher who can no longer believe what he has to preach to his orthodox congregation3 he may speak just as suits his congregation1 orthodox as well as unorthodox1 according to the principles of relative truth4 8,let us assume10 he says1 8that his congregation is of a remote country village1 where not the slightest report of the happenings in theology and literature has penetrated1 where the names of ,strauss and ,renan are as little heard as those of ,kant and ,schleiermacher4 ,here the ,bible is still taken to be the literal ,word of ,god1 transmitted to us by holy men commissioned to do it4 ,in this case the preacher may speak without scruple of that book in the same way as his present hearers are used to4 ,would he thus be saying what is wrong8 ,what is meant by saying the ,bible is the ,word of ,god8 ,the same preacher1 if transferred to other surroundings where he has to address readers of ,strauss and ,kant1 may change his manner of speaking without changing his view or without violating the truth one way or the other4 ,he would be speaking to them from their own point of view4444 ,again1 should the same preacher publish his philosophical scientific research1 he could speak of ,holy ,scripture in an entirely different way44440 ,and he adds3 8,some have taken exception to this opinion40 ,surely not without reason6 ,a justification of this counsel was attempted in these words3 8,just as the electric incandescent light and the tallow-candle may exist side by side1 and as each of them may serve its purpose in its proper place1 so there exist also side by side various physical and metaphysical ideas and fundamental notions3 the scientist and the philosopher and the old grandmother in her cottage on the remote mountain-side1 cannot think of the world in the same way0 7,ethik ,,ii1 #bdj-bdd74 ,but the argument1 if it should prove anything1 must be formulated thus3 8,as the incandescent light can at the same time be a tallow-candle1 just so can two different and opposite views about one and the same thing be at the same time both right40 ,thus1 thanks to the science of modern subjectivism1 every fixed and unchangeable truth1 especially in the sphere of philosophy and religion1 is removed1 and with it also every barrier to freedom of thought in science as well as elsewhere4 ,the human intellect in its autonomous self-consciousness may not only reject those truths which are proposed by revelation or the ,church2 it may not only experience its views of religion and the world by giving free activity to its feelings1 it also knows that to be no longer satisfied with the old truths means to be progressive4 ,above we have sketched the deeper-lying thoughts on which the liberal freedom of science is based2 it is the humanitarian view of the world with its emancipation of man1 and autonomous scepticism in thought1 joined to that sceptical disregard of truth which once the representative of expiring pagan antiquity comprised in the words3 ,quid est veritas8 ,now we also understand better the liberal science which often claims the privilege of being 8the0 science1 and which only too often likes to put down as unwarranted and inferior every other science that does not pursue its investigations in the same way4 ,we understand its methods of thought in philosophy and religion1 for which it claims an exclusive privilege2 we can also form a judgment of its claim to be the leader of humanity in place of faith4 ,no doubt there are many who are flirting with this freedom without accepting its principles entirely4 ,they do not reason out the thing to the end1 they argue against the invasion of the ,church into the field of science1 and point to ,galileo2 they denounce ,index and ,syllabus1 and then believe they have therewith exhausted the meaning of freedom of science4 ,that the real matter in question is a view of the world diametrically opposed to the ,christian view1 that a changed theory of cognition is underlying it1 is by many but insufficiently realized4 ,this freedom is not acceptable to one who professes the ,christian view of the world4 ,he will not offer any feeble apology to the eulogist of this freedom1 as1 for instance3 ,indeed you are quite right about your freedom1 but please remember that ,i1 too1 as a faithful ,christian am entitled to profess freedom4 ,no2 the answer can only be3 ,freedom1 yes2 but this freedom1 no4 ,a wholly different view of the world separates me from it4 ,i see in it not freedom but rebellion1 not the rights of man but upheaval1 not a real boon of mankind but real danger4 ,the principle of liberalism has in the field of social economy already done enough to wreck man's welfare4 ,it has here proved its incompetence as a factor of civilization4 ,that in science also1 where it is active in the field of philosophy and religion1 liberalism is the principle of overthrowing true science1 without any appreciation for truth and human nature1 that it is a principle of intellectual pauperism and decay1 that it despoils man of his greatest treasures1 inherited from better centuries--this we shall prove conclusively4 ,it is difficult to say how long the high tide of liberalism will sweep over the fields of modern intellectual life before it subsides4 ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 that just so long it will remain a danger to ,christian civilization1 and to the intellectual life of mankind4 ,,second ,,section4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,research ,,and ,,faith4 ,chapter ,i4 ,research ,and ,faith ,in ,general4 ,introduction4 ,when the youth growing to maturity begins to feel the development of his own strength1 it may happen that he finds his dependence on home unbearably trying4 ,perhaps he will say1 8,father1 give me the portion of substance that falleth to me10 and then depart into a strange country4 ,the men of ,europe have for centuries lived in the ,christian religion as in their fathers' house1 and have fared well4 ,but to many children of our time the old homestead has become too confining4 ,modern man1 we are told1 has at last come to his senses4 ,he wants to develop his personality1 thoughts1 and sentiments freely1 independently of every authority4 ,he turns his back on his father's house4 ,his parting words are the accusation3 ,the old ,church 8opposes the modern principles of free individuality1 the right to drain the cup of one's own reason and personal life1 and it sets itself against the whole of modern feeling1 investigation1 and activity0 7,th4 ,ziegler1 ,gesch4 der ,ethik1 ,,ii1 #b;d ed41 #ahib1 p4 #ehi74 ,we are already acquainted with this freedom4 ,we approach now the main question3 ,what is the true relation of the freedom1 which man may rightly claim for his scientific activity and reason1 to external laws and regulations8 ,is man really justified to reject them all on the plea that they degrade his intellect and are an obstacle to his development1 or does this rejection but manifest an error into which his desire of freedom has decoyed him8 ,this is the question1 it will be remembered1 that we reached soon in the beginning of our investigation4 ,we have already found the categorical answer--an emphatic rejection of such justification2 we also traced the hypotheses on which the answer rests4 ,we now return to the question to discuss it in principle4 ,we begin with the freedom of scientific research1 in order to take up afterwards the freedom in teaching4 ,what are those external powers that may interrupt or caution the scientist in his investigations and problems8 ,here we do not yet consider the scientist as a teacher1 communicating to the public the result of his investigation1 his ideas and views1 from the university chair to his scientific audience1 or to a wider circle of hearers by means of publications2 we here regard him in his private study only1 in the pursuit of which he perhaps encounters new questions1 and new solutions suggest themselves to him4 ,what freedom can he and must he enjoy here8 ,this private freedom must evidently be judged from a point of view other than that from which the freedom in teaching should be judged4 ,with the latter1 the interests of his contemporaries must be taken into account1 and the question must be considered1 whether they suffer by such teaching4 ,the freedom of the scientist is greater than that of the teacher4 ,moreover1 research is the principal and most important activity of science3 nothing1 surely1 is taught that has not been previously investigated4 ,if1 therefore1 research is in any way restricted1 so also is teaching2 but not vice versa4 ,are there1 then1 exterior authorities that may restrain research and reasoning1 and what are they8 ,one who lives in the ,christian world knows at once of what authority to think4 ,it is not the state4 ,the state cannot directly influence the private work of the student3 if it may exert its influence directly upon anything1 it is only upon freedom in teaching4 ,no1 the authority to think of is the authority of the faith1 revealed religion and its guardian1 the ,church4 ,of course1 this is not the only authority4 ,even if a revelation from heaven had not been given us1 yet those general convictions of mankind1 common to all nations and times1 of the immutability of the laws of thought and morality1 of the existence of a supramundane ,god1 of the retribution for moral conduct to be made in the world to come1 of the sanctity of state-authority1 of the necessity of private property1 and others1 would ever remain most revered utterances of truth4 ,no one would be allowed to contradict this avowal of all mankind1 relying on his own reasoning1 which he calls science1 and give the lie to the reasoning of all other men1 in order to make his own reason the sole measure of truth4 ,but for the present let us pass over the natural authority of mankind1 of its convictions and traditions4 ,it is surpassed and replaced by the authority of faith which belongs to our ,christian religion4 ,the latter comes to us claiming to possess the only true view of the world1 and laying upon us the obligation of accepting it4 ,it has even the courage to put its anathema upon propositions which the scientist may call science2 it dares write out a list of the propositions which it condemns as untenable4 ,against this authority the protest is raised3 ,where is freedom of research1 if one cannot even indulge in his own ideas1 if the intellect is to be cropped and fettered8 ,what is to become of frank1 unprejudiced investigation1 if ,i am from the outset bound to certain propositions1 if from the outset the result at which ,i must arrive is already determined8 ,it is intellectual bondage that the man of faith is languishing in4 ,thus reads the indictment2 thus sounds the battle-cry4 ,is the indictment justified8 ,can and shall science take faith as a guide in many instances without detriment to its own innate freedom8 ,and where1 and when8 ,first1 the more general question3 ,is freedom of research compatible with the duty to believe1 or do they exclude each other in principle8 ,what ,faith is ,not4 ,what1 then1 is faith1 and what does the duty to believe demand of us8 ,here we meet at once with a false proposition which the opponents of the ,christian faith will not abandon4 ,to them faith is always a blind assent1 in giving which one does not ask1 nor dare ask1 whether the proposition be true--a belief without personal conviction4 ,according to them the believer holds himself 8captive to the teaching of his ,church4 ,he cannot reflect personally1 but follows blindly the lead of authority and force of habit40 ,thus 8,catholicism is the religion of bondage0 7,w4 ,wundt1 ,ethik1 #c;d ed41 #aijc1 ,,ii1 #bee1 #bed74 ,to them it is but an 8uncritical submission to the existing authority1 uninfluenced either by the testimony of the senses or the reflection of the intellect0 7,k4 ,menger1 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 #bd ,nov41 #aijg74 ,the campaign for liberal science is denouncing those who 8even to-day dare to demand blind faith10 8without proof or criticism10 faith in the 8word of the ,popes and men pretending to be interpreters and emissaries of ,god1 men who have proved their incompetence and inability by the physical and religious coercion to which they have subjected mankind0 7,t4 ,g4 ,masaryk1 ,v boji o nbozenstvi1 ,the ,battle for ,religion1 #aijd1 p4 #aj1 #bc74 ,to be sure1 if the ,christian faith were such1 it would be intellectual slavery4 ,if ,i am compelled to believe something of which ,i cannot know the truth1 this is coercion1 and conflicts with the nature of the intellect and its right to truth4 ,infidelity would then be liberation4 ,but faith is not that4 ,as a rule this view is based on a presumption1 which has already been extensively discussed1 viz41 that faith and religion have nothing at all to do with intellectual activity1 but are merely the product of the heart1 a sentimental1 freely acting notion2 for1 of metaphysical objects no human intellect can form a certain conviction4 ,it is subjectivism that leads to this view4 ,according to it the subject creates its own world of thought1 free in action and feeling1 not indeed everywhere1--in the sphere of sense-experience the evidence of the concrete is too great1--but at least in the sphere of metaphysical truth4 ,such modes of expression find their way also into ,catholic literature and language2 even here we meet with the assertion that religion is a matter of the heart1 and for that very reason has nothing to do with science4 ,on the whole it is a remarkable fact that among believing men many expressions are current that have been coined in the mint of modern philosophy1 and have there received a special significance4 ,they are used without real knowledge of their origin and purposed meaning2 but the words do not fail to colour their ideas1 and to create imperceptibly a strange train of thought4 ,one who is of the opinion that religion and views of the world are but sentiment and feeling1 which change with one's personality and individuality1 can1 of course1 no longer understand a dogmatic ,christianity and the obligation to hold fast to clearly defined dogmas as unchangeable truth4 ,i can hold dogmas and doctrinal decisions to be unquestionably true only when ,i can convince myself of their credibility by the judgment of my reason4 ,if ,i cannot do that1 and am still bound to believe them1 without the least doubt1 then such obedience is compulsory repression of the reason4 ,then it would indeed be necessary for the ,church1 as ,kant says1 8to instil into its flock a pious dread of the least deviation from certain articles of faith based on history1 and a dread of all investigation1 to such a degree that they dare not let a doubt rise1 even in thought1 against the articles proposed for their belief1 because this would be tantamount to lending an ear to the evil spirit0 7,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft1 #c4 ,stueck1 #b4 ,abtlg474 ,fixed dogmas may then at the very most1 according to the great master of modern thought1 be of pedagogic value to a minor1 until he be grown to maturity4 ,but to more advanced minds must be unconditionally conceded the freedom to construct dogmas as they think best1 viz41 as symbols and images for the subjective thought they underlie4 ,this also1 as is well known1 is an article of ,modernism1 which here again follows in the steps of ,kant4 8,ecclesiastical faith10 says ,kant1 8may be useful as a vehicle to minors who can grasp a purely rational religion only through symbols1 until in the course of time1 owing to the general enlightenment1 they can with the consent of everybody exchange the form of degrading means of coercion for an ecclesiastical form suitable to the dignity of a moral religion--that of free faith40 8,the membranes10 he says in another place1 8in which the embryo first shaped itself into man must be cast off1 if he is to see the light of day4 ,the apron-strings of sacred tradition with its appendages1 viz41 the statutes and observances which at one time did good service1 can gradually be dispensed with2 they may even become a harmful hindrance when one is growing to manhood40 ,of course1 to him who takes the position of ,kant's dualism of belief and rational judgment1 freedom from every authority in matters of faith1 and in this sense tolerance1 will appear to be self-evident4 ,whatever has nothing to do with knowledge1 but is merely the personal result of an inner1 subjective experience1 cannot be offered by external authority as matter for instruction4 ,the sole standard for this belief is the autonomous subject and its own needs4 ,in this sense ,harnack tells us3 8,the kernel of one's being is to be grasped in its own depths and the soul is merely to recognize its own needs and the road traced out for their gratification4 ,this can only be done with the fullest freedom4 ,any restraint here is tantamount to the destruction of the problem2 any submission to the teaching of others 444 is treason to one's own religion0 7,religioeser ,glaube und freie ,forschung4 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 #g4 ,juni1 #aijh74 ,to have one's religion determined by any authority1 even a divine one1 would be treason to the sovereignty of man6 ,viewed from this standpoint1 the reconciliation between faith and science is no longer a problem4 ,and they congratulate themselves on the solution of this vexing question4 ,now1 they say1 deliverance from an oppressive misery has been found1 now the peace sought for so long is restored4 ,a fair division has been made3 two worlds1 the world of the senses1 and the world above sense experience4 ,one belongs to science1 where it now rules supreme2 the other belongs to faith1 where it can move freely1 undisturbed by1 and even unapproachable to science4 ,just as the stars in the sky are inaccessible to the custodian of civil order1--he can neither support them nor hinder them1 nor pull them down1--just so the realm of faith is inaccessible to science3 peace reigns everywhere4 ,cheered on by this treaty of peace1 ,paulsen writes3 8,thus critical philosophy has solved the old problem of the relation of knowledge to faith4 ,kant is convinced that by properly setting the limits he has succeeded in laying the foundation for real and enduring peace between them4 ,in fact1 upon this in the first place will rest the importance and vitality of his philosophy4 ,it gives to knowledge1 on the one hand1 what belongs to it for unlimited research1 the whole world of phenomena2 on the other hand it gives to faith its eternal right1 the interpretation of life and the world from the view-point of values4 ,there can be no doubt that herein lies the cause of the great impression made by ,kant upon his time2 he appeared as the liberator from unbearable suspense0 7,immanuel ,kant1 #ahih1 #f74 ,to a critical observer1 such peace-making is utterly incomprehensible4 ,they probably did not consider that in this way religion and faith were not liberated1 but dispossessed2 not brought to a place of safety1 but transferred from the realm of reality into the realm of fancy4 ,similarly an aggressive ruler might address a neighbouring prince thus3 ,we cannot agree any longer1 let us make peace3 you retain all your titles1 and ,i shall see to your decent support1 but you will have to lay down your crown and sovereignty and leave the country--in this way we can have peace4 ,religion1 once the greatest power in the life of man1 for the sake of which man made sacrifices and even laid down his life1 has now become a matter of sterile devotion2 it may1 moreover1 no longer claim power and importance2 it is now reduced to a poetic feeling1 with which one can fill up intellectual vacancies4 ,no longer is man here for religion's sake2 religion is here for man's sake4 ,a buttonhole flower1 a poetic perfume to sprinkle over his person4 ,for he does not want to give up religion entirely4 8,we are the less inclined to give up religion forthwith1 since we are prone to consider a religious disposition as a prerogative of human nature1 even as its noblest title40 ,thus ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 when he asked of those who sympathized with his opinions1 ,have we still religion8 7,der alte u4 neue ,glaube1 ,,ii1 n4 #cc74 ,of course religion has now become something quite different2 it has been consigned to deep degradation4 ,to be sure1 feeling is of great importance in religion4 ,dissatisfaction with the things of this earth1 man's longing for something higher1 for the ,infinite1 his craving for immortality1 for aid and consolation--are all naturally seeking for religious truths4 ,if these are known1 they in turn arouse fear and hope1 love and gratitude2 they become a source of happiness and inspiration4 ,but these feelings have no meaning unless we are certain that there exists something corresponding to them2 much less could they of themselves be a conviction1 just as little as hunger could convince us that we have food and drink4 ,if one cannot perceive that there is a ,god1 a ,providence1 a life beyond1 then religion sinks to the level of a hazy feeling1 without reason and truth1 which must appear foolish to men who think1--as 8the great phantasmagoria of the human mind1 which we call religion0 7,jodl1 ,gedanken ber ,reform ,katholizismus1 #aijb1 #ab71--which departs from the sphere of rational intellectual life1 and which many have even begun to contemplate from the view-point of psychopathology4 ,it is only due to the after-effect of a more religious past that religion is suffered to lead still a life of pretence3 moral support in struggles it can give no more1 nor comfort in dark hours1 much less may it presume to guide man's thought4 ,it stands far below science4 ,despair of the possibility of knowing higher truths is confronting us1 the disease of deteriorating times and intellectually decaying nations4 ,but just as ,christianity1 once in youthful vigour1 went to the rescue of an old ,world dying of scepticism1 just as the ,catholic ,church has ever upheld the rights of reason1 especially against ,protestantism1 which from its beginning has torn asunder faith and knowledge3 so the ,catholic ,church stands to this day unaffected by the doubting tendency of our times1 upholding the rights of reason4 ,it also upholds faith4 ,but its faith has nothing to do with modern agnosticism4 ,what ,faith ,is4 ,what1 then1 according to ,catholic doctrine1 is faith and the duty to believe8 ,let us briefly recall to mind the fundamental tenets of the ,christian religion4 ,it tells us that even in the ,old ,testament1 but more especially in the ,new1 through ,his ,incarnate ,son1 ,god has revealed to man all those religious and moral truths which are necessary and sufficient for the attainment of his supernatural end4 ,some of them are truths which reason by itself could not discover2 others it could discover1 but only by great labour4 ,and this divine revelation demands belief4 ,belief is natural to man4 ,the child believes its parents1 the judge believes the witnesses1 the ruler believes his counsellors4 ,god wished to meet man in this way1 and to give him certainty in regard to the highest truths4 ,but revelation was to be an heritage of mankind1 it was to be transmitted and laid unadulterated before all generations4 ,for this reason it could not be left unprotected to the vicissitudes of time1 or the arbitrary interpretation of the individual4 ,it would have utterly failed in its purpose of transmitting sure knowledge of certain truth1--the history of ,protestantism proves this1--had it been given merely with the injunction3 ,receive what ,i have committed to your keeping1 and do with it what you please4 ,no1 it had to be made secure against subjective1 arbitrary choice4 ,to this end ,christ established an international organization1 the ,church1 and committed to it ,his ,gospel as a means of grace1 together with the right and sacred duty to teach it to all men in ,his ,name1 to keep inviolate the heirloom of revelation1 defending it against all error4 8,going1 therefore1 teach ye all nations0 7,matt4 xxviii4 #ai71 was ,his command4 8,go ye into the whole world and preach the ,gospel to every creature2 he that believeth and is baptized shall be saved1 but he that believeth not shall be condemned0 7,mark xvi4 #ae74 8,he that heareth you1 heareth ,me1 and he that despiseth you1 despiseth ,me0 7,luke x4 #af74 8,behold1 ,i am with you all days1 even to the consummation of the world0 7,matt4 xxviii4 #bj74 ,he gave ,his divine aid to the ,church1 in order that she might infallibly keep ,his doctrine to the very end of time4 ,thus the divine revelation and the ,church approach all men with the duty to believe3 8he that believeth shall be saved10 ,god gravely commands2 8and if he will not hear the ,church1 let him be to thee as the heathen and publican0 7,matt4 xviii4 #ag74 ,they lay their teachings before the human intellect1 bidding it retain them as indubitable truth1 upon their infallible testimony1 yet only after convincing itself that ,god has really spoken1 and that this ,church is the true one1 which cannot err4 ,and only after having convinced itself of the credibility of the proposed teaching is it obliged to believe4 ,hence1 according to the ,christian mind1 faith is the reasonable conviction of the truth of what is proposed for belief1 by reason of an acknowledged infallible testimony4 ,the ,catholic dogma we find explained in the definition of the ,vatican ,council1 which had to expose so many errors that are liable in our days to confuse the faithful in their notions of faith and ,church4 8,this faith10 says the ,vatican ,council 7,sess4 ,,iii1 chap4 #c71 8which is the beginning of human salvation1 the ,catholic ,church teaches to be a supernatural virtue1 by which1 through the inspiration and co-operation of the grace of ,god1 we believe to be true what ,he has revealed1 not on account of the intrinsic truth of it1 perceived by the natural light of reason1 but on the authority of ,god who gives the revelation1 who can neither deceive nor be deceived4444 ,nevertheless1 in order that the service of our belief might be in accord with reason 7#8a reasonable service'7 ,god willed to unite to the internal helps of the ,holy ,ghost external proofs of ,his revelation1 to wit1 external works divine1 especially miracles and prophecies1 which1 clearly demonstrating ,god's omnipotence and infinite knowledge1 are most certain signs of divine revelation and are suited to the intelligence of all40 ,the ,council adds expressly the canon3 8,if any one say that divine revelation cannot be made credible by exterior signs1 and that men ought therefore to be moved to belief solely by their interior experience or individual inspiration1 let him be anathema40 ,we have here stated the ,catholic dogma as unanimously taught by all ,christian centuries1 by all ,fathers and theologians4 ,hence1 the act of faith by which ,i believe that the ,son of ,god became man1 that ,i shall rise from the dead1 is first of all a judgment of the reason1 not an act of the will1 or a feeling of the heart4 ,it is1 moreover1 a certain rational judgment upon weighty reasons1 not1 indeed1 such which ,i draw from intellectual knowledge1 but those which rest upon the infallible testimony of ,god4 ,the act of faith agrees therefore with assent to historic truth in that it is of the same kind of knowledge1 but upon the authority of infallible testimony4 ,just as ,i believe that ,alexander once marched victoriously through ,asia1 because there is sure testimony to that effect1 so ,i believe that ,i shall rise from the dead1 because ,god has revealed it4 ,the difference being that in the former case we have only human testimony1 whereas in the latter ,god ,himself speaks4 ,thus1 according to ,catholic teaching1 faith and knowledge may be distinct from each other1 but in a sense quite different from that of the representatives of modern1 sentimental faith4 ,the latter understand knowledge1 in this connection1 to be any judgment of the reason based upon evidence1 and they deny that faith is such2 but to a ,catholic1 faith1 too1 is a judgment of the reason1 and in this sense true knowledge2 only it is not knowledge in the more common sense of a cognition derived from one's own mental activity without the external means of authority4 ,as we have heard from the ,vatican ,council1 it is the recognized fact of divine revelation which bestows upon the matter of faith its certainty in reason4 ,hence the knowledge of this fact must precede faith itself4 ,but the knowledge must be certain1 not merely a belief1 for it is the very presupposition of belief1 but a knowledge1 derived from the intellect1 which may at any time be traced back to scientific proofs if there is the requisite philosophical training4 ,so long as man is not certain that ,god has spoken1 he cannot have faith according to the ,catholic view4 ,one of the sentences condemned by ,innocent ,,xi41 to say nothing of other ecclesiastical testimonies1 is this3 8,the assent of supernatural faith1 useful for salvation1 can exist with merely probable information of the fact of revelation1 even with the fear that ,god has not spoken40 ,and very recently there has been condemned also the proposition3 8,the assent of faith ultimately rests upon a sum of probabilities0 7,decretum ,lamentabile1 ,july #c1 #aijg4 ,sent4 #be74 ,it cannot be our task here to show at length how the ,christian arrives at this certain knowledge4 ,our present purpose is only to state the ,catholic concept of faith4 ,we have already heard the ,vatican ,council refer to miracles and prophecies4 ,to most of the faithful the chief fact that offers them this security is the wonderful phenomenon of the ,catholic ,church itself1 which proposes to them the doctrines of faith as divine revelation4 ,thus again the ,vatican ,council defines clearly3 8,to enable us to do our duty in embracing the true faith and remaining in it steadfastly1 ,god has through ,his incarnate ,son established the ,church and set plain marks upon ,his institution1 in order that it may be recognized by all as the guardian and interpreter of revelation4 ,for only the ,catholic ,church possesses all those arrangements1 so various and wonderful1 made by ,god in order to demonstrate publicly the credibility of ,christianity4 ,indeed the ,church of itself1 because of its wonderful propagation1 its pre-eminent sanctity and inexhaustible fecundity in everything good1 its ,catholic unity and invincible duration1 is a grand permanent proof of its credibility and irrefutable testimony in behalf of its divine mission4 ,thus1 like a 'standard unto the nations1' it invites those to come to it who have not yet believed1 and assures its children that the faith they profess rests upon a most firm foundation40 ,the ,catholic looks with pride upon his ,church3 she has stood all the trials of history4 ,he sees her endure1 though within harassed by heresies and endangered by various unworthiness and incapacity of her priests1 and attacked incessantly from without by irreconcilable enemies1 yet prevailing victoriously through the centuries1 blessing1 converting nations and beloved by them2 while by her side worldly kingdoms1 supported by armies and weapons1 go down into the grave of human instability4 ,the most wonderful fact in the world's history1 contrary to all laws of natural1 historical events1--here a higher hand is plainly thrust into human history2 it is the fulfilment of the divine promise3 8,i am with you all days1 even to the consummation of the world40 8,the gates of hell shall not prevail against it40 ,he sees the ,saints1 who have lived in this ,church and have become saints through her1 those superhuman heroes of virtue1 who far surpass the laws of human capacity4 ,in the most widely different states of life in the ,church he sees virtue grow in the degree in which one submits to her guidance4 ,he witnesses the remarkable spectacle1 that everything noble and good is attracted by the ,church1 and their contrary repelled4 ,he sees the miracles which never cease in her midst4 ,finally he beholds her admirable unity and vigorous faith2 she alone holding firm to her teaching1 not compromising with any error2 she alone holding fearlessly aloft the principle of divine authority1 and thus becoming a beacon to many who are seeking a safe shelter from spiritual ruin4 ,in addition we finally have that harmony and grandeur of the truths of faith1 and--perhaps not in the last place--that calm and peace of mind1 produced in the faithful soul by a life led according to this faith1 by prayer and the reception of the ,sacraments4 ,this is a clear proof that where the ,spirit of ,god breathes there cannot be the seat of untruth4 ,these are sufficient proofs to produce even in the uneducated1 and in children1 true and reasonable certainty1 provided they have had sufficient instruction in religion4 ,it must1 however1 be emphasized that this conviction produced by faith need not first be gained by scientific investigation of the motives of faith1 or by minute or extensive theological studies4 ,a wrong notion of human knowledge frequently leads to the opinion that there is no true certainty at all unless it is the result of scientific study--a presumption on which is based the claim of freedom of science to disregard any conviction1 be it ever so sacred1 and the claim that it is reserved to science alone to attain the sure possession of the truth4 ,later on we shall dwell more at length upon this important point4 ,let it suffice here to remark that the intellect can attain real certainty even without scientific research2 most of our convictions1 which we all hold unhesitatingly as true1 are of this kind4 ,they constitute a belief that is based upon the real knowledge of the reason1 which knowledge is not1 however1 so clear and distinct that it could be demonstrated easily in scientific form4 ,the certainty of faith1 therefore1 is based upon the knowledge that ,god ,himself vouches for the truth of the teachings of faith4 ,this relieves the faithful from the necessity of obtaining by his own reflection an insight into the intrinsic reasons of the why and the wherefore of the proposed truth1 and to examine in each instance the correctness of the thing4 ,he knows that ,god has revealed it1 that ,his infallible ,church vouches for it2 hence it is credible and true2 that suffices for him1 just as trustworthy evidence suffices for the historian concerning facts which he himself has not observed4 ,let no one say that faith is a blind belief and blind obedience1 and that dogmatic ,christianity1 or1 to use another phrase1 8the religion of the law1 demands first of all obedience3 it is true it would like1 besides that1 an interior assent for its thoughts and commandments1 but where this is lacking the law itself furnishes the ways and means to compensate the lack of this internal assent1 if only obedience is there0 7,a4 ,harnack1 ,religioeser ,glaube u4 freie ,forschung4 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,june #g1 #aijh74 ,nor let any one say that free research has 8at least this advantage over dogma1 that its claims can be proved1 which is not true of the other's claims0 7,j4 ,h4 van't ,hoff1 ibid41 ,dec4 #bi1 #aijg74 ,these are misrepresentations4 ,there is no obedience to faith which is not internal assent and conviction1 and there is no clinging to dogmas which is not based on motives of faith1 or which could not at any time be subjected to scientific investigation4 ,if the term 8blindness of belief0 were intended to express only that the believer holds the revealed doctrine to be true1 not because he has discovered its truth by his own reasoning1 but on the authority of ,god1 then we might suffer the misleading word4 ,but it is utterly false in the sense that the believer has no conviction at all4 ,even though others have it not1 the faithful ,catholic1 the believing ,christian1 has it1 and it is personal conviction4 ,he has convinced himself that ,god has spoken1 and of the credibility and hence the truth of the revealed doctrine1 by his own reason1 and this is why he assents4 ,still greater is the misrepresentation of the real motive of faith1 if it is held to be the opinion of the ,pope or of ,roman ,prelates4 ,wundt thus misstates the ,catholic position3 8,not every one can acquire knowledge4 ,but any one can believe4 ,the enlightened leaders of the ,church1 and the ,church herself first of all1 have knowledge1 and by dint of authority determine what is to be believed0 7,ethik1 #c;d ed41 #aijc1 ,i1 p4 #cdb74 ,according to the popular scientific propaganda of unbelief1 we have to deal in the ,church merely with 8ignorant monks1 ,asiatic patriarchs1 and similar dignitaries1 some very superstitious1 who1 for instance1 assembled in the third century and decided by vote that the ,gospel is the word of ,god2 we have to deal with men who have proved their incapacity and incompetence0 7,masaryk1 ,im ,kampfe um die ,religion1 #aijd1 pp4 #bb-bc74 ,any one who shares such ideas about the supernaturalness of the ,catholic ,church has1 of course1 forfeited his claim to understand ,catholic life and faith4 ,the ,catholic believes in his ,church1 not on any account of ,asiatic patriarchs and superstitious dignitaries1 but because she is led by the ,holy ,ghost1 and the ,pope must believe the same as the humblest of the faithful3 neither the ,pope himself relies upon his own judgment1 nor does the ,catholic who trusts in the word of the ,pope4 ,we add a few remarks which may further illustrate the action of faith4 ,the knowledge of the fact of revelation1 hence of the credibility of the truths revealed1 is certain1 as shown above4 ,nevertheless1 it does not compel reason to assent4 ,under ordinary circumstances it would be impossible to think of one's own existence1 of the elementary laws of mathematics1 without being constrained by the evidence to give direct internal assent4 ,but insight into the truth of a thing is not always of this high degree of clearness4 ,in such cases it is an empirical law of the mind that reason discerns of itself the logical necessity1 that is1 if it desires to proceed according to the merits of the case1 without1 however1 acting under physical constraint4 ,there remains then the determination1 the command of the will4 ,this is generally true of many judgments about natural things1 but especially true of belief4 ,the knowledge of the fact of revelation is true and certain1 though it might be still clearer4 ,the truths offered by divine revelation are too deep for us to comprehend them fully2 they imply questions and difficulties for us to ponder4 ,we feel the physical possibility of pondering these difficulties1 although we see at the same time that the difficulty is exploded by the certainty of the fact of revelation2 but we remain free in giving our assent4 ,herein lies the possibility of meritorious faith1 the possibility of the creature rendering to ,god the free tribute of his free submission4 ,at the same time it opens the possibility of turning voluntarily to doubts1 and of submitting to them more and more1 till the mind becomes clouded and ensnared by error4 ,thus1 since faith depends on free will1 the will is strictly commanded to impel the intellect to assent and cling to faith and to put aside doubts4 ,god has revealed the truths of faith that they may be firmly believed4 ,hence faith is a product of the will also1 and may become part and parcel of the sentimental life4 ,firmly believed1 revealed truths engender in man love and gratitude1 fear and hope4 ,and being beautiful and comforting1 they are embraced fervently by the heart1 and become objects of desire1 sources of comfort and happiness4 ,nevertheless they are in themselves1 and remain1 rational judgments1 based upon insight and knowledge2 just as the fond recollections of home are and remain acts of cognition1 though our affections are twined round those reminiscences like wreaths of evergreen4 ,what has just been said illustrates also another point1--the relation of faith to grace4 ,the ,vatican ,council says3 8,faith is a supernatural virtue by which1 through the inspiration and co-operation of the grace of ,god1 we believe to be true what ,he has revealed40 ,faith is called a gift of ,god1 a work of grace4 ,but this must not mislead us to think that it is a mystical process1 taking place in the human mind1 indeed1 but not moving along the natural course of human cognition1 but along quite a different course3 perhaps an immediate mystical grasp of the revealed truth1 while natural intelligence stands aside1 not understanding it4 ,this would be returning to our starting point1--making faith anything but a judgment of the reason4 ,it is a common doctrine of theology that the process of faith differs nothing in kind from the natural process of human intellect in its apprehension of the truth4 ,it is belief on grounds recognized as sufficient motives for assent4 ,what then does grace do8 ,two things4 ,first1 it elevates the act of the soul in the process of believing to a higher sphere4 ,just as sanctifying grace elevates the soul itself to a supernatural sphere1 permitting it to partake of the nature of ,god1 so does the grace of faith raise the acts of the soul to the supernatural order4 ,the kind of cognition1 however1 remains the same3 just as a ring does not alter its form by being golden instead of silver4 ,in the second place1 grace is assistance3 it enlightens the intellect that it may be able to see more clearly1 not giving to motives of faith an importance which they have not of themselves1 but helping the intellect to see them as they are2 removing the troubles and dangers of doubt which beset the mind1 so that it may retain that calmness which generally accompanies the possession of the truth4 ,the pledge of this assistance is given the ,christian at baptism and with each increase of sanctifying grace4 ,but the actual effect of grace depends on many conditions4 ,if one omits prayer and neglects religious duties1 deafens one's ear to the word of ,god1 incurs knowingly unnecessary dangers to faith1 forsakes the path of virtue1 then grace may withdraw to a considerable extent2 doubts become stronger1 intellectual darkness and confusion increase1 and man goes on apace towards infidelity4 ,this is the ,catholic doctrine concerning faith4 ,faith and ,reason4 ,but to return to our question3 ,in what relation do faith and the duty to believe stand to freedom of research8 ,we said that freedom of research consists in exemption from all unjust external restraint1 that is1 from those external hindrances to the action of the human intellect which prevent it from attaining its natural end4 ,now what is this natural end8 ,the answer will make clear what restraint and laws must be respected by the human mind1 and which may be rightly rejected4 ,on the coat-of-arms of ,harvard ,university is written the beautiful word 8,truth40 ,upon the human mind1 too1 is inscribed the word ,veritati--for the truth4 ,the human mind exists for the sake of truth2 for the truth it reasons and searches2 it is its natural object1 as sound is the object of the human ear1 and light and colour the object of the eye4 ,and truth attracts the mind strongly4 ,the child wants the truth1 and tries to get it by its many questions2 the historian wants the truth1 and tries to get it by his incessant searching and collecting4 8,i can hardly resist my craving10 ,william von ,humboldt confesses1 8to see and know and examine as much as possible3 after all1 man seems to be here only for the purpose of appropriating to himself1 making his own property1 the property of his intellect1 all that surrounds him--and life is short4 ,when ,i depart this life ,i should like to leave behind me as little as possible unexperienced by me0 7apud ,o4 ,willmann1 ,didaktik als ,bildungslehre1 #c;d ed41 ,,ii1 #aijc1 p4 #g74 ,the great physicist1 ,w4 ,thomson1 a few years ago closed a life of eighty-three years--he died in ,december1 #aijg--;devoted to the last to unabated search for the truth4 ,it is true not all are called to labour in this field like ,w4 ,thomson4 ,but every one who has capability may and should help to promote the noble work4 ,only they are excluded who do not want to look for the truth1 or who are even ready1 for external considerations1 to pass off falsehood for the truth1 unproved for established results4 8,i know of nothing10 says the ancient sage1 ,plato1 8that is more worthy of the human mind than truth0 7,rep4 ,,vi1 p4 #dhc c474 ,and so the poet ,pindar sings3 8,queen ,truth1 the mother of sublime ,virtue40 ,if this is the aim of the human mind and its science1 there is but one freedom of research1 the freedom for the truth1 the right not to be hampered in searching for the truth1 not to be forced to hold as true what has not been previously vouched for to the intellect as true2 in a word1 the freedom to wear but one chain1 the golden chain of the truth4 ,hence1 if the scientist should be compelled by party interest1 or public opinion1 to pursue a course in science which he cannot acknowledge as the right one2 if the younger scientist should feel constrained to conform the results of his research to the pleasure of his older colleagues or of men of name1 against his own better judgment1 then he would be deprived of his rightful freedom of searching for the truth1 and of deciding for himself when he has found it4 ,but there is one sort of freedom the scientist should never claim--freedom against the truth1 freedom to ignore the truth1 to emancipate himself from the truth4 ,he is bound to accept every truth1 sufficiently proved1 even religious dogmas1 miracles too1 provided they are authenticated4 ,not freedom1 but truth1 is the purpose of research3 emancipation from the truth is degeneration of the intellect1 destruction of science4 ,what1 then1 does the duty to believe require of the faithful ,christian8 ,he is required1 first of all1 to assure himself of the certain credibility of those truths which he is required to believe1 and here authentic proofs are offered him4 ,on his perception of the credibility of these truths1 he ought to assent to and accept ,god's testimony4 ,hence there should be no coercion to believe without interior conviction1 no obstacle put in the way of recognizing the truth4 ,where1 then1 is here any opposition to the lawful freedom of research1 to the right of unimpeded search for the truth8 ,how is reason hindered in its search for the truth when truth is offered it by an infallible authority8 ,we have here no opposition to the laws of reason1 but due honour to its sacred rights2 no bondage1 but elevation and enrichment1 completion and crowning of its thought1 for the highest truth has been communicated to the reason that it may be of one mind with that ,infinite ,wisdom which has shaped reason for the truth1 and from which it obtains its light as the planet from the sun around which it revolves4 ,therefore1 it cannot be said that 8the ,catholic resolves to believe as true what the ,church teaches in the ,apostles' ,creed1 but were he offered anything else as ,church doctrine he would accept it as well4 ,hence these doctrines do not express his own personal opinions1 they are something extraneous to him40 7,w4 ,herrmann1 ,roemische u4 evangelische ,sittlichkeit1 #c;d ed41 #aijc1 p4 #c74 ,no1 what the ,catholic1 what any true ,christian1 believes by faith1 that is his innermost conviction1 as it is the firm conviction of the historian that what he has drawn from reliable sources is true4--,but what if the contrary were offered him8 ,well1 this assumption is absurd2 and why8 ,because ,god and ,his ,church are infallible1 and an infallible authority cannot speak the truth and its contrary at the same time4 ,much less than a reliable historical witness can testify to the truth and its contrary at the same time4 ,this same conviction gives to the faithful ,christian the firm assurance that no certain result of human research will ever come in conflict with his faith1 just as the mathematician does not fear that his principle will ever be contradicted by any further work4 ,truth can never contradict truth4 8,thus we believe and thus we teach and herein lies our salvation40 ,it is the very old conviction of the faithful ,christian 8that philosophy1 that is1 the study of wisdom1 and religion are not different things40 ,non aliam esse philosophiam1 i4e41 sapientiae studium et aliam religionem 7,augustinus1 ,de ,vera ,religione1 #e74 ,it is precisely this that enables the believing scientist to devote himself with great freedom and impartiality to research in every field1 and to acknowledge any certified result without fear of ever having to stop before a definite conclusion4 ,such is the peace between faith and science according to ,christian principles4 ,they are not torn apart1 but join hands peacefully1 like truth with truth1 like two certain convictions1 only gained in different ways4 ,similar is the peace and harmony between the results of various sciences1 as physics and astronomy1 geology and biology1 which results1 though arrived at by different methods1 are still not opposed to each other1 because they are both true4 ,the authority of faith1 however1 must be infallible2 the authority of a scientist1 a school or the state1 can never approach us with an absolute obligation to believe it1 because it cannot vouch for the truth4 ,to the ,catholic his ,church proves itself infallible2 hence everything is here logically consequent4 ,protestant ,church authorities have not infallibility1 nor do they claim it4 ,hence their precepts are seen more and more opposed4 ,hence to the ,protestant the firm attachment of the ,catholic to his ,church must ever remain unintelligible1 and it is regrettable that ,catholics take instruction from ,protestants about their relation to their ,church47#b7 ,we must go a step further4 ,if there is a divine revelation or an infallible ,church--we speak only hypothetically--then no man and no scientific research can claim the right to contradict this revelation and ,church4 ,scientific research is not the hypostatized activity of a superhuman genius1 of a god-like intelligence4 ,no1 it is the activity of a human intellect1 and the latter is subject to ,god and truth everywhere4 ,there can be no freedom to oppose the truth2 no privilege not to be bound to the truth but rather to have the right to construct one's views autonomously4 ,but here lies the deeper reason why to-day thousands to whom ,kant's autonomism in thought has become the nerve of their intellectual life1 will have nothing to do with guidance by revelation and ,church4 ,they can no longer understand that their reason should accept the truth from an external authority1 not1 indeed1 because they would not find the truth1 but because they would lose their independence4 ,it was ,sabatier who maintained that 8an external authority1 no matter how great one may think it to be1 does not suffice to arouse in us any sense of obligation40 ,and ,th4 ,lipps says on this further3 8,if obedience is taken in its narrower sense1 that is1 of determination by the will of another1 then no obedience is moral40 8,in brief1 obedience is immoral--not as a fact but as a feeling1 betokening an unfree1 slavish mind0 7,die ethiseben ,grundfragen1 #b;d ed41 #aije1 p4 #aai74 ,and ,w4 ,herrmann assures us4 8,we would deem it a sin if we dared treat a proposition as true of which the ideas are not our own4 ,if we should find such a proposition in the ,bible1 then we may perhaps resolve to wait and see whether its truth cannot be brought home to us after we have obtained a clearer and stronger insight of ourselves4 ,but from the resolution to take that proposition as true without more ado1 we could not promise ourselves anything beneficial40 ,it is for the sovereign subject himself to decide whether the ideas offered are compatible with the rest of his notions4 ,a truth offered from without is acceptable to the subject only when1 and because1 he can produce of himself at the same time what is offered2 but he cannot accept the obligation of submitting to that truth in obedience to faith4 8,there is no infallible teaching authority on earth1 nor can there be any4 ,philosophy and science would have to contradict themselves to acknowledge it10 says another champion of ,kant's freedom 7,paulsen1 ,philosophia militans1 #b;d ed41 p4 #eb74 ,hence the reason why there cannot be any infallible authority is1 not because it does not offer the truth1 but because the human intellect must not be chained down4 ,now1 this is no longer true freedom1 but rebellion against the sacred right that truth has over the intellect4 ,it is rebellion against the supreme authority of ,god1 who can oblige man to embrace ,his revelation with that reason which ,he ,himself has bestowed upon man4 ,it is a misconception of the human mind1 for it is by no means the source of truth and absolute knowledge1 but weak and in need of supplement4 ,many truths it cannot by itself find at all1 while in the quest for others it needs safe guidance lest it lose its way4 ,if it refuses to be supplemented and guided from above1 it demands the freedom of the weak vine allowed to break loose from the needed support of the tree1 the freedom of the planet allowed to deviate from its orbit to be hopelessly wrecked in the universe4 ,the barrenness and disintegration in the ideal life of our own unchristian age1 are clear testimony that freedom is not only lawlessness but a sin against one's own nature4 ,or1 do they seek to save themselves by asserting that a divine revelation and the founding of an infallible ,church are impossible8 ,very well1 then1 let them prove it4 ,on this the question hinges4 ,if they can prove it to us1 that very moment we shall cease to be faithful ,catholics1 and ,christianity will have been the most stupendous lie in history4 ,but if the reverse is the case1 then all declamations in the name of free research fall to the ground4 ,this impossibility1 however1 could only be proved by the aid of a presumption4 ,this presumption is atheism1 which denies the existence of a personal ,god1 or at least doubts it4 ,if it is admitted that there is a personal ,god1 then it is self-evident that ,he can give a revelation1 and found an infallible ,church1 and can oblige all to believe4 ,but herewith collapses also the liberal principle that1 in reasoning1 one may reject an external authority4 ,hence the principle of liberal freedom in science can only then be taken seriously1 when one advances to atheism4 ,then1 of course1 they will say with ,nietzsche3 ,god is dead2 long live the transcendental man6 ,our assertions are proved by experience4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century the enlightenment began by excluding all revelation2 but it was desired to retain the rational truth of ,god's existence4 ,since then1 liberal science has been aiming at atheism in philosophy1 whether open or masked4 ,and if we follow up the career of men who have left their faith1 we shall soon find that if they do not seek peace in the sheltering harbour of thoughtlessness1 they have reached the terminal station of atheism4 ,there is no stopping on this incline4 ,since it is the express fundamental principle of the liberal freedom of research1 that science is not bound to any external authority1 it is evident that it is nothing else but the refusal to submit to ,god's authority1 hence1 also1 to submit to truth if it appears as revelation4 ,for1 either it is admitted that if there is a divine revelation1 we have to give it our assent--and in this event liberal freedom of science would have to be abandoned1--or this liberal freedom is adopted in real earnest--then it must be admitted that it is tantamount to radical apostasy and defection from the truth4 ,if a man wishes to be a faithful ,christian and at the same time to uphold the liberal freedom of science1 then he has never made clear to himself what he wishes4 ,ecce ancilla ,domini4 ,thus spoke the ,mother of the ,lord1 when she heard the message that she was to receive the ,word of the eternal ,father in her bosom4 ,this word of humility and submission was the condition under which she could receive in herself the eternal ,wisdom of the ,father4 ,behold1 the ,handmaid of the ,lord6 ,this word of humility and submission to ,god must also be spoken by the creature's intelligence1 if it desires by faith to share in ,god's truth4 ,without humility of mind a faithful attachment to ,god is impossible2 pride and arrogance lead to desertion of ,god1 faith1 and truth4 ,multum errant1 quoniam superbi sunt1 says ,augustine of the erring companions of his youth4 ,only if there is humility does ,god's wisdom cross the threshold of the creature's mind1 only if there is humility can it be said of man3 ,et verbum caro factum est et habitat in nobis1 plenum gratiae et veritatis4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,authority ,of ,faith ,and ,the ,free ,exercise ,of ,research4 ,preliminary ,remarks4 ,we must not stop at what we have just said in general about the relation between the freedom of research and the obligation to believe4 ,we must go further into detail1 in order to give a more exact explanation of how and where the authority of faith clashes with research and restrains it4 ,is it true that the believing scientist cannot move freely in his research1 that there are barriers on all sides which he may not overstep8 ,is it true that the ,church may prescribe for the ,catholic scientist what he is allowed to defend and approve1 what he ought to refute and reprove1 suppress or advocate1 so that his eyes must ever be turned towards ,rome1 to inquire and ascertain what might there be approved8 ,and what a chain of proscriptions of free thinking is attached to the name of ,rome6 ,index1 ,syllabus1 ,galileo--link after link is added to this chain of miserable slavery6 ,we shall say something more about this chain later on4 ,first we must consider the principal question3 ,where and how do faith and science come in contact8 ,and what we are going to say we shall condense into four points4 ,thus freedom of science will be more precisely defined2 it will be shown what freedom revelation1 and especially the guardian of revelation1 the ,church1 offers to science3 there can be no doubt that its natural freedom of exercise must be left to science intact4 ,we shall deal in the first place with the profane sciences1 and1 at least for the present1 leave aside the discussion of theology1 since it is clear that theology1 being the science of faith1 must assume a peculiar position in regard to the authority of faith3 theology1 moreover1 is a special mark for attack2 accordingly we shall deal with it particularly later on4 ,however1 the principles to be cited1 being of a general nature1 refer also to the science of faith1 and for this reason we shall have occasion to refer to them4 #a4 ,authority of ,faith and ,private ,authority4 ,we often meet with the most inconceivable notions4 ,we are told quite seriously that the ,church teaches1 and that the ,catholic has therefore to believe1 that the earth is a flat disc surrounded by the sea1 as the ancients believed2 above it is a vault1 below it hell-fire2 that the earth stands still and the sun and stars revolve about it1 just as ,ptolemy of ,egypt taught2 that ,god created the whole world just as it is now in exactly six days of twenty-four hours each2 that ,he made the sun and moon1 just as they are now illuminating the skies2 that the strata1 just as they now look when bared by the geologist's hammer1 even the coal-fields and petrified saurians and fossils--all were made1 just as they now are1 well nigh six thousand years ago4 ,the ,scriptures teach this1 the ,fathers of old and the theologians believe this3 and that is where the ,catholic must get his science4 ,and then they are astonished1 and consider dogma retreating before science1 when they see other notions prevailing1 when they see ,catholic scientists defend without prejudice the evolution of the solar system1 and even the system of the whole universe1 from some primitive matter1 or assume an organic evolution1 as far as science supports it 7cf4 ,braun1 ,ueber ,kosmologie u4 ,standpunkt christlich4 ,wiss41 #b;d ed41 #aijf1 etc474 ,they would be still more astonished perhaps to learn that similar ideas had long ago been proposed by ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas 7cf4 ,summa c4 ,g4 l4 #c1 c4 #gg2 ,knabenbauer1 in ,stimmen a4 ,m4 ,laach xiii1 #ge seq474 ,a distinction must be made between the teaching of the ,church and the private views of individuals1 schools1 or periods4 ,only the teaching of the ,church is the obligatory standard of ,christian and ,catholic thought1 not the opinion of individuals4 ,hence not everything that ,catholic savants have held to be true belongs to the teaching of the ,church4 ,only when theologians unanimously declare something to be contained in the deposit of revealed truth1 or the teaching of the ,church1--only then is their teaching authoritative2 not because it is the teaching of theologians1 but because it is contained in revelation or the teaching of the ,church4 ,else the maxim holds good3 ,tantum valet auctoritas1 quantum argumenta4 ,nor is all that which a former age found in ,holy ,scripture1 therefore to be believed as revealed truth1 to the exclusion of all other interpretations4 ,the foregoing may be elucidated by the examples given above4 ,when ,holy ,writ describes in figurative language and ,oriental1 demonstrative style1 how ,god created the heaven and earth1 the sun and moon1 the sea and its contents1 it means to teach us religious truths3 that ,god is the ,first ,cause of everything1 and hence that the sun and moon1 for instance1 are not uncreated deities1 as the ,egyptian believed them to be4 ,the narrative need not be taken in a literal sense1 as if ,god immediately formed everything in the exact condition as it now appears to us2 it may be interpreted in the sense that ,god let the present condition of things gradually grow out of the forces and materials and plan of nature ,he created1 the result of a lengthy evolution4 ,when our ,lord tells us in the gospel that ,his ,father in heaven feeds the birds of the air and clothes the grass of the field1 we know that this is to be understood as a mediate action of ,god1 which ,he exercises through the instinct of animals and through natural forces which ,he created for the purpose4 ,now when former ages1 reading the narrative of ,genesis1 generally understood an immediate creation of the world1 because the knowledge of nature at the time did not admit of any other interpretation1 it is by no means necessary to conclude from it that every other interpretation must be rejected as against the ,bible1 or that the ,church herself has prescribed this literal interpretation as the only correct one4 ,as is known1 ,st4 ,augustine1 the greatest ,father of the ,church1 had another very liberal explanation of the ,genesis narrative1 and the ,church has never censured him4 7,he taught that the whole world had been created at one time1 and that the six days of the ,mosaic narrative were the logical divisions of an account of the various orders of creatures47 ,and now the interpretations vary greatly4 ,the passages in ,scripture1 in which1 according to popular modes of expression1 the sun is said to rise and set and revolve about the earth1 the latter standing in the centre of the world--these1 too1 were interpreted literally in the days of the ,fathers3 there was no cause for interpreting them otherwise2 but it was only due to defective knowledge of nature at the time4 ,these temporary errors remained till corrected by research in the field of the natural sciences3 had the discoveries been made sooner1 the errors1 too1 would have disappeared sooner4 ,the ,church knows1 and the holy ,fathers knew1 that it is not the purpose of ,holy ,writ to teach profane sciences1 but to instruct in faith and morals2 if it speaks of other matters1 it is but occasionally1 and then in the idiom of common life1 which is not the same as the scientific language of the specialist4 ,indeed1 the ,bible does not intend to give scientific instruction in such matters1 nor could it have done so at a time when men were not ripe for such enlightenment4 ,thus ,st4 ,augustine insists that the ,spirit of ,god who spoke through the authors of ,scripture did not intend to instruct men in matters which do not serve for salvation1 and hence he objects to the ,scriptures being taken literally in regard to such matters1 because the ,bible adapts itself to man's manner of speech3 a distinction is to be made between letter and sense 78,multi multum disputant de iis rebus1 quae majore prudentia nostri auctores omiserunt1 ad beatam vitam non profuturas discentibus 444 ,breviter dicendum est1 444 ,spiritum ,dei1 qui per ipsos loquebatur1 noluisse ita docere homines nulli saluti profuturas10 ,de ,gen4 ad lit41 ,,ii1 #i1 n4 #bj4 ,cf4 ,de ,gen4 contra ,manich4 #a1 #e1 n4 #c2 #aa1 n4 #ag74 ,he further cautions ,bible students against putting their own interpretation upon obscure passages and then claiming it to be dogma1 because one may easily go astray and thus make the ,scriptures appear ridiculous4 8,in rebus obscuris atque a nostris oculis remotissimis1 si qua inde scripta etiam divina legerimus1 quae possint salva fide1 qua imbuimur1 alias atque alias parere sententias1 in nullam earum nos praecipiti affirmatione proiciamus1 ut si forte1 diligentius discussa veritas eam recte labefactaverit1 corruamus1 non pro sententia divinarum scripturarum sed pro nosctra ita dimicantes1 ut eam velimus scripturarum esse1 quae nostra est0 7,de genesi ad lit4 ,i1 #ah n4 #cg74 8,plerumque accidit1 ut aliquid de terra1 de coelo1 de ceteris mundi huius elementis 444 etiam non christianus ita noverit1 ut certissima ratione et experientia teneat4 ,turpe est autem nimis et perniciosum ac maxime cavendum1 ut christianus de his rebus quasi secundum christianas literas loquentem ita delirare quilibet infidelis audiat1 ut1 quemadmodum dicitur1 toto coelo errare conspiciens1 risum tenere vix possit0 7,ibid4 ,i1 #ai n4 #ci74 ,cf4 also ,i1 #ba4 ,st4 ,thomas of ,aquin also expresses himself in this sense3 8,multum autem nocet1 talia1 quae ad pietatis doctrinam non spectant1 vel asserere vel negare1 quasi pertinentia ad sacram doctrinam 444 ,unde mihi videtur tutius esse1 ut haec1 quae philosophi communius senserunt et nostrae fidei non repugnant1 neque sic esse asserenda ut dogmata fidei1 licet aliquando sub nomine philosophorum introducantur1 neque sic esse neganda tamquam fidei contraria1 ne sapientibus huius mundi contemnendi doctrinam fidei occasio praebeatur0 7,opusc4 ,x4 ad ,jo4 ,vercel4 ,proem474 ,the doctrine of the ,church concurs with this1 as laid down in numerous documents1 many of them quoting the above-mentioned words of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,it also insists that the interpretation of the ,fathers be only taken as a standard of the ,church's explanation of the meaning of ,scripture when they are unanimous on the meaning of a passage relating to faith and morals2 but not to other things 7cf4 ,encycl4 ,providentissimus1 ,denz4 #aj ed41 n4 #aidg1 #aidd2 ,conc4 ,trid41 sess4 ,,iv41 ,conc4 ,vat4 sess4 ,,iii41 c4 #b1 ,denz4 nn4 #ghf1 #aghh74 ,now if one simply opens ,holy ,scripture1 takes up some passage at random1 explains it in its most literal sense1 and then insists that this is the evident meaning1 and goes on to assert with the same insistence that this is the interpretation of the ,church1 and a part of the faith of ,catholics in regard to the natural sciences1 then of course it is very easy to make out contradictions between faith and science3 but such efforts cannot claim to be scientific4 ,it is not necessary to know theology and the principles of ,catholic exegesis2 but it is not proper that those who are ignorant of these matters pass judgment on them1 not even in the name of objective research4 ,hence we may easily see what we should think of a writer who asserts that the examination of the ,christian-,catholic idea of the world leads to the following results3 8,the ,books of ,moses1 inspired by divine revelation1 are the golden key to the understanding of the whole history of creation4 ,other ,scriptural passages of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 the writings of the ,fathers1 etc41 are to be considered as supplementary to these4 ,according to these authorities the earth is a flat disc1 surrounded by the sea4 ,above it arches the firmament of heaven1 with its great lights for day and night4 ,below it are purgatory and hell4 ,all this is not the gradual outgrowth of lengthy evolution1 but was created by ,god out of nothing in a few days1 about six thousand years ago1 of which four thousand are reckoned before ,christ and two thousand after ,christ4 ,although modern science has long since established that the ,biblical narrative is of no worth1 nothing but an imperfect reproduction of older myths1 the ,catholic ,church continues to teach it literally to this very day1 spreading it broadcast by thousands and thousands of catechisms1 and insisting on it being learned as a part of religious instruction in all schools1 and to be accepted as the revealed truth0 7,l4 ,wahrmund1 ,katholische ,weltanschauung und freie ,wissenschaft1 #aijh1 p4 #ad4 ,the scientific value of this work has been considered by ,l4 ,fonck1 ,katholische ,weltansch74 8,clericalism10 we are told1 8stands on a rigidly fixed view of the world1 corresponding in part to the childhood of mankind1 to the dawning of civilization4444 ,philosophy1 built upon the results of progress1 since it is unceasingly forcing its way ahead1 cannot remain in accord with the notions belonging to a remote past1 partly to ,babylonian and ,egyptian civilization1 partly to the thought of nomadic times40 ,it is then pointed out how this view of the world on which clericalism1 that is1 the ,catholic ,church1 is based1 has already been overthrown in many instances4 8,the geocentric position1 the doctrine of our earth being the centre and man the ultimate aim of the universe1 must needs be abandoned by the world of scientists1 in view of the new system of ,copernicus2 the doctrine also of the earth being a disc must be abandoned in consequence of the voyage of ,columbus1 and subsequent discoveries1 which make it certain that the earth is a globe0 7,prof4 ,k4 ,menger1 ,die ,eroberung der ,universitaeten4 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,nov4 #bd1 #aijg74 ,it is surprising what little knowledge suffices to warrant writing about theological matters in the name of 8objective research40 ,these passages1 in regard to their scientific contents and manner1 recall vividly an ,american work that appeared some time ago1 and reached many editions4 ,it is entitled1 8,a ,history of the ,conflict ,between ,religion and ,science10 by ,j4 ,w4 ,draper4 ,the book was answered by a competent authority1 ,de ,smedt1 ,s4 ,j41 8,l',eglise et la ,science10 #ahgg4 ,it seems ,draper's arguments have since become a pattern for many4 ,he1 too1 maintains that ,holy ,writ has always been declared by the ,church and the ,fathers to be a source of profane science4 ,this1 he states1 is true especially of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,we read3 8,the book of ,genesis 444 also in a philosophical point of view became the grand authority of ,patristic science4 ,astronomy1 geology1 geography1 anthropology1 chronology1 and indeed all the various departments of human knowledge1 were made to conform to it4444 ,the doctrines of ,st4 ,augustine have had the effect of thus placing theology in antagonism with science44440 8,no one did more than this ,father to bring science and religion into antagonism2 it was mainly he who diverted the ,bible from its true office--a guide to purity of life--and placed it in the perilous position of being the arbiter of human knowledge44440 8,what1 then1 is that sacred1 that revealed science1 declared by the ,fathers to be the sum of all knowledge8444 ,as to the earth1 it affirmed that it is a flat surface1 over which the sky is spread like a dome4 ,in this the sun and moon and stars move1 so that they may give light by day and by night to man4444 ,above the sky or firmament is heaven2 in the dark and fiery space beneath the earth is hell44440 7pp4 #eg-fc74 ,by reading again what we said above1 especially the urgent admonitions of ,st4 ,augustine not to look upon the ,scriptures as a text-book of profane science1 one will be able to appreciate the scientific quality of the book in question4 ,the fancy of this writer has distorted ,christianity and the ,church into a monster that has nothing more important to do than to tread down and crush science and civilization4 ,a few examples will suffice to show how he proves the contradictions between faith and science4 ,the ,christian religion teaches that man is subject to death as a penalty for original sin3 prior to that sin death had no power over ,adam and ,eve4 ,it is claimed that this is a contradiction of science4 ,but how8 ,long before ,adam1 thousands of animals and plants had died1 the author asserts4 8,the doctrine declared to be orthodox by ecclesiastical authority is overthrown by the unquestionable discoveries of modern science4 ,long before a human being had appeared on earth millions of individuals1 nay1 more1 thousands of species and even genera had died0 7p4 #eg74 ,the author has completely missed the point4 ,the matter in question is not the death of animals and plants1 but the death of man4 ,the infallibility of the ,pope is refuted by the fact that he failed to foresee the result of the war between ,france and ,germany4 8,notwithstanding his infallibility1 which implies omniscience1 ,his ,holiness did not foresee the issue of the ,franco-,prussian war0 7p4 #ceb1 also p4 #cfb74 ,how high his historical statements are to be rated is shown by the assertion that ,cyril of ,alexandria had much to do with the introduction of the worship of the ,virgin ,mary 7p4 #ee72 that auricular confession was introduced by the ,fourth ,lateran ,council in #abae 7p4 #bjh74 ,he asks when the idea originated that the ,pentateuch was written by ,moses under divine inspiration1 and he finds that 8not until after the second century of the ,christian era was there any such extravagant demand on human credulity0 7p4 #bbj74 ,it would seem incredible that any one could write such stuff4 ,the author says in his preface3 8,i had also devoted much attention to the experimental investigation of natural phenomena1 and had published many well-known memoirs on such subjects4 ,and perhaps no one can give himself to these pursuits1 and spend a large part of his life in the public teaching of science1 without partaking of that love of impartiality and truth which philosophy incites0 7,,viii-,,ix74 ,we do not care to argue with the author about his experience in experimental research1 nor about his love for the truth1 but he himself has shown superabundantly that they have not sufficed to keep him clear from scientific shallowness and the grossest blunders4 ,nevertheless1 it seems that his scientific ability obtained for him in the consideration of many the weight of an authority4 ,haeckel1 in his 8,weltraetsel10 refers repeatedly to the book1 and recommends 8its truthful statements and excellent discussion0 to his readers 7,weltraetsel1 #ag4 ,kap41 ,wissenschaft u4 ,christentum74 ,such is the fashion in which contradictions between faith and science1 and the ,church's hostility towards scientific research1 are proved4 ,the result is that we must distinguish clearly between dogmas of faith and private opinions or interpretations4 ,of course it may frequently happen1 and has happened1 that the ,christian savant is too timorous1 and looks askance at the discoveries of science1 and even thinks he ought to resist them1 because he is afraid that religious truth might be opposed by them4 ,nor can it be said that this timidity is altogether without excuse1 for there was hardly one scientific discovery of the nineteenth century that was not immediately grasped and exploited by eager enemies of the ,christian religion4 ,too often has science been made the menial of infidelity1 and the assertion has been untiringly repeated that science and faith cannot agree4 ,no wonder1 then1 that timid souls become suspicious1 that they are prone to resist the whole theory of evolution in a lump1 instead of trying to distinguish between what is of scientific value in it1 and what is misused for the purpose of denying creation4 ,nevertheless1 such narrow-mindedness is strongly to be censured4 ,it has often caused the reproach1 that ,catholics lack the freedom to admit scientific discoveries4 ,they forget the wise admonition of the prince of medival theologians1 that it were advisable1 in regard to scientific views which have nothing to do with religion1 neither to set them down as truths of faith1 nor either to reject them as contrary to faith lest occasion be given to think contemptuously of the faith4 ,as long as men are and men think1 narrow-mindedness will never be lacking4 ,hence if the believing scientist wants to know whether he is running counter to faith in any particular1 he has to ascertain from theological text-books what the ,church declares to belong to faith1 what explanation of ,holy ,scripture is unconditionally binding1 and not what is the individual opinion of theologians1 much less what some pious nurse is telling the little ones4 ,this is the first rule concerning the relation between faith and science3 it states what the scientist is not tied down to4 #b4 ,science ,retains its ,method of ,research4 ,but when and how may the scientist be restricted8 ,here we come to the second point3 the directions which faith may give to the profane sciences are in themselves not of a positive but of a negative kind2 revelation and ,church cannot tell the scientist what he is to assert or defend in the field of the profane sciences1 but only what propositions he must avoid4 ,thus every science is left free to pursue its own method of research4 ,it is not difficult to understand this4 ,faith draws from divine revelation2 profane sciences1 as such1 do not draw from divine revelation1 but only from experience and reason4 ,philosophy would cease to be philosophy and become theology did it demonstrate the immortality of the soul by revelation4 ,the anthropologist would cease to be an anthropologist and become a theologian if he would attempt to prove the common origin of mankind by ,holy ,scripture4 ,in other words1 the profane sciences are distinguished from faith and theology by their formal object1 by the end they have in view1 by the scientific method with which they handle their subject4 ,theology1 of course1 uses revelation extensively2 and in this it differs from the other sciences4 ,hence faith cannot command the anthropologist to defend also in profane science the common origin of the human race from ,adam and ,eve1 because it is held to be a revealed truth4 ,he must say3 ,i believe as a ,christian that this is true1 established by divine revelation1 and no science will ever prove the contrary2 but whether ,i can positively defend this fact as resulting from anthropology1 depends on my ability to corroborate it by the methods of this science1 that is by the testimony of profane history4 ,and just as little could the historian be required to obtain historical results of which he cannot produce the evidence according to his method4 ,therefore faith can only tell the profane scientist that he must not assert anything which is held by faith to be erroneous2 that it is false to say there is nothing but force and matter1 that the human soul ends in death1 or that the various families of the human race have not a common origin4 ,as soon as the scientist knows by faith that a thing is false1 he is bound to refrain from asserting it3 bound in the first place by the duty to believe1 but also by the principles of his own science1 which is to find not error1 but truth1 which forbids to assert what has been proved to be erroneous4 ,perhaps his own means will not enable him to prove the truth independently of revelation2 then from the standpoint of his science he must say1 ,non liquet4 ,the position of the ,catholic ,church agrees with these principles4 ,she knows1 and emphasizes that science has its own method1 and hence a natural right and freedom to proceed in its own field according to its method4 ,the ,church rejects but one kind of freedom1 viz41 the freedom to propound a doctrine proved by faith to be erroneous4 8,the ,church by no means forbids these disciplines to use in their own field their own principles and method10 declares the ,vatican ,council4 8,but1 while acknowledging this lawful freedom1 the ,church takes care to prevent them from taking up errors in opposition to divine teaching1 or from creating confusion by transgressing their limits and invading the realm of faith0 7,vat4 sess4 ,,iii1 ch4 #d4 ,cf4 also the letter of ,pius ,,ix41 8,gravissimas10 of ,dec4 #aa1 #ahfb1 to the ,archbishop of ,munich1 ,denz4 n4 #afff1 seq47 ,these few remarks show the lack of intelligence in the charge that 8,catholic philosophy starts from dogmas and revelation10 or that the ,church would dictate to scientists everything they should teach2 that1 according to its principles it could claim the right 8to impose upon a physicist of ,zeppelin's era the task of proving the ,ascension of ,christ or the ,assumption of ,mary by arostatic rules40 ,this is simply gross ignorance or misrepresentation4 #c4 ,restraint ,only in the ,province of ,revelation4 ,in what matters may faith and the ,church be a guide to research in this negative sense8 ,in all fields1 or only some8 ,evidently only in their own sphere4 ,but to the sphere of faith belongs only what is contained in divine revelation1 viz41 the truths of religion and morality1 as laid down in ,scripture and tradition1 the truths of ,god and ,his work of salvation1 of man and his way to his eternal destiny1 of the means of grace1 and of the ,church4 ,whatever lies outside of that sphere does not belong to the province of faith4 ,this is true also of the teaching authority of the ,church4 ,the purpose of the ,church is to guard faithfully the treasure of divine revelation and to transmit it in an authoritative manner to mankind3 hence her authority in teaching is confined to what is contained in revelation1 and what is necessary for an efficient custody and transmission of it to mankind4 ,hence she may declare certain truths as revealed1 she may reject opposing errors1 she may condemn books offensive to faith1 she may approve or reject systems of ethics4 ,but she cannot set up wholly new religious truths or revelations4 ,depositum custodi--this is the purpose of the ,church4 ,still less are matters of an entirely profane nature subject to the teaching authority of the ,church4 ,profane sciences can therefore receive direction from faith only in those matters which at the same time belong to the province of faith4 ,what follows from this8 ,it follows that almost all the profane sciences are incapable of being instructed or restricted by faith1 because their province lies outside that of faith1 and does not come in touch with it3 they are left to themselves to correct their errors4 ,when the astronomer in his observatory watches the movements of the planets1 and bases thereon his mathematical calculations1 when the physicist or chemist in his laboratory observes the laws of nature or makes new discoveries1 when the pathologist studies the symptoms of diseases in organisms1 no warning voice interrupts their work of study4 ,of course when they deny the creation1 the possibility of miracles1 then they conflict with faith2 but then they have ceased to be naturalists1 they have become philosophers4 ,when the botanist or zologist in his laboratory is studying plants and animals and collecting his specimens1 when the palontologist is excavating and examining his fossils1 they enjoy perfect freedom3 all this has nothing directly to do with faith4 ,and there is no warning sign set up for the geographer or geologist when settling the orographical or hydrographical conditions of countries or measuring geological strata2 no danger signal disturbs the linguist in establishing the grammar of unknown languages1 nor the archologist or the historian1 when they discover new documents or decipher inscriptions4 ,nor does anybody interrupt the mathematician in his calculations4 ,what unnecessary worry1 then1 for the representatives of mathematics1 geology1 palontology1 and chemistry to write burning protests against the fetters of dogma in the interest of their scientific activity6 ,and it is superfluous worry for professors of the technical arts to get excited by imagining that electricity and steam must be treated according to ecclesiastical precepts4 ,nor is there need of emphasizing the statement that there cannot be a ,catholic chemistry1 geography1 or mathematics--it is self-evident4 ,hence almost the entire province of the profane sciences1 which are the pride of our age and occupy the foremost position in our universities1 with their laboratories1 institutes and observatories and meteorological stations1 are free and perfectly undisturbed by faith4 ,if accordingly any one should be of the opinion that the ,christian-minded scientist were hindered in his scientific research1 he would have to consider him an unhampered investigator at least in this vast field4 ,most in touch with faith comes philosophy4 ,not in the vast field of logic1 of empirical psychology1 in questions concerning the essence of bodies and their forces1 in matters of mere history of philosophy2 but in questions of views of the world and life1 in metaphysics and ethics1 it does4 ,these1 the highest questions1 bearing on the direction and pursuit of human life1 matters that most occupy the human mind1 are at the same time subjects of revelation2 ,god ,himself has deigned to teach the truth in these matters1 to make them safe for all time against the error of the mind of man4 ,here philosophers encounter danger-signals4 ,they hear1 what their reason even tells them1 that it is erroneous to think there is no world of spirits1 no ,god above nature1 no immortality1 no life hereafter1 no providence4 ,nor could one say that philosophy is the loser by being kept from error which endangers human life4 ,nowhere are errors so apt to occur as in questions which are outside the sphere of immediate experience2 nowhere are self-deceptions more common than there1 where disposition and character continually influence the mind4 ,a modern representative of philosophy1 ,e4 ,adickes1 writes as follows3 8,in the course of this history 7of metaphysics7 there have been given long since all the principal answers that are at all possible to all metaphysical questions4 ,the building up of metaphysical systems can and will proceed1 nevertheless1 and their multiplicity will remain4444 ,of course1 progress will not be gained thereby3 results will not gain in certainty1 contradictions and mysteries do not diminish40 8,if the greatest of the ancient ,greek natural scientists1 physicians1 and geographers should rise again they would be amazed at the progress made in their sciences2 like beginners they would sit at the feet of teachers of our day1 they would lack the most elementary ideas2 they would first have to learn what every grammar-school boy knows1 and much of what they once considered achievements would be disclosed to them as deception or mere hypothesis4 ,on the other hand a ,plato1 an ,aristotle1 a ,zeno or ,epicurus1 might readily take part in our discussions about ,god and the soul1 about virtue and immortality4 ,and they could safely use their old weapons1 the keenness of which has suffered but little from the rust of time and the attacks of opponents4 ,they would be astonished at the little progress made1 so that now1 after two thousand years1 the same answers are given to the same questions40 7,charakter und ,weltanschauung1 #aije1 p4 #bd74 ,a science which must make such a confession has no reason to reject with haughty self-confidence the intimations of a divine revelation4 ,the science of history again has not the duty of praising everything that has happened within the ,catholic ,church or else to repress it2 no1 only the truth is desired4 ,but it must not start out with the assumption that ,god's influence in the world1 a divine revelation1 miracles1 and a supernatural guidance of the ,church1 are impossible2 nor must it attempt to construe history according to that assumption4 ,hence it must not undertake to explain the religion of the ,jewish nation1 or the origin of ,christianity1 by unconditionally ignoring everything supernatural1 and attempting to eliminate it by prejudiced research and by means of natural factors1 whether they be called ,babylonic myths or ,greek philosophy or anything else2 it must not impugn the credibility of the ,gospel1 claiming that reports of miracles must be false2 it must not write the history of the ,church and deliberately ignore its supernatural character1 as if it were the violent struggle of a federation of priests for universal rule4 ,assured results undoubtedly are arrived at in history less frequently than in other sciences2 it offers full play to suppositions1 hypotheses1 constructive fancy1 the influence of ideas inculcated by education and personal views of the world1 especially when summing up facts4 ,hence here more than anywhere else must moral character and unselfish love of the truth stand higher than the desire for freedom4 ,the history of religion and anthropology must be forbidden to assume that the human mind is but a product of animal evolution1 that therefore religion and morality1 family and state life1 reason and language1 and the entire intellectual and social life have necessarily evolved from the first stages of animal life4 ,if we add that jurisprudence in its highest principles comes in touch with faith1 and that it also must not dispute the divine right of the ,church1 we have mentioned the most important sciences and instances in which the investigator must take faith into consideration4 ,we now understand in what sense we may rightly speak of a 8,christian philosophy and science0 or of a 8,catholic science of history40 ,surely not in this sense that philosophy and history have to draw their results from ,holy ,scripture or from the dogmatical decisions of the ,church2 nor in the sense that they have to make positive defence for everything that the ,church finds it necessary to prescribe4 ,the sense is merely this3 they guide themselves by faith1 as we said above1 by refraining from propositions and presumptions proved by faith to be false4 ,in a large measure this is also the meaning of the often-misrepresented term1 ,catholic ,university4 ,in the reverse sense we may speak of a liberal science4 ,it is that science which in the field of philosophy and religion guides itself by the principles of liberalism and the principle of liberal freedom and the rejection of faith4 ,but to speak of a ,catholic1 ,protestant1 ,liberal chemistry or mathematics1 has no sense at all1 because these disciplines1 like most other profane sciences1 have no direct connection with ,catholicism1 ,protestantism1 or ,liberalism4 ,that we have stated correctly the attitude of the ,catholic ,church is evidenced by more than one official document4 ,in the decree of the ,holy ,office of ,july #c1 #aijg1 the so-called ,syllabus of ,pius ,x41 the following 7#e47 proposition is condemned3 8,inasmuch as the treasure of faith contains only revealed truths1 it does not behoove the ,church under any consideration to pass judgment on the assertions made by human sciences40 ,similarly was the proposition 7#ad71 likewise condemned in the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix43 8,philosophy must be pursued without any regard to supernatural revelation40 ,these condemnations stirred up anger3 8,now10 it was said1 8the ,church wants to subject the whole of human knowledge to her judgment3 this is unbearable insolence40 ,but what follows from these condemnations8 ,the opposite truth asserted in them is this3 the ,church in one respect must pass judgment on the assertions made by human science1 namely1 in so far as they come in conflict with the doctrines of faith4 ,the only freedom rejected by the ,council is the freedom to contradict revealed truth3 it must not be held 8that human science may be pursued with freedom1 that its assertions can be considered true and must not be rejected by the ,church even if they contradict a revealed doctrine40 7sess4 ,,iii1 ch4 #d1 can4 #b74 ,the ,church does not want to judge on matters of profane science2 but she claims the right1 due to her as guardian appointed for the preservation of the pure faith1 to raise her warning voice when1 for instance1 natural science transgresses its limits and trespasses on the province of religion by denying the creation of the world4 ,it is but self-defence against an attack upon her inviolable domain4 ,but she does not claim the authority to sit in judgment upon the results of astro-physics1 upon the atom-hypothesis1 or its opposite2 or on the acceptance of a theory about ions or earthquakes4 ,another question may be touched upon3 ,is the ,catholic historian free to proceed steadily in the search after historic truth1 even where he discovers facts which do not reflect honour on his ,church8 ,and where it is a question of uncertain1 private revelation1 of doubtfulness of relics and other sacred objects exposed for public worship1 may he proceed undisturbed with his critical research1 or is he restrained by ecclesiastical authority8 ,should the ,catholic meet with dark passages in the history of his ,church1 then every well-meaning observer will demand that he display in the treatment of such matters a pious forbearance for his ,church4 ,his respect for her will dictate this4 ,unsparing criticism and hunting for blemishes and shadows must be excluded4 ,but he cannot on this account be bound to pass by the unpleasant facts he may meet in his researches1 or to cloak or deny them against his better knowledge4 ,he knows that the divinity of his ,church shows itself to best advantage just because1 notwithstanding many weaknesses and faults1 past and present1 she passes unvanquished and imperishable through all storms1--a token of the supernatural origin of her strength and power of endurance4 ,it was this very thought that moved ,leo ,,xiii4 to open the ,vatican ,archives for freest research to friend and enemy1--the clearest proof that could possibly be given that the ,church does not fear historical truth4 ,in his letter of admonition1 of ,august #ah1 #ahhc1 urging the fostering of historiography1 the same ,pope gives the following rules for the ,catholic scientist3 8,the first law of history is that it must not say anything false2 the second1 that it must not be afraid of saying the truth1 lest a suspicion of partiality and unfairness arise40 ,an excellent example of the application of these rules is found in ,l4 v4 ,pastor's 8,history of the ,popes10 especially in what he says about ,alexander ,,vi4 and ,leo ,x4 ,in his historical investigation of private revelations1 such as those of ,st4 ,gertrude1 ,st4 ,mechtild1 ,bl4 ,juliana of ,lige1 or of relics and objects of veneration1 the historian is likewise not restricted by ,church-direction4 ,having merely the task of preserving the treasure of the faith received from ,christ and the ,apostles1 the ,church in her function as ,teacher never vouches for the divine origin of new1 private revelations1 nor for the accuracy of pious traditions of another kind4 ,true1 she decides authoritatively whether private revelations contain anything against faith and morals1 but she decides nothing more4 ,if she accepts such revelations or traditions as genuine1 she claims for the facts in question only that human faith which corresponds to their historical proof4 ,this is clearly stated by the recent encyclical ,pascendi3 8,in judging of pious traditions1 the following must be kept in mind3 the ,church employs such prudence in treating of these matters that she does not allow such traditions to be written about except with great precaution and only after making the declarations required by ,urban ,,viii42 and even then1 after this has been properly done1 the ,church by no means asserts the truth of the private revelation or of the tradition1 but merely permits them to be believed1 provided there be sufficient human reasons4 ,it was in this sense that the ,sacred ,congregation of ,rites declared thirty-one years ago3 #8,these apparitions are neither approved nor condemned by the ,holy ,see2 it merely permits them to be believed in a natural way1 provided the tradition on which they rest be corroborated by credible testimonies and documents4' ,whoever follows this maxim is safe4 ,the veneration of such things is always conditional1 it is only relative1 and on the condition that the tradition be true4 ,in so far only is the veneration absolute as it relates to the ,saint to whom the veneration is paid4 ,the same applies to the veneration of relics40 7,benedict ,,xiv4 says of private revelations3 8,praedictis revelationibus etsi approbatis1 non debere nec posse a nobis adhiberi assensum fidei catholicae1 sed tantum fidei humanae juxta regulas prudentiae1 juxta quas praedictae revelationes sunt probabiles et pie credibiles40 ,de ,serv4 ,dei beatificatione1 ,,iii1 c4 ult4 n4 #ae74 ,hence the historian is free to investigate such traditions critically1 provided1 of course1 that he does not violate the reverence due to sacred things4 #d4 ,infallible and ,non-,infallible ,teachings4 ,now to consider a last point4 ,does it not rest entirely with the pleasure of ecclesiastical authority1 as would seem from what has been said above1 to suppress at any time the results1 or at least the hypotheses1 of scientific research by pointing to putative truths of faith presumed to be in opposition8 ,then1 of course1 the scientist would be at the mercy of a zealous ecclesiastical authority4 ,or will it perhaps be said that this authority is infallible in its every decision8 ,think of ,galileo1 of the interdict against the ,copernican view of the world1 and you will be able fully to appreciate the danger alluded to6 ,we shall later on return to the famous case of ,galileo4 ,for the present we only call attention to a distinction which must not be overlooked1 the distinction between infallible teachings and those that are not infallible47#c7 ,according to ,catholic teaching1 the universal teaching body of the ,church1 when declaring unanimously to be an object of faith something relating to faith and morals1 is endowed with infallibility1 and also when in its daily practice of the faith it unanimously professes a doctrine to be a truth of faith4 ,this infallibility is also possessed by the ,pope alone when1 acting in his capacity as ,supreme ,teacher of the ,church in matters of faith and morals1 he intends to give a permanent decision for the whole ,church 7ex cathedra74 ,besides these infallible teachings there are also non-infallible teachings1 and they are the more frequent4 ,such are1 first of all1 the ordinary doctrinal utterances of the ,pope himself in his regular supervision of the teaching of doctrine3 these instructions and declarations are of a lower kind than those peremptory ones that are pronounced ex cathedra3 he is infallible only in the utterance of these ultimate1 supreme decisions1 the chief bulwark1 as it were1 erected against the floods of error4 ,decisions ex cathedra are very rare4 ,encyclical letters1 too1 are1 as a rule1 not infallible4 ,it is self-evident that the theological opinions and statements of the ,pope as a private person1 not as ,supreme ,head of the ,church1 do not belong here at all4 ,they have no official character and are in no way binding4 ,among decisions that are not infallible are further included1 in various degrees1 the doctrinal utterances of ,bishops1 of particular synods1 and especially those of the ,roman ,congregations4 ,the latter are bodies of ,cardinals1 delegated by the ,head of the ,church1 as highest ,papal boards1 to co-operate with him in the various offices of administration4 ,of these1 the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office and that of the ,index may also render decisions on doctrinal questions4 ,although the ,congregations act by virtue of their delegation from the ,pope1 and publish their decrees with his consent1 the decisions are not decisions of the ,pope himself1 but remain decisions of the ,cardinals4 ,much less can the infallibility of the ,pope pass over to them3 it is his personal prerogative1 the aid of the ,holy ,ghost is promised to him1 and protects his judgments under certain conditions against error4 ,but the ,catholic owes submission also to the non-infallible teachings2 and not only an outer submission1 a reverent silence1 that offends not either verbally or in writing against the decision rendered1 but he owes also his inner assent4 ,but it cannot be that unconditional inner assent which he owes to the infallible decision1 for this he holds to be irrevocably certain2 nor is his assent to non-infallible decisions a real act of faith4 ,he is not given any unconditional guarantee of the truth4 ,an error is1 of course1 most unlikely1 but not absolutely impossible4 ,hence the faithful ,catholic should always be ready to accept such decisions in as far as they are warranted by recognized truth4 ,this applies to all kinds of doctrinal teaching1 but of course in different ways1 corresponding to the degree of authority1--for instance1 ,papal decisions are of higher authority than those of the ,congregations1--yet it applies also to the doctrinal decisions of the ,congregations1 because they are the ordinary teaching organs of the ,church4 ,when the ,congregation of the ,index1 #aheg1 had forbidden the works of ,guenther and many thought they could evade the decision1 ,pius ,,ix4 wrote1 ,june #ae1 to the ,archbishop of ,cologne3 8,the decree is so far-reaching that nobody may think himself free not to hold what we have confirmed40 ,similar was what the ,pope had written to the ,archbishop of ,mecheln after the condemnation of the ontological errors of ,ubagh4 ,the ,motu proprio of ,pius ,x4 of ,november #h1 #aijg1 speaks similarly of the obligation of submission to the decisions of the ,papal ,biblical ,commission relating to doctrines1 and to the decrees of ,congregations when approved by the ,pope4 7,cf4 also the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix41 sent4 #bb47 ,theologians agree that this requisite internal assent is not the same as irrevocable assent4 ,this was also declared by ,pius ,,ix4 in his letter to the ,archbishop of ,munich-,freising1 saying that this inner submission is by no means faith2 and no theologian will ascribe infallibility to a mere congregational decree4 7,see on this point3 e4g4 ,grisar1 ,galileistudien1 #ahhb1 #aga seq4 ,cr4 ,pesch1 ,theol4 ,zeitfragen1 ,erste ,folge1 #aijj1 ,,iii4 ,egger1 ,streiflichter ueber die freiere ,bibelforschung1 #ahhi47 ,it would be erroneous to think that only in recent times1 after the embarrassment caused by the regrettable ,galileo decision the subtle distinction had been invented that congregational decisions are not binding on ,catholics with absolute force4 ,this was taught by theologians long before the ,galileo case caused any excitement4 ,in this sense the celebrated writer on ,moral ,theology1 ,lacroix1 said3 8,the declarations of none of these ,congregations are infallible4444 ,no infallibility is promised to the ,congregation in so far as it is viewed as separate from the ,pope0 7,theologia ,moralis1 #agbi1 ,i1 n4 #bae74 ,raccioli1 soon after the ,galileo trial1 wrote3 8,the ,holy ,congregation of ,cardinals as separate from the ,pope cannot give to any proposition the proper authority of faith40 ,and he adds3 8,there being extant no decision of the ,pope1 or of a ,council directed and confirmed by him1 the proposition of the sun moving and the earth standing still cannot on the strength of a congregational decree be considered a truth that must be believed0 7,almagestum novum1 #afea1 ,i1 #eb74 ,the obligation to give interior assent also to an authority not infallible1 cannot seem strange if this authority offers a guarantee for the truth commensurate to the assent demanded4 ,we certainly ask of a child to receive the instruction from his parent and teacher with internal assent1 so far as the latter does not run counter to its instinct for the truth1 else the education of the child and the needful influence over its intellectual life would be impossible4 ,upon the ,church has been bestowed by her divine ,founder the task of guiding the faithful authoritatively in the educational matters committed to the ,church1 and not only in their youth but throughout their lives4 ,this guidance in religion and morality would be impossible if the faithful could constantly deny their internal assent to the instruction of the ,church1 which is given generally in a form that is not infallible4 ,the full power of the ,church to teach with authority implies a corresponding duty of the faithful to assent to her teachings as far as this is possible4 ,does not the scientific specialist think himself obliged to accept a proposition on the strength of a certain authority1 even if the latter's infallibility is not established8 ,he reads in his scientific periodical and finds in it the report of special researches made by a colleague4 ,he cannot examine them over again1 yet he accepts them because of the reliability of his colleague1 in which he sees the guarantee of truth4 ,likewise1 only more so1 does the ,catholic owe it to his sense of truth to impose upon himself an assent even where the representatives of the teaching authority of the ,church are not endowed in their decision with the gift of infallibility4 ,for he knows that even in such teachings the ,church is commonly under the guidance of the ,holy ,ghost1 who will seldom tolerate error4 ,he is promised to the teaching ,church for the safe guidance of the faithful2 these declarations are1 however1 the ordinary doctrinal utterances of that ecclesiastical office4 ,and the ,holy ,ghost cannot permit that the teaching authority should by a wrong decision forfeit the confidence it enjoys4 ,moreover1 this authority ranks very high even when looked at from a purely human standpoint4 ,those who are invested with it are mostly men of great learning1 competent to give such doctrinal decisions by virtue of their experience and position1 and learned advisers are at their side4 ,they are guided by the tradition and wisdom of a universal ,church1 which measures its history by thousands of years3 the decisions1 too1 are for the most part but the application or repetition of previous doctrinal utterances4 ,besides1 there is the hesitating caution which advances to a decision only after long deliberations1 and in undemonstrated matters usually refrains from decision2 a caution which has increased still more in recent times1 since so many subtle questions have arisen on the boundaries of science and faith4 ,it is also known that many inquisitive eyes are constantly turned on ,rome1 and a single wrong decision might entail most disagreeable consequences for friend and foe4 ,the pressure must be very great before a much-disputed question is taken up at all4 ,of course it is by no means impossible that difficulties may pile up in such a way that an error may really be made4 ,history knows of such a case4 ,but the very fact that the one case of ,galileo is always quoted1 and1 therefore1 that in the long history of the ,congregations this is considered to be almost the only case of importance1 is a proof how carefully the ,congregations proceed1 and that supernatural aid is granted them4 ,an institution which in the course of its long existence had to reply to innumerable questions and against which only one wrong decision of importance can be pointed out1 must necessarily be an exemplary institution4 ,an institution so free from human error must surely be guided by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,compare with this the many cases in which science has had to correct itself1 had to abandon its long-championed propositions as untenable4 ,thus1 in a given case1 the decision is not difficult for the ,catholic4 ,on one side stand the representatives of a science which has erred1 very often1 incomparably more frequently than the ecclesiastical teaching authority1 and which lacks the special aid of ,god4 ,on the other side is the ecclesiastical authority1 which has almost never erred1 and which enjoys special divine aid2 moreover1 it examines into its questions with greater caution and care1 because it has more to lose4 ,in addition it is almost invariably able to point to a large number1 and frequently the majority1 of savants who indorse its decisions1 because these mostly concern disputed questions not yet scientifically determined4 ,hence the ,catholic will find no difficulty in presuming that the decision is in accord with the truth2 the more so because1 as a rule1 he himself is unable to examine scientifically both sides of the question4 ,should any one1 nevertheless1 be clearly convinced1 by substantial and valid reasons1 that there has been prejudgment1 then he would not be any longer obliged to give it his interior assent3 truth before all else4 ,it would be easy1 too1 by presenting reliable information to an authoritative quarter1 to secure the triumph of the truth4 ,however1 in this case a man must be ever on his guard against the tendency to overrate his own arguments4 ,in excitement he easily thinks himself to be certainly in the right1 but when considering the matter quietly before ,god and his conscience1 he will rarely come to the conclusion that it would be wise to set his judgment above the decision4 ,in the case of ,galileo the decision of the ,congregation was by no means opposed by a clear conviction of the truth of the opposite4 ,take1 for instance1 a more recent decision of the ,congregation1 forbidding craniotomy4 ,it has often been denounced4 ,the question was submitted to the ,congregation of the ,holy ,office whether it were permissible to teach that craniotomy is allowable in case the mother cannot give birth to the child1 and that both will have to die unless the child be killed and removed by a surgical operation4 ,the ,congregation answered twice in the negative1 in ,may and ,august1 #ahhi4 ,neither craniotomy1 nor any operation implying the direct murder of the child or mother can be taught to be permissible4 ,the reason on which the answers were based is that the direct murder of an innocent person in order to save human life is never allowable2 and this applies to the murder of a child1 which has as much right to its life as any other person4 ,in the case of craniotomy we have the direct murder of the child4 ,we1 too1 shall have to admit1 if we judge according to the objective morality of the action1 that the ,congregation is in the right2 though it may seem hard to let both mother and child die rather than take a life directly1 we shall have to admit that it is more in accord with the sanctity of the moral law than the opposite1 though the latter may seem preferable to medical practice4 ,viewed in the interest of truth and the purity of the moral law1 it is gratifying to know that there is a court courageous enough to uphold this law always and everywhere1 even when it becomes hard4 ,so much about assenting to doctrinal decisions that are not infallible4 ,in regard to infallible decisions1 the ,catholic knows that there are certain truths which no result of science can contradict4 ,to these decisions he owes unconditional submission1 and he gives it with conviction3 he knows the promise1 8,i am with you always1 even unto the consummation of the world40 ,new decisions of this kind are very rare4 ,when the dogma of the ,infallibility of the ,pope was proclaimed in #ahgj1 the fear was frequently expressed that the ,head of the ,roman ,church would hasten to make the fullest use of this prerogative1 by erecting theological barriers at all nooks and corners in the realm of thought4 ,the fear did not come true2 it was unfounded4 ,a ,protestant scientist wrote recently3 8,those who thought ,doellinger's prediction of a prolific crop of dogmas would come true were disappointed4 ,there has been no new dogma pronounced since #ahgj1 although there were many pious opinions that certain circles would have been only too glad to see confirmed4 ,on looking calmly at the dogma of infallibility it is seen that it was1 after all1 not so bad as had been feared during the first excitement0 7,k4 ,holl1 ,modernismus1 #aijh1 p4 #i1 ,religionsgesch4 ,volksbuecher1 ,,iv1 #g1 ,heft74 ,we may get a good idea of the precaution taken prior to the proclamation of an infallible decision by perusing the ,history of the ,vatican ,council1 published by ,granderath1 in three volumes4 ,he describes the proceedings with conscientious objectiveness4 ,he shows how minutely all questions had been previously studied1 with all the available means of scientific investigation1 and how minutely and freely they were discussed by the most venerable representatives of the ,catholic world4 ,cardinal ,gibbons1 ,archbishop of ,baltimore1 gave his impressions of the ,vatican ,council as follows3 8,i happened to be the youngest ,bishop that attended the ,council of the ,vatican1 and1 while my youth and inexperience imposed on me a discreet silence among my elders1 ,i do not remember to have missed a single session1 and ,i was an attentive listener at all the debates4444 ,i think ,i am not exaggerating when ,i say that the ,council of the ,vatican has been excelled by few1 if any1 deliberative assemblies1 civil or ecclesiastical1 that have ever met1 whether we consider the maturity of years of its members1 their learning1 their experience and piety1 or the widespread influence of the ,decrees that they framed for the spiritual and moral welfare of the ,christian ,republic4 8,the youngest ,bishop in the ,council was thirty-six years old4 ,fully three-fourths of the ,prelates ranged between fifty-six and ninety years4 ,the great majority1 therefore1 had grown gray in the service of their ,divine ,master4 ,several ,fathers of the ,church1 bent with age1 might be seen passing through ,st4 ,peter's ,basilica to the council chamber every morning1 leaning with one hand on their staff1 the other resting on the shoulder of their secretary4 ,one or two blind ,bishops could be observed1 guided by their servants1 as they advanced to their posts with tottering steps1 determined to aid the ,church in their declining years by the wisdom of their counsel1 as they had consecrated to her their vigorous manhood by their ,apostolic labours4 8,but to the gravity of years the members of the ,council generally united profound and varied learning4444 8,they were men1 too1 of world-wide experience and close observation4 ,each ,bishop brought with him an intimate knowledge of the history of his country and of the religious1 moral1 social1 and political condition of the people among whom he lived4 ,one could learn more from an hour's interview with this living encyclopdia of divines1 who were a world in miniature1 than from a week's study of books4444 ,the most ample liberty of discussion prevailed in the ,council4 ,this freedom the ,holy ,father pledged at the opening of the synod1 and the pledge was religiously kept4 ,i can safely say that neither in the ,british ,house of ,commons1 nor in the ,french ,chambers1 nor in the ,german ,reichstag1 nor in our ,american ,congress1 would a wider liberty of debate be tolerated than was granted in the ,vatican ,council4 ,the presiding ,cardinal exhibited a courtesy of manner and a forbearance even in the heat of debate that was worthy of all praise4 ,i do not think that he called a speaker to order more than a dozen times during the eighty-nine sessions1 and then only in deference to the dissenting murmurs or demands of some ,bishops4 ,a ,prelate representing the smallest diocese had the same rights that were accorded to the highest dignitary in the ,chamber4 ,there was no limit prescribed as to the length of the speeches4 ,we may judge of the wide scope of discussion from the single fact that the debate on the ,infallibility of the ,pope lasted two months1 occupying twenty-five sessions1 and was participated in by one hundred and twenty-five ,prelates1 not counting one hundred others who handed in written observations4 ,no stone was left unturned1 no text of ,sacred ,scripture1 no passage in the writings of the ,fathers1 no page of ,ecclesiastical ,history bearing on the subject1 escaped the vigilant investigations of the ,bishops1 so that the whole truth of ,god might be brought to light4444 8,the most important debate in the ,council was that on the ,infallibility of the ,pope4 ,it may be proper to observe here that the discussion was rather on the expediency or opportuneness of defining the dogma than on the intrinsic truth of the doctrine itself4 ,the number of ,prelates who questioned the claim of ,papal ,infallibility could be counted on the fingers of a single hand4 ,many of the speakers1 indeed1 impugned the dogma1 not because they did not personally accept it1 but with the view of pointing out the difficulties with which the teaching body of the ,church would have to contend in vindicating it before the world4 ,i have listened in the council chamber to far more subtle1 more plausible1 and more searching objections against this prerogative of the ,pope than ,i have ever read or heard from the pen or tongue of the most learned and formidable ,protestant assailant0 7,north ,american ,review1 ,april1 #ahid74 ,obedience of ,faith and ,freedom of ,action4 ,in looking back at what has been said1 we see the justice of the question3 where is here any real injury to lawful freedom in thought and scientific research8 ,in most of the profane sciences the scientist receives no directions from the authority of faith2 he is altogether free1 as long as he keeps within his province4 ,in some matters he is given a list of errors to beware of3 these are in the first place the great questions concerning views of the world and life1 of which1 after all1 it is very difficult to obtain scientific knowledge4 ,but here he knows1 through the conviction he has of the truth of his faith1 that he is offered the truth free from error and prejudice4 ,it is true1 adhering to a religious authority implies restraint4 ,but it is only the restraint of truth4 ,truth does not lose its claim upon the mind because it is offered to the latter by a supernatural authority2 much less does the ,creator lose the right to the tribute of homage of his rational creature2 and this tribute is rendered by voluntary submission to the revealed truth4 ,upon the ,church1 however1 has been laid the task of preserving unadulterated the legacy of her ,founder from generation to generation4 ,she is responsible before ,god and history for the faithful presentation of the most sacred inheritance of mankind4 ,therefore the ,church must raise her voice when the puny thoughts of men1 called science and progress1 rise against the saving truth to disparage1 to falsify1 to annihilate it4 ,it is not science the ,church opposes1 but error2 not truth1 but the emancipation of the human mind from ,god's authority1 an emancipation that is trying to hide its real self under the guise of scientific truth4 8,the ,church10 says the ,vatican ,council 7,sess4 ,,iii1 ch4 #d71 8having received with her apostolic office to teach1 the obligation of preserving the legacy of the faith1 has also the ,god-given right and duty to condemn what is falsely called science1 'lest any one be cheated by philosophy and vain deceit4'0 ,that the denial of the faith is flippantly called science does not alter the case4 ,what determines the attitude of the ,church is not eagerness to rule1 not a propensity to apply force to the mind1 but loyalty to her vocation4 ,if it is disagreeable for any superior to have to correct those under him1 then it requires an heroic strength and courage to cry out time and again to the whole world and its leading minds1 ,errastis1 you have erred6 ,it requires heroism to reject1 to oppose and condemn1 time and again1 propositions sailing under the flag of progress1 light and enlightenment1 in spite of the protest of those concerned1 who denounce whatever opposes them as darkness and retrogression4 ,how much easier it would be to fawn upon the pet ideas of the age1 ,neo-protestantism and ,modernism1 and thus to gain their approval1 than to hear repeatedly the distressing words1 8,we will not have her to rule over us--crucifige1 crucifige60 ,but why not let science correct itself8 ,why these violent condemnations and indictments8 ,science1 by virtue of its instinct for the truth will by itself find the way back1 when it has gone on the wrong track2 only be patient4 ,science has in itself the cure for all its defects4 ,has it not already all by itself overcome numerous errors in the course of the centuries8 ,indeed1 were there nothing at stake but scientific theories they might be readily left to themselves3 the loss to mankind would not be great4 ,but here there are more important issues at stake4 ,the protection of the faith1 of truths of the vastest importance for ,christian life and the souls of men4 ,and it is the duty of the ,church to protect her charges from going astray1 from dangers to salvation4 ,how many thousands of them would suffer harm before it would please science to correct its heresies6 ,it often takes a long time to pull down the idols placed upon pedestals1 and then it may be only to erect another idol4 ,how long will it take modern philosophy to agree that the will of man is free1 that there is a substantial immortal soul1 that a ,creator of the world dwells above the heavens8 ,is the ,church to wait till the men of science make up their minds to desist from denying the existence of a personal ,god1 and to bow before the ,creator of heaven and earth8 ,should she meanwhile look on calmly how such ruinous doctrines are pervading and penetrating society deeper and deeper8 ,souls cannot wait thus to suffer shipwreck4 ,finally1 the duty to believe remains the same for all1 for the scientist1 too--he is not free to delay his assent until he has exhausted all his antagonistic scientific experiments4 ,to be sure1 the scientist is restricted in so far as he is not allowed to pursue any and every hypothesis1 regardless of the immutable truth2 he may no longer follow every scientific fashion4 ,but is this a real detriment to the human intellect and science8 ,has not every science to bear restraint from other sciences at all times8 ,the adherent of ,darwin's theory of natural selection needs a billion years for his slow evolution2 but the geologist tells him that neither the formation of the earth's surface nor the strata or sub-strata have taken so long in formation--he corrects him4 ,when the philosopher1 drawing the logical deductions from his materialistic views of the world1 assumes that the first living being sprang from lifeless matter1 the naturalist informs him that this is contradicted by facts--there never has been a case of spontaneous generation4 ,the naturalist is corrected by the better experiment of men of his profession1 the scientific author is corrected by his critic4 ,hence if a man submits to the guidance of other men of his profession1 if one science accepts direction from another science1 without any one seeing any injury to freedom therein1 why1 then1 should it be mental oppression for ,god's infallible wisdom to call out through ,his ,church to the fallible human mind3 this is error1 ,i declare it so8 ,when the guide-post points out to the traveller that he is on the wrong way1 will the wanderer indignantly resent the correction as an interference with his freedom of action8 ,is the railing along the steep precipice1 to guard against falling down1 an interference with liberty8 ,is the lighthouse1 warning the sailor of cliffs and shoals1 any interference with his freedom8 ,generally those who oppose the ,christian and ,catholic duty to believe use the following argument3 ,where there is restraint and dependence there is no freedom2 the ,christian1 and especially the ,catholic1 is restrained and dependent2 hence he is not free3 consequently he has no true science1 because there can be no true science without freedom4 ,in the same way it may be argued3 ,the civilized nation is restrained in various ways by the civil order1 therefore it is not free4 ,the careful writer of scientific works is tied down on all sides by the rules of logic1 by the dictates of good style1 by scientific usages3 hence he is not free4 ,let us not lose sight of the question4 ,it cannot be denied that the man who does not bother about faith has a greater outer freedom than the man who does4 ,we speak purposely of outer freedom4 ,it is quite another question1 where real internal freedom exists1 i4e41 freedom from the fetters of one's own inclinations and prejudices1--in the religiously disciplined mind1 or in the other4 ,here we speak of inner freedom4 ,obviously it is greater in the former4 ,the deer in the forest is freer in his movements than the cautious mountain-climber1 who keeps to marked roads and paths1 so as to journey safely1 yet the latter is not without freedom4 ,nor will any one deny that the ,australian bushman enjoys a greater outer freedom than the civilized white1 restrained by laws1 by rules and regulations1 by standards of decency4 ,and the busy writer of many things and everything1 who in his writing never pays any attention to logic1 to scientific form1 to style and tact1 has more freedom than one who strictly conforms to all these4 ,every civilization1 culture1 and education implies restriction of freedom1 and the more the rejection of dependence and laws increases the nearer we approach the state of uncultured and barbarous nations4 ,the same applies to intellectual culture4 ,the higher it is1 the more learning and mental culture a man has1 the greater the number of truths1 principles1 and intellectual standards he carries within him4 ,by these he is bound if he wants to advance into the higher spheres of intellectuality4 ,and the more the intellect rejects laws and standards the more unregulated and dull its intellectual life will become4 ,the more one knows the more strictly is he bound to truth in every respect2 the less one knows the freer he is to commit errors4 ,this is no advantage1 it is the privilege of the ignorant and untrained mind4 ,the believer is bound by religious truth in the same way as one who knows the truth is bound by it1 while one who is ignorant of it is not4 ,it is certainly not impossible for the obedience of faith to create intellectual conflict4 ,there may be cases when scientific views look probable to the scientist1 while they contradict a doctrine of faith or an ecclesiastical decision4 ,the roads may even cross more radically4 ,it may happen that his views and books are condemned1 forbidden by the ,church4 ,if the conflicting doctrine should be an infallible one1 the decision of the believing scientist is soon reached4 ,he knows now what to think of his hypothesis1 that it is not true progress but aberration1 and consistency with his own conviction moves him to desist4 ,thus the philosophical errors of modern times are opposed almost throughout to infallible dogmas1 for the most part fundamental doctrines of the ,christian religion4 ,this is also the legal right under which revelation and the ,church approach the scientist with the demand not to permit his views to go contrary to faith1 because there can never be a contradiction between faith and reason4 8,there can never be a contradiction between faith and reason10 the ,vatican ,council teaches2 8the apparent conflict is due either to the doctrine not being understood and interpreted in the sense of the ,church1 or to erroneous opinions that are mistaken for conclusions of reason0 7,conc4 ,vat4 sess4 ,,iii1 cp4 #d74 ,if the ,catholic finds his position opposed to non-infallible decisions1 then he will re-examine his views in unselfish impartiality before ,god4 ,if he must calmly tell himself that his arguments are not so weighty as to be able to stand up before so high an authority1 guided by the ,holy ,ghost1 then he will forego the gratification of holding fast to his own opinions1 and will remind himself that true wisdom knows the fallibility of the human mind1 and is ever ready to take advice from a divinely guided authority4 ,perhaps he will recall the words of the great ,st4 ,augustine3 8,better bow before an incomprehensible but saving symbol than entangle one's neck in the meshes of error0 7,de doctr4 ,christ4 ,,iii1 #ac74 ,this ,christian self-denial surpasses in beauty even science itself1 and sheds upon it a greater splendour4 ,the great ,fnelon1 proceeding to his pulpit in the cathedral of ,cambrai1 on ,annunciation day in #afii1 was handed by his brother the ,roman brief condemning twenty-three propositions of ,fnelon's 8,maximes des ,saints40 ,the ,bishop took the writing1 calmly ascended the pulpit and announced it forthwith1 and preached a sermon on the submission due to ecclesiastical superiors1 at which the whole congregation was greatly moved4 ,a few days later he announced in an episcopal letter to his diocese his submission1 8simple1 absolute1 and without a shadow of reservation40 ,by this deed1 an heroic act of obedience1 ,fnelon is placed higher in history than by his brilliant works1 than by the honour of having been the illustrious tutor of the ,dauphin of ,france4 ,antonio ,rosmini-,serbati in ,august1 #ahdi1 received official notice of the condemnation of two of his works by the ,congregation of the ,index4 ,he immediately sent in his submission3 8,with the sentiments of a true and obedient son of the ,apostolic ,see1 that ,i have always been by the grace of ,god and wish ever to be1 and have ever acknowledged myself1 ,i now declare clearly and sincerely1 without reservation1 my submission1 in the most complete manner1 to the condemnation of my writings40 ,both the condemnation and the submission were soon made the target of attack by the ,liberal press4 ,rosmini replied in an admirable open letter3 8,to my great sorrow ,i have seen several articles in different newspapers which dare criticize the ,holy ,congregation of the ,index for condemning my writings4 ,inasmuch as ,i have submitted to the decree of the said ,congregation with all sincerity1 and with full interior and exterior obedience as becomes a true son of the ,church1 every one will easily understand how much ,i regret these articles and disapprove of them4 ,yet ,i deem it not superfluous to declare expressly that ,i reject those articles entirely and that ,i do not accept the praise for me which they offer4 ,with regard to other newspaper writers1 who are censuring me and even insulting me for having done what it was my duty to do1 in submitting to the condemnation1 as though ,i had committed a crime1 ,i can only say that ,i greatly pity them1 and that they would fill me with contempt could ,i deem it permissible to despise any one0 7apud ,j4 ,hilgers1 ,der ,index der verbotenen ,buecher1 #aijd1 #dac74 ,a ,fnelon or a ,rosmini1 bowing with the humility of the ,christian savant to the judgment of their ,church1 have thereby forfeited nothing of their intellectual fame in the eyes of earnest critics1 but1 on the contrary1 have greatly increased the respect for their noble character4 ,even should the future prove as scientifically correct that which the believing scientist does not as yet clearly see1 that he was scientifically in the right1 no considerable damage would result to science4 ,providence1 which guides human affairs1 will protect science for its noble modesty in submitting meanwhile to an authority appointed by ,god4 ,as a matter of fact1 science cannot be shown ever to have suffered any real loss by such submission1 not even in the ,galileo case1 as we shall see further on4 ,on the other hand1 countless are the errors and injuries which have befallen human thought and belief1 and which the ,church has warded off from those who yielded to her guidance4 ,of course the submission may become difficult if a man clings to his views1 or has already publicly proclaimed them4 ,then1 indeed1 a bitter struggle may ensue4 ,a number of scientists have failed to stand the test and have left to posterity the ill-fated name of apostates4 ,the ,church regrets such cases2 but the deposit of faith is too precious to be endangered for the sake of any individual4 ,for this reason the ,church is and must be conservative2 for this reason she may have to warn against the dissemination of propositions which may not in themselves be false1 but fraught with danger for the time being4 ,she cannot take part in any hasty effort to make experiments1 risking everything inherited in order to try something new4 ,during the nineteenth century the ,united ,states was repeatedly the scene of communistic experiments4 ,daring adventurers assembled people and founded settlements on communistic principles1 private property being abolished4 ,in #ahbd ,robert ,owen founded a colony in ,indiana1 which soon grew to nine hundred members1 living in the fashion of atheistic communism4 ,in #ahbe the colony adopted its first constitution1 which within the following year suffered six complete revisions4 ,in ,june of the second year the last members of the colony ate their farewell dinner together4 ,the experiment had come to a speedy termination4 ,a ,frenchman1 ,etienne ,cabet1 founded1 in #ahdh1 a new colony in ,texas1 called ,icaria4 ,soon it numbered #ejj members4 ,each family had its small homestead4 ,children were educated by the community4 ,amusement was provided for by a band and a theatre2 a library supplied more intellectual wants4 ,but soon it all fell into decay4 ,cabet departed and died4 ,in #ahie the newspapers reported the dissolution of the last remnant of the colony4 ,such is the fate of experiments4 ,daring adventurers may undertake them4 ,the lecturer at college1 too1 will be readily pardoned for his eagerness to take up the cudgel in defence of what is new in his profane science3 he may easily correct himself4 ,but the ,teacher of the ,centuries and of the ,nations1 in the sphere of religion and morals1 has not the right to experiment4 ,here1 where mistakes may entail the direst consequences1 the rule must be3 slowly onward1 to keep the whole from ruin4 ,cardinal ,benedict ,gaetani1 later ,pope ,boniface ,,viii41 once praised ,rome for having pedes non plumeos sed plumbeos--not winged feet1 but leaden heels4 ,sentiments of the kind just set forth are of course possible only in conjunction with the belief in a revelation and in the supernatural character of the ,church1 where the interests of faith come first1 and must be unconditionally preserved4 ,he who lacks this conviction1 he to whom the ,church is but a human institution1 founded in the course of time1 tending perhaps to oppose truth and science for fear they might endanger the submission of minds--to such a one the ,catholic's confident devotion to his ,church1 and consciousness of unimpaired freedom at the same time1 will be unintelligible2 and the inflexibility of the ,church in defending the faith will pass his comprehension4 ,and woe to the ,church when her position toward science is being tried before this court3 only harsh denunciations are to be expected where the judge does not understand the matter he undertakes to decide4 ,nor do we attempt to bridge the chasm that separates the two views of the world which we here again encounter1 the one1 which rejects the supernatural world1 the other1 the view of the believing ,christian4 ,we have but endeavoured to show that faith does not restrain the mental freedom of one who is convinced of the truth of his faith4 ,submission to the authority of faith is the consequence of his conviction4 ,this is the question to be decided3 ,either there is a revelation and a ,church founded by ,god1 or there is not4 ,if such there be1 or if it is only possible1 then modern freedom of thought1 with its demand of exemption from all authority1 is against reason and morality4 ,if there is not1 then this should be proved4 ,it can be done consistently only by acknowledging atheism4 ,for if there is a personal ,god1 then ,he can give a revelation and found a ,church1 and demand submission from all4 ,since the days of ,celsus to this day the attempt to demonstrate that the convictions of a faithful ,christian are unjustifiable has proved futile4 ,obedience of ,faith and ,injury to ,science4 ,while all this is true1 yet one may not share this conviction1 nor rise to the certainty that there is a supernatural world whence the ,son of ,god descended to teach man and to found an infallible ,church4 ,still1 to be fair1 he must admit that no real danger to freedom of research and progress of science results from submission to faith1 as shown above4 ,in the first place it must be admitted that the assertion is still unproved1 that a positive result of research has ever come in hopeless conflict with a dogma of faith2 hence that science has been prevented from accepting this result4 ,no such case can be found4 ,the condemnation of the ,copernican view of the world will be considered presently2 we pass over the fact that at the time of its condemnation it was not a positive result of science3 the main point is that the condemnation was not an irrevocable dogma of faith1 but only the decision of a ,congregation1 which was withdrawn as soon as the truth was clearly demonstrated4 ,besides1 science has suffered no injury from that decision4 ,in general1 where there is real contradiction between science and faith1 the matters in question are invariably hypotheses4 ,is it more than an hypothesis1 and a very doubtful hypothesis at that1 that the world and ,god are identical1 that there is an eternal1 uncreated course of the world1 that miracles are impossible8 ,that what is said about the natural origin of ,christianity1 the origin of the ,jewish religion from ,babylonian myths1 the origin of all religions from fear1 fancy1 or deception1 is it anything more than hypothetical8 ,the false systems of knowledge1 subjectivism1 and agnosticism--are they more than hypotheses8 ,ask their originators and champions2 they will admit it themselves2 and if they will not admit it1 others will tell them that their propositions are not only hypotheses1 but often quite untenable4 ,there is hardly a single hypothesis which has not its vehement opponents4 ,that the serious conflict between dogma and science is waged only in this field could be proved by abundant examples4 ,besides1 is it not the philosophical axiom of modern freedom of thought1 that in the sphere of philosophy and religion there is no certain knowledge1 but only supposition8 ,can hypotheses claim to rank as assured results of research which should be universally accepted8 ,why should it not be allowed to contradict them1 to oppose them with other suppositions8 ,is it not in the interest of science that this be done1 that they be subjected to sharp criticism1 lest they gradually be given out for positive results8 ,is it not a shameful trifling with the truth1 when a ,haeckel deceives wide circles by pretending that most frivolous hypotheses are established results of science8 ,is it not misleading when modern science treats the rejection of a supernatural order as an established principle8 ,and how often the hypotheses of profane sciences change6 8,laymen are astonished10 says ,h4 ,poincar1 8that so many scientific theories are perishable4 ,they see them thrive for a few years1 to be abandoned one after the other2 they see wrecks heaped upon wrecks2 they foresee that theories now fashionable will after a short while be forgotten1 and they conclude that these theories are absolute fallacy4 ,they call it the bankruptcy of science0 7,wissenschaft u4 ,hypothese1 ,german by ,f4 ,lindemann1 #b;d ed41 #aijf1 #afa74 ,the conclusion is certainly unjustified1 but the fact itself remains4 ,is it then a loss to science when faith opposes in the field of religion these variations of opinion with fixed dogmas8 ,or are these perhaps of less worth1 or less certain than their contraries8 ,is the dogma of the existence of ,god of less value than atheism8 ,is the conviction of the existence of a world of spirits less substantial than the philosophy of materialistic monism8 ,is the doctrine of the origin of the human soul from the creating hand of ,god found inferior to the notion that the soul has developed from the lower stages of animal life8 ,should the holy teaching of ,christianity1 doctrines believed by the best periods in the world's history1 believed in and professed by minds like those of an ,augustine1 a ,thomas1 and a ,leibnitz2 doctrines that since their appearance on earth have always attracted the noble and good1 and repelled chiefly the base and immoral2 doctrines that still wait for their first unobjectionable refutation--should such doctrines be less sure than the innumerable1 ever-changing suggestions of unregulated thought1 apparently directed by an aversion to everything supernatural8 ,erravimus4 ,yet another fact may be pointed out4 ,it is an undeniable fact that science1 after straying for some time1 is not unfrequently compelled to return to what is taught by faith and the ,church1 thus confirming the truth of the faith4 ,frequently the new theory has come on like a tornado1 sweeping all minds before it4 ,but the tempest was soon spent1 the minds recovered their balance and the hasty misjudgment was recognized4 ,not long ago1 when materialism revelled in its orgies1 especially in ,germany1 when ,vogt1 ,buechner1 and ,moleschott were writing their books1 and science with ,du ,bois-,reymond was hunting ,laplace's theory in the evolution of the world1 the ,syllabus1 undaunted1 put its anathema upon the 7#eh47 proposition3 8,no other forces are acknowledged but those of matter40 ,the summer-night's dream came to an end1 and people rubbed their eyes and saw the reality they had lost a while4 ,the materialism of the #fj's and #gj's has been discarded by the scientific world1 and finds a shelter only in the circles of unschooled infidelity4 ,j4 ,reinke1 in the name of biology1 bears testimony in the words3 8,in my opinion materialism has been disposed of in biology2 if1 nevertheless1 a number of biologists still stand by its colours1 this tenacity may be explained psychologically2 for1 in the apt words of ,du ,bois-,reymond1 in the domain of ideas a man does not willingly and easily forsake the highway of thought which his entire mental training has opened up0 7,einleitung in die theoretische ,biologie1 #aija1 #eb74 ,a few decades ago a number of scientists declared it impossible that the different races could have descended from one pair of ancestors1 as taught by faith3 the difference between the various families being too great and radical1 it was said2 the difference being rather of species than of race4 ,moreover1 there was announced the discovery of people without religion1 without notions of morality and family life2 of tribes incapable of civilization and culture2 it was asserted in the early days of ,darwin enthusiasm that there had been discovered a race of men that clearly belonged to the species ape4 ,assertions of this kind have gradually ceased4 ,now the different human races are considered to belong to the same species1 and their common parentage is considered possible from the view-point of the theory of evolution4 ,the anthropologist ,ranke expresses his opinion thus3 8,we find the bodily differences perfectly connected by intermediate forms1 graded to a nicety1 and the summary of the differences appears to point to but one species4444 ,this is the prevalent opinion of all independent research of anatomically schooled anthropologists0 7,der ,mensch1 #b;d ed41 ,,ii1 #ahid1 #bfa74 ,ethnology denies the existence of nations or tribes without religion 7,ratzel1 ,voelkerkunde1 ,i1 #ahhe1 #ca74 ,peschel says3 8,the statement that any nation or tribe has ever been found anywhere on earth without notions and suggestions of religion can be denied emphatically0 7,o4 ,peschel1 ,voelkerkunde1 #fth ed41 #ahhe1 #bgc74 8,the more recent ethnology knows of no tribes without morality1 nor does history record any0 7,w4 ,schneider1 ,die ,naturvoelker1 #ahhf1 ,,ii1 #cdh74 ,until a short time ago it was believed that the derivation of man's life from inferior stages of animal life would not be difficult to prove2 but at present1 while many still adhere to the theory that man has developed from the brute1 the conviction is steadily gaining ground that it cannot be scientifically proved and that it becomes more and more difficult to disprove man's higher origin4 ,unable to withstand the force of facts1 one hypothesis gives place to another3 what had to be found could not be found1 living or extinct links between the brute and man refused to appear anywhere1 and those which people thought they had found1 turned out to be unsuitable4 ,kohlbrugge concludes his criticism of the recent theories of the evolution of the body of man from lower animals with the confession3 8,the above summary is enough to convince everybody that we do not know anything distinct about the great problem of evolution2 we have not yet seen its face4 ,all must be done over again0 7,die ,morpholog4 ,abstammung des ,menschen1 #aijh1 #hh74 ,virchow said at the anthropological congress of ,vienna1 #ahhi3 8,when we met at ,innsbruck twenty years ago ,darwinism had just finished its first triumphal march through the world1 and my friend ,vogt became its ardent champion4 ,we have searched in vain for the missing link connecting man directly with the ape40 ,what has become of those anatomic-morphologic links between man and beast1 the pithecanthropus erectus1 the man dug out at ,neandertal1 ,spy1 ,schipka1 ,la ,naulette1 and ,krapina1 and shown with great confidence to the world8 ,what has become of the prehistoric man1 said to belong to the glacial period of ,europe1 and to have ranked far below the present man8 ,j4 ,kohlmann writes3 8,i wish to state that ,i thoroughly adhere to the theory of evolution1 but my own experience has led me to the result that man has not changed his racial characteristics since the glacial period4 ,he appears on the soil of ,europe physically complete1 and there is no ape-man to be found0 7apud ,ranke1 ,ibid4 #dhj74 ,prof4 ,branco1 director of the ,palontological ,institute of ,berlin1 says3 8,palontology tells us nothing about the missing link4 ,this science knows of no ancestors of man0 7at the #eth international ,zoological ,congress1 #aija1 ,wasmann1 ,die mod4 ,biolog4 #c1 p4 #dhh74 ,and the palontologist ,zittel says3 8,the missing link between man and ape1 though a postulate of the theory of evolution1 has not been found0 7,ranke1 l4 c4 #ejd74 ,e4 ,grosse concludes his studies on evolution with the significant words3 8,i began this book with the intention of writing a history of the evolution of the family1 and ,i finish it convinced that at present the writing of that history is impossible for me or for anybody else0 7,die ,formen der ,familie1 #ahif1 ,vorwort74 ,ranke is perfectly right in saying that 8it behoves the dignity of science to confess that it knows nothing of the origin of man0 7,thuermer ,v1 #aijb1 ,i4 ,heft74 ,a century ago or so1 ridicule was heaped in the name of science on the description in the ,bible of the last day3 8,the stars shall fall10 8and the powers of heaven shall be moved10 8the elements shall be melted with heat1 and the earth shall be burnt up0 7,matt4 xxiv4 #bi seq42 ,luke xxi4 #be seq42 ,mark xiii4 #bd seq42 #b ,pet4 iii4 #aj74 ,then the assertion that stones could fall from the skies caused a smile1 but now science has come to the general knowledge that this is not only possible1 but perhaps really will be the end of all things1 if once our earth on its journey through unknown spaces of the universe should collide with a comet or get into a cosmic cloud of large meteors4 7,cf4 the graphic description in ,k4 ,braun1 ,ueber ,kosmogonie1 #c;d ed41 #aije1 p4 #cha seq47 ,an example of another kind3 ,it is not so long since ,protestant1 liberal ,bible-criticism and its history of early ,christian literature1 in the endeavour to remove everything supernatural from the beginning of ,christianity1 regarded the ,new ,testament and the oldest ,christian documents as unreliable testimony1 even forgeries1 and for this reason placed the date of their origin as late as possible4 ,but now they have to retrace their steps4 ,a4 ,harnack writes3 8,there was a period--the general public is still living in it--when the ,new ,testament and the oldest ,christian literature were thought to be but a tissue of lies and forgeries4 ,this time has passed4 ,for science it was an episode in which much was learned of which much must be forgotten4 ,the result of subsequent research over-reaches in a #8reactionary' effect what might be termed the central position of modern criticism4 ,the oldest literature of the ,church is in the main and in most details true and reliable1 that is1 from the literary and historical point of view4444 ,i am not afraid to use the word #8retrogressive'--for we should call a spade a spade--the criticism of the sources of the earliest ,christianity is beyond doubt moving retrogressively towards tradition0 7,chronologie der ,alt-,christ4 ,literatur ,i1 #ahig1 ,,viii74 ,in a more recent work the same savant writes3 8,during the years from #cj to #gj all originated in ,palestine1 or1 better1 in ,jerusalem1 what later on was developed4 ,this knowledge is steadily gaining and replacing the former #8critical' opinion that the fundamental development had extended over a period of about a hundred years0 7,lukas der ,arzt1 #aijf1 ,vorwort74 ,this retrogression is continued still farther in his later work1 8,neue ,untersuchungen zur ,apostolgesch4 u4 zur ,abfassungszeit der synopt4 ,evang41 #aiaa10 in which ,harnack draws very near to the ,catholic view regarding the date of writing of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 as also regarding ,st4 ,paul's attitude towards ,judaism and ,christian-,judaism1 and departs from the modern ,protestant view 7cf4 pp4 #bh-dg1 #gi seq41 #hf1 #ic seq474 8,protestant authorities on church-history10 he says elsewhere1 8no longer take offence at the proposition that the main elements of ,catholicism go back to the ,apostolic era1 and not only peripherically0 7,theol4 ,literar4 ,zeitung1 #aije1 #eb74 ,in a speech1 much commented on1 which he made at his university ,january #ab1 #aijg1 ,prof4 ,harnack1 discussing the religious question in ,germany1 called attention to the fact that there has been quite a marked return to the ,catholic standpoint3 8,from the study of ,church history we find that we all have become different from what our fathers were1 whether we may like it or not4 ,study has shown that we are separated from our fathers by a long course of development2 that we do not understand their ideas and words at all1 much less do we use them in the sense they used them40 ,he then draws out the comparison more particularly3 8,flacius and the older ,protestants denied that ,peter had ever been in ,rome at all4 ,now we know that his having been there is a fact well evidenced in history40 ,the motto of the older ,protestants was that the ,scriptures are the sole source of revelation4 8,but now1 and for a long time past1 ,protestant savants have realized that the ,scriptures could not be separated from tradition1 and that the collecting of the ,new ,testament ,scriptures was a part of tradition40 8,protestants of the sixteenth century taught justification by faith alone1 without works4 ,in the absence of confessional controversy1 no evangelical ,christian would now find fault with the teaching which declares only such faith to be of any worth which shows itself by the love of ,god and of the neighbour0 7,protestantismus u4 ,katholizismus in ,deutschland1 ,preussisch4 ,jahrbcher #abg4 ,bd41 #aijg1 #cja seq474 ,many similar instances of science confessing ,erravimus in regard to the ,christian or ,catholic position could be cited4 ,they are an admonition to be modest1 not to overrate the value of a scientific proposition1 and not1 with supreme confidence and infallibility1 to brand it as an offence against the human intellect to let one's self be guided by the principles of faith4 ,moreover1 it has often happened that science emphatically and sneeringly rejected propositions1 and called them false and absurd1 which to-day are considered elementary4 ,newton1 in #afhg1 had correctly explained the revolution of the moon around the earth1 and of the planets around the sun1 as the co-operation of gravitation and inertia1 and thence concluded also the elliptic form of the orbits of planets previously discovered by ,kepler4 ,leibnitz rejected this theory1 ,huygens called it absurd1 and the ,academy of ,paris as late as #agcj still favoured the theory of revolution of ,descartes2 it was only about the year #agdj that it was generally accepted4 ,huygens1 himself1 had formed in #afij his theory about light-waves4 ,for a long time it was misunderstood4 ,only in #ahjj1 or somewhat later1 it received its merited acknowledgment1 but noted physicists like ,biot and ,brewster rejected it still for some time and held to the theory of emission4 8,even in the intellectual world the law of inertia holds good0 7,rosenberger1 ,gesch4 der ,physik1 ,,iii1 #ahhg1 #aci74 ,the great discoverer ,galvani complained of being attacked from two opposite sides1 by the scientists and by the ignorant3 8,both make fun of me4 ,they call me the dancing master of frogs4 ,yet ,i know ,i have discovered one of the greatest forces of nature40 ,when ,benjamin ,franklin explained the lightning-rod to the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 he was ridiculed as a dreamer4 ,the same happened to ,young with his theory of the undulation of light4 8,the ,edinburgh ,review0 proposed to the public to put ,thomas ,grey in a strait-jacket when he presented his plan for railroads4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy laughed at the idea of illuminating the city of ,london by gas4 ,the ,french ,academy of ,sciences actually sneered at the physicist ,arago when he proposed a resolution to merely open a discussion of the idea of an electric telegraph 7,wallace1 ,die wissensch4 ,ansicht des ,uebernatuerlichen1 #ajb seq474 ,until about a hundred years ago scientists almost universally thought it impossible for a stone to fall from the skies--not to mention a rain of stones4 ,of the big meteor that fell at ,agram in #agea the learned ,vienna professor1 ,stuetz1 wrote in #agij as follows3 8,that iron had fallen from the skies may have been believed in ,germany in #agea even by its enlightened minds1 owing to the uncertainty then prevailing in regard to physics and natural history4 ,in our times1 however1 it were unpardonable to consider similar fairy tales even probable40 ,some museums threw away their collections of meteors1 fearing they would appear ridiculous by keeping them4 ,in that very year1 #agij1 a meteor fell near the city of ,juillac in ,france1 and the mayor of the town sent a report of it to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 signed by three hundred eye-witnesses4 ,but the wise men of the academy knew better4 ,referee ,bertholon said3 8,it is a pity for a town to have so foolish a mayor10 and added3 8,it is sad to see the whole municipality certifying by affidavit to a folk-saga that can only be pitied4 ,what more can ,i say of an affidavit like that8 ,comment is self-evident to a philosophically trained mind who reads this authentic testimonial about an evidently false fact1 about a physically impossible phenomenon40 ,a4 ,deluc1 in other respects a sober-minded man1 and a scientist1 even remarked that should a stone like that fall before his feet1 then he would have to admit that he had seen it1 but nevertheless would not believe it4 ,vaudin remarked3 8,better to deny such incredible things than to have to try to explain them40 ,thus taught the ,french ,academy of that time 7apud ,braun1 ,ueber ,kosmogonie1 #c;d ed41 #aije1 #cgh seq474 ,and now science is teaching the contrary4 ,everybody knows that such falling meteors are not only possible1 but that they fall about seven hundred times a year on our earth4 ,do not these examples bear a striking resemblance to the attitude of many of the representatives of modern science towards facts and truths of our faith8 ,this has not been said with a view of detracting from the reputation of science4 ,not at all4 ,it has fallen to the lot of man to be subject to error4 ,the above was said to recall that fact4 ,science is not so infallible as to be able to claim the right to ignore1 in religious and ethical questions1 faith and the ,church1 and even to usurp the place of the faith given by ,god1 in order to lead its disciples upon the new paths of a delivered mankind4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,unprepossession ,of ,research4 ,what ,it ,is4 ,in the year #aija a case1 insignificant in itself1 caused great excitement in and even beyond the scientific world4 ,what had happened8 ,at the ,university of ,strassburg1 in a territory for the most part ,catholic1 no less than one-third of the students were ,catholic1 yet of the seventy-two professors sixty-one were ,protestant1 six ,israelites and but four ,catholics 7according to the report of the ,secretary of ,state1 ,koeller1 in the #aaeth session of the ,reichstag1 ,january #aa1 #aija74 ,the government resolved1 in view of the state of affairs1 to give more consideration1 when appointing professors1 to the ,catholic members of the university4 ,even the non-,catholic members of the ,bundesrat desired it4 ,a vacancy occurring in the faculty of history1 the government1 besides appointing the ,protestant professor proposed by the faculty of philosophy1 decided to create a new chair to be filled by a ,catholic4 ,the appointment of a ,catholic professor of history was regarded as seriously endangering science4 ,the storm broke4 ,the venerable historian1 ,th4 ,mommsen1 who had been a champion of liberty in the revolution of #ahdh1 promptly gave the alarm4 ,in the ,munich 8,neueste ,nachrichten0 there appeared over his signature an article that created a general sensation4 8,german university circles10 he said1 in his solemn protest1 8are pervaded by a feeling of degradation4 ,our vital nerve is unprejudiced research2 research that does not find what it seeks and expects to find1 owing to purposes1 considerations1 and restraints that serve other1 practical ends extraneous to science--but finds what logically and historically appears to the conscientious scientist the right thing1 truthfulness4 ,the appointment of a college teacher whose freedom is restricted by barriers is laying the axe to the root of ,german science4 ,the call to a chair of history1 or philosophy1 of one who must be a ,catholic or a ,protestant1 and who must serve this or that confession1 is tantamount to compelling him to set bounds to his work whenever the results might be awkward for a religious dogma40 ,and he concludes with a ringing appeal for the solidarity of the representatives of science3 8,perhaps ,i am not deceived in the hope of having given expression to the sentiments of our colleagues40 ,this statement of the famous scientist1 conceived in the temper of his days of '#dh1 was soon softened1 if not neutralized1 by a subsequent statement from his pen4 ,but the spark had already started the fire4 ,from most universities there came letters of approval and praise of his courageous stand1 in behalf of the honour of the universities and of ,german science4 ,on the other hand1 some gave vent to their regret of his hot-spurred action4 ,since then the song of unprejudiced science has been sung in countless variations and keys1 ending as a rule with the chorus3 ,hence the believing1 especially ,catholics1 cannot be true scientists4 ,for this was the central idea of ,mommsen's protest1 and in that sense it had been understood4 ,for the sake of clearness we shall condense the substance of the thought into a brief form3 ,the vital nerve of science1 the condition under which alone it can exist1 is unprepossession1 that is1 a straightforward honesty that knows of no other consideration than to aim at the truth for its own sake4 ,the believer1 the ,catholic1 cannot be unprepossessed1 because he must pay regard to dogmas and ,church-doctrine and precept4 ,therefore he is wanting in the most essential requisite of true science4 ,hence college professors of a ,catholic conviction are anomalous3 they have no right to claim a chair in the home of unprepossessed science4 ,for reasons of expediency it may be advisable to appoint some of them1 but they cannot be regarded as sterling scientists4 ,catholic theology1 building upon faith1 is not science in the true sense of the word1 and deserves no place in a university4 ,a ,catholic university1 a home of scientific research built upon a ,catholic foundation1 is something like a squared circle4 ,it may be that ,catholic scientists1 too1 have their achievements1 but they cannot be expected to be possessed of that unflinching pursuit of the truth which must be part of the man of science4 ,these are thoughts which have petrified in the minds of many into self-evident principles1 with all the obstinacy of intolerance4 ,it is not difficult to recognize in it the old reproach we have already dealt with1 it is here in a slightly different form4 ,the believing scientist is not free to search for the truth1 being tied down by his duty to believe4 ,science1 however1 must be free4 ,hence the believer cannot properly pursue science4 ,freedom of science and science unprepossessed are related terms and are often used synonymously4 ,therefore1 in putting the probe to the often-repeated demand for unprepossession1 we shall meet with ideas similar to those we have already discussed1 only in a slightly different shape4 ,what1 then1 is that unprepossession which science must avow8 ,can the ,catholic1 the believing scientist1 possess it8 ,unprepossessed research--8,i don't like the expression10 says a representative of free-thought1 8because it is a product of that shortcoming which has already done great damage to free-thought in its struggle with the powers of the past0 7,jodl74 ,hence we have reason to fear that the confidence with which this word is used is greater than the clearness of thought it represents4 ,what is meant by saying that science must be unprepossessed8 ,undoubtedly it means that science should make no presuppositions1 it must enter upon its work free from prejudice and presumption4 ,and what is presumption8 ,evidently something presumed1 upon which the research is to rest the level and rule of its direction3 the supposition being taken for granted1 without express proof4 ,what ,i have expressly proved in my process of thought is no longer a supposition to the structure of thought1 but a part of that structure4 ,is the scientist1 however1 to allow no presumption at all8 ,that would be impossible4 ,when making his calculations the mathematician presupposes the correctness of the multiplication table4 ,or is he first to prove that twice three are six8 ,he could not do it1 because it is immediately self-evident4 ,in his optical experiments in the laboratory1 in drawing inferences as to the nature of light from different indications1 the physicist presupposes that senses are able to observe the facts correctly1 that everything has its respective reason1 that nothing can be and not be1 at the same time1 under the same conditions4 ,can he or must he try first to prove it8 ,he must presume it because it is beyond a doubt1 and because it cannot be proved at all1 at least all of it cannot4 ,the astronomer1 too1 makes unhesitating use of the formulas of mathematics without examining them anew2 every natural scientist calmly presupposes the correctness of the results established by his predecessors and goes on building upon those results3 he may do so because he cannot with reason doubt them4 ,hence presumptions are common2 they may be made when we are convinced of their truth2 they must be made because not everything can be proved4 ,much cannot be proved because it is immediately self-evident1 as1 for instance1 the ability to recognize the true or the elementary principles of reasoning2 many other things cannot always be proved minutely1 because not every scientist cares to begin with the egg of ,leda4 ,he that wants to build a house builds upon a given base2 if he will not accept it1 if he desires to dig up the fundament to the very bottom1 in order to lay it anew1 he will be digging forever1 but the house will never be built4 ,hence to say that science must be unprepossessed cannot mean that it must not make any presupposition4 ,what1 therefore1 does it mean8 ,simply this3 ,science must not presume anything to be true which is false1 nor anything as proved which is still uncertain and unproved4 ,whatever the scientist knows to be certain he may take as such1 presuming it as the foundation and direction of further work2 and what he knows to be probable he may suppose to be probable4 ,in so doing he in no way offends against the ideal that should be ever-present to his mind--the truth1 because he merely allows himself to be guided by the truth1 recognized as such4 ,and the sequence of truth cannot but be truth1 the sequence of certainty cannot but be certainty4 ,but should he presuppose to be true what is false and unproved1 and the uncertain to be certain1 then he would offend against truth1 against the aim of every science4 ,hence if the critic of the ,bible presupposes miracles and prophecies to be impossible1 inferring therefrom that many narratives in ,holy ,writ cannot be authentic1 but must be legends of a later period1 he is making arbitrary presuppositions1 he is not an unprepossessed scientist4 ,likewise1 if an historian presupposing ,god's supernatural providence over the world to be impossible1 and1 in building upon this basis1 comes to the conclusion that the ,christian religion grew from purely natural factors1 from ,oriental notions and myths1 from ,greek philosophy and ,roman forms of government1 he again makes unproved suppositions4 ,if the natural philosopher assumes that there cannot be a personal ,creator1 and infers from it that the world is of itself and eternal1 he has forfeited the claim of being an unprepossessed scientist1 and by making in any way his own pet ideas the basis of his research he is violating the demands of unprepossession2 the results he arrives at are not scientific results1 but the speculations of an amateur4 ,unprepossession and ,religious ,conviction4 ,is it possible for the ,christian scientist who adheres to his faith1 to be unprepossessed1 as demanded by science8 ,according to all that has been said hitherto about the relation of science to faith1 the answer can be only in the affirmative4 ,the believing ,christian and ,catholic looks upon the doctrines of faith taught him by revelation and the ,church as an established truth4 ,what to me is true and certain ,i can take for the true and certain basis and standard of my thought4 ,this is demanded by unprepossession--nothing more4 ,considering the immense extent of the sciences1 the profane sciences will but seldom1 and in but few matters1 have occasion to presuppose truths of faith in the above-mentioned way2 and only in a negative form at that4 ,we have previously shown that the profane sciences must never take truths of faith for a positive basis to build upon2 they must regard the doctrines of revelation only in so far as it is not allowed to teach anything in contradiction to them4 ,and with this demand they will meet in rare instances only1 because1 if not overstepping their province1 they will very seldom come in touch with faith 7cf4 pp4 #hh-if74 ,when ,kepler was studying his planetary orbits1 and ,newton discovered the law of gravitation1 both worked independent of the ,christian view of the world which they both professed2 it was in no way a necessary presupposition to their research4 ,when ,scheiner discovered the sun-spots1 and ,secchi classified the spectra of the stars1 they were not doing so as ,jesuits nor as ,catholics2 as ,mohammedans or atheists they might have made the same discoveries4 ,steam engines and railways1 ,volta's electricity1 cathode-rays and ,x-rays1 all discoveries that the nineteenth century can boast of1 do not depend directly on any special view of the world4 ,and if the believing scientist does take his faith for a guide in some matters1 when in all his researches in the history of the ,christian religion and the ,church he presupposes that ,god's miraculous interference is not impossible1 because the contrary would offend not only against his faith1 but also against his common sense2 when in pondering the ultimate reasons of all things he allows himself to be influenced by the idea that atheism is false1 or at least not proved--for that there is a ,god both his faith and his reason tell him--then these presumptions are by no means inadmissible4 ,the naturalist1 too1 presupposing certain results of science to be true1 takes care not to get into conflict with them1 and he will soon correct himself should he arrive at different results4 ,if a mathematician should arrive at results conflicting with other proved results1 he would infer therefrom that his calculation was faulty2 why1 then1 cannot the ,christian now and then be led by the truths of his faith1 of which he is certain1 without by doing so offending against the spirit of scientific truthfulness8 ,or may he not do so just because they are religious truths1 vouched for by a supernatural authority8 ,as a fact many of them are established also by the testimony of reason4 ,this is shown by the examples just mentioned4 ,however1 the question is not how a truth is vouched for1 but whether it be a truth or not4 ,if the scientist is assured that something is unquestionably true1 then he owes it to the spirit of truthfulness to accept it4 ,in doing so he will in no way be unfaithful to his scientific method2 the truths of faith are to him not a source of proofs for the results of his profane science1 but only hints1 calling his attention to the fact that certain propositions are not proved1 that they are even false4 ,much less is in historical questions the ,catholic obliged to defend or praise everything of advantage to his ,church1 whether true or not4 ,hence ,mommsen is grossly mistaken when he states in his letter of protest mentioned above3 8,the appointment of a historian or philosopher1 who must be a ,catholic or a ,protestant and who must serve his confession1 evidently means nothing else but to prohibit the ,protestant historian from presenting the powerful mental structure of the papacy in its full light1 and the ,catholic historian from appreciating the profound thought and the tremendous importance of heresy and ,protestantism40 ,the ,catholic is only bound to the truth4 ,or are the ,christian truths of faith perhaps regrettable errors1 hence presumptions that should not be made8 ,if so1 demonstrate it4 ,hitherto such demonstration has not succeeded4 ,so long as the creed of the believing ,christian cannot be refuted convincingly1 he has the right to cling to it in the name of truth4 ,or can we not have reasonable certainty at all in religious matters8 ,are they the undemonstrable things of an uncontrollable sentiment8 ,to be sure1 this is asserted often enough1 explicitly or by insinuation4 ,if this were true1 then of course duty of faith and true unprepossession could not go together2 one would be regarding as the truth things of which one cannot be convinced4 ,but this is also an unproved assumption3 it is the duality of subjectivism and agnosticism1 the fundamental presumption of liberal freedom of science1 which we have already sufficiently exposed4 ,however1 let us assume again the position of those who do not feel themselves personally convinced of the truth of the ,christian dogmatic faith1 or of the ,catholic ,church4 ,but the ,catholic is firmly convinced thereof and1 if need be1 will make sacrifices for this conviction1 as millions have done4 ,hence1 can any one forbid him to think and judge according to his conviction8 ,would they who differ from his opinion for this very reason force him to think against his own conviction8 ,would not that indeed be 8seduction to sin against the ,holy ,ghost08 ,if the jurist or historian has formed the conviction that ,mommsen is on historical questions concerning ,roman law an authority1 who may be followed without scruple1 and he does so without re-examining the particular points1 will this be looked upon as an offence against unprepossession8 ,if1 then1 the ,catholic is certain that he may safely trust to revelation and the ,church--and there is no authority on earth of more venerable standing1 even if viewed from a purely natural point--will he alone be accused of mental blindness and lack of freedom8 ,or may the scientist have no view of the world at all1 because he might be influenced thereby in certain directions8 ,the champions of this demand will surely not admit that they have not a definite view of the world4 ,by no means6 ,we know very well that just those who are most vehement in urging unprepossessed science have a very pronounced notion of the world1 we know also that they are resolutely propagating that notion4 ,yet nothing is said against a scientist who is a monist1 or who starts from agnosticism4 ,it seems they intend to exclude one view only1 the positive religious view4 ,yet not even this one wholly4 ,no one finds the ,jew who adheres to his religion unfit for scientific research4 ,of course not4 ,protestants1 too1 find favour3 according to the statutes of some ,german universities ,protestants only may be professors there4 ,neither ,mommsen nor any other herald of unprepossession deems it necessary to defend science against these institutions and usages4 ,it is plain what is meant by the popular cry for science unprepossessed3 ,the man of science may be anything1 sceptic or atheist1 pagan or ,hottentot1 only he must not be a faithful ,catholic4 ,is this fair8 ,is this the spirit of truth and justice with which they claim to be filled8 ,what has just been said about the ,catholic being excluded1 could easily be exemplified by a lengthy list of facts4 ,but we shall pass them over4 ,we shall note one utterance only1 from the pen of a non-,catholic writer4 ,the renowned pedagogue1 ,fr4 ,w4 ,foerster1 says in the preface to the second edition of his book on 8,sexual ,ethics and ,sexual ,pedagogy03 8,special exception has been taken to the catholicizing tendency of my book1 and not infrequently the author has without further ado been made out an orthodox ,catholic4 ,for many years past ,i have been in a position to gain interesting information concerning the incredible bias of many champions of unprepossessed research4 ,to them it is an a-priori dogma that everything represented by the ,catholic ,church is nonsense1 superstition1 bigotry4 ,they are past comprehending how an unprejudiced man1 simply by concrete experience1 unprepossessed research and serious pondering in the field of pedagogy1 could be brought to affirm that certain notions of the ,roman ,catholic ,church are the unavoidable consequence of a penetrating knowledge of soul and life4 ,this cannot be admitted by the non-,catholic3 for him the truth must cease where the ,catholic faith begins2 he dares not assent to anything1 else he will no longer be taken for a reputable scientific man40 ,the bluster about unprepossession proceeds from shallowness and dishonesty4 ,the most varied presumptions1 that have nothing to do with science and the pursuit of the truth1 may pass without notice2 only when ,christian and ,catholic religious convictions1 resting upon divine authority1 are encountered1 then tolerance gives way to excitement1 a hue and cry is raised1 the gate is shut1 and entrance to the scientific world denied4 ,philosophers arise1 and each philosophizes according to his manner4 ,fichte says3 8,what philosophy to choose depends on the kind of a man one is40 ,the historian enters4 ,it is reported that ,treitschke said3 8,if ,i cannot write history from my own view-point1 with my own judgment1 then ,i had rather be a soapmaker40 ,according to trustworthy testimony1 the well-known ,protestant historian1 ,giesebrecht1 used to preface his lectures in ,munich with the words3 8,i am a ,prussian and a ,protestant3 ,i shall lecture accordingly0 7,hochschulnachrichten1 #aija1 #b1 p4 #cj74 ,even here there are no objections in the name of ,unprepossession4 8,science10 says ,harnack1 8will tear off the mask of the hypocrite or plagiarist and throw him out of the temple1 but the queerest suppositions it must let pass if they go by the name of convictions1 and if those who harbour them are trying to demonstrate them by scientific means40 ,therefore the convictions1 or1 to speak with ,harnack1 the 8prejudices10 of the ,catholic 8certainly deserve as much consideration and patience as the velleities1 idiosyncrasies1 and blind dogmas which we have to meet and refute in the struggle between intellects0 7,internationale ,wochenschrift1 #aijh1 #bei seq474 8,science has been restricted10 the same authority also admits1 8at all times2 our progeny will find even modern science in many ways not ruled by pure reason only0 7,dogmengesch4 ,,iii1 #c;d ed41 #aijg1 #cbf74 ,and what is to be said of those more serious suppositions1 unproved and unprovable1 which guide modern science wherever it meets philosophical-religious questions8 ,that truly dogmatic rejection of everything supernatural and transcendental1 that obstinate ignoration of a personal ,god1 the rejection of any creative act1 of any miracle1 of any revelation1--a presupposition directly raised to a scientific principle3 the principle of causality4 ,later on we shall make an excursion into various fields of science1 and we shall show clearly how this presumption is stamped upon entire branches of science4 ,those solemn assurances of persevering unselfishness in desiring nothing but the truth2 the confidence with which they claim a monopoly of the instinct for the truth1 all this will appear in quite a strange light1 the twilight of dishonesty1 when we examine the documents and records of liberal science itself4 ,we shall see sufficiently how truthful the self-confession of a modern champion of liberal science really is3 8,the recently coined expression1 #8science unprepossessed1' ,i do not like1 because it is a product of that shortcoming which has already done so much damage to free thought in its struggle with the powers of the past--because that word is not entirely honest4 ,none of us sits down to his work unprepossessed0 7,f4 ,jodl1 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,november #bf1 #aijg74 ,here we shall touch upon only one more question4 ,the ,duty to ,believe and ,scientific ,demonstration4 ,but cannot the believing ,christian submit to scientific investigation the doctrine of faith itself1 which he must without doubt hold to be true8 ,this must surely be allowed if he is to convince himself scientifically of the truth of it4 ,indeed1 this is allowed4 ,he may critically examine everything to the very bottom1 even the existence of ,god1 the rationality of his own mind4 ,but how can he1 if no doubt is permissible8 ,to examine means to search doubtingly2 it means to call the matter in question--this1 too1 is right4 ,it is1 on the one hand1 a doctrine of the ,catholic ,church that they who have received faith through the ministry of the ,church1 that is1 they that have been made familiar with the essential subjects of the faith and the motives of their credibility by proper religious instruction1 must not doubt their faith4 ,they have no reasonable excuse for doubting because they are assured of the truth of the faith4 ,we have discussed this point before47#d7 ,as a matter of course only voluntary doubts are excluded1 doubts by which one assents deliberately and wilfully to the judgment that perhaps not all may be true that is proposed for our belief4 ,involuntary doubts are neither excluded nor sinful4 ,these are apparent counter-arguments1 objections1 difficulties against the faith1 which occur to the mind without getting its conscious approval4 ,they are not unlikely1 because the cognition of the credibility of ,christian truths1 while it is certain1 is yet lacking in that obvious clearness which would render obscurity and counter-argument impossible2 the assent to faith is free4 ,doubts of this kind are apt to molest the mind and buzz round it like bothersome insects1 but they are not sinful because they do not set aside the assent to faith any more than the cloud that intervenes between us and the sun can extinguish its light4 ,the assent to faith is withdrawn only when the will with clear consideration approves of the judgment that the doubt may be right4 ,but what about doubts which one cannot solve8 ,would we not owe it to truth and probity to withhold assent to faith for a while8 ,the answer lies in the distinction of a twofold solution of difficulties4 ,it is by no means necessary1 nor even possible1 to solve directly all objections2 it suffices to solve them indirectly1 that is1 by recognizing them as void2 since faith is certain1 whatever is contrary to it must be false4 ,if one is convinced by clear proofs of the innocence of a defendant he will not be swayed in his assurance1 no matter how much circumstantial evidence be offered against the defendant4 ,he may not be able to account directly for one or the other remarkable coincidence of circumstances1 but all the arguments of the other side are to him refuted1 because to him the defendant's innocence is a certainty4 ,thus the faithful ,christian may hear it solemnly proclaimed as a scientifically established fact that miracles are impossible1 because they would be tantamount to ,god making correction on ,his own work1 because they would imply a self-contradiction1 or they would be against the law of preservation of energy2 he hears of atrocities in the history of the ,church1 of the ,inquisition1 of the ,church being an enemy of civilization--he knows not what to say3 but one thing he knows1 that there must be an answer1 because he knows1 enlightened by faith1 that his belief cannot be false4 ,nowhere is it demanded that all objections be directly answered1 in order that the conviction be true4 ,if ,i1 with the whole world1 am convinced that ,i am able to recognize the truth1 must ,i therefore carefully disentangle all the cobwebs ever spun about the truth by brooding philosophical brains8 ,if ,i am in the house1 safe from the rain1 must ,i1 in order to keep dry1 go out and catch every drop of rain that is falling8 ,such doubts may indeed harass the untrained mind1 may even confuse it4 ,this is the juncture where grace comes in1 the pledge of which has been received at baptism1 bringing enlightenment1 peace1 assurance2 then we learn from others and from ourselves that faith is also a grace4 ,nevertheless a scientific examination of the foundations and truths of faith is allowed and wholesome4 ,nearly all the theological works written by ,catholics since the days of ,justin and ,augustine are nothing but examinations of this kind4 ,at every examination one proceeds with doubt and question4 ,this is admitted2 but this doubt must be merely a methodical one1 not a serious one1 nor need it be serious4 ,these two kinds of doubt must be clearly distinguished4 ,in case of a serious doubt ,i look upon the matter as really dubious1 and withhold my assent4 ,i am not yet convinced of its truth4 ,this kind of a doubt is not allowed in matters of faith and it is the only one that is forbidden4 ,in case of a methodical doubt ,i proceed as convinced of a truth1 but ,i do not yet see the reasons plainly1 and would like to be fully conscious of them4 ,evidently there is no need of casting aside the convictions ,i have hitherto held1 and of beginning to think that the matter is by no means positively established4 ,for instance1 ,i am convinced that a complicated order must be the work of intellect2 however1 ,i would like to find the proof of it4 ,hence ,i proceed as if the truth were yet to be found4 ,but it would evidently be absurd to think in the meantime that such admirable order could be the result of blind accident4 ,or1 ,i am convinced that there must be a source for every event3 ,i desire to find the demonstration of it4 ,in the meantime shall ,i think it possible for another ,nova ,persei to be produced in the sky without any cause8 ,or1 investigating to see whether ,i am capable of recognizing the truth1 shall ,i seriously become a sceptic till ,i am convinced that ,i ought not to be such8 ,as soon as ,i really doubt that ,i can recognize anything at all as true1 obviously ,i cannot proceed any further4 ,kant begins his 8,critique of ,pure ,reason0 with this doubt1 and many imitate him1 but only by evident inconsistency are they able to continue their researches by means of reason4 ,scientific examination does not consist in repudiating a certainty held hitherto1 in order to arrive at it anew2 it consists in bringing to one's clear consciousness the reasons for that certainty1 and in trying to formulate those reasons precisely4 ,to investigate the light it is evidently not necessary first to extinguish it4 ,thus the believing ,christian may most certainly probe into his religious conviction without interfering with his adherence1 and by doing so proceed unprepossessed in the fullest sense1 for unprepossession does not mean the rooting up of all certainty4 ,at the threshold of wisdom does not sit ,scepticism4 ,what ,unprepossession is ,not4 ,but the deeper1 modern meaning of unprepossession is precisely the right to doubt seriously everything1 especially the truths of the ,christian faith2 this is the freedom demanded4 ,scepticism1 the stamp of our time4 ,many a misconception may have contributed to the definition of this unprepossession4 ,for instance1 overlooking the important difference between methodical doubt and serious doubt4 ,then there is the erroneous opinion that we should and could proceed everywhere in the same way as in the natural sciences4 ,almost parallel with the progress in the natural sciences grew the doubt of the correctness of the ancient physical and astronomical notion of the world2 piece after piece crumbled away under the hand of research2 new truths were discovered4 ,in just admiration of these results it was concluded that all provinces of human cognition should be 8researched0 in the same way1 not excepting religion and theories of the world2 here1 too1 science should cast a radical doubt upon everything and discover truth--as if here we had to deal with matters similar to astronomy and physics1 in the state they were centuries ago2 as if all mankind was still ignorant of the truth and science had to discover it4 ,this right to doubt is claimed especially in the higher questions of religion4 ,certain cognition by reason is1 after all1 impossible here1 such is the presumption1 and therefore1 first of all1 it is the right and duty of man1 as soon as he has attained his intellectual maturity1 to shape by doubt his views of the world to the satisfaction of his mind and heart1 to win them by a struggle2 nor is this true only in the case of the single individual1 but also of entire generations4 ,to see problems everywhere1 not to have any convictions1 this is taken to be true unprepossession4 8,man must learn10 so we are told1 8that there is no absolute miracle1 not even in the domain of the religious life1 which supernaturally offers truth at a point or by an institution1 but that every man and every era as witnessed by the authority of history must conquer truth by themselves for their own sake and at their own risk0 7,e4 ,troeltsch1 ,internationale ,wochensch4 #aijh1 #bf74 ,thus the mind of man cannot slake its thirst for positive truth at the divine fountain of revelation1 but only by search and research4 ,such is the cheerful message of this science4 8,amid grave crises10 we are told again1 8a new concept of science has forced its way to the front since the beginning of the eighteenth century and conquered the universities40 8,science is not a finished system1 but a research to be forever under examination0 7,a4 ,harnack1 ,die ,aufgabe der theol4 ,facultaeten1 #aija1 #ag74 ,research without ever arriving at the sure possession of the truth1 this is now the meaning of science1 especially of philosophy4 ,hence there cannot be a philosophy conclusive and immutable1 and any point which seems established may at any time be revised according to new perceptions4 8,there is no question that may not be asked2 none which in the abstract could not just as well be denied as affirmed4 ,in this sense philosophy is unprepossessed0 7,paulsen1 ,die deutschen ,universitaeten1 #aijb1 #cjd seq474 ,the highest achievement it declares itself capable of1 is not to point out the truth to its disciples1 for it does not know the truth itself1 but only this3 8,we expect1 or at least we should expect1 that during the years of study the mind give itself earnestly to philosophy1 and strive for a firm grasp of ideas4 ,the great pathfinders in world thought1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,spinoza1 ,kant1 and whoever may be ranked with them1 remain the living teachers of philosophy40 ,thus we hold those great intellectual achievements1 ,plato's doctrine and ideas1 ,spinoza's atheistic pantheism1 ,aristotle's objectivism and ,kant's subjectivism1 with other views of the world of most variegated patterns1 all contradicting and excluding one another1 all dubious1 none sure4 ,what would be said of an astronomy that could do nothing better than fix the telescope on the different stars and then tell its disciples3 ,now look for what you please1 ideas of ,ptolemy or ,copernicus2 ,aristotle's theory of the spheres or ,newton's theory of gravity2 each has its points1 but of none can it be said it is certain6 ,such an astronomy would probably be left to its deserved fate4 ,in the most important points of religion mankind has ever1 even in pagan times1 recognized the truth1 albeit imperfectly4 ,this is evinced by the conviction that there exists a personal ,god and a hereafter2 convictions which can be proved historically4 ,god's revelation has provided those who desire to believe with a fuller knowledge of the truth3 heaven and earth will pass away1 but these words will not pass away4 ,but what is already in our safe possession cannot be once more discovered by research4 ,what has already been found is no longer an object of research4 ,mankind's lot would be a sad one indeed were this unprepossessed science in the right2 if in the most important questions of life it were condemned forever to tantalizing doubt4 ,god's providence has ordained matters more kindly for humanity4 ,on the other hand1 it is a poor science that has nothing to offer but an eternal query for the truth4 ,a poor science1 that with self-consciousness promises enlightenment and what not1 but finally can give nothing but ceaseless doubt instead of truth1 tormenting darkness instead of cheerful light4 ,why1 then1 research where nothing can be found8 ,why raise searching eyes to the sky when the stars do not show themselves8 ,what kind of progress is this when science does nothing further than dig forever at the foundation8 ,the great ,st4 ,augustine has long also passed judgment on this kind of science3 8,such doubting is abhorred by the ,city of ,god as false wisdom1 because among the things which we grasp with our intellect and reason there is a knowledge1 limited1 it is true1 because the soul is weighed down by a perishable body1 as the ,apostle says3 ex parte scimus--but which has full certainty0 7,de ,civitate ,dei1 ,,xix1 #ah74 ,an ,erroneous ,supposition4 ,the errors just dealt with1 and the demand that scientific research must doubt everything1 is based on a supposition often stated expressly as a principle1 and which appears quite plausible even to a mind not trained in philosophy4 ,it says3 ,there is but one certainty1 the scientific certainty2 the certain possession of the truth can be obtained only by scientific research4 ,to rid the world of error1 we are told1 8there is but one way1 viz41 scientific work4 ,only science and scientific truth are able to dispose of error0 7,th4 ,lipps1 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,muenchen1 ,august #d1 #aijh74 8,truth is scientific truth1 based on criticism1 hence the religion of modern man must also rest on critical truth4444 ,there is no other authority but science0 7,masaryk1 ,kampf um die ,religion1 #ac74 ,this sort of speech we hear from the college chair as the slogan for education and enlightenment3 any one deficient in science or in education belongs more or less to the unthinking mass who have no convictions of their own1 but submit blindly to impressions and authority4 ,such unclarified conceptions1 with their inferences1 are even met with where they would not be expected1 for instance1 we read3 8,what the average individual needed was a good shepherd1 a shepherd's devotion and love1 that uplifts and urges onward2 it was authority1 ,church-ministry and care of souls1 that was needed4 ,the ,church is an organized pastorate1 for the average individual likes to go with the flock4 ,the chosen are they who feel within themselves the great question of truth as the care of their heart and task of their life1 who experience its tremendous tension1 and who are struggling to the end with the intellectual battles provoked by this question of truth4 ,the average people1 i4e41 the many1 the great majority1 need something steady to which they can cling--persons and teachers1 laws and practice40 ,and why this uncharitable distinction between people belonging to the flock and the chosen ones1 as if the ,church and its ecclesiastical functions were only appointed for the former8 ,particularly because 8without methodical scientific work man cannot attain to the truth0 7,h4 ,schell1 ,christus1 #aijj1 #abe1 #fd74 ,thus science may summon everything before its forum1 no one having a right to interfere2 in the superiority bestowed by the right of autocracy it may sweep aside everything that is opposed to it1 no matter by what authority4 ,hence science must be free to jolt everything1 free to question the truth of everything1 which it has not itself examined and approved4 ,this is the fundamental supposition of modern freedom of science2 also a fatal error1 betraying a woeful ignorance of the construction of the human intellect1 in spite of all its pretentiousness4 ,as a rule we have a true certainty in most matters1 particularly in philosophical-religious convictions1 a certainty not gained by scientific studies2 by aid of the latter we may explain or strengthen that certainty1 but we are not free to upset it4 ,we cannot avoid examining this point a little closer4 ,there is a twofold certainty1 one1 which we shall call the natural certainty1 is a firm conviction based on positive knowledge1 but without a clear reflexive consciousness of the grounds on which the conviction is actually resting4 ,reason recognizes these grounds1 but the recognition is not distinct enough for reason to become conscious of them1 to be able to state them accurately and in scientific formulas4 scientific certainty is a firm conviction1 with a clear consciousness of the grounds1 hence it can easily account for them4 ,natural certainty is the usual one in human life2 scientific certainty is the privilege of but a few1 and even they have it in but very few things4 ,everybody has a positive intellectual certainty that a complicated order cannot be the result of accident1 and that for every event there must be a cause1 though not every one will be able readily to demonstrate the truth of his certainty4 ,but if the philosopher should look for the proof1 he would do so in no other way than by reflecting upon his natural and direct knowledge1 and by trying to become conscious of what he has thus directly found out4 ,to illustrate by a few examples3 ,we are all convinced of the existence of an exterior world1 and any one who is not an idealist will call this conviction a reasonable certainty1 and yet only a few will be able to answer the subtle questions of a sceptic4 ,this certainty again is a natural but not a scientific one4 ,how difficult it is here also for reason to attain scientific certainty1 how easy it is to go astray in these researches1 is proved by the errors of idealism so incomprehensible to the untrained natural mind4 ,let us ask1 finally1 any one3 ,why must we say3 8,csar defeated ,pompey10 but not 8,csar defeated of ,pompey08 ,he will tell us this is nonsense2 maybe he will add that the genitive has another meaning4 ,but should ,i ask further how the meaning of the genitive differs from that of the accusative1 as both cases seem to have often the same meaning1 ,i shall get no answer4 ,there is a certitude1 but only a natural one4 ,even if ,i should ask modern students of the psychology and history of languages1 like ,wundt1 ,paul1 or whatever their names may be1 ,i should not get a satisfactory answer either4 ,the whole logic of language1 with its subtle forms and moods of expression--how difficult for scientific research6 ,and yet the mind of even a child penetrates it1 and not only a ,european child1 but the ,patagonian and negro child1 who is able to master by its intellectual power complex languages1 with four numbers1 many moods1 fourteen tenses1 etc4 ,these examples will suffice1 though volumes of them could be written4 ,they show us clearly a twofold certainty4 ,the difference between the natural and scientific certainty is not that the former is a blind conviction formed at random1 but only that one is not clearly conscious of the reasons on which it rests1 whereas this is the case in scientific certitude4 ,we see further the untrained power of the intellect manifest itself in natural knowledge and certainty2 for this purpose it is primarily created2 philosophical thought is difficult for it1 and many have no talent at all for it4 ,it is also unfailing in apprehending directly things pertaining to human life4 ,here the mind is free of that morbid scepticism of which it too easily becomes a prey when it begins to investigate and probe scientifically4 ,what it there sees with certainty cannot always be found here distinctly1 and thus the mind begins to doubt things it was hitherto sure of1 and which often remain instinctively certain to the mind despite its artificial doubts4 ,now we can also understand why philosophers so often have doubts which to the untrained look absurd1 and why philosophers differ in their opinions on most important things1 whereas mankind guided by its natural certitude is unanimous in them4 ,this certainty is destined to be the reliable guide of man through life4 ,it precedes science1 and can even exist without it4 ,long before there was a science of art and of jurisprudence the ,babylonians and ,egyptians had built their monuments1 and ,solon and ,lycurgus had given their wise laws4 ,and long before philosophers were disputing about the moral laws1 men had the right view in regard to virtue and vice 7cf4 ,cicero1 ,de ,oratore1 ,i1 #cb74 ,the same certitude is also destined to guide man in the more important questions1 in the questions of religion and morality4 ,the ,creator of human nature and its destiny1 who implanted instinct in the animal to guide it unconsciously in the necessities of life1 has also given to man the necessary light to perceive with certainty truths without which it would be impossible to live a life worthy of man4 ,it is just this natural knowledge and certitude that gives man certainty of divine revelation1 after ,god vouchsafed to give it to mankind for its unfailing guidance and help4 ,for revelation was not only intended for theologians1 ,bible critics1 philosophers1 and ,church-historians1 but for all4 ,and ,god has taken care1 as ,he had to do1 that man has ample evidence that ,god has spoken1 and that the ,church is the authorized ,guardian of this revelation1 even without critical research in history and philosophy4 ,we have elsewhere briefly stated this evidence in the words of the ,vatican ,council4 ,this evidence is seen in the invincible stability of the ,church and its unity of faith1 the incontestable miracles never ceasing within it1 the grand figures of its ,saints and ,martyrs1 virtue in the various classes1 a virtue increasing in proportion to the influence the ,church exerts1 the spectacle that everything truly noble is attracted by the ,christian faith and the contrary repulsed4 ,in addition the intrinsic grandeur and harmony of the truths of faith1 above all the unique figure of ,christ1 with ,his wonderful life and sufferings1 also the calm and peace of mind effected in the soul of the faithful by living and thinking in this faith2 all these tell him that here the spirit of ,god is breathing1 the spirit of truth4 ,the natural light of his intellect1 further illuminated by grace1 suffices to give him a true intellectual certainty of his faith1 based upon these motives and similar ones1 even without scientific studies4 ,the calmness of the mind that holds fast to this faith1 the compunction and unrest which follow defection from the faith1 both so characteristic of ,catholics1 prove that their minds embrace the truth in their faith4 ,hence it betrays little philosophical knowledge of the peculiarity of man's intellectual life1 if infidelity approaches an inexperienced1 believing student1 perhaps even an uneducated labourer1 with the express assurance that his faith hitherto has been but a blind belief1 an unintelligent following of the lead of a foreign authority1 with the distinct admonition to turn his back on the faith of his childhood4 ,what has been said above makes it clear why a ,catholic is not permitted to have a serious doubt about his faith under the pretext that he ought first to form a certain conviction all for himself by scientific investigation4 ,he has it already1 if we presuppose sufficient instruction and normal conditions2 he may raise his natural certitude to a scientific one by study if he has the time and talent for it1 but he must not condition his assent upon the success of his scientific investigations4 ,he has certitude2 he has no right to demand scientific knowledge as a necessary condition1 because it is not required for certitude1 and also because it lies altogether outside of the conditions of human life4 ,it would amount simply to shaking off the yoke of truth4 ,the ,church teaches as follows3 8,if any one says that the condition of the faithful and of those who have not yet come to the only true faith is equal1 so that ,catholics can have a just cause for suspending their assent and calling in question the faith which they have received by the ministry of the ,church until they have completed the scientific demonstration of the credibility and truth of it1 let him be anathema40 ,how high this wisdom rises above the limited thought of a science that imagines itself alone to be wise6 ,sad indeed would be the lot of mankind could it attain to certain truth in the most important questions of life only by lengthy scientific investigations4 ,the overwhelming majority of mankind would be forever excluded from the certain knowledge that there is a ,god1 an eternity1 liberty1 that there are immutable moral laws and truths1 on the value of which depends the woe and weal of humanity4 ,behold the wisdom of the world that is put before us3 8,in order to arrive at a definite conclusion by our own philosophical reasoning 7on the existence of ,god and the possibility of miracles7 what a multitude of things must be presupposed60 ,thus we are informed in a philosophical novel of modern times which aims at proving the incompatibility of the ,catholic duty to believe with the freedom of the intellect ,katholische ,studenten1 by ,a4 ,friedwald 7nom de plume74 ,an explanation of the ideas contained in it is given by the ,academia #ah1 #aije-f1 ,december and ,march4 ,the ideas found in the novel are also advanced by ,a4 ,messer1 ,einfhrung in die ,erkenntnistheorie1 #aiji1 p4 #aeh seq44 ,and ,prof4 ,rhodius1 who put the ideas of the novel in formulas1 teaches3 8,the question whether our knowledge could penetrate beyond what we know by our experience and even our senses1 is answered1 as you know1 in the negative by a noted philosophical school4 ,hence1 before attacking those metaphysical questions regarding the existence of ,god and ,his relations to the world1 we must first try to have definite views as to the essence of human knowledge1 of its criterion1 its scope1 and of the degrees of its certainty4 ,but these preliminary questions of theoretic knowledge1 how difficult and perplexing they are6 ,you probably have not the faintest idea into what a mass of individual problems the main questions must be dissected1 nor what a multitude of heterogeneous views are struggling here against one another0 7p4 #aha74 ,consider how shortsighted a wisdom is manifested by these words4 ,is it seriously intended to summon the peasant from his plough1 the old grandmother from behind the stove1 and lead them into the lecture rooms of the university in order that they might there listen to lectures on phenomenalism1 and positivism1 and realism1 and criticism1 until their heads are swimming8 ,or else can they not hope to arrive at the truth8 ,do they seriously think that the truth asked for by every man1 the truth in the most vital questions of mankind1 is the exclusive privilege of a few college professors8 ,and how very few4 ,more than twenty-four hundred years have elapsed since the days of ,pythagoras1 and yet modern philosophy still stands before the first preliminary question in all knowledge1 whether a man can know what the eye does not see4 8,many views are at variance there40 ,if this be the only way for mankind to reach certain truth1 then we are indeed in a pitiful plight6 ,we esteem philosophy and its subtle questions1 and we heartily wish our ,catholic young men in college to obtain a more thorough philosophical training4 ,but if1 involved in theories1 one will lose his insight into the world and human life to such a degree as to make of the 8wisdom of the world0 an isolated narrow speculation which boasts of being alone able to discover the higher truths1 while withering in neurasthenic doubt--such wisdom should be left to its deserved fate1 sterility4 ,or should it be possible to the ideal of ,protestantism--and therefore also of the modern spirit--to console mankind by pointing out that the knowledge of the question which concerns us most deeply1 8the knowledge of ,god and the knowledge of good1 remains but a leading idea and problem1 though we are confident of advancing nearer to its solution08 ,is thus mankind to be eternally without light in the most important questions and problems8 ,every little plant and animal is equipped by nature with everything it needs--and man alone to be a failure8 ,the young shoots of the tree strive to bring forth blossoms and fruit1 and succeed2 the bird flies off in the fall in quest of a new home1 and finds it2 hunger and thirst demand food and get it2 only the aim of the human mind shall never be fulfilled--he alone shall ever pine without hope6--,dicentes se esse sapientes stulti facti sunt4 ,what a difference between such principles and the grand thoughts of ,christianity6 ,a difference like that between peace and eternal restless doubt1 like that between man's dignity and man's degradation1 between man's short-sightedness and the wisdom of ,god4 ,hence the result of our discussion is3 independent of science mankind has its positive convictions1 independent of science it finds here rest and gratification in its longing for truth4 ,scientific study and research are for the purpose of setting these truths in a brighter light1 of defending the patrimony of mankind4 ,but the fosterer of science must not claim the freedom to ignore these positive convictions in himself and in others1 to endanger the patrimony of mankind by doubts and attacks instead of protecting it1 much less must he condemn the human mind to the eternal labour of ,sisyphus1 to the eternal rolling of a huge stone which1 recoiling1 must always be lifted anew4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,accusations ,and ,objections4 ,among the notable facts in history one stands out prominently1 it is more remarkable than any other1 and evokes serious thought4 ,it is the fact that the ,christian religion1 especially its foremost representative1 the ,catholic ,church1 concerning which every unbiassed critic is bound to admit that none has made more nations moral1 happy and great than this ,church2 that nowhere else has virtue and holiness flourished more than in her2 that no one else has laboured more for truth and purity of morals2 that nevertheless there is not1 and never was1 an institution which has more enemies1 which has been more persecuted1 than the ,catholic ,church4 ,this fact will suggest to every serious-minded critic the question1 whether we have not here focussed that tremendous struggle1 which truth and justice have ever waged in the bosom of mankind against error and passions--an image of the struggle raging in every human breast4 ,the ,church recognizes in this fact the fulfilment of the prophecy of her ,founder3 8,and ye shall be hated by all men for my name's sake0 7,luke xxi4 #ag74 ,and the ,church may add1 that in her alone this prophecy is being fulfilled4 ,the ,enemy of ,progress4 ,in her journey through the centuries the ,church has had to listen to many accusations because she1 the keeper of the truth entrusted to her care1 has refused to respond to the demand to accept unconditionally the ideals devised by existing fashions4 ,cantavimus vobis et non saltastis 7we have piped to you and you have not danced74 ,therefore the ,church has been called reactionary2 the heretics of the first centuries of ,christianity denounced her as the enemy of the higher gnosis2 a later period denounced her as an enemy of the genuine humanism1 in the eighteenth century she was denounced as the enemy of enlightenment1 to-day she is denounced as the enemy of progress4 ,again the ,church is accused before the judicial bar of the children of the age4 ,they desire to eat plentifully from the tree of knowledge1 but the ,church1 they say1 prevents them4 ,they wish to climb the heights of human perfection1 to ascend higher than any preceding generation1 but the ,church holds them back4 ,she will keep them in the fetters of her guardianship4 ,and with a keen1 searching eye the smart children of our age have looked the old ,church over1 taking notice of everything1 anxious to put her in the wrong4 ,their charges do not fail to make an impression1 even on the ,church herself4 ,she wishes to justify herself before the plaintiffs1 and still more before her own children who trust in her4 ,thus she has not hesitated in declaring loudly on most solemn occasions that she is not an enemy of noble science and of human progress1 and with great earnest she takes exception to this charge4 ,no wonder1 one might say1 that the ,church makes such assurances4 ,it is time for her to realize that unless she can clear herself from it this accusation will be her moral ruin at a time when the banner of progress is held aloft1 and when even the ,catholic world shares in that progress4 ,true1 but let us not forget this3 if there is anything characteristic of the ,catholic ,church it is her frankness and honesty4 ,she is not afraid to proclaim her doctrines and judgments before the whole world2 she leaves her ,index and ,syllabus open for inspection1 openly avowing that she is the irreconcilable enemy of that emancipated freedom proclaimed by modern liberalism as the ideal of the age4 ,it is the honesty which she inherited from her ,founder1 who told the truth to friend and enemy1 to ,his disciples and to the ,scribes1 to ,nicodemus1 that lonely night1 and to ,caiaphas4 ,with the same straightforwardness the ,church declares that she feels not enmity but sympathy toward civilization4 ,a fair-minded critic will admit here again that the ,church is in earnest4 8,far from opposing the fostering of human arts and sciences1 the ,church is supporting and promoting them in various ways10 declares the ,vatican ,council4 8,the ,church does not underrate nor despise their advantages for human life3 on the contrary1 it avows that they1 coming as they do from ,god1 the ,master of the sciences1 also lead to ,god by aid of ,his grace1 when properly used0 7,sess4 ,,iii1 c4 #d74 ,the ,church has put this accusation on the list of errors of the age condemned by ,pius ,x4 7,sent4 #eg74 ,she feels the charge as an injury4 ,the ,testimony of ,history4 ,nevertheless1 in anti-ecclesiastical circles it is taken very often for an established fact that the ,roman ,church has ever tried her best to hamper the progress of science1 or has suppressed it1 or at least scowled at it4 ,how could it be otherwise8 they say4 ,how could she favour the progress made in enlightening reason or in advancing human knowledge8 ,must she not fear for its intellectual sway over men whom she keeps under the yoke of faith8 ,must she not fear that they might awaken from the slumber in which they were held prisoners by the suggestive force of her authority1 held to be transcendental2 that they might awaken to find out the truth for themselves8 ,and what is the use of science8 ,he that believes will be saved3 hence faith suffices4 ,if we wish to hear the accusation in the language of militant science1 here it is3 8,outside the monastic institutions no attempt at intellectual advancement was made 7in the ,middle ,ages71 indeed1 so far as the laity were concerned1 the influence of the ,church was directed to an opposite result1 for the maxim universally received was1 that #8ignorance is the mother of devotion' 0 7,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science74 ,this is the train of thought and the result of anti-ecclesiastical a-priorism and its historical research4 ,are the plain facts of history in accord with it8 ,the first and immediate task of the ,church is certainly not to disseminate science3 her task1 first of all1 lies in the province of morals and religion4 ,but as she is the highest power of morality and religion1 she stands in the midst of mankind's intellectual life1 and cannot but come in contact with its other endeavours1 owing to the close unity of that life4 ,hence1 let us ask history1 not about everything it might tell us in this respect1 but about one thing only4 ,we do not wish to show how the ,church1 headed by the ,papacy1 has become the mother of ,western civilization and culture4 ,nor shall we enumerate the merits of the ,church in art1 nor point out the alertness she has certainly shown1 in her walk through the centuries1 by taking up the intellectual achievements of the time and assimilating them with her moral and religious treasure of faith1 withal preserved unchanged4 ,the old ,church had done this with the treasures of ancient learning and science2 8this spirit of ,christianity proved itself by the facility with which ,christian thinkers gathered the truth contained in the systems of old philosophy1 and1 even before that1 by assimilating those old truths into ,christian thought1 the beginning of which had already been made in the ,new ,testament4 ,they were appropriated1 without hesitating experiment1 without wavering1 and were given their place in a higher order0 7,o4 ,willmann1 ,gesch4 des ,idealismus1 #b;d ed41 ,,ii1 #aijg1 #fg74 ,this1 she unceasingly continues to do1 as proved by the high standard of ,catholic life and ,catholic science at the present1 a fact not even disputed by opponents4 ,we point only incidentally to the foundation and the fostering of primary schools by the ,church4 ,it is an historical fact that public education began to thrive only with the freer unfolding of the ,church4 ,the first elementary schools were those of the monasteries4 ,later on there were established after their pattern the cathedral and chapter schools1 then the parish schools4 ,still later there came the town and village schools--all of ecclesiastical origin1 or at least under the direction of the ,church and in close connection with her4 ,as early as #ggd we find an ecclesiastical school law1 to the effect that each ,bishop should found an ecclesiastical school in his episcopal town and appoint a competent teacher to instruct 8according to the tradition of the ,romans40 ,eugene ,,ii4 ordained in #hbf anew that efficient teachers should be provided for the cathedral schools wherever needed1 who were 8to lecture on the sciences and the liberal arts with zeal40 8,all ,bishops should have the liberal arts taught at their churches10 was a resolution of the ,council held in ,rome in #ajgi by ,gregory ,,vii4 ,we read in the acts of the ,lateran ,synod of #aagi3 8,inasmuch as it behooves the ,church1 like a loving mother1 to see to it that poor children who cannot count upon the support of their parents should not lack opportunity of learning to read and make progress1 there should at every cathedral church be given an adequate prebend to the teacher--who is to teach the clerics of this church and the poor pupils gratuitously0 7,e4 ,michael1 ,gesch4 des ,deutschen ,volkes ,,ii1 #ahii1 #cgj74 ,school education flourished more and more2 in the thirteenth century it was in full bloom4 ,in ,germany even many unimportant places1 market towns1 boroughs1 and villages had their schools at that time4 ,in ,mayence and its immediate neighbourhood there were1 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 seven chapter schools2 at ,muenster at least four schools2 the clerical schools at ,erfurt had an attendance of no less than #a1jjj pupils4 ,about the year #adjj the diocese of ,prague alone had #dfj schools4 ,in the middle ,rhine district1 about the year #aejj1 many counties had an elementary school for every radius of two leagues2 even rural communities with #ejj to #fjj inhabitants1 like ,weisenau near ,mainz1 and ,michaelstadt in ,odenwald1 did not lack schools4 7,j4 ,janssen1 ,gesch4 des ,deutschen ,volkes1 #aeth ed41 #ahij1 #bf2 cf4 ,michael1 #a4 c4 #djb1 #dag-dai2 ,palacky1 ,gesch4 v4 ,boehmen1 ,,iii1 #a1 p4 #ahf74 ,even in far-off ,transylvania there was1 as early as the fourteenth century1 no village without a church and a school 7,k4 ,th4 ,becker1 ,die ,volksschule der ,siebenbuerger ,sachsen1 #ahid1 y2 ,michael1 #dcj74 ,there is no doubt that this flourishing state of schools was due in the first place to the stimulus1 support1 and unselfish effort of the ,church4 ,but we will not dwell longer on this subject4 ,we wish1 however1 to point out more plainly something more closely related to our subject1 viz41 the attitude of the ,church towards the universities1 at a time when the most prominent nurseries of science were first coming into existence and beginning to flourish1 when they began to exert their influence upon the civilization of ,europe4 ,here1 in the first place1 it should become clear whether it be true that the ,church has ever looked upon the progress of science with suspicion or even suppressed it4 ,history teaches1 in this instance again1 that no one has shown more interest1 more devotion1 more readiness1 to make sacrifices in promoting the establishment and growth of the university1 than the ,church4 ,when1 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 the thirst for knowledge1 stronger than at any time in history1 made itself felt in the ,christian countries of ,europe1 there were erected in the universities great international homes of science1 so as to gratify the deeply felt need of education4 ,and thousands hastened to these places to acquire the knowledge of the period1 overcoming all difficulties1 then much greater than now4 ,a recent writer remarks about this not without reason3 8,the academic instruction met on part of the thronging thousands with a psychic disposition more favourable than at any other time4 ,in a way it was here a case of first love0 7,w4 ,muench1 ,zukunftspaedagogik1 #aijh1 #ccg74 ,at the universities of the ,middle ,ages there were taught theology1 ecclesiastical and civil law1 the liberal arts1 and medicine4 ,but not in the manner that all four faculties were everywhere represented4 ,theology especially was quite frequently lacking1 though the aim was to have all sciences represented4 ,what since the beginning of the thirteenth century was first of all understood by a university were studia generalia--then the usual name for universities1 in contradistinction to studium particulare4 ,universities enjoyed the privilege of having their academic degrees honoured everywhere1 and their graduates could teach anywhere4 ,the universities were of an international character4 ,hence it happened that at the ,german universities there were sitting in quest of knowledge by the side of ,germans also foreign youths1 from ,scotland1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 from ,italy and ,france1 all contending for academic honours--a moment which unquestionably contributed in no small degree to the improvement of education4 ,prior to the ,reformation1 universities were not state institutions1 as they are at present in ,europe1 but free1 independent corporations4 ,they were complete in themselves1 they made their own statutes1 had their own jurisdiction1 and many other privileges4 ,the modern university enjoys but a small remnant of those ancient prerogatives4 ,in a public speech1 made in the presence of the ,duke of ,saxony1 the ,leipsic professor1 ,johann ,kone1 could say in #adde3 8,no king1 no chancellor1 has any right to interfere with our privileges and exemptions2 the university rules itself1 and changes and improves its statutes according to its needs0 7,janssen1 #a4 c4 #ia74 ,up to the year #acjj there were no less than #bc universities established in ,italy1 #e in ,france1 #b in ,england1 #d in ,spain1 and #a in ,portugal4 8,had all intentions been realized1 ,europe would have had by the year #adjj no fewer than #ee universities1 including ,paris and ,bologna4 ,but of #i of them there are extant only the charter deeds that were never executed4 ,at any rate1 there were #df of them1 of which #cg or #ci existed at the turn of the fourteenth century2 a considerable number1 which was not known till recent years0 7,denifle74 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,hungary shared in #h3 ,prague1 ,cracow1 ,vienna1 ,fuenfkirchen1 ,ofen1 ,heidelberg1 ,cologne1 and ,erfurt4 ,within fifty years1 from #adfj to #aeaj1 no less than #i universities were founded in ,germany--a clear proof of the generous enthusiasm for science of that period4 ,by their fostering and founding of universities1 secular princes have won the lasting gratitude of posterity1 and so have the municipalities of a later period for showing an even greater zeal than those princes4 ,but it was indisputably the ,church that bestowed upon these homes of learning and culture the greatest benevolence and support for their foundation and maintenance4 ,in the first place1 history shows that the majority of them were founded by ,papal charters4 ,since universities were understood to have the power of conferring degrees of international value1 they had to be universally acknowledged2 this could be effected only by an authority of universal recognition2 hence by the ,roman-,german ,emperor--as the supreme prince of the world-wide ,christian monarchy1 or by the ,pope1 who was considered in the first place4 ,he was the general ,father and ,teacher of ,christendom2 this is why ,papal charters were so zealously sought after1 in addition to imperial charters4 ,of the #dd universities called into existence before the year #adjj1 #ca were founded by ,papal charters4 ,a similar condition prevailed in the fifteenth century and afterwards1 up to the ,reformation4 ,this was no interference in foreign affairs3 such an interpretation would have caused just surprise in the ,middle ,ages4 ,that the highest spiritual power on earth should have the first claim in education was a matter of general concession4 ,and certainly the manner in which the ,church made use of this right1 to speak with an historian of the universities1 forms 8one of the most important1 and by no means least inglorious1 parts of an activity so manifold and difficult0 7,v4 ,a4 ,huber1 ,die ,englischen ,universitaeten1 ,i1 #ahci1 p4 #ad74 ,these ,papal charters breathe a warm benevolence for science4 ,everywhere we find the wish expressed1 that studies thrive in those places which are most suitable for the effectual spread of science1 and that the different countries have a sufficient number of scientifically trained men4 ,read1 for instance1 the charter given by ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 to ,pamiers and ,avignon1 or the ,letter of ,privileges granted to ,coimbra by ,clement ,v4 7apud ,denifle1 #gic1 #ebd71 or ,pius ,,ii4's ,bull founding the university of ,basle4 ,the ,pope says here about the aim of science3 8,among the various blessings to which man may by the grace of ,god attain in this mortal life1 the last place is not to be given to persevering study1 by which man may gain the pearl of the sciences1 which point out the way to a good and happy life1 and by their excellence elevate the learned men above the uneducated4 ,science makes man like to ,god1 and enables him to clearly perceive the secrets of the world4 ,it aids the unlearned1 it elevates to sublime heights those born in the lowliest condition40 8,for this reason the ,holy ,see has always promoted the sciences1 given them homes1 and provided for their wants1 that they might flourish1 so that men1 well directed1 might the more easily acquire so lofty a human happiness1 and1 when acquired1 share it with others40 ,this was the longing desire that led to the opening at ,basle of 8a plentiful spring of science1 of whose fulness all those may draw who desire to be introduced into the study of the mysteries of ,scripture and learning40 ,even prior to this1 the same ,pope had written to the ,duke ,louis of ,bavaria3 8,the ,apostolic ,see desires the widest possible extension of science10 which1 8while other things are exhausted by dissemination1 is the only thing that expands the more the greater the number of those reached by it0 7apud ,janssen1 #a4 c1 p4 #hi74 ,but the ,church was not satisfied with granting charters4 ,she also gave very substantial material aid to most of the universities4 ,the ,popes maintained two universities at ,rome1 one of them connected with the ,papal ,curia1 a sort of court-school4 ,it was founded by ,innocent ,,iv41 in order that the many who came to the ,papal court from all parts of ,christendom might satisfy also their thirst for knowledge4 ,theology1 law1 especially civil law1 medicine1 and languages1 including ,oriental languages1 were taught there4 ,besides this there was another university at ,rome1 founded by ,boniface ,,viii4 for a similar purpose3 it did not flourish long1 though in #aead it counted no less than eighty-eight professors4 ,many attempts to found or support universities would have proved abortive had not the ,popes provided for the salaries of professors by prebends and stipends1 and by allotting to that end a portion of the income of priests and churches4 ,bishops1 too1 proved themselves zealous patrons of the universities 7,paulsen1 ,gesch4 des gelehrten ,unterrichts1 #b;d ed41 ,i1 #ahih1 p4 #bg74 ,thus1 to cite a few examples of ,german universities1 there was in #aecb1 with the consent of the ,archbishop ,arnest1 a contribution raised by the clergy for the endowment of the university of ,prague1 to which the various cloisters and chapters1 especially those at ,prague1 contributed4 ,with the money thus raised the ,archbishop purchased property1 the income from which was to provide salaries for the professors4 ,twelve professors received from ,urban ,v4 the canonicates of the church of ,all ,saints 7,denifle1 #eih74 ,erfurt university was given #d canonicates1 ,cologne #aa1 ,greifswald still more4 ,similarly ,tuebingen1 ,breslau1 ,rostock1 ,wittenberg1 and ,freiburg were cared for 7,kaufmann1 ,die ,gesch4 der ,deutschen ,universitaeten1 ,,ii1 #ahif1 p4 #cd1 seq474 ,vienna found a benefactor in the pastor of ,gars1 who on ,october #ac1 #acgj1 founded a purse for #c sublectors and #a scholar4 ,heidelberg received #aj canonicates4 ,its great benefactor was the learned ,johann von ,dalberg1 first curator of the university1 and later ,bishop of ,worms4 ,under him ,heidelberg reached the zenith of its lustre1 and laid the foundation of almost all that has won it the reputation it at present enjoys4 ,by his co-operation the first chair of ,greek was founded2 to him the foundation of the college library is due1 which later on gained world-wide fame under the name of 8,palatina40 ,he further collected a private library1 rich in ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew books1 the use of which was open to all scientists4 8,the ,rhenish ,literary ,society0 attained its greatest prominence under his direction 7,janssen1 #a4 c4 #ajj-aje74 ,ingolstadt1 too1 obtained its needed income by the donation of rich church-prebends1 to such an extent that the 8endowments netted the university about #b1ejj florins10 a very large sum for that time 7,kaufmann1 #a4 c4 #ch74 ,prantl also admits in regard to ,ingolstadt3 8,the ,papal ,curia did its best to furnish the university0 7,gesch4 der ,ludwig-,maximilian in ,ingolstadt1 #ahgb1 ,i1 #ai1 apud ,janssen1 #a4 c4 p4 #i74 ,it is true1 the ,church then owned much property4 ,but it is just as true that she was ever ready to support science and colleges out of this property4 ,pope and clergy were also taking incessant pains to make it possible for poor students to attend the university1 not only for theological students1 but for those of all the faculties1 to give an opportunity to rich and poor alike to enjoy the advantages of higher education4 ,stipends and legacies of this kind are numerous4 ,even in our own days many a son of an alma mater owes the stipend he enjoys to endowments made by the ,church4 ,in the course of time there were established at most of the universities so-called colleges for the purpose of offering shelter and maintenance to poor students4 ,these colleges contributed essentially to the flourishing condition of the university4 ,thus ,albrecht v4 ,langenstein suggested1 at the founding of ,vienna university1 to the ,duke1 ,albrecht of ,austria1 the establishment of such colleges1 inasmuch as the continuance of the university was dependent on them1 and stated that ,paris owed its prosperity to them 7,denifle1 #fbd74 ,the ,popes set here the best example4 ,zoen1 ,bishop of ,avignon1 had provided in his testament that eight students from the province of ,avignon should be maintained at ,bologna by his successors from their estates at ,bologna4 ,these estates1 however1 were sold later on4 ,john ,,xxii4 then interfered in favour of the students injured thereby and annulled the deed of purchase4 ,the income was set aside and increased to an amount sufficient for thirty scholars2 later on the ,pope endeavoured to raise their number to fifty4 ,at the same celebrated academy1 which1 next to ,paris1 had long been a beacon of science sought from near and afar1 ,urban ,v4 founded a home for poor students and directed the appropriation of #d1jjj gold ducats a year for it4 ,from ,june #af1 #acfg1 to ,june #ae1 #acfh1 the home received an appropriation of #e1ijh ducats in gold and #aee baskets of cereals4 ,his successor1 ,gregory ,,xi41 set himself to the task of completing the work begun4 ,out of the income of the ,church he ordered appropriated in the future #a1ejj ducats a year for thirty students1 of whom one half were to study ,canon ,law1 the other half ,civil ,law4 ,he then decreed the purchase of a home for #d1ejj ducats in gold1 and ordered to pay out immediately #d1jjj florins in gold for the next school year4 ,besides the college named1 ,urban ,v4 had founded one at ,montpellier for medical students1 and another1 which had its seat at first at ,trets1 later at ,monosque4 ,during his pontificate this ,pope maintained no less than #a1jjj students at various institutions4 ,toulouse also had several colleges for poor students1 founded by high princes of the ,church4 ,in the year #acei ,innocent ,,vi4 devoted his own home at ,toulouse with all its possessions and its entire income to twenty poor students1 ten of whom were to study ,canon ,law and ten ,civil ,law4 ,for their further maintenance he ordered given to them1 besides other things1 #be1jjj florins in gold 8manualiter0 7,denifle1 #bac seq41 #cjh seq41 #cci74 ,finally1 nearly all universities1 whether they owed their existence to ecclesiastical or civil power1 received many and far-reaching privileges from the ,popes4 ,not the least one was for clerical students the dispensation to free them from the requirement of residence for the enjoyment of their benefices1 which made it possible for them to study in remote university towns1 where they were free to study not only theology1 but other sciences as well4 ,this dispensation was quite common4 ,furthermore1 the ,popes protected in the most energetic way the universities in their privileges and freedom every time they were applied to for aid4 ,this happened1 for instance1 at ,bologna4 ,the students there had their free guilds4 ,the municipal authorities began to restrict their privileges by forbidding native students under heavy penalties to study outside of ,bologna1 which was later on extended to the alien students4 ,the professors sided with the city4 ,honorius ,,iii4 in #abbj called upon the latter to repeal those statutes2 if they wanted to confine the students to the city1 it should be done by clemency1 not with severity and coercion4 ,the city relented4 ,but we see again in #abbd the students appeal1 for the third time since #abag1 to the ,pope1 begging for protection4 ,the tension had grown2 the city was actually beginning to use force4 ,honorius sharply rebuked the city for this action1 threatening excommunication if the authorities continued to suppress freedom4 ,the city yielded completely1 and the freedom of the students was saved1 thanks to their protector4 ,later on the ,popes had to interfere again4 ,clement ,v4 had already ordered the ,bishops to protect the students at ,bologna4 ,his successor1 ,john ,,xxii41 received complaints that privileges of students in ,italy were being violated by authorities and citizens of the city4 ,against the ,podesta of ,bologna especially complaints were made4 ,the ,pope1 in #acba and #acbb1 bade the ,bishops and ,archbishops to take measures against those who directe et indirecte impedire dieuntur1 ne ad praedictum studium valeant declinare contra apostolica et imperialia privilegia4 ,he appointed at ,bologna a special protector and conservator of the university4 ,some years after1 when the ,podesta declined to take the juramentum de observandis statutis ejusdem studiis factis et faciendis1 he was commanded to take the oath4 ,at ,orleans there was a flourishing law school2 especially its jus civile was famous4 ,professors and students were granted by ,clement ,v4 the privilege of an autonomous university with the right of free corporation1 with the power to suspend lectures in case they could get no satisfaction for any wrong done them4 ,these privileges were a thorn in the eye of the city2 its citizens even allowed violence to be done the university4 ,then ,philip the ,fair interfered1 but in a way which indicates that he did not know sufficiently the university life of the ,middle ,ages4 ,moreover1 he annulled the granted free fellowship1 and put professors and the students under civil supervision4 ,but this was not tolerated in those days4 ,the king had at the same time given many privileges1 but they were disregarded4 ,in #acaf professors and students left ,orleans and the university ceased to exist4 ,the first act of ,john ,,xxii4 upon ascending the ,papal throne was to restore this school1 the ,french king himself having begged his support in the matter4 ,the king's suggestion to take the privilege of free fellowship from the professors and students was rejected by the ,pope4 ,the ,pope reaffirmed all privileges granted to the university1 whereupon the professors and students returned1 to inaugurate the most brilliant epoch of their college4 ,considering these facts1 one may subscribe to the judgment of ,denifle which he pronounces at the conclusion of his thorough treatise on the universities of the ,middle ,ages3 8,so far as the foundation of the universities can be spoken of1 its merit belongs to the ,popes1 to secular rulers1 clergy1 and laity4 ,but that the lion's share belongs to the ,popes every one must admit who has followed my presentment1 which is exclusively based on documents1 and who examines history with impartiality0 7,ib4 #gib seq474 ,even ,kaufmann1 who is very unfavourably disposed towards the ,church1 cannot deny that 8numerous ,popes have shown warm interest for the fostering of sciences during those centuries1 and were for the most part themselves prominent representatives of science0 7,ib4 #djc74 ,that the medival universities in some points1 though not in all1 were inferior to modern universities1 was not their fault4 ,no good judge of human conditions could expect it to be otherwise4 ,the experience and efficiency of the mature man is not attained at once1 but only after the exertions and experiments made by him during the period of youth and development4 ,at a time when all the experiences in the field of school legislation1 which are the property of the present day1 had yet to be collected1 when the relation between lower and higher schools had not been regulated in all respects1 at that time it was not possible to be in the position we are in to-day4 ,future critics of our times will see in our present educational systems many gross defects1 which often are not hidden even to our own eyes4 ,but it would be arrogance for them to belittle our efforts1 the fruits of which they will once enjoy without any merit on their part4 ,the university of yore conformed to the educational purposes of that period2 it was the focus of intellectual life1 perhaps to a larger degree than is the case to-day4 ,this suffices4 ,moreover1 the number of professors was quite considerable1 that of the students even more so4 ,in ,bologna in #achh the number of professors was #gj1 not including the theologians1 among them #ci jurists2 in ,piacenza there were from the years #acih to #adjb #ga professors2 among them were #bg teachers of ,roman law and #bb teachers of medicine 7,denifle1 #bji1 #ega74 ,in regard to the zeal displayed by the ,church in promoting universities1 it might be objected that she was caring in the first place for theology1 not for the other sciences1 and that the universities then had chiefly been established for theological students4 ,this1 however1 is not the case4 ,the universities especially favoured by the ,popes were first of all law schools1 chiefly of civil law1 or medical schools4 ,those at ,bologna1 ,padua1 ,florence1 and ,orleans were principally law schools2 in ,italy1 in general1 chief attention was paid to jurisprudence1 particularly to ,roman law4 ,montpellier was essentially a medical college2 it attained during the thirteenth century preponderance even over ,salerno4 ,the assertion has been made that the vigorous life at this medical college was owing to its independence of ,rome 7,haeser1 ,lehrbuch der ,geschichte der ,medizin1 #a1 #fee4 ,cfr4 ,denifle1 #cdb74 ,but ,denifle has proved that 8clerical organs have been the moving spirits of the medical college at ,montpellier40 ,nor did the ,papal charter deeds exclude any profane science4 ,the common formula1 which always prevails1 authorizes to teach indiscriminately in jure canonico et civili necnon in medicina et qualibet alia licita facultate4 ,only one science was frequently excepted1 and that was just theology4 ,of the forty-six high schools that had been established up to the year #adjj1 about twenty-eight1 therefore nearly two-thirds1 excluded by their charter the teaching of theology4 ,at first a number of universities sprang up merely as law schools1 others as medical schools1 and there was then no need to include the science of theology in the schedule of studies4 ,furthermore1 ,paris was ever since the twelfth century looked upon as the home and the natural place for theology 7,denifle1 #gjc f474 ,hence the benevolence of the ,church towards the universities was not merely determined by selfish interest4 ,or was it1 nevertheless8 ,may the ,church not have bestowed so much care on the homes of science in order to increase her own influence thereby1 and also with an eye to the future8 ,this assertion has been made4 ,but this assertion is an injustice and it is against the testimony of history4 ,the ,popes very often issued their charter deeds only then1 when request was made by worldly rulers and by the cities themselves4 ,hence there was no hurried self-assertion4 ,and the ,church has never denied the right to worldly powers to found their own high schools4 ,the theologians of the thirteenth century expressedly declared it to be the duty of princes to provide for institutions of learning 7,cfr4 ,thomas of ,aquin1 ,de regimine principum1 ,i1 #ac2 ,op4 contra impug4 relig4 #c74 ,thus up to the year #adjj nine high schools had received no charters at all1 ten only imperial charters or charters from their local sovereigns4 ,if the ,popes had cared only about their influence1 why then did they treat such colleges with the same benevolence8 ,spain's first college was founded at ,paleneia in the years #abab-abad by ,alfonso ,,viii4 without asking the ,pope4 ,when soon afterwards it was in trouble it was ,honorius ,,iii4 who aided ,alfonso's successor in restoring it1 by assigning some ecclesiastical income to its professors4 ,when the college was nearly wrecked and ,rome once more applied to for help1 ,urban ,,iv4 lent an aiding hand because he did not want ut lucerna tanta claritatis in commune mutorum dispendium sic extincta remaneat4 ,frederick ,,ii4 had founded a university of his own4 ,when it failed it was ,clement ,,iv4 who urged ,king ,charles of ,anjou to re-establish it4 ,in eodem regno facias et jubeas hujusmodi studium reformari 7,denifle1 #dgh1 #dei74 ,this is not the language and action of one who is only ruled by the passion to spread his own influence1 and not guided by benevolence for science4 ,but it is true1 in supporting the higher schools the ,church did not aim at science as its ultimate object2 it was her view that science should serve the material welfare of man1 but still more the highest ethical and religious purpose of life4 ,this in general was the conception of the entire ,middle ,ages4 ,at that time it would have been considered curious to seek a science ultimately for its own sake4 ,and the universities repaid the ,church by gratitude and devotion4 ,the effort has been made to demonstrate that the modern separation of science from religion had already begun in the ,middle ,ages1 and had showed itself everywhere2 this tendency for autonomy 8appeared at first only timidly and in manifold disguises0 7,kaufmann1 #ad74 ,how easy it is to find such disguises may be shown by an example4 ,the university of ,paris had after the death of ,st4 ,thomas asked for his remains4 ,kaufmann holds that the notion of the autonomy of science had found sharp expression in the memorandum wherein the university stated the motive of its request4 ,now how does this harmless document sound8 8,quoniam omnino est indecens et indignum ut alia ratio aut locus quam omnium studiorum nobilissima ,parisiensis civitas quae ipsum prius educavit nutrivit et fovit et post modum ad eodem doctrinae monumenta et ineffabilia fomenta suscepit ossa 444 habeat4444 ,si enim ,ecclesia merito ossa et reliquias ,sanctorum honorat nobis non sine causa videtur honestum et sanctum tanti doctoris corpus in perpetuum penes nos habere in honore40 ,evidently the university requests the relic for itself1 or rather for the ,parisiensis civitas1 not in opposition to the ,church1 but in opposition to other cities1 altera natio aut locus4 ,i wonder if the ,parisian admirers of ,st4 ,thomas ever dreamed that they would one day be put in the light of forerunners of liberal science1 because of their pious application for the bones of their great teacher8 ,this is tantamount to carrying one's own idea into the fact4 ,denifle1 probably the most competent judge of the affairs of medival universities1 writes as follows3 8,if we weigh the different acts which suggest themselves to us in these various foundations1 and if we compare them with one another1 there is revealed to us1 in the realm of history of the foundation of medival universities1 a wonderful harmony between ,church and ,state1 between the spiritual and material4 ,this is the reason why the universities of the ,middle ,ages appear to us as the highest civil as well as the highest ecclesiastical teaching institutions4 ,fundamentally1 they are the product of the ,christian spirit which penetrated the whole1 wherein ,pope and ,prince1 clergy and laity1 each held the proper position0 7l4 c4 p4 #gie74 ,one consequence of this relation between the universities and the ,church was that 8they attained their greatest prosperity as long as the unity of ,church and faith remained unimpaired1 and that1 at the time of the ,reformation1 they all sided with the ,church with the exception of two1 ,wittenberg and ,erfurt4 ,torn away from their ecclesiastical and established basis only by violent means1 they were led to the new doctrine1 but really succumbed to it only when their freedom had been curtailed and they had been reduced to state institutions0 7,janssen1 l4 c4 p4 #ia74 ,they had been1 as the learned ,wimpheling wrote at the close of the sixteenth century1 8the most favoured daughters of the ,church1 who tried to repay by fidelity and attachment what they owed to their ,mother0 7,de arte impressoria1 apud ,janssen1 l4 c4 #ia74 ,a ,false ,progress4 ,hence history cannot subscribe to the accusation that the ,church is the enemy of progress4 ,how then does it happen that this accusation is made so frequently8 ,the idea suggests itself that there may be here a different meaning given to the word 8progress10 that the ,church opposes a certain kind of progress which her enemies call 8the0 progress4 ,and this is the actual fact4 ,if we examine the proofs which are to show the hostile attitude of the ,church1 we meet at every step ,galileo1 the ,copernican system1 the ,syllabus1 and ,index4 ,but this appears only on the surface1 which hides beneath it something that is easily overlooked by the cursory glance4 ,and this is the precise definition of scientific and civilized progress4 ,progress has ever been an ideal of powerful attraction4 ,the noblest and best of men have ever displayed the most earnest endeavour onward and upward4 ,in our times1 however1 this ideal comes forward differently garbed1 in the name of the new view of the world1 and resolutely censures as reactionary everything that will oppose it4 ,what is this definition8 ,since the theory of evolution of ,lamarck and ,darwin entered biology1 it has also more and more invaded other branches of science4 ,the principle is now that everywhere1 in the organic or inorganic world and in the whole province of human life there is a gradual growth and change--nothing permanent1 nothing definite and absolute4 ,uninterrupted evolution hitherto2 hereafter restless development2 especially in the greatest good belonging to human life1 thought1 philosophy1 and chiefly religion4 ,here1 too1 there are no forms nor dogmas which evolution in its continual development does not evolve and elevate4 ,this idea of evolution is supplemented by subjectivism with its relativism of truth3 all views1 especially philosophical and religious 8,truths10 are no longer the reproduction of objectively existing things1 but a creation of the subject1 of his inner experience and feeling2 hence each age must proceed to new thought of its own4 8,the methods of scientific research10 we are told1 8are determined by the idea of evolution1 and this applies not only to natural sciences but also to the so-called intellectual sciences1--history1 philology1 philosophy1 and theology4 ,the idea of evolution influences and dominates all our thoughts2 without it progress in the field of scientific knowledge is quite impossible40 ,we read1 for instance1 in the modern history of philosophy3 8,the rise and fall of a system is a necessary part of universal history2 it is conditioned by the character of its time1 the system being the understanding of that time1 while this understanding of the time is conditioned by the fact that the time has changed40 ,at ,roscellin's time the nominalists were intellectually inferior2 but where there is question of undermining the militant ,church of the ,middle ,ages the nominalists will be considered to have been the greater philosophers4 ,in this the realists 8by the futility of their struggle proved that the time for nominalism had arrived1 hence that whoever favours it understands the time better2 that is1 more philosophically4 ,after the beginning of the ,renaissance we notice an attempt at philosophizing in such a way as to ignore the existence of divine wisdom taught by ,christianity4 ,the pre-,christian sages had done so3 to philosophize in their spirit was therefore the task of the time1 and those who had a better understanding of the time philosophized that way better than by the scholastic method2 though their method may appear reactionary to unphilosophical minds0 7,j4 ,e4 ,erdmann1 ,grundriss der ,gesch4 der ,philosophie1 #c;d ed41 ,i 7#ahgh71 #d1 #bfb1 #dcd1 #ejb74 ,this is a frank denial of any truth in philosophy3 the more neological and modern a thing is1 the more truth there is in it6 ,realism was right in ,roscellin's time1 but a later period had to sweep it away4 ,the ,christian religion was right for the ,middle ,ages1 but when the ,greek authors began to be read again it was no longer modern4 ,apostasy from the faith is considered a mark of progress4 8,italian natural philosophy10 we are told1 8reached its pinnacle with ,bruno and ,campanella1 of whom the former1 though the older1 appears to be more progressive on account of his freer attitude towards the ,church0 7,r4 ,falkenburg1 ,gesch4 der neueren ,philosophie1 #eth ed4 7#aije71 page #cj1 seq474 ,hence evidently further development of ,christianity1 too1 is demanded4 ,according to subjectivistic views it was hitherto only an historical product of the human intellect3 hence 8onward to new and higher forms corresponding to modern thought and feeling1 onward to a new ,christianity without dogmas and authority60 8,break up those old tablets10 spoke ,zarathustra4 ,such is progress in thought and science1 for which the way must be opened4 ,that the immutable dogmas of ,christianity1 that the task of the ,catholic ,church to preserve revelation intact1 are incompatible with it1 that the ,church appears reactionary1 and as an obstacle to this progress1 is now self-evident4 ,here we have the deeper contrast between progress1 in the anti-,christian sense1 and the essence of ,christianity in general1 and1 especially1 of the ,catholic ,church4 8,it is frankly admitted that the issue is the struggle between the two views of the world--between the ,christian1 conservative dogmatism and the anti-dogmatic evolutionary philosophy0 7,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,jun4 #g1 #aijh74 ,faith according to its very essence is immutable and stationary1 science is essentially progressive3 they had therefore to part in a manner which could not be kept a secret4 8,a divine revelation must necessarily be intolerant of contradiction1 it must repudiate all improvement in itself0 7,j4 ,draper1 ,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 ,,vi74 8,the great opposition between the rigid dogmatism of the ,roman ,catholic ,church and the ever progressing modern science cannot be removed0 7,academicus1 l4 c4 #cfb74 ,so say the opponents of the ,church4 ,there is no error1 says ,st4 ,augustine1 which does not contain some truth1 especially when it is able to rule the thought of many4 ,hence its capacity to deceive4 ,the same is true in the present case4 ,there is evolution and progress in everything1 or at least there should be4 ,the individual gradually develops from the embryo into a perfect form1 though it becomes nothing else than what it had formerly been in its embryonic state4 ,mankind advances rapidly in civilization2 we no longer ride in the rumbling stage-coach but in a comfortable express train1 and the tallow candle has been replaced by the electric light4 ,thus we demand progress also in knowledge and science1 and even in religion4 ,many things that were obscure to older generations have become clear to us2 we have corrected many an error1 made many discoveries which were unknown to our ancestors4 ,many doctrines of faith1 also1 appear to our eyes in sharper outlines than before2 of many we have a deeper understanding1 discovered new relations1 meanings1 and deductions4 ,thus there is progress and development everywhere4 ,but it would be erroneous to conclude from all this that there cannot be any stable truths and dogmas1 that progress to new and different views and doctrines is necessary4 ,by the same right we might conclude that the main principles of the ,copernican system cannot be immutable1 because they would hinder the progress of science4 ,progress certainly does not consist in throwing away all certainty acquired1 in order to begin anew4 ,or does it really belong to progress in astronomy to again give up ,copernicus1 to go back to ,ptolemy and let the sun and all the stars revolve again around the earth8 ,does not progress rather consist in our studying these astronomical results more closely1 in building up the details1 and1 first of all1 in trying to solve new problems8 ,the champion of the faith will reply3 ,just as established results do not hinder the progress of science1 just so do the doctrines of faith not form an obstacle to progress and evolution4 ,the fixed doctrines of the faith themselves1 in themselves and in their application to the conditions of life1 offer rich material for the growth of religious knowledge4 ,and there is the immense field for progress in the profane sciences4 ,if any one should say that the believing scientist1 who is bound by his dogmas1 can do nothing further but reiterate his old truths1 one might in turn argue3 ,then the astronomer bound by the fundamental rules of the ,copernican system could have only the monotonous task of drawing over and over again the outlines of his system1 while the mathematician who holds the multiplication table to be an unalienable possession would not be allowed to do aught but to repeat the multiplication table4 ,or the argument may be put thus3 ,we have made great progress in the material province of civilization1 in science and art2 8can an old religion suffice under these new and improved conditions1 a religion which originated at an age when these conditions did not exist8 ,this contradiction is shocking4444 ,progress in culture demands progress in religion4444 ,we want a more perfect religion1 a higher religion0 7,masaryk1 ,im ,kampf um die ,religion1 #aijd1 #bi74 ,note the logic of this demonstration4 ,we no longer light our rooms by the dim light of a small oil lamp1 we walk no longer at night through dark narrow lanes1 but through brightly illuminated avenues1 does it follow from this that it can no longer be true that ,christ is the ,son of ,god1 nor that ,he has worked miracles1 or founded a ,church1 and a new religion is therefore necessary8 ,we have made progress in our knowledge of history2 we know a good deal of ,rome and ,carthage1 of the civilization of ancient ,egypt and of ,greece1 and of their mutual relations2 we have other fashions of life than our fathers had1 we build and paint differently--our political life1 too1 has grown more complicated2 does it follow from all this1 that it cannot be true that we are created by ,god1 that we must believe a divine revelation1 hence a new religion is necessary8 ,progress and evolution to consist in ever abandoning the old and advancing to new and different views--this is absurd4 ,absurd1 in the first place1 because it is no progress at all1 but a retrogression1 a hopeless alternation of forwards and backwards4 ,there can be no progress if ,i am always withdrawing from my old position2 progress is possible only by retaining the basis established and then advancing therefrom4 ,and evolution is not a continuous remodelling and shaping anew1 but a continuance in growth4 ,evolution means that the embryo unfolds1 and by retaining and perfecting the old matter gradually becomes a plant2 evolution is in the progress from bud to blossom2 but not in the changing mass of clouds1 swept away to-day by the current wind and replaced to-morrow by other clouds4 ,an absurdity1 also1 for the reason that it violates all laws of reason1 that once there was a revelation of ,god to be believed1 but that this is no longer true4 ,furthermore1 the demand to follow always 8the ideas of the period0 suggests the question3 ,who is to represent the period8 ,who represented ,greece1 the sophists or ,plato8 ,who was representative of the first days of ,christianity1 the ,roman emperors or the martyrs8 ,will not the passage in ,goethe's ,faust apply in most cases3 8,what they call the spirit of the times is but their own mind wherein the times are reflected08 ,true1 if progress is taken to be the overstepping by human reason of the eternal standards of immutable truth and the barriers of faith1 if it is to be the attempt at emancipation from ,god and religion1 then there is no more resolute foe of progress than the ,christian religion1 than the ,catholic ,church4 ,but this is not progress but loss of the truth1 not higher religion but apostasy1 not development of what is best in man1 but retrogression to mental disintegration by scepticism4 ,the ,syllabus4 ,in the eyes of many it is especially the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix4 by which the ,catholic ,church has erected a lasting monument to its enmity to civilization4 ,it is the ,syllabus1 we are told1 in which ,pius ,,ix4 has 8ex cathedra condemned the freedom of science0 7,w4 ,kahl1 ,bekenntnissgebundenheit und ,lehrfreiheit1 #ahig1 #aj72 8in which modern culture and science is being cursed0 7,th4 ,fuchs1 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,nov4 #be1 #aijg72 in which 8the most general foundations of our political order1 the freedom of conscience1 are rejected0 7,g4 ,kaufmann1 ,die ,lehrfreiheit an den deutschen ,universitaeten1 #ahih1 #cd72 8in which it has simply anathematized the achievements of the modern concept of right0 7,f4 ,jodl1 ,gedanken ber ,reformkatholizismus1 #aijb1 #e72 the ,syllabus 8strikes blows against the autonomy of human development of culture1 it is a non possumus1 ,i cannot make peace1 ,i cannot compromise with what is termed progress1 liberalism1 and civilization40 ,the ,syllabus is a favorite stock argument of professional free-thinkers and agitators1 and the one with which they like to open the discussion4 ,for this reason we must say a few words about it4 ,when a ,syllabus is spoken of without any distinction1 the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix4 is meant4 ,it is a list of eighty condemned propositions which this ,pope sent on ,december #h1 #ahfd1 to all the ,bishops of the world1 together with the encyclical letter 8,quanta ,cura40 ,pius ,,ix4 had1 prior to this1 and on various occasions1 denounced these propositions as false and to be repudiated4 ,they were now gathered together in the ,syllabus4 ,they represent the program of modern liberalism in the province of religion and in politics in relation to religion4 ,they are repudiated in the following order3 ,pantheism2 liberal freedom of thought and of conscience as a repudiation of the duty to believe2 religious freedom as a demand of emancipation from faith and ,church2 religious indifferentism2 the denial of the ,church and of her independence of the state2 the omnipotence of state power1 especially in the province of thought4 ,the single propositions are not all designated as heretical1 hence the contrary is not always pronounced to be dogma2 they are rejected in general as 8errors40 ,it is not necessary to discuss here the question whether and to what extent the ,syllabus is an infallible decision4 ,suffice it to say it is binding for believing ,catholics4 ,has the ,catholic any reason to be ashamed of the ,syllabus8 ,it was a resolute deed4 ,a deed of that intrepidity and firm consistency which has ever characterized the ,catholic ,church4 ,with her fearless love of truth the ,church has in the ,syllabus solemnly condemned the errors of the modern rebellion against the supernatural order1 of the naturalization and declaration of independence of the human life4 ,for this reason the ,syllabus is called an attack upon modern culture1 science1 and education1 upon the foundations of the state4 ,is this true8 ,it is1 and it is not4 ,all that is good and ,christian in modern culture is not touched by the ,syllabus2 it strikes only at what is anti-,christian in our times and in the leading ideas of our times4 ,it does not condemn freedom of science1 but only the liberal freedom which throws off the yoke of faith2 it does not repudiate freedom of religion and conscience1 but the liberal freedom which will not acknowledge a divine revelation nor take the ,church as a guide4 ,not the foundations of modern states are attacked1 but only the liberal ideas of emancipation from religion1 and of opposition to the ,church4 ,the ,church proclaims to the world only what has been known to all ,christian centuries1 that1 just as the single individual is bound to have the ,christian belief and must lead a ,christian life1 so are nations and organized states2 that the human creature is subject to the law of ,christ in all its relations4 ,nor does she contend against genuine progress in science1 education and in the material domain1 but merely against liberal progress towards the irreligious materialization of life4 ,this emancipation from the ,christian faith poses mostly under the attractive and deceptive name of 8modern progress40 ,indeed1 it has ever been the pretension of liberalism to look upon itself as the sole harbinger of civilization1 to claim the guidance of intellectual life for its aim1 and to stigmatize as a foe of culture any one that opposes the dissemination of its anti-,christian humanism4 ,it is also an expert in giving to words a charm and an ambiguous meaning that deceive4 ,emancipation from religion is 8progress0 and 8enlightenment40 ,everything else is reactionary4 ,its infidelity is freedom of conscience and thought4 ,everything else is 8bondage40 ,only its secular schools1 its civil marriage1 its separation of ,church and ,state are 8modern40 ,everything else is obsolete1 hence no longer warranted4 ,for the ,church to defend her rights is arrogance2 when the ,church uses her ,god-given authority for the good of the faith1 she practises intellectual oppression2 the ,catholic who lets himself be guided by his ,church is called unpatriotic1 bereft of his civil spirit4 ,what striking contrast to the honesty in which the ,church presents her doctrines frankly before the whole world1 without disguise or artifice4 ,the reason is that she has sufficient interior strength and truth to render it unnecessary for her to take refuge in disguise or present the truth in ambiguity4 ,the clearest evidence of the ,church's hostility to culture is the condemnation of the #hjth thesis of the ,syllabus1 so it is said4 ,it is the thesis that the ,pope can and must reconcile himself to1 and compromise with1 progress1 liberalism1 and modern civilization4 ,this is a condemned proposition1 hence the contrary is true3 the ,pope of ,rome cannot1 and must not1 reconcile himself1 nor compromise with1 liberalism and modern civilization4 ,here we have the frankly admitted hostility against progress1 education1 and science--it is the watchword of the ,papacy4 ,this conclusion can be arrived at only by pushing aside all rules of scientific interpretation4 ,what progress is this1 with what civilization can the ,papacy not be reconciled8 ,the progress of modern liberalism4 ,the heading of the paragraph containing this proposition states expressly that 8errors of modern liberalism0 are to be condemned4 ,this becomes clear by the ,allocution 8,jamdudum cernimus0 of ,march #ah1 #ahfa1 from which this condemnation is taken4 ,there it is stated3 8,it is asked that the ,pope of ,rome reconcile himself with progress1 to liberalism as they call it1 to the new civilization1 and compromise with them4444 ,but now we ask of those inviting us to be reconciled with modern civilization1 whether the facts be such as to tempt the ,vicar of ,christ on earth 444 to connect himself with the civilization of to-day without the greatest injury to this conscience 444 a civilization that has caused the dissemination of numerous despicable opinions1 errors1 and principles in conflict with the ,catholic religion and its doctrines40 ,of course a civilization cut off from any true ,christianity by education and science1 by family life and political life1 a progress1 trying to stop the activity of the ,church in every sphere and attacking her in their speech1 in newspapers1 and in schools1 cannot demand of the ,papacy to join hands with them4 ,no ,christian1 whether ,catholic or ,protestant1 can profess this 8progress40 ,we have here at the same time a specimen of how they proceed in interpreting the propositions of the ,syllabus in order to discover in them all possible absurdities4 ,many propositions are short sentences taken from the work of an author1 or from previous ,papal declarations4 ,hence they must be understood in the sense of those sources4 ,furthermore1 attention must be paid to what is specially emphasized4 ,then1 again1 we must remember that by repudiating a proposition only the contradictory is asserted1 but not the contrary2 to conclude this would be to conclude too much4 ,for instance1 the seventy-seventh condemned proposition reads3 8,in our times it is no longer to any purpose that the ,catholic religion should be the sole religion of the state to the exclusion of all other confessions40 ,according to some1 e4g41 ,frins1 the contradictory is thus formulated3 8,in our times also it is still to the purpose44440 ,according to others1 however1 e4g41 ,hoensbroeeh and ,goetz3 8,in our times also it is beneficial44440 ,thus while ,hoensbroech and ,goetz make the ecclesiastical doctrine appear to read that it would be beneficial to hold fast to the ,catholic as the sole religion of the state under all circumstances even to-day1 the actual opposite is the doctrine1 that this may be yet to the purpose under certain circumstances4 ,while no reasonable man could object to the latter1 the former is eagerly exploited against the ,church 7,heiner1 ,der ,syllabus1 #aije1 p4 #ca1 seq42 cf4 ,frins1 ,kirchenlex1 #b;d ed41 ,,xi1 #ajca2 ,hoensbroech1 l4 c4 #be2 ,goetz1 ,der ,ultramontanismus1 #aije1 #adh74 ,of course it may be taken for granted that the ,syllabus is distasteful to modern liberalism1 which is branded there as one of the errors of the day4 ,yet the ,church cannot be censured for not becoming unfaithful to her vocation of preserving the patrimony of ,christianity to mankind1 or for acting as the invincible defender of the ,christian religion in the universal struggle between truth and error1 even though the latter pose with great assurance4 ,the ,condemnation of ,modernism4 ,the great excitement caused in intellectual circles by the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix4 was aroused again1 though not with the same intensity1 when some years ago the news of another ,syllabus was circulated through the world1 and the excitement increased when the rumour was followed by the publication of the encyclical 8,pascendi ,dominici gregis40 ,indeed1 the new event was not very unlike the former3 in the #fj's ,rome's sentence was directed against the ,modernism of that period1 which called itself liberalism4 ,the excitement caused by its condemnation was more intense1 because it struck directly at the principles governing the liberal politics against the ,church1 which principles were claimed to be the foundation of the modern state4 ,now the ,modernism repudiated by the ,church's voice was nothing more than the old humanistic1 fundamental1 errors of liberalism1 but put in the form of a religious and philosophical view of the world1 and in ,catholic garb3 it meant man detached from everything supernatural1 and dependent alone on himself in his intellectual life1 more especially in his religious life4 ,now1 as then1 similar charges were raised3 ,the ,church is the irreconcilable foe of modern achievements and the opponent of them2 8the encyclical aims at modern intellectual life in all its phases and forms0 7,,xx4 ,jahrh41 #aijh1 #efh74 ,now1 as then1 we have the same ambiguity of the terms 8modern0 and 8progress40 ,what was condemned by the ,church8 ,the document 8,lamentabili sane exitu10 issued by the teaching authority of the ,church on ,july #c1 #aijg1 is entitled 8,a ,decree of the ,holy ,congregation of the ,roman and ,general ,inquisition or the ,holy ,office10 which has to watch over the unadulterated preservation of the faith4 ,the decree soon was christened the 8,new ,syllabus10 because of its similarity with the ,syllabus of ,pius ,,ix4 ,in a similar way it condemns sixty-five propositions against the inspiration and the historical character of ,holy ,scripture1 against the divine origin of revelation and of faith1 against the divinity of ,christ1 ,his ,resurrection and ,his atoning death1 against the ,sacraments1 and against the ,church4 ,these are component parts of the philosophical religious system of thought which soon after was set forth and condemned by the encyclical 8,pascendi10 of ,september #h1 #aijg4 ,modernism is essentially philosophy1 combining modern agnostic-autonomous subjectivism with evolutionism1 and applied to the ,christian religion1 which thereby becomes disfigured beyond recognition4 ,its chain of thought1 excellently stated by the encyclical1 starts with the proposition that the supernatural is beyond the knowledge of man1 and hence man cannot know anything of ,god4 ,the faith which unites us to ,god is nothing but a feeling1 born of a blind impulse1 which may be considered a divine revelation4 ,if this religious feeling is expressed in forms1 the result is 8doctrines of faith02 for ,christian 8dogmas0 are this and nothing more1 images and symbols of the noble and divine1 hence they are of human origin and are changeable according to the disposition and the degree of learning of the individual1 as well as of the times4 ,there is no dogmatic ,christianity1 in the sense of an immutable religious doctrine1 nor is there any absolutely true religion1 for religion is but a variable feeling1 that has nothing to do with cognition and knowledge4 ,for this reason they never can come in conflict4 ,the ,christian religion originally was nothing else but the religious experience of ,christ1 who was not ,god but a man2 in the course of time it has undergone changes which are reflected in the shaping of ,christian dogma4 ,holy ,scripture is1 similarly1 the expression of the religious experience of its human authors2 the ,sacraments are symbols1 arousing religious sentiments2 the ,church is not founded by ,god1 and only has the task of regulating the development of ,christianity1 and of sanctioning at any time whatever religious experiences the changeable spirit of progressive civilization may produce4 ,this is ,modernism1 as represented chiefly in ,france1 ,italy1 and to an extent also in ,england2 in ,germany it did not appear as a system1 but even there its spirit became quite apparent4 ,thus1 ,modernism is nothing else but the systematic arrangement of those ideas which we have hitherto met1 in various places1 as the fundamental principles of modern religious thought opposed to ,christianity4 ,it is subjectivism with its autonomy of the human subject1 its agnosticism1 its relativism of truth1 sailing under the name of 8historical method of thought0 and 8progress10 and1 finally1 with its freedom of thought and conscience which rejects all authority4 ,it is ,kant in the robe of a ,catholic theologian4 ,ultimately it is nothing else but the shocking negation of everything supernatural1 hence complete apostasy4 8,the salient point is recognized10 says ,troeltsch1 8the enemy is the modern historical method of thought1 the concept of evolution1 the theory of inner experience and relativism as applied to religion1 the negation of supernaturalism as taught by the old ,church0 7l4 c4 #bb74 ,hence1 was it not manifest that the ,church had to take measures against this positive denial of ,christianity as a whole1 the more so as the uneducated could be easily deceived by it8 ,every organism will throw off excrescences1 the more energetically the stronger it is4 ,any religion lacking this strength is doomed4 ,that the ,papal declaration aroused such opposition must not be wondered at2 it hit once more the central idea of the anti-,christian view of the world4 ,the judgment was not passed against modern intellectual life1 but only against the grave errors inherent in it2 the ,church did not condemn progress1 nor the increase and deepening of knowledge of the truth2 not the enrichment of the life of the mind1 of feeling1 and the will1 but only pretended progress2 she did not condemn the historical method nor the idea of evolution1 but their false application1 which dissolved anything and everything in growth1 purely natural growth at that1 without acknowledging a revelation of absolute truths4 ,orthodox ,protestants have openly praised this bold deed of the ,pope as highly meritorious for the preservation of the ,christian faith4 ,thus the ,south ,african ,church ,quarterly ,review 7,episcopal7 of ,january1 #aijh1 said3 8,the ,syllabus and ,encyclical of ,pius ,x4 against ,modernism are deserving of the respectful consideration of all ,christians4444 ,at the present stage of history the opposing factors are driving with great speed towards a fierce and resolute struggle between ,christ and anti-,christ4 ,all who sincerely love ,christ1 our ,lord1 must rally under one flag4444 ,narrow-minded hostility towards the ,pope must give way to the desire to be united with the great community which is fighting so valiantly for the old faith of our fathers4444 ,one must be blind1 to misjudge the tremendous influence exerted by the last deed of the ,pope in favour of the faith40 ,even the ,evangelical 8,kirchenzeitung0 admitted that the encyclical is 8directed chiefly against the more or less unchristian modern views of the world 444 which we must combat4444 ,undoubtedly it is not only the ,pope's right to lay bare the unchristian tendency of these ideas and their incompatibility with the ,christian faith1 but it is also his duty and his merit0 7,november #bi1 #aijh1 n4 #dh74 ,puny men1 entangled in the ideas of their time and surroundings1 are easily led to take for their standard the thoughts and actions of their age4 ,they often imagine that they possess not a little strength and independence1 when they are intellectually entirely dependent and unable to rise above their time4 8,it is the fashion1 others think that way1 therefore ,i must think so1 too02 these are often the principles of their wisdom1 and they ask the ,church to do likewise4 ,the ,church1 however1 looks back upon a long history1 and numerous ideas and opinions she has seen arise and vanish4 ,and whoever can look back upon a great experience1 and moreover carries in himself the call to lead the times1 feels no restless impulse to be carried away by changing doctrines4 ,the ,index4 ,whenever the subject of ,rome's enmity to science and progress of culture is discussed1 there invariably appears on the scene1 beside ,syllabus and ,galileo1 also the ,index4 ,the latter is held by many to be ,rome's permanent means of hindering the progress of humanity in general1 and the free scientific activity of the ,catholic in particular1 and to annihilate the freedom of teaching and learning 7,hoensbroech1 ,die ,kath4 theol4 ,fakultaeten1 #aijg1 #dj seq474 ,they say 8the ,congregation of the ,index has no pity nor consideration for the classical works of literature1 and condemns in the name of religion the most admirable products of the human intellect0 7,grande ,dict4 univ4 du ,,xix4 sicle1 ,,ix1 #fdj1 apud ,j4 ,hilgers1 ,der ,index der ,verb4 ,buecher1 #aijd1 #aff2 much of what we shall say on this topic is taken from this work by ,hilgers74 ,this statement again reminds that the accusations against the ,catholic ,church and her institutions are to be considered with caution1 because of the ignorance of her opponents in ,catholic things4 ,this is especially true of the ,index4 ,thus the above assertion is false4 ,dante's 8,divina ,commedia0 7the work referred to7 is neither forbidden nor needs approval nor correction3 of the classical literature of the world little or nothing is forbidden2 even morally offensive books1 that are considered classical1 may without ecclesiastical permission be read for the sake of their elegant diction1 whenever their reading is required by one's work or duty of teaching4 ,a few examples of the incredible ignorance alluded to will suffice4 ,in the 8,grande ,dictionnaire ,universel du ,,xix4 ,sicle0 it is actually stated that the works of ,albert the ,great were condemned by a decree of ,april #aj1 #afff4 ,what does the ,index really forbid8 ,it states3 8,alberto ,magno1 diviso in tre libri1 nel primo si tratta della virtu delle herbe1 nel secondo della virtu delle pietre1 e nel terzo della virtu di alcuni animali4--,albert the ,great1 in three parts3 the first treats of the virtue of plants2 the second1 of the virtue of stones2 and the third1 of the virtue of some animals40 ,it is the title of a little superstitious book1 attributed to 8,albert the ,great0 by an unknown author4 ,the first edition of the ,index of ,leo ,,xiii4 in #aijj was sold out in less than a year2 a second edition followed in #aija1 and1 like the first1 could be had at all booksellers1 at a very moderate price4 ,in ,december1 #aija1 there appeared in the ,anglo-,american weekly1 8,the ,roman ,world10 an article which says that it is difficult to obtain this list of notorious books forbidden to ,catholics1 unless one be a ,church official1 since only a few copies are printed and even these are not handled by general book-dealers2 hence that no details could be given about the purchase of the copy referred to2 but it was quite evident that it had commanded a good price4 8,the copy in question1 a model of fine printing1 might be worth about #dj to #ej1 but owing to its rareness1 it had undoubtedly cost #djj4 ,the history of this famous ,index is interesting4 ,the one who first hit upon the idea was ,charles ,v4 of ,spain1 about #aeej4 ,the first compilation of the book-list was made by the university of ,louvain in #aefd1 ,pope ,paul ,,iv4 assuming the direction of the edition4 ,it remained for #ceg years in the hands of the ,pope40 ,every one of these statements is false4 ,and just as false is the statement that the 8,syllabus condemns not only a book written by a ,pope1 but by ,pope ,leo ,,xiii4 himself40 ,still it could not surprise us1 since even ,david's psalter is on the ,index6 ,when the ,index of ,leo ,,xiii4 was published1 ,dr4 ,max ,claar wrote from ,rome to the 8,neue ,freie ,presse0 of ,vienna3 8,on the old ,index we find among other things the ,psalms of ,king ,david and the ,divina ,commedia of ,dante40 ,we have already stated that the latter was never on the ,index4 ,but how in the world could this man find ,holy ,scripture condemned on the ,index8 ,perhaps he found this passage3 8,il salmista secondo la biblia0 and 8,salmi 7sessanta7 di ,david40 ,the first is a superstitious booklet1 the second is a translation of sixty ,psalms of ,david by the heretic1 ,giovanni ,diodati4 ,the learned doctor in all seriousness mistook them for the ,psalms of ,david 7,hilgers1 #afg1 seq474 ,what then is the ,index1 and how is it to be judged8 ,ever since the ,apostle of the ,nations had at ,ephesus the superstitious books burned under his eyes1 the ,holy ,fathers1 ,bishops1 and ,councils since the first centuries of ,christianity have been careful to keep from the faithful writings hurtful to faith and morals4 ,thus even in the olden time we find several catalogues of forbidden books1 then followed the ,indices of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the year #aega a special ,congregation of ,cardinals was formed1 the 8,congregation of the ,index10 which has ever since had charge of the ecclesiastical book-laws4 ,the last edition of the ,index1 obligatory for the whole ,church1 emanated from ,leo ,,xiii4 ,the title of the work now in force reads1 8,the ,index of ,forbidden ,books1 revised and published by order of and in the name of ,leo ,,xiii4 #aijj40 ,it is divided into two parts4 ,the first and shorter part contains the general book regulations1 giving in short paragraphs the rules on various classes of forbidden books1 the permission required for reading them1 the examination to be made previous to the publication of certain books4 ,the second part enumerates the writings forbidden by special decree--the ,index in the particular sense1 and the part most often considered4 ,but it is second in importance to the first1 because by far not all books dangerous to faith and morals are named in it4 ,most such books are forbidden by the general laws contained in the first part1 without mentioning the many which are forbidden by mere common sense4 ,ecclesiastical legislation on books is composed of two factors3 first1 the previous censorship--certain books must be examined by ecclesiastical authority before their publication4 ,second1 the prohibition of books already published4 ,the previous scrutiny in general is delegated to the ,bishop2 all books dealing with morals and theology must be submitted4 ,the license to print the book is to be given if the book is in accord with the teaching of the ,church1 in so far as determined by ecclesiastical authority1 the decision based on it rests solely with the censor2 if the author of the book should fail to see that the passages objected to need revision he may try to clear himself by stating his reasons2 however1 he is also free to submit his work to another ,bishop and to look for a printer in the latter's diocese4 ,if one looks over the numerous books bearing the ecclesiastical imprimatur1 he will readily notice how much freedom is given1 if the author keeps within the doctrine of the ,church4 ,the condemnation of a book never strikes at the person of the author1 nor at what he has intended to express by the passages objected to2 judgment is passed only upon what is actually expressed in them4 ,hence it is not necessary to give to the author himself a hearing1 or a chance to explain4 ,the reason is that the judgment is rendered on the sense of the passages1 not on the meaning of the author4 ,in general those books and periodicals are forbidden which are likely to do serious damage to faith and morals4 ,the isolated cases of indicting the works of ,catholic authors in the nineteenth century--we may mention ,lamennais1 ,hermes1 ,guenther1 ,loisy1 and ,schell--show that the ,church proceeds but slowly and with consideration against the author involved4 ,to appreciate the ,index properly1 one must try to grasp without prejudice the purpose the ,church has in view4 ,this purpose is to protect the faithful from error and from moral contagion1 and to preserve the faith intact4 8,what is more precious than souls1 what more precious than the faith8 ,but both suffer damage from such reading40 ,such was the judgment of the ,council of ,ephesus when it drew up its book-decrees2 such was the judgment of an ,augustine1 of ,leo the ,great1 and of the ,holy ,fathers2 such is still the judgment of the ,church4 ,books and writings that offend against morals are a menace to her faithful4 ,they become infected with wrong ideas2 they are as a rule not in a position to distinguish by themselves the false from the true1 and for the most part they are not morally strong enough to resist the allurements of error4 ,it may also happen that certain thoughts are true in the abstract1 yet for the time being would be a danger for many4 ,now1 it is the right and duty of any social authority1 beginning with the head of the family and up to the government1 to protect with strong hand the precious possessions of its subjects4 ,the state keeps under control the sale of poison and dynamite1 keeps out contagious diseases from its boundaries--it protects the possessions of its subjects4 ,european states have for centuries claimed the right to censure books1 and have used it much more rigorously than the ,church ever did1 to say nothing of the censures of the ,protestant ,church of former times 7see abundant proof apud ,hilgers1 #bjf-djb74 ,the modern state also1 despite the great freedom granted to the press1 cannot entirely forego its sense of responsibility4 ,it restricts the freedom of the press by censorship1 and by preventive measures often not less drastic than the censure itself1 and it always regards the confiscation of particularly dangerous writings to be a matter of course4 ,it puts under censure school-books1 political posters1 and theatrical plays1 and does not tolerate any socialistic literature in the soldiers' barracks4 ,and do we not take it as a matter of course if a father forbids his child to associate with dangerous playmates1 and takes bad books from its hands8 ,we cannot find fault with the ,church if she seeks to protect her children1 if she represses the promiscuous dissemination of false ideas and doctrines1 and if she takes dangerous books under her control4 8,feed my lambs1 feed my sheep10 was the command given to the ,church4 ,the objection should therefore not be made that 8such precaution is proper when dealing with children but not with men2 especially since the thinking elements among the ,catholics of the ,germanic tongue or origin are too profound and firm in their faith to warrant a fear of the effects of unrestricted free research0 7from the petition of the so-called 8,index-league0 of ,muenster74 ,this perusal may become dangerous even for highly educated men1 else how could ,modernism break so forcefully into the ,church8 ,manifestly only because learned theologians did not possess that firmness of ,catholic faith and ,catholic knowledge which would prevent them from being deceived by the misleading ideas of modern philosophy1 and of the new ,protestant theology4 ,moreover1 all forbidden books may be read upon obtaining the necessary permission4 8,preserve the deposit of faith10 the ,church has been told4 ,she cannot look on silently when her doctrines are being falsified and denied1 when the most venerable sphere of theology is made the stamping ground for immature minds and a laboratory for all kinds of experiments4 ,when ,zola's novel1 8,rome10 had been put on the ,index1 the atheistic literary critic1 ,sarcey1 made the following comment3 8,if my own criticisms of literature are regarded by many people as highest decisions1 why should a positive criticism be looked upon as monstrous just because it comes from the ,pope8 ,it is my aim to guard good taste in literature1 and it is the aim of the ,pope to guard the true faith0 7,allgemeine ,rundschau1 #aijh1 #hbh74 ,every social authority must interfere when its foundations are attacked4 ,a church that tolerates false doctrines cannot be the teacher that ,christ sent to the nations4 ,as a matter of fact the ,index has from the first helped in no small degree to keep the ,catholic doctrine pure1 to induce caution in reading certain authors1 and to keep awake in the faithful that aversion against immoral and irreligious writings which is the characteristic of ,catholics1 and which has rescued the faith for thousands4 ,to judge the ,index fairly one must be convinced that the preservation of true ,christian doctrine is its highest aim4 ,then the zeal of the ,catholic ,church will be intelligible4 ,of course1 he who thinks that the true weal of mankind consists in the speedy emancipation from all ,christian dogma1 he who holds the task of science to be the establishment of a new 8scientific view of the world10 he who no longer knows faith1 will see in the ,index nothing but restraint4 ,but1 whoever is of a different view will not take offence at the restriction of the freedom of writing and reading when it is productive of higher good4 ,freedom of science cannot be unrestricted1 especially in regard to teaching2 the welfare of humanity must be considered4 ,moreover1 the ,index concerns almost exclusively theology and some branches of philosophy1 the rest of the profane sciences but little or not at all2 the scientific works prohibited1 however1 are not removed from scientific perusal3 only permission is necessary1 and this is granted without difficulty and without cost4 ,it is true1 an error on the part of the ,church authorities is not impossible4 ,we know of such a case1 putting on the ,index the writings of ,copernicus1 in #afaf4 ,but just the circumstance that history knows of but one such case of importance is a clear testimony to the ,holy ,ghost's direction of the teaching office even when it is rendering non-infallible decisions4 ,besides1 the damage that might result from a few mistakes would not be so great as the damage resulting if everything were allowed to be written and read4 ,the ,catholic scientist who appreciates the supernatural mission of his ,church will yield to her guidance in humble confidence1 he will practise this submission to the ,church by requesting permission for reading forbidden books1 and by this spirit he will obtain ,god's blessing on his work4 ,in doing so he may recall to mind the edifying words of ,st4 ,francis of ,sales1 in the preface to his treatise on the errors of the ,lutherans and ,calvinists1 where he gives the assurance of having conscientiously asked for and received permission to read their writings4 8,we fervently request our ,catholic readers10 writes the ,saint1 8not to let an evil suspicion against us arise1 as if we had read the forbidden books in spite of the prohibition of holy ,church4 ,we are able to assure them in all truth of having done nothing forbidden to a good ,christian1 and of having taken every precaution due in a matter of so vast importance1 so as not to incur in any way the very just censures of the ,church1 nor in any manner to violate the profound reverence we owe to her40 ,the permission granted him1 dated ,july #af1 #afjh1 is still extant2 likewise one asked by ,st4 ,charles ,borromeo4 ,the ,catholic scientist also will readily ask the ecclesiastical ,imprimatur for certain of his works4 ,if a careful author before publishing a work submits the proofs to a friend of his profession1 taking his comment for a guide1 why should we deem it intellectual bondage if the ,catholic scientist1 in matters of faith and morals1 submits his work to the formal approval of his ,church1 which to him is a higher authority than any other8 and does this willingly1 as in consistency with his ,catholic conviction87#e7 ,via stulti recta in oculis ejus1 qui autem sapiens est audit consilia1 says the ,wise ,man4 ,it is characteristic of the fool to be wise in his own eyes1 and stubbornly to cling to his own judgment2 but the prudent man seeks advice1 and suffers his attention to be called to his mistakes4 ,the believing scientist1 too1 will submit to correction2 should the rare case fall to his lot to have the ,church condemn his work1 he will know how to be generously obedient4 ,splendid examples are blazing the way for him4 8,were we to draw up a list of the scientists1 who1 in a similar critical position as ,fnelon1 found strength in the virtue of obedience1 and on the other hand a list of all those whose subjective scientific views did not allow them to submit1 then we should perceive at a glance that their proud persistence in their own opinion has been injurious to true wisdom in the same degree as humble submission proved a benefit to science0 7,hilgers1 #dab74 ,finally1 he who is convinced that the ,christian faith is the greatest heritance of truth from the past1 which must be preserved in him1 he will take no offence if the ,church is not impressed even by names like ,kant1 ,spinoza1 ,schopenhauer1 ,strauss1 men much featured as the captains of modern science and philosophy4 ,in the eyes of the ,church nothing is genuine and true science that is contrary to the testimony of ,god1 and errors are errors even then when their perpetrator is receiving cheers and applause4 ,just as the state prohibits the physician from designedly assisting any one to commit suicide1 even though the physician be a noted scientist1 just so the ,church opposes any one who assaults ,god's truth1 be he journalist or philosopher4 ,frequently the great number of forbidden books mentioned by the ,index is pointed out4 ,the ,index of #aijj contains about #e1jjj titles belonging to the last three centuries2 of these about #a1cjj belong to the nineteenth century4 ,quite a small number1 considering the immense literature of the world4 ,yet it will look even smaller when compared1 for instance1 with the censure of books by the ,prussian state4 ,in the year #ahde there appeared the following catalogue3 8,index librorum prohibitorum1 ,catalogue of the books forbidden in ,germany during #ahdd-ahde1 first volume40 ,the second volume was issued in #ahdf4 ,the list is not complete3 it does not contain1 for instance1 the names of prohibited newspapers and periodicals4 ,yet it contains #dcg writings1 forbidden by #egj decrees1 i4e41 two or three times as many as the entire number of ,german books of the nineteenth century enumerated by name in the ,roman ,index4 ,the 8,historisch-,politischen ,blaetter0 of #ahdj contain an article beginning thus3 8,veritas odium parit4 ,in ,prussia there are now prohibited nearly all ,catholic journals and periodicals1 and in order to begin the matter ab ovo they have grasped a welcome opportunity to throw interdicts at wholesale against works not yet published1 or to render their circulation difficult to a degree amounting to prohibition40 ,how the ,prussian censorship proceeded in those days may be illustrated by another example4 8,at the time of the ,vatican ,council a publisher1 ,joseph ,bachem1 came to ,dr4 ,westhoff1 rector of the ,seminary of ,cologne1 a man of venerable years1 and told him of his misgivings about the dogma of the infallibility4 ,in his youth he had been taught the maxim that that is ,catholic which has been taught always1 everywhere1 and by everybody2 yet he had until recently never found the doctrine of ,papal ,infallibility taught1 neither in schools nor in text-books4 ,then the reverend old rector took the visitor by the hand and led him into the library of the seminary1 where he showed him not less than sixteen catechisms that had been in use in the ,archdiocese of ,cologne during the eighteenth century1 and which stated without exception1 clearly and convincingly1 the doctrine of ,papal ,infallibility in matters of faith and morals4 ,the publisher in utter astonishment then asked how it was that this doctrine was not taught in later editions4 ,dr4 ,westhoff referred him to the ,prussian censure1 enforced until #ahdh1 which had expunged this doctrine from all ,catholic catechisms4 ,from that moment ,bachem no longer wavered in his opinions0 7,koelnische ,volkszeitung1 ,september #g1 #ahic74 ,one may also remember ,bismarck's press-campaign during the ,kulturkampf4 ,professor ,friedberg1 ,prussian court canonist1 instigated this campaign1 and in many ways devised the plan of attack4 ,this much-praised liberalism--how tyrannically it proceeded against the ,catholic press6 ,the ,frankfurter ,zeitung in those days took a census of convictions due to the press law4 ,according to the census1 which 8does not by far claim to be complete10 there were of newspaper editors sentenced in #ahge--ba in ,january1 #ce in ,february1 #bi in ,march1 #bd in ,april2 in four months #acg newspaper writers were either fined or sent to jail4 ,during the same period #cj newspapers were confiscated 7,staatslexikon1 ,,iv1 #eej74 ,this is not all4 8,we could mention at least three instances10 says ,p4 ,majunke in his ,history of the ,kulturkampf1 8where agents of the ,berlin secret police have succeeded in obtaining a position on the editorial staff of ,catholic papers1 staying for a year or more4 ,besides serving as spies these fellows had to perform the task of agents provocateurs1 viz41 to incite the editors of ,catholic papers to extreme utterances1 similar to the denunciations suggested to correspondents of foreign ,catholic organs for their papers40 ,this happened in a civilized state1 despite its constitutional freedom of the press1 by order of the same liberalism which always pretends to be full of righteous indignation when the ,church prohibits books and puts them on the ,index4 ,towards the end of the last century1 again with the aid of liberalism1 laws against the socialists were drawn up4 ,after they had been passed war was waged against socialistic literature4 ,in the year #ahhf there appeared a real ,index ,librorum ,prohibitorum1 its title read1 8,social ,democratic publications and societies prohibited by the imperial law against the dangerous designs of ,social ,democracy10 which law had then been in force eight years4 ,a supplementary list was published two years later1 in #ahhh4 ,hilgers makes this comment on it3 8,how many additional pamphlets have been condemned in the time from ,march #bh1 #ahhh1 to ,september #cj1 #ahij1 we cannot state40 ,according to the foregoing official statement the average is #acj a year4 ,hence we assume that the printed matter prohibited during the twelve years that the law was in force amounted to between #ae1jjj and #af1jjj4 ,this number of social democratic pamphlets forbidden within twelve years exceeds by far the number of all books prohibited by the ,roman ,index in the course of the entire nineteenth century--books that are the products of all countries in the world and dealing with all branches2 the number of these ,german prohibitions is ten times that of ,roman prohibitions4 ,indeed1 in the course of a year and a half the new ,german ,empire prohibited more writings of ,germans than ,rome had prohibited during the entire past century4 ,we may mention here ,goethe4 ,in the atheism dispute1 at the end of the eighteenth century1 decision was rendered upon ,goethe's advice against the philosopher ,fichte2 ,fichte was discharged in spite of petitions and mediations in his favour4 ,the liberal ,grand ,duke ,karl ,august of ,saxony ,weimar granted in #ahaf1 after the ,french conqueror had been overthrown1 freedom of the press4 ,professor ,oken of ,jena availed himself of this privilege1 and printed in his 8,isis0 contributions complaining about the government4 ,goethe had to advise what should be done against it4 ,he thought that the paper should have been suppressed by the police at its very first announcement2 8the measure neglected at the beginning is to be taken immediately and the paper is to be prohibited4 ,by prohibiting the #8,isis' the trouble will be stopped at once0 7,briefwechsel des ,grossh4 ,karl ,august v4 ,sax4-,weimar-,eisenach mit ,goethe1 ,,ii1 #ahfc1 #ij74 ,and this was done1 in spite of the freedom granted the press4 ,frederick ,,ii4 is called the ,royal ,free-thinker2 and yet the general introduction of the book censure into ,prussia occurred precisely during his reign4 ,the first general censure edict was issued in #agdi and remained in force till the death of the king4 ,all books1 even those printed in foreign tongues1 were subject to the censure4 ,even all episcopal and ,papal proclamations were subjected to the royal censure4 ,that the leaders in the ,reformation and their successors were not prevented by their avowal of the principle of free research from exercising rigorous1 often tyrannical1 censure1 not only against the ,catholics but also against their fellow reformers1 is well known4 ,m4 ,lehmann writes in the ,preuss4 ,jahrb4 #aijb3 8,it claims to be infallible1 this ,papal ,church1 it wants to be to the faithful everything1 in science and even in nationality4 ,it offends every nation4 ,the ,index in the shape given it in #aijj by the present ,pope proscribes the #8,oeuvres du ,philosophe de ,sanssouci1' ,kant's #8,critique of ,pure ,reason1' ,ranke's #8,history of the ,popes1' the greatest ,german king1 the greatest ,german philosopher1 and the greatest ,german historian0 7#aijb1 no4 #h74 ,as to ,frederick ,,ii41 his own works appeared only after his death in #aghh1 and even then only in part2 later on there were other editions4 ,none of these is put on the ,index4 ,on this list we find since #agfj the 8,oeuvres du ,philosophe de ,sanssouci40 ,under this title appeared at first three volumes1 in but a few copies1 intended for the most intimate friends of the king4 ,the first volume he soon withdrew and had it burned of his own accord2 it contained the 8,palladion0 an imitation of ,voltaire's 8,pucelle10 a salacious work throughout4 ,in #agfb a new edition was issued4 ,it also contains a philosophical treatise denying the immortality of the soul2 this treatise was also published separately and specially prohibited in #agfg4 ,a third work put on the ,index is a spurious attack on the ,popes published by order of ,king ,frederick ,,ii41 with a preface by him4 ,its author is said to have been the ,french abb ,jean ,martin ,de ,prades1 reader to the king4 ,these are the indicted works of ,frederick ,,ii41 all written in ,french and in substance ,french ,voltairianism4 ,thus came the greatest ,german king on the ,index6 ,ranke's 8,roemische ,paepste0 is on the ,index1 because the book belittles the constitutions and doctrines of the ,catholic ,church3 not because of the true things the author says about ,popes4 ,von ,pastor's 8,history of the ,popes0 is not on the ,index1 notwithstanding the bitter truths he writes about ,popes ,alexander ,,vi4 and ,leo ,x4 ,he who knows even the fundamental ideas of ,kant's 8,kritik der reinen ,vernunft0 will see that not only the ,catholic ,church1 but every ,christian denomination1 might forfeit its existence if it showed itself indifferent towards it4 ,heresies are especially dangerous to the uneducated when they bear the names of authors of scientific repute4 ,but the ,church willingly grants the permission to read them when there is reason for it4 ,moreover1 it was not ,rome alone that took steps against ,kant4 ,this was done by the ,prussian king ,frederick ,,ii4 also4 ,one may recall his cabinet order1 under minister ,woellner1 against ,kant's 8,religion innerhalb der ,grenzen der blossen ,vernunft40 ,similarly the works of ,spinoza were proceeded against1 whereas his indictment by ,rome now calls forth protest because he has since been assigned a prominent place among philosophers4 ,freudenthal registers a list of #ejj sharp prohibitions issued against ,spinoza's works during the years #aeef-aehj3 they were condemned by the states of ,holland1 by the court1 by synods and magistrates4 ,those judgments were passed during a period when the competent authorities had views different from those of to-day2 when the state deemed it its duty to oppose the undermining of ,christianity4 ,the state's judgment has changed in many ways1 ,rome's judgment has remained the same4 ,but the works of ,kant and ,spinoza likewise have remained the same1 and so is ,christianity1 against which they occupy an irreconcilable position1 still the same4 8,in the moral world nothing can support that cannot also resist0 is a truthful saying of ,treitschke3 it is also the principle of the ,catholic ,church4 ,without ever surrendering to the unchristian tendency of a time1 she opposes error with unsubdued courage4 ,if this be intolerance1 it is not intolerance towards erring men but towards their errors1 it is the intolerance that the gardener shows in uprooting harmful weeds1 it is the intolerance of the physician towards disease4 ,obedience to the ,index makes high moral demands upon the ,catholic4 ,but it has been characteristic of the ,christian religion and of its faithful children never to shrink before any moral action where it appeared demanded4 ,and if the preservation of moral purity exacts conscientious discipline1 this is also true of the preservation of the pure faith1 especially at a time when a neo-paganism in league with an uncontrolled mania for reading is threatening in many forms4 ,galileo1 and ,other ,topics4 ,galileo ,galilei--but few names have achieved equal fame4 ,men like ,alexander and ,csar1 like ,homer and ,dante1 have scarcely succeeded in writing their names with a sharper pencil on the tablet of history than the astronomer of ,pisa4 ,his grand discoveries in natural science have done little to crown his temples with the wreath of immortality--it was the fate of his life that did it4 ,and one may add3 if this fate had been caused by the ,french government1 or by a ,protestant ,general ,assembly1 he would never have obtained his position in history2 but since this lot came to him by the human limitation of a ,roman ,church authority1 his name is not only entered on the calendar of the anti-,roman journalist1 it also stands surrounded with the halo of a ,martyr in the esteem of serious scientists1 who see in ,galileo and in the consequent condemnation of the ,copernican system the proof that dogma and science cannot agree1 that the ,catholic ,church assumes a hostile attitude toward science4 ,whenever this theme is mentioned1 ,galileo's ghost is paraded4 ,for this reason we cannot pass by this fact of history4 ,to a son of the ,church they are unpleasant recollections1 but this shall not keep us from looking history firmly in the eye4 ,there are some other charges brought forth from history1 but the ,galileo case overshadows them all4 ,we shall touch upon them but briefly1 and then return to ,galileo4 ,attention is called to the ,church's condemnation of the doctrine of ,antipodes4 ,the ,priest ,vigilius was accused in ,rome1 in #gdg1 of having taught that there exists another world under the earth1 and other people also1 or another sun and moon 7quod alius mundus et alii homines sub terra sint seu sol et luna74 ,such was his doctrine as stated by ,pope ,zacharias in his reply to ,boniface1 the ,apostle of ,germany1 in which he said that he had cited ,vigilius to ,rome in order that his doctrine be thoroughly investigated3 if it should turn out that this had really been taught by him1 he would be condemned4 ,further particulars of his teaching are unknown1 because it is mentioned only in the above passage4 ,the assertion ascribed to him is that there is another world besides this one1 with other inhabitants and with another sun and moon--an assertion scientifically absurd and dogmatically inadmissible1 as this might call in question the common descent of mankind from one pair of parents4 ,the anxiety and rebuke of the ,pope is directed solely against the latter point4 ,the condemnation of ,vigilius has never taken place1 for he remained in his office1 won great respect1 was elevated to the bishopric of ,salzburg1 and later canonized by ,gregory ,,ix4 ,had a condemnation of his particular doctrine taken place1 this would not have involved the condemnation of the antipodean theory1 in the sense that the side of the globe opposite to us is also inhabited by human beings1 a proposition which does not conflict with any doctrine of faith4 ,the doctrine described above has another tendency4 ,the entire case is hidden in obscurity 7,hefele1 ,conc4 ,gesch41 #b;d ed41 ,,iii1 #eeg seq474 ,furthermore1 it has been said that at the time when the universities were in close union with the ,church1 medical science could not advance because the ,church had prohibited human anatomy 7,prof4 ,j4 ,h4 van't ,hoff1 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 ,december #bi1 #aijg74 ,in amplification it was said3 8,boniface ,,viii4 had forbidden every anatomical dissection of a body0 7,o4 ,zoeckler1 ,theologie und ,naturwissenschaft1 #ahgg1 ,i1 #cdb74 ,what is true of this assertion8 ,in the first place1 ,boniface ,,viii4 did not forbid anatomy4 ,he merely prohibited in #abii and #acjj the hideous custom then prevailing regarding the bodies of noblemen who had died away from home3 they were disembowelled1 dissected1 and boiled1 for the purpose of removing the flesh from the bones so that the latter could be transported the more easily4 ,this process had nothing to do with anatomy4 ,the wish to possess the bones of the dead did not seem to the ,pope a sufficient reason for treating the human body in such a way 7,cfr4 ,michael1 ,gesch4 des deutschen ,volkes ,,iii1 #aijc1 #dcc74 ,nor does history know of any other prohibition of anatomy by the ,church4 ,it tells us1 however1 that ,frederick ,,ii4 in his excellent rules for the benefit of his ,sicilian kingdom in the regulation of medical science among other things emphasizes the study of surgery3 he ordered that no one be allowed to practise surgery who could not show by attestation of his professors that he had studied surgery for at least one year1 especially that he had learned at school how to dissect bodies2 a physician must be perfect in anatomy1 else he may not undertake operations 7,michael1 l4 c4 #dcj74 ,this was done and practised under the eyes of the ,church4 ,the accusers also seem ignorant of the fact that bodies of those executed were given to universities for dissection4 ,in the year #accf the medical students of ,montpellier1 the famous medical school under the immediate direction of the ,church 7see above1 page #aed7 were granted the privilege of obtaining once a year an executed criminal's body for dissection4 ,the same privilege was extended to the medical students of ,lerida by ,king ,juan ,i4 on ,june #c1 #acia1 who decreed that the delinquent should be drowned pro speriencia seu anatomia fienda 7,denifle1 ,die ,universitaeten des ,mittelalters1 ,i1 #ahhe1 #ejg74 ,the story is also circulated that the fourth ,lateran ,council in #abae prohibited monks from studying natural sciences and medicine 7,deutschoester4 ,lehrerzeitung #aeth ,dec41 #aiji74 ,it will suffice to quote this particular decree of the ,lateran ,council3 8,no clergyman is allowed to pronounce capital sentence1 nor to execute it1 nor to be present at its execution4 ,no clergyman is allowed to draw up a document concerning a death sentence3 at the courts this should be done by laymen4 ,no clergyman is allowed to assume command of ,rotarians 7freebooters71 of archers or any others who shed human blood2 no subdeacon1 deacon1 or priest is allowed to practise that part of surgery by which cutting and burning is done1 nor must any one pronounce a benediction at an ordeal0 7,hefele1 ,koncil4 ,gesch41 #b;d ed41 ,v1 #ahhg1 #hhg74 ,this will thoroughly dispose of that charge4 ,just as briefly may we settle the story of ,columbus having been excommunicated because of his intention to discover new lands4 ,it is said that the 8,spanish clergy denounced his plans as against the faith1 and that the ,council of ,salamanca excommunicated him0 7,w4 ,draper1 ibid4 #afc74 ,this is a fairy tale4 ,the truth is1 that ,king ,ferdinand and ,queen ,isabella referred the plans of the bold ,genoese to a council of scientists and ecclesiastical dignitaries1 which was held in the ,dominican ,monastery of ,salamanca1 ,columbus being present4 ,there never was a ,council of ,salamanca4 ,weiss writes in his 8,history of the ,world03 8,much has been surmised concerning the objections and their refutation4 ,it is only certain that the majority rejected the plan as impossible of execution1 and that ,columbus won over a minority of them1 especially the priests1 among whom the learned ,dominican ,deza deserves mention0 7,weltgesch4 ,,vii1 #ahg74 ,denthofen1 in his biography of ,columbus1 says3 8,the ,dominican ,fathers supported him during the long time the conference lasted1 and even defrayed the expenses of his journey4 ,father ,diego de ,deza1 chief professor of theology1 was convinced by the reasons of ,columbus1 and in turn convinced the more learned of his confrres4 ,the majority1 however1 thought the idea but a phantom1 while others deemed it impracticable4 ,the conference adjourned without coming to any definite decision0 7,christof ,columbus1 ,eine biographische ,skizze 4441 #ahgh1 #ba74 ,columbus found his warmest friend in the learned ,father ,juan ,perez1 ,guardian of the ,franciscan ,monastery of ,st4 ,maria de la ,rabida4 ,within the quiet walls of this cloister ,columbus' plans were disclosed for the first time in ,spain1 and admired and resolved upon4 ,perez spoke untiringly to ,isabella in favour of the plan1 and even aided ,columbus in gathering men for his crew4 ,this is the fact about the anathema the ,church is paid to have pronounced on ,columbus4 ,but let us return to ,galileo47#f7 ,galileo ,galilei1 the great ,italian physicist1 was born in #aefd1 at ,pisa4 ,at first he was professor in his native town1 then at ,padua1 where he taught the doctrine of ,ptolemy1 although at that time there was no obstacle to accepting the ,copernican system4 ,in #afaa he became mathematician at the court of ,cosimo ,,ii4 at ,florence4 ,his talents and happy discoveries soon won fame4 ,in general he was more of a physicist than an astronomer2 his astronomical discoveries were1 almost without exception1 of a kind that did not presuppose a thorough astronomical training4 ,as is known1 he was not the original inventor of the telescope1 though with its aid he achieved some of the most important of his discoveries2 for instance1 that of the satellites of ,jupiter4 ,the telescope was invented in ,holland4 ,when he went to ,rome1 in #afaa1 he was received with great honour4 ,in one of his letters from there he wrote3 8,i have received marked favours from many ,cardinals and prelates here1 and from several princes4 ,they wanted to hear of my inventions1 and were all well pleased40 ,the ,jesuits gave a special reception in his honour at the ,roman ,college4 ,this shows in what esteem science was then held at ,rome4 ,but five years later ,galileo returned to the ,eternal ,city under quite different circumstances4 ,what had happened8 ,in #afab he had issued a treatise on 8,the ,history and ,explanation of the ,sun-spots10 in which he declared unreservedly for the ,copernican system4 ,and this caused the change4 ,true1 ,copernicus himself was a ,catholic ,priest1 and had dedicated his principal work to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 ,but it was generally supposed that he had brought forward the doctrine only as an hypothesis1 only to illustrate and facilitate calculations1 not claiming for it absolute certainty4 ,this assumption was based on the preface of the first edition of his book1 containing assurance to that effect4 ,that preface1 however1 was not the work of ,copernicus1 but had been smuggled into the book by the ,protestant publisher ,osiander1 without the author's knowledge1 because ,osiander feared his own church authorities4 ,galileo spoke in quite another tone4 ,he defended the doctrine as true4 ,he soon aroused opposition4 ,men standing for the geocentric theory were opposed by others1 siding with ,galileo for the solar system1 such as the learned ,benedictine1 ,castelli4 ,galileo's great bitterness and sarcasm in dealing with his opponents aggravated the quarrel with the 8partisans of ,aristotle40 ,extreme irritability and love of praise were prominent traits of ,galileo's character4 ,it was the custom of that time to bring ,scripture into controversies about nature4 ,this was done also in ,galileo's case4 ,passages were quoted against him1 referring to the 8rising and setting sun10 to the 8earth that never moves10 of ,joshua's 8commanding the sun to stand still40 ,this prompted ,galileo to cross over into the field of theology himself4 ,in a letter to ,castelli in #afac he says3 8,holy ,writ can never lie nor err2 on the contrary1 its sayings are absolute and incontestable truth2 but its interpreters are liable to err in various ways1 and it is a fatal and very common mistake to stop always at the literal sense0 7,kepler1 even prior to ,galileo1 had interpreted the respective passages of the ,scriptures properly and with surprising skill2 especially in his introduction to his 8,astronomia nova40 ,cfr4 ,anschuetz1 ,johannes ,kepler als ,exeget4 ,zeitschrift fr katholische ,theologie1 ,,xi1 #ahhg1 #a-bd74 ,correct as these arguments were1 it was nevertheless imprudent for the court mathematician to trespass upon grounds regarded by theologians as their own1 instead of furnishing natural scientific proofs4 ,thus the matter was brought to ,rome before the ,congregation of the ,inquisition4 ,galileo1 worrying about his case1 went voluntarily to ,rome1 in #afae4 ,he failed to assuage the opposition against his theory1 though he says he was received favourably by the princes of the ,church4 ,moreover1 heedless of the admonition of his friends1 he pursued the matter with indiscreet zeal1 with vehemence and impetuosity1 practically provoking a decision4 ,cardinal ,bellarmin opposed the haste with which the matter was being pressed2 the ,jesuit ,grienberger thought that ,galileo should first set forth his proofs1 and then speak about the ,scriptures4 ,had scientific proofs been brought forth1 theological difficulties would have been easily cleared away2 but scientific proof was lacking1 and what there perhaps was of it1 ,galileo failed to offer4 ,the right of the ,congregation to take up the matter can hardly be denied1 for although the matter was one of natural sciences1 yet1 by introducing theology and ,scripture1 it had assumed the character of theology and exegesis4 ,galileo personally was dealt with very leniently4 ,during the discussions of #afaf he was never cited before the bar of the ,inquisition1 nor was his exterior freedom in any way restricted4 ,only one thing was done3 he was cautioned by ,cardinal ,bellarmin1 8by order of the ,holy ,congregation10 not to adhere to1 nor teach any longer1 the ,copernican theory4 ,the documents of the case say that 8,galileo submitted to this order and promised to obey40 ,the ,congregation of the ,index prohibited1 ,march #e1 #afaf1 all books defending the ,copernican theory1 declaring the doctrine to be against ,holy ,scripture4 ,even the work of ,copernicus was prohibited donec corrigatur--until it be corrected4 ,a decision of the year #afbj declared which passages should be corrected4 ,they are those in which the author speaks of his theory not as an hypothesis but as of an established truth3 non ex hypothesi1 sed asserando4 ,the ,protestant ,kepler1 upon hearing this1 wrote3 8,by their imprudent acts some have caused the work of ,copernicus to be condemned1 after it had been left unmolested for nearly eighty years2 and the prohibition will last at least till the corrections are made4 ,i have been assured1 however1 by competent authority1 both ecclesiastical and civil1 that the decree was not intended to put any hindrance in the way of astronomical research0 7,a4 ,mueller1 ,j4 ,kepler1 #aijc1 #aje74 ,the reproach of imprudence was intended for ,galileo4 ,to teach the doctrine as an hypothesis was permitted even to ,galileo1 and this left the way clear for the development of the hypothesis1 because whatever showed the usefulness of the hypothesis was sure to increase its value as a truth1 but ,galileo would not keep within these limits4 ,instead of showing in a ,christian spirit a submission to ,providence1 which even an erring authority may demand1 he openly violated his promise and disobeyed the command he had received4 ,in the spring of #afcb there appeared at ,florence his 8,dialogue on the two most important systems of the world40 ,it contained an open1 though by no means victorious1 defence of the ,copernican system--seeking to hide under a confidence-inspiring mask4 ,it contained many passages of caustic sarcasm1 with the evident intention of arousing public opinion against the attitude of the ,roman ,congregations4 ,it was a flagrant violation of the command given him personally4 ,the ,pope under whom the proceedings against ,galileo took place was ,urban ,,viii41 who1 when a ,cardinal1 had followed ,galileo's discoveries with enthusiasm1 though never partial to the system of ,copernicus1 and1 in accord with the custom of the age1 he had written an ode to ,galileo4 ,cited to ,rome1 ,galileo came only after repeated urging1 on ,february #ad1 #afcc4 ,the story of his having been imprisoned and tortured on this second visit to ,rome is false4 ,galileo wrote on ,april #af of that year3 8,i live in an apartment of three rooms1 belonging to the ,fiscal of the ,inquisition1 and am free to move in many rooms4 ,my health is good40 ,this stay in the apartment belonging to the ,inquisition lasted but twenty-two days2 after that ,galileo was allowed to live in the palace of the ,ambassador of ,tuscany4 ,during his whole life ,galileo was never even for an hour in a real prison4 ,galileo's demeanour before the ,inquisition bespeaks little truthfulness and manliness4 ,it makes a painful impression4 ,many other events in his life cast dark shades of insincerity upon his character1 especially his relations with ,kepler4 ,while in his dialogue he openly defended the truth of the ,copernican system1 while he had written1 time and again1 that the theory had been demonstrated by 8forceful1 convincing arguments10 whereas nothing but insignificant reasons could be pleaded for the contrary1 he now assumes the attitude before the ,inquisition of denying that he had championed that theory1 at least not consciously2 that he had never taught that doctrine otherwise than hypothetically4 ,and this he asserts although he had taken the oath to say nothing but the truth4 ,we even hear him declare that he considers the doctrine to be false1 and that he was ready to refute it at once4 ,the judges were convinced of the untruthfulness of the defendant4 ,in those times1 in order to obtain further confessions1 especially when the accused had been previously convicted of guilt1 torture was resorted to4 ,this regrettable practice was then in vogue at every ,european court2 the ,inquisition1 too1 had adopted it1 but strict rules were laid down to guard against abuses4 ,very old persons were exempt from the rack2 they were only threatened with it4 ,this happened also in ,galileo's case1 he was never actually put on the rack4 ,moreover1 one can safely presume that this threat did not terrify him much4 ,his reading must have enlightened him on this point1 and even without it he must have known the practice by his active intercourse with those theologians of the ,curia who were friendly to him4 ,in fact1 he clung obstinately to his denial1 to the very end of the hearing1 although it must be surmised that he would not have aggravated his case by confession4 ,the commissioner of ,inquisition1 ,macolano1 at the first stages of the trial had expressed his hope that in this event 8it would be possible to show indulgence to the guilty1 and whatever the result might be1 he would realize the benefit received1 apart from all other consequences to be expected from a desired mutual satisfaction0 7,letter to ,cardinal ,fr4 ,barberini1 ,april #bh1 #afcc74 ,on ,june #bb the final verdict was rendered3 it told the defendant3 8,thou art convicted by the ,holy ,congregation of being suspected of heresy1 to wit1 to have held for true1 and believed in1 a false theory1 contrary to ,holy ,writ--which makes the sun the centre of the orbit of the earth1 without moving from east to west1 and which lets the earth1 on the other hand1 move outside the centre of the world1 and to have believed that an opinion may be considered probable and be defended1 though it had been expressly declared to be contrary to the ,scripture40 ,galileo was declared suspect of heresy1 because1 in the opinion of the judges1 he had assumed that a doctrine in contradiction to the ,scriptures might be defended4 ,galileo retracted by oath4 ,that upon retraction he arose and exclaimed1 stamping with his foot1 8,pur si muove60 78and yet it does move607 is a fable4 ,he was sentenced to be jailed in the ,holy ,office4 ,but already the next day he was allowed to go to the palace of the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany and to consider that palace his prison4 ,soon after he departed for ,siena1 8in the best of health10 according to the report of the ,tuscan ambassador1 ,niccolini1 and there took up his abode with his friend the ,archbishop ,piccolomini4 ,after a lapse of five months he was allowed to return to his villa at ,arcetri1 near ,florence1 where he remained1 with the exception of occasional visits to ,florence1 till his death4 ,two of his daughters were nuns in the nearby cloister of ,s4 ,matteo4 ,his literary activity was not suppressed by the surveillance of the ,inquisition4 ,his lively and fertile mind1 cut off from polemics1 turned to the completion of his researches in other directions4 ,his lively intercourse with friends and disciples1 of whom many belonged to various ,orders1 proved beneficial to him4 ,in the year #afch he published his 8,dialogue on the ,new ,sciences10 which he rightly pronounced to be his best effort1 and by which he became the founder of dynamics4 ,his productiveness continued until he became blind4 ,we may say without fear of contradiction that1 apart from their theoretical error1 the ,roman ,congregations had shown the greatest indulgence towards one guilty of having broken his pledge1 and doubtless they would have been still more lenient had ,galileo1 confirmed by flattering friends in his anger at the supposed intrigues of his enemies1 not himself made this impossible2 if he had not continued to propagate secretly his views1 verbally and in writing1 which was bound to be discovered4 ,considering all this1 ,rome's proceeding in the case appears to be quite indulgent4 ,here the position was taken that the spread of the doctrine would mean an imminent danger to the purity of the faith4 ,the unfortunate scientist died on ,january #h1 #afdb1 at the age of seventy-eight years1 fortified by the holy ,sacraments4 ,urban ,,viii4 sent him his blessing4 ,undoubtedly ,galileo had nothing in common with the champions of that unbelieving freedom of science1 which now tries to lift him upon its shield2 notwithstanding his later bitterness he remained to his death steadfast in his ,catholic faith4 ,comments on the ,galileo ,case4 ,the above is a brief history of ,galileo's conviction1 and of the occurrences leading to it4 ,an event regrettable to all1 a stumbling-block for not a few2 for others a welcome event to make the ,church appear in the light of an enemy of science4 ,let us now give more particulars of the merits of the case4 ,we have before us two decisions of ,roman ,tribunals3 the ,index decree of #afaf1 announcing the rejection of the ,copernican doctrine and prohibiting books maintaining it1 and the conviction of ,galileo in #afcc by the ,congregation of the ,inquisition4 ,it is freely admitted that these ,roman ,tribunals committed an error in advocating an interpretation of the ,bible which was false in itself1 and is to-day recognized as false4 ,well1 does this confute the infallibility of the ,church8 ,it does not4 ,the matter in point is merely an error of the ,congregations1 of bodies of ,cardinals1 who were responsible for the transactions and decisions4 ,the ,congregations1 however1 are not infallible organs4 ,there is no ,bull or ,papal decree designating the ,copernican doctrine as false1 much less is there extant a decision ex cathedra4 ,neither in #afaf nor in #afcc1 nor at any other time1 has the ,holy ,see ever manifested its intention of declaring1 by a peremptory1 dogmatic decision1 the new system to be against ,scripture4 ,it was thus the general understanding of that age that in the present case there was no irrevocable dogmatic decision given4 ,for instance1 the ,jesuit ,riccioli1 wrote not long after the decision3 8,inasmuch as no dogmatic decision was rendered in this case1 neither on the part of the ,pope nor on the part of a ,council ruled by the ,pope and acknowledged by him1 it is not made1 by virtue of that decree of the ,congregation1 a doctrine of faith that the sun is moving and the earth standing still1 but at most it is a doctrine for those who by reason of ,holy ,writ seem to be morally certain that ,god has so revealed it4 ,yet every ,catholic is bound by virtue of obedience to conform to the decree of the ,congregation1 or at least not to teach what is directly opposed to it0 7,almagestum novum1 #afea1 #afb74 ,descartes1 ,gassendi1 and others of that time expressed themselves similarly 7,grisar1 #afe1 seq474 ,there is an interesting letter of the ,protestant philosopher ,leibnitz1 written to the ,landgrave ,ernest of ,hessia1 #afhh1 begging him to work for the repeal of the condemnation of the ,copernican theory1 because of the growing verification of this theory3 8,if the ,congregation would change its censure1 or mitigate it1 as one issued hastily at a time when the proofs for the correctness of the ,copernican theory were not yet clear enough1 this step could not detract from the authority of the ,congregation1 much less of the ,church1 because the ,pope had no part in it4 ,there is no judicial authority which has not at times reformed its own decisions40 ,but have we here not at least a wilful attack on science8 or a manifestation of the ,congregation's narrow-mindedness and ignorance1 which are bound to deprive it of all respect and confidence of sober-minded people8 ,this harsh judgment overlooks two points4 ,in the first place1 the error of the judges was quite pardonable4 ,could the liberal critics of to-day1 who so harshly denounce the ,cardinals of the ,congregation1 be suddenly changed into ecclesiastical prelates1 and transferred back to the years of #afaf-afcc1 and placed in the chairs of the tribunal which had to decide those delicate questions1 it may be feared that1 did they carry into the decision but a part of the animosity they now show1 they would disgrace themselves and compromise the ,church even more than the judges of ,galileo did4 ,it is true that were we to judge the handling of the question by the knowledge of to-day1 we might be astonished at the narrow-mindedness of the judges1 trying to uphold their untenable views against the established results of scientific research4 ,but it would be altogether unhistorical to look at the matter in that way4 ,when the ,copernican theory entered upon the battlefield1 it was by no means certain and demonstrated4 ,the real arguments for the rotation of the earth were not then known4 ,there were no direct proofs for the progressive revolution of the earth around the sun4 ,galileo advanced three main arguments for his theory4 ,first1 he advanced the argument from the phenomenon of the tides1 which1 he said1 could not be accounted for but by the rotation of the earth3 an argument rejected as futile even at that time4 ,next he argued from certain observations of the spots on the sun3 another worthless argument1 which others1 like ,scheiner1 looked upon as proof of the older theory4 ,the third argument was that the new theory simplified the explanation of certain celestial phenomena2 but the scope of this argument1 valid though it was in the abstract1 could not be expressed or grasped at the time1 especially since the corrections of ,tycho de ,brahe had removed the greatest objections to the ,ptolemaic system4 ,the ,copernican theory could not be considered certain till the end of the seventeenth century1 after ,newton's work on gravitation4 ,then there were difficulties1 the greatest of which was probably the old idea of inertia1 which at that time meant only that all bodies tend to a state of rest2 hence it seemed impossible that the earth could ceaselessly execute two movements at the same time1 around the sun and around its own axis4 ,this notion of inertia had not been doubted in #afaf2 even ,kepler adhered to it4 ,later on ,galileo came very near to the new idea of inertia3 that bodies tended to retain their state of repose or motion4 ,but this new notion1 like everything else new1 gained ground but slowly4 ,then it was only with great difficulty that he could dispose of the objection that were the earth to speed through space1 as the new theory claimed1 the atmosphere would take a stormlike motion4 ,lastly1 the philosophical objection had to be met3 the sun and other celestial bodies1 as far as we can know by observation1 are moving2 if they do not move1 then we must admit that we can know nothing by observation4 ,thus the new doctrine was not at all proven at that time1 as could be easily shown by its opponents2 although it cannot be denied that they did not always enter into the discussion with impartiality4 ,the astronomer1 ,secchi1 testifies that 8none of the real arguments for the rotary motion of the earth was known at ,galileo's time1 also direct proofs for the progressive movement of the earth around the sun were lacking at that time0 7,grisar1 #cj74 ,another famous astronomer1 ,schiaparelli1 writes3 8,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the ,ptolemaic as well as the ,copernican system could serve for the description of phenomena2 geometrically they were equivalent to each other and to ,tycho's eclectic system0 7,schiaparelli1 ,die ,vorlufer des ,copernicus im ,altertum 7,german1 #ahgf71 #hf74 ,hence no direct evidence could be pleaded against the decision of the ,congregation1 not even ,galileo had that evidence4 ,at any rate no judge who observed his demeanour at the trial could have suspected ,galileo of coming in conflict with his conscience by swearing off the theory4 ,for this reason it would be wrong to call ,galileo a martyr for science1 because he did not suffer any martyrdom4 ,he has seen neither rack nor prison4 ,but he was not a martyr chiefly for the reason that he could not have had any scientific conviction1 apart from the fact that he did not claim any such conviction1 even denied it expressly4 ,no wonder1 then1 that the heliocentric system had considerable opponents at that time2 no wonder the opposite view was even the prevalent one4 ,a4 ,tanner wrote in #afbf3 8,ita habet communis ac certa omnium theologorum ac philosophorum naturalium sentia0 7,theol4 ,schol4 ,i1 disp4 #f1 q4 #d41 dub4 #c74 ,had valid argument been brought forth there never would have been a ,galileo case4 ,in this respect a passage from a letter of ,bellarmin deserves attention3 8,if it could be really demonstrated that the sun be in the centre of the world 444 then we would have to proceed quite cautiously in explaining the apparently opposite passages in the ,scriptures1 we would rather have to say that we do not understand them1 than to say of things demonstrated that they are false0 7to ,foscarini1 ,april #ab1 #afae74 ,the ,cardinals of that time could not be expected to anticipate the knowledge of a later period4 ,they had to consult the judgment of their contemporaneous savants4 ,when seeing the majority of them sharply rejecting the new theory and refuting the arguments of their opponents1 it is little wonder that the ,cardinals could not overcome their theological scruples4 ,the scruples arose from the opinion1 then prevalent1 that the ,holy ,scripture taught that the earth stood still and the sun moved2 that the words of the ,scripture must be taken literally till the contrary is demonstrated4 ,the unanimous explanation of the ,christian centuries was also cited4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 the ,christian past had not taught this to be the only true sense of the words1 but at that time the words were understood that way1 because no one could arrive at any other sense in those days4 ,under these circumstances1 an error was hardly avoidable1 if a decision was required4 ,and a decision seemed to be urgent1 and this is the second point we must not overlook1 if we wish to judge fairly4 ,it was a time eager for innovations1 full of anti-religious ideas4 ,a renaissance1 sidling off into false humanism1 was combating religious convictions1 false notions were invading philosophy2 in addition1 ,protestantism was trying to invade ,italy4 ,all this caused suspicion of any innovation apt to endanger the faith2 interpretations of the ,scriptures deviating from the accustomed sense were particularly distrusted4 ,the ,galileo quarrel happened at an inopportune time4 ,indeed a sudden spread of the ,copernican theory might have been accompanied by great religious dangers4 ,even now1 after nearly three hundred years1 the leaders of the anti-,christian propaganda are still pointing out that the progress of natural science has proved ,holy ,scripture to be erroneous1 and many are impressed by the argument2 many thousands would have been confused in those days by the sudden collapse of old astronomical views that were connected with unclarified religious ideas--dreading that victorious science might shatter all religious traditions4 ,now1 if one is convinced that the damage to religion is to be estimated greater than any other1 then one may also have the conviction that it was better for the nations of the new era to have their scientific progress a little delayed1 than to have their most sacred possession endangered4 ,of course considerations of this kind will have no weight with representatives of the naturalistic view of the world4 ,then it can only be emphasized that a science that has no appreciation of the supernatural character of the ,catholic ,church cannot be in a position to render a fair judgment on many facts in the history of that ,church4 ,what we have said shows sufficiently that the condemnation of ,galileo was not due to any hostility to science4 ,the idea that the ,church's attitude towards ,galileo and the ,copernican theory was a result of her antipathy to science is entirely in contradiction with the character of that strenuous period4 ,in ,catholic countries1 especially in ,italy1 intellectual life was zealously promoted by the ,popes and their influence4 ,it was developing and flourishing even in the natural sciences4 ,when reading the correspondence of ,galileo one must be surprised to see how popular astronomical1 physical1 and mathematical studies were in the educated circles of the period4 ,these studies belonged to the curriculum of a general philosophical education1 and it was a matter of honour for many ecclesiastical dignitaries to remain philosophers in that sense1 notwithstanding their official duties4 ,we recall to mind the scientific discussion carried on with ,galileo in ,rome in #afaa and #afaf1 by ,cardinals ,del ,monte1 ,farnese1 ,bonzi1 ,bemerio1 ,orsini1 and ,maffeo ,baberini1 and by clergymen like ,agucchi1 ,dini1 and ,campioli4 ,similarly in ,france we meet with names like ,mersenne1 ,gassendi1 and ,descartes4 ,and in ,italy1 after ,galileo and at his time1 we meet with a long list of eminent naturalists like ,toricelli1 ,cassini1 ,riccioli1 and others4 ,in #affg ,gemiani ,montanari could write that in ,italy there were continually forming new societies of scientists4 ,the advance in knowledge of truth was made on safe grounds2 at ,naples1 ,rome1 and elsewhere science was enriched by a great variety of new experiences1 inasmuch as the scientists were making progress in the observation and the investigation of nature4 ,targioni-,tozzetti writes3 8,astronomy with us1 about the middle of the sixteenth century1 was a very diligently cultivated branch of science0 7,galileistudien 7#ahhb7 #cch f474 ,the ,church was by no means hostile to this newly awakened life1 not even holding aloof from it2 on the contrary1 it flourished especially in ecclesiastical circles2 a proof that narrow-minded disappreciation of natural science did not prevail1 and that there was a different explanation for the ,galileo case4 ,copernicus on the ,index till #ahce4 ,and what of the fact that ,copernicus remained on the ,index until the nineteenth century8 ,does it not show a rigid adherence to old1 traditional method and opposition to progress8 ,the fact is true3 ,the work of ,copernicus1 and other ,copernican writings1 remained on the ,index until #ahce4 ,but it is also true that a great deal connected with this fact is not generally known or ignored4 ,let us mention here some of these facts4 ,to begin with1 it must not be forgotten that we owe the new world system1 and with it the turning-point in astronomy1 first of all to representatives of the ,catholic clergy4 ,after the learned ,bishop ,nicholas ,oresme had expressed with fullest certainty the most important point of the ,copernican system as early as #acgg 7in a manuscript hitherto unknown1 discovered a short time ago by ,pierre ,duhem in the ,national ,library at ,paris4 ,cfr4 ,liter4 ,zentralblatt 7#aiji71 page #afah71 and after the learned ,cardinal ,nicholaus von ,kues 7d4 #adgd7 adopted a rotary motion of the earth in his cosmic system1 it was ,copernicus1 a canon of the diocese of ,ermland1 who became the father of the new theory1 in his work 8,de evolutionibus orbium coelestium40 ,he published it at the urgent request of ,cardinal ,nikolaus ,schoenberg4 ,but the most zealous promoter of his work was ,bishop ,tiedemann ,giese of ,kulm4 ,enthusiastic over the novel idea1 he incessantly urged his friend to publish his work1 took care of its publication1 and sent a copy to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 who accepted its dedication4 ,again1 it was a prince of the ,church1 ,bishop ,martin ,kromer1 who1 in #ahea1 dedicated a tablet in the cathedral at ,frauenberg to 8,the ,great ,astronomer and ,innovator of ,astronomical ,science40 ,all these men knew that ,copernicus defended his work not as an hypothesis or as fiction1 but as true4 ,before ,copernicus issued his great work1 ,clement ,,viii4 showed a lively interest in his system and had it explained to him by the learned ,johann ,widmannstadt in the ,vatican ,gardens 7,pastor1 ,gesch4 der ,ppste1 ,,iv1 #b 7#aijg7 #eej74 ,the first attack against the new system1 as being contrary to ,holy ,writ1 came not from ,catholic but from ,protestant circles4 ,among the latter the opposition against ,copernicus was being agitated1 while peaceful calm reigned among the former4 ,twelve ,popes succeeded ,paul ,,iii41 and not one interfered with this doctrine4 ,luther1 even in ,copernicus' time1 hurled his anathema against the 8,frauenberg ,fool10 and six years after the publication of ,copernicus' chief work1 ,melanchthon declared it a sin and a scandal to publish such nonsensical opinions1 contrary to the divine testimony of the ,scriptures4 ,in fear of his religious community the ,protestant publisher ,osiander smuggled in the spurious preface already mentioned1 8,on the hypothesis of this work40 ,the ,protestant ,rheticus1 a friend and pupil of ,copernicus1 got into disfavour with ,melanchthon and had to discontinue his lectures at ,wittenberg4 ,the genial ,kepler1 finally1 was prosecuted by his own congregation1 because of his defence of the theory4 ,and when on the ,catholic side the ,index decree of #afaf was already beginning to be regarded as obsolete1 ,protestant theology still held to the old view even up to the nineteenth century3 a long list of names could be adduced in proof4 ,certainly no fair-minded person can see wilful hostility against astronomy in this procedure4 ,likewise there should not be imputed dishonourable intentions to ,catholics1 if in the course of history they rendered tribute to human limitation4 ,but did not the decrees of #afaf and #afcc do great harm to research8 ,not at all4 ,that this was hardly the case with ,galileo himself we have shown above4 ,soon after we find in ,italy a goodly number of distinguished scientists2 the ,church in no way opposed the newly awakened life1 nor even held aloof from it4 ,galileo himself was honoured in ecclesiastical circles4 ,soon after ,galileo's conviction the ,jesuit ,grimaldi named a mountain on the moon after him4 ,nor was there any considerable harm done to the development of the ,copernican theory4 ,although after ,galileo the occasions were not lacking1 still no further advocate of his theory was ever up for trial4 ,nor was any other book on the subject prohibited4 ,freedom was quietly granted more and more4 ,in the edition of the ,index of #ageh1 the general prohibition of #afaf of ,copernican writings was withdrawn2 it was an official withdrawal from the old position4 ,but not until #ahbb were the special prohibitions repealed1 although they had long since lost their binding force4 ,the occasion was given by an accidental occurrence4 ,the ,magister ,s4 ,palatii of the time intended to deny the ,imprimatur to a book on the ,copernican theory1 on account of the obsolete prohibition4 ,an appeal was made1 which brought about the formal repeal of the prohibition4 ,of course there had been no hurry to revoke a decision once given4 ,but according to the astronomer ,lalande's report of his interview with the ,cardinal ,prefect of the ,congregation of the ,index1 in #agfe1 the removal from the ,index of ,galileo's ,dialogue had been postponed only on account of extraneous difficulties4 ,leibnitz1 while in ,rome1 worked for a repeal of the decree4 ,according to ,emry1 there are extant statements of ,leibnitz vouching for the fact that he very nearly succeeded 7,emry1 ,penses de ,leibnitz1 #a1 #bge74 ,the name of ,copernicus1 too1 was omitted in the next edition of the ,index1 which appeared in #ahce4 ,but even while the prohibition was still in force1 the works of ,galileo and ,copernicus were read everywhere4 ,as early as #afai ,john ,remus wrote from ,vienna to ,kepler that the ,copernican writings may be read by scientific men who had received special permission1 and that this was done in all ,italy and in ,rome itself4 ,besides1 it was allowed at any time to make use of the doctrine as an hypothesis4 ,thus it advanced continually nearer and nearer to the position of an established truth4 ,soon after the publication of the decree1 according to the report of ,kepler1 it was the general conviction in ecclesiastical and civil circles of ,austria 8that the censure was no obstacle to the freedom of science in the investigation of ,god's work40 ,in #afhe we are assured by the ,jesuit ,kochansky1 that any ,catholic was free to 8look for an irrefutable1 mathematical1 and physical demonstration of the movement of the earth40 ,it was also known that the condemnation of the theory had been aided by the supposition that there were no valid arguments in support of the new theory4 ,hence the ,congregation's decree had in the eighteenth century for the most part lost its force4 ,the ,jesuit ,boscovich1 a celebrated physicist and astronomer1 wrote in #agee3 8,in consequence of the extraordinary arguments offered by the consideration of ,kepler's laws1 astronomers no longer look upon his theory as a mere hypothesis1 but as an established truth0 7,grisar1 #cdg1 #cej74 ,thus in the light of history the condemnation of the ,copernican theory appears quite differently from the picture presented by the superficial accusation that ,rome up to the nineteenth century condemned this theory4 ,there is no trace of callousness and oppression1 but only submission to legitimate authority1 in so far and as long as one deemed himself obliged4 ,it was a science enlightened by ,christianity1 which1 in questions not yet clearly decided1 laid down upon the altar of the ,giver of all wisdom the tribute of humble submission1 for the sake of higher interests4 ,we shall have to class with ,st4 ,augustine the uncertainty of human judgments and tribunals among the 8troubles of human life10 and say with him3 8,it is also a misery that the judge is subject to the necessity of not knowing many things1 but to the wise man it is not a fault0 7,de ,civ4 ,dei1 ,,ix1 #f74 ,may we therefore infer that the teaching authority is an evil8 ,were that true1 we should have to abolish the authority of the state and of parents1 because they also make mistakes4 ,we should have to conclude that there had better be no authority at all on earth4 ,where men live and rule1 mistakes will certainly be made4 ,the physician makes mistakes in his important office1 yet patients return to him with confidence4 ,every pedagogue1 every professor1 has made mistakes1 yet they still command respect4 ,the state government is subject to mistakes1 yet none but the anarchist will say that it must therefore be abolished4 8,that the judge is subject to the necessity of not knowing many things1 is a misery1 but to the wise man not a fault40 ,chapter ,v4 ,the ,witnesses of the ,incompatibility ,of ,science ,and ,faith4 ,the ,objection4 ,we shall not go wrong in presuming that the reader1 who has patiently followed our deductions1 has had for some time in his mind the question3 ,how about the representatives of scientific research themselves8 ,do not a large majority of them1 perhaps virtually all1 stand alien and repellant to ,christian faith and its fundamental truths8 ,we do not refer to our modern philosophers1 for of them it might be said that their researches yield questionable speculations of individualistic stamp1 rather than exact results4 ,but there are the representatives of the more exact sciences1 especially of the most exact of all1 natural science4 ,they may be considered the legitimate representatives of modern science1 since their results are the most accurate1 their methods the most strictly scientific2 and are they not1 every one of them1 opposed to ,christian faith1 especially to its fundamental dogma8 ,is not ,haeckel right when he states in the final summary of his 8,weltrtsel10 in which he so strongly insists on the incompatibility of religion and natural science3 8,i am supported by the accord of nearly all modern naturalists who have the courage to express their convictions08 ,is it not true that ,a4 von ,humboldt is considered the prince of ,german naturalists8 and yet in his voluminous 8,kosmos0 he not once mentions the name of ,god8 ,have not1 with few exceptions1 ,german naturalists1 under ,humboldt's influence1 turned against ,christianity8 7,w4 ,menzel1 ,die letzten hundertzwanzig ,jahre der ,weltgeschichte1 ,,vi1 #ahfj1 p4 #gj2 cfr4 ,pohle1 ,p4 ,angelo ,secchi1 #aijd1 p4 #f74 ,here indeed the antagonism between true scientific spirit and the faith seems to take shape in tangible reality1 and to invalidate every argument to the contrary4 ,thus runs the speech that is ever recurring in the literature of the day1 in newspapers and magazines no less than in books4 ,and this speech makes an impression on its hearers4 ,indeed1 why should it not8 ,after describing how these heroes of science in recent times marched on triumphantly from victory to victory1 how they renewed the face of the earth1 and became the pioneers of human progress1 how can they fail to make a deep impression if in the same breath they state that these discoverers of truth have1 almost to a man1 broken with the ancient teachings of the ,christian religion8 ,without doubt the suggestive effect of such speculation must be very considerable with those who lack sufficient historical knowledge4 ,the case is different with those better acquainted with the history of the natural sciences4 ,they know that it is not true to state that the leading natural scientists1 for the most part1 or even unanimously1 have rejected and denied ,christian religion1 that it is a lie and a falsification of history4 ,let us illustrate it briefly4 ,we do not1 of course1 mean to say1 that if it were true that all the leading naturalists were infidels1 the inference would necessarily follow that ,christianity is untenable1 and incompatible with science4 ,not at all4 ,first of all1 natural scientists who oppose ,christianity could hardly ever come forward in the capacity of experts in this matter4 ,for by venturing the assertion that world-matter and world-force are eternal and uncreated1 that they develop by force of natural causality1 by unending evolution1 and not by the power and direction of an intelligent cause1 they leave their own province and trespass on the domain of philosophy4 ,these and similar questions are not solved by natural science research1 by experiment1 observation1 or calculation1 but are the subjects of philosophical speculation4 ,atheism1 materialism1 the denial of the soul's immortality or of eternal destination1 all these are philosophical matters1 and a natural science theory of the world is a misconception about as absurd as a ,swiss ,england or a ,bavarian ,spain4 ,as it is impossible to review here all scientists of the past centuries1 to probe their bent of mind1 we shall restrict ourselves in the following to scientists of the first rank1 for to them the assertion above mentioned must chiefly refer4 ,first of all1 they were possessed of that spirit of scientific research claimed to be incompatible with the faith2 and they1 more than others1 should have been conscious of this contradiction4 ,it is plain that if they did not know anything of the claimed antagonism between the theories of evolution and of creation1 between physical facts and spirituality of soul1 between natural law and miracles2 if it be shown that many of them were actually orthodox ,christians1 believing in the supernatural and yet enthusiastic friends of science1 fathoming the laws of nature and yet unshaken in their faith1 then the fact that inferior minds talk of a contradiction unknown to these great ones can no longer make much of an impression4 ,therefore let us look over the long list of great scholars of the last centuries1 those great men to whom we owe knowledge and discoveries that are our joy to this very day4 ,among them we shall find many who1 in their life and thought1 have plainly confessed themselves faithful ,christians2 we shall find that others were at least the opponents of atheism and materialism1 that they clung to the fundamental truths of the ,christian faith1 and that is a matter of moment when the antagonism between natural science and faith is under discussion4 ,we shall not go back to the ancient representatives of natural science1 men like ,pythagoras1 ,aristotle1 ,archimedes1 ,albert the ,great1 ,roger ,bacon1 and others of past ages1 partly because there is no doubt about the religious views of those men1 partly because research at their time was imperfect4 ,we begin at the rise of modern natural science4 ,the ,old ,masters4 ,at the threshold of modern natural science there stands the man who solved the riddle that had puzzled centuries before him1 the father of modern astronomy1 ,nikolaus ,copernicus4 ,he had studied at the universities of ,cracow1 ,bologna1 ,ferrara1 and ,padua1 and while he was one of the foremost historians of his time1 it was astronomy that had engaged his enthusiastic devotion from his youth4 ,he was a ,catholic priest1 a ,canon of ,frauenberg4 8,if recent representatives of the ,roman ,church10 so writes the ,protestant theologian1 ,o4 ,zoeckler1 8praise this ,frauenberg ,canon as a faithful son of their ,church1 this fact must be granted by ,protestants1 despite the frankness with which he opposed the ,aristotelian and ,ptolemaic theories taught by the scholastics1 and despite his friendship with the ,protestant ,rheticus0 7,gottes ,zeugen im ,reiche der ,natur1 #aijf1 p4 #hb74 ,george ,joachim1 a native of ,feldkirch1 surnamed ,rheticus1 and a ,protestant professor at ,wittenberg1 came to ,copernicus at ,frauenberg1 and was cordially received4 ,his praise for 8his teacher0 is unreserved4 ,he speaks in the same admiring terms of ,tiedemann ,giese1 in those days ,bishop of ,kulm4 ,for nearly forty years ,copernicus sat in the modest observatory which he had erected at ,frauenberg1 studying and collecting the material for his book4 ,even after all this time this deliberate scholar1 despite the urging of his friends1 especially ,bishop ,tiedemann ,giese and ,cardinal ,schoenberg1 ,archbishop of ,capua1 hesitated for ten years longer before publishing his discoveries4 ,the work was entitled ,de revolutionibus orbium caelestium1 libri ,,vi1 and was dedicated to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 ,the author himself could enjoy his achievement but very little4 ,the first copy sent by the printer reached ,copernicus on his deathbed1 and a few hours later he breathed his last1 on ,may #bd1 #aedc4 ,in the introduction to his work this devout ,christian scientist wrote3 8,who would not be urged by the intimate intercourse with the work of ,his hands to the contemplation of the ,most ,high1 and to the admiration for the ,omnipotent ,architect of the universe1 in whom is the highest happiness1 and in whom is the perfection of all that is good80 ,without ,copernicus there could have been no ,kepler1 without ,kepler no ,newton4 ,these three men1 in the words of a recent astronomer1 belong inseparably together1 they support and supplement one another4 ,it might be fittingly asked1 after which of these three the celestial system should be named2 and were it possible to ask these three men for their opinion in this matter1 they would probably all give the answer that has been ascribed to one or the other of them3 ,not my system1 but ,god's ,order4 ,like ,copernicus1 so ,kepler and ,newton were profoundly religious men4 ,johann ,kepler1 born of ,protestant parents in ,wrttemberg in #aega1 was raised a ,lutheran4 ,in #aeid he was appointed professor of mathematics at a school in ,graz1 and after that he dwelt for the most time in ,austria1 which country became his second home4 ,from ,graz he was called to ,prague to be mathematician at the imperial court1 and from there to ,linz to be professor at the college there4 ,his last years were passed at ,sagan and ,ratisbon1 where he died in #afcj4 ,even after having left ,austria he gratefully remembered the clementia austriaca and the favor archiducalis4 ,kepler's astronomical achievements are known to everybody1 especially his laws of the planets4 ,with an untiring spirit of research he combined beautiful traits of character1 cheerfulness1 kindness1 and modesty1 but chiefly a profoundly religious mind4 ,however1 he was in difficult circumstances as far as his religious life was concerned4 ,quite early he came in conflict with the religious authorities of his confession1 particularly for the reason that they considered ,kepler's ,copernican views as against the ,bible1 a fact which the learned astronomer could not see4 ,there were also other differences4 ,the conflict became more and more aggravated4 ,it cannot be denied that the ,lutheran ,church-authorities proceeded against ,kepler with a lack of consideration never shown by ,rome against men like ,galileo4 ,kepler was expelled from the ,lutheran ,church1 and despite his efforts to be reinstated the ban was never lifted4 ,like ,kepler1 so was his predecessor at the ,catholic court of ,prague1 the ,danish astronomer ,tycho ,brahe 7died #afja71 a devout ,protestant1 but the trials of ,kepler were spared him4 ,his erroneous idea that the ,copernican system conflicted with ,holy ,writ kept him from subscribing to it3 it led him to devise a system midway between ,copernicus and ,ptolemy4 ,his religious sentiment is evidenced by a passage from a letter of his1 written at his father's death1 8,although there are many consolations for me1 of a religious nature based on ,holy ,writ1 and of a philosophical kind drawn from the contemplation of the fate of all men and of the inconstancy of everything under the moon1 it is a special comfort for me that my father departed so sweetly and piously from this valley of misery to the heavenly eternal home1 where1 according to ,st4 ,paul1 we shall find a lasting abode40 ,but let us return to ,kepler4 ,there is evidence that at various times in his life he wavered between his ,lutheran confession and the ,catholic faith1 but that is as far as he went4 ,he was of the opinion that the fundamental truths of both were in accord1 and he would not presume to judge of the differences2 he had taken a view-point of his own1 from which he could not be made to recede4 ,on the other hand1 he was shocked when his fellow-,lutherans in ,styria were on two occasions severely dealt with1 although he personally had been treated with especial consideration4 ,otherwise his opinions on ,catholic matters and the 8wisdom0 of the ,catholic ,church were eminently fair2 he censured his co-religionists for their invidious attacks on ,rome1 and for their hesitancy in adopting the ,gregorian reform of the calendar4 ,he had friendly relation with many a ,catholic scientist1 was in correspondence with many ,jesuits1 was even frequently their guest1 receiving stimulus1 commendation1 and scientific communications from them4 ,to ,kepler the study of astronomy became largely a prayer2 the finest of his scientific works he was wont to conclude with the doxology of the ,psalmist1 8,great is our ,lord1 and great is ,his power1 and of ,his wisdom there is no number3 praise ,him ye ,heavens2 praise ye ,him1 ,o ,sun1 and ,moon1 ye ,stars and light1 and praise ,him in your language4 ,thou1 too1 praise ,him1 ,o soul of mine1 thy ,lord1 thy ,creator1 as long as it is granted to thee0 7,harmonices ,mundi1 v4 #i74 ,his name and work is commemorated in the ,keplerbund in ,germany1 which aims at the promotion of scientific knowledge in the sense of ,kepler1 in opposition to the misuse of natural science for purposes of materialism and atheism4 ,the work1 begun so happily by ,copernicus and ,kepler1 was completed by the great ,englishman1 ,newton 7died #agbg74 ,it was he who in his immortal work1 ,philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica1 laid bare the law of the universe1 which compels the heavenly bodies to revolve about one another4 ,therewith the laws of ,kepler1 and consequently the ,copernican hypothesis1 became established4 ,when1 in #agbg1 this scientist1 at the age of eighty-five1 died1 his mortal remains were entombed in ,westminster ,abbey1 the ,pantheon of the ,british nation4 ,lofty science and the reverent worship of his ,creator were combined in the noble mind of this great ,briton4 ,in an appendix to his master-work1 referred to above1 he cited his proofs for the existence of ,god1 and stated that 8the entire order1 as to space and time of all things existing1 must have necessarily proceeded from the conception and will of an existing ,being10 that 8the admirable arrangement of sun1 planets1 and comets could only emanate from the decree and the design of an ,all-wise and ,omnipotent ,being10 that 8we admire ,him for ,his perfections1 we adore and worship ,him as the ruler of the world1 we1 the servants of the great ,sovereign of the ,universe40 ,according to ,voltaire1 it was stated by ,newton's disciple1 ,clarke1 that his master invariably pronounced the name of ,god with reverent attitude and expression4 ,inseparably connected with the history of the ,copernican system there is the name1 which recalls harsh accusations and painful memories1 the name of ,galileo4 ,that he had nothing in common with the aims of those who have broken with faith and ,christianity1 nor with that hostility against his ,church for which his name is so often misused1 has been made evident by what we have said on another page 7see page #ahi74 ,not only during his early life was his religious turn of mind evidenced1 but also later on and up to the end of his life he continued to observe faithfully the duties of his religion4 ,one of the greatest physicists of recent times was ,christian ,huygens1 who died in #afie at his native city1 ,the ,hague4 ,to him we owe the epoch-making discovery of the undulation of light1 while ,newton had held light to be a matter of emission4 ,but while ,huygens advanced over ,newton in this respect1 he paid tribute to human limitation by remaining prejudiced against ,newton's theory of gravitation1 which he rejected4 ,huygens was a believing ,christian4 ,in his philosophic dissertation 8,kosmotheoros10 a posthumous work1 he says in regard to the possibility of the celestial bodies being inhabited3 8,how could the investigator look up to ,god1 the ,creator of all these great worlds1 otherwise but in the spirit of deepest reverence8 ,here it will be possible for us to find manifold proofs to demonstrate ,his providence and wonderful wisdom2 likewise will our contemplation contend against those who are spreading false opinions1 such as attributing the origin of the earth to the accidental union of atoms1 or of the earth being without a beginning and without a creator40 ,religious fervour is still more pronounced in ,huygens' contemporary1 ,robert ,boyle 7died #afib71 a son of ,ireland4 ,while he had made considerable achievements in physics1 his chief fame lies in chemistry3 he inaugurated the period in which chemistry became gradually an independent science4 ,although working in a different field of research1 he is similar to ,newton in many respects3 like ,newton and ,huygens1 his love of scientific studies induced him to remain unmarried1 like ,newton he found his last resting place in ,westminster ,abbey1 but chiefly he is like ,newton because of his pious1 religious mind4 ,he was much occupied with theological studies1 and in them the demonstration from nature of the existence of ,god1 and the author's reverence for the ,scriptures are most conspicuous3 8,in relation to the ,bible10 he writes1 8all the books of men1 even the most learned1 are like the planets that receive their light and brightness from the sun40 ,on his deathbed he made a foundation for apologetic lectures3 the ,boyle-lectures are held to this very day4 ,we shall have to pass by others4 ,we might point to the ,english philosopher and statesman1 ,francis ,bacon of ,verulam 7died #afbf71 who won his place in the history of natural science by his urging of the empiric method2 we might point to ,w4 ,harvey 7died #afeh71 the discoverer of the blood-circulation1 a man of earnest and simple piety2 we might mention the pious ,albrecht von ,haller 7died #aggg71 ,j4 ,bernouilli 7died #agbh7 the co-inventor of integral calculus1 the man of whom his great disciple ,euler relates that this ,bernouilli1 co-inventor of the most difficult of all calculations1 this great mathematician1 expressed regret in his old age that he had devoted so many years to science1 and only few hours to religion1 and that on his deathbed he admonished those around him to adhere to the ,word of ,god because that alone is the word of life4 ,we shall name but one more1 a son of northern ,sweden1 the famous botanist1 ,karl ,linn 7died #aggh74 ,he1 too1 found ,god in the living nature which he studied so diligently4 ,in commenting on his ,systema naturae he writes3 8,man1 know thyself2 in theological aspect1 that thou art created with an immortal soul1 after the image of ,god2 in moral aspect1 that thou alone art blessed with a rational soul for the praise of thy sublime ,creator4 ,i ask1 why did ,god put man equipped thus in sense and spirit on this earth1 where he perceives this wonderfully ordered nature8 ,for what1 but to praise and admire the invisible ,master-builder for ,his magnificent work40 ,these are the great masters and reformers of recent natural science1 the men who opened up the paths which natural science of the present day is still pursuing2 most of these savants were of a ,christian mind1 many of them even pious4 ,there were but few indifferent or irreligious1 such as ,e4 ,halley 7died #agdb71 who computed the cycle of the comet since named after him1 and ,g4 de ,buffon 7died #aghh73 but they are a small minority4 ,the period of highest achievement in modern natural science bears the stamp of religion2 indeed1 to a great extent it bears the halo of devotion and fervour4 ,an incompatibility of research and faith1 a solidarity of science and anti-,christian tendency1 was never known to the mind of these great masters4 8,any one who has grasped even the elements of natural science1 the unity of natural forces and their rigid conformity to laws1 becomes a monist if he has the faculty for clear reasoning1 and as to the others1 there is no help for them anyway0 7,l4 ,plate1 ,ultramontane ,weltanschauung und moderne ,lebenskunde1 #aijg1 #aa74 ,this sort of argument is shouted at us in manifold variations4 ,how does that statement look in the light of history8 ,men like ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 ,newton1 ,linn1 ,boyle1 thus knew nothing of the elements of natural science1 nothing of the conformity to laws of natural forces3 because they were neither monists nor atheists1 but worshippers of the ,creator of heaven and earth6 ,a more painful contrast cannot be imagined than to see these great masters and pioneers rated as lesser minds1 ignorant of real natural science1 by those who trail far behind them and who are seeking their footsteps4 ,the religious conviction of the natural scientists of a past age is sufficient proof that1 not the research in natural science1 but other causes lead minds to infidelity4 ,modern ,times4 ,we turn to the nineteenth century4 ,does the picture perhaps change essentially in the century that has shown its children so much progress1 that has disclosed so many secrets of nature1 but has also taught irreligion to thousands of men8 ,does it become true now that natural science and ,christian fundamental truths are opposed to each other in hostile attitude8 ,claims to this effect are not lacking4 ,in fact1 the number of those who refuse assent to the ,christian religion is increasing4 ,but even at this time we do not find such to be the majority of eminent scientists1 and our inquiry is about eminent scientists1 those who make the science of a period1 not those who can hardly expect to have their names known by posterity4 ,a considerable number1 indeed the majority1 of the master minds of natural science1 even in the nineteenth century1 reject materialism and atheism1 and not infrequently they are pious ,christians2 another proof that just upon the deeper and more serious minds religion exercises a stronger power of attraction4 ,let us commence with the astronomers4 8,the sciences and their true representatives10 so states the renowned ,mdler of ,dorpat1 8do not deserve the reproaches and imputations heaped upon them from a certain side1 that they would estrange man from ,god1 even turn him into an atheist 444 we hope to show of astronomy especially that just the contrary is taking place0 7,reden und ,abhandlungen ber ,gegenstnde der ,himmelskunde1 #ahgj1 #cbf74 ,the greatest astronomer of the nineteenth century1 and one of the greatest discoverers of all ages1 was undoubtedly ,william ,herschel 7died #ahbb74 ,his son ,john ,herschel 7died #ahga7 became his 8worthy successor1 almost his peer1 who won a fame nearly equal to that of the inherited name0 7,r4 ,wolf1 ,geschichte der ,astronomie1 #ahgg1 #eje74 ,while not hostile to religion1 the father had been so engrossed in his restless research1 that religion received little attention1 but religious thought and sentiment played a prominent part in the son4 ,time and again he opposed with zeal the materialistic-atheistic explanation of the universe4 8,nothing is more unfounded than the objection made by some well-meaning but undiscerning persons1 that the study of natural science induces a doubt of religion and of the immortality of the soul4 ,be assured that its logical effect upon any well-ordered mind must be just the opposite0 7,preliminary ,discourse on the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy1 #ahcj1 #g74 ,it was ,leverrier 7died #ahgg71 ,director of the ,paris ,observatory1 who by calculations ascertained the existence and exact position of the remotest planet ,neptune even before it was discovered4 ,when eventually ,galle of ,berlin really found the planet in the position indicated1 ,leverrier's name became famous4 ,but greater still were the achievements of this indefatigable investigator in respect to the known planets4 ,when he presented to the ,french ,academy the final part of his great work1 the calculations of ,jupiter and ,saturnus1 he said3 8,during our long labours1 which it took us thirty-five years to complete1 we needed the support obtained by the contemplation of one of the grandest works of creation1 and by the thought that it strengthened in us the imperishable truths of a spiritualistic 7i4e41 non-materialistic7 philosophy40 ,he was an orthodox ,catholic1 known as a ,clerical4 ,a newspaper complained of him that 8,under the empire he was a clerical ,senator1 concerned with the interests of the altar no less than with those of the throne0 7,kneller1 ,das ,christenthum und die ,vertreter der neueren ,naturwissenschaft1 #aijd1 #if4 ,in the following pages we have made frequent use of the material gathered in this sterling work4 ,see also ,james ,j4 ,walsh1 ,makers of ,modern ,medicine 7#aijg72 and the same author's ,catholic ,churchmen in ,science1 ,i 7#aiji71 ,,ii 7#aiaj774 ,one year after the death of ,leverrier another scientist of the first rank died4 ,it was ,a4 ,secchi 7died #ahgh74 ,member of nearly all the scientific academies of the world1 he was not only a faithful ,christian1 but also a priest3 for forty-five years1 and until his death1 he wore the garb of the ,society of ,jesus4 ,as an astronomer he has been named1 not without good cause1 the father of astrophysics3 he ascertained the chemical composition of about #d1jjj stars and classified them into what is known as ,secchi's four types of stars4 ,as a physicist he wrote an important work on ,the ,unity of ,natural ,forces4 ,he was also an eminent meteorologist4 ,at the second ,international ,exposition at ,paris his meteorograph was quite a feature4 ,the ,klnische ,zeitung wrote1 on ,march #b1 #ahgh3 8,visitors of the ,italian ,exhibition1 at the second ,world's ,fair in ,paris1 could see the marvellous instrument which does the work of ten observers and surpasses them in accuracy4 ,at the same time they could obtain all needed information about details and scope of the meteorograph from the exhibitor himself2 for ,secchi was there daily1 devoting several hours to answering questions in any of the civilized languages of ,europe4 ,it is peculiarly interesting to observe the silent movement of the hands working day and night like registrars of the natural forces1 and recording for every quarter of an hour with the utmost accuracy all changes in temperature1 in humidity1 every variance of the wind1 any movement of the mercury in the barometer4 ,even the force of the wind and the time of rain is registered by this wonderful instrument40 ,the inventor1 out of #dj1jjj art exhibitors1 was awarded the great golden medal4 ,he also received the insignia of an officer of the ,french ,legion of ,honor1 while the ,emperor of ,brazil appointed him an officer of the 8,golden ,rose40 ,the ,french scientist ,moigno writes of ,secchi3 8,secchi was very pious1 and as a worker he knew no limits4 ,he was ever ready to evolve new scientific plans1 to enter into new and long campaigns of observation4 ,the mere list of his #hjj works reveals him as one of the most intrepid workers of our century4 ,and let this be considered3 every one of these writings1 no matter how brief1 was the result of subtle and difficult researches and observations4 ,and after devoting the day to arduous writing1 he passed the night searching the skies0 7,pohle1 ,p4 ,angelo ,secchi1 #aijd1 #aia74 ,in the nineteenth century1 too1 astronomy has not failed in its mission of leading to ,god4 ,a long list could be named of believing astronomers of great achievements4 ,for instance1 the ,roman astronomer ,respighi 7died #ahhi71 a resolute ,catholic4 ,and ,lamont1 ,director of the ,observatory of ,munich1 whose ,catholic orthodoxy was generally known4 ,heis 7died #ahgg7 likewise was a zealous ,catholic3 when he had finished his map of the sky1 after #bg years of hard work1 he sent one of the first copies to ,pius ,,ix4 ,the astronomers ,bessel and ,olbers speak in their letters of ,god1 of the hereafter and ,providence1 in a way that has nothing in common with materialism4 ,secchi was not the only priest and monk among the astronomers of the nineteenth century4 ,the very first day of the century was made notable by the astronomical achievement of a monk4 ,joseph ,piazzi1 a member of the ,theatine order 7died #ahbf71 discovered on that day the first asteroid1 ,ceres4 ,the great mathematician ,gauss named his first born son ,joseph1 in ,piazzi's honor4 ,it is1 indeed1 a remarkable fact1 testifying strongly against the incompatibility of natural science and faith1 that just the ,catholic clergy1 the prominent representatives of religion and faith1 have contributed a large contingent to the number of natural scientists4 ,poggendorf's ,biographical ,dictionary of the ,exact ,sciences contains1 down to #ahfc1 according to preface and recapitulation1 the names and biographical sketches of #h1hdg natural scientists4 ,of these1 #hfb are ,catholic priests1 amounting to #i4h per cent4 ,to appreciate these #aj per cent it must be taken into account that most of them were not connected with natural science by their position1 but only through their personal interest1 and most of them were engaged in other duties4 ,mathematics1 although not natural science proper1 is inseparably connected with it4 ,for this reason we may extend our consideration to mathematicians4 ,we only point to the three greatest1 ,euler1 ,gauss1 and ,cauchy1 and all three were religious men4 ,euler 7died #aghc at ,petersburg7 has no peer in the recent history of science in prolific activity3 ten times he was awarded the prize by the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences4 ,cantor says of him3 8,like most great mathematicians1 ,euler was profoundly religious1 though without bigotry4 ,he personally conducted every evening the private devotions at his home1 and one of the few polemical books he wrote was a defence of revelation against the objections of free-thinkers40 ,its publication at ,berlin in #agdg1 in close proximity of the court of ,frederick the ,great1 presupposed a certain moral courage4 ,in this book he refers to the difficulties found in all sciences1 even in geometry1 adding3 8,by what right then can the free-thinkers demand of us to reject at once ,holy ,writ in its entirety1 because of some difficulties which frequently are not even so important as those complained of in geometry80 ,gauss 7died #ahee7 is perhaps the greatest mathematician of all times4 ,it sounds incredible1 yet it is well attested1 that as a child of three years1 when in the workshop of his father1 a plain mechanic1 he was able to correct the father if he made a mistake in figuring out the wages paid to his journeymen4 ,his biographer1 ,waltershausen1 says of him3 8,the conviction of a personal existence after death1 the firm belief in an ultimate ,ruler of things1 in an eternal1 just1 all-wise and all-powerful ,god1 formed the foundation of his religious life1 which1 with his unsurpassed scientific researches1 resolved itself into a perfect harmony40 ,cauchy 7died #aheg7 was a man of most extraordinary genius1 whose creative genius knew how to discover new paths everywhere1 and almost at every weekly meeting of the ,paris ,academy ,cauchy had something new to offer4 ,in addition he was a dutiful ,catholic1 and a member of ,st4 ,vincent's ,society4 ,when1 shortly before the ,february revolution1 an onslaught upon the ,jesuit schools was made1 he defended them in two pamphlets4 ,one of them contains the following confession of faith3 8,i am a ,christian1 that is1 ,i believe in the divinity of ,jesus ,christ1 with ,tycho ,brahe1 ,copernicus1 ,descartes1 ,newton1 ,fermat1 ,leibnitz1 ,pascal1 ,grimaldi1 ,euler1 ,guldin1 ,boscovich1 ,gerdil2 with all great astronomers1 all great physicists1 all great mathematicians of past centuries4 ,i am also a ,catholic1 with the majority of them1 and if asked for my reasons1 ,i would enumerate them readily4 ,by them it would be made clear that my conviction is not the result of inherited prejudices1 but of profound inquiry4 ,i am a sincere ,catholic1 as ,corneille1 ,racine1 ,la ,bruyre1 ,bossuet1 ,bourdaloue1 ,fnelon were1 and such as were and still are a large portion of the most eminent men of our times1 among them those who have achieved most in the exact sciences1 in philosophy and literature1 and who have most prominently adorned our ,academy0 7,valson1 ,vie de ,cauchy1 ,i1 #agc74 ,when near death1 and told that the priest would bring the ,holy ,sacrament1 he ordered the finest flowers of his garden used in the reception of the ,lord4 ,we now come to the physicists4 ,to begin with the most prominent representatives of the science of optics1 which was developed especially during the first half of the century1 there are to be named chiefly ,fresnel1 ,frauenhofer1 ,fizeau1 ,foucault4 ,a4 ,fresnel 7died #ahbg71 the originator of the modern theory of light1 clung to his conviction of the spirituality and immortality of the soul4 ,frauenhofer 7died #ahbf7 showed himself to be a man of refinement and of kindness1 which only occasionally was disturbed by natural irritability3 he was much devoted to his religion1 so that even his guests while at his house had to observe the abstinence prescribed by the ,church2 this was quite significant1 considering the indifference of his times in this respect4 ,fizeau 7died #ahif71 too1 was a staunch ,catholic1 who fearlessly testified to his belief1 even before the ,paris ,academy4 ,though his work was of the first rank1 ,france's chief marks of honour passed him by1 and little notice was even given to his death4 ,a significant fact4 8,these circumstances10 so writes ,kneller1 8induced us to inquire for particulars2 and through the services of friends we obtained information in ,paris from most reliable source that ,fizeau was a faithful ,christian1 who fulfilled his religious duties4 ,for this very reason his name had been stricken1 at the ,centenary of the ,academy1 from the list of candidates for the cross of the legion of honor1 notwithstanding the fact that1 on the strength of his scientific achievement1 he should long have been ,commander and even ,grand ,officer of this order40 ,cornu was the only one to protest against this slight4 ,foucault 7died #ahfh7 had1 in the time of his restless scientific work1 taken an unsympathetic attitude towards the ,catholic religion4 ,in his last illness he returned1 step by step1 to his ,creator and ,redeemer1 in whom he found his comfort1 and he breathed his last in peace with ,god and the ,church4 ,foucault's great countryman1 ,ampre 7died #ahcf71 the celebrated investigator in the fields of electricity1 was also estranged from the ,christian religion1 but1 after passing through torturing doubts1 he regained undisturbed possession of his ,catholic faith1 and was a pious ,christian at the time of his brilliant discoveries4 ,he had frequent intercourse with ,a4 ,f4 ,ozanam1 and the discussion almost without exception turned to ,god4 ,then ,ampre would cover his forehead with his hands1 exclaiming3 8,how great ,god is6 ,ozanam6 how great ,god is1 and our knowledge is as nothing40 8,this venerable head10 ,ozanam relates of his friend1 8covered with honours and full of knowledge1 bowed down before the mysteries of the faith2 he knelt at the same altars where before him ,descartes and ,pascal worshipped humbly1 beside the poor widow and the small child1 who perhaps were less humble than he0 7,a4 ,f4 ,ozanam1 ,oeuvres ,compltes1 ,x1 #cg1 and ,,viii1 #hi74 ,as he was dying1 and ,m4 ,deschamps1 director of the college of ,marseille1 began to read aloud some passages from the 8,imitation of ,christ10 the dying man remarked that he knew the book by heart4 ,another great discoverer in the domain of electricity1 who had preceded ,ampre1 was ,volta 7died #ahbg74 ,like his great fellow countryman1 ,galvani 7died #agih71 who did not disdain to be a member of the third order of ,st4 ,francis1 ,volta was a staunch ,catholic2 every day he recited the rosary4 ,at ,como1 his home1 he was daily seen to go to holy ,mass and1 on holidays1 to the ,sacraments4 ,those who passed his house on ,saturdays saw a small lamp burning before the picture of the ,blessed ,virgin ,mary over his door4 ,if the servant forgot to light the lamp1 ,volta did it himself4 ,on ,feast days1 when visiting the parish church1 the great electrician could be seen among the children1 explaining the catechism to them4 ,a friend of ,volta1 the ,canon ,giacomo ,ciceri1 once was endeavoring to convert a dying man1 who1 however1 refused to hear him1 on the ground that whereas religion might be good for the common people1 scientists did not need it1 and he reckoned himself among them4 ,ciceri thereupon reminded him of ,volta4 ,this made an impression upon the dying man1 who declared that if ,volta be seriously religious1 and not only as a matter of convention1 he would consent to receive the ,sacraments4 ,the ,canon then requested ,volta to write a few lines4 ,volta replied as follows3 8,i do not understand how anybody can doubt my sincerity and constancy in the religion which ,i profess1 and which is that of ,catholic1 ,apostolic1 ,roman ,church1 wherein ,i was born and raised1 and which ,i have professed all my life1 inwardly and outwardly4444 ,should any misdemeanor on my part have prompted any one to suspect me of unbelief1 then ,i will declare1 for the purpose of making reparation 444 that ,i always have believed this ,holy ,catholic religion to be the only true and infallible one1 and that ,i still think so1 and ,i thank our dear ,lord incessantly for having given me this belief1 in which to live and to die is my resolution1 in the firm hope of gaining the eternal life4 ,it is true1 ,i acknowledge this belief to be a gift of ,god1 a supernatural belief2 yet1 ,i have not neglected human means to fortify myself in this belief1 and to drive away all doubts that may arise to tempt me4 ,for this reason1 ,i have studied the faith diligently in its foundations1 by reading apologetic and controversial writings1 weighing the reasons for and against2 a way1 which supplies the strongest proof1 and makes it most credible for the human reason to such a degree1 that any noble mind1 not perverted by sins and passions1 cannot help embracing and loving it4 ,i wish this profession1 for which ,i was asked and which ,i willingly make1 written and signed by my own hand1 to be shown at will to any one1 because ,i am not ashamed of the ,gospel4 ,may my writing bear good fruit4 ,alexander ,volta4 ,,milan1 ,january #fth1 #ahae4 7,c4 ,grandi1 ,alessandro ,volta1 #ahii1 #ege470 ,he who1 for the first time1 is made aware of the religious confession of the greatest natural scientists may perhaps be astonished4 ,hitherto1 he had heard little of the ,christian mind of these men1 but a great deal about their alleged indifference for religion1 and about their materialism and atheism4 ,now1 suddenly1 he sees a large number of them to be the enemies of atheism1 many1 indeed1 to be zealous ,christians4 ,this is due to the biographers3 they dwell largely on the scientific achievement of a man1 likewise on his human qualities1 but his religion is often not mentioned at all4 ,when1 in #ahhh1 a monument was erected to ,ampre in his native city1 ,lyons1 not a word in the speeches referred to the fact that he was a faithful ,catholic4 ,nay1 more2 on one of the books seen on his monument is chiselled in bold letters the word 8,encyclopdie40 ,those unaware of the facts would infer that ,ampre had been one of the ,encyclopdists4 ,his actual relation to this infamous work was that he had read it in his youth1 but abhorred it in his later age4 ,the ,english physicist1 ,faraday 7died #ahfg71 according to ,tyndall and ,du ,bois-,reymond the greatest experimentist of all times1 was1 like ,volta and ,ampre1 of religious mind4 ,in a letter to a lady he wrote3 8,i belong to a small and despised ,christian sect1 known by the name of ,sandemanians4 ,our hope is based upon the belief which is in ,christ40 ,in #ahdg1 he concluded his lectures at the ,royal ,institution with the following words3 8,in teaching us those things1 our science should prompt us to think of ,him whose works they are40 ,at a later lecture1 he declared3 8,i have never encountered anything to cause a contradiction between things within the scope of man1 and the higher things1 relating to his future and unconceivable to 7unaided7 human mind0 7,jones1 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,faraday74 ,of the same bent of mind was ,faraday's fellow countryman1 ,maxwell 7died #ahgi71 known to every one who has studied the development of the theories of electricity4 ,this ingenious theoretician of electrics1 professor of experimental physics at ,cambridge1 was deeply religious4 ,every evening he led in the family prayer2 he regularly attended divine service1 and partook of the monthly communion of his denomination4 ,those more intimately acquainted with ,maxwell agree1 that he was one of the worthiest men they ever met4 ,nothing could better illustrate his religious sentiment than the splendid prayer found among his posthumous papers3 8,almighty ,god1 ,thou who hast created man after ,thy image and hast given him a living soul1 that he should search ,thee and rule over ,thy creatures1 teach us to study the works by ,thy hands that we may subject the earth for our use1 and strengthen our reason for ,thy service1 and let us receive ,thy holy word thus1 that we may believe in ,him whom ,thou hast sent us to give us the knowledge of salvation and the forgiving of our sins1 all of which we pray for in the name of the same ,jesus ,christ1 our ,lord0 7,campbell-,garnett1 ,the ,life of ,j4 ,c4 ,maxwell74 ,maxwell's devout mind is especially significant here1 because1 like ,ampre and ,volta1 he occupied himself much with philosophical and theological questions4 ,every ,sunday upon return from church he is said to have buried himself in his theological books4 ,many others might be mentioned of ,english physicists of the past century1 who combined religious belief with great knowledge4 ,the peculiar trait of the ,english character to respect and preserve with piety the inherited institutions of the past1 as against radicalism and the craze for innovation1 manifests itself also in the absence of the immature and frivolous juggling with the great truths of the ,christian past1 not infrequently met with elsewhere4 ,let us mention but one more of ,england's great men who have died in recent years4 ,in ,december1 #aijg1 the papers reported the death of ,william ,thomson1 latterly better known as ,lord ,kelvin4 ,he lived to the age of #hc years1 up to his death incessantly busy with scientific work4 ,as early as #ahee1 ,helmholtz described him as 8one of the foremost mathematical physicists of ,europe47#g70 ,the ,berlin ,academy of ,science expressed high praise and admiration in its address felicitating ,thomson on his ,golden ,jubilee4 ,undoubtedly1 he merited this admiration also by stoutly defending from the viewpoint of science the necessity of a ,divine ,creator4 8,we do not know10 he wrote1 8at what moment a creation of matter or of energy fixed a beginning beyond which no speculation based on mechanical laws is able to lead us4 ,in exact mechanics1 if we were ever inclined to forget this barrier1 we necessarily would be reminded of it by the consideration that reasoning1 resting exclusively upon the law of mechanics1 points to a time when the earth must have been uninhabited1 and it also teaches us that our own bodies1 like those of all living plants and animals1 and fossils1 are organized forms of matter for which science can give no other explanation than the will of a ,creator1 a truth1 in support of which geological history offers rich evidence0 7,on ,mechanical ,antecedent of ,motion1 ,heat and ,light1 #ahhd74 8,the only contribution of dynamics to theoretical biology consists in the absolute negation of an automatic beginning and automatic continuance of life0 7,addresses and ,speeches74 ,on ,may #a1 #aijb1 the ,rev4 ,prof4 ,g4 ,henslow1 according to the ,london ,times1 spoke at ,university ,college1 before a big audience with the ,president of the ,university as chairman1 on the subject 8,the ,rationalism of ,to-day1 an ,examination of ,darwinism40 ,on conclusion of the speech the venerable octogenarian1 ,lord ,kelvin1 arose and proposed a resolution of thanks to the speaker4 ,while fully subscribing to the fundamental ideas of ,prof4 ,henslow's lecture1 ,lord ,kelvin said1 he could not assent to the proposition that natural science neither affirms nor denies the origin of life by a creative force4 ,he stated that natural science does1 positively1 assert a creative force4 ,science forces every one to recognize a miracle within himself4 ,that we are living1 and moving1 and existing1 is not due to dead matter1 but to a creating and directing force1 and science forces us to accept this assumption as a tenet of faith4 ,lord ,kelvin subsequently amplified these remarks in an article that appeared in the ,nineteenth ,century1 of ,june1 #aijc4 ,it concludes with the admonition1 not to be afraid to think independently4 8,if you reason sharply1 you will be forced by science to believe in ,god1 who is the basis of all religion4 ,you will find science to be1 not an opponent of religion1 but a support0 7,times1 ,may #h and #ae1 #aijc74 ,such were the views of those to whom1 in the first place1 the establishment of natural science and its progress are due4 ,it is not science and strong reasoning that lead away from ,god1 but the lack of true science4 ,bacon said3 ,leviores gustus in philosophia movere fortasse animum ad atheismum1 sed pleniores haustus ad ,deum reducere4 ,another thing must be observed4 ,among those earnest men1 earnest in the investigation of nature1 and earnest in the consideration of questions of a supernatural life1 there are many who made the religious question the subject of mature study1 and who were well acquainted with the objections against religion and ,christianity4 ,but they cling to their religious persuasion only the more firmly4 ,we may be reminded of men like ,volta1 ,cauchy1 ,ampre1 and ,maxwell4 ,to speak of authorities1 what comparison is there between these great scientists and discoverers1 and those who are satisfied with the general assurance that 8any one who has grasped the elements of natural sciences must become a monist10 and 8that the supernatural exists only in the brain of the visionary and ignorant10 that1 8in the same measure in which the victorious progress of modern knowledge of nature surpasses the scientific achievements of former centuries1 the untenableness of all mystical views of life that tend to harness the reason in the yoke of so-called revelation has been made clear0 7,haeckel71 and who in such assurance find perfect intellectual gratification4 ,they recall an incident at the ,congress of ,english natural scientists1 held at ,belfast in #ahgd1 when ,tyndall delivered from the platform a materialistic lecture1 and among the audience sat ,maxwell1 his superior in scientific research1 who put down the lecture in doggerel rhyme1 in a humorous vein1 of course1 but not without deserved sarcasm4 ,we proceed on our way1 trying to make haste1 and omitting many names that might be mentioned1 limiting ourselves to the most prominent ones4 ,among the chemists we name ,lavoisier4 ,a martyr to his science1 he died under the guillotine of the ,revolution in #agid2 he had remained true to his ,christian faith4 ,the ,swede1 ,j4 ,berzelius 7died #ahdh71 openly professed his belief in ,god4 ,thnard 7died #ahei71 the discoverer of boron1 of a blue dye named after him1 and of many other chemicals1 was a staunch ,catholic4 ,the pastor of ,st4 ,sulpice could testify at his funeral as follows3 8,he attended church every ,sunday1 eyes and heart fixed on his prayer-book1 and on solemn ,feast days he received ,holy ,communion4444 ,with ,baron ,thnard one of the greatest benefactors of my poor people is gone0 7,kneller74 ,dumas 7died #ahhd71 who is esteemed by his pupil ,pasteur as the peer of ,lavoisier1 was also a practical ,catholic1 as was his compatriot ,chevreul 7died #ahhi74 ,this great man had the rare good fortune to be present at his own centenary in #ahhf4 ,at this great celebration he received an address by the ,berlin ,academy1 stating that his name had a prominent place on the list of the great scientists who had carried the scientific repute of ,france to all quarters of the globe4 ,when1 in view of the mundane character of the celebration1 the liberal press endeavoured to rank him among the representatives of unbelieving science1 and this question being discussed in public1 ,chevreul felt himself constrained to proclaim his religious persuasion openly in a letter to ,count de ,montravel1 in which he said3 8,i am simply a scientist1 but those who know me1 know also that ,i was born a ,catholic1 that ,i lead a ,catholic life1 and that ,i want to die a ,catholic0 7,civilta ,cattolica1 #ahia1 #bib74 ,two ,germans may conclude the list of chemists1 ,schoenbein 7died #ahfh7 and ,j4 ,liebig 7died #ahgc74 ,in his diary1 8,menschen und ,dinge10 #ahhe 7page #bi71 ,schoenbein writes3 8,there are still people who fancy in their limited mind that1 the deeper the human intellect penetrates the secrets of nature1 the more extensive its knowledge1 the wider its conception of the exterior world1 the more it must forget the cause of all things4 ,many have gone even so far as to assert that natural science must lead to the denial of ,god4 ,this view is without all foundation4 ,he1 who contemplates with open eyes1 daily and hourly1 the doings and workings of nature1 will not only believe1 but will actually perceive1 and be firmly convinced1 that there is not the smallest place in space where the divine does not reveal itself in the most magnificent and admirable way40 ,and in a similar strain ,liebig writes3 8,indeed1 the greatness and infinite wisdom of the ,creator of the world can be realized only by him who endeavours to understand ,his ideas as laid down in that immense book1--nature1 in comparison to which everything that men otherwise know and tell of ,him1 appears like empty talk0 7,die ,chemie in ihrer ,anwendung74 ,now let us turn to the geographers4 ,we merely mention ,ritter 7died #ahei71 the man who raised geography to the dignity of a science2 he was a faithful ,protestant1 while biassed against the ,catholic ,church4 ,in spite of this1 a ,catholic historian1 ,j4 ,janssen1 has sketched his life1 in which we read3 8,firm in his belief in the living ,god1 and in the ,incarnate ,son of ,god1 ,his ,redeemer1 he furnishes a clear and convincing proof that this faith1 far from being a contradiction to natural science 444 alone enables man to acquire an extensive and deep knowledge of nature40 ,we give only passing notice to the founder of scientific crystallography1 ,r4 ,hauy 7died #ahbb71 who was a dutiful ,catholic priest4 ,the geologists now will get a hearing4 ,among them we meet1 in the first place1 the noted geologist and zologist1 ,cuvier 7died #ahcb71 a faithful ,protestant3 also the foremost ,french geologist of his time1 ,l4 ,de ,beaumont 7died #ahgd71 8a ,christian in all things and a steadfast ,christian 444 which he remained through his whole life20 so ,dumas testifies of him in his obituary 7,comptes ,rendus1 #ahgd74 ,then there is ,j4 ,barrande1 the untiring explorer of the antediluvian strata of ,bohemia4 ,he came in #ahcj to ,bohemia with the banished royal family1 as ,chambord's teacher1 and died #ahhc at ,frohsdorf near ,vienna4 ,he was a pious ,catholic4 ,the volumes of his works are nearly all dated on ,catholic feasts4 ,the recently deceased ,french geologist1 ,a4 ,de ,lapparent1 was a practical ,catholic1 and such were the two ,belgian geologists1 ,j4 d',omalius 7died #ahge71 and ,a4 ,dumont 7died #aheg71 to both of whom ,belgium owes its geological exploration4 ,the ,english geologists1 ,buckland 7died #ahef71 ,hitchcock 7died #ahfd71 and ,a4 ,sedgwick 7died #ahgb71 were ministers of the ,english ,church4 ,j4 ,dwight ,dana 7died #ahie71 the foremost geologist of ,north ,america1 begins his celebrated text-book of geology with a homage to his ,creator1 and concludes it by paying tribute to ,holy ,writ4 ,w4 ,dawson 7died #ahii7 the worthy geological explorer of his native land1 ,canada1 published several apologetic dissertations on the ,bible and ,nature4 ,a kindred sentiment animated the ,german scientists1 ,bischof 7died #ahgj71 ,quenstedt 7died #ahih71 the geologist of ,suabia ,pfaff 7died #ahhf71 ,schafhutl 7died #ahij71 and the equally pious as learned ,swiss geologist ,o4 ,heer 7died #ahhc74 ,they all have much to say about the greatness of their ,creator1 but not a word of any insolvable contradictions between the ,bible and geologic research4 ,as a last division of an imposing phalanx1 there are now the biologists and physiologists4 ,modern biology1 as the science of life1 has in the eyes of many accomplished the bold deed of demonstrating the superfluity of a soul distinct from matter4 ,claim is made that it has sufficiently explained the sensitive and mental life by the sole agency of physical and chemical forces1 and thus to have removed the boundary between live and dead matter4 ,it is said1 further1 that biology in conjunction with zology and botany has furnished proof that the wonderful organic forms of life may be explained by purely natural causes1 without having to assume as an ultimate cause the act of a higher intelligence2 that a never ceasing evolution is the sole ultimate cause1--creation is made superfluous by evolution4 ,biology is thus claimed to have refuted the old dualism of soul and matter1 of world and ,god1 and to have awarded the palm to monism4 ,are the eminent representatives of this science really the materialists and monists they would have to be1 if all this were true8 ,the foremost physiologist of the nineteenth century was ,j4 ,mller 7died #aheh71 buried in the ,catholic cemetery at ,berlin4 ,he was a decided opponent of materialism2 he not only contended for the existence of a spiritual soul1 but also for an immaterial vital force in plants4 ,th4 ,schwann 7died #ahhb7 is the founder of the cellular theory4 ,in the year #ahci he accepted a call to take the chair of anatomy at the ,catholic ,university of ,louvain4 ,one of the most prominent physiologists of the nineteenth century was ,a4 ,volkmann 7died #ahgg74 ,he was a stout champion of the spirituality and immortality of the soul1 of purposive cause in animated beings1 and an opponent of ,darwin's theory4 ,g4 ,j4 ,mendel 7died #ahhd7 became by his work on ,experimenting with ,hybrid ,plants the pioneer of the modern theory of hereditary transmission1 adopted by modern biology2 and scientists like ,h4 de ,vries1 ,correns1 ,tschermak1 and ,bateson followed his lead4 8,his important laws of hereditary transmission are the best so far offered by the research in this field0 7,muckermann1 ,grundriss der ,biologie74 ,he was a ,catholic priest1 and the abbot of the ,augustinian ,monastery at ,old-,brnn4 ,karl von ,vierordt 7died #ahhd7 is well known by his 8,manual of ,physiology10 still in demand as a reference book in the libraries of universities4 ,in #ahfe he delivered a speech at the ,tbingen ,university on the unity of science1 concluding with this appeal to the students3 8,until your religious notions become clear by a mature insight1 trust in the well-meant assurance that the belief in the divinity of the religion of ,jesus has not been put falsely into your heart4 ,true piety is equally remote from narrow pietism as from freethinking indifference2 it leaves to reason its full rights1 but it also assures to us the faculty to be aware1 in joyful confidence in ,almighty ,providence1 of an immaterial and for us eternal destiny40 ,ch4 ,ehrenberg 7died #ahgf7 is the explorer of the world of little things3 of infusoria and protozoa4 ,he did not countenance ,haeckel's materialism nor ,darwin's denial of teleology3 to him they were fantastic theories and romances4 ,a friend of his1 and of the same mind1 was ,k4 von ,martius1 who admired ,god's wisdom in the wonders of the world of vegetation4 ,long before his death he ordered his burial dress to be made of white cloth embroidered with a green cross1--8a cross because ,i am a ,christian1 and green in honour of botany40 ,another renowned name may be mentioned1 that of the ,austrian anatomist ,j4 ,hyrtl 7died #ahid74 ,in the years when materialism was flourishing1 ,hyrtl was painfully grieved to see science fall into disrepute through the fault of individuals4 ,he gave vent to his indignation on the occasion of the fifth centenary of the ,vienna ,university 7#ahfd71 when1 having been elected ,rector1 and being considered the greatest celebrity at that college1 he delivered his inaugural speech on the materialistic tendency of our times4 ,summing up he said3 8,i am at a loss how to explain what scientific grounds there are to defend and fortify a revival of the old materialistic views of an ,epicurus and a ,lucretius1 and to endeavour to insure to it a permanent rule4444 ,its success is due to the boldness of its assertion and to the prevailing spirit of the time1 which popularizes teachings of this sort the more willingly1 the more danger they seem to entail for the existing order of things40 ,it was the same protest made some years later by another famous scientist against 8the dangerous opinion that there were dogmas of natural science in inimical opposition to the highest ideals of the human mind40 ,he stated that 8it would be a desirable reward for the efforts of our foremost naturalists to erect with the aid of anthropology a barrier to this error which is so demoralizing for the people0 7,j4 ,ranke1 ,der ,mensch1 #ahid74 ,hyrtl's speech at once aroused a storm of indignation in the liberal press of ,vienna1 and the great scientist1 until then honoured and extolled1 became the object of denunciation and sneer4 ,thus was the freedom of science understood in those circles4 ,haeckel was much vexed by two fellow scientists1 ,m4 von ,baer 7died #ahgf7 and ,g4 ,j4 ,romanes 7died #ahid74 ,baer was prominent in the science of evolution4 ,he was led to theism by his studies4 ,romanes1 a friend of ,darwin1 had been an adherent of materialism1 but through serious study he returned to the belief in ,god and ,christianity4 ,his posthumous work1 8,thoughts on ,religion1 a scientist's religious evolution from ,atheism to ,christianity10 furnishes a brilliant voucher thereof4 ,romanes's conversion was a sad blow for ,haeckel4 ,however1 he constructed an explanation to give himself comfort4 8,when the news of this conversion10 he wrote1 8was first circulated by a friend of ,romanes1 a zealous ,english ,churchman1 the assumption suggested itself to me that it was all a mystification and invention1 for it is known that the fanatical champions of ecclesiastical superstition have never hesitated to pervert the truth to save their dogma4 ,later on1 however1 it was found that it was really an instance 7analogous to the case of old ,baer7 of one of those interesting psychological metamorphoses with which ,i have dealt in ,chapter #f of my book4 ,romanes was in his last years a sick man4 ,it was pathological debility4 ,the first condition1 however1 of an unbiassed1 pure conception of reason is the normal condition of its organ4 ,his phronema was not in a normal condition40 ,haeckel will have to rank among those whose phronema is not in a normal condition a good many other natural scientists2 indeed1 most of those of higher standing4 ,every one knows the celebrated name of ,louis ,pasteur 7died #ahie71 the discoverer of various bacteria1 of whom ,huxley says that his manifold inventions have repaid to ,french industry the five billion francs indemnity which ,france had to pay to ,germany after the war4 ,it is equally well known that ,pasteur was to his death a staunch ,catholic4 8,as his soul departed1 he held in his hands a small cross of brass1 and his last words were the confession of faith and hope0 7,la ,science ,catholique1 ,x1 #ahif1 #ahb74 ,the story is told that one of his pupils asked him how he could be so religious after all his thinking and studying4 ,pasteur replied3 8,just because ,i have thought and studied1 ,i remained religious like a man of ,brittany1 and had ,i thought and studied still more1 ,i would be as religious as a woman of ,brittany0 7,revue des ,questions ,scientifiques1 #ahif1 #che74 ,in the year #ahei great commotion was caused in the world of thought by the appearance of ,darwin's book on the 8,origin of ,species40 ,it stated that the various species had gradually evolved from most simple1 primordial forms1 and this by natural selection2 not1 therefore1 in the sense that the ,creator had put the laws of evolution into nature1 but that in the struggle for existence the survival of the fittest was the result of natural selection4 ,soon it was claimed that man1 too1 in his rational life1 was the result of an evolution from animal stages2 indeed1 the whole universe had arisen by the survival of the accidentally fittest4 ,evolution was to be substituted for creation4 ,in ,germany1 ,e4 ,haeckel was the man who considered it the task of his life to spread those ideas as the established result of science4 ,in our own time a belated high tide is sweeping over the intellectual lowlands4 ,darwin himself was an agnostic2 to begin with1 he lacked all religious training2 his mother had died early1 his father was a free-thinker1 and his education at school was rationalistic4 ,the doubt of all higher truths1 and finally1 according to his own confession1 the doubt respecting the power of reason1 were his companions through life4 ,yet he confesses3 8444 ,i never was an atheist in the sense that ,i would deny the existence of ,god4 ,i think1 in general 7and more so the older ,i grow71 but not at all times1 agnostic would be a more accurate description of my state of mind0 7,f4 ,darwin1 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,darwin1 ,i1 #cjd74 ,remarkable1 however1 is the following passage at the end of ,darwin's chief work3 8,it is a great belief1 indeed1 of the ,creator having breathed the embryo of all life surrounding us into a few forms1 or in but one single form1 and an endless row of most beautiful1 most wonderful forms having evolved and are still evolving from such a simple beginning1 while our planet1 following the laws of gravitation1 has steadily revolved in its circle40 ,what ,darwin was lacking in a high degree was a philosophical training of the mind4 ,in itself the theory of evolution1 which asserts the variability of species of animals and plants1 is by no means opposed to religious truths4 ,it neither includes a necessity of assuming the origin of the human soul from the essentially lower animal soul1 nor is it an atheistic theory4 ,on the contrary1 such an evolution would most clearly certify to ,god's wisdom in laying such a wonderful basis for the progress of nature1 provided this theory could be proved by scientific facts2 indeed1 for an evolution within narrow limits1 circumstantial evidence is not lacking4 ,that there is no contradiction between the theory of evolution and the fundamental tenets of ,christian ,creed is sufficiently shown by the representatives of the theory4 ,lamarck 7died #ahbi7 and ,saint-,hilaire 7died #ahdd71 both of them representatives of the theory of evolution long before ,darwin1 believed in ,god4 ,there were1 prior to ,darwin1 two celebrated ,catholic scientists1 to wit1 ,ampre and d',omalius1 who had decidedly taken the part of ,saint-,hilaire in his controversy with ,cuvier4 ,and also after ,darwin1 a number of ,christian and ,catholic scientists have contended for the idea of evolution1 as1 for instance1 the pious ,swiss geologist1 ,heer2 also ,quenstedt1 ,volkmann1 and the ,american geologist1 ,ch4 ,lyell4 ,more recently ,catholic scientists have expressed themselves in favour of the theory of evolution2 for instance1 the noted zologist1 ,e4 ,wasmann1 and the geologists ,lossen and ,w4 ,waagen1 both of whom had to bring bitter sacrifices in their career on account of their ,catholic faith4 ,mature ,science ,respects ,faith4 ,there have now passed in review the great natural scientists of the past1 those living at the present time we shall leave to the judgment of the future4 ,is it true1 then1 that the foremost representatives of natural science had the conviction that science and faith are incompatible8 ,no6 ,on the contrary1 most of them1 and the greatest of them1 have professed the fundamental truths of religion1 or have even been devout ,christians themselves4 8,theism in natural science1 or1 if you prefer1 in natural philosophy10 so says a modern scientist1 8rests upon the basis of a fundamental view which an old formula has clothed in words as simple as they are sublime3 #8,i believe in ,god1 the ,almighty ,creator of ,heaven and of ,earth4' ,this confession does not cling to theistic scientists like an egg-shell from the time of unsophisticated childhood faith2 it is the result of their entire scientific thought and judgment4 ,this conviction has been professed by the most discerning natural scientists of all ages0 7,j4 ,reinke1 ,naturwissenschaft und ,religion74 ,still it cannot be denied that some of the great scientists were of different mind1 men like ,r4 von ,virchow1 ,tyndall1 ,a4 von ,humboldt1 ,du ,bois-,reymond4 ,nor shall it be disputed that1 at the present time1 a large number of men of average learning are on the side of unbelief4 ,however1 it must not be forgotten that unbelief is more frequently pretended to the outside world for appearance's sake than it really dwells in the heart4 ,this is1 to a great extent1 due to human respect1 to public opinion1 and the prevailing tendency of science4 ,then again1 it must be remembered1 that religiously minded scientists are often crowded out from the schools of science1 with the natural result that the others predominate4 ,another point to be borne in mind is that the atheistic representatives of science are doing more to get themselves talked about2 they are seeking more diligently the attention of public opinion4 ,men like ,tyndall1 ,vogt1 ,moleschott1 ,haeckel1 are known in larger circles than men like ,faraday1 ,maxwell1 ,ampre1 ,volta1 ,pasteur1 who1 engaged in serious work1 gave no time to making propaganda1 as the others did by lecturing and popular writing for materialistic and monistic views in the name of science2 they had no desire for the limelight of attention1 and for posing as personified science4 ,all this does not change the fact that a very large number1 indeed the largest number1 of natural scientists of first rank were believers in ,god1 or of pious1 ,christian mind4 ,and that is of the greater importance4 ,to do pioneer work in the field of science1 to give impetus1 to make progress1 requires a penetrating and1 at the same time1 an independent mind1 one that can rise above conventional commonplace4 ,the fact that such men have largely been very religious1 that they never belittled religion1 weighs much more in the balance than the disparagement of inferior minds4 ,these1 then1 are the often-cited witnesses for the incompatibility of science and faith4 ,while only taken from the province of natural science1 they may in our case be deemed representative of science in general4 ,for natural science is generally regarded the most exact of all1 and as the one which1 more than any other1 has the scientific spirit said to be incompatible with faith1 and which1 by many1 is believed to have brought about in the modern world of thought the irreconcilable conflict between faith and science4 ,this is not so6 ,such antagonism does not exist4 ,it cannot exist1 because it is certain from the outset that both faith and science unfold the truth4 ,truth1 however1 can never be in conflict with truth4 ,nor has that antagonism ever existed historically in any of the great representatives of science4 ,this antagonism is fictitious1 it is false in its very essence4 ,it is fabricated1 either by distorting faith into a blind belief of absurd things1 or else by distorting the human faculty of conception into infallible omniscience1 or1 the other extreme1 by denying its faculty for a higher perception4 ,faith has nothing to fear from a mature science that has arrived at the conviction of its cognitions1 nor has it anything to fear from the great intellects who reason profoundly and seriously4 ,but it has to fear mock-science and ignorance1 and those small and superficial minds that aim at stretching their pseudo-knowledge to a gigantic infallibility4 ,,third ,,section4 ,,the ,,liberal ,,freedom ,,of ,,research4 ,the ,yoke of the ,sun4 ,the gifted ,danish writer and convert1 ,j4 ,jrgensen1 tells a parable which is pregnant with thought4 8,in the midst of a large rye-field10 he relates1 8there stood a tall poplar1 with other trees standing nearby4 ,one day the poplar turned to the other trees and plants1 and thus began to speak3 #8,sisters and brothers6 ,to us1 the glorious tribe of plants1 belongs the earth1 and everything upon it is dependent on us4 ,we fertilize and feed ourselves1 while beasts and men are fed and clothed by us4 ,indeed1 the earth itself feeds upon our decaying leaves1 upon our boughs and branches4 ,there is only one power in the world our existence and growth is said to depend on2 ,i refer to the ,sun4 ,i purposely used the words1 8is said10 because ,i am sure that we do not depend on the ,sun4 ,this doctrine of sunlight being a necessity and a benefit to our plant life is nothing but a superstition1 which at last ought to give way to enlightenment4' ,here the poplar paused4 ,from some old oaks and elms in the neighbouring grove there came signs of disapproval1 but the inconstant rye-field muttered assent4 ,thus encouraged and raising its voice the poplar continued3 #8,i know well that there is a musty faction amongst us which clings obstinately to obsolete views4 ,however1 ,i have confidence in the independence of the younger generation of plants4 ,they will realize the baseness of continuing to do homage to an absurd superstition4 ,our freeborn heads shall never bow to a yoke1 not even to the yoke of the ,sun4 ,down1 therefore1 with that yoke6 ,and free from restraint there will arise a free and beautiful generation that will astonish the world4' ,the poplar paused for the second time1 and now the applause was long and loud1 the fields cheered and the groves gave boisterous applause1 so that the disapproval of a few old trees could not be heard4 ,the following days looked upon an odd spectacle4 ,at daybreak1 when the ,sun ascended and cast its first rays over the landscape1 the flowers closed their cups and denied admission1 as if asleep2 the leaves no longer turned toward the ,sun4 ,but when the dispenser of warmth and light had gone down behind the hills1 the gayly coloured flowers opened in the dim starlight1 as if now the time had come for them to grow and blossom4 8,alas1 how sad was the fate of these poor rebels6 ,the rye soon began to languish till it lay prone on the ground2 green leaves turned yellow1 the flowers drooped1 faded and withered4 ,then the plants began to grumble at the poplar4 ,there it stood1 its leaves a seared yellow4 #8,what simpletons you are1 brothers and sisters6' it said4 #8,can't you see that now you are much more like yourselves than under the rule of the ,sun8 ,now you are refined1 independent beings1 well rid of the sluggish health of yore4' ,there were some who still believed what the poplar said4 #8,we are independent1 we are unfettered1' they clamoured1 till the last spark of life was gone4 ,not long after the poplar1 too1 stood there with its branches bared1--it had died4 ,the farmers1 however1 complained about the failing of the crop1 and consoled themselves by hoping for better success the next year40 ,a parable of deep meaning6 ,it may serve as an illustration for the facts stated1 and for those yet to be dealt with4 ,according to the ,christian view1 man is dependent on his ,creator1 from whom he receives life and light1 and1 in the same way1 his mind depends on truth1 by which it lives as the plants live1 by the light and the warmth of the sun4 ,to many generations this was self-evident1 and withal they felt themselves free1 because they looked for the freedom only of the dependent creature4 ,and1 keeping within these bounds1 they had a cheerful existence in the happy possession of their faith1 contented and serene in the possession of truth2 their higher spiritual life throve and flourished1 promoted by the ,eternal ,giver of light and warmth1 who held out to them the prospect of completing their mental life in the contemplation of ,his eternal truth4 ,what the fathers deemed self-evident has now become a problem to their sons4 ,what to their fathers was lofty and revered1 the things to which they ascribed their ennoblement1 have become to the sons an obstacle to free development4 ,they have forgotten what they are4 ,they demand independence and freest realization of their own individuality1 in which they see the sole source of greatness and progress4 ,in every dependence they perceive a hampering of their natural development4 ,we have in previous chapters become acquainted with this liberal freedom1 particularly in reasoning and in scientific research1 the child of the philosophy of humanitarianism and subjectivism1 the philosophy that emancipates man from ,god's rule1 from the immutable religious truths1 and which sees in this emancipation perfect freedom4 ,we have listened to the arguments in behalf of this position1 especially arguments against the duty to believe4 ,all that we have set forth hitherto was to prove that such a freedom is not required4 ,in the faithful adherence to ,god's revelation and to ,his ,church there is no degradation of reason1 an exaltation rather2 because to join in the eternal reason of its ,creator is not bondage but a privilege4 ,we proceed4 ,we shall demonstrate that this freedom is not only not required1 but that it is entirely untenable and ruinous2 that it is especially so because it is urged and demanded in the name of truth and proper order1 in the name of uplift of human intellectual life1 and of progress towards real enlightenment4 ,we shall see that this freedom is not a liberation from mean fetters1 but simply a revolt against the natural order1 an apostasy from ,god and the supernatural which one shuns4 ,hence1 not the natural and orderly development of the human individual1 but a principle of negation under the garb of freedom1 the severance of man from the sources of his greatness and strength1 the perversion of true science2 not the only admissible scientific method1 but an altogether unscientific method4 ,we shall show that it becomes thereby the principle of mental pauperization and decay1 a principle of mental decadence1 which in the sphere of idealism will reduce mankind to beggary4 ,thereby public testimony is given that in the midst of mankind there is needed an intelligent force that preserves1 with conscientious earnestness and unyielding firmness1 the intellectual inheritance of mankind1 the ideal treasures of truth and of morality4 ,chapter ,i4 ,free ,from ,the ,yoke ,of ,the ,supernatural4 ,ignoramus1 ,we ,ignore4 ,the liberal principle of research rests on the basis of the humanitarian view of the world1 which makes man autonomous1 and causes him to turn his eyes from above and downward1 and to fix them upon his earthly existence4 ,to remain true to its own idea1 this liberal science will feel the necessity to sever itself gradually from the restraining powers of the world beyond1 and to shun the thought of ,god and of ,his divine influence and supremacy over the world and human life4 ,it must resent such truths as a burdensome yoke that oppresses human freedom4 ,and to this thought it remains faithful1 if not in all its representatives1 then at any rate in a good many of them4 ,with unremitting persistency it enforces in all its domains the demand3 ,science must not reckon with supernatural factors4 ,ignoramus is its watchword1 8we do not know it0 in the sense of its usual agnosticism1 but 8we ignore it0 in the spirit of the impulse which dreads the loss of its freedom through higher powers4 ,creation and miracles1 divine revelation and the ,god-imposed duty of belief1 it does not know4 ,a moral law1 as given by ,god1 does not exist for this science4 ,it wants nothing to do with a religion that worships a personal ,god1 much less with a supernatural religion1 with mysteries1 miracles1 and grace4 ,it praises all the higher that modern religion of sentiment1 without dogmas and religious duties1 which sovereign man creates for himself1 a poetical adornment of his individuality1 a religion he need not ask what he owes it1 but rather what it offers him4 ,all connection with the world beyond is cut off4 ,man is now free in his own house4 ,we shall show this in detail1 by the testimony chiefly of men generally accepted as foremost representatives of modern science4 ,we do not assert1 however1 that all representatives of modern science belong here4 ,far be it from us to sit in judgment as to the good intentions of the champions of liberal science4 ,we know very well that an education indifferent to religion1 early habitual association with the ideas of a sceptical1 naturalistic philosophy1 the acquisition of prejudices and unsolved difficulties1 a continuous stay in an intellectual atmosphere foreign and inimical to religious belief--all this1 we well understand1 will gradually rob the mind of all inclination and unbiassed judgment for religious truth1 and thus make for apostasy from religion4 ,nor do we assert that the idea of ,god and ,christianity are extinct in the hearts of the representatives of liberal science1 but we do assert that their science no longer wants to know ,god and ,his true religion1 that only too often it is in the grip of a ,theophobia1 which slinks past ,god and ,his works1 with its eyes designedly averted4 ,at the same time the unprepossession of this science will be made clear4 8,a feeling of degradation pervades the ,german university circles10 so the learned ,mommsen expressed himself some years ago when ,strassburg was to get a ,catholic chair of history2 therefore a ,catholic who takes his ,catholic view of the world as his guide cannot be unprepossessed1 hence cannot be a true scientist4 ,we have become used to this reproach2 nevertheless it is very painful to a ,catholic1 especially when he devotes his life to scientific work4 ,the other side claims very emphatically to have a monopoly on unprepossession and truthfulness2 it gives most solemn assurances of not desiring anything but the truth1 of serving the truth alone1 with persevering unselfishness1 unaffected by disposition and party interest1 and that it has its unbiassed spiritual eye turned only to the chaste sunlight of truth4 ,hence1 we may be permitted to inquire whether these assurances square with the facts4 ,as they demand belief1 we may also demand proofs2 and if those assurances are accompanied by sharp accusations1 the accused will have even a greater right to examine the deeds and records of this assertive science4 ,what about the unprepossession of liberal science1 especially in the province of philosophy and religion8 ,it cannot be our intention to explore the whole territory in every direction4 ,we shall keep to the central and main road1 the road to which chiefly lead all other roads of life1 we mean the attitude of this school of research towards the world beyond4 ,we find this attitude to be one of persistent ignoring6 ,science cannot acknowledge the supernatural2 this presumption1 unproved and impossible of proof1 it never loses sight of1 it is even made a scientific principle1 which is called3 ,the ,principle of ,exclusive ,natural ,causation4 ,this principle demands that everything belonging to nature in its widest sense1 consequently all objects and events of irrational nature and of human life1 must be explained by natural causes only2 supernatural factors must not be brought in4 ,to assume an interposition by ,god1 in the form of creation1 miracle1 or revelation1 is unscientific2 he who does so is not a true scientist4 ,a presumption1 a mandate of truly stupendous enormity6 ,how can it be proved that there is no ,god1 that creation1 miracles1 the supernatural origin of religion1 are impossible things8 ,and if they are possible1 why should it be forbidden to make use of them in explaining facts which cannot otherwise be explained8 ,however1 it is readily admitted that the principle is merely a postulate1 an unproved presumption4 8,the postulate of exclusive natural causation tells us that natural events can have their causes only in other natural events1 and not in conditions lying outside of the continuity of natural causality02 so ,w4 ,wundt4 ,this is a 8postulate1 accepted by modern natural science partly tacitly1 partly by open profession40 8,even where an exact deduction is not possible1 natural science nevertheless acts under this supposition4 ,it never will consider a natural event to be causally explained1 if it is attempted to derive that event from other conditions than preceding natural events40 ,professor ,jodl protests against alliance with the ,catholic ,church1 for the reason that the latter does not acknowledge the fundamental presumption of all scientific research1 namely1 the uninterrupted natural causation1 and because the ,church is essentially founded on supernatural presumptions4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,messer thinks he has proved sufficiently the untenableness of the ,catholic faith by the simple appeal to this presumption3 8,natural sciences rest upon the presumption that everything is causally determined4 ,this means1 that the same causes must be followed by the same effects1 and all natural events take their course according to invariable laws4 ,it is against this presumption that the ,church exacts a belief in miracles1 in immediate divine manifestations1 not explainable by natural causes4 ,god is not a causal factor in the eyes of natural science1 because everything1 and for that very reason1 nothing1 could be explained through ,him40 ,we see that the principle is expressly admitted to be a mere presumption4 8,i concede readily10 says ,paulsen1 8that the law of natural causation is not a proven fact1 but a demand or presumption with which reason approaches the task of explaining natural phenomena4 ,but this postulate 444 is the hard-fought victory of long scientific effort4444 ,gradually there were eliminated from the course of nature demoniacal influence and the miraculous intervention of ,god1 and in their stead the idea of natural causation was installed40 ,it is merely another expression for the same thing if one calls1 with ,paulsen1 the unbroken causal connection 8the fundamental presumption of all our natural research02 or concludes1 with ,a4 ,drews1 that the assumption of a transcendental ,god1 beyond the visible1 and in causal relation to the world1 destroys the universal conformity to laws in the world1 the self-evident presumption of all scientific knowledge2 or one may say1 with ,f4 ,steudel1 8,the theory of unbroken causal connection has become the fundamental presupposition of all philosophical explanation of world happenings4 ,this finally disposes of a transcendental ,god1 together with his empiric correlative1 the miracle1 as a philosophical explanation of the world40 ,the same result is achieved by declaring evolution from natural factors as the universal world-law4 8,i ,know not ,god the ,father1 ,almighty ,creator of ,heaven and of ,earth0 ,with inexorable persistency this principle is now applied wherever science meets with ,god and the world beyond4 ,hence1 let us proceed on our way and halt at some points to watch this science at work4 ,the unbiassed reasoning of the mind shows that this world1 limited and finite1 in all its phenomena accidental and perishable1 cannot have in itself the cause of its existence1 hence1 that it demands a supernatural creative cause4 ,this solution of the question is by no means demonstrated by liberal science as untenable1 it is simply declined4 8,natural science1 once for all1 has not the least occasion to assume a supernatural act of creation02 this we are told by the famous historian of materialism1 ,f4 ,a4 ,lange4 8,to fall back upon explanations of this sort amounts always to straying from scientific grounds1 which not only is not permissible in a scientific investigation1 but should never enter into consideration40 ,and ,l4 ,plate states3 8,a creation of matter we cannot assume1 nor would such an assumption be any explanation at all2 at most1 it would be tantamount to exchanging one question mark for another4 ,we natural scientists are modest enough1 as matters now stand1 to forego a further solution of the question40 ,they will subscribe to ,du ,bois-,reymond's 8ignoramus0 rather than assume the only solution of the question1 an act of creation4 ,this scientist1 asking himself the question1 from where the world-matter received its first impulse1 argues3 8,let us try to imagine a primordial condition1 where matter had not yet been influenced by any cause1 and we arrive at the conclusion that matter an infinite time ago was inactive1 and equally distributed in infinite space4 ,since a supernatural impulse does not fit into our theory of the universe1 an adequate cause for the first action is lacking40 ,thus they frankly violate the scientific method that demands acceptance of the explanation demonstrated as necessary1 and violate it only for the reason to dodge the acknowledgment of a ,creator4 ,this is not science1 but politics4 ,but let us ask1 ,why should it be against science to reckon with supernatural factors8 ,is it because we cannot disclose with certainty the other world8 ,are they not aware that such a principle is opposed by the conviction of all mankind1 that always held these conceptions to be the highest1 and therefore not to be considered illusions8 ,do they not see1 moreover1 how they involve themselves in flagrant contradictions8 ,does not science by means of its laws of reasoning1 especially on the principle of causality1 constantly infer invisible causes from visible facts8 ,from physical-chemical facts ether and physical atoms1 which no man has ever seen1 are deduced3 from falling stones and the movement of astral bodies is inferred a universal gravitation1 undemonstrable by experience2 from an anonymous letter is deduced an author4 ,the astronomer deduces from certain facts that fixed stars must have dark companions1 visible to no one2 from disturbances in the movements of ,uranus ,leverrier found by calculation the existence and location of ,neptune1 then not as yet discovered4 ,hence1 what does it mean3 8to fall back upon explanations of this sort always amounts to straying away from scientific ground08 ,let us imagine a noble vessel on the high seas to have become the victim of a catastrophe4 ,it lies now at the bottom of the sea4 ,fishes come from all sides and stop musingly before the strange visitor4 ,whence did this come8 ,was it made out of water8 ,impossible6 ,did it creep up from the bottom of the sea8 ,no6 ,at last a fish reasons3 8,what we see here has undoubtedly come down to us from a higher world1 far above us1 and invisible to us40 ,the speech meets with approval4 ,but another fish objects3 8,nonsense6 ,to fall back upon explanations of this sort always amounts to straying away from the scientific grounds on which we fish must stand4 ,we cannot assume such a world to exist1 because this would offend against the first principle of our science1 the principle of the exclusive natural causation of sea and water40 ,with these words the speaker departs1 wagging his tail1 his speech having been received with stupefaction rather than with understanding4 ,to this philosophy may be applied the word of the ,apostle3 8,beware lest any man cheat you by philosophy and vain deceit0 7,col4 ii4 #h74 ,no1 it is not the spirit of true science that opposes the belief in supernatural factors1 but it is the desertion of the traditions and the spirit of a better science4 ,to the representatives of paganism1 to ,plato and others1 the highest goal of human quest of truth was to find ,god and to worship ,him4 ,for the great leaders in recent natural science1 ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 ,newton1 ,linn1 ,boyle1 ,volta1 ,faraday1 and ,maxwell1 the highest achievement was to point to ,god's wisdom in the wonderful works of nature2 their science ended in prayer4 ,a principle of unbroken natural causation1 as a boycott of the ,deity1 was to them not a postulate of science but an abomination4 ,they were carried by a conviction expressed by a later scientist1 ,w4 ,thomson1 in the following words3 8,fear not to be independent thinkers6 ,if you think vigorously enough1 you will be forced by science to believe in a ,god1 ,who is the basis of all religion02 and expressed by ,r4 ,mayer in the following words3 8,true philosophy must not and cannot be anything else but the propdeutics of the ,christian religion40 ,but let us proceed4 ,we have before us an astonishing order1 we behold uncounted wonders of well-designed purpose in the world4 ,the question suggests itself3 ,whence this ,order8 ,the watch originates from the intelligence of a maker1 an accident could not have produced it2 hence also the great world-machine must have had an intelligent maker4 ,this is the logic of unbiassed reason4 ,but the principles of liberal research object to the acceptance of this explanation4 ,what is theirs8 ,there have been some scientists endeavouring to discover the purposeless in nature1 and they have gleaned various things4 ,haeckel invented for them the name ,dysteleologists2 and this is now the name they go by4 ,why the destruction of so many living embryos8 ,what is the purpose of pain1 of the vermiform appendix8 8,to what purpose is the immense belt of desert extending through both large continents of the ,old ,world8 ,could the ,sahara not have been avoided8444 ,indeed1 numerous forms of life we cannot look at but with repugnance and horror2 for instance1 the parasitical beings40 444 7,f4 ,paulsen74 ,hence the order claimed for the world does not exist1 on the contrary1 8it is beyond doubt that the most essential means of nature is of a kind which can only be put on a level with the blindest accident0 7,f4 ,a4 ,lange74 ,but they do not feel satisfied with this4 ,they feel that even if all these things were actually purposeless1 they would amount only to a few drops in the immense ocean of order which still has to be explained4 ,at most1 they would form but a few typographical errors in an otherwise ingenious book1--errors that evidently are no proof that the whole book is a mass of nonsense and not dictated by reason4 ,there appears to them1 like a rescuing plank in a shipwreck1 ,darwin's ,natural ,selection4 ,the artistic forms in the kingdom of plants and animals arose1 says ,darwin1 by the fact that1 among numerous seemingly tentative formations1 there were some useful organs or their rudiments which survived in the struggle for existence and became hereditary in the offspring1 while others disappeared4 ,it was seen very soon1 and it is even better understood to-day1 that this enormous feat of 8natural selection0 is contrary to the facts1 and would be1 above all1 an incredible accident4 ,nevertheless ,darwin has become the rescuing knight for many who became alarmed about the threatening ,supernaturalism4 ,du ,bois-,reymond speaks very frankly3 8,albeit1 in holding to this theory we may feel like a man kept from drowning only by holding firmly to a plank just strong enough to keep him afloat4 ,but when we have to choose between a plank and death1 the preference will decidedly be with the plank40 ,the same idea is expressed somewhat more gracefully by ,w4 ,ostwald3 8,that the quite complicated problem concerning the purposiveness of organism loses its character of a riddle1 at least in principle1 and assumes the aspect of a scientific task1 all by virtue of this simple thought 444 is a gain that cannot be sufficiently appreciated40 ,with vehement plainness ,h4 ,spitzer maintains3 8,purposiveness in nature1 which was feared by positive research like a ghost1 because it really seemed only to be due to the intervention of ghosts in the course of the world1 has now been traced by ,darwin to its origin from natural causes1 and he thereby made it a fit object for the science that is at home only in the sphere of natural causes40 8,to the height of this point of view10 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss boasts1 8we have been led by modern natural research in ,darwin407#h7 ,at any rate one thing is settled3 8,the theological explanation must be rejected10 as ,plate puts it4 8,it sees in adaptation the proof for the love and kindness of a ,creator1 who has ordered all organisms most conformable to their purpose4 ,natural ,science cannot accept such an explanation40 ,is this the boasted spirit of truthfulness1 which desires only the truth1--but is evading it persistently8 ,is this that unbiassed eye that seeks only the truth8 ,truly1 it seems to be unsound1 since it cannot bear the rays of truth4 ,let us go to another workshop of liberal science4 ,it is known now that our earth has once been a ball of glowing fluid1 with a temperature in which no living being could exist4 ,consequently the latter must have appeared at a later stage of evolution4 ,as a fact1 palontology does not show any remnants of organisms in the lower strata of the earth4 ,now again a question suggests itself to the scientist1 ,whence did the first life come from8 ,we have the choice of only two explanations3 either it has risen by itself1 out of unorganic1 dead matter1 or it was produced by the hand of a ,creator3 either by generatio aequivoca or the act of creation4 ,now there has never been observed a generatio aequivoca1 as is testified to by natural science itself1 and never has it been accomplished in the laboratory4 ,therefore1 inasmuch as the natural laws of olden times cannot have been any different from those of the present1 there has never been a primordial genesis4 ,do they perhaps give the ,creator his due here1 where the case is so obvious8 ,let us see4 ,the noted zologist1 ,r4 ,hertwig1 writes3 8,inasmuch as there has doubtless been a time when the prevailing temperature of our globe made any life impossible1 there must have been a time when life on it arose either by an act of creation or by primordial genesis4 ,if1 conformable to the spirit of natural sciences1 we are relying only on natural forces for an explanation of natural phenomena1 then we are necessarily led to the hypothesis of primordial genesis10 although it contradicts all experience4 ,but the deduction is only brought forth as a 8logical postulate03 there 8must0 be such genesis after creation is eliminated4 8,we natural scientists say10 states ,plate1 8that all living beings must have originated some time in former geological periods 444 from dead1 unorganic matter2 to assume a creation would be no explanation at all1 exactly as it would be no explanation to assume the creation of matter40 ,which philosophy teaches that it is not an explanation of a fact to assume for it the only reasonable cause8 ,but just this cause they do not want4 ,virchow says in this respect3 8,if ,i do not wish to assume a creative act1 if ,i desire to explain the matter in my way1 then it is clear that ,i must resort to generatio aequivoca4 ,tertium non datur4 ,there is nothing else left1 if one once has said3 #8,i do not accept creation1 but ,i want an explanation of it4' ,if this is the first thesis1 the second thesis is1 ergo1 ,i accept the generatio aequivoca4 ,but we have no actual proof of it40 ,hence ,haeckel only follows the lead of others when he writes3 8,we admit that this process 7primordial genesis7 must remain a pure hypothesis1 as long as it is not directly observed or duplicated by experiment4 ,but ,i repeat that this hypothesis is indispensable for the entire coherence of the history of natural creation4 ,unless you accept the hypothesis of primordial genesis at this one point in the theory of evolution1 you must take refuge in the miracle of a supernatural creation40 ,is this science1 or is it not rather ,theophobia8 ,does the freedom of science consist1 first of all1 in the privilege of emancipating one's self from truth1 whenever truth is not to one's taste8 ,true1 liberal science will then be free from distasteful truths1 but all the more shackled by its irreligious prejudices4 ,in modern times1 the theory of evolution is in high favour4 ,on earth we do not only see life1 but life in a great variety of forms1 from plant to man4 ,the question1 whence this variety1 admits in its turn only of the alternative3 either it was immediately created by ,god's hand1 or it is the result of a slow evolution from common original forms4 ,whether there has been an evolution within the vegetable and animal kingdom is a problem for natural science4 ,but it is a philosophical question1 whether the essentially superior human soul1 endowed with spirituality and reason1 could have evolved from the inferior animal soul4 ,philosophy must answer3 ,no1 just as impossible as to evolve ten from two1 or a whole book from a single proofsheet4 ,faith says the human soul is created by ,god4 ,we do not intend to discuss the problem here any further1 but shall only point out how science here1 too1 expressly or tacitly1 is determined very energetically by the presumption of the exclusive natural causation2 this is applied to the entire theory of evolution1 but especially in regard to man4 8,the notion of the evolution of the living world on earth10 thus states ,weismann quite significantly1 8extends far beyond the provinces of individual sciences1 and it influences our entire range of thoughts4 ,this notion means nothing less than the elimination of miracle from our knowledge of nature1 and the classification of the phenomena of life on an equal footing with the rest of natural events40 ,the guiding motive is plainly in evidence4 ,the aim to eliminate the 8miracle of creation0 is manifested even more conspicuously in the question about the origin of man3 man with his entire equipment1 intellectual as well as cultural1 must have evolved upward from the most imperfect rudiments2 this is regarded as a self-evident proposition4 ,m4 ,hoernes1 for instance1 writes3 8,the ,cosmogonies1 i4e41 the theories of creation1 of all nations ascribe the origin of man to a supernatural act of creation1 whereby the ,creator is imagined as a human being1 because at the intellectual stage corresponding to these notions something created could only be conceived as something formed1 something constructed40 ,thus the theory of creation1 and the ,christian doctrine of the genesis of man1 is disposed of as a notion of the lower intellect4 8,on the contrary1 we are taught by science to look upon the highest mammals as our nearest blood-relatives40 ,this 8we are taught by science10 although it is confessed3 8,we know the fact of the existence of the man of the fourth1 or glacial1 period1 but we have not a solitary fact that would throw light upon his origin and his previous existence40 8,the theory of miracles can be given up only when we shall cease to contemplate man as a creature apart from the rest of creation1 and look upon him as a being developed within creation to what he is now4 ,then1 however1 reason and language1 as well as man himself1 are the products of a continuous evolution10 says ,wundt in his 8,psychology of ,nations40 ,fr4 ,mller1 in a text-book on the science of language1 argues3 8,according to ,darwin and to modern natural science1 man was not created but has evolved from a lower organism during a process of thousands and thousands of years4444 ,for this reason1 we must 787 assume that the first language of primitive man could not have ranked above the speech by which animals living in families communicate with each other40 ,on the basis of this truly dogmatical presumption1 that the 8miracle theory0 of creation must not be accepted1 they proceed then to construe one hypothesis upon another1 of the origin of language1 of thought1 of conscience1 of religion1 according to the method of ,darwin and ,spencer1 hypotheses of utmost arbitrariness1 and frequently most fantastic4 8,ethnographical researches10 so we are told by ,e4 ,lehmann1 8made by travellers1 representatives of science and of practical life1 in all parts of the globe1 444 are starting to-day1 almost without exception1 from the tacit presumption that the civilization of peoples living in the primitive state represent an early and low stage in a historical chain of evolution40 ,all these are suitable commentaries upon the trite proposition that natural science1 or more generally science1 is incompatible with religious belief4 ,of course research1 like that described above1 does not agree with ,faith4 ,but the fault lies in its unscientific method1 rather than in its scientific character1 in its latent atheistic presumption which prevents an unbiassed conception of truth4 ,in ,february1 #aijg1 the well-known biologist and priest of the ,jesuit order1 ,e4 ,wasmann1 gave three lectures in ,berlin on the theory of evolution1 before a large audience2 they were followed on the fourth evening by a discussion1 in the course of which eleven opponents voiced for nearly three hours their objections and attacks1 to which ,wasmann replied briefly at midnight1 but little time having been allotted to him for this purpose4 ,wasmann1 as well as his chief opponent1 ,prof4 ,plate of ,berlin1 have published the arguments on both sides with notes1 comments1 and supplements4 ,the report of ,prof4 ,plate lays stress upon the assertion1 which had also formed the refrain of all opposing speeches1 viz41 8the discussion has shown1 in the first place1 that true research in natural science is impossible for those taking the position of the ,roman ,catholic ,church2 secondly1 the glaring and irreconcilable opposition of the scientific theory of the world to the ,orthodox-,christian view was sharply manifested40 ,in examining how this was demonstrated by this particular natural science1 one meets with a painful surprise4 ,even the facts concerning the arrangements for the discussion make an unpleasant impression4 ,it is true1 ,plate accused ,wasmann of calumny on account of the latter's complaint4 ,however1 upon comparing closely the statements of both1 the following facts remain undisputed4 ,wasmann notified ,plate that he desired to speak twice during the discussion1 and that the entire discussion should not last much over two hours4 ,plate promised to arrange matters accordingly4 ,but on the forenoon of ,february #ahth1 the opponents held a meeting1 ,plate presiding1 and they resolved1 without the least notification to ,wasmann1 that there should be eleven speakers against ,wasmann1 and that the latter should reply but once1 at the end4 ,only just before the beginning of the discussion1 the same evening1 ,plate informed ,wasmann of the arrangement1 making it practically impossible for the latter to change the situation4 ,furthermore1 upon ,plate's proposal1 an intermission of five minutes before the appearance of the tenth speaker was decided upon1 8in order to give those in the audience1 who might find the session too exhausting1 a chance to leave40 ,thus the audience was to be subjected for three long hours to the influence of heated attacks on ,theism1 ,christianity1 and the ,church1 and without hearing the reply unless they held out from half-past eight in the evening to half-past twelve in the morning4 ,plate's ,monism rejects principally everything metaphysical3 8,monism is the short term for the natural science view of the world1 that rejects all preternatural and supernatural ideas40 ,solutions1 not given by the natural sciences1 simply do not exist for him2 for him the sun sets on the horizon of his natural science4 8,natural laws comprise all that we are able to fathom3 what is behind them1 or what is living in them and operates in them1 is the ultimate question for philosophy1 and there one thinks this way1 another that way0 7,plate74 ,nevertheless1 he knows that 8,out of nothing can come nothing3 hence matter is eternal10 and he is certain that there is no personal ,god1 no angel nor devil1 no beyond nor immortality4 ,whoever fails to think the same way is no scientist1 he is not even a man of sound reason3 because 8he who has grasped even the elements of natural science1 the unity and strict conformity to law of the natural forces1 and has a head for sound reasoning1 will become a monist all by himself1 while the rest are past help1 anyhow40 8,the ,polytheism of the orthodox ,church10 he says further1 referring to the mystery of the ,trinity1 8is irrational02 for 8,common ,sense says that #c is not equal to #a1 nor #a to #c10 and this is sufficient for ,plate4 8,trinity1 the ,incarnation of the ,son of ,god1 ,christ's ,ascension and ,his descent into hell1 ,original ,sin1 ,redemption from sin by ,christ's sacrifice1 ,angels and ,devils1 the ,immaculate ,conception1 the ,infallibility of the ,pope1 all these and many other doctrines of the orthodox ,church are thrown to the winds by anybody convinced of the permanence and imperviousness of the natural laws40 ,this again is sufficient for him4 8,the question whether ,god is personal or impersonal10 says he1 in another place1 8should never be raised3 it is just as preposterous as the question whether ,god has eyes or not40 ,another of his arguments reads3 8,if the body after death can become dust by natural means1 then there must have been conditions under which the dust became by natural means a body40 ,an analogous argument would be3 8,if a book can of itself finally wear away into withered and loosened leaves1 then there must be conditions under which the perfect book could originate all by itself1 and without ,prof4 ,plate1 out of withered1 loose leaves40 ,plate assures us3 8,i do not know anything about metaphysics40 ,we do not want to dispute that4 ,it is regrettable that so many scientists of our times are betraying a pitiable lack of philosophical training1 a lack which becomes a social danger if they1 nevertheless1 yield to the temptation to invade the domain of ,philosophy4 ,even the ,protestant scientist ,g4 ,wobbermin in referring to the above-mentioned discussion remarked3 8,wasmann's opponents on that evening have betrayed without exception a really amazing lack of philosophical training40 ,in glaring contrast with this ignorance stands their intolerance for any different theory of the world4 ,because he thinks as a ,christian1 ,wasmann is peremptorily expelled from the ranks of natural scientists4 8,father ,wasmann is not a true natural scientist1 he is not a true scholar40 ,with this crushing verdict ,prof4 ,plate concluded his speech4 ,he repeats this finding on the last page of his book in conspicuous type3 8,father ,wasmann1 ,s4 ,j41 no true natural scientist1 no true scholar40 ,that his opponent1 in answer to questions that go beyond mere natural science1 is giving philosophical replies1 in accord with the doctrine of ,christianity1 is explained by 8his voluntary or involuntary submission to the ,church10 8natural science bows to ,theology40 ,he therefore lacks 8the freedom of thought and of deduction40 ,sophistical stunts in the service of intolerance6 ,but let us proceed on our way4 ,the compulsory dogma of the inadmissibility of a supernatural order of the world1 and of its operation in the visible world1 becomes most manifest when liberal science comes in contact with the miracle4 ,forsooth1 it shirks this contact4 ,but time and again1 now and in the past1 it is confronted by clearly attested facts and it cannot avoid noticing them4 ,however1 it is determined from the outset that miracles are impossible4 ,of course1 this cannot be proved except by the presumption that there is no supermundane ,god4 ,even the agnostic ,stuart ,mill admits that if the existence of ,god is conceded1 an effect produced by ,his will1 which in every instance owes its origin to its creator1 appears no longer as a purely arbitrary hypothesis1 but must be considered a serious possibility 7,essays1 #ahgd74 ,generally1 however1 liberal science does not try hard to demonstrate in a scientific way the impossibility4 8,it is my unyielding conviction10 so speaks ,a4 ,harnack1 and his is perhaps the most telling expression of this dogmatic mood1 8that anything that happens within time and space is subject to the laws of motion4 ,hence1 that in this sense1 i4e41 of interrupting the natural connection1 there cannot be any miracles40 ,one simply does not believe such things4 8,that a tempest at sea10 thus ,harnack again1 8could have been stilled by a word we do not believe1 nor shall we ever again believe it40 ,similarly reads ,baumgarten's declaration regarding the resurrection of ,christ3 8,even if all the reports had been written on the third day1 and had been transmitted to us as a certainty 444 nevertheless modern consciousness could not accept the story40 ,and ,w4 ,foerster writes3 8,the supposition that such interferences do not occur1 and that everything in the world is advancing steadily and in accordance with fixed laws1 forms the indispensable presumption of scientific research40 ,and ,h4 von ,sybel holds 8,an absolute concord with the laws of evolution1 a common level in the existence of things terrestrial1 forms the presumption of all knowledge3 it stands and falls with it40 ,this is the presumption1 from which is drawn the most extravagant conclusion1 which1 though so manifestly improper1 is made the basis for rejecting the entire supernatural religion of ,christianity4 ,because ,god's ,incarnate ,son1 in a small town of ,palestine1 once turned water into wine1 will the ,christian housewife lose her confidence in the stability of water8 ,when it was suddenly discovered that the orbit of the planet ,uranus was not a perfect ellipsis1 as required by the law of ,kepler1 was it thought that these deviations are impossible because there must not be any exception to the law of perfect elliptical movements8 ,happily1 this law continued to be accepted without deeming an irregularity impossible1 and shortly afterwards ,neptune was discovered and found to be the cause of the disturbance4 ,but anything miraculous1 no matter how well proven1 must be considered unacceptable by reason of such unsound presumption4 ,philosophical a-priorism is superior to facts4 ,thus ,st4 ,augustine tells in his work 8,de civitate ,dei0 7#a4 xxii4 c4 #h7 of a number of miracles happening in his time1 of which he had knowledge either as eye-witness or by authentical reports from eye-witnesses4 ,e4 ,zeller renders judgment on the historical value of the statement as follows3 8,the narrator is a contemporary1 and partly even an eye-witness1 of the events reported3 by virtue of his episcopal office he is particularly commissioned to closely investigate them2 we know him as a man overtowering his contemporaries in intellect and knowledge1 second to none in religious zeal1 strong faith1 and moral earnestness4 ,the wonderful events happened to well-known persons1 sometimes in the presence of big crowds of people2 they were attested and recorded by official order40 ,hence the statement must be accepted without objection4 ,but must it not also be believed8 is the query of an unbiassed listener4 ,not in the judgment of one who is in the tyrannical yoke of his presumptions4 8,what are we to say about it80 continues ,zeller1 and finds that 8in this unparalleled aggregation of miracles we can after all see nothing else but a proof of the credulity of that age40 ,the report is incontestable1 but it must not be believed6 ,in our times ,lourdes has become the scene of events which are founded on facts1 and the miraculous character has been proven at least of some of them4 ,bertrin1 in his 8,histoire critique des evnments de ,lourdes10 deals with the attitude of the physicians toward the miracles4 ,the believing physician can enter upon his investigation without prejudice3 not so the unbelieving physician and scientist1 who is shackled by his prejudice against the possibility of miracles4 ,of this a few examples3 8,how did you get cured80 was the question put by a physician to a young woman who1 after having suffered for four years from a suppurating inflammation of the hip joints1 complicated by caries1 had a few days previously suddenly regained her full health4 ,pains and sores had disappeared4 8,by whom was ,i cured8 ,by the ,blessed ,virgin60 8,never mind the ,blessed ,virgin10 replied the physician4 8,young woman1 why don't you admit that you had been assured in advance that you would get well4 ,you were told that1 once in ,lourdes1 you would suddenly rise from the box wherein you were lying4 ,that sort of thing happens--we call it suggestion40 ,the girl replied1 unhesitatingly1 that it did not happen this way at all4 ,finally the physician offered her money if she would admit having really been cured by suggestion4 ,the girl declined the offer4--,another girl arrived in ,lourdes1 with a physician's attestation that she was a consumptive4 ,she is cured after the first bath4 ,at the bureau of verification her lungs were found to be no longer diseased4 ,her physician's statement having been very brief1 a telegram was sent to him as a matter of precaution1 asking him for another statement without1 however1 informing him of the cure4 ,the physician immediately wired back3 8,she is a consumptive40 ,this was also the opinion of other physicians who had treated the girl4 ,the girl joyfully returns home1 and hurries to her physician1 requesting him to certify to her cure4 ,he does so quite reluctantly4 ,upon reading his certificate1 she discovers that it said she had been cured1 but only of a cough4 ,the case of consumption of his original testimonial had changed into a cough4 ,his dread of a miracle had induced this physician to commit a falsehood4 ,a4 ,rambacher1 as he relates in a pamphlet1 sent the scientific treatise on ,lourdes by ,dr4 ,boissarie to ,prof4 ,haeckel1 with the request to read it1 in order to gain a better notion of the existence of a supernatural world4 ,after some urging he finally received the following reply1 which speaks volumes for the attitude of the natural scientist towards facts3 8,with many thanks ,i hereby return the book by ,dr4 ,boissarie on the ,great ,cures of ,lourdes which you sent me4 ,the perusal of the same has convinced me anew of the tremendous power of superstition 7glorified as #8pious belief'7 of nave credulity 7without critical examination71 and of contagious collective suggestion1 as well as of the cunning of the clergy1 exploiting them for their gain4444 ,the physicians1 said to testify in behalf of the #8miracles' and the supernatural phenomena1 are either ignorant and undiscerning quacks1 or positive frauds in collusion with the priests4 ,the most accurate description of the gigantic swindle of ,lourdes ,i know of1 is that of ,zola in his well-known novel4444 ,with repeated thanks for your kindness 444 ,ernst ,haeckel40 ,against all the facts in evidence this dogmatic scientist was safely intrenched behind the stone wall of his presumptions4 ,he knew in advance that everything was superstition or the fraud of cunning priests1 that all physicians who certified to cures were quacks and cheats4 ,zola's tendentious romance considered the best historical source6 ,mention should be made here how this celebrated novelist dealt with facts at ,lourdes4 ,in the year #ahib1 the time of the great pilgrimage1 ,zola went to ,lourdes4 ,he wanted to observe and then tell what he had seen4 ,an historical novel it was to be2 time and again he had proclaimed in the newspapers that he would tell the whole truth4 ,at ,lourdes all doors were opened to him2 he had admittance anywhere2 he could interview and obtain explanations at will4 ,how he kept his promise to report the truth may be shown by a single instance3 ,marie ,lebranchu came to ,lourdes on ,august #bj1 #ahib1 suffering from incurable consumption4 ,she was suddenly cured1 and never had a relapse4 ,one year after her cure she returned to the miraculous ,grotto4 ,the excellent condition of her lungs was again verified4 ,now1 what does ,zola make of this event8 ,in his novel the cured girl suffers a terrible relapse upon her first return home1 8a brutal return of the disease which remained victorious10 we read in ,zola's book4 ,one day1 the president of the ,lourdes ,bureau of ,investigation introduced himself to ,zola in ,paris1 and asked him 8,how dare you let ,marie ,lebranchu die in your novel2 you know very well that she is alive and just as well as you and ,i40 8,what do ,i care10 was ,zola's reply1 8,i think ,i have the right to do as ,i please with the characters ,i create40 ,if a romancer desires to avail himself of this privilege he certainly has not the right to proclaim his novels as truthful historical writings1 much less may others see in such a novel the 8most accurate description of the events at ,lourdes40 ,renan at one time said3 8,oh1 if we just once might have a miracle brought before professional scientists6 ,but1 alas6 this will never happen60 ,he borrowed this saying from ,voltaire1 with the difference that the latter demanded ,god to perform a miracle before the ,academy of ,sciences1 as if there were need for miracles in a physical or chemical laboratory4 ,those who desire in earnest to investigate miracles ought to go where they are performed4 ,and even there1 where the eyes can see them1 it also takes good will to acknowledge them4 ,in this respect an interview is instructive which ,zola once had with an editor4 ,the latter asked3 8,if you were witness to a miracle1 that would occur under strictest conditions suggested by yourself1 would you acknowledge the miracle8 ,would you then accept the teachings of the faith80 ,after a few moments of serious thought1 ,zola replied3 8,i do not know1 but ,i do not believe ,i would0 7,bertrin74 ,on ,april #g1 #ahge1 there came to the ,belgian sanctuary1 ,oostacker1 a ,flemish labourer1 by name ,peter de ,rudder1 whose leg had eight years before been broken below the knee1 and who was then suffering from two suppurating cancerous sores1 that had formed at the place of the fracture and on the foot4 ,he suddenly was entirely cured4 ,the case was investigated in a most exact way4 ,in #aijj a treatise concerning the case was published by three physicians4 ,e4 ,wasmann had as early as #aijj published a short extract of it in the 8,stimmen aus ,maria ,laach40 ,in ,february1 #aijg1 when1 at ,berlin1 he delivered his lectures which were followed by a discussion1 his opponents1 headed by ,prof4 ,plate1 did not know of this article4 ,when they learned of it1 some time afterwards1 he was put under the ban because he 8had degraded himself to the position of a charlatan by vouching with his scientific repute for the happening of a miraculous cure02 and they said 8they would fight him in the same way as they would fight every quack1 but as a scientist he was discarded40 ,plate had on the evening of the discussion asked of the assembled scientists the question3 8,have we ever observed anything like a suspension of the natural laws8 ,the reply to it is an unconditional #8we have not'2 consequently ,theism becomes inadmissible to the natural scientist40 ,here1 in the de ,rudder case1 is found the required instance4 ,but ,plate knows1 in advance of any investigation1 that it is a fairy tale1 believed without critical examination4 ,and ,prof4 ,hansemann1 another opposing speaker of that evening1 subsequently sent word to ,wasmann that3 8,one can pretty well judge what to think of a natural scientist who publishes such stuff4 ,for this reason ,i now declare that ,i shall never in future1 no matter how or where1 enter into discussion of matters of natural science with ,mr4 ,wasmann40 ,when on a certain occasion ,hegel was advised that some facts did not agree with his philosophical notions1 he replied3 8,the more pity for the facts40 ,the ,english natural scientist1 ,w4 ,thomson1 once said before the ,british ,society at ,edinburgh3 8,science is bound by eternal honour to face fearlessly every problem that can be clearly laid before it40 ,the equally famous ,faraday1 in the name of empirical research1 demands of its adherents the determination to stand or to fall with the results of a direct appeal to the facts in the first place1 and with the strict logical deductions therefrom in the second4 ,in general these principles are adhered to so long as religious notions are not encountered4 ,but as soon as these are sighted1 the engine is reversed1 and all scientific principles are forgotten4 ,a science led by this spirit will set out to emancipate man's moral conduct of life from ,god and religion4 ,indeed1 the first postulate of modern ethics directs that morality must be independent of religion4 ,that ,god and eternal salvation is the end of man1 the ultimate norm of his moral life1 that ,god's ,command is the ultimate reason of the moral obligation1 and divine sanction its strongest support1 it does not want to acknowledge4 ,here1 too1 we find the principle of natural causality in operation4 8,as in physics ,god's will must not be made to serve as an explanation1 so likewise in the theory of moral phenomena4 ,both the natural and the moral world1 as they exist1 may point beyond themselves to something transcendental4 ,but we cannot admit the transcendental 444 a scientific explanation will have to be wholly immanent1 and anthropological0 7,paulsen74 ,according to this approved principle of ignoration1 the supreme aim and law of a morality without religion is man1 his earthly happiness1 and his culture4 ,its aims1 according to ,prof4 ,jodl1 one of its noted champions1 are3 8,promotion of moral life1 fostering of a refined humanity1 development of a true fellow-feeling1 without the religious and metaphysical notions upon which mankind hitherto has mostly built its ethical ideals40 ,kant was the pioneer here3 8,in so far as morality is based on the conception of man as a free1 being1 it requires neither the idea of a superior being to make him cognizant of his duties1 nor any motive but the law itself in order to observe it 444 hence morality for its own sake does not by any means need religion40 ,this is the viewpoint of the autonomous man1 who is his own law4 8,from the viewpoint of authority10 so tells us ,e4 von ,hartmann1 8autonomy does not mean anything else but that in ethical matters ,i am for myself the highest court without appeal4444 ,the ,god1 ,who in the beginning spoke to ,his children from a fiery cloud 444 has descended into our bosom1 and1 transformed into our own being1 speaks out of us as a moral autonomy40 ,diis extinctis successit humanitas4 8,although an individual representative of science may be a believer in ,god in his private life10 so argues the ,english philosopher1 ,w4 ,james1 8at any rate the times have passed when it could be said that the heavens announce to science the glory of ,god1 and that the heaven shows the works of ,his hands40 ,the flight from divinity1 atheism open or disguised1 is the psychological effect of the liberal principle4 ,free thought aims to free man of all authority1 it aims at severing from religion his entire existence1 marriage1 state1 schools1 and likewise science4 8,it is undeniable10 we hear from the lips of champions of modern man1 standing on the pinnacle of religious liberalism1 8that there is a certain forsakenness in this existence of man1 as compared to a life brightened by the idea of a ,god10 but that forsakenness is not purchased too dearly1 for 8it is the solitude of autonomy1 a possession so precious that no price for it could be too high0 7,carneri74 ,indeed1 these modern men use even plainer language3 science is applauded for having at last freed man from ,god4 ,with ,kant's principle that we cannot know anything of the supernatural1 we are told1 there 8were thrown overboard the cosmogonic notions of the ,semitic races1 notions that have so severely oppressed our science and religion1 and are still oppressing them4444 ,by this insight an idol is smashed4 ,in a previous chapter ,i called the ,israelites the worshippers of abstract idols2 now1 ,i believe1 ,i shall be fully understood40 ,indeed1 we understand4 ,it means3 ,away with ,god4 8,this ,german metaphysics frees us from idolatry and reveals to us the living divinity in our own bosom0 7,chamberlain74 ,this is the manner in which this free thought1 within science and without1 is fulfilling the earnest admonition of the ,psalmist3 8,seek ye the ,lord and be strengthened3 seek ,his face evermore0 7,ps4 civ4 #d71 and it turns into irony the words3 8,this is the generation of them that seek ,him1 of them that seek the face of the ,god of ,jacob0 7,ps4 xxiii4 #f74 8,i ,know not ,jesus ,christ1 ,his ,only ,begotten ,son1 ,our ,lord40 ,where the thought of independence and of this world enslaves the minds1 and holds them captive in harsh aversion to the supernatural1 an objective judgment on the nature and history of the ,christian religion1 to say nothing of the ,catholic ,church1 can hardly be hoped for4 ,what may be expected is that we will also meet here with a science which1 with its hands held before the eye that fears the light1 wards off and combats everything that is specifically ,christian4 ,it is to be feared only that it will turn light into darkness regarding the view of life1 as also the doctrine and history1 of the ,christian religion4 ,regarding the ,christian view of life we need only read the superficial and yet so arrogant discussions of ,christian philosophy1 as found in ,paulsen1 ,wundt1 or ,e4 von ,hartmann4 ,from this judicial bench the wisdom of ,him1 of ,whom it is said 8,and we saw ,his glory1 full of grace and truth10 we see condemned1 if not even treated with subtle ridicule4 ,let us for instance take ,paulsen's presentment of the 8,view of ,life under ,christianity40 ,whoever reads it1 and believes it1 to him the teaching of ,jesus ,christ can only be1 what the ,apostle said it was to the heathens1 foolishness4 ,no longer can he have adoration for its ,founder1 but rather the pity that one has for an enthusiastic visionary devoid of any knowledge of the world and men4 ,the wisdom taught by ,christ is distorted into a sombre grimace1 while side by side with it the conception of life of ,hellenic paganism is transfigured into a beautiful ideal4 ,we are told there3 8,while classical antiquity saw as the task of life the perfect development of the natural powers and talents of man1 444 ,christianity with clear consciousness makes the contrary the goal of life40 8,the cultivation and exercise of intellectual faculties was of great importance to the ,greeks4444 ,primitive ,christianity looks upon reason and natural cognition with indifference1 even with suspicion and contempt 444 indeed1 natural reason and knowledge are an obstacle for the kingdom of ,god4 ,christianity at first was indifferent1 even inimical1 not only to philosophy and science1 but also to art and poetry4 ,it cuts off not only sensual but also sthetical gratification10 because ,st4 ,john condemned the gratification of the eyes 7which means something quite different from sthetical gratification7 ,christianity is said to reject 8the arts of the ,muses and athletics3 they belong to that sowing of the flesh of which the harvest is perdition40 8,what the ,christians valued highly was not erudition and eloquence1 but silence4 ,silence is the first thing recommended by ,ambrose0 7and he the great and renowned representative of early ,christian eloquence674 ,there is more3 8,in the primitive view the first virtue was valour1 especially valour in war2 indeed1 in ,greek and ,latin speech the word 'virtue' meant valour2 the ,christian's virtue1 however1 is patience and endurance4 ,he does not draw the sword2 to him are expressly forbidden not only anger1 hatred1 and private revenge1 but even litigation40 ,in this tendentious strain ,paulsen continues1 with exaggerations and misrepresentations that have nothing in common with science4 ,according to the ,greek view1 he says1 high-mindedness was a great virtue1 but1 naturally1 the ,christian is not allowed to have it2 8the virtue of the ,christian is humility10 i4e41 in ,paulsen's sense low-mindedness2 this is 8the starting point of ,christianity40 ,true1 the author assures us that ,christianity of to-day is no longer the one he is describing2 it has adapted itself more to the world4 ,but it is sad to have this gloomy1 visionary fanaticism described to us as the one which was taught by the words of ,jesus ,himself4 ,the adherent of this ,christianity looks upon governments and their aims as something essentially foreign to it1 even to be an official 8would doubtless have been felt as a contradiction02 but a sudden change is said to have taken place under ,constantine4 ,earthly joys and benefits1 the holy ties of the family1 those that ,jesus in person blessed at ,cana1 they were1 according to ,st4 ,paul1 so we are told1 in the spirit of ,christ things to avoid and condemn4 ,and how are these theological discoveries proven1 what sources are quoted in substantiation8 ,by some arbitrarily selected passages of the ,scriptures1 that one must hate father and mother1 wife and child1 brother and sister2 that the poor in spirit are blessed1 that the lust of the eye is sinful1 that evil should not be resisted2 and in quoting these passages all scientific interpretation is carefully avoided1 all the writers who have amply explained them are ignored4 ,and what the scriptural passages fail to prove must be demonstrated by some extreme statement borrowed from ,tertullian1 who is generally prone to exaggeration4 ,as a matter of course1 gloomy ,christianity then seems inferior to the brilliancy of ,greek paganism2 ,christianity is directly a danger to civilization2 it may be good enough for those tired of life4 8,the objection has been made that the fulfilment of this command would destroy our entire civilization4 ,most probably this would be the case4 ,but where is it written 7in ,holy ,writ7 that our civilization must be preserved80 ,we have here the picture formed of the doctrine of ,christ by the world1 whereof the ,lord has predicted3 the world will hate you4 ,paulsen admits frankly3 8,whence this hatred8 ,because the ,christian despises that which to the world is the highest good4 ,there can be no better reason for hating any one44440 ,it is easy to understand that one who has for a long time mentally abandoned his ,christian faith1 cannot carry in mind its picture as undistorted as he did in his better days1 and as would conform to reality4 ,but it is reprehensible to exhibit in public this picture1 without having previously and conscientiously examined the main lines1 to see whether they are not caricatures4 ,and they are caricatures1 traced by a hand that is led by the mood of a secret anti-,christianity4 ,a treatment identical with that of its view of life is accorded to the doctrine and history of the ,christian religion4 ,not science and uncorrupted truthfulness1 but antipathy1 presumption1 harsh denial of everything divine1 only too often point the way4 ,let us listen again to the author named above1 since he knows to express modern thought with a clearness and precision almost unequalled by any one else4 ,it made a painful impression to find in the ,christmas number1 #aijh1 of the liberal-theological 8,christliche ,welt0 a posthumous article by ,fr4 ,paulsen3 8,what think you of ,christ3 ,whose ,son is ,he80 ,the article was without doubt one of the last he had written4 ,it contains the program of modern liberal science4 8,with the seventeenth century10 we read there1 8begins the reorganization of the theory of the universe by science4 ,its general tendency may be described by the formula3 ,elimination of the supernatural from the natural and historical world40 8,consequently1 no miracles in history1 no supernatural birth1 no resurrection1 no revelation1 in fact no interference by the ,eternal in temporal events40 ,hence1 the man who 8thinks scientifically in this wise can have no doubt that the old ecclesiastical dogma cannot be reconciled with scientific thought40 ,this1 of course1 amounts to a complete renunciation of positive ,christianity4 ,this scientific thought1 in the words of ,baumgarten1 8rejects any projection of the supernatural into tangible reality02 especially is 8the metaphysical genesis and nature of the ,saviour highly offensive to our ethical consciousness10 even 8absolutely unbearable40 ,the ,christian religion can no longer be permitted to overtower other religions by its supernaturalness4 8,the distinction between a revealed and a natural religion becomes an impossibility10 says ,w4 ,bousset4 ,and ,wundt declares3 8,christianity1 as an #8absolute' or a #8revealed' religion1 would stand opposed to all other religious development1 as an incommensurable magnitude4 ,this point of view1 evidently1 cannot be competent for our speculations40 ,having become the ruling mode of thought1 these presumptions determine from the outset the results to be obtained by 8research10 and they force it to violate its own method1 so that it may be dragged along the by-ways and false ways of a mistaken1 philosophical a-priorism1 thereby making freedom of science a mockery4 ,from the abundant material at our disposal let us take only one example1 viz41 the ,modern ,criticism of the ,gospels4 ,the ,gospels contain many records of facts of a supernatural character1 of miracles and prophecies4 ,that these records are necessarily false is the first principle of the historical1 or critical1 method1 as it is called4 8,as a miracle of itself is unthinkable1 so the miracles in the history of ,christianity1 and in the ,christianity of the ,new ,testament1 are likewise unthinkable4 ,hence1 when miracles are nevertheless narrated1 these narratives must be false1 in as far as they report miracles3 that is1 either the relation did not happen at all1 or1 if it did1 there was a sufficient natural explanation02 8the historian must under all circumstances answer1 #8,no1' to the question whether the report of a miracle is worthy of belief0 7,t4 ,zeller74 ,thus instructed1 8unprejudiced0 research proceeds to construct its results of the investigation of the genuineness1 time and date1 of the writing of the ,gospels and of the ,acts1 as well as of their credibility4 ,let us see how this is done4 ,the tradition of the early ,church1 as well as intrinsic evidence1 testify that the first ,gospel was really written by the ,apostle ,matthew1 and this certainly before the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,liberal-,protestant criticism1 however1 assigns its origin to a time after the year #gj1 chiefly for two reasons3 ,first1 the striking prophecy of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 conforming so accurately to the actual event1 could have been written only after the year #gj2 otherwise it would have amounted to a real prophecy subsequently fulfilled1 a conclusion that cannot be accepted4 ,the second reason is this3 ,the contents of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel is already wholly ,catholic1 hence it must have been written during a later1 ,catholic1 period4 ,for as there can be no influences from above1 and as everything is evolved in a natural way1 the principle must govern3 that the more supernatural and the more dogmas1 so much later the period in question2 at first there could have been only a religion of sentiment without dogma1 which gradually developed into ,catholic dogmatism4 ,similar are the presumptions which direct modern research in respect to the genuineness of the other ,gospels and the ,acts4 ,a few proofs3 ,prof4 ,jlicher thinks that1 8,while we cannot go prior to the beginning of the second century1 because of external testimony1 we cannot on the other hand maintain a later date4 ,the most probable time for our ,gospel is the one shortly before the year #ajj44440 ,why8 8,because the ill-fitting feature in the parable of the wedding feast1 that the king in his wrath1 because his invitation had been made light of1 sent forth his armies and destroyed those murderers and burned up their city1 could hardly have been invented before the conflagration of ,jerusalem0--a prophecy1 namely1 of the coming destruction of ,jerusalem cannot be admitted4 8,but to my mind1 the decisive point is found in the religious position of ,matthew4 ,despite his conservative treatment of tradition1 he already stands quite removed from its spirit2 he has written a ,catholic ,gospel4444 ,to ,matthew the congregation1 the ,church1 forms the highest court of discipline1 being the administrator of all heavenly goods of salvation2 his ,gospel determines who is to rule1 who to give laws3 in its essential features the early ,catholicism is completed40 ,jlicher arrives at a similar conclusion in his research on ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel3 8,that ,luke's ,gospel was written sometime after the destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4,d41 is proven beyond any doubt1 by xxi4 #bb-bd1 where the terrible events of the ,jewish war are #8foretold4'444 ,all arguments in favor of a later date of writing concerning ,matthew hold good also of ,luke40 ,even more unreserved is ,o4 ,pfleiderer1 until recently a prominent representative of liberal-,protestant theology at ,berlin3 8,in this ,gospel we find the elements of dogma1 morals1 the constitution of the developing ,catholic ,church4 ,catholic is its trinitarian formula of christening1 this embryo of the ,creed and of the apostolic symbol4 ,catholic is its teaching of ,christ 444 ,catholic1 the doctrine of ,salvation 444 ,catholic are the morals 444 ,catholic1 finally1 is the importance attached to ,peter as the foundation of the ,church and as the bearer of the power of the key40 ,in regard to this latter point ,pfleiderer remarks expressly3 8,in spite of all attempts of ,protestants to mitigate this passage 7,matt4 xvi4 #ag-bj7 there is no doubt that it contains the solemn proclamation of ,peter's ,primacy40 ,the unsophisticated reader thereupon would be likely to deduct3 ,if the oldest ,gospel is already ,catholic1 then it must be admitted that earliest ,christianity was already ,catholic4 ,in so reasoning he might have rightly concluded1 but he would have shown himself little acquainted with the method of liberal science4 ,this infers contrariwise3 early ,christianity must not be ,catholic1 hence the ,catholic ,gospel cannot be so old1 it must be the fraudulent concoction of a later time2 8hence the origin of the ,gospel of ,matthew is to be put down not before the time of ,hadrian2 in the fourth century rather than in the third40 ,a4 ,harnack fixes the date of the ,gospel at shortly after #gj1 because 8,matthew1 as well as ,luke1 are presupposing the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,this follows with the greatest probability from ,matt4 xxii4 #g 7the parable of the marriage feast740 ,this is to be held also of ,luke's ,gospel4 8,this much can be concluded without hesitation3 that1 as now admitted by almost all critics1 ,luke's ,gospel presupposes the destruction of ,jerusalem40 ,remarkable is ,harnack's latest attitude towards the ,acts2 it shows again that the results of modern biblical criticism are less the results of historical research than of philosophical presumptions4 ,in his 8,acts of the ,apostles0 ,harnack admits3 8,very weighty observations indicate that the ,acts 7hence also the ,gospels7 were already written at the beginning of the sixties40 ,in substantiation he cites not less than six reasons which evidently prove it3 they are based upon the principles of sound historical criticism4 8,these are opposed solely by the observation that the prophecy about the catastrophe of ,jerusalem in some striking points comes near to the actual event1 and that the reports about the ,apparition and the legend of the ,ascension would be hard to understand prior to the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,it is hard to decide4444 ,but it is not difficult to judge on which side the weightier arguments are0 7viz41 on the part of the contention for an earlier date74 ,yet ,harnack is loath to accept the better scientific reasons3 they must suffer correction by presumptions4 ,he formulates his final decision in the following way3 8,luke wrote at the time of ,titus1 or during the earlier time of ,domitian 7871 but perhaps 7only perhaps1 in spite of decisive arguments7 already at the beginning of the sixties40 7,recently ,harnack recedes to the time before the destruction of ,jerusalem without1 however1 acknowledging a divine prophecy of this catastrophe47 ,similar is this theologian's proof that the fourth ,gospel could not have been written by ,john1 the son of ,zebedee2 because xxi4 #bj-bc 7,i will that he tarry till ,i come7 cannot be a prophecy1 but must have been written down after the death of the favourite disciple4 8,the section xx4 #bj-bc obviously presupposes the death of the beloved disciple2 on the other hand he cannot be left out of the #bast ,chapter4 ,this #bast ,chapter1 however1 shows no other pen than that which had written ,chapters #a-bj4 ,this proves that the author of ,chapter #ba1 hence the author of ,chapters #a-bj1 could not have been the son of ,zebedee1 whose death is there presupposed40 ,the whole argument again rests upon the refusal to hold possible a prophecy from the lips of ,jesus4 ,the main reason1 however1 for disputing the genuineness of the fourth ,gospel1 although external tradition and internal criterions testify to it as the writing of ,st4 ,john1 is1 because it teaches so clearly the divinity of ,christ3 and this must be denied4 ,significant are1 for instance1 the words in which ,weizscker sums up his objections to this gospel3 8,that the ,apostle1 the favorite disciple according to the ,gospel1 who sat at the table beside ,christ1 should have looked upon and represented everything that he once experienced1 as the living together with the incarnate divine ,logos1 is rather a puzzle4 ,no power of faith and no philosophy can be imagined big enough to extinguish the memory of real life and to replace it by this miraculous image of a divine being 444 of one of the original ,apostles1 it is unthinkable4 ,upon this the decision of this point will always hinge4 ,anything else that may be added from the contents of the ,gospel is subordinate40 ,this means1 ,christ cannot be admitted to be a ,divine ,being--impossible4 ,an eye-witness could not take ,him for it3 therefore1 this 8miraculous picture of a ,divine ,being0 cannot have been the work of an eye-witness4 ,like the genuineness of the ,gospels1 so is also their credibility beyond a doubt4 ,two of them are written by ,apostles1 the two others by ,disciples of the ,apostles3 they also have all the marks peculiar to writings of eye or ear witnesses1 or of persons who have heard the narratives directly from the lips of eye-witnesses4 ,nor would any one doubt their credibility if they did not report supernatural facts4 ,but1 this being the case1 infidel research is bound to arrive at the opposite result4 ,the writers were frauds--this was long ago the hypothesis of the superficial ,hamburg ,professor1 ,samuel ,reimarus1 whose 8,fragments0 were published by ,lessing4 ,but even to a ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss 8such a suspicion was repulsive40 ,the ,heidelberg ,professor1 ,h4 ,e4 ,paulus1 sought his salvation in trying to reduce the reports of miracles to a natural sense1 by doing painful violence to the text3 for instance1 the ,lord did not walk upon the sea1 but only along the sea2 the miracle of the wine at ,cana was only a wedding joke4 ,then came ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss 7died #ahgd71 and he tried it in a different way4 8,if the ,gospels are really historical documents1 then the miracle cannot be removed from the life of ,jesus40 ,hence1 it is to remain8 ,indeed not6 ,the ,gospels must not be accepted as historical sources4 ,they are products of purposeless poetic legends1 the miracles are garlands of religious myths1 gradually twined around the picture of ,jesus4 ,myths1 however1 need time for their formation1 hence ,strauss fixes the date of the ,gospels within the second century4 ,he openly admits that his hypothesis would fall to the ground if but a single ,gospel has been written in the first century4 ,as a fact1 more recent rationalistic criticism has found itself constrained to drop this hypothesis4 ,f4 ,ch4 ,baur 7died #ahfj7 fell back upon the fraud-hypothesis of a ,reimarus4 ,it1 too1 has been laid among the dead4 ,thus they have exhausted themselves in the attempt to shake off the burdensome yoke of truth4 ,influenced by ,strauss1 ,baur1 and other ,german critics1 ,e4 ,renan 7died #ahib7 wrote his 8,life of ,jesus10 a frivolous romance4 ,quite frank are the words he wrote down in the preface to the thirteenth edition of his 8,vie de ,jsus0 7#ahhc73 8,if miracle has any reality1 then my book is nothing but a tissue of errors4444 ,if the miracle and the inspiration of certain books are real things1 then our method is abominable40 ,but he silences all doubts by the phrase3 8,to admit the supernatural is alone sufficient to place one's self outside of science40 ,the newer 8historical-critical0 school1 while having disposed of many contentions of the old schools1 is nevertheless in its research bound just as energetically by the postulate of conformity to natural laws4 ,the fourth ,gospel is pushed aside3 in the others all miraculous occurrences are expounded away1 till the 8historically credible core0 is reached4 ,the books of the ,old ,testament fare even worse1 if possible4 8,does ,genesis relate history or a legend80 asks ,prof4 ,gunkel1 and continues3 8this is no longer a question to the historian40 ,well1 a legend1 then4 ,but how does the historian know this8 ,from his own pantheistic philosophy1 which recognizes no ,god differing from this world3 8,the narratives of ,genesis being mostly of a religious nature1 they continuously speak of ,god4 ,the way1 however1 in which narratives speak of ,god is one of the most reliable standards to judge whether they are meant historically or poetically4 ,here1 too1 the historian cannot do without a world philosophy4 ,we believe that ,god acts in the world as the latent1 hidden motive of all things 444 but ,he never appears to us as an acting factor jointly with others 7the italics are the author's71 but always as the ultimate cause of all things4 ,quite different in many narratives of ,genesis4 ,we are able to understand these narratives of miracles and apparitions as the artlessness of primitive people1 but we refuse to believe them40 ,analogous to ,bible-criticism is the research in other branches of theology4 ,the origin of ,christianity1 this wonderful power which so suddenly made its appearance in history and speedily vanquished a whole world1 must of course not be a work of ,heaven4 ,hence its origin must be explained at any cost in a natural way1 or 8historically10 as they put it4 ,the religious notions of ,christianity must not be conceded a supernatural certainty over all other religions2 and 8to understand an event historically means3 to conceive it by its causal connection with the conditions of a given place and at a certain time of the human life4 ,hence science cannot consider such a thing as the appearance of a supernatural being upon the earth0 7,pfleiderer74 ,and then they proceed to show that ,christianity is a natural1 evolutionary product of the ,israelite religion1 of ,greek philosophy1 of ,oriental myths1 and ,roman customs4 ,that it is far superior to all these1 and that it is the opposite to them in various ways1 is carefully hushed up4 ,the inadequacy and impossibility of such an explanation is adroitly concealed4 ,nor could the ,israelite religion of the ,old ,covenant1 according to the naturalistic principle of liberal theology1 have had its origin in revelation and the prophets2 hence it comes from ,babylon1 as the product of natural evolution from ,oriental myths and customs4 ,any old and new analogies1 hypotheses1 and fancies are good enough then to demonstrate this as 8historical40 ,the ,truth is not in ,them4 ,we pause here4 ,we might thus continue for a long time2 but it is enough4 ,the patient reader1 who has accompanied us on the tedious way to this point1 may begin to feel tired4 ,may he excuse the detailed recital for the reason that we had to do some extensive reconnoitring1 through the precincts of modern philosophical-religious research1 to avoid the reproach that we were making accusations without furnishing proofs4 ,our contention was1 that liberal science is trying to shake off the yoke of religious truth1 and to explain it away by its self-made presumptions4 ,we believe that we have proved our contention4 ,we are confronted by a science that boasts of monopolizing the spirit of truthfulness2 as a matter of fact1 we see that it uses all scientific devices to shirk the truth and to disguise its effort4 ,in loquacious protests it rejects the 8rigid dogmatism10 the 8fixed views10 of the ,christian faith1 and it proclaims experience and reason as the sole criterions of scientific cognition2 yet it always stands upon the platform of rigid presumptions1 that are derived from no experience1 and which no reason can prove4 ,it clamours for research free from presumption1 and1 without winking an eye1 substitutes its own presumption1 secretly or openly4 ,it is dishonest4 ,it promises to preserve for man the highest ideals and blessings for which his mind is yearning1 yet it has no religion and no ,god4 ,it recalls to mind the words spoken by ,st4 ,augustine of the philosophers whom he had followed in the false ways of his youth3 8,they said3 truth1 and always truth1 and talked much of truth1 but it was not in them4444 ,oh1 truth1 truth1 how deeply my inmost spirit sighed after thee1 while they filled my ears incessantly with thy bare name and with the palaver of their bulky volumes40 ,free it wants to be1 this science4 ,one of its disciples boasted3 8,it has taught its disciples to look down without dizziness from the airy heights of sovereign scepticism4 ,how easy and free one breathes up there60 ,aye1 it has made itself free1--from the yoke of unpalatable truth4 ,so much more firmly is it fettered1 not with the holy bonds of belief in ,god1 but by the more burdensome mental yoke of a disbelief that weakens and blinds the eyes against the cognition of the higher truth3--and bound by the chains of public opinion1 which threatens anathema to every one who fails to stop at the border of the natural4 ,truly free is only the science that enjoys a clear and free perception for the truth4 ,unfree is a science that restrains the mental eye with the blinkers of theophoby4 ,our age seeks for the lost happiness of the soul1 it seeks longingly ,god and the supernatural that have been removed from its sight4 ,but science1 so often its leader1 loathingly dodges ,god1 and refuses to fold the hands and pray4 ,as long as our age does not break with a science that refuses to know a ,god and a ,saviour1 so long will it hopelessly grope about without result1 and look in vain for an escape from the wretched labyrinth of doubt4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,the ,unscientific ,method4 ,the efforts of liberal science1 to remove more and more from its scope the supernatural powers1 show clearly that man may feel the truth to be a yoke1 and that he may attempt to free himself from this yoke by opposing the truth and by substituting postulates for knowledge4 ,sceptical1 autonomous subjectivism1 the philosophy of liberal free thought1 has changed the nature of human reasoning1 and its relation to truth1 and perverted it to its very opposite4 ,no longer is the human mind the vassal of ,queen ,truth1 as ,plutarch put it1 but the autocratic ruler who degrades truth to the position of a servant4 ,thus liberal freedom of thought becomes the principle of an unscientific method1 because it loses1 by false reasoning and false truth1 the first condition of solid and scientific research2 furthermore1 by treating the highest questions with consequent levity1 it betrays a lack of earnestness which again renders it unfit for scientific research in serious matters4 ,false ,reasoning4 8,the philosophical thinkers of to-day10 says an admirer of ,kant1 ,a4 ,sabatier1 8may be divided into two classes1 the pre-,kantian and those who have received their initiation and their philosophical baptism from ,kant's ,critic40 ,the ,christian philosophy of a ,st4 ,thomas1 which is1 as even representatives of modern philosophy are constrained to admit1 8a system carried out with clear perception and great sagacity0 7,paulsen71 contains many a principle1 the intrinsic merit of which will be fully appreciated only when contrasted with the experiments of modern philosophy4 ,an instance is the principle of the old school1 that cognition is the likeness of that which is cognized4 ,apart from the cognition by sense1 we are given here the only correct principle1 coinciding with the general conviction that reasoning is the mental reproduction of an objective order of existence1 independent of us1 even in our conception of the metaphysical world4 ,thinking does not create its object1 but is a reproduction of it2 it is not a producer1 but a painter1 who copies the world with his mental brush within himself1 sometimes only in the indistinct outlines of indefinite conception1 often1 however1 in the sharp lines of clear cognition4 ,if1 according to its nature1 thinking is subject to standards and laws given it by an objective world1 then subjective arbitrariness1 a method of thought which1 while pretending to be a free producer of truth1 yet determines it according to necessity or desire2 and1 even more so1 a method of thought which feels itself justified to hold an opinion upon the same question in one way to-day1 and another and entirely opposite one to-morrow1 is wholly incomprehensible3 just as incomprehensible as if a draughtsman1 attempting to draw a true picture of ,st4 ,peter's ,church1 would not follow the reality but prefer to draw the picture at random1 according to his fancy and mood4 ,we have stated these fundamental principles already at the beginning of our book1 we have also set forth how greatly liberal freedom of thought is lacking the first presumption of any proper science1 namely1 the clear perception that there is an objective truth in philosophical-religious questions1 to which we must submit1 there1 in fact1 most of all4 ,no6 ,we also want autonomy of thought1 especially in questions of metaphysics1 where1 anyway1 there can only be postulates6 so shouted ,kant to the modern world on the threshold of the nineteenth century4 ,there are no stable truths1 everything is relative and changing1 adds the modern theory of evolution4 ,at last there is freedom for thought and research1 freedom from the yoke of absolute truth6 ,behold the aberrations of an unbridled rush for freedom which moves the world of to-day4 ,this unruly hankering for a freer existence than allowed by their nature and position1 makes unbearable to many modern children of man the idea of iron laws of truth and marked boundaries of thought4 ,revelling in the consciousness of their sovereign personality1 they want to measure all things by their individuality1 even religion1 philosophy1 truth1 and ethics4 ,only that what is created and experienced by them within the sanctuary of their personality1 only what is made important and legitimate by their sentiment1 is truth and of value to them4 ,autonomism thus changes unnoticeably into individualism2 the own individuality1 in its peculiar inclinations1 moods1 and humours1 its exigencies and egotistical aims1 its infirmities and diseases--they have1 under the name of individual reason1 become the law of thinking and reasoning4 ,without ,knowledge of the ,human ,nature4 8,varied1 according to character1 are the demands made by heart and mind10 assures us a representative of modern philosophy1 8corresponding to them is the image of the world to which the individual turns by inner necessity4 ,he may waver hither and thither1 uncertain as to himself2 at last1 however1 his innermost tendency of life will prevail and press him into the view of the world corresponding to his individuality4 ,upon its further development worldly and local influences will play a very important part4 ,but the deciding factor in giving the direction is personality40 8,and10 continues ,prof4 ,adickes1 8the sharper and more one-sided a character type is brought to expression1 the more it will be urged into a certain metaphysical or religious tendency1 and this man will find no rest1 nor feel himself at home in the world1 until he has found the view of life that fits him4 ,nor does man assemble his metaphysics with discrimination on the grounds of logical necessity1 choosing here1 rejecting there1 but it grows within himself by that inner compulsion identical with true freedom40 ,hence1 not unselfish yielding to truth1 no1 the inclinations of heart and mind1 the 8personality0 must form the view of the world4 ,let every type of character therefore develop itself sharply and one-sidedly1 let every one get the view of the world corresponding to himself1 without regard to objective truth and logical necessity4 ,this precisely is the 8true freedom40 8,for when is a man more free1 than when he chooses and does--without any compulsion1 even resisting compulsion--what his innermost soul is urging him to choose and do8 ,how could he be more true to himself1 more like himself80 ,with such a freedom 8the outer compulsion0 of an absolute truth1 to say nothing of the duty to believe1 will not agree4 8,the core of one's very being10 so ,harnack informs us1 8should be grasped in its depths1 and the soul should only know its own needs and the way indicated by it to gratify them40 8,according to my character10 says ,adickes again1 8is the world reflected within myself by intrinsic necessity just as my creed represents it1 and no opponent is able to shake my position by arguments of reason or by empirical facts40 ,hence it is not only true1 as has been known from the beginning1 that the inclinations of the heart are trying to prevail upon reason to urge their desires1 and to oppose what displeases them1 and that reason must beware of the heart--no1 inclination and character are now directly called upon to shape our religion and view of the world4 ,every type of man1 every period1 may construct its own philosophical system1 or1 if this is beyond it1 at least its own ideas2 it may also shape its own ,christianity1 according to its experience4 ,as the individual chooses his clothes1 and puts his individuality into them1 in like manner may the individual put on the view of life that fits him4 ,these principles represent the apostasy from objective truth1 and1 at the same time1 the apostasy from the principles of true science3 their first demand1 the proper understanding of truth1 is perverted into its very opposite4 ,a necessary quality of scientific research is exactness2 exactness1 however1 demands most conscientious cleaving to truth2 scale and measure are its instruments4 ,the reverse of exactness is to cast away scale and measure1 to turn eye and ear1 not toward reality1 but toward one's self1 so as to observe personal wishes and inclinations1 and then shape the results of the 8research0 accordingly4 ,this may be a method of freedom1 but it cannot be the method of science4 ,the very thing that true research would eliminate in the first place1 viz41 to have the decision influenced by hobbies and moods1 is most important in the method of individualism2 objectiveness1 deemed by true science the highest requirement1 is to that method the least one3 what true science first of all insists on1 namely1 to prove that which is claimed1 this method knows but little of4 ,it recalls the method of the gourmet who selects that which gratifies his taste3 it may be likened to the dandy picking frock-coat and trousers that suit his whim4 ,true research1 with a firm hand at the helm1 aims to direct its craft so as to discover new coasts1 or at least a new island2 the exploring done by liberal research is like casting off the rudder to be tossed by the waves1 for its task is only to hold to the course which the waving billows of individual life give to it4 ,true science1 finally1 seeks for serious results1 able to withstand criticism3 the research by individualism produces results which1 as individualism itself confesses1 must not be taken seriously4 ,they are the subjective achievements of amateurs1 creations of fashion1 cut to the pattern of the ruling principle3 nihil nisi quod modernum est4 ,a science that professes such a method is beyond a doubt unfit to play a beneficial part in the endeavour of mankind4 ,do not say3 but it is not claimed that religion and view of life are matters of scientific research3 on the contrary1 they are always distinguished from science4 ,it is true1 this is not infrequently claimed4 ,but it is also known how energetically just these matters are appropriated by science4 ,is it not exactly this sphere in which free research is to be active8 ,is it not its aim to construct a 8scientific view of the world10 as opposed to the ,christian belief8 ,is there not the conviction that science has already carried much light and enlightenment into this very sphere1 that it has upset the old tenets of faith8 ,and what an amount of ignorance of human nature underlies these principles6 ,it is the same complete misconception that has always characterized liberalism1 and which it has also manifested in economical matters4 ,there1 too1 it demanded boundless freedom for all economic sources1 ignoring man's disordered inclinations that will work disorder and destruction if not restrained by laws4 ,in a similar manner they dream that man1 if left to the unrestrained influence of his personality1 will soar without fail to the heights of the pure truth4 ,they know no longer the maxim once engraved by the wisdom of the ancient world upon ,delphi's sanctuary3 8,know thyself06 ,they no longer know the beguiling and benumbing influence exerted upon reason by inclination1 how it fetters the mind4 ,amor premit oculos1 says ,quintilian4 ,the thing we like1 we desire to establish as true2 favourable arguments are decisive1 counter arguments are ignored or belittled1 inclinations guide the observation1 determine the books and sources drawn from4 ,if we meet with something unsympathetic1 something that interferes with the liberties we have grown fond of1 it takes a rare degree of unselfishness to love the painful truth more than one's self4 ,it is easy to leave cool reason in control in mathematical speculations3 they seldom affect the heart2 quite different1 however1 in questions of philosophy and religion that often have vexatious consequences4 ,we have to concede that ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss was right when he wrote3 8,he who writes about the ,rulers of ,nineveh or the ,pharaohs of ,egypt1 may pursue a purely historical interest3 but ,christianity is a power so alive1 and the question of what occurred at its origin is involved in such vast consequences for the immediate present1 that the inquirer would have to be dull-witted to be interested only in a purely historical way in the solution of these questions40 ,but we must also regret that this personal interest has misled him1 for one1 into pernicious ways4 ,in view of the frequent assurances of the noted historian1 ,th4 ,mommsen1 that he hates the sight of old ,christian inscriptions7#i7 we may perhaps welcome it in the interest of history that he refrained from writing the fourth volume of his ,roman history1 wherein the ,origin of ,christianity was to be treated4 ,one of his biographers asserts that the downfall of paganism through ,christianity was a fact not to ,mommsen's liking1 that 8a description of the decomposition of all things ancient1 and the substitution therefor of the ,nazarene spirit would not have been a labour of love407#aj7 ,and again1 when we see the well-known historian of philosophy1 ,f4 ,ueberweg1 in a letter to ,f4 ,a4 ,lange1 denouncing from the bitterness of his heart 8the miserable beggar-principle of ,christianity10 and the 8surrendering of independence and of personal honour in favour of a servile submission to the master1 who is made a ,messiah1 nay1 even the incarnate ,son of ,god10 then we may well dread the historical objectivity of a man of such notions in writing about the religion of ,jesus ,christ4 ,with reference to the chief subject of psychology1 the noted psychologist1 ,w4 ,james1 writes with utmost frankness3 8,the soul is an entity1 and truly one of the worst kind1 a scholastic one1 and something said to be destined for salvation or perdition4 ,as far as ,i am concerned1 ,i must frankly admit that the antipathy against the particular soul ,i find myself burdened with1 is an old hardness of heart1 which ,i cannot account for1 not even to myself4 ,i will admit that the formal disposition of the question in dispute would come to an end1 if the existence of souls could be used for an explanatory principle4 ,i admit the soul would be a means of unification1 whereas the working of the brain1 or ideas1 show no harmonizing efficacy1 no matter how thoroughly synchronical they be4 ,yet1 despite these admissions1 ,i never resort in my psychologizing to the soul40 ,if we read such statement1 if1 in addition1 we remember the popular-philosophical science of men like ,haeckel1 particularly perhaps the literature which he recommends for information about ,christianity1 and of which he himself makes use2 if we have read ,schopenhauer1 ,nietzsche1 or the 8,philosophy of ,races0 of a ,chamberlain1--we can no longer be at a loss what to think of the 8rule of reason0 and of the 8search for pure truth40 ,observe1 also1 the restless haste of those who1 having turned their back upon the ,catholic ,church1 now proceed to attack her1 observe their agitated work and incitement1 how they rummage and ransack the nooks and corners of the history of the ,church in quest of refuse and filth1 and if the find is not sufficient how they even help it along by forgery1 all this to demonstrate to the world that the grandest fact in history is really absurdity and filth2--then one will understand what instincts may be found there to guide 8reason and science40 ,how even sexual impulses are trying to shape their own ethics we shall not examine here4 ,f4 ,w4 ,foerster relates3 8,i once heard a moral pervert expound his ethical and religious notions2 they were nothing but the reflection of his perverse impulses4 ,but he thought them to be the result of his reasoning40 ,is there not known in these days the inherited disorder of the human heart as characterized by the ,apostle in the words3 8,but ,i see another law in my members1 fighting against the law of my mind1 and captivating me in the law of sin 7,rom4 vii4 #bc708 ,the ,ancients knew it4 ,the wisdom of ,plato knew it1 who speaks of the 8pricks of sin1 sunk into man1 coming from an old1 unexpiated offence1 giving birth to wickedness40 ,the wise ,cicero knew of it3 8,nature has bestowed upon us but a few sparks of knowledge1 which1 corrupted by bad habits and errors1 we soon extinguish1 with the result that the light of nature does nowhere appear in its clearness and brightness40 ,truth is often disagreeable to nature4 ,and if not subdued and ruled by strong discipline1 nature proceeds to oppose the truth4 ,only to lofty self-discipline and purity of morals is reserved the privilege of facing the highest truths with a calm eye4 8,blessed are the pure in heart1 for they shall see ,god40 ,mental ,bondage4 ,of this wisdom the admirer of liberal freedom knows little4 ,instead of distinguishing the good from the evil in man1 of unfolding his inner kernel1 the pure spirit1 and making it rule2 instead of demanding1 like ,pythagoras1 discipline as a preparatory school for wisdom1 he has learned from ,rousseau1 the master of modern ,liberalism1 that everything in man is good4 ,depravity of nature1 original sin1 are unsympathetic things to his ear4 ,even ,goethe wrote to ,herder1 when ,kant had in his religious philosophy found a radical ,evil in man3 8,after it has taken ,kant a lifetime to clean his philosophical gown of many filthy prejudices1 he now outrageously slabbers it with the stain of the radical ,evil1 so that ,christians1 too1 may be enticed to come and kiss the seam40 ,instead of exhorting for a redemption from internal fetters1 as the sages of all ages did1 the principle of wisdom now proposed is to quietly let individuality develop1 with all its inclinations4 ,they call this freedom4 ,is it not the freedom whereof the slave of sensuality avails himself to form his theory of life8 ,it1 too1 8grows up in man with that inner compulsion which is identical with true freedom0 7,adickes74 ,freedom this may be4 ,but only external freedom1 the only freedom they often know4 ,they are unaware that they forfeit thereby the real1 the inner freedom4 8,thou aimest at free heights10 admonishes even the most impetuous herald of freedom1 8thy soul is athirst for stars4 ,but also thy wicked impulses are athirst for freedom4 ,thy wild hounds want to be free1 they bark joyfully in their kennel when thy spirit essays to throw open all dungeons407#aa7 ,they think to be free and speak of the self-assurance of individual reason1 and they cannot see that the mind is in the fetters of bondage4 ,else how is it that the atheistic free science1 considered in general1 arrives with infallible regularity at results that obviously tend to a morally loose conduct of life8 ,how is it1 that it tries throughout to shirk the acceptance of a personal ,god1 and is at home only in open or disguised atheism8 that it so persistently avoids the acceptance of anything supernatural8 ,why does it in its researches never arrive at theism1 which has as much foundation at least as pantheism and atheism8 ,why does it1 nearly without exception1 deny or ignore the personal immortality of the soul and a ,beyond2 why does it never reach the opposite result which1 in intrinsic evidence1 ranks at least on a par with it8 ,why is it not admitted1 that the will is free and strictly responsible for its acts1 although this fact is borne out by the obvious experience and testimony of mankind8 ,why does it so regularly arrive at the conclusion that the ,christian religion has become untenable1 and needs development2 that its ethics1 too1 must be reformed1 more especially in sexual matters8 ,why does it not defend the duty to believe1 but reject it persistently8 ,a striking fact6 ,the matters in question here concern truths that impose sacrifices upon man1 whereas their opposites have connections of intimate friendship with unpurged impulses4 ,it may be noted also that this same science1 that announces to the world these results of research1 meets with the boisterous applause from the elements that belong to the morally inferior part of mankind4 ,st4 ,augustine prays3 8,redeem me1 ,o ,god1 from the throng of thoughts1 which ,i feel so painfully within my soul1 which feels lowly in ,thy presence1 which is fleeing to ,thy mercy4 ,grant me that ,i may not give my assent to them2 that ,i may disapprove of them1 even if they seek to delight me1 and that ,i may not stay with them in sleepiness4 ,may they not have the power to insinuate themselves into my works2 may ,i be protected from them in my resolution1 may my conscience be protected by ,thy keeping40 ,it is the realization of the want of freedom of the human reason1 the only way to the liberation from the fetters of our own imperfection4 ,he1 who has seriously begun to take up the struggle with his inner disorders1 will1 by his own experience1 pray as ,st4 ,augustine prayed4 ,recognizing this fact1 man will try to rise above himself1 to cleave to a superior ,power and ,wisdom1 who1 in purer heights1 untouched by human passions1 holds aloft the truth1 in order to rise thereby above his own bondage2 he will understand the necessity of an authority clothed with divine power and dignity1 so that it may hold in unvanquished hands the ideal against all onslaughts of human passions4 ,he will without difficulty find this power in the religion of ,jesus ,christ and in ,his ,church3 in ,him1 who could not be accused of sin1 who by ,his ,cross has achieved the highest triumph over flesh and sin1 who has surrounded ,his ,church with the bright throng of saints4 ,and if he sees this religion and ,church an object of persecution1 he will behold in it the signature of its truth4 ,for truth is a yoke despised by sensualism and pride1 and the spiritual power that contends for purity and truth will be hated4 ,without ,earnestness4 ,the regrettable conception of truth proper to the modern freedom of thought1 leads to that flippancy with which our time is prone to treat the highest questions4 ,why conscientiousness and anxious care8 ,all that is needed is to form one's personal views2 there is no certain1 generally valid1 truth in religious matters4 ,hence there is often in this sphere of scientific research a method wholly different from that in use anywhere else4 ,in history1 philology1 natural science1 there is a striving for exactness1 but in these matters exact reasoning is replaced only too often by discretionary reasoning1 by loose forming of ideas2 in the very domain which has ever pre-eminently been called the province of the wisdom of life1 there is now in vogue the method of flippancy4 ,true wisdom is convinced that reason has not been given to man to grope in the dark in respect to the most momentous questions of life2 that reason1 though limited and liable to err1 is given him to find the truth4 ,true wisdom knows its difficulties when the matter in quest is metaphysical truth3 it knows how1 in this case1 more than in any other1 reason is exposed to the influence of inclinations from within1 and to the power of error and of public opinion from without2 that in these matters1 least of all1 reason is not in the habit of taking the truth by assault4 ,true1 there are intuitions1 and inspiration by genius--they have their rights1 but they are the exceptions4 ,the ordinary1 and only safe1 way is to advance cautiously1 by discoursive thinking1 from cognition to cognition1 otherwise there is danger of a sudden fall from the steep path4 ,in the early ,christian ages this insight led to careful cultivation and application of certain methodical means of thinking and terms of expressions1 to definitions1 distinctions1 and forms of syllogism1 with that 8insulting lucidity10 in the words of a modern philosopher1 which gives to them the stamp of scrupulousness4 ,the same insight into the cognitive weakness of reason leads to the noble union between science and modesty4 ,what1 however1 do we see in modern philosophic-religious thinking8 ,often unsolidity1 with hardly a remnant of the principles of the serious pursuit of knowledge4 ,the autonomous freethinker of these days lacks chiefly humility and modesty4 ,the ancient ,sage of ,samos once declined the name of 8sage10 saying that ,god alone is wise1 while man must be content to be wisdom-loving 774 ,not always so the sages of modern times4 ,kant believed of his system3 8,critical philosophy must be convinced that there is not in store for it a change of opinions1 no improvement nor possibly a differently formed system1 but that the system of criticism1 resting on a fully assured basis1 will be established forever1 indispensable for all coming ages to the highest aims of mankind40 ,hegel1 in turn1 was no less convinced of the indispensability of his doctrine4 ,in the summer term of #ahbj he began his lectures with the words3 8,i would say with ,christ3 ,i teach the truth1 and ,i am the truth40 ,yet1 to ,schopenhauer ,hegel's philosophy is nonsense1 humbug1 and worse4 ,schopenhauer knew better1 and was convinced that he had lifted the veil of truth higher than any mortal before him2 he claimed that he had written paragraphs 8which may be taken to have been inspired by the ,holy ,ghost40 ,shortly before his death he wrote3 8,my curse upon any one1 who in reprinting my works shall knowingly make a change2 be it but a sentence1 or a word1 a syllable or a punctuation point40 ,nietzsche held3 8,i have given to the world the most profound book in its possession40 ,to the eyes of this philosophy1 modesty and humility are no longer virtues4 ,b4 ,spinoza1 a leader in later philosophy1 states expressly3 8,humility is no virtue2 it does not spring from reason4 ,it is a sadness1 springing from the fact that man becomes aware of his impotence40 ,an arrogant mind is not capable of finding the higher truth with certainty2 conscientious obedience to truth1 unselfish abstention from asserting one's ego1 and one's pet opinion1 can dwell only in the humble mind4 ,here applies what ,st4 ,augustine said of the ,neoplatonists3 8,to acquiesce in truth you need humility1 which1 however1 is very difficult to instil into your minds407#ab7 ,when ,god's authority steps before scientists and earnestly demands faith1 they will talk excitedly about their human dignity that does not permit them to believe2 about reason being their court of last resort that must not know of submission2 and if the ,church1 in the name of ,god1 steps before them1 they become abusive4 ,men who have scarcely outgrown their minority often feel it incumbent upon themselves to furnish humanity with new thought and to discard the old4 ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 a young under-master of twenty-seven years1 writes his 8,life of ,jesus1 critically analyzed0 7#ahce72 he tells the ,christian world that everything it has hitherto held sacred is a delusion and a snare2 he feels the vocation to 8replace the old1 obsolete1 supernatural1 method of contemplating the history of ,jesus with a new one10 which changes all divine deeds into myths4 ,hardly out of knickerbockers and kilts1 they feel experienced enough to come forth with novel and unheard-of propositions on the highest problems4 ,in business and office1 as in public service1 sober-mindedness and maturity are demanded2 but to work out the ultimate questions of humanity1 inexperience and lack of the deeper knowledge of life do not disqualify in our time4 ,if ,schiller's complaint of the ,kantians of his time was that1 8,what they have scarcely learned to-day1 they want to teach to-morrow10 what is to be said of those who teach even before they have learned8 ,and what superficial thinking do we meet in the philosophy of the day6 ,lacking all solid training1 they proceed to construct new systems1 or at least fragments of them4 ,as regards their competence1 one is often tempted to quote the harsh words of a modern writer3 8,i believe ,schopenhauer would have formed a better opinion of the human intellect1 had he paid less attention to authors and newspaper-writers1 and more to the common sense evinced by men in their work and business0 7,paulsen74 ,it would be highly instructive to take a longer journey through the realm of modern philosophy1 in so far as it touches upon questions concerning the theory of the world1 or even liberal ,protestant theology1 so as to subject to a searching criticism the untenable notions and attempts at demonstration even of acknowledged representatives of this science1 whereby they generally do away with ,god and miracles1 the soul and immortality1 freedom of the will1 the divine moral laws1 the ,gospel1 the divinity of ,christ1 and so much more1 and show what they offer in place of all this4 ,it would disclose an enormous lack of scientific method3 instead of assured results they offer questionable1 even untenable theories2 in place of proofs1 emphatical assertions1 imperatives1 catch phrases2 or else arguments which under the simplest test will prove miscarriages of logic4 ,these philosophers vault ditches and boundaries with ease1 and derive full gratification from imperfect and warped ideas4 ,of course1 exactness in philosophical thinking is not a fruit to be plucked while out taking a walk2 it is the product of serious mental work1 of sterling philosophical training1 which1 alas1 is wanting to-day in large circles of scientists4 ,as an instance1 we point to the method described in a previous chapter1 by which all supernatural factors are rejected by the arbitrary postulate of 8exclusively natural causation10 without valid proofs1 based only upon the arbitrary decision of so-called modern science--in the gravest matter an unscientific process that cannot be outdone4 ,another instructive instance1 of serious matters treated with levity1 is furnished in the unscrupulous way in which the ,catholic ,church1 her teaching1 institutions1 and history1 are passed upon in judgment by those having neither knowledge nor fairness4 ,without ,reverence4 ,true wisdom accepts advice and guidance4 ,it feels reverence for sacred and venerable traditions1 for the convictions of mankind on the great questions of life1 and greater reverence still for an authority of faith that has received from ,god its warrant to be the teacher of mankind1 and which has stood the test of time4 ,true wisdom is convinced that continuity in human thinking and in knowledge is necessary4 ,life is short1 and gives to the individual hardly time to attain mental maturity4 ,philosophy1 and this is the matter before us at present1--philosophy can never be the work of a single person2 it is the achievement of centuries2 succeeding generations1 with searching eye and careful hand1 building further upon the achievement for which past ages have laid the foundations4 ,by nailing together beams and boards the individual may erect a house good enough for a short time to serve his sports and pleasures2 and if wrecked by the first storm1 it may be replaced by another4 ,but the building of massive and towering cathedrals that last for ages required the work of generations4 ,and only skilful and experienced hands may do the work2 haste is out of place here4 ,the ancient sages of ,greece1 ,plato1 ,pythagoras1 and ,aristotle1 had this reverence for the philosophical and religious traditions of the past4 ,these representatives of true wisdom did not consider philosophy and theology as the product of individual sagacity1 they did not attempt to be free rulers in the realm of thought2 on the contrary1 they looked upon wisdom as the patrimony of the past1 which it was their duty to preserve4 ,they pointed to their venerable traditions1 however meagre they were4 8,our forefathers10 says ,plato1 8who were better than we are1 and stood nearer to the gods than we1 have handed down to us this revelation407#ac7 ,that the testimony of the great sages1 to the effect that the most essential elements of their philosophy had their origin in religious traditions1 is based upon truth and not on fancy has been proven by ,o4 ,willmann1 whose knowledge of ancient civilization was very extensive1 in his monumental 8,history of ,idealism40 ,delhi1 the home of mysteries1 the generations of priests in ancient ,egypt1 the doctrinal traditions of the ,chaldeans1 the ,magi of ,medes and ,persians1 and the wisdom of the ,brahmins of ancient ,india are witnesses to the fact4 8,the ,ancients were correct10 says ,willmann1 8in tracing their philosophy to earliest traditions 444 they knew what they owed to their forefathers better than we do4 ,they direct our astonished eyes to a very ancient reality1 to a towering remoteness of living thought40 ,this fact is very much against the taste of our times4444 ,an inherited wisdom1 springing from an original revelation1 adapted to the nations1 shining with renewed brightness in true philosophy1 is quite the opposite to a philosophy that seeks the source of mental life only in isolated thinking2 that thinks its success to be conditioned upon unprepossession2 that holds the refutation of tradition to be the test of its strength4 ,unfortunately this latter view is widespread in our time4 ,research is often directed1 not by reverence for the wisdom inherited from many ,christian centuries1 but by the mania1 unwise and fatal alike1 of seeking new paths4 8,love of truth10 so we are told1 8is what urges on the great leaders of humanity1 the prophets and reformers1 to seek new and untrodden paths of life4 #8,plus ultra' is the rallying-cry of these pathfinders of the future1 who are clearing the way for the mental life of mankind4 ,no authority can restrain them1 no prejudice1 however holy3 they are following the light which has dawned upon their soul0 7,paulsen74 ,and a multitude discover this light in their souls1 and join the prophets and pathfinders6 ,everybody goes abroad looking for untrodden paths2 from all directions comes the cry3 ,here and there1 to the right1 to the left1 is the right way6 ,do we not only too often see self-willed and self-satisfied thinkers1 whose shortsighted conceit gets within the four walls of their study puffed up against ,god and religion1 offer us for holy truth the fanciful products of their narrow brains8 ,do we not see1 only too often1 champions of shallow reasoning1 without discipline of thought and without ethical maturity1 recommending their undigested efforts as the wisdom of the world8 ,youthful thinkers there are in numbers1 each of whom claims that he at last has succeeded in solving the world riddle2 they offer us new theories of the world1 new ideas on ethics1 on law and theology1 for a few dollars per copy or less4 ,the holy abode of truth has become the campus for saunterers1 each eager to displace the other so that he may be sole proprietor1 or at least a respected partner4 ,day by day new solutions of 8problems10 8vital questions10 or at least 8outlines0 of them2 new 8views of the world02 new forms of religion and of ,christianity for the 8modern man02 8reforms0 of marriage and of sexual ethics1 and so on4 ,truth had not been discovered until the newcomer puts his pen to the paper4 ,every one is free to join in4 ,yea1 more1 he may not only join in1 but lash those who do not applaud him4 ,according to this notion1 nothing has a right to exist1 no 8sacred prejudice0 may be claimed once this self-appointed representative of science takes the field for 8research40 ,behold the ,christian truth1 it has stood the test of centuries3 but it cannot resist these scientific freebooters1 they rush over it with banners flying4 ,severe speech would here be in order4 ,a painful spectacle1 these doings of modern thought in the sacred precincts of truth4 8,put off the shoes from thy feet2 for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground10 we imagine to hear2 yet this sanctuary of truth has been made a profane place of bartering4 ,while still a pagan1 but moved by his desire for truth1 the philosopher ,justin went to the schools of his day to seek the solution of his doubts and queries4 ,first he turned to a ,stoic1 but as he taught nothing of ,god1 ,justin was unsatisfied4 ,he next went to a ,peripatetic teacher1 then to a ,pythagorean1 but failed to find what he desired4 ,the ,platonist at last gave him something4 ,walking alone along the beach1 and musing over ,plato's principles1 he met an old man who referred him to the truth of ,christianity1 to the ,prophets and the ,apostles3 8,they alone have seen the truth and proclaimed it unto man1 they were afraid of no one1 knew no fear2 yielded to no opinion2 filled with the ,holy ,ghost1 they spoke only what they saw and heard4 ,the ,scriptures are still extant1 and he who takes them up will find in them a treasure of information about principles and ultimate things1 and all else the philosopher must know1 if he believes them407#ad7 ,and ,justin found truth and peace1 and bowed to the yoke of the doctrine of ,jesus ,christ4 ,what a striking contrast between this serious love of truth in the days of passing heathendom1 and the uncontrolled thinking of so many in our ,christian age6 ,to them truth is no longer a sacred treasure1 a yoke to be assumed in reverence2 it has become the plaything of their impressions and inclinations4 ,indeed1 they consider it a burden to accept the old ,christian truth1 with which they meet on all their ways4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,bitter ,fruit4 ,the ,vocation of ,science4 ,science is1 and ever was1 an influential factor operating upon the thought1 aims1 and actions of man4 ,hence science must remain conscious of its vocation4 ,first of all it is to hold aloft and preserve the spiritual possessions of mankind4 ,true1 science must also progress2 but progress means growth1 which presupposes the preservation of what has been received from of old4 ,this applies pre-eminently to the philosophical-religious patrimony of the past2 no error could be more fatal than to presume that each generation must start from the beginning1 that the foundations1 which have safely supported human life for centuries1 must be obsolete because human nature is suddenly considered changed4 ,what are these foundations8 ,they are the tested religious and moral convictions of mankind1 and1 for our nations particularly1 the divine tenets of ,christianity1 that have been their highest ideals for centuries1 and have produced serenity and a high standard of morality4 ,if science aims to be the principle of conservation and not of destruction1 it must look upon the safeguarding of those possessions of the nations as its sacred task4 ,indeed1 it would perform this task but poorly were it to waste this patrimony piece by piece1 or to shatter it with wicked fist1 instead of respecting and honouring it1 or to set fire to the sanctuary where mankind hitherto has dwelled in peace and happiness4 ,a science of this kind would not only cease to be a bulwark for the mental life of mankind1 but turn into a positive danger4 ,in as far as it follows the principles of liberal freedom of research1 present-day science does present this danger4 ,this cannot be denied1 the facts speak too plainly4 ,by its very nature it must become such danger4 ,for it recognizes no belief1 neither in ,god nor in the ,church2 no dogmas1 no 8prejudices10 no traditions1 however sacred1 are to be respected2 it is fundamental unbelief1 the principle of opposition to the ,christian religion4 ,its autonomous ,subject emancipates himself from the yoke of objective truth which he cannot procreate free out of himself4 ,it confesses the principle that there are neither truths nor values that endure2 plus ultra6 always new ideas6 ,quieta movere1 hitherto the watchword of unwisdom1 is this science's maxim4 ,and liberal freedom of research is what its nature compels it to be4 ,can it do any more than it has done1 to prove itself a principle of mental pauperism8 ,we shall not demand a list of the things it has thrown aside and shattered4 ,let us rather ask1 what it has left whole of the sacred institutions of truth1 inherited from a ,christian past4 ,alas1 it has cast off and denied everything2 it has lost not only the things a ,christian age has treasured1 but even those a higher paganism had revered4 ,let us examine this sad work of negation and annihilation4 ,it is a more melancholy spectacle than any war of extermination that was ever waged against ,europe's ,christian civilization by a people bent on trampling down every flower of ,christian culture1 and on razing every castle to the ground4 ,are ,we ,still ,christians8 ,this was the question proposed some scores of years ago by ,d4 ,strauss to himself1 and to those of his mind4 ,with this question we will begin4 ,to our forefathers1 especially of the ,german nation1 nothing was more sacred than the ,christian religion2 no people like the ,german has absorbed it so fully1 has been so permeated with it4 ,but now1 wherever liberal science--here especially modern ,protestant theology that brings liberal freedom of research into full application--wherever it has made the ,christian religion a subject of its study1 one treasure after another has been lost2 of the whole of ,christendom nothing remains but an empty name and a formal homage1 reminding of the courtesy paid to deposed rulers4 ,in the first place1 there has been dropped the fundamental thesis of the divinity of ,christ1 whereupon rests the entire structure of ,christianity4 ,man's modern emancipation from everything supernatural has been accomplished also with respect to the person of ,christ3 the man ,christ is divested of ,his divinity and of everything miraculous2 ,his birth by the virgin1 ,his miracles and prophecies1 ,his resurrection and ascension1 once the subjects of exalting feasts1 have fallen a victim to unbelieving science4 ,it is true1 they exert themselves to keep ,his person in view1 they want the purely human ,jesus to hold ,his old position of ,god and man in the believing consciousness1 to conceal the mental pauperization4 ,but this trick is failing more and more4 ,the ,son of ,god sees ,himself gradually placed among the great men of history2 we are becoming accustomed to find in the 8,biographies of ,celebrated ,men10 among 8,religious ,educators10 side by side with ,confucius1 ,buddha1 ,augustine1 ,mohammed1 ,luther1 ,kant1 and ,goethe1 also the name of ,jesus4 ,the lustre of the past belief in ,his divinity is paling4 ,in the eyes of unbelieving science ,he has ceased to be the infallible1 all-surpassing ,authority1 and the basis of the faith4 ,the teaching of ,jesus has become the subject of an analyzing and eliminating criticism1 and whenever deemed advisable ,his authority is simply ignored2 ,he was human1 affected by the views and errors of ,his age4 ,thus they know1 as does ,h4 ,gunkel1 that 8,jesus and the ,apostles evidently have taken those narratives 7the miracles of ,genesis7 to be reality and not poetry02 8the men of the ,new ,testament on such questions take no particular attitude but share the 7erroneous7 opinions of their times40 ,they also know 8that in regard to persons possessed with demons ,jesus shared the erroneous notions of his time0 7,braun71 and ,fr4 ,delitzsch informs us that it was 8particularly a ,babylonian superstition10 in consequence of which 8the belief in demons and devils assumed such importance in the imagination of ,jesus of ,nazareth and of his ,galilean disciples40 ,thus the word is fulfilled literally3 8,he is a sign which will be contradicted40 ,no one knows really who ,jesus was4 ,his person is the football of opinions4 8,if any one desiring reliable information1 as to who ,jesus ,christ was1 and what message ,he brought1 should consult the literature of the day1 he would find buzzing round him contradictory voices4444 ,taken all in all1 the impression made by these contradicting opinions is depressing3 the confusion seems past hope10 admits ,prof4 ,harnack4 ,also ,e4 ,v4 ,hartmann remarks3 8,thus1 according to some1 ,jesus was a poet1 to others a mystic visionary1 a third sees in him the militant hero for freedom and human dignity1 to a fourth he was the organizer of a new ,church and of an ecclesiastical system of ethics1 to a fifth the rationalistic reformer 444 to the eleventh a naturalistic pantheist like ,giordano ,bruno1 to the twelfth a superman on the order of ,nietzsche's ,zarathustra44440 ,a chaos of opinions agreeing only in the one aim of rejecting ,his divinity4 ,a4 ,schweitzer1 himself a representative of liberal ,protestant research1 says1 8,nothing is more negative than the result of the research concerning the life of ,jesus40 ,and knowing ,jesus's person no longer1 they no longer know anything certain about ,his teaching1 as is clear from the above4 ,according to ,i4 ,wellhausen1 from the 8unsufficient fragments at hand we can get but a scanty conception of the doctrine of ,jesus40--,the fathers were rich1 the children have grown poor4 ,dissipaverunt substantiam suam6 ,to many even the existence of ,jesus has become doubtful2 and this not only to men of an irreligious propaganda1 like ,prof4 ,a4 ,drews1 who1 carried away by the corroding tendency of a radical age1 journeyed from town to town in order to proclaim1 in the twentieth century of ,christian reckoning1 the scientific discovery of the 8,myth of ,christ02 but even to others the existence of ,jesus has become doubtful or at least valueless4 ,the task now is to do away entirely with the person of ,jesus1 and to solve the problem of preserving a ,christian faith without a ,christ4 ,in this sense ,prof4 ,m4 ,rade writes3 8,serious and gifted men having asserted that ,jesus never existed 7or1 what amounts to the same1 that1 if ,he ever lived1 nothing is known of ,him2 hence1 ,his existence is of no historical importance71 we dogmatists almost have to be grateful to them for having helped us to put a very concrete question no longer in general terms3 how does religious certainty face historical criticism8 but quite specifically3 how does religious certainty 7of the ,christian7 regard the historic-scientific possibility of the non-existence of the historical ,jesus80 ,they frankly assert that they could entirely forego the person of ,christ4 ,thus ,prof4 ,p4 ,w4 ,schmiedel declares3 8,my innermost religious conviction would not suffer injury were ,i to be convinced to-day that ,jesus never lived4444 ,i would know that ,i could not lose the measure of piety that has become my property long since1 even if ,i cannot derive it any longer from ,jesus40 8,neither does my piety require me to see in ,jesus an absolutely perfect type1 nor would it disturb me were ,i to find someone else actually surpassing ,him1 which undoubtedly is the case in some respects40 ,for him to whom ,christ is no longer ,god but a man and capable of error1 ,his person and existence have necessarily lost their value4 ,thus we have arrived at a ,christianity without a ,christ4 ,as yet the person of the ,lord is usually surrounded by a halo3 it is the after-effect of a faithful past1 the last rays of a setting sun4 ,that this last glimmer1 too1 will pale and give way to darkness is but a question of time1 when with more honesty expression will be given to the conclusion necessarily arrived at4 ,if ,christ is not what ,he claimed to be1 ,god and ,messiah1 then the belief in ,his being the ,son of ,god and the ,messiah1 in ,his right to abrogate the religion of the ,old ,testament and to found a new religion1 commanding its acceptance under penalty of damnation--all this can be nothing but the result of religious fanaticism and mental derangement4 ,and science is1 in all seriousness1 preparing to turn into this direction4 ,it is true1 many are hesitating to draw these fearful conclusions and to utter them2 arriving at this point1 they cautiously stop3 so ,harnack4 8,how ,jesus could arrive at the consciousness of ,his unique relation to ,god as ,his ,son1 how ,he became conscious of ,his power as well as of the obligation and task involved in this power1 that is ,his secret1 and no psychology will ever disclose it4444 ,here1 all research must halt40 ,it is the silence of embarrassment1 but equally of unscientific method4 ,having arrived at untenable conclusions1 when question upon question is impetuously suggested1 they stop suddenly and have nothing to say but a vague word about inscrutableness4 ,but there are those who actually speak the word so horrible to a ,christian heart3 ,jesus was demented1 a subject for pathology4 ,strauss indicated this cautiously3 8,one who expects to return after his death in a manner in which no human being had ever returned1 he is to us 444 not exactly a lunatic1 but a great visionary40 ,others speak more plainly4 ,holtzmann's answer to the question3 ,was ,jesus an ,ecstatic1 is an emphatic3 8,yes1 ,he was40 ,de ,loosten considers him insane4 ,e4 ,rasmussen thinks ,him an epileptic1 but grants to physicians the right to reckon him among paranoiacs or lunatics4 ,to ,a4 ,jlicher ,jesus is a visionary1 8a mystic1 not satisfied to dream of his ideals1 but who lived with them1 worked with them1 even saw them tangibly before his eyes1 deceiving himself and others40 ,thus the supernatural has become madness2 ,jesus ,christ1 for whose divinity the martyrs went to their death1 wears now1 before the forum of a false science1 ,herod's cloak of foolishness4 ,with the fall of this fundamental dogma there must necessarily fall all other specific truths of ,christianity1 and they have fallen4 ,the ,holy ,writ1 once the work of the ,holy ,ghost1 has now become a book like the ,indian ,vedda1 to some perhaps even more unreliable2 original sin1 ,redemption and grace1 the ,sacrifice of the ,mass and the ,sacraments1 have been dropped or changed into symbols1 of which every one may think what he pleases4 ,they have tried to make ,christianity 8acceptable to our times10 to 8bring it nearer to the modern idea40 ,there is really nothing left to offend modern man1 nothing that could get in conflict with any idea4 ,the essence of ,christianity is depreciated and emptied until it has become only a vague sentiment1 without thought2 a few names1 without ideas4 8,christianity as a ,gospel10 so teaches ,harnack1 8has but one aim3 to find the living ,god1 that every individual may find ,him as his ,god1 gaining strength and joy and peace4 ,how it attains this aim through the centuries1 whether with the ,coefficient of the ,jewish or the ,greek1 of flight from the world or of civilization1 of ,gnosticism or ,agnosticism--this all is of secondary consideration40 ,of secondary consideration it is1 then1 whether one is convinced of the existence of ,god or whether he doubts with the agnostics1 whether he believes in a personal ,god or not4 ,to-day even the pantheist who does not acknowledge a ,creator of ,heaven and ,earth may be a ,christian2 and so can he who no longer believes in personal immortality and in a hereafter2 for1 we are informed1 8this religion is above the contrasts of here and the beyond1 of life and death1 of ,reason and ,ecstatics1 of ,judaism and ,hellenism0 7,harnack74 ,thus there is no thought which could not be made to agree with this despoiled ,christianity4 ,for1 we are told further1 8much less does the ,gospel presuppose1 or is joined to1 a fixed theory of nature--not even in a negative sense could this be asserted0 7,harnack74 ,materialism and ,spiritualism1 ,theism and ,pantheism1 ,belief or ,negation of ,creation1 everything will harmonize with a ,christianity thus degraded to a thing without character or principle47#ae7 ,all that is left is a word of love1 of a kind ,father1 of filiation to ,god1 and union with ,god3 words robbed of their true meaning2 a shell without a kernel1 ruins with the name 8,christianity0 still inscribed thereon1 telling of a house that once stood here1 wherein the fathers dwelt1 but long since vacated by their children4 ,dissipaverunt substantiam suam6 ,as to ,god and divine filiation1 everybody is welcome to his own interpretation4 ,he may form with ,o4 ,pfleiderer the 8,neoprotestantism0 which1 8after breaking with all ecclesiastical dogmas1 recalled to mind the truths of the ,christian religion1 hidden beneath the surface of these dogmas1 in order to realize1 more purely and more perfectly than ever before1 the truth of ,god's incarnation in the new forms of autonomous thought and of the moral life of human society40 ,christianity and ,god--the symbols of autonomous man6 ,or he may follow ,bousset1 to whom nature is ,god1 and in this way combines harmoniously ,christianity and ,atheism4 8,this is the forceful evolution of ,christian religion10 says he1 8the notion of redemption1 the ,dogma of the divinity of ,christ1 the trinity1 the idea of satisfaction and sacrifice1 miracles1 the old conception of revelation--all these we see carried off by this wave of progress40 8,what is left8 ,timid people may think3 a wreck4 ,but to our pleasant surprise we found stated at many points in our inquiry3 what is left is the simple ,gospel of ,jesus40 ,and what does this simplified ,gospel contain8 8,of course we cannot simply accept in full the ,gospel of ,jesus4444 ,there is the internal and the external4 ,the external and non-essential includes the judgment of the world1 angels1 miracles1 inspiration1 and other things40 ,all this may be disregarded4 8,but even the essentials1 the internal of the ,gospel cannot be simply subscribed to4 ,they must be interpreted40 ,what1 then1 is this essential1 this internal of the ,gospel1 and what is its interpretation8 8,the belief of the ,gospel in the personal heavenly ,father2 to this we hold fast with all our strength4 ,but we carry this belief in ,god into our modern thought40 ,and what becomes then of 8,god08 8,to us1 ,god is no longer the kind ,father above the starry skies4 ,god is the ,infinite1 ,omnipotent1 who is active in the immense universe1 in infiniteness of time and space1 in infinitely small and in infinitely large things4 ,he is the ,god whose garb is the iron law of nature which hides ,him from the human eye by a compact1 impenetrable veil40 ,we see the belief of the ,gospel has dwindled down to atheistic ,monism4 ,as early as #ahgd ,ed4 von ,hartmann1 in his book 8,die ,selbstzersetzung des ,christentums10 came to the conclusion that 8liberal ,protestantism has in no sense the right to claim a place within ,christendom40 ,in a later book his keen examination demonstrates how the speculation of liberal ,protestantism has changed the ,christian religion step by step into pantheism3 8,not a single point in the doctrine of the ,church is spared by this upheaval of principle1 every dogma is formally turned into its very opposite1 in order to make its religious idea conform to the tenet of divine immanence40 ,this is called the development of ,christianity4 ,it is this 8religious progress10 the same 8free ,christianity10 that they are now trying to promote by international congresses4 ,the invitation to the 8,world's ,congress for free ,christianity and religious progress0 at ,berlin1 in #aiaj1 was signed by more than #acj ,german professors1 including #dg theologians4 ,we have here the development of the dying into the lifeless corpse1 the progress of the strong castle into a dilapidated ruin1 the advance of the rich man to beggary4 ,we began our inquiry with the question proposed some years ago by ,d4 ,strauss to his brethren-in-spirit3 ,are we still ,christians8 ,we may now quote the answer1 which he gives at the conclusion of his own investigation3 8,now1 ,i think1 we are through4 ,and the result8 the reply to my question8--must ,i state it explicitly8 ,very well2 my conviction is1 that if we do not want to make excuses1 if we do not want to shift and shuffle and quibble1 if yes is to be yes1 and no to remain no1 in short1 if we desire to speak like honest1 sincere men1 we must confess3 we are no longer ,christians40 ,this is the bitter fruit of autonomous freedom of thinking1 which1 declining any guidance by faith1 recognizes no other judge of truth than individual reason1 with all the license and the hidden inclinations that rule it4 ,protestantism has adopted this freedom of research as its principle2 in consistently applying it1 ,protestantism has completely denatured the ,christian religion4 ,if anything can prove irrefutably the monstrosity and cultural incapacity of modern freedom of research1 it is the fate of ,protestantism4 ,any one capable of seriously judging serious things must realize here how pernicious this freedom is for the human mind4 ,reduced to ,beggary4 ,but the loss is even greater4 ,the better class of paganism still clung to the general notion of an existing personal ,god1 of a future life1 of a reward after death2 it was convinced of the existence of an immortal soul and a future reward1 of the necessity of religion1 of immutable standards for morals and thought4 ,has liberal science at least been able to preserve this essential property of a higher paganism8 ,alas1 no6 ,it has lost nearly everything4 ,no longer has it a personal ,god4 ,while belief in ,god may still survive in the hearts of many representatives of this science1 it has vanished from science itself4 ,it begs to be excused from accepting any solution of questions1 if ,god is a factor in the solution4 ,the opinion prevails that ,kant has forever shattered all rational demonstrations of the existence of ,god4 ,yet ,kant permits this existence as a 8postulate10 which1 according to ,strauss1 8may be regarded as the attic room1 where ,god who has been retired from ,his office may be decently sheltered and employed40 ,but now ,he has been given notice to quit even this refuge4 ,there must be nothing left of ,him but ,his venerable name1 which is appropriated by the new apostasy in the guise of pantheism or a masked materialism4 ,monism is the joint name for it3 this is the modern 8belief in ,god40 ,in days gone by it was frankly called 8atheism40 ,this disappearance of the old belief in ,god is noted with satisfaction by modern science3 8,it is true10 says ,paulsen1 8the belief in gods 444 is dying out1 and will never be resurrected4 ,nor is there an essential difference whether many or only one of these beings are assumed4 ,a monotheism which looks upon ,god as an individual being and lets him occasionally interfere in the world as in something separate from and foreign to him1 such a monotheism is essentially not different from polytheism4 ,if one should insist on such conception of theism1 then1 of course1 it will be difficult to contradict those who maintain that science must lead to atheism40 ,therefore ,god1 as a personal being1 is dead1 and will never come to life again4 ,while there is an enormous exaggeration in these words1 they nevertheless glaringly characterize the ideas of the science of which ,paulsen is the mouthpiece4 ,it does not want directly to give up the name of ,god2 it serves as a mask to conceal the uncanny features of pantheism and materialism4 8,the universe10 we hear often and in many variations1 8is the expression of a uniform1 original principle1 which may be termed ,god1 ,nature1 primitive force1 or anything else1 and which appears to man in manifold forms of energy1 like matter1 light1 warmth1 electricity1 chemical energy1 or psychical process4444 ,these fundamental ideas of monism are by no means #8atheistic4' ,many monists in spite of assertions to the contrary believe in a supreme divine principle1 which penetrates the whole world1 living and operating in everything4 ,of course1 if ,god is taken to mean a being who exists outside of the world 444 then it is true we are atheists0 7,plate74 ,we have already seen that one can even be a ,protestant theologian and yet be satisfied with a 8,god0 of this description4 ,in the place of ,god has stepped man1 with his advanced civilization1 radiant in the divine aureole of the absolute as its highest incarnation4 ,but what has liberal research done even to him8 ,according to the ,christian idea1 man bears the stamp of ,god on his forehead3 8after ,my image ,i have created thee02 in his breast he carries a spiritual soul1 endowed with freedom and immortality--gloria et honore coronasti eum4 ,liberal science pretends to uplift and exalt man2 but in reality it strips him of his adornments1 one after the other4 ,he is no longer a creature of ,god because this would contradict science4 ,his birthplace and the home of his childhood are no longer in ,paradise1 but in the jungles of ,africa1 among the animals1 whose descendent man is now said to be4 ,liberal science1 almost without exception1 denies the freedom of will which raises man high above the beast1 and as a rule it calls such freedom an 8illusion03 of a substantial soul1 of immortality1 of an ultimate possession of ,god after death1 it frequently1 if not always1 knows nothing4 ,let us take up a handbook of modern ,psychology of this kind1 ,wundt's1 for instance4 ,we see at a glance that it is a very learned work4 ,the thirty lectures inform us in minute investigations of the various methods and resources of psychological research4 ,the reader has reached the twentieth lecture1 and he asks1 how about the soul8 ,the title of the book states that the chapters would treat of the human soul1 but so far not a word has been said about it4 ,but there are ten lectures more2 he continues to turn over the leaves of the book4 ,he finds beautiful things said about expression and emotions1 about instincts in animal and man1 about spontaneous actions and other things4 ,at last1 the third before the last page of the book1 there arises the question1 what about the soul1 and what does the reader learn8 8,our soul is nothing else1 but the sum total of our perception1 our feeling and our will40 ,the conviction he held hitherto1 that he possessed a substantial1 immortal soul1 which remains through changing conceptions and sentiments1 he sees rejected as 8fiction40 ,the reader learns that1 though he may still use the term 8soul10 he has no real soul1 much less a spiritual soul1 least of all an immortal soul4 ,in its stead he is treated to some learned statements about muscular sensations and such things1 by way of compensation4 ,jodl1 too1 speaks of the 8illusions1 based upon the old theories about the soul10 and he rejects the dualistic psychology which 8mistook an abstract thought1 the soul1 for a real being1 for an immaterial substance02 and which defended this notion 8with worthless reasons40 ,it is manifest that1 together with the substantial soul1 immortality is also disposed of4 ,true1 here too the word is cautiously retained2 but by immortality is now understood perpetuation in the human race1 in the ideas of posterity1 in 8objective spirit10 in the 8imperishable value of ethical possessions10 for which the individual has laboured4 ,some fine words are said about it1 as roses are used to cover a grave4 ,yet1 it is only the immortality of the barrel of ,regulus1 or the ,gordian knot in history1 the immortality of which the printers' press may partake in the effect of the books it prints4 ,to quote ,jodl again3 8,the fact of the objective spirit1 together with the organic connection of the generations to one another1 form the scientific reality of what appears in popular1 mythological tenets of faith as the idea of personal immortality 444 and which has been defended by the dualistic psychology with worthless1 invalid arguments40 ,the refutation of these arguments does not bother him4 8,a refutation of these scholastic arguments is as little needed as a refutation of the belief in the miracles and demons of former centuries is needed by a man standing on the ground of modern natural science40 ,this reminds one of ,haeckel's method4 ,the latter nevertheless found it worth while in his 8,weltraetsel0 to dispose in thirteen lines of six such arguments1 and then to assure the reader that 8,all these and similar arguments have fallen to the ground40 ,that the matter in question is an idea that has been the foundation of ,christian civilization and ethics for thousands of years1 that has led millions to holiness2 an idea1 indeed1 that has been the common property of all nations at all times--this seems to count for very little4 ,this technique of a superficial speculation1 which1 devoid of piety1 casts everything overboard1 finds no trouble in disposing of the entire spiritual world4 8,no one is capable10 says ,jodl again1 8of imagining a purely spiritual reality40 ,this is disposed of4 8,since the war between the ,aristotle-scholastic and the mechanical method has been waged1 spiritual powers have never played any other part in the explanation of the world than that of an unknown quantity in equations of a higher degree1 which1 unsolvable by methods hitherto prevalent1 are only awaiting the superior master and a new technique 7sic7 in order to disappear0 7p4 #gg seq474 ,with the denial of a personal ,god and of the immortality of the soul1 true religion is abandoned4 ,of course1 there is much said and written about religion in our days3 the scientific literature about it has grown to tremendous proportions--to say nothing of newspapers1 novels1 and plays4 ,one might welcome this as a proof that this world will never entirely satisfy the human heart4 ,but it is also a sign that religion is no longer a secure possession1 but has become a problem--that it has been lost4 ,even on the part of free-thought it is not denied that 8only unhappy times will permit the existence of religious problems2 and that this problem is the utterance of mental discord40 ,yet they do not want to forego religion entirely1 for they feel that irreligion is tantamount to degeneration4 ,but what has become of religion8 ,it has been degraded to a vague sentiment and longing1 without religious truths and duties1 a plaything for pastime4 ,for ,schleiermacher religion is a feeling of simple dependence1 though no one knows upon whom he is dependent3 according to ,wundt religion consists in 8man serving infinite purposes1 together with his finite purposes1 the ultimate fulfilment whereof remains hidden to his eye10 which probably means something1 but ,i do not know what4 ,haeckel calls his materialism the religion of the true1 good1 and beautiful2 ,jodl even thinks1 8,as the realm of science is the real1 and the realm of art the possible1 so the realm of religion is the impossible40 ,religion having been degraded to such a level1 it is no longer astonishing that religion is attributed even to animals1 and in the words of ,e4 von ,hartmann1 8we cannot help attributing a religious character1 as far as the animal is concerned1 to the relation between the intelligent domestic animals and their masters40 ,what1 finally1 has become of the old standard of morals8 ,a modern philosopher may answer the question4 ,fouille writes3 8,in our day1 far more so than thirty years ago1 morality itself1 its reality1 its necessity and usefulness1 is in the balance4444 ,i have read with much concern how my contemporaries are at fundamental variance in this respect1 and how they contradict one another4 ,i have tried to form an opinion of all these different opinions4 ,shall ,i say it8 ,i have found in the province of morals a confusion of ideas and sentiments to an extent that it seemed impossible to me to illustrate thoroughly what might be termed contemporaneous sophistry0 7,le ,moralisme de ,kant1 etc474 ,where is left now to liberal science a single remnant of those great truths on which mankind has hitherto lived1 and which it needs for existence8 ,there was a ,god--but ,he is gone4 ,there was a life to come1 and a supernatural world2 they are lost4 ,man had a soul1 endowed with freedom1 spirituality1 and immortality2 he has it no longer4 ,he had fixed principles of reasoning and laws of morals2 they are gone4 ,he possessed ,christ1 full of grace and truth1 he possessed redemption and a ,church2 everything is lost4 ,burnt to the ground is the homestead4 ,in the blank voids1 that cheerful casements were1 sits despair2 man stands at the grave of all that fortune gave6 ,the names alone have survived2 now and then they speak of ,god and religion1 of ,christianity and faith1 immortality and freedom2 but the words are false1 pretending a possession that is lost long since4 ,they are patches from a grand dress1 once worn by our ancestors2 ruins of the ancestral house that the children have lost4 ,they are still cherished as the memories of better times4 ,people thus acknowledge the irreparable forfeiture which those names denote1 without realizing how they pronounce their own condemnation by having destroyed these possessions47#af7 ,dissipaverunt substantiam suam4 ,the son came to his father4 ,in his heedless anxiety for freedom he would leave the father's house1 to get away from restraining discipline and dependence4 8,father1 give me the portion of the goods that falleth to me40 ,and he departed into a far country4 ,soon he had spent all and had nothing to appease his hunger4 ,despairing of ,truth4 ,these1 then1 are the achievements liberal research can boast of in the fields of philosophy and religion3 ,negations and again negations2 temples and altars it has destroyed1 sacred images it has broken1 pillars it has knocked down4 ,free from ,christianity1 free from ,god1 free from the life to come and the supernatural1 free from authority and faith--it is rich in freedom and negation4 ,but what does it offer in place of all the things it has destroyed8 ,what spiritual goods does it show to the expectant eyes of its confiding followers8 ,the most hopeless things imaginable1 namely1 despair of all higher truth1 mental confusion1 and decay4 ,one other brief glance at the consequences and we shall be competent to judge of the fitness of liberal freedom of thought for the civilization of mankind4 ,as far as it is inspired by philosophy1 modern science confesses the principle3 8,no objective truth can be positively known1 at least not in metaphysics02 restless doubt is the lot of the searching intellect4 ,we have amplified this elsewhere in these pages4 ,this result of the modern doctrine of cognition is not infrequently boasted of4 ,it was good enough1 say they1 for the ancients to live in the silly belief of possessing eternal truth2 they were simple and unsuspecting2 we know there is in store for man only doubt and everlasting struggle for truth4 8,we confess that we do not know whether there are for mankind as a whole1 and for the individual1 tasks and goals that extend beyond this earthly existence0 7,jodl74 8,there is no scientific philosophy of generally recognized standard1 but only in the form of various experiments for the purpose of defining and expressing the harmony and the idea of the active principle2 consequently there cannot be a final philosophy1 it must be ready at all times to revise any point that previously seemed to have been established0 7,paulsen74 8,only to dogmatism10 says another1 8are the various theories of the world contradictory2 to science they are hypotheses of equal value1 which1 as they are all limited1 may exist side by side1 the theistic as well as the atheistic1 the dualistic1 the monistic1 and whatever their names may be4 ,man1 who conceives these hypotheses1 is master over them all and makes use of them1 here of one1 there of another1 according to the kind of the problem he is occupied with at the time4 ,thus1 he is independent of any view of the world0 7,l4 von ,sybel74 ,again we are told3 8,there has been formulated a free variety of metaphysical systems1 none of them demonstrable4444 ,is it our task1 perhaps1 to select the true one8 ,this would be an odd superstition2 this metaphysical anarchy is teaching1 as obviously as possible1 the relativity of all metaphysical systems0 7,w4 ,dilthey74 ,therefore1 nothing but impressions and opinions1 and not the truth2 indeed1 for the cognition of transcendental1 metaphysical truths1 they often have only words of disdain4 8,the fact should be emphasized10 says ,g4 ,spicker1 8that philosophy really is devoid of any higher ideal2 that1 through its doubt of the objective cognizability of things above us1 outside and inside of us1 it has fallen prey to scepticism1 even if philosophers do not admit it and try to evade the issue with the phrase #8theory of cognition4' 0 ,a science cannot sink to a lower level than by the admission that it has nothing to offer and nothing to accomplish4 ,it is tantamount to bankruptcy4 ,this science undertakes to nourish the human mind1 but offers stones instead of bread2 it wants to uplift and to instruct1 and confesses that it has nothing to tell4 ,amphora coepit institui1 currente rota urceus exit4 ,in the beginning a proud consciousness and the promise to be everything to mankind2 at the end mental pauperism and scepticism1 a caricature of science4 ,this1 then1 is the terminal at which the free-thought of subjectivism has arrived3 the loss of truth1 without which man's mind wanders restlessly and without a goal4 ,that is the penalty for gambling boldly with human perception1 the retribution for rebelling against the rights of truth and for the vainglorious arrogance of the intellect1 which would draw only from its own cisterns the water of life1 while alone those lying deep in the ,divine may offer him the eternal fountains of objective truth4 ,scepticism is gnawing at the mental life of the world4 ,a scepticism cloaked with the names of criticism and research1 and of positivism and empiric knowledge1 but which1 nevertheless1 remains what it is1 an ominous demon1 liberated from the grave into which has been lowered the ,christian spiritual life1 the spirit of darkness now pervading the world4 ,in ,all ,directions of the ,compass4 ,they have lost their way1 puzzled by mazes and perplexed with error they are in hopeless confusion2 a correlative of individualistic thinking4 ,if the absolute subject and his experiences of life are the self-appointed court of last resort1 the result must be anarchy and not accord4 ,this is manifest2 moreover1 it is frankly admitted by the spokesmen of freethought4 ,this anarchy is described in vivid words by ,prof4 ,paulsen1 recently the indefatigable champion of freest thought3 8,we no longer have a ,protestant philosophy1 in the sense of a standard system4 ,hegel's philosophy was the last to occupy such a position4 ,anarchy rules ever since4 ,the attempted rally around the name of ,kant failed to put an end to the prevalent anarchy1 or to the division into small fractions and individualisms4 ,then there is the mental neurasthenia of our times1 the absolute lack of ideas1 especially noticeable among so-called educated people4444 ,billboard art has found a counterpart in billboard-philosophy4 ,here1 there1 and everywhere we meet the cry3 here is the saviour1 the secret ruler1 the magic doctor1 who cures all ills of our diseased age4444 ,after a while1 the mob has again dispersed and the thing is forgotten0 78,philosophia ,militans074 8,there is no uniform philosophic theory of the world1 such as we1 at least to a certain extent1 used to have10 says ,paulsen elsewhere1 8the latest ideas are diverging in all directions of the compass40 ,when one buildeth up1 and another pulleth down1 what profit have they but the labour8 7,ecclus4 xxxiv4 #bh74 8,we have no metaphysics nowadays10 says ,r4 ,eucken in the same strain1 8and there are not a few who are proud of it4 ,they only would have the right to be so if our philosophy were in excellent shape1 if1 even without metaphysics1 firm convictions ruled our life and actions1 if great aims held us together and lifted us above the smallness of the merely human4 ,the fact is an unlimited discordance1 a pitiful insecurity in all matters of principle1 a defencelessness against the petty human1 and soullessness accompanied by superabounding exterior manifestation of life40 ,this is the status of modern philosophy and also of liberal1 ,protestant1 theology4 ,of views of the world1 of notions and forms of ,christianity1 of ideas1 essays and contributions to them1 there is choice in abundance4 ,here1 materialistic ,monism is proclaimed1 warranted to solve all riddles4 ,there1 spiritualistic ,pantheism is retailed in endless varieties4 ,yonder1 ,agnosticism is strutting3 no longer philosophy1 but facts and reality1 is its slogan4 ,then comes the long procession of ethical views of life3 8,contemplations of life2 theories of human existence surround us and court us in plenty2 the coincidence of ample historical learning with active reflection induces manifold combinations1 and makes it easy for the individual to draw pictures of this kind according to circumstance and mood2 and so we see individual philosophies whirling about promiscuously1 winning and losing the favour of the day1 and shifting and transmuting themselves in kaleidoscopic change0 7,eucken74 ,hegel1 although he lectured with great assurance on his own system1 lamented3 8,every philosophy comes forth with the pretension to refute not only the preceding philosophy1 but to remedy its defects1 to have at last found the right thing40 ,but past experience shows1 that to this philosophy1 too1 the passage from ,holy ,writ is applicable3 8,behold1 the feet that will carry thee away are already at the threshold40 ,indeed1 often it has come to pass that these philosophers themselves bury their ideas1 preparatory to entering another camp4 ,consider the changes that men like ,kant1 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 ,strauss1 ,nietzsche1 have essayed in the short course of a few decades1 and we are justified in assuming that they would again have changed their last ideas had death not interfered4 ,now and then such confusion of opinions is considered an advantage1 the advantage of fertility4 ,to be sure1 it is fertility1--the fertility of fruitless attempts1 of errors1 and of fancies1 the fertility of disorder and chaos4 ,if this fertility be a cause of pride for science1 then mathematics1 physics1 astronomy1 and other exact sciences1 are indeed to be pitied for having to forego this fertility of philosophy1 and the privilege of being an arena for contradictory views4 ,without ,peace and without ,joy4 ,after the hopeless shipwreck of the modern1 godless thought1 can we wonder at meeting frequently the despondency of pessimism8 ,is not pessimism the first born of scepticism8 ,at the close of the nineteenth century we read1 again and again1 in reviews of the past and forecasts of the future1 how the modern world stands perplexed before the riddles of life1 confessing in pessimistic mood that it is dissatisfied and unhappy to the depth of its soul4 ,with proud self-consciousness1 boasting of knowledge and power of intellect1 they had entered the nineteenth century1 praising themselves in the words3 ,how great1 ,o man1 thou standest at the century's close1 with palm of victory in thy hand1 the fittest son of time6 ,with heads bowed in shame these same representatives of modern thought make their exit from the same century4 ,of the number that voiced this sentiment we quote but one1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,eucken1 who wrote3 8,the greatness of the work is beyond doubt4 ,this work more and more opens up and conquers the world1 unfolds our powers1 enriches our life1 it leads us in quick victorious marches from triumph to triumph4444 ,thus1 it is true1 our desired objects have been attained1 but they disclosed other things than we expected3 the more our powers and ideas are attracted by the work1 the more we must realize the neglect of the inner man and of his unappeased1 ardent longing for happiness4 ,doubts spring up concerning the entire work2 we must ask whether the new civilization be not too much a development of bare force1 and too little a cultivation of the being1 whether because of our strenuous attention to surroundings1 the problems of innermost man are not neglected4 ,there is also noticeable a sad lack in moral power3 we feel powerless against selfish interests and overwhelming passions3 mankind is more and more dividing itself into hostile sects and parties4 ,and such doubts arouse to renewed vigour the old1 eternal problems1 which faithfully accompany our evolution through all its stages4 ,former times did not finally solve them1 787 but they were1 at least to a degree1 mollified and quieted4 ,but now they are here again unmitigated and unobscured4 ,the enigmatical of human existence is impressed upon us with unchecked strength1 the darkness concerning the ,whence and ,whither1 the dismal power of blind necessity1 accident and sorrow in our fate1 the low and vulgar in the human soul1 the difficult complications of the social body3 all unite in the question3 ,has our existence any real sense or value8 ,is it not torn asunder to an extent that we shall be denied truth and peace for ever8444 ,hence it is readily understood why a gloomy pessimism is spreading more and more1 why the depressed feeling of littleness and weakness is pervading mankind in the midst of its triumphs40 ,similar1 and profoundly true1 are the words spoken some years ago by a noted critic in the 8,literarische ,zentralblatt0 7#aijj73 8,a painful lament and longing pervades our restless and peaceless time4 ,the bulk of our knowledge is daily increasing1 our technical ability hardly knows of difficulties it could not overcome 444 and yet we are not satisfied4 ,more and more frequently we meet with the tired1 disheartened question3 ,what's the use8 ,we lack the one thing which would give support and impetus to our existence1 a firm and assured view of the world4 ,or1 to be more exact1 we have found that we cannot live with the view of the world which in this century of enlightenment has stamped its imprint more and more upon our entire mental life4 ,materialism1 in coarser or finer form1 has penetrated deeply our habits of thought1 even in those who would indignantly protest against being called materialists2 the name seemed to imply scientific earnestness and liberal views4 ,however1 there was still left a considerable fund of old1 idealistic values1 and as long as we could draw upon them we saw in materialism only the power to clear up rooted prejudices1 and to open the road for progress in every field4 ,to the newer generation1 however1 little or nothing is left of this old fund1 hence1 having nothing else but materialism to depend upon1 they are confronted by an appalling dreariness and emptiness of existence4 ,and ever since the man on the street has absorbed the easy materialistic principles1 and looks down from the height of his #8scientific' view of life contemptuously upon all reactionaries1 we have become aware of the danger that imperils everything implied by the collective word #8humanism4' ,this explains the plethora of literature which in these days deals with the questions of a world philosophy40 ,who is not reminded after reading this mournful confession of the words of ,st4 ,augustine3 8,restless is our heart1 till it finds rest in ,thee08 ,if it be true1 then1 that philosophical thought stands in closest connection with civilization1 determining the latter in its loftier aspects1 then the freedom of thought of modern subjectivism has proved its incompetence as a power for civilization2 it can produce only a sham-civilization1 it can incite the minds and keep them in nervous tension1 until1 tired of fruitless endeavour1 they yield to pessimism4 ,however painful it may be to admit it1 this freedom of thought is and remains the principle of natural decadence of all the higher elements of a culture that is not determined by the number of guns1 by steam-engines1 and high-schools for girls1 but which consists1 chiefly1 in a steadfast1 ideal condition of reason and will1 from which all else obtains significance and value4 ,what further proof of intellectual and cultural incompetence can be demanded which this principle has not furnished already8 ,if this be the fact1 then it follows in turn that in the life of higher culture1 where the health of the soul and the marrow of mental life is at stake1 there can rule but a single principle1 the objectivism of ,christian thought1 the principle of absolute submission1 without variance and change1 to a truth against which man has no rights4 ,the submission of ,christian thought to a religious1 teaching authority1 recognized as infallible in all matters pertaining to its domain1 while not an exhaustive presentment of this principle1 is its perceptive and concrete effect4 ,a ,rock in the ,waters4 ,the history of human thought of all ages1 but especially of the last centuries1 proves how necessary a divine revelation is to man2 viz41 the clear exposition of the highest truths in the view of world and of life1 emphasized by a divine authority1 which links the human mind to the one immutable truth2 not only in ignorant nations1 not only in the man of the common people1 but also1 and more especially1 in the educated man and in the scientist1 he1 namely1 who1 through the moderate studies of a small intellect1 has collected a little sum of knowledge that is apt to confuse his limited understanding and to rob him of modesty4 ,it is just as manifest that revelation alone does not suffice1 that there is needed also the enduring forum of a teaching ,church1 which in the course of centuries gives expression to truth with infallible1 binding authority4 ,the full truth of this is felt even by those unfavourably disposed toward this authority4 ,a recent champion of autonomous freedom of thought1 the ,protestant theologian1 ,f4 ,troeltsch1 makes this concession in the words3 8,the immediate consequence of such autonomy is necessarily a steadily more intensified individualism of convictions1 opinions1 theories1 and practical ends and aims4 ,an absolute supra-individual union is effected only by an enormous power such as the belief in an immediate1 supernatural1 divine1 revelation1 as possessed by ,catholicism1 and organized in the ,church as the extended and continued incarnation of ,god4 ,this tie gone1 the necessary sequel will be a splitting up in all sorts of human opinions407#ag7 ,this is to the ,catholic a caution to appreciate the ministry of his ,church ever more highly1 and to cleave to it still closer4 ,he will not agree with those who think that in our time the principle of ,authority must retire4 ,the more his eyes are opened by the present situation1 the more clearly he realizes where thought emancipated from faith and authority has led1 the more he will affirm his conscious belief in authority4 ,his foothold upon the rock of the ,church will be the firmer the more restless the billows of unsafe opinions rise and roll about him4 ,the ,catholic of mature1 ,catholic1 conviction would consider it folly to abandon the rock for the restless and turbulent play of the waves4 ,many1 indeed1 who are looking for a safe place of truth1 we see for this reason taking refuge in a strong ,church2 many are impressed by the stability of ,catholic authority47#ah7 ,the present situation is similar socially to that of the ancient world at its close1 and also in regard to the spiritual life4 ,then1 as now1 there was learning without idealism1 corroded by scepticism1 without harmony and cheer4 ,then1 as now1 there was but one power to offer rescue4 ,faith and ,church4 ,a longing for help is now also prevailing in the world4 ,it feels its helplessness4 ,if they only had the conviction of a ,st4 ,augustine1 who prayed for deliverance from his errors3 8,when ,i often and forcefully realized the agility1 sagacity1 and acumen of the human mind1 ,i could not believe that truth was hidden completely from us--rather only the way and manner how to discover it1 and that we must accept these from a divine authority0 7,de utilit4 credendi1 #h74 ,it was a solemn hour1 pregnant with profound significance1 when at midnight at the beginning of this century all the churchbells of the ,catholic globe were ringing1 and1 while everything around was silent1 their blessed sound was resounding alone over the earth1 over villages and cities1 over countries and nations4 ,grandly there resounded into the whole world1 over the heads of the children of men about to enter upon a new century of their history1 that the ,catholic ,church is the ,queen in the realm of mind1 that she alone preserves infallibly the truths and ideals of which mankind is in quest1 by which they are raised above earthly turmoil--those truths and ideals in which the heart and mind of earthly pilgrims find rest and peace on their long journey to the goal of time4 ,since she assumed the mission of ,him who said1 8,i am the ,way and the ,truth10 and1 8,i am with you all days1 even unto the consummation of the world10 the ,church has travelled a long way through the centuries1 has withstood hard times and fierce storms4 ,and she has faithfully preserved for mankind the precious patrimony from ,god's hand4 ,and now1 at the dawn of new times1 her bells proclaimed that she is still alive1 holding the old truths in a strong hand4 ,and after another century the bells of the globe will ring again1 they will1 so we hope--ring more loudly and more forcefully1 over the nations4 ,and these bells will also ring over the graves of this present generation1 over fallen giants of the forest and over collapsed towers1 over mouldy books1 and the wreckage left by a culture that the emancipated1 fallible human mind created1 but which truth did not consecrate4 ,and again the bells will proclaim to a new century that ,god1 and the world's history1 are thinking greater thoughts than the puny child of man is capable of thinking within the narrow compass of his years and of his surroundings4 ,,fourth ,,section4 ,,freedom ,,of ,,teaching4 ,preliminary ,conceptions and ,distinctions4 ,acquisition and distribution1 labour and communication of the fruits of labour1 are the two factors that determine the progress of mankind4 ,thus the precious metal is mined and brought to the surface by the labourer1 whence it speeds through the world2 thus the faithful missionary journeys into remote countries1 to disseminate there the mental treasures acquired by study and hard religious effort4 ,and thus science desires to work1 and should work1 for the culture and progress of mankind1 and this work is pre-eminently its task4 ,to properly pursue this vocation science demands freedom1 freedom in research and teaching4 ,there is1 as we have already pointed out1 an important distinction between the two4 ,although research and teaching are mostly joined1 the former only attaining its chief end in teaching1 there is a real difference between the two elements2 and not unfrequently they are separated4 ,it makes quite a difference whether some one within the four walls of his room studies anarchy1 or whether he proceeds to proclaim its principles to the world2 it is quite different whether a man embraces atheism for his personal use only1 or whether he makes propaganda for it from the pulpit2 it makes also a world of difference whether a man is personally convinced that materialism is the sole truth1 or whether he proclaims it as a science1 and is able to affirm that of the ,german edition of 8,weltrtsel0 #bjj1jjj copies have been sold1 of the ,english edition about as many1 and that a dozen other translations have spread the fundamental notions of monism broadcast through the world 7,e4 ,haeckel1 ,monismus u4 ,naturgesetz74 ,teaching must be viewed from a different point4 ,research is a personal function1 whereas ,teaching is a social one4 ,this fact1 of itself1 makes it evident that teaching cannot be allowed the same measure of freedom as research1 hence that teaching must be confined within narrower limits4 ,but ,freedom is demanded not only for research1 but also for teaching1 in most cases even an unlimited freedom4 ,it is demanded as an inalienable right of the individual1 it is demanded in the name of progress1 which can be promoted only by new knowledge4 ,some countries grant this freedom in their constitutions4 ,before discussing this demand and its presumptions1 we shall have to make clear some preliminary conceptions4 ,first1 the meaning of freedom of teaching4 ,how is it precisely to be understood8 ,freedom in teaching in general means1 evidently1 exemption from unwarranted restraint in teaching4 ,teaching1 however1 to use the words of a great thinker of the past1 means ,causare in alio scientiam1 to impart knowledge to some one else 7,thomas ,aquinas1 ,quaest4 disp4 ,de verit4 q4 ,,xi al474 ,thus the pious mother teaches the child truths about ,god and ,heaven1 the school-teacher teaches elementary knowledge1 the college-professor teaches science4 ,teaching is chiefly understood to be the instruction by professional teachers1 from grammar school up to university4 ,hence freedom in teaching does not necessarily refer to scientific matters only2 we may also speak of a freedom of teaching in the elementary school4 ,as a rule1 however1 the term is used in the narrower sense of freedom in teaching science4 ,here it may not be amiss to mention further distinctions4 ,as we may distinguish in teaching three essentials1 namely1 the matter1 the method1 and the teacher1 so there is a corresponding triple freedom of teaching4 ,if we regard the matter1 we meet with the demand1 that no one be excluded in an unjust way from exercising his right to teach1 that no single party should have the monopoly of teaching3 the right to found free universities also belongs here4 ,it is part of the freedom of teaching4 ,as it has relation to the state1 we shall return to this point later on4 ,a second freedom1 which might be called methodological1 concerns the choice of the method4 ,this is naturally subject to considerable restraint2 not only because the academic teacher may frequently have to get along without desirable paraphernalia1 but also because of the commission he receives with his appointment1 wherein his field and scope are prescribed4 ,this is necessary for the purpose of the university2 the students are to acquire the varied knowledge needed later on in their vocations of clergyman1 lawyer1 teacher1 or physician4 ,there is frequent complaint that this freedom in method is abused to a certain extent1 that the students are taught many fragments of science with thoroughness1 but too little of that which they actually need later on2 they are trained too much for theoretical work and not enough for the practical vocation4 ,thus there is limitation here1 too4 ,but this is not the freedom in teaching which occupies the centre of interest to-day4 ,the trophy for which the battle is waged is the freedom relating to the subject of teaching2 we shall term it 8doctrinal0 freedom in teaching3 ,shall the representative of science be permitted to promulgate any view he has formed8 ,even if that view conflicts with general religious or moral convictions1 with the social order8 ,or must this freedom be curbed8 ,this is the question47#ai7 ,obviously1 teaching need not always be done verbally1 it can be done also by writing4 ,the professor lectures in the classrooms1 but he may also expound his theories in books2 this latter the private scholar may also do4 ,in this way ,plato and ,aristotle and the ,fathers are still teaching by their writings1 though their lips have long been silent4 ,true1 this way of teaching has not the force of the spoken word1 vibrating with personal conviction1 but it reaches farther out1 with telling effect upon masses and remote circles4 ,thus1 freedom in teaching includes also the freedom to print and publish scientific theories1 hence it includes part of the freedom of the press2 in its full meaning1 however1 the freedom of the press relates also to unscientific periodicals1 especially newspapers4 ,a counterpart to the freedom in teaching is presented by the freedom in learning4 ,it concerns the student1 and may consist of the right granted to the 8academic citizen0 to choose at his discretion1 but within the restrictions set by his studies1 his university1 his teachers1 and his curriculum4 ,chapter ,i4 ,freedom ,of ,teaching ,and ,ethics4 ,now for a closer examination of the problem of freedom of teaching1 from the point of general ethics1 not of law4 ,this is an important distinction1 not seldom overlooked4 ,the former point of view deals with freedom in teaching only in as far as regulated or circumscribed by ethical principles1 by the moral principles of conscience1 without regard to state-laws or other positive rules4 ,the freedom in teaching as determined by governmental decrees may be called freedom of teaching by state-right4 ,it may happen that the state does not prohibit the dissemination of doctrines which may be forbidden by reason and conscience1 for instance1 atheistical doctrine4 ,there may be immoral products of art not prohibited by the state2 yet ethics cannot grant license to pornography4 ,the state grants the liberty of changing from one creed to another1 or of declaring one's self an atheist2 yet this does not justify the act before the conscience4 ,the statutes do not forbid everything that is morally impermissible2 their aim is directed only at offences against the good of the commonwealth4 ,moreover1 even such offences may not be prohibited by statute1 for the simple reason that the enactment of such laws may be impossible on account of the complexion of legislative bodies1 or because of other conditions4 ,we will now take the ethical position and try to judge the freedom of teaching from this point of view4 ,first of all1 we shall have to explain the social character of teaching and the responsibility attached thereto4 ,we start again with the meaning of freedom of teaching4 ,it demands that the communication of scientific opinions should not be restrained in unwarranted manner4 8,in unwarranted manner02 because1 manifestly1 not all bars are to be removed2 no one will assert that a man may teach things he knows to be false4 ,every activity1 including scientific activity1 must conform to truth and morals4 ,hence there is only the question to determine1 when is freedom in teaching morally reprehensible1 and when not2 which are the bars that must not be transgressed1 and which bars may be disregarded8 ,is it allowed or not to teach any opinion1 if the teacher subjectively believes it to be true8 ,here the views differ4 ,however1 one thing at present is clear3 ,freedom of ,teaching is ,necessary4 ,also in respect to method4 ,even the teacher in public and grammar schools1 though minutely guided by the plan of instruction1 must be granted1 by the demands of pedagogy1 a certain liberty2 he should be free to arrange and to try many things4 ,only where individual spontaneity is given play will love for work be aroused1 which in turn stimulates devotion to the cause and makes for success4 ,this applies with even greater force to the college-professor1 in respect to method1 course of instruction1 subject1 and the results of his research4 ,he must be free to communicate them1 without consideration for unwarranted prejudices1 or for private and party interests4 ,if the scientist were condemned to do nothing but repeat the old things1 without change and variance1 without improvement and correction1 without new additions and discoveries1 all alertness and impulse would disappear2 but his alacrity and ardour will increase1 if allowed to contribute to progress1 if assured beforehand of publicity for the new solutions he hopes to find1 if allowed to promulgate new discoveries4 ,this freedom is demanded1 even more imperatively1 by the vocation of science to work for the progress of mankind1 primarily for the intellectual and through this for the general progress4 ,the demand in behalf of the individual is even more urgent in behalf of science at large3 no standing still1 ever onward to new knowledge and the enrichment of the mind1 to moral uplift1 to a beautifying of life--and ultimately to the glorification of ,god6 ,for1 verily1 the purpose of the whole universe is the glory of the ,creator4 ,glory is given to ,him by the world of stars1 as they speed through space1 conforming to ,his laws2 glory is given to ,him by the dewdrop1 as it reflects the rays of the morning sun2 glory is given to ,him by the butterfly1 as it unfolds the brilliancy of colours received from ,his hand4 ,the chief glory of all is given to ,him by the reason-endowed human mind1 developing its powers ever more fully1 the crowning achievement of visible creation1 wherein ,god's wisdom reflects brighter than the sun in the morning-dew4 ,and for this is needed the freedom of scientific progress1 which would be impossible without a freedom in teaching4 ,and this applies not only to fixed conclusions2 it must also be permitted1 within admissible bounds1 to teach scientific hypotheses4 ,science needs them for its progress2 they are the buds that burst forth into blossoms4 ,had men like ,copernicus1 ,newton1 ,huygens1 not been free to propound their hypotheses1 the sun would still revolve around the earth1 we still would have ,ptolemy's revolution of the spheres1 and the results of optical science would be denied us4 ,a ,twofold ,freedom of ,teaching and ,its ,presumption4 ,there cannot be any doubt that science must have freedom in teaching4 ,but of what kind8 ,one that is necessary and suitable4 ,yes1 but what kind of freedom is that8 ,here is the crux of the question4 ,now we are again at the boundary line where we stood1 when defining the freedom of science in general1 at the parting of the ways of two contrary conceptions of man4 ,one is the ,christian idea1 and also that of unbiassed reason4 ,man is a limited creature1 depending on ,god1 on truth and moral law1 at the same time dependent on social life1 hence also dependent on social order and authority2 consequently he cannot claim independence1 but only the freedom compatible with his position4 ,therefore the barriers demanded by truth and by the duty of belief are set to his research2 hence his freedom in teaching can only be the one permitted by his social position2 personal perception of truth and consideration for the welfare of mankind will be the barriers of this freedom4 ,this view is opposed by another1 claiming full independence for both research and teaching1 a claim prompted by the modern philosophy of free humanity1 which sees in man an autonomous being1 who needs only follow the immanent impulses of his own individuality2 and this especially in that activity which is deemed the most perfect1 the pursuit of science3 this hypostatized collective-being of the highest human pursuit is also to be the supreme bearer of autonomism4 ,as a matter of course this results in the claim for unlimited freedom in teaching1 a freedom we shall term liberal3 in communicating his scientific view the scientist need merely be guided by his perception of truth1 without any considerations for external authorities or interests1 provided his communication is a scientific one1 viz41 observing the usual form of scientific teaching4 ,this latter limitation is usually added1 because this freedom is to apply to the teaching of science only2 to the popular presentation of scientific views1 appealing directly to the masses1 such a freedom is not always conceded4 8,research10 we are told1 8demands full freedom1 with no other barrier but its own desire for truth1 hence the academic teacher who teaches in the capacity of an investigator is likewise not to know any barriers but his inner truthfulness and propriety40 8,in this sense we demand to-day freedom in teaching for our universities4 ,the freedom of the scientist and of the academic teacher must not be constrained by any patented truth1 nor by faint-hearted consideration4 ,we let the word of the ,bible comfort us3 #8if this doctrine is of ,god1 it will endure2 if not1 it will pass away' 0 7,kaufmann74 ,whatever the academic teacher produces from his subjective veracity must be inviolable2 he may proclaim it as truth1 regardless of consequences4 8,the searching scientist10 so says another1 8must consider only the one question3 ,what is truth8 ,but inasmuch as there cannot be research without communication7871 we must go a step further3 the teaching1 too1 must not be restricted4 ,the scientific writer has to heed but one consideration3 ,how can ,i present the things exactly as ,i perceive them1 in the clearest and most precise manner80 7,paulsen74 8,scientific research and the communication of its results must1 conformable to its purpose1 be independent of any consideration not innate in the scientific method itself1--hence independent of the traditions and prejudices of the masses1 independent of authorities and social groups1 independent of interested parties4 ,that this independence is indispensable needs no demonstration40 8,nor can any limitation of the freedom of research and teaching be deduced from the official position of the scientist or teacher0 7,von ,amira74 ,just as soon as he begins his research according to scientific method1 i4e41 adapts his thoughts to scientific rules1 customs1 and postulates1 he may question ,christianity1 ,god1 everything2 neither state nor ,church must object1 no matter if thousands are led astray4 ,this freedom is pre-eminently claimed for philosophical and religious thought1 for ideas relating to views of the world and the foundations of social order2 because only in this province is absolute freedom of teaching likely to be seriously refused4 ,in mathematics and the natural sciences1 in philology and kindred sciences1 there is hardly occasion for it2 there only petty disputes occur1 differences among competitors1 things that do not reach beyond the precinct of the learned fraternity4 ,whether one is for or against the theory of three-dimensional space1 for or against the theory of ions and the like1 all that touches very little on the vital questions of mankind2 but the case is quite different when it comes to publicly advocating the abolition of private property1 to the preaching of polygamy3 it is here where great clashes threaten4 ,here1 also1 there enter into the plan the social powers1 whose duty it is to shield the highest possessions of human society against wanton attack4 ,nevertheless the demand is for unlimited freedom in teaching4 ,what1 then1 are the arguments used in giving to this exceptional claim the semblance of justification8 ,this shall be the first question4 ,unlimited ,freedom in ,teaching not ,demanded4 #a4 ,not by ,veracity4 ,veracity is appealed to first2 it obligates the teacher1 so it is said1 to announce his own convictions unreservedly1 for to 8deny one's own convictions would offend against one of the most positive principles of morals02 hence the academic teacher could not grant to the state the right to set a barrier in this respect1 8it would be a violation of the duty of veracity1 which is innate to the teacher's office0 7,von ,amira74 ,was it realized in making this claim what the duty of truthfulness really demands8 ,this duty is complied with when one is not untruthful1 that is to say1 does not state something to be his opinion when secretly he believes the contrary to be true2 to force him to do this would of course be instigating untruthfulness4 ,truthfulness1 however1 does not require any one to speak out publicly what he thinks2 one may be silent4 ,or is cautious silence untruthfulness8 ,it is oftentimes prudence1 but not untruthfulness4 ,there is a considerable difference between thinking and communicating thought1 even to the scientist4 ,or is the scientist obliged1 for instance1 to proclaim publicly views he has formed contrary to the prevailing principles of morals1--views he calls the 8results of his research10 so that mankind at last may learn the truth8 ,was ,nietzsche in duty bound to proclaim to the wide world his revolutionary ideas8 ,any sober-minded man might have told him he need not worry about this duty4 ,has the teacher of science this duty8 ,how will he prove it8 ,how are they going to prove that it is incumbent upon an atheistic college-professor to teach his atheism also to others8 ,or1 must he teach that the fundamental principles of ,christian marriage are untenable1 if this has become his personal opinion8 ,is it1 perhaps1 impossible for him to refrain from such teaching in the lectures he is appointed to give8 ,this view will mostly prove a delusion4 ,a conscientious examination of his opinion would convince him that he1 too1 had better abandon it1 since it is merely an aberration of his mind4 ,but let us assume that he could neither correct his views nor refrain from proclaiming them1 that he would declare3 8,i should lie if1 in discussing the question in how far this or that public institution is morally sanctioned1 ,i were to halt before certain institutions2 for instance if1 having the moral conviction that monarchy is a morally objectionable institution1 ,i omitted to say so0 7,th4 ,lipps74 ,well1 he has the option to change his branch of teaching1 or to resign his office2 he is not indispensable1 no one forces him to retain his office4 ,indeed1 he owes it to truthfulness to leave his post the very instant he finds he is not able to occupy it in a beneficial way2 he owes it to honesty to yield his position1 if he has lost the proper relation to religion1 state1 and the people1 to whom his position is to render service4 #b4 ,not the ,duty of ,science4 8,nevertheless10 we are told1 8the representatives of science have the duty of freely communicating their opinions2 they are called by people and state to find the truth for the great multitude1 that is not itself in the position to pursue laborious research4 ,where else could it get the truth but from science80 8,the multitude participates in truth generally in a receptive1 passive manner2 only a few pre-eminent minds are destined by nature to be the dispensers and promoters of knowledge0 7,paulsen71 and with this vocation of science a restriction of its freedom of speech would be incompatible4 ,the idea has something enticing about it4 ,it also has its justification1 if the matter at issue concerns things outside of the common scope of human knowledge1 such as the more precise research of nature1 of history1 and so on4 ,but the idea is not warranted when applied to the higher questions of human life4 ,here it is based on the false premise that man cannot arrive at the certain possession of truth without scientific research4 ,we have demonstrated previously how this notion involves a total misconception of the nature of human thought4 ,there is1 beside the scientific certainty1 another true certainty1 a natural certainty1 the only one we have in most matters1 and a safe guide to mankind especially in higher questions1 nay1 in general much safer than science1 which1 as proved by history1 goes easily astray in such matters4 ,long before there was a science1 mankind possessed the truth about the principles of life2 and it possesses this truth still1 through common sense and1 even more1 through divine revelation1 which offers enlightenment to every one regardless of science4 ,here apply the words of the poet3 8,das ,wahre ist schon laengst gefunden ,hat edle ,geisterschaar verbunden ,das alte ,wahre1 fasst es an60 ,nevertheless1 it is claimed1 science remains the sole guide to truth and progress4 ,must not truth be searched for and struggled for always anew8 ,there are no patented truths for all times--each age must sketch its own image of the world1 must form new values4 ,and it is for science to point out these new roads4 ,therefore1 full swing for its doctrines4 8,science knows not of statutes of limitations or prescription1 hence of no absolutely established possession4 ,consequently real1 scientific1 instruction can only mean absolutely free instruction0 7,paulsen74 ,we may be brief4 ,every line bears the imprint of that sceptical subjectivism which we have met so often as the philosophical presumption of modern freedom of science4 ,it is the wisdom of ancient sophistry1 which even ,aristotle stigmatized as a 8sham-science10 8a running after something that invariably slips away40 ,a freedom in teaching with such a theory of cognition can never be a factor of mental progress1 least of all when it seeks to rise above a ,god-given1 ,christian truth to 8higher0 forms of religion4 ,this1 however1 is often the very progress for which freedom in teaching is intended--the unhindered propagation of an anti-,christian view of the world4 #c4 ,no ,innate ,right4 ,very well1 we are told1 leave aside the appeal to the province of science2 but it cannot be denied that man has at least an innate right of communicating his thoughts in the freest manner4 ,the first right of the human individual1 a right which must not be curtailed in any way1 is his right to free development according to his inner laws1 provided the freedom of the fellow-man is not thereby injured4 ,hence every man has the right of freely uttering his opinion1 in science especially1 because the free right of others is thereby not infringed upon in any matter whatsoever4 ,this is the claim4 ,it is again rooted in the autonomy of the human subject1 the main idea of the liberal view of life1 and1 at the same time1 the principal presumption of its freedom of science4 ,it leads to the individualistic theory of rights1 which declares freedom to be man's self-sufficient object1 viz41 freedom in all things regardless of the weal and woe of others1 no matter if the sequel be error1 scandal1 or seduction1 if only the strict right to freedom be not violated4 8,act outwardly so10 says the philosophic preceptor of autonomism1 8that the free use of thy free will may be consistent with the liberty of others according to a general law40 8,this liberty10 continues ,kant1 8is the sole1 original right of every man by virtue of his humanity40 ,and ,spencer concurrently teaches3 8,every one is free to do what he wants1 as long as he does not infringe upon the liberty of others40 ,this is termed the 8,maxim of ,co-existence40 ,accordingly any one may say and write anything at will1 no matter if people are led astray by his errors4 ,even the government must in no way limit this freedom1 except where rights are violated2 to defend religion and morals against attacks1 to guard innocence and inexperience against seduction1 is1 according to this theory1 not allowed to the state4 ,w4 von ,humboldt writes3 8,he who utters things or commits actions1 offending the conscience or the morals of other people1 may act immorally3 but unless he is guilty of obtrusiveness1 he does not injure any right40 ,hence the state must not interfere4 8,even the assuredly graver case1 when the witnessing of an action1 the listening to certain reasoning1 would mislead the virtue or the thought of others1 even this case would not permit restraint of freedom40 ,we are dealing here with that misconception of the social nature of man which has always characterized liberalism4 ,it knows only of the right and liberty of the individual2 of his duties to society it knows nothing1 not even that men should not injure the possessions of others1 but rather promote them2 nor does it know that men are placed in a society that requires the free will of the individual to yield to the common weal of the many4 ,to liberal thought human society is only an accidental aggregation of individuals1 not connected by social unity4 ,the autonomous spheres of the single individuals are rolling side by side1 each one for itself3 wherever it pleases them to roll1 there they are carried by the autonomous centre of gravity1 whatever they upset in their career has no right to complain4 ,this principle of freedom was given free rein in the economical legislation of the nineteenth century4 ,free enterprise1 free development of energy1 was the rallying cry2 the result was devastation and wreckage4 ,unrestricted ,freedom of ,teaching ,inadmissible4 ,hence the claim for absolute freedom in teaching is not warranted2 on the contrary1 its chief arguments are borrowed from a philosophy that is unacceptable to the ,christian mind4 ,is it even admissible8 ,though not warranted1 is it permissible at least from the viewpoint of ethics8 ,it is not even this4 ,the claim is ethically inadmissible1 because the religious1 moral1 and social institutions1 especially the ,christian faith and the ,christian morals of mankind1 would be seriously injured4 ,in other words3 ,the claim that it is permissible to proclaim scientific theories which are apt to do great damage to the foundations of religious1 moral1 and social life1 especially to ,christian conviction and morals1 is ethically reprehensible4 ,a few remarks in explanation4 ,we merely speak here of the freedom in teaching relating to the philosophical-religious foundations of life2 that it cannot be the subject of serious objection in other matters we have previously mentioned4 ,nor do we yet inquire what social powers should fix the needed limitations1 whether state or ,church should regulate them2 we are merely investigating1 from the viewpoint of ethics1 what barriers are set by the law of reason1 and would have to be set even in the absence of state laws1 because of the important influence exercised by scientific doctrine upon the social life--the social welfare of mankind is the consideration beside the truth that is decisive in considering freedom in teaching4 ,the teacher or writer may himself be of the opinion that his pernicious errors are not dangerous2 he may fancy them even of utmost importance to the world2 hence he thinks he has the right1 even the duty1 to communicate them to the world4 ,and do we not hear them all assure us that they desire only the truth8 ,we do not wish to sit in judgment on the good faith of them individually2 we make no comment when a man like ,d4 ,f4 ,strauss1 looking back upon the forty years of his career as a writer1 vouches for his unwavering and pure aim for truth2 and when even ,haeckel asserts this of himself4 ,every fallacy has made its appearance with this avowal4 ,but1 by way of parenthesis1 there is no reason to boast in a general way of the sincere aim at truth and the pure mind for the ideal1 alleged to prevail in the modern literature of our times1 especially in philosophical literature4 ,he who stands upon ,christian ground knows that the denial of a personal ,god1 of immortality and other matters1 are errors of gravest consequence4 ,furthermore1 if one is convinced of the capability of man to recognize the truth1 at least in the most important matters1 and if one knows that ,god has made ,his ,revelation the greatest manifestation in history1 and proved it sufficiently by documents--indeed1 had to prove it2 that ,he will let all who are of good will come to the knowledge of the truth2 then it remains incomprehensible how modern philosophy considered as a whole is said on the one hand to be guided by a sincere desire for truth1 while on the other hand it clings with hopeless obstinacy to the most radical errors4 ,such talk of general sincere searching for truth is apt to deceive the inexperienced4 ,he who has obtained a deeper insight into modern philosophy1 he who steadily watches it at work1 will recall to mind only too often the word of the ,holy ,ghost3 8,for there shall be a time when they will not endure sound doctrine1 but according to their own desires shall they heap to themselves teachers 444 and will indeed turn away their hearing from the truth and shall be turned unto fables0 7#b ,tim4 iv4 #c74 ,even if the teacher is himself convinced of the truth and inoffensiveness of his theory1 it does not follow by any means that society is obliged to receive it4 ,indeed not4 ,the state prohibits cults dangerous to the common weal3 it does not intend to suffer damage just because the adherents of such cults may be in good faith4 ,and if some one thinks himself called to deliver a people from its legitimate ruler1 let it be undecided whether his purpose is good or not1 he will nevertheless be restrained by rather drastic means from proceeding according to his idea4 ,this proves that the principle of 8no barrier but one's own veracity0 is not conceded in practical life4 ,the teacher and author1 this is the sense of our thesis1 must ever be conscious of the grave responsibility of science1 against whose power the unscientific are so often defenceless2 his great duty will be to make use of this power with utmost compunction1 to teach nothing whereof he is not fully convinced1 nor to announce for truth anything he is still investigating4 ,as we turn to the demonstration of our proposition1 a start from the definition of scientific teaching suggests itself2 manifestly this must be decisive for the measure of its freedom4 ,no doubt1 its purpose obviously is3 to promote the weal of mankind by communicating the truth1 by guarding men against errors1 especially against those which would most harm them1 by elevating and increasing the blessings of this life3 for knowledge guides man in all his steps1 it is the light on his way4 ,science is not self-sufficient4 ,it is an equally false and pernicious notion to make science a sovereign authority1 throning above man1 who must pay homage1 and subordinate his interests to it1 but which he must not ask to serve him for his own ends in life4 ,there are such notions of science and also of art4 ,art1 too1 it is sometimes claimed1 should serve its own ends only2 the demand1 that it should edify1 or promote the ideals of society1 is deemed a desertion of its purposes1 8the furtherance of worldly or heavenly ideals may be eliminated from its task0 7,e4 von ,hartmann74 ,these are the excrescences of unclarified cultural thoughts4 ,since man and his culture is more and more replacing the divine ,ideal1 this culture itself has grown to be the overshadowing ideal of the ,deity1 without whom evidently man cannot live4 ,the ,egyptians worshipped ,sun and ,moon2 modern man often burns incense before the products of his own mind4 ,it is a reversal of the right proportion4 ,science and its doctrine are activities of life1 results of the human mind4 ,activities of life1 however1 have man for their end1 they are to develop and perfect him3 man does not exist for the clothes he wears--the clothes exist on account of man2 the leaves exist for the sake of the tree that puts them forth1 nor can grapes be of more importance than the vine that has produced them4 ,hence1 where science does not serve this end1 where it in consequence becomes not a blessing1 but an injury to man1 where it tears down1 instead of building up1 there it forfeits the right to exist2 it is no longer a fruitful bough on the tree of humanity1 but a harmful outgrowth4 ,like every organism actively opposes its harmful growths1 society1 too1 must not tolerate within its bosom any scientific tendencies which act as malign germs1 perhaps attack its very marrow4 ,from the true object of science1 as above stated1 it follows that it is wrong to disseminate doctrines that are apt to injure mankind in the possession of the truth1 which may even imperil the authenticated foundations of life4 ,for nobody will deny that firm foundations are needed to uphold and support the highest ideals of life2 they can no more withstand a constant jarring and shaking than can a house of frame and stone4 ,such foundations are1 first of all1 the moral and religious truths and convictions about the ,whence and ,whither of human life1 about ,god and the hereafter1 the social duties toward the fellow-man1 obedience to authority1 and so on4 ,if man is to perform burdensome duties as husband and father1 if1 as a citizen1 he is to do justice to others and yield in obedience to authority1 he must have powerful motives2 else his impulses will take the helm1 the sensible1 moral being becomes a sensual being who reverses the order and drives the ship of life towards the cataract of ethical and social revolution4 ,and these motives must rest deeply in the mind1 like the foundation that supports the house2 they must become identified with it1 as the vital principle penetrates the tree1 as the instinct of the animal is part of its innermost being4 ,if new notions are continually whizzing without resistance through the mind1 like the wind over the fields1 repose and permanence are impossible in human life4 ,to jolt the foundations invites collapse and ruin4 ,it is the duty of self-preservation1 for which every being strives1 that society guard these foundations of order against subversion and capricious experimentation4 ,of the ,locrians it is told that any one desiring to offer a resolution for changing existing laws1 was required to appear at the public meeting with a rope around his neck4 ,he was hanged with it if he failed to win his fellow-citizens over to his view4 ,this custom pictures the necessity of erecting a powerful dam against the inundation by illicit mental tidal waves1 that endanger the stability of the order of life4 ,this1 of course1 does not oppose every new progress4 ,in building a house1 firm foundations do not prevent the house from growing in size2 but the foundations are a necessary preliminary to a suitable construction4 ,under no circumstances must a man be permitted1 in his individualistic mania for reform1 to lay an impious hand at the fundamental principles of life2 and the scientist must bear in mind the fact that it is not the task and privilege of his individualistic reason to put the seal of approval on these principles as if the truth had never before been discovered4 ,to ,christian nations the immutable truths of ,christianity are these safe foundations4 ,they are vouched for by divine authority1 they have stood all historical tests of fitness2 they sustain the institutions of family and of government1 they determine thought1 education1 the ideas of right and wrong--a venerable patrimony of the nations4 ,shall every ,nietzsche1 big or little1 be free to attack them8 ,experiments may be made with rabbits1 flowers1 or drugs2 but it would violate the first principle of prudence and justice to allow every ,tom1 ,dick1 and ,harry1 who may have the neological itch1 to experiment on the highest institutions of mankind4 ,primum non nocere is an old caution to the physician2 for many medical practitioners and surgeons not an untimely admonition4 ,it is asserted1 and vouched for by proof1 that patients are made the subjects of experiment for purposes of science2 not1 indeed1 rich people1 but the poor in hospitals and clinics 7comp4 ,a4 ,moll1 ,arztliche ,ethik1 #aijb74 ,every conscientious physician will turn with moral abhorrence from such action4 ,indeed1 man and his greatest possession1 life1 is not to be made the victim of scientific experiment4 ,if this holds good as to the physical things of life1 then how much more of the ideal things of mankind6 8,every ,one to ,form ,his ,own ,judgment08 ,but1 then1 cannot every one decide for himself as to the teachings of science1 and reject whatever he thinks to be false8 ,then would be avoided all damage that might result from a freedom in teaching4 ,science does not force its opinion upon any one4 ,with due respect for the discernment of its disciples1 science lays its results before them1 leaving it to them to judge and choose1 whatever they think is good4 ,such words voice the optimism of an inexperienced idealism4 ,to be sure1 were the devotee to science1 be he a student at a university or a reader of scientific works1 a clear-sighted diagnostician1 who could at once perceive error1 and1 moreover1 if he were a mathematical entity1 without personal interest in the matter1 the argument might be listened to4 ,but any one past the immaturity of youth1 he1 especially1 who has earnestly commenced to know himself1 is aware that unfortunately the opposite is the case4 ,first the lack of ability to distinguish error from truth4 ,even when recognized1 error is not without danger2 it shares with truth the property to act suggestively1 especially when it repeatedly and with assurance approaches the mind4 ,and often error does pose with great assurance1 as the result of science1 as the conclusion of the superior mind of the teacher1 perhaps of a famous teacher6 ,it is taken for granted that whatever serious men assert in the name of science must be right2 or1 if not that1 there is the overawing feeling that there must be some justification for the confidence of the assertion4 ,authority impresses even without argument1 and impresses the more strongly1 the less there is of intellectual independence4 ,the latter is at lowest ebb at the youthful age4 ,that which in hypnotic suggestion is intensified into the morbid3 the effective psychical transfer of one's own thought into some one else1 occurs in a lesser form through the influence of the morbid scepsis of our times2 it is a poisonous atmosphere1 affecting imperceptively the susceptible mind which remains long in it4 ,for this reason the religious savant1 who has to do a great deal with infidel books1 must be on his watch incessantly1 even though he has the knowledge and the intellect to detect wrong conclusions4 ,thus we find that great scholars often display a striking fear of irreligious books4 ,of ,cardinal ,mai it is told3 8,he said--and this we can vouch for--#8,i have the permission to read forbidden books2 but ,i never make use of it nor do ,i intend to do so' 0 7,hilger1 ,der ,index1 #aije1 #da74 ,the learned ,l4 ,a4 ,muratori wrote a refutation of a heretic book4 ,in the preface he thought it necessary to apologize for having read the book4 ,he said3 8,the book got into my hands very late1 and for a long time ,i could not get myself to read it4 ,for why should one read the writings of innovators except to commit one's self to their folly8 ,i seek and like books which confirm my faith1 but not those which would lead me away from my religion4 ,but when ,i heard that the book was circulated in ,italy1 ,i resolved to muster up my strength for the defence of truth and religion1 and for the safety of my brethren40 ,saint ,francis of ,sales1 with touching simplicity1 gives in his writings praise to ,god for having preserved him from losing his faith through the reading of heretical books4 ,of the learned ,spanish philosopher ,balmes is preserved a saying that he once addressed to two of his friends3 8,you know1 the faith is deeply rooted in my heart4 ,nevertheless1 ,i cannot read a fallacious book without feeling the necessity of regaining the right mood by reading ,holy ,writ1 the ,imitation of ,christ1 and the writings of blessed ,louis of ,granada40 ,what then must happen when the needed training is lacking8 when one easily grasps the objections to the truth1 but cannot find the answer8 when one is not in a position to ascertain whether the asserted facts are based on truth1 whether something important is kept back1 whether there are stated positive facts1 or mere hypotheses1 or perhaps even idle suppositions8 ,if one is not capable to recognize wrong conclusions1 to note the ambiguities of words8 ,our present treatise cites proof of it4 ,how many earnest men1 who in good faith are the warm advocates of freedom of science1 are aware how ambiguous that term is2 how a whole theory of cognition and view of the world is hidden behind it8 ,how many can at once see the ambiguity of phrases like 8,difference between knowledge and faith10 of 8experiencing one's religion10 of 8evolution and progress10 of 8humanism10 of 8unfolding personality08 ,and of the self-conscious postulate that science cannot reckon with supernatural factors1 how many perceive that it is nothing but an undemonstrated supposition8 ,we are told that all great representatives of science reject the ,christian view of the world2 who knows at once that such assertion is untrue8 ,we read that the ,copernican theory was condemned by ,rome1 even prohibited up to #ahce1 and this cannot fail to make an impression2 but the part omitted in the story1 who will at once supplement or even suspect it8 ,then there is the great want of philosophical training4 ,formerly a thorough philosophical education was the indispensable condition for maturity1 and considered the indispensable foundation for higher studies4 ,all this has changed2 frequently there is not even the desire for philosophical training4 ,of course1 modern philosophy in its present state does not promise much of benefit4 8,students of medicine and law remain for the larger part without any philosophical education1 and among those of the other two faculties but few students do better than come into a more or less superficial touch with philosophy0 7,paulsen74 ,the consequence is1 they cannot scientifically get their bearings in respect to ultimate questions1 and easily lose their faith1 succumbing to errors and sophisms4 ,imagine a young man1 untrained2 in books1 in the lecture room1 in his intercourse1 everywhere1 he is courted by a disbelieving science1 with its theories1 its objections1 its doubts1--tension everywhere that is not relieved1 accusations that are not explained2 how is he to bring with a steady hand order in all this8 ,to clinch it1 he hears the obtrusive exhortation to form forthwith his own conviction by his own reasoning6 ,he is1 moreover1 likely to be informed as follows3 8,the university is a place for mental struggle1 for incessant investigation of inherited opinions4 ,for years and years the student was fed with prescribed matter which he had to swallow believingly1 444 at last the moment has arrived when he can choose and decide for himself4 ,true1 this freedom of mental choice--and it is the essence of academic freedom--has also its anguish4 ,but how magnificent it is1 on the other hand1 when the gloomy walls of the classroom vanish1 and the bright ether of research dawns into view with its wide horizon6 ,he who cannot grasp and enjoy this moment in its grandeur and exquisiteness1 he who prefers to the free life of the colt on the vast prairies the dull existence in a narrow fold 444 he has taken the wrong road when he came to the gates of the ,alma ,mater to study worldly science--he should have remained at the restful hearth of the pious1 parental home1 in the shadow of the old village-church0 7,jodl74 ,what a lack of earnestness and of knowledge of man1 what lack of the sense of responsibility6 ,of young men1 without thorough philosophical and theological preparation1 it is demanded to doubt at once their ,christian religion1 despite all compunctions of their conscience1 and to argue the dangerous theses of an anti-,christian view of the world4 ,they are expected1 as if they were heirs to the wisdom of all centuries1 to judge and correct forthwith that which their teachers call the result of their long studies--for they are not supposed to follow them blindly1 they are expected to sit in judgment over theological tendencies and philosophical systems1 and to struggle through doubts and aberrations1 untouched by error1 to display a mental independence which even the man of highest learning lacks4 ,such a knowledge of human nature might be left to itself1 if the wrecks it causes were not so saddening4 8,how terrible is the power of science60 a voice of authority warned a short time ago4 8,the unlearned are defenceless against the learned1 those who know little against those that know much2 the unlearned are incapable of independently judging the theories of the learned2 error in the garb of knowledge impresses them with the force of truth1 especially when it finds an ally in their evil lusts4 ,no wielder of state-power can lay waste1 can destroy1 as much as an unconscientious1 or even merely careless1 wielder of the weapons of knowledge4 ,exalted as is the pursuit of knowledge1 and as knowledge itself is if guided by strong moral sentiment and earnest conscience1 so degraded it becomes if it tears itself from the self-control of conscience4 ,this fatal rupture will happen the instant science deviates but a hair's breadth from the truth it can vouch for upon conscientious examination4444 ,sacred is the freedom of science keeping within the bounds of the moral laws2 but transgressing them it is no longer science1 but a farce staged with scientific technique1 a negation of the essence of science0 7,count ,a4 ,apponyi1 former ,hungarian ,minister of ,education1 officiating at a ,promotio sub auspiciis1 #aijh74 ,in the year #ahgg1 at the ,fiftieth ,congress of ,natural ,scientists in ,munich1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,virchow1 founder and leader of the ,progressive ,party in ,germany1 sounded a warning to be conscientious in the use of the freedom in teaching1 and in the first place1 to announce as the result of science nothing but what has been demonstrated beyond doubt3 8,i am of the opinion that we are actually in danger of jeopardizing the future by making too much use of the freedom offered to us by present conditions1 and ,i would caution not to continue in the arbitrary personal speculation1 which spreads itself nowadays in many branches of natural science4 ,we must make rigid distinction between that which we teach and that which is the object of research4 ,the subjects of our research are problems4 ,but a problem should not be made a subject of teaching4 ,in teaching1 we have to remain within the small1 and yet large domain which we actually control4 ,any attempt to model our problems into doctrines1 to introduce our conjectures as the foundation of education1 must fail1 especially the attempt to simply depose the ,church and to replace its dogma without ceremony by evolutionary religion2 indeed1 gentlemen1 this attempt must fail1 but in failing it will carry with it the greatest dangers for science in general4444 ,we must set ourselves the task1 in the first place1 to hand down the actual1 the real knowledge1 and1 in going further1 we must tell our students invariably3 ,this1 however1 is not proved1 it is my opinion1 my notion1 my theory1 my speculation4444 ,gentlemen1 ,i think we would misuse our power1 and endanger our power1 if in teaching we would not restrict ourselves to this legitimate province40 ,and is nothing known of the inclinations and passions1 especially of the youthful heart1 to which truth is so often a heavy yoke1 constraining and oppressing them8 ,will they not try to use every means to relieve the tension8 ,will they not gravitate by themselves to a science that tells them the old religion with its oppressive dogmas1 its unworldly morals1 is a stage of evolution long since passed by1 and that many other things1 once called sin by obsolete prejudices1 are the justified utterances of nature8 ,will they not worship this science as their liberator8 ,he who once said 8,i am the truth10 ,he was crucified2 a sign for all ages4 ,base nature will at all times crucify the truth4 ,f4 ,coppe1 a member of the ,french ,academy1 led back by severe sickness to the faith of his youth1 relates the following in his confessions3 8,i was raised a ,christian1 and fulfilled the religious duties with zeal even for some years after my first ,holy ,communion4 ,what made me deviate from my pious habits were1 ,i confess it openly1 the aberrations of youthful age and the loathing to make certain confessions4 ,quite many who are in the same position will admit1 if they will be frank1 that at the beginning they were estranged from their creed by the severe law which religion imposes on all in respect to sensuality1 and only in later years they felt the want to extenuate and justify the transgressions of the moral law by a scientific system40 8,having taken the first step on the downward road1 ,i could not fail to read books1 listen to words1 see examples1 which confirmed my notion that nothing can be more warranted but that man obey his pride and his sensuality2 and soon ,i became totally indifferent in respect to religion4 ,as will be seen1 my case is an everyday case40 ,only exalted moral purity can keep the mind free from being made captive and dragged down by the passions4 ,in a college town in southern ,germany a ,catholic ,priest some time ago met a college girl who belonged to a club of monists4 ,they started upon a discussion1 and soon the college girl had no argument left4 ,but as a last shot she exclaimed1 8,well1 you cannot prevent me from hating your ,god40 ,prof4 ,g4 ,spicker relates in his autobiography instructive reminiscences of his college years4 ,religiously trained in his youth1 and in his early years for some time a ,capuchin1 he left this ,order to go to the university4 ,previous to this he had been led to doubt by the perusal of modern philosophical writings1 and at ,munich he sank still more deeply into doubt4 ,prof4 ,huber advised him to hear the radical ,prantl4 ,in his dejection he went to a fellow-student in quest of comfort1 and received the significant advice3 8,indeed1 ,huber is right3 you are not a bit of a philosopher2 you still believe in sin1 that is only a theological notion2 go and hear ,prantl1 he'll rid you of your fancies40 ,of the impression ,prantl's lectures made upon the susceptible young students he relates3 8,they were especially overawed by his passionate enthusiasm1 his trenchant criticism1 his sarcastic treatment of everything mediocre and superficial1 and1 chiefly1 by his self-conscious1 authoritative1 demeanor4 ,like a tornado he swept through hazy1 obscure regions1 whether in science1 art1 poetry1 or religion4 ,even by only attending the lectures one became more conscious of one's knowledge and looked down with silent contempt upon semi-philosophers and theologians40 ,in regard to himself he admits that a few weeks sufficed to destroy the last remnants of his former religious persuasion3 8,huber's prophecy was completely fulfilled1 the last stump of my dogmatic belief was smashed into a thousand splinters40 ,vae mundo a scandalis6 ,what a responsibility rests especially upon those who become the scandal for inexperienced youth6 ,in the upper classes of a largely ,protestant college in northern ,germany the professor of mathematics1 some years ago1 asked the question1 who among the students had read ,haeckel's 8,weltraetsel40 ,all except four or five rose to their feet4 ,upon his further question1 who of them believed in what is said in the book1 about half of the classroom rose4 8,the immature youth who read the #8,weltraetsel1' 0 so says ,a4 ,hansen1 8unfortunately conclude3 #8,haeckel says there is no ,god1 therefore we may boldly live as it suits our natural immorality4444' ,is ,haeckel the strong mind to assume for a long future the responsibility for this conclusion80 ,one is frightened by the manner the highest ideals of mankind are often juggled with1 what they dare offer with easy conscience to the tenderest youth4 ,prof4 ,forel is known by his widely spread book on 8,the ,sexual ,question10 perhaps better known even by his lectures on the subject1 which some cities prohibited in the interest of public morals4 ,in the seventh edition of his book we find published as a testimonial1 also as proof of the good reading the book makes for early youth1 a letter of a young woman whose opinion of the book had been requested by the author4 ,her answer reads3 8,you ask me what impression your book made upon me4 ,i should state that ,i am very young1 but have read a great deal4 ,my mother has given me a very liberal education1 and so ,i have a right to count myself among the unprejudiced girls40 ,she assures the author3 8,i never thought for a single moment that your book was immoral1 hence ,i do not believe that you have corrupted me40 ,and such books are offered to young girls as fit reading6 ,some years ago a sensation was created when in ,berlin a young author1 twenty-two years of age1 ,george ,scheufler by name1 killed himself4 ,though of a religious training1 he began at an early age to read the writings of infidel natural scientists and philosophers4 ,his belief became weaker and weaker1 and he finally abandoned it entirely4 ,only a few years afterwards1 the young man1 who had become a writer of repute1 put a revolver to his heart1 nauseated by the world1 tortured by religious doubts4 ,an organ of modern infidelity commented upon the event in the cold words3 8,the truth is probably that the undoubtedly talented author had not nerves strong enough for the ,berlin life1 hence he dies4 ,may his ashes rest in peace60 ,heartless words on the misfortune of a poor victim of the modern propaganda of disbelief4 ,heavy1 indeed1 is the responsibility courted by representatives of science when they sin against the holiest ideals of mankind1 especially when they induce the maturing youth1 with his susceptibilities and awakening impulses1 to emancipate himself from the belief of his childhood1 and to tear down the fortifications of innocence6 ,if the teacher is high-minded1 this cannot mitigate the perniciousness of his teaching1 but only increase it1 neither can the fact that his personal morals are without a flaw vindicate him4 ,if a man by strewing poison does no harm to himself1 this does not give him the right to injure others4 ,if science demands the privilege of assuming the mental education of our people1 then science assumes also the duty of administering these interests conscientiously1 and the gravest responsibility will rest upon him in whose hand science spreads ruin4 8,knowledge does no ,harm08 8,the increase and spread of knowledge0 7this is a further objection7 8can never harm society1 only benefit its interests0 7,von ,amira74 ,hence1 do not get alarmed3 nothing is to be feared from science4 ,the apostles of the enlightened eighteenth century tried to quiet their age with similar assertions4 8,it is not true10 says ,lessing1 8that speculations about ,god and divine things have ever done harm to society2 not the speculations did it--but the folly and tyranny to forbid them40 ,if this were amended to read true knowledge can never do harm1 then the mind might be set at rest1 although even then it might become dangerous to teach the truth without discrimination or caution4 ,not all are ripe for every truth3 truth can often be misunderstood1 lead to false conclusions4 ,thus1 it may become certain1 perhaps1 that a much-worshipped relic1 a much-visited shrine1 is not genuine3 nevertheless in giving such explanation to simple1 pious people one would have to display caution in order to keep them from doubting even the tenets of the creed4 ,but there is also false knowledge2 can this 8never do harm but only benefit80 ,will all knowledge exert the same influence1 whether the ,christian tenets of love and mercy1 or ,nietzsche's moral for the wealthy1 whether young people are given to read ,christian books1 or those of ,haeckel1 ,buechner1 and ,strauss8 ,the story is told of ,voltaire1 that he sent all servants out of the room when he had friends for guests and philosophical discussions started at the dining-table1 because he did not wish to have his throat cut the next night4 ,so this free-thinker1 too1 did not think that all knowledge is beneficial4 ,but1 we are further assured1 let science peacefully pursue its way2 if it should err it will correct itself4 ,it is true1 sciences of obvious subjects1 that have no direct relation to moral conduct of life1 do1 sooner or later1 correct their mistakes2 recent physics has corrected the mistakes of the physics of past ages2 historical errors1 too1 are disappearing with the times4 ,quite different is the matter when philosophical-religious questions are at issue4 ,pantheism1 subjectivism1 8scientific0 rejection of faith1 are errors1 grave errors1 yet it does not follow that they will fall of themselves into desuetude2 they may prevail for a long time1 may return with the regularity of certain diseases4 ,their error is not tangible1 and the desires of the heart incline to them by the law of least resistance4 ,from the earliest ages to this day the same philosophical errors have returned1 in varied form4 ,but let us assume that this would be the case2 that these errors1 too1 would disappear after some time1 disappear for good4 ,is it demanded that the errors in the meanwhile ought to have free play8 ,shall the surgeon be allowed to perform risky experiments on the patient1 because later on he will realize that his act was objectionable8 ,will the father hand to his son an improper book1 consoling himself that truth must prevail in the end1 even though defeated temporarily8 ,these are delusions of the abstract intellectualism of our times1 which sees all salvation and human perfection merely in learning and knowledge1 and forgets that knowledge signifies education and benefit for mankind only when attached to truth and moral order4 ,not knowledge1 but knowledge of the truth1 and moral dignity1 make for civilization and perfection2 knowledge no longer controlled by truth and ethics becomes the hireling of the low passions1 and fights for their freedom4 8,the ,vehicle of ,truth40 ,back of the urgent demands for unrestricted freedom in teaching stands invariably a thought that operates with palsying effect upon the minds3 to wit1 that science is the embodiment of truth1 a genius carrying the unextinguishable beacon of light3 to silence it would be to resist the truth4 ,our first thought when we began our dissertation of the ,freedom of ,science was1 that science is not the poetical being so often described3 it is an individual activity1 a product of the human mind1 sharing its defects and weaknesses4 ,for this reason science is not the infallible bearer of the truth2 least of all in the higher questions of life1 where its eyes are dimmed1 and where inclinations of the heart still further obscure its strength of vision4 ,and this is admitted1 even to the point of despairing of the ability to find the truth on these questions1 and if one is not ready to admit this1 the fact is made apparent by a glance at the countless errors exhibited in the history of human thinking4 ,is error to have the same right that truth has8 ,if wholesome beverage may rightly be offered to anybody1 can1 with the same right1 poison be given8 ,may one follow his false sense of truth1 calling it science1 and teach anything he thinks right8 ,moreover1 is not this science1 which1 according to its exponents1 need not regard anything but its own method1 entirely a special kind of science8 ,indeed it is1 as we have learned to know it4 ,we have learned to know this free science1 with its autonomous subjectivism1 that shapes its changing views according to personal experience2 this feeble but proud scepticism2 we have learned of those ominous imperatives1 that banish everything divine from the horizon of knowledge--a science with its torch turned upside down4 ,and its aim--negation4 ,the beautiful thought is frequently expressed that science1 especially the science of our universities1 is to act as the leader in the mental life of the nation1 8a universal ,parliament of science1 which would represent the authoritative power so urgently needed by our discordant and sceptical age1 an age that has lost faith in authority40 ,the idea is beautiful1 it is sublime2 it coincides with a conception of the divine ,spirit1 who has already realized it1 though1 it is true1 in another manner4 ,the divine ,spirit has founded in the bosom of mankind such a centre of mental life2 namely1 the ,church4 ,she1 and only she1 bears all the marks of the universal teacher of truth4 ,by virtue of divine aid the ,church alone has the prerogative of infallibility1 as necessary to the teacher of the nations2 human philosophy is not infallible1 least of all a science that despairs of the highest truth1 nay1 that often deals with it as the cat does with the mouse4 ,a teacher of the nations must possess unity of doctrine4 ,the ,church has this unity1 her view of the world stands before us in perfect concord2 while discord reigns in the philosophy of a free mankind1 one thought opposed to another4 ,the ,church is holy1 holy in her moral laws1 holy in her service of the truth2 she never shirks truth1 not even where truth is painful2 the ,church never surrenders the truth to human passions4 ,the ,church is ,catholic1 general1 for the learned and the unlearned2 she is apostolic1 with faithful hand she preserves for all generations the spiritual patrimony of the forefathers4 ,and the unbelieving science of liberalism1 where is its holiness1 when its eye cannot bear the sight of heaven8 when it numbers among its admirers all the unholy elements of humanity8 ,where is its catholicity1 its reverence for traditions1 its historic sense1 the indispensable requirement for the teacher of centuries8 ,the ruins of overthrown truths1 amongst which wanton thought holds its orgies1 bear witness to the unfitness of infidel science to be the teacher of mankind4 ,serious ,charges4 ,the science of our day must often listen to charges of the gravest nature4 ,they are uttered not only by servants of the ,church1 but in public meetings1 legislative bodies1 and in numerous articles by the press3 science1 we are told1 has become a danger to faith and morals1 it has become the teacher of irreligion1 a leader in the war against ,christianity4 ,the force of the accusation is felt and attempts are made to ward it off4 ,and then we are assured that science is not the enemy of religion1 nor of the precious possessions of society4 ,it is clear1 without further proof1 that science in itself cannot be a social danger2 hence the charge cannot apply to science in general1 but only to that special brand of science cultivated in an anti-,christian spirit4 ,the assurance from its champions1 that their intentions are the best1 may often be a proof that they do not realize the scope of their doctrines2 nevertheless1 it cannot be denied that this science has become1 through its principles1 as taught in lectures and in print1 the greatest danger to the religious-moral possessions of our nations and to the foundations of public order1 hence an unlimited freedom for the activities of this science means unlimited freedom for a destructive power that spells ruin to our mental culture4 ,can the principles of this science be anything but a danger8 ,their sharp antagonism to the principle of authority1 must it not undermine the respect for state authority1 must it not strengthen the elements of social disorder8 ,its contempt of sacred traditions1 must it not become a danger to everything existing8 8,if all mankind were of one opinion10 it teaches1 8and but one single man were of a different opinion1 then mankind would have no more right to impose silence on him than he to silence all of mankind1 if he could10 must not such an individualism become the fertile soil of revolutionary ideas8 ,its ethics without religion tells every one that his own individuality is the court of last resort for his moral doings1 that moral laws are subject to change1 and must such views not become a danger to moral order8 ,finally1 the separation of mankind from ,god and its eternal destiny1 must it not necessarily lead the whole of life to materialism8 and from the scullery it is not far to the sewer4 ,through its antagonism to ,christian faith this science becomes the chief factor in dechristianizing the nations4 ,it is objected that this accusation is not true1 because science addresses itself to professional circles only2 the people1 of course1 cannot digest these things1 therefore religion is to be preserved for the people4 ,why this distinction8 ,the principles of liberal science of to-day are either true or they are not true4 ,if not true1 why profess them8 ,if they are true1 as is vehemently asserted1 then why should the people be excluded from a true view of the world8 ,have the people not an equal right to the truth in important questions1 equal right to light and happiness8 ,ah1 the consequences of this doctrine of freedom are feared2 it is feared the people's natural logic would take hold of these principles and draw from them its conclusions4 ,and by that very fear these principles stand condemned of themselves4 ,the truth can stand its consequences1 as does the ,christian view of the world2 and the more zealously its consequences are pursued1 the more blessed the fruits4 ,it is otherwise with error4 ,therefore1 if the principles of liberal science cannot stand their consequences1 they must be erroneous4 8,consider chiefly to be good that which enhances when communicated to others10 is a wise maxim of the ,pythagoreans4 ,anything spelling damage and ruin1 when communicated to others1 is not good1 but evil4 ,nor is it true that science confines itself to professional circles4 ,any one who does not lead the isolated existence of pedantry knows that this is not the case4 ,what the professor of our day teaches in the lecture room1 finds its way into the minds of his students1 and from there into preparatory and public schools2 ideas committed by the scientific writer to paper and print1 go into all the world1 and1 transformed into popular speech1 become the common property of the millions4 ,the flood of books1 pamphlets1 and leaflets attacking and vilifying the ,christian tenets of faith is ever swelling1 and day by day tons of this literature are spread without hindrance over ,christian countries4 ,there is not a single book against the ,christian truth1 be its author named ,feuerbach1 ,strauss1 ,darwin1 ,haeckel1 ,carneri1 ,nietzsche1 or otherwise1 that does not soon circulate in popular editions in every country1 or at least has to lend its subject to pamphlets and booklets1 which then carry these 8results of science0 to every nook and corner1 to the remotest backwoods village4 ,and the fruits8 ,all those who in these days profess infidelity and radicalism1 they all unanimously profess adherence to modern free science4 ,tell ,me with ,whom ,thou ,goest4 ,in stately array they come along nowadays1 free-thinkers and freemasons1 free-religionists and representatives of the free view of the world1 monists1 agitators for 8free school0 and socialists1 all impetuously active in the service of anti-,christianity1 bent on reviving and spreading ancient heathendom4 ,all are avowed disciples of free science1 all spread its doctrines1 and all work for the popularizing of their ideas4 ,there they press on1 the living proof that modern science1 as far as it is infidel1 has become1 voluntarily or involuntarily1 the teacher of radicalism1 of paganism1 and the leader in the battle against religion and ,christian morals4 ,and in its train is marching ,free-thought in all its varieties4 ,its aim at destruction1 its dismal designs against religion and state1 have become manifest in its books and conventions2 for instance1 the international free-thinker conventions lately held at ,rome and at ,prague were plainly of anarchistical sentiment4 ,in their midst we see men of science1 academic teachers4 ,under their auspices are arranged 8scientific lectures0 to make known the 8results of modern science10 with the conviction that this will suffice for the overthrow of religion2 they demand that 8the instruction in public institutions be only a scientific one02 itinerant orators are sent to speak with preference on 8,science and the ,church10 on the theocratic view of the world and free science4 ,the doctrines of liberal science are adopted by freemasonry1 its rallying-cry is 8freedom from ,god1 freedom of the human reason40 ,and following the band-wagon of free science1 we see a shouting and jeering multitude1 its clenched fists threatening any one who would dare to attack this fine science1 their liberator from the yoke of religion2 they are the thousands of the common people1 whose faith has been torn out of their hearts1 and1 with faith1 also peace and good morals4 ,we see marching there hundreds from the ranks of youth1 who in the heedless impulse of their inexperience have cast off belief1 and1 with belief1 frequently all moral discipline2 they1 too1 look upon science as their liberator4 ,the morally inferior part of mankind1 which declares anything to be ethical that 8promotes life02 which fights against 8love-denying views0 and against obsolete maxims of morals1 it1 too1 follows in the tracks of free science4 ,and wherever the issue is to fight ,christian institutions1 under the name of marriage-reform1 free-school1 or what not1 there we are sure to see representatives of science and of universities1 and to hear them hold forth for free science4 ,where the purpose is to kindle the fires of revolt against religious authority1 there we are certain to meet in the first rank the modern teachers of science4 ,science and its representatives have an ideal vocation4 ,they should be the hearth of the spiritual goods of the nations2 new and wholesome forces should at all times emanate from the abodes of science1 and the people should look up with confidence to these watch-towers of knowledge and truth4 ,what a shocking contrast to this exalted ideal it is1 to hear time and again the believing people and their leaders raise a complaining and indignant voice against a science that has become a most dangerous antagonist to their holiest goods6 ,is it not painful to see the devout mother apprehensively cautioning her son1 who departs for the university1 not to let his faith be taken from him by teaching and association8 ,is it not sad to observe that it has become the common saying3 8,he has lost his faith at the university08 ,is it not regrettable to see that ,catholic universities have become necessary to preserve the ideal goods of the ,christian religion8 ,it is unavoidable that such complaints are sometimes exaggerated4 ,in their generality they include universities that have given small reason for them2 honourable men and representatives of sciences who should not be reproached are being mixed up in these charges4 ,but it is true1 nevertheless1 that many have given such occasion4 ,is it not true also that many remain silent instead of protesting in the name of true science8 that they feel it incumbent upon themselves to protect such a procedure1 for the sake of the freedom of science8 ,for a generation and longer1 ,haeckel misused science to make war upon religion1 and went to the extreme in his scientific outrageousness1 not even stopping at forgery4 ,professor ,w4 ,his had already in #ahge expressed his opinion of ,haeckel in relation to the false drawings of his embryonic illustrations in the words3 8,others may respect ,haeckel as an active and reckless leader3 in my judgment he has on account of his methods forfeited the right to be considered an equal in the circle of serious investigators40 ,when ,dr4 ,brass1 a member of the ,kepler ,bund1 recently disclosed new forgeries of this kind1 it should have been made the occasion for a protest in the interest of science and its freedom against such methods4 ,instead of that1 however1 forty-six professors of biology and zology published a statement in defence of ,haeckel1 declaring that while not approving of ,haeckel's method in some instances1 they condemned in the interest of science and of freedom of teaching most strongly the war waged against ,haeckel by ,brass and the ,kepler ,bund4 ,is the freedom to use methods like ,haeckel's included in the freedom of teaching1 which they consider must be defended8 ,can it surprise any one that this freedom of teaching is viewed with concern8 ,much excitement was caused a few years ago by a pamphlet of an ,austrian professor4 ,another ,austrian professor1 of high rank in science1 criticized the pamphlet as 8,a reckless and absolute negation of the foundation of the ,christian dogma in the widest sense of the word1 proclaimed as the verdict of science and of common sense4 ,it is replete with blasphemous jokes1 such as may usually be heard only in the most vulgar places40 ,a cry of indignation was raised by the ,catholic people of the ,tyrol against this base insult to their creed2 it was shown that the author of this pamphlet had misused his lectures on ,catholic ,canon ,law1 to speak to his ,catholic students disdainfully of the ,divinity of ,christ1 of the ,sacraments1 of the ,church1 and the prime foundations of ,christianity4 ,upon indictment by the public prosecutor1 the pamphlet was condemned in ,court as a libel upon the ,christian religion4 ,it was expected that the representatives of science1 in defence of the threatened honour of science1 would repudiate all community of interest with a production that was merely the expression of an anti-,christian propaganda4 ,that expectation was not fulfilled2 on the contrary1 those in authority at the ,austrian universities1 and numerous professors of other countries1 joined in a protest against the violation of the rights of a professor1 against the attacks on freedom of science4 ,they demanded full immunity for the author of the libel4 ,even the state department of ,religion and ,education expressed the opinion that the accused 8had only availed himself of the right of free research40 ,is this the freedom in teaching that is to be protected by the state8 ,and yet there are those who indignantly deny that there is danger for religion in this freedom6 ,he who really has at heart the honour of science and of the universities1 and is inspired by their ideals1 should bear in mind that to realize these ideals the first thing necessary is public confidence3 not the confidence of a revolutionizing minority1--a scrutiny of those elements that give them their plaudits ought to arouse reflection1--but the confidence of earnest1 conservative circles of the uncorrupted people4 ,in academic circles the increasing lack of respect for the university and its teachers is complained of4 ,professor ,von ,amira writes3 8,thirty years ago the academic teacher was reverenced by the highest society2 his association was sought2 he had no need of any other title than the one that told what he was4 ,to-day we see a different picture1 particularly as to the title 'professor4' ,to-day they smile at it4 ,nowadays1 if a professor desires to impress1 he must bear a title designating something else than what he really is4 ,a literature has grown up that deals with the decline of the universities4 ,the fact of a decline is taken for granted1 only its causes and remedies are discussed4 ,and this is not all4 ,invectives are bestowed upon the institutions1 upon the teachers as a body1 upon the individual teacher4 ,and there is no one to take up the cudgels in our defence60 ,a fact suggesting earnest self-examination1 and the resolution not to forfeit still more this respect4 ,it is not sufficient to repudiate with indignation the complaints4 ,nor will it do to pretend a respect for religion and ,christianity1 and a desire to see both preserved1 that are not really felt4 ,what is needed is the admission that the road taken is the wrong one4 ,the ,responsibility before ,history4 ,the distressing fact is realized that the worm of immorality is devouring in our day the marrow of the most civilized nations4 ,it is also known that its wretched victims are in no class so numerous as in the class of college men4 ,earnest-minded men and women are raising a warning cry1 and are forming societies to stem the ruin of the nations4 ,the alarm bell is ringing through the lands4 ,remarkable words on this subject are those written not long ago by ,paulsen3 8,it looks as if all the demons had been let loose at this moment to devastate the basis of the people's life4 ,those who know ,germany through reading only1 through its comic weeklies1 its plays1 its novels1 the windows of its bookshops1 the lectures delivered and attended by male and female1 must arrive at the opinion that the paramount question to the ,german people just now is whether the restrictions put on the free play of the sexual impulse by custom and law are evil and should be abolished80 ,paulsen puts the responsibility for it upon the sophistry on the sexual instinct and the present naturalism in the view of the world3 8,the prevailing naturalism in the view of world and life is leading to astonishing aberrations of judgment1 and this is true also of men otherwise discerning4 ,if man is nothing else but a system of natural instincts1 similar in this to the rest of living beings1 then1 indeed1 no one can tell what other purpose life could have than the gratification of all instincts4444 ,reformation of ideas--this is the cry heard in all streets2 cast off a ,christianity hostile to life1 that is killing in embryo thousands of possibilities for happiness4 ,true1 even in past ages young people were not spared temptation4 ,but the barriers were stronger2 traditional1 moral1 religious sentiment1 and sensible views4 ,our time has pulled down these barriers2 young people everywhere are advised by all the leading lights of the day3 old morals and religion are dead1 slain by modern science2 the old commandments are the obsolete fetters of superstition4 ,we know now their origin2 they are but auto-suggestions of common consciousness which mistakes them for voices from another world1 that has been deposed long since by the scientific thought of to-day40 ,these are words of indignation of a well-meaning friend of mankind4 ,do they not rebound upon the speaker himself to become terrible self-accusations for him and others1 who1 while perhaps of similar well-meaning sentiment1 are actually working for the annihilation of the moral-religious sentiment1 as ,paulsen himself has done by his books8 8,the old religion is dead1 slain by science10 is proclaimed in innumerable passages of his books2 the idea of another world has long been disposed of by the scientific reasoning of the present time1 8hence a philosophy10 he tells us1 8which insists upon the thesis that certain natural processes make it necessary to assume a metaphysical principle1 or a supernatural agency1 will always have science for an irreconcilable opponent40 8,it will be difficult for a future age to understand10 he writes elsewhere1 8how our times so complacently could cling to a system of religious instruction originated many centuries ago under entirely different conditions of intellectual life1 and which in many points forms the decided opposite to facts and notions which1 outside of the school1 are taken by our times for granted40 ,in respect to morals1 too1 one can do without a supernatural law4 8,according to the view presented here1 ethics as a science does not depend on belief4444 ,moral laws are the natural laws of the human-historical life of time and place4444 ,nor does it seem advisable in pedagogical-practical respect to make the force or the significance of ethical commands dependent on a matter so uncertain as the belief in a future life40 ,we might cite many similar expressions from his writings4 ,it is significant that they have to condemn their own science in view of its sad consequences4 ,paulsen loudly demands restriction for the freedom of art1 for the industry of lewdness1 for the literature of perversity4 ,he says3 8,the ,english people1 admired by us because of their liberal principles and free institutions1 are less afraid to show by the sternest means the door to salacious minds 444 the feeling of responsibility for preserving the roots of the strength of the people's life is in ,england far more wide awake than with us1 who still feel in our bones the fear of censure and the policeman's club4444 ,but what are the things committed by our nasty trades and the publications in their service other than so many assaults upon our liberty8 ,are they not primarily an assault upon the inner freedom of adolescent youth who are made slaves of their lowest instincts by the industries of these merchants8 ,therefore admonish the hangman not to be swerved by the plea of freedom40 ,no one will deny approval to these words4 ,but do they not1 again1 become a severe condemnation of the reckless freedom in teaching1 that claims the right to assault without hindrance the truths which are the foundation of our nation8 ,if art must not become a danger1 why may science8 ,if the artist is asked to take into consideration the innocence and weal of young people1 if he is cautioned not to follow solely 8his sense for beauty10 why should the teacher be allowed to follow his 8sense for truth0 without regard for anything else8 ,if no statute of limitation and restriction exist for science1 neither prescribed nor prohibited ideas for the academic teacher1 why should there be any prohibited 8sthetic principles0 for the artist8 ,manifestly1 because here the absurdity of this freedom is more clearly perceptible1 because it leads to shamelessness4 ,at this juncture1 therefore1 they are constrained to concede the untenability and the senselessness of the unlimited human freedom1 that is defended with so much volubility4 ,paulsen points to an age in which1 similarly to our times1 progressive men arose and1 in the name of science1 discarded religion and morals2 they called themselves men of science1 sages1 8sophists40 8,it is remarkable that the very same occurrence was observed more than #b1jjj years ago1 when ,plato experienced it in his time with the young people of ,athens1 who became fascinated by similar sophistical speech40 ,the noble ,sage of ,greece had caustic words for ,protagoras1 the champion of sophistry1 and his brethren in spirit3 8,if cobblers and tailors were to put in worse condition the shoes and clothes they receive for improving1 this would soon be known and they would starve2 not so ,protagoras1 who is corrupting quietly the whole of ,hellas1 and who has dismissed his disciples in a worse state than he received them1 and this for more than forty years4444 ,not ,protagoras alone1 but many others did this before and after him4 ,did they knowingly deceive and poison the youth or did they not realize what they were doing8 ,are we to assume that these men1 praised by many for their sagacity1 have done so in ignorance8 ,no1 they were not blind to their acts1 but blind were the young people who paid them for instruction1 blind were their parents who confided them to these sophists1 blindest were the communities that admitted them instead of turning them away40 ,what a responsibility to co-operate in the intellectual corruption of entire generations6 ,and the corruption by dechristianizing is increasing in all circles1 owing to the misuse of science4 ,that the condition is not even worse is not the merit of this science1 nor evidence of the harmlessness of its freedom2 it is the merit of the after effect of a ,christian past1 which continues to influence1 consciously or unconsciously1 the thought and feeling even of those circles that seem to be long since estranged from ,christianity4 ,concerning the decline of morality in our age ,paulsen observes3 8,foerster rightly emphasizes the fact that the old ,church rendered an imperishable service in moralizing and spiritualizing our life1 by urging first of all the discipline of the will1 and by raising heroes of self-denial in the persons of her ,saints4 ,that we still draw from this patrimony ,i1 too1 do not doubt4 ,that we waste it carelessly is indeed the great danger40 8,it was a wonderfully balmy evening in the fall of #aije10 relates ,rev4 ,l4 ,ballet1 missionary in ,japan1 8and the sun had just set behind ,mount ,fiji4 ,unexpectedly a young ,japanese appeared in front of me1 desiring to talk to me4 ,i noticed that he was a young student4 ,i bade him enter1 and we saluted each other with a low bow1 as persons meeting for the first time4 ,i asked him to take a seat opposite to me1 and took advantage of the first moments of silence to take a good look at him4 ,but imagine my astonishment when his first question was1 #8,do you believe life is worth living8' asked in an earnest but calm manner4 ,i confess this question from lips so young alarmed me and went to my heart like a thrust4 #8,why1 certainly1' was my reply1 #8life is worth living1 and living good4 ,how do you come to ask a question that sounds so strange from the lips of a young man8 ,you certainly do not desire to follow the example of your fellow-countryman ,fijimura ,misao1 who jumped into the abyss from ,mount ,kegon8'--#8,no1 sir1 at least not yet4 ,i confess1 however1 that ,i feel my hesitation to be cowardice1 for ,i have made this resolution for some time4 ,in my opinion man is purely a thing of blind accident1 a wretched1 ephemeral fly without importance1 without value4 ,why then prolong a life in which a little pleasure is added to so much sorrow1 so much disappointment2 a life that at any rate finally melts away into nothing8 ,i am more and more convinced that this is the truth4'--#8,and what brought you to such views8'--#8,well1 science1 philosophy1 the books which ,i have read for pastime or study4 ,if it were only the opinion of our few ,japanese scientists one might hesitate2 but the science1 the philosophy1 of ,europe1 translated and expounded by our writers1 teach the same thing4 ,god1 soul1 future life1 all is idle delusion4 ,nothing is eternal but only matter4 ,after twenty1 thirty1 sixty years1 man dies1 and there remains nothing of him but his body1 which will decay in order to pass into other beings1 matter like he was4 ,this is what science teaches us2 a hard doctrine1 ,i confess2 but what is there to be said against it1 considering the positive results of scientific research8' 0 ,great responsibility is borne by a science that despoils mankind of its best1 of all that gives it comfort and support in life6 ,in faraway ,japan there is not the spiritual power of ,christianity to counteract the misuse of science2 the poison does its work and there is no antidote4 ,that the ,christian nations 8carelessly waste their patrimony1 that1 indeed1 is the great danger40 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,freedom ,of ,teaching ,and ,the ,state4 ,close bonds of mutual dependence and solidarity interlink all created beings1 especially men4 ,insufficient in himself1 both physically and mentally1 man finds in uniting with others everything he needs2 thus do individuals and families join forces1 generations join hands2 what the fathers have earned is inherited and increased by new generations4 ,human life is essentially social life and co-operation--in the indefinite form social life within the great human society1 in the definite form social life within the two great bodies1 ,church and state4 ,within both bodies human benefits are to be attained and protected against danger by common exertion--within the ,church the spiritual benefits of eternal character1 within the state the temporal benefits4 ,hence both bodies1 or societies1 will have to take a position in relation to science and its doctrine4 ,indeed1 in civilized nations there is hardly a public activity of mightier influence upon life than science4 ,the contemplation of this position shall now be our task4 ,science1 as we have above set forth1 addresses itself to mankind--a fallible science addressing itself to men easily deceived2 therefore1 an unrestricted freedom in teaching is ethically inadmissible4 ,hence it follows1 as a matter of course1 that the authorities of state and ,church1 who must guard the common benefits1 have the duty of keeping the freedom in scientific teaching within its proper bounds1 so far as this lies in their power4 ,hitherto we have left these social authorities out of consideration2 the position taken was the general ethical one4 ,the case might be supposed that the ,church had provided few restrictions of this kind1 and the state none at all2 nevertheless1 an absolute freedom in teaching would still present a condition dangerous to the community at large1 contrary to the demands of morality2 we should then have an unrestricted freedom in teaching1 permitted by law1 but ethically inadmissible4 ,the distinction is important4 ,quite often freedom in teaching is spoken of as permitted by the state1 as if it was identical with ethical permission4 ,if freedom in teaching is permitted by the state1 this evidently means only that the state permits teaching without interference on its part2 it says1 ,i do not stand in the way1 ,i let things proceed4 ,but this does not mean that it is right and proper4 ,the burden of personal responsibility rests upon him who avails himself of a freedom which1 though not hindered by the state1 is in conflict with what is right4 ,the state tolerates many things--it does not interfere against unkindness1 nor against extravagance1 nor deceit2 nevertheless everybody is morally responsible for such doings4 ,if1 then1 we take up the question1 what position social authority should take toward scientific teaching1 whether it be in the higher schools1 or outside of them1 we are considering chiefly the state4 ,it is the state that enters most into consideration when freedom in teaching nowadays is discussed2 the state may interfere most effectively in the management of schools and universities1 for these are state institutions in most countries4 ,universities as ,state ,institutions4 ,they were not always state institutions4 ,the universities of the ,middle ,ages were autonomous corporations1 which constituted themselves1 made their own statutes1 had their own courts1 but enjoyed at the same time legal rights4 ,conditions gradually changed after the ,reformation4 ,the power of princes began more and more to interfere in the management of the universities1 until in the seventeenth century1 and still more in the eighteenth1 the universities became state institutions1 subject to the reigning sovereign1 the professors his salaried officials1 and text-books1 subject and form of instruction were prescribed by the minute1 paternal directions of the sovereign1 and with the mania for regulating that was a feature of the eighteenth century4 ,the nineteenth century brought more liberty2 it was demanded by the enlarged scope of universities1 which no longer were only the training schools for the learned professions1 but became the home of research1 needing freedom of movement4 ,nevertheless1 universities are in many countries still state institutions4 ,they are founded by the state1 are given organization and laws by the state2 the teachers are appointed and given their commissions by the state4 ,they are state officials1 though less under government supervision than other state officials4 ,at the same time these universities are possessed of a certain measure of autonomy1 a remainder of olden times4 ,they elect their academic authorities1 which have some autonomy and disciplinary jurisdiction4 ,likewise the separate faculties have their powers2 they confer degrees1 administer their benefices1 and exert considerable influence in filling vacant chairs4 ,the state then considers it its duty to grant freedom in teaching4 8,science and its teaching are free10 says the law in some countries4 ,no doubt a loosely drawn sentence2 at any rate1 it means that science should be granted the proper freedom4 ,and this freedom it must have4 ,we have become more sensitive of unjustified paternal government than were the people of the eighteenth century4 ,the ,object of the ,state4 ,what kind of a freedom in teaching1 then1 should be granted by the state8 ,unlimited freedom8 ,this is1 at any rate1 not a necessary conclusion4 ,the state must also grant freedom to the father for the education of his children1 to the landowner for the culture of his fields1 to the artist in the production of his works2 but that freedom would not be understood to be an unlimited one1 having no regard to the interests of society1 but merely as the exclusion of unwarranted interference4 ,hence if the state1 for reasons of the commonwealth1 were to restrict freedom of teaching1 the restraint could not be considered unjust4 ,the purpose of the state must not suffer injury2 to attain this purpose the state has the right to demand1 and must demand1 all that is necessary to the purpose in view1 even though it entails a restriction of somebody's freedom4 ,now for a definition of this purpose of the state4 ,like any other society1 the state seeks to attain a definite object1 so much the more because the state is necessary to man1 who otherwise would have to forego the things most needed in life2 and but for the public co-operation of the many these could be attained not at all1 or at least not sufficiently4 ,to provide these things is the object of the state1 viz41 the public welfare of the citizens2 it is to bring about public conditions which will enable the citizens to attain their temporal welfare4 ,to this end the state must protect the rights of its subjects1 and must protect and promote the public goods of economic life1 but especially the spiritual benefits of morals and religion4 ,the state1 through its legislative1 judicial1 and executive functions1 is to direct effectively the community to this end2 therefore it is incumbent upon the state to care for the preservation and promotion of both material and spiritual benefits1 for the protection of private rights1 and for the conditions necessary to its own existence1 even against the arbitrary will of its subjects4 ,protection for the ,spiritual ,foundations of ,life4 ,from this the conclusion naturally follows1 that the state must not grant freedom to propound in public1 by speech or writing1 theories that will endanger the religious and moral goods of its citizens and the foundation of the state4 ,we claim that the state neglects a solemn duty if it permits without hindrance--we will not say1 the ridicule and disparagement of religion and morals3 the less so1 as freedom to ridicule and to slander has nothing to do with freedom in teaching--but the public promulgation of theories which are either irreligious1 or against morals1 or against the state4 ,even though they be done in scientific form1 injuries to the common weal remain injuries1 and they do not change into something else by being committed in scientific form4 ,the state must seek to prevent such injuries by strictly enforced penalties and by the selection of conscientious teachers4 ,the enforcement of the principle may not be possible under circumstances1 legislatures may lack insight or good will1 or the complexion of the state may not admit of it for the time being1 or permanently4 ,then we would simply see a regrettable condition1 a government incapable of ridding itself of the morbid matter which is poisoning its marrow4 ,but if there is good will and energy1 one thing may always be done to check injurious influences1 and that is the awakening and employment of forces of opposition4 ,the ,university of ,halle is said to have been the first one to enjoy modern freedom in teaching4 ,what1 at that time1 however1 was meant by freedom in teaching1 is shown by the words of ,chr4 ,thomasius in #afid3 8,thank ,god that ,he has prompted ,his ,anointed 7the prince7 not to introduce here the yoke under which many are now and then languishing1 but gracefully to grant our teachers the freedom of doctrines that are not against ,god and the state40 ,one hundred and fifty years later ,minister ,eichhorn advised the ,university of ,koenigsberg that in natural sciences neither the individual freedom in teaching nor of research are limited1 that the case is different1 however1 with philosophy as applied to life1 with history1 theology1 and the science of laws4 8,the first requisite there10 he said1 8is a proper bent of mind1 which1 however1 can find its basis and its lasting support only in religion4 ,with the proper bent of mind there will be no desire to teach doctrines which attack the roots of the very life of one's own country40 ,now1 what considerations make it plain that the duty of the state is as stated8 ,two3 consideration for its subjects1 and consideration for the state itself4 ,the state must protect the highest possessions of its citizens4 ,for that reason men are by nature itself prompted to found states1 so as to protect better their common goods1 by the strong hand of an authority1 against foes from within and without1 and to enable them to bequeath those goods inviolate to their sons and grandsons4 ,hence they must demand of state-power not to tolerate conditions which would greatly jeopardize those goods1 and certainly not to allow attacks thereon by its own educational organs4 ,the highest spiritual benefits of civilization1 and at the same time the necessary foundations of a well-ordered life1 are1 first of all1 morality and religion2 not morality alone1 but also religion1 do not forget this4 ,man's first duty is the duty of worshipping ,god1 of recognizing and worshipping his ,creator1 the ultimate end of all things4 ,a profound truth was stated by ,aristotle1 when1 coupling the duties to ,god with those to parents1 he said that those merit punishment who question the duty of worshipping the gods and of loving one's parents4 ,hence the first thing to be preserved to the nations is religion2 it is in many ways their most precious possession1 too4 ,not only do all nations possess religion1 not excepting the most uncivilized2 but there is no power that influences life and stirs the heart more than religion4 ,consider the religious wars of history2 while they were surely deplorable1 they demonstrate what religion is to man4 ,even in individuals who to all appearance are irreligious1 religion never fully dies out2 it appears there in false forms1 or is their great puzzle1 maybe the incubus of their lives1 giving them no rest4 ,only in conjunction with firm religious principle can morality stand fast4 ,nowadays they work for ethics without religion1 for education and school without ,god4 ,theoreticians in their four walls1 removed from all real life1 are busily working out systems of this sort4 ,this new ethics has not yet stood the test of life1 or1 if it did1 it has succeeded in gaining for its adherents only those who are at odds with religion and morals4 ,these theories must first be otherwise attested before they may replace the old1 well-tried religious foundations4 ,the noted and justly esteemed pedagogue1 ,fr4 ,w4 ,foerster1 writes3 8,on the part of free-thinkers vigorous complaint has been made that my book so decidedly confesses the unparalleled pedagogic strength of the ,christian religion4 ,the author therefore repeats emphatically that this confession has not grown out of an arbitrary metaphysical mood1 but directly out of his moral-pedagogic studies4 ,for over ten years of a long period of instructing the youth in ethics1 he has been engaged exclusively in studying psychologically the problem of character-forming1 and the result of his studies is his conviction that all attempts at educating youth without religion are absolutely futile4 ,and1 in the judgment of the author1 the only reason why the notion that religion is superfluous in education is prevalent in such large circles of modern pedagogues1 is1 that they have no extensive practical experience in character-training1 nor made thorough and concentrated studies40 8,the fact is1 that all education in which religion to all outward appearance is dispensed with1 is still deeply influenced by the after-effect of religious sanction and religious earnestness4 ,what education without religion really means will become more clearly known in the coming generation40 ,the state is zealous in protecting the property of its citizens1 to which end a powerful police apparatus is constantly at work4 ,if the state deems it its duty to interfere in this matter1 must it not consider it a still higher duty to protect religion and morals1 for the very reason that they are the property of its citizens1 and even their most precious8 ,pro aris et focis1 for home and altar1 was what was fought for by the old ,romans4 ,is it possible that a pagan government was more sterling and high-minded than the ,christian state of the present8 ,if it is to be the bearer of civilization1 it ought to consider that man liveth not by bread alone4 ,the only true mental civilization is the one which does not hamper but helps man in attaining his eternal goal4 ,modern state power is being urged from all sides to take measures against the corruption of morals by the novel and the shop window1 and not to look on apathetically when the consuming fire is spreading all about1 in the name of art4 ,are the dangers to the spiritual health of society any less if reformers1 in the name of science1 shake at the foundations of matrimony1 advocate polygamy1 teach atheism8 ,because a so-called reformer has lost the fundamental truths of our moral-religious order1 must all the rest submit to an attack upon the sacred possessions of themselves and their descendants8 ,that the rights of the teacher are not unrestricted was set forth by an ,american paper 78,science10 ,no4 #cba7 in its comment upon the removal of certain professors3 8,there are barriers set to them on the one hand by the rights of the students1 and by the rights of the college where he teaches1 on the other4 ,the college must preserve its reputation and its good name1 the student must be protected against palpable errors and waste of time4444 ,if a professor of sociology should attack the institution of matrimony1 and propound the gospel of polygamy and of free love1 then neither the right to teach his views nor his honesty of purpose would save him from dismissal4 ,this is of course a very extreme case1 not likely to happen40 ,is it so very extreme8 ,certainly not in regard to teaching by books4 ,listen3 8,from the foregoing it is self-evident that polygyny based upon the rivalry of men for women 7analogous to the animal kingdom7 presents the natural sexual practice of mankind4 ,whether there is to be preferred a simultaneous or a successive polygyny1 or a combination of both1 would depend on varying conditions4 ,the ethical type of the sexual condition1 viz41 in general the desirable biological type1 is the one that would best suit a polygyny based upon a selection of man40 ,it is taught further3 8,the monogamic principle of marriage in general is only conditionally favorable to civilization1 whereas it is destructive of it constitutionally1 hence in need of reform40 8,our contemporaneous sexual reform wave has not yet assumed the position of this knowledge2 on the contrary1 notwithstanding its revolutionary aspect in some particulars1 it is still under the ban of the traditional ideal of marriage02 continence before marriage is an 8absurd0 proposition6 ,this new system of morals1 fit for the barnyard1 but for women the lowest degradation1 is now to become the ideal of men1 nay1 even of women3 8,true motherly pride1 true womanly dignity1 are incompatible with the exclusiveness of the monogamic property principle4 ,if our movement for sexual reform is to elevate us instead of plunging us into the mire1 then this view must become part and parcel of our women40 8,the picture of the motherly woman1 of the woman with the pride of sexual modesty1 instead of with the exciting desire of possession 444 this picture must become the ideal of men1 and sink down to the bottom of their soul and into the fibres of their nervous system2 it must animate their fancy and awaken their sensual passions407#bj7 ,we stand right in the midst of the world of beasts6 ,this perilous moral teaching is allowed also in public lectures4 ,on ,november #ad1 #aijh1 the 8,allgemeine ,rundschau0 wrote3 8,imagine a spacious concert-hall1 brightly illuminated1 every one of the many seats occupied1 the boxes filled to the last place1 the aisles crowded1 by a most variegated audience3 men and women1 young maidens1 youths with downy beard2 gentlemen of high rank with their ladies1 faces upon which are written a life of vast experience side by side with childish faces whose innocence is betrayed by their looks1 and on the platform a university professor and physician1 holding forth about the most intimate relations of sexual life3 the unfitness of celibacy1 the ,catholic morals of matrimony1 prostitution and prostitutes1 the causes of adultery1 #8sterile marriage1' onanism1 and many kinds of perversities4 ,the man is1 moreover1 speaking in a fashion that makes one forget the admonishments of conscience40 ,the city council of ,lausanne1 in its meeting of ,february #aj1 #aijg1 prohibited ,forel's lecture as an attack upon decency and public morals1 making reference in its resolution to ,forel's ideas as laid down in his book4 ,in protest1 ,forel made a public statement1 saying among other things3 8,if the council desires to be logical it would have to prohibit also the sale of my book40 ,we have no objection to make to his conclusion4 ,we stated that religion is man's first duty4 ,this applies not only to the individual1 but also--and this is forgotten too often--to the state4 ,man1 by his nature1 and hence in all forms of his life1 including his citizenship1 is obliged to have religion4 ,he remains in all conditions the creature which is dependent upon ,god4 ,and does not the state1 too1 owe special duties of gratitude to ,god8 ,it owes its origin to ,god3 the impulse to found states has been put into the human nature by its ,creator2 the state owes to ,god the foundation of its authority3 in a thousand difficulties the state is thrown upon ,his help4 ,therefore a public divine service is found with all peoples4 ,does the state comply with this duty by silently supporting a public atheism when it might do otherwise8 by even becoming its patron1 when1 posing as science1 it ascends to the lecturing desk to teach adolescing youth8 ,of course1 free-thought is of a different opinion1 especially the one of to-day4 ,its principle is3 the state need not trouble itself about ,god and ,religion1 that is the private matter of each individual4 ,in the eyes of free-thought the state is an imaginary being1 hovering over the heads of its citizens2 though they may be religious1 the state itself should have no ,religion4 ,what absurdity6 ,it is nothing short of nonsense to demand of the members of a state1 the overwhelming majority of whom hold ,religion to be true and necessary1 that as a political community they are to act as if their ,religion were false and worthless1 as if to deny and to destroy it were quite proper4 ,what else is the state but an organized aggregation of its citizens8 ,to make of religious citizens1 a state without ,religion is just as absurd as a ,catholic state composed wholly and entirely of ,protestant citizens4 ,this leads us to a further consideration4 ,the state must protect its own foundations4 ,just as it must defend its existence against enemies from without1 it must protect itself against those enemies from within1 who1 whether realizing the consequences or not1 are by their actions actually shaking its foundations4 ,these foundations consist of proper views on social and political principles1 on morals and ,religion4 ,if the state does not intend to abolish itself1 it must not permit doctrines to be disseminated which imperil these foundations and1 consequently1 the peaceful continuance of the state4 ,in fact1 no state power in its senses would permit a teacher1 who directly attacks the validity of the state order1 to continue2 it would retire every professor of law who would dare to teach that regicide is permissible1 or who would with the oratory of a ,tolstoy preach the unnaturalness of a state possessing coercive power4 ,as a rule1 open advocates of ,socialism are kept out of college-chairs4 ,and rightly so4 ,so long as the adherents of ,socialism see in the state but the product of the egotism of the ruling classes1 and an institute for subjugating the masses1 and in the obtainment of political power the means of doing away with this state of affairs1 so long will it be impossible for the state to trust the education of the future citizen to a ,socialist1 nor can the latter1 as an honest man1 accept a position of trust from the state1 much less bind himself by the oath of office to co-operate in the work of the state4 ,prof4 ,c4 ,bornhak makes the following comment3 8,the decisive point is not freedom in teaching1 but the circumstance that the ,socialist professor takes advantage of the respect connected with a state office1 or of his position at a state institution1 to undermine the state4 ,a state that would stand for this would deserve nothing better than its abolition40 ,and ,paulsen similarly writes3 8,a state that would allow in the lecture rooms of its colleges ,socialistic views to be taught as the results of science 444 such a state will be looked for in vain40 ,hence it is certain the state cannot grant a freedom in teaching that would jeopardize the foundation of its existence4 ,it must consequently recognize no freedom which1 in lectures and publications1 will seriously injure public morality and religion4 ,morality and religion are1 first of all1 the indispensable conditions for the continuance of the state4 ,aristotle says the first duty of the state is to care for religion4 ,plato proposes heavy penalty for those who deny the existence of the gods2 a well-ordered state1 he claims1 must care first of all for the fostering of religion4 ,plutarch calls religion the bond of every society and the foundation of the law4 ,cicero declares that there can be neither loyalty nor justice without regard for ,god4 ,valerius ,maximus could say of ,rome3 8,it has ever been the principle of our city to give preference to religion before any other matter1 even before the highest and most glorious benefits40 ,washington1 in his speech to ,congress in #aghi1 declared religion and morality to be the most indispensable support of the commonweal4 ,he stated that it would be in vain for one1 who tries to wreck these two fundamental pillars of the social structure1 to boast of his patriotism4 ,without religion there can be no firm resistance by conscience against man's lower nature1 no social virtues and sacrifices1 there can only be egotism1 the foe of all social order4 ,no secure state-life can be built upon the principles that formed the basis of the ,french ,revolution4 ,so we see1 generally and instinctively1 the endeavour to prevent as much as possible anti-religious doctrines from being expounded directly to the broad masses of the people4 ,this of itself is tantamount to the acknowledgment of their danger to the state4 ,yet1 millions have tasted the fruit of an atheistic science1 and the poison shows its effect2 they have shaken off the yoke of religion2 in its place dissatisfaction and bitterness are filling their breast1 and fists are clenched against the existing order4 ,bebel said in a speech in the ,german ,reichstag1 on ,september #af1 #ahgh3 8,gentlemen1 you attack our views in respect to religion1 because they are atheistic and materialistic4 ,i acknowledge them to be so4444 ,i firmly believe ,socialism will ultimately lead to atheism4 ,but these atheistic doctrines1 that now are causing so much pain and trouble for you1 by whom were they scientifically and philosophically demonstrated8 ,was it by ,socialists8 ,men like ,edgar and ,bruno1 ,bauer1 ,feuerbach1 ,david ,strauss1 ,ernst ,renan1 were they ,socialists8 ,they were men of science4444 ,what is allowed to the one--why should it be forbidden to the other80 ,the notorious anarchist ,vaillant said3 8,i have demonstrated to the physicians at ,hotel-,dieu that my deed is the inexorable consequence of my philosophy1 and of the philosophy of ,buechner1 ,darwin1 and ,herbert ,spencer40 ,the youthful criminal ,emil ,herny read at his trial a memorandum wherein he said among other things3 8,i am an anarchist since #ahia4 ,up to this time ,i was wont to esteem and even to idolize my country1 the family1 the state1 and property4444 ,socialism is not able to change the present order4 ,it upholds the principle of authority which1 all affirmations of so-called free-thinkers notwithstanding1 is an obsolete remnant of the belief in a higher power4 ,i however was a materialist1 atheist4 ,my scientific researches taught me gradually the work of natural forces4 ,i conceived that science had done away with the hypothesis of #8,god1' which it needs no longer1 hence that also the religious-authoritative doctrine of morals1 built upon it1 as upon a false foundation1 had to disappear40 ,what political wisdom would it be to honor as science any doctrine that becomes a social danger the moment it is taken seriously2 what logic to denounce those as dangerous who are putting into practice a science that is hailed as the bearer of civilization6 ,one may object3 ,how is the state to determine whether scientific doctrines are warranted or not warranted8 ,the state has the conviction that in its political offices it has no organs for the cognition of scientific truth1 for this reason it leaves science to self-regulation4 ,only the scientist1 it is said1 is able to revise the scientist4 ,nothing but scholarly conceit can engender such ideas4 ,then any one would have the right to pin upon himself the badge of the scientist and become thereby completely immune4 ,thus1 the bearers of practical political wisdom are declared incompetent to recognize the chief foundation of their state-structure2 to realize1 what daily experience and the experience of centuries teaches1 that disbelief in ,god1 even if sailing under false colors1 undermines authority1 that communism and upheaval of moral conceptions are tantamount to social danger4 ,they are directed to depend for their information in such matters upon the latest ideas of impractical scientists4 ,the fact is1 the matters at issue have1 with hardly an exception1 long been decided4 ,and where the ,christian faith is concerned1 the ,church and the ,christian centuries tell us clearly enough1 what has hitherto been understood by ,christianity4 ,if the objection here advanced were true1 then the state would not have a right to decide in the matter of exhibiting immoral pictures in show windows1 without having argued the matter previously with representatives of art4 ,the state would not be allowed to pronounce a death sentence because some scientists denounce capital punishment3 the state would have to expunge 8guilt10 8expiation10 and 8liberty0 from its penal code1 because many recent scientists1 by rejecting the freedom of choice1 have removed the dividing line between crime and insanity1 between punishment and correction4 ,protection for ,christianity4 ,hitherto we have1 in respect to religion1 considered chiefly the rational truths1 which are the foundations of every religion and also common to non-,christian creeds2 the existence of a supermundane ,god and of a life after death are the most important of them4 ,the revealed ,christian religion contains1 beside these truths1 some others1 which supplement them and surround them like a living garland1 viz41 original sin1 redemption1 resurrection1 the divinity of ,christ1 grace and the ,sacraments1 the existence of a ,church with its ,god-given rights1 indissolubility of matrimony1 etc4 ,should state-power protect the ,christian and ,catholic religion by warding off attacks against it1 though such attacks are made in scientific form8 ,this1 too1 in a state in which perhaps other confessions are enjoying the freedom of worship8 ,it would seem superfluous to propose this question specifically4 ,if1 according to the gist of our argument1 religion is to be protected1 what other religion can be meant than the ,christian religion8 ,that is the religion of our nations2 none other is4 ,while the stated distinction may have more of an academic than a practical interest1 the discussion of this question will not be idle1 if only for the reason that it will shed even more light upon our previous statements4 ,besides1 there are manifest efforts to dislodge ,christianity from the life of our people1 and with it all true religion1 under the pretext of opposing church-doctrines and dogmatism4 ,the war against ,christianity has not since the days of a ,celsus been waged as it is to-day4 ,we premise a principle of a general nature4 ,of conflicting religions and views of the world1 only one can be true2 this is clear to every one who still believes in truth4 ,it is equally clear that this one truth only can have the right to come forward and to enlist support in public life as a spiritual power2 error has no right to prevail against truth4 ,hence it will not do to say simply3 ,there are also the convictions of minorities in the state2 some claim that none of the existing religions is the right one1 others have dropped all belief in ,god2 in our times we wish to concede to any conviction the right to enter into competition with others1 provided mockery and abuse are barred4 ,these remarks are quite true1 in the sense that neither the individual nor the state may directly interfere with conscience or prescribe opinions3 leaving entirely aside the question whether any one really could have a serious conviction of atheism4 ,the foregoing is true also in the sense that public avowal of opinion must not be hindered by individuals4 ,to interpret this to mean that the state must grant freedom to any expression of doctrine would be a grave misconception of the social influence which false ideas are liable to exercise4 ,does the state grant this freedom to any kind of medical practice1 whether exercised skilfully or awkwardly1 conscientiously or unscrupulously8 ,moral-religious error may in public life expect only tolerance--just as many other evils must be tolerated1 because their prevention would cause greater evils to arise4 ,this is the reason why the state may1 and often must1 grant freedom of worship even to false creeds1 because its denial would give rise to greater harm to the public weal 7,st4 ,thomas1 #b1 #b q4 #aj1 #aa74 ,freedom of teaching1 likewise1 must not be granted in the sense of acknowledging that false doctrines and truth have equal rights2 this would amount to an assassination of truth4 ,freedom can be conceded to error for the one reason only1 that by not granting it there would be engendered greater evils4 ,consequently1 if a state-power1 or the organs of its legislative part1 are convinced that the ,christian religion is the only true one1 they cannot possibly concede to contrary doctrines the right to pose as the truth and thus deceive minds2 they may be granted the same freedom in teaching only because restrictive laws can either not be enforced at all1 or not without creating a disorder that would give rise to greater evils4 ,hence the lesser evil must be carefully ascertained4 ,with this general principle in mind1 it is easily seen that a freedom large enough to include an open attack on the fundamental1 rational1 truths of religion and morals--this having been our subject hitherto--could be conceded only if disbelief and atheism had gained so much power as to make impossible its prohibition4 ,in this case1 however1 the state should be conscious of the fact that it allows the undermining of its foundations4 ,if1 in another state1 religious feeling were at so low an ebb1 that the freedom of the ,christian truth could not be obtained in any other way than by granting full freedom for everything1 then even such unlimited freedom would be a good thing to be striven for2 of itself a deplorable condition and contrary to ,god's intentions1 but good as the lesser evil4 ,but let us return to the revealed religion4 ,in the eyes of those who are convinced that the ,christian religion1 namely1 the ,catholic religion1 is the only true religion1 the ideal condition would be to have the entire population united in its faithful confession2 then matters would simplify themselves in our case4 ,but this ideal hardly exists anywhere4 ,true1 in many countries the population is almost wholly ,christian2 but the denominations are mixed1 and many have separated at heart from ,christianity4 ,what standards1 then1 should rule in this case8 ,looking at it specially1 the demand of ethical reason is no doubt this3 ,nations and governments whose past was ,christian1 whose institutions and civilization are still ,christian1 and an overwhelming majority of whose members still think and believe in a ,christian way1 would fail in their gravest duties if they would expose or permit the ,christian religion to remain unprotected against the attacks and the attempts at destruction by a false science1 or by conceding to the adversaries of ,christianity equal rights or even preference4 ,the ,christian religion will not be destroyed2 but whole nations may lose it1 and its loss will in great measure be the fault of those in whose hands their fate was laid4 ,here might be applied ,napoleon's well-known saying3 8,the weakness of the highest authority is the greatest misfortune of the nations40 ,it remains an anomaly that a state1 the members of which for the most part are ,christians1 should treat this religion with indifference1 and tolerate that its tenets and traditions be represented as fairy-tales and fables1 its moral law as a danger to civilization1 and perhaps its divine ,founder as a victim of religious frenzy4 ,if the state is the expression and the representative of its subjects1 then such disharmony between public and private life is unnatural4 ,moreover1 the ,christian religion is held by the majority of its citizens to be the most precious legacy of their forefathers2 they must demand from the state protection for their greatest good4 ,and this may be claimed with even greater right by provinces where the population almost unanimously clings to the creed of their ancestors2 at the colleges in these parts the faithful people will be entitled to protection more than elsewhere against dangers to its inherited religion4 ,it would be unnatural in this case to apply the thoughtless principle of dealing uniformly with all provinces of the state4 ,the state is not a heap of uniform pebbles1 but an organism composed of different parts1 each desiring to retain its own peculiar life4 ,do not say this presumption does not admit of application to our conditions1 the majority of the people of this age being long since estranged from ,christianity4 ,it is true1 if we turn our eye only to the more conspicuous classes of society1 the classes that control the newspapers and mould public opinion1 this view might be admitted as to some countries4 ,but if we look at the masses1 those not infected by half-education1 then this opinion is true no longer4 ,and there are many who at heart are not so distant from faith as it would seem4 ,in public life they pose as free-thinkers1 but their domestic life bears frequently a ,christian character4 ,and often they approach more and more the faith1 the older they grow4 ,this is known to be the fact even of scientists4 ,instances are men like ,ampre1 ,foucault1 ,flourens1 ,hermite1 ,bion1 ,biran1 ,fechner1 ,lotze1 ,romanes1 ,littr1 and others4 ,plato claimed that no one who in his youth disputed the existence of the gods retained this view to his old age4 8,christianity10 observes ,savigny rightly1 8is not only to be acknowledged as a rule of life1 it has actually transformed the world1 so that all our thoughts are ruled and penetrated by it1 no matter how foreign1 even hostile1 to ,christianity they may appear40 ,it is a sign how deeply ,christian religion has sunk its roots into the heart1 that it remains the religion even for those who have turned away from it4 ,to be sure1 for our nations ,christianity is the religion4 ,for them the religion of a ,confucius or ,zoroaster does not enter into consideration2 nor any of the products of modern religious foundations1 which would replace ,christianity with substitutions of all kinds of religious essences2 they are on a level with the attempts at reconstructing sexual ethics3 both are regrettable delusions4 8,improvement0 of ,christian morality is tantamount to abandoning all morals1 and desertion from the ,christian religion1 amongst our people1 has always been apostasy from all religion4 ,the ,christian religion is so true1 that no one can renounce it inwardly and then find peace in a self-made one4 ,and all efforts aimed at displacing ,christianity lead only to an abandonment of all religion4 ,look at the number of people from whom slander and insinuation have torn their old religion to be replaced by another--a freer1 higher religion2 their moral decadence soon bears testimony of the religious consecration which has been given to them4 ,woe unto those authorities who1 while able to oppose1 are indifferent1 and who lend a hand in causing ,christian thought to withdraw more and more from our mental atmosphere1 to be replaced by another spirit1 a spirit that will gradually control the decision of the judge1 the practice of the physician1 the instruction of the teacher1 and thus more and more enter into the life of the people4 ,it is not assured to those nations of ,europe1 whose public life is feeding to-day upon the remnants of their ,christian past1 that they will not relapse into a state of moral and religious barbarity4 8,maybe civilized mankind1 or our nation at least1 is really losing its hold more and more upon definite moral standards10 so complains a modern pedagogue2 8possibly the emancipation of sensuality will increase without end1 perhaps we have passed forever the stage of true humanity and of a live idealism1 and we shall henceforth glide downward4444 ,these are no mere1 feverish dreams2 there is good reason for facing these possibilities with a determined eye1 and no accidental or philosophical optimism can ignore them0 7,mnch74 8,it is quite possible10 we are told by another1 8that much will go down in our old ,europe during the next centuries2 and the downfall will not be restricted by any means to ,church and ,christianity1 and in the crises that will come ,europe will hardly get the needed support from an sthetic heathendom1 from the ,monists' ,union1 or from the evidences of science0 7,troeltsch74 ,if it does not come to it1 it will not be the merit of authorities who let the vessel of state drift rudderless toward the rocks of dechristianization4 ,they do not realize that they greatly endanger thereby also the foundations of the state4 ,the foundations of our governments rest upon ,christianity4 ,the ,christian faith created the state1 created matrimony1 family1 and the education of the youth2 created the social virtues of loyalty and of obedience4 ,what we have of religion is ,christian1 what we have of the religious support of morality is equally ,christian2 8,christianity1 ,christian faith1 ,christian formation of life penetrates all vital utterances of the ,occidental world like an all-pervading element0 7,paulsen74 ,it is one of the first principles of political prudence not to shake the foundations upon which the state rests4 ,states and nations are not ephemeral beings1 existing from one day to the other1 they are historical structures measuring their lives by centuries2 past generations join hands with present generations1 deeds and customs of the fathers live on in their sons4 ,states must remain on the historical tracks on which they have travelled to success1 at least until the new track has stood the test of reliability4 ,so far anti-,christian philosophy has terribly shaken governments2 it has not yet proved itself a state-conserving principle4 ,it is a sad condition to see the guardians of states1 devoid of historical appreciation1 allow their people to tear themselves away from the soil wherein reposed the roots from which they drew life and strength4 ,sad1 too1 that complaints are made of college-professors who abuse freedom in teaching by constructing an unproved contradiction between knowledge and faith1 by misrepresenting ,christian tenets1 by lowering the prestige of the ,church1 by distorting her historical picture4 ,it would be regrettable for a ,christian state1 if the complaint were justified that for the most part our colleges have become places where religion is ignored2 where the name of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,redeemer of mankind1 is no longer mentioned2 where the name of ,god never occurs in history1 in natural and political science2 where religion is considered the most unessential factor of mental life1 a factor that has nothing to offer1 that can answer no question--a treatment which1 by the force of suggestion1 must lead young men to think that religion is of no account4 ,it is a banishment which in its effect is little different from an attack upon religion4 ,sadder still would it be if the following view were to prevail at our colleges3 8,a right of the student to see protected and not destroyed any views and convictions1 including those of a religious nature1 which he may bring to the university from his home surroundings1 from his preliminary education1 as it is asserted time and again in the frequent complaints about the dechristianizing of youth at the universities--does not exist and cannot exist1 because it would be in contradiction to the very essence of the university and its tasks0 7,jodl74 ,is not this the ethical principle of the bird of prey8 ,is it not allowed to guard the defenceless chick against the hawk8 ,christian people send their sons to the university1 and demand that the education of the parental home be spared1 that the inexperience of youth be not misused4 ,the state must demand that the religious-moral education which it furthers in its public schools be not destroyed by the higher schools4 ,yet1 all these rights must be silenced the moment the vision of the absolute freedom of teaching makes its appearance1 since to refrain from dechristianizing the youth would be contrary to his tasks4 ,if such abuse in the management of the power of knowledge1 within and without colleges1 is not counteracted by all possible means1 then none need be surprised when a science free from religion and ,christianity is followed by an elementary school free from religion1 when in public and preparatory schools the free-thinking teacher is telling the pupils that there is no creation but only evolution1 and that the gospels and biblical history are poetical stories such as the ,nibelungenlied and the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,we cannot be astonished to find the following rules advocated for the instruction in public schools3 8,religious instruction in schools should not differ from the instruction in other subjects1 namely1 one of full freedom1 bound only by recognized documents and personalities of religious literature and religious science4 ,the school must teach that which is1 it must present the tenets of all times and all nations in so far as this is possible within its modest compass4444 ,but if the pupil should ask1 ,what really is8 ,what position should the teacher assume toward this question8 ,in my opinion1 he should speak in plain terms4 ,he should say3 ,there are people who believe all that is taught by the different systems of religion4444 ,the child may further ask of the teacher whether he himself believes4 ,no teacher who claims the confidence of the children should shirk the answer4 ,he may confess his faith or disbelief1 without need of worry4 ,it cannot hurt his prestige in the eyes of the child1 because1 if for no other reason1 either way he will find himself in an equally large and good company0 7,tews74 ,but we hear much more radical utterances4 ,for instance1 the official organ of teachers in a ,catholic country urges defection from the ,church in the following words3 8,how long will ,social-,democracy1 now so formidable1 remain inactive against clerical arrogance8 ,how much longer will it shirk a duty that is clear to the dullest eye8 ,if the millions of our ,social-,democrats1 including the women and children1 would break away from ,rome1 the priestcraft in ,austria is as good as defeated4 ,a grave responsibility rests upon the ,social-,democratic leaders4 ,should they miss the moment to act1 they will be judged by history60 7,deutsch-oesterreichische ,lehrerzeitung1 ,june #a1 #aiji74 ,another organ of teachers declares ,christianity to be nothing else but victorious heresy1 for which ,christ had to lay down ,his life the same as ,giordano1 ,hus1 and countless others4 8,the subject of religion as taught in the preparatory schools is for the most part taken from ages whose customs and morals are--happily--no longer ours40 ,we see radicalism rampant in large circles of public school teachers1 demanding noisily1 excitedly1 and1 of course1 in the name of modern science and enlightenment1 the abolition of the divine service1 of prayer1 and religious instruction in school1 giving as reason that1 8as to matters of mental freedom no difference should be made between a university and a village school40 ,that our people will 8carelessly waste their ,christian patrimony1 this is the great danger40 ,our argument is not that only ,catholics should be professors1 nor even to limit the teaching office to ,christians4 ,but one thing must be demanded of the college-teacher1 that he possess the pedagogic qualifications to render him competent of educating the hope of the ,christian people4 ,as a rule this demands a religious1 ,christian disposition4 ,one thing the state must absolutely demand of the teacher1 that he have appreciation for the foundations of the ,christian state2 he who has no understanding for the historical forms of the life of a nation1 who even regards them with hostility1 should remain away from this vocation4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,jesuit ,order has five free universities1 founded and directed by the ,order4 ,their professors are not all ,catholics2 there are professors of other creeds1 even ,jews4 ,all work in harmony to the common end of the university4 ,men who sincerely and conscientiously strive for the interests of science will everywhere show not only consideration1 but even understanding and respect1 for what is true in the ideas of others4 8,i gaze10 so writes ,prof4 ,smolka1 8upon the likenesses of my venerable ,protestant masters1 under whom ,i studied at ,gttingen4 ,thirty-seven years have passed since ,i went to them1 in full confidence to find in their school the leaders who would be free from the influence of the ,catholic view of the world4 ,to their profound knowledge ,i owe1 first of all1 the emancipation from the prejudices ,i was raised in1 from the views of an atmosphere devoted to ,indifferentism in which ,i had passed my youth4 ,prof4 ,waitz opened my eyes to the grandeur of the ,catholic ,church in the course of the centuries1 in the repeated prostration of the ,papacy and its ever-following rise to unsuspected heights1 a fact unparalleled in the history of human institutions4 ,prof4 ,lotze rebuked me at the very beginning of my studies at ,gttingen for a slighting remark about scholastic philosophy3 later he imbued me with profound respect for it and for the wealth of problems it embraces4 ,these scientists1 ,protestants without exception and in exclusively ,protestant surroundings1 inoculated me with sincere love for scientific truth1 regardless of the consequences it would lead to4 ,they also introduced the youthful mind to the tried methods of scientific research1 indicating the boundaries where the domain of research ends and the right of dogma1 or arbitrary rule of subjective imagination1 begins40 ,restriction of ,right4 ,we need no further proof that the state is justified in restricting the freedom of teaching1 whenever demanded by the business of the state as described above4 ,restriction of this kind can be considered unjustified only by a state theory of liberalism1 which holds that the object of the state consists in merely protecting individual liberty1 no matter if this liberty should lead to the gravest injuries so long as it does not affect the freedom of others2 a theory which changes the state community from an integral organism into a conglomeration of autonomous individuals4 ,lasalle scornfully termed this theory the 8nightwatchman idea0 of the state4 ,the state has the right and the duty to exert a necessary influence upon the pursuit of science1 especially at the universities4 ,against it the pleading of autonomy of the college and its teacher will not hold4 ,they have a certain autonomy1 that was even greater in former times4 ,an important part of it is the right to propose appointments for vacant chairs4 ,it must be admitted that this method of appointment is proper2 it vouches for the scientific fitness of the appointee1 and will prove a protection against the exercise of undue political influence and ministerial absolutism1 provided that this method is impartially exercised4 ,but an autonomy that disputes the right of the state to protect its interests1 where free science conflicts with it1 that would demand1 as has been asserted1 that 8no infringement of the freedom in teaching must be deduced from the official position as teacher10--such autonomy would be a palpable misconception of the dependency of the college-teacher and of the social service of science4 ,the rules that apply to other1 non-judicial1 officers should apply to teachers appointed by the state1 and offences in their office1 or conduct injurious to the purpose and the dignity of their office1 should be treated similarly as in the case of other public servants4 ,nor should members of the legislature be forbidden to defend the rightful interests of their constituents in regard to schools4 ,they are elected by the people for this purpose1 and the people have a claim on the schools1 which are supported by their taxes and to which some of their greatest interests are attached4 ,it has been demanded to concede to college-teachers the independence and immunity of judges4 ,this1 however1 would be overlooking the vast difference between professors and judges4 ,the judge has to render legal decisions in concrete cases1 according to existing laws2 in order to lessen the danger of his being guided by outside considerations he is given a large measure of independence4 ,but what questions has the college-professor to decide8 ,mathematical or physical questions8 ,there his incorruptibility is not in such danger that he must be made independent of government4 ,religious and moral questions1 questions of views of the world8 ,these he is not compelled to decide4 ,neither state nor people have appointed him to question1 time and again1 the fundamental foundations of human life1 and to render decisions which nobody requested4 ,it is not clear why science1 pleading its independence1 should oppose justified restrictions4 ,as a matter of fact this independence does not exist anywhere4 ,numerous are the considerations1 often unwarranted1 it is actually tied to1 yea1 often tied to by its own hands4 ,he who is familiar with scientific doings1 especially academic doings1 knows numbers of such ties--there is the professional opinion in scientific circles2 woe unto him who in his scientific works dares to confess a supernatural view of the world6--ties of the predominance of certain leaders or schools1 without or against whose favor it is difficult to attain recognition1 approval1 or position2 the ties of parties and cliques in an academic career2 the tie1 too1 of that insinuating power of the state that confers much-desired decorations and titles4 8,where is this freedom of science80 asks a modern academic teacher4 8,some will say science and its teaching are free in our country4 ,true1 it is so written on paper4 ,but those charged with keeping this principle inviolate are human4 ,for instance the monists have the chief voice in appointments to zological chairs4 ,they will propose only scientists who are not opponents to the monistic faith4 ,far be it from me to assume any mala fides4 ,they simply believe that only their faith is the proper one to promote science4 ,but ,i ask again1 where is the freedom of science80 7,dahl74 ,h4 ,st4 ,chamberlain tells of an amusing incident in his life3 8,many years ago1 when ,i desired to devote myself to an academic career1 a chemist said to me3 #8,my dear fellow1 since you belong to the profession1 ,i tell you as a friend that it is not enough for you to be proficient3 you should try1 first of all1 to marry the daughter of one of the professors1 of a privy counsellor if possible4' #8,this advice comes too late1' ,i replied1 #8,i am already married4' ,my well-wisher was visibly shocked4 #8,what a pity6 ,too bad6 ,you don't realize what an influence this has here upon one's career4' ,what trouble ,i had to obtain even the venia docendi6 and then ,i stuck fast and could not budge despite all achievements until ,i undertook to marry the daughter of one of the #8head-wirepullers'2 then things were fixed within three months4 ,i may have looked at him in a peculiar way1 for his wife was a veritable ,xanthippe1 and1 he added with a laugh3 #8,you know ,i am all day at the laboratory1 from morning until late at night4' 0 ,there is nothing new under the sun4 ,in the year of grace1 #agbj1 ,johann ,jacob ,moser started his lectures in ,tuebingen1 but could get no audience4 8,no wonder1 even a cleverer man than ,i would not have fared better at that time1 when everything depended on nepotism40 ,the young man had crossed ,chancellor ,pfaff by rejecting a marriage arrangement 7,horn74 ,one will find these things very human4 ,moreover1 it would be unwarranted to assume that they happen always and everywhere4 ,but they prove that the pursuit of science rests also on general human grounds1 and does not always remain aloft1 in the ethereal heights of pure truth4 ,the ,freedom of ,teaching in ,history4 ,when we said that it is the duty of the state to protect the common benefits of life against injury by freedom in teaching1 and to stand guard over its ,christian past1 we stated nothing but what has been the conviction of the ,christian nations and their rulers up into the nineteenth century4 ,absolute freedom in teaching cannot plead the support of history1 it is only of yesterday4 ,history shows it to be the natural child1 not of the first awakening of the consciousness of freedom1 but of the de-,christianizing of the modern state4 ,its official entry coincides with the increasing de-christianizing of public life during the nineteenth century1 after the modern state adopted more and more the principles of liberal thought4 ,a naturalistic view of the world1 without faith1 was struggling for supremacy2 science had to proclaim it as higher enlightenment1 and vehemently urged freedom in its behalf4 ,the state receded step by step1 confused by the commanding note in the new demands1 by high-sounding words about the rights of science2 it allowed itself to be talked into the belief that it must become the leader in the new course1 and it took the banner that was forced into its hands4 ,it has always been so2 claims presented with impudence will intimidate1 and assume in the eyes of many the appearance of right4 ,in so far as it signifies the removal of the religious-moral bars in teaching1 the freedom in teaching developed first in ,protestant ,germany1 together with the increasing change of universities into state institutions4 ,reformation and the ensuing ,enlightenment had gradually prepared the way for it4 ,neither the rationalism nor the pietism of the eighteenth century could have an understanding for the tenets of the faith4 ,in addition there was the confusion engendered by the multiplication of ,protestant denominations1 none supported by an overtowering spiritual authority2 it led more and more to the parting between science and religious confession2 political reasons1 too1 made it desirable to disregard confessions4 ,thus the severance of science from religion increased and the 8freedom of teaching0 in this sense was finally adopted also by ,catholic states as an achievement4 ,the enlightenment that had developed outside of the universities made its entry into the halls of universities chiefly under the ,prussian ,minister von ,zedlitz1 a champion of enlightenment and a friend of the philosophers ,wolff and ,kant4 ,that the universities at that time were controlled by free-thinkers is illustrated by a saying of ,frederick ,,ii4 ,on ,january #d1 #aggd1 von ,zedlitz asked of the king whether ,steinhauss1 ,m4,d41 should be denied the appointment for professor extraordinary at ,frankfort-on-the-,oder1 for the reason that he was a ,catholic4 ,the king decreed in his own handwriting that 8,this does not matter if he is clever2 besides1 doctors know too much to have belief0 7,bornhak74 ,in the year of the ,revolution1 #ahdh1 freedom of teaching became a political catch-word4 8,the terms freedom of teaching and freedom of learning1 that became popular in #ahdh1 when any phrase compounded with freedom could not be often enough repeated1 have been ever since reminiscent of barricades1 and men who have witnessed those times become nervous at their mere sound0 7,billroth74 ,what was understood by freedom in teaching at the turning point of the eighteenth century is shown by the demand of ,thomasius for 8freedom of doctrines that are not against ,god and the state40 ,the first move was to break away from human authorities1 ,aristotle and others4 ,thus the ,kiel ,university1 by its regulation of ,january #bg1 #agjg1 ordered that 8no faculty should enslave itself to certain principles or opinions1 in so far as they are dependent on a human authority0 7,horn74 ,in ,gttingen and ,halle freedom of teaching also became the maxim1 and 8,libertas sentiendi10 as ,mnchhausen declared1 8was open to every one and not restrained by statute1 except that there should be taught nothing ungodly and ,unchristian40 ,in those days this restriction was looked upon as a matter of course4 ,it is known that ,kant was disciplined by ,minister ,woellner in #agid1 because of his treatise on religion2 at ,koenigsberg this reproof was accepted with good grace1 and both the philosophical and the theological faculties pledged themselves not to lecture on ,kant's religious philosophy4 ,as recently as the middle of the nineteenth century a restriction in this sense was ordered by the ,prussian ,minister ,eichhorn1 and the restriction was observed4 ,the ,materialist ,moleschott was cautioned in #ahde by the ,senate of ,heidelberg ,university1 and in reply he resigned his post2 in the following year at ,tbingen ,bchner's venia legendi was cancelled1 because1 as he himself stated1 8it was feared ,i would poison with my teaching the minds of my young students0 7,horn74 ,in #ahdb1 ,bruno ,bauer1 the radical ,bible-critic1 was removed by the ,prussian faculties from the academic chair because of his writings4 ,d4 ,strauss lectured on philosophy at ,tbingen1 but was forced to resign when the first volume of his 8,life of ,jesus0 appeared in #ahce4 ,later on1 when called by the authorities of ,zurich to the chair for ,church history and dogmatics1 an emphatic protest of the people made the appointment impossible4 ,while showing a regrettable indifference for attacks against religion1 the modern states1 inoculated with the principles of ,liberalism1 have not entirely forgotten their traditions4 ,many sections in their penal codes still protect religion1 not only against defamation1 but1 as is the case in ,austria1 also against public anti-,christian propaganda1 and the 8religious-moral education0 in public schools is made compulsory by law4 ,of course there is a contradiction1 between the conviction of the state that the principles of morals and religion must be preserved1 and the grant of full freedom to an anti-religious misuse of science1 whose effect upon the masses is unavoidable4 ,it is a contradiction to tear down the dam at the river and then erect emergency levees against the onrushing flood4 ,the amazing presumption1 that holds inviolate and sacred everything that poses under the name of science1 is the fault of it all4 ,freedom of ,teaching and ,party ,rule4 ,in some countries the complaint is heard that a certain faction has obtained control of the universities1 and so exercises its control that those who are not of its bent of mind are excluded from both teaching and taking part in the administration of its affairs1 despite the fact that freedom in teaching and learning has been guaranteed by the state4 ,it is the faction that professes free-thought and cultivates the freedom of science in this sense4 ,this condition forces students faithful to their religion to study in a strange atmosphere1 and they are looked upon as strangers4 ,the parties so accused seek to disclaim these charges as unjust2 for they feel that1 if justified1 it would disclose an unlawful condition of things4 ,nevertheless the facts are so notorious1 that all protestations will be without avail4 ,these facts must be painful to the sense of justice1 order1 and good-fellowship2 and to this sense it is not pleasing to deal further with matters which have often been the cause for indignant resentment1 and to go into concrete details4 ,we shall but briefly recall to mind how persistently candidates for academic positions are pushed aside when they are known to be of staunch ,catholic mind4 ,this is borne out by their trifling percentage among the large number of college-teachers2 by the high pressure that is often needed to lift the embargo for a ,catholic2 by assaults which not seldom resulted in physical violence4 ,this small number is glaringly emphasized by the considerable1 even disquieting1 number of college lecturers of ,jewish extraction4 ,furthermore1 there is the improper usage that the theological faculty is passed over at the annual election of the rector1 and likewise1 that teachers even of lay-faculties are excluded from academic offices when they profess themselves openly as ,catholics4 ,catholic students have seen themselves treated as strangers at more than one university2 they were not given the usual privileges1 and were accorded rights only in the proportion that their number had to be reckoned with4 ,their corporate bodies were ignored1 self-evident rights either denied or grossly violated4 ,as to the small number of religious-minded lecturers at colleges it is not to be denied that the number of those who combine fervent religious persuasion with high scientific efficacy is not considerable these days4 ,their long suppression furnishes a reason for it1 but not the only one4 ,a modern university professor rightly states3 8,while there never has been a want of courageous1 determined confessors of the ,catholic faith who have occupied a prominent1 even leading1 position in the progress of science1 in the perfection of methods and means of scientific research1 they were and still are the exception4 ,they were men of self-reliance and independent judgment1 who were able to exempt themselves from an humble submission to the powerful view of the world1 which emanates from the hatred of ,christianity and prevails in educated circles4 ,the issue is still the same secular contrast between the two views of the world1 which ,st4 ,augustine illustrated with unsurpassed mastery as long as fifteen hundred years ago4 ,but the view of the world which has been in the ascendant in scientific circles long since1 has certainly nothing in common with scientific research40 ,our task1 however1 is not to examine the facts1 but to prove that such conditions are unlawful1 no matter where and when found4 ,we do not wish to discuss further the fact that a university polity1 exclusively in the spirit of a liberalism that gradually goes over into radicalism1 would constitute a grave danger for ,christian traditions4 ,indifference to the ,christian and every other religion1 or to an extent direct rejection1 must make it appear more and more inferior and obsolete in the eyes of educated circles2 this view will then easily find its way to the people4 ,nor do we intend to enlarge upon a second point1 viz41 the interest of science itself4 ,the kernel of liberal research in the province of the spiritual is a frivolous agnosticism1 with a rigid bondage to its naturalistic postulates1 with which we have become sufficiently acquainted4 ,principles of this kind are poison for true science4 ,for this reason alone it is necessary that a ,christian philosophy be placed by the side of a philosophy in fear of metaphysics1 one that never extends beyond puzzles and problems2 that a history guided by ,christian principles be placed alongside of one inspired by anti-ecclesiastical sentiment2 in general that a spirit of veracity assert itself1 which would give an example1 from the home of highest culture1 not of vain arrogance1 but of that mental firmness which1 conscious of the limits of human knowledge1 is also ready to believe4 ,how can our universities remain the seats of sterling mental life1 if the highest power of truth that has ever been1 the ,christian religion1 is ignored there1 and even maligned2 and if in its stead is cultivated a philosophical-religious research which leads only to the negation of everything that hitherto was our ideal1 and which gives birth to a mental anarchy1 which1 before the forum of history1 makes it a principle of pauperization4 ,one point to be particularly emphasized is the violation of rights and the oppression of mental liberty1 resulting from a party-rule in the realm of higher education4 ,under a government of law every one1 assuming he possesses the necessary qualification1 has an equal right to teach3 this is elemental to freedom of teaching4 ,the state with its institutions exists for the benefit of all classes1 not for one certain class that has formed the notion that it is the sole bearer of science4 ,enemies of the state should be excluded from teaching1 but not good citizens4 ,nor can it be demanded1 as a necessary preliminary for academic teaching1 that one must subscribe to the catch-phrases of any particular party1 and so discard one's religious belief4 ,and there is the violation of the rights of faithful ,christian people4 ,since their money in the form of taxes maintains to a large extent the schools and their teachers1 they surely can demand a conscientious administration of their interests1 and a representation of the ,christian view of the world1 in a way becoming its past and its dignity2 ,christian people can demand that their sons receive an education in consonance with their ,christian convictions1 and that the universities will train officials1 physicians1 and teachers1 in whom they may have confidence4 ,if there are no other but state universities in a country1 and these are monopolized by a free-thought party1 then a condition of mental bondage will arise for those of a different mind4 ,they are compelled either to have their sons forego the learned profession1 or else expose them to an atmosphere wherein they see danger of a religious and moral nature1 in ideas1 association1 and example4 ,no right is left to them1 but the right to pay taxes toward the budget of education1 and then to look on how an irreligious party is striving to turn the higher schools into training camps of obligatory liberalism1 and to monopolize the entire mental life for this purpose4 ,now and then there is great indignation against state monopolies2 it is said1 shall the state determine what kind of cigars ,i should smoke1 and what ,i am to pay for them6 ,now1 then1 where is freedom if the majority of the ,christian population is to be forced into taking mental nourishment it does not desire and rejects1 and pay for it besides8 ,if we recall to mind the past1 which gave birth to the most venerable universities of the present1 a sorrowful feeling comes over us4 ,we see how far our colleges have deviated from their original purpose1 how our governments have lost their old traditions4 ,promotion of the ,christian religion and of the fear of ,god1 was the lofty aim which their founders had in mind4 ,in bestowing the charter upon ,vienna ,university1 ,duke ,albrecht stated that he beheld in the university an institution 8whereby the glory of the ,creator in heaven and ,his true faith on earth would be furthered1 knowledge would be increased1 the state benefited1 and the light of justice and truth brightened40 ,and when1 in #acff1 he donated property to the university1 he declared the object of the donation to be 8that the university may increase the prosperity of the entire ,church40 ,when ,leopold ,i1 on ,april #bf1 #afgg1 signed the charter of ,innsbruck ,university he declared that he founded this university pre-eminently for the protection and prosperity of the ,catholic ,religion1 as a means for its preservation1 and also that many of those who had lost the faith might be led back to religion1 for the honour and the glory of the ,tyrol4 ,in the charter of ,tbingen ,university1 ,eberhard of ,wrttemberg states3 8,i believe ,i can do no better work1 none more helpful to gain salvation1 none more pleasing to the eternal ,god1 than to provide with special diligence and emulation for the instruction of good and zealous young men in the fine arts and sciences1 to enable them to recognize ,god1 to know1 to honour1 and to serve ,him alone40 8,in those days there was no hesitation to assign to science the loftiest vocation and to declare 444 that1 coming from ,god1 science should also lead back to ,him as its origin4444 ,the school was charged to work for the spread and the defence of the true belief4 ,christian truth was once queen at these universities2 now1 she has only too often become a stranger1 to be denounced at times if she attempts to knock at the portals of her old home0 7,probst74 ,free ,universities4 ,another manner1 to provide proper freedom of teaching1 is open to the modern state by incorporating free universities4 ,unlike the state institutions1 they are not directly controlled by the state1 but are independent of it in their internal affairs2 they are founded and managed by private persons or societies4 ,universities of this kind are found in ,belgium and in ,england1 to some extent in ,france1 but their home is chiefly in the ,united ,states4 ,at the head of the free university of the ,united ,states is the president1 with a governing body and a board of trustees elected from members of the university2 they appoint teachers1 prescribe schedules of study and examinations1 and conduct its business4 ,true1 the state cannot relinquish its right to oppose a system of teaching dangerous to the common weal2 it will also provide that those to be licensed to practice the professions possess the necessary education and training2 but the state refrains from further interference in the management of free universities4 ,it is no doubt difficult to establish by private means universities equally efficient with those of the state2 in the countries of ,middle ,europe this undertaking is perhaps more difficult than elsewhere1 but the possibility is there1 and it is even realized in some places4 ,this1 however1 is not a question to occupy us here2 we merely wish to declare1 if similar foundations are about to be undertaken1 and the necessary conditions are present1 then the state must not prevent them1 it must grant freedom in teaching4 ,true1 the state is obliged to assist its subjects in acquiring material and spiritual goods1 but only in so far as private means are insufficient thereto3 the state must only act in a supplemental way4 ,if it does that which its citizens themselves are able to do1 then the state is needlessly abridging their free right4 ,this includes the establishment of schools and the teaching in them4 ,presuming fitness1 everybody has a natural right to teach others2 hence1 also1 to found schools1 whether by himself or jointly with others4 ,furthermore1 instruction is a part of education1 even at the university2 it could hardly be said of the graduate of the preparatory school that his education is completed4 ,education1 however1 is a matter for the parents4 ,their rights would be infringed upon1 if needlessly forced by the state to intrust their sons exclusively to the state colleges and to their method of teaching4 ,how could the state's exclusive right to teach be proved8 ,does the pursuit of science belong to its domain8 ,no one will care to claim this4 ,if science were to be allotted to the jurisdiction of any one body1 the ,church would be the first to enter into consideration1 because of her international and spiritual character4 ,or is this right to be conceded to the state because it is to be the bearer of culture8 ,the state is to promote culture1 but not to prescribe a certain brand of it4 ,the argument that private universities cannot be founded and conducted in the proper way is certainly not borne out by the facts4 ,even if the state1 owing to its superior facilities1 could provide better universities than private effort1 it would not be entitled to the monopoly2 the fact of being able to do something better does not secure the sole privilege of doing it4 ,moreover1 in order to attract students1 free universities will have to emulate state universities4 ,the right of the state to found universities will of course not be disputed2 but this right must not deteriorate into a disguised monopoly1 that would grant privileges to its own universities1 and deny them to free universities in order to put them out of existence4 ,at any rate1 the state will always retain considerable influence over the studies at free universities4 ,it may require certain standards in candidates for political and professional positions1 for judges and lawyers1 teachers at state schools1 physicians2 it may insist upon state examinations1 or it may make its stipulations for recognizing the examinations and academic degrees of the free schools4 ,by free schools of higher learning1 a greater degree of freedom in teaching and in learning would be assured1 or1 speaking generally1 a greater freedom in the intellectual life4 ,if these higher institutions of learning are exclusively in the hands of the state1 it cannot fail that the higher intellectual life will be dangerously dependent upon the state1 or fall into the control of a dominating clique4 ,as an example might be cited the restrictions placed upon jurisprudence by ,prussia in the eighteenth century2 the long-continued control of ,hegelian philosophy2 the ,universit ,impriale of ,napoleon2 the predominance of anti-,catholic thought in our own schools4 ,universities1 founded upon a positive1 ,christian basis1 would surely be a comfort for thousands4 ,no need to say that such foundations may also be undertaken by the ,church4 ,this right cannot be denied to the ,church1 just as little as to any other corporation4 ,nay1 much less6 ,because of its intellectual and international character science is most closely related to the ,church4 ,the latter1 furthermore1 has an eminent1 historical right2 no one has done more for the foundation and promotion of the ,european universities than the ,church4 ,a remarkable and at the same time characteristic attitude towards free1 particularly ,catholic1 universities is assumed by ,liberalism4 ,the stereotyped objection to ,catholic universities is known2 it can be reduced to this formula3 ,at a ,catholic university there can be no freedom in research nor freedom in teaching2 but without them there can be no science2 consequently1 a ,catholic university is a contradiction4 ,it is the same old song3 there is but one science1 there is but one freedom--the free-thought that rejects belief4 ,if it is really so obvious that a ,catholic university is a contradiction to science1 hence incapable to foster it1 why the excitement8 ,either such universities are incompetent1 or they are not4 ,let the experiment go on2 the result will tell4 ,if the result is certain1 as is claimed1 very well1 one may serenely await it4 ,liberalism shows itself again here in the shape of that nasty hybrid of freedom and intolerance for which it is known4 ,it is the head of ,janus with its two faces3 the one showing the bright mien of freedom1 the other the sinister scowl of an intolerant tyrant4 ,they shout for freedom1 freedom they demand2 ,church and ,revelation are put under the ban1 because they restrain freedom4 ,the state is denounced as soon as it wants to interfere4 ,but if others attempt research free and independently1 though not just so as ,liberalism would like1 then tyranny immediately takes the place of liberty1 the herald of freedom resorts to oppression1 and those who just now proclaimed the independence of universities from the state1 who protested against the interference of the state in science1 turn about and loudly call for the help of the state1 avowing that science can thrive only under state control4 ,the ,church and the ,universities4 ,in discussing the position of the social authorities toward freedom of teaching1 we have chiefly considered the state4 ,of the ,church we shall say but a brief word4 ,it will suffice to recall what has been said previously2 what has been stated about the relation of the ,church to freedom of research1 applies in many respects equally to freedom of teaching4 ,little will have to be added4 ,the ,church1 and the ,church alone1 has received from her divine ,founder the command to preserve the doctrine of revelation and to proclaim it to mankind4 8,going1 therefore1 teach ye all nations0--this is the commission of the ,lord4 ,for this reason the teaching of the revealed truth1 ,theology1 is the privilege of the ,church4 ,but the rest of the sciences will not be exempt from the obligation to listen to the admonition of the ,god-appointed authority1 in all cases where religious grounds are invaded4 ,to the ,church is intrusted the religious-moral guidance of her faithful2 she cannot remain indifferent1 when in the public teaching of science a system is followed detrimental to the ,christian principles of the faithful4 ,and whoever has entered the ,church by baptism1 remains subject to her authority in all matters within her sphere4 ,the state must acknowledge these rights of the ,church1 or else forfeit its claim to be a ,christian state2 these rights1 belonging to the essence of the ,christian religion1 are guaranteed by ,god1 and are independent of human sanction4 ,hence1 in case of clashes in this respect1 the state must listen to the grievances of the ,church2 this will chiefly concern ,theology1 rarely other sciences4 ,thus it would be partially correct to say that the theological faculties are subject to the ,church1 but those of the rest of the sciences to the power of the state4 ,but only partially2 spiritual interests cannot be marked out by faculties4 ,interests of faith may be also violated in other faculties3 then cases may arise which lose their purely worldly character1 and extend into the religious sphere of the ,church4 ,if a professor should lecture on a matter touching closely upon interests of faith1 for instance1 ,catholic ,canon law or philosophy1 and should show bias against ,church and ,christianity1 deny its authority1 distort and attack its tenets--then this would constitute an evident wrong to the ,church and a flagrant violation of the interests which to guard it is her duty1 especially in a country overwhelmingly ,catholic4 ,in that case the ,church would be entitled to make expostulation4 ,in rejecting the protests of the ,church in such cases1 as being the interference of a foreign power1 the state would thereby prove that it misunderstands both1 the religious vocation of the ,church and the proper relation between state and ,church4 ,for the faithful1 whom the state calls its subject1 are also the subjects of the ,church1 they are the lambs and sheep the ,church is to feed1 in obedience to divine command4 ,church and state having in common the same subjects1 and being closely connected for so long a time that it has become historical1 it would be unnatural if they were to treat each other as strangers1 such as might be expected in a heathen country1 ,japan1 for instance4 ,the nature of the case and the weal of the people demand harmonious action in such matters4 ,it cannot be denied1 moreover1 that the ,church commonly meets the state government to the extreme limit of her ability4 ,about the divine rights of the ,church opinions differ1 but those able to fully appreciate the precious benefits of religion and morality will regard it as one of the greatest boons to humanity1 that there exists within its fold an organization which protects with fearless1 awe-inspiring majesty these benefits against all attacks1 even against the state and its all-devouring policy of utility1 and in this way defends the mental dignity of the human individual against oppression by the reckless reality of external life4 ,just to show how an avowed free-thinker appreciates the significance of a commanding spiritual force as against the state we will quote the ,french positivist ,a4 ,comte1 who declares3 8,the absorption of the spiritual by the worldly power is a return to barbarity2 the separation of the two powers1 however1 is the principle for mental uplift and moral dignity40 8,true10 says he1 8men struggle in blind aversion against spiritual power of any kind2 yet it will even then prevail1 though in a mistaken way4 ,professors1 authors1 and newspaper writers will then pose as the speculative leaders of mankind1 although they lack all mental and moral qualification for it0 7,cours de philosophie positive74 ,short-sighted perception may upbraid the ,catholic ,church2 but a far-sighted judgment will have to concede that mankind owes gratitude to the ,church and the ,papacy4 ,a noted ,protestant writer remarks3 8,but for the ,papacy the ,middle ,ages would have fallen a prey to barbarity4 ,even in our day the liberty of nations would be threatened with greatest danger if there were no ,papacy4 ,it is the most effective counterpoise to an omnipotent power of the state4 ,if it did not exist1 it would have to be invented0 7,hbler74 ,,fifth ,,section4 ,,theology4 ,chapter ,i4 ,theology ,and ,science4 ,now one other1 the concluding point4 ,so far our discussion has dealt almost exclusively with the profane sciences1 and while there were often under discussion general principles1 applying also to theology1 we did not refer to the latter expressly for the reason that it occupies a special position in regard to our question4 ,theology is the science of the faith1 its subjects are truths established by divine or inspired authority2 hence1 in teaching1 authority plays a larger part in this than in any other science4 ,for this reason much fault is found with theology1 and many consider that it forfeits thereby its claim to rank as a science4 ,they say it lacks all liberty1 the results are prescribed2 it lacks possibility of progress2 nothing but rigid dogmas1 rejecting all development and improvement2 its vocation is exhausted by the incessant transmitting of the immutable2 hence it lacks all the essential conditions of a true science1 it has no claim to a place at the university2 if it nevertheless has established itself at the university1 as is the case in some countries1 it must be considered as an alien body1 a remnant of an obsolete time4 ,a keen eye cannot fail to detect in these words the prompting voice of that view of the world which rejects everything supernatural1 and declares that ,christian dogmatics and morals1 and ideas of sin1 redemption1 humility of faith1 cross1 and self-denial1 do no longer correspond to modern man4 ,at bottom is the struggle between the two views of the world--one the philosophy of modern1 sovereign man1 the other the contemplation of the world in the light of ,christianity3 a process of repulsion1 psychologically easily understood1 by which the one seeks to expel the other from the position which it desires to occupy4 ,a closer examination of the matter will show this4 ,theology as a ,science4 ,is theology a science in the proper sense8 ,may it rightly claim a place among the branches of human science8 ,this shall be the first question to be answered4 ,theology1 meaning the doctrine of ,god1 is the science of the ,revelation1 or of the faith2 of the ,revelation which began in the ,old ,testament and reached its perfection in ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 in whom appeared the fulness of ,god1 the image of the glory of ,god1 the perfection of all religion2 the ,revelation intrusted to the ,church to be preserved infallibly1 so that by these truths1 and means of salvation1 the ,church might guide and enrich the life of believing mankind4 ,hence1 in the broad sense in which it is understood now1 theology is the science that gathers the revealed truths from their sources1 endeavours to grasp and to defend them1 and to deduce new truths from them2 which also studies these truths and the means given for salvation1 in their development and effect in the ,christian life4 ,thus it includes a wide range of subordinate branches1 connected by a common object4 ,the biblical sciences have for their subject ,holy ,writ2 the sciences of introduction to the ,bible deal with its external history1 with historical criticism playing an important part2 exegesis is occupied with the scientific interpretation of the text and uncovers the treasures of truth in ,holy ,writ1 assisted in this task by hermeneutics and a number of philosophical-historical auxiliary sciences4 ,ecclesiastical history and its branches of patrology1 history of dogma1 ecclesiastical archology1 and art1 and other auxiliary sciences1 describe the doctrine of ,revelation in its historical course through the centuries1 and its development in the bosom of the ,church4 ,dogmatics 7with apologetics7 and morals have the task to explain and defend the doctrine of faith and morals1 as drawn from the ,scriptures and from tradition1 to deduce new truths from them and to unite them all in a system4 ,finally1 ,canon law1 and even to a greater degree the departments of pastoral theology1 homiletics1 liturgy1 show how the treasures of ,revelation and ,redemption find their realization in the practical life of the ,church and of the ,christian people4 ,hence there cannot be any doubt but that theology is a science in the proper sense1 unless a wrong definition of science is presumed4 ,of course1 if we should identify science in general with empirical science1 and scientific methods with the methods of natural sciences and mathematics1 and refuse to recognize any results as scientific except those gained by observation and mathematical calculation1 then1 of course1 theology would not be a science1 nor would many other branches of knowledge come under this head2 the fault1 however1 would lie with a narrow conception1 that limits itself to the portion of human knowledge within its vision1 ignoring everything that exists beyond its horizon4 ,what are we to understand by science8 ,it is the systematic concentration of the knowledge and the research of things according to their causes2 hence of our cognition of a subject that can be proved by careful demonstration to be certain or at least probable4 ,this we find to be the case in theology4 ,it is the sum total1 systematically arranged1 of knowledge and researches concerning the tenets of faith1 considered in the abstract1 in their history1 and in their effects on the life of the ,church4 ,applying the method of natural thought1 theology first studies the presumptions and foundations of faith1 examines the sources of revelation by the philosophical and historical-critical method1 proves the doctrines of faith by these sources1 endeavours to grasp these truths intellectually1 by the methods of analytical and synthetical thinking1 and to make clear their connection4 ,we have here the same methods as applied in other sciences3 ascertaining the facts1 definition of terms1 deduction1 induction4 ,in respect to the history of the ,church and to ,canon law their similarity with analogous profane sciences is at once obvious4 ,there is one difference3 in the theological sciences there is active1 not only rational research1 but also the belief in revealed truths4 ,in some departments1 like that of ecclesiastical history1 this difference is less pronounced1 they proceed by the method of critically establishing and connecting the facts2 but they1 too1 are guided by the conviction that there is in the life of the ,church not only natural causation1 but also supernatural principle4 ,dogmatics takes faith to a greater degree as its point of support1 in order to connect natural reason with the convictions of faith1 and how richly natural reason may unfold itself is shown in the works of ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,thomas1 on the great mysteries of the faith4 ,as regards faith itself1 we must keep in mind that it has a scientific foundation3 the credibility of revelation is proven1 it is a reasoning faith4 ,it may be likened to history4 ,the historian1 on the testimony of his sources1 believes in the actuality of human events1 having convinced himself of the credibility of his sources2 this belief becomes then his starting point for further researches of a pragmatical nature3 he penetrates more deeply into the facts1 and connects them according to their causal relations4 ,the difference is this3 the historian rests upon human authority1 the theologian upon divine4 ,yet the objection is raised3 theology is faith1 or at least rests on faith4 ,faith1 however1 has nothing to do with science2 faith is sentiment1 whereas science is knowledge4 ,that this view of faith is wrong1 and the result of subjective agnosticism that denies to man any positive understanding of supernatural truths1 we have shown repeatedly4 ,certainly1 if faith were nothing but sentiment1 no science could be built upon it2 you cannot build stone houses upon water4 ,but the ,catholic faith is not simply sentiment1 it is a conviction of reason1 based upon ,god's testimony that the revealed doctrines are true4 ,in the same way that the historian--to use the comparison once more--believes positively in his historical facts1 on the strength of the authority of a ,livy or ,tacitus1 or accepts as proved some events of ancient times1 relying upon the testimony of ,babylonian tablets of clay or upon the pyramids1 and makes these events his starting point for further researches1 without having to fear objections to his work on the ground that knowledge and belief are incompatible2 just so the theologian believes in his religious truths because they are vouched for by ,god's testimony4 ,this proves that the foundation for his further thought is not formed by uncontrollable1 irrational sentiment1 but by a conviction of reason4 ,hence1 if by knowledge is meant nothing but a conviction of reason--and in this sense faith and knowledge are usually contrasted by modern philosophical writers--then faith is knowledge in the proper sense and a contradiction does not exist4 ,if1 however1 knowledge is taken to be the understanding gained by personal insight without reliance on external testimony1 then1 of course1 there is a distinction1 and theology would not be a science1 in so far as it believes2 just as little as history would be a science1 in so far as it believes its sources4 ,but theology is a science1 in so far as it makes use of experience and reason1 examines its sources1 draws from them the facts of faith1 and makes them the starting point for its investigations4 ,theology also has mysteries among its subjects1 namely1 truths whose actuality is cognizable1 but whose contents1 while not indeed inconsistent1 yet remain obscure and incomprehensible to us4 ,but even this does not impair its scientific character4 ,other sciences share with it this lot of human limitation4 ,instances are plentiful in natural science where the existence of natural forces of one kind or another is proven2 of which it is able to form some idea1 but cannot fathom2 they remain a puzzle to science1 sometimes presenting the greatest difficulties4 ,for instance1 ether1 gravitation1 electricity1 the nature of motion1 and so on4 ,the noted physicist ,j4 ,j4 ,thomson says3 8,gravitation is the secret of secrets4 ,but the very same holds good of all molecular forces1 of magnetism1 electricity1 etc4 ,there are in animated nature even more things we cannot understand4 ,we could say that of the processes of living organisms we understand practically nothing4 ,our knowledge of indigestion1 of propagation1 of instinct1 is so small that we can almost say it is limited to the enumeration of them4 ,what we do know and understand is not one thousandth part of what would be necessary for a knowledge in any degree complete4 #8,if we raise an arm1' says ,pasteur1 #8or put our teeth in action1 we do something that no one can explain4' 0 ,theology and ,progress4 ,with a very superficial conception of theology we might easily arrive at the opinion that it lacks a characteristic of science1 which1 in our time especially1 is insisted upon1 namely1 progress4 ,for it must adhere to dogmas and not go beyond them4 ,hence1 seemingly1 there is nothing to do for theology but to transmit unchangeable truths1 perhaps in different aspects1 but nevertheless the same truths4 ,it must be admitted that one kind of progress is barred in theology1 as also in other sciences2 to wit1 the progress of incessant remodelling and reshaping1 the continuous tearing down of the old facts1 the eternal search after truth without ever gaining its possession4 ,this is often the progress demanded4 8,the new tuition10 it is said1 8starts from the premise that the truth is to be searched for0 7,paulsen74 8,science is not a perfected doctrine1 but a research1 ever to be revised0 7,harnack74 ,it is particularly demanded of theology that it procure a ,,further ,,development ,,of ,,christianity1 and substitute for it thoughts which modern age has adopted and which it calls scientific thinking4 8,there remains the task10 they say1 8of expressing faith and its objects so as to coincide with the conception formed by scientific thinking of the natural and historical reality0 7,paulsen74 ,hence miracles1 the divinity of ,christ1 and mysteries of any kind1 must be eliminated2 even the notion of a personal ,god will have to be changed to a pantheistic notion3 8,after the great revolution in our cosmic theories we can no longer think of ,god1 the eternal holy ,will that we revere as ,first ,cause of all things1 as the #8first mover' throning outside and above the universe1 as ,aristotle and ,thomas did0 7,paulsen74 ,such a progress is impossible in theology1 at least in ,catholic theology1 and in any other that still aims to be the theology of the ,christian1 revealed religion4 ,it cannot be expected from theology1 nor from any other science1 that it will degrade itself to a fashionable science1 that takes for its level not truth but the variable imperatives and moods of the times1 and1 destitute of character1 changes with each varying fashion4 ,the science of faith cannot assume this position1 so much the less as it must be aware that its truths often clash with the inclinations of the human heart1 and that its vocation is to lift up mankind1 not to let itself be dragged down4 ,this kind of progress therefore is barred4 ,this1 indeed1 is not progress1 but a hopeless wavering from pillar to post1 a building and tearing down1 acquiring without permanent possession1 searching without finding4 ,true progress can be shown in theology as in any other science4 ,the possibility of progress is manifest1 particularly1 in ,church-history1 in the biblical and pastoral sciences3 they are closely related to the profane-historical1 philological1 social1 and juridical branches of science1 hence theology shares in their progress4 ,it would seem that dogmatics would have to forego progress4 ,its progress certainly cannot consist in changing the revealed doctrines1 nor in interpreting differently in the course of times the formulas of creed2 here the rule is1 veritas ,domini manet in aeternum4 ,the development of dogmatic knowledge consists rather in the following3 the revealed truths are in the course of the centuries more and more clearly perceived and more sharply circumscribed1 more surely demonstrated1 more and more extensively appreciated in their connections1 relations1 and deductions4 ,the sources of ,divine ,revelation flow the richer the more they are drawn from2 their truths are so substantial1 so abundant in relation to knowledge and life1 that1 the more research advances1 the less it reaches its limit4 8,no one gets nearer to the realization of truth than he who perceives that in divine things1 no matter how far he progresses1 there remains always something more to be examined0 7,leo the ,great74 ,consider the progress in mathematics4 ,no one will say the mathematician is doomed to stagnation because he cannot change the multiplication table or the geometrical propositions4 ,the increasing mathematical literature1 with its big volumes1 contradicts this notion3 but its growth of knowledge is not the zigzag progress of restless to and fro1 it is the solid progress from the seed to the plant4 ,as early as the fifth century ,st4 ,vincent of ,lerin described the progress in dogmatical knowledge3 8,sed forsitan dicet aliquis3 ,nullusne ergo in ,ecclesia ,christi profectus habebitur religionis8 ,habeatur plane et maximus4 ,nam quis ille est tam invidus hominibus1 tam exosus ,deo1 qui istud prohibere conetur8 ,sed ita tamen1 ut vere profectus sit ille fidei1 non permutatio4 ,siquidem ad profectum pertinet1 ut in semetipsum quaeque res amplificetur2 ad permutationem vero1 ut aliquid ex alio in aliud transvertatur4 ,crescat igitur oportet et multum vehementerque proficiat tam singulorum quam omnium1 tam unius hominis1 quam totius ,ecclesiae1 aetatum ac saeculorum gradibus1 intelligentia1 scientia1 sapientia1 sed in suo duntaxat genere1 in eodem scilicet dogmate1 eodem sensu eademque sententia4444 ,quodeunque igitur in hac ,ecclesiae ,dei agricultura fide ,patrum satum est1 hoc idem filiorem industria decet excolatur et observetur1 hoc idem floreat et maturescat1 hoc idem proficiat et perficiatur4 ,fas est etenim1 ut prisca illa coelestis philosophiae dogmata processu temporis excurentur1 limentur1 poliantur1 sed nefas est1 ut commutentur1 nefas1 ut detruncentur1 ut mutilentur40 ,the proof for the actual progress of theology is furnished by its history4 ,it shows how theology has gradually grown from the first seed of the divine ,word1 placed by the hand of ,god's ,son into the soil of humanity1 until it became a great tree1 rich in branches and leaves4 ,the holiest men of the ,christian centuries1 equipped with the choicest mental forces1 enlightened by the light of grace1 have worked on its growth2 toiling and praying1 they filled libraries with their books4 ,it is not our intention to outline here a sketch of this development4 ,a few hints may suffice4 ,hardly had the faith taken root in the civilized nations of the old times when researches were begun4 ,a long list of ,holy ,fathers and ecclesiastical authors were the bearers of the first development4 ,drawing upon ,greek philosophy in aid and to deepen their thought in the mental battle against the ancient pagan view of the world1 against ,judaism and heresy1 they elucidated more and more the tenets of faith and morals1 and endeavoured to draw ever more fully from their spiritual contents4 ,we encounter among the shining host men like ,tertullian1 ,cyprian1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,origines1 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 ,basil1 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 and many others1 up to the powerful dogmatist of the old time1 ,augustine1 who treated scientifically and often extensively the great dogmas of faith4 ,truly a voluminous theological literature with a plethora of genius and truth4 ,the great edition of the ,greek and ,latin ,fathers by ,migne numbers #chb volumes in quarto1 each of #a1ejj pages or more in close print4 ,comparing with these #chb volumes the modest book of the ,bible1 which had been their foremost source1 the progress of these centuries becomes manifest4 ,soon the way was broken for systematizing the tenets of the faith1 especially by ,st4 ,john ,damascene 7eighth century74 ,scholasticism completed the work3 it created a systematical whole and connected theology and philosophy1 especially the ,aristotelian1 into a harmonious union4 ,its pioneers were ,st4 ,anselm and still more ,petrus ,lombard 7died #aafj74 ,then1 in the ,middle ,ages1 when universities began to flourish1 there followed the great theologians ,alexander of ,hales1 ,bonaventure1 ,albert the ,great1 ,scotus1 and chief of all ,thomas of ,aquin 7died #abgd71 in whom scholasticism reached its perfection1 and undeniably one of the greatest minds known in the history of science2 distinguished by an astonishing prolificness1 still more by a wealth and depth of thought combined with the greatest simplicity and lucidity in presenting truths1 he will for ever remain unapproachable4 ,the decline of scholasticism during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was followed by a new bloom1 when the life of the ,church1 rejuvenated by the ,council of ,trent1 gave birth to new forces in theology4 ,the mighty tomes of men like ,suarez1 ,lugo1 ,gregory of ,valencia1 ,ruiz1 ,baez1 ,billuart1 and others joined the volumes of their predecessors and continued their work4 ,at the same time the various departments of the science were branching off more and more1 and became independent4 ,m4 ,canus created the theory of theological cognition as an introduction to dogmatics1 ,bellarmin and ,th4 ,stapleton founded the newer controversial theology4 ,moral ,theology became in the sixteenth century a separate science and was developed by men like ,lugo1 ,laymann1 ,busembaum1 ,alphons of ,liguori4 ,similarly a new period of research began in the biblical sciences4 ,not that the first foundations were laid at that time2 there had been ,origines1 who had become the founder of biblical text criticism by his 8,hexapla02 the ,antioch school of exegetes1 ,chrysostomus1 ,hilarius1 and especially ,jerome4 ,but it was fostered with renewed zeal4 ,the great ,antwerp and ,paris polyglots furnished aids1 men like ,maldonatus1 ,salmeron1 ,toletus1 ,cornelius1 ,lapide1 wrote their exegetic works4 ,to the seventeenth century belongs the creation of the propdeutics1 by ,richard ,simon and ,bernard ,lami4 ,the monumental work1 8,cursus sacrae scripturae0 7since #ahhe71 containing so far thirty-six volumes1 demonstrates1 among other things1 that there has been in recent years no standstill in the research in ,holy ,writ4 ,in the province of ecclesiastical history1 too1 with its branches and auxiliary sciences1 new life was awakened at that time4 ,in the sixteenth century1 when the defence of the creed by the witnesses of a former age became urgent1 patristics and history of dogma enjoyed their first rise4 ,petavius was prominently connected with them4 ,how these sciences have been fostered in the nineteenth century is indicated by the names of ,mai1 ,de ,rossi1 ,hergenroether1 ,hefele1 ,pastor4 ,there remains to be mentioned the gradual establishment of the science of ,canon law1 of the pastoral-theological departments which have attained an independent position since the close of the eighteenth century1 and since then produced a voluminous literature4 ,the fear of a standstill in theological research seems unwarranted in the light of its history4 ,the errors of the present time will prevent a standstill4 ,the more vehement the attacks by natural science and philosophy1 by philology and archology1 the more they seek to shake the foundations of the ,christian religion1 the stronger theology must grow by the combat4 ,the solid progress of our times in knowledge and methodics will not remain without influence2 nor can the empirical1 the historical-critical method1 the theory of evolution1 and so on1 fail to exert their stimulating influence upon theology4 ,the progress that ,catholic theology has made since the days of the ,fathers1 the vast amount of mental work it has performed1 is perhaps made most clear by a glance at the 8,nomenclator literarius theologiae catholicae10 by ,h4 ,hurter 7#b;d ed41 #c vols42 the #c;d ed4 is in #f vols41 #e being ready74 ,it gives in concise briefness the biographical data and the more important works of ,catholic theologians of greater repute4 ,counting the names there presented1 we find not less than #c1ijj from #aaji to #aefc2 about #b1ijj from #aefd to #affc2 about #c1ijj between #affd and #agfc2 finally1 from #agfd to #ahid about #d1jjj theological authors2 hence in the period from #aaji to #ahid nearly #ad1gjj theologians4 ,that these #ad1gjj scientists--and their number is not exhausted by this figure--should have written their works without offering in them any new knowledge1 would surely be a bold assertion6 ,in addition consider the long rows of tomes which some of them wrote4 ,perhaps it would not be wholly amiss to refer to the restless zeal of many of them1 as recorded by their biographers4 ,baronius 7died #afjg7 could truthfully assert before his death1 that for thirty years he had never had sufficient sleep2 he usually slept only four or five hours4 ,pierre ,halloix 7died #afef7 likewise was content with four or five hours of rest4 ,dionysius ,sanmarthanus 7died #agbe7 gave only four hours to sleep and devoted less than half an hour daily to recreation2 likewise ,fr4 ,combfis 7died #afgi71 during the last forty years of his life4 ,a4 ,fr4 ,orsi 7died #agfa7 contented himself with three or four hours of sleep2 ,fr4 ,clement 7died #agic7 and ,h4 ,oberrauch 7died #ahjh7 are said to have slept but two hours daily4 ,j4 ,caramuel de ,lobkowicz 7died #afhb7 persevered for fourteen hours every day at his books2 ,chr4 ,lupus 7died #afha7 even for fifteen hours daily4 ,the theologian ,lessius is characterized by 8,parcissimus erat temporis1 laboris pertinax02 the same holds good of hundreds of others of these men4 ,a science1 enumerating its disciples by so many thousands1 with the greatest intellects among its workers1 which has commanded so much zeal and work for centuries1 should be safe from the reproach of having back of it a history of stagnation4 ,theology and ,freedom of ,science4 ,to many it seems obvious that theology lacks at least the other predicate of science1 freedom2 because it is bound to dogmas and ecclesiastical authorities1 at least ,catholic theology is4 ,although this claim is pressed persistently and with confidence1 we may dispose of it very briefly4 ,the freedom missed in theology1 and demanded in its behalf1 is none other than the liberal freedom of science1 the nature of which we have had sufficiently long under the searchlight1 so that there remains nothing to be added4 ,we have proved sufficiently that this freedom is not a freedom from unnatural fetters1 but a dissolute subjectivism1 that claims the right not to be bound to any unchangeable1 religious truths4 ,we admit that the ,catholic theology does not possess ,,this freedom4 ,convinced of the truth of the doctrines established by divine testimony1 and by the infallible voice of the ,church1 theology sees not freedom but a sin against truth in the license to assert the contrary of what it has recognized as the truth4 ,there is but one freedom which science may claim3 it is freedom from hindrance in reaching the truth in its legitimate domain4 ,if this truth is transmitted to science infallibly1 by the highest instance of wisdom--and of this every theologian is convinced--how can science be said to be hindered thereby in attaining the truth8 ,restrained it is1 but only by truth3 truth1 however1 can only be a barrier to license1 but not to precious freedom4 ,this restraint theology shares with the rest of the sciences4 ,the physicist is tied to the facts brought forth by the experiments of his laboratory2 the astronomer is tied to the results reported to him by the instruments of his observatory1 the historian is tied to the events disclosed by his sources4 ,moreover1 all sciences are tied to their methods4 ,in this way1 and in no other way1 the theologian1 too1 is tied to the facts given him by ,revelation1 and to his method4 ,every science has its own method4 ,the astronomer gains his facts by observation and calculation1 the mathematician arrives at his facts by calculation and study2 the historian1 by human testimony2 the theologian1 however1 by divine testimony1 at least as to fundamental truths4 ,that they are transmitted to him not by his personal study1 but by external testimony1 does not matter2 the historian too draws from such sources4 ,nor can theological knowledge be less certain because vouched for by divine authority3 it makes it the more certain4 ,or is there no divine authority1 and can there be none8 ,this is exactly the silent presumption1 which is the basis of the charge against theology4 ,but where is the proof for it8 ,it can only be demonstrated by denying the existence of a supermundane ,god2 for1 if there is an ,almighty ,god1 there can be no doubt that ,he can give a ,revelation and demand belief4 ,perhaps it may be said further1 the theologian is not permitted to doubt his doctrines1 hence he is prohibited from examining them2 he surely cannot be unprepossessed4 ,we can refer to what we have previously said4 ,unprepossession demands but one thing1 namely1 not to assume something as true and certain that is false or unproved2 it demands strong proofs for anything that needs proof4 ,we may safely assert that there is no other science more exacting in this respect than ,catholic theology1 both of the present and of the past4 ,it has not a single position that is not incessantly tested by attacks as to its tenability4 ,any one not unacquainted with theology1 who knows the works of ,st4 ,thomas and of the later theologians1 with their exact methods of thinking1 who observes the conscientious work in ,catholic biblical-exegetic1 historical-critical field1 must be convinced of the serious atmosphere of truth prevailing here4 ,unprepossession does not demand to doubt1 time and again1 that which has been positively proved1 to rediscover it by new research4 ,positive facts are no longer a subject for research2 in their case research has fully achieved its end4 ,methodical doubt1 proper in scientific examination1 is proper also in regard to religious truths4 ,furthermore1 the latitude of the theologian is much larger than presumed by those who derive their information solely from modern assertions about dogmatic bondage4 ,one may safely assert that the freedom of movement of the mathematician is more limited by his principles1 his train of thought more sharply prescribed1 than is the case with the theologian4 ,of course the theologian is bound by everything he finds infallibly established directly by revelation and by the authority of the ,church2 or indirectly by the concurring teaching of the ,fathers or the theologians2 he is bound also by non-infallible decisions1 especially those of congregations1 though not absolutely and not irrevocably4 ,but this is only the smaller part of his province4 ,in many departments1 like the one of ecclesiastical history1 there are almost no restrictions to his research1 except those imposed by historical facts4 ,canon law and similar departments dealing with the laws of the ,church1 coincide in method and liberty of research with the profane science of law4 ,of all departments of theology1 the dogmatical is the one most affected by the authority of faith4 ,yet even here a great deal is left to unhampered work4 ,many a void has to be filled1 many a question solved1 which the theology of the past has never taken up2 even the defined truths still offer a large scope for personal work1 in regard to demonstration1 or to the philosophic-speculative penetration of the dogmas and their interpretation4 ,as a fact1 the reader of theological literature1 both old and new1 will1 in a multitude of cases1 meet with unrestrained individuality4 ,ecclesiastical ,supervision of ,teaching4 ,the ,encyclica against ,modernism 7,september #h1 #aijg7 gave rise to fears that any free movement would henceforth be impossible for ,catholic theology4 ,these fears referred chiefly to the disciplinary measures1 prescribed by the ,encyclical for the purpose of supervising theological teaching in each diocese4 ,then came the papal ,motu ,proprio1 of ,september #a1 #aiaj1 which1 among other things1 required the teacher of theology to confirm by oath his confession of the ,creed and his intention to repudiate modernistic errors4 ,since then many a complaint has been heard about espionage and coercion4 ,similar complaint1 about an imminent debasement of the ,church1 has been raised whenever important measures in the discipline of the ,catholic ,church were published1 and they emanated primarily from the camp of the enemy4 ,it is not to be denied1 however1 that such an energetic call for watchfulness and action1 issued from the highest ecclesiastical watchtower1 like the one referred to1 may lead in some cases to anxiety and false suspicions4 ,this is no doubt regrettable2 but it is an incident common to human legislation and will surprise no one who has any experience of life4 ,a glance at these decrees will show that they are nothing more than an urgent injunction1 and the exercise of that supervision of religious life and teaching which pertains to the authority of the ,catholic ,church1 and which has been practised by her at all times4 ,the language is urgent1 it has a severity which is softened in the execution4 ,its explanation lies in the eminent danger of the modernistic movement to the continuance of ,catholic life4 ,modernism1 as described and condemned by the ,encyclica1 is nothing less than the absolute destruction of the ,catholic faith1 and of ,christianity4 ,the ,protestant theologian1 ,prof4 ,trltsch1 wrote after the publication of the ,encyclica3 8,as viewed from the position of curialism and of the strict ,catholic dogma1 there existed a real danger4 ,catholicism had gotten into a state of inner fermentation1 corresponding to the same condition caused by modern theology within the ,protestant churches40 ,the danger of ,modernism is often enhanced by a deceptive semblance of the right faith1 and by the pretence to urge only the righteous interests of modern progress against obsolete forms of thought and life1 now and then also by its secret propaganda4 ,hence this intervention by a firm hand1 and this only after having waited a long time4 ,they were measures of prevention1 like those taken to stave off a serious danger2 the tidal wave receding1 their urgency disappears automatically4 ,the ,german bishops stated in their pastoral letter of ,december #aj1 #aijg1 that in some ,catholic lay-circles there was uneasiness about the ,encyclical1 fearing that it might endanger scientific endeavour and independence in thought and research1 and that the ,church intended to prohibit or render impossible co-operation in solving the problems of civilization4 8,may they all recognize10 they said1 8how groundless such fears are6 ,the ,church desires to set bars only to one kind of freedom--the freedom to err40 ,if the rules and precepts of the ,church do sound harsh sometimes1 it is because the ,church adheres unconditionally to the principle3 ,the truth above all4 8,the ,church has at no time opposed the true progress of civilization1 but only that which hinders its progress3 heedlessness1 haste1 the mania for innovation1 the morbid aversion against the truth that comes from ,god4 ,but we ,catholic ,christians can join free and unhampered1 with all our strength and talent1 in the peaceful strife of noble1 intellectual work and genuine mental education40 ,the fears of too great a pressure by the ecclesiastical authorities have been given trenchant expression in most recent times by a man who1 while standing outside of the ,catholic ,church1 has always shown himself well disposed towards it1 namely1 the noted pedagogue1 ,fr4 ,w4 ,frster of ,zurich4 ,frster has won merit and distinction by his manly and spirited defence of the ,christian view in pedagogical science and mental culture4 ,in the book referred to he again describes urgently the worthlessness and fatality of modern individualism1 that knows a good deal about freedom but nothing of self-discipline1 nor of authority or tradition1 and which represents most superficial amateurism in the domain of religion and morals4 ,then he turns to criticize ,church practice2 and his criticism becomes a sharp accusation4 ,his main charge is 8fatal restraint of the spirit of universality40 8,some groups in the ,church10 he asserts1 8of mediocre learning1 have established a clique rule1 under which the others1 the more creative and intensive souls1 become the victims of intolerance1 espionage1 and false suspicion02 8universality1 which unites the different mental tendencies1 has given way to separation02 8everywhere a one-sided denunciatory information of the leading circles by accidentally ruling groups and factions2 anxious intolerance for everything unusual1 disciplinary austerity and unintelligent pedantry1 individualistic and unchristian spirit of distrust and mutual espionage02 8levelling of the mental life02 8one is tired10 we are told1 8of the spirit of incessant disciplining02 8of the invariable cold and disdainful forbidding and repression40 ,in the ,middle ,ages and earlier times it was different2 then 8universality was the ruling spirit1 the working of the many into a unit full of life2 this policy was changed for no other reason than because of the struggle of the ,church against ,protestantism40 8,the greatest harm that ,catholicism suffered by the great rupture of the sixteenth century is most likely seen in the tendency of the ,church to view thenceforth religious freedom within ,catholic ,christianity with an anxious1 even hostile eye40 ,readers of the literature of the day will recognize here views often met with during the last years1 and the same excited note1 which is quite in contrast to the even temper that ordinarily characterizes ,frster's books4 ,but what the reader will not find stated are the proofs for these enormous accusations4 ,undeniably1 things have happened in the wide range of ecclesiastical authority that cannot be approved4 ,but where are the facts that would justify charges of such sweeping nature8 ,a ,protestant author can hardly be presumed to possess such a direct and positive insight into the ecclesiastical practice of the higher and the highest order1 to give convincing strength to his bare assertion4 ,or is the number of dissatisfied voices that make these charges sufficient proof in itself8 ,if the ecclesiastical authority be allowed1 now and then1 to emerge from its passiveness to take measures against dangerous doctrinal tendencies1 is it not to be expected1 as a matter of course1 that some minds become disgruntled and complain about oppression and clique rule8 ,or must that right be denied the ,church altogether8 ,frster says himself3 8,the spirit of dignity and responsibility has never ruled all parts of the hierarchy in the same measure as now1 and rarely if ever were there found in its leading circles so many men leading an almost holy life as at present40 ,and yet we are asked to believe that it was reserved exactly for this worthy hierarchy1 and for these saintly men1 to forget the traditions of the ,church in the most irresponsible manner4 ,one will have to say3 8,if ,frster would examine without bias the situation and apply consistently in respect to authority the principles that he himself defends1 he would be convinced that the ,church could not have acted any differently than it did in regard to the regrettable events of the last years1 and that it has ever been the aim of the ,church1 before the sixteenth century as after1 to guard carefully the purity of traditions of faith against any attack0 7,prof4 ,g4 ,reinhold in a review of ,frster's book74 ,the ,church has never known a universality that did not oppose doctrinal errors4 ,the ,middle ,ages did not know it2 one need only read the many condemnations from ,nicholas ,i4 to ,innocent ,,viii42 nor was such a universality known to the great ,councils of ancient ,christianity up to the ,nican1 which hurled its anathema against numerous teachings that opposed no dogmas defined at that time2 nor did the ,holy ,fathers know such a universality1 nor the ,apostles1 with their strict admonitions of unity of faith4 ,the reply is made1 the 8,church must not yield the least of its fundamental truths10 that 8its centralizing power ought to remain within the region of the most essential02 whereas she actually exercises it in the domain of the incidental4 ,the ecclesiastical supervision of teaching has never limited itself to the most essential1 nor would this practice ever accomplish the object to preserve pure the doctrine of faith4 ,furthermore1 what is the 8most essential0 what is the 8incidental08 ,frster's book does not inform us about this most important question4 ,the views against which the ,church has made front in the last years1 do they relate only to the incidental8 ,does this apply to the doctrines of a ,rosmini and ,lamennais1 who are referred to in passing8 ,no well-informed theologian will assert this4 ,we shall hardly be wrong in assuming that the charge of overstraining the ecclesiastical authority is based upon a presumption of a philosophical nature1 which is in evidence in several other passages of the book--on the view1 namely1 that in religion the intellectual moment should recede before the mystical1 before anticipation and inner experience4 ,hence the severe censure of 8the narrow autocracy of the intellectual interpretation0 against the 8preponderance of the intellectual contemplation0 in the ,church1 which is said to have become so prevalent as to exert unavoidably a paralyzing effect upon the entire religious life4 ,here we have the result of the notion that theory of life1 religion1 and faith1 depend but little on rational knowledge4 ,this notion is also in accord with the argument about the impossibility of an independent scientific ethics4 ,we have discussed this elsewhere4 ,we demonstrated that religion and faith relate to positive truths that can be realized1 and that can therefore be accurately defined2 they must be so defined4 ,of course this realization need not be a scientific one1 it can be of the natural kind that is not clearly conscious of its reasons4 ,frster1 too1 touches upon this important distinction when quoting ,saitschick3 8,the inner perception overtowers feeling and logical reason--here1 too1 lies the source of a light shining brighter1 stronger1 and incomparably more true than any light of reason02 and again1 when his advice is1 to foster to a greater extent the 8inner perception40 ,what is felt here vaguely has long since been expressed much more lucidly in ,christian philosophy4 ,certainly a view that fails to lay1 first of all1 absolute stress on the protection of the doctrine of faith cannot understand the ,catholic point of view2 it will assume only too easily that the supervision relates to incidentals4 ,it will also engender a criticism against which the ,church may rightly protest1 because it starts from presumptions that do not apply to the ,church4 ,no one will be astonished to find a ,protestant author lacking the clarified conception of the supernatural character of the ,church that is possessed by the ,catholic2 to see him view the ,church almost invariably in the light of a human organization1 similar to the ,protestant denominations which he may cite before the court of his individual reason and force to bow under the yoke of his criticism4 ,the ,catholic has a better understanding of the words3 8,i am with you all days1 even unto the consummation of the world40 ,there will be foreign to his mind the idea that the ,church has since the days of ,reformation1 for now nearly four centuries1 deviated from the right way1 and degenerated more and more to a separatistic and insignificant community2 a church able to forget its traditions to the extent of grossly misconceiving its proper sphere of authority1 and fettering itself in a narrow spirit to incidentals1 could not keep his confidence any longer4 ,the ,oath ,against ,modernism4 ,the ,motu ,proprio of ,september #a1 #aiaj1 decreed that teachers of theology1 and also ,catholic priests generally1 had to bind themselves by oath to reject modernistic heresies1 and to accept obediently the ecclesiastical precepts4 ,dispensed from this pledge were only the professors of theology at state institutions1 to spare them difficulties with state authorities4 ,this anti-modernist oath at once became the signal for a storm of indignation1 than which there has been hardly a greater one since the days of the ,vatican ,council4 ,a cry was raised for freedom of science1 for the exclusion of theological faculties1 even for another 8,kulturkampf40 ,the ,general ,convention of ,german college professors1 held at ,leipzig ,january #g1 #aiaa1 issued a declaration to the effect that 8,all those who have taken the anti-modernist oath have thereby expressed their renunciation of an independent recognition of truth and of the exercise of their scientific conviction1 hence they have forfeited all claim to be considered independent scientists40 ,interpellations were made in legislative bodies1 it was demanded that the option of taking the oath should be taken away from university professors1 because 8the dignity of the universities would be lowered if their members had the opportunity to bind themselves by such an oath40 ,even threats were made by statesmen1 hinting at reprisals by the state1 because its interests were being jeopardized1 while1 on the other hand1 there were those who declared3 8,if the ,catholic ,church thinks it necessary for her ecclesiastical and religious interests to put her servants under oath1 it is her own business2 neither the state nor the ,evangelical ,church have a right to interfere0 7,prime ,minister ,bethmann-,hollweg1 in the ,prussian ,diet1 on ,march #g1 #aiaa74 ,the agitation of the minds will soon subside1 as on former occasions of this kind2 and1 with calm restored1 people will find1 as ,j4 ,g4 ,fichte told the impulsive ,f4 ,nicolai1 one hundred and thirty years ago1 that the fact has only just been discovered that the ,catholics are ,catholic4 ,yes1 indeed1 the ,catholics are ,catholic1 and desire to remain ,catholic--this and nothing else is the gist of the anti-modernist oath4 ,it does not oblige to anything else but what was believed and adhered to before4 ,it obliges to accept the doctrines of faith2 but they are the old truths of the ,catholic ,church1 propounded and believed at all times1 and the necessary inferences from them4 ,even the proposition that truths of faith can never be contradicted by the results of historical research1 or by human science in general1 is as old as faith itself4 ,in addition1 the oath avows obedient submission to ,church precepts2 but this has been demanded for centuries by the professio fidei ,tridentina1 a pledge by oath to which every professor of theology has been before obliged3 ,apostolicas et ecclesiasticas traditiones reliquasque eiusdem ,ecclesiae observationes et constitutiones firmissime admitto et amplector4 ,this was the opinion of all competent judges on this theological question4 8,we are convinced10 declared correctly a prominent theological institution1 8that there is not assumed by this oath any obligation new in subject1 and no obligation not already existing4 ,the oath is but the affirmation of a duty already imposed by conscience0 7the professors of ,theology of ,paderborn1 ,december #ab1 #aiaj74 ,the ,breslau faculty said1 in the same sense3 8,the faculty does not see in the so-called anti-modernist oath any new obligation1 nor one exceeding the rule of faith ever adhered to by the faculty40 ,and this declaration was fully approved of by ,rome4 ,cardinal ,kopp1 at the session of the ,german ,upper ,house on ,april #g1 #aiaa1 commented on these statements as follows3 8,against the opinions of these circles 7having a different opinion of the oath7 ,i set the testimony and the statement of the most competent people1 to wit1 the professors of university faculties and also those at episcopal seminaries4 ,those who have taken the oath1 as well as those who have refrained from it by the privilege granted them by the ,holy ,see1 they both declare positively that the oath does not contain any new obligations1 nor does it impose new duties on them2 hence that1 on the contrary1 they are not impeded in the pursuit of their tasks as teachers and of their scientific work of research4 ,now1 gentlemen1 ,i do not think it would be proper to insinuate that these earnest men1 appointed by the ,government1 or at least in office by its consent1 would make this declaration against their conviction and not in full sincerity40 ,no wonder1 therefore1 that of the hundreds of thousands of ,catholic priests hardly a handful have refused the oath4 ,nor is there anything new in the obligation to swear and subscribe in writing to a confession of creed4 ,very often in the course of the centuries decrees of creed and symbols had to be subscribed to in writing4 ,in the days of ,jansenism1 when priests were required to swear to and sign a statement1 many ,jansenists tried to dodge this oath1 and the ,jansenist ,racine complained that this demand was unheard-of in the ,church4 ,thereupon the learned theologian ,tournely and others cited a number of examples of this kind from the history of the ,church4 ,therefore the anti-modernist oath has not created anything new4 ,consequently it has not changed anything in regard to the freedom of theological research4 ,it is the same as before2 nor has the oath changed anything in the quality of theological professors1 they merely promise to be what they must be anyway2 nor can1 for instance1 the oath induce the ,catholic priest1 in teaching profane history1 to present the history of the ,reformation in a different light than before1 and thus render him unfit to teach history2 the oath has created no new1 confessional differences1 hence has given no justified cause for excitement--provided one has the needed theological comprehension of the oath4 ,if one has not this insight1 and will not trust to information from a competent source1 then it will be the act of prudence to leave the test to the future2 and we can await this test serenely4 ,we referred above to the declaration of ,german college teachers1 to the effect that all who have taken the oath have thereby expressed their renunciation of independent cognition of truth4 ,these stereotyped ideas we have so often heard1 with the same haziness and inconsistency4 8,because they have thereby expressed the renunciation of independent cognition of the truth10 namely1 by the acceptance of certain doctrines4 ,but is not every one who clings to his ,christian belief bound by this very fact to certain doctrines8 ,does every one who still prays his ,credo express the renunciation of his independence8 ,if the argument quoted is to mean anything at all1 it means the full rejection of all ,christian duty to believe2 indeed1 this is the real sense of this 8independent recognition of truth10 as we have already seen4 ,but cannot some one1 because of his conviction1 renounce this independence and believe1 and in this conviction accept the doctrines of the ,church8 ,if this conviction is his1 and he affirms it by oath1 how can any one see in this oath a want of freedom1 nay1 a renunciation of truth8 ,if an atheist solemnly declared his intention to be and to remain an atheist1 he would hardly be accused of lack of character by the advocates of modern freedom of thought4 ,the judge1 the military officer1 the member of a legislature1 the professor1 who must all take the oath of allegiance1--all of these will have to be protected against the insinuation of disloyalty to truth4 ,if a man affirms by oath his unalterable ,catholic faith1 he is without any hesitation accused of untruthfulness4 ,the government has been urged to forbid this spontaneous exercise of ,catholic sentiment4 ,the inconsistency of modern catch-phrases can hardly be given more drastic expression4 ,in order to guard the freedom of thought the government is to forbid one from pledging himself to his own principles2 in order to remain an independent thinker a man must be forced by penal statute to confess unconditionally the brand of free science prescribed by a certain school and by no means have an opinion of his own2 in order to be free in his research the teacher in theology must be tied to the catch-phrases of liberal philosophy4 ,this is modern freedom1 a hybrid of freedom and bondage1 of sophistry and contradiction1 of arrogance and barrenness of thought1 which will exert its rule over the minds as long as they are guided by half-thinking4 ,bonds of ,love1 not of ,servitude4 ,people to whose mind ,catholic thinking is foreign will never be able to appreciate the energetic activity of the ,church authority4 ,on close examination1 however1 they will not deny that1 if the ,christian treasure of faith is to be preserved undiminished1 if in the hopeless confusion and the unsteady vacillation of opinions in our days there is to be left anywhere a safe place for truth and unity of faith1 this cannot be accomplished otherwise than in the shape of a strong authority that has the assurance of the aid of ,god4 ,the ,catholic theologian may be permitted to point in exemplifying this fact to the recent history of ,protestantism and of its theology4 ,protestantism does not acknowledge a teaching authority3 its theology demands complete freedom of research and teaching1 making the most extensive use of both4 ,the result is the demoralization of the ,christian faith1 which is speeding with frightfully accelerated steps to total annihilation4 ,the very danger which ,modernism threatened to carry into the ,catholic ,church has overwhelmed ,protestant theology3 the metaphysical ideas of a modern philosophy penetrated it without check1 and killed its ,christian substance4 ,the measures against ,modernism were sharply criticized by many ,protestants who1 at the same time1 laid stress upon the fact that nothing of the sort could happen among themselves4 ,indeed it could not1 at least not consistently with ,protestant principle4 ,but there is not a single fact in all history which demonstrates more clearly the necessity of the ,catholic authority of faith1 than just the condition of ,protestantism at the present time4 ,on the part of believing ,protestants this is admitted1 if not expressly1 then at least in practice4 ,to stem the destructive work of liberal theology they resort to authority2 invoke ,evangelical formulas of confession1 the traditional doctrine1 sometimes even the aid of the state2 neological preachers are disciplined by censures1 even by dismissal1 against the loud protest of the liberals4 ,such action is easily understandable2 one cannot hear without sadness the cry for help of pious ,protestantism1 a cry that grows more desperate every day2 one cannot help regretting its forlorn situation in view of the millions of souls whose salvation is jeopardized1 who are in danger of being despoiled of the last remains of their ,christian faith4 ,yet it must be admitted that this cry for authority and obedience signifies the abandoning of the ,protestant principle1 and the involuntary imitation and therefore acknowledgment of the ,catholic principle--for the ,catholic an incentive to cleave the more closely to his ,church4 ,many to whom the ,catholic way of thinking is foreign1 look upon the duty of obedience which ties the ,catholic to his ,church as a sort of servitude2 to the ,catholic it is the tie of love1 uniting free people to a sacred authority4 ,many look upon the ,church of ,rome as a tyrannical curia1 where ,umbrian prelates are cracking their whips over millions of servile and ignorant souls2 to the ,catholic the ,church is the divinely appointed institution of truth1 that possesses his fullest confidence4 ,he knows that history has given the most magnificent justification to the ,catholic principle of authority4 ,opinions have come and gone1 systems were born and have died1 thrones of learning rose and fell2 only one towering mental structure remained standing upon the rock of ,god-founded authority in the vast field of ruins with its wrecks of human wisdom4 ,and its ancient ,credo1 prayed by all nations1 is the same ,credo once prayed by the martyrs4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,theology ,and ,university4 8,he is not for our turn1 and he is contrary to our doings02 thus spoke in bygone ages the children of this world4 8,let us therefore lie in wait for the just4444 ,he boasteth that he hath the knowledge of ,god and calleth himself the ,son of ,god0 7,wisdom ii1 #ab seq474 ,centuries later the children of the world treated in the same manner ,god's ,son and ,his doctrine4 ,and in these days1 when the science of the faith is to be driven from the rooms of the school1 let us recall that in olden times the children of the world planned similarly4 ,in the days when the private and public life of ,europe's nations was permeated with the ,christian faith1 and their ideas were still centred in ,god and eternity1 then the science of the faith was held to be the highest among the sciences1 not only by rank but in fact4 ,and when1 in the budding desire for knowledge1 they erected universities1 the first and largest of them1 ,paris ,university1 was to be the pre-eminent home of theology1 and wherever theology joined with the other sciences it received first honours4 ,thus it was in the days of yore1 and for a long time4 ,the secular tendency of modern thought led to the gradual emancipation of science from religion2 unavoidably1 its aversion for a supernatural view of the world soon turned against1 and demanded the removal of1 the science representing that view4 ,reasons for the demand were soon found4 ,thus the removal of theology from the university has become part and parcel of the system of ideas of the unbelieving modern man2 the liberal press exploits the idea whenever occasion offers4 ,resolutions to this effect are introduced in parliaments and diets1 meetings of young students are echoing the ideas heard elsewhere4 ,no wonder that the ,portuguese revolution of #aiaj had nothing more urgent to do than to close the theological faculty at ,portugal's only university4 ,what are the reasons advanced8 ,many are advanced2 the main reason is usually disguised2 we shall treat of it when concluding4 ,in the first place we are again met by the old tune of free science1 which has been in our ears so long2 the rooms of the colleges1 it is said1 are destined for a research which seeks truth with an undimmed eye1 and not for blindfolded science confined to a prescribed path4 ,no need to waste words on this4 ,just one more reference may be permitted us1 namely1 to the study of law4 ,there is hardly another science with less latitude than the science of law4 ,its task is not to doubt the justification of state laws1 but to look upon constitutions and statutes as established1 to explain them1 and by doing so to train efficient officials and administrators of the law4 ,when explaining the civil code the teacher of law has small opportunity for pursuing 8free search after truth02 neither will his pupil be tested at examinations in the maxims of a free research that accepts no tradition2 he will have to prove his knowledge of the matter that had been given to him4 ,yet no one has ever objected to the teaching of jurisprudence at the university4 ,therefore the objection cannot be valid that theology is restricted to the established doctrines of its religion and has to transmit them without change to its future servants4 ,it should be borne in mind that our universities are not intended for research only1 but also1 and chiefly1 for training candidates for the professions4 ,this disposes at the same time of the objection that theology has to serve ecclesiastical purposes outside of and foreign to science4 ,religious science1 like any other science1 serves the desire that strives for truth4 ,true1 it serves also for the practical training of the clergyman for his vocation4 ,but shall we eliminate from science the interests of practical life8 ,then medicine and legal science would also have to be excluded1 and for these there would be planted only sterile theories1 and the universities transformed into a place of abstract intellectualism4 ,again it is argued that religion and faith are not really cognition and knowledge1 but only the products of sentiment1 and hence theology has no claim to a place among the sciences2 that religion can only be a subject for psychology which lays bare its roots in the human heart1 and a subject for the history of religion1 to trace its historical forms and to study its laws of evolution--sciences which belong to the philosophical faculty4 ,thus we come back to the principles of an erroneous theory of knowledge4 ,no need to demonstrate again that the ,christian belief is built upon the clear perception of reason1 and that it is not a sentimental but a rational function4 ,but has not the ,church her theological seminaries8 ,let theology seek refuge there6 ,we answer the ,church herself desires this2 she does not like theological faculties1 they are in her eyes a danger to the faith4 ,now1 if the ,church would be deprived of her authoritative influence upon the appointment of professors at theological faculties and upon the subject of their teachings1 consequently1 if there would be jeopardized the purity of belief of the candidates for priesthood1 and through them of the people1 then1 we admit1 the ,church would rather forego theological faculties at state-universities4 ,this could not be done without considerable injury to the public prestige of the ,church1 to her contact with worldly sciences and their representatives and disciples1 even to the scientific study of theology4 ,in the latter particularly by the loss of the greater resources of the state1 and by the absence of inducement to scientific aim1 which is more urgent for theologians than for others at college4 ,neither would the state escape injury1 because of the open slight and harm to religion1 and of lessening its contact with the most influential body in ,christian countries4 ,but if the ,church is assured of her proper influence on the faculties1 she has no reason for an unfriendly attitude toward them4 ,the object the ,church seeks to achieve in her seminaries is the clerical education of her candidates1 their ascetic training1 the introduction into a life of recollection and prayer1 into an order of life befitting priests2 this cannot be sufficiently done in the free life at the university4 ,this is not a bar to scientific instruction by the theological faculty4 ,seminary and faculty supplement one another4 ,we see very frequently1 at ,rome and outside of ,rome1 the theological school separated from the seminary with the approval of the ,church4 ,but all these objections do not give the real reason1 the roots lie deeper4 ,when the ,divine ,founder of our ,religion stood before the tribunal of ,judea ,he said3 8,my kingdom is not of this world3 if my kingdom were of this world1 servants would strive for me40 ,this was the whole explanation of why ,he stood there accused4 ,the guardian of the doctrine of her ,master may use these words to explain the fact that1 in the eyes of many1 she stands to-day accused and defamed4 ,the mind of modern man has forsaken the world of the ,divine and ,eternal2 no longer is he a servant of this kingdom4 ,his ideals are not ,god and ,heaven1 but he himself and this world2 not the service of ,god1 but human rights and human dignity4 ,this view of the world1 which cannot grasp the wisdom of ,jesus ,christ1 and which takes offence at the ,cross1 also takes offence at a science that confesses as the loftiest ideal ,jesum ,christum1 et hunc crucifixum4 ,the real kernel of the question is3 ,does the ,christian religion in its entirety still serve the purpose of to-day--or does it not8 is it to remain with us1 the religion wherein our fathers found the gratification of their highest mental aims1 the religion that gave ,europe its civilization and culture1 that created its superior mental life1 and still rules it to this hour8 ,or shall religion be expelled by a return to a heathendom which ,christianity had overthrown8 8,we do not want ,him to rule over us0--there is the real reason for the modern antipathy to ,catholic theology4 ,else1 whence the excited demand for its removal8 ,because it is superfluous8 ,even if this were the fact1 there is many a category of officials1 the little need of which can be demonstrated without difficulty1 yet no one grows excited about it2 many expenditures by the state are rather superfluous1 yet there is no indignation4 ,no1 the matter at issue is not so much the scientific character of theology1 nor misgivings about its progress or its freedom2 the real question is this3 ,do we ,desire to ,remain ,christians8 ,for if we still recognize the ,christian religion as the standard for our thought1 if we are persuaded that it must remain the foundation of our life1 then there can be no doubt that its facts1 its truths1 and standards of life require scientific presentation2 then it cannot be disputed that this science is entitled to a place alongside of the science of law1 of chemistry1 or ,indology4 ,indeed1 then it must assume the first place in the system of sciences4 ,surely a science ranks the higher1 the higher its object and its sources1 the surer its results1 and the greater its significance for the most exalted aim of mankind4 ,the subject of theology is ,god and ,his works1 the ultimate causes of all things in ,god's eternal plan of the universe1 the 8wisdom of ,god in a mystery1 a wisdom which is hidden1 which ,god ordained before the world1 unto our glory0 7#a ,cor4 ii4 #g74 ,therefore it is wisdom2 for 8the science of things divine is science proper0 7,augustinus1 ,de ,trinit4 xii1 #ad74 ,a science1 having as its subject ,greek architecture1 geography1 or physical law1 may claim respect1 yet it must step back before a science of ,religion1 that rises to the highest sphere of truth by a power of flight that participates in the omniscience of the ,holy ,ghost2 for such is the faith4 ,for this reason its results1 in so far as they rest on faith1 are more certain than the results of all other sciences4 ,finally1 the aims of life which theology serves are not physical health or advantages in the external life1 but the knowledge of ,god1 the spread of ,his kingdom on earth1 and the eternal goal of all human life4 ,so long as the ,christian religion is the valued possession of the people of a country1 and the roots of their lives rest more in ,christianity than in mathematics1 astrophysics1 or ,egyptology1 so long is the science of religion entitled to a seat at the hearth of the sciences2 and the people1 then1 have the right to demand that the servants of religion get their education at the place where the other leading professions get their training4 ,if the state considers it its duty to train teachers of history and physics for the benefit of its citizen1 then it is still more its duty to help in the education of the servants of religion1 who are called upon to care for more important interests of the people and state than all the rest of the professions4 ,let us consider the task of universities4 ,as established in the countries of central ,europe1 they are destined to foster science in the widest sense1 and to educate the leading professions3 to be the hearth for the sum total of mental endeavour1 this is their vocation2 hence all things that contain truth and have educational value should join hands here4 ,to eliminate the science of the highest sphere of knowledge would be tantamount to a mutilation of the university4 ,here all boughs and branches of human knowledge should be united into a large organism1 of unity and community of work1 of giving and taking ,theology needs for auxiliaries other sciences1 such as profane history and philology1 ,assyriology and ,egyptology1 psychology and medicine4 ,in turn it offers indispensable aid to history and other branches of science1 it guards the ethical and ideal principles of every science1 and crowns them by tendering to them the most exalted thoughts4 ,here is the place of education for the judge and official1 for the physician and teacher2 hence it should be the place also for the education of the servant of the chief spiritual power1 religion4 ,the university should unite all active mental powers that lift man above the commonplace4 ,but is there any stronger mental power than religion8 ,it is the oldest and mightiest factor in mental life2 it is as natural to man as the flower is to the field2 his mind gravitates to a religious resting place1 whence he may view time and eternity1 where he may rest4 ,therefore religion demands a science that inquires into its substance1 its justification1 its effect on thought and life4 ,man strives to give to himself an account of everything1 but most of all of what is foremost in his mind4 ,a system of sciences without theology would be like an uncompleted tower1 like a body without a head4 ,the history of theology dates back to the very beginning of science and culture4 ,if we trace the oldest philosophy we find as its starting point theological research and knowledge4 ,orpheus and ,hesiod1 who sang of the gods1 and the sages of the oldest mysteries1 were called theologians2 ,plutarch sees in the theologians of past ages the oldest philosophers1 in the philosophers1 however1 the descendants of the theologians2 ,plato derives philosophy from the teachers of theology4 ,even more prominently was religious study and knowledge responsible for ,hindoo1 ,chaldean1 and ,egyptian philosophy4 ,was it reserved for our age to discard all the better traditions of mankind8 ,shall victory rest with the destructive elements in the mental education of ,europe8 ,against this danger to our ideal goods1 theology should stay at the universities1 as a bulwark and permanent protest4 ,theological ,faculty in ,state and ,church4 ,for this reason the theological faculty has a birth-right at the university1 whether state school or free university4 ,where it is joined to a state university1 theology automatically becomes subordinate to the state1 in a limited sense4 ,more essential is its dependency upon the ,church1 because1 being the science of the faith1 theology is primarily subject to the authority and supervision of the ,church4 ,for the ,church1 and only the ,church1 is charged by its ,divine ,founder to teach ,his religion to all nations4 ,hence no one can exercise the office of a religious teacher1 neither in the public school nor at college1 if not authorized to do so by the ,church4 ,it is a participation in the ministry of the ,church2 and the latter alone can designate its organs4 ,whoever has not been given by the ,church such license to teach1 or he from whom she takes it away1 does not possess it2 no other power can grant it1 not even the state4 ,nor can the state restore the license of teaching to a theologian from whom the ,church has withdrawn it2 this would be an act beyond state jurisdiction1 hence invalid4 ,in granting the license to teach1 the ,church does so in the self-evident presumption that the one so licensed will teach his students the correct doctrine of the ,church1 as far as it has been established2 and he binds himself to do so by voluntarily taking the office1 and more explicitly by the profession of the creed4 ,if he should deviate from the creed later on1 it is the obvious right of the ,church to cancel his license4 ,in this the ,church only draws the logical conclusion from the office of the teacher and from his voluntary obligation4 ,he holds his office as an organ of the ,church1 destined to lecture on pure doctrine before future priests4 ,whether or not he has honestly searched for the truth when deviating therefrom1 this he may settle with his conscience2 but he is incapacitated to act still further as an organ of the ,church1 and it is only common honesty to resign his office if he cannot fulfil any longer the obligations he assumed4 ,the professor of theology is therefore in the first place a deputy of his ,church4 ,also he is teacher at a state institution and as such a state official2 he is appointed by the state to be the teacher of students belonging to a certain denomination1 he is paid by the state1 and may be removed by the state from his position as official teacher4 ,but withal the right must not be denied to the ,church to watch over the correctness of the ,christian doctrine1 and to make appointment and continuance in the teaching office dependent upon it4 ,indeed1 this demand was urged by ,prof4 ,paulsen1 notwithstanding his entirely different position3 he says3 8,the ,catholic-theological faculties are in a certain sense a concession by the ,church to the state2 of course they are also a service of the state for the ,church1 and a valuable one1 too2 but they rest in the first place upon a concession made by the ,church to the state1 with a view to the historically established fact1 and to peace4 ,naturally1 this concession cannot be unconditional4 ,the condition is3 the professors appointed by the state must stand upon ecclesiastical ground1 they must acknowledge the doctrine of the ,church as the standard of their teaching1 and they must receive from the ,church the missio canonica4 ,the ,church cannot accept hostile scientists for teachers4 ,hence for the appointment an agreement must be reached with ecclesiastical authority4 ,the universities are not merely workshops for research1 they are at the same time educational institutions for important public professions2 in fact1 they were founded for this latter purpose3 they are the outcome of the want for scientifically educated clergymen1 teachers1 physicians1 judges1 and other professionals4 ,and this purpose necessitates restrictions3 the professor of ,evangelical theology cannot teach arbitrary opinions any more than his ,catholic fellow-professor can2 the lawyer is also restricted by presumptions1 for instance1 that the civil code is not an accumulation of nonsense1 but1 on the whole1 a pretty good order of life4 ,just as little as we should dispute the lawyer's standing as a scientist on this account1 so little shall we be able to deny this standing to the ,catholic theologian who stands with honest conviction on the platform of his ,church40 8,we want the ,catholic theological faculties to be preserved2 of course1 under the presumption of freedom of scientific research within the limits drawn by the creed of the ,church40 ,in a similar sense the ,bavarian minister of education1 ,dr4 ,v4 ,wehner1 said1 on ,feb4 #aa1 #aijh1 in the course of a speech in the ,bavarian ,diet3 8,thus the ,catholic professor of theology is bound to the standards of creed and morals as established by the ,church4 ,the decision as to whether a ,catholic professor of theology teaches the right doctrine of the ,church is not for the state to give1 but for the ,church alone40 8,the business of the professors at theological faculties is to transmit the teachings of the ,church to future candidates for the priesthood1 and this is what they are employed for by the state4 ,that the ,church does not tolerate a doctrine to differ from her own is to me quite self-evident40 ,hence we may conclude1 8,the attacks directed here and there in recent times against the continuance of ,catholic theological faculties need not worry us in any way4 ,nor are they likely to meet with response at the places where the decision rests4 ,times have changed4 ,even non-,catholic governments are no longer blind to the conviction that an educated clergy must be reckoned among the most eminent factors for conserving the state0 7,freiherr von ,hertling74 ,even during the heated debates on the anti-modernist oath in the ,prussian ,diet and upper house1 the importance of the theological faculties was acknowledged by the speakers1 none of whom demanded the removal of these faculties1 though outspoken in their criticism of the oath4 ,prime minister ,bethmann-,hollweg declared on ,march #g3 8,catholic students will get their training at the ,catholic faculties the same as hitherto1 even after the anti-modernist oath is introduced4 ,the state never will claim for itself the authority to determine in any way which1 and in what1 forms doctrines of faith shall be taught to ,catholic students4 ,this is no affair of the state4 ,if1 and this is my wish1 the ,catholic faculties will retain that value to teachers1 students1 and the total organism of the universities1 which is the natural condition of their existence1 then they will continue to exist for the profit of both1 the ,catholic population and the state4 ,should they lose this value1 however1 an event ,i do not wish to see1 then they will die by themselves4 ,but ,i do not see that it is demanded by the interest of the state to abolish without awaiting further development these faculties with one stroke1 thereby harming our ,catholic population1 whose wants and needs deserve as much consideration as those of any other part of the population40 ,there is no warrant for the view that theology is subject to a foreign power1 and therefore it cannot claim a place in a state institution4 ,in its external relations the theological faculty is subject also to the state1 serving the public interests so much the better the more continually the priest by his activity influences the life of the people4 ,by the way1 why this urgent demand for state control in the pursuit of a science by a party that otherwise is striving zealously to put the university beyond the influence of the state8 ,to be a state institution or not can only be an extrinsic matter to the university itself4 ,or has the science of medicine not enough intellectual substance and consistency to thrive at a free university8 ,is science as such a matter of state8 ,therefore1 why find fault with theology because it will not be entirely subordinated to the state8 ,nor is it proper to call the ,church a 8foreign0 power4 ,it is certainly not a foreign power to theology2 neither to the ,christian state1 that has developed in closest relation to the ,church1 which owes its civilization and culture to the ,church1 shares with her its subjects1 and is based even to-day upon the doctrines and customs of the ,church4 ,against ,christ there arose the ,jewish scribes and denounced ,his wisdom as error2 the scribes have passed away1 we know them no longer4 ,to the ,neoplatonics ,christianity was ignorance1 even barbarity2 ,manicheans and ,gnostics praised as the higher wisdom ,oriental and ,greek philosophy adorned with ,christian ideas4 ,they belong to history4 ,when the people of ,israel came in touch with the brilliant civilization of ,egypt1 ,assyria1 and ,greece1 they often became ashamed of the religion of their forefathers1 and embraced false gods2 to-day we look upon their fancy of inferiority as foolishness1 and we rank their religion high above the religious notions of the pagan ,orient4 ,thus has truth pursued its way through the centuries of human history1 often unrecognized by the children of men1 scolded for being obsolete1 nay1 more1 driven from its home and forced to make room for delusion and error4 ,delusion fled1 and error sank into its grave--but truth remained4 ,thus the ,church has endured1 and thus the ,church will live on1 with her doctrines and science misunderstood and repulsed by the children of a world unable to grasp them2 they will pass away and so will their thoughts1 yet the ,church will remain1 and so will her science4 8,she was great and respected0--this is the familiar quotation from a ,protestant historian--8before the ,saxon had set foot on ,britain1 before the ,frank had passed the ,rhine1 when ,grecian eloquence still nourished in ,antioch1 when idols were still worshipped in the temple of ,mecca4 ,and she may still exist in undiminished vigor when some traveller from ,new ,zealand shall1 in the midst of a vast solitude1 take his stand on a broken arch of ,london ,bridge to sketch the ruins of ,st4 ,paul's0 7,lord ,macaulay74 ,then1 perhaps1 another observer1 leaning against the pillars of history1 and looking back upon the culture of this age1 will realize that only one power of truth may rightly say3 8,heaven and earth will pass away1 but my words will not pass away0--,christ and ,his ,church4 ,law and ,freedom4 ,an ,epilogue4 ,the great ,renovator of mankind1 in whom the pious ,christian sees his ,god1 and in whom the greater part of the modern world1 though turned from faith1 still sees the ideal of a perfect human being1 hence also of true freedom1 once spoke the significant words3 8,et veritas liberabit vos1 and the truth shall make you free0 7,john viii4 #cb74 ,as all the words that fell from ,his lips are the truth for all centuries to come1 so are these words pre-eminently true4 ,there is in our times a strong tension felt between freedom on the one hand1 and law and authority on the other2 true freedom and true worth it sees too exclusively in the independent assertion of the self-will1 and in the unrestrained manifestation of one's strength and energy1 while law and authority are looked upon as onerous fetters4 ,our times do not understand that freedom and human dignity are not opposed to law and obedience1 that no other freedom can be intended for man than the voluntary compliance with the law and the standards of order4 ,all creatures1 from the smallest to the largest1 are bound by law2 none is destined for the eminent isolation of independence4 ,the same law of gravitation that causes the stone to fall1 also governs the giants of the skies1 and they obey its rule2 the same laws that rule the candle-flame1 that are at work in the drop of water1 also rule the fires of the sun and guide the fates of the ocean4 ,the heart1 like all other organs of the human body1 is ruled by laws1 and medical science1 with its institutes and methods1 is kept busy to cure the consequences of the disturbance of these laws4 ,every being has its laws3 it must follow them to attain perfection2 deviation leads to degeneration4 ,thus the decision of the worth and dignity of man does not rest with an unrestrained display of strength1 but with order2 not with unchecked activity1 but with control of his acts and with truth4 ,the floods that break through the dam have force and energy1 but being without order they create destruction2 the avalanche crashing down the mountain side has force and power1 but1 free from the law of order1 it carries devastation2 glowing metal when led into the mould becomes a magnificent bell1 while flowing lava brings ruin4 ,only one dignity and freedom can be destined for man1 it consists in voluntarily adhering to warranted laws and authorities4 ,for him who with conviction and free decision has made the law of thought1 faith1 and action his own principle1 the law has ceased to be a yoke and a burden2 it has become his own standard of life1 which he loves2 it has become the fruit of his conviction1 truth has made him free4 ,ask the virtuoso who obeys the rules of his art whether he considers them fetters2 indeed he does not1 he has made them his principles4 ,let us ask of the civilized citizen whether he feels the laws of civilization to be a yoke2 he does not1 he obeys them of his own free will1 they are his own order of life4 ,unfree1 slaves and serfs1 will be those only who carry with resentment the burden of the laws they must obey4 ,unfree feels the savage people fighting against the laws of civilization2 unfree the wicked boy to whom discipline is repugnant4 ,it is not the law that makes man unfree1 it is his own lawlessness and rebellion4 ,nor does submission to the ,god-given law of the ,christian belief make man low or unfree2 to those to whom their belief is conviction and life1 the suggestion that they are oppressed will sound strange4 ,on the contrary1 they feel that this belief fits in harmoniously with the nobler impulses of their thought and will1 like the pearl in the shell1 like the gem in its setting4 ,man experiences this when his belief lifts him above the lowlands of his sensual life to mental independence1 and frees him from the bondage of his own unruly impulses1 that so often seek to control him4 ,freiheit sei der ,zweck des ,zwanges ,wie man eine ,rebe bindet1 ,dass sie1 statt im ,staub zu kriechen1 ,frei sich in die ,lfte windet4 7,freedom be the aim of restraint1 just as the vine is tied to the trellis that it may freely rise in the air1 instead of crawling in the dust47 ,this is the freedom of mind1 knowing but one yoke1 the truth2 the freedom that does not bow to error1 nor to high sounding phrases1 nor to public opinion1 nor to the bondage of political life2 neither is true freedom shackled by the fetters of one's own lawless impulses4 ,et veritas liberabit vos4 ,,index4 ,accusations of the ,church1 #adb et seq4 ,achievements of liberal research1 #bia ,adickes1 ,e41 #ib1 #bfd1 #bfi ,agnosticism1 #dc1 #df1 #dh ,amira1 ,k4 von1 #aa1 #ag1 #cji1 #cbf ,ampre1 ,a41 #bab et seq41 #bbc1 #bbd ,anthropocentric view of the world1 #ai ,apponyi1 ,a41 ,count1 #cbc ,arago1 #aai ,aristotle1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #eb1 #cde1 #cdi ,arnest1 ,archbishop1 #aej ,atheism1 #ai1 #gi1 #bhg ,augustine1 ,st41 #d1 #bg1 #gf1 #hj1 #hb et seq41 #aaj1 #ace1 #aei1 #agi1 #bdf1 #bfj1 #bgc ,authority of ,faith1 #ha1 #aab1 #abe et seq4 ---- private1 #hb ---- ,protestant1 #cig ---- rejection of1 #cc1 #dj ,autonomism1 #be1 #bi1 #cc ,autonomy of the ,college1 #cfj ---- of ,reason1 #cf ---- of the ,teacher1 #cfa ,autotheism1 #bc ,bacon1 ,f41 #bje1 #baf ,baer1 ,m4 von1 #bba ,balmes1 ,j41 #cbj ,barrande1 #bai ,baumgarten1 ,o41 #bdf1 #bed ,baur1 ,f4 ,ch41 #beh ,beaumont1 ,l4 de1 #bah ,bebel1 #cej ,becker1 ,k41 #adf ,bellarmin1 ,cardinal1 #ahe1 #aib ,benedict ,,xiv41 #if ,berkeley1 #ce ,bernouilli1 #bje ,bertholon1 #aai ,bertrin1 ,g41 #bdg ,berzelius1 ,j41 #bag ,bessel1 ,f4 ,w41 #bji ,bethmann-,hollweg1 #cid1 #dje ,bible1 #bha1 #bhc ,bible-,criticism1 modern1 #bed et seq4 ,billroth1 ,th41 #cfc ,biot1 ,j41 #aaf ,bischof1 ,k4 ,g41 #bai ,boissarie1 ,dr41 #bdg et seq4 ,boniface ,,viii41 #adi1 #aha ,bornhak1 ,c41 #cdi1 #cfc ,boscovich1 #aig ,bourdaloue1 #baa ,bousset1 ,w41 #bed1 #bhe ,boyle1 ,robert1 #bje ,brahe1 ,tycho de1 #aia1 #bjb ,branco1 ,w41 #aaf ,brass1 ,a41 #ccc ,braun1 ,k41 #hb1 #aag1 #aai1 #bha ,brewster1 ,d41 #aah ,broda1 ,r41 #ej ,bchner1 #aae1 #cfd ,buckland1 ,w41 #bai ,buffon1 ,g4 de1 #bjf ,cabet1 ,etienne1 #aaa ,cantor1 ,m41 #baj ,caprivi1 #ai ,cardinals1 #ih ,carneri1 ,b41 #bea ,cassirer1 #ej ,catholic1 not free in research1 #ajh ,catholic ,universities1 #cgj ,cauchy1 #baj ,causation1 ,natural1 #cd1 #bce et seq4 ,certainty1 scientific1 #acg ,censorship of ,books1 civil1 #agb ---- ecclesiastical1 #aga ,chamberlain1 ,h4 ,st41 #bf1 #cf1 #bea1 #cfa ,charles ,borromeo1 ,st41 #age ,cherbury1 ,herbert of1 #bh ,chevreul1 ,m4 ,e41 #bag ,christ1 #ca1 #adc1 #bdf1 #dja1 #djg ---- ,divinity denied1 #bea ,christian ,religion1 ,state ,protection for1 #ceb et seq4 ---- ,truths1 #ba ---- ,view of the ,world1 #ad et seq41 #bg1 #cj1 #ee ,christianity1 #ba1 #bd1 #ea ---- compared with ,paganism1 #bfg ---- free1 #bhe ---- ,origin of1 #bei ---- vs4 ,paganism1 #bec ---- without ,christ1 #beb1 #bhb ,church1 the1 #ad1 #cj1 #ci1 #ej1 #fc et seq41 #gj1 #ij et seq41 #ajf1 #abe1 #agi1 #bce1 #bge et seq4 ---- ,accusations of the1 #adb et seq4 ---- and ,medical ,science1 #aha ---- ,catholic1 alone enduring1 #bih ---- ,episcopal1 #bih ---- founder of ,schools and ,universities1 #ade et seq4 ---- not a foreign ,power1 #djf ---- the ,mother of ,civilization1 #ade et seq4 ,cicero1 #c1 #h1 #ach1 #bfi1 #cdi ,claar1 ,m41 #agj ,clement ,,iv41 #aee ,clement ,v41 #adi1 #aeb ,clement ,,viii41 #aie ,cognition1 human1 #cd et seq41 #dc ,college ,professors1 #cic ,columbus1 ,christopher1 #ahb ,communistic ,experiments1 #aaa ,congregations1 ,roman1 #ih1 #ahi ,copernican ,system1 #ahc ,copernicus1 #d1 #aac1 #agd1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aid et seq41 #bjj ,coppe1 ,f41 #cbd ,corneille1 #baa ,cornu1 #baa ,cosmogonies1 of ,nations1 #bdb ,council1 ,fourth ,lateran1 #ahb ,council1 ,vatican1 #fh et seq41 #ij1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aji1 #acj ,craniotomy1 #ajb ,creation1 disputed1 #bda ,criticism of the ,gospels1 modern1 #bed et seq4 ,cuvier1 ,g41 #bah1 #bbc ,cyril1 ,st41 of ,alexandria1 #hg ,dalberg1 ,j4 von1 #aej ,dana1 ,j4 ,dwight1 #bai ,darwin1 #ajg1 #aae1 #aeg1 #bci1 #bdc ---- an ,agnostic1 #bbb ,davy1 ,sir ,h41 #aai ,dawson1 ,w41 #bai ,dechristianizing of the modern ,state1 #cfb et seq4 ,delitzsch1 ,fr41 #ea1 #bha ,deluc1 ,a41 #aai ,denifle1 ,h41 #aea1 #aec et seq41 #ahb ,denthofen1 #ahb ,descartes1 ,r41 #ce1 #aah1 #aij ,dilthey1 ,w41 #bib ,divinity of ,christ1 #bha ---- denied1 #bea et seq4 ,dogmas1 #ea1 #fg1 #ig1 #aeh ,dllinger1 #ajc ,draper1 ,j41 #hf et seq41 #add1 #aei1 #ahb ,drews1 ,a41 #bcf1 #bhb ,dualism1 #ca1 #fc ,du ,bois-,reymond1 #aae1 #bbd1 #bcg1 #bdj ,dumas1 ,j4 ,b41 #bag ,dumont1 ,a41 #bai ,economics1 liberal1 #cj ,egger1 ,f41 #ii ,ehrenberg1 ,ch41 #bbj ,ehrenfels1 ,chr4 von1 #cdg ,eichhorn1 ,minister1 #cdd1 #cfd ,emancipation from the ,truth1 #da ,emry1 #aif ,epinois1 de l'1 #ahc ,episcopal ,church1 #bih ,erdmann1 ,j4 ,e41 #ej1 #aeh ,error1 ,danger of ,infection by1 #cai ---- to be taught with same right as truth8 #cbh ,ethics1 modern1 #ej1 #bej1 #cbe1 #ccj1 #cdg ,eucken1 ,r41 #bf1 #ej1 #ea1 #bdd1 #bid et seq4 ,euler1 #baj ,evolution1 ,theory of1 #di1 #aeg1 #bda et seq4 ---- ,theory1 held by ,catholic ,scientists1 #bbc ,faith1 #ad1 #dc1 #ea ---- and ,reason1 #gc ---- ,authority of1 #fa1 #ha ---- ,definition of1 #fa1 #fc1 #ff ---- ,doubts forbidden1 #aci ---- its scientific ,demonstration1 #acj et seq4 ---- ,motive of1 #ga ---- not blind1 #fa1 #ga ---- ,obedience of1 and ,freedom of ,action1 #aje ,falkenberg1 ,r41 #de1 #aeh ,faraday1 ,m41 #bad1 #bbd1 #bdi ,favaro1 ,a41 #ahc ,fnlon1 #aaj ,feuerbach1 ,l41 #ba1 #bb ,fichte1 ,j4 ,g41 #d1 #eb1 #abi1 #agh1 #cid ,fischer1 ,kuno1 #cg ,fizeau1 ,a41 #baa ,foerster1 ,f4 ,w41 #abh1 #bdf1 #bfh1 #cch1 #cde1 #cij ,fonck1 ,l41 #hf ,fonsegrive1 ,g41 #ci ,forel1 ,a41 #cbe1 #cdg ,foucault1 ,l41 #baa ,fouillie1 ,a41 #bij ,franc1 ,r4 ,h41 #bdj ,francis of ,sales1 ,st41 #age1 #cbj ,franklin1 ,b41 #aai ,frauenhofer1 #baa ,frederick ,,ii41 ,king1 #agh1 #agi1 #cfc ,freedom1 ,definition of1 #h1 #af ---- for the ,truth1 #gd ---- modern ,idea of1 #af et seq41 #ah1 #bf ---- of ,art1 #ccf ---- of ,research1 different from ,freedom of ,teaching1 #i ---- of ,research1 liberal1 #bbi et seq4 ---- of ,science1 ,necessity1 #ab ---- ---- ,subject to human ,nature1 #cfa ---- of ,teaching1 as understood in the ,past1 #cdd1 #cfc et seq41 #cgj ---- ---- ,danger of1 admitted by modern ,scientists1 #cbc ---- ---- ,definition of1 #cjc ---- ---- unrestricted1 inadmissible1 #cad ,freedom of ,thought1 #cj1 #bih ---- two ,kinds of1 #ac1 #ae1 #ee ,freemasons1 #bb1 #bh1 #cca ,free-religionists1 #bc ,free-thinkers1 #ag1 #bb1 #cj1 #bgb1 #bia1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cde1 #cfc ,fresnel1 ,a41 #baa ,friedwald1 #adj ,frins1 ,v41 #afe ,fuchs1 ,th41 #afb ,galileo1 #ee1 #ig1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ahj et seq4 ,galle1 ,j4 ,g41 #bjh ,galvani1 ,l41 #aah1 #bab ,gassendi1 ,p41 #aij ,gauss1 ,k41 #bji1 #baj ,gebler1 ,k4 von1 #ahc ,generatio aequivoca1 #bda ,genesis1 #bha ---- ,doctrine of1 #bab ---- ,history or ,legend8 #bei ---- primordial1 #bda ,gerdil1 #baa ,gibbons1 ,cardinal1 #ajc ,giese1 ,t41 #aid1 #bja ,giesebrecht1 ,f4 ,w41 #abi ,god1 #f1 #aa1 #ad1 #bc1 #bf1 #cb1 #dd1 #ec1 #fe1 #agf1 #bce1 #bcf1 #bhf1 #chg ,god's ,order of ,life1 #ad ,goethe1 #agh1 #bfi ,goetz1 ,l41 #afe ,gospels1 #bhe ---- modern ,criticism of1 #bed et seq4 ,government1 founded on ,christianity1 #cef ,goyau1 ,g41 #bii ,grace1 divine1 ,definition of1 #gc ,gray1 ,th41 #aai ,gregory ,,vii41 #ade ,gregory ,,ix41 #aha ,gregory ,,xi41 #aea ,grienberger1 #ahe ,grimaldi1 ,f41 #aie ,grisar1 ,h41 #ii1 #aij1 #aig ,grosse1 ,e41 #aaf ,grotthuss1 von1 #bd ,guldin1 #baa ,gunkel1 ,h41 #bei1 #bha ,gnther1 ,a41 #ii1 #agb ,hckel1 ,e41 #hg1 #aad1 #aih1 #bag1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bci1 #bda1 #bfh1 #cjc1 #cbe ------ denounced for ,forgery1 #ccc ------ on ,lourdes1 #bdg ,haeser1 #aed ,haller1 ,a4 von1 #g1 #bje ,halley1 ,e41 #bjf ,hansen1 ,a41 #cbe ,harnack1 ,a41 #ag1 #fd1 #ga1 #aag1 #abi1 #acd1 #bdf1 #bef et seq41 #bfe1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #chb ,hartmann1 ,e4 von1 #bej1 #bhb1 #bhe1 #bij1 #cag ,harvard ,university1 #gd ,harvey1 ,w41 #bje ,hauy1 ,r41 #bah ,heer1 ,o41 #bai1 #bbc ,hefele1 ,k4 von1 #aha et seq4 ,hegel1 #d1 #dg1 #ej1 #bgb1 #bid ,heis1 ,e41 #bji ,helmholtz1 ,h4 von1 #d1 #bae ,henslow1 ,g41 #baf ,herbart1 #d ,hermes1 ,g41 #agb ,herrmann1 ,w41 #gf1 #gh ,herschel1 #bjg ,hertwig1 ,r41 #bda ,hertz1 #d ,hettner1 ,h41 #bh1 #cf1 #dg ,hilgers1 ,j41 #aaa1 #afi1 #agf1 #agg ,his1 ,w41 #ccc ,historian1 the ,catholic1 #ie et seq4 ,history1 and the ,faith1 #ic ,hitchcock1 #bai ,hoensbroech1 ,p41 #afe1 #afi ,hoff1 van't1 #ga1 #aha ,holl1 ,k41 #ajc ,holtzmann1 ,o41 #bhc ,honorius ,,iii41 #aeb1 #aee ,hrnes1 ,m41 #bdb ,huber1 ,v4 ,a41 #adh1 #cbd ,humanists1 #ah et seq4 ,humanitarian ,religion1 #ea ---- ,view of ,life1 #ee ,humanity1 emancipated1 #bb ,human race1 ,origin of1 #aae et seq4 ,humboldt1 ,a4 von1 #aih1 #bbd ,humboldt1 ,w4 von1 #ch1 #gd1 #cad ,hume1 ,d41 #ce ,huxley1 ,th41 #bbb ,huygens1 ,chr41 #aah1 #bjd et seq4 ,hyrtl1 ,j41 #bba ,illuminati1 #be ,immorality1 among ,college ,men1 #cce ,inclinations1 human1 #bfd et seq4 ,incompatibility of ,science and ,faith1 #aih et seq4 ,index of forbidden ,books1 #ee1 #afi et seq41 #ahi1 #aif ,individualism1 #be1 #bh ,infallibility1 #gf1 #ig et seq41 #aji ,innocent ,,iv41 #adi ,innocent ,,vi41 #aea ,james1 ,w41 #dh1 #bej1 #bfh ,janssen1 ,j41 #adf1 #adi1 #aej1 #aef1 #bah ,jesuit ,order1 #ahc1 #cei ,jesus ,christ1 #beb1 #ceg ---- ,existence of1 #bhb ---- who was8 #bha et seq4 ,jews1 #abh ,joachim1 ,g4 7see ,rheticus7 ,jodl1 ,f41 #ai1 #ba1 #bb1 #ff1 #abc1 #acj1 #afb1 #bde1 #bej1 #bhh1 #bib1 #cbb1 #ceg ,john ,,xxii41 #aea et seq4 ,jones1 ,dr4 ,spencer1 #bih ,jrgensen1 #bbi ,jlicher1 #bee1 #bhc ,justin1 ,phil41 #bgg ,kahl1 ,w41 #aj1 #afb ,kant1 ,i41 #d1 #bi1 #ce1 #cf1 #cg et seq41 #dc et seq41 #df et seq41 #ed1 #fc1 #fd1 #gg1 #acb1 #afg1 #agi1 #bej1 #bfc1 #bfi1 #bgb1 #bhg1 #bic1 #cac1 #cfc ,kaufmann1 ,g41 #ag1 #aej1 #aec1 #aee1 #afb1 #cji ,kelvin1 ,lord 7see ,thomson7 ,kepler1 ,j41 #d1 #abe1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aie et seq41 #bja et seq4 ,kepler-,bund1 #ccc ,kirchhoff1 ,g4 ,r41 #d ,kleinpeter1 ,h41 #ce ,kneller1 #g1 #bjh ,knowledge and ,faith1 separation of1 #db ,kochansky1 #aif ,kohlbrugge1 ,j4 ,h41 #aaf ,kller1 #aba ,kollmann1 ,j41 #aaf ,kone1 ,j41 #adg ,kromer1 ,bishop1 #aie ,kues1 ,n4 von1 #aid ,lacharpe1 #dg ,lalande1 #aif ,lamarck1 ,j4 ,b4 de1 #aeg1 #bbc ,lammenais1 ,f41 #agb ,lamont1 ,j4 von41 #bji ,lange1 ,f41 #bcg1 #bci ,lapparent1 ,a4 de1 #bai ,lateran ,council1 ,fourth1 #ahb ,lavoisier1 ,a41 #bag ,law1 necessity of1 #djh ,laws of nature1 #aa ,lehmann1 ,e41 #bdc ,lehmann1 ,m41 #agh ,leibnitz1 ,g4 ,w41 #aad1 #aah1 #aij1 #aif1 #baa ,leo1 the ,great1 #chc ,leo ,,xiii41 #ie1 #agj et seq4 ,lessing1 ,g4 ,f41 #cbf ,leverrier1 ,m41 #dh1 #bjg et seq41 #bch ,liberalism1 #bi et seq41 #afb1 #cfd1 #cgj ,license to teach1 ecclesiastical1 #djd ,liebig1 ,j4 von1 #d1 #bah ,liebmann1 ,o41 #ce ,life1 first1 whence did it come1 #bdj ,linn1 ,karl1 #bje ,lipps1 ,th41 #gh1 #ace1 #caa ,locke1 ,j41 #bh1 #ce ,loisy1 ,a41 #agb ,loosten1 de1 #bhc ,lossen1 #bbc ,lourdes1 #bdg ,ldeman1 #de ,luther1 #bg1 #bi1 #ch1 #aie ,lutheran ,church1 expelled ,kepler1 #bjb ,lyell1 ,ch41 #bbc ,macaulay1 #djg ,mach1 ,e41 #ce ,macolano1 #ahg ,mdler1 ,j41 #bjf ,mai1 ,cardinal1 #cbj ,man1 ,descent of1 #bhh ---- free1 #ae1 #be ---- his ,destiny1 #aa1 #ai ---- ,member of ,society1 #aa ,man1 the autonomous1 #bd et seq41 #bi1 #cc1 #bhg ---- the transcendental1 #bc et seq41 #cg ,man's ,emancipation1 #bg ---- ,intellect1 #ad ,martius1 von1 #bbj ,masaryk1 ,t4 ,g41 #fb1 #gb1 #acf1 #afj ,maxwell1 ,j41 #bad et seq41 #bbd ,mayer1 ,r41 #bae1 #bci ,melanchthon1 #aie ,mendel1 ,g4 ,j41 #bbj ,menger1 ,k41 #fb1 #hf ,messer1 ,a41 #adj1 #bce ,method of modern ,science1 #bfb ,michael1 ,e41 #adf1 #aha1 #ahb ,mign1 #chd ,mill1 ,stuart1 #bde ,miracles denied1 #bdf et seq4 ,modernism1 #dd1 #de1 #afe et seq41 #chi et seq4 ---- ,oath against1 #cic ,moigno1 #bji ,moleschott1 ,j41 #aae1 #bbd1 #cfd ,mommsen1 ,th41 #aba1 #abh1 #bcd1 #bfg ,monism1 #ca1 #cca ---- ,definition of1 #bdd ,monists1 #cca ,montanari1 ,g41 #aid ,morality1 #cbe ---- independent of ,religion1 #bej1 #ccf ---- no absolute ,standard of1 #ej ,muckermann1 ,h41 #bbj ,mller1 ,a41 #ahf ,mller1 ,fr41 #bdc ,mller1 ,j41 #bai ,mnch1 ,w41 #adg1 #cef ,muratori1 ,l4 ,a41 #cbj ,mysticism1 #dc1 #df ,nature1 human1 ignored1 #bfd ,newton1 #d1 #g1 #aah1 #abe1 #aia1 #bja1 #bjc et seq4 ,nicolai1 ,f41 #cid ,niebergall1 ,f41 #de ,nietzsche1 #bc et seq41 #ca1 #cg1 #ec1 #ed1 #gi1 #bgj1 #bgc ,oath against ,modernism1 #dje ---- binding8 #df ,oath of ,allegiance in civil ,professions1 #cif ---- of the ,professio ,fidei ,tridentina1 #cid ,objectivism1 #cc ,oken1 #agh ,olbers1 ,w41 #bji ,omalius1 ,j4 de1 #bai1 #bbc ,oppression1 of mental ,liberty1 by ,party ,rule1 #cff ,oresme1 ,bishop1 #aid ,osiander1 #ahd1 #aie ,ostwald1 ,w41 #bdj ,owen1 ,r41 #aaa ,ozanam1 ,a41 #bab ,paganism1 #bfg1 #bhf ---- extolled by modern ,science1 #bab ---- preferred to ,christianity1 #bfg ,palacky1 #adf ,pantheism1 #bc1 #da1 #bhd ,papacy1 ,importance of1 #cgc ,papal ,charters of ,universities1 #adh et seq4 ,pascal1 #baa ,pasteur1 #bag1 #bbb1 #bbd1 #cha ,pastor1 ,l4 von1 #if1 #aie ,patients1 made ,subjects for medical ,experiments1 #cai ,paul ,,iii41 #ahd1 #aie1 #bja ,paul ,,iv41 #agj ,paulsen1 ,f41 #ag1 #ch1 #ci1 #dj1 #da1 #dd1 #di1 #ea et seq41 #fd1 #gh1 #acd1 #aej1 #bcf1 #bci1 #beb1 #bec1 #bfb1 #bgd1 #bgf1 #bhg1 #bib et seq41 #cji1 #cab1 #cba1 #cce1 #cch1 #chb1 #djd ,paulus1 ,h4 ,e41 #beh ,pedagogy1 #cde ,perception1 the ,nature of human1 #cc ,pesch1 ,chr41 #ii ,peschel1 ,o41 #aae ,pessimism1 #bie et seq4 ,pfaff1 ,f41 #bai ,pfleiderer1 ,o41 #bef1 #bei1 #bhe ,philip1 the ,fair1 #aeb ,philosophical ,errors1 #cbg ---- ,training1 great ,want of1 #cba ,philosophy1 #g1 #af1 #ba1 #bh1 #cf1 #dd1 #gh1 #bdb1 #bge1 #bib et seq4 ,philosophy and the ,faith1 #ib ---- ,scholastic1 #di1 #ec ,piazzi1 ,g41 #bji ,pindar1 #gd ,pius ,,ix41 #ii1 #afb1 #afe1 #aff ,pius ,x41 #ii ,plate1 ,l41 #bjf1 #bcg1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdc et seq41 #bdi1 #bhg ,plato1 #eb1 #gd1 #bdi1 #bfi1 #bge1 #ccg ,plutarch1 #cdi ,poggendorff1 #bji ,pohle1 ,j41 #bji ,poincar1 ,h41 #aad ,pope1 his ,person1 #ih ,popes1 and the ,universities1 #aej et seq4 ,prantl1 ,k4 von1 #cbd ,prayer1 #df ,pressens1 ,f4 de1 #bii ,primordial ,genesis1 #bda ,progress1 #aei ,promoting the ,christian ,faith1 the ,aim of ,founders of ,universities1 #cfg ,protestantism1 #ai1 #bg et seq41 #dd1 #de1 #ea1 #ed1 #ff1 #gg1 #ig1 #aag1 #abh1 #abi1 #adj1 #afh1 #aic1 #aie1 #bjb1 #bee1 #bic1 #bih1 #cei1 #cfc1 #cij1 #cif ,ptolemy1 #e ,pythagoras1 #d1 #adj ,quenstedt1 ,f41 #g1 #bai1 #bbc ,rade1 ,m41 #bhb ,radicalism1 #ccb ,ramsay1 ,w41 #g ,ranke1 ,l4 von41 #aaf1 #agi ,ratzel1 ,f41 #aae ,reason1 its ,limitations1 #g1 #ad ,reformation1 the1 #bg1 #bh1 #cfc ,reimarus1 ,h4 ,s41 #beh ,reinhold1 ,g41 #cia ,reinke1 ,j41 #g1 #aae1 #bbc ,relative ,truth1 #aeg ,religion1 #af1 #bj1 #be1 #bh1 #ea ---- abandoned1 #bhi et seq4 ---- distinguished from ,science1 #bff ---- of natural ,reason1 #bh1 #ea ,religious ,instruction of ,children1 #de ,remus1 ,john1 #aif ,renan1 ,e41 #ed1 #bdh1 #beh ,research1 and ,faith1 #ei ---- ,definition of1 #i ,restraint1 proper1 of ,science1 #ij ,revelation1 #bi1 #ea1 #gb1 #gg et seq41 #ij1 #abe1 #big ---- ,proof of1 #ach ,revolution1 ,french1 #bi1 #cf ---- of #ahdh1 #cfc ,rheticus 7,g4 ,joachim71 #aie1 #bja ,rhodius1 #adj ,riccioli1 ,j41 #aij ,right of ,christians1 to be represented1 #cfg ---- to teach1 natural1 #cfi ,rights of ,teacher1 not unrestricted1 #cdf ,ritter1 ,k41 #bah ,romanes1 ,g41 #bba ,roscellin1 #aeh ,rosenberger1 #aah ,rosmini-,serbati1 #aaj ,rothenbcher1 #cj ,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j41 #bh ,rudder1 ,p4 de1 #bdi ,ruville1 ,a4 von1 #gg ,sabatier1 ,a41 #bf1 #ci1 #gh1 #bfb ,saint-,hilaire1 #bbc ,saitschick1 #cib ,sarcey1 #agc ,savigny1 ,f4 von1 #cee ,scepticism1 #ce1 #dg1 #ee1 #bic ,schafhutl1 ,k4 von1 #bai ,scheiner1 ,ch41 #abe1 #aia ,schell1 ,h41 #acf1 #agb ,schelling1 #d ,scherr1 ,j41 #ch ,schiaparelli1 ,g41 #aia ,schiller1 #bgd ,schleiermacher1 #de1 #ed1 #bij ,schmiedel1 ,p41 #bhb ,schneider1 ,w41 #aaf ,schnbein1 #g1 #bah ,schnberg1 ,cardinal1 #aid1 #bja ,schools1 free1 #bb ,schopenhauer1 #ce1 #bgb1 #bgd ,schwann1 ,th41 #bbj ,schwegler1 ,a41 #bh ,schweitzer1 ,a41 #bhb ,science1 an ,activity of the human ,mind1 #f ---- anti-,christian1 its ,danger1 #cbi et seq4 ---- ,definition1 #c et seq4 ---- ,errors of1 #aae et seq4 ---- grave ,charges against ,modern1 #cbi ---- ,limitations1 #g ---- ,power of1 #cbb ---- restricted by accidental ,conditions1 #cfa ---- subject to ,god1 #f ---- subject to ,imperfections of human ,mind1 #f1 #ca ---- subject to ,truth1 #f ---- ,vocation of1 #bgi ,sciences1 profane and the ,faith1 #hh ,scientific ,research1 ,methods1 #aeh ---- ,teaching1 ,definition1 #caf ,scientists1 ,catholic1 #chd et seq4 ,scripture1 does not teach profane ,sciences1 #hd ---- ,interpretation1 #bg ---- ,narratives not to be taken in literal ,sense1 #hb et seq4 ,secchi1 ,a41 #aia1 #bjh ,sedgwick1 ,a41 #bai ,seminaries1 #djj ,sensuality1 ,emancipation of1 ,danger to ,civilization1 #cef ,sexual ,perversities1 #cdg ---- ,practice1 natural1 #cdf ---- ,questions1 #cbe ---- ,reform1 #cdg ,sham-,science1 #cac ,silence not ,denial1 #aa ,smet1 de1 #hf ,smith1 ,adam1 #bh ,smolko1 ,s4 von1 #cei ,socialism1 #aaa1 #cdi1 #cej ,socialists1 #cca ,social question1 #cj ,sociology1 #cj ,socrates1 #g ,soul1 the1 #df et seq4 ---- the1 an illusion1 #bhh et seq4 ,spencer1 ,h41 #bdc1 #cac ,spicker1 ,g41 #bb1 #bf1 #bib1 #cbd ,spinoza1 ,b41 #da1 #agi ,stgemann1 #cf ,state1 the1 and ,freedom of ,teaching1 #cdj et seq4 ,steudel1 #bcf ,strauss1 ,d4 ,f41 #ed1 #fe1 #bdj1 #beh1 #bfg1 #bgc1 #bhj1 #bhc1 #bhf1 #bhg1 #cae1 #cfd ,sttz1 #aai ,subjectivism1 #cc et seq4 ,supernatural1 ,factors to be excluded1 #bce et seq4 ---- the1 inadmissible1 #ca ,supervision of ,teaching1 ,ecclesiastical1 #chi ,sybel1 ,l4 von1 #bdf1 #bib ,syllabus1 the1 #ee1 #id1 #aae1 #afb et seq4 ,tanner1 ,a41 #aib ,targioni-,tozzetti1 #aid ,teachers1 anti-,christian1 #ceh ---- ,catholic1 small ,number of1 #cfe ---- ,jewish1 #cfe ,teaching1 ,definition of1 #aj ---- of the ,church1 as distinguished from ,opinions of ,theologians1 #hb et seq4 ,tews1 ,j41 #ceh ,thnard1 ,l41 #bag ,theocentric ,view of the ,world1 #ai ,theologians1 ,catholic1 of ,repute1 #chd et seq4 ,theological ,literature1 ,catholic1 #chd et seq4 ,theology and ,progress1 #cha et seq4 ---- a ,science1 #cgh et seq4 ---- ,history of1 #djc ,theophobia of ,science1 #bcd1 #bda ,theory of ,rights1 individualistic1 #cac ,thomas1 ,st41 #hb1 #hd1 #aee1 #bfb1 #cec1 #chh ,thomasius1 ,chr41 #cdd1 #cfc ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin71 #gd1 #bch1 #bdi1 #bea et seq41 #cha ,toland1 ,j41 #bh ,treitschke1 ,h4 von1 #abi1 #agi ,trltsch1 ,e41 #bh1 #acd1 #afg1 #bih1 #cef1 #chi ,truth1 relative1 #di et seq4 ,tyndall1 ,j41 #bag1 #bbd berweg1 ,f41 #bfg ,uhlich1 ,l41 #bia ,united ,states1 #aaa1 #cfh ,universities1 #aej1 #cda et seq4 ---- and the ,church1 #cga ---- ,catholic1 #cgj ---- free1 #cfh ,university1 and ,theology1 #cih ---- ,teachers1 #ag ---- vanishing ,respect for1 #ccd ,unprepossession in ,research1 #aba et seq41 #ceg ,urban ,,iv41 #aee ,urban ,v41 #aea ,urban ,,viii41 #if1 #ahf1 #ahi ,vaillant1 ,anarchist1 #cej ,valerius1 ,maximus1 #cai ,varnhagen1 #cf ,vatican ,archives1 #ie ,vatican ,council1 #fh et seq41 #ij1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #aji1 #acj ,vaudin1 #aai ,vierort1 ,k4 von1 #bbj ,view of life1 ,christian1 #beb ---- of the ,world1 anthropocentric1 #ai ---- ---- ,christian1 #ad1 #bg ---- ---- humanitarian1 #ah1 #ba et seq41 #ca ---- ---- theocentric1 #ai ,views of the ,world1 various1 #ac1 #bb1 #aei1 #bid ,vigilius1 ,st41 #ahj et seq4 ,vincent1 ,st4 of ,lerin1 #chc ,virchow1 ,r4 von1 #aaf1 #bbd1 #bda1 #cbc ,vogt1 ,k41 #cj1 #aae1 #bbd ,volkmann1 ,a41 #bbj1 #bbc ,volta1 ,a41 #bab et seq41 #bbd ,voltaire1 #bh1 #cbf ,vries1 ,h4 de1 #bbj ,waagen1 ,w41 #bbc ,wahrmund1 ,l41 #hf ,wallace1 ,a41 #aai ,walsh1 ,j4 ,j41 #bjh ,walther1 ,w41 #bhd ,washington1 ,george1 #cdi ,wasmann1 ,e41 #aaf1 #bbc1 #bdc1 #bdi ,wehner1 von1 #dje ,weismann1 #bdb ,weizscker1 #beg ,westermark1 #ej ,westhoff1 #agg1 #gd1 #ade1 #bgf1 #bhb ,wimpheling1 #aef ,wobbermin1 ,g41 #bde ,wolf1 ,r41 #bjg ,wllner1 ,minister1 #cfc ,wundt1 ,w41 #bd1 #eb1 #fb1 #ga1 #acg1 #bce1 #bdc1 #bed1 #bhh1 #bij ,young1 ,th41 #aai ,zacharias1 ,pope1 #ahj ,zedlitz1 von1 #cfc ,zeller1 ,e41 #bdf1 #bee ,ziegler1 ,th41 #ei ,zittel1 #aaf ,zckler1 #g1 #aha1 #bja ,zoen1 ,bishop1 #aea ,zola1 #bdh et seq4 ,,footnotes #a ,whenever we use here the word 8modern10 we do not take it in the sense of 8present10--the ,christian view of the world is also a present one1 and is still of the utmost importance1--but in the sense of 8new0 in contrast to the time-honoured and inherited4 #b ,the difference between the ,protestant and the ,catholic manner of reasoning is stated by the convert1 ,prof4 ,a4 von ,ruville1 as follows3 8,my mind had harboured up to now the characteristically ,protestant thought that ,i1 from my superior mental standpoint1 was going to probe the ,catholic ,church1 that ,i was going to pass an infallible judgment on her truth or untruth1 and this in spite of my being ready to acknowledge the truth in her4 ,but now ,i became more and more conscious of the fact that it was the ,church who had a right to pass judgment on me1 that ,i had to bow to her opinion1 that she immeasurably surpassed me in wisdom4 ,many details1 which ,i was inclined to criticize1 demonstrated this to me1 for in every instance ,i recognized that it was my understanding that was at fault1 and that what appeared to me as an imperfection was rooted in the deepest truth4 ,in this way ,i was gradually brought to the real ,catholic standpoint1 to accept the doctrines immediately as ,truth1 because they proceeded from the ,church1 and then to endeavour to understand them thoroughly1 and to reap from them the fullest possible harvest of ,truth4 ,formerly1 with regard to ,protestant doctrines1 ,i always retained my independence and the sovereignty of my judgment4 ,why should ,i not have had my own opinion1 when every denomination and every theologian had an individual opinion8 ,how different with the ,catholic ,church4 ,before her sublime1 never varying wisdom1 as it is proclaimed by every simple priest1 ,i bowed my knees in humility4 ,compared to her experience of two thousand years my ephemeral knowledge was a mere nothing0 7,back to ,holy ,church1 by ,dr4 ,albert von ,ruville1 pp4 #cj1 #ca74 #c ,infallible teachings are often also called dogmas4 ,but they are not always dogmas in the strict sense4 ,in the strict sense dogmas are such truths as are contained in divine revelation1 and are proclaimed by the infallible teaching authority of the ,church to be believed as such by the faithful4 ,in a broader sense those tenets are often called dogmas which are presented by revelation or by the ,church as infallible truths4 ,in this sense all teachings of faith clearly found in ,holy ,scripture are dogmas1 even if not declared by the ,church4 ,in this sense ,protestants1 too1 believe in revealed dogmas4 #d 8,they that have received the faith through the ministry of the ,church can never have just cause for changing their faith or calling it into doubt0 7,sess4 ,,iii1 ch4 #c74 ,the ,vatican ,council did not thereby mean to say that an exceptional case could not happen where some one1 without fault of his own1 might fall away from his faith1 either on account of insufficient religious instruction1 or of natural dullness or exceptional misfortunes in the circumstances of life in which he may be placed4 ,the theologians who worded the decision also say that the ,council did not intend to condemn the opinion expressed by many older theologians1 that under certain conditions an uneducated ,catholic might be led in such way into error as to join another faith without committing a sin4 7cf4 ,granderath1 ,const4 ,dog4 ss4 oec4 ,concl4 ,vat4 #fi74 #e ,at a certain ,austrian university1 where the custom obtains that a member of a faculty of the university1 in the regular order of the faculties1 publishes during the year a book on some study in its particular branch1 the turn came to the theological faculty4 ,one of its members then issued a work on moral theology1 of course with the ecclesiastical ,imprimatur4 ,upon this being discovered the senate resolved not to acknowledge the book as a university publication1 nor to issue it as such1 as is usually the custom4 ,they believed they saw in the ,imprimatur a degradation of science and a violation of its freedom--a procedure entirely in accord with the traditional narrow-mindedness and intolerance of liberalism4 #f ,a clear understanding of the case of ,galileo has been made possible only since the year #ahgg1 when the papers of the trial were published by two men of opposite religious views1--the ,catholic-minded historian1 de l',epinois1 and the liberal author1 ,k4 ,gebler1 who in #ahgf had already published a work on 8,galileo ,galilei and the ,roman ,curia10 in the spirit of the anti-clerical tendency of the times4 ,yet1 in spite of his attitude1 he was given free permission to copy the papers--a magnanimity by which the ,holy ,see has earned the gratitude and admiration of every fair-minded lover of history4 ,in more recent times1 ,a4 ,favaro published1 in #ahij-aijg1 a work of twenty volumes containing all the papers relating to the trial of ,galileo1 8,opere di ,galileo ,galilei1 ,edizione ,nazionale40 ,he1 too1 had access to the ecclesiastical archives1 which he acknowledges with thanks4 ,it may be said now that the ,galileo case has been settled by documentary evidence4 #g ,after visiting ,thomson at ,kreuznach1 ,helmholtz wrote3 8,he surpasses all great scientists ,i have personally met1 in acumen1 clearness and activity of spirit1 so that ,i felt somewhat dull beside him40 ,helmholtz himself 7died #ahid7 has never expressed himself about religion4 ,absorbed by his scientific work1 he seemed to have been indifferent to religion1 but according to his biographer his father was a decided theist1 and his philosophical views were held in great esteem1 and partly subscribed to1 by the son4 ,according to ,dennert1 ,helmholtz attended church now and then1 and even partook of holy communion4 ,of decided religious bent of mind was ,helmholtz's fellow-countryman1 and co-discoverer of the law of energy1 ,robert ,mayer4 ,at the ,congress of scientists at ,innsbruck1 in #ahfi1 ,mayer ended his address with the significant words3 8,let me in conclusion declare from the bottom of my heart that true philosophy cannot and must not be anything else but propdeutics of the ,christian religion40 ,his letters breathe piety4 ,for a time he had the intention of joining the ,catholic ,church4 #h ,others take refuge in the fantastic theory of an 8,all-,animation40 ,according to it all organisms1 including trees1 shrubs1 grasses1 are possessed of a soulful sensation and feeling for the purposes they serve1 and for the elaborate actions they undertake3 this is the reason for their efficacy1 not because a wise ,creator had arranged them thus4 ,r4 ,h4 ,franc exclaims triumphantly3 8,when the powers that be should ask in their dissatisfaction3 #8,where has ,god a place in your system8' we can answer calmly3 #8,we do not need the hypothesis of a personal ,god4' 0 ,god is superfluous--this is the precious gain which this unscientific explanation is to yield4 #i ,compare ,corpus ,inscriptionum ,latinarum ,,xi 7#ahhc1 vii474 #aj ,l4 ,m4 ,hartmann1 ,theodor ,mommsen 7#aijh71 #ha4 ,the author of the biography is a ,jew4 ,there is a much-circulated story1 alleged to come from ,f4 ,x4 ,kraus4 ,mommsen is said to have told ,kraus1 inasmuch as neither the origin1 nor nature1 nor the spread of ,christianity can be explained by natural causes1 and since he1 in his capacity of historian1 could never acknowledge anything supernatural1 therefore the fourth volume will remain unwritten4 #aa ,nietzsche1 8,thus spoke ,zarathustra40 #ab 8,veritati ut possetis acquiescere1 humilitate opus erat1 quae civitati1 vestrae difficillime persuaderi potest0 7,de civit4 ,dei1 ,x1 #bi74 #ac ,plato1 ,phil4 #f c4 ,similarly ,pythagoras1 ,aristotle1 and ,cicero4 #ad ,dial4 c4 ,tryph4 #b4 #ae 8,but for the retention of names and terms ,harnack leaves nothing of the specific nature of ,christianity10 admits the ,protestant ,professor of ,theology1 ,w4 ,walther1 in his book1 8,harnack's ,wesen des ,christentums0 7#aija74 #af ,uhlich1 founder of a community of free-thinkers1 who died in #ahgc1 thus describes his evolution from rationalism to atheism3 8,at the beginning ,i could say3 ,we hold fast to ,jesus1 to ,him who stood too high to be called a mere man4 ,ten years later ,i could say3 ,god1 virtue1 immortality--these three are the eternal foundation of religion4 ,and after ten more years ,i could issue a declaration wherein ,god was mentioned no more40 ,similar progress in spiritual disintegration has been shown by ,liberalism in recent years3 first it partially abandoned ,christian dogma1 without however quite breaking loose from it2 in the eighteenth century rationalistic enlightenment tore loose from all revelation1 adhering only to natural religion3 to-day even this is lost4 #ag ,dr4 ,spencer ,jones1 an ,episcopal clergyman1 says in his book1 8,england and the ,holy ,see03 8,for the ,episcopal ,church the junction with ,rome1 with its sharply defined dogmas1 its supreme ministry1 and its firm leadership1 is a question of life4 ,more and more the supernatural belief is replaced by individual opinions1 a condition which in itself causes faith to disappear4 ,a condition like the present1 making it possible that in one and the same congregation the most pronounced contrariety of opinions in respect to most essential tenets1 as well as a general confusion of minds1 is not only tolerated1 but directly welcomed1 such a condition cannot endure in the long run40 #ah ,a ,french author1 ,g4 ,goyau1 states with truth3 8,what makes the 7,catholic7 ,church lovable in the eyes of thinking minds outside of the ,church1 is just her uncompromising attitude4 ,they see a ,church steadfast1 permanent1 imperturbable4 ,the stumbling block of yore has become for them an isle of safety4 ,they are thankful to ,rome for holding before their eyes the ,christianity1 instead of giving them the choice of several kinds of ,christianity1 including kinds still unknown1 which they undoubtedly themselves may discover1 if so inclined4 ,they welcome the ,roman ,church as the #8,teacher of ,faith' and #8,conqueror of ,errors1' and1 to quote more of the forcible language of the ,protestant de ,pressens3 #8they are disgusted with a ,christianity for the lowest bidder1 but are impressed by the rigid inflexibility of ,catholicism4444' 0 7,autour du ,catholicisme social4 ,i4 #ahif74 #ai 8,the ,independent0 7,new ,york7 of ,feb4 #b1 #aiad1 reports under the head freedom of teaching the dismissal of a professor from the ,presbyterian ,university at ,easton1 ,pa4 ,after quoting from the charter article ,,viii1 which provides 8that persons of every religious denomination shall be capable of being elected ,trustees1 nor shall any person1 either as principal1 professor1 tutor or pupil be refused admittance into said college1 or denied any of the privileges1 immunities or advantages thereof1 for or on account of his sentiments in matters of religion10 the report goes on to say3 8it appears however1 from the investigations of the committee1 that ,president ,warfield insists that the instruction in philosophy and psychology has to be such1 as1 in his opinion1 accords with the most conservative form of ,presbyterian theology40 #bj ,prof4 ,chr4 von ,ehrenfels1 ,sexualethik4 ,similar passages might be quoted from numerous other books by college-professors4