,transcriber's ,note3    ,the first part
 of this volume 7,september #ahgi7 was  
produced as ,project  ,gutenberg ,ebook 
#cjjdh4 ,the relevant part of the table 
of contents has  been extracted from    
that document4    ,the rest of the      
,transcriber ,notes are at the end of   
the ,book4           99       99        
99       99       99    ,the            
,contemporary ,review1 ,volume #cf1     
,issue #d    ,published ,december #ahgi4
           99       99       99       99
       99          ,,contents4          
,,december1 #ahgi4                      
,,page    ,the ,lord's ,prayer and the  
,church3 ,letters ,addressed to the     
,clergy4    ,by ,john ,ruskin1 ,d4,c4,l4
                                        
#eci      ,india under ,lord ,lytton4   
,by ,lieut4-,colonel ,r4 ,d4 ,osborn    
#eec      ,on the ,utility to ,flowers  
of their ,beauty4 ,by the ,hon4 ,justice
    #egd      ,where are we in ,art8 ,by
 ,lady ,verney                          
#ehh      ,life in ,constantinople      

,fifty ,years ,ago4 ,by an ,eastern     
,statesman   #fja      ,miracles1       
,prayer1 and ,law4 ,by ,j4 ,boyd        
,kinnear                     #fag       
,what is ,rent8 ,by ,professor ,bonamy  
,price                           #fcj   
,buddhism and ,jainism4 ,by ,professor  
,monier ,williams                #fdd   
,lord ,beaconsfield3--                  
#ffe        ,i4 ,why we ,follow ,him4   
,by a ,tory4      ,,ii4 ,why we         
,disbelieve in ,him4 ,by a ,whig4       
,contemporary ,life and ,thought in     
,france4 ,by ,gabriel ,monod            
#fig           99       99       99     
99       99          ,,the ,,lord',s    
,,prayer ,,and ,,the ,,church4          
,,letters ,,addressed ,,by ,,john       
,,ruskin1 ,d4,c4,l41          ,,to ,,the
 ,,clergy4      ,the following letters1 
which are still receiving the careful   
consideration of many of my brother     
clergy1 are1 at the suggestion of  the  
,editor1 now printed in the             
,,contemporary ,,review1 with the object

  of eliciting a further and wider      
expression of opinion4 ,in addition  to 
the subjoined brief ,introductory       
,address1 ,i desire here to say that    
every reader of these remarkable letters
 should remember that they  have        
proceeded from the pen of a very eminent
 layman1 who has not had  the advantage1
 or disadvantage1 of any special        
theological training2  but yet whose    
extensive studies in ,art have not      
prevented him from  fully recognizing1  
and boldly avowing1 his belief that     
religion is  everybody's business1 and  
his not less than another's4 ,the       
draught  may be a bitter one for some of
 us2 but it is a salutary medicine1 and 
we ought not to shrink from swallowing  
it4    ,i shall be glad to receive such 
expressions of opinion as ,i may be     
favoured with from the thoughtful       
readers of the ,,contemporary ,,review4 
,those comments or replies1 along with  
the original letters1 and  an essay or  
commentary from myself as editor1 will  

be published by  ,messrs4 ,strahan      
,co41 and appear early in the spring2   
the volume  being closed by a reply1 or 
,epilogue1 from ,mr4 ,ruskin himself4   
,f4 ,a4 ,,malleson1 ,m4,a4      ,the    
,vicarage1 ,broughton-in-,furness4      
,,introduction4    ,the first reading of
 the ,letters to the ,furness ,clerical 
,society was  prefaced with the         
following remarks3--    ,a few words by 
way of introduction will be absolutely  
necessary before  ,i proceed to read    
,mr4 ,ruskin's letters4 ,they originated
 simply in a  proposal of mine1 which   
met with so ready and willing a         
response1  that it almost seemed like a 
simultaneous thought4 ,they are         
addressed  nominally to myself1 as      
representing the body of clergy whose   
secretary ,i have the honour to be2 they
 are1 in fact1 therefore  addressed to  
this ,society primarily4 ,but in the    
course of the  next month or two they   
will also be read to two other ,clerical
  ,societies1--the ,ormskirk and the    

,brighton 7junior71--who have acceded   
to my proposals with much kindness1 and 
in the first case have invited  me of   
their own accord4 ,i have undertaken1 to
 the best of my ability1  to arrange and
 set down the various expressions of    
opinion1 which will  be freely uttered4 
,in so limited a time1 many who may have
 much to say  that would be really      
valuable will find no time to-day to    
deliver it4  ,of these brethren1 ,i beg 
that they will do me the favour to      
express  their views at their leisure1  
in writing4 ,the original letters1 the  
discussions1 the letters which may be   
suggested1 and a few comments  of the   
,editor's1 will be published in a volume
 which will appear1 ,i  trust1 in the   
beginning of the next year4    ,i will  
now1 if you please1 undertake the       
somewhat dangerous  responsibility of   
avowing my own impressions of the       
letters ,i am  about to read to you4 ,i 
own that ,i believe ,i see in these     
papers  the development of a principle  

of the deepest interest and             
importance1--namely1 the application of 
the highest and loftiest  standard in   
the interpretation of the ,gospel       
message to ourselves as  clergymen1 and 
from ourselves to our congregations4 ,we
 have plenty  elsewhere of doctrine and 
dogma1 and undefinable shades of        
theological  opinion4 ,let us turn at   
last to practical questions presented   
for our  consideration by an eminent    
layman whose field of work lies quite as
  much in religion and ethics1 as it    
does1 reaching to so splendid an        
eminence1 in ,art4 ,a man is wanted to  
show to both clergy and laity  something
 of the full force and meaning of       
,gospel teaching4 ,many there  are1 and 
,i am of this number1 whose cry is      
,exoriare aliquis4    ,i ask you1 if    
possible1 to do in an hour what ,i have 
been for the last  two months trying to 
do1 to divest myself of old forms of    
thought1 to  cast off self-indulgent    
views of our duty as ministers of       

religion1  to lift ourselves out of     
those grooves in which we are apt to run
 so  smoothly and so complacently1      
persuading ourselves that all is well   
just as it is1 and to endeavour to      
strike into a sterner1 harder path1     
beset with difficulties1 but still the  
path of duty4 ,these papers will  demand
 a close1 a patient1 and in some places1
 a few will think1 an  indulgent        
consideration2 but as a whole1 the      
standard taken is1 as ,i  firmly        
believe1 speaking only for myself1 lofty
 and ,christian1 to the  extent of an   
almost ideal perfection4 ,if we do go   
forward straight  in the direction which
 ,mr4 ,ruskin points out1 ,i know we    
shall come1  sooner or later1 to a chasm
 right across our path4 ,some of us1 ,i 
hope1  will undauntedly cross it4 ,let  
each judge for himself1 ,greek3 t  telei
 pistin phern4          ,,letters4      
,i4      ,,brantwood1 ,,coniston1       
,,lancashire1 #bjth ,june1 #ahgi4       
,,dear ,,mr4 ,,malleson1--,i could not  

at once answer your important letter3   
for1 though ,i felt at once the         
impossibility of my venturing to        
address such an audience as you         
proposed1 ,i am unwilling to fail in    
answering to any call relating to       
matters respecting which my feelings    
have been long in earnest1 if in any    
wise it may be possible for me to  be of
 service therein4 ,my health--or want of
 it--now utterly forbids  my engagement 
in any duty involving excitement or     
acute intellectual  effort2 but ,i      
think1 before the first ,tuesday in     
,august1 ,i might be  able to write one 
or two letters to yourself1 referring   
to1 and  more or less completing1 some  
passages already printed in ,fors  and  
elsewhere1 which might1 on your reading 
any portions you thought  available1    
become matter of discussion during the  
meeting at some  leisure time1 after its
 own main purposes had been answered4   
,at all events1 ,i will think over what 
,i should like1 and be able1  to        

represent to such a meeting1 and only   
beg you not to think me  insensible of  
the honour done me by your wish1 and of 
the gravity of  the trust reposed in me4
      ,ever most faithfully yours1      
,j4 ,,ruskin4      ,,the ,,rev4 ,f4 ,a4 
,,malleson4      ,,ii4      ,,brantwood1
 ,,coniston1    #bcrd ,june1 #ahgi4     
,,dear ,,mr4 ,,malleson1--,walking1 and 
talking1 are now alike impossible to    
me2#a my strength is gone for both2 nor 
do ,i believe talking on such  matters  
to be of the least use except to        
promote1 between sensible  people1      
kindly feeling and knowledge of each    
other's personal  characters4 ,i have   
every trust in your kindness and truth2 
nor do ,i  fear being myself            
misunderstood by you2 what ,i may be    
able to put  into written form1 so as to
 admit of being laid before your friends
 in  council1 must be set down without  
any question of personal feeling--as    
simply as a mathematical question or    
demonstration4    ,the first exact      

question which it seems to me such an   
assembly may  he earnestly called upon  
by laymen to solve1 is surely axiomatic3
 the  definition of themselves as a     
body1 and of their business as such4    
,namely3 as clergymen of the ,church of 
,england1 do they consider  themselves  
to be so called merely as the attached  
servants of a  particular state8 ,do    
they1 in their quality of guides1 hold a
 position  similar to that of the guides
 of ,chamouni or ,grindelwald1 who1     
being  a numbered body of examined and  
trustworthy persons belonging to those  
several villages1 have nevertheless no  
,chamounist or ,grindelwaldist  opinions
 on the subject of ,alpine geography or 
glacier walking3 but  are prepared to   
put into practice a common and universal
 science  of ,locality and ,athletics1  
founded on sure survey and successful   
practice8 ,are the clergymen of the     
,ecclesia of ,england thus simply the   
attached and salaried guides of ,england
 and the ,english1 in the way1  known of

 all good men1 that leadeth unto        
life8--or are they1 on the  contrary1 a 
body of men holding1 or in any legal    
manner required1 or  compelled to hold1 
opinions on the subject--say1 of the    
height of the  ,celestial ,mountains1   
the crevasses which go down quickest to 
the pit1  and other cognate points of   
science--differing from1 or even        
contrary  to1 the tenets of the guides  
of the ,church of ,france1 the ,church  
of  ,italy1 and other ,christian        
countries8    ,is not this the first of 
all questions which a ,clerical ,council
 has to  answer in open terms8          
,ever affectionately yours1      ,j4    
,,ruskin4        ,footnote #a3 ,in      
answer to the proposal of discussing the
      subject during a mountain walk4   
,,iii4      ,,brantwood1 #fth ,july4    
,my first letter contained a ,layman's  
plea for a clear answer to the          
question1 ,what is a clergyman of the   
,church of ,england8 ,supposing  the    
answer to this first to be1 that the    

clergy of the ,church of  ,england are  
teachers1 not of the ,gospel to         
,england1 but of the ,gospel  to all    
nations2 and not of the ,gospel of      
,luther1 nor of the ,gospel  of         
,augustine1 but of the ,gospel of       
,christ1--then the ,layman's second     
question would be3    ,can this ,gospel 
of ,christ be put into such plain words 
and short terms  as that a plain man may
 understand it8--and1 if so1 would it   
not be1  in a quite primal sense1       
desirable that it should be so1 rather  
than  left to be gathered out of        
,thirty-nine ,articles1 written by no   
means  in clear ,english1 and referring1
 for further explanation of exactly  the
 most important point in the whole      
tenour of their teaching1#a  to a       
,homily of ,justification1#b which is   
not generally in the  possession1 or    
even probably within the comprehension1 
of simple  persons8      ,ever          
faithfully yours1      ,j4 ,,ruskin4    
,footnote #a3 ,art xi4        ,footnote 

#b3 ,homily xi4 of the ,second ,table4  
,,iv4      ,,brantwood1 #hth ,july4     
,i am so very glad that you approve of  
the letter plan1 as it enables  me to   
build up what ,i would fain try to say1 
of little stones1 without  lifting too  
much for my strength at once2 and the   
sense of addressing  a friend who       
understands me and sympathizes with me  
prevents my being  brought to a stand by
 continual need for apology1 or fear of 
giving  offence4    ,but yet ,i do not  
quite see why you should feel my asking 
for a simple  and comprehensible        
statement of the ,christian ,gospel at  
starting4  ,are you not bid to go into  
all the world and preach it to every    
creature8 7,i should myself think the   
clergyman1 most likely to do good  who  
accepted the ,greek3 pas t ktisei so    
literally as at least to  sympathize    
with ,st4 ,francis' sermon to the birds1
 and to feel that  feeding either sheep 
or fowls1 or unmuzzling the ox1 or      
keeping the  wrens alive in the snow1   

would be received by their ,heavenly    
,feeder as  the perfect fulfilment of   
,his ,feed my sheep in the higher       
sense47    ,that's all a parenthesis2   
for although ,i should think that your  
good company would all agree that       
kindness to animals was a kind of       
preaching to them1 and that hunting and 
vivisection were a kind of  blasphemy to
 them1 ,i want only to put the sterner  
question before  your council1 how this 
,gospel is to be preached either ,greek3
  pantachou or to ,greek3 panta ta ethn1
 if first its preachers  have not       
determined quite clearly what it is8    
,and might not such  definition1        
acceptable to the entire body of the    
,church of ,christ1 be  arrived at by   
merely explaining1 in their completeness
 and life1 the  terms of the ,lord's    
,prayer--the first words taught to      
children all  over the ,christian world8
    ,i will try to explain what ,i mean 
of its several articles1 in  following  
letters2 and in answer to the question  

with which you close  your last1 ,i can 
only say that you are at perfect liberty
 to use any1  or all1 or any parts of   
them1 as you think good4 ,usually1 when 
,i am  asked if letters of mine may be  
printed1 ,i say2 ,assuredly1 provided   
only that you print them entire4 ,but in
 your hands1 ,i withdraw even  this     
condition1 and trust gladly to your     
judgment1 remaining always              
,faithfully and affectionately yours1   
,j4 ,,ruskin4      ,,the ,,rev4 ,f4 ,a4 
,,malleson4      ,v4      ,,brantwood1  
#ajth ,july4    ,my meaning1 in saying  
that the ,lord's ,prayer might be made a
  foundation of ,gospel-teaching1 was   
not that it contained all that          
,christian ministers have to teach2 but 
that it contains what all  ,christians  
are agreed upon as first to be taught2  
and that no good  parish-working pastor 
in any district of the world but would  
be glad  to take his part in making it  
clear and living to his congregation4   
,and the first clause of it1 of course  

rightly explained1 gives us the  ground 
of what is surely a mighty part of the  
,gospel--its first and  great           
commandment1 namely1 that we have a     
,father whom we can love1  and are      
required to love1 and to desire to be   
with ,him in ,heaven1  wherever that may
 be4    ,and to declare that we have    
such a loving ,father1 whose mercy is   
over  all ,his works1 and whose will and
 law is so lovely and lovable that  it  
is sweeter than honey1 and more precious
 than gold1 to those who  can taste and 
see that the ,lord is ,good--this1      
surely1 is a most  pleasant and glorious
 good message and spell to bring to     
men--as  distinguished from the evil    
message and accursed spell that ,satan  
has  brought to the nations of the world
 instead of it1 that they have no       
,father1 but only a consuming fire ready
 to devour them1 unless they  are       
delivered from its raging flame by some 
scheme of pardon for all1  for which    
they are to be thankful1 not to the     

,father1 but to the ,son4    ,supposing 
this first article of the true ,gospel  
agreed to1 how  would the blessing that 
closes the epistles of that ,gospel     
become  intelligible and living1 instead
 of dark and dead3 ,the grace  of       
,christ1 and the love of ,god1 and the  
fellowship of the ,holy  ,ghost1--the   
most tender word being that used of the 
,father8      ,,vi4      ,,brantwood1   
#abth ,july1 #ahgi4    ,i wonder how    
many1 even of those who honestly and    
attentively join in  our ,church        
services1 attach any distinct idea to   
the second clause of  the ,lord's       
,prayer1 the first petition of it1 the  
first thing that  they are ordered by   
,christ to seek of their ,father8    ,am
 ,i unjust in thinking that most of them
 have little more notion on  the matter 
than that ,god has forbidden bad        
language1 and wishes them  to pray that 
everybody may be respectful to ,him8    
,is it any otherwise with the ,third    
,commandment8 ,do not most look on  it  

merely in the light of the ,statute of  
,swearing8 and read the words  will not 
hold him guiltless merely as a          
passionless intimation that  however    
carelessly a man may let out a round    
oath1 there really is  something wrong  
in it8    ,on the other hand1 can       
anything be more tremendous than the    
words  themselves--double-negatived3    
,greek3 ou gar m katharisi 444 kyrios8  
,for other sins there is washing2--for  
this1 none6 the seventh verse1  ,ex4    
xx41 in the ,septuagint1 marking the    
real power rather than the  ,english1   
which 7,i suppose7 is literal to the    
,hebrew4    ,to my layman's mind1 of    
practical needs in the present state of 
the ,church1 nothing is so immediate as 
that of explaining to the  congregation 
the meaning of being gathered in ,his   
name1 and having  ,him in the midst of  
them2 as1 on the other hand1 of being   
gathered  in blasphemy of ,his name1 and
 having the devil in the midst of       
them--presiding over the prayers which  

have become an abomination4    ,for the 
entire body of the texts in the ,gospel 
against hypocrisy are  one and all      
nothing but the expansion of the        
threatening that closes  the ,third     
,commandment4 ,for as the name whereby  
,he shall be called is  the ,lord our   
,righteousness1--so the taking that name
 in vain is the  sum of the             
deceivableness of unrighteousness in    
them that perish4    ,without dwelling  
on the possibility--which ,i do not     
myself1 however1  for a moment doubt--of
 an honest clergyman's being able       
actually to  prevent the entrance among 
his congregation of persons leading     
openly  wicked lives1 could any subject 
be more vital to the purposes of your   
meetings than the difference between the
 present and the probable  state of the 
,christian ,church which would result1  
were it more the  effort of zealous     
parish priests1 instead of getting      
wicked poor  people to come to church1  
to get wicked rich ones to stay out of  

it8    ,lest1 in any discussion of such 
question1 it might be1 as it too often  
is1 alleged that the ,lord looketh upon 
the heart1 c41 let me be  permitted to  
say--with as much positiveness as may   
express my deepest  conviction--that1   
while indeed it is the ,lord's business 
to look upon  the heart1 it is the      
pastor's to look upon the hands and the 
lips2 and  that the foulest oaths of the
 thief and the street-walker are1 in the
  ears of ,god1 sinless as the hawk's   
cry1 or the gnat's murmur1 compared  to 
the responses1 in the ,church service1  
on the lips of the usurer and  the      
adulterer1 who have destroyed1 not their
 own souls only1 but those  of the      
outcast ones whom they have made their  
victims4    ,it is for the meeting of   
clergymen themselves--not for a layman  
addressing them--to ask further1 how    
much the name of ,god may be taken  in  
vain1 and profaned instead of           
hallowed--in the pulpit1 as well as     
under it4      ,ever affectionately     

yours1      ,j4 ,,ruskin4      ,,vii4   
,,brantwood1 #adth ,july1 #ahgi4        
,,dear ,,mr4 ,,malleson1--,sincere      
thanks for both your letters and the    
proofs sent4 ,your comment and          
conducting link1 when needed1 will be   
of the greatest help and value1 ,i am   
well assured1 suggesting what you  know 
will be the probable feeling of your    
hearers1 and the point that  will come  
into question4    ,yes1 certainly1 that 
,his in the fourth line#a was meant to  
imply  that eternal presence of ,christ2
 as in another passage1#b referring  to 
the ,creation1 when ,his right hand     
strewed the snow on ,lebanon1  and      
smoothed the slopes of ,calvary1 but in 
so far as we dwell on that  truth1 ,hast
 thou seen ,me1 ,philip1 and not the    
,father8 we are not  teaching the people
 what is specially the ,gospel of       
,christ as  having a distinct           
function--namely1 to serve the ,father1 
and do the  ,father's will4 ,and in all 
,his human relations to us1 and commands

 to  us1 it is as the ,son of ,man1 not 
as the power of ,god and wisdom of      
,god1 that ,he acts and speaks4 ,not as 
the ,power2 for ,he must pray1  like one
 of us4 ,not as the ,wisdom2 for ,he    
must not know if it be  possible ,his   
prayer should be heard4    ,and in what 
,i want to say of the third clause of   
,his prayer 7,his1  not merely as ,his  
ordering1 but ,his using71 it is        
especially this  comparison between ,his
 kingdom1 and ,his ,father's1 that ,i   
want to see  the disciples guarded      
against4 ,i believe very few1 even of   
the most  earnest1 using that petition1 
realize that it is the ,father's--not   
the  ,son's--kingdom1 that they pray may
 come1--although the whole prayer is    
foundational on that fact3 ,for ,,thine 
is the kingdom1 the power1 and  the     
glory4 ,and ,i fancy that the mind of   
the most faithful ,christians  is quite 
led away from its proper hope1 by       
dwelling on the reign--or  the coming   
again--of ,christ2 which1 indeed1 they  

are to look for1  and watch for1 but not
 to pray for4 ,their prayer is to be for
 the  greater kingdom to which ,he1     
risen and having all ,his enemies under 
,his feet1 is to surrender ,his1 that   
,god may be ,all in ,all4    ,and1      
though the greatest1 it is that         
everlasting kingdom which the  poorest  
of us can advance4 ,we cannot hasten    
,christ's coming4 ,of the  day and the  
hour1 knoweth none4 ,but the kingdom of 
,god is as a  grain of mustard-seed3--we
 can sow of it2 it is as a foam-globe of
  leaven3--we can mingle it2 and its    
glory and its joy are that even the     
birds of the air can lodge in the       
branches thereof4    ,forgive me for    
getting back to my sparrows2 but truly1 
in the present  state of ,england1 the  
fowls of the air are the only creatures1
  tormented and murdered as they are1   
that yet have here and there  nests1 and
 peace1 and joy in the ,holy ,ghost4    
,and it would be well if  many of us1 in
 reading that text1 ,the kingdom of ,god

 is ,,not meat and  drink1 had even got 
so far as to the understanding that it  
was at  least as much1 and that until we
 had fed the hungry1 there was no  power
 in us to inspire the unhappy4          
,ever affectionately yours1      ,j4    
,,ruskin4    ,i will write my feeling   
about the pieces of the ,life of ,christ
 you  have sent me1 in a private letter4
 ,i may say at once that ,i am sure it  
will do much good1 and will be upright  
and intelligible1 which how few         
religious writings are6        ,footnote
 #a3 ,modern ,painters4        ,footnote
 #b3 ,referring to the closing sentence 
of the third      paragraph of the fifth
 letter1 which seemed to express what   
,i felt could not be ,mr4 ,ruskin's full
 meaning1 ,i pointed out      to him the
 following sentence in ,modern          
,painters3--        ,when1 in the       
desert1 ,jesus was girding ,himself for 
the work      of life1 angels of life   
came and ministered unto ,him2 now1     
in the fair world1 when ,he is girding  

,himself for the work of      death1 the
 ministrants come to ,him from the      
grave2 but from      the grave          
conquered4 ,one from the tomb under     
,abarim1 which      ,his own hand had   
sealed long ago2 the other from the rest
      which ,he had entered without     
seeing corruption4        ,on this ,i   
made a remark somewhat to the following 
effect3 that      ,i felt sure ,mr4     
,ruskin regarded the loving work of the 
,father      and of the ,son to be equal
 in the forgiveness of sins and         
redemption of mankind2 that what is done
 by the ,father is      in reality done 
also by the ,son2 and that it is by a   
mere      accommodation to human        
infirmity of understanding that      the
 doctrine of the ,trinity is revealed to
 us in language1      inadequate indeed 
to convey divine truths1 but still the  
only      language possible2 and ,i     
asked whether some such feeling was     
not present in his mind when he used the
 pronoun ,his1 in      the above passage

 from ,modern ,painters of the ,son1    
where it      would be usually          
understood of the ,father2 and as a     
corollary1      whether1 in the letter1 
he does not himself fully recognize     
the fact of the redemption of the world 
by the loving      self-sacrifice of the
 ,son in entire concurrence with the    
equally loving will of the ,father4     
,this1 as well as ,i      can recollect1
 is the origin of the passage in the    
second      paragraph in the seventh    
letter4--,editor of ,letters4           
,,viii4      ,,brantwood1 #ith ,august1 
#ahgi4    ,i was reading the second     
chapter of ,malachi this morning by     
chance1  and wondering how many         
clergymen ever read it1 and took to     
heart the  commandment for them4    ,for
 they are always ready enough to call   
themselves priests 7though  they know   
themselves to be nothing of the sort7   
whenever there is any  dignity to be got
 out of the title2 but1 whenever there  
is any good1  hot scolding or unpleasant

 advice given them by the prophets1 in  
that  self-assumed character of theirs1 
they are as ready to quit it as  ever   
,dionysus his lion-skin1 when he finds  
the character of ,herakles              
inconvenient4    ,ye have wearied the   
,lord with your words1 7yes1 and some of
 ,his  people1 too1 in your time73 yet  
ye say1 ,wherein have we wearied ,him8  
,when ye say1 ,every one that doeth evil
 is good in the sight of the  ,lord1 and
 ,he delighteth in them2 or1 ,where is  
the ,god of judgment8    ,how many1     
again and again ,i wonder1 of the lively
 young ecclesiastics  supplied to the   
increasing demand of our west-ends of   
flourishing  ,cities of the ,plain1 ever
 consider what sort of sin it is for    
which  ,god 7unless they lay it to      
heart7 will curse their blessings1 and  
spread dung upon their faces1 or have   
understood1 even in the dimmest  manner1
 what part they had taken1 and were     
taking1 in corrupting  the covenant of  
the ,lord with ,levi1 and causing many  

to stumble at the  ,law4    ,perhaps the
 most subtle and unconscious way in     
which the religious  teachers upon whom 
the ends of the world are come1 have    
done this1 is  in never telling their   
people the meaning of the clause in the 
,lord's  ,prayer1 which1 of all others1 
their most earnest hearers have oftenest
  on their lips3 ,thy will be done4     
,they allow their people to use  it as  
if their ,father's will were always to  
kill their babies1 or do  something     
unpleasant to them1 instead of          
explaining to them that  the first and  
intensest article of their ,father's    
will was their own  sanctification1 and 
following comfort and wealth2 and that  
the  one only path to national          
prosperity and to domestic peace was to 
understand what the will of the ,lord   
was1 and to do all they could  to get it
 done4 ,whereas one would think1 by the 
tone of the eagerest  preachers         
nowadays1 that they held their blessed  
office to be that1  not of showing men  

how to do their ,father's will on earth1
 but how to  get to heaven without doing
 any of it either here or there6    ,i  
say1 especially1 the most eager         
preachers2 for nearly the whole         
,missionary body 7with the hottest      
,evangelistic sect of the ,english      
,church7 is at this moment composed of  
men who think the ,gospel they  are to  
carry to mend the world with1 forsooth1 
is that1 ,if any man  sin1 he hath an   
,advocate with the ,father2 while ,i    
have never yet1 in  my own experience1  
met either with a ,missionary or a ,town
 ,bishop who  so much as professed      
himself to understand what the will of  
the ,lord  was1 far less to teach       
anybody else to do it2 and for fifty    
preachers1  yes1 and fifty hundreds whom
 ,i have heard proclaiming the ,mediator
  of the ,new ,testament1 that they     
which were called might receive the     
promise of eternal inheritance1 ,i have 
never yet heard so much as  one heartily
 proclaiming against all those deceivers

 with vain  words 7,eph4 v4 #f71 that no
 covetous person which is an idolator   
hath  any inheritance in the kingdom of 
,christ1 or of ,god2 and on myself      
personally and publicly challenging the 
,bishops of ,england generally1  and by 
name the ,bishop of ,manchester1 to say 
whether usury was1 or was  not1         
according to the will of ,god1 ,i have  
received no answer from any  one of     
them4#a      #acth ,august4    ,i have  
allowed myself1 in the beginning of this
 letter1 to dwell on  the equivocal use 
of the word ,priest in the ,english     
,church 7see  ,christopher ,harvey1     
,grosart's edition1 p4 #ch71 because the
 assumption  of the mediatorial1 in     
defect of the pastoral1 office by the   
clergy  fulfils itself1 naturally and   
always1 in their pretending to absolve  
the sinner from his punishment1 instead 
of purging him from his sin2  and       
practically1 in their general patronage 
and encouragement of all  the iniquity  
of the world1 by steadily preaching away

 the penalties  of it4 ,so that the     
great cities of the earth1 which ought  
to be the  places set on its hills1 with
 the ,temple of the ,lord in the midst  
of  them1 to which the tribes should go 
up1--centres to the ,kingdoms  and      
,provinces of ,honour1 ,virtue1 and the 
,knowledge of the law of  ,god1--have   
become1 instead1 loathsome centres of   
fornication and  covetousness--the smoke
 of their sin going up into the face of 
,heaven  like the furnace of ,sodom1 and
 the pollution of it rotting and raging 
through the bones and the souls of the  
peasant people round them1 as  if they  
were each a volcano whose ashes broke   
out in blains upon man  and upon beast4 
,and in the midst of them1 their        
freshly-set-up steeples ring the crowd  
to a weekly prayer that the rest of     
their lives may be pure and holy1  while
 they have not the slightest intention  
of purifying1 sanctifying1  or changing 
their lives in any the smallest         
particular2 and their  clergy gather1   

each into himself1 the curious dual     
power1 and  ,janus-faced majesty in     
mischief1 of the prophet that prophesies
  falsely1 and the priest that bears    
rule by his means4    ,and the people   
love to have it so4      ,,brantwood1   
#abth ,august4    ,i am very glad of    
your little note from ,brighton4 ,i     
thought it  needless to send the two    
letters there1 which you will find at   
home2  and they pretty nearly end all ,i
 want to say2 for the remaining  clauses
 of the prayer touch on things too high 
for me4 ,but ,i will send  you one      
concluding letter about them4           
,footnote #a3 ,fors ,clavigera1 ,letter 
lxxxii41 p4 #cbc4      ,,ix4            
,,brantwood1 #aith ,august4    ,i       
retained the foregoing letter by me till
 now1 lest you should think  it written 
in any haste or petulance2 but it is    
every word of it  deliberate1 though    
expressing the bitterness of twenty     
years of vain  sorrow and pleading      
concerning these things4 ,nor am ,i able

 to write1  otherwise1 anything of the  
next following clause of the            
prayer2--for  no words could be burning 
enough to tell the evils which have come
 on  the world from men's using it      
thoughtlessly and blasphemously1 praying
  ,god to give them what they are       
deliberately resolved to steal4 ,for all
  true ,christianity is known--as its   
,master was--in breaking of bread1  and 
all false ,christianity in stealing it4 
,let the clergyman only apply--with     
impartial and level sweep--to his       
congregation1 the great pastoral order3 
,the man that will not work1  neither   
should he eat2 and be resolute in       
requiring each member  of his flock to  
tell him what--day by day--they do to   
earn their  dinners2--and he will find  
an entirely new view of life and its    
sacraments open upon him and them4      
,for the man who is not--day by         
day--doing work which will earn his     
dinner1 must be stealing his dinner2 and
 the actual fact is that the  great mass

 of men1 calling themselves ,christians1
 do actually live by  robbing the poor  
of their bread1 and by no other trade   
whatsoever3 and  the simple examination 
of the mode of the produce and          
consumption of  ,european food--who digs
 for it1 and who eats it--will prove    
that to  any honest human soul4    ,nor 
is it possible for any ,christian       
,church to exist but in pollutions  and 
hypocrisies beyond all words1 until the 
virtues of a life moderate  in its      
self-indulgence1 and wide in its offices
 of temporal ministry  to the poor1 are 
insisted on as the normal conditions in 
which1  only1 the prayer to ,god for the
 harvest of the earth is other than     
blasphemy4    ,in the second place4     
,since in the parable in ,luke1 the     
bread asked for  is shown to be also1   
and chiefly1 the ,holy ,spirit 7,luke   
xi4 #ac71 and  the prayer1 ,give us each
 day our daily bread1 is1 in its        
fulness1  the disciples'1 ,lord1        
evermore give us this bread1--the       

clergyman's question to his whole flock1
 primarily literal3 ,children1  have ye 
here any meat8 must ultimately be always
 the greater  spiritual one3 ,children1 
have ye here any ,holy ,spirit8 or1     
,have ye  not heard yet whether there be
 any8 and1 instead of a ,holy ,ghost the
  ,lord and ,giver of ,life1 do you only
 believe in an unholy mammon1 ,lord  and
 ,giver of ,death8    ,the opposition   
between the two ,lords has been1 and    
will be as long  as the world lasts1    
absolute1 irreconcileable1 mortal2 and  
the  clergyman's first message to his   
people of this day is--if he be         
faithful--,choose ye this day whom ye   
will serve4      ,ever faithfully yours1
      ,j4 ,,ruskin4      ,x4            
,,brantwood1 #crd ,september4    ,,dear 
,,mr4 ,,malleson1--,i have been very    
long before trying to say so much  as a 
word about the sixth clause of the      
,pater2 for whenever ,i began  thinking 
of it1 ,i was stopped by the sorrowful  
sense of the hopeless  task you poor    

clergymen had1 nowadays1 in recommending
 and teaching  people to love their     
enemies1 when their whole energies were 
already  devoted to swindling their     
friends4    ,but1 in any days1 past or  
now1 the clause is one of such          
difficulty1  that1 to understand it1    
means almost to know the love of ,god   
which  passeth knowledge4    ,but1 at   
all events1 it is surely the pastor's   
duty to prevent his  flock from         
misunderstanding it2 and above all      
things to keep them  from supposing that
 ,god's forgiveness is to be had simply 
for the  asking1 by those who wilfully  
sin after they have received the        
knowledge of the truth4    ,there is one
 very simple lesson also1 needed        
especially by people in  circumstances  
of happy life1 which ,i have never heard
 fully enforced  from the pulpit1 and   
which is usually the more lost sight of1
 because  the fine and inaccurate word  
trespasses is so often used instead of  
the simple and accurate one debts4      

,among people well educated and  happily
 circumstanced it may easily chance that
 long periods of their  lives pass      
without any such conscious sin as could1
 on any discovery  or memory of it1 make
 them cry out1 in truth and in pain1--,i
 have  sinned against the ,lord4 ,but   
scarcely an hour of their happy days can
  pass over them without leaving--were  
their hearts open--some evidence        
written there that they have left undone
 the things that they ought  to have    
done1 and giving them bitterer and      
heavier cause to cry1  and cry          
again--for ever1 in the pure words of   
their ,master's prayer1  ,dimitte nobis 
debita nostra4    ,in connection with   
the more accurate translation of debts  
rather  than trespasses1 it would surely
 be well to keep constantly in the  mind
 of complacent and inoffensive          
congregations that in ,christ's  own    
prophecy of the manner of the last      
judgment1 the condemnation is           
pronounced only on the sins of omission3

 ,i was hungry1 and ye gave me  no meat4
    ,but1 whatever the manner of sin1 by
 offence or defect1 which the  preacher 
fears in his people1 surely he has of   
late been wholly remiss  in compelling  
their definite recognition of it1 in its
 several and  personal particulars4     
,nothing in the various inconsistency of
 human  nature is more grotesque than   
its willingness to be taxed with any    
quantity of sins in the gross1 and its  
resentment at the insinuation  of having
 committed the smallest parcel of them  
in detail4 ,and the  ,english ,liturgy1 
evidently drawn up with the amiable     
intention of  making religion as        
pleasant as possible1 to a people       
desirous of  saving their souls with no 
great degree of personal inconvenience1 
is  perhaps in no point more            
unwholesomely lenient than in its       
concession  to the popular conviction   
that we may obtain the present          
advantage1  and escape the future       
punishment1 of any sort of iniquity1 by 

dexterously concealing the manner of it 
from man1 and triumphantly  confessing  
the quantity of it to ,god4    ,finally1
 whatever the advantages and decencies  
of a form of prayer1  and how wide      
soever the scope given to its collected 
passages1 it  cannot be at one and the  
same time fitted for the use of a body  
of well-taught and experienced          
,christians1 such as should join the    
services of a ,church nineteen centuries
 old1--and adapted to the needs  of the 
timid sinner who has that day first     
entered its porch1 or of  the remorseful
 publican who has only recently become  
sensible of his  call to a pew4    ,and 
surely our clergy need not be surprised 
at the daily increasing  distrust in the
 public mind of the efficacy of ,prayer1
 after having so  long insisted on their
 offering supplication1 at least every  
,sunday  morning at eleven o'clock1 that
 the rest of their lives hereafter      
might be pure and holy1 leaving them    
conscious all the while that they  would

 be similarly required to inform the    
,lord next week1 at the same  hour1 that
 there was no health in them6    ,among 
the much rebuked follies and abuses of  
so-called ,ritualism1  none that ,i have
 heard of are indeed so dangerously and 
darkly  ,ritual as this piece of        
authorized mockery of the most solemn   
act of  human life1 and only entrance of
 eternal life--,repentance4             
,believe me1 dear ,mr4 ,malleson1       
,ever faithfully and respectfully yours1
      ,j4 ,,ruskin4      ,,xi4          
,,brantwood1 #adth ,september1 #ahgi4   
,,dear ,,mr4 ,,malleson1--,the gentle   
words in your last letter referring  to 
the difference between yourself and me  
in the degree of hope with  which you   
could regard what could not but appear  
to the general mind  ,utopian in designs
 for the action of the ,christian       
,church1 surely  might best be answered 
by appeal to the consistent tone of the 
prayer  we have been examining4    ,is  
not every one of its petitions for a    

perfect state8 and is not  this last    
clause of it1 of which we are to think  
to-day--if fully  understood--a petition
 not only for the restoration of        
,paradise1 but  of ,paradise in which   
there shall be no deadly fruit1 or1 at  
least1 no  tempter to praise it8 ,and   
may we not admit that it is probably    
only  for want of the earnest use of    
this last petition that not only the    
preceding ones have become formal with  
us1 but that the private and  simply    
restricted prayer for the little things 
we each severally  desire1 has become by
 some ,christians dreaded and unused1   
and by  others used faithlessly1 and    
therefore with disappointment8    ,and  
is it not for want of this special      
directness and simplicity of  petition1 
and of the sense of its acceptance1 that
 the whole nature of  prayer has been   
doubted in our hearts1 and disgraced by 
our lips2 that  we are afraid to ask    
,god's blessing on the earth1 when the  
scientific  people tell us ,he has made 

previous arrangements to curse it2 and  
that1 instead of obeying1 without fear  
or debate1 the plain order1  ,ask1 and  
ye shall receive1 that your joy may be  
full1 we sorrowfully  sink back into the
 apology for prayer1 that it is a       
wholesome  exercise1 even when          
fruitless1 and that we ought piously    
always to  suppose that the text really 
means no more than ,ask1 and ye shall   
not receive1 that your joy may be empty8
    ,supposing we were first all of us  
quite sure that we had prayed1          
honestly1 the prayer against temptation1
 and that we would thankfully  be       
refused anything we had set our hearts  
upon1 if indeed ,god saw that  it would 
lead us into evil1 might we not have    
confidence afterwards  that ,he in whose
 hand the ,king's heart is1 as the      
rivers of water1  would turn our tiny   
little hearts also in the way that they 
should go1  and that then the special   
prayer for the joys ,he taught them to  
seek  would be answered to the last     

syllable1 and to overflowing8    ,it is 
surely scarcely necessary to say1       
farther1 what the holy  teachers of all 
nations have invariably concurred in    
showing1--that  faithful prayer implies 
always correlative exertion2 and that no
 man  can ask honestly or hopefully to  
be delivered from temptation1 unless  he
 has himself honestly and firmly        
determined to do the best he can  to    
keep out of it4 ,but1 in modern days1   
the first aim of all ,christian  parents
 is to place their children in          
circumstances where the  temptations    
7which they are apt to call             
opportunities7 may be as  great and as  
many as possible2 where the sight and   
promise of all  these things in ,satan's
 gift may be brilliantly near2 and where
 the  act of falling down to worship me 
may be partly concealed by the  shelter1
 and partly excused1 as involuntary1 by 
the pressure1 of the  concurrent crowd4 
,in what respect the kingdoms of the    
world1 and the glory of them1  differ   

from the ,kingdom1 the ,power1 and the  
,glory1 which are ,god's for  ever1 is  
seldom1 as far as ,i have heard1        
intelligibly explained from  the pulpit2
 and still less the irreconcileable     
hostility between the  two royalties and
 realms asserted in its sternness of    
decision4    ,whether it be1 indeed1    
,utopian to believe that the kingdom we 
are  taught to pray for may come--verily
 come--for the asking1 it is  surely not
 for man to judge2 but it is at least at
 his choice to  resolve that he will no 
longer render obedience1 nor ascribe    
glory and  power1 to the ,devil4 ,if he 
cannot find strength in himself to      
advance  towards ,heaven1 he may at     
least say to the power of ,hell1 ,get   
thee  behind me2 and staying himself on 
the testimony of ,him who saith1        
,surely ,i come quickly1 ratify his     
happy prayer with the faithful  ,amen1  
even so1 come1 ,lord ,jesus4      ,ever1
 my dear friend1      ,believe me       
affectionately and gratefully yours1    

,j4 ,,ruskin4          ,,india ,,under  
,,lord ,,lytton4      ,lord ,lytton is  
fond of public speaking1 and his more   
solemn speeches  are remarkable for the 
stream of abundant piety which runs     
through  them4 ,not unfrequently they   
have taken the form of addresses to some
  unknown power1 rather than discourses 
delivered to a mundane audience4  ,he   
signalized his accession to office by   
one of these semi-theological  orations 
to the members of ,council assembled to 
meet him at ,government  ,house1        
,calcutta4 ,he said3--                  
,gentlemen1 it is my fervent prayer1    
that a ,power higher      than that of  
any earthly ,government may inspire and 
bless      the progress of our counsels2
 granting me1 with your valued          
assistance1 to direct them to such      
issues as may prove      conducive to   
the honour of our country1 to the       
authority      and prestige of its      
august ,sovereign1 to the progressive   
well-being of the millions committed to 

our fostering care1      and to the     
security of the chiefs and princes of   
,india1 as      well as of our allies   
beyond the frontier1 in the undisturbed 
enjoyment of their just rights and      
hereditary possessions4    ,the sequel  
renders it probable that by a power     
higher than any  earthly ,government1   
,lord ,lytton understood nothing more   
remote from  human ken than the will of 
,lord ,beaconsfield4 ,at any rate1 the  
prayer  was rejected2 and under the     
influence of a perverse destiny1 the    
,viceroy has been singled out to        
accomplish precisely those acts from    
which he entreated to be delivered4 ,the
 valued assistance of  his colleagues in
 council he has systematically set at   
nought and  rejected2 the millions      
committed to his fostering care he has  
7as  ,i shall show7 permitted to perish 
of hunger under circumstances of        
peculiar cruelty2 and ,i need not say   
that he has entirely failed in  his     
endeavours to preserve our allies beyond

 the frontier in  the undisturbed       
enjoyment of their just rights and      
hereditary  possessions4    ,it is the  
story of these inconsistencies which ,i 
propose to tell in  the following pages4
 ,in the reading they can hardly fail to
 awaken  a smile2 but in the acting they
 have brought suffering1 poverty1 and   
death upon thousands of innocent people4
 ,throughout ,india they have  shaken   
the confidence of the people in the     
humanity1 justice1 and  truthfulness of 
the ,british character2 and have1 as ,i 
believe1 brought  our ,indian ,empire to
 the verge of a catastrophe1 from which 
nothing  but a complete and immediate   
reversal of policy will avail to save   
it4    ,the rule that we have set up in 
,india is so hard and mechanical in its 
character--it has so entirely failed to 
strike root in the affections  of the   
natives--that a very brief period of    
misgovernment suffices to  provoke an   
insurrection4 ,this is occasioned mainly
 by two causes--the  exclusive system on

 which ,india is administered1 and the  
absence of  all intercommunion 7in any  
true sense of the word7 between the     
ruling  and the subject races4 ,it is   
not too much to say that under the      
present system every native of ambition1
 ability1 or education1 is of  necessity
 a centre of disaffection towards       
,british rule4 ,for within  the area of 
,british rule the ascendency of         
strangers makes him an  alien in his    
native land without scope for his power 
or hopes for his  ambition2 and beyond  
that area the possession of ability     
awakens the  distrust and unconcealed   
dislike of ,english officialism4 ,on the
 other  hand1 to the great mass of the  
people1 the ,english official is simply 
an enigma4 ,their relations with him are
 almost exclusively official4  ,the     
magistrate of a district is little more 
to them than a piece of  machinery      
possessing powers to kill and tax and   
imprison4 ,such pieces  of machinery    
they behold1 as ,carlyle would say1 in  

endless succession  emerging from the   
inane1 killing and taxing for a time1   
and then  vanishing again into the      
inane4 ,but the people know not whence  
they  come1 or whither they go2 their   
voices go for nothing in the selection  
of this human machinery which hold their
 fortunes in its power4 ,the  great     
administrative mill goes grinding on1   
impelled by forces of  which they have  
no knowledge2 and the people are merely 
the passive1  unresisting grist which is
 ground up year after year4 ,a truly    
frightful and unnatural state of things6
    ,it is impossible that a dominion   
thus constituted should be otherwise    
than transitory4 ,but even for a brief  
space its peaceful continuance  is      
possible only under certain conditions4 
,the absence of either  loyalty or      
thorough understanding in those who are 
ruled1 must be  made good by the        
plainest rectitude of purpose on the    
part of the  ,government1 and thoroughly
 genuine and successful administration4 

,if  such a ,government as we have set  
up in ,india does not adhere strictly   
to the letter and the spirit of its     
engagements--if it cannot insure  the   
physical well-being of its subjects--it 
is simply good for  nothing2 because1   
from its very nature1 it cannot achieve 
anything  more than this4 ,it was the   
first of these conditions that ,lord    
,dalhousie thought he might safely set  
at nought2 and in five years  he brought
 down upon us the terrible retribution  
of #aheg4 ,but ,lord  ,dalhousie was1 at
 least1 sincerely anxious to secure the 
physical  well-being of the people4 ,he 
struck at the chiefs and princes  of    
,india because he believed that they    
stood in the way of that  well-being4   
,he was entirely mistaken2 but          
nevertheless he threw down  only one of 
the pillars on which our rule is        
sustained1 and when  the ,mutiny came   
upon us1 the bulk of the people remained
 loyal4 ,lord  ,lytton has undermined   
the foundations of both pillars1 and a  

very  brief continuance of his policy   
will bring them down with a crash4  ,how
 this has been accomplished ,i have now 
to relate4 ,i begin with his  policy on 
the ,frontier1 because all the other    
transactions of which  ,i shall have to 
speak are connected with that policy1 as
 effects with  their cause4      ,the   
,negotiations with ,shere ,ali4         
,despite of all that has been written   
and said on the subject1 to most  people
 the origin of the war in ,afghanistan  
appears involved in as  great obscurity 
as ever4 ,leading ,liberal politicians  
are in this  benighted condition not    
less than the rank and file of the      
,tories4  ,more people than formerly are
 willing to admit that the ,government  
was  rash and mistaken in its           
calculations--that the ,treaty of       
,gundamuck  has not fulfilled the       
expectations it awakened2 but a war of  
some  kind1 they believe1 was forced    
upon the ,government by the attitude  of
 ,russia and the disposition of the     

,ameer4 ,this belief is entirely        
erroneous4 ,the war was a war of        
deliberately planned aggression1        
entirely unjustified either by the      
attitude of ,russia or the  disposition 
of the ,ameer4 ,unless we perceive this 
we are not in a  position to form a     
sound estimate of the effect wrought in 
the minds  of the princes and people of 
,india4 ,the wanton character of the war
  is1 therefore1 the first thing ,i must
 demonstrate4    ,when ,lord ,lytton    
reached ,india1 the situation in        
,afghanistan was as  follows3--,the late
 ,ameer ,shere ,ali had succeeded in    
establishing a  degree of order         
throughout ,afghanistan1 to which the   
country had  been a stranger for many   
years4 ,his officers were loyal and     
devoted2  intrigue and rebellion had    
everywhere failed to make headway2 and  
he was on terms of sincere friendship   
with the ,governor-,general  at         
,calcutta4 ,there was1 at this time1 no 
fear that the ,russians  in ,central    

,asia desired to exercise any           
unwarrantable influence in              
,afghanistan2 on the contrary1 in the   
despatch to ,lord ,northbrook's         
,government1 in which ,lord ,salisbury  
propounded his new policy of            
establishing a permanent ,embassy at    
,kabul1 he said--        ,i do not      
desire1 by the observations which ,i    
have made1 to      convey to your       
,excellency the impression that1 in the 
opinion      of her ,majesty's          
,government1 the ,russian ,government   
have any      intention of violating the
 frontier of ,afghanistan4444 ,it is    
undoubtedly true that the recent        
advances in ,central ,asia have         
been rather forced upon the ,government 
of ,st4 ,petersburg than      originated
 by them1 and that their efforts1 at    
present1 are      sincerely directed to 
the prevention of any movement which may
      give just umbrage to the ,british 
,government4    ,the political horizon  
was1 therefore1 cloudless at the moment 

selected  by ,lord ,salisbury for a     
radical change of policy in             
,afghanistan4 ,this  very fact would    
have sufficed to arouse the suspicions  
of the ,ameer4  ,lord ,salisbury has    
since expressed his conviction that if  
,lord  ,northbrook had made the         
proposal1 the ,ameer would have accepted
 the  permanent ,embassy1 and both he   
and we should have been spared the      
calamities which resulted from delay4   
,but at the time ,lord ,salisbury  sent 
his instructions to the ,government of  
,india he thought otherwise4  ,he had   
then no doubt that if the ,ameer was    
asked in so many words to  receive a    
permanent ,mission in ,afghanistan1 the 
,ameer would refuse4  ,but he thought it
 was possible to fasten a ,mission on   
him by means of  a deception4           
,the first step ,lord ,salisbury wrote  
to the ,government of      ,india1 in   
establishing our relations with the     
,ameer on a      more satisfactory      
footing will be to induce him to receive

      a temporary ,embassy in his       
capital4 ,it need not be publicly       
connected with the establishment of a   
permanent ,mission within      his      
dominions4 ,there would be many         
advantages in ostensibly      directing 
it to some object of smaller political  
interest1      which it will not be     
difficult for your ,excellency to find1 
or      if need be1 to create4 ,i have1 
therefore1 to instruct you 444          
without any delay that you can          
reasonably avoid1 to find some          
occasion for sending a ,mission to      
,kabul4    ,lord ,northbrook1 as is well
 known1 declined to carry out this      
ingenious plan for overreaching the     
,ameer1 and breaking the pledge  that we
 had given not to force ,english        
officers upon him4 ,he resigned  almost 
immediately after the receipt of the    
despatch setting forth the  new policy1 
and was succeeded by ,lord ,lytton4 ,it 
is generally assumed  that ,lord ,lytton
 came to ,india charged with the        

execution of no other  policy than that 
to which ,lord ,northbrook had declined 
to assent4 ,but  this assumption is     
incompatible with the line of action    
pursued by  ,lord ,lytton4 ,this much1  
however1 is clear already4 ,the new     
policy1  whatever it was1 was not forced
 upon the ,british ,government1 either  
by  the alienation of the ,ameer or the 
intrigues of ,russia4 ,they entered     
upon it at a time when1 by their own    
confession1 the sky was clear4          
,afghanistan was in the enjoyment of an 
unprecedented quiet and  prosperity2 the
 ,ameer was conducting his foreign      
policy in accordance  with our wishes2  
and the efforts of the ,government of   
,st4 ,petersburg  were sincerely        
directed to the prevention of any       
movement which might  give just umbrage 
to the ,british ,government4 ,so far as 
,india was  concerned1 the condition of 
the country called aloud for a policy   
devoted to internal reform and          
retrenchment4 ,the limit of endurable   

taxation had been reached2 the army     
imperatively needed thorough            
reorganization2 and the people and the  
land were still being scourged  by      
famine upon famine of the most appalling
 character4    ,now1 if the ,english    
,cabinet had no designs in their        
frontier policy  except to establish    
,british agents in ,afghanistan1 without
 breach of  pre-existing arrangements1  
and with the free concurrence of the    
,ameer1  it is plain that for such a    
policy concealment was unnecessary4     
,yet1  until the actual outbreak of     
hostilities1 the negotiations with the  
,ameer were kept hidden from the        
,english ,parliament and the nation4    
,the fact is1 that in the instructions  
given to ,lord ,lytton before his       
departure from ,england1 ,lord          
,salisbury anticipates the refusal of   
the  ,ameer to agree to the new policy1 
and points out what1 in that case1  is  
to be done3--        #aa4 ,if the       
language and demeanour of the ,ameer be 

such as      to promise no satisfactory 
result of the negotiations thus         
opened1 his ,highness should be         
distinctly reminded that he      is     
isolating himself at his own peril from 
the friendship and      protection it is
 his interest to seek and deserve4444   
#bh4 ,the conduct of ,shere ,ali has    
more than once been      characterized  
by so significant a disregard of the    
wishes and      interests of the        
,government of ,india1 that the         
irretrievable      alienation of his    
confidence in the sincerity and power of
      that ,government is a contingency 
which cannot be dismissed as            
impossible4 ,should such a fear be      
confirmed by the result      of the     
proposed negotiation1 no time must be   
lost in      reconsidering1 from a new  
point of view1 the policy to be         
pursued in reference to ,afghanistan4   
,these instructions clearly establish   
the following points3--,they show  that 
the new policy1 whatever it was1 was    

expected irretrievably  to destroy the  
confidence of the ,ameer in the         
sincerity of the  ,government2 and that1
 in that case1 the ,ameer was to be     
informed that  he had forfeited our     
friendship and protection1 and a new    
policy was  immediately to be adopted   
towards ,afghanistan4 ,here1 then1 we   
have  the first note of war4 ,all this  
time there was no pressure upon the     
,british ,government occasioned by the  
attitude of ,russia4 ,our relations     
with ,russia were excellent4 ,on the    
#eth ,may1 #ahgf1 ,mr4 ,disraeli said in
  the ,house of ,commons1 ,i believe1   
indeed1 that at no time has there  been 
a better understanding between the      
,courts of ,st4 ,james and ,st4         
,petersburg than at this present moment1
 and there is this good  understanding  
because our policy is a clear and frank 
policy4 ,so  here we have the proof1    
that in a season of perfect calm1 the   
,ministry  commenced a policy for the   
irretrievable alienation of the ,ameer1 

and sent ,lord ,lytton to ,india in     
order to execute it4    ,lord ,lytton   
entered with zest into the spirit of    
these singular  instructions1 and set to
 work to alienate the ,ameer with the   
utmost  vigour4 ,he politely caused him 
to be informed that he 7the ,ameer7 was 
an earthen pipkin between two iron pots2
 that if he did not come to  a speedy   
understanding with us1 the two iron pots
 would combine  to crush him out of     
existence altogether4 ,as matters now   
stand1  the ,british ,government is able
 to pour an overwhelming force into     
,afghanistan1 which could be spread     
round him as a ring of iron1 but if  he 
became our enemy1 it could break him as 
a reed4 ,our only interest  in          
maintaining the independence of         
,afghanistan is to provide for  the     
security of our own frontier4 ,if we    
ceased to regard it as  a friendly      
,state1 there was nothing to prevent us 
coming to an  understanding with ,russia
 which would wipe ,afghanistan out of   

the map  for ever4 ,would any man1 ,i   
ask1 address these insults and menaces  
to  one whose friendship and confidence 
he was desirous to gain8 ,it must  be   
plain to every reasonable person that   
,british officers could only  then be   
established in ,afghanistan with safety 
to themselves1 and  utility to the      
,british ,government1 when they were    
admitted with the  free concurrence of  
the ,ameer and his people4 ,a concession
 of this  nature1 if extorted by means  
of menaces and insults1 would be1 by    
that very circumstance1 deprived of all 
value4 ,and the fact is 7as the  reader 
will perceive immediately7 ,lord ,lytton
 was not sincere in  the propositions he
 made to the ,ameer4 ,he had no wish    
that the ,ameer  should come to a speedy
 understanding with him2 and as soon as 
he  saw that such a result was          
impending1 he broke off all intercourse 
with him4 ,lord ,lytton charged the     
,british ,vakeel1 ,atta ,mohammed ,khan1
  to convey to the ,ameer ,shere ,ali   

the amenities ,i have just quoted  about
 the pipkin1 the iron pots1 and the rest
 of it4 ,at the same time1  the ,vakeel 
was instructed to propose a meeting at  
,peshawur between ,sir  ,lewis ,pelly1  
as the representative of the ,indian    
,government1 and ,noor  ,mohammed ,shah1
 the ,minister of the ,ameer4 ,the basis
 of negotiations  between them was to be
 the admission of ,british officers to  
certain  places in the territories of   
the ,ameer4 ,unless the ,ameer was      
prepared  to concede this1 as a         
preliminary condition1 there was no good
 in his  sending a representative to    
confer with ,sir ,lewis ,pelly4 ,great  
was the  consternation at the ,court of 
the ,ameer when our ,vakeel unfolded the
  message with which he was charged4    
,they bowed before the storm2 and  on   
,december #ba1 #ahgf1 ,atta ,mohammed   
,khan wrote to the ,government  of      
,india1 that the ,ameer1 though still   
disliking to receive  ,english officers1
 would on account of the insistence of  

the ,british  ,government1 yield the    
point2 but only after his ,minister had1
 at  the conference1 made               
representations of his views and stated 
all his  difficulties4    ,behold1 then1
 the ,government of ,india arrived at   
the goal of its  desires4 ,the ,ameer   
consents to receive ,english officers   
if1 after  hearing all his reasons1     
,lord ,lytton remains convinced of the  
expediency of that policy4 ,but what    
follows8 ,the conference is begun2  but 
while the discussions were still        
unfinished1 ,noor ,mohammed ,shah  fell 
sick1 and died2 and then what was the   
action of ,lord ,lytton8 ,i  quote his  
own words3--        ,at the moment when 
,sir ,lewis ,pelly was closing the      
conference1 his ,highness was sending to
 the ,mir ,akhir      instructions to   
prolong it by every means in his power2 
a      fresh ,envoy was already on his  
way from ,kabul to ,peshawur2      and  
it was reported that this ,envoy had    
authority to accept      eventually all 

the conditions of the ,british          
,government4 ,the      ,viceroy was     
aware of these facts when he instructed 
our ,envoy      to close the conference4
    ,the closing of the conference was  
followed by the withdrawal from  ,kabul 
of the ,british agency which had been   
established there for more  than twenty 
years1 and the suspension of all        
intercourse between us  and the ,ameer4 
,there is but one conclusion possible   
from these strange proceedings4  ,the   
demands made upon the ,ameer were made  
in the hope that he would  refuse to    
concede them1 and so furnish the ,indian
 ,government with a  pretext for        
attacking him4 ,the last thing which    
,lord ,lytton desired  was that the     
,ameer should accept his demands4 ,and1 
therefore1 as soon  as it became        
apparent that ,shere ,ali was prepared  
to do this rather  than forfeit the     
protection and friendship of the        
,british ,government1  ,lord ,lytton    
broke up the conference1 which 7be it   

remembered7 he had  himself proposed4   
,lord ,lytton1 not ,shere ,ali1 without 
provocation  or ostensible cause1       
assumes towards ,afghanistan an attitude
 of  isolation and scarcely veiled      
hostility2 and ,lord ,salisbury thus    
comments upon the situation 7,october   
#d1 #ahgg73--        ,in the event of   
the ,ameer 444 spontaneously manifesting
      a desire to come to a friendly    
understanding with your                 
,excellency1 on the basis of the terms  
lately offered to1 but      declined by 
him1 his advances should not be         
rejected4 ,if1      on the other hand1  
he continues to maintain an attitude    
of isolation and scarcely veiled        
hostility1 the ,british      ,government
 444 will be at liberty to adopt such   
measures for      the protection and    
permanent tranquillity of the           
,north-,west      frontier of her       
,majesty's ,indian dominions as the     
circumstances may render expedient1     
without regard to      the wishes of the

 ,ameer ,shere ,ali or the interests of 
his      dynasty4    ,here1 at last1 we 
get at the veritable purpose of this    
tortuous  policy4 ,as we suspected1 the 
terms offered to the ,ameer1 and        
unhappily not declined by him1 were a   
mere pretence4 ,the real  object was the
 protection of the ,north-,west         
frontier--in other  words1 the          
acquisition of a scientific             
frontier--without regard to  the wishes 
of the ,ameer1 or the interests of his  
dynasty4 ,the ,ameer  was to be         
irretrievably alienated by menacing his 
independence2 and  then the             
irretrievable alienation was to be made 
the pretext for  carrying the menace    
into execution4 ,what the scientific    
frontier  was the reader will find1 if  
he refers to my article on ,india and   
,afghanistan1 in the ,october number of 
this ,,review4    ,the threat1 however1 
for reasons ,i shall state presently1   
could not  be carried into execution at 
once4 ,the negotiations at ,peshawur    

were  carefully concealed from the      
knowledge of the public4 ,neither in    
,india  nor in ,england was it known    
that the ,british agency was withdrawn  
from  ,kabul4 ,the ,pioneer--the        
official journal in ,india--was         
instructed  to inform its readers that  
the ,ameer was animated with feelings of
  the utmost cordiality towards us2 and 
,lord ,lytton made a speech in the      
,council ,chamber expounding his        
frontier policy4 ,he glanced first at   
the policy of his predecessors4 ,his    
sensitive spirit was much  grieved by   
its apathetic character4 ,it seemed to  
him atheistic1 and  inhuman1 and        
inconsistent with our high duties to    
,god and man as  the greatest civilizing
 ,power4 ,then1 warming with his        
subject1 he set  forth his own idea of a
 frontier policy in the following       
grandiloquent  fashion3--        ,i     
consider that the safest and strongest  
frontier ,india      can possibly       
possess would be a belt of independent  

frontier      ,states1 throughout which 
the ,british name is honoured and       
trusted2 within which ,british subjects 
are welcomed and      respected1 because
 they are subjects of a ,government     
known to      be unselfish as it is     
powerful1 and resolute as it is humane2 
by which our advice is followed without 
suspicion1 and our      word relied on  
without misgiving1 because the first has
 been      justified by good results1   
and the second never quibbled away      
by timorous sub-intents or tricky saving
 clauses--a belt of      ,states1 in    
short1 whose chiefs and populations     
should have      every interest1 and    
every desire1 to co-operate with our own
      officers in preserving the peace  
of the frontier1 developing      the    
resources of their own territories1     
augmenting the wealth      of their own 
treasuries1 and vindicating in the eyes 
of the      ,eastern and ,western world 
their title to an independence1 of      
which we are ourselves the chief        

well-wishers and supporters4    ,it is  
hardly credible that the same man who   
gave expression to these  magnificent   
sentiments had just caused the ,ameer to
 be informed that  he did not regard the
 promises made to ,shere ,ali1 by ,lords
 ,northbrook  and ,mayo1 as binding upon
 the ,government of ,india1 because they
 were  verbal4 ,his ,excellency the     
,viceroy1 said ,sir ,lewis ,pelly to the
  ,ameer's ,envoy1 instructs me to      
inform your ,excellency plainly1 that   
the ,british ,government neither        
recognizes1 nor has recognized1 the     
obligation of these promises4 ,and the  
official journal called upon  ,india to 
rejoice1 because one result of the      
conference had been the  cancelling of  
these verbal promises and engagements1  
which the  ,government had found very   
embarrassing4    ,it is plain from the  
foregoing that ,shere ,ali was a doomed 
man long  before the appearance of a    
,russian ,mission in his capital4 ,we   
did not  declare war at once1 simply    

because we were then in danger of a war 
with ,russia in ,bulgaria4 ,and the     
,government were still possessed  of    
sufficient prudence not to attempt an   
invasion of ,afghanistan  simultaneously
 with a campaign on the ,balkans4 ,but  
the sore was  carefully kept open by our
 attitude of isolation and scarcely     
veiled  hostility2 and if the ,russian  
,embassy had not appeared in ,kabul1    
some other pretext for war would        
indubitably have been found4 ,the       
,government of ,india--or rather ,lord  
,lytton--affected to be greatly  alarmed
 at the advent of this ,russian         
,mission1 but his subsequent            
proceedings show that he seized upon the
 incident with greediness  as enabling  
him to carry out his long-meditated     
project for the  destruction of an old  
and faithful ally4 ,a single fact will  
suffice to  prove this4 ,what ,i have   
already related shows that1 up to this  
time1  the ,ameer ,shere ,ali had given 
us no cause of quarrel whatever4 ,he had

  been desirous1 against the dictates of
 his own judgment1 to agree  to what was
 asked of him rather than forfeit the   
friendship of the  ,english ,government4
 ,the estrangement between him and      
ourselves was  the result of our        
policy--not his4 ,lord ,lytton was      
solely and wholly  responsible for it4  
,the ,russian ,embassy1 as ,lord ,lytton
 knew perfectly  well1 was due to no    
overtures made by ,shere ,ali to the    
,russians in  ,central ,asia1 but to the
 silly exhibition of seven thousand     
,sepoys  at ,malta1 by means of which we
 had recently earned the ridicule of    
,europe4 ,moreover1 as the ,treaty of   
,berlin was an accomplished fact  before
 the ,russians had appeared in ,kabul1  
their arrival there was  a matter of    
comparatively trifling significance4    
,how1 then1 did ,lord  ,lytton act8 ,he 
organized a ,mission under the command  
of ,sir ,neville  ,chamberlain to       
proceed to ,kabul2 and at the same time 
directed our  ,vakeel1 ,gulam ,hussein  

,khan1 to go before it to ,kabul1 and   
obtain the  permission of the ,ameer for
 its entrance to his territories4 ,so   
far  there is nothing to object to1 but 
mark what follows4    ,while yet ,sir   
,neville ,chamberlain with his ,mission 
was at ,peshawur1  ,gulam ,hussein      
,khan1 from ,kabul1 reported to ,sir    
,neville as  follows3--,if ,mission will
 await ,ameer's permission1 everything  
will  be arranged1 ,god willing1 in the 
best manner1 and no room will be left   
for complaint in the future4444         
,further1 that if ,mission starts on    
#ahth1 without waiting for the ,ameer's 
permission1 there would be no  hope left
 for the renewal of friendship or       
communication4    ,these reports were   
received by ,sir ,neville ,chamberlain  
on #aith  ,september1 and on the same   
day the ,viceroy ordered the ,mission to
  attempt to force its way through the  
,khyber ,pass4 ,all ,europe knows  the  
sequel4 ,the ,afghan officer in charge  
of the fort at ,ali ,musjid  declined to

 let the ,mission pass2 but1 while      
obeying his orders  firmly1 behaved1 as 
,major ,cavagnari reported1 in a most   
courteous  manner1 and very favourably  
impressed both ,colonel ,jenkins and    
myself4 ,and then was telegraphed home  
the shameless fiction that he  had      
threatened to fire on ,major ,cavagnari1
 and that the majesty of the  ,empire   
had been insulted4    ,it is hard to    
write with calmness when one has to     
speak of actions  like these4 ,it is1 ,i
 trust1 impossible for any ,englishman  
to read of  them without the keenest    
shame and remorse4 ,what1 however1 we   
have  to consider at present is their   
effect upon the native mind4 ,there is  
not1 we may be certain1 a single native 
,court throughout ,india where  they    
have not been discussed again and again2
 and there is but one  conclusion which 
could be drawn from them4 ,it is1 that  
despite of all  we may say1 we allow    
neither pledges1 promises1 nor treaties 
to stand  in our way1 if we imagine that

 they are in opposition to the material 
interests of the moment4 ,there is not a
 native prince in ,india but  will have 
seen the fate of his descendants in the 
doom which has  fallen upon the unhappy 
,shere ,ali4 ,it is a fate which no     
loyalty can  avert--which no treaties   
are powerful enough to ward off4 ,shere 
,ali  was loyal2 ,shere ,ali was fenced 
about by treaty upon treaty3 he and  his
 father had been our friends and        
faithful allies for more than  forty    
years2 but none the less1 the ,english  
,government no sooner  coveted his      
territory than they determined upon his 
destruction4 ,for  eighteen months was  
that ,government engaged in secretly    
weaving the  toils around its victim1   
and when at last it struck1 it struck   
with a  calumny upon its lips4          
,think1 again1 of the anger and the     
bitterness awakened by this war  in the 
hearts of our ,moslem subjects4 ,a few  
months previously1 the  ,english        
,government had made appeal to their    

sympathies on the ground  that it was   
upholding the integrity and independence
 of the ,sultan's  dominions4 ,they now 
saw this very ,government engaged in the
 unprovoked  invasion of an independent 
,muhammadan ,state4 ,they made no       
concealment  of their feelings2 and when
 ,major ,cavagnari and his companions   
were  murdered at ,kabul1 the ,moslems  
of ,upper ,india openly expressed their 
satisfaction4 ,it is not too much to    
say1 that if ,sir ,salar ,jung had  not 
been ruling in ,hyderabad1 the outbreak 
at ,kabul would have been  instantly    
followed by a similar outbreak in the   
,deccan4 ,sir ,richard  ,temple1 writing
 from ,hyderabad in #ahfg1 thus         
describes the state of  feeling existing
 there3--        ,this hostility 7i4e41 
to the ,english ,government7 is even    
stronger in the ,muhammadan priesthood2 
with them it literally      burns with  
an undying flame2 from what ,i know of  
,delhi in      #aheg-eh1 from what ,i am
 authentically informed of in respect   

to ,hyderabad at that time1 ,i believe  
that not more fiercely      does the    
tiger hunger for his prey1 than does the
 ,mussulman      fanatc throughout      
,india thirst for the blood of the white
      infidel4    ,lord ,lytton's       
treatment of ,shere ,ali has been1 as it
 were1 the pouring  of oil upon this    
undying flame4 ,henceforth1 it will burn
 more  fiercely than ever4      ,the    
,famine in the ,north-,west ,provinces4 
,i shall next proceed to show the manner
 in which ,lord ,lytton's  internal     
administration of ,india was affected by
 his policy beyond the  frontier4 ,as   
every one knows1 there have been1 of    
late years1 a  series of terrible       
famines in different parts of ,india4   
,the desolating  effects of these       
famines last for many years after the   
actual dearth  has terminated4 ,not only
 has the cattle been swept away1        
together with  millions of the          
agricultural population1 but those who  
survive are  without capital and without

 physical strength4 ,the consequence is 
that  large tracts of naturally         
productive land fall out of cultivation1
 and  remain so for considerable periods
 of time4 ,there are1 moreover1 no      
poor-laws in ,india for the relief of   
the starving and the destitute4  ,the   
administration of ,state relief1        
therefore1 during such seasons  of      
calamity1 is a matter of imperative     
necessity4 ,in keeping its              
agriculturists alive1 the ,state is     
simply providing for its own  solvency4 
,it sacrifices for this purpose a       
portion of the wealth it  derives from  
the land1 in order to save the          
remainder4 ,a combat with  famine is to 
the ,state in ,india an act as much     
demanded by obvious  expediency1 as in  
the interests of humanity4 ,this relief 
is afforded  partly by remissions of    
revenue throughout the stricken         
districts1 and  partly by the opening of
 public works where the starving and    
destitute  may find food and employment4

 ,in the winter of #ahgg-gh a terrible  
famine fell upon the ,north-,west       
,provinces4 ,the cultivated land in     
these provinces is mainly under two     
descriptions of crops--the rain  crops1 
and the cold weather crops4 ,the rain   
crops are sown towards the  end of      
,june1 or shortly after the rains have  
set in1 and are reaped in  ,october and 
,november4 ,from these crops the people 
obtain the food  on which they are to   
subsist during the winter4 ,in #ahgg    
there was  an almost total failure of   
rain in the ,north-,west ,provinces1 and
 the  ,lieutenant-,governor--,sir       
,george ,couper--reported that the      
greater  part of the crops was          
irretrievably ruined by a scorching west
  wind that blew for three weeks4 ,the  
long and severe winter of the           
,north-,west had to be faced by a       
population destitute of food4 ,sir      
,george ,couper reports as follows to   
the ,government of ,india on the  #aath 
,october1 #ahgg3--        ,the          

,lieutenant-,governor is well aware of  
the straits to which      the           
,government of ,india is put at the     
present time for money1      and it is  
with the utmost reluctance that he makes
 a report      which must temporarily   
add to their burdens4 ,but he sees no   
other course to adopt4 ,if the village  
communities which form      the great   
mass of our revenue payers be pressed   
now1 they will      simply be ruined4444
 ,cattle are reported to be dying or    
sold      to the butchers in hundreds1  
in consequence of the want of           
fodder1 and this will add very          
materially to the agricultural          
distress and difficulties if they are   
called on at once to      meet their    
,state obligations4    ,in making this  
appeal for a remission of revenue1 ,sir 
,george ,couper  was asking for no more 
than what had been granted by every     
,english  ,government since ,british    
rule was planted in ,india4 ,but then   
former  ,governments had not adopted a  

spirited frontier policy to which       
reason1 justice1 and humanity had to be 
subordinated4 ,this was what  ,lord     
,lytton had done4 ,the hunting to death 
of an old and faithful  ally was certain
 to prove a costly operation2 and he    
would need for it  every farthing which 
could be wrung from the population of   
,india4 ,sir  ,george ,couper's appeal  
was therefore rejected1 and he was      
instructed  that these destitute        
creatures were to be compelled to meet  
their  ,state obligations at once1      
precisely as if there was no dearth in  
the land4 ,to this order ,sir ,george   
,couper returned a long reply1 from     
which we quote the following remarkable 
paragraphs3--        ,if the demand on  
the zemindars 7landlords7 is not        
suspended1 the cultivators can neither  
claim nor expect any      relaxation of 
the demand for rent2 if pressure is put 
on the      former1 they in turn must   
and will put the screw on their         
tenants4 ,all through the dark months of

 ,august and ,september1      zemindars 
were urged by district officers to deal 
leniently      with their tenants1 and  
aid them by all means in their power4   
,many nobly responded to the call1 and  
it would be rather      inconsistent to 
subject them now to a pressure which may
      compel them to deal harshly with  
their tenants4 ,these remarks      are  
offered in no captious spirit4444 ,his  
,honour trusts that      the            
realizations will equal the expectations
 of the ,government      of ,india1 but 
if they are disappointed1 his           
,excellency the      ,viceroy 444 may   
rest assured that it will not be for    
want of      effort or inclination to   
put the necessary pressure on those     
who are liable for the demand4    ,is   
not this passing strange8 ,sir ,george  
knows that these people are  in a state 
of the direst distress2 their cattle    
dying by hundreds1  themselves penniless
 and foodless2 if this demand is made   
upon  them1 he has reported that they   

will simply be ruined2 but at  the      
exhortations of ,lord ,lytton he sets to
 work cheerfully4 ,neither  inclination 
nor effort shall be wanting in him to   
make the people  experience to the full 
the agony and the bitterness of famine4 
,thus  it is that a prayerful ,viceroy1 
with the valued assistance of his       
colleagues1 provides for the well-being 
of the millions committed to  his       
fostering care4    ,i have tried1 writes
 one despairing district officer1 to    
stave off  collecting1 but have received
 peremptory orders to begin4 ,this will 
be the last straw on the back of the    
unfortunate zemindars4444 ,a more       
suicidal policy ,i cannot conceive4 ,i  
have done what ,i could to open  the    
eyes of the ,commissioners and the      
,lieutenant-,governor as to the  state  
of the place1 but without avail4 ,i have
 nothing to do but to  carry out the    
orders of ,government1 which means      
simply ruin4 ,the  exaction of the land 
revenue in ,budaon1 writes another1 and1

 ,i  believe1 in other districts as     
well1 involved a direct breach of faith 
with the zemindars1 which has had the   
very worst effect on the minds  of the  
native community4444 ,the people are    
loud in their complaints of  the        
faithlessness of ,government1 and1 to my
 mind1 with ample reason4    ,but the   
,government of ,india having decreed the
 collection of the land  revenue1 were  
now compelled to justify their rapacity1
 by pretending  that there was no famine
 calling for a remission4 ,the dearth   
and the  frightful mortality throughout 
the ,north-,west ,provinces were to be  
preserved as a ,state secret like the   
negotiations with ,shere ,ali4 ,by  this
 means it was hoped that the famine     
would work itself out1 the  dead be     
decently interred out of human sight1   
and ,lord ,lytton obtain  the funds for 
his hunting expedition without an       
unpatriotic opposition  becoming        
cognizant of the facts either in ,india 
or in ,england4 ,it is a  striking      

illustration of the enormous space which
 divides us from  the people of ,india1 
that such a scheme should have been     
thought  practicable1 but stranger      
still--it was very near to success4 ,an 
accident may be said to have defeated   
it4 ,during all that dreary  winter     
famine was busy devouring its victims by
 thousands4 ,at the  lowest computation 
more than a quarter of a million        
perished of actual  starvation4 ,the    
number would have to be doubled if it   
included all  those who perished of     
disease1 the consequence of insufficient
 food  and exposure to cold2 for1 in the
 desperate endeavour to keep their      
cattle alive1 the wretched peasantry fed
 them on the straw which  thatched their
 huts1 and which provided them with     
bedding4 ,the winter  was abnormally    
severe1 and without a roof above them or
 bedding  beneath them1 scantily clad   
and poorly fed1 multitudes perished of  
cold4 ,the dying and the dead were      
strewn along the cross-country  roads4  

,scores of corpses were tumbled into old
 wells1 because the  deaths were too    
numerous for the miserable relatives to 
perform the  usual funeral rites4       
,mothers sold their children for a      
single scanty  meal4 ,husbands flung    
their wives into ponds1 to escape the   
torment  of seeing them perish by the   
lingering agonies of hunger4 ,amid      
these scenes of death the ,government of
 ,india kept its serenity and           
cheerfulness unimpaired4 ,the journals  
of the ,north-,west were persuaded  into
 silence4 ,strict orders were given to  
civilians1 under no  circumstances to   
countenance the pretence of the natives 
that they  were dying of hunger4 ,one   
civilian1 a ,mr4 ,mac,minn1 unable to   
endure  the misery around him1 opened a 
relief work at his own expense4 ,he  was
 severely reprimanded1 threatened with  
degradation1 and ordered to  close the  
work immediately4    ,all this time1 not
 a whisper of the tragedy that was being
 enacted in  the ,north-,west ,provinces

 had reached ,calcutta4 ,the district   
officials  dared not communicate to the 
press what they knew1 and in ,india     
there  are hardly any other means of    
obtaining information4 ,but in the month
  of ,february ,mr4 ,knight1 the        
proprietor of the ,calcutta ,statesman1 
had occasion to visit ,agra4 ,he was    
astonished to find all around him  the  
indications of an appalling misery4 ,he 
began to investigate  the matter1 and   
gradually the truth revealed itself4 ,a 
quarter of a  million of ,british       
subjects had perished of hunger1 pursued
 even to  their graves by the pitiless  
exactions of the ,government4    ,mr4   
,knight made known in the columns of the
 ,statesman what he  had seen1 and what 
he had learned from others in the course
 of his  inquiries4 ,the guilty         
consciences of those who were           
responsible for  this vast suffering    
smote them4 ,lord ,lytton and ,sir      
,george ,couper felt  that it was       
necessary to extinguish ,mr4            

,knight--and that speedily4 ,sir        
,george ,couper accordingly drew up a   
long ,minute1 vindicating himself  from 
the attacks of ,mr4 ,knight2 and this   
,minute was duly acknowledged  in       
laudatory terms by the ,government of   
,india4 ,the ,viceroy in ,council       
characterized the ,minute as a          
convincing statement of facts1 and  then
 added that the ,government of ,india   
needed no such statement to  convince it
 that the ,lieutenant-,governor had     
exercised forethought in  his           
arrangements1 and had shown humanity in 
his orders throughout the  recent       
crisis4 ,the mortality which ,lord      
,lytton deplored with a  deep and       
painful regret1 in so far as it was     
directly the result of  famine1 was     
caused rather by the unwillingness of   
the people to leave  their homes than by
 any want of forethought on the part of 
the local  government in providing works
 where they might be relieved4 ,lord    
,lytton unhesitatingly accepted the     

statement of the local government  that 
no one who was willing to go to a relief
 work need have died of  famine1 and it 
is satisfactorily shown in his ,honour's
 ,minute that the  relief wage was      
ample4    ,this eulogy on ,sir ,george  
,couper and all his doings was published
 on  ,may #b1 #ahgh1 after ,mr4 ,knight 
had begun publishing his revelations in 
the ,statesman4 ,it is to be noted that 
neither ,sir ,george ,couper nor  the   
,government of ,india denies that the   
famine has been sore in the  land and   
the mortality excessive4 ,but on        
,february #bh--two months  previously1  
and before ,mr4 ,knight had commenced   
his inconvenient  disclosures--,sir     
,george ,couper reported to the         
,government of ,india  that it may be   
questioned whether it will not be found 
hereafter  that the comparative immunity
 from cholera and fever which1 owing    
apparently to the drought1 the          
,provinces have enjoyed during the past 
year1 will not compensate for the losses

 caused by insufficient food  and       
clothing1 and make the mortality        
generally little1 if at all1  higher    
than in ordinary years4 ,at the time    
when this letter was  written1 the      
official mortuary returns showed that   
the mortality in  the ,north-,west was  
seven and eight times in excess of what 
it was  in ordinary years4 ,there can1  
therefore1 be no question that the      
confession of that terrible mortality   
which ,lord ,lytton so deeply  deplored1
 was wrung from ,sir ,george ,couper by 
the publication of ,mr4  ,knight's      
letters4 ,but for them1 the official    
record would have stated  that the      
mortality was little1 if at all1 higher 
than in ordinary  years4 ,this record is
 sufficient proof that no adequate      
arrangements  were made to meet a       
calamity which1 according to ,sir       
,george ,couper1  did not exist--at     
least1 not until ,mr4 ,knight insisted  
that it did4 ,at  the same time1 it will
 be as well to give the proof of this in

 detail1  in order to show what the     
,government of ,india is capable of     
saying4    ,in one of his letters to the
 ,statesman1 ,mr4 ,knight averred that  
there were no relief works worthy of the
 name till about ,january  #bj1 and no  
works sufficient for the people's need  
till the middle of  ,february4 ,sir     
,george ,couper replies to this charge  
as follows3--,the  reports already      
submitted to the ,government are1 ,i    
think1 amply  sufficient to acquit me of
 this charge4444 ,in ,october1 ,colonel 
,fraser  was again deputed to visit the 
head-quarters of each division1 and1 in 
consultation with the district officers1
 settle what works should be  undertaken
 to give employment to the poor when the
 inevitable pressure  began4 ,here ,sir 
,george ,couper affirms that so far back
 as ,october  he had foreseen the       
inevitable pressure1 and made all the   
necessary  arrangements4 ,nevertheless  
we find him1 so late as ,november #bc1  
reporting as follows to the ,government 

of ,india3--        ,although the danger
 of widespread famine 444 has happily   
passed away1 it is a matter of extreme  
importance that      well-considered    
projects for great public works should  
be      ready in case of future         
necessity4444 ,very few projects of     
this character have been completed for  
these provinces1      and the           
,lieutenant-,governor thinks no time    
should be lost in      preparing        
them4444 ,there can be no doubt that the
 want of such      projects would have  
been felt as a most serious difficulty  
by this ,government if relief works on a
 large scale had been      necessary in 
the present season4    ,thus1 we find   
that up to the close of ,november no    
large relief works  had been sanctioned1
 because the danger of widespread famine
 had  happily passed away4 ,allowing for
 official delays1 this would make  the  
date when relief works worthy of the    
name were opened tally with  the time   
stated by ,mr4 ,knight--namely1 ,january

 #bj4 ,what1 again1 ,sir  ,george       
,couper could mean by reporting on      
,november #bc1 that danger  of          
widespread famine has happily passed    
away1 is perplexing1 for on  ,november  
#bf1 or just three days subsequently1 he
 writes as follows3--        ,it appears
 to his ,honour that the ,government of 
,india fail to      realize the extent  
of the damage caused by the unparalleled
      failure of the rain this year4444 
,the rain did not come until      #fth  
,october1 by which time the greater part
 of the crops was      irretrievably    
ruined4444 ,it is a mistake to suppose  
that the      autumn crop has escaped in
 the greater part of the ,benares       
and ,allahabad divisions1 and in the    
south-eastern districts of              
,oudh4444 ,the rice crops1 which are    
largely grown in most      of the       
districts in these divisions1 have      
almost entirely      perished1 and of   
other crops1 the area sown is much less 
than      usual4    ,on ,october #aa    

,sir ,george ,couper reported that if   
the land revenues  was exacted the      
village communities would be ruined4 ,on
 ,november #bf he  reported that the    
crops had been irretrievably ruined4    
,nevertheless1  on ,november #bc1 he    
reported that no large relief works had 
been  sanctioned because the danger of  
widespread famine had passed away4  ,it 
follows1 from this last report1 that for
 whatever other purpose  ,colonel       
,fraser may have been deputed to visit  
the head-quarters  of each division1 it 
was not to make satisfactory provision  
for a  widespread famine4 ,no4 ,as ,sir 
,george ,couper was well aware at the   
time  he penned his reply to ,mr4       
,knight1 the object of ,colonel         
,fraser's tour  was precisely the       
opposite of this4 ,these were the       
instructions he was  charged to enjoin  
upon civil officers and executive       
engineers3--        ,please discourage  
relief works in every possible way4 ,it 
may be1 however1 that when agricultural 

operations are over1      some of the   
people may want work4 ,this1 however1   
except on      works for which there is 
budget provision1 should only be        
given if the collector is satisfied that
 without it the people      would       
actually starve4 ,mere distress is not a
 sufficient      reason for opening a   
relief work4 ,and if a relief work be   
started1 task-work should be rigorously 
exacted1 and the      people put on the 
barest subsistence wage2 so that we may 
be satisfied that if any other kind of  
work were procurable      elsewhere1    
they would resort to it4    ,in         
accordance with the letter and spirit of
 these instructions the  famine-stricken
 multitudes were literally starved off  
such scanty  works as were open4 ,the   
barest subsistence wage was fined down1 
smaller and smaller1 until the people   
abandoned the works in despair1  and    
returned to their villages to die4 ,nay1
 in some places1 the  public works which
 had been duly sanctioned in the yearly 

budget were  transformed into relief    
works2 and the labourers upon them1     
instead of  being paid at the ordinary  
market rates1 were reduced to the barest
  subsistence wage1 task-work being     
rigorously exacted4 ,a beneficent  but  
economical ,government took advantage of
 the dire extremity to  which its       
subjects were reduced to reap this      
unexpected profit out of  their         
miseries4 ,none the less1 the ,viceroy  
in ,council unhesitatingly  accepts the 
statement of the local government1 that 
no one who was  willing to go to a      
relief work need have died of famine4   
,the ,license ,tax4    ,the foregoing is
 an illustration of the manner in which 
an ,imperial  ,viceroy secures the      
progressive well-being of the multitudes
  committed to his fostering care4 ,i   
purpose now to illustrate the  manner in
 which the same ,imperial functionary   
deals with the finances  committed to   
his fostering care4 ,the position of    
isolation and  scarcely veiled hostility

 which1 without any provocation1 ,lord  
,lytton  had assumed towards the ,ameer 
of ,afghanistan rendered a war against  
that sovereign a mere question of time  
and opportunity4 ,meanwhile1  funds were
 necessary for its prosecution in       
addition to those which  had been       
obtained from the starving population of
 the ,north-,west4  ,accordingly1 in his
 ,budget statement for #ahgh-gi1 ,sir   
,john ,strachey  announced that the     
,indian ,government had arrived at the  
conclusion  that they ought to regard   
famines as normal occurrences for which 
provision should be made in the budgets 
of each year4 ,famine  expenditure could
 not be estimated at a smaller sum than 
a million  and a half annually4 ,this   
sum he now proposed to raise by means of
 a  ,license ,tax on trades and         
dealings1 to be levied throughout       
,india1 and  which1 it was estimated1   
would yield #gjj1jjj4 ,the remainder of 
the  sum required was to be obtained by 
a tax on the agricultural classes  in   

,northern ,india and ,bengal alone4 ,the
 peculiar incidence of these  taxes was 
justified on the ground that the classes
 taxed were the same  classes which1 in 
periods of famine1 had to be supported  
by the ,state4  ,it was therefore only  
just that they should provide the fund  
which was  to insure them against       
famine4 ,this money was in fact a sum   
raised  for a special purpose1 at the   
expense of certain classes1 for whose   
benefit it was to be exclusively        
applied4 ,this was acknowledged by      
,lord ,lytton with his usual            
superabundance of emphasis3--           
,the sole justification for the         
increased taxation which has      just  
been imposed upon the people of ,india1 
for the purpose      of insuring this   
,empire against the worst calamities of 
future      famine 444 is the pledge we 
have given that a sum not less      than
 a million and a half sterling1 which   
exceeds the amount      of the          
additional contributions obtained from  

the people      for this purpose1 shall 
be annually applied to it4 ,we have     
explained to the people of this country 
that the additional      revenue raised 
by the new taxes is required1 not for   
luxuries1      but the necessities of   
the ,state2 not for general purposes1   
but for the construction of a particular
 class of public      works2 and we have
 pledged ourselves not to spend one     
rupee of      the special resources1    
thus created1 upon works of a different 
character4444 ,the pledges which my     
financial colleague was      authorized 
to give1 on behalf of the ,government1  
were explicit      and full as regards  
these points4444 ,for these reasons1 it 
is      all the more binding on the     
honour of the ,government to redeem     
to the uttermost1 without evasion or    
delay1 those pledges1 for      the      
adequate redemption of which the people 
of ,india have1      and can have1 no   
other guarantee than the good faith of  
their      rulers4    ,the ink which    

recorded this solemn pledge was hardly  
dry before it had  been broken4 ,the    
predetermined war with ,shere ,ali began
 in the wanton  manner ,i have told1 and
 the question of cost was mentioned in  
the  ,houses of ,parliament4 ,the       
,british ,imperialist glories in war    
when the  chances are all in his favour1
 but he has an invincible objection to  
paying the costs of such transactions4  
,and they are costly4 ,it was  therefore
 very necessary so to arrange matters1  
that while the  glory of hunting an ally
 to death should be appropriated by     
,british  ,imperialism1 the expenses of 
the chase should be defrayed by ,india4 
,accordingly1 towards the end of        
,november1 ,lord ,cranbrook informed the
  ,house of ,lords that ,india was in   
possession of a surplus more than       
sufficient to defray the costs of the   
war3--        ,i am bound to say1 that  
after looking very carefully into       
the financial condition of ,india1 ,i   
believe it will not      be necessary1  

at least in the initial steps1 to call  
on the      revenues of ,england4 ,i am 
in possession of facts which1 ,i        
think1 would convince your ,lordships   
that1 without unduly      pressing on   
the resources of ,india1 there will be  
no      necessity to call on the        
,english revenues--at least during the  
present financial year4 ,it was         
announced by my noble friend in         
another place the other night that1     
including the #a1ejj1jjj      of new    
taxes1 the surplus of ,indian revenue   
will amount to      #b1acf1jjj4    ,a   
fortnight later the facts of which ,lord
 ,cranbrook professed to  be in         
possession were discovered not to be    
facts1 and the surplus was  reduced by  
,mr4 ,stanhope to a million and a       
half--in other words1 to  exactly the   
sum which ,lord ,lytton had solemnly    
pledged his honour to  apply to no      
purpose except that of insuring ,india  
against the  ravages of famine4 ,on the 
most elastic system of interpretation1  

the  acquisition of a fictitious        
scientific frontier cannot be made to   
appear as a fulfilment of this pledge4  
,however1 on the faith of the  surplus  
thus created by ,lord ,cranbrook and    
,mr4 ,stanhope1 ,parliament  voted that 
the expenses of the ,afghan war should  
be charged upon  ,india4 ,mr4 ,stanhope 
said1-- ,the surplus being of the amount
 he had  mentioned1 it must be perfectly
 obvious that the ,indian ,government   
could pay the whole cost of the war     
during the present year1 without  adding
 a shilling to the taxation or the debt 
of the country4    ,the intention here  
is sufficiently obvious4 ,lord          
,cranbrook and ,mr4  ,stanhope were     
quite prepared to disregard the pledges 
given to  the people of ,india1 and     
apply the ,famine ,insurance ,fund to an
  illegitimate purpose4 ,they had all   
the will to do this1 but their  desires 
were frustrated by the fact that there  
was no such fund in  existence4 ,it had 
already been spent and disappeared4     

,lord ,lytton thus  calmly announces its
 extinction in the ,budget resolution of
 ,march1  #ahgi3--        ,the insurance
 provided against future famines has    
virtually      ceased to exist1 and the 
difficulties in the way of fiscal       
and commercial and administrative reform
 have been greatly      aggravated4 ,nor
 can it be in any way assumed that the  
evil will not continue and go on        
increasing4 ,under such                 
circumstances1 it is extremely difficult
 to follow any settled      financial   
policy2 for the ,government cannot even 
approximately      tell what income will
 be required to meet the necessary      
expenditure of the ,state4444 ,for the  
present the      ,governor-,general in  
,council thinks it wise to abstain from 
imposing any fresh burdens on the       
country1 and to accept the              
temporary loss of the surplus by which  
it was hoped that an      insurance     
against famine had been provided4       
,that is1 that the ,government of ,india

 having pledged itself not  to spend one
 rupee of these special resources1      
except for the  construction of a       
particular class of public works--having
 declared  that the sole justification  
for the increased taxation is that it   
should be devoted to a particular       
end--no sooner gets the money into  its 
possession than it expends the entire   
sum on something else1  and then thinks 
it wise not to discuss the matter any   
further4 ,the  ,government is very      
sorry2 it really wanted to make an      
,insurance ,fund  against famine2 but it
 finds that it cannot even approximately
 tell  what income will be required to  
meet the necessary expenditure of the   
,state4 ,under such circumstances the   
,government finds it extremely          
difficult to follow any settled         
financial policy1 except that of        
spending every shilling which it can get
 possession of4 ,thus it is  that an    
,imperial ,government redeems to the    
uttermost the honour of  the ,british   

nation1 and strengthens the confidence  
of ,india in the  good faith of her     
rulers4      ,the ,cotton ,duties4    ,i
 come1 lastly1 to the action of the     
,indian ,government in respect to  the  
,cotton ,duties4 ,it is1 ,i fancy1      
generally supposed in ,england that  the
 duty on imported cotton was designedly 
protective--i4e41 that  it had from the 
beginning been imposed with the         
intention of favouring  the ,indian     
manufacturer at the expense of          
,manchester4 ,this is a  mistake4 ,the  
duty was imposed at a time when there   
were no ,indian  manufactures to compete
 with those from ,england1 simply as a  
source  of revenue4 ,in ,india there is 
a great difficulty in so arranging the  
incidence of taxation that the          
well-to-do classes shall contribute     
their proper share to the necessities of
 the ,state4 ,a light duty  on imported 
cotton--as being the universally used   
material for  dress--enabled the        
,government to reach these classes in a 

manner that  was effective without being
 burdensome4 ,even now that mills are at
  work in ,india1 by far the larger part
 of these duties had nothing  protective
 in their character1 because there is in
 ,india no  manufacture of the finer    
sorts of cotton4 ,whether1 however1 the 
duty  was or was not protective in its  
character1 both the ,indian ,government 
and the ,house of ,commons had          
repeatedly given pledges that the duty  
should not be repealed until the ,indian
 finances were in a position  to justify
 the loss of revenue thereby occasioned4
 ,lord ,lytton1 who  throughout his     
viceroyalty has made a point in all     
important matters  of making a          
confession of political faith exactly   
the opposite of his  subsequent         
political action1 expressed himself on  
the subject of the  ,cotton ,duties with
 his usual copiousness4 ,in reply to an 
address from  the ,calcutta ,trades'    
,association1 shortly after his arrival 
in ,india1  he said3--        ,i think  

that no one responsible for the         
financial      administration of this   
,empire would at present venture to     
make the smallest reduction in any of   
its limited sources of      income4 ,let
 me1 however1 take this opportunity of  
assuring you      that1 so far as ,i am 
aware1 the abolition or reduction of    
the ,cotton ,duties1 at the cost of     
adding one sixpence to the      taxation
 of this country1 has never been        
advocated1 or even      contemplated by 
her ,majesty's ,secretary of ,state for 
,india4444      ,it is due to myself1   
and the confidence you express in my    
character1 that ,i should also assure   
you1 on my own behalf1      that nothing
 will ever induce me to tax the people  
of ,india      for any exclusive benefit
 to their ,english fellow-subjects4     
,a short time previously he had told the
 ,bombay ,chamber of ,commerce  that he 
was of opinion that1 with the exception 
of about forty  thousand pounds         
sterling1 the duties were not           

protective1 because  ,manchester had no 
,indian competitors in finer            
manufactures4 ,he thought  the #hjj1jjj 
collected yearly as duty1 on finer      
fabrics1 a fair item  of revenue4 ,with 
regard to the duty on coarse goods1 he  
thought it  protective1 because ,bombay 
mills competed with ,manchester2 but he 
did not see how it could be abolished1  
because it would lead to  irregularities
 in order to evade duty4    ,these      
assurances were given in #ahgf4 ,in     
#ahgi1 when the finances of  ,india were
 in a state of almost hopeless          
embarrassment--when the  ,famine        
,insurance ,fund had been               
misappropriated in the way ,i have      
related--when the ,indian ,government   
frankly acknowledged that it  was beyond
 their power to estimate their future   
expenditure1 even  approximately1 the   
,indian ,government deliberately        
sacrificed revenue  to the amount of    
#bjj1jjj derived from this source4 ,the 
motives which  persuaded them to this   

sacrifice may have been as pure as      
driven snow2  but with ,lord ,lytton's  
assurances fresh in their memories1 ,i  
need  not say that their motives were   
not so interpreted by those in ,india4  
,there the explanation given was        
this3--,the war in ,afghanistan1 from   
which so much had been expected1 had    
resulted1 not in success1 but           
ignominious failure4 ,the ,government   
had been compelled to patch up  a peace 
without a single element of permanence  
in it4 ,despite of the  choral odes     
which ,ministers sang together on the   
occasion of this  peace1 it was         
impossible that they could have been    
wholly blind to the  real character of  
the ,treaty of ,gundamuck4 ,they felt   
that discovery  could not be long       
delayed1 and1 like the steward who had  
wasted his  master's goods1 they        
hastened to make themselves friends of  
the mammon  of unrighteousness4 ,while1 
therefore1 the war was still nominally  
unfinished1 they sought to propitiate   

,manchester by throwing its  merchants  
this sop of #bjj1jjj4 ,like ,canning's  
famous policy of  calling on the ,new   
,world to redress the balance of the    
,old1 the  prestige of ,imperialism1    
damaged by the failure in ,afghanistan1 
was to  be re-established in ,manchester
 at the expense of the ,indian taxpayer4
    ,if the ,indian ,government had any 
better reason than this for their       
partial repeal of the ,cotton ,duties1  
it is a pity that they did not          
communicate it to the world4 ,the reason
 which they did condescend to  give was 
simply this--that the finances of the   
,empire were so heavily  embarrassed1   
and in such confusion1 that it was a    
matter of no  consequence if they become
 still further involved to the extent of
  #bjj1jjj4 ,i give the actual words1   
that ,i may not be suspected of         
caricaturing the ,government3--         
,the difficulties caused by the         
increased loss by exchange      are     
great1 but they will not practically be 

aggravated to an      appreciable extent
 by the loss of #bjj1jjj4 ,if the fresh 
fall      in the exchange should prove  
to be temporary1 such a loss will       
possess slight importance4 ,if1 on the  
other hand1 the loss      by exchange   
does not diminish 444 it will become    
necessary to      take measures of a    
most serious nature for the improvement 
of      the financial position2 but the 
retention of the import duties      on  
cotton goods will not thereby be        
rendered possible4 ,on      the         
contrary1 such retention will become    
more difficult than      ever4          
,according to the ,government of ,india1
 it was the peculiarity of  these       
#bjj1jjj to be simply an incumbrance1   
happen what might4 ,if the  exchange did
 not fall1 they were reduced to         
insignificance2 if it  did fall1 their  
retention became more difficult than    
ever4 ,the reader  will not be surprised
 to learn that these enigmatic          
propositions were  not accepted in      

,india as a sufficient justification of 
the act they  were supposed to explain4 
,despotic as an ,indian ,viceroy is1    
there are even in ,india certain        
,constitutional checks on his authority1
 as1 for instance1 the ,members  of     
,council1 the ,vernacular and the       
,english press4 ,how was it1 the  reader
 may ask1 that these constitutional     
checks were evaded2 for it  cannot be   
that they all concurred in such a policy
 as ,i have described  in the foregoing 
pages8 ,the principal means of evasion  
was secrecy4  ,the negotiations with    
,shere ,ali were kept sedulously hidden 
from the  public knowledge1 and their   
nature was only to be dimly inferred    
from  the devout and philanthropic      
orations of the ,viceroy himself4 ,the  
same  course was adopted with respect to
 the ,north-,west famine2 and but  for  
the accident of ,mr4 ,knight's visit to 
,agra1 the truth would have  remained   
hidden to this day4 ,but ,lord ,lytton  
did not trust to secrecy  alone4 ,the   

vernacular press was gagged by a ,press 
,act1 which was  hurried through        
,council1 and made a law in the course  
of a few hours4  ,the ,english press    
could not be gagged precisely in this   
fashion1  but it was very ingeniously   
drugged through the agency of a curious 
functionary1 styled the ,press          
,commissioner4 ,when ,mr4 ,stanhope  was
 questioned in the ,house regarding the 
special duties of this  nondescript     
official1 he replied that he had been   
appointed to  superintend the working of
 the ,vernacular ,press ,act4 ,actually1
 he  was in operation for several months
 before that ,act had come into         
existence1 and never has had any duties 
in connection with it4 ,the  ,press     
,commissioner is attached to the        
personal staff of the ,viceroy1  and may
 be regarded as a kind of official bard1
 whose duty it is to  chant the praises 
of his master1 and advertise his        
political wares4  ,the description of   
,lord ,lytton as a specially-gifted     

,viceroy is  believed in ,india to have 
proceeded from the affectionate         
imagination  of the ,press              
,commissioner4 ,but1 besides this1 he is
 a channel of  communication between the
 ,government of ,india and the ,indian  
press4  ,when he was first called into  
existence1 ,india was informed that a   
new era was about to begin1 in the      
relations between the press and the     
,government4 ,the ,government1 anxious  
that its policy should be fully         
discussed by an intelligent press1 had  
appointed a ,press ,commissioner1  whose
 duty it would be to keep editors       
supplied with accurate  information1    
from the very fountain-head1 of all that
 ,government was  doing1 or intended to 
do4 ,it is unnecessary to say that the  
,press  ,commissioner has done nothing  
of the kind4 ,the greater part of the   
matter he communicates to the press is  
simply worthless1 and wholly  devoid of 
interest to any sane person4 ,if        
anything of importance  occurs which the

 ,government desires to keep secret1 but
 which it fears  will leak out1 the     
,press ,commissioner communicates the   
matter to the  editors confidentially1  
and then it is understood that they are 
in  honour bound not to allude to the   
subject in their papers4 ,at distant    
intervals1 however1 the ,press          
,commissioner1 of necessity1 allows some
  interesting scraps of information to  
escape from him2 and it is by  means of 
these that the ,english press is        
drugged4 ,any newspaper which  offends  
the ,government by criticism of too     
harsh a character is liable  to have the
 supply of such morsels suspended until 
it gives evidence  of amendment4 ,and as
 there is in ,india1 among the readers  
of  newspapers1 quite an insatiable     
craving for these morsels of official   
gossip1 it would be extremely           
prejudicial to the circulation of a     
newspaper if they no longer appeared in 
its columns4 ,the vengeance  of ,lord   
,lytton and the ,press ,commissioner has

 already fallen upon  one journal4 ,the 
,calcutta ,statesman1 having poured     
ridicule on this  ,press ,commissioner1 
has been deprived of his ministrations4 
,in brief1  the ,press ,commissionership
 is simply an agency for bribing the    
,english  ,press1 which costs the       
,indian taxpayer the sum annually of    
#ejjj4  ,but the most effective check on
 the arbitrary authority of the         
,governor-,general is furnished by his  
,council4 ,these are selected as  men of
 long ,indian experience1 in order to   
aid the ,governor-,general  with their  
advice and special knowledge4 ,the last 
,governor-,general  who set at nought   
the advice and remonstrances of his     
,council was ,lord  ,auckland1 when he  
plunged into the disastrous war in      
,afghanistan4 ,lord  ,lytton1 who in    
other respects has so carefully trod in 
the footsteps  of his predecessor1 did  
not fail to imitate him in this4 ,his   
frontier  policy was carried out in     
spite of the opposition of the three    

most  experienced members of his        
,council2 his repeal of the ,cotton     
,duties in  the face of their unanimous 
opposition1 with the single exception of
  ,sir ,john ,strachey4 ,thus it is     
that1 under ,lord ,lytton1 ,british rule
  in ,india has become a tawdry and     
fantastic system of personal rule4 ,it  
might perhaps do well enough if an      
,empire could be governed by means  of  
ceremonies1 speeches1 and elegantly     
written despatches--fables in  prose1   
they might very fitly be called4 ,but an
 ,empire cannot be so  governed1 and the
 result of the experiment has been an   
amount of  human suffering appalling to 
contemplate4 ,the ,indian air is full of
  farewells for the dying and mournings 
for the dead1 and the path of  the      
,government can be traced in broken     
pledges and dead men's bones4  ,these   
bones are as dragon's teeth1 which ,lord
 ,lytton is sowing  broadcast all over  
,india and ,afghanistan1 and they will  
assuredly  be changed into armed men if 

the hand of the sower be not promptly   
stayed4        ,nothing1 writes ,sir    
,alexander ,arbuthnot1 one of the       
,indian      ,members of ,council1 would
 have induced me to have been a         
party to the imposition of restrictions 
on the press1 if ,i      could have     
foreseen that within a year of the      
passing of the      ,vernacular ,press  
,act the ,government of ,india would be 
embarked      on a course which1 in my  
opinion1 is as unwise and ill-timed     
as it is destructive of the reputation  
for justice upon which      the prestige
 and political supremacy of the ,british
 ,government      in ,india so greatly  
depend4 ,and here ,i must remark that   
the slight value which in some          
influential quarters is      now        
attached to the popularity of our rule  
with our native      subjects1 has for  
some time past struck me as a source of 
grave political danger4 ,the ,british   
,empire in ,india was not               
established by a policy of ignoring     

popular sentiment1 and      of          
stigmatizing all views and opinions     
which are opposed      to certain       
favourite theories1 as the views and    
opinions of      foolish people4 ,nor   
will our rule be long maintained if such
 a      policy is persisted in4         
,,robert ,d4 ,,osborn4          ,,on    
,,the ,,utility ,,to ,,flowers ,,of     
,,their ,,beauty4      ,the question    
which ,i propose to consider in this    
paper is how far the  beauty of blossoms
 can be accounted for by the utility of 
this beauty  to the plant producing     
them4 ,it is manifestly only one        
particular case  of a larger inquiry    
whether the beauty which ,nature        
exhibits can be  accounted for by its   
utility4    ,these questions connect    
themselves with some of the highest     
points  of the philosophy of the        
universe4 ,is the system of the universe
  intellectual1 or is it purely         
material8 ,is there an ordering mind1 or
  is there merely blind and struggling  

matter8 ,are there final causes as  well
 as material causes1 or are there       
material causes only8    ,these         
questions have been asked and answered  
in opposite senses1 from  the first dawn
 of philosophy to the present hour2 and 
during all that  period of time the     
battle has been raging--and has spread1 
too1 over  the whole realm of ,nature4  
,scarcely any branch of natural science 
exists which has not furnished materials
 for at least a skirmish2 so  that it   
requires an experienced and impartial   
eye to be able rightly  to understand   
the true fortunes of the contest over   
the whole field  of battle4 ,true it is1
 that for every man the question between
 the two  theories has to be decided by 
somewhat simpler considerations than any
  such survey4 ,something in every man  
seems inevitably to determine him       
towards either the intellectual or the  
material theory of things4    ,the      
existence of beauty in the world is a   
very remarkable fact4 ,on  the theory of

 a ,divine and beneficent ,creator1 this
 fact has seemed  no difficulty2 but the
 theory of a mere blind fermentation of 
matter  gives no account of it1 except  
as a mere accident1 which1 on the       
doctrine of chances1 should be perhaps a
 very rare and unusual  accident4 ,hence
 the existence of beauty has from of old
 been a  favourite theme of the theistic
 believers4 ,let them know how much     
better the ,lord of them is1 says the   
author of the ,wisdom of ,solomon1      
speaking of the works of ,nature1 for   
the first ,author of beauty hath        
created them 444 for by the greatness   
and beauty of the creatures             
proportionably the ,maker of them is    
seen4#a ,the same familiar view  has    
lately been presented by the ,duke of   
,argyll in his ,reign of  ,law3#b--     
,it would be to doubt the evidence of   
our senses and of our      reason1 or   
else to assume hypotheses of which there
 is no      proof whatever1 if we were  
to doubt that mere ornament1 mere       

variety1 are as much an end and aim in  
the workshop of ,nature      as they are
 known to be in the workshop of the     
goldsmith and      the jeweller4 ,why   
should they not8 ,the love and desire of
      these is universal in the mind of 
man4 ,it is seen not more               
distinctly in the highest forms of      
civilized art than in the      habits of
 the rudest savage1 who covers with     
elaborate carving      the handle of his
 war-club or the prow of his canoe4 ,is 
it      likely that this universal aim  
and purpose of the mind of man          
should be wholly without relation to the
 aims and purposes of      his ,creator8
 ,he that formed the eye to see beauty1 
shall ,he      not see it8 ,he that gave
 the human hand its cunning to work     
for beauty1 shall ,his hand never work  
for it8 ,how1 then1 shall      we       
account for all the beauty of the       
world--for the careful      provision   
made for it where it is only the        
secondary object1      not the first8   

,but even if beauty be always associated
 with utility and have in fact  been    
brought about by its utility1 it may    
nevertheless have been an  object in the
 mind of a ,divine artificer1 who may   
have been minded  to use the one as a   
means and end to the other4 ,we may     
therefore1  ,i think1 approach the      
subject with a perfect freedom from any 
theological bias4    ,the whole subject 
will1 ,i believe1 be felt by some       
persons to be a  piece of               
moonshine1--the whole discussion fit for
 cloudland1 not for  this practical     
solid world of ours4    ,beauty1 such   
persons would say1 is not a real thing1 
an objective  fact3 it is a part of man1
 not of the world--it is in him who     
sees1  not in the thing seen3 it is seen
 by one man in one thing--by another    
man in another4    ,to this it seems a  
sufficient answer to say that the       
relation of  any one external thing to  
any one mind which produces the peculiar
  condition which we call the perception

 of beauty1 is a fact1 and1  like every 
other single fact1 must have an adequate
 cause4 ,but when we  find that there   
are forms of beauty1 such as the beauty 
of sunlight1  which operate alike on all
 men1 and1 it would seem1 on all        
sensitive  beings--when we find that the
 brilliant flowers which attract the    
child in the field or the lady in the   
drawing-room1 attract the  insect       
tribes--we feel ourselves in the        
presence of a great body of  persistent 
relations1 which it is impossible to    
pass over as unreal or  as unimportant4 
,but1 again1 there is ugliness in the   
world2 and one ugly thing1 it is        
suggested1 destroys all your deductions 
from beauty4 ,this1 no doubt1  is a very
 important fact for any one to grapple  
with who proposes  to give any          
theoretical explanation of the presence 
of beauty in the  universe2 but for me1 
who am only inquiring whether and how   
far beauty  is useful1 it is not really 
material1 because there can be no doubt 

that beauty1 as well as ugliness1 exists
 in the world4 ,this much ,i  will say  
in passing1 that1 to my mind1 the       
balance of things is in  favour of      
beauty and against ugliness--the        
tendency is in favour of  beauty1 not   
ugliness1 and that tendency may be a    
very important thing  to think of4      
,furthermore1 the fact that we recognize
 ugliness seems to make our  recognition
 of beauty more important2 for it shows 
that the  perception of beauty is not   
mere habit1 and that we have an inward  
and independent judgment on the         
matter--we are able to approve the one  
thing on the score of beauty1 and to    
reject the other as ugly4    ,even      
allowing fully for the existence of     
ugliness1 it must be conceded  that the 
world around us presents a vast mass of 
beauty--complex1  diverse1 commingled1  
and not easily admitting of analysis4   
,it is  common alike to the organic and 
the inorganic realms of ,nature4 ,the   
pageants of the sky at morning1 noon1   

and night1 the forms of the  trees1 the 
beauty of the flowers1 the glory of the 
hills1 the awful  sublimity of the      
stars--these1 and a thousand things in  
,nature1 fill  the soul with a sense of 
beauty1 which the art neither of the    
poet1  nor of the philosopher1 nor of   
the painter can come near to depict4 ,we
  are moved and overcome1 sometimes by  
this object of beauty1 sometimes  by    
that1 but yet more by the complex mass  
of glory of the universe4      ,for     
,nature beats in perfect tune1    ,and  
rounds with rhyme her every rune2       
,whether she work on land or sea1    ,or
 hide underground her alchemy4    ,thou 
canst not wave thy staff in air1        
,or dip thy paddle in the lake1    ,but 
it carves the bow of beauty there1      
,and ripples in rhyme the oar forsake4  
,as yet no attempt has been made to show
 the utility of this  promiscuous and   
multitudinous crowd of beauties--and it 
seems not  likely that such an attempt  
can yet be made with success3 and the   

phenomena of ,nature are therefore      
likely for a long time to come to       
impress most men with the sense of      
beauty for beauty's sake4 ,but in       
respect of certain particular and       
separable instances1 the attempt has    
recently been made to show that the     
beauty exhibited is useful to the       
structure exhibiting it1 and            
consequently that it may be accounted   
for by the strictly utilitarian         
principle of the survival of the        
fittest1--one instance in which this has
 been most notably attempted  being in  
respect of the beauty of flowers4 ,let  
us consider how far  beauty can thus be 
accounted for in this particular case4  
,there will be a great advantage in this
 course2 for beauty is a  thing about   
which it is not very easy to argue3 it  
is too subtle1 too  evanescent1 too     
disputable1 to afford an easy material  
for the logical  or scientific crucible2
 and these difficulties we shall best   
surmount  by in the first place         

isolating certain beautiful things for  
our  consideration1 and limiting to them
 our inquiry into how far each of  the  
rival theories is sufficient to explain 
their existence4 ,we shall  thus try to 
narrow the great controversy to very    
definite and distinct  issues4          
,flowers1 says ,mr4 ,darwin1#c rank     
amongst the most      beautiful         
productions of ,nature1 and they have   
become1      through natural selection1 
beautiful1 or rather conspicuous in     
contrast with the greenness of the      
leaves1 that they might      be easily  
observed and visited by insects1 so that
 their      fertilization might be      
favoured4 ,i have come to this          
conclusion1 from finding it an          
invariable rule that when a      flower 
is fertilized by the wind it never has a
 gaily-coloured      corolla4 ,again1   
several plants habitually produce two   
kinds of      flowers3 one kind open and
 coloured1 so as to attract insects2    
the other closed and not coloured1      

destitute of nectar1 and      never     
visited by insects4 ,we may safely      
conclude that1 if      insects had never
 existed on the face of the earth1 the  
vegetation would not have been decked   
with beautiful flowers1      but would  
have produced only such poor flowers as 
are now      borne by our firs1 oaks1   
nut and ash trees1 by the grasses1 by   
spinach1 docks1 and nettles4    ,no one 
can doubt who watches a meadow on a     
summer's day that insects  are attracted
 by the scent and the colours of the    
flowers4 ,the whole  field is busy with 
their jubilant hum4 ,these little       
creatures have the  same sense of beauty
 that we have4 ,what room there is for  
thought in  that fact6 ,there is a      
subtle bond of mental union between     
ourselves  and the creatures whom we so 
often despise4 ,there is a joy          
widespread  and multiplied beyond our   
highest calculation4 ,what a deadly blow
 to  that egotism of man which thinks of
 all beauty as made for him alone6      

,but ,i return to the argument4 ,we have
 presented to our notice three  kinds of
 attraction which operate upon          
insects--the conspicuousness  of colour 
and form1 the beauty of the smell1 and  
the pleasant taste of  the honey4 ,no   
one1 as ,i have said1 who watches a     
meadow or a garden on  a summer's day   
can for a moment doubt the operation of 
these  causes1 or question the direct   
action of insects in producing the      
fertilization of flowers4 ,in that sense
 the beauty of a flower is  clearly of  
direct use to the flower which exhibits 
it4 ,it is better  for it that it should
 be fertilized by insects than not      
fertilized at  all2 but is it better for
 it to be fertilized by insects than by 
the  wind1 or by some other agency1 if  
such exist8    ,this shall be the       
subject of inquiry4 ,but before we can  
answer it1  we must go a little afield  
and collect some other of the facts of  
the  case4    ,the conclusion that      
beauty is useful for the fertilization  

of the  flower does not rest merely on  
the general phenomena of a summer       
meadow4 ,it is confirmed by many other  
observations4 ,flowers are  not merely  
attractive in themselves2 they are      
frequently rendered  attractive by their
 grouping4 ,sometimes flowers           
individually small are  gathered into   
heads1 or spikes1 or bunches1 or umbels1
 and so  produce a more conspicuous     
effect than would result from a more    
equal  distribution of the flowers2     
sometimes yet more minute flowers or    
florets are gathered together into what 
appears a single flower1 and  often have
 the outer florets so modified both in  
shape and colour as  to produce the     
general effect of one very brilliant    
blossom1 as in the  daisy or the        
marigold4    ,sometimes the same result 
is produced by the massing of small     
flowers  into dense cushions of bright  
colour4#d ,this1 as is well known1 is   
of common occurrence with ,alpine       
flowers2 and this mode of growth1 as    

well as the great size of many ,alpine  
blossoms as compared with that  of the  
whole plant1 and the great brilliance of
 ,alpine plants as  compared with their 
congeners of the lowlands1 have all been
 explained  by reference to the         
comparative rarity of insects in the    
,alpine  heights1 and the consequent    
necessity1 if the plants are to survive1
  that they should offer strong         
attractions to their needful friends4#e 
,a similar explanation has been offered 
for the brilliant colours of  ,arctic   
flowers4#f    ,furthermore1 this curious
 fact exists1 that of flowering plants a
  large number do not ripen or put      
forward their pistils and stamens at    
the same periods of their growth3 in    
some cases the pistil is ready  to      
receive the pollen whilst the anthers   
are immature and not ready to  supply   
it3 such are called proterogynous4 ,in  
other cases the anthers  are ripe before
 the pistil is ready to receive the     
pollen3 these are  proterandrous4 ,in   

either case the same event happens--that
 the ovules  can never be fertilized by 
the pollen of the same blossom1 nor     
without  some foreign agency1 generally 
that of insects4    ,lastly1 there is a 
large number of plants1 including a     
great  proportion of those with         
unsymmetrical blossoms1 of which the    
flowers have been shown to be specially 
adapted by various mechanical           
contrivances for insect agency4         
,nothing1 as is well known1 is more     
marvellous than the variety and subtlety
 of the arrangements for  the purpose   
which exist in orchidaceous plants1 as  
explained by the  patience and genius of
 ,mr4 ,darwin4    ,in view of these     
facts it would be impossible to deny    
that  conspicuousness is one of the     
agencies in force for the fertilization 
of flowers2 that1 to use the recent     
language of ,mr4 ,darwin1 flowers  are  
not only delightful for their beauty and
 fragrance1 but display  most wonderful 
adaptations for various purposes4#g     

,so far we have considered the evidence 
which is affirmative1 and in  favour of 
the explanation of the existence of     
beauty in flowers2 we  have found       
clearly that beauty1 or rather          
conspicuousness1 is in many  cases      
useful to the plant4 ,but beauty is by  
no means the only agency  in this       
necessary process4 ,on the contrary1 the
 agencies actually in  operation are    
very numerous4    ,as ,mr4 ,darwin      
points out in the passage ,i have cited1
 and still more  at large in his work   
,on the ,different ,forms of ,flowers1 a
 large  proportion of existing plants   
are fertilized by the action of the     
wind2 and again1 many plants bear two   
kinds of flowers1 the one  conspicuous  
and attractive to insects1 the other    
inconspicuous and  which never open to  
admit the activity either of insects or 
of the  wind4 ,moreover1 there are      
various other agencies called into play4
  ,some plants1 such as the ,hypericum  
perforatum1 one of the  commonest of the

 ,st4 ,john's ,worts1 and probably the  
bindweed1 are1  it seems1 fertilized by 
the withering of the corolla1 which     
naturally  brings the stamens into      
contact with the style1 and so transfers
 the  pollen grains from the one to the 
other4#h ,other plants1 again1  such as 
the common centaury 7,erythra           
centaurium7 and the ,chlora  perfoliata1
 are fertilized by the closing of the   
corolla over the  anthers and stigma1   
not in the death but in the sleep of the
 plant4#i  ,in the brilliant autumnal   
,colchicum1 and in the ,sternbergia1    
again1 according to ,dr4 ,kerner1       
,nature has recourse to a more complex  
machinery3 the corolla first closes over
 the anthers1 which are at  a lower     
level than the stigma1 and takes off    
some of the pollen2 a  growth of the    
corolla carries the pollen dust to the  
level of the  stigma1 and a second      
closing of the corolla transfers the    
pollen  to the stigmatic surface4 ,the  
pollen has been made to ascend to its   

proper place by an arrangement which    
reminds one of the man-engine of  a     
,cornish mine4#aj ,a similar arrangement
 is described as occurring in  the      
bright-flowered ,pedicularis4#aa    ,let
 us take another group of beautiful     
flowers which adorn our  greenhouses and
 our tables3 ,i mean the ,asclepiad1 to 
which the  ,stephanotis and the ,hoya   
belong4 ,the former is distinguished  by
 the beauty of its scent as well as of  
its flowers4 ,both present  flowers not 
merely conspicuous in themselves from   
their size1 form1  and colour1 but      
conspicuous also by reason of their     
grouping4 ,here1  if anywhere1 we should
 expect that beauty should justify      
itself by its  utility4 ,but the facts  
appear to be just the other way4 ,the   
pollen  is collected together into waxy 
masses1 which are arranged in a very    
peculiar manner on the pistil2 and the  
pollen tubes pass from the  pollen      
grains whilst still enclosed within the 
anthers1 and so bring  about            

fertilization without the intervention  
of insect agency4 ,it is  difficult to  
suppose the ,asclepiad can have become  
beautiful for  the sake of an agency of 
which they never avail themselves4      
,our common ,fumitory has not very      
conspicuous flowers1 but still they     
have considerable attractiveness of form
 and still more of colour1 due  both to 
the individual blossom and to their     
grouping together2 and yet  ,fumaria is 
said to be self-fertile4#ab    ,a much  
more brilliantly coloured member of the 
same family is the  ,dicentra           
7,diclytra7 spectabilis1 so familiar in 
our gardens4 ,any  one who examines the 
flowers of this species will continually
 find the  pollen grains transferred to 
the stigma without the slightest trace  
of the flower ever having opened so as  
to allow of insect agency4  ,dr4        
,lindley#ac has given an account of the 
mechanism for  self-fertilization2 and  
this flower has recently been the       
subject  of an elaborate study by the   

,german botanist1 ,hildebrand1#ad and   
he concurs in the view that the anthers 
inevitably communicate their  pollen to 
the pistil1 and that as the result of a 
very complicated and  subtle arrangement
 of the parts1 which it would be useless
 to attempt  to describe without        
diagrams4 ,but he believes that in      
addition to the  arrangements for       
self-fertilization1 another arrangement 
exists for  producing                   
cross-fertilization by insects2 but as  
the plant has never  produced seed under
 his observation1 he is unable to tell  
whether  one mode of fertilization is   
more useful than the other4 ,i think the
  evidence of the self-fertilization is 
far clearer than that of the            
cross-fertilization4    ,now1 if the    
,dicentra has become beautiful in order 
to attract  insects1 it must have done  
so through a long series of             
developments1  for its adaptation to    
their agency is of the most complex     
kind4 ,it is  difficult to suppose      

either that1 side by side with this     
development  for cross-fertilization1   
there has been also developed another   
complex arrangement for                 
self-fertilization1 or that an earlier  
complex  arrangement for                
self-fertilization should have survived 
through the  changes necessary to render
 the flower fit for insect              
fertilization4  ,the co-existence in one
 organism of two complex schemes for    
different  objects1 and the interlacing 
of those two schemes in one beautiful   
flower 7which1 if ,hildebrand be right1 
occurs in the ,dicentra71 seem  to be   
things very improbable if the beautiful 
flower has become what  it is in the    
pursuit of one only of those objects4   
,these speculations  may be premature as
 regards the particular flower2 but the 
co-existence of two modes of            
fertilization is not peculiar to        
,dicentra and seems to furnish material 
for important reflection4    ,yet one   
more plant must be considered4 ,the     

,loasa aurantiaca is  a creeper which   
grows freely in our gardens1 and has    
large and  brilliantly coloured scarlet 
flowers turned up with yellow4 ,its     
seeds set freely in cultivation4 ,the   
means by which fertilization is         
effected are--unless my observations    
have misled me--very peculiar4  ,when   
the flower first unfolds1 the numerous  
stamens are found  collected together in
 bundles in depressions or folds of the 
petals2  after a while the anthers begin
 to move1 and one after the other the   
stamens pass upwards from their nests in
 the petals1 and gather in  a thick     
group round the style2 subsequently a   
downward and backward  movement begins1 
which brings the anthers against the    
pistils1 and  restores the stamens      
nearly to their old position1 but with  
exhausted  and faded anthers4 ,i have   
never seen any insects at work on the   
flowers1 and yet ,i find the plant to be
 a free seeder4    ,so long ago as #ahdj
 ,m4 ,fromond enumerated several        

conspicuous flowers  in which1 according
 to his observations1 fertilization was 
effected  without the agency of either  
the wind or insects4#ae ,and much more  
recently an ,american writer1 ,mr4      
,meehan1 has given a list of eleven     
genera1 amongst others1 in which he has 
observed the pistils covered  with the  
pollen of the plant before the flower   
has opened1 and in the  one case which  
he submitted to the microscope1 it was  
found that  the pollen tubes were       
descending through the pistil towards   
the  ovarium4#af ,amongst the genera he 
names were ,westaria1 ,lathyras1        
,ballota1 ,circes ,genista1 ,pisum1 and 
,linaria4    ,the instances which ,i    
have given are mostly from plants       
familiar  in our fields1 our gardens1 or
 our greenhouses4 ,they are1 ,i think1  
sufficient to make us pause before we   
conclude that all conspicuous  flowers  
are fertilized by insect agency4 ,it may
 be that ,bacon's  warning to attend as 
carefully to negative as to affirmative 

instances  has been a little forgotten4 
,moreover1 these instances seem to  show
 that it would be a great error to      
suppose that all flowers are  fertilized
 either by insects or by the wind2 and  
it is probable  that the more the       
subject is considered the more complex  
will the  arrangements for fertilization
 be found to be4    ,the agencies to    
which ,i have last referred exist1 it   
will be observed1  in beautiful and     
conspicuous flowers2 and yet act        
independently of  that beauty and that  
conspicuousness3 so that in each        
instance  these facts are1 on the       
utilitarian theory1 unexplained and     
residual  phenomena4 ,they1 therefore1  
demand earnest inquiry4 ,for the        
existence  of a single residual         
phenomenon is notice to the inquirer    
that he has  not got to the bottom of   
his subject2 that his theory is either  
not  the truth or not the whole truth4  
,do the facts justify us in concluding  
that insect fertilization is  more      

beneficial to the plant than            
fertilization by the wind or any  other 
agency8 ,do they afford any sufficient  
cause for that change from  the one mode
 of fertilization to the other which has
 been suggested8  ,the facts bearing on 
these questions are very remarkable2    
for1 as we  have already seen1 many     
plants produce two kinds of blossom1 the
 one  conspicuous and the other         
inconspicuous2 the one visited by       
insects1  the other self-fertilizing4   
,recent observation shows that these    
cleistogamous flowers1 as they are      
called1 are present in a great  variety 
of plants4#ag ,in the violet they are   
found to exist1 being  seen in the      
summer and autumn1 when all the more    
brilliant flowers  have gone4 ,the one  
flower has everything in its            
favour--honey and a  beauty of colour   
and of smell that has passed into a     
proverb--and it  opens its blue wings to
 the visits of the insect tribe in the  
season  of their utmost jollity and     

life4 ,the other has everything against 
it3 it is inconspicuous1 scentless1     
ugly1 and closed4 ,and yet1 which       
succeeds the better8 which produces the 
more seed8 ,the cleistogamous1  and not 
the brilliant flowers3 the victory is   
with ugliness1 and not  with beauty4    
,the same is true of the ,impatiens     
fulva4 ,this is an ,american plant1     
closely akin to the balsam of our       
gardens1 which has now thoroughly       
established itself on the banks of some 
of our rivers1 as the ,wey1  and the    
tributary stream that runs through      
,abinger and ,shere4 ,it has  attractive
 flowers hung on the daintiest          
flower-stalks4 ,it has also  little     
green flowers that never open and almost
 escape attention2  and yet they1 and   
not the large flowers1 are the great    
source of seed  vessels to the          
plant--the great security that the life 
of the race  will be continued4#ah      
,again1 ugliness has borne away the palm
 of  utility from beauty4    ,so1 too1  

in ,america the same happens with the   
,specularia perfoliata3  in shady       
situations all its flowers are said to  
be cleistogamous1 and  to be wonderfully
 productive and strong4#ai    ,the      
conditions of the problem in these cases
 are such as to make them  of the last  
importance in our inquiry into the      
utility of beauty2  for in each case we 
are comparing a conspicuous and an      
inconspicuous  flower in the very same  
plant4 ,the conditions seem to exclude  
the  possibility of error in the result4
    ,two explanations have been         
suggested of the origin of these        
cleistogamous flowers3 according to the 
one1 they are the earliest  form of the 
flowers2 according to the other view1   
they are degraded  forms of the more    
beautiful flowers4#bj ,for our purpose1 
it is  immaterial whether of the two    
explanations is correct2 for either the 
development of beauty has diminished the
 utility of the flower1 or the  loss of 
beauty has increased the utility3 in    

either event1 utility and  beauty are   
dissociated the one from the other4     
,another experiment ,nature presents us 
with1 in which the conditions  are      
nearly1 if not quite1 as rigorously     
exclusive of error4 ,the vast  majority 
of orchidaceous plants are1 as already  
mentioned1 dependent  on insect agency1 
for fertilization1 and present a        
marvellous variety  of contrivances for 
effecting cross-fertilization through   
their  activity4 ,but one of our orchids
 7the ,bee orchis7 is self-fertilized4  
,i hardly know anything in vegetable    
life more striking or beautiful  than to
 see its delicate pollinaria at a       
certain stage of its  inflorescence     
descending on to the stigmatic surface  
and so yielding  their pollen grains to 
the fertilization of their own blossom2 
and yet  the ,bee orchis has been found 
by observers to be as free a seeder as  
any of its tribe4 ,here the beauty and  
conspicuousness of the blossom1  which  
are very great1 are1 as far as can be   

seen1 useless2 the plant  gains nothing 
by the attractiveness which it offers1  
and the colouring  and ornamentation of 
the blossom are1 on the theory of       
utility1  residual phenomena4    ,it is 
difficult to imagine that the change    
from wind or  self-fertilization can1 so
 to speak1 commend itself to the flower 
on  the score either of economy or      
success4 ,if the anemophilous blossom   
must produce somewhat more pollen than  
the entomophilous1 it saves  the great  
expenditure of material and vital force 
requisite for the  production of the    
large and conspicuous corolla4 ,the one 
is fertilized  by every wind that blows2
 the other1 especially in the case of   
highly-specialized flowers like the     
orchids1 may be incapable of            
fertilization except by a very few      
insects4 ,the celebrated ,madagascar    
orchid ,angrcum can be fertilized1 it is
 said1 only by a moth with  a proboscis 
from ten to fourteen inches long--a moth
 so rare or  local that it is as yet    

known to naturalists only by prophecy4  
,it  is difficult to suppose that it    
would be beneficial for the plant's     
chance of survival to exchange as the   
fertilizing agent the universal  wind   
for this most localized insect4    ,and 
here another line of evidence comes in  
and demands consideration4  ,the face of
 ,nature1 as we now see it1 has not been
 always exhibited  by the world4 ,the   
flora1 like the fauna1 of the world has 
changed3 how  has it changed as regards 
the beauty of the flowers8 ,does it give
 any  testimony to that becoming        
beautiful of the flowers of plants to   
which ,mr4 ,darwin refers8 ,the answer  
is not a very certain one1  by reason of
 the imperfection of the geological     
record1 of the  probability that        
beautiful plants1 if they had existed1  
and had been  of a delicate structure1  
would have perished and left no trace   
behind4  ,but so far as an answer can be
 given1 it is in favour of the increase 
of floral beauty in the vegetable world4

 ,the earliest flower known  7the       
,pothocites ,grantonii7 occurs in the   
coal measures2 its flowers  cannot have 
been other than inconspicuous in        
themselves1 though it is  possible that 
by grouping they were made more         
attractive to the eye2  in the period of
 the growth of the coal1 when this plant
 lived1 the  vast forests seem          
principally to have been composed of    
trees without  conspicuous blossoms1    
huge club mosses and marestails1 and    
many  conifers2 in the earlier periods  
of this earth we have no trace of       
conspicuous blossom1 and it is not till 
the upper chalk that the oaks  and      
myrtles and ,proteace appear as denizens
 of the forests4 ,in like  manner1 if we
 refer to the appearance of insects on  
the earth1 we have  no clear trace in   
very early strata of those classes of   
insects  which now do the principal work
 of fertilization for our conspicuous   
flowers4 ,in the coal measures there    
have been found insects of the          

scorpion1 beetle1 cockroach1            
grasshopper1 ant1 and neuropterous      
families2 but of a butterfly or moth    
there is only evidence of great  doubt4 
,it seems probable1 then1 and one cannot
 say more1 that with  the progress of   
the ages1 flowers1 as a whole1 have     
become more  conspicuous and attractive4
 ,but if we inquire whether the dull    
flowers  of one era have grown into the 
conspicuous flowers of another1 the     
answer is negative4 ,the conifers of the
 coal age were anemophilous  then1 and  
are anemophilous still2 they show no    
symptom of becoming  more conspicuous2  
the same is true of the oaks of the     
chalk period1  and of all other         
inconspicuous plants4 ,the difference   
between  conspicuous and inconspicuous  
flowers appears a permanent one2 and the
  page of geology gives no evidence in  
favour of the supposed change4          
,another observation must yet be made4  
,comparing flowers fertilized  by       
insects and by the wind1 it has never1  

so far as ,i can learn1  been observed  
that the former are more certain of     
being set or more  prolific than the    
latter2 and1 as already shown1 the      
inconspicuous  flowers are often more   
fertile than the conspicuous ones4 ,what
 motive  would there be1 then1 for the  
inconspicuous flowers of the early      
geologic periods to convert themselves  
into the brilliant corollas of  our day8
    ,carefully considered1 the passage  
which ,i have cited from ,mr4 ,darwin   
does not account for the beauty of the  
flowers of plants at all2 it  accounts  
only for their conspicuousness1 as the  
writer himself points  out2 and the two 
things are so different1 that to account
 for the one  is not even to tend to    
account for the other4 ,if any one will 
consider  the beauty of every           
inflorescence1 whether conspicuous or   
not--a  beauty which the microscope     
always makes apparent where the unaided 
eye fails to perceive it2 or1 again1 the
 easily perceived beauty of  many       

inconspicuous plants2 or1 lastly1 the   
beauty of many conspicuous  plants which
 does not tend to their                 
conspicuousness--he will see how  true  
this is4    ,for in many conspicuous    
flowers there are delicate pencillings  
and  markings which certainly do not    
tend to make them such1 but which       
nevertheless add greatly to their       
beauty1 as we perceive it4 ,in the      
regularly shaped flowers these markings 
often start from the centre  of the     
blossom like radii1 and they may be     
conceived as guiding the  insects to the
 central store of honey4 ,such guidance 
can hardly be  needful1 as the shape of 
the flower itself generally does all1   
and  more than all1 that the markings   
can do in the way of guidance4 ,but  it 
is by no means true that all the        
markings lead to the centre of  the     
flower3 many are transverse2 many are   
marginal2 some are by way of  spot4     
,again1 take the irregularly shaped     
flowers1 which are supposed to be  the  

exclusive subjects of insect            
fertilization2 how infinite are the     
beauties of the flower over and above   
those which make it conspicuous1  or can
 assist to guide the insect4 ,take the  
orchids1 for example3 the  labellum is  
generally the landing-place of the      
insect visitors2 but  the other         
flower-leaves are almost always the     
subjects of a vast  display of delicate 
beauty which cannot be accounted for by 
the  necessity of conspicuousness or    
guidance4 ,all this beauty is1 on the   
theory in question1 an unexplained fact4
    ,but1 again1 take the grasses1 which
 depend for fertilization  exclusively  
on the wind1 and have no need to woo the
 visits of the  insects4 ,the beauty of 
the markings of the inflorescence of    
many  of the grasses is very great1     
though far from conspicuous3 take  the  
delicately banded flowers of our quaking
 grasses2 take the rich  crimson of the 
foxtails2 take the brilliant yellow of  
the ,canary  ,phaleris2 and it is       

impossible to refuse the attribute of   
beauty in  colour to the wind-loving    
grasses4 ,and all this beauty is        
unexplained  on the theory in question4 
,it is impossible to speak of the       
grasses and not to have the mind        
recalled to the beauty that resides in  
form as contrasted with colour4         
,elegance1 grace of form1 characterizes 
most 7but not all7 plants1  whether     
fertilized by the wind or by insects2   
and yet this grace1 in  many cases1     
perhaps in most1 adds nothing to their  
conspicuousness4 ,it  is1 on the theory 
in question1 a piece of idle beauty2 and
 yet it is  all-pervading--a persistent1
 though not universal1 characteristic of
  the vegetable world4    ,but to revert
 to conspicuousness4 ,it is not true to 
say that all  self-fertilized plants    
have inconspicuous flowers4 ,i have     
adduced the  ,stephanotis and ,hoya on  
this point4 ,nor is it true to say that 
all  anemophilous flowers are           
inconspicuous as compared with the green

 of  their leaves4 ,the large but       
delicate yellow groups of the male      
flowers  of the ,scotch pine 7not to    
travel beyond very familiar plants7 are 
very conspicuous in the early           
summer--much more so1 to my eye at      
least1 than many flowers which are      
supposed to stake their lives on        
attraction by being conspicuous4        
,hermann ,mller has observed on this    
same fact1 and considers it to be clear 
that the display of colour can  be of no
 use to the plant1 and must therefore be
 regarded as a merely  accidental       
phenomenon1#ba--;i4e41 a phenomenon not 
accounted for by  utility4    ,the      
crimson flowers of the larch1 again1 are
 certainly very  conspicuous as well as 
beautiful on the yet leafless boughs2   
and yet  they owe nothing to insects4   
,one other remark must be made on this  
passage from ,mr4 ,darwin which  has    
formed my text4 ,it does not pretend to 
account for the production  of beauty or
 even of conspicuousness4 ,it only seeks

 to account for the  accumulation of    
that quality in certain plants1 and its 
comparative  absence in others4 ,the    
tendency in ,nature to produce beauty is
 a  postulate in ,mr4 ,darwin's theory4 
,the beauty of mountain blossoms has    
been referred to as supporting  the     
utility of beauty3 it is not perfectly  
clear that even this can be  accounted  
for merely by the need of attracting    
insects4 ,it is said by  the ,american  
writer to whom ,i have already referred1
 ,mr4 ,meehan1 that  the flowers of the 
,rocky ,mountains are beautifully       
coloured1 produce  as much seed as      
similar ones elsewhere1 and yet that    
there is a  remarkable scarcity of      
insect life--so great1 ,i understand him
 to  mean1 as to render it highly       
improbable that the races of the flowers
  can be perpetuated by insect agency4  
,we have hitherto1 according to promise1
 been considering the beauty of  flowers
 as detached from all surrounding facts1
 and isolated from  all other parts of  

the plant4 ,but1 in fact1 this beauty of
 the  inflorescence of plants is only   
one phenomenon of a much larger class4  
,the petals and sepals are only leaves2 
and it is difficult to argue  about the 
character of the flower-leaves and omit 
from thought the  stalk and root-leaves2
 and these leaves continually possess a 
wealth  of beauty both of form and      
colour for which no intelligible utility
  has ever been suggested4 ,the use made
 of conspicuous leaves in the  modern   
style of bedding-out and the cultivation
 in hot-houses of what  are called      
foliage plants1 will recall this to     
every one4 ,in many  cases the stems of 
plants1 often the veins of the leaves1  
and often  the backs of the leaves1 are 
the homes of distinct and beautiful     
colouring1 for which1 so far as ,i know1
 no account can be given on  the score  
of use4 ,to enlarge our view yet a      
little more1 the brilliant  colours of  
the fungi and of the lichens1 mosses1   
and sea-weeds1 and1  lastly1 the        

outburst of varied colours in the       
autumn--the crimson of  the bramble1 the
 browns of the oaks1 the red of the     
maple1 the gold  of the elm1 the        
sunshine of the withering fern--all     
these present  themselves to us as so   
closely akin to the painted beauty of   
flowers  that we cannot think of the one
 without the other2 and we may well     
hesitate to accept as satisfactory a    
theory which can offer no  explanation  
of phenomena so closely akin to those of
 flowers1 except1  forsooth1 that they  
are merely accidental4 ,once again1 to  
widen the  range of our mental vision1  
the beauty of the vegetable world is but
 a  part of that great and complex mass 
of beauty from which we agreed  to      
segregate it2 and viewed as part of     
that1 it must have the same  explanation
 applied to it as the other beautiful   
phenomena of the  world4    ,it is worth
 while to remember that ,beauty is no   
outcome of a long  period of evolution2 
it is no late event in the geologic     

history of  the world4 ,the lowest forms
 of organic life no less than the       
highest  are clad in beauty4 ,many      
beings that are simple structureless    
protoplasm--to use the language of      
,professor ,allman as ,president of  the
 ,british ,association this             
year--fashion for themselves an  outer  
membraneous or calcareous case1 often of
 symmetrical form  and elaborate        
ornamentation1 or construct a silicious 
skeleton of  radiating spicula or       
crystal-clear concentric spheres of     
exquisite  symmetry and beauty4#bb      
,so1 too1 in the ,silurian period1 the  
corals and other marine  structures     
were1 no doubt1 endowed with every grace
 which could  please the eye of man1 if 
he had been there4 ,beauty is the       
invariable  companion of ,nature4 ,it is
 difficult1 therefore1 to account for it
  as a result of evolution2 and1 as for 
the theory that it was made  for man's  
delectation only1 a single diatom or a  
single fossil from a  ,silurian bed is  

enough to put the whole vain egotism to 
flight4    ,what are the results fairly 
deducible from these observations8 ,they
  seem to be the following3--      #a4  
,that conspicuousness is a step towards 
fertilization in one    mode1 and might1
 therefore1 well be used by an artist   
loving at    once beauty and fertility4 
#b4 ,that there is no such              
preponderating advantage in beauty as   
should convert the ugly anemophilous    
flowers into the brilliant              
entomophilous flowers4      #c4 ,that in
 an infinite number of cases beauty     
exists1 but without    any relation to  
the mode of fertilization4      #d4     
,that it is maintained in many cases    
where the uglier and less    beautiful  
plant is more useful1 as in the case of 
the violet4      #e4 ,that even where   
conspicuousness is useful1 it furnishes 
no    complete account of the whole     
beauty of the flower4    ,let us apply  
these facts to the two rival theories4  
,if1 on the one  hand1 nothing has      

become beautiful but through the utility
 of beauty1  beauty will be found where 
it is useful and nowhere else4 ,but we  
have  found beauty without finding      
utility2 so that theory1 on our present 
knowledge1 is inadmissible4    ,if1 on  
the other hand1 there be an artificer in
 ,nature who loves at  once utility and 
beauty1 he may use the one sometimes as 
a mean to  the other1 or he may use     
beauty without utility2 and the presence
 of  beauty without utility is          
intelligible4    ,and here ,i conclude4 
,i see in ,nature both utility and      
beauty2 but ,i am  not convinced that   
the one is solely dependent on the      
other4 ,i find  a grace and a glory     
7even in the flowers of plants7 which1  
on the  utilitarian theory1 is not      
accounted for1 is a residual phenomenon2
  and that in such enormous proportions 
that the phenomenon explained  bears no 
perceptible proportion to the phenomenon
 left unexplained4  ,whether this be so 
or not1 it appears to me1 for the       

reasons ,i have  already given1 that we 
may still entertain the same notions    
about the  beauty of the world as       
before4 ,our souls may still rejoice in 
beauty  as of old4 ,to some of us this  
glorious frame has not appeared a dead  
mechanic mass1 but a living whole1      
instinct with spiritual life2 and  in   
the beauty which we see around us in    
,nature's face1 we have felt  the smile 
of a spiritual ,being1 as we feel the   
smile of our friend  adding light and   
lustre to his countenance4 ,i still     
indulge this  fancy1 or1 if you will1   
this superstition4 ,still1 as of old1 ,i
 feel  7to use the familiar language of 
our great poet of ,nature7--      ,a    
presence that disturbs me with the joy  
,of elevated thoughts3 a sense sublime  
,of something far more deeply           
interfused1    ,whose dwelling is the   
light of setting suns1    ,and the round
 ocean1 and the living air1    ,and the 
blue sky1 and in the mind of man2    ,a 
motion and a spirit1 that impels    ,all

 thinking things1 all objects of all    
thought1    ,and rolls through all      
things4 ,therefore am ,i still    ,a    
lover of the meadows and the woods      
,and mountains2 and of all that we      
behold    ,from this green earth3 of all
 the mighty world1    ,of eye1 and ear4 
,,edw4 ,,fry4        ,footnote #a3      
,wisdom1 xiii4 #c-e4        ,footnote   
#b3 ,p4 #bjj4        ,footnote #c3      
,origin of ,species 7#dth ,ed471 p4     
#bci4        ,footnote #d3 ,wallace1    
,tropical ,nature1 p4 #bcb4             
,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 p4 #bcb4           
,footnote #f3 ,ibid4 p4 #bcg4           
,footnote #g3 ,flowers and their        
,unbidden ,guests1 by ,kerner1          
translated by ,ogle4 ,prefatory ,letter4
        ,footnote #h3 ,henslow1 ,on     
,self-,fertilization4 ,trans4 ,linn4    
,society1 #bnd series1 ,botany1 i4 p4   
#cbe4 ,query3 ,is not this      the case
 with the ,tacsonia of our greenhouses8 
,footnote #i3 ,henslow1 ubi sup4 #cbi4  
,footnote #aj3 ,kerner1 p4 #aa4 ,these  

statements appear to      me1 though    
made by a very accomplished observer1 to
 require      verification4 ,my own     
observations on the ,colchicum 7which   
have been only very imperfect7 would    
have led me to incline to      a        
different conclusion4        ,footnote  
#aa3 ,kerner1 p4 #ab4        ,footnote  
#ab3 ,lubbock's ,wild ,flowers in       
,relation to ,insects1      p4 #ef4     
,footnote #ac3 ,lindley1 ,veg4 ,king4   
#dcf4        ,footnote #ad3 ,ueber die  
,bestaubungsvorrichtungen bei den       
,fumariaceen1 in ,pringsheim's          
,jahrbuch1 vol4 vii4 part iv4      p4   
#dbc4 #ahgj4        ,footnote #ae3      
,link1 ,report on ,progress of ,botany  
during      #ahda1 translated by        
,lankester 7,ray ,society1 #ahde71 p4   
#fe4        ,footnote #af3 ,meehan1 ,on 
,fertilization by ,insect ,agency4      
,gardeners' ,chronicle1 #aa ,sept4      
#ahge4        ,footnote #ag3 ,for the   
whole subject of these most curious     
flowers1 see ,mr4 ,darwin's book ,on the

 ,different ,forms of      ,flowers2    
,rev4 ,g4 ,henslow1 ,tr4 ,linn4         
,society1 ,botany1 #bnd      series1    
vol4 i4 p4 #cag2 ,mr4 ,bennett1 ,journal
 of ,linn4 ,society1      ,botany1 xiii4
 p4 #adg1 xvii4 p4 #bfi4                
,footnote #ah3 ,bennett1 ,journal of    
,linn4 ,society1 ,botany1      xiii4 p4 
#adg4        ,footnote #ai3 ,meehan1 ,on
 ,fertilization1 ubi supra4             
,footnote #bj3 ,mr4 ,bennett1 ,on       
,cleistogamous ,flowers1 ,linn4         
,society's ,journal1 ,botany1 xvii4 p4  
#bgh1 has shown that the      latter is 
probably the correct view4              
,footnote #ba3 ,nature1 ix4 #dfa4       
,footnote #bb3 ,nature1 xx4 p4 #chf4    
,,where ,,are ,,we ,,in ,,art8      ,no 
doubt education is a fine thing6 said   
,i1 meditatively1 laying  down my       
thirteenth newspaper4 ,it was a rainy   
,november day1 and the  reading-room was
 nearly empty4 ,i had been told the     
great fact over and  over again in some 
form or other in all the ,dailies and   

,weeklies4  ,it had been repeated in    
every variety of tone in the little pile
 of  ,monthlies at my elbow1 of which ,i
 had skimmed the cream 7no one  in these
 days can be expected to go through the 
labour of a whole  article76 ,the       
,quarterlies1 in more ponderous fashion1
 had reiterated  the sentiment4 ,we had 
got hold of the right thing2 all that   
was wanted  was more and more of the    
same4 ,let everybody be served alike2   
what is  meat for the gander is meat    
also for the goose1 repeated the        
advocates  of women's education1        
magniloquently 7though not exactly in   
those  words74 ,let everybody learn the 
same thing that ,i am learning6 ,how    
much better and wiser we are than our   
forefathers6 ,how beautiful for  us to  
be able to say1 as in the old story of  
the ,french ,minister of  ,instruction  
when he pulls out his watch1 ,it is ten 
o'clock2 all  the children in the       
schools in ,england are doing their     
sums4 ,it is  half-past eleven1 they are

 all writing their copies6    ,what     
everybody says must be true1 thought ,i2
 the schoolmaster has  got the better of
 the world1 and rules the roast         
despotically2 but  then how great is the
 result6 ,i repeated1 with pride4       
,such perfection was rather oppressive1 
and ,i could not help yawning a  little 
as ,i went upstairs1 looking round as ,i
 went4 ,the decorations  of the club    
were wonderfully fine1 no doubt1 but    
perhaps an ,italian  of the             
,cinque-cento would not have thought    
them quite successful4  ,probably1      
however1 he would have been wrong4 ,he  
was certainly much  less instructed in  
art than we are4 ,i strolled to the     
window1 and  looked out at a stucco     
palace on either hand and over the way1 
with  pillars and pilasters added ad    
libitum1 and a glimpse of a long wall   
with oblong openings cut in it1         
stretching the whole length of  the     
street4 ,one of the abominable regiments
 of black statues which  disfigure      

,london stood near the corner1 the      
nicely-finished buttons of  whose       
palett1 and the creases of whose boots  
7the originals of  which must have been 
made by ,hoby71 had often been my       
wonder1 if not  admiration4    ,yes1    
there certainly is a lost art or two1   
which have somehow made  their escape   
from this best of all worlds1 in spite  
of our drilling  and double-distilled   
training1 ,i sighed4    ,there was a    
portfolio of photographs lying on the   
table1 which ,i  turned over            
abstractedly4 ,the ,venus de ,milo1 and 
the ,theseus of the  ,parthenon2 the    
,raphael frescoes of the great council  
of the gods in  the ,farnesina ,palace  
at ,rome2 a street in ,venice2 ,durham  
,cathedral2  the decorations of the     
,certosa at ,pavia2 some specimens of   
old  ,japanese porcelain2 some coloured 
patterns of ,persian shawls and         
prayer-rugs and of ,indian inlaid work4 
,each of them was good and  appropriate 
of its kind1 expressing a national or   

individual taste and  feeling1 or1 best 
of all1 a belief4 ,and none of them were
 the results  of education1 but of a    
kind of instinct of art which no        
instruction  hitherto has been able to  
give1 of which it seems even sometimes  
to  deprive a race1 as a savage         
generally loses his accurate perception 
of details and his power of memory and  
artistic perceptions1 with  his delicacy
 of hearing and smell1 as a consequence 
of so-called  civilization4    ,the     
,hindoo arranges colours for a fabric   
with the same certainty of  intuition   
that a bird weaves his nest1 or a spider
 its web4 ,his blues  and greens are as 
harmonious in their combinations as     
those of ,nature  herself2 while the    
educated ,englishman is now introducing 
every  species of atrocity in form and  
colour wherever he goes1 ruining  the   
beautiful native manufactures by        
instructions from his superior          
standpoint2 forcing the workers to      
commit every blunder which  he does     

himself at home1 in order to adapt their
 fabrics to  the abominable taste of the
 middle classes in ,england4 ,even the  
missionaries1 male and female1 cannot   
hold their hands1 and teach the         
children in schools and hareems crochet 
and cross-stitch of the worst  designs  
and colours1 instead of the exquisite   
native embroidery of  the past4 ,arsenic
 greens1 magenta and gas-tar dyes1 are  
introduced by  order of the merchants   
into carpets and cashmere shawls2 vile  
colours  and forms in pottery and bad   
lacquer-work are growing up1 by command1
  in ,china and ,japan4 ,there seems to 
be no check or stay to the  irruption of
 bad taste which is swamping the whole  
world by our  influence4 ,the ,japanese 
have even been recommended to make a    
,museum  of their own beautiful old     
productions quickly1 or the very memory 
of  their existence1 and of the manner  
in which they were made1 would be  lost4
    ,it is commonly supposed that the   
taste of the ,french is better than  our

 own1 and the pretty1 the bizarre1 the  
becoming1 may indeed be  said to belong 
to their domain2 but high art is not    
their vocation4  ,a certain harmony is  
obtained by quenching colour1 as in the 
,soupir  touff1 the ,bismarck malade1   
the rose dgrade1 the ,celadon of  the   
,svres china1 all eighth and tenth      
degrees of dilution2 but pure  colour1  
like that of ,persia and of the ,east   
generally1 they never now  dare to dip  
their hands into4 ,the gorgeous effects 
of their own old  painted glass1 the    
rose windows of the churches at ,rouen  
and in many  other towns of ,normandy1  
are far beyond their present reach4     
,the stained glass of all countries in  
,europe1 indeed1 belonging to  the good 
times1 is a feast of colour which none  
of the modern work  can approach4 ,there
 is a ,last ,judgment1 said to be from  
designs by  ,albert ,drer1 which was    
taken in a sea-fight on its road to     
,spain1  and put up in a little church  
at ,fairford1 in ,gloucestershire1 which

  dazzles us with its splendour2 and the
 scraps which are still to be  found all
 over ,england in village churches 7many
 of which are now  believed to be of    
home manufacture7 are as beautiful as   
the great  ,flemish windows thirty feet 
high4 ,at the present day the pigments  
used1 we are told1 are finer2 the glass 
is infinitely better rolled1  all the   
manufacturing processes have made       
wonderful progress1 as  we proudly      
declare2 only the results of it are     
utterly and simply  detestable--the     
colours of the great modern windows in  
,cologne  ,cathedral and ,westminster   
,abbey set one's very teeth on edge--the
  temptation to use a stone 7if it had  
come under one's hand7 would be         
frightfully great in front of that at   
the east end of ,ripon4    ,there lies  
before me an old ,persian rug1 all out  
of shape and twisted  in the weaving1   
but full of subtle quantities in colour1
 perfect in  the proportions of its     
vivid brilliancy1 and a grand new       

,axminster  carpet alongside1 of        
faultless construction1 with a design as
 hideous  as its colours are harsh4     
,it is not only now with productions    
destined for the ,english market1  but  
the degradation of art is beginning to  
spread all over the  world--the         
standards of instructed ,european taste 
are vitiating the  very well-springs of 
beautiful old work4 ,the mantilla of    
,seville1  and the tovaglia of the      
,roman peasant1 are supplanted by       
frightful  bonnets2 the striking old    
costumes are disappearing alike in      
,brittany  and in ,algiers2 in ,athens  
and in ,turkey they are giving way to   
the abominations of ,parisian toilettes 
for the women1 while the  chimney-pot   
hat is taking the place of the turban   
and the kalpac for  the men4    ,the    
picturesque quaintness of the narrow    
,egyptian streets dies away1  as under a
 frost1 under the hand of ,western      
architects2 the delicate  pierced       
woodwork of their projecting balconies  

is changed for flat  windows with red   
and green jalousies2 and the ,khedive   
builds  minarets1 it is true1 but like  
enlarged ,mordan pencil-cases4 ,the     
harmony of the lines in an ancient      
,arabian fountain or mosque at  ,cairo1 
the interlacing patterns of fretwork in 
the ,saracenic buildings  at ,grenada1  
are marvellous in their exquisite       
variety2 yet the secret  of their       
construction in their own land is nearly
 gone1 the very  tradition of the old   
work seems to have perished in the      
race--they  cannot even imitate their   
own old creations4 ,oh for a touch of a 
vanished hand6 we say over the ruined   
tombs of the ,memlook ,sultans  in their
 desolate beauty1 standing lonely in the
 desert near ,cairo1 or  the wonderful  
mosques of the deserted city of         
,beejapore in the ,bombay  ,presidency1 
whose photographs have lately been      
printed4    ,each nation in the old time
 had an expression of its thoughts in   
the buildings in which it housed its    

gods1 its government1 and its           
individuals1 which was as distinctive as
 its language3 a tongue1  indeed1 in    
stone1 in colour and in form1 as plain  
as1 indeed plainer  than1 ever words    
could frame4    ,the ,egyptian1 with the
 flat square lines of the gigantic slabs
 placed  across the forests of enormous 
rounded pillars closely packed1 the     
avenues of sphinxes and obelisks leading
 up 7never at right angles1  curiously  
to our sense of conformity7 to the      
temples--solemn1 heavy1  magnificent1   
mysterious--with a sentiment of         
dignified repose1 though  little of     
beauty or proportion1 but full of       
symbolism and suggestion  and grandeur4 
,the exquisite ,greek buildings1 where  
proportion was almost like music  in its
 scientific harmony of parts1 so exact1 
so modulated1 so severe1  so            
lovely--with sculpture forming an almost
 necessary portion of the  architectural
 design when at its highest point of    
excellence4    ,the ,saracenic1 with its

 simple grace of construction and       
delicate  detail of ornament1 with holy 
words and combinations of lines in place
  of natural forms1 and soaring beauty  
of domes1 and pierced marble  work4     
,the ,middle ,age ,italian1 with its    
inlaid and decorated faades and  wealth 
of columns1 and traceries of            
gay-coloured stones1 and contrasts  of  
brilliant light and dark shadows in the 
deep-set windows and  doors1--bright and
 lovely like ,giotto's ,campanile at    
,florence1 rising  like a flower over   
the city1 or great churches like those  
of ,orvieto  and ,st4 ,mark's1#a with   
their rich profusion of mosaic and      
carved  stone and quaint modifications  
of brickwork4    ,or the buildings of   
the ,gothic nations 7our own included71 
which  often1 like those at ,mont ,st4  
,michel1 seem to have so grown out of   
the situation--where the ,art is so     
interwoven with ,nature1 that it is     
hardly possible to discover where one   
begins and the other ends4 ,there  is   

something also of the manner in which   
,nature works1 in the feeling  with     
which the curves interlace1 seeming     
almost to grow into each  other1 in a   
,gothic cathedral4 ,in the perspectives 
of heavy round  arches of ,winchester   
and ,durham1 in the upward soaring of   
the  ,salisbury spire1 there is the same
 impression--they seem to have  come so4
 ,it is like a living organism1 the     
parts of which are as  natural and      
necessary to the whole as is the growth 
of a tree3 like  the recipe of old for a
 poet1 they seem to have been born1 not 
made4    ,all these different races     
invented for themselves what is called a
  style2 that is to say1 an original    
manner1 peculiar and adapted to  their  
special idiosyncrasies1 of fulfilling   
those wants which every  nation1 as soon
 as it emerges from the savage state1   
must feel and  provide for in some      
fashion4    ,even to descend to very    
inferior work--there is character and   
expression in the old ,king ,william    

houses on the river-bank at  ,chelsea1  
in the pretty little ,queen ,anne       
,square in ,westminster2 it  is too neat
 and pretty to be high art1 with its    
unobtrusive moulded  brick1 its shallow 
projections1 and the carved shells over 
the  doorways2 but it is not unlike the 
poetry of ,pope in the delicate  finish 
and adaptation of its parts1 while no   
one can deny that it has  an            
individuality which the smart new houses
 in ,grosvenor ,place are  totally      
without1 where costly granite and       
excellent stone seem to have  been      
employed to show the moral lesson that  
the best materials are of  little       
service unless mixed with brains1 sir1  
as ,opie advised4 ,every  capital of the
 columns is carved by hand1 but of the  
poorest design  and all alike--it is    
hardly possible to conceive the poverty 
of  invention involved in making every  
house and every ornament an exact  copy 
of its neighbour1 in a situation which  
invited picturesque  treatment--after   

too1 it had been shown at the ,oxford   
,museum that  carving was done both     
quicker and better when the workers     
exerted  their minds in such inventions 
as they possessed 7and some of their    
renderings of natural forms were        
beautiful7 than when they merely        
followed a stereotyped pattern4    ,at  
present we can as soon invent a new     
style for ourselves as a new  animal2 we
 copy1 we combine--that is1 under the   
,georgian era we added  a ,mahometan    
cupola to ,roman columns in the         
,regent's ,park2 or1 still  later1 we   
made one pediment serve for the whole   
side of a ,belgravian  square--i4e41 a  
form intended for a nicely-calculated   
angle over the  front of a temple with a
 particular number of columns1 is       
stretched as  on a rack over the roofs  
of an acre of houses2 or we build a     
portico  designed as a shelter against  
the cloudless sunshine of the ,greek    
climate to darken a sunless ,english    
dwelling-house4 ,our last  achievement  

has been to make a pasticcio of the high
 mansarde  ,parisian roofs1 with hideous
 little debased ,italian porticoes1 a   
quarter of a mile of which may be seen  
in the ,grosvenor ,gardens  district4   
,also we can patch and imitate--that is1
 rebuild a sham antique--from  which1   
however ingeniously done1 the ineffable 
charm of the original  has escaped like 
a gas4 ,why the portico of the capital  
at ,washington1  or the monument on the 
,calton ,hill at ,edinburgh1 whose      
columns  are said to be an exact copy of
 those at ,athens1 are so utterly       
uninteresting1 it would take too long to
 explain2 but no one will deny  that    
they are mere lumps of dead stone1 while
 the ,parthenon itself1  ruined and     
defaced1 wrecked and ill-used1 still    
stands like a glorious  poem in marble1 
which no evil treatment can deprive of  
its charm4  ,there is mind and soul     
worked into the material1 and somehow   
inextricably entangled into it1 which no
 copy1 however exact1 can in  the least 

reproduce4    ,no doubt we have improved
 in our street architecture2 there are  
isolated specimens of red brick1 a      
shop-front in ,south ,audley ,street1   
and one in ,new ,bond ,street1 several  
excellent buildings in the city1  c1 c1 
legitimate adaptations of gables1       
dormers1 and windows1  exceedingly good 
of their kind2 but these are not        
original creations1  only developments  
of what already exists4    ,there is one
 point in which our present shallow1    
unintelligent  education has wrought    
irreparable mischief4 ,we have learnt so
 much of  respect for art as to desire  
to preserve the works of our            
forefathers1  but not so far as to find 
out how this is to be done4 ,we set to  
work  to restore them4 ,every inch of   
the surface of an old church is         
historical as to the manner of the      
handiwork of the men of the  twelfth1   
thirteenth1 or whatever may be the      
century1 and we proceed  to put a new   
face on it1 which1 at the best1 must    

certainly be that  of the nineteenth    
century2 we find a defaced portrait     
statue on an  altar-tomb 7as in a church
 in ,devonshire71 and we insert a smooth
  mask out of our own heads2 we find an 
,early ,english tower with walls        
fourteen feet thick1 and think a vestry 
would be nicer in its place1  and the   
tower is therefore pulled down and      
rebuilt at the other end of  the nave   
7as in a church in ,bucks72 or a curious
 monument to the fifth  son of ,edward  
,,iii41 or a couple of kneeling figures1
 clad in ruffs and  farthingales1 of an 
old rector and his wife1 are within the 
communion  rails 7as in two other       
churches in ,bucks72 the incumbents do  
not  approve of tombs in such sacred    
places1 and1 regardless of  the curious 
historical fact shown by the very       
position itself in  pre-,reformation    
days1 they are ruthlessly rooted up1 and
 in the latter  case a flaming brass to 
the rector's own family substituted4    
,even a little art education would show 

us that this is not  restoration2 it may
 be a much finer and smarter kind of    
work1 as  many people seem to consider  
it2 but the cutting down an inch of the 
splendid carved stone porches at        
,chartres to a new surface is  not      
restoring that which was there          
before--the face of the                 
fifteenth-century lady cannot be        
restored without a portrait which  no   
longer exists--the new tower may be very
 pretty1 but it is  certainly no longer 
a specimen of rare old ,early ,english  
work4 ,like  the monks of old carefully 
scratching their invaluable parchment   
manuscripts1 to put in their own words  
and notes1 we have at one fell  swoop   
scratched the history of ,english       
ecclesiastical art off  the land1 and   
archologists are inquiring sadly for    
instances of  unrestored churches1      
which1 alas6 now are scarcely to be     
found4    ,what may be the reason why   
architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and  
even poetry--i4e41 the combination of   

stone1 brick1 marble1 metal1  colours1  
and1 lastly1 of metrical forms of       
words--should all suffer by  the advance
 of our 7so-called7 civilization and    
education1 is still  a mystery2 but few 
will be found to doubt the fact in      
detail1 though  they may deny the       
general formula4    ,perhaps our        
self-consciousness as to our great      
virtues1 our  progress1 our knowledge1  
the learning of the reason of our work1 
the  introversion of our present moods  
of thought1 check the development  of an
 idea1 even if we may be fortunate      
enough to get hold of one4              
,self-consciousness is fatal to art2    
there is a certain spontaneity  of      
utterance--singing1 as the birds sing1  
because they cannot help  it--composing1
 almost as the mountains and clouds     
compose1 by  reason of their existence  
itself1 not because they want to make a 
picture1--which produces natural work1  
grown out of the man and  the           
requirements of his nature1 to which it 

seems1 with very rare  exceptions1 that 
we cannot now attain4    ,in sculpture1 
a modern ,r4,a4 has acquired ten times  
as much anatomy  as ,phidias3 dissection
 was unknown1 and not permitted1 by the 
,greeks4  ,chemistry has produced for   
the painter colours which ,raphael      
7luckily  for us7 never dreamed of4 ,yet
 one cannot help wondering at the       
strange  daring which permits the       
honourable society at ,burlington ,house
 to  hang yearly the works of the       
ancient masters of the craft on the same
  walls where their own productions are 
to figure a few weeks later1 as  if to  
inform the world most impressively and  
depressingly from how far  we have      
fallen in pictorial art2 to string up   
our taste1 as it were1  to concert      
pitch--to give the key-note of true     
excellence1 in order to  mark the depth 
to which we have sunk4    ,we now teach 
drawing diligently in all ,european     
countries1 and are  surprised that we   
get no ,michelangelos4 ,did ,masaccio go

 to a school of  design1 or ,giotto     
learn free-hand manipulation8           
,education1 as it is  generally         
defined--meaning thereby a knowledge of 
the accumulation of  facts discovered by
 other people--is good for the general  
public1 for  ordinary humanity1 but not 
for original minds1 except so far as it 
saves them time and trouble by          
preventing them from reinventing  what  
has been already done by others4 ,true1 
there can be but few  inventors 7in the 
old ,italian sense of creators7 in the  
world at any  one moment1 and training  
must1 it will be said1 be carried on for
 the  use of the many2 but one might    
still plead for a certain elasticity in 
our teaching1 a margin left for         
free-will among the few who will ever   
be able to use it4 ,and1 meantime1 it is
 allowable to lament over the  number of
 arts we have lost1 or are in danger of 
losing1 which  can only be practised by 
the few--whose number seems ever to be  
diminishing1 under our generalizing     

processes of turning out as many  minds 
of the same pattern as if we wanted     
nail-heads or patent screws  by the     
million4    ,this is not education in   
its true and highest sense--i4e41 the   
bringing forth the best that is in a    
man2 not simply putting knowledge  into 
him1 but using the variety of gifts1    
which even the poorest in  endowment    
possess1 to the best possible end4 ,and 
this seems more and  more difficult as  
the stereotyped pattern is more and more
 enforced in  board-schools1 endowed    
schools1 public schools1 universities2  
and each  bit of plastic material1 while
 young1 is forced as much as possible   
into the same shape1 the only contention
 being who shall have the  construction 
of the die which all alike are eager to 
apply to every  individual of the       
nation4    ,of all races which have yet 
existed there can be no doubt that the  
,greek was the one most highly endowed  
with artistic powers of all  kinds2 yet 
the ,greek was certainly not1 in our    

sense of the term1  an educated man at  
all2 his powers of every kind1 however1 
were  cultivated indirectly by the very 
atmosphere he lived in4 ,his  sensitive 
artistic nature found food in the forms 
and colours of  the mountains and the   
islands1 the sea and the sky1 by which  
he  was surrounded2 by the human nature 
about him in its most perfect           
development2 by every building--his     
temples1 his tombs1 his  theatres--every
 pot and pan he used1 every seat he sat 
upon2 whereas  no man's eye can be other
 than degraded by the unspeakable       
ugliness of  an ,english manufacturing  
town1 or1 what is almost worse1 by the  
sham  art where decoration of any kind  
is invented or attempted by the  richer 
middle class4    ,the theory that soil  
and climate and food produce instincts  
of beauty1  as well as varieties of     
beasts and plants1 is1 however1         
evidently at  fault in these questions2 
for if this were the case at one time in
 the  world's history1 why not at       

another8 and the present inhabitants of 
,greece are as inapt as their neighbours
 in sculpture1 painting1 and            
architecture4 ,nothing1 even out of the 
workshops of ,birmingham1 can  exceed   
the ugliness of their present           
productions--e4g41 a ,minerva's  head   
without a forehead1 done in bead-work on
 canvas1 fastened on to a  piece of     
white marble1 which was given as a      
precious parting gift from  the         
goddess's own city to a valued friend4  
,there seems now a headlong  competition
 in every country after bad art4 ,if we 
ask for lace and  embroidery in the     
,greek islands1 or silver fillagree in  
,norway1--if  we inquire for            
wood-carving from ,burmah1 or the old   
shawls and pottery  from ,persia and the
 ,east1--the answer is always the same3 
we are told  that there is none such    
made at present4 ,it is only what       
remains of  the old handmade work that  
is to be obtained2 the present          
inhabitants  care for none of these     

things4 ,sham jewellery from the ,palais
  ,royal1 ,manchester goods1 stamped    
leather1 and the like1 are what the     
natives are seeking for themselves1     
while they get rid of all those  ugly   
old things to the first possible buyer  
for any price which they  can fetch4    
,manufacturing an article1 7whatever be 
the real derivation of the  word1 but7  
meaning the use of machinery for the    
multiplication of the  greatest number  
of articles at the least cost1 however  
admirable for  the comfort of the       
million1 is evidently fatal to art4     
,when each bit  of ironwork1 every      
hinge1 every lock scutcheon1 was        
hammered out with  care and             
consideration by the individual         
blacksmith1 even if he were  but an     
indifferent performer1 it bore the stamp
 of the thought of  a man's mind        
directing his hand2 now there is only   
the stamp of a  machine running the     
metal into a mould4 ,when every bit of  
decorative  wood-work was all made out  

of the carver's brain1--when the        
embroidery of the holiday shirt of a    
boatman of ,chios' rocky isle  took half
 a lifetime to devise and stitch1 and   
was intended to last  for generations of
 wearers1 art found a way1 however      
humble1 through  nimble fingers         
interpreting the fancies of the         
individual brain4  ,fancy work1 as an   
old ,hampshire woman called her         
stitching of the  fronts and backs of   
the old-fashioned smock-frocks1 each one
 differing  from the one she made       
before1 as her fancy led4 ,it was always
  interesting1 and almost always        
beautiful4    ,now the hinges are cast  
by the ton1 all of one pattern2         
fortunate1  indeed1 if the original be a
 good one 7a very hopeful supposition674
  ,the sewing-machine repeats its       
monotonous curves of embroidery2 the    
wood-carving is the result of           
skilfully-arranged knives and wheels    
worked by steam1 which only execute     
forms adapted for them4 ,the  initial   

thought of their designer must be1 not  
what is in itself  desirable1 but that  
which the machine can best produce4     
,what is right  in a particular place1  
is the natural object of the workman    
artist2  how to use what has been       
already cast or stamped1 is the object  
of  the present ordinary builder2 and   
what he calls symmetry--i4e41  monotony1
 every line repeated ad nauseam--is the 
result his  education aims at4          
,symmetry1 in the sense of the          
repetition of the  infinite variety of  
exquisitely modulated curves in the two 
outlines  of the human body1 is         
beautiful and harmonious2 but there is  
neither  beauty nor harmony in the      
repetition of the self-same horizontal  
and  perpendicular lines of windows and 
doors in a ,london street4 ,a feeling   
of what in music are called contrary    
motion1 oblique motion1 is  all required
 in the impression produced by really   
fine architecture4  ,yet1 if the        
ordinary builder is asked to vary his   

hideous row of  houses by an additional 
window or a higher chimney1 he exclaims 
with  horror at such a violation of     
symmetry1 his sole rule of beauty  being
 that all should look alike4    ,the    
effect1 indeed1 of machine-made work is 
to impress upon the  tradesman mind the 
belief that perfection consists wholly  
in exact and  correct repetition of a   
pattern1 which may be said to be true in
  his craft2 whereas constant variation 
and development is the law  of healthy  
art1 the need being expressed by the    
design4 ,to save the  expense and       
trouble of fresh drawings1 also1 as soon
 as a pattern  becomes popular in one   
material1 it is immediately repeated ad 
nauseam in every other1 however         
incongruous4 ,a bunch of fuchsias has   
been supposed to look well in a lace    
curtain2 it is then cast in  brass for  
the end of a curtain-rod2 is used for   
wall-papers and  stone-carving alike4   
,whereas if a ,japanese artist has      
designed a  flight of cranes on his     

screen or his paper1 it is impossible to
  get another exactly the same2 to      
reproduce a sketch exactly being1       
generally1 as every artist can tell1    
more laborious than to make a new  one1 
where the brain assists the fingers in  
their work4    ,there is another result 
of our present shallow general education
  which has a most depressing effect    
upon art4 ,every one now can read  and  
write1 and it would be considered an    
infringement of the right  of private   
judgment to doubt the ability of every  
writer or reader to  criticize any work 
of art whatsoever4 ,in the case of      
buying a kitchen  range or a carriage we
 should not trust to our own knowledge1 
but  should apply to the experienced    
expert2 but every one can tell  whether 
he likes a picture or not6    ,now1 good
 criticism in art demands at least as   
long and severe an  apprenticeship as   
that in ironmongery--the training of the
 eye by long  experience1 reading1      
historical1 scientific1 mechanical--real

 study of  all the various subjects     
connected with it2 and this can be      
acquired  only by few4 ,it has been     
said1 with perfect truth1 that it will  
not  do to depend on the fiat of artists
 themselves for the value of  a picture1
 statue1 or building4 ,with some1 the   
admiration of the  technical part of art
 is too great2 the passionate likes and 
dislikes  for particular styles or      
particular men warp the judgments of    
others2  and this is1 perhaps1 inherent 
in the artist nature4 ,but this is only 
saying that we must not go to the       
ironfounder for the character of  his   
kitchen range2 there are other skilled  
opinions to be had besides  those of the
 authors of a work4    ,at the present  
time1 the art of criticism has got so   
far beyond our  powers of creation that 
it becomes more and more difficult to   
bring  forth a great work of art4 ,the  
hatching of eggs requires a certain     
genial warmth to bring them to          
perfection2 creation is a vital act1    

but the reception which any new-fledged 
production is likely to meet  with is   
either the scorching fire of            
fault-finding or the freezing  cold of  
indifference4    ,it was not thus that  
great works of old were produced2       
,cimabue's  picture of the ,virgin was  
carried in a triumphal procession       
through  ,florence1 from the artist's   
studio to the church which was to be    
honoured by its possession4 ,it was a   
worthy religious offering to  the       
goddess ,mary1 a subject of rejoicing to
 the whole city1 and the  quarter of the
 town where it was first seen1 amid     
cries of delight1  was called the ,borgo
 ,allegri1 a name which it has kept six 
hundred  years4 ,and the sympathy of the
 people reacted on the artist1 and      
helped him to carry out his great       
conceptions4 ,they were proud of  him1  
and he worked at his picture as a labour
 of love to do his nation  honour4      
,now1 when a man has spent perhaps years
 over a religious picture1  working with

 all his heart and soul and strength1   
instead of its being  taken into a      
church1 and seen only with the          
associations for which it  is adapted1  
it is hung up between a smirking lady1  
clad in the last  abominations of the   
fashion1 on one side1 and a horse and   
dog1 the  property of ,blank1 ,esq41 on 
the other2 while the artist is fortunate
  if the best of the critics1 who has   
just glanced at it as he passes  by1    
does not entirely ignore his meaning and
 mistake the expression  of his idea1   
only discovering that the drawing of the
 toe of the  left foot is decidedly     
awkward4 ,so it may be1 and there are   
probably  faults in it still more       
considerable2 yet the picture1 with all 
these  faults1 may be one of great      
merit4    ,is it possible to conceive   
the ,madonna di ,san ,sisto painted     
under  such conditions8 ,the cold chill 
of the indifferent public would have    
reacted on the artist1 and quenched the 
fire of his inspiration4 ,the  picture  

was intended to be the incarnation of   
the religious feeling  of the whole     
,christian world1 in the divine         
expression of the infant  ,christ gazing
 into futurity1 with those rapt1        
far-seeing eyes1--in the  holy mother1  
who carries him so reverently1 yet with 
such power and  purity in her look and  
bearing4 ,it was honoured               
sympathetically by all  who had the joy 
of seeing it borne as a banner through a
 great city as  an act of the highest   
worship2 not cut up into little morsels 
and set  on a fork by every man who can 
write smart articles for a penny paper1 
bestowing a little supercilious praise  
and much wholesome advice on  ,holman   
,hunt and ,tennyson1 on ,stevens#b and  
,street alike4    ,but the result is    
that the world is poorer by the want of 
the work  which only a sense of sympathy
 between the artist and his public      
inspires4 ,action and reaction are      
equal1 we are told1 in science1  and the
 artist cannot produce the best that is 

in him alone1 any  more than the most   
finished musician can play on a dumb    
piano4 ,the  receivers must do their    
share in the partnership4 ,mrs4 ,siddons
 once  said that she lost all her power 
when annihilated by the coldness of  the
 cream of the cream society of a salon1 
and preferred any marks  of emotion of  
an unsophisticated if intelligent       
audience1 to the chill  of fashionable  
indifference2 and when we complain of   
the poorness  of our art1 we must       
remember for how large a share of this  
we1 the  present public1 are            
responsible4 ,it may be all very well   
for the  skylark to pour his strains of 
unpremeditated art for his own  pleasure
 and that of the little skylarks2 but   
,shelley must have had  the hope that   
the world will listen then1 as ,i am    
listening now4    ,the poet and the     
painter require intelligent cordial     
belief and  sympathy1 which is just what
 we have not to give1 and therefore  the
 reign of the highest art is probably at

 an end3 no ,phidias or  ,michelangelo1 
no ,homer or ,shakspeare1 are likely    
again to arise4  ,this is pre-eminently 
a scientific age--a time for the        
collection and  co-ordination of facts2 
and what imagination we possess we use  
in the  discovery of the laws by which  
,nature works1 and in the application of
  our knowledge to the ordinary wants   
and comforts and pleasures of  the human
 race4 ,electric telegraphs1            
phonographs1 photographs abound2  every 
possible adaptation of steam in majestic
 engines 7almost1 it  seems1 as         
intelligent as man71 to promote our     
means of communication  and locomotion  
over the surface of the earth1 and of   
production in  every conceivable form2  
great ships and engines of destruction  
in war1  and 7curious antithesis7       
ingenious contrivances for the saving of
 pain  in disease--everything1 in short1
 connected with the comprehension  and  
subjugation of the material world1 is   
more and more carried to  perfection4   

,yet in spite of these marvellous       
achievements1 unless we  can manage to  
secure a supply of good art1 there can  
be no doubt that  there will have passed
 away a glory from the earth which we   
can ill  afford to lose4    ,there is no
 use in preaching what is called the    
common sense of the  matter1 and telling
 ,keats 7though he may have died of     
consumption1  and not of the ,edinburgh 
,review7 that the critique on his poems 
was flippant and unintelligent2 or one  
artist that the account of his  picture 
was written by a man who did not        
understand painting1 and the  next by a 
writer who had no notion of the         
requisites of true  poetry4 ,the artist 
is by necessity of his nature a         
thin-skinned1  impressionable being1    
with sensitive nerves and perceptions1  
without  which the power of creation    
does not exist4 ,he writes and paints   
and  acts and sculpts--in short1        
composes1 invents1 creates--to make the 
world feel as he is feeling4 ,fame is a 

vulgar word for the sentiment  which    
inspires him2 the longing after sympathy
 is a much truer  expression of what the
 true artist desires4 ,that of his own  
family  and friends is not sufficient2  
he wants the world at large to hear and 
understand and join in what he has to   
say1 whether it be in marble or  on     
canvas1 in music or in words4 ,to grow  
such a creature to perfection  is very  
rare in the history of mankind1 and when
 our aloe does flower1  we should make  
the most of it1 and feed it with food   
convenient4 ,our  blame depresses him1  
even stupid1#c unintelligent blame1 more
  than our praise elevates him2 he is   
absurdly sensitive1 says the            
hard-headed man of the world2 but that  
is the very condition of the  problem   
with which we have to deal2 if he were  
not so1 we should not  have great works 
of art from him4 ,he is an idealist by  
nature4 ,if we  declare that it is very 
absurd of our vines to require so much  
care  and kindness1 and that a little   

roughing and neglect will do them a     
great deal of good1 we shall not get    
many grapes2 and1 after all1 what  we   
want is grapes--results1 great artistic 
works4    ,it is almost pathetic to see 
the nation doing the best it knows1     
offering its patronage and its public   
buildings1 its monuments of  great men  
and its money1 and then to mark the     
results4 ,it is fortunate  that most of 
the frescoes are scaling off the walls  
of the ,houses  of ,parliament4 ,it is  
fortunate that ,nelson and the ,duke of 
,york are  hoisted up so high that they 
cannot be scrutinized at all2 it is     
fortunate that most of the public       
statues are generally so begrimed  with 
dirt and soot that few can make out     
their intention4 ,but it is we  who are 
responsible for half at least of their  
failures4#d ,we have1  as a nation1     
neither the artistic feeling which      
delights in the  beautiful with a sort  
of worship1 nor the sensuous religious  
instincts  which require an outward and 

visible sign of our inward faith4       
,therefore our best chance of great work
 seems to be when the  common-sense     
necessity is so large in its demands1   
that carrying it  out even on merely    
utilitarian principles may give a grand 
result  by the force of circumstances1  
almost without our will1--the very      
fulfilment of the working conditions on 
an enormous scale forcing  a certain    
grandeur on the work4 ,as1 for instance1
 when a viaduct is  carried over a deep 
valley and river1 upon a lofty series of
 arches1  as in many ,welsh railways and
 at ,newcastle1 there are elements of   
strength1 durability1 might1 and        
therefore majesty1 which the barest     
execution of the requirements cannot    
take away4 ,the ,suspension ,bridge     
hung high in the air above the ships in 
the ,menai ,straits1 and that  over the 
narrow hollow of the ,avon1 have a      
beauty of lightness and  grace all their
 own--,waterloo ,bridge1 which ,canova  
declared to be  worth coming to ,england

 to see--are all specimens of a kind of 
work  which we may hope to see          
multiplied1 and even improved upon1 as  
the adaptation of art to the common     
necessities of our civilization  becomes
 more common1 and is taken in hand by a 
higher and more  educated class of men4 
,nothing1 however1 can well be more     
depressing than the experience of  the  
,united ,states in respect to this      
question of art and education4  ,here is
 a country 7in their own magniloquent   
hyperbole7 bounded on  the north by the 
,aurora ,borealis1 and on the west by   
the setting sun1  c41 c41 whose proud   
boast it is that every man1 woman1 and  
child  7born on its soil7 can read1     
write1 and something more1--which has   
just celebrated its centenary of        
independent existence1 and is in the    
very spring-time of its national life   
when the sap is rising1--a  season which
 among other nations is that of their   
greatest artistic  vigour1 yet which has
 never produced a poet1 painter1        

sculptor1#e or  architect above         
mediocrity4 ,strangely as it would seem 
at first sight1  it is originality which
 is chiefly wanting in their art2 it is 
all an  echo of ,european models2 they  
have no independent action of thought   
or interpretation of ,nature4 ,here1    
again1 it is probably the want  of      
culture of the public which is to blame4
 ,evidence is difficult  to obtain on   
such a vast subject as the use made of  
the reading and  writing so freely      
imparted at the schools in the ,united  
,states1 but  there is very good        
testimony showing that1 with the        
exception of great  centres of          
civilization1 like ,boston1 the nation1 
as a nation1 reads  little but          
newspapers and story-books2 and these   
clearly would produce  a soil utterly   
unfit for the growth of real art4       
,lastly1 let us not forget ,mr4 ,mill's 
warning how much the nation1  as well as
 the individual1 must suffer by the     
stifling of original  thought in the    

rigid conformity to system which our    
present mechanism  of ,government       
regulations1 of centralized             
hard-and-fast rules1 is  bringing about 
in education4    ,the ,state has a right
 to exact a certain amount of training  
in the  individuals who compose it1 but 
has no right whatever to interfere as   
to how that result is obtained4 ,every  
encouragement should be held  out to    
original action of all kinds1 tending to
 develop the  faculties--artistic1      
scientific1 as well as practical--which 
remain to  be utilized among the        
millions who are now coming under an    
influence  hitherto painfully narrow1   
rigid1 and shallow in its operations1   
in spite of its magnificent promises and
 high-sounding notes of                 
self-satisfaction4      ,f4 ,p4         
,,verney4        ,footnote #a3 ,now1    
alas6 under sentence of restoration2    
the age of creation in ,italy appears to
 be over1 and that of      destruction  
to have begun4        ,footnote #b3 ,the

 monument to the ,duke of ,wellington   
has never      received its due meed of 
praise4 ,with all his faults1 poor      
,stevens was a man of true genius4      
,footnote #c3 ,quoique les              
applaudissemens que j'ai reus           
m'aient beaucoup flatt1 la moindre      
critique1 quelque mauvaise      qu'elle 
et t1 m'a toujours caus plus de chagrin 
que toutes      les louanges ne m'aient 
fait de plaisir1 writes ,racine to      
his son4 ,he was silent for twelve years
 after the insuccs      de ,phdre4      
,quoique le ',mercure ,gallant' tait au 
dessous de      rien1 les blessures     
qu'il fait n'en sont pas moins cruelles 
la sensibilit d'un pote1 adds the ,revue
 des ,deux ,mondes4        ,footnote #d3
 ,the group of ,asia1 by ,foley1 in     
,prince ,albert's      ,memorial1 is one
 of the few exceptions to the           
indifferent      character of out-door  
statues in ,london4        ,footnote #e3
 ,mr4 ,story may perhaps be considered  
an exception2      but even the         

,cleopatra1 and ,sibyl were produced    
under the      influence of ,rome4      
,,life ,,in ,,constantinople ,,fifty    
,,years ,,ago4      ,it has often been  
said that the ,turk never changes1 that 
he is now  just what he was when he     
first appeared in ,asia ,minor4 ,there  
is very  little truth in this           
observation1 for in fact he is like     
other men1  and his character has been  
modified by the circumstances in which  
he has been placed1 as well as by       
constant intermarriage with other       
races4 ,he has changed in some respects 
for the better1 and in others  for the  
worse4 ,there is probably no important  
city in the world1  unless it be ,cairo1
 which has been so radically changed    
during the  last fifty years as the     
capital of the ,turkish ,empire4 ,the   
dress1 the  customs1 the people1 the    
,government1 have all been transformed  
under  the influence of ,european       
civilization2 and these changes have    
exerted  more or less influence in all  

parts of the ,empire4    ,in this       
impatient age1 when men will hardly give
 a moment to the  consideration of      
anything but the future1 and are always 
anxiously  waiting for to-morrow's      
telegrams1 it is easy to forget that we 
cannot  understand either the present or
 the future without constant reference  
to the past4 ,no one can fairly judge   
the ,turks or the ,christians of  this  
,empire1 or form any idea of their      
probable destiny1 who is not  acquainted
 with their condition fifty years ago1  
in the time of the  last of the ,ottoman
 ,sultans2 and a brief sketch of        
,constantinople  as it was at that time 
cannot fail to suggest some interesting 
considerations to those who are watching
 the course of events in the  ,east4 ,as
 contemporary records are even more     
valuable than personal  reminiscences1  
,i shall quote freely from the private  
journal of a late  ,english resident1   
who was a member of the ,levant         
,company1 and1  after its dissolution1  

for many years the leading ,english     
banker in  ,constantinople1 with a      
world-wide reputation for integrity1 and
  in every way a perfect specimen of an 
,english gentleman of the  old school4  
,he came to ,constantinople in #ahbc1   
and his journal was  continued till     
#ahbg4 ,it has never been published4    
,the reigning ,sultan was ,mahmoud      
,,ii41 the ,reformer1 who came to the   
throne in #ahjh1 after the murder of    
,sultan ,selim and the execution of  his
 brother ,moustapha1 and after narrowly 
escaping death himself4 ,the            
insurrection in ,moldavia and ,wallachia
 had been put down in #ahba1 and  ,ali  
,pacha1 the famous ,albanian chief of   
,janina1 had been treacherously  put to 
death in #ahbb2 but the war of the      
,greek ,revolution was still  in        
progress1 and the battle of ,navarino   
was not fought until #ahbg4  ,war was   
declared against ,russia the same year4 
,halet ,pacha had been  strangled in    
#ahbb1 and ,mohammed ,selim ,pacha was  

,grand ,vizier4 ,lord  ,strangford and  
,mr4 ,stratford ,canning 7,lord         
,stratford7 represented  ,england at the
 ,sublime ,porte during this period4    
,the relation of  the ,european ,powers 
to the ,sultan at this time cannot be   
better  illustrated than by the         
following account of the reception of   
,mr4  ,stratford ,canning in ,april1    
#ahbf4 ,the ceremony was not so         
humiliating  as it was in #afba1 when   
,sir ,thomas ,rowe made such vigorous   
but  unavailing attempts to have it     
modified2 when the ,ambassador was      
forced down upon his knees1 and         
compelled to kiss the earth at the  feet
 of the ,sultan2 when he was often      
beaten by the ,janissaries on  leaving  
the palace2 or1 as in the case of the   
,ambassador of ,louis  ,,xiv41 struck in
 the face by a soldier in the presence  
of the ,grand  ,vizier2 but although    
there had been some ameliorations in the
  ceremony1 its significance was exactly
 the same in #ahbf as in #afba1  and the

 same religious scruples were advanced  
as a reason why they  could not be      
modified in favour of ,giaours by the   
,caliph of ,islam4  ,they were all the  
more humiliating for those who submitted
 to them1  from the fact that there was 
one ,power in ,europe which had never   
recognized them4 ,even as early as #adii
 the ,russian ,ambassador refused  to   
submit to any such degradation4 ,in     
#aead a new ,ambassador was  specially  
instructed on no account to compromise  
his dignity1 or  prostrate himself      
before the ,sultan2 to deliver his      
letters and  presents with his own      
hands1 and not to inquire after his     
health  unless he first inquired after  
that of the ,czar4 ,the ,turks seem to  
have had an instinctive fear of ,russia 
even at that early day1 when  they were 
strong and ,russia was weak4 ,but could 
,sultan ,mahmoud have  looked forward   
twenty-five years1 he would no doubt    
have treated ,lord  ,stratford with more
 respect and consideration4 ,in #ahbf1  

however1 the  haughty pride of the      
,caliph was unbroken1 and he little     
thought that  his descendants would     
reign only by the favour of ,europe4    
,after having an audience of the ,grand 
,vizier1 the #ajth was fixed for  the   
,ambassador's audience of the ,sultan1  
when he1 accompanied by  all the        
,english residents at ,constantinople1  
left the ,embassy in  the morning at a  
quarter before six1 in procession1 on   
horseback4 ,at  ,topkhana1 about five   
minutes' ride from the ,embassy1 we     
embarked in  boats and crossed the      
harbour to ,stamboul4 ,we found horses  
waiting for  us1 but stopped to take    
coffee1 pipes1 sherbet1 and sweetmeats1 
with  the ,tchaoush-bachi 7a ,marshal of
 the ,palace71 who preceded us to the   
entrance of the ,porte1 where it is     
usual for ,ambassadors to wait under    
some large spreading trees until the    
,grand ,vizier passes and precedes  them
 to the seraglio4 ,having entered the   
first gate1 we passed  through a large  

open space1 enclosed by low buildings1  
in which the  ,janissaries were drawn up
 to the number of three thousand4 ,we   
stopped  on the farther side of the     
second gate1 in a large square chamber  
between the second and third gates1     
within which is the cell where  ,grand  
,viziers and other ,state prisoners     
under sentence of death  are confined   
and beheaded4 ,after waiting here a     
quarter of an hour1  permission was sent
 for our entrance4 ,we passed through   
the third gate  into a large garden1 in 
which stood the divan chamber1 and the  
front of the seraglio1 both very richly 
painted and gilt1 with roofs  projecting
 four or five feet beyond the walls4 ,as
 soon as we entered  the garden1 the    
,janissaries all uttered a loud shout   
and began running  as quick as they     
could4 ,this was for their pilaf1 the   
distribution  of which was a complete   
scramble4 ,this is a farce always played
 off  on these occasions to impress     
foreigners with a respect for this      

contemptible soldiery4 ,we then walked  
forward1 for we had left our  horses    
outside the second gate1 to the divan   
chamber1 where the ,grand  ,vizier was  
sitting in state1 immediately opposite  
the entrance1 on  the centre of a sofa1 
which extended along the side of the    
chamber1  covered with the richest      
silks1 at the further ends of which1 on 
each  side of him1 sat the judges of    
,anatolia and ,roumelia4 ,the chamber   
was  small but richly decorated1 the    
ceiling being splendidly painted and    
gilt4 ,we walked to one side of the room
 without making any salutation1  as no  
notice was taken of us4 ,after a time1 a
 number of ,turks  entered and ranged   
themselves in two rows before the       
judges1 who went  through the form of   
examining them and deciding their suits4
 ,this was  intended to impress us with 
a high sense of their administration of 
justice4 ,the payment of the            
,janissaries is also generally appointed
  to take place at the audience of an   

,ambassador1 in whose presence are      
piled great bags of money1 which are    
delivered to the troops1 in order  to   
impress foreigners with an exalted idea 
of ,turkish opulence4 ,this  tedious    
ceremony lasted more than three hours1  
but it was the last  payment before the 
destruction of that body4 ,the ,grand   
,vizier had in  the meantime sent a     
letter to the ,sultan1 stating in the   
usual form  that a ,giaour ,ambassador  
had come to prostrate himself at the    
feet of  his sacred ,majesty4 ,the royal
 answer came at length1 enclosed in an  
envelope4 ,when this was taken off there
 appeared a quantity of muslin1  in     
which the letter was wrapped4 ,the      
,grand ,vizier1 taking the letter1      
kissed it and applied it to his forehead
 before he read it4 ,the  tenor of this 
letter was a command to feed1 wash1 and 
clothe the  ,giaours1 and bring them to 
him4 ,after the ,grand ,vizier had read 
this1  two tables were laid 7i4e41 two  
large tin plates were laid upon         

reversed stools71 one for the ,vizier   
and the ,ambassador1 the other  for the 
rest of us4 ,washing materials were     
provided1 and a collation  served4 ,all 
this time the ,sultan was looking at us 
through a latticed  window4 ,after this 
we went into the garden1 and pelisses   
were  distributed4 ,i was lucky enough  
to receive one4 ,the ,ambassador1 with  
those who had pelisses1 amounting to    
twenty in all1 then followed the  ,grand
 ,vizier and entered the palace4 ,at the
 door each of us was seized  by two     
,capoudji-bachis1 who held us by the    
arms and half-carried us  through an    
outer hall1 in which was drawn up a     
line1 three deep1 of  white eunuchs4    
,when we entered the throne-room1 we    
advanced bowing4  ,the ,sultan was      
sitting on a throne superbly decorated4 
,his turban was  surmounted by a        
splendid diamond aigrette and feather4  
,his pelisse  was of the finest silk1   
lined with the most costly sable fur1   
and his  girdle was one mass of         

diamonds4 ,the ,ambassador recited his  
speech  in ,english1 which the          
interpreter translated1 and the ,grand  
,vizier  replied to it4 ,this ceremony  
lasted ten minutes1 and we retired4     
,this same ,mr4 ,stratford ,canning1 who
 waited under a tree for the  ,grand    
,vizier to pass1 who had to sit three   
hours unnoticed while the  ,janissaries 
were paid1 who was a ,giaour unfit to   
enter the sacred  presence of the       
,sultan until he had been fed by his    
bounty1 washed1  and clothed1 is still  
alive1 and he remained in               
,constantinople long  enough to become  
the ,great ,elchi who practically       
governed the ,empire  and kept the      
,sultan under his tutelage4 ,it was an  
unhappy day for  ,turkey when he was    
removed to please the ,emperor of the   
,french4    ,only two months after this 
audience the ,sultan accomplished his   
long-cherished plan of destroying the   
,janissaries1 as his ,viceroy in  ,egypt
 had fifteen years before destroyed the 

,mamelukes4 ,it is not easy  at this day
 to realize how large a place this body 
filled in the life  of the people of    
,constantinople4 ,we are accustomed to  
think of them as  soldiers1 as they were
 in the early history of the ,ottoman   
,turks1 the  sad tribute of ,christian  
children exacted by the ,mohammedan     
conqueror  to extend the influence of   
,islam4 ,but this terrible blood-tax    
ceased  in #afge1 and the ,janissaries  
became a caste or a guild1 entrance into
  which was eagerly sought by the       
wealthiest ,mohammedan families1 and    
the majority of them seldom did any     
military service4 ,in the time of       
,mahmoud ,,ii4 they were at once a      
source of terror to the ,sultan and to  
the people of the country4 ,they were   
above all law1 and the lives and        
property of the ,christians especially  
were at their mercy4 ,those who  still  
remember those days can hardly speak of 
the ,janissaries without  a shudder4    
,they lived in constant fear of them2   

night and day1 at  any hour1 they might 
enter the house1 strip it of its        
furniture1 and  torture the family until
 every place of concealment was revealed
 and  every valuable given up4 ,they    
were universally feared and hated1 and  
it was this fact which made it possible 
for the ,sultan to destroy  them4 ,he   
proceeded with caution1 for he could not
 hope to destroy them  by the cruel and 
treacherous means adopted by the ,pacha 
of ,egypt4 ,he  obtained a ,fetva from  
the ,sheik-ul-,islam approving of the   
drafting  of a certain number of        
,janissaries into a new military force  
which  was organized on the principle of
 ,european armies4 ,these men  rebelled 
against the strict discipline1 and some 
of them were  quietly strangled4        
,finally1 on the #adth of ,june1 #ahbf1 
the whole body  revolted1 murdered their
 officers1 plundered the palace of the  
,grand  ,vizier1 and prepared to attack 
the ,sultan next day if he did not yield
  to their demands4    ,they displayed a

 spirit of determination which they     
never manifested  but in extreme cases4 
,all their soup-kettles were solemnly   
brought to  the ,atmeidan 7,hippodrome7 
and inverted in the centre of the area4 
,soon #bj1jjj men were assembled around 
them4 ,the crisis had now arrived  which
 the ,sultan both feared and wished for1
 and he immediately  availed himself of 
all those resources which he had        
previously  prepared for such an event4 
,he first ordered the small military    
force which he had organized to hold    
itself in readiness to act at  a        
moment's notice4 ,he then summoned a    
council1 explained to them the  mutinous
 spirit and insubordination of the      
,janissaries1 and declared  his         
intention of either ruling without their
 control1 or passing over  into ,asia1  
and leaving ,constantinople and         
,european ,turkey to their  mercy4 ,he  
proposed to them to raise the sacred    
standard of ,mahomet1  and summon all   
good ,mussulmans to rally around it4    

,this proposal  met with unanimous      
applause4 ,the sacred relic had not been
 seen in  ,constantinople for fifty     
years before4 ,it was now taken from the
  ,imperial ,treasury to the ,mosque of 
,sultan ,achmet4 ,the ,ulema and the    
,softas walked before1 and the ,sultan  
with all his ,court followed it4        
,public criers spread the solemn news   
all over the city4 ,no sooner was  it   
announced than thousands rushed from    
their homes and joined the  procession  
with fiercest enthusiasm4 ,when they    
entered the mosque1 the  ,mufti planted 
the standard on the pulpit1 and the     
,sultan1 as ,caliph1  pronounced an     
anathema against all who should refuse  
to range  themselves under it4 ,just at 
this time the artillery arrived under   
the walls of the seraglio4 ,the marines 
and gardeners joined it4 ,four  officers
 of rank were then sent to offer a      
pardon to the ,janissaries  if they     
would desist from their demands and     
disperse4 ,the experience  of centuries 

had taught them that they had only to   
persist in their  demands to have them  
conceded4 ,in this conviction1 they at  
once  murdered the four officers who had
 proposed submission to them4 ,this  was
 done in sight of the mosque4 ,they then
 peremptorily demanded that  the ,sultan
 should for ever renounce his plan of   
innovation1 and that  the heads of the  
principal officers of ,government should
 be sent to  them4 ,the ,sultan then    
demanded and received from the          
,sheik-ul-,islam a  ,fetva authorizing  
him to put down the rebellion4 ,it was  
now twelve  o'clock1 and a large force  
of the new troops had been collected who
  could be relied upon4 ,orders were    
given to attack the ,janissaries4  ,the 
,agha ,pacha surrounded the ,atmeidan1  
where they were tumultuously  assembled 
with no apprehension of such a measure1 
and the first  intimation that many of  
them had of their situation was a       
murderous  discharge of grape-shot from 
the cannon of the ,topdjis4 ,this       

continued  some time1 and vast numbers  
were killed on the spot4 ,the survivors 
retired to their barracks on one side of
 the square4 ,here they  barricaded     
themselves1 and to dislodge them the    
building was set on  fire4 ,the flames  
were soon seen from ,pera1 bursting out 
in different  places4 ,the discharge of 
artillery continued without             
intermission2 as  it was determined to  
exterminate them utterly1 no quarter was
 given1  and the conflagration and fire 
of the cannon continued until night4    
,the ,janissaries1 notwithstanding the  
surprise and their comparatively        
unprepared state1 defended themselves   
with desperate fierceness and           
intrepidity4 ,the troops suffered       
severely1 and the ,agha ,pacha was      
wounded4 ,opposition ceased only when no
 one was left alive to make it4  ,the   
firing ceased1 the flames died out1 and 
the next morning presented  a frightful 
scene of burning ruins slaked in blood1 
a huge mass of  mangled flesh and       

smoking ashes4    ,during the next two  
days the gates continued closed1 with   
the  exception of one to admit faithful 
,mussulmans from the country to pay     
their devotion to the sacred standard4  
,the ,janissaries who had escaped  the  
slaughter of the ,atmeidan were thus    
shut in1 and unremittingly  hunted down 
and destroyed1 so that the streets and  
barracks were full  of dead bodies4     
,during these two days no ,christian was
 allowed1 under  any pretence1 to pass  
over to ,stamboul2 but1 though the two  
places  are separated only by a narrow  
channel1 the most perfect tranquillity  
reigned in ,pera4 ,the people would have
 known nothing of the tremendous        
convulsion on the other side if it had  
not been for the blaze of  the fire and 
the report of cannon4 ,on the fourth day
 ,i went1 from  curiosity1 under the    
charge of a high ,turk1 to see how      
matters were  going on1 and was pleased 
at the appearance of the splendid       
encampment  of the ,grand ,vizier1 which

 was found at the ,porte1 and was at the
 same  time the chief tribunal for the  
condemnation of the ,janissaries1 who   
were constantly being brought in1 and1  
after undergoing a nominal  trial of a  
few seconds1 were taken to the front of 
the gate and  beheaded2 but the numbers 
so taken off1 though amounting in this  
one  place from #cjj to #ejj daily1 were
 but few in comparison with those who   
were strangled privately at night on the
 ,bosphorus4 ,the ,agha ,pacha had  his 
camp at the old palace1 and was employed
 there in the same work4  ,carts and    
other machines were constantly employed 
in conveying the  bodies to the sea4    
,these executions continued for several 
months4  ,the whole number destroyed at 
this time was #be1jjj3 #dj1jjj more were
  banished to the interior of ,asia1    
many of whom never reached their        
destination4    ,this account differs   
materially from that given by ,creasy1  
on the  authority of ,ranke2 but the    
author was a resident in ,constantinople

 at  the time1 and in a position to know
 the facts as well as any ,christian  in
 the city4 ,there are also inherent     
improbabilities in ,creasy's  account4  
,the ,sultan no doubt avoided1 in       
appearance1 the treachery  of the ,pacha
 of ,egypt1 but in substance the        
destruction of the  ,janissaries was    
accomplished in much the same way as the
 massacre  of the ,mamelukes4 ,but      
whatever may be thought of the wisdom or
 the  morality of this wholesale        
slaughter1 it was as great a relief to  
the  ,christian population as it was to 
the ,sultan himself1 and it changed  the
 whole spirit of life in                
,constantinople4 ,the destruction of the
  ,janissaries was followed by a violent
 persecution of the sect of  ,bektachi  
dervishes1 whose founder1 ,hadji        
,bektach1 had consecrated the  first    
recruits4 ,this was a powerful order1   
and possessed of immense  wealth and    
influence2 but its members were killed  
or exiled1 and its  tks demolished4 ,it 

is not easy1 however1 to destroy a      
religious  sect1 with a secret          
organization2 and the ,bektachis are    
almost as  numerous and powerful to-day 
as they were fifty years ago1 especially
  in ,albania4 ,they are not true       
,mussulmans1 but are generally liberal1 
enlightened1 and inclined to cultivate  
friendly relations with the             
,christians4 ,they are frequently       
attacked by the ,turkish newspapers as  
heretics1 but they occupy many important
 positions in the ,government4  ,the    
famous ,mahmoud ,neddim ,pacha belongs  
to this sect4 ,sultan ,mahmoud  probably
 attacked these dervishes1 not so much  
because he feared  them1 as to prove    
himself a devoted ,mohammedan1 and to   
conciliate  the fanatics who were       
indignant at the slaughter of so many   
true  believers4 ,he soon afterwards    
issued a ,hatt proclaiming his devotion 
to ,islam1 and ordering the authorities 
to inflict the severest  punishment upon
 any ,mussulman who should neglect his  

religious duties4    ,the discussion on 
the ,greek question which has been going
 on since the  war adds new interest to 
those scenes of the ,greek ,revolution  
which  fifty years ago aroused the      
sympathy of the world for a             
long-forgotten  nation1 and resulted in 
the creation of the little kingdom of   
,greece  which now seeks an extension of
 her territory4 ,the condition of the   
,greeks in ,constantinople during the   
war was melancholy enough4 ,it was  all 
in vain that the ,patriarch proclaimed  
their entire and absolute  devotion to  
the ,sultan1 just as the ,fanariote     
,greeks are doing to-day4  ,it was in   
vain that he solemnly excommunicated and
 anathematized  all who took part in the
 revolution4 ,he was hung at the door of
 his  church1 and his body given to the 
,jews to be dragged about the streets   
of the city4 ,all the prominent ,greeks 
here were put to death1 and all         
,mohammedans1 even children1 were       
ordered to arm themselves and destroy   

the ,greeks whenever they could be      
found4 ,all who could escape from the   
capital did so1 and many were conveyed  
in foreign ships to ,russia4    ,many of
 those who remained were protected and  
concealed in ,european  houses4 ,the    
property and the lives of the others    
were entirely at the  mercy of the      
,government and the populace1 and the   
distressing scenes  which in consequence
 daily occurred in the streets are not  
easily  described4 ,notwithstanding this
 disagreeable state of things1 the      
,europeans enjoyed perfect security4    
,the escapes from death which some  of  
the rich ,greeks had during this period 
were very extraordinary1 and  none more 
so than that of ,signor ,stephano       
,ralli1 a rich merchant  of ,scio1 who1 
with nine others1 was sent at the       
commencement of the  revolution to      
,constantinople1 as a hostage for the   
peaceable conduct  of the inhabitants of
 that island1 when the ,samiotes1 soon  
after  landing and butchering the few   

,turks on the island1 so exasperated    
the ,turkish ,government that they      
immediately beheaded all the hostages   
except ,signor ,ralli1 who found        
sufficient interest with one of the     
,ministers to escape4 ,he was1 however1 
immediately made a hostage for  the     
tranquillity of ,smyrna1 and was again1 
by his acquaintance with  and large     
bribes to the executioner1 the only one 
who escaped death4  ,when the           
disturbances commenced at the capital1  
in order to strike  terror into the     
minds of the ,greeks1 twenty-four of the
 richest  merchants were destined to be 
seized and executed1 and the presence of
  ,signor ,ralli was demanded with the  
rest at the ,porte4 ,but1 suspecting    
the consequence of such attendance1 he  
cunningly informed the guard  who found 
him that his master was at the next     
house1 and that he would  immediately   
send him in4 ,signor ,ralli1 then       
leaving the room1 sent in  his own      
servant1 who was at once seized1        

conveyed to the ,porte1 and  without    
further question executed in place of   
his master4 ,signor ,ralli  was then    
concealed in the house of an            
,englishman4 ,he was found and  arrested
 again in #ahbg1 and again escaped with 
the loss of half his  property2 but this
 had such an effect upon his            
constitution that he  died soon after4  
,the ,bulgarian massacres which excited 
the indignation of the world  a few     
years ago were insignificant in         
comparison with the terrible  slaughter 
of the ,greeks which went on for years  
in all parts of the  ,empire4 ,their    
effect upon public opinion in ,europe   
was greater  and more immediate1 chiefly
 because ,turkey was no longer a really 
independent ,power1 but was committing  
these atrocities under the  protection  
of ,europe1 and especially of ,england4 
,fifty years ago the  ,sultan was       
responsible for his acts only to his own
 people2 but  even then ,christian      
,europe was finally roused to put an end

 to these  barbarities1 and the battle  
of ,navarino1 ,october #bjth1 #ahbg1 was
 the  result4 ,in justice to ,sultan    
,mahmoud1 however1 it should be said    
that some of his most ferocious acts    
were not committed without great        
provocation on the part of the ,greeks1 
who manifested equal ferocity  when the 
opportunity offered4 ,the news of the   
battle of ,navarino  roused the ,sultan 
to proclaim a holy war4    ,the design  
of the ,giaours1 he said in his         
proclamation1 is to  destroy ,islamism1 
and tread under foot the ,mussulman     
nation4 ,let all  the faithful1 rich and
 poor1 great and small1 know that war is
 a duty  for all4 ,let no one dream of  
receiving any pay4 ,far from this1 we   
ought to sacrifice our persons and our  
property1 and fulfil with zeal  the duty
 which is imposed upon us by the honour 
of ,islam4 ,we must  unite our efforts1 
give ourselves1 body and soul1 to defend
 our  faith1 even to the day of         
judgment4 ,mussulmans have no other     

means of  obtaining safety in this world
 or the next4    ,this holy war resulted
 in nothing better than the independence
 of  ,greece and the treaty of          
,adrianople4 ,it was just at this period
 that  ,lord ,beaconsfield spent a      
winter at ,constantinople2 but1 as far  
as is  known1 his visit had no political
 object or influence4    ,the ,greeks   
were not the only ,christians who       
suffered at this time4  ,the ,catholic  
,armenians were persecuted with almost  
equal ferocity1  although their only    
offence was that a number of them had   
left ,turkey  and settled in ,russia    
under ,russian protection4 ,irritated by
 this  demonstration of attachment to   
the ,czar1 the ,sultan expelled the     
whole  sect from ,constantinople1 to the
 number of #bg1jjj4 ,they were allowed  
only ten days for preparation1 and were 
then driven off en masse  into ,asia    
,minor4 ,they were mostly wealthy       
families1 living in luxury1  and their  
sufferings were so great that but few   

lived to reach the  place of exile4     
,they perished at sea1 died of hunger on
 the roads1  and froze to death in the  
snow on the mountains4 ,it was not a    
pleasant  thing in those days to be a   
,christian subject of the ,sultan1 even 
when  that ,sultan was ,mahmoud1 the    
great ,reformer4    ,next to the        
,janissaries1 the thing best remembered 
by the people  of ,constantinople is the
 plague4 ,it seems to have been         
regularly  domiciled here1 and people   
made provision for it in all their      
domestic  arrangements4 ,it was only at 
certain times1 when it raged with       
terrible severity1 that it excited      
general alarm4 ,it of course  occupies a
 large place in the private journal from
 which ,i have  already quoted2 and all 
,europe has so recently been frightened 
out of  its good sense by a rumour of   
its existence in ,russia1 that it is    
well  to see how coolly a man can write 
about it who lived in the midst of  it1 
and who is devoutly thankful that it is 

the plague1 and not the  cholera or the 
yellow fever1 to which he is exposed4   
,the plague is a disease communicating  
itself chiefly1 if not solely1  by      
contact4 ,hence1 though it encircle the 
house1 it will not affect  the persons  
within if all are uniformly discreet and
 provident4 ,iron1  it is observed1 and 
like substances of a close1 hard nature1
 do not  retain and are not susceptible 
of the contagion4 ,in bodies soft or    
porous1 and especially in paper1 it     
lurks often undiscovered but  by its    
seizing some victim4 ,the preservatives 
are fumigations1 and  washing with water
 and vinegar4 ,meat and vegetables are  
washed in  water1 and all paper is      
fumigated4 ,the disease is usually      
observed  to break out after times of   
famine1 and it is a well-known fact that
  those are most subject to it who live 
badly and whose blood is in  a low and  
impoverished state1 for which reason it 
may be considered  rather a disease of  
the poor than the rich4 ,the ,turks are 

the greatest  victims1 on account of    
their religious tenets and their        
abstinence  from wine1 although it is   
very rare to hear of a rich ,turk who   
dies  of it1 for many of these drink    
wine and spirit secretly1 and live upon 
substantial and nutritious food4 ,the   
,greeks are more cautious than  the     
,turks1 but die in great numbers1 which 
may be attributed to their  numerous    
fasts1 which they observe for at least  
half of the year1 and  during these they
 live on bad and unwholesome food4 ,the 
first symptoms  are debility1 sickness  
at the stomach1 shivering1 followed by  
great  heat1 violent pains in the head1 
giddiness1 and delirium4 ,in a more     
advanced stage1 the disease shows itself
 in dark-coloured spots1 and  sometimes 
in tumours on the glandular parts1 which
 often suppurate and  break1 and then   
the patient escapes4 ,a few days brings 
this dreadful  malady to a crisis after 
the spots have appeared4    ,there is a 
contradiction in this disorder1         

difficult to account for2  so easy to   
catch that a bit of wood or cotton can  
retain it for years1  and convey it with
 all its horrible symptoms4 ,on the     
contrary1 some  are proof against the   
most violent contagion4 ,the wife of    
,mr4 ,w4 was a  lady born in the        
country1 and notwithstanding she took   
more than usual  precaution1 she caught 
the infection1 without being able to    
assign any  cause4 ,most of her family  
and servants immediately left the house1
 but  her husband and her father        
attended her until she died1 having had 
her infant at the breast to the last    
moment4 ,no one of them caught  the     
disease4 ,my predecessor1 ,mr4 ,b41     
having been forty-one years at          
,constantinople1 had not the least fear 
of the plague4 ,a few years  since1 as  
he was returning from ,cyprus1 his      
fellow-passenger fell ill  and was put  
ashore at the ,dardanelles4 ,mr4 ,b4    
occupied his friend's  bed1 as it was   
better than his own1 and wore his       

friend's nightcap4  ,the next morning he
 went ashore to see him1 and found that 
he had died  during the night of the    
plague4 ,another time1 two of his       
servants died  of the disease in his    
house2 but in neither case did he       
experience any  inconvenience4 ,the     
,europeans1 and more particularly the   
,english1 take  the usual precautions at
 the first appearance of the disease1   
but have  little apprehension from it1  
living in the country in the summer1    
and in a very different manner from the 
natives1 both as to food and            
cleanliness4 ,it is a great satisfaction
 to know that not one ,english          
gentleman has died of the plague during 
the last thirty years4 ,how  inferior it
 is in its ravages to the cholera and   
the yellow fever1  which are not known  
in this country6    ,unhappily1 the     
cholera has become very well known here 
since1 and has  proved quite as fatal as
 the plague4 ,in #ahfe the city was     
decimated by  it1 some #ge1jjj dying in 

two months1 a loss of life almost as    
great as  in the great plague seasons of
 #ahab and #ahcg4 ,these great epidemics
 of  plague were1 however1 in some      
respects more terrible than the cholera1
  for they continued many months4 ,life 
became a burden4 ,the wealthiest  often 
suffered for want of food and clothing1 
as they remained shut  up in their      
houses for fear of contagion4 ,those who
 were forced to go  out1 dressed in long
 oil-cloth cloaks1 and carefully avoided
 touching  anything4 ,every one entering
 a house was fumigated with sulphur1 in 
a sort of sentry-box kept for the       
purpose at the door4 ,all ties of       
family and society were broken4 ,but    
even in these great epidemics very  few 
,europeans died1 while in the cholera   
epidemics there has been no  exemption4 
,it is now forty years since the last   
appearance of plague  at                
,constantinople1 and1 whatever theorists
 may say1 no one here who  remembers the
 old times has any doubt that its       

disappearance was due  to the strict    
enforcement of quarantine regulations1  
which before that  time the ,turks would
 not accept4    ,there was another      
source of constant anxiety for the      
people of  ,constantinople fifty years  
ago1 in regard to which there has       
unfortunately been but little change4   
,the city was often visited by  terrible
 conflagrations4 ,in those days they    
were generally attributed  to the       
,janissaries1 who always improved such  
opportunities to enrich  themselves by  
wholesale plunder4 ,to this day it is   
often suspected  that the ,government   
itself is responsible for these fires1  
especially  as they frequently occur in 
quarters where it is proposed to widen  
the streets4 ,sometimes1 on the other   
hand1 they are supposed to have a       
political significance1 as a            
manifestation of popular discontent2 but
  probably1 then as now1 they generally 
resulted from carelessness1  and when   
once they had commenced there were no   

adequate means for  extinguishing them4 
,only two months after the destruction  
of the  ,janissaries1 at the moment when
 the sacred standard of the ,prophet was
  being taken back from the mosque1 a   
fire broke out in ,stamboul which  raged
 for thirty-six hours1 destroying the   
bazaars and about an eighth  part of the
 city1 including the richest ,turkish   
quarters4 ,the people  universally      
attributed this to the friends of the   
,janissaries1 and the  discontent with  
the ,sultan was general2 but he acted   
with the greatest  vigour4 ,he opened   
his palaces for the reception of those  
who had no  shelter1 distributed food   
and clothing1 and undertook to rebuild  
the  bazaars4 ,at the same time1 he sent
 his spies into every public place1  and
 every one who was heard complaining of 
the ,government was at once  arrested   
and decapitated4 ,even the women were   
not spared1 but many  were strangled and
 thrown into the ,bosphorus1 without any
 form of  trial4 ,these vigorous        

measures soon put an end to all         
complaints1 but  unhappily did not      
prevent the burning of ,pera in #ahca1  
when #aj1jjj  houses were destroyed1 a  
calamity which the ,mussulmans          
attributed  to the wrath of ,god against
 the ,europeans for the destruction of  
the ,turkish fleet at ,navarino1 but    
which the ,christians naturally         
attributed to the wrath of the          
,mohammedans themselves4 ,it is probable
  that both these fires were accidental1
 as were those which burned over  almost
 the same ground in #ahfe and #ahgj2 but
 the alarm and suffering  of the people 
were as real and as great as they would 
have been if  these fires had resulted  
from the cause to which they were       
attributed4  ,it is a very curious fact 
that1 in both cases1 just five years    
intervened between the destruction of   
,stamboul and of ,pera4    ,another     
characteristic of the time of which we  
write was the  insecurity of property4  
,there were no regular taxes at that    

time  in ,constantinople1 for all the   
residents of the ,imperial city were    
considered to be the guests of the      
,sultan4 ,it is only within ten  years  
that this pleasant fiction has been     
altogether abandoned4 ,but  in          
,constantinople1 as well as in other    
parts of the ,empire1 the people  were  
liable to be called upon to contribute  
voluntarily to meet the  wants of the   
,government4 ,this system of voluntary  
contributions has  not yet been         
altogether abandoned1 but was enforced  
during the late  war all through the    
,empire1 in addition to the regular     
taxes4 ,even  foreigners were made very 
uncomfortable if they refused to        
contribute4  ,the financial system of   
,mahmoud ,,ii4 was like that of his     
ancestors4  ,there was no national debt1
 there were no budgets1 and yet there   
was  no lack of money even for such long
 and expensive wars as were carried  on 
all through the reign of this ,sultan4  
,with what envy ,abd-ul-,hamid  must    

look back upon those happy days6 ,the   
system was a simple one4  ,whatever     
money the ,sultan needed he took from   
the people4 ,orders were  sent to the   
governor of such a town to send so much 
to ,constantinople1  or to such a       
,pacha4 ,he summoned the principal men1 
informed them that  the ,sultan needed  
so much money as a free gift from each  
of them4 ,the  unhappy contributors     
entered into private negotiations with  
him1 and  bribed him to reduce their    
quota and increase that of some one     
else4  ,he took the bribes and rapidly  
accumulated wealth1 but he did not fail 
to secure and forward the money demanded
 by the ,sultan4 ,what is more1  the    
,sultan looked upon the governor himself
 as nothing better than a  sponge4 ,as  
soon as it was known that he had        
absorbed a large amount of  wealth1 he  
was squeezed for the benefit of the     
,imperial ,treasury4 ,he  was disgraced1
 and his property confiscated4 ,it was  
very seldom that  a ,pacha bequeathed   

much of his ill-gotten wealth to his    
children4  ,unfortunately1 this custom  
has been abandoned of late years1 and   
the  ,treasury no longer derives any    
benefit from the plunder of the people4 
,but this system of confiscation was not
 confined to the ,pachas who had  robbed
 the people4 ,the wealthy men of        
,constantinople1 especially the         
,christians1 were never safe4 ,their    
property might be seized any day1  and  
they might consider themselves happy if 
by giving it up without  reserve they   
escaped the bow-string4 ,they feared the
 ,sultan as much  as they feared the    
,janissaries4 ,the ,armenians suffered  
less than any  other nationality from   
these extortions1 because they acted as 
the  bankers of the ,government and of  
individual ,pachas who found it for     
their interest to protect them4 ,they   
understood the ,turkish character1  and 
had acquired infinite skill in managing 
them2 but even they lived  in constant  
fear4 ,when a man heard a knock at his  

door in the night1  he at once took it  
for granted that his last hour had come1
 bade  farewell to his family1 and1 if  
possible1 escaped from his house with   
what jewels he could carry4 ,i have     
heard many very amusing stories of  this
 kind resulting from evening visits of  
belated friends as well as  many very   
sad ones1 where the end was the         
bow-string for the father  and a life of
 poverty for the family4 ,the change in 
the financial  system of the ,empire1   
which led to regular taxation and       
foreign loans1  destroyed the influence 
of the ,armenians1 and threw the ,turks 
into the  hands of the ,greeks and      
,europeans4 ,it is hardly probable that 
they can  ever recover their former     
importance under ,turkish rule4 ,another
 means  adopted by the ,government to   
raise money was the old expedient of    
debasing the coinage1 which was perhaps 
quite as honest as the modern  plan of  
issuing paper-money and then repudiating
 it4 ,the ,turkish  piastre is said to  

have been originally the same as the    
,spanish1 worth  four shillings and     
sixpence4 ,in the time of ,mahmoud ,,ii4
 it was worth  fourpence1 and the silver
 piastre is now worth twopence1 while   
the  copper piastre is worth only a     
farthing and a half4    ,the comparative
 cost of living in ,constantinople in   
#ahbg and #ahgi may  be seen from the   
following ,table1 the prices being      
reduced to ,english  money3--           
#ahbg4      #ahgi4    ,mutton1 the oke  
7#b-c_/aj lbs47         #d;d4    #as4   
#f;d4    ,bread                         
#d;d4          #d;d4    ,fish           
#d;d4    #as4 #d;d4    ,grapes          
#a_/b;d4          #d;d4    ,figs        
#a_/b;d4          #d;d4    ,geese1      
each                        #f;d4       
#es4 #j;d4    ,turkeys                  
#f;d4    #es4 #j;d4    ,wine1 the oke   
#b;d4          #f;d4            ,game   
was also very abundant and very cheap in
 #ahbg4    ,this ,table tends to prove  
that1 so far as ,constantinople is      

concerned1  the old system of voluntary 
contributions and confiscations was much
  more favourable to production than the
 present ill-conceived system  of       
taxation4 ,my impression is that the    
same was true in other parts of  the    
,empire4 ,prices were unusually high in 
#ahbg1 on account of the war  and the   
general confusion in the ,empire1 and   
the increase in fifty  years can only be
 explained by the destructive system of 
taxation  adopted by the ,government1   
which falls almost exclusively upon the 
agriculturist4 ,the price of bread is   
the same1 but ,constantinople  now      
depends upon ,russia for its wheat1 and 
the price depends upon the  harvests in 
other countries4 ,everything produced   
here has increased in  price enormously1
 and the result is that bread is now    
almost the sole  food of the poor4      
,fifty years ago for one oke of bread a 
man might  have one oke of meat1 or     
eight okes of fruit or two okes of wine4
 ,now  he can obtain only about         

one-fifth of an oke of meat1 or one oke 
of fruit1 or two-thirds of an oke of    
wine1 and this in spite of the  improved
 communications by steamer and railway  
with other parts of  the ,empire4 ,then 
the ,bosphorus was lined with vineyards1
 and it was  profitable to cultivate    
them1 to exchange eight okes of grapes  
or two  okes of wine for one of bread4  
,now it is unprofitable to raise grapes 
at eight times the former price1 and the
 vineyards have almost  all disappeared4
 ,they have been destroyed by unwise and
 vexatious  taxation4 ,the condition of 
the rich1 especially of the rich        
,turkish  ,pachas1 has greatly improved2
 but it may well be doubted whether the 
poor1 those who had nothing to fear from
 the jealousy of the ,turks or  the     
confiscations of the ,sultan1 can live  
as well now as they could  fifty years  
ago4 ,the poor ,mussulmans have         
certainly gained nothing1  and the      
,turkish population of ,constantinople  
was probably never in  so wretched a    

condition as it is now4 ,with the       
,christian poor it is  different4 ,in   
many respects their condition has       
greatly improved4  ,then they had no    
rights which a ,turk was bound to       
respect4 ,they  were sometimes shot down
 in their vineyards1 like dogs1 by      
passing  ,mussulmans who wished to try  
their guns4 ,their children were        
kidnapped  with impunity4 ,they were    
forced to wear a peculiar dress1 which  
marked  them everywhere as an inferior  
race4 ,they were insulted and abused in 
the streets1 and trembled at the sight  
of a ,turk4 ,they find it harder  now to
 get food1 but they can eat it in peace4
 ,the poor ,turks have  gained no such  
advantages4 ,they are no freer than they
 were then1 and  have not the           
satisfaction which they then had of     
domineering over a  subject race4 ,the  
,christians are still treated as        
inferiors and suffer  under many        
disabilities1 but in ,constantinople    
their lives1 their  families1 and their 

property are comparatively secure1 and  
they are  seldom maltreated because they
 are ,christians4 ,they no longer fear  
to  look a ,turk in the face4 ,the      
change for them is certainly a happy    
one1  and it is not strange that the    
,turks who remember the old times feel  
that the power of ,islam is waning1 and 
that reform has gone quite  far enough4 
,it is this old ,turkish spirit which   
inspires the present  ,government to    
choose the most inopportune moment to   
proclaim to the  world its determination
 to repress all free thought among      
,mohammedans4  ,a ,turkish ,khodja has  
just been condemned to death for        
assisting an  ,english missionary to    
translate the ,english ,prayer ,book and
 some  ,tracts into ,turkish4 ,this is  
not done secretly4 ,the ,turkish papers 
have discussed the case1 and one of the 
most liberal of them speaks of  his     
offence as follows3--,the abject author 
of this act of profanation  has been    
drawn into his sin by ,satan and by his 

own evil heart1 and  has thus dared to  
commit a sacrilege1 by which he is      
condemned to  the curse of ,god and to  
eternal torture4 ,we demand that the    
miserable  creature may receive an      
overwhelming punishment1 so that he may1
  by his example1 deter others from     
selling their religion for a few  pence4
 ,this is an act of intolerance and     
barbarity worthy of the  bloody days of 
,mahmoud ,,ii41 and is far less         
excusable than it would  have been then4
 ,it remains to be seen whether it will 
be approved by  those ,powers who       
maintain the ,turkish ,empire4    ,in   
one respect ,constantinople has         
undoubtedly suffered by the changes  of 
the last fifty years4 ,it is no longer  
the picturesque ,oriental city  that it 
was then4 ,its natural beauties remain1 
but in everything else  it has become   
less interesting as it has become more  
,european4 ,the  steamers1 whose smoke  
clouds the clear air of the ,bosphorus  
and  blackens the white palaces1 are no 

doubt very convenient2 but they are  a  
sad contrast to the tens of thousands of
 gay caiques which used to  give life to
 the transparent waters of the strait4  
,ugly north-country  colliers are no    
doubt profitable to their owners1 but   
there is very  little interest in       
watching their passage in comparison    
with the  wonderful displays which were 
formerly seen when1 after a long north  
wind1 a southerly gale would take       
hundreds of vessels1 under full  sail1  
through the ,bosphorus in a single day4 
,i have counted over three  hundred in  
sight at once4 ,the square walls and    
narrow eaves of  modern ,turkish houses 
may be more ,european1 but they do not  
compare  favourably with the light      
,moorish architecture and gilded        
arabesques  of the olden time4 ,german  
ready-made clothing may be very cheap1  
and  the ,european style of dress may be
 adapted to active pursuits2 but it  is 
not likely to rouse the enthusiasm of a 
lover of the picturesque  who remembers 

the gorgeous costumes of fifty years    
ago1 when the  streets of               
,constantinople were crowded with gay   
and fantastic dresses1  as in a         
perpetual carnival1 and each rank1      
profession1 and creed  had its own      
peculiar costume4 ,even the ,sultan is  
now no longer worth  looking at1 with   
his little red fez in place of the      
magnificent turban  with plume and      
diamonds1 and his tight black coat in   
place of his  flowing sable robe1 his   
attendants covered with tawdry brass in 
place  of the gorgeous robes of the     
olden time4 ,the pachas are pachas no   
longer in appearance3 you may see them  
running for steamers1 or  sitting on    
crowded benches on the deck reading     
their daily papers4  ,what a contrast to
 the stately pacha of seven tails1 who  
lived fifty  years ago1 whose very title
 was picturesque1 who could not read at 
all1 and if he had ever heard of a      
newspaper looked upon it as a  device of
 ,satan2 but who never ran for anything1

 and who never wore a  red cap or a     
black coat4 ,a graceful caique1 with    
many oarsmen1 awaited  his convenience2 
richly caparisoned ,arab horses stood at
 his door2  when he appeared--with slow 
and dignified step--with turban1 robes  
of  silk1 and ,cashmere or diamond      
girdle--his slaves kissing the ground at
  his feet1 his pipe-bearers and guards 
behind him--he was an ornament  to the  
city1 and perhaps quite as great an     
ornament to the ,state as  his          
successor1 without any tails to his     
title1 who reads newspapers  and wears  
black clothes1 but who has no fear of   
being bow-strung and  thrown into the   
,bosphorus if he betrays the interests  
of the ,state for  a consideration1 or  
plunders the people for his own profit4 
,even the  bazaars are no longer        
,oriental1 although the buildings       
remain4 ,they  are little more than     
storehouses for the ,manchester goods   
which have  destroyed native            
manufactures4 ,the only relics of the   

olden time are  the ,turkish women2 but 
even they have become less picturesque4 
,they  are not so attractive1 when      
crowded like sheep into the stern of a  
,bosphorus steamer1 as they were when   
they rode in lofty arabas drawn  by     
white oxen2 and their dress is gradually
 changing in spite of the  frequent     
decrees of the ,sheik-ul-,islam1 who    
declared two years ago  in one of these 
that the disasters of the war were due1 
among other  things specified1 to the   
fact that the women wore ,french boots  
in  place of heelless yellow slippers4  
,constantinople has lost all the        
peculiar charm of an ,oriental city     
without having as yet attained the      
regularity1 cleanliness1 and elegance of
 a ,european capital2 just as  the      
,government has ceased to be an         
,oriental despotism1 careless of  human 
life and individual rights1 without     
having as yet learned the  principles of
 ,european civilization2 just as the    
individual ,turk has  ceased to be a    

fanatical ,mussulman1 with the peculiar 
virtues which  once belonged to his     
religion1 without having as yet acquired
 anything  but the vices of ,european   
society4    ,if we seek the cause of    
these changes which fifty years have    
wrought  in life in ,constantinople1    
they may be summed up as the result of  
the constantly increasing influence of  
the ,european ,powers at                
,constantinople and the corresponding   
decay of the ,ottoman ,empire4  ,sultan 
,mahmoud ,,ii4 was one of the greatest  
as well as one of the most  unfortunate 
of the sovereigns of ,turkey2 but he was
 a ,sultan of the  old school1 whose    
many attempts at reform had no other    
object than to  revive the power of     
,islam and restore his ,empire to its   
former rank4  ,he did not wish to       
,europeanize his people1 as ,peter the  
,great did1 but  simply to adopt such   
improvements1 especially in the         
organization of  his army1 as would     
enable him the better to maintain       

himself against  his ,european enemies4 
,but1 unhappily1 he had to contend      
against ,moslem  as well as ,christian  
foes1 and to save himself from the      
former he  had to call in the aid of the
 latter4 ,his dynasty was saved by the  
intervention of ,europe2 but when       
,sultan ,abd-ul-,medjid ascended the    
throne at the death of his father it was
 by the favour and under the  protection
 of ,europe1 and from that day ,turkey  
ceased to be the old  ,empire of the    
,ottoman ,turks4 ,mahmoud was the last  
of the ,sultans4  ,nothing remained to  
his successors but the shadow of a great
 name4  ,europe is undoubtedly          
responsible for the evils which have    
befallen  the ,empire since that day4   
,she has neither allowed the ,turks to  
rule  in their own way1 with fire and   
sword1 as their ancestors did1  nor     
forced them to emancipate the           
,christians and establish a civil       
government in place of their religious  
despotism4 ,she has sought to  maintain 

the ,empire1 but to maintain it as a    
weak and decaying ,empire4  ,austria and
 ,russia1 and at times other ,powers1   
have sought to hasten  the process of   
disintegration1 and the limits of the   
,empire have been  gradually narrowed   
until they now approach the capital     
itself4 ,the  ,turks are abused for     
their stupidity1 as if it were all their
 fault2  and no doubt they have done and
 are doing many unwise things2 but      
after all they are not to be too harshly
 condemned4 ,they have probably  done   
what seemed to them wise and politic1   
and they have often  outwitted the      
keenest statesmen2 but they have been   
doomed by ,europe  to struggle against  
the inevitable4 ,turkey can never again 
be what  she was fifty years ago1 and as
 a ,mohammedan despotism1 ruled by      
,turks  alone1 she can never become a   
great or even a civilized ,power and    
command the respect of ,europe4 ,she    
must soon disappear4 ,but with the  full
 emancipation of the ,christians1 the   

abolition of the present  system of     
religious government1 and the support of
 ,western ,europe1 she  might settle the
 ,eastern ,question for herself1 win the
 loyal support  of her own subjects and 
the respect of the world4      ,,an     
,,eastern ,,statesman4                  
,,miracles1 ,,prayer1 ,,and ,,law4      
,in the following remarks ,i assume the 
existence of ,god1 ,all-knowing  and    
,all-powerful2 and of a spirit in men   
which is not matter4 ,i do not  say that
 either is demonstrated or can be       
demonstrated1 still less  do ,i presume 
to define either1 but ,i address only   
those who already  assent to both4      
,many1 however1 of those who give such  
assent are troubled about the  ways of  
,god and the nature of man's relation to
 ,him4 ,on the one hand  is the ,bible1 
which declares that all things on earth 
as well as in  heaven are regulated by  
,divine will at every moment1 which     
records  frequent miracles1 and which   
bids men ask from ,him whatsoever they  

would1 in absolute confidence that they 
shall have their desires4  ,on the other
 hand stands the ,book of ,nature1 as   
,divine as that of  ,revelation1 being  
in fact another revelation of ,god1     
which tells of  an unchanging sequence  
of events1 of laws incapable of         
modification  by isolated acts of will1 
laws which1 indeed1 if subject to such  
modification1 would fall into disorder4 
,which of these revelations  shall they 
believe8 ,or can they be reconciled so  
that both are  credible8    ,the        
tendency of recent belief in those who  
have studied the ,book of  ,nature1 and 
perhaps most decidedly in those who have
 only turned some  of its pages1 is that
 the two revelations are irreconcilable4
 ,the  immutability of ,nature's laws is
 to them a gospel taught by every       
stone1 by every plant1 by every animated
 being4 ,all that they have  learnt to  
know of matter rests on the assurance   
that its properties  are absolutely     
fixed4 ,the progress of science1 of art1

 of  civilization1 of the human race1   
depends on the fact that what has  been 
found to be true will be always true1   
that there is an ordered  sequence of   
events which may be trusted to be       
invariable1 to which we  must conform   
our lives if we would be happy1 and     
which1 if we cross  it in ignorance or  
defiance1 will revenge the outrage by   
inevitable  penalties4 ,those laws1     
which some call of matter1 may by others
 be  called laws of ,god1 and the most  
devout minds find in their fixity  only 
a confirmation of their faith in ,his   
unchanging promises4 ,but if  thus      
fixed1 it seems to many who are devout  
as well as to many who  are sceptical1  
that it becomes impossible to believe   
that their ,author  should ever set them
 aside by what are called miracles2     
still less  that ,he should bid men pray
 for events which are1 in fact1 not     
regulated by wish or will1 but by what  
has gone before up to the  beginning of 
time4 ,to meet this dilemma there seem  

to such minds only  two courses1 either 
to believe that ,scripture is not the   
word of a ,god  at all1 or to give to   
its language an interpretation which is 
not  the natural sense of the words1 and
 which was certainly not meant or       
understood by those who first wrote or  
first heard it4    ,yet it is not       
possible to abandon the conviction that 
the words and  the acts of ,god cannot  
really be at variance4 ,before          
surrendering ,his  words contained in   
the ,scripture1 as either spurious or   
misunderstood1  no effort can be too    
often reiterated to show them to be     
compatible  with what we have learned of
 ,his works4 ,i propose to make one more
  such effort1 based on the closest     
examination of what both really  tell1  
or imply4    ,let us first understand   
accurately what it is we are to deal    
with1  both as facts and as expressed in
 language4 ,the inquiry is to be        
limited 7with exceptions which will be  
noted as they occur7 to the  laws of    

matter4 ,it will be assumed that matter 
exists as our ordinary  perceptions     
inform us1 but if it shall hereafter be 
proved to be only  a form of motion1 or 
of force1 the arguments will still be   
applicable4  ,by laws1 we shall         
understand what in a different          
expression we call  the properties of   
matter4 ,the advantage of thus          
explaining law is that  it excludes some
 other senses of a vague and misleading 
character1  while it includes the sense 
in which alone law can properly be      
applied  to physical nature4 ,thus1 the 
law of gravity is the same thing as the 
property of matter which we call weight1
 and if there be any matter or  ether   
which is imponderable1 then the law of  
gravity does not apply  to it4 ,so the  
law of attraction1 in its different     
forms1 expresses the  property of       
cohesion1 and of capillary ascent1 and  
so on2 the law of  chemical affinities  
expresses the property of the           
combination of one  species of matter   

with another in definite proportions2   
the laws of  sound1 light1 or           
electricity express the properties of   
vibrations1  either of air or of subtler
 forms of matter1 as they affect our    
senses4 ,in thus limiting the meaning of
 law1 it is therefore obvious  that we  
embrace all which the materialist can   
desire to include when  he insists that 
law is permanent and unchangeable4      
,this1 in fact1 is the first proposition
 which we must all accept4 ,no  human   
being can add to or subtract a single   
property of any species of  matter4 ,to 
do so were1 indeed1 to create4 ,for     
matter is an aggregate  of properties2  
each species of matter is differentiated
 only by its  properties1 and could we  
alter one of these we should really turn
 it  into different matter4 ,it is true 
there are what are called allotropic    
forms1 such as oxygen and ozone1 the    
yellow and red phosphorus1 the  forms of
 sulphur as modified by heat1 and a     
considerable number of  organic         

compounds1 and we can by certain        
arrangements turn the one  into the     
other4 ,but when we ask what allotropism
 is1 we find that it  is itself one of  
the properties 7however obscure to us7  
of the matter  we deal with4 ,oxygen    
would not be oxygen1 but something else1
 if  it had not the inherent property of
 becoming ozone under certain           
conditions4 ,given these conditions1 and
 there is nothing we can do  which will 
prevent the change occurring4 ,if1 as   
chemists believe1  allotropism depends  
on the different arrangement of the     
ultimate atoms  of matter1 then the     
capacity of assuming two arrangements in
 its atoms  is clearly one of the       
ultimate properties of that species of  
matter4    ,it follows1 then1 that if a 
miracle were really a suspension of a   
physical law1 or a change1 temporary or 
permanent1 of any property  of matter1  
it would really be an act of            
creation--the creation of  something    
having different properties from any    

matter that before  existed4 ,if iron   
were to float on water by suspension of 
the law of  gravity1 it would be in fact
 the creation of something having 7at   
least for the time required7 the        
physical and chemical properties  of    
iron1 but with a specific gravity less  
than water--and therefore  something not
 iron4    ,but1 without creation1 man   
has enormous power over ,nature4 ,he    
can1  and daily does1 overpower her     
laws1 or seemingly make them work as  he
 pleases4 ,despite the law of gravity1  
he ascends to the sky in a  balloon2 he 
makes water spring up in fountains2 he  
makes vessels1  weighing thousands of   
tons1 float on the seas4 ,despite       
cohesion1 he  grinds rocks to powder2   
despite chemical affinity1 he transmutes
  into myriads of different forms the   
few elements of which all matter        
consists2 despite the resistless power  
of the thunderbolt1 he tames            
electricity to be his servant or his    
harmless toy4 ,with water and fire  he  

moulds into shape mighty masses of      
metal2 he shoots1 at a sustained  speed 
beyond that of birds1 across valleys and
 through mountain  ranges2 he unites    
seas which continents had separated2    
there is  nothing in the whole earth    
which he has not subdued1 or does not   
hope  to subdue1 to his use4 ,there is  
hardly a physical miracle which he  does
 not feel he can1 or may yet1 perform4  
,but all this wonderful1 this boundless1
 power over material laws is  gained by 
these laws4 ,he alters no property of   
matter1 but he uses one  property or    
another as he needs1 and he uses one    
property to overpower  another4 ,it is  
by knowing that gravity is more powerful
 in the case of  air than in the case of
 hydrogen gas1 that he makes air sustain
 him  as he floats1 beneath a bag of    
hydrogen1 above the earth2 it is by     
knowing that it is more powerful in     
water than in air that he sails  in iron
 ships2 it is by knowing chemical       
affinity or repulsion that he  makes the

 compounds or extracts the simple       
elements he desires2 it is  by knowing  
that affinity is force1 and that force  
is transmutable  into electricity1 that 
he makes a messenger of the obedient    
lightning  shock2 it is by knowing that 
heat1 itself unknown1 causes gases  to  
expand1 that he makes machines of       
senseless iron do the work of           
intelligent giants4 ,he subdues ,nature 
by understanding ,nature4 ,he  creates  
no property2 he therefore performs no   
miracle1 though he does  marvels4    ,by
 what means1 then1 does man bring one   
property1 or law1 into play  instead of1
 or against1 another8 ,by one means     
only1 that of changing  the position of 
matter4    ,this is ,bacon's aphorism   
7,nov4 ,org4 ,book i4 #d73 ,man         
contributes  nothing to operations      
except the applying or withdrawing of   
natural  bodies3 ,nature1 internally1   
performs the rest4    ,in order to trace
 and recognize the truth of this fact1  
let us follow  in rough and rapid       

outline the operations by which man     
effects his  purposes4 ,we will begin at
 the beginning1 and suppose him to have 
only  reached the stage when a knowledge
 of the effects of fire enables  him to 
work with metals4 ,he produces fire by  
friction--that is1 by  bringing one     
piece of wood to another1 and rapidly   
moving the one on  the other2 or else by
 striking two flints on each other1     
which also  is merely rapid motion and  
shock4 ,he carries the wood to a hearth1
 he  brings to it the lump of crude     
metal or the ore2 he urges the fire  by 
a blast of air--still his acts are only 
those of imparting motion4  ,then the   
fire acts on the metal1 it excites some 
affinities and  enfeebles other         
affinities1 which result in removing    
impurities2 it  softens the purified    
metal4 ,then the workman lifts it on a  
stone1 and  by beating it with another  
stone--still motion--he moves its       
particles  so that it assumes the form  
of a hammer1 an axe1 a chisel1 or a     

file4  ,then by rubbing with a rough    
stone--still motion--he moves away some 
particles from the edge1 and makes it   
sharp and fit for cutting4 ,by  plunging
 it in water when hot--still only       
motion--he tempers it to  hardness4     
,with the edge thus obtained he cuts    
wood into the forms he  requires for    
various purposes1 and by degrees he     
learns how to fashion  other pieces of  
metal into other and more elaborate     
tools4 ,yet all  this is done by no     
other means than giving motion to the   
material on  which1 or by which1 he     
works4 ,from tools he advances to       
machines1 by  which his power of giving 
motion is increased1 and as he learns   
more  of the properties of matter he    
constructs engines1 by which these      
properties work for him in the          
directions in which he guides them4     
,meantime he has learned that clay1 when
 heated1 becomes hard as stone1  and the
 arts of pottery take their rise2 while 
glass-making follows on  the discovery  

that ashes and sand fuse into a         
transparent mass4 ,yet1  whether in     
their rude beginning or finished        
elegance1 man in these  arts does no    
more than bring together the rough      
materials and apply  to them heat1 then 
their own inherent properties effect the
 result4  ,science--that is1 knowledge  
of natural laws of matter--guides his   
hand1 but his hand only moves matter2 it
 gives no property and takes  away none2
 it does not even enable one property to
 work2 it does  absolutely nothing      
except to place matter where its own    
laws work1 to  bring or to remove matter
 which is needed1 or to remove matter   
which  is superfluous4 ,let us analyze  
every complicated triumph of human      
knowledge and skill1 and we shall find  
it all reduced to the knowledge  of what
 the properties of matter are1 and the  
skill which imparts to  it motion just  
sufficient to permit these properties to
 operate4 ,man's  power over ,nature is 
therefore limited to the power of giving

 motion  to matter1 or of stopping or   
resisting motion in matter4    ,now1 to 
give motion or to resist motion is      
itself either a breach or  a use of a   
law of ,nature1 according as we express 
that law4 ,the law is  7as usually      
expressed71 that matter at rest remains 
at rest till moved  by a force1 and that
 matter in motion continues in motion   
till stayed  by a force4 ,this is the   
law of inertia4 ,if we consider that    
rest or  motion when once established is
 the normal state of matter1 then the   
force which causes a change causes a    
breach of the law of inertia4  ,but if  
we consider that the liability to be    
moved1 or to have motion  stopped by    
force1 is itself a property of matter1  
then the application  of force with such
 result is merely calling into operation
 the law of  inertia4 ,it really does   
not signify which view we take1 so long 
as we  recognize that such are the      
facts4 ,but since it is more familiar to
  associate rest with inertia1 it will  

perhaps be most convenient and  simple  
to consider rest and motion as the laws 
of matter1 till the law  is interfered  
with4 ,therefore in what follows we     
shall say1 that when  matter at rest is 
moved1 or when matter in motion is      
stayed1 or its  movement by a natural   
force is prevented1 a breach of the law 
of  inertia is committed4    ,we come1  
then1 to these propositions3--#ast1     
,that human power is  utterly unable to 
break any law of matter except the law  
of inertia4  #bnd1 ,that when1 by       
breaking only the law of inertia--i4e41 
by moving  or by resisting the motion of
 matter--any operation is accomplished1 
no other law of matter is broken4 #crd1 
,that to break the law of  inertia by   
,force1 directed by ,will1 is no        
interference with the  properties of    
matter4 #dth1 ,that by breaking the law 
of inertia  only1 man has power to call 
into play properties which make matter  
subservient to his objects4    ,nor is  
this man's power only4 ,inferior animals

 can also move matter1  and by moving it
 can cause prodigious results4 ,a minute
 insect1 by  secreting lime from sea    
waters1 makes a coral reef1 or aids in  
forming  a cliff of chalk4 ,a beaver    
cuts down a tree1 and forms a swamp that
  changes the climate of a district2 a  
bird carries a seed1 and makes  a forest
 on an island4 ,inanimate life has the  
same power4 ,the plant  opens its leaves
 to the sun1 and abstracts the carbon   
that forms  fruitful soils and beds of  
coal4 ,matter itself can by motion work 
on  matter4 ,the great physical powers1 
heat and electricity1 are modes of      
motion4 ,radiation of heat causes       
freezing1 and freezing crumbles rocks   
into soil1 or it forms the clouds in the
 air1 whose deluges hollow  valleys2    
while electricity cleaves and splinters 
the summits of the  mountain peaks4     
,everywhere motion1 sharp or slow1 works
 with matter2  everywhere the law of    
inertia is broken2 and everywhere the   
miracles  of ,nature are wrought out by 

,nature's unbroken laws1 set in action  
or  withheld by only the movement which 
matter has received1 be it from  ,will  
in man or beast1 or be it from forces   
which themselves are part  of matter's  
properties4    ,now1 since we have      
started from the assumption that ,god   
does exist1 it  is impossible to make   
,him an exception to the rule which     
holds of  the spirits of inferior       
creatures1 and even of inanimate matter4
 ,if1  therefore1 ,he can cause or stop 
movement1 ,he can1 without further      
breach of any law of ,nature1 bring into
 play the laws of ,nature4 ,or1  to     
state the same proposition conversely1  
we must admit that whatever  wonders    
,god may cause by bringing into         
operation a law of ,nature  through the 
means of affecting motion in matter1    
cannot be called a  breach of the laws  
of ,nature4 ,it is1 of course1          
understood that this  proposition is    
limited to the results of motion2 it    
does not affirm  that the cause of the  

motion may not be a breach of a law of  
,nature4  ,this question will remain for
 future examination2 at present it is   
neither affirmed nor denied4    ,let us 
in the meantime1 however1 consider what 
we have reached by the  proposition     
above stated4 ,what are called miracles 
may be divided into  three classes4 ,the
 first are purely spiritual1 affecting  
mind without  the intervention of       
matter1 such as visions 7though these   
may  originate in the brain1 and        
therefore belong to the next class71    
gifts  of tongues1 inspirations1 mental 
resolutions4 ,the second affect mind  in
 connection with matter1 such as1       
perhaps1 the healing of paralytic  or   
epileptic affections1 and certainly the 
restoration of life to  the dead4 ,the  
third affect matter solely2 they include
 the healing  of wounds1 or of corporeal
 disease1 such as blindness1 or fever2  
the  dividing of waters2 the walking on 
water1 or raising an iron axe-head  from
 the bottom of water2 the falling of    

walls or trees2 the opening  of         
prison-doors1 and such like4    ,the    
first two classes we may1 in any        
discussion limited to the laws of       
,nature1 leave out of view1 because it  
cannot be said that we know any  laws of
 ,nature affecting mind by itself1 or   
even mind in relation to  matter4       
,metaphysicians have interested         
themselves in trying to trace  the      
origin or sequence of intellectual      
processes1 but ,i hardly think  any     
would assert they had discovered or     
defined what can properly be  called a  
law2 and certainly1 if any do assert it1
 the accuracy of the  assertion is      
controverted by as many philosophers on 
the other side4  ,any direct influence  
of ,god on mind cannot1 therefore1 be   
charged with  being in violation of     
natural law4 ,nor can it even be        
declared to  be contrary to universal   
experience1 since in this case the      
negative  evidence of those who have not
 experienced it would only be set       

against the positive evidence of        
innumerable persons who affirm that     
they have experienced it4    ,the       
influence of mind on matter1 and matter 
on mind1 are also so  obscure1 that it  
cannot be affirmed that anything which  
mental  operation can effect on one's   
own body is contrary to natural law4    
,no physiologist will assert that mental
 resolution1 or conviction1  tending    
towards recovery from sickness1 is      
without some power to bring  that result
 to pass4 ,they will admit also that    
this is peculiarly the  case in regard  
to those disorders which1 in pure       
ignorance of their  actual source1 they 
are fain to call hysterical1 neuralgic1 
or  generally nervous4 ,they are all    
acquainted with many cases in their  own
 experience of recovery from such       
disorders in which no physical  cause   
for recovery can be imagined4 ,if1 then1
 ,god should convey to  the mind of a   
patient an impression which brings about
 recovery1  there would clearly be no   

violation of natural law4 ,with regard  
to the  restoration of life1 it is quite
 true that this is beyond the ordinary  
power of man's volition4 ,nevertheless1 
at each moment of our lives  there is a 
communication of life to the dead matter
 which has formed  our food1 but which1 
after digestion1 becomes a part of our  
living  organs2 and this is true even in
 the nutrition of plants4 ,how or  at   
what moment the mind enters or becomes  
capable of affecting our  frames1 we do 
not know4 ,but this happens at some     
moment before or  during birth2 its     
doing so at a subsequent period is1     
therefore1 not  a breach of natural law1
 but is only an instance of natural law 
coming  into operation1 by the same     
cause1 at a period differing from that  
which is customary4 ,the act1 whatever  
it is1 is not exceptional1 but          
ordinary4 ,the time is alone            
exceptional4    ,we have now to consider
 the strictly physical phenomena to     
which the  name of miracles is in this  

discussion confined1 and to which the   
objection that they are contrary to     
natural laws is commonly stated4    ,a  
very large number of these are at first 
glance seen to be only  instances of    
inertia being affected4 ,to walk on     
water1 to make water  stand in a heap1  
to raise a body from the ground1 to cast
 down walls1  or move bolts and doors1  
are obviously exertions of simple       
mechanical  force such as we ourselves  
daily employ4 ,their effective cause is 
neither more nor less than an           
interference with the law of inertia1   
and by the previous demonstration they  
are therefore not to be  reckoned as    
breaches of any law of ,nature4    ,let 
us try if this can be made clearer by an
 example4 ,it has been  stated before   
that if iron were made to swim on water 
by modification  of the law of gravity  
it would be creation of a new substance 
differing from iron in being of less    
specific gravity4 ,at the  same time1   
the original iron of normal specific    

gravity would have  disappeared4 ,these 
processes of creation and destruction   
would be  so unprecedented that we      
should justly call them violations of   
the  ordinary laws of nature4 ,but at   
least we should then expect that the    
light iron thus created would be        
permanently light1 and we should  call  
it another breach of the laws of nature 
if on lifting it from the  water we     
found it heavy4 ,but if we were to hold 
a magnet of suitable  power over the    
original heavy iron1 when at the bottom 
of the water1  we might see it rise and 
float1 although not touched or upheld by
  any visible substance1 and although   
its specific gravity remained  constant4
 ,in this case it would be moved by a   
power which overcomes  gravity1 but     
there would be no creation nor          
destruction of any  property1 and no    
natural law would be broken4 ,but if now
 we substitute  for magnetic ,divine    
power1 there is still no breach of a    
natural  law1 for no property is created

 or destroyed4 ,in both cases the acting
  agent is a power outside the iron1    
invisible and unknown1 except by  the   
effects4 ,the effect of both is the     
same3 it is to give motion to  matter1  
and nothing more4 ,hence1 neither       
violate any law of nature  except that  
of inertia4    ,proceeding to another   
class of miracles1 which seem at first  
to  be creative1 we shall find that they
 also come within the range of  familiar
 human potentiality4 ,the making of     
bread1 or meal1 or oil1  or wine1 are   
instances of chemical synthesis4 ,these 
substances are  composed of three or    
four elements1 all gaseous except carbon
 7to  be absolutely accurate1 we must   
add minute quantities of eight other    
elements71 which no chemist has yet     
succeeded in uniting in such  forms4    
,but chemists have succeeded in forming 
certain substances by  bringing together
 their elements1 of which water is the  
simplest type1  and others of greater   
complexity are every year being         

attained4 ,these  are formed by moving  
into proximity1 or admixture1 the       
elementary  ingredients1 under          
circumstances favourable to their union 
in  the desired combination1 and the    
combination then proceeds by the        
operation of natural laws4 ,no one would
 be surprised to hear that  some chemist
 had thus attained to form starch or    
gluten1 the main  ingredients of bread2 
or oil1 or spirit1 or essences2 for if  
it were  announced we should all know   
that he had only discovered some new    
method of manipulation by which         
circumstances were arranged so as  to   
favour the natural laws which effect the
 union of the necessary  elements4      
,therefore1 if these substances are     
formed by ,divine power1  it is not     
creation--it is only the chemist's work1
 adopting natural  laws for its methods1
 and bringing them into play by         
transposition of  material substances4  
,meteorological processes--such as      
lightning1 rain1 drought1 winds--are    

sometimes made the immediate cause of   
miracles1 as when the wind  caused the  
waters of the ,red ,sea to flow back1 or
 brought the flights  of quails1 or     
locusts4 ,these are effects which we    
know wind is quite  capable of          
producing1 and does produce naturally4  
,was there then any  breach of natural  
laws 7beyond that of inertia7 in causing
 such winds  to blow8 or in bringing up 
thunder-clouds8 or in causing an arid   
season8 ,we cannot1 indeed1 say that    
there was not2 but as little can  we say
 that there was4 ,for since we ourselves
 have acquired such  power over         
lightning1 the most inscrutable and     
irresistible of all  meteorological     
agencies1 as to be able to lead it where
 we will1 how  shall we say that ,god's 
infinite knowledge has not the same     
power over  the winds and the clouds1 by
 employing only natural agencies for    
,his  work1 and employing these only by 
the operation of motion given to        
matter4    ,with regard to the healing  

of diseased matter1 conjectures also can
  only be offered1 because of the source
 of diseases we know so little4  ,sight 
is restored in cataract by simple       
removal of an abnormal  membrane4 ,many 
fevers1 if the germ theory or the poison
 theory be  correct1 are cured when the 
germs die1 or the poison is eliminated4 
,a  power that could kill the germs1 or 
remove them or the poison from the      
system1 would then effect immediate cure
 in accordance with natural  laws4 ,it  
does not seem necessarily beyond man's  
reach to effect  this when he shall     
understand natural laws more fully2 it  
cannot1  therefore1 be a breach of      
natural laws if ,god should effect it by
 laws  as yet unknown to man1 provided  
they are brought into play with no      
other agency than the motion of matter4 
,it would be folly as well as impiety to
 assert that it is in such ways  only   
that miracles are performed4 ,no such   
assertion is made4 ,but  when1 on the   
other side1 it is asserted that the     

miracles narrated  in ,scripture cannot 
be true because they must involve a     
breach of the  immutable laws of        
,nature1 the answer is justifiable and  
is sufficient1  that they do not        
necessarily involve any breach of any   
law1 save of  that one law of inertia   
which at every instant is broken by     
created  things1 without any            
disturbances being introduced into the  
serene  march of ,nature's laws4 ,the   
scientific revelation is reconciled with
  the written revelation when it is     
shown that neither necessarily  implies 
the falsity of the other4    ,but       
supposing the argument thus far to be   
conceded1 it will be urged  that the    
real miracle remains yet behind4 ,when  
man moves matter1  his hand is visible3 
when an animal gnaws a tree1 its teeth  
are seen  working2 when a river flows   
down a valley1 its force is heard and   
felt4 ,how different1 it will be said1  
is ,god's working1 where there is  no   
arm of flesh1 no sound of power1 no sign

 of presence4    ,unquestionably it is a
 deep marvel and a mystery1 that        
impalpable  spirit should act upon gross
 matter2 but it is a mystery of humanity
  as well as of ,godhead4 ,what moves   
the hand8 ,contraction of the  muscles4 
,but what causes contraction of the     
muscles8 ,the influence  transmitted    
from the brain by the nerves4 ,but what 
sends that  influence8 ,it is mind1     
which somewhere1 somehow1 moves animal  
tissues--tissues consisting of carbon1  
oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1  phosphorus1
 and sulphur4 ,at some point of our     
frames1 we know not yet  where1 mind    
does act directly on matter4 ,it is a   
law of ,nature that it  should so act   
there4 ,but if ,god exists1 ,his mind   
must1 by the same  law1 act on matter   
somewhere4 ,can we call it an offence   
against law  if it acts on matter       
elsewhere than in that mass of organized
 pulp  which we call brains8 ,if no     
possibility of communication between    
mind and matter could anywhere be found 

in ,nature1 we might call such          
communication contrary to natural law4  
,in other words1 if it were one  of the 
properties of matter that it could not  
receive motion from  that which is not  
matter1 its motion without a material   
cause would  be supernatural4 ,but since
 it is of the very essence of existence 
that  matter in certain combinations    
should be capable of being endowed with 
life1 and by such endowment become      
capable of being affected in motion  by 
mind1 it is indisputable that such      
capability is one of matter's           
properties1 and that its being so       
affected falls within and not  without  
,nature's laws4    ,it may be objected  
that1 since it is only living substance 
which can  be acted on by the human     
mind1 it is contrary to law that dead   
matter  should be acted on by ,divine   
mind4 ,but this is a simple begging of  
the question at issue4 ,it is           
constructing a law for the purpose of   
charging ,god with breaking it4 ,where  

do we find evidence in ,nature  that    
matter cannot be moved by the ,divine   
mind8 ,science reveals no  such law4    
,science is simply silent on the        
subject2 it admits its utter  ignorance1
 and declares the question beyond its   
scope4 ,undoubtedly it  does not        
pronounce that ,god does move matter1   
but it equally abstains  from asserting 
that ,god does not4 ,for when it traces 
back material  effects from cause to    
cause1 it comes at last to something for
 which  it has no explanation4 ,when we 
say that an acid and an alkali combine  
by the law of affinity1 that a stone    
falls by the law of gravity1 we  merely 
generalize facts under a name1 we do not
 account for them4 ,what  causes        
affinity1 what causes gravity8 ,suppose 
we say the one is polar  electricity1   
the other is the impact of particles in 
vibration 7both  of which statements are
 unproved guesses71 what do we gain8    
,the next  question is only1 what causes
 electricity and what causes vibration8 

,suppose1 again1 we answer that both are
 modes of motion1 we only come  to the  
further question1 what causes motion8   
,and since motion is a  breach of the   
law of inertia1 what is it that first   
excited motion in  this dead matter8    
,carry back our analysis as far as we   
will or can1  at last we reach a point  
where matter must be acted upon by      
something  that is not matter4 ,this    
something is ,mind2 and ,god also is    
,mind4    ,again1 when any one affirms  
that only living matter can be acted on 
by  mind1 whether human or ,divine1 we  
may fairly ask him1 not indeed  what is 
life1 which is a problem as yet beyond  
science2 but how life  changes matter1  
which is a question strictly within the 
range of  science dealing with matter4  
,but to this inquiry we shall get no    
answer4 ,the cells in an organism1 the  
protoplasm in the cells1 are  living    
when the organism is living1 dead when  
the organism is dead1  and1 as matter1  
no difference is discoverable between   

them in  the state of living and dead4  
,the cells consist of cellulose1 the    
protoplasm of some protein compounds2 no
 element is added or  subtracted1 no    
compound is altered1 when it lives or   
when it dies4 ,nor  can science even    
tell us when an organic compound becomes
 alive1 or  dead4 ,every instant crude  
sap is becoming living plants1 every    
instant  crude chyle is becoming living 
blood1 every instant living organisms   
die and are expelled from plants by the 
leaves1 from animals by the  lungs1 the 
skin1 and the kidneys4 ,yet no physician
 can say at what  moment any of these   
carbon compounds become living1 or when 
they cease  to have life4 ,since of this
 perpetual birth and death in all nature
  we know absolutely nothing1 it is     
manifestly unreasonable to lay  down    
laws respecting them4 ,if life and death
 make 7as far as we can  discover7      
absolutely no immediate physical change 
in the matter which  they affect1 how   
can we propound as a dogma of physical  

science that  ,god cannot move dead     
matter1 when our own experience tells us
 that  our spirits can move living      
matter8    ,it is clear that if we are  
not warranted in making a law1 we are   
not  warranted in saying that it is     
broken4 ,our concern with laws is to see
  that such as we do know are uniform1  
for this is the basis of science4  ,but 
true science repudiates dogmas on       
subjects of which it avows its          
ignorance4    ,let us sum up the        
argument as it has now been stated4 ,the
 propositions  are the following3--     
#a4 ,matter is subject to unalterable   
laws1 which express its    properties4  
,no created being can originate1 alter1 
or destroy any of    these properties4  
#b4 ,it is possible1 however1 for one   
property to overpower the action    of  
another property1 either in the same    
matter or in other matter4      #c4 ,by 
placing matter in a position in which   
one or other property    has its natural
 action1 man1 as well as animals and    

inanimate    matter1 can overpower a law
 of ,nature with almost boundless power4
      #d4 ,the sole means by which such 
results are effected1 are by            
affecting the law of inertia4           
,therefore1 whatever is effected by     
natural laws1 without other interference
 than by affecting inertia1    is       
consistent with the uniformity of       
natural law4      #e4 ,all strictly     
physical miracles recorded in the ,bible
 are    capable of being effected by    
natural law1 without other interference 
than by affecting inertia1 and therefore
 are consistent with the    uniformity  
of natural law4      #f4 ,it is         
consistent with natural law that created
 minds should    affect the inertia of  
certain forms of matter directly4       
#g4 ,it is not inconsistent with natural
 law that ,divine mind should    affect 
the inertia of other forms of matter    
directly4           99       99       99
       99       99    ,the bearing of   
these conclusions upon prayer1 in so far

 as it affects  physical conditions1 may
 now be briefly shown4 ,it has been     
argued  that1 in the light of modern    
discovery1 prayer ought to be restricted
  to spiritual objects1 and that at all 
events it can have none but  spiritual  
effects4 ,it has for example been       
asserted that to pray  for fine weather1
 for bodily health1 for removal of any  
plague1 for  averting of any corporeal  
danger is asking ,god to change the laws
 of  ,nature for our benefit1 that this 
is what ,he never does1 what would      
produce endless confusion if ,he should1
 and consequently what ,he  certainly   
will not do4    ,but if in point of fact
 ,god can confer on us all these gifts  
which we  ask from ,him without breaking
 a single law by which ,nature is bound1
  we are restored to the older          
confidence that ,he will1 provided that 
such gifts are at the same time         
consonant with our spiritual good4      
,now as it has been shown that ,god can 
affect matter to the full extent  for   

which we ever petition by means of      
,nature's own laws1 set in  operation by
 no other agency than the mere          
communication of motion to  matter1 it  
has been shown that ,he will break no   
law in giving what we  ask4    ,for     
example1 what is fine weather8 ,it is   
the result of the due motion  of the    
winds1 which bear the clouds on their   
bosom1 and carry the  warmth of         
equatorial sunshine to the colder north4
 ,it is still as true  as eighteen      
hundred years ago1 ,the wind bloweth    
where it listeth1 and  ye hear the sound
 thereof1 but cannot tell whence it     
cometh or whither  it goeth4 ,but if it 
be no breach of law to give motion to   
the air1 it  is in ,god's power to bring
 us favourable winds4 ,but the winds we 
wish  are not necessarily moved         
immediately by ,god's breath4 ,they     
depend  probably on certain electric    
repulsions1 which make the colder or    
the warmer current come closer to the   
surface of the earth4 ,and  electricity 

is motion4 ,it may be directly1 it may  
be indirectly1  through electricity2 it 
may be by some cause still further back1
 that  ,god sends forth the winds2 but1 
if ,he can give motion1 ,he can direct  
their currents1 and by such agency give 
to ,his creatures the weather  best     
suited for their wants4    ,or what is  
disease8 ,probably1 in many cases1      
germs2 let us then  suppose germs1      
because it is what the latest science   
tells us4 ,but  germs need a suitable   
nidus1 and we know that merely what we  
call  change of air is one of the most  
potent means of defending or  restoring 
our bodies from the assault of germs to 
which it is exposed4  ,we change our    
air1 by moving to another place2 what   
violation of law  would there be if     
,god1 to our prayer1 were to change our 
air by moving  a different air to us8   
,that is but a rude illustration2 the   
marvellous  economy of the body suggests
 a thousand others1 none of which may be
  true1 but which yet all agree in this1

 that they would work our cure  by      
strictly natural laws1 set in action    
merely by motion given to  matter4      
,that even an impending rock should not 
fall upon us would be a  petition       
involving no further disturbance of     
natural law4 ,had we  appliances to     
enhance our force we could uphold it1   
without breaking  natural law4 ,god has 
superhuman force1 and if ,he upholds it 
by an arm  we cannot see1 ,he will break
 no law4    ,it were needless to pursue 
examples2 but the subject must not be   
dismissed without reference to the      
spiritual laws1 which we are bound  to  
regard in praying for aught we may      
desire4    ,these are expressed and     
summed in the command1 ,ask in my name4 
,there  is a prevalent misunderstanding 
of these words1 arising out of the      
theological dogma which interprets them 
as if they were written1 for  my sake4  
,it is unnecessary here to enter into   
the inquiry how far any  prayer is      
granted because of the merits or for the

 sake of ,christ4 ,it  is sufficient    
that the words here used mean something 
else4 ,when we  desire another person to
 ask anything from a superior in our    
name1 we  mean to ask as if we asked4   
,it must be something then which we     
should  ask for personally4 ,therefore1 
,christ desiring us to ask in ,his name1
  limits us to ask those things which we
 can presume ,he would ask for  us4     
,it is obvious how this interpretation  
defines the range of petition4  ,it must
 be confined to what ,he1 all-knowing1  
knows to be for our good4  ,it must be1 
in our ignorance1 subject to the        
condition that ,he should  see it best  
for us4 ,it utterly excludes all seeking
 for worldly  advantage1 for which ,he  
would never bid us pray4 ,it equally    
excludes  all spiritual benefits which  
are not those of a godly1 humble spirit4
  ,above all1 it excludes all things    
which would be suggested by ,satan as  a
 tempting of the ,lord our ,god4 ,to    
ask1 as some scientific men would  have 

us do1 for something in order to see if 
,god would grant it1 would  be an       
experiment which1 applied to an earthly 
superior1 would be  an insult--to ,god  
is impiety4 ,to such prayers as these   
there is no  promise made1 for they     
cannot be in ,christ's name4    ,neither
 can those prayers be in ,his name which
 come from men  regardless of ,his      
precepts4 ,these are contained in the   
,book of ,nature  as well as in the     
,bible1 and to both alike we owe        
reverence4 ,we are  bound to learn ,his 
will as far as our powers extend1 we are
 bound to  inform ourselves as fully as 
we can of the physical as well as of the
  moral laws set for our guidance1 and  
having learned we are bound to  obey4   
,it were vain to pray for help in an act
 of wrong-doing1 and  equally vain to   
pray for relief from consequences of our
 own neglect  or defiance of such rules 
of the government of nature as we have  
learned1 or as with due diligence we    
might have learned4 ,no man so  acting  

can presume to think that he may ask in 
,christ's name for  succour4 ,christ    
could not ask it for such as he4    ,but
 to what we can truly ask in ,his name  
there is no limit set4 ,we may  ask for 
all worldly and all spiritual good1     
which we can conceive  ,him to ask for  
us1 in assurance that it will be given1 
if ,he sees it  really to be for our    
good4 ,how it may be reconciled with    
good to other  men is not for us to     
inquire4 ,the ,omnipotent rules all1 and
 ,he who can  do all is able to do what 
is best for us as well as for every     
other  creature ,he has made1 without   
breach of one of these laws which ,he   
has  set as guides for all4      ,j4    
,,boyd ,,kinnear4          ,,what ,,is  
,,rent8      ,the public mind of the    
country is at the present hour largely  
occupied  with thinking about rent4 ,the
 severe agricultural depression has     
generated painful effects on the        
feelings and the fortunes of the  people
 of ,england4 ,the various classes who  

are connected with the  cultivation of  
land are visited with much suffering1   
and we cannot be  surprised if they are 
found discussing whether their relations
 towards  each other1 as well as the    
system of agriculture prevailing in     
these  islands1 are precisely what they 
ought to be4 ,the various methods of    
dealing with the land and the population
 that devote themselves to  its tillage1
 have been the subjects of keen debate  
for ages3 failing  harvests1 low prices1
 and heavy losses1 are well suited to   
impart  energy and even violence to such
 discussions4 ,in some portions of the  
kingdom1 even agricultural revolution   
has made its appearance on the  scene4  
,the law itself is openly and avowedly  
defied4 ,the debtor1 it is  decreed1    
shall determine at his own pleasure how 
much he shall pay of  the debt to which 
he is pledged4 ,if the owner of the     
property let on  hire repels such an    
adjudication of his rights1 he is       
plainly warned  that they shall be swept

 away altogether1 and the insolvent     
debtor  be made the owner of what he    
borrowed4 ,the very structure of society
  itself is imperilled4 ,to refuse to   
pay debt violently1 it has  been well   
said1 is to steal1 and to permit        
stealing1 is not only to  dissolve1 but 
to demoralize society3 accumulation of  
property1 and  civilization itself would
 become impossible4    ,amidst such     
agitated passions it was inevitable that
 rent should  speedily come to the      
front4 ,those who had contracted to pay 
rent1 in  the expectation that the      
produce of their labour would enable    
them  to redeem their pledge1 had been  
plunged into losses1 more or less       
severe1 by the badness of the seasons2  
their means were reduced2 to  pay was   
inconvenient2 and it was a simpler      
method to take the matter  into their   
own hands1 and rather than appeal to the
 feelings of their  landlords for a     
considerate diminution of their rents1  
to call rent  itself into judgment1 and 

to suppress it altogether4 ,when1 then1 
matters have reached the pass that an   
anti-rent agitation1 based on  the      
confiscation of property and the        
repudiation of contracts1 has  sprung   
up1 and is swiftly spreading among an   
excitable people1 it  becomes important1
 in the highest degree1 that the true   
nature of rent  should be clearly       
understood by the whole country4        
,whatever may be  ultimately decided    
about rent1 let every man first know    
accurately  what it is4 ,to advocate a  
system of agriculture which shall       
abolish  the possession of land by a    
class who are owners and not cultivators
  of the soil1 and thus extinguish the  
charge for the loan of it to  farmers1  
is perfectly legitimate4 ,let the merits
 and demerits of  such a tenure be      
freely investigated2 let                
peasant-proprietorship be               
counter-examined over against it2 but   
let the conviction be brought  home to  
every mind that no just or intelligent  

conclusion can be  reached1 unless every
 element of the problem has been fully  
and  honestly weighed4 ,a reduction of  
rents may very possibly be called  for  
by necessity and by reason2 but to place
 the position itself of  landlord in an 
invidious light1 as that of a man who   
exacts from the  labour of others that  
for which he has neither toiled nor     
spun1 is  a most unwarrantable process  
of argumentation1 and can lead to no    
trustworthy result in a matter of such  
transcendant importance to the  nation4 
,what then is rent8 ,the true answer to 
this very natural question1  obvious and
 easy though it may seem to be1 has been
 grasped by few  only4 ,let the question
 be put to a mixed company1 and the     
incapacity  to explain the real nature  
of rent will be found most surprising4  
,one's first impulse is to appeal to    
,political ,economy for an answer1  for 
indisputably rent belongs to its domain2
 but unhappily ,political  ,economists1 
for the most part1 instead of           

enlightening have obscured  this inquiry
 for the public mind4 ,some few amongst 
them have perceived  the true character 
of rent2 but most other economical      
writers have  been led astray into a    
wrong path by ,ricardo4 ,ricardo's      
theory of rent  was accepted as the     
orthodox doctrine2 but it was a theory  
from  which the common world1 landlords 
and farmers alike1 turned away  as      
unworkable4 ,ricardo was dominated by   
the passion of giving to  ,political    
,economy a strictly scientific          
treatment1 and the explanation  of rent 
he hailed as an excellent instrument for
 accomplishing his  purpose4 ,he built  
the amount of rent payable by different 
lands1  on the varying fertilities of   
the soil4 ,land ,a paid no rent2 its    
productive powers were unequal to such  
an effort2 it must content  itself with 
rewarding the cultivator alone4 ,land ,b
 presented itself as  something better2 
a feeble rent it could supply4 ,c1 ,d1  
and ,e  continued the ascending scale2  

the rents they yielded assumed grander  
dimensions1 till the maximum of         
fertility and remunerating power  was   
reached4 ,the array wore a splendidly   
scientific air2 it almost  rivalled the 
great law of the inverse square of the  
distances4 ,but1  alas1 as ,ricardo     
himself dimly saw1 rent bowed to other  
forces besides  mere fertility4 ,varying
 distances from manures and markets1    
dissimilar  demands for horsepower for  
the attainment of the same crops1       
unequal  pressure of rates and taxes1   
and other like causes compelled rent to 
sway upwards and downwards in           
contradiction of the law of fertility2  
and that was not scientific4 ,but it was
 true in fact1 and ,ricardo1  under the 
pressure of necessity1 summed up these  
disturbing causes  under the general    
word situation4 ,like ,mill1 he had to  
recognise  that ,political ,economy1 as 
he and ,mill posed it1 was an           
hypothetical  science1 and that the     
stern world of material realities was   

under the  dominion of influences which 
were not hypothetical nor scientific4#a 
,if ,ricardo and ,mill had contented    
themselves with laying down what the    
amount of rent was1 governed by the     
quality of the soil's fertility  and by 
the forces which they feebly recognised 
by the word situation1  no harm would   
have been done4 ,they would have given a
 tolerably fair  description of the     
causes on which the magnitude of rent   
depends4  ,it would not indeed have     
explained what rent is1 but it would    
have  expressed truths with which the   
common agricultural mind was familiar1  
and they might have retained the command
 of agricultural ears4  ,but scientific 
ambition would not be satisfied with so 
simple and  unpretending a statement4   
,it was resolved that the explanation of
 rent  should take the shape of a       
scientific doctrine2 and with this      
object  it invented an addition to it of
 whose scientific character there  could
 be no doubt4 ,it converted the land1 in

 the words of ,mr4 ,mill1  which yields 
least return to the labour and capital  
employed on  it1 and gives only the     
ordinary profit of capital1 without     
leaving  anything for rent1 into a      
standard for estimating the amount of   
rent  which will be yielded by all other
 land4 ,any land yields as much more    
than the ordinary profits of stock1 as  
it yields more than what is  returned by
 the worst land in cultivation4 ,this   
worst land1 which  had no rent to give1 
was erected into a standard which should
  measure rents as accurately as a yard 
measures distances1 and a pound         
avoirdupois weights4 ,most useful indeed
 is the yard which tells us how  far it 
is to ,dover1 and the lb4 weight which  
informs us how heavy the  load of coals 
is which has reached our door2 and      
delightful truly1  would be an          
instrument which should tell a disputing
 landlord and  tenants1 with unerring   
precision1 how much rent exactly each   
farm was  bound to pay4 ,but this margin

 of calculation1 this land which pays   
no rent--what landlord or what farmer   
has ever inquired for it in the         
calculation of their rents8 ,has it ever
 occurred to the thoughts1 or  passed   
the lips1 of a single practical         
agriculturist1 in these days  of        
excitement1 and anger1 and unceasing    
declamations in the press and  tribune  
on rent8 ,and if it had been found1 what
 possible help could it  have brought to
 a single agriculturist8 ,such land     
could be no measure  to measure by4 ,a  
measure must either be a given portion  
of the thing  measured1 as a yard of    
length1 or else be an effect of a given 
force1  as the height of the barometer  
of the pressure of the atmosphere4  ,a  
piece of land which yields no rent      
cannot measure one that does1  because  
the non-payment of rent is not the      
effect of a single force  but of many   
diverse ones4 ,a particular farm may pay
 no rent because  it is isolated by want
 of roads1 or is in a lonely spot1 or is

 far  off from manures1 or is burdened  
with excess of taxation1 as a  whole    
parish in ,buckinghamshire which was    
said to have gone out of  cultivation   
because no man would face the burden of 
its poor-rates4  ,what facility for     
calculation could such a parish furnish 
to a farmer  in ,middlesex or           
,lancashire8 ,the selection of such a   
standard was a  purely illogical        
process2 it confounded effect with      
cause4 ,the forces  which determine rent
 decree that such a farm cannot pay     
rent1 that is  an effect2 but its paying
 no rent could be no cause1 by the mere 
fact  alone that it did not yield       
sufficient net profit1 why other lands  
should pay no rent4 ,the margin of      
calculation was framed at a  particular 
locality1 under its own circumstances1  
but it could say  nothing about the     
circumstances of another farm and their 
effects4    ,the moral to be derived    
from the examination of ,ricardo and    
,mill's theories of rent is clear4 ,the 

sooner that their margin of             
cultivation1 their standard of the      
amount of rent1 disappears1 the  better 
will it be for the interests of society 
and of ,political  ,economy4 ,it has    
driven away all agricultural audience   
from the talk of  ,political ,economy   
about rent2 it is felt to lie altogether
 outside of  the practical world4 ,let  
the land which is cultivated without    
being  able to pay rent be inquired into
 by all means1 whenever there is a  call
 for so doing4 ,let the impeding causes 
and all their circumstances  be         
explored1 but let the inquiry and its   
results be kept apart from  all         
rent-paying land4 ,the forces which     
determine that one farm can pay  rent   
and another none are the same for both1 
either by their presence  or their      
absence2 but the two farms have no      
connection with each  other1 except as  
suffering effects from common causes4   
,when this great  truth is seen and     
acknowledged1 and when ,political       

,economy has ceased  to talk of the non 
rent-paying land regulating the amount  
of all rent1  the world which it        
addresses1 and for whom it exists1 will 
be won over  to listen to its teaching  
on rent and to think it real4    ,and   
now let us face the question1 simply1   
,what is rent8 ,it is  necessary to     
distinguish here between two different  
meanings of the  word rent4 ,it is a    
legal word1 connected with the hire of  
land or  forms of real property         
connected with land1 as houses1 rooms1  
and the  like4 ,agricultural rent is    
different in nature from the rent of    
rooms4 ,the rents paid for a house or   
rooms in a large building such as       
,gresham ,house have no relation to any 
particular business carried on  in them1
 much less do they depend on the success
 of that business4  ,agricultural rent1 
on the contrary1 is given for the very  
purpose of  engaging in a distinct      
business1 agriculture2 and the profits  
of  that business enter largely1 in the 

settlement of rent1 into the            
calculations of the lender and the hirer
 of the land4 ,it is of  agricultural   
rent exclusively that we are speaking on
 the present  occasion4    ,in order to 
make a correct analysis of the subject1 
let us place  ourselves in the position 
of a farmer who is offered the tenancy  
of a  particular farm4 ,it is necessary1
 further1 to form a clear conception  of
 the fact1 and to bear it constantly in 
mind1 that in all acts of  selling or   
hiring1 it is the purchaser or hirer1   
not the seller or the  lender1 who      
ultimately decides whether an exchange  
shall take place4  ,whatever be the     
price asked1 be it high or be it low1   
the buyer by  giving or refusing it     
decrees whether a commercial transaction
 shall  be carried out4 ,it is not the  
landlord but the tenant who will in the 
last resort determine what the rent     
shall be4 ,the landlord may select      
amongst competing farmers the man who   
will pay the highest rent2 still  it    

will be the judgment of that tenant that
 will decide at last1 not  only what the
 amount of the rent shall be1 but even  
whether the farm  shall be let at all4  
,the inquiry thus becomes1 ,what are the
 thoughts1  and what the feelings       
consequent on those thoughts1 which     
traverse the  mind of the farmer8 ,he is
 seeking to borrow the use of land in   
order  to engage in the agricultural    
business2 his motive is profit1 such an 
amount of profit as will1 after repaying
 all his outlay of every kind1  yield   
him the fitting reward for his efforts  
and his skill4 ,his object  is to gain a
 living out of his farm2 and his        
calculations turn on the  inquiry1 on   
what terms of borrowing the use of the  
land he shall be  able to obtain the    
ordinary profits of trade4 ,let us      
accompany him in  these calculations4   
,the landlord opens the debate by naming
 the rent which he requires  for the    
farm4 ,the question for the tenant      
becomes1 ,can the farm afford  such a   

rent8 ,here1 obviously1 the productive  
power of the soil will  present itself  
as the first and most momentous subject 
of inquiry4  ,it is a productive machine
 that the farmer is seeking to hire4    
,the  strength of that machine1 its     
capacity to turn out much and good work1
  is the great point to ascertain4 ,the 
quality of the soil itself is  clearly a
 most important element of the problem2 
but it is far from  being the only force
 which constitutes the productive power 
of a farm4  ,what the climate is at the 
particular locality is a consideration  
of  great weight4 ,good land in a rainy 
district will yield an inferior  rent to
 land of the same quality under a more  
genial sun and a drier  atmosphere4     
,then the water connected with the farm 
will come under  examination4 ,will it  
be capable of creating water-meadows1   
which have  such a lifting power for    
rent in many parts of ,england8 ,the    
fertility1  too1 of the several fields  
of the farm will differ4 ,the           

intelligent  tenant will feel himself   
called upon to estimate what amount of  
crop1  what quantity of food for cattle1
 with his skill and capital1 he  may    
reasonably expect to produce4 ,this is  
the basis of the whole  computation--the
 quantity and quality of the produce    
that he can  fairly reckon on obtaining4
 ,and he will not be governed solely by 
the  then existing state of the land4   
,if he is an able agriculturist1 he     
will form a shrewd guess of what he will
 be able to make it yield by  proper    
treatment4 ,and it is very probable that
 he will prefer to pay  a high rent for 
good land rather than a lower rent for  
inferior soil1  because he may feel a   
well-founded confidence in his own      
resources  to work up the greater power 
of a strong1 if even obstinate1 farm to 
larger results4    ,having completed the
 first stage1 and formed his estimate of
 the crops  and cattle which the land   
will yield1 the tenant will now address 
himself to the very grave question of   

the cost which his manufacturing        
industry will entail4 ,here he will     
encounter forces which pay small        
respect to the beautiful symmetry of    
hypothetical economic science1  and     
often influence the amount of rent far  
more powerfully than the  fertility of  
the land4 ,will his farm be amongst the 
light and sunny  hills of ,surrey2 or   
will it be embedded in the stubborn clay
 of the  ,sussex weald8 ,will he need   
four horses or two only for each of his 
ploughs8 ,the crop may be the same for  
both1 but the cost will be  widely      
different1 and may create much          
resistance to the landlord's  rent4 ,if 
he appeals to steam-power for help1 he  
must ask himself how  far off he will be
 from the coal-field1 how near to him   
will be the  station at which he will   
buy his coals4 ,so1 again1 with his     
manure4  ,will the lime and the marl be 
close to his borders1 or must he send   
his carts long distances to the pit or  
the railway8 ,then comes the  serious   

question of the place where his buyers  
dwell2 how far he is  from his market2  
what expense of carriage he will be put 
to4 ,it may be  his good fortune to be  
offered a farm in the neighbourhood of  
,london1  or some great manufacturing   
town4 ,a weighty rent1 it is true1 may  
be  demanded of him1 even some ten or   
fifteen pounds an acre2 but this  will  
not extinguish the attractiveness of    
such a farm4 ,better markets1  abundant 
supplies of manure1 cultivation by the  
spade1 and high  prices1 may possess    
higher claims in his eyes than a small  
rent in a  rural region4    ,but the    
computing farmer's arithmetic is not yet
 over2 he has very  formidable figures  
still to face4 ,his land may be burdened
 with heavy  charges of an exceptional  
kind4 ,his tithe may be unusually large2
 his  poor-rate peculiarly severe2 and  
the school-rate may acutely try his     
temper and his purse4 ,worse still1     
agricultural wages in his locality  may 
be inordinately high1 for wide are the  

discrepancies between wages  in         
different parts of ,england1 and the    
worth of the wage may not be  repaid by 
labourers demoralized by trade unions4  
,the long arithmetical  array of heavy  
burdens will be duly noted by the       
incoming tenant1 and  carefully placed  
to the debit of the debated rent2 but   
one thing he  will not do--he will not  
search out the position of the farm     
offered  in the brilliant series of     
ascending fertility1 and comfort himself
  with the reflection that economical   
science furnishes him with the          
assurance that a farm standing so high  
above the margin of cultivation  must   
necessarily be able to pay the rent     
attached to that position1  all these   
exceptional charges of cost of          
production notwithstanding4    ,one item
 of cost still remains1 which the       
intelligent tenant will  investigate    
before he contracts to take the farm4   
,he will inquire into  the condition of 
the farm--into the outfit1 so to speak1 

which it will  require for the full     
performance of the work which it is     
fitted to  perform4 ,he will endeavour  
to ascertain the amount of draining     
which  has been effected1 the number and
 state of the farm-buildings1 as  well  
as the amount of unexhausted            
improvements of various kinds which     
either the landlord or the previous     
tenant has laid out upon the land4      
,these constitute no real part of the   
land's fertility1 though they  increase 
its power to produce3 they are fixed    
capital in the carrying  out of the     
agricultural business4 ,and here it is  
important to note  that the tenant will 
not inquire into the amount of money1 as
 such1  which the landlord has spent    
upon his land4 ,he will not pay an      
additional pound of rent because the    
landlord can appeal to large  figures   
denoting the capital he has laid out on 
his fields4 ,this1 by  itself alone1    
does not concern the tenant2 but it does
 concern him  greatly to learn the      

actual condition of the farm2 and beyond
 doubt  the landlord will be able to    
demand increased rent1 and the tenant   
will be perfectly willing to pay it1 to 
the extent that the outlay on  draining 
and other improvements has augmented the
 actual produce  of the farm4 ,the      
tenant looks solely to the working power
 of the  agricultural machine and the   
results which he may obtain from it2    
outside of this consideration he takes  
no account of what outlay the  landlord 
has incurred1 any more than of the price
 which he has given  for the property4  
,the tenant will be well aware that if  
that machinery  does not exist1 it must 
be provided by means of an understanding
 with  the landlord1 necessarily        
involving some cost for himself3 if he  
finds  it on the ground and at work1 he 
will set down in his calculation an     
increased estimate of produce without   
any debit against rent for  cost of     
construction--he will feel that he is   
hiring a more powerful  machine4    ,the

 calculating tenant has now formed an   
estimate of what he may  assume as the  
amount of produce which he can procure  
from the farm1  as also of the cost     
which the obtaining of that produce in  
the  given locality will entail4 ,he    
thus reaches the third stage of his     
investigation--the price which he may   
reckon on realizing for the  products he
 has raised4 ,here the peculiar nature  
of the agricultural  business reveals   
itself4 ,a man who enters upon a new    
industry1 or  erects a new mill1 or     
opens a fresh mine1 will not inquire for
 a  particular price which he may adopt 
as the basis of his computations4  ,he  
will think only of the extent of the    
demand which exists for  the articles   
that he intends to manufacture4 ,if it  
is strong and  increasing1 he will feel 
sure that the consumers will repay the  
whole  cost of production1 interest and 
capital included1 and in addition  the  
legitimate profit attached to the       
business4 ,if he hires or buys          

machinery1 he will pay the price        
belonging to it in its own market as  a 
manufactured article1 precisely as if he
 were making purchases in  shops2 the   
seller of a steam-engine will not ask   
how much profit the  engine will create 
for the factory4 ,no doubt1 if a site   
must be bought  or hired for the        
erection of the mill1 a higher price for
 the land  will be encountered1 in      
consequence of the prosperity of trade  
in the  particular town or district2 but
 the rate of profit will not rise in    
the discussion between the landowner and
 the trader4 ,the price of the  land    
will be regulated by the force of the   
existing demand for land1  a demand     
which1 of course1 will gather strength  
from the swelling  profits realized in  
the trade4    ,the position of the      
farmer who is seeking to discover what  
is the  proper consideration for the    
hire of a farm is radically different   
from that of an ordinary manufacturer4  
,as all land in ,england can be  said to

 pay rent1 it is clear that its products
 are sold at such a  profit as enables  
the tenant to reward his landlord for   
his loan4 ,the  sale of what he makes is
 therefore certain1 but the price which 
it will fetch is anything but certain4  
,his business is subject to  influences 
which very materially affect the        
quantity of his products1  and still    
more the prices which they will command4
 ,he is dominated  by the seasons2 but  
it may be argued that their fluctuations
 may be  guarded against by basing the  
calculation on their average character4 
,the statement is well founded1 and     
every sensible farmer will take the     
average season as his rule in computing2
 yet even the average season1  as recent
 experience has too sadly shown1 may    
sweep over a large cycle  of years with 
very disturbing results4 ,but there are 
other and very  formidable difficulties 
which the farmer is called upon to face4
 ,the  price which his produce will     
command depends on forces of great and  

varying power which are entirely beyond 
his own control1 and often  are         
incapable of being estimated beforehand4
 ,he is necessarily met by  foreign     
competition2 and that competition itself
 is stronger or weaker  according to the
 commercial position of the countries   
which bring  it to bear4 ,further1 the  
state of the home market itself cannot  
be  prejudged4 ,the produce of ,english 
land will certainly be demanded  and    
sold2 but its price is vastly influenced
 by the prosperity or  adversity of     
,english trade4 ,the rate1 for instance1
 at which meat will  be sold will vary  
prodigiously according as the multitudes
 of ,british  workmen are earning high  
or low wages4 ,the fortunes of foreign  
nations  will weigh on the cultivating  
farmer2 they are buyers of ,english     
wares1 and their financial condition    
will act on ,british manufactures  and  
recoil1 for good or evil1 on ,british   
agriculture4    ,the combined action of 
these manifold and diverse forces       

generates a  special and very important 
effect4 ,it imprints on the hire of land
  a distinct and unique feature of its  
own2 it imparts its peculiar            
characteristic to rent4 ,the position of
 the farmer is not that of a  man       
engaged in a business1 and buying or    
hiring a machine which is  required for 
carrying it on2 it is rather the        
situation of one who is  examining      
whether he can reasonably enter upon the
 business at all4  ,one feeling governs 
that situation2 the tenant must be able 
to live by  it by means of a natural    
profit after all expenses have been     
repaid4  ,thus1 the payment for the use 
of the land takes the form of handing   
over to the landowner all excess of     
profit above the fitting reward  for the
 farmer4 ,this seems manifestly the best
 method for giving the  required        
security to the tenant1 whilst it       
provides the lender of  the use of the  
land a reward just in itself and        
compatible with the  continuous         

cultivation of the soil4 ,such a system 
is not unacceptable  to the landlord2 he
 cannot hope to maintain a fixed rent   
which the  returns yielded by the       
agricultural business do not furnish4   
,to insist  upon such a condition would 
be simply to compel the farmer to       
renounce  the farm4 ,and he will not    
obtain such a rent from any other       
tenant2  for the one he dismisses has no
 other motive for leaving except the    
fact that the farm will not provide such
 a rent4 ,on the other hand1 if  he is  
dissatisfied with the rent offered by   
the tenant1 he has in the  competition  
of tenants desirous of hiring the farm a
 sure test for  ascertaining whether the
 offer is just or deficient4    ,it     
follows1 from the preceding analysis1   
that rent depends on the  prices        
realized by agricultural produce        
compared with the cost of  their        
production1 the farming profits         
included4 ,a high price does  not in    
every case imply a correspondingly high 

rent1 for the cost of  raising          
agricultural produce varies immensely in
 different localities2  still1 as a     
rule1 elevated prices will raise up     
rents with them4 ,the  same truth holds 
good of every business3 it must yield   
repayment  of all cost of manufacturing1
 and reward the manufacturer with the   
necessary profit1 or it will cease to   
exist4 ,but agricultural price          
encounters two serious embarrassments   
not to be found to an equal  degree in  
other trades4 ,it is1 in the first      
place1 powerfully acted  upon by the    
vicissitudes of the weather3 a bountiful
 harvest1 coming  in contact with great 
commercial profits1 brings a full and   
often an  augmented price1 to the great 
advantage of the farmer2 a poor         
harvest1 falling on a depressed trade1  
often fails to reap a price             
corresponding with the diminution of the
 supply4 ,there is but one  remedy      
wherewith to meet the fluctuations of   
such a market--a remedy1  unfortunately1

 too little heeded by most farmers4 ,the
 great law of the  average harvest must 
be ever borne in mind1 ought ever to    
govern the  conduct of the intelligent  
farmer3 he is bound1 by the very nature 
of his business1 to reserve the excess  
of profits of the good year to  balance 
the deficient return of the failing     
crop4 ,his rent ought  to be1 probably  
is1 founded on this principle2 his      
practice often  exhibits profuse        
self-indulgence under the temptations of
 the  prosperous time1 in utter         
thoughtlessness about the future4    ,we
 have now reached the full explanation  
of rent4 ,it is surplus  profit--that   
is1 excess of profit after the repayment
 of the whole  cost of production1      
beyond the legitimate profit which      
belongs to the  tenant as a manufacturer
 of agricultural produce4 ,the interest 
which  he would have reaped from placing
 capital which he has devoted to the    
farm in some safe investment1 such as   
consols or railway debentures1  forms   

necessarily a portion of the cost of    
production4 ,he would have  realized    
some #d per cent4 on the investment     
without risk or effort  of any kind4    
,this interest constitutes no reward for
 engaging in  agriculture4    ,it       
remains now to consider certain         
important consequences which flow  from 
this explanation of rent4 ,in the first 
place1 it is evident that  three        
separate incomes are derived from       
agriculture1 whilst two only  make their
 appearance in all other industries4 ,in
 common with  them agriculture furnishes
 reward or income for two classes of    
persons--wages for labourers and profit 
for the employer4 ,there the  similarity
 ends4 ,a third income makes its        
appearance for a third  person--rent for
 the landlord4 ,this rent is not an     
ordinary  consideration for hiring some 
useful machine2 if it were a            
compensation of this nature1 it would   
necessarily take its place  amongst the 
items composing the cost of production4 

,it is a part of  the profit won1       
dependent in no way on the value of the 
property nor  on the price at which it  
was bought1 but purely and simply on the
  degree of the profit realized4 ,it is 
a part of that profit1 estimated  and   
paid as what remains over--a surplus4   
,but how comes it to pass that an       
ordinary manufacture does not yield  or 
pay any such third income8 ,for a simple
 and decisive reason4 ,a  ,manchester   
manufacturer cannot permanently earn a  
higher profit than  belongs to his      
trade4 ,if we suppose #aj per cent4 to  
be the natural  profit of that trade1   
and he persistently realizes #ah1 other 
mills  will be opened by new men        
entering into the business1 and this    
process  will be continued till his     
profits are reduced to their legitimate 
level4 ,it is otherwise with farming4   
,if a tenant reaps #aj per cent4        
continuously from his farm1 when        
competitors are willing to be content   
with #h1 the landlord will quickly make 

the discovery1 and will add the  surplus
 #b to the rent he requires4 ,he will   
obtain the income1 because  #h per cent4
 is judged by the farming world to be an
 adequate reward  for engaging in       
agriculture1 and because no additional  
land is to be  found for the            
agricultural business4    #b4 ,it is    
clear that tithes1 poor-rates1 and other
 permanent charges1  fall upon the      
landlord's rent1 and not on the farmer's
 profit4  ,they diminish rent4 ,this is 
a point on which much misunderstanding  
prevails4 ,a loud outcry is raised      
amongst tenants at this time of         
agricultural suffering against the heavy
 payments demanded of them  for special 
taxes imposed upon land2 a strong       
agitation is rising to  obtain their    
repeal1 as being unjustifiable wrongs   
inflicted on the  most meritorious of   
industries4 ,it is not perceived that   
these  charges figured as items in the  
cost of production when the farmer  was 
calculating what rent the farm would    

warrant him to pay3 they  diminished the
 rent at the cost of the landlord4      
,tithes and rates took  their places in 
the estimate of the debit side quite as 
really as  the number of horses1 or the 
quantity of manure1 which the farm would
  require4 ,we have seen that rent makes
 its appearance only after every        
expense has been provided for1 and a    
legitimate profit secured2 then1  and   
not till then1 the calculation of the   
rent begins4 ,if the farming  world     
succeeds in removing these burdens1     
wholly or in part1 from  the shoulders  
of the tenants1 there can be no doubt   
that rents will  proportionately rise4  
,the landlords would argue1 with entire 
justice1  that all other circumstances  
remaining the same1 the collective      
farming profit had become larger by the 
disappearance of these taxes1  and as   
the tenant was entitled only to his     
natural rate of profit1 the  increase of
 surplus would legitimately belong to   
him4 ,if the tenant  repelled such a    

claim1 the landlord would be easily able
 to obtain the  rent he claimed from    
competing farmers who would be satisfied
 with the  natural profit of the        
business4    ,one exception1 however1   
must be allowed to this conclusion--the 
case1  namely1 of a tenant who1 upon a  
long lease1 had contracted to pay a     
definite rent for many years4 ,such a   
tenant has taken upon himself the       
chances of the cost of production during
 a lengthened period1 it  may be        
nineteen or twenty-one years1 being     
larger or smaller4 ,if it  diminishes   
during the interval1 he gains3 if it    
increases1 he loses4  ,practically he   
has insured the landlord's rent1 during 
the continuance  of the lease1 against  
diminution4 ,for all increase or        
diminution of  rates he fares as if he  
were the landlord4    #c4 ,a third very 
important deduction follows from the    
nature of the  process which determines 
rent4 ,rent does not increase the price 
of  agricultural produce2 it does not   

make bread dearer4 ,rent is the         
consequence1 not the creator1 of price4 
,here the difference between            
agriculture and manufacturing trades is 
vital4 ,the hire or purchase  of        
machinery forms necessarily a part of   
the cost of manufacturing the  goods3 it
 must be paid for by the price realized1
 or the goods will  not be made4 ,on the
 other hand1 the consideration to be    
given for the  use of the land does not 
enter into the tenant's estimate of his 
cost  of production4 ,he does not direct
 his inquiry to the right rent till     
after he has ascertained what the farm  
will produce1 the cost of  obtaining it1
 and the price it will fetch4 ,he then  
discovers what the  profit will be3 from
 it he takes his own necessary share2   
what is over  he hands to the landlord  
as rent4 ,he does not1 like the         
manufacturer1  insist upon a price which
 must be obtained1 for otherwise he     
would not  be able to pay for the use of
 the machine he borrows2 he simply takes

  the price which he finds in the       
market1 makes himself reasonably sure   
of the profit which rewards him1 and the
 landlord must take the chance  of what 
rent will remain over1 whether large or 
small4 ,rent exists  because a selling  
price is found which yields a surplus1  
an excess  of profit beyond what the    
tenant requires4 ,if price gives no     
surplus  profit1 the landlord will get  
no rent1 and he must farm the land      
himself1 or sell it to a farmer4    ,but
 there is a peculiarity in the          
agricultural market which exercises  a  
very powerful influence in raising      
rents4 ,most manufactured articles  can 
be dispensed with1 or their consumption 
greatly lessened1 if  their cost of     
production is largely increased1 or the 
means of buying  diminished4 ,it is     
otherwise with food3 it must be had1    
must be bought1  if any means of        
purchasing it exist4 ,the effect of this
 force on a  country situated like      
,england is very marked4 ,england cannot

 supply  food for more than half of her 
population2 the other half must be      
procured from abroad4 ,now1 the         
principle which governs the price of    
indispensable food is the law1 that the 
price paid for the dearest              
article--say1 a loaf of bread--which    
must and will be bought1 will  impose   
itself on all like articles which are   
actually purchased4 ,when  the loaf made
 in ,england was cheaper than any       
imported from abroad1  then the price of
 the ,english loaf rose to the price of 
the dearest  foreign loaves which were  
sold and purchased in the ,english      
markets4  ,this extra-addition of price 
was a pure surplus of profit received by
  the ,english grower of wheat2 the cost
 of production was not changed1  nor his
 requirement of profit for himself      
augmented4 ,the gain he thus  realized1 
being absolutely surplus profit1 passed 
to the landowner4  ,the need of foreign 
corn raised his rent4 ,but the picture  
has a  reverse side4 ,it may well happen

 that the foreign corn landed in        
,england will be saleable at a lower    
price than the ,english4 ,if the  supply
 can be furnished in sufficient quantity
 to provide bread enough  for all       
,england1 the ,english corn in that case
 must inevitably sink to  the level of  
the foreign--its price will fall1 the   
profit realized  on its sale may        
indefinitely sink1 and a great reduction
 of rents  throughout ,england may well 
be the inevitable consequence4 ,the     
only weapon wherewith to fight off the  
disaster would be such a  modification  
of ,british agriculture as would lead to
 the cultivation  of other crops than   
wheat4    ,here it seems desirable to   
notice briefly some remarks addressed by
  ,professor ,thorold ,rogers to the    
,daily ,news1 of ,october #cjth1 #ahgi2 
for though they are in the main true1   
they might easily give rise to          
mischievous misconception4 ,he          
writes--,there is no doubt that rent is 
wealth to the recipient1 and a means of 

profit to those who trade with  the     
recipient2 but except in so far as it   
represents the advantageous  outlay of  
capital1 it is no more national wealth  
than the public funds  are4 ,surely this
 is to ignore the fact that the sources 
from  which rent and the dividends on   
the public funds are derived differ     
radically in nature4 ,the dividends on  
consols are the fruit of taxes  levied  
on the whole people of ,england1 and    
distributed as such to  national        
creditors1 which they may consume as    
they please4 ,rent is  part of a profit 
earned by an industry useful to the     
country4 ,a tax  and a profit are not   
necessarily the same thing4 ,no doubt a 
profit  swollen by a monopoly price is  
equivalent to a tax3 and a rent derived 
from the price of the produce of land1  
raised by excessive demand and  stinted 
supply1 would be a forced contribution  
from consumers4 ,but  is all rent the   
child of monopoly8 ,may it not well     
happen1 does it  not constantly happen1 

that rents are high by the side of cheap
  corn1 because the agricultural        
business is largely productive through  
efforts made by landlords in improving  
the powers of the soil8 ,are  they to be
 limited down in their reward to the    
pure interest which  they could have    
obtained for their capital from         
investments in bonds  and debentures8   
,is not part of the profit realized     
legitimately due  to them1 as profit    
accomplished by a commercial enterprise8
 ,if the  returns on improvements made  
by landowners on their estates were     
limited to the interest which they could
 have obtained from consols1  would not 
the motive for making such improvements 
be sadly wanting8  ,it would sound      
strange in great manufacturing towns to 
be told that  flowing profits are no    
increase of the public wealth1 that they
 are  taxes resembling the public funds1
 and must be swept away down to the     
lowest sum compatible with the existence
 of the industry4    ,and what must be  

said of the ugly word1 monopoly1 which  
is so freely  flung against the owners  
of rent8 ,there is a sound of unfairness
 in  it2 of unearned gains won without  
effort from the fortunes of others4     
,how is such a reproach to be repelled8 
,to parry the blow does not  seem to be 
so difficult4 ,there is1 indeed1 a kind 
of monopoly which  is susceptible of no 
defence1 a monopoly of manufacture      
conferred on  a favoured few1 by the    
arbitrary decree of the law1 founded on 
no  superior claim of merit or capacity1
 and resulting in inflated prices  and  
inferiority of service rendered4 ,such  
were the monopolies whose  abolition an 
indignant public opinion extorted from  
,queen ,elizabeth4  ,but a superior     
advantage of production or sale attached
 by nature  to particular individuals or
 societies belongs to a wholly different
  class4 ,life is full of such          
monopolies4 ,they are inherent and      
indestructible4 ,the vineyards of       
,france possess a monopoly of           

incomparable wine which will for all    
time earn amazing profits paid by       
voluntary buyers4 ,england enjoys a like
 monopoly in the juxtaposition  of her  
coal and iron1 which have created a     
trade that no other nation  can rival4  
,the eloquent barrister1 the acute      
physician1 the brilliant  artist1 the   
quick-eyed inventor of machines1 the    
soul-stirring singer1  all are endowed  
with a personal monopoly resulting in   
great wealth4  ,are the men and nations 
who reap the splendid fruit of such a   
superiority to be stigmatized as        
despoilers of their fellow-citizens8    
,is rent1 the offspring of a like       
advantage1 to be painted as a tribute   
exacted from fellow-countrymen compelled
 to buy food8    ,but it will be said1  
change the tenure of the land1 and the  
wrong  will disappear4 ,but what system 
will clear away superior produce and    
increased price8 ,certainly not a       
universal peasant-proprietor class4     
,such peasants would still possess the  

command of higher prices  conferred by  
fertility and situation1 and by means of
 such prices they  would gather up      
swollen profits which would in reality  
be rent4 ,then  let the land be owned by
 the whole community in common          
possession1  exclaim ,french            
,socialists1 and let its fruits be      
distributed in equal  shares to every   
inhabitant4 ,but even in such an extreme
 case it would  be impossible to efface 
monopoly4 ,the able-bodied man who      
received the  same share of produce as  
the weak dwarf1 the clever artisan who  
was  unable to earn a special reward for
 his fructifying intelligence1  would   
inevitably reap a diminution of labour  
and time4 ,his higher  faculties would  
earn a monopoly benefit in leisure4     
,the conclusion to be drawn is evident4 
,nature has scattered monopolies        
broadcast1 higher profits1 over the     
world4 ,she has ordained that they      
shall ever exist4 ,it is futile to      
stigmatize rent as an exceptional       

offender against equality4    #d4       
,finally1 one more truth comes forth    
from this explanation1 which  has a most
 important bearing on the efficient     
cultivation of land4 ,the  landowner and
 the tenant are joint partners in a     
common business4 ,they  share a common  
profit--the first portion belongs to the
 farmer1 the  remainder to the landlord4
 ,they are both interested in promoting 
the  success of the agriculturist4 ,if  
the cultivation of the soil thrives     
even under the shortest leases1 the rent
 is not quickly raised in  consequence  
of the rising profit--whilst under a    
long lease very  considerable gains may 
be won before a new settlement of the   
rent can  come up for discussion4 ,this 
partnership brings a powerful motive to 
act on the landlord to give help in     
developing the efficiency of the        
farming4 ,he knows that if he invests   
capital in draining and other           
improvements1 he increases the          
productive power of his land1 he is     

laying the foundation of enlarged       
results1 and he cannot fail to  perceive
 that land thus improved must yield a   
bigger profit1 of which  the surplus    
part1 the rents1 must necessarily be    
greater4 ,thus1 an  important benefit is
 acquired1 not only for the joint       
partners1 but  also for the whole       
population of the country4 ,such        
processes generate  more abundant and   
cheaper food4 ,the landlord who never   
visits his  farms1 never thinks of them 
except on rent day1 is blind to his own 
interest1 is forgetting that ownership  
of land is a partnership in a  business4
 ,he neglects his own enrichment1 and   
leaves needed resources  for the nation 
unused4 ,the active and intelligent     
landlord1 on the  contrary1 watches the 
march of agriculture4 ,he observes where
 the  machine1 the soil1 requires       
improvement1 he notices the farming     
qualities of the tenant1 he lives on    
friendly relations with him1 and        
deliberates with him on expanding the   

productive power of the farm4  ,his rent
 becomes larger--not only by obtaining  
interest on the capital  laid out1 but  
also by sharing in the additional profit
 which that  capital is sure to         
engender2 and that addition will not be 
grudged by  the tenant4 ,he1 too1 will  
have prospered by the help of more      
powerful  machinery in his trade1 for he
 is certain of getting an augmented     
profit from the capital laid out by the 
landlord4 ,whatever may be said  of the 
system of land-revenue which prevails in
 ,england1 one merit  it certainly      
possesses3 it tends to bring the capital
 of a wealthy  landowner to take part in
 enlarging the power of the land and the
  amount of its produce4      ,,bonamy  
,,price4        ,footnote #a3 ,it is    
much to be regretted that ,professor    
,jevons      in his ,primer of          
,political ,economy should have omitted 
in      his explanation of rent the     
action of the forces which ,ricardo     
and ,mill sum up in the word situation4 

,he affirms that rent      arises from  
the fact that different pieces of land  
are not      equally fertile1 and that  
the rent of better land consists      of
 the surplus of its produce over that of
 the poorest      cultivated land4 ,how 
is it then that inferior land near great
      towns pays a much higher rent than
 very good land in the      heart of a  
rural district1 far away from railways  
or canals1      burdened with high      
poor-rates1 and sorely in want of lime  
or      other distant manures8 ,ricardo 
himself admits1 and so does      ,mill1 
that if all lands were equally fertile1 
and1 it may be      added1 equally well 
situated as to other forces1 they would 
still pay rent to their owners4         
,,buddhism ,,and ,,jainism4      ,in    
previous papers ,i have traced the      
progress of ,indian religious  thought  
through the various stages of ,vedism1  
,brahmanism1  ,vaishnavism1 ,saivism1   
and ,saktism1 and have pointed out that 
all these systems more or less run into1

 and in a manner overlap1 one  another4 
,we have seen that among the primitive  
,aryans the air1  the fire1 and the sun1
 were believed to contain within        
themselves  mysterious and irresistible 
forces1 capable of effecting tremendous 
results either for good or evil4 ,they  
were therefore personified1  deified1   
and worshipped4 ,some regarded them as  
manifestations of  one ,supreme         
,controller of the ,universe2 others as 
separate cosmical  divinities with      
separate powers and attributes4    ,if  
the religion of the ancient             
,indo-,aryans was a form of ,theism1  it
 was a ,theism of a very uncertain and  
unsettled character4 ,it was a          
religious creed based on a vague belief 
in the sovereignty of unseen  natural   
forces4 ,such a creed might fairly be   
called monotheism1  henotheism1         
polytheism1 or pantheism1 according to  
the particular  standpoint from which it
 is regarded4 ,but it was not1 in its   
earliest  origin1 idolatry4 ,its simple 

ritual was the natural outcome of each  
man's earnest effort to express         
devotional feelings in his own way4     
,unhappily it did not long retain its   
simplicity4 ,the ,brahmans  soon took   
advantage of the growth of religious    
ideas among a people  naturally pious   
and superstitious4 ,they gradually      
cumbered the  simplicity of worship with
 elaborate ceremonial4 ,they persuaded  
the  people that propitiatory offerings 
of all kinds were needed to secure  the 
favour of the beings they worshipped1   
and that such sacrifices  could not be  
performed without the repetition of     
prayers by a  regularly ordained and    
trained priesthood4 ,but this was not   
all4  ,they developed and formulated a  
pantheistic philosophy1 based on the    
physiolatry of the ,veda1 and overlaid  
it with subtle metaphysical and         
ontological speculations4 ,they         
identified the ,supreme ,being with  all
 the phenomena of ,nature1 and          
maintained that the ,brahmans           

themselves were his principal human     
manifestation1 the sole  repositories   
and exponents of all religious and      
philosophical truth1  the sole mediators
 between earth and heaven1 the sole link
 between men  and gods4 ,this           
combination of ritualism and philosophy1
 which  together constituted what is    
commonly called ,brahmanism1 gradually  
superseded the simple forms of ,vedic   
religion4 ,in process of time1  however1
 the extravagance of ,brahmanical       
ceremonial1 and the  tyranny of         
priestcraft1 led to repeated reactions4 
,efforts after  simplicity of worship   
and freedom of thought were made by     
various  energetic religious leaders at 
various periods4 ,more than one reformer
  arose1 who attempted to deliver the   
people from the bondage of  a complex   
ceremonial1 and the intolerable incubus 
of an arrogant  sacerdotalism4    ,it   
was natural that the most successful    
opposition to priestcraft  should have  
originated in the caste next in rank to 

the ,brahmans4  ,gautama 7afterwards    
called the ,buddha7 was a man of the    
military  class 7,kshatriya74 ,he was   
the son of a petty chief who ruled over 
a  small principality called            
,kapila-vastu1 north of the ,ganges2 but
 he  was not the sole originator of the 
reactionary movement4 ,he had1  in all  
probability1 been preceded by other less
 conspicuous social  reformers1 and     
other leaders of sceptical inquiry4 ,or 
other such  leaders may have been       
contemporaneous with himself4 ,we have  
already  pointed out that the philosophy
 he enunciated was not in its general   
scope and bearing very different from   
that of ,brahmanism4 ,the  ,brahmans    
called their system of doctrines        
,dharma1#a and the  ,buddha called his  
by the same name4 ,he recognised no     
distinguishing  term like ,buddhism4    
,his simple aim was to remove every     
merely  sacerdotal doctrine from the    
national religion--to cut away every    
useless excrescence1 and to sweep away  

every corrupting incrustation4  ,his own
 doctrines of liberty1 equality1 and    
general benevolence  towards all        
creatures1 ensured the popularity of his
 teaching2 while  the example he himself
 set of asceticism and                  
self-mortification1  secured him a large
 number of devoted personal adherents4  
,for it is  remarkable that just as the 
,founder of ,christianity was ,himself a
 ,jew1  and required none of ,his       
followers to give up their true ,jewish 
creed1  or ,jewish usages1 so the       
founder of ,buddhism was himself a      
,hindu1  and did not require his        
adherents to give up every essential    
principle  of ordinary ,hinduism1 or    
renounce all the religious observances  
of  their ancestors4#b    ,yet it cannot
 be denied that ,buddhism was very      
different from  ,brahmanism1 and it is a
 remarkable fact that1 with all his     
personal  popularity1 the atheistic     
philosophy of ,gautama was unsuited to  
the  masses of the people4 ,his         

negations1 abstractions1 and theories of
  the non-eternity and ultimate         
extinction of soul1 never commended     
themselves to the popular mind4    ,it  
seemed1 indeed1 probable that ,buddhism 
was destined to become  extinct with its
 founder4 ,the ,buddha died1 like other 
men1 and1  according to his own         
doctrine1 became absolutely extinct4    
,nothing  remained but the relics of his
 burnt body1 which were distributed  in 
all directions4 ,no successor was ready 
to step into his place4 ,no  living     
representative was competent to fill up 
the void caused by his  death4 ,nothing 
seemed more unlikely than that the mere 
recollection  of his teaching and       
example1 though perpetuated by the rapid
  multiplication of shrines1 symbols1   
and images of his person1#c  should have
 power to secure the continuance of his 
system in his own  native country for   
more than ten centuries1 and to         
disseminate his  doctrines over the     
greater part of ,asia4 ,what1 then1 was 

the secret  of its permanence and       
diffusion8 ,it really had no true       
permanence4  ,buddhism never lived on in
 its first form1 and never spread       
anywhere  without taking from other     
systems quite as much as it imparted4   
,the  tolerant spirit which was its     
chief distinguishing characteristic     
permitted its adherents to please       
themselves in adopting extraneous       
doctrines4 ,hence it happened that the  
,buddhists were always ready  to        
acquiesce in1 and even conform to1 the  
religious practices of the  countries to
 which they migrated1 and to clothe     
their own simple  creed in1 so to speak1
 a many-coloured vesture of popular     
legends and  superstitious ideas4       
,even in ,india1 where the ,buddha's    
memory continued to be perpetuated  by  
strong personal recollections and local 
associations1 as well as  by relics1    
symbols1 and images1 his doctrines      
rapidly lost their  distinctive         
character1 and ultimately1 as we have   

already shown1  merged in the           
,brahmanism whence they originally      
sprang4    ,nor is there any historical 
evidence to prove that the ,buddhists   
were  finally driven out of ,india by   
violent means4 ,doubtless1 occasional   
persecutions occurred in particular     
places at various times1 and it  is well
 ascertained that fanatical1            
enthusiastic ,brahmans1 such as         
,kumarila and ,sankara1 occasionally    
instigated deeds of blood and  violence4
 ,but the final disappearance of        
,buddhism is probably due  to the fact  
that the two systems1 instead of        
engaging in constant  conflict1 were    
gradually drawn towards each other by   
mutual sympathy  and attraction2 and    
that1 originally related like father and
 child1  they ended by consorting       
together in unnatural union and         
intercourse4  ,the result of this union 
was the production of the hybrid systems
 of  ,vaishnavism and ,saivism1 both of 
which in their lineaments bear  a strong

 family resemblance to ,buddhism4 ,the  
distinctive names of  ,buddhism were    
dropped1 but the distinctive features of
 the system  survived4 ,the ,vaishnavas 
were ,buddhists in their doctrines of   
liberty  and equality1 in their         
abstinence from injury 7a-hinsa71 in    
their desire for the preservation of    
life1 in their hero-worship1            
deification of humanity1 and fondness   
for images2 while the ,saivas  were     
,buddhists in their love for            
self-mortification and austerity1  as   
well as in their superstitious dread of 
the power of demoniacal  agencies4      
,what1 then1 became of the atheistical  
philosophy and  agnostic materialism of 
the ,buddhistic creed8 ,those doctrines 
were no  more expelled from ,india than 
were other ,buddhistic ideas4 ,they     
found  a home1 under changed names1     
among various sects1 but especially in  
a kindred system which has survived to  
the present day1 and may be             
conveniently called ,jainism4#d ,here1  

then1 we are brought face to  face with 
the special subject of our present      
paper3 ,what are the  peculiar          
characteristics of the ,jaina creed8    
,to give an exhaustive reply to such a  
question will scarcely be  possible     
until the sacred books of ,buddhists and
 ,jainas 7or1 as they  are commonly     
called1 ,jains7 have been more          
thoroughly investigated4  ,all that ,i  
can do at present is to give a general  
outline of ,jaina  doctrines1 and to    
indicate the principal points in which  
they either  agree with or differ from  
those of ,buddhists and ,brahmans4#d    
,perhaps the first point to which       
attention may be directed is that       
recent investigations have tended to    
show that ,buddhism and ,jainism  were  
not related to each other as parent and 
child1 but rather as  children of a     
common parent1 born at different        
intervals1 though at  about the same    
period of time1 and marked by distinct  
characteristics1  though possessing a   

strong family resemblance4 ,both these  
systems1 in  fact1 were the product of  
,brahmanical rationalistic thought1     
which  was itself a child of            
,brahmanism4 ,both were forms of        
materialistic  philosophy engendered    
from separate kindred germs4    ,for    
there can be no doubt that different    
lines of philosophical  speculation were
 developed by the ,brahmans at a very   
early period4  ,all such speculations   
were regarded by them as legitimate     
phases of  their own religious system4  
,in some localities where ,brahmanism   
was strong and dominant1 rationalism was
 restrained within orthodox  limits4 ,in
 other places it diverged into          
unorthodox sceptical  inquiries4 ,in    
others into rank heresy and schism4     
,buddhism and ,jainism  represented     
different schools of heretical          
philosophical speculation  which were in
 all likelihood nearly synchronous in   
their origin4 ,that  is to say1         
,gautama1 the founder of ,buddhism1 and 

,parsvanatha1  the probable founder of  
,jainism1 may have lived about the same 
time  in different parts of ,india4 ,nor
 is it unreasonable to conjecture  that 
both these freethinkers may have        
followed closely on ,kapila1 the        
reputed founder of the ,sankhya system  
and typical representative of           
rationalistic ,brahmanism4#e ,by far the
 most popular of the three  was         
,gautama1 commonly called the ,buddha4  
,the influence of his personal          
character1 combined with the            
extraordinary persuasiveness of his     
teaching1 was irresistible4 ,his system 
spread with his followers and  admirers 
in every direction1 and threw all       
kindred systems into the  shade4 ,very  
soon ,buddhistic doctrines leavened the 
religions of the  whole ,indian         
peninsula1 from ,afghanistan to ,ceylon4
 ,they found  their way into every home4
 ,they became domesticated in the       
cottages of  peasants and palaces of    
kings4 ,as to ,jainism1 centuries       

elapsed before  it emerged from the     
obscurity to which the greater          
popularity of  ,buddhism had consigned  
it4 ,nor1 even when its rival was       
extinguished1  did it ever rise above   
the rank of an insignificant sect4 ,at  
present  the total number of ,jainas in 
all ,india does not exceed #djj1jjj1 at 
least half of whom are found in the     
,bombay ,presidency4    ,yet it is not  
impossible that the first opposition to 
sacerdotalism  may have been due to     
,jaina influences1 and that ,indian     
rationalistic  speculation may have been
 inaugurated by early ,jaina leaders4   
,we know  that the ,buddhist king       
,asoka1 in his inscriptions--which are  
referred  to the third century          
,b4,c4--mentions the ,jainas under the  
name of  ,nirgrantha1 as if well        
established and well known in his time4 
,we  know1 too1 what has happened in our
 own country4 ,not long ago there  was a
 reaction from extreme ,evangelical     
religious thought in ,england4  ,but    

because that reactionary movement is    
called by the name of a  particular     
leader1 it by no means follows that he  
was chronologically  the first to set it
 in action4 ,in the same way it may     
possibly turn  out to be a fact that the
 ,jaina ,parsvanatha1 rather than the   
,buddha ,gautama1 was the first         
excogitator of the heretical ideas and  
theories common to both4 ,it seems to   
me1 indeed1 not improbable that         
,jainism1 which is now at length        
assimilating itself to ,hinduism1       
maintained its ground more persistently 
in ,india1 not only because1  unlike    
,buddhism1 it sullenly refused to       
fraternize with ,brahmanism1  and to    
court converts from other creeds1 but   
because the lines of  demarcation which 
separated it from the orthodox system   
were in some  essential points more     
sharp and decided than those which      
separated  ,buddhism4 ,it is1 at any    
rate1 a fact that the ,jainas claim for 
their  system a prior origin to that of 

,buddhism1 and even affirm that         
,gautama ,buddha was a pupil of their   
chief ,jina1 ,mahavira4 ,nor  will it   
surprise us that the legendary history  
of ,mahavira1 who  succeeded            
,parsvanatha1 and was the first real    
propagator of  the ,jaina creed1 favours
 the theory of such a priority4 ,true1  
,mahavira is described as the son of    
,siddhartha1 which is an  epithet given 
to the ,buddha4 ,but he is also said to 
have had a pupil  named ,gautama1 and   
his death is fixed by the concurrent    
testimony of  both parties of ,jainas1  
who follow different reckonings1 at a   
date  corresponding to about ,b4,c4 #ebf
 or #ebg1 the usual date assigned by    
modern research to the ,nirvana or death
 of ,buddha being #dgg or #dgh4    ,but 
it must not be supposed that            
,parsvanatha and his successor          
,mahavira1 are regarded by the ,jainas  
as their first supreme  ,jinas4 ,they   
were preceded by twenty-two other       
mythical leaders  and patriarchs1       

beginning with ,rishabha1#f whose       
fabulous lives  protracted to millions  
of years1 and whose fabulous statures1  
proportionally extended1 were probably  
invented in recent times1 that  the     
,jaina system might not be outdone by   
that of either ,brahmans or  ,buddhists4
    ,it is well known that the code of  
,manu--which is the best exponent  of   
,brahmanism--supposes a constant        
succession of religious guides  through 
an infinite succession of cycles4 ,these
 cycles are called  ,kalpas4 ,every     
,kalpa or on of time begins with a new  
creation1 and  ends with a universal    
dissolution of all existing             
things--including  ,brahma1 ,vishnu1    
,siva1 gods1 demons1 men1 and           
animals--into  ,brahm7a1 or the ,one    
sole impersonal self-existent ,soul of  
the  ,universe4 ,in the interval between
 each creation and dissolution there    
are fourteen periods1 presided over by  
fourteen successive patriarchs  or      
progenitors of the human race called    

,manus1 who1 as their name  implies1 are
 the authors of all human wisdom1 and   
who create a  succession of ,sages and  
,saints 7,rishis and ,munis71 for       
mankind's  guidance and instruction4    
,the ,buddhists1 also1 have their cycles
 of time1 presided over by  twenty-four 
,buddhas1 or 'perfectly enlightened     
men1' ,gautama being  7according to the 
,northern reckoning7 the seventh of the 
series4  ,similarly the ,jainas have    
their vast periods superintended by     
twenty-four ,jinas1 or 'self-conquering 
sages4' ,the notion is that  alternate  
periods of degeneracy and amelioration  
succeed each other  with symmetrical    
regularity4 ,each cycle embraces vast   
terms of years2  for in the             
determination of the world's epochs     
,indian arithmeticians  anticipated     
centuries ago the wildest hypotheses of 
modern ,european  science4 ,a single    
,kalpa1 or on1 of the ,brahmans consists
 of  #d1cbj1jjj1jjj years4 ,it is       
divided into a thousand periods of four 

ages 7called ,satya1 ,treta1 ,dvapara1  
and ,kali71 under which there is        
gradual degeneration until the depths of
 degeneracy are reached in the  ,kali   
age4 ,the ,buddhist ,kalpas are similar1
 but the ,jaina cycles have  a          
distinctive character of their own4     
,they proceed in pairs1 one  of which is
 called 'descending1' 7,avasarpini71 and
 the other  'ascending1' 7,utsarpini74  
,of these the descending cycle has six  
stages1 or periods1 each comprising one 
hundred million years1 and  called      
'good-good1' 'good1' 'good-bad1'        
'bad-good1' 'bad1' 'bad-bad1'  during   
which mankind gradually deteriorates2   
while the ascending cycle  has also six 
similar periods called 'bad-bad1' 'bad1'
 'bad-good1'  'good-bad1' 'good1'       
'good-good1' during which the human race
 gradually  improves till it reaches the
 culminating pinnacle of absolute       
perfection4 ,in illustration we are told
 to imagine a vast serpent1  whose body1
 coiled round in infinite space in an   

endless circle1  supports and guides the
 movement of the earth in its eternal   
progress4  ,the head and tail of the    
serpent meet1 and the notion is that the
  earth's movement alternates after the 
manner of the oscillating motion  of a  
balance-wheel acted on by the coiling   
and uncoiling of a steel  spring4 ,first
 the earth moves from the head towards  
the tail in a  downward course1 and then
 reversing the direction moves upwards  
from the tail to the head4 ,at present  
we are supposed to be in the  descending
 cycle4 ,twenty-four ,jinas have already
 appeared in this  cycle1 while         
twenty-four were manifested in the past 
ascending cycle1  and twenty-four will  
be manifested in the future4    ,in     
,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 and ,jainism1   
the idea seems to be that the  tendency 
to deterioration would very soon land   
mankind in a condition  of hopeless     
degeneracy unless counteracted by the   
remedial influences  of great teachers1 
prophets1 and deliverers4 ,in the       

legendary  history of the ,buddha       
,gautama1 he is described in terms which
 almost  assimilate his character to the
 ,christian conception of a ,redeemer3  
he is even reported to have said--,let  
all the evils 7or sins7 flowing  from   
the corruption of the fourth or         
degenerate age 7called ,kali7  fall upon
 me1 but let the world be redeemed4     
,and what are the precise character and 
functions of a ,jina8 ,this  inquiry    
must1 of course1 form an important part 
of our present  subject1 and the reply  
is really involved in the answer to     
another  question3 ,what is the great   
end and object of ,jainism8 ,briefly1 it
  may be stated that ,jainism1 like     
,brahmanism and ,buddhism1 aims at      
getting rid of the burden of repeated   
existences4 ,three root-ideas may  be   
said to lie at the foundation of all    
three systems3--first1 that  personal   
existence is protracted through an      
innumerable succession of  bodies by the
 almighty power of man's own acts2      

secondly1 that mundane  life is an evil1
 and that man finds his perfection in   
the cessation  of all acts1 and the     
consequent extinction of all personal   
existence2 thirdly1 that such perfection
 is alone attained through              
self-mortification1 abstract meditation1
 and true knowledge4 ,in these  crucial 
doctrines1 the theory of ,brahmanism is 
superior to that of  ,buddhism and      
,jainism4 ,according to the ,brahmans1  
the living soul of  man has an eternal  
existence both retrospectively and      
prospectively1  and only exists         
separately from the ,one ,supreme       
,eternal ,soul because  that ,supreme   
,soul wills the temporary separate      
personality of  countless individual    
spirits1 dissevering them from his own  
essence  and causing them to pass       
through a succession of bodies1 till1   
after a  long course of discipline1 they
 are permitted to blend once more with  
their great ,eternal ,source4 ,with the 
,brahmans existence in the  abstract is 

not an evil4 ,it is only an evil when it
 involves the  continued separation of  
the personal soul from the impersonal   
,eternal  ,soul of the ,universe4       
,very different is the doctrine of      
,buddhists and ,jains4 ,with them there 
is no ,supreme ,being1 no ,supreme      
,divine ,eternal ,soul1 no separate     
human eternal soul4 ,nor can there be   
any true soul-transmigration4 ,a        
,buddhist and a ,jaina believe that the 
only eternal thing is matter4  ,the     
universe consists of eternal atoms which
 by their own inherent  creative force  
are perpetually developing countless    
forms of being  in ever-recurring cycles
 of creation and dissolution1           
re-creation and  re-dissolution4 ,this  
is symbolized by a wheel revolving for  
ever in  perpetual progression and      
retrogression4#g    ,what then becomes  
of the doctrine of transmigration of    
souls1 which  is said to be held even   
more strongly by ,buddhists and ,jains  
than  by ,hindus8 ,it is thus explained4

 ,every human being is composed of      
certain constituents 7called by         
,buddhists the five ,skandhas74 ,these  
comprehend body1 soul1 and mind1 with   
all the organs of feeling and           
sensation4 ,they are all dissolved at   
death1 and absolute extinction  would   
follow1 were it not for the             
inextinguishable1 imperishable1         
omnipotent force of ,karman or ,act4 ,no
 sooner are the constituents  of one    
stage of existence dissolved than a new 
set is created by  the force of acts    
done and character formed in the        
previous stage4  ,soul-transmigration   
with ,buddhists is simply a             
concatenation of  separate existences   
connected by the iron chain of act4 ,a  
man's own  acts generate a force which  
may be compared to those of chemistry1  
magnetism1 or electricity--a force which
 periodically re-creates the  whole man1
 and perpetuates his personal identity  
7notwithstanding the  loss of memory7   
through the whole series of his separate

 existences1  whether it obliges him to 
ascend or descend in the scale of being4
  ,it may safely be affirmed that       
,brahmans1 ,buddhists1 and ,jains all   
agree in repudiating the idea of        
vicarious suffering4 ,all concur in     
rejecting the notion of a representative
 man--whether he be a ,manu1 a  ,rishi1 
a ,buddha1 or a ,jina--suffering as a   
substituted victim for the  rest of     
mankind4 ,every being brought into the  
world must suffer in  his own person the
 consequences of his own deeds committed
 either in  present or former states of 
being4 ,it is not sufficient that he be 
rewarded in a temporary heaven1 or      
punished in a temporary hell4  ,neither 
heaven nor hell has power to extinguish 
the accumulated  efficacy of good or bad
 acts committed by the same person      
during a  long succession of existences4
 ,such accumulated acts must inevitably 
and irresistibly drag him down into     
other mundane forms1 until  at length   
their potency is destroyed by his       

attainment of perfect  self-discipline  
and self-knowledge in some final        
culminating condition  of being1        
terminated by complete                  
self-annihilation4    ,and thus we are  
brought to a clear understanding of the 
true character  of a ,jina or           
self-conquering ,saint 7from the        
,sanskrit root ji1 to  conquer74 ,a     
,jina is with the ,jains very nearly    
what a ,buddha is with  the ,buddhists4 
,he represents the perfection of        
humanity1 the typical man1 who has      
conquered self and attained a condition 
so perfect that he not only  ceases to  
act1 but is able to extinguish the power
 of former acts2  a human being who is  
released from the obligation of further 
transmigration1 and looks forward to    
death as the absolute extinction  of    
personal existence4 ,but he is also more
 than this4 ,he is a being  who by      
virtue of the perfection of his         
self-mortification 7tapas7  has acquired
 the perfection of knowledge1 and       

therefore the right  to be a supreme    
leader and teacher of mankind4 ,he      
claims far more  complete authority and 
infallibility than the most arrogant    
,roman  ,pontiff4 ,he is in his own     
solitary person an absolutely           
independent  and infallible guide to    
salvation4 ,hence he is commonly called 
a  ,tirthan-kara1 or one who constitutes
 a ,tirtha#h--that is  to say1 a kind of
 passage or medium through which bliss  
may be  attained--a kind of ford or     
bridge leading over the river of life to
  the elysium of final emancipation4    
,other names for him are ,arhat1        
venerable2 ,sarva-jna1 omniscient2      
,bhagavat1 lord4    ,a ,buddha with the 
,buddhists is a very similar personage4 
,he is a  self-conqueror and            
self-mortifier 7tapasvi71 like the      
,jina1  and is besides a supreme guide  
to salvation2 but he has achieved  his  
position of ,buddhahood more by the     
perfection of his meditation  7yoga1    
samadhi7 than by the completeness of his

 self-restraint  and austerities4       
,both ,jainas and ,buddhists--but       
especially ,jainas--believe in the      
existence of gods and demons1 and       
spiritual beings of all kinds1 whom     
they often designate by names similar to
 those used by the ,hindus4  ,these may 
possess vast supernatural and           
extra-mundane powers in  different      
degrees and kinds1 which they are       
capable of exerting for  the benefit or 
injury of mankind2 but they are inferior
 in position to  the ,jina or ,buddha4  
,they are merely powerful               
beings--temporary rulers  in temporary  
heavens and hells4    ,they may be very 
formidable and worthy of propitiation1  
but they are  imperfect4 ,they are      
liable to pass through other stages of  
existence1  or even to be born again in 
mundane forms1 until they are finally   
extinguished by the same law of         
dissolution as the rest of the          
universe4    ,very different is the     
condition of the perfect saint4 ,he is  

in a far  higher position1 for he has   
but one step to take before plunging    
into the ocean of non-existence4 ,he is 
on the verge of the bliss of            
extinction1 and can guide others to it4 
,he can never be dragged down  again to 
earthly imperfection and sin4 ,he alone 
is a worthy object of  adoration4 ,all  
other beings--divine and demoniacal--are
 to be dreaded1  not worshipped4 ,there 
is no god superior to the ,arhat1 says  
the  ,kalpa-sutra 7,stevenson1 p4 #aj74 
,true worship1 indeed1 is not  possible 
with ,jainas any more than with         
,buddhists4 ,they have no  supreme      
,eternal ,being1 omniscient and         
omnipresent1 ever at hand to  answer    
prayer1 ever living to be an object of  
meditation1 devotion1  and love to his  
creatures4    ,yet a ,jaina who acts up 
to the principles of his faith is a     
slave to a  ceaseless round of religious
 duties4    ,the late ,bishop of        
,calcutta told me that he once asked a  
pious ,jaina1  whom he happened to meet 

in the act of leaving a temple after a  
long  course of devotion1 what he had   
been asking for in prayer1 and to whom  
he had been praying8 ,he replied1 ,i    
have been asking for nothing1  and      
praying to nobody4 ,the fact was he had 
been meditating on the  perfections of  
some extinct ,jina1 doing homage to his 
memory1 and  using prayer as a mere     
mechanical act1 not directed towards any
 higher  ,power capable of granting     
requests1 but believed to have an       
efficacy  of its own in determining the 
character of his subsequent forms of    
existence4    ,it may be said that the  
,brahmanical idea of a saint is much the
  same as that of ,buddhists and        
,jainas4 ,but with ,brahmans the        
perfect saint is not so solitary and    
independent in his spiritual            
pre-eminence4 ,he is one of a numerous  
band of similar sainted  personages4 ,he
 has endless names and epithets 7such as
 ,rishi1 ,muni1  ,yogi1 ,tapasvi1       
,jitendriya1 ,yatendriya1 ,sannyasi71   

all of  which indicate that he1 like the
 ,buddha and ,jina1 has attained  the   
perfection of knowledge and             
impassiveness1 either by abstract       
meditation 7yoga71 or self-mortification
 7tapas71 or mastery over  his sensual  
organs 7yama74 ,he may also combine the 
functions of a  true teacher and guide  
to salvation 7,tirtha74 ,he may even1   
like the ,buddha and ,jina1 have        
acquired such powers that any of the    
secondary gods1 including ,brahma1      
,vishnu1 and ,siva1 may be subject  to  
him4 ,finally1 he may be himself        
worshipped as a kind of deity4 ,yet     
radically there is an important         
distinction between the ,brahman  and   
the ,jaina saint1 for the ,brahman saint
 makes no pretence to  absolute finality
 and supremacy4 ,however lofty his      
position1 he  can never be exalted above
 the ,one ,supreme ,being 7,brahma71 in 
whose  existence his own personal       
existence is destined to become         
absorbed1  and union with whose essence 

constitutes the object of all his hopes1
  and the aim of all his aspirations4   
,nothing1 perhaps1 better illustrates   
the difference between  ,brahmanism1    
,buddhism1 and ,jainism than the daily  
prayer used in all  three systems4 ,that
 of the ,brahmans is in ,sanskrit 7from 
,rig-veda  iii4 #fb4 #aj71 and is       
addressed to the ,supreme ,being as     
giver of  life and illumination4 ,it is 
a prayer for greater knowledge and      
enlightenment3 thus1 ,let us meditate on
 that excellent glory of the  divine    
,vivifier4 ,may ,he stimulate our       
understandings4 ,that of  the ,jainas1  
also called by them ,gayatri1 is in     
,magadhi  ,prakrit1 and is in five short
 clauses to the following effect3--,i   
venerate the sages who are worthy of    
honour 7arhat74 ,i venerate the  saints 
who have achieved perfection4 ,i        
venerate those who direct our  religious
 worship4 ,i venerate spiritual         
instructors4 ,i venerate holy  men      
7sadhus7 in all parts of the world4     

,this is obviously no  real prayer1 but 
a mere formula1 expressive of veneration
 for human  excellence1 like that used  
by the ,buddhists1 which is perhaps the 
simplest of all1--,reverence to the     
incomparable ,buddha2 or 7as in         
,thibet71 ,reverence to the jewel in the
 lotus4#i    ,brahmans1 ,jains1 and     
,buddhists all alike aim at the         
attainment of  perfect knowledge2 but   
the ,brahman1 by his ,gayatri prayer1   
acknowledges his dependence on a        
,supreme ,being as the source of all    
enlightenment2 while the formulas of    
,jains and ,buddhists are simply        
expressive of their belief in the       
divinity of humanity--the efficacy  of  
human example1 and the power of         
unassisted human effort4    ,it will be 
evident from the foregoing outline of   
the first principles  of ,jainism1 that 
the whole system hinges on the efficacy 
of  self-mortification 7tapas71         
self-restraint 7yama71 and asceticism4  
,only twenty-four supreme saints and    

,tirthan-karas can appear in  any one   
cycle of time1 but every mortal man may 
be a self-restrainer  7yati74 ,every one
 born into the world may be a striver   
after  sanctity 7sadhu71 and a practiser
 of austerities 7tapasvi74  ,doubtless1 
at first there was no distinction       
between monks1 ascetics1  and ordinary  
men1 just as in the earliest days of    
,christianity there  was no division    
into bishops1 priests1 and laity4 ,all  
,jainas in  ancient times practised     
austerities1 but among such ascetics an 
important difference arose4 ,one party  
advocated an entire abandonment  of     
clothing1 in token of complete          
indifference to all worldly ideas  and  
associations4 ,the other party were in  
favour of wearing white  garments4 ,the 
former were called ,dig-ambara1         
sky-clothed1 the latter  ,svetambara    
7or1 in ancient works1 ,sveta-pata71    
white-clothed4#aj  ,of these the        
,dig-ambaras were chronologically the   
earliest4 ,they were  probably the first

 to form themselves into a regular      
society4 ,the  first ,jina1 ,rishaba1 as
 well as the last ,jina1 ,mahavira1 are 
said to have been ,dig-ambaras1 and to  
have gone about absolutely  naked4      
,their images represent two entirely    
nude ascetics1 whereas the  images of   
other ,jinas1 like the ,buddhist images1
 are representations  of a sage1        
generally seated in a contemplative     
posture1 with a robe  thrown gracefully 
over one shoulder4    ,it is not        
improbable that the ,svetambara division
 of the ,jainas  were merely a sect     
which separated itself from the parent  
stock in  later times1 and became in the
 end numerically the most important1 at 
least in ,western ,india4 ,the          
,dig-ambaras1 however1 are still the    
most  numerous faction in ,southern     
,india1 and at ,jaipur in the ,north4#aa
    ,and1 indeed1 it need scarcely be   
pointed out that ascetics1  both wholly 
naked and partially clothed1 are as     
common under the  ,brahmanical system as

 among ,jainas and ,buddhists4 ,the god 
,siva  himself is represented as a      
,dig-ambara1 or naked ascetic1 whenever 
he  assumes the character of a          
,maha-yogi--that is to say1 whenever  he
 enters on a long course of austerity1  
with an absolutely nude  body1 covered  
only with a thick coating of dust and   
ashes1 sitting  motionless and wrapped  
in meditation for thousands of years1   
that  he may teach men by his own       
example the power attainable through    
self-mortification and abstract         
contemplation4    ,it is true that      
absolute nudity in public is now        
prohibited by  law1 but the ,dig-ambara 
,jainas who take their meals1 like      
orthodox  ,hindus1 in strict seclusion1 
are said to remove their clothes  in the
 act of eating4 ,even in the most       
crowded thoroughfares the  requirements 
of legal decency are easily satisfied4  
,any one who  travels in ,india must    
accustom himself to the sight of plenty 
of  unblushing1 self-asserting human    

flesh4 ,thousands content themselves    
with the minimum of clothing represented
 by a narrow strip of cloth1  three or  
four inches wide1 twisted round their   
loins4 ,nor ought it  to excite any     
feeling of prudish disgust to find poor1
 hard-working  labourers tilling the    
ground with a greater area of sun-tanned
 skin  courting the cooling action of   
air and wind on the burning plains  of  
,asia than would be considered decorous 
in ,europe4 ,as to mendicant  devotees1 
they may still occasionally be seen at  
great religious  gatherings absolutely  
innocent of even a rag4 ,nevertheless1  
they are  careful to avoid magisterial  
penalties4 ,in a secluded part of the   
city  of ,patna1 ,i came suddenly on an 
old female ascetic1 who usually sits    
quite naked in a large barrel1 which    
constitutes her only abode4 ,when  ,i   
passed her1 in company with the         
collector and magistrate of the         
district1 she rapidly drew a dirty sheet
 round her body4    ,in the present day 

both ,dig-ambara and ,svetambara ,jainas
 are  divided into two classes1         
corresponding to clergy and laity4 ,when
 the  two sects increased in numbers1   
all1 of course1 could not be ascetics4  
,some were compelled to engage in       
secular pursuits1 and many developed    
industrious and business-like habits4   
,hence it happened that a large  number 
became prosperous merchants and traders4
    ,all laymen#ab among the ,jainas are
 called ,sravakas1 hearers or           
disciples1 while the ,yatis1#ac or      
self-restraining ascetics1  who         
constitute the only other division of   
both ,jaina sects1 are the  supposed    
teachers 7,gurus74 ,many of them1 of    
course1 never teach at  all4 ,they were 
formerly called ,nirgrantha1 free from  
worldly ties1  and are often known by   
the general name of ,sadhu1 holy men4   
,all are celibates1 and most of them are
 cenobites1 not anchorites4  ,sometimes 
four or five hundred live together in   
one monastery1  which they call an      

,upasraya1#ad place of retirement1 under
  a presiding abbot4 ,they dress1 like  
other ,hindu ascetics1 in               
yellowish-pink or salmon-coloured       
garments4#ae ,there are also female     
ascetics 7,sadhvini1 or1 anciently1     
,nirgranthi71 who may  be seen          
occasionally in public places clothed in
 dresses of a similar  colour4 ,when    
these good women draw the ends of their 
robes over their  heads to conceal their
 features1 and cover the lower part of  
their  faces with pieces of muslin to   
prevent animalcul from entering their   
mouths1 they look very like hooded      
,roman ,catholic nuns4 ,i saw  several  
threading their way through the crowded 
streets of ,ahmedabad1  apparently bent1
 like sisters of mercy1 on charitable   
errands4    ,of course1 in ,jainism     
anything like a ,brahmanical priesthood 
would  be an impossibility4 ,jainas     
reject the whole body of the ,veda1     
,vedic  sacrifices and ritual1 and hold 
it to be a heinous sin to kill an       

animal of any kind1 even for religious  
purposes4 ,they have1 however1  a ,veda 
of their own1 consisting of a series of 
forty-five sacred  writings1            
collectively called ,agamas4 ,they are  
all in the ,jaina  form of the ,magadhi 
dialect 7differing from1 yet related to1
  the ,pali of the ,buddhists1 the      
,magadhi ,prakrit of  ,vararuchi1 and   
the ,prakrit of the plays71 and are     
classed under  the different heads of   
,anga1 ,upanga1 ,painna 7,sanskrit1     
,prakirnaka71 ,mula1 ,chheda1 ,anuyoga1 
and ,nandi4 ,of these the  eleven ,angas
 are the most esteemed1 but the whole   
series is equally  regarded as ,sruti1  
or divine revelation4 ,the ,magadhi text
  is sometimes explained by ,sanskrit   
commentaries1 and sometimes by          
commentaries in the ,marwari dialect1   
very common among  merchants in the     
,west of ,india4 ,some of the best known
 ,angas and  ,upangas were procured by  
me when ,i was last at ,bombay1 through 
the  kind assistance of ,dr4 ,bhler2 but

 it appears doubtful whether  they would
 repay the trouble which a complete     
perusal and thorough  examination of    
such voluminous writings would entail4  
,it may safely be  affirmed that their  
teaching1 like that of the ,puranas1 is 
anything  but consistent or uniform1 and
 that they deal with subjects--such as  
the formation of the universe1 history1 
geography1 and chronology--of  which    
their authors are profoundly ignorant4  
,the ,indian commentator1               
,madhavacharya1 in his well-known       
summary of ,hindu sects 7called         
,sarva-darsana-sangraha7 has given  an  
interesting sketch of the ,jainas from  
his own investigation  of their sacred  
writings4 ,their philosophers are       
sometimes called  ,syad-vadins1         
asserters of possibility1 because their 
system propounds seven modes of         
reconciling opposite views              
7sapta-bhanga-naya7 as to the           
possibility of anything existing  or not
 existing4 ,all visible objects--all the

 phenomena of the  universe--are        
distributed under the two principles    
7tattva7 or  categories of animate      
7jiva71 and inanimate 7a-jiva74 ,again1 
all living beings comprised under the   
former are divided into three  classes3 
7#a7 eternally perfect1 as the ,jina2   
7#b7 emancipated from the  power of     
acts2 7#c7 bound by acts and worldly    
associations4 ,or1 again1  nine         
principles are enumerated--namely1 life1
 absence of life1 merit  7punya71       
demerit1 passion1 helps to restraint1   
helps to freedom  from worldly          
attachments1 bondage1 emancipation4     
,inanimate matter is  sometimes referred
 to a principle 7tattva7 called         
,pudgala1 which it  is easier for ,jaina
 philosophers to talk about than to     
explain4    ,when we come to the ,jaina 
moral code1 we find ourselves           
transported  from the mists of fanciful 
ideas and arbitrary speculation to a    
clearer atmosphere and firmer ground4   
,the three gems which every ,jaina  is  

required to seek after with earnestness 
and diligence1 are right  intuition1    
right knowledge1 and right conduct4 ,the
 nature of the first  two may be        
inferred from the explanations already  
given4 ,right  conduct consists in the  
observance of five duties 7vratas71 and 
the  avoidance of five sins implied in  
five prohibitions4 ,the five duties     
are3--,be merciful to all living things2
 practise almsgiving and  liberality2   
venerate the perfect sages while living1
 and worship their  images after their  
decease2 confess your sins annually1 and
 mutually  forgive each other2 observe  
fasting4 ,the five prohibitions         
are3--,kill  not2 lie not2 steal not2   
commit not adultery or impurity2 love   
not the  world or worldly honour4    ,if
 equal practical importance were        
attached to these ten precepts1  the    
,jaina system could not fail to conduce 
in a high degree to the  happiness and  
well-being of its adherents1 however    
perverted their  religious sense may be4

 ,unfortunately1 undue stress is laid on
 the  first duty and first prohibition1 
to the comparative neglect of  some of  
the others4 ,in former days1 when       
,buddhism and ,jainism were  prevalent  
everywhere1 ,kill not was required to be
 proclaimed by  sound of trumpet in     
every city daily4#af    ,and1 indeed1   
with all ,hindus respect for life has   
always been  regarded as a supreme      
obligation4 ,ahinsa1 or avoidance of    
injury  to others in thought1 word1 and 
deed1 is declared by ,manu to be the    
highest virtue1 and its opposite the    
greatest crime4 ,not the smallest       
insect ought to be killed1 lest the soul
 of some relation should be  there      
embodied4 ,yet all ,hindus admit that   
life may be taken for  religious or     
sacrificial purposes4 ,not so ,buddhists
 and ,jainas4 ,with  them the sacrifice 
of any kind of life1 even for the most  
sacred  purpose1 is a heinous crime4 ,in
 fact1 the belief in transmission  of   
personal identity at death through an   

infinite series of animal  existences is
 so intense that they live in perpetual 
dread of  destroying some beloved       
relative or friend4 ,the most deadly    
serpents  or venomous scorpions may     
enshrine the spirits of their fathers or
  mothers1 and are therefore left       
unharmed4 ,the ,jainas far outdo every  
other ,indian sect in carrying the      
prohibition1 not to kill1 to the  most  
preposterous extremes4 ,they strain     
water before drinking1 sweep  the ground
 with a silken brush before sitting     
down1 never eat or drink  in the dark1  
and often wear muslin before their      
mouths to prevent the  risk of          
swallowing minute insects4 ,they even   
object to eating figs1  or any fruit    
containing seed1 and would consider     
themselves eternally  defiled by simply 
touching flesh-meat with their hands4   
,one of the most curious sights in      
,bombay is the ,panjara-pol1 or         
hospital for diseased1 crippled1 and    
worn-out animals1 established by  rich  

,jaina merchants and benevolent         
,vaishnava ,hindus in a street  outside 
the ,fort4 ,the institution covers      
several acres of ground1 and  is richly 
endowed4 ,both ,jainas and ,vaishnavas  
think it a work of the  highest         
religious merit to contribute liberally 
towards its support4  ,the animals are  
well fed and well tended1 though it     
certainly seemed  to me1 when ,i visited
 the place1 that the great majority     
would be more  mercifully provided for  
by the application of a loaded pistol to
 their  heads4 ,i found1 as might have  
been expected1 that a large proportion  
of space was allotted to stalls for sick
 and infirm oxen1 some with  bandaged   
eyes1 some with crippled legs1 some     
wrapped up in blankets  and lying on    
straw beds4 ,one huge1 bloated1         
broken-down old bull in  the last stage 
of decrepitude and disease was a        
pitiable object  to behold4 ,then ,i    
noticed in other parts of the building  
singular  specimens of emaciated        

buffaloes1 limping horses1 mangy dogs1  
apoplectic pigs1 paralytic donkeys1     
featherless vultures1 melancholy        
monkeys1 comatose tortoises1 besides a  
strange medley of cats1 rats  and mice1 
small birds1 reptiles1 and even insects1
 in every stage of  suffering and       
disease4 ,in one corner a crane1 with a 
kind of wooden  leg1 appeared to have   
spirit enough left to strut in a stately
 manner  amongst a number of            
dolorous-looking ducks and depressed    
fowls4 ,the  most spiteful animals      
seemed to be tamed by their sufferings  
and the  care they received4 ,all were  
being tended1 nursed1 physicked1 and    
fed1  as if it were a sacred duty to    
prolong the existence of every living   
creature to the utmost possible limit4  
,it is even said that men are  paid to  
sleep on dirty wooden beds in different 
parts of the building1  that the        
loathsome vermin with which they are    
infested may be supplied  with their    
nightly meal of human blood4    ,yet ,i 

observed on other occasions that both   
,jainas and ,hindus are  sometimes very 
cruel to animals used for domestic      
purposes1 believing  that the harshest  
treatment involves no sin provided it   
stops short of  destroying life4 ,the   
following story1 which ,i have          
paraphrased freely1  from the ,jaina    
,kalpa-sutra 7,stevenson1 p4 #aa7 may be
 taken as an  illustration3#ag--        
,there was a certain ,brahman in the    
city of ,pushpavati      whose father   
and mother died4 ,in process of time    
both parents      were born again in    
their own son's house1 the father as    
a bullock1 the mother as a female dog4  
,by-and-by the      ,sraddha1 or        
festive-day for the worship of deceased 
parents and forefathers1 came round4 ,in
 the morning the son      set the       
bullock to labour hard1 that a supply of
 rice and milk      might be ready for  
the priests invited to the festival4    
,when      they were about to begin     
eating1 the female dog1 in which was    

the mother's soul1 seeing something     
poisonous fall into the      milk1      
snatched it away with her mouth4 ,upon  
that her son1 not      understanding the
 dog's action1 flew into a passion and  
almost      broke her back with a stick4
 ,in the evening the bullock was        
tied up in a cowhouse1 but no food given
 to him after his      day's toil4 ,both
 animals had become conscious of their  
previous state of existence1 and the    
bullock1 looking at the      female dog1
 exclaimed1 ',alas6 what have we both   
suffered this      day through the      
cruelty of our wicked son6'    ,as to   
the other precepts of the ,jaina moral  
code1 it is noteworthy  that the        
practice of confessing sins to a        
priestly order of men  probably existed 
in full force among the ,jainas long    
before its  introduction into the       
,christian system4 ,a pious ,jaina ought
 to confess  at least once a year1 or if
 his conscience happens to be burdened  
by  the weight of any recent            

crime--such1 for example1 as the        
accidental  killing of a noxious        
insect--he is bound to betake himself to
 the  confessional without delay4 ,the  
stated observance of this duty is       
called ,pratikramana1 because on a      
particular day the penitent repairs     
solemnly to a priestly ,yati1 who hears 
his confession1 pronounces  absolution1 
and imposes a penance4    ,the penances 
inflicted generally consist of various  
kinds of fasting2  but it must be       
observed that fasting is with ,jainas a 
duty incumbent  on all4 ,it is a duty   
only second to that of not killing4     
,fasting  7upavasa7 is also practised by
 ,hindus and ,buddhists1 and held  to be
 a most effective means of accumulating 
religious merit4 ,orthodox  ,hindus fast
 twice a month1 on the eleventh day of  
each fortnight1  as well as on the      
birthday of ,krishna 7,janmashtami71 and
 the  night sacred to ,siva             
7,siva-ratri74 ,on some fast days fruits
 may  be eaten1 but no cooked food of   

any kind4    ,with ,buddhists and       
,jainas the season of fasting1 religious
 meditation1  and recitation of sacred  
texts1 far outdoes our ,lenten period4  
,the  ,buddhists in some parts of the   
world call their fasting season ,wasso  
7corrupted from the ,sanskrit ,upavasa74
 ,that of the ,jainas is  called        
,pajjusan or ,pachchusan 7for ,sanskrit 
,paryushana74 ,the  ,svetambara ,jainas 
fast for the fifty days preceding the   
fifth of  the month ,bhadra1 the        
,dig-ambaras for the seventy following  
days4  ,in both cases the ,pajjusan     
corresponds generally to the rainy      
season or its close4 ,possibly the      
practice of fasting during that  period 
may be intended as an expiation for the 
supposed guilt incurred  by the         
unintentional destruction of            
damp-engendered insects4    ,in regard  
to the duty of worshipping images1 this 
also1 like the last  duty1 is incumbent 
on all4 ,but it is worthy of remark that
 images were  at first only used as     

memorials or as simple decorations1 in  
places  consecrated to pure forms of    
worship4 ,idolatry has always been a    
later  innovation4 ,it has never        
belonged to the original constitution of
 any  religious system4 ,one or two     
differences between ,hindu1 ,buddha1 and
  ,jaina images should be noted4 ,hindu 
images 7excepting that of the  ascetic  
form of ,siva7 are often profusely      
decorated1 while ,buddha and  ,jaina    
idols are always left unadorned1 though 
sometimes cut out of  the finest marble1
 and often having a nimbus#ah round     
their heads4  ,twenty-two of the ,jina  
images1 as well as the seven ,buddhas1  
are  represented with a coarse garment  
thrown over the left shoulder1 the      
other shoulder being bare4 ,those of the
 first and last ,jinas 7,rishabha  and  
,mahavira7 are completely nude2 and     
,jina images1 like some  of those of the
 ,buddha1 are often erect4 ,moreover1   
the idols of the  ,buddha ,gautama      
represent him in four principal         

attitudes4 ,he is  7#a7 seated in deep  
contemplation2 or 7#b7 is seated while  
engaged in  teaching1 with the tip of   
the forefinger of one hand applied to   
the  fingers of the other hand2 or 7#c7 
he is a mendicant ascetic in a  standing
 posture2 or 7#d7 he is recumbent just  
before his decease4 ,in  the first or   
contemplative attitude1 he is           
indifferent to everything  except       
intense concentration of thought on the 
problem of perfect  knowledge4          
,according to others1 he is supposed to 
be thinking of  nothing1 or1 if that is 
impossible1 his thoughts are            
concentrated on  the tip of his nose1   
till he does not even think of that4 ,or
 there may  be a modification of this   
meditative attitude1 in which his mind  
is  apparently engaged in ecstatic      
contemplation of the short distance     
which still separates him from the goal 
of annihilation4 ,the first             
contemplative attitude is by far the    
commonest4 ,the sage is seen  seated    

7generally on a full-blown lotus7 with  
his legs folded under  him1 the left    
palm supinate on his lap1 and the right 
hand extended  over the right leg4 ,he  
has pendulous ears1 curly hair1 and a   
top-knot  on the crown of his head4 ,his
 garment is thrown gracefully over  the 
left shoulder1 leaving the right bare4  
,the modification of this  attitude1    
representing the sage in ecstatic       
contemplation1 has both  the palms      
resting one above the other on the lap1 
and occasionally  holding a circular    
object1 the meaning of which is not well
  ascertained4 ,in the second or        
teaching attitude1 the great teacher is 
supposed to be marking off the points of
 his discourse1 or emphasizing  them on 
his fingers4 ,this attitude expresses an
 important peculiarity1  already pointed
 out1 as distinguishing ,buddhism from  
,jainism--namely1  that it lays more    
stress than ,jainism on the acquisition 
and imparting  of knowledge4 ,i have    
never seen a ,jina image in a teaching  

attitude4  ,the recumbent attitude of   
,buddha is supposed to represent him in 
the  act of dying1 and attaining        
,nirvana4 ,pious ,buddhists regard  this
 supreme moment in the life of their    
great leader with as much  reverence as 
,christians regard the death of ,christ 
on the cross4  ,through the kindness of 
,sir ,william ,gregory1 ,i was taken to 
see  a colossal recumbent statue of the 
,buddha1 at least thirty feet  long1#ai 
in the celebrated temple of ,kelani1 not
 far from ,columbo1  in ,ceylon4 ,the   
image appeared to be highly venerated by
 numerous  worshippers1 who presented   
offerings at the shrine4 ,on each side  
were  colossal images of attendants and 
doorkeepers 7dvara-pala71  and in other 
parts of the temple figures of ,buddha's
 demon enemies1  besides idols of the   
,hindu deities1 ,vishnu1 ,siva1 and     
,ganesa4  ,all around the walls of the  
temple were fresco representations  of  
incidents in the life of the ,buddha4 ,a
 huge bell-shaped ,dagoba               

7,dhatu-garbha71 of massive masonry1    
covered with chunam1 was in  the garden1
 on the right side of the temple4 ,it   
doubtless enshrined  ashes or relics of 
great sanctity4 ,but in all these       
,dagobas there is  no passage to any    
interior chamber3 whatever relics they  
contain have  been bricked up for       
centuries1 and no record is preserved of
 their  history or nature4 ,on the left 
of the temple were the residences of    
the high priests and monks1 in a        
well-kept garden overshadowed by  an    
immense ,pipal tree1 supposed to        
represent the sacred tree of  knowledge4
 ,both ,buddha and ,jina images have    
always certain objects  or symbols      
7chihna7 connected with them4 ,those of 
the ,buddha are  generally associated   
with the tree of knowledge1 or a hooded 
serpent1  or a wheel1 or a deer4#bj ,the
 seventh ,tirthan-kara of the ,jainas   
is specially associated with the        
,svastika cross--an auspicious symbol   
common to ,hinduism1 ,buddhism1 and     

,jainism4 ,worshippers in ,buddhist  and
 ,jaina temples may be seen arranging   
their offerings in the form of  this    
symbol1 which is shaped like a ,greek   
cross1 with the end of each  of the four
 arms bent round in the same direction4 
,the question as to  the origin of the  
emblem has called forth many learned    
dissertations  from various scholars and
 archologists4 ,for my own part1 ,i am  
inclined to regard it as a mere rude    
representation of the four arms  of     
,lakshmi1 goddess of good fortune1 the  
bent extremities of the  arms denoting  
her four hands4    ,with regard to the  
adoration of relics1 one or two points  
of  difference between the systems may  
be pointed out4 ,the ,hindus  wholly    
object to the ,buddhist practice of     
preserving and worshipping  the ashes1  
hair1 or teeth of their departed saints4
 ,i remarked in  the course of my       
travels that articles of clothing1      
especially wooden  shoes and cloth      
slippers1 used by holy men during life1 

are sometimes  preserved by the ,hindus 
in sacred shrines1 and held in          
veneration4  ,they must1 of course1 be  
removed from the person before actual   
death  has supervened2 for it is well   
known that in the minds of ,hindus  an  
idea of impurity is always inseparable  
from death4 ,contamination is  supposed 
to result from contact with the corpses 
of even their dearest  relatives4 ,the  
mortal frame is not held in veneration  
as it was by  the ancient ,egyptians1   
and as it generally is in ,christian    
countries4  ,every part of a dead body  
ought to be got rid of as soon as       
possible4  ,hence1 it is burnt very soon
 after death1 and the ashes scattered on
  the surface of sacred rivers or on the
 sea4 ,nevertheless1 the bodies  of     
great ascetics are exempted from this   
rule4 ,they are generally  buried1 not  
burnt2 not1 however1 because the mere   
corporeal frame is  held in greater     
veneration1 but because the most eminent
 saints are  supposed to lie            

undecomposed in a kind of trance1       
resulting from the  intense ecstatic    
meditation 7samadhi7 to which during    
life they  were devoted4 ,in former days
 great ascetics were not unfrequently   
buried alive1 and that1 too1 with their 
own consent4 ,a crowd of  admiring      
disciples was always ready to assist at 
the entombment1 and  it might be said in
 excuse that the holy men really        
appeared to be  dead1 though they were  
merely speechless1 motionless1 and      
senseless1  in a kind of meditative     
catalepsy4    ,the ,jainas hold views   
similar to those of the ,hindus in      
regard to  the treatment of dead bodies4
 ,they never preserve the ashes of their
  saints in ,stupas1 ,chaityas1 or      
,dagobas1 or worship them1 as the       
,buddhists do4    ,in connection with   
this subject ,i may remark1 that what   
may be called  foot-worship             
7paduka-puja71 or the veneration of     
footprints1 seems to be common to       
,hindus1 ,buddhists1 and ,jainas4  ,even

 during life1 when a ,hindu wishes to   
show great respect for  a person of     
higher rank or position than himself1 he
 reverentially  touches his feet4 ,the  
idea seems to rest on a kind of a       
fortiori  argument4 ,if the feet1 as the
 lowest members of the body1 are treated
  with honour1 how much more is homage  
rendered to the whole man4  ,children   
honour their parents in this manner4    
,they never kiss the  faces of either   
father or mother4 ,in some families1    
sons prostrate  themselves at their     
fathers' feet4 ,the arms are crossed    
just above the  wrist1 both feet are    
touched1 and the hands raised to the    
forehead4    ,the notion of honouring   
the feet as the highest possible act of 
homage  runs through the whole ,hindu   
system4 ,small shrines may often be     
observed in different parts of ,india1  
sometimes dedicated to holy men1        
sometimes to ,satis1 or faithful wives  
who have burnt themselves  with their   
husbands4 ,they appear to be quite      

empty4 ,on closer  inspection two       
footprints may be detected on a little  
raised altar  made of stone4 ,these are 
called ,paduka1 shoes1 but are really   
the supposed impression of the soles of 
the feet4 ,in the same way1 the  wooden 
clog of the god ,brahma is worshipped at
 a particular shrine  somewhere in      
,central ,india1 and we know that the   
footprint of both  ,buddha and ,vishnu  
at ,gaya1 and that of ,buddha at ,adam's
 ,peak1 are  objects of adoration to    
millions4    ,analogous ideas and       
practices prevail in ,roman ,catholic   
countries4  ,there is a wooden image of 
,christ on the cross in a church at     
,vienna1  which is so venerated that1   
although it is a little elevated1 some  
worshippers stand on tiptoe to kiss its 
feet1 while others touch its  feet with 
their fingers1 and then raise their     
fingers to their mouths4  ,similarly1 at
 ,munich1 in ,bavaria1 numbers of       
worshippers may be seen  kissing the    
feet of an image of the ,virgin ,mary1  

and most travellers  can testify that   
images of ,st4 ,peter1 not to mention   
the living  representative of ,st4      
,peter1 are treated in a similar manner4
    ,nothing1 however1 comes up to the  
veneration of footprints among  ,jainas4
 ,i visited the magnificent temple      
erected by ,hathi-,singh at  ,ahmedabad1
 as well as the underground shrine      
dedicated to ,adinath1  and another     
great ,jaina temple at ,kaira4 ,the     
first consists of a large  quadrangle1  
approached by a beautifully carved      
marble gateway4 ,the  principal shrine  
is in the centre4 ,all around the       
quadrangle is a  kind of cloister1 in   
which are about thirty subordinate      
shrines1 each  containing the image of a
 particular ,jina or ,tirthan-kara4 ,all
 the  images appeared to me to be of one
 type1 and to resemble those of  the    
contemplative 7,dhyani7 ,buddha4 ,all   
are carved out of fine  marble1         
generally of a light colour1 and all    
represent the ascetic1  in his sitting  

posture1 wrapped in profound meditation1
 indifferent  to all external           
phenomena--calm1 serene1 and            
imperturbable4 ,the  attendants of the  
temple were either very ignorant or very
 unwilling  to impart information4 ,no  
one could tell me whether all the       
twenty-four ,jinas had a place in the   
shrines4 ,one image of perfectly  black 
marble was described to me as that of   
,parsvanath4    ,the other temples were 
not very remarkable1 except as affording
 good  illustrations of foot-worship4   
,in one shrine ,i saw #ahhj footprints  
of ,nemi-nath's disciples4 ,in another1 
#adeb footsteps of the  disciples of    
,rishabha4 ,they were covered with      
offerings of grain and  money4 ,all the 
names of these holy disciples are given 
in the ,jaina  sacred works1 and it may 
be remarked that the disciples of       
,jinas1  however celebrated1 are never  
represented by images4 ,that privilege  
is  reserved for the twenty-four supreme
 ,jinas themselves4 ,i noticed that     

many ,hindu idols were placed outside   
the shrines4    ,certainly ,jainism1    
when regarded from the stand-point of a 
,christian  observer1 is the coldest of 
all religions1 if1 indeed1 it deserves  
to be called a religion at all4 ,yet the
 number of temples in certain  centres  
of ,jainism far exceeds the number of   
churches and chapels in  the most       
religious ,christian districts4 ,every  
,jaina who lays claim to  an excess of  
piety or zeal builds a temple of his    
own4 ,it never enters  into his head to 
repair the temples of other religious   
people4 ,at  ,palitana1 in ,kathiawar1  
there is a whole city of ,jaina         
temples1 some new1 others decaying1 and 
others quite dilapidated4 ,it  is by no 
means necessary or usual that every     
temple should possess  either priests or
 worshippers4 ,i can certify that ,i saw
 fewer  worshippers even in the most    
celebrated ,jaina temples than in any of
  the ,buddhist temples at ,columbo or  
,kandy4 ,those who came contented       

themselves with bowing down before the  
idols1 and placing flowers or  grains of
 rice and corn on the footprints of the 
saints4    ,the ,yatis have a kind of   
liturgy1 partly in ,sanskrit1 partly in 
the  ,jaina form of ,magadhi ,prakrit1  
partly in a kind of archaic  ,gujarati4 
,no real prayers are offered1 but       
stories of the  twenty-four ,jinas and  
their disciples are recited1 with       
singing and  an accompaniment of noisy  
instrumental music and beating of       
cymbals4  ,religious festivals and      
processions are also common4 ,i         
witnessed one  in the town of ,kaira1 on
 the anniversary of the death of a      
celebrated  ,yati4 ,an immense multitude
 of men and women paraded the streets1  
preceded by a very demonstrative band of
 musicians4 ,in the centre  was an      
apparently empty palanquin1 borne by six
 men4 ,it contained the  supposed       
footprints of the deceased ,yati in     
whose honour the festival  was held4    
,a few short extracts from the          

,kalpa-sutra 7,stevenson1 p4 #ajc7 will 
give some idea of the rules of          
discipline by which the lives of the    
,yatis are required to be regulated1 as 
follow3--        ,self-restraint is to  
be exercised by each man individually4  
,self-control is the chief of all       
religious exercises4 ,if a      quarrel 
arise1 mutual forgiveness is to be      
asked4 ,three daily      cleansings are 
enjoined1 morning1 mid-day1 and evening4
 ,a      period of rest and fasting is  
to be observed yearly in the      four  
months of the rainy season4 ,during this
 period1 male      and female ascetics  
should by no means partake of rice1     
milk1 curds1 fresh butter1 melted       
butter1 oil1 sugar1 honey1      spirits1
 and flesh4 ,they must never use any    
angry or provoking      language1 on    
pain of being expelled from the         
community4      ,ascetics must carefully
 avoid contact with minute insects1     
small animals1 small seeds1 small       
flowers1 small vegetables1      c4 ,no  

ascetic must do anything whatever1 or go
 out for any      purpose whatever1     
without first asking permission of the  
,superior of the ,convent4 ,the head    
must be shaved1 or the hair             
constantly clipped4 ,no ascetic must    
wear hair longer than that      which   
covers a cow4    ,with regard to the    
last injunction1 it may be mentioned    
that the  ceremony of initiation        
7diksha7 usually takes place at the  age
 of twelve or thirteen1 and that part of
 the rite once consisted in  forcibly   
pulling out every hair of the head      
7kesa-lunchana74 ,in the  present day   
ashes are applied1 and a few hairs torn 
out by the roots  before the scissors   
are used4    ,it remains to state that  
the ,jainas of the present period are   
leaning  more and more towards ,hindu   
ideas and practices4 ,they have their   
purificatory rites 7sanskaras71 and a   
modified caste system4  ,not            
unfrequently ,brahman priests are       
invited to take part in  their marriage 

ceremonies4 ,indeed1 it is by no means  
uncommon for  intermarriages to take    
place between lay ,jainas 7sravakas7 and
  lay ,vaishnavas1 especially in cases  
when both belong to the ,baniya or      
merchant caste4    ,in short1 ,jainism1 
like ,buddhism1 is gradually drifting   
into the  current of ,hinduism which    
everywhere surrounds it1 and1 like      
every other offshoot from that system1  
is destined in the end to be  reabsorbed
 into its source4    ,i must reserve the
 subject of the ,indo-,zoroastrian      
creed1 and modern  ,parsi religious     
usages1 for treatment in my next paper4 
,,monier ,,williams4        ,footnote   
#a3 ,if an orthodox ,brahman is asked to
 describe      his religion1 he calls it
 ,arya-dharma1 that is1 the system      
of doctrines and duties held and        
practised by the ,aryas4 ,he      never 
thinks of calling it by the name of any 
special founder      or leader4 ,be it  
noted1 however1 that ,dharma implies    
more than      a mere religious creed4  

,it is a far more comprehensive term    
than our word religion4        ,footnote
 #b3 ,in many images of the ,buddha he  
is represented      with the sacred     
thread over the left shoulder and under 
the      right arm1 according to        
orthodox ,brahmanical usage4            
,footnote #c3 ,since the ,buddha became 
absolutely extinct1 and      since his  
system recognised no ,supreme ,soul of  
the ,universe1      there remained      
nothing for his followers to venerate   
except      his memory4 ,the mass of his
 converts1 however1 did not long        
rest satisfied with enshrining him in   
their minds4 ,first they      made      
pilgrimages to the ,bodhi-tree1 or ,tree
 of ,knowledge1      at ,gaya1 under    
which their great teacher obtained      
supreme      wisdom4 ,there they erected
 tumuli1 or graves 7variously           
called dagobas1 chaityas1 and stupas71  
over his relics1 and      worshipped1   
these4 ,then adoration was paid to his  
foot-prints1      and to the wheel or   

symbol of the ,buddhist law4 ,finally1  
images of his person in different       
attitudes 7to be described              
subsequently7 were multiplied           
everywhere4 ,temples1 at first1         
were unknown4 ,there were rooms1 or     
places of meeting1 for      ,buddhist   
congregations to hear preaching2 but it 
was not till      a later period that   
these were used to enshrine images and  
relics4 ,a vast period of development   
separates the original                  
,sangha-griha from such a temple as that
 erected over the      eye-tooth of     
,buddha1 at ,kandy1 in ,ceylon1 which is
 a costly      edifice1 containing      
images and a library1 as well as the    
far-famed relic shrine behind thick iron
 bars4        ,footnote #c3 ,the        
expression1 ,jainism1 corresponds to    
,vaishnavism and ,saivism just as the   
term ,jaina does to      ,vaishnava or  
,saiva4 ,of course consistency would    
require      the substitution of        
,bauddhism and ,bauddha for ,buddhism   

and      ,buddhist1 but ,i fear the     
latter expressions are too firmly       
established to admit of alteration4     
,footnote #d3 ,there is one place in    
,india where the growth of              
,vaishnavism out of ,buddhism1 and their
 near relationship1 are                 
conspicuously demonstrated4 ,i mean     
,buddha-gaya1 with the      neighbouring
 ,vishnu temple of the city of ,gaya4   
,footnote #e3 ,in the ,caves of ,ellora1
 ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1      and       
,jainism1 may be seen in juxtaposition1 
proving that at      one period1 at     
least1 they existed together1 and were  
mutually      tolerant of each other4   
,footnote #f3 ,their names at full      
are3--#a4 ,rishabha2 #b4 ,ajita2        
#c4 ,sambhava2 #d4 ,abhinandana2 #e4    
,sumati2 #f4 ,padma-prabha2      #g4    
,suparsva2 #h4 ,chandra-prabha2 #i4     
,pushpa-danta2 #aj4      ,sitala2 #aa4  
,sreyas2 #ab4 ,vasupujya2 #ac4 ,vimala2 
#ad4      ,ananta2 #ae4 ,dharma2 #af4   
,santi2 #ag4 ,kunthu2 #ah4 ,ara2        

#ai4 ,malli2 #bj4 ,suivrata2 #ba4 ,nimi2
 #bb4 ,nemi2 #bc4      ,parsvanatha2    
#bd4 ,mahavira1 or ,vardhamana4 ,the    
first of these lived #h1djj1jjj years1  
and attained a stature      equal to    
#ejj bows' length4 ,the age and stature 
of the second      was something less4  
,the twenty-third lived a hundred years1
      and was little taller than an     
ordinary man4 ,the twenty-fourth        
lived only forty years1 and was formed  
like a man of the      present day4 ,the
 ,buddhists hold that their ,buddha     
,gautama was      much above the usual  
height4        ,footnote #g3 ,when      
,buddhism merged in ,vaishnavism1 its   
symbol      of a wheel 7chakra7 was     
adopted by the worshippers of           
,vishnu4        ,footnote #h3 ,the word 
,tirtha may mean a sacred ford or       
crossing-place on the bank of a river1  
or it may mean a holy      man or       
teacher4        ,footnote #i3 ,this is  
by some interpreted to mean--,reverence 
to      the creative energy inherent in 

the universe4        ,footnote #aj3 ,the
 actual colour of an ascetic's dress is 
a      kind of yellowish-pink1 or salmon
 colour4 ,pure white is not      much   
used by the ,hindus1 except as a mark of
 mourning1 when      it takes the place 
of black with us4        ,footnote #aa3 
,there is also a very low1              
insignificant1 and      intensely       
atheistical sect of ,jainas called      
,dhundhias4 ,they      are much despised
 by the ,hindus1 and even by the more   
orthodox ,jainas4        ,footnote #ab3 
,this term1 as well as ,upasaka1 is also
 used      to designate the ,buddhist   
laity4        ,footnote #ac3 ,from the  
,sanskrit root1 yam1 to restrain4 ,the  
,buddhists call their monks ,sramanas2  
from the root ,sram1      men who work  
hard at austerities1 or ,bhikshus1      
mendicant      friars4 ,their laymen are
 ,sravakas1 like the ,jaina laymen1     
but are also called ,upasakas4          
,footnote #ad3 ,also written ,apasraya4 
,footnote #ae3 ,when so attired they may

 be called      ,pitambaras1 or         
,kashayambaras1 though they belong      
to the ,svetambara1 or white-clothed    
party4        ,footnote #af3 ,dr4       
,stevenson conjectures that ,asoka's    
famous      edicts were similar         
proclamations1 embodying all the        
commands      and prohibitions of       
,buddhism and ,jainism1 engraved on     
stone to      secure their permanence4  
,footnote #ag3 ,it is doubtless intended
 as a ,jaina satire on      the worship 
of deceased parents and ancestors       
enjoined by      the ,brahmanical       
system1 and commonly practised by true  
,hindus4        ,footnote #ah3 ,the idea
 of encircling the heads of saints      
with a disc of light probably existed in
 ,india long before      ,christianity4 
,footnote #ai3 ,buddhists believe that  
the stature of the      ,buddha far     
exceeded that of ordinary men4 ,muslims 
have similar      legends about the     
stature of ,moses4        ,footnote #bj3
 ,there is a legend that the ,buddha    

taught first      in a deer-park near   
,benares4          ,,lord               
,,beaconsfield4    ,i4--,,why ,,we      
,,follow ,,him4      ,a writer in the   
last number of this ,,review1 when      
giving a portraiture  of ,mr4           
,gladstone1 pointed out that that right 
honourable gentleman was  a bundle of   
persons rather than one4 ,it will not1  
,i hope1 be thought  a very gross       
plagiarism if ,i say that ,lord         
,beaconsfield's fame may be  divided    
into four or five distinct reputations1 
any one of which1  in the case of a     
smaller man1 would be thought enough for
 enduring  celebrity4 ,if ,mr4 ,disraeli
 had never succeeded in making his way  
into  ,parliament1 he would still1      
without needing to add another volume to
  the books he has written1 have had to 
be taken account of as one of  our      
foremost men of letters4 ,supposing     
that1 having entered the ,house  of     
,commons1 he had not attained office1 he
 would yet have always been  remembered 

as the keenest ,parliamentary debater of
 his time4 ,if his  public life had     
ended in #aheb--that is1 more than a    
quarter of a  century ago--without his  
having become a ,minister1 he would have
 stood  recorded as the most skilful    
leader of an ,opposition which our      
history  has known4 ,had he never passed
 a measure through ,parliament1 he  must
 have been referred to by all political 
thinkers as a strikingly  original      
critic of our ,constitution4 ,such      
trifles as that1 being  born in the days
 of dandyism1 he ranked among the       
leaders of fashion  directly after he   
was out of his teens1 and that he has   
been a leading  social wit his whole    
life through1 may be thrown in without  
counting4  ,but add the above items     
together1 and fill in the necessary     
details1  and what a startling result we
 have6    ,it is very obvious that ,i   
cannot here trace ,lord ,beaconsfield's 
career  in detail4 ,the chronicle is    
much too rich for that4 ,the better plan

  will be to make the subject group     
itself around three or four chief       
topics--say these3 ,his public          
consistency2 his personal relations with
  ,peel and other leaders2 his political
 and social views regarded as a  system2
 and his recent foreign policy4    ,a   
single paragraph may1 however1 be       
interposed1 just to bring the  principal
 dates together in a way of prospective 
summary4 ,within four  years' time from 
his entering the ,house of ,commons1    
which1 after vain  attempts at ,high    
,wycombe1 ,marylebone1 and ,taunton1 he 
did in #ahcg  for the borough of        
,maidstone1 ,mr4 ,disraeli was at the   
head of a  party--,the ,new ,england    
,party4 ,the group1 if not very         
numerous1 drew  as much public attention
 as if it had been of any size we like  
to  name4 ,lord ,john ,manners and ,mr4 
,g4 ,s4 ,smythe had the generosity of   
heart and the keenness of insight to be 
the first won over by him1 and  that    
against the prejudices of their         

families4 ,who has not heard of  their  
courageous pilgrimage to the ,manchester
 ,athenum to explain to  ,cottonopolis  
how they proposed to re-make the nation8
 ,then came  the ,young ,england novels1
 with which all ,europe was shortly     
ringing--,coningsby in #ahdd1 ,sybil in 
#ahde1 ,tancred in #ahdg4 ,in  the      
meantime ,mr4 ,disraeli had associated  
himself heart and soul with  ,lord      
,george ,bentinck1 attacked ,peel1 and  
done far more than any other  in        
reorganizing the shattered ,conservative
 party within the ,house as  well as    
outside it4 ,by the last-named year1    
too1 ,mr4 ,disraeli had1  after a       
voluntary exchanging of ,maidstone for  
,shrewsbury1 become  member for         
,buckinghamshire1 a seat which he was to
 keep so long as he  remained in the    
,house of ,commons4 ,suddenly ,lord     
,george ,bentinck died  7much too early 
for his country71 and very soon after   
that event1  owing to the generous      
standing aside of ,lord ,granby and ,mr4

 ,herries1  ,mr4 ,disraeli1 within a    
dozen years of his first entry into     
,parliament1  stood forth as the        
recognized leader of the ,conservatives4
 ,the  publication of the famous        
,biography of ,lord ,george ,bentinck   
was at  once his noble tribute to the   
memory of his friend and a valuable help
  to the party4 ,five years later1 when 
,lord ,russell fell and the first       
,derby ,administration was formed1 ,mr4 
,disraeli--never having held an         
inferior post--became ,chancellor of the
 ,exchequer4 ,shortly followed  ,lord   
,palmerston's triumphant reign1 to be   
succeeded1 after a further  resignation 
of ,lord ,russell1 by the second ,derby 
,ministry1 in which  ,mr4 ,disraeli1    
once more ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1
 found time1 in  addition to his        
,budget-making1 to dish the ,whigs by a 
final ,reform  ,bill4 ,by-and-by the    
nation lost the ,earl of ,derby1 and the
 last  promotion of official dignity    
fell naturally to ,mr4 ,disraeli1  who  

became ,prime ,minister of ,england4    
,mr4 ,gladstone succeeded in  preventing
 the ,cabinet from having a very long   
life1 and ,mr4 ,disraeli  kept mental   
self-composure enough1 after losing     
office1 to sit down  and write ,lothair4
 ,by-and-by his political turn again    
came3 #ahgd saw  him ,premier for the   
second time1 and this present year of   
grace still  beholds him in the post1   
only in the ,upper ,house1 instead of   
the  ,lower1 as ,lord ,beaconsfield1 and
 with a ,parliamentary majority         
scarcely diminished by five years of an 
imperial rule which brings  back        
memories of ,england's most majestic    
days4 ,he has visited ,berlin1  and more
 than held his own in a ,council of the 
greatest modern  diplomatists2 has      
received a welcome back in ,london city 
such as no  living ,minister can boast2 
and has had the high honour of          
entertaining  his ,queen as a guest     
under his own roof4    ,now ,i may go   
back to the first of the texts ,i have  

chosen4    ,it is certain that ,lord    
,beaconsfield has always most           
tenaciously  insisted that he has from  
first to last been politically          
consistent4  ,his opponents1 for very   
good reasons of their own1 have         
unceasingly  affirmed that this         
assertion is his chiefest1 in fact his  
culminating  audacity4 ,but all the     
facts favour ,lord ,beaconsfield's view4
 ,in the  first place1 he has never held
 office but on one side1 and he is the  
only ,prime ,minister during the last   
half century who could plead that       
circumstance4 ,earl ,russell could not  
say it2 certainly ,lord ,palmerston     
could not2 it is quite out of ,mr4      
,gladstone's power to urge it2 even  the
 late ,earl of ,derby could not make the
 claim4 ,next1 it is now about          
thirty-two years since ,mr4 ,disraeli   
was formally recognized as the  leader  
of the ,tory party1 and he is still at  
the head of them1 without  their        
confidence having been for a moment     

shaken or withdrawn4 ,men1  in fact1    
have been born and have grown up to     
middle life with ,mr4  ,disraeli all the
 time remaining at the head of the      
,conservatives4 ,his  inconsistency     
during at least this somewhat lengthened
 period must  have been of a strange    
kind1 since it has always coincided with
 the  wishes and the interests of his   
party1 for he has never split them1  and
 he has thrice led them into power1 ,but
 we may go ten years further  back than 
the dates we have named4 ,from first to 
last1 he never sat  in ,parliament but  
as an avowedly ,tory member for a ,tory 
constituency2  during nearly thirty     
years he sat for one and the same       
county4 ,if you  sift what his enemies1 
have to say1 you will find that it      
refers to  something which took place   
about forty-five years ago1 and is to   
the  effect that he was for five minutes
 a member of the ,westminster  ,reform  
,club1 and was willing in his first     
candidatures to accept  the assistance  

of ,mr4 ,hume or of any other of the    
,radicals4 ,lord  ,beaconsfield has the 
plainest and1 as ,i think1 the most     
sufficient  explanation to give of it   
all4    ,he says that he came forward at
 ,high ,wycombe and afterwards offered  
himself to ,marylebone as an opponent of
 the ,whigs1 determining to do  all he  
could to bring the ,tories into better  
accord with the masses  of the people by
 re-establishing the natural social     
bonds between the  latter and the       
aristocracy4 ,certainly1 this is exactly
 what he has  done2 it is what he openly
 said that he aimed at doing from the   
very beginning4 ,moreover1 the ,tories  
so understood it from the first  moment4
 ,they gave him their support at ,high  
,wycombe before he went to  ,taunton1   
and political support cannot be kept    
very secret4 ,his name  was a popular   
toast at agricultural banquets1 and he  
was sure of  a welcome at any muster of 
the ,conservatives4 ,supposing that the 
,radicals had not had penetration enough

 to comprehend the position he  took up1
 who would have been to blame for that8 
,but the fact is that  it has suited    
them to pretend in this case to be more 
stupid than  they were4 ,no ,radical    
constituency ever elected ,mr4          
,disraeli4 ,the  newspapers of the party
 never spoke of him as one of their     
sort2 and  ,messrs4 ,hume and           
,o',connell were in a great hurry to    
withdraw their  letters of              
recommendation1 which had reached the   
candidate unsought4  ,it is not denied  
by ,lord ,beaconsfield's most rabid     
defamer that he  presented himself as an
 ,anti-,whig1 and it is admitted that   
long before  he was in the ,house he was
 a supporter in public of ,lord         
,chandos1  and a eulogist of ,sir       
,robert ,peel4 ,in his address to the   
,marylebone  electors he described      
himself as an ,independent4 ,but it is  
really  hardly worth while to discuss   
,mr4 ,disraeli's politics on this narrow
  basis4    ,the case may be put into a 

nutshell thus3 if he had postponed      
seeking  a seat till he went to         
,taunton1 which was in #ahce--that is to
 say  forty-four years ago--no one would
 have been able to say1 even in  a way  
of cavil1 that he had been ever any     
other than a most openly  understood    
,tory4 ,it is true that the ,radicals   
would still have been  able to complain 
that he had been bold enough to pass a  
,reform ,bill  giving household suffrage
 in the towns1 and so spoiled once for  
all  their party tactics4 ,but that is  
an allegation of inconsistency which    
his ,conservative supporters whom it has
 placed in office need not  be very     
anxious to defend him against4 ,the     
other side had made the  question of    
,reform cease to be one of fair         
politics2 ,parliament after  ,parliament
 they were trading upon it in the most  
huckstering spirit4  ,mr4 ,disraeli's   
own first narrower proposals were       
scoffed at by them4  ,the ,bill that was
 finally passed was avowedly a piece of 

party tactic1  and admirably it answered
 its end4 ,of course1 since it succeeded
 so  well1 ,lord ,beaconsfield's rivals 
will never forgive him for it4          
,however1 a more rational use of my     
space will be to ask at what stage  of  
his career ,mr4 ,disraeli developed the 
leading political principles  which came
 to be recognized as characteristically 
his8 ,that is the  only mode in which it
 is worth while to discuss a man's      
consistency4  ,lord ,beaconsfield has   
himself done it all in the preface to   
,lothair1  but ,i may recall a few      
details4 ,in the very first election    
address  he ever issued1 he styled the  
,whigs a rapacious1 tyrannical1 and     
incapable faction4 ,that may be taken1  
one would suppose1 as pretty  clearly   
marking his point of political          
departure4 ,at his second  candidature  
for ,wycombe1 he quoted ,bolingbroke and
 ,windham as his  models2 and it was as 
far back as #ahce1 in his ,vindication  
of the  ,english ,constitution1 that he 

first applied the term ,venetian  to our
 ,constitution1 as the ,whigs had       
transformed it4 ,the very  peculiarities
 of theoretical opinion which are most  
individually his1  can be traced back   
into what in respect of a living man's  
career might  almost be termed          
antiquity--it is something like         
two-thirds of half  a century ago since 
he first spoke of the ,asian ,mystery4  
,nobody's  sayings live as ,mr4         
,disraeli's have done4 ,the truth is1   
that so far  from his political system  
having been hatched piecemeal in a way  
of  after-thought to serve exigencies of
 personal ambition1 he started  with it 
ready made4 ,his critics themselves     
unknowingly admit this in  one part of  
their clumsy strictures1 since they can 
find events so  very recent as his      
naming of the ,queen ,empress of ,india1
 and his  appropriation of ,cyprus1     
sketched in his early novels4 ,but let  
me take  the very latest arraignment to 
which he has been summoned to plead     

guilty--that of having invented         
,imperialism just to bolster himself  in
 office4 ,as far back as #ahdi1 which   
now is exactly thirty years ago1  in one
 of his greatest speeches after having  
fairly settled down as  the leader of   
his party1 he used these words3--,i     
would sooner my  tongue should palsy    
than counsel the people of ,england to  
lower their  tone4 ,i would sooner leave
 this ,house for ever than ,i would say 
to the  nation that it has overrated its
 position4444 ,i believe in the people  
of ,england and in their destiny4 ,in   
his last ,premiership he has  simply put
 those thirty-year-old utterances into  
practice4 ,if he  had not done all he   
has done1 he would have been false to   
the heroic  spirit of that far-back     
hour4 ,on the hustings at ,maidstone    
,mr4  ,disraeli said1 ,if there is one  
thing on which ,i pique myself1 it is   
my consistency4 ,lord ,beaconsfield in  
advancing age may repeat the  statement 
without varying it a syllable1 though   

more than forty years  have elapsed     
between the times4    ,the              
,peel-,disraeli episode has been for a  
long time now the chief  standard       
illustration of the political casuistry 
of our modern  ,parliamentary history4  
,mr4 ,disraeli1 those opposed to him    
will have  it1 acted most cruelly in    
that matter4 ,it is rather a curious    
thing  for a young member of ,parliament
 to succeed in being cruel to the  most 
powerful ,minister the ,house of        
,commons had seen for more than a       
generation4 ,if a giant is overthrown it
 must be rather the fault  of the       
colossus somehow1 unless1 that is1 it be
 a bigger giant who  attacks him2 and at
 that time of day1 though ,mr4 ,disraeli
 was growing  fast1 he really was not   
yet of the same towering height as      
,peel4 ,how  was it1 then1 that he      
succeeded in toppling over the great    
,minister8  ,let me first of all say    
that the truth seems to be that ,sir    
,robert  ,peel's unlooked-for tragic    

death has given to his memory a pathetic
  interest which has caused an unfair   
heightening of emotion in the  case4    
,neither all ,england1 nor even the bulk
 of ,parliament1 was in  tears1 busy    
with pocket-handkerchiefs1 during the   
delivery of those  famous philippics4   
,if pocket-handkerchiefs were used it   
was to wipe  away drops caused by       
laughter1 for everybody was roaring from
 moment  to moment as each stroke told4 
,peel had taken up a position in        
reference to his old supporters which   
was certain to entail attack2  the only 
thing special that ,mr4 ,disraeli       
contributed to the assault  was the     
splendour of the wit which barbed it4   
,everything that he said  of ,peel1     
allowing fairly for controversial       
exigencies1 was strictly  true4 ,nobody 
wishes to revive those necessarily hard 
sayings now1  but it must be insisted   
upon for a second1 in passing1 that     
,peel had  treated his party as no      
,minister before him had ever done4 ,it 

was the  exactest verity1 as well as the
 keenest sarcasm1 when ,mr4 ,disraeli   
charged him with having tried to steer  
his party right into the  harbour of the
 enemy4 ,mr4 ,disraeli was the man to   
feel this most of  any1 for it is one of
 his leading principles that as this    
nation now  exists party in our         
constitution is an apparatus absolutely 
necessary  to be preserved4 ,he has for 
a third of a century since then himself 
unfailingly worked by that rule4 ,but ,i
 scarcely need urge this part  of the   
matter further here1 as another word    
bearing upon it will come  later4 ,if   
,peel had lived on1 he and his attacker 
would before the end  have come to terms
 amicably enough1 as ,mr4 ,disraeli has 
since done  with everybody else whom he 
has1 from obligations of political duty1
  had publicly to oppose4 ,that is1     
unless they were stupid enough not  to  
remember his known determination that   
,parliamentary life should be  raised   
above the level of vestry proceedings1  

by being dignified by  a play of wit2 or
 else were ill-conditioned enough1 as   
some who have  held high place have     
been1 not to meet his offered open palm 
when the  weapon was put back into the  
sheath4 ,peel himself would have had    
more  sense2 so1 too1 the present bearer
 of his name has shown himself  to have4
 ,the rather idle statement that the    
,disraelian assault was  prompted out of
 spite at not being made an             
,under-,secretary may at  this time of  
day be1 perhaps1 passed over4 ,mr4      
,disraeli spoke with and  voted for     
,peel long after that supposed neglect1 
and though it may be  said that a       
spiteful man could nurse his revenge1 it
 is just as true  that the most generous
 could have done nothing more than go on
 showing  respect and giving support    
just as ,mr4 ,disraeli did4 ,further1 no
 one  was prompter than he was with     
words of praise so soon as there  was   
opportunity for them4 ,indeed1 the      
finest eulogy of ,peel stands  recorded 

in the printed pages of the person who  
is charged with  pursuing him with      
unheard-of bitterness4 ,the man who     
waited for office  till the day when he 
vaulted at once into the ,chancellorship
 of the  ,exchequer1 was scarcely the   
one to be mightily offended1 because1   
when  a first batch of appointments was 
distributed1 an ,under-,secretaryship   
went by him4 ,it was the leadership of  
his party for wise ends that ,mr4       
,disraeli was looking out for4    ,here 
again1 however1 it is unnecessarily     
restricting the consideration  of the   
point to speak of ,mr4 ,disraeli's      
invective only in reference to  ,peel4  
,acting on his maxim that it is the very
 ornament of debate1 he  at one time or 
other has let the lightning of his      
tongue play around  everybody in        
,parliament who offered fit mark for it4
 ,lord ,russell was  scorched by it2 so 
was ,lord ,palmerston4 ,mr4 ,roebuck1   
who in those  days was thought to have a
 bitter lip1 got singed from it2 and    

,mr4  ,gladstone has felt its blaze     
wrapping around him often4 ,he is1 at   
this  moment1 in fact1 supposed to be   
showing some not very ancient scars     
from it4 ,but1 occasionally even ,mr4   
,disraeli's friends felt a more  lambent
 play of this glorious irony4 ,it was he
 who told the late ,earl  ,derby that he
 was only a ,prince ,rupert of debate1  
always finding  his camp in the hands of
 the enemy on returning from his        
irresistible  charges4 ,he never        
objected to receive as good as he gave1 
if only any  one could be found to give 
it him4 ,only once in all his career did
 he  lose his temper--in the challenge  
arising out of the ,o',connell affair2  
and that was before he was in           
,parliament4 ,while in the ,house1 who  
was  there with steel of any temper that
 he did not try its edge8 ,sharp  blows 
were aimed back1 and he always admitted 
when it was a palpable  hit2 but who    
came up so often as he did--who was     
there that did not go  down before him  

at the last8 ,take ,mr4 ,disraeli and   
,lord ,beaconsfield  out of the record  
of the ,parliamentary debating of the   
last forty  years1 and what a darkening 
it would give--what a gap it would make6
    ,something must now be said as to   
,lord ,beaconsfield's systematic        
political and social views4 ,it is very 
certain that he has a system1  and it is
 also sure that he has never hidden what
 it is4 ,nobody has  been at such pains 
to make his views clear4 ,he has written
 books in  explanation1 as well as made 
speeches2 he has illustrated the system 
by fiction1 besides backing it up by    
historical disquisition4 ,anybody  who  
chooses may learn what it is1 and--as a 
great modification of  political feeling
 in this country shows--a vast number   
have done so1  by reading ,coningsby1   
,sybil1 and the preface to ,lothair4    
,indeed1  from this latter exposition   
itself1 all that is vital may be        
inferred4  ,but the doctrine has of     
necessity some elaborateness1 and asks  

a trifle of thought4 ,it cannot be hit  
off in as easy a way as  ,radicalism    
can1 where1 when you have uttered the   
half-platitude1  half-sophism1 equality 
of man1 you are supposed to have said   
nearly everything4 ,lord ,beaconsfield  
has always kept before him the          
conception of a community1 which he     
distinguishes from a mob1 and  if he    
could get his own way in the matter he  
would have the society  highly          
organized2 the keeping it real in every 
part1 and strictly and  broadly popular 
in its entirety1 being the only working 
limit that he  would prescribe to its   
institutional intricacy4    ,this       
system1 though on its being gradually   
promulgated it was held to  be ,mr4     
,disraeli's very own1 expressly denies  
for itself that it is in  any sense     
,disraelian at all4 ,lord ,beaconsfield 
avows that he has found  it in          
history--in our own history4 ,he is     
content to be regarded as  its          
discoverer1 not its inventor4 ,in a     

word1 ,lord ,beaconsfield's great  claim
 upon his countrymen1 as he himself puts
 it1 is that he has again  brought to   
light and forced under the eyes of      
,englishmen their own  national         
chronicle4    ,to begin with1 it is his 
,lordship's firmly avowed belief that   
there  has been what may be called a    
break or rift in our great social       
traditions4 ,it is not difficult to see 
that he traces the causes of it  back to
 the violent subversal of the ,church1  
which1 he will have  it1 was never in   
this country at any time in real danger 
of becoming  ,papal4 ,but ,i may take up
 the narrative somewhat later4 ,with his
 own  inimitable terseness1 he has thus 
described the three great evils  which  
afterwards made a social wreck of modern
 ,england3 they were1 he  says1         
,venetian politics1 ,dutch finance1 and 
,french wars4 ,all these he  attributes 
to the ,whig nobles4 ,what is called the
 great ,revolution1  which they so      
hugely turned to their glory and their  

profit1 he1 in  ,sybil1 ascribes to the 
fear of those whom he calls the great   
lay  impropriators that ,king ,james    
intended to insist on the ,church lands 
being restored to their original        
purposes1--to wit1 the education of  the
 people and the maintenance of the poor4
 ,they brought over ,william  of        
,orange1 along with whom1 he ironically 
says1 ,england had the  happiness of    
receiving a ,corn ,law and the ,national
 ,debt4 ,but the ,crown  itself was     
enslaved in the hands of the ,whig      
families1 who converted  themselves into
 a ,venetian oligarchy2 and1 throwing   
off the natural  obligations of         
property1 they borrowed money to defray 
the foreign  wars in which ,william was 
entangled before he left his own        
country4    ,these are the historical   
premises from which ,lord               
,beaconsfield's  views are all          
fundamentally derived4 ,it is open to   
anybody to try to  disprove them2 what  
they have got to do is simply to show   

that the  above alleged facts were not  
the true ones4 ,but no one has done this
  as yet4 ,coming down still later in   
his history1 ,mr4 ,disraeli1 in  ,sybil1
 gave the following condensed           
description of the social  condition    
which had resulted1--a mortgaged        
aristocracy1 a gambling  foreign        
commerce1 a home trade founded on a     
morbid competition1 and a  degraded     
people4 ,here1 again1 the whole case is 
open to debate1 but ,i  venture to think
 that he will be a bold man who denies  
that this was  a vivid picture of       
,england at the moment ,mr4 ,disraeli   
penned it4 ,the  bold man1 at any rate1 
did not present himself at the time4 ,it
 was the  last item in that shocking    
list which fastened most on ,mr4        
,disraeli's  imagination--a degraded    
people4 ,when writing ,sybil he         
converted  himself into a ,commissioner 
of ,inquiry1 and visiting the homes of  
his humbler countrymen1 painted them    
from sight on the spot4 ,the            

descriptions in those pages can never be
 forgotten of dwellings where  lived    
fever and consumption and ague as well  
as human beings2 the  three first-named 
inhabitants being in fact the only      
tenants who  remained under the roofs   
long4 ,with agitation unusual for him1  
but  most consistent in an upholder of  
the doctrine of race1 he affirmed  that 
the physical quality of our people was  
endangered4 ,but he  further found that 
in the manufacturing districts there    
was1 to use  his own words1 no society1 
but only aggregation3 or1 again to quote
  him1 the moral condition of the people
 was entirely lost sight of4  ,much of  
this1 he believed1 was due to the       
,church having failed in its            
obligations4 ,the ,church1 he makes one 
of the characters in his story  say to  
another in it1 has deserted the people1 
and from that moment  the ,church has   
been in danger1 and the people degraded4
    ,at this point ,i may very rightly  
interpolate a remark which has not a    

little explanatory value4 ,just in      
proportion to the importance  given in  
,lord ,beaconsfield's system to the     
,church was his natural  disappointment 
at the failure1 regarded from one side1 
of the  awakening going on within its   
borders at the time of the ,young       
,england movement4 ,a great part of his 
hopes rested on that stir4 ,he  was     
expecting from those most prominent in  
it a grand resuscitation of  the        
,anglican ,church1 but in place of that 
he says ,dr4 7now  ,cardinal7 ,newman   
and the other seceders sought refuge in 
medival  superstitions1 which are       
generally only the embodiment of pagan  
ceremonies and creeds4 ,bearing this in 
mind1 there ought not to be  much       
difficulty in understanding either ,lord
 ,beaconsfield's position  towards the  
,ritualists1 or the course he took as to
 the ,public ,worship  ,regulation ,act4
    ,what was the remedy for this state 
of society into which ,england had      
fallen8 ,the cure which seemed natural  

to ,mr4 ,disraeli was to revert to  the 
principles of our history4 ,practically1
 the first thing to be done  was to     
break up the political monopoly of the  
,whigs1 and it was  this very task that 
he set himself to do4 ,i have already   
extracted a  passage denouncing that    
party in the first election address he  
issued4  ,but here1 too1 he had no new  
course to strike out4 ,he affirmed that 
both ,lord ,shelburne and ,mr4 ,pitt had
 attempted the same work long  before4  
,shelburne1 he said1 saw in the growing 
middle-class a bulwark  for the throne  
against the ,revolution families2 and   
,pitt1 still  more determined to curb   
the power of the patrician party1       
created a  plebeian aristocracy1 when   
they baffled his first endeavours1      
blending  it with the old oligarchy4 ,it
 has not unlikely begun to dawn upon the
  reader that ,mr4 ,disraeli1 holding   
these views1 was himself a ,reformer1   
of a much more comprehensive kind even  
than the ,radicals4 ,true1 ,reform  as  

it actually had come about in #ahcb1    
most craftily manipulated as  it then   
was by the ,whigs to their own          
advantage1 skilfully snatching  profit  
out of what ought to have been a danger 
to them1 was not his  notion4 ,for part 
of what happened then he1 indeed1 with  
his usual  courage1 blamed the ,duke of 
,wellington and his colleagues4 ,his own
  party have had from no quarter        
criticism so severe as that he has      
given them4 ,if ,lord ,beaconsfield is  
in favour of an aristocracy1 it  is     
because he is for making it actually    
lead4 ,he affirms that the  ,tories1 by 
their conduct in office1 precipitated a 
revolution which  might have been       
delayed for half a century1 and which   
need never have  occurred at all in so  
aggravated a form4 ,all that he could   
do1 all  that he has ever claimed to do1
 by his own partial ,reform measure1 was
  to do away with part of the ill       
effects of that partisan move of the    
other side1 and to prevent fresh ill    

ones from being worked in just  the same
 way4 ,but there ought to be given a    
still broader statement  of ,lord       
,beaconsfield's political and social    
doctrines1 and1 perhaps1 ,i  cannot do  
better than make with that view the     
following quotation from  the preface to
 ,lothair4 ,he there explains that his  
general aims were  these3--        ,to  
change back the oligarchy into a        
generous aristocracy      round a real  
throne2 to infuse life and vigour into  
the ,church      as the trainer of the  
nation1 by the revival of ,convocation1 
then dumb1 on a wide basis1 and not1 as 
has since been done1      in the shape  
of a priestly faction2 to establish a   
commercial      code on the principles  
successfully negotiated by ,lord        
,bolingbroke at ,utrecht1 and which1    
though baffled at the      time by a    
,whig ,parliament1 were subsequently and
 triumphantly      vindicated by his    
political pupil and heir1 ,mr4 ,pitt2 to
      govern ,ireland according to the  

policy of ,charles ,i41 and not      of 
,oliver ,cromwell2 to emancipate the    
political constituencies      of #ahcb  
from sectarian bondage and contracted   
sympathies2 to      elevate the physical
 as well the moral condition of the     
people      by establishing that labour 
required regulation as much as          
property2 and all this rather by the use
 of ancient forms      and the          
restoration of the past than by         
political revolution      founded on    
abstract ideas4    ,this1 he goes on to 
say1 appeared to him at the beginning of
 his  career to be the course which the 
country required1 and1 he adds1 that  it
 was one which1 practically speaking1   
could only with all  their faults and   
backslidings be undertaken and          
accomplished by a  reconstructed ,tory  
party4    ,if ,i were able to find room 
for bringing together from ,lord        
,beaconsfield's books and speeches      
detailed passages to illustrate this    
summary1 it would be seen what a        

coherent social scheme he has always    
had present to his mind4 ,the above     
hints1 however1 must serve4 ,any  one   
who1 after reading them1 thinks that    
there is any ground for the             
electioneering cry the ,liberals are    
trying to raise1 that this is a         
,minister who has no domestic policy1   
will show more stolidity than we  hope  
the bulk of the electors possess4       
,further on ,i will return for a  moment
 to this point4    ,let me go at once to
 the fourth topic ,i have allotted to   
myself--,lord  ,beaconsfield's foreign  
policy4 ,this policy1 ,i need not say1  
is that1  of the ,cabinet as well1 but  
,i am not in this paper writing of the  
other members of the ,government4 ,it is
 not my purpose to trace the  history of
 the ,eastern ,question1 that of the    
,afghan ,war1 and the ,zulu  embroglio4 
,but there is one general aspect of     
these matters as to  which ,i must offer
 two or three comments in addition to   
what has been  before said about        

,imperialism4 ,a set attempt has been   
made1 and is  pretty certain to go on   
being made all the time between now and 
the  elections--whether they come       
earlier or later--and to be then finally
  repeated on the hustings1 to give to  
,lord ,beaconsfield the air of a  most  
belligerent1 not to say a bloodthirsty1 
,minister1 who1 the moment  he got into 
office1 began to peep about the world to
 see where he  could pick a quarrel1 and
 who has especially acted defiantly     
towards  ,russia4 ,by way of            
preliminary1 ,i may ask whether his past
 antecedents  show him to be a statesman
 of this hobgoblin type8 ,lord          
,palmerston  found no more unyielding   
opponent of his turbulent foreign policy
 than  ,mr4 ,disraeli1 who always       
contended that the effect of it was to  
draw  the national attention away from  
home reforms4 ,when the question of     
coast fortifications was before         
,parliament1 ,mr4 ,disraeli was among   
the first to protest against panic2 he  

it was who spoke of bloated  armaments2 
and on countless occasions he has raised
 his voice for  peace and retrenchment4 
,in #ahfe he publicly declared that     
since he  had had to do with politics he
 had known only one war which was       
justifiable--that waged in the ,crimea4 
,but it may be said that it is  a common
 artifice for men in ,opposition to     
preach peace4 ,let us1 then1  turn      
specially to the ,eastern ,question1 and
 see what grounds there are  for        
insinuating that ,lord ,beaconsfield has
 in that case concocted a  war policy   
for the purpose of exciting and dazzling
 the country1 and  keeping himself in   
power4 ,in #ahdc--which is now some time
 ago--in a  debate as to the production 
of papers on ,servia1 in which ,sir     
,robert  ,peel and ,lord ,palmerston    
were the chief orators1 he made a speech
  which contained this passage3--,what1 
then1 ought to be the  ,ministerial     
policy8 ,to maintain ,turkey by         
diplomatic action in such a  state that 

she might be able to hold independently 
the ,dardanelles4  ,why1 this is the    
literal description of what he has done 
now4 ,and we  have already seen that in 
#ahfe1 twenty-two years after1 the one  
only  war he approved was that which had
 been fought against ,russia for this   
very purpose4 ,in the early stage of the
 negotiations which led to that  war1   
his complaint was that the ,government  
was not vigorous enough  in defending   
,turkey4 ,but1 in #aheg1 there arose    
another occasion for  testing whether   
,mr4 ,disraeli's feelings naturally were
 for peace  or war4 ,he opposed the war 
with ,china1 and in the ,persian affair 
he  denounced the ,russophobia of ,lord 
,palmerston--the very complaint from    
which1 we infer1 the ,liberals wish him 
to be understood to be himself          
suffering now4 ,or take ,india as a     
test4 ,according to the ,duke of        
,argyll and others1 ,lord ,beaconsfield 
has an insatiable thirst for more       
territory in that part of the world4    

,very strangely1 it was he who  most    
condemned the annexation of ,oude1 going
 so far as to make a  motion for a      
,royal ,commission to be sent out to    
,india to inquire into  the condition of
 the people4 ,when the contest between  
the ,northern and  ,southern ,states of 
,america broke out1 no public man       
regretted it more  than he did1 and he  
was unfalteringly on the side of the    
,north4    ,in fact1 only in one single 
case has ,lord ,beaconsfield ever shown 
the  slightest disposition for          
sacrificing peace1 if need be--namely1  
for  the checking of ,russia's          
portentous advance2 and this has        
necessarily  implied the maintenance of 
,turkey in some degree of power4 ,twice 
in  his lifetime has the need arisen1   
and he has acted the second time  in    
just the same way that he did the first1
 the only difference  being that he     
happens now1 fortunately1 to be in      
office instead of in  ,opposition4      
,in his first speech in the ,upper      

,house1 ,lord ,beaconsfield said--,the  
,eastern ,question involves some of the 
elements of the distribution of  power  
in the world1 and involves the existence
 of empires4 ,i plead  for a calm       
statesmanlike consideration of the      
question4 ,in his second  great speech  
in that ,house1 he made this            
remark1--,the independence  and         
integrity of ,turkey is the traditional 
policy not only of ,england  but of     
,europe4 ,this is the absolute truth4   
,it is not he who has  invented any     
brand-new tactics in this matter2 he has
 simply  stood upon the old paths1 and  
carried on the settled habits of our    
statesmanship4 ,the innovators are ,mr4 
,gladstone and the self-styled          
humanitarians1 who were for substituting
 hysterics for national  diplomacy1 and 
thought to solve the ,eastern ,question 
by presenting the  ,turk with a         
carpet-bag and begging him to retire    
with it into ,asia4  ,but it is stated  
that ,lord ,beaconsfield has defied     

,russia4 ,well1 turn  to the famous     
,guildhall speech1 which is the great   
article in the  indictment4 ,it suits   
his critics to pick words out of it to  
please  them2 but it also contains      
sentences like the following1 which they
  somehow overlook1--,we have nothing to
 gain by war4 ,we are essentially  a    
non-aggressive ,power4 ,in that same    
speech1 too1 he alluded to the  ,emperor
 of ,russia's lofty character1          
addressing to him words of the  highest 
compliment4 ,if he added a solemn       
warning to that monarch as to  the      
extent of ,england's resources if she   
was forced into war for  the cause of   
public right1 he still was speaking in  
the interests of  peace1 not war4 ,it   
was his bounden duty to prevent the     
present ,czar  from falling into the    
mistake his father was so fatally guided
 into by  the ,manchester school--that  
of thinking ,england would in no case   
draw  the sword4 ,construe his words how
 you will1 they amount to no more  than 

this4 ,mr4 ,gladstone and his friends1  
by their factitious public              
demonstrations1 partly did away with the
 natural effects of that grave          
intimation1 and made it necessary for   
the ,government to prove its            
seriousness by bringing troops from     
,india1 and actually risking the  very  
war which ,lord ,beaconsfield had wished
 to avoid4 ,but the ,premier  had the   
courage not only of his opinions but of 
a true policy1 and he  has had his      
reward4 ,he successfully checked the    
sinister progress of  ,russia1 restored 
the reign of public law in ,europe1 and 
while exalting  the renown of his own   
country1 he has pointed another         
empire--that  of ,austria--to a new     
career which will benefit the world as  
well as  strengthen and ennoble herself4
 ,after the alliance between ,germany   
and ,austria-,hungary was proclaimed1   
only one thing was left for his         
,lordship's opponents to go on          
repeating1--namely1 that he had1 in     

upholding ,turkey1 spared no thought or 
feeling to the victims of her  rule4 ,in
 the very face of this there was the    
fact that he had made  ,england the     
formal protector of the inhabitants of  
,asia ,minor1 and had  demanded ,cyprus 
as a nearer point of observation of the 
,turk2 but  the plain obvious meaning of
 those arrangements has been tried to be
  muddled away by misrepresenting the   
protectorate of ,asia ,minor as a  new  
insult to ,russia4 ,these brave         
humanitarians got sorely entangled  in  
their logic on all sides4 ,they pleaded 
in one breath that ,england  had rashly 
undertaken too much responsibility for  
these oppressed  peoples1 and in the    
next breath said that nothing would ever
 come of  it4 ,lord ,beaconsfield has   
made it all clear1 and in the simplest  
way4  ,it is not fully explained at the 
moment of our writing what is the       
actual extent of the pressure put upon  
the ,porte1 nor what precise  orders    
were sent to our admiral1 but when the  

recent news was first  published here   
the opponents of the ,ministry must have
 felt that ,lord  ,beaconsfield had     
ordered the ,british ,fleet to sail     
against them when  they heard it was    
instructed to steam back for the        
,turkish waters4  ,kindly meant as it   
might be for those in ,asia ,minor1 it  
was a very  cruel step on the part of   
,lord ,beaconsfield towards some of his 
own countrymen1 for it will necessitate 
the altering of a good many  already    
prepared electioneering speeches4 ,in   
the end1 as we venture to  predict1 it  
will be seen that his ,lordship and his 
colleagues are the  true humanitarians4 
,but let me not lose sight of the fact  
that this1 though a very real  plea on  
the part of the ,government1 is not the 
one on which they  mainly rely4 ,they   
have never pretended to be              
knights-errant for the  righting of     
wrongs throughout the world4 ,what      
contents them is the  humbler rle of    
old-fashioned ,english statesmanship1   

which seeks  first to make sure of the  
safety of our own empire and the        
promotion  of our proper interests1     
doing what further good it can to other 
peoples incidentally in discharging the 
fair reasonable obligations  which may  
in that way arise1 nor disdaining any   
glory that so falls  to it4 ,but an     
enormous obligation of this sort was    
already on our  shoulders--the          
preservation of ,india4 ,we have a      
strict duty to two  hundred millions of 
human beings in the ,east1 and ,lord    
,beaconsfield  and his colleagues1 who  
appeared to be the only public men in   
,england  who remembered this1 were     
determined to discharge it4 ,anything   
and  everything in their policy which   
may at first sight seem risky  or       
belligerent is explained fully to every 
one who will keep that  pressing need   
before his mind4 ,it was this which made
 them purchase  the ,suez ,canal shares1
 and strengthen their interference in   
,egypt2  it was this that made them wish

 for a clearer understanding with the   
,ameer of ,afghanistan4 ,but so little  
did they go about matters with a  high  
hand1 that they most carefully humoured 
,france with respect to  ,egypt1 and at 
the very earliest moment that they      
could1 they made a  treaty with a new   
,afghan ruler4 ,to try to make them     
appear responsible  for what afterwards 
occurred at ,cabul is the most shameless
 abuse of  license on the part of an    
,opposition which parliamentary records 
can  show4 ,a ,russian embassy had been 
installed in ,cabul with no other       
guarantee for its safety than the word  
of a friendly ,ameer1 and our  ,envoy   
and his suite were sent thither under   
the very same guarantee4  ,if we were   
not to be most dangerously overshadowed 
by the ,russian  example1 an ,english   
embassy had to show its face in ,cabul2 
and to say  that our rulers either in   
,calcutta or in ,london should have     
foreseen  the pusillanimous break-down  
of the ,ameer and the consequent        

massacre  of our brave countrymen       
is--well1 it may be better not further  
to try  to say what it is4    ,our own  
interests1 ,i repeat1 were jeopardized  
in every quarter where  the present     
,government has stirred hand or foot4   
,that is its broad  justification4 ,but 
,i must certainly go a step farther than
 this4 ,the  present ,ministry assuredly
 would not be satisfied with an         
acquittal on  the ,liberal arraignment2 
nor is that the verdict which the public
 has  given4 ,the ,british people find  
this ,government guilty of having won   
for it and for themselves much honour4  
,when ,lord ,beaconsfield saw that  in  
any event he was committed to a contest 
with ,russia for the defence  of        
,english interests1 he had the courage  
and the wit to determine that  the issue
 of it should be the better for the     
world4 ,it is for this  noble           
superfluity of skilful statesmanship1   
this ,imperial scope given  to          
,england's ruling1 that ,europe has     

thanked him1 and the bulk of this       
nation applauded him4 ,by-and-by1 he    
will reap still further credit1  for    
besides checking ,russia he will        
eventually coerce the ,turk4 ,that      
further obligation naturally arose out  
of the course he took1 and he  added it 
to his proper task of safeguarding our  
own interests1 just  as impartially as  
he did the other aim of arresting the   
,muscovite4  ,i shall not push this     
reasoning further3 it seems to me       
sufficiently  triumphant as it stands4  
,if ,lord ,beaconsfield has upheld the  
,turk1 it  was because it was necessary1
 not because he admired him4 ,but there 
is another remark1 coming much nearer   
home1 that ,i wish to make before       
concluding this section4    ,the foreign
 policy of ,lord ,beaconsfield has      
brought to him and to his  party much   
renown2 but it has brought them nothing 
else4 ,that  there has been the need for
 it is for the ,conservatives a positive
  misfortune4 ,it has nearly entirely   

put aside the domestic legislation  on  
which they reckoned for at once         
redressing some grievances of their     
own1 and for satisfying the town        
populations who their true friends      
were4 ,let it not be forgotten that it  
was on this very claim of having  a     
domestic policy that the ,conservatives 
appealed to the people at the  last     
election4 ,their opponents1 who now make
 a pretence of measures of  this kind   
being lacking1 then denounced it loudly 
enough as a policy  of sewage4 ,but     
,lord ,beaconsfield's rivals have tried 
hard to make  it seem that he sought    
out1 or even invented1 these hazardous  
events  abroad which put aside his home 
policy4 ,the very attempt impugns the   
common sense of the general public4 ,a  
sort of pretext might have been  found  
for insinuating such a notion if ,lord  
,beaconsfield had been  nearing the end 
of expending his ,parliamentary majority
 by carrying  party measures4 ,but to   
suppose that a ,minister attaining power

 in  the triumphant way he did would    
wish to be plunged straightway into     
foreign entanglements1 is to imagine him
 stricken with idiocy4  ,lord           
,beaconsfield had had far too much      
experience to make such a  preposterous 
mistake4 ,he knew at the beginning1 as  
he knows now1 that  neither ,minister   
nor party has much to gain in any way of
 permanent  power or confirmed home     
advantage from foreign policies1 however
  successful they may turn out to be4   
,foreign dangers are half-forgotten  as 
soon as they are past4 ,directly1 these 
occurrences abroad will be  but         
memories2 splendid ones they must ever  
remain3 but they will have  against     
them1 in the eyes of the unthinking1 the
 drawback of  having necessarily1 to    
some extent1 disordered the finances4   
,lord  ,beaconsfield's rivals are sure  
to make the most of that fact on the    
hustings1 as he well knew beforehand    
they would do2 and1 to balance  its     
effect1 he will have nothing on which to

 rely but the patriotic  recollection of
 his country4 ,should everything go for 
the best1 no  prestige which these      
foreign successes can give him and his  
party  will place him more solidly in   
power than he found himself at the      
beginning of this ,parliament2 yet it   
will only be at the opening of  the next
 that he will be able to push forward   
the home policy intended  for the       
present ,parliament4 ,apart from a      
heightening of fortunate  reputation1   
won through much risk1 his own party    
will scarcely have  gained a shred of   
fair legislative or administrative      
advantage from  six years' splendid     
possession of overwhelming power4    ,it
 does not seem needful to waste space in
 speaking of the ,zulu war4  ,even the  
,liberals are beginning to be silent on 
the subject4 ,the  affair was forced    
upon the ,government1 not sought for by 
them1 and it  has ended successfully4   
,if ,i now ask what have been the causes
 of ,lord ,beaconsfield's  unexampled   

individual success1 the remarks must at 
first seem to  narrow to mere personal  
ones4 ,there has1 in truth1 been more   
than one  reason for the present        
,premier's triumphs4 ,first of all1 ,i  
might  state the matter so generally as 
to say that for half a century he has   
managed to keep himself the most        
thoroughly interesting personage  in    
,england4 ,neither ,mr4 ,disraeli nor   
,lord ,beaconsfield has ever been  dull1
 which is the one only sufficient       
explanation of failure  wherever it     
happens4 ,but such a statement of the   
matter as this is too  comprehensive and
 wants particularizing4 ,i may add1     
then1 that no one  has shown so much    
pluck as he has1 and that is a quality  
which in the  end tells with the        
,british public beyond all others4 ,for 
one starting  with his disadvantage of  
race to dream in those days of a        
political  career was most courageous1  
but so soon as it began to be seen that 
he  would triumph over all obstacles1   

his very difficulties turned to his     
advantage4 ,he soon commanded           
everybody's sympathies except those  of 
injured partisans on the other side4    
,not that it was sympathy he  begged    
for2 it was admiration he extorted4     
,especially has he by means  of his     
writings had the generous feeling of    
youth in his favour1  generation after  
generation4 ,they can never remain      
untouched by  the spectacle of a        
successful fight against circumstances4 
,but ,lord  ,beaconsfield has not owed  
all to dash and daring4 ,his industry   
has  been equal to his pluck4 ,if he had
 only been a politician that would  have
 had to be said2 and so it again would  
if he had only been known  as the writer
 of his works4 ,put both the careers    
together and nobody  else has shown such
 fertility of brain4 ,his marvellous    
intellect has  never tired4 ,the        
versatility1 too1 has been marvellous3 a
 novelist and  a diplomatist1 a poet and
 a ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 a     

satirist  and a successful leader of    
,opposition4 ,for fifty years1 in one or
  other of these characters1 and often  
in several of them at once1 his  wit has
 never ceased blazing1 save when he     
himself1 the only one who  ever tired of
 its play--except1 indeed1 those hit by 
it--has chosen  to smother it in        
silence2 but it was always ready to     
flash forth upon  occasion1 and is as   
bright to-day as ever4    ,but1 to come 
yet closer to the heart of the secret of
 ,lord  ,beaconsfield's success1 his    
faithful devotion to the great historic 
party he allied himself with has been   
equal to his courage1 to his  industry1 
and to his abilities4 ,no politician can
 make an individual  career2 he has to  
find his success in the prosperity of   
his followers4  ,the loyalty which ,lord
 ,beaconsfield has shown to his party   
and the  ungrudging recognition they    
have paid to him has half-redeemed the  
hardness of our coarse partisan         
politics4 ,some ,liberals have had the  

want of wit1 without our going so far as
 to say the lack of capability  of      
feeling1 to express surprise at the     
faithful respect shown to ,lord         
,beaconsfield by his present colleagues4
 ,that ,lord ,beaconsfield has a        
personal charm must be admitted1 for he 
has turned every one who was  ever      
brought into any degree of nearness with
 him into a friend1 as  well as a       
colleague4 ,those who like may believe  
that he has done it  by the use of magic
 philtres2 less credulous people will1  
perhaps1  content themselves with       
thinking that his spell has been simply 
that  of strength of character1 superior
 experience1 and a non-despotic  manner4
 ,one thing is very patent4 ,this chief 
of a ,cabinet who is said  to have      
imprinted everywhere his own            
individuality on the ,ministerial       
policy1 has never practised the         
slightest interference with his         
subordinates4 ,it is not he who has been
 charged with an uncontrollable  wish to

 be the representative of all the       
,ministry in his own person4  ,just as  
he could show patience when a leader of 
,opposition1 he has  been able to be    
silent when a ,minister4 ,however1 it   
has been rather  insinuated that he     
became preternaturally active in the    
,cabinet  ,councils--there standing     
forth a wizard1 and cast all his        
colleagues  into a clairvoyant slumber4 
,strange to say1 they remained in the   
same  comatose condition afterwards in  
both ,houses1 never waking up though    
speaking and passing measures4 ,two     
members of his ,government1 however1    
have broken away--,lords ,derby and     
,carnarvon have escaped from the        
magician's cell2 but they have divulged 
nothing as to any necromantic  violence 
worked on them4 ,no1 ,lord              
,beaconsfield's fair and reasonable     
ascendency has been more honestly won4  
,but his marvellous friendships  have   
not been the only softening touches in  
his career4 ,all ,england  felt a       

strange thrilling about the heart on the
 morning when it  heard that ,mr4       
,disraeli's wife was henceforth to be   
the ,viscountess  ,beaconsfield4 ,it was
 a domestic idyll suddenly disclosed in 
the centre  of ,british politics4 ,a man
 who can make his own hearth the scene  
of  romance1 convert all who know him   
well into true friends1 and win  all the
 young people of a nation1 must be      
something more than a  self-seeker4     
,still1 though these things might       
explain ,lord ,beaconsfield being so    
interesting1 something else has yet to  
be added to account for the             
overwhelming importance which he has    
attained in the last period of  his     
career4 ,not even the success of his    
party could have given him  that unless 
the policy which secured this prosperity
 had obtained1  also1 the exalting of   
the nation4    ,it is this which is his 
final boast2 he has uplifted higher the 
fame  of ,england1 and by doing that has
 made his own renown the greater4  ,once

 more1 it was achieved in the simplest  
way4 ,he invented nothing1  strained at 
nothing1 but only boldly carried on the 
traditionary  ,english policy1 at a     
moment when his opponents were willing  
to forget  it2 and in merely proving    
equal to the opportunity1 and daring to 
make  ,britain act worthily of her      
history1 he has changed by her means the
  destiny of the ,western ,world4 ,not  
only his own countrymen1 but ,europe    
and nations more distant still1 to-day  
hail him as the greatest of  modern     
,english statesmen4 ,that is a title and
 dignity somewhat higher  than an       
,earldom1 and it is under that larger   
style that those who  wish to do ,lord  
,beaconsfield full honour will have to  
allude to him  hereafter in the national
 annals4    ,these are some of the      
reasons why we honour and follow him4   
,a ,,tory4      ,,ii4--,,why ,,we       
,,disbelieve ,,in ,,him4    ,if a ,whig 
had been asked ten or a dozen years ago1
 or indeed six years  back1 to write his

 impressions of ,mr4 ,disraeli1 he would
 have set  about it in a strikingly     
different spirit from that which the    
task  awakens now4 ,lord ,beaconsfield  
has recently become much too serious  a 
joke in the national history1 but for a 
very long time the jocosity  was light  
enough4 ,in the eyes of all ,liberals   
who had not fully  acquired the gravity 
of their own fundamental principles1    
there was1  down to a very late period1 
always something diverting about ,mr4   
,disraeli4 ,he might and did vex them1  
but shortly they were again  smiling at 
him4 ,the explanation was this1 that for
 a long time his  presence in           
,parliament hardly at all hindered the  
progress of ,liberal  measures4         
,whenever a legislative reform was      
proposed1 he invariably  spoke against  
it1 and at some stage afterwards the    
,conservatives  voted in a body the same
 way4 ,from the voting being subsequent 
to  the speaking1 there was an illusive 
appearance of ,mr4 ,disraeli's          

speechifying being the cause of the     
,tory division list4 ,but1 in  reality1 
there was no such connection1 and the   
,liberals were aware  of it4 ,they all  
knew that the ,conservatives would have 
voted just  the same without a word     
being spoken4 ,if1 during all the years 
,lord  ,palmerston was in power1 almost 
the whole of ,lord ,russell's  earlier  
and later official terms1 and down to   
nearly the end of ,mr4  ,gladstone's    
,ministry1 ,mr4 ,disraeli1 instead of   
making speeches1 had  amused his        
audience by pirouetting on one leg night
 after night1 the  practical result     
would have been exactly the same4 ,it   
could not have  been so entertaining to 
the ,liberals1 because1 looking at some 
members  of the ,conservative party1 it 
would have exceeded the bounds of       
belief to suppose that ,mr4 ,disraeli   
was really twirling for the whole1      
whereas it did somehow come to be       
accepted that he was speaking for  all  
of them4 ,the unlooked-for thoughts he  

pretended to put into their  minds1 and 
the preposterous words he did put upon  
their lips1 kept  all ,englishmen who   
were not ,conservatives shaking their   
sides with  laughter4 ,it was as if a   
foreign ,will-o'-the-,wisp had strayed  
into the  ,british ,parliament1 always1 
however1 keeping himself and his antics 
on  the ,conservative side1 as being1 we
 suppose1 the worst-drained part of  the
 ,house1 where the morasses lay4 ,even  
when1 to the amazement of  the country  
generally1 ,mr4 ,disraeli found his way 
into office1 the  merriment did not     
stop4 ,nobody who has reached mature    
years can forget  what an astounding    
drollery it was thought to be when ,mr4 
,disraeli was  made ,chancellor of the  
,exchequer by ,lord ,derby4 ,for the    
time it seemed  to convert ,english     
politics into pantomime4                
,will-o'-the-,wisp had been  asked by   
the country party to undertake the post 
of chief financier4  ,everybody on the  
other side was prepared beforehand to   

laugh at his  ,budgets2 and1 when they  
were propounded1 the ,liberals did laugh
 a  little more even than they had      
expected to do4 ,when he brought in  his
 ,india ,bill1 the merriment grew       
perfectly uproarious1--,manchester1     
,liverpool1 ,glasgow1 ,belfast1 and the 
other large commercial towns  exploding 
one after the other4 ,it was the same   
when he proposed to  give sixteen       
millions for ,irish railways2 it was the
 same with the  first sketches of his   
,reform ,bill4 ,surely nobody can have  
forgotten  the fancy franchises8 ,in a  
word1 every domestic measure that  ,mr4 
,disraeli ever proposed was1 in the     
first shape in which it was  presented1 
received with mirth from nearly every   
quarter excepting  his immediate rear4  
,there sat his supporters1 usually in   
those years  wearing rather long faces  
during the earlier period of the        
statements1  and apparently wondering if
 their ears could possibly be telling   
them  rightly4    ,but all this1 as     

there is not a single ,liberal in the   
country but will  admit1 is a good deal 
altered4 ,lord ,beaconsfield has        
recently signed  foreign treaties on    
,england's behalf1 insisting most       
successfully1 he  tells us1 on what kind
 of treaties they should be2 he has     
undoubtedly  put our armies and fleets  
into motion2 and1 while risking war in  
,europe1 has actually waged it in ,asia 
and ,africa4 ,the bustle of these       
events1 and a certain dazzle and glitter
 attending them1 cause people  in       
general1 at this moment1 to forget all  
that prior long period of  non-success  
on his part in everything else but      
making successive  steps of personal    
advancement4 ,what has happened lately  
in ,lord  ,beaconsfield's career has    
certainly worn a look of importance1 and
  it has undoubtedly embodied political 
power4 ,if1 as the ,liberals will  have 
it1 he is still really                  
,will-o'-the-,wisp as much as ever1 he  
has  managed to get hold of the sword of

 ,england1 and has for some time  been  
playing with it to the great wonder of  
foreign nations4 ,but how  has this     
change in his position been worked8     
,this is the question ,i  want now to   
consider4    ,a ,hebrew by descent1 a   
,christian by profession1 and in        
politics a  ,tory--such is ,lord        
,beaconsfield4 ,this description1 on the
 very face  of it1 is a rather mixed    
one1 and implies a singular career4 ,it 
is1 however1 the last item which        
specially fixes my attention4 ,mr4      
,disraeli1 sparse though the instances  
are1 was not the first of his  race who 
changed his faith4 ,also1 there have    
been1 and indeed still  are1 other      
,hebrews who have entered public life in
 ,england1 and  attained conspicuousness
 in it4 ,but those1 while remaining     
nearly  invariably ,jews in religion1   
became ,liberals in politics4 ,in fact1 
,lord ,beaconsfield is the only ,hebrew 
of importance known who turned  ,tory4  
,it was--and at first sight it gives a  

highly religious air to  the            
,conservative party--indispensable to   
his doing this that he should  first be 
a ,christian4 ,not being that he would  
indeed have had to  wait till the       
,liberals carried their ,bill for the   
,removal of ,jewish  ,disabilities      
before he could have joined the         
,conservatives inside  ,parliament4     
,that circumstance1 again1 seems to give
 to his career a  curious aspect4 ,in   
fact1 the reflection is forced upon one 
so early as  this1--what an utter       
failure ,mr4 ,disraeli must have been if
 he had  not so amazingly succeeded6 ,to
 be a ,hebrew-,tory left just two       
issues1  either to become the leader of 
the party or the very humblest member   
of it4 ,all the circumstances would seem
 to point to the latter  alternative as 
being the natural one1 but it is the    
other which  has somehow come about4    
,mr4 ,disraeli has flowered into the    
,earl of  ,beaconsfield1 and has now    
twice been1 and will remain for a little

  time longer1 the ,prime ,minister of  
,great ,britain4    ,mr4 ,disraeli did  
not wait for his celebrity until he     
entered the ,house  of ,commons2 he     
gathered the renown of authorship1 and  
,i might add1  remembering the number of
 constituencies he tried before he was  
elected1 the notoriety of out-door      
political life1 before he plucked  the  
fame of statesmanship4 ,at the early age
 of twenty-two he was a  literary lion  
in ,london society2 his only claim to   
this premature  publicity1 though it was
 held to be quite sufficient1 being that
 he  was the writer of ,vivian ,grey4   
,it is quite impossible to begin to     
speak of ,lord ,beaconsfield in any     
other way than in connection with       
,vivian ,grey1 although he is understood
 not altogether to approve of  one's    
doing so4    ,all the world knows1 or is
 supposed to know1 this work4 ,mr4      
,disraeli's  own description of its     
object was that it was meant to paint   
the  career of a youth of talent in     

modern society1 ambitious of political  
celebrity4 ,nearly everybody has        
persisted in regarding it as a kind  of 
prospective autobiography1 which the    
writer has ever since been  occupied in 
realizing4 ,certainly ,mr4 ,disraeli was
 at that time a  youth1 and a youth of  
talent2 he must have been in society or 
he could  not have known a great many   
people who are sketched in the pages2   
and  it is impossible for him to deny   
that he was ambitious of political      
celebrity4 ,the means ,vivian ,grey     
adopted for attaining that aim  were1   
also1 wonderfully like some of those    
which ,mr4 ,disraeli himself            
afterwards1 by some mistake1 appeared to
 use4 ,on the title-page of the  book   
was the well-known quotation from       
,ancient ,pistol1 to whom1 in  the eyes 
of some people1 ,lord ,beaconsfield at  
certain moments of his  career has ever 
had an indistinct resemblance4 ,the     
world is mine  oyster1 the motto stated1
 either on behalf of the writer or the  

hero2  going on to add the rest1 to the 
effect that either the one or the  other
 meant to open it4 ,lord ,beaconsfield  
has assuredly done so4 ,the  profound   
reflection which prompts the youthful   
hero of the book to his  course of      
action was this3--,how many a powerful  
noble wants only wit  to be a ,minister2
 and what wants ,vivian ,grey to attain 
the same end8  ,that noble's influence4 
,not many years after this ,mr4         
,disraeli was  seen in public very close
 to ,lord ,chandos4 ,but it was not that
 ,lord  but ,lord ,carabas that ,vivian 
,grey chose for his patron1 which is1 no
  doubt1 a difference4 ,the story most  
frankly relates how ,vivian wins  the   
marquis by teaching him how to make     
tomahawk punch1 how he wins  the        
marchioness by complimenting her poodle1
 and how during the task  he consoles   
himself by such thoughts as this3--,oh1 
politics1 thou  splendid juggle6 ,his   
settled purpose he thus sums up3        
,mankind1 then1  is my great game4 ,he  

expressly states that he is to win this 
game  by the use of his tongue1 on which
 he states he is able to perform  right 
skilfully2 but it will1 he recognises1  
be requisite to mix  with the herd and  
to humour their weaknesses4 ,the chief  
guiding  rule which he lays down for    
himself in the midst of it all is1 that 
he must be reckless of all consequences 
save his own prosperity4    ,there are  
people who still believe that in all    
this they see sketched  the very        
determinations1 maxims1 and rules which 
are to be found  deliberately carried   
out in ,mr4 ,disraeli's actual career4  
,it  is perplexing4 ,the parallel1 they 
assert1 runs into the closest           
correspondence of detail4 ,vivian       
,grey's model author is ,bolingbroke2   
and everybody knows that he1 also1 was  
,mr4 ,disraeli's4 ,the young  man in the
 book shows his reverential admiration  
for ,bolingbroke by  inventing a few    
passages and putting them into that     
personage's mouth  for the better       

bamboozling of ,lord ,carabas2 and it is
 known that ,mr4  ,disraeli1 at         
different periods of his life1 has taken
 passages from  other people and put    
them into his own mouth4 ,but ,i cannot 
pursue this  comparison or contrast1 or 
whatever it is1 farther3 it will be     
better  seen as ,i go on1 what grounds  
people have had for beholding ,mr4      
,disraeli in ,vivian ,grey4 ,for the    
present it is enough to say1 that it    
was ,mr4 ,disraeli1 and not ,vivian     
,grey1 who wrote this book4 ,so much as 
that is quite certain4 ,a fiction of the
 kind above briefly hinted at  was the  
first fruit of ,mr4 ,disraeli's         
intellect2 it was in penning  those     
pages of caricature of everybody who was
 notable in ,london  society that he    
expended the first fresh enthusiasm of  
his mind1 and  displayed the earlier    
untainted innocence of his disposition4 
,lord  ,beaconsfield has spoken of it as
 a book written by a boy4 ,it was that  
which made it so marvellous4 ,this boy  

began with satire1 and it  might have   
been predicted that the juvenile would  
develop into an  exceptional man4    ,it
 was not until #ahcg1 when ,mr4         
,disraeli was about thirty-three years  
old1 that he entered ,parliament4       
,maidstone had the honour of finding    
him his first seat1 though he had been  
willing to represent three  other       
boroughs previously1 if there had not   
been reluctance on the  part of the     
constituencies4 ,high ,wycombe saw his  
earliest appearance  on the hustings1   
and1 indeed1 it beheld him as a         
candidate more than  once1 but never as 
a member4 ,he also offered himself to   
,marylebone4 ,by  some mistake it was   
supposed that in these instances he came
 forward  as a ,radical4 ,certainly his 
addresses spoke of short ,parliaments1  
the  ballot1 and other measures commonly
 held to be ,liberal4 ,mr4 ,joseph      
,hume1 ,mr4 ,o',connell1 and ,sir ,f4   
,burdett fell under the delusion1 and   
wrote letters recommending him1 though  

they afterwards withdrew them4  ,but    
when1 a little later1 ,mr4 ,disraeli    
contested ,taunton as a ,tory he        
explained it all4 ,it seems that it     
arose out of a mystification4  ,from the
 first he really stood as an            
,anti-,whig1 which the ,liberals        
thought meant a ,radical2 and ,mr4      
,disraeli1 not wishing unnecessarily  to
 disturb their minds1 had let them go on
 thinking so4 ,however1 there  was no   
doubt whatever as to his politics long  
before he was finally  successful at    
,maidstone4 ,he had become intimate with
 ,lord ,chandos1  and had had his name  
toasted at banquets by the ,aylesbury   
farmers as  a friend of the agricultural
 interest4 ,the whole question is one   
scarcely worth debating4 ,i myself      
believe that the proper description  of 
,mr4 ,disraeli at this time was not     
strictly either that of ,radical  or    
,tory2 his accurate designation would   
have run1--,an intending  politician    
determined somehow to get into          

,parliament1 and looking  eagerly for   
the first opening4 ,let me also add     
that1 from a review  of all his tastes1 
,i further believe that he would have   
preferred the  opening to offer on the  
,tory side1 if only it had come soon    
enough4    ,the early part of ,lord     
,beaconsfield's ,parliamentary life will
 have  to be compressed into a very     
brief space4 ,where would be the good of
  re-opening in any detail the closed   
story of those stale politics1  all as  
dead as ,queen ,anne herself2 or where  
the use of treating ,mr4  ,disraeli's   
doings as very seriously forming part of
 those politics8  ,he simply availed    
himself of his opportunities4 ,for all  
practical  purposes ,i might nearly     
skip--strange as that at first sight    
seems--to  his second term of office in 
the post of ,premier4 ,it is only during
 a  comparatively very few of these     
later years that ,lord ,beaconsfield has
  been of real importance in our        
politics4 ,of course1 he had always     

much significance for his party1 but it 
is of the nation ,i am speaking  here4  
,these individual tactics have only any 
general interest now  through their     
making him successively ,conservative   
leader1 ,chancellor  of the ,exchequer1 
and ,prime ,minister4 ,nothing in this  
world1 ,i should  say1 would be more    
tedious than tracing1 for example1 how  
,mr4 ,disraeli  trimmed and tacked      
between ,protection1 ,reciprocity1      
,revision of  ,taxation in the interests
 of the farmers1 and a recognition of   
,free  ,trade4 ,it all resulted in      
nothing2 at least1 the one single result
  it has brought forth has been--,lord  
,beaconsfield4 ,but if a detailed       
retrospect of his lordship's earlier    
career would now have this dreary       
aspect1 it was at the time lively       
enough1 from moment to moment1 not  only
 on account of his debating smartness1  
but owing to a certain  drollery which  
it for a long time wore4    ,a          
,minister1 plainly1 must get both his   

glory and his power from either         
domestic measures or from foreign       
policy4 ,very curiously1 considering    
all the facts of ,lord ,beaconsfield's  
history down to the beginning of  this  
last term of office1 it was only to home
 matters that he should  have looked for
 any distinction4 ,an impression seems  
oddly to have  popularized itself that  
he has a special genius for foreign     
affairs1  and an enormous acquaintance  
with diplomacy4 ,i can only say1 that   
five  years ago nobody knew it4 ,the    
real truth is1 that he had never any    
opportunities before of meddling with   
events abroad1 and that we have  been   
represented in these recent foreign     
complications by a ,minister  who1 to   
that very moment1 had had less to do    
with diplomacy than any  ,english       
,premier for fully three-quarters of a  
century4    ,lord ,beaconsfield's mind  
has always been occupied with home      
affairs1  and his characteristic views  
on these come from the quarter whence it

  is supposed all truth has been        
derived--the ,east4 ,he somehow picked  
them up during two years of travel in   
those parts1 from #ahbi to #ahca4       
,about the former date1 ,mr4 ,disraeli's
 first brilliant but very brief         
literary success was over4 ,he had      
published a second part of ,vivian      
,grey1 which the public somehow was too 
busy to read2 and had issued  a further 
work of satire1 ,popanilla1 which it    
also neglected to  buy4 ,mr4 ,disraeli  
immediately vanished into the ,orient4  
,when1 after  visiting ,jerusalem1 and  
lingering1 as he tells us1 on the plains
 of  ,troy1 he returned to these shores1
 he brought back with him the ,asian    
,mystery and a whole apparatus of       
political and social principles4 ,he    
had also some manuscripts1 which did not
 turn out to be of so much              
importance--,contarini ,fleming and ,the
 ,young ,duke4 ,it was the most         
surprisingly fruitful voyage of         
discovery that any traveller ever  made4

 ,years elapsed before all the          
principles were given to the world1  but
 ,mr4 ,disraeli had them by him4 ,some  
of them are1 indeed1 hinted  at as early
 as #ahce1 when he issued his           
,vindication of the ,english            
,constitution1 before he was in         
,parliament4 ,still1 the system was not 
divulged in its entirety until he was in
 the ,house1 and had founded  what      
became known as the ,young ,england     
,school4 ,it is to the series  of       
political novels which he then wrote    
that we must turn for the  complete     
exposition of his fundamental ideas4    
,somehow1 it has always  seemed to      
everybody the most natural and fitting  
thing in the world  that ,mr4 ,disraeli 
should have corrected the inaccuracies  
of our  national history1 and shown our 
social fallacies1 by writing works of   
fiction4 ,the instruction with which he 
began the new training of the  public   
was this--that our history is1 in all   
the latter part of it1  entirely wrong4 

,in ,sybil1 he thus gives his general   
opinion of the  way in which it has been
 written3--,all the great events have   
been  distorted1 most of the important  
causes concealed1 some of the  principal
 characters never appear1 and all who   
figure are so  misunderstood and        
misrepresented that the result is a     
complete  mystification4    ,assuredly  
if this1 or anything like it1 was the   
state of things1 ,mr4  ,disraeli had not
 discovered it one moment too soon1 and 
he was more  than justified in making it
 known4 ,on all the points named in the 
above summary he supplies most important
 rectifications4 ,it seems that  the    
people of this country1 in so far1 that 
is1 as they were not the  merest tools  
of their rulers1 were under an entire   
mistake as to ,rome  wanting any        
domination in ,england in ,henry the    
,eighth and ,elizabeth's  time2 and     
that1 strange to say1 they also again   
fell into exactly  the same delusion at 
the expulsion of ,james ,i4 ,mr4        

,disraeli puts the  people who lived at 
those times right on these matters4 ,but
 it was  a section of nobles who at the 
latter juncture were to blame2 those1   
namely1 who had been enriched by the    
spoliation of the ,church4  ,mr4        
,disraeli1 indeed1 gives the very       
simplest explanation of the  ,revolution
 of #afhh4 ,he states that the great    
,whig families were afraid  that ,king  
,james meant to reapply the ,church     
lands to the education  of the people   
and the support of the poor1 and1 in    
their alarm1 they  brought over ,prince 
,william1 who gladly came1 since it was 
only in  ,england that he could reckon  
on being able to borrow money enough  to
 carry on his failing war against       
,france4 ,in and from that hour         
happened the catastrophe which          
overwhelmed the ,english people--the    
,crown became enslaved by a ,whig       
oligarchy4 ,what ,mr4 ,disraeli styles  
,venetian politics rushed in upon us1   
and these1 by the aid of what  he       

further calls ,dutch finance--that is1  
the incurring of a ,national            
,debt--made foreign commerce necessary1 
and increased the obligation of  home   
industry2 nearly1 as might be expected1 
ruining everything4    ,all the more    
modern period of our history had been1  
he in the most  wonderful way explains1 
a fight to the death between these      
fearful  ,whig nobles on the one hand1  
and1 on the other1 a struggling heroic  
,crown and some enlightened patriotic   
,tory peers4 ,the true incidents of     
this dark and stupendous conflict had   
never been clearly observed  by the     
people in general at the time1 nor had  
the real events been  recorded in any of
 the common chronicles4 ,but1 as any one
 will be  ready to allow1 ,mr4 ,disraeli
 could not be blamed for this4 ,what was
  especially to his credit was that he  
had himself found out that the  real    
ruler of ,england1 in the era           
immediately preceding his own1 was a    
certain ,major ,wildman1 whom nobody    

before ,mr4 ,disraeli had ever in the   
least suspected of wielding supreme     
power4 ,i cannot stay to give the       
details of this portentous disclosure1  
but anybody may find them  in ,lord     
,beaconsfield's surprising pages4 ,but  
in spite of superhuman  exertions in the
 cause of the people by ,lord           
,shelburne1 and after  him ,mr4 ,pitt1  
the wicked ,whigs always triumphed2 the 
crowning act of  duplicity on their part
 being1 in fact1 the passing of the     
,reform ,bill  of #ahcb4    ,the above  
is a highly condensed1 but strictly     
accurate summary of  ,lord              
,beaconsfield's version of our national 
history4 ,any reader by  the slightest  
rummaging in his own mind will know how 
far his own  impressions agree with it4 
,but this is only his ,lordship's       
instruction  of us as to facts3 ,i must 
proceed to state the principles of      
action he  founds upon them4 ,here1     
however1 ,i find myself brought up a    
little4  ,if the whole truth is to be   

spoken1 this further task is more easily
  announced than performed4 ,mr4        
,disraeli1 in those early days1         
assuredly  made a great appearance of   
stating his political opinions2 but it  
almost seems as if a novel1 after all1  
is not the best means of  expounding    
political doctrine4 ,the more you       
attempt to lay hold of  these principles
 the more they somehow show a lack of   
exactness4 ,but  let me try4    ,he     
again and again affirms that he is for  
our having a real throne1  which he     
asserts should be surrounded by a       
generous aristocracy2  and he wishes1   
moreover1 for a people who shall be     
loyal and  reverentially religious4 ,all
 this certainly sounds as if it meant   
something very satisfactory4 ,it is only
 when you try to penetrate into  it that
 your over-curiosity leads to           
perplexity4 ,neither ,mr4 ,disraeli  nor
 ,lord ,beaconsfield has ever definitely
 explained1 for example1 how  far a     
throne being real means that he or she  

sitting upon it shall  have a personal  
veto4 ,all that you can quite clearly   
make out as to  securing generousness in
 the aristocracy is that they shall not 
be  ,whigs2 you may suppose that they   
ought to be1 and1 in fact1 no doubt     
would be1 ,tories4 ,pushed strictly     
home1 it would seem to be implied  that 
every peer who holds property which once
 belonged to the ,church  should be     
stripped of it1 and it might be         
construed to mean that they  should     
become commoners4 ,then1 as to the      
people at large1 how are they  to be    
made loyal and religious1 since it seems
 that they are  neither of these now8   
,from not the least important parts of  
,lord  ,beaconsfield's teaching1 the    
first step logically to be taken with   
this view would be to ask the vote back 
from all of them who now have  it4 ,his 
own ,household ,franchise ,bill will    
have given more work to  do in this way4
 ,but the passing of that mysterious    
measure has been  explained1--it was1 at

 the moment1 a necessary piece of party 
tactics4  ,strictly regarded1 the       
explanation points to the conclusion    
that1 if  it could be done safely1 the  
,act ought to be revoked to-morrow4     
,but1  certainly1 it was no such measure
 as that he relied upon for elevating   
the condition of the people4 ,what he   
did depend upon for doing it he  has    
specified1 and it is this1--the revival 
of ,church ,convocation on  a particular
 basis1 of which he knows the exact     
measurement4 ,possibly  the reader1 if  
he is not a political partisan1 is      
growing puzzled4  ,was nothing else1 he 
may ask1 proposed in the ,disraelian    
system for  the cure of popular evils8  
,this1 certainly1 was not the whole of  
what  it included some mention of4 ,for 
example1 the preface to ,lothair  states
 that one of ,lord ,beaconsfield's aims 
always was the  establishment of what he
 terms a commercial code on the         
principles  successfully negotiated     
by---- ,no1 it was not by ,cobden and   

,bright1  for it will be remembered     
,lord ,beaconsfield did not adhere to   
that3 but the full sentence             
runs1--successfully negotiated by ,lord 
,bolingbroke at ,utrecht4 ,he farther   
states that it is a principle with  him 
that labour requires regulating no less 
than property4 ,i myself  cannot assert 
that ,i ever met with any one who       
professed to understand  what this      
means2 but labour1 and regulating1 and  
property are  very good words1 and if   
there has not been a great waste of     
language1  the remark must signify a    
good deal4 ,his system1 also1 does      
really  make allusion to the electorate1
 for it specifies as another of his     
cherished purposes1 the emancipation of 
the constituencies of #ahcb4  ,other    
people used1 in an old-fashioned way1 to
 talk of enfranchising  non-electors2   
but it is the voters that ,lord         
,beaconsfield is for  emancipating4 ,the
 two most definite statements of his    
political  theory are to be found in    

,sybil1 where he makes ,gerard say that 
the natural leaders of the people1 and  
their only ones1 are the  aristocracy2  
and adds1 through the mouth of somebody 
else1 that the  ,church has deserted the
 people1 to which he attributes their   
having  become degraded4    ,one of     
,lord ,beaconsfield's very strongest    
points has always been this  physical   
and moral degradation of the people4 ,he
 has talked about it  so much that it   
has nearly seemed that he had got some  
plan for doing  something for it4 ,in   
the sketches he gives in ,sybil of the  
homes in  ,marner1 the dens in which the
 working classes dwell1 and the squalor 
of their condition1 he nearly touches   
the heart4 ,it somehow has  an effect   
almost identical with the sentiment of  
the most advanced  ,liberal politics    
until you come to the remedies proposed4
 ,the use  which ,lord ,beaconsfield    
makes of the towns in his teaching is   
worth  noting4 ,any one who scrutinizes 
it closely will see that his ideal      

social system is the rustic one of the  
country parish1 taking always  for      
granted that it is perfect2 and he      
kindly goes for examples of  social     
failure to the towns1--the origin and   
condition of which1  according to all   
strict reasoning1 he must be supposed to
 attribute to  the ,whig nobility4 ,how 
accurately this fits in with what is    
known of  the development of modern     
manufactures every reader will know4    
,if anybody should say that he cannot   
see any accuracy in the  above version  
of the national history1 and that there 
is no real  applicability to our affairs
 in such a system1 or1 as such an one   
would perhaps style it1 pretended system
 of politics1 ,i can only  reply that if
 he is under the impression that he is  
an admirer of  ,lord ,beaconsfield1 then
 this is very sad4 ,for these are       
certainly ,lord  ,beaconsfield's views  
of our history and the scheme of his    
politics4  ,neither of them1 ,i will    
venture to add1 surprises me4 ,it seems 

to me  that if a political              
,will-o'-the-,wisp1 such as the         
,liberals for so long  a time would make
 out ,lord ,beaconsfield to be1 got into
 the top-boots  and heavy coat of an    
,english squire1 these are just the     
historical  conclusions and political   
generalizations which he would make1    
when  he began trying to think like a   
country gentleman2 and1 for anything  ,i
 can say1 he would make them with a     
certain sincerity1 that kind of         
ratiocinative working being natural to  
the ,will-o'-the-,wisp intellect1  when 
smitten with a passion for              
,parliamentary life and an aspiration   
for counterfeiting philosophy4          
,moreover1 both the home politics and   
the foreign policy seem to me exactly to
 fit2 they really each display  like    
qualities of mind1 and ,i can see no    
reason for any one who can  accept the  
latter stickling at the former4 ,if what
 is really at the  bottom of the        
objection is1 as ,i suspect it is1 a    

feeling that there  is something flimsy1
 artificial1 flashy about either1 or    
both1 the  politics and the policy1 is  
not that asking too much from the light 
glittering source ,i have described8    
,the ,liberals have always done ,lord   
,beaconsfield the justice of never      
expecting more than this from him1  and 
he1 on his side1 has never disappointed 
their expectations4 ,if  they had not   
previously thought much of him in       
connection with foreign  policy1 never  
in fact believing that he would actually
 preside at a  critical juncture long   
enough for that question much to        
signify1 there  is not a person in our  
party who would not have known          
beforehand that  any foreign policy of  
,lord ,beaconsfield1 if the occasion for
 one  ever came1 would be one of        
dazzle--,jack-o'-,lantern diplomacy and 
,will-o'-the-,wisp home politics rightly
 belonging to one another4  ,the bright 
and bewildering flashes have now for a  
long time been  ceaselessly playing here

 and there all over ,europe from the    
direction  of ,london2 now hitting ,st4 
,petersburg2 now gilding ,berlin2 then  
flickering over ,constantinople2 flaming
 terribly at ,cabul2 quivering  at the  
,cape2 striking ,egypt at short         
intervals2 and shimmering their  mildest
 at ,paris4 ,the activity1 as was likely
 in such a case1 has been               
unprecedented4 ,my own conviction is    
that ,lord ,beaconsfield has amazed1    
perplexed1 it may be astounded1 foreign 
diplomatists throughout ,europe  quite  
as much as he has done any of his       
opponents at home4    ,what fitness1 ,i 
should like to ask1 has ,lord           
,beaconsfield ever shown  for           
appreciating the great events which1    
during his time1 have  gone forward in  
the world4 ,during this generation1 two 
stupendous  rearrangements of ,states1  
completely recasting all the            
international  relationships of ,western
 ,europe1 have taken place--the         
unification  of ,italy and the          

transformation of ,prussia into a       
,german ,empire4  ,political earthquakes
 like those do not come about all in a  
moment2  these two were1 in fact1 long  
in preparation2 there were throes1 there
  were signs1 there were symptoms4 ,some
 ,english statesmen--we could name      
several on the ,liberal side--read the  
intimations rightly4 ,but  what subtle  
diplomatic sensitiveness did they       
challenge in ,lord  ,beaconsfield--what 
preternaturally quick prognostications  
had he  of the foreign marvels that were
 about to happen8 ,look first to the    
,prussian transformation4 ,he severely  
blamed ,chevalier ,bunsen for  indulging
 what he styled the dreamy and dangerous
 nonsense called  ,german nationality4  
,turn to ,italy4 ,lord ,beaconsfield    
characterized  the earliest attempts of 
those patriots determined to win back   
national life or die as mere brigandage4
 ,he spoke of the phantom  of a ,united 
,italy4 ,all the world knows that so    
late even as the  publication of his    

novel1 ,lothair1 he was under the       
impression that  everything that had    
happened in the ,italian peninsula and  
in ,sicily  was the work of a few secret
 societies1 of whom ,garibaldi was the  
figure-head4 ,take another example4 ,he 
glossed over the former policy  of the  
,austrian rulers towards ,hungary1 as   
innocent as the youngest  baby in any   
cradle in any of our embassies1 of      
discerning that in a  few years it would
 be ,hungary that would dominate the    
empire4 ,in fact1  ,lord ,beaconsfield  
has never shown the slightest true      
prevision of  anything that was to      
happen abroad4 ,but ,i must not be so   
unfair as  to forget that ,lord         
,beaconsfield took the side of the      
,north in the  ,american ,civil ,war4   
,accidents will happen at times in the  
play of any  kind of intellect2 and     
this1 at the very moment1 had something 
of the  appearance of being an          
abnormality of the ,disraelian mind4    
,when you  look into the instance more  

closely1 it proves not fully to         
contradict  the other cases4 ,mr4       
,disraeli uttered a prophecy as to the  
future  of ,america1 and it was this3   
,it will be a mart of arms1 a scene of  
diplomacies1 of rival ,states1 and      
probably of frequent wars4  ,the result 
has vindicated his ,lordship--nothing of
 the sort has  happened4#a ,come1       
however1 still nearer home4 ,the ,french
 ,commercial  ,treaty1 which was the    
first practical attempt to bring the    
peoples  on each side of the ,channel   
into real intercourse1 sure to make     
them permanent friends in the end1 was  
urgently opposed by ,lord               
,beaconsfield4 ,it was towards him that 
,mr4 ,cobden had to turn at  every stage
 of his nearly superhuman labours to see
 what was the next  obstacle he would   
have to set himself to try and overcome4
    ,i venture to say that the foreign  
policy of such a ,minister is certain   
to end in being one of isolation4       
,jack-o'-,lantern is always so busy  in 

converting all he does into some private
 business of his own1 that1  by-and-by1 
he is sure to be alone in the           
transaction4 ,let us test the           
diplomatic situation as it now stands1  
by this rule1 and1 if it turns  out that
 the ,english diplomacy has really      
established concert on our  part with   
anybody1 it will have of necessity to be
 admitted by me that  ,i have been quite
 wrong in all that is said above4 ,the  
position ,i take  up is that a          
,will-o'-the-,wisp could not in his     
movements bring himself  to coincide    
long enough with anybody else's activity
 to give any such  result4    ,france is
 nearer to us than any other            
,continental ,power1 not only           
geographically but politically4 ,how has
 the recent foreign policy  turned out  
with respect to her8 ,our very first    
diplomatic move1  that of hastily       
snatching at the ,suez ,canal shares1   
risked our  understanding with ,france  
entirely4 ,we do not hear much about    

,egypt  now from the supporters of the  
,government4 ,there are good reasons for
  it4 ,nothing could possibly have      
resulted worse than everything we did   
in that quarter4 ,france did not allow a
 march to be stolen upon her2  and the  
next moment we had ,italy on our hands  
as well as ,france4  ,but come to the   
,berlin ,conference4 ,france there1 in  
pursuance of a  traditional policy1     
backed up ,greece4 ,lord ,beaconsfield  
stood quite  aloof from ,france4 ,come  
down to the very latest moment4 ,the    
alliance  between ,germany and ,austria 
is the one recent occurrence which is   
of all others most distasteful to       
,frenchmen1 and ,lord ,salisbury1 on    
behalf of his chief1 not merely goes    
into slightly profane raptures  over it1
 but works hard to create the impression
 that they two1  indirectly though not  
directly1 brought it about4 ,this is how
 matters  have been made to stand       
between us and ,france4 ,with respect to
 ,germany  and ,austria-,hungary1 our   

,government is1 of course1 not within   
their  arrangements1 but1 practically   
there seems to be an outside relation   
implied4 ,those two ,powers are         
understood to reckon upon ,england as in
  some way restraining ,france if       
,russia made any move4 ,at any rate1 if 
,france joined ,russia1 it is whispered1
 we should have to do something  which  
would somehow aid ,austria and ,germany4
 ,why1 ,chancellor  ,bismarck's         
chuckling at this position of things can
 distinctly be  heard all the way from  
,varzin4 ,prince ,gortschakoff is by no 
means the  one at whom he is laughing   
hardest4 ,nothing need be said1 ,i      
suppose1  as to our relations with      
,russia3 it is the special boast of our 
,government that in the case of the     
greatest ,asiatic ,power next to        
ourselves they have prevented any       
understanding at all4 ,just so1 too1  we
 have alienated ,greece and the         
newly-formed ,principalities4 ,but      
there is ,turkey4 ,all that we have done

 has told in her favour1--surely  we are
 at one with her8 ,lord ,beaconsfield   
has just countermanded the  orders to   
our fleet to get up steam and direct the
 muzzles of its  guns towards ,turkey4  
,but a wonderful success1 we are told1  
has already  resulted from this4 ,what  
does the recent flourish of telegrams   
really  amount to8 ,that the ,porte has 
added one more sheet to the plentiful   
waste-paper heap of its proclamations4  
,what our people were known to  desire  
was a change of ,minister3 and ,turkey1 
in place of that1 offers  to name ,baker
 ,pasha to look after the moral and     
social improvement of  ,asia ,minor4    
,the test of whether it is              
,will-o'-the-,wisp1 or an ordinary      
statesman1 who is at the head of our    
affairs gives the result ,i             
anticipated4 ,england stands absolutely 
alone1 and the last touch of            
preposterousness is added to the        
situation by the statement that it  was 
at the advice of ,russia that the ,porte

 pretended to yield to our  demands1 and
 that though the ,northern ,powers are  
getting into motion  again for some ends
 of their own1 they do not in the least 
intend to  meddle with us in ,asia      
,minor4 ,indeed1 ,i should think not4 ,a
 splendid  morass lies in that part of  
the world1 with ,turkey on one side and 
,russia on the other1 and               
,jack-o'-,lantern has led us right into 
the  middle of it4 ,that is the present 
issue of the ,beaconsfield foreign      
policy which was to have produced       
,european concert1--we have ,asia       
,minor on our hands1 solitarily2 and are
 going to set about immediately         
reforming it1 before the next elections1
 against the willingness of  ,turkey1   
but with the sanction of ,russia1 and by
 the means of ,baker  ,pasha4 ,in the   
meantime1 or at any time1 ,russia may   
use the situation  against us just as   
best suits her4    ,i think it will now 
be admitted that ,lord ,beaconsfield's  
foreign  policy is every whit as        

wonderful as the measures of home       
politics he  ought to be urging1 if he  
was only at liberty for that2 and       
further1  that they both bespeak exactly
 the same order of mind4           99   
99       99       99       99    ,i must
 now try to bring together the personal 
impressions his ,lordship  makes on the 
mind of a ,liberal4 ,the noble ,earl is 
very brilliant4  ,that1 of course1 is   
accepted on all sides3 there never was a
 member  of the ,wisp family who was    
not4 ,not to be brilliant would be      
against  their nature2 in fact1 shine is
 their peculiarity4 ,moreover1 standing 
now behind the event1 we seem to see    
,lord ,beaconsfield in ,mr4 ,disraeli   
from the very beginning4 ,those who had 
the privilege of beholding him  on his  
very first appearances in ,london high  
society1 in1 say1 the  ,countess of     
,blessington's salon1 where he would be 
grouped with  ,count ,d',orsay1 ,prince 
,napoleon1 and ,count ,morny1 give a    
gorgeous  description of him4 ,it seems 

that he did not depend for celebrity    
solely upon his witticisms1 either      
printed or spoken1 but relied1  also1 in
 some measure1 on the splendour of his  
walking canes4 ,the  jewels on his hands
 are said to have rivalled1 and at times
 excelled1  the pearls upon his lips2   
the display in both respects bearing    
witness  that his native tastes were    
,oriental4 ,his ringlets1 in particular1
 are  said to have been the admiration1 
if not the envy1 of the ladies4 ,it     
seemed almost necessary to give up a    
line or two to these personal           
particulars1 for the younger people of  
this generation never saw ,mr4          
,disraeli in his full splendour4 ,as he 
developed his later powers1  he         
moderated his earlier waistcoats4 ,but  
he never was an ordinary  commoner2 he  
always moved in our public life like a  
superior being  in disguise4 ,he was    
with us but not of us4 ,since he is an  
,earl1 the  impression he makes has     
become more natural4 ,the promotion to  

our peerage gives to some personages an 
artificial aspect2 in ,mr4  ,disraeli's 
case1 the effect was simplifying2 and   
though1 after all1  it is not quite     
gorgeous enough1 it is befitting4 ,there
 is a  little something not quite in the
 ,english style1--a slight foreign      
incongruity2 still1 that was always     
there1 and it is1 in fact1 less         
noticeable now under the coronet and    
beneath the ermine4    ,but--and this is
 the point sought to be brought out in  
the above  remarks--it was evident from 
the earliest moment that this splendid  
person meant to achieve social success4 
,and he has certainly done  it4 ,there  
would be injustice in pretending that he
 has not had other  motives2 but        
celebrity was his leading passion4 ,he  
has himself made  a frank confession on 
this point4 ,in the days when it was not
 yet  certain that there was a political
 career before him1 the likelihood      
rather being that he might have wholly  
to depend upon literature as  his means 

of distinction1 he rushed into poetry1  
having just failed in  prose4 ,but he   
warned the public in the preface of his 
,revolutionary  ,epick1 that if they did
 not purchase and admire it1 he had done
 with  song4 ,i am not1 so ran the      
navely self-disclosing sentence1 one of 
those who find consolation for the      
neglect of my contemporaries in the     
imaginary plaudits of posterity4 ,no1   
nothing in this world1 we are  quite    
certain1 would ever have consoled ,mr4  
,disraeli for the neglect  of his       
contemporaries4 ,but he took sure       
measures not to undergo it4 ,he         
positively raged to get into            
,parliament2 trying one constituency    
after another1 and only succeeding with 
the fourth4 ,to judge from the          
fierceness of ,mr4 ,disraeli's          
struggles1 there was in his eyes nothing
  worth living for1 if he were not      
inside the ,house of ,commons4 ,but he  
had got into the newspapers before he   
got into ,parliament4 ,the town  was    

kept ringing with ,mr4 ,disraeli's name4
 ,in ,london he was just as  much talked
 of forty-seven years ago as he is      
to-day4    ,if the rudeness of a little 
terseness is passed over1 ,i may fairly 
say  that publicity was ,mr4 ,disraeli's
 passion2 in the circumstances of  his  
position1 audacity was his only means2  
and1 with his style of  character and   
intellect1 inaccuracy was his necessity4
 ,a very few  words will establish each 
point4 ,was he not studiously audacious8
 ,the  first book he wrote was a skit on
 the whole of the higher circle of      
,london society2 the candidate he sought
 to set aside at his first              
,parliamentary contest was the son of   
the then ,premier2 before he was  in    
,parliament he threatened ,o',connell2  
he had not been in the ,house  long     
before he attacked ,sir ,robert ,peel4  
,it was a glorious audacity on  his     
part1 considering the disadvantage of   
his race1 to throw into the  face of the
 ,british public the supremacy of       

,semitic blood1 and to  confound us all 
with the ,asian ,mystery4 ,but1 in      
turning next to his  inaccuracies1 we   
are positively awed by the number and   
the enormity  of the blunders ,mr4      
,disraeli and ,lord ,beaconsfield       
between them have  committed1 in1 as it 
would seem1 the most natural way4 ,it   
was a mere  trifle that1 when           
propounding his second ,budget1 ,mr4    
,disraeli should  have thought that he  
had a surplus to the bagatelle amount of
  #djj1jjj1 until ,mr4 ,gladstone kindly
 explained to him and to the  country   
that it was a deficiency of that small  
sum4 ,some people would  be touched     
deeper to find that in his ,life of     
,lord ,george ,bentinck  he is of       
opinion that the crucifixion of the     
,saviour took place in the  reign of    
,augustus ,csar4 ,in the course of the  
debates on one of the  early ,reform    
measures1 he thought1 when ,lord        
,dunkellin made a  proposal relating to 
the rental valuation in connection with 

voting  qualification1 that it was      
payment of rates that was in question4  
,in  his oration on the death of the    
,duke of ,wellington1 he1 as all ,europe
  soon knew1 mistook long passages from 
an article written by ,m4 ,thiers  as   
being his own composition4 ,he fell into
 just the same error as to  some        
splendid sentences of ,lord ,macaulay   
and also1 as to a fine burst  of        
eloquence belonging really to the late  
,mr4 ,david ,urquhart4 ,very  early in  
his career1 when acknowledging his      
health proposed by  mistake in the guise
 of an old scholar of the famous public 
school  of ,winchester1 he became       
momentarily under the impression that he
 was  really educated on that noble     
foundation1 though he had never stood   
under its roof4 ,very late in his       
career1 so late as the affair known  as 
the ,pigott appointment1 he believed    
that the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,pigott1 the  rector
 of his own parish1 had voted against   
him at the poll in his own  county some 

time after that reverend gentleman's    
death4 ,but there  is really no end to  
these instances of ,lord ,beaconsfield  
having  innocently said the thing that  
is not4 ,with respect to a number of    
examples of another kind1 it would be   
puzzling to know whether to put  them in
 the category of audacities or          
inaccuracies2 the only way of  quite    
getting over the difficulty would1      
perhaps1 be to consider them  as        
belonging to both4 ,for instance1 in    
#ahdg1 he quoted ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill  as 
a friend of ,protection1 and said ,mr4  
,pitt was the author of ,free  ,trade4  
,on a not very far back occasion1 he    
remarked3 ,i never attacked  any one in 
my life4 ,perhaps1 with that quotation1 
it is right to  stop4    ,one of the    
peculiarities of ,lord ,beaconsfield's  
mind has seemed to  some people an      
affectation1 that1 namely1 by which1 in 
reference  to any case of much          
importance1 he is sure to miss what     
seems to  everybody else the significant

 feature of the business1 and to fasten 
on some detail which arrests nobody     
else4 ,hardly any one will have yet     
forgotten the instance of the ,straits  
of ,malacca1 and only just the  other   
day a new example was furnished4 ,the   
revival of trade being the  topic1 while
 everybody else's thoughts went to      
cotton and iron and  pottery1 ,lord     
,beaconsfield's lighted upon--chemicals4
 ,it is all  explained on the footing ,i
 earlier hinted1 that in ,lord          
,beaconsfield's  mind the imagination is
 in just the place the reason occupies  
in the  minds of ordinary people4 ,this 
makes it obligatory that he shall avoid 
the common facts1 and make some         
opportunity for exaggerating the value  
of some detail overlooked by everybody  
else4 ,it is only in this way  that     
,lord ,beaconsfield conclusively        
certifies to himself that his  intellect
 has really acted4    ,i am myself quite
 sincere in saying that ,i believe there
 is in all  this a certain kind of      

sincerity in ,lord ,beaconsfield4 ,where
 most  people remember1 his ,lordship   
fancies2 and in his case what is most   
convenient1 naturally offers itself4    
,this has very much increased his       
brilliancy1 for the process leaves its  
practiser utterly unhampered4  ,but     
nobody should ask for both strict       
accuracy and ,lord ,beaconsfield's      
quick1 free wit4 ,it is demanding an    
unreasonable combination4 ,if other     
people had only not remembered1 his     
career would have been even  still finer
 than it is4 ,that is what has partially
 spoiled things for  him4 ,it is even   
possible that this amazing foreign      
policy of his may  be in a measure      
explainable on certain suggestions of   
what we may call  pictorial working     
rules1 if we were only inside his mind4 
,certainly  his home politics give some 
hints that they were framed on a        
principle  of picturesqueness1--a very  
sophisticated canon of rustic taste can 
be detected dimly lying at the bottom of

 them4 ,by only leaving out the  towns1 
and repressing the growth of modern     
manufactures1 and subduing  foreign     
commerce1 something might possibly--,i  
cannot say--be made of  them4 ,in this  
foreign diplomacy1 there is a certain   
imaginativeness in  bringing            
dark-skinned soldiers from ,asia into   
,europe1 in turning our  homely ,english
 ,queen into an ,oriental ,empress1 in  
becoming possessor  of a fresh island in
 the ,mediterranean1 in shifting a      
frontier line  in ,india1 in adding a   
new province in ,africa4 ,all this has  
meant  massacre1 and fire1 and          
bloodshed1 with the imminent risk of    
very much  more of all of them2 and ,sir
 ,stafford ,northcote1 as ,chancellor of
 the  ,exchequer1 has been kept working 
as hard as a sprite in a pantomime      
pouring out millions of our taxation4   
,but if it be ,will-o'-the-,wisp we     
have at the head of affairs1 nothing of 
this is likely very greatly to  affect  
him4 ,assuredly1 nothing of it has      

affected ,lord ,beaconsfield1  and we   
may be sure he is ready to go over it   
all again to-morrow4    ,if it was worth
 while1 very large deductions would have
 to be made  from ,lord ,beaconsfield's 
seeming success if we look rationally at
 his  whole career4 ,no man who is      
supposed to have been anything like so  
successful as he is popularly held to   
be1 ever had so many and such  striking 
failures to look back upon4 ,looking at 
him as connected with  letters1 he is   
the author of works which have failed   
more completely  than any written by any
 one who himself became known4 ,judged  
by their  ambitious aims1 these literary
 non-successes of ,lord ,beaconsfield   
are  gigantic4 ,the epic poem 7,the     
,revolutionary ,epick7 which ,mr4       
,disraeli  supposed was to place him--he
 himself tells us so--by the side of1   
or else between1 ,homer and ,milton1    
nobody would read2 the play  7,alarcos7 
which he states he wrote to revive the  
,british stage1  is never acted4 ,not   

one of his novels1 when his political   
position has  ceased to advertize them1 
will remain in the hands of the public4 
,if  you look back on his ,parliamentary
 career1 the dazzle came late1 and      
after a dreary distance had been        
travelled4 ,the political party he      
founded1 ,the ,young ,england ,school1  
has for twenty-five years been  as dead 
as the door-nail which typified the     
death of ,marley4 ,nothing  whatever    
came of it4 ,the one only notable       
legislative measure that  stands in his 
name1--the ,reform ,bill1--really       
belongs to the other  side4 ,scrutinize 
his career how you will1 and some       
abatements of this  kind have to be     
made4 ,he is supposed to have had a     
charm over men1--it  has failed with the
 strong ones4 ,peel he tried very hard  
to win1 but  had to take up with ,lord  
,george ,bentinck instead4 ,at this     
moment he is  supposed to be in favour  
with the ,court3 the impression he made 
upon  the ,prince ,consort was far from 

satisfactory4 ,he has quite recently    
lost ,lord ,derby and ,lord ,carnarvon2 
and there was a time when the  ,marquis 
of ,salisbury and he stood in a very    
different relationship4    ,lord        
,beaconsfield's social system is that of
 a novelist2 his  finance was ever that 
of a ,will-o'-the-,wisp2 and he has now 
added a  ,jack-o'-,lantern diplomacy4   
,surely nothing more is needed to       
justify  disbelief in him4      ,a      
,,whig4        ,footnote #a3 ,since     
writing the above ,i have met with an   
article in the ,october ,no4 of ,the    
,north ,american ,review1 on      ,louis
 ,napoleon and the ,southern            
,confederacy1 which puts this           
alleged friendship for the ,north in a  
very doubtful light4      ,among some   
,state ,papers found in ,richmond1 a    
despatch from      ,mr4 ,slidell        
says1--,lindsay saw ,disraeli1 who      
expressed great      interest in our    
affairs1 and fully concurred in the     
views of      the ,emperor4 ,louis      

,napoleon was then intriguing hard to   
get      the ,south recognised4         
,,contemporary ,,life ,,and ,,thought   
,,in ,,france4                          
,,summary4--,politics3 ,agitations      
during the ,parliamentary               
,recess--,unjust ,accusations levelled  
at the      ,ministry--,reforms carried 
out or projected in the ,public         
,instruction--,justice--,public         
,works--,activity and ,liberalism of    
the ,ministry--,its want of ,cohesion   
and ,unity--,renewal of the             
,socialist ,agitation--,return of the   
,amnestied--,election of ,m4            
,humbert in ,paris--,m4 ,blanqui's and  
,m4 ,louis ,blanc's ,addresses      in  
the ,provinces--,socialist ,congress at 
,marseilles--,reaction      against     
these exaggerations--,dangers caused by 
the attitude      of the ,conservative  
,party inspired by the ,clerical        
spirit--,efforts to create a ,republican
 ,conservative ,party--,le              
,parlement--,unfortunate effect of the  

,ministry's ,anti-clerical              
,campaign--,legitimist ,banquets--,the  
,bonapartist ,party and      its        
hopes--,m4 ,naquet's ,campaign in favour
 of ,divorce4      ,literature3         
,novels--,mme4 ,greville1 ,mme4         
,bentzon1 ,m4      ,lemonnier1 ,m4      
,gualdi1 ,m4 ,daudet1 ,m4 ,zola1        
,flaubert1 ,m4                          
,theuriet--,l',eglise ,chrtienne1 by ,m4
 ,renan--,rodrigue      de              
,villandrando1 by ,m4                   
,quicherat--,mmoires de ,mme4      de   
,rmusat--,nouvelle ,revues4 ,science3   
,geographical      ,studies--,gographie 
,universelle--,la ,terre et les ,hommes1
      by ,elise ,reclus--,map of ,france
 on scale of #a_/ajjjjj--,lectures      
on ,historical ,geography1 by ,m4 ,a4   
,longnon4 ,fine ,arts3      ,subjects   
opened to ,competition--,death of ,,mm4 
,viollet ,le ,duc1      ,cham1 ,taylor4 
,theatres3 ,le ,grand ,opera1 l',opra   
,populaire1      ,pasdeloup and ,colonne
 ,concerts--,professor ,hermann--,the   

,hanlon-,lees--,jonathan1 by ,m4        
,gondinet--,les ,mirabeau1 by ,m4       
,claretie--,le ,thtre des ,nations4     
,the ,parliamentary recess is generally 
a time of political tranquillity  for   
the country1 and leisure or peaceful    
occupation for the ,ministers2  not so1 
however1 in ,france this year4 ,m4      
,blanqui's candidature at  ,bordeaux2   
,m4 ,humbert's election in ,paris2 the  
return of the amnestied  from ,new      
,caledonia2 the ,workmen's ,congress in 
,marseilles2 the  ,legitimist banquets  
of ,september #bi2 ,,mm4 ,j4 ,ferry's1  
,louis  ,blanc's1 and ,blanqui's tours  
in the provinces2 the inauguration of   
,denfert-,rochereau's1 ,arago's1 and    
,lamoricire's monuments1 have kept      
,france in a state of perpetual         
agitation1 if not disturbance4 ,and     
even the business world1 which generally
 slumbers quietly through the  summer   
months1 has been stung with a craze for 
speculation4 ,a number  of financial    
companies have sprung up1 based chiefly 

on most unsound  and absurd             
combinations1 some of which threaten to 
collapse before  they have even begun to
 work4 ,the great jobber1 ,m4           
,philippart1 who  so upset the ,bourse  
some years ago1 reappeared in greater   
force than  ever1 only to get another   
ducking at the end of a couple of       
months4  ,even the ,republican party1   
which hitherto seemed to have kept out  
of  the way of dangerous speculations1  
has been drawn into the current1  and   
names of ,republican deputies1 senators1
 and municipal councillors  have        
appeared on the lists of the            
administrative councils by way of an    
advertisement to subscribers4 ,nor1 with
 so many causes of disturbance  at home1
 was the country free from anxieties    
abroad3 the settlement of  the financial
 supervision to be exercised conjointly 
with ,england in  ,egypt2 the           
difficulties raised with regard to the  
same by ,italy1 who  would have wished  
to form a third in this new order of    

syndicate2 and  ,turkey's opposition to 
the decisions of the ,berlin ,congress  
concerning  ,greece1 must have caused   
,m4 ,waddington more than one sleepless 
night4    ,has the ,ministry been       
weakened or strengthened by the toils of
 the  ,parliamentary recess8 ,the       
attitude of the ,chambers when they meet
  7,nov4 #bg7 for the first time in     
their new1 or rather old1 quarters  will
 show4 ,according to the enemies it has1
 both in the ,republican  and           
,monarchical camp1 it is in a state of  
complete dislocation2 and  ,m4          
,waddington1 in particular1 is unable to
 exercise any authority over  his       
colleagues4 ,this is the favourite      
theme1 nightly recurred to1  of ,m4 ,e4 
de ,girardin1 who1 under colour of      
,radicalism1 seems to be  entering on a 
campaign against the ,republic of #ahgi1
 in favour of  ,prince ,jerome          
,napoleon1 similar to his former one    
against the ,republic  of #ahdh1 in     
favour of ,prince ,louis ,napoleon4 ,the

 injustice of most  of his attacks1 it  
must be acknowledged1 borders on        
dishonesty4  ,complaints are made of the
 ,ministry's weakness and inaction4 ,but
 on  what grounds8 ,by the one side1    
because it leaves the ,socialists  free 
to put forward their views2 by the      
other1 because it lets the  ,royalists  
banquet in peace1 and expels neither the
 ,orleans princes  nor the ,bonapartes4 
,people in ,france always regard        
,government as a  gendarme whose        
business it is to imprison or escort to 
the frontier  those whose opinions are  
displeasing to them2 if not1 they       
declare  there is no ,government4 ,or   
else it is still looked upon as a       
,providence1 whose duty it is to make   
the people happy from morning  till     
night4 ,if trade be dull and the crops  
bad1 as they are this year1  the        
,government is pronounced incapable1 and
 the change to have been  not worth the 
cost4 ,people cannot understand that a  
,government's sole  mission is to give a

 general direction to politics1 to      
attend to the  wise administration of   
the country1 to protect the liberty and 
the  rights of all1 even of those who do
 not like it1 and see to the  carrying  
out of existing laws and the making of  
new ones4 ,the present  ,ministry has   
not seriously failed in any one of these
 duties1 and to  charge it with inaction
 would be most unjust4 ,the new         
appointments  have almost all been      
excellent2 particularly in the          
administration  of public instruction1  
where considerable changes have been    
made1 the  most competent men have in   
every instance been chosen without      
regard  to political party4 ,the        
remodelling of the ,council of ,state   
was an  absolute necessity1 as the      
,ministry could not work with men       
radically  hostile to its views4 ,this  
remodelling was carried out with extreme
  moderation2 if the voluntary          
retirement of ,,mm4 ,aucoc1 ,groualle1  
,goussard1 c41 gave it a more radical   

character1 the retiring members1  not   
the ,ministry1 are to blame4 ,of the    
activity of the ,minister of  ,public   
,instruction there can be no doubt2 he  
has even been laughed at  for his zeal  
in propagating his views1 as shown in   
his southern tour1  during which he     
found time to make a series of speeches 
in favour of  the famous ,clause #g1    
that deprives unauthorized religious    
bodies of  the right of teaching1 and to
 plan important material improvements in
  the constitution of the ,faculties of 
,letters1 ,science1 ,medicine1 and      
,law4 ,the inspection of the            
infant-schools1 of the                  
drawing-instruction1  have at length    
been properly organized1 and a project  
for the reform  of secondary instruction
 has been elaborated4 ,with regard to   
the  administration of justice1 ,m4 ,le 
,royer has drawn up a very important    
scheme1 whereby the courts of justice   
will be reduced to one-half the  present
 number1 important economies effected1  

the administration  of justice          
accelerated1 and the number of          
unemployed magistrates1  barristers1 and
 lawyers1 which constitutes one of the  
evils of the  country and of the        
,parliamentary assemblies1 diminished4  
,can ,m4 de ,freycinet be accused of    
inaction1 seeing that every day he  is  
told he will sink under the load of vast
 undertakings he has on  hand for the   
improvement of the harbours and the     
completion of the  railway and canal    
system8 ,what accusations can be brought
 against  ,general ,gresley1 seeing that
 our military organization is making    
daily  progress1 and that the autumn    
manoeuvres have been more satisfactory  
this year than ever8 ,the very          
criticisms addressed to the ,ministry   
with regard to its weakness towards its 
enemies prove how it has  respected the 
common liberty4 ,it is1 however1 the    
habit in ,france1  when a ,government   
allows the attacks of party free play to
 laugh at  its timidity1 and when it    

puts them down to accuse it of          
persecution4  ,the thing to do1         
therefore1 is to apply the principle    
said to have  been formulated by the    
,president of the ,republic himself--,to
 let  everything be said1 and nothing   
done4    ,the only point whereon the    
criticisms of the ,cabinet's adversaries
  seem in some sense well-founded1 is   
the charging it with having no  definite
 political line1 and being consequently 
incapable of any  homogeneous influence 
either upon the ,chambers or public     
opinion4  ,it is quite certain that the 
,cabinet is wanting in unity2 that      
,,mm4 ,waddington1 ,lon ,say1 and       
,gresley represent a less strongly      
accentuated political shade than ,,mm4  
,le ,royer1 ,jaurguiberry1 ,tirard1  and
 ,cochery1 and these again a less       
strongly marked shade than ,,mm4  ,j4   
,ferry1 ,de ,freycinet1 and ,lepre4     
,each ,minister has his particular      
plans1 and occasionally the question    
suggests itself how far his  colleagues 

approve and support him4 ,in any case1  
the ,cabinet's most  important projects1
 ,m4 ,le ,royer's judicial reform1 ,m4  
de ,freycinet's  plans1 the ,ferry laws1
 were accepted rather than desired by   
,m4  ,waddington1 who cannot in         
consequence be considered to exercise   
any paramount sway over his colleagues4 
,this subdivision of the  ,ministerial  
responsibility is unquestionably to be  
deplored1 and  impairs the strength of  
the ,government2 but is it not the fault
 of  the ,ministers1 or rather the      
result and the faithful image of the    
,republican majority1 whose unity       
proceeds solely from the necessity  of  
fighting against ,monarchical parties1  
and which represents very  different    
tendencies8 ,a homogeneous ,ministry    
representing one of these  tendencies   
only would command no majority4 ,the    
,republic is still in  the period of    
struggle and formation4 ,it cannot      
observe the rules  of the ,parliamentary
 system quite regularly yet4 ,every     

,ministry is  fatally a coalition       
,ministry1 and consequently without     
unity4 ,when it  is1 like the present   
one1 agreed as to its general lines of  
policy1  at once liberal and moderate1  
and sufficiently sympathetic to both    
,chambers1 it would be hard1 we must    
acknowledge1 to find a better1 and  to  
wish for a change would be madness4     
,not the constitution of the ,ministry1 
but rather the political  condition of  
the country1 may1 indeed1 be productive 
of difficulties  and dangers to the     
,republic4 ,were we to believe the      
reactionary papers  and the anxious     
spirits1 the greatest danger ,france is 
exposed to  arises from the revival of  
,socialistic ideas occasioned by the    
return of the insurgents of the         
,commune4 ,that disquieting signs and   
tendencies show themselves in that      
direction is true4 ,the amnestied1  who 
should have been received as penitent   
and pardoned culprits1  have1 by        
many--by ,m4 ,talandier1 ,m4 ,l4 ,blanc1

 and others of the ,extreme  ,left--been
 welcomed as reinstated martyrs4 ,people
 even went so far on  their arrival as  
to dare to raise a cry of ,vive la      
,commune4 ,one of  the most criminal1   
,m4 ,alphonse ,humbert1 who edited in   
#ahga a filthy  and bloodthirsty paper1 
,le ,pre ,duchesne1 and in it directly  
provoked the murder of ,gustave         
,chaudey1 has been elected municipal    
councillor of ,paris by the ,javel      
,ward4 ,though the ,comit ,socialiste   
d'aide aux ,amnistis had rudely         
repudiated all community of  action with
 the ,republican committee presided over
 by ,v4 ,hugo1 and  contemptuously      
alluded to it as le comit bourgeois1 the
 ,rappel  did not hesitate to support   
this candidature1 stained as it was     
with blood4 ,hardly is old ,blanqui     
released from his imprisonment at       
,clairvaux when he starts for a tour in 
the south to propagate his              
revolutionary doctrines1 and finds      
people credulous enough to applaud  the 

senile declamations in which he accuses 
,m4 ,grvy and ,m4 ,gambetta  of having  
sold themselves to the ,jesuits and the 
,orleanists4 ,m4 ,louis  ,blanc1 whilst 
issuing in book form1 under the title of
 ,dix ans de  l',histoire d',angleterre 
7,lvy71 the wise and impartial letters  
he addressed to ,le ,temps from ,london 
between #ahfj and #ahgj1 has  reverted  
to his dreams of #ahdh1 and1 more intent
 on winning a vain  popularity than on  
consolidating the ,republican rgime1 has
 aroused  the passions and desires of an
 ignorant multitude by unfolding to them
  the chimerical and deceptive picture  
of a complete remodelling of the        
,french ,constitution1 and the          
prosperity which1 according to him1     
might  be secured to all if they would  
lay down their liberties and their      
rights for the benefit of a ,socialist  
,state4 ,finally1 the ,workmen's        
,congress in ,marseilles revealed with  
the utmost navet the false  notions1 the
 gross ignorance1 and the bad instincts 

that ,m4 ,blanqui  draws out from a     
fanatic monomania1 and ,m4 ,louis ,blanc
 encourages  from desire for noisy      
popularity4 ,the majority of the        
,congress  plainly declared that they   
preferred the revolutionary course of an
  insurrection to the peaceful course of
 voting and legal action1 that  gradual 
progress was a chimera1 that individual 
property must be  converted into        
collective property1 and that such      
conversion could  only be effected by   
force4 ,what was1 perhaps1 even more    
disquieting at  the ,marseilles         
,congress than these brutal             
declarations1 was the almost  fabulous  
ignorance1 stupidity1 and credulity     
displayed by most of the  delegates1 who
 must1 nevertheless1 be among the most  
intelligent and  educated members of the
 ,syndical ,chambers4 ,neither in       
,england nor in  ,germany would an      
assembly of workmen put up with such    
silly and empty  discussions in which   
not a single practical question was     

treated  seriously1 and the general     
reform of society was accomplished in   
three  or four high-sounding and        
pretentious phrases4 ,the ignorance of  
the  multitude is an immense danger1    
leaving it a prey to every illusion  and
 dream and to the brutal impulse of its 
instincts4    ,without being blind to   
the gravity of these symptoms1 or       
denying that  much of the leaven that   
produced the ,commune is still to be    
found  amongst the inhabitants of the   
great towns1 ,i do not think the fact   
presents any immediate danger1 or that  
there is any chance of a rising  in     
,paris1 or a revival of the ,commune4   
,the late manifestations have  done     
exactly the reverse of furthering the   
end in view4 ,at ,bordeaux1  ,blanqui1  
who was elected in the first instance1  
failed in the second4  ,his journey1    
triumphant at the outset1 ended amidst  
murmurs on the  one hand and            
indifference on the other4 ,humbert's   
election excited  the disgust of the    

most advanced ,republicans1 and has     
insured the  rejection of every new     
proposal of pardon for the members of   
the  ,commune4 ,the folly talked at the 
,marseilles ,congress provoked the      
protests of a strong minority in the    
very heart of the ,congress1 which      
energetically defended the principles of
 good sense and public order4  ,if the  
revival of ,socialism threaten the      
existence of the ,republic1 it  is not  
so much on account of the possibility of
 its bringing back the  ,commune as that
 it may serve to provoke an             
anti-,republican reaction4    ,this is  
much more to be dreaded at present than 
any demagogical  excesses4 ,the attitude
 of the ,conservative party presents    
much  greater dangers to the ,republic  
than that of the ,socialist party4 ,the 
,republic's only chance is its free     
acceptance by the bourgeoisie  and the  
formation of a large ,conservative but  
not reactionary party  to counteract the
 impatience of the progressive element4 

,until now no  such party exists4 ,many 
,conservatives have undoubtedly stuck to
 the  ,republic1 but they are absorbed  
by the progressive ,republican mass2    
the others have preserved a hostile     
attitude1 and cherish visions of a      
,monarchical or ,imperialist            
restoration4 ,clerical ideas confirm    
them  in this attitude1 and render them 
the irreconcilable enemies of the       
present order of things2 they follow the
 inspirations of the clergy1  who are   
convinced that no ,republic can give    
them the liberty of  action they desire1
 and who1 moreover1 consider themselves 
persecuted  wherever they are not       
masters4 ,the thing is to convince this 
,conservative mass1 now enrolled under  
the banner of clericalism1 that  it is  
possible to give the clergy the honours 
and the liberty they  deserve1 whilst   
confining them strictly within the      
religious domain1  and that the public  
rgime can be a secular one without      
recourse to  persecution4 ,this is what 

the few members of the old ,left ,centre
 who  refused to join the ranks of the  
,ministerial ,left1 and are headed by   
,,mm4 ,dufaure1 ,de ,montalivet1 ,ribot1
 ,lamy1 c41 are trying to convince  the 
,conservatives of4 ,they have started a 
new paper1 ,le ,parlement1  to vent     
their ideas1 conducted with talent and  
earnestness1 which if  it succeed in its
 object will have done the ,republic    
good service by  calling a ,republican  
,right into existence1 whereas at       
present only a  ,republican ,left       
exists1 without any counterweight1 and  
bounded by two  abysses1 the ,commune on
 the one hand and ,bonapartism on the   
other4    ,certain members of the       
,republican party and even of the       
present  ,ministry thought that the     
deplorable influence ,catholicism       
exercises  on public affairs might be   
counteracted by open contest1 and this  
was the origin of ,clause #g1 and the   
war at present waged everywhere  against
 the ,catholic bodies and the action of 

the clergy4  ,unfortunately there is a  
fatal solidarity between the ,catholic  
religion itself and its most            
compromising representatives2 the       
regular  and secular clergy are united  
by the closest ties2 it is impossible to
  deal a blow at the clergy on one point
 without in appearance attacking        
religion itself4 ,moreover it loves     
strife1 and above all persecution2  it  
feeds upon it2 it wins the sympathy of  
the simple-minded by  resisting1 in the 
name of conscience1 all even the most   
legitimate  attacks against the         
authority it has usurped4 ,the duty of a
 wise  ,government1 therefore1 is as far
 as possible to let all religious       
questions lie dormant1 to cultivate     
towards them a salutary  indifference1  
to avoid the possibility of being       
accused either of  favouring or         
persecuting the clergy1 so as to secure 
the countenance  of all those who1      
without being hostile to the ,church1   
have no wish  to be its blind servants4 

,one must be content to resist the      
,church's  encroachments without        
attacking it in its own precincts4 ,the 
present  ,ministry has stirred up1 we   
think with unfortunate precipitancy1    
questions which might still have        
remained awhile untouched1 and thus     
needlessly lessened the number of its   
partisans4 ,but to be fair1 it is       
certainly very difficult to be impartial
 and indifferent in face of  a body in  
open revolt against the ,government1    
whose bishops1  like ,monseigneur       
,freppel at the inauguration of the     
monument to  ,lamoricire1 preach        
contempt for the ,constitution and the  
law4 ,the  behaviour of the ,belgian    
episcopate1 on the occasion of the new  
school  law1 has proved that neither    
justice nor moderation is to be expected
  from the ,catholic ,church4 ,whence   
violent minds are too disposed to       
conclude that reconciliation being      
impossible1 intolerance must be met  by 
violence1 and fanaticism by persecution4

    ,were it not for this unfortunate   
clerical question1 the opposition to    
the ,republican form of ,government     
would be reduced to a minimum4 ,the     
,legitimist banquets organized          
throughout the country in commemoration 
of the ,comte de ,chambord's birthday1  
,september #bith1 testified to the      
ridiculous weakness of a number of aged 
children who indulge in the  phrases and
 fables of a bygone time4 ,this flourish
 of forks was met  by all parties with  
ironical compassion4 ,the ,bonapartist  
party has  but imperfectly recovered    
from the blow dealt it in the death of  
the  ,prince ,imperial4 ,prince ,jerome 
,napoleon may alter his outward line1   
become as reserved as formerly he was   
unguarded in his language1  organize his
 house on a princely footing1 have his  
organs amongst the  press1 rally round  
him a great number of those who but now 
overwhelmed  him with the most ribald   
insults2 he will never either wipe out a
 too  well-known past1 or with all his  

intelligence make up for the total      
absence of military prestige or personal
 regard4 ,nevertheless1  ,bonapartism is
 so decidedly the fatal incline towards 
which ,france  will always be impelled  
if she become disgusted with the        
,republic1  that he appears to some the 
only issue in case of a new revolution1 
and more than one of those who had of   
late reattached themselves to  the      
,republic were seen to turn their eyes  
to ,prince ,napoleon when  ,humbert's   
election or the ,socialist speeches at  
,marseilles renewed  their old terrors4 
,universal suffrage is always           
threatening ,france  with sudden        
surprises4 ,if1 as some politicians     
wish1 the scrutin de  liste be          
substituted for the scrutin             
d'arrondissement1 it might  yet be that 
the name of ,napoleon would find a      
formidable echo in the  popular mass1   
and eclipse all the new names which want
 its legendary  and historical prestige4
 ,this might happen1 especially if the  

depression of trade and the clerical    
contest were by degrees to weary  and   
disgust the mass of the electors with   
political questions1 as  would appear to
 have been the case at the legislative  
elections of  ,bordeaux and the ,paris  
municipal elections1 when more than     
two-fifths  of the electors abstained   
from voting4 ,it might1 above all1      
happen if  the ,chambers continue to    
postpone all the reform laws1 those     
relating  to the army1 to education1 and
 to the magistracy1 which await         
discussion and passing from session to  
session4    ,many look forward to a time
 when these everlasting political       
questions  will cease to burn so        
fiercely1 when the suppression of ,state
 or  ,church will no longer be a daily  
question1 and more modest and  practical
 measures of reform can be taken in     
hand4 ,a committee of  lawyers has      
elaborated an important scheme for the  
reform of our  criminal procedure1 long 
known to be seriously defective4 ,will  

there  be an opportunity of bringing it 
before the ,chambers8 ,even more        
interesting is the divorce question1    
which has found an able1  persevering1  
and eloquent advocate in ,m4 ,naquet4   
,of all others1 this  reform is the most
 urgent4 ,those acquainted with family  
life in ,france  know the fatal moral   
consequences arising from judicial      
separation1  the only resource of       
ill-assorted couples4 ,not to speak of  
the  flagrant injustice which allows the
 man to separate from his wife on       
account of offences she is obliged to   
tolerate in him1 the two1 though        
separated1 remain jointly and severally 
liable4 ,the woman is obliged1  in a    
number of instances1 such as the        
marriage of a child confided to  her    
care1 to obtain the husband's           
authorization1 whilst she1 on her  part1
 can drag in the mire the name of her   
husband which she continues  to bear1 or
 pass off children upon him which are   
not his4 ,separation  has all the       

drawbacks of divorce1 besides others    
peculiar to it1 which  divorce remedies4
 ,m4 ,naquet has treated the question   
from the tribune1  as also in a series  
of articles published in the ,voltaire1 
wherein  he cites a number of           
heartrending cases in which divorce     
would be  the only possible remedy1 and1
 finally1 in the lectures he has been   
holding in all the large towns4 ,his    
campaign has been crowned with  success1
 and the law will1 it is believed1 be   
passed by the ,chambers4  ,no small     
credit is due to ,m4 ,naquet1 for he had
 to contend with  prejudices of several 
kinds--the religious prejudices of      
,catholicism1  which does not admit the 
power of the civil law to cancel a      
sacrament  of the ,church2 the political
 prejudices of ,republican theorists1   
who  affect to attach a more sacred and 
indelible character to the civil        
consecration of the magistrate than to  
the religious one of the  priest2 the   
prejudices of immoral and unprincipled  

men1 who form a  numerous class         
everywhere1 who never having felt the   
restraints of  moral law are not        
troubled by the misfortunes springing   
from unhappy  marriages1 but1 on the    
contrary1 are glad to take advantage of 
them2  finally1 with the prejudices of  
some serious-minded persons1 who are    
afraid that in sanctioning divorce the  
,republic may appear to violate  the    
respect due to marriage4 ,the last      
aspect of the question has  been ably   
supported by a deputy1 ,m4 ,louis       
,legrand1 in his interesting  study1 ,le
 ,mariage2 but ,m4 ,naquet finds no     
difficulty in proving  that marriage is 
more respected where divorce is possible
 than where  judicial separation only   
can be obtained1 nor in showing         
religious men  that the ,church has     
always recognised fourteen cases in     
which marriage  becomes void1 whilst the
 ,french law only recognises one1       
mistaken  identity1 which practically   
never occurs4    ,we have but to open a 

,french novel1 or visit the theatre1 to 
convince  ourselves of the necessity of 
divorce4 ,mme4 ,grville1 in ,lucie      
,rodey  7,plon71 depicts a young woman  
reduced by her husband to the most      
wretched condition1 with no resource but
 resignation and a pardon  all but      
dishonourable to her2 ,mme4 ,bentzon1 in
 ,georgette 7,lvy71  describes with     
exquisite delicacy the painful position 
of a woman who1  separated from her     
husband1 and living on terms the world  
condemns  with a man of elevated        
character1 is driven in the presence of 
her  innocent daughter to blush for a   
position the disgrace of which her  own 
elevation of sentiment had hitherto     
veiled from her4 ,half  the novels in   
,france turn on the domestic misery     
arising from the  indissolubility of the
 marriage tie4 ,hackneyed as the subject
 is1 it  presents so many aspects that  
new effects can always be derived  from 
it4 ,such dramas will ever remain the   
most touching source the  imagination of

 the novelist has to draw upon4 ,from   
the princess to the  peasant1 humanity  
is the same in its affections and       
sufferings4 ,if you  want to know how   
the peasant suffers read ,un ,coin de   
,village1 by ,m4  ,camille ,lemonnier   
7,lemerre71 a picturesque and piquant   
young writer1  who combines the touching
 grace of ,erckmann-,chatrian with a    
power of  realistic observation quite   
his own4 ,if you wish for something more
  recherch1 dealing with the richer and 
higher classes of society1  ,m4 ,gualdi1
 a young naturalized ,italian1 ,french  
in talent1 provides  you with a drama of
 the most brilliant originality in his  
,mariage  ,extraordinaire 7,lemerre74 ,a
 charming but poor girl1 ,elise1 is on  
the  point of marrying a man she does   
not love to save her parents from  ruin4
 ,she is attached to a young man1       
,giulio1 worthy of her1 but poor  also2 
he has been obliged to expatriate       
himself1 and ,elise's mother  makes her 
believe that her fianc has forgotten and

 betrayed her4  ,the ,comte d',astorre1 
an elegant and magnificent viveur1 with 
a  generous soul under his frivolous    
exterior1 is touched by ,elise's  fate2 
to enable her to escape a hateful       
marriage he offers her the  shelter of  
his name and house1 promising that he   
will consider himself  as a friend1 not 
a husband4 ,for a time the compact is   
kept1 but the  ,comte d',astorre ends by
 falling in love with his wife2 the     
quondam  viveur becomes the timid1      
trembling1 and naf suitor4 ,elise ends  
by allowing herself to be moved1 and    
when poor ,giulio comes back from       
,india1 true to the faith he had sworn1 
she repulses him1 first in  the name of 
duty1 and soon1 one is made to feel1 in 
the name of a new  nascent love4 ,this  
singular and delicate theme is treated  
by ,m4 ,gualdi  with a refinement of    
touch that indicates the acute          
psychologist1 and  the passionate scene 
between ,giulio and ,elise on their     
meeting again  is really beautiful4     

,to ascend a step higher in the social  
hierarchy and learn what a  queen1      
wounded in her feelings as a woman and a
 mother1 can suffer1  read ,m4 ,a4      
,daudet's last novel1 ,les ,rois en     
,exil 7,dentu71 in which  he continues  
to work the vein he opened so           
successfully in ,le ,nabab1  the        
portraiture of ,parisian life1 viewed   
from its most brilliant side  as from   
that most flecked with impurity1        
disorder1 and adventure4 ,in  the       
,nabab1 ,m4 ,daudet had the advantage of
 describing the world he  had been most 
familiar with1 since his two chief      
personages were ,m4 de  ,morny1 whose   
secretary he had been for several years1
 and ,m4 ,bravay1  his former friend4   
,but this advantage was also a defect1  
for no true  novel is possible with very
 well-known contemporary personages for 
the characters2 and the ,nabab1         
marvellous as regards truth and vivid   
detail1 was poor as regards composition4
 ,in ,les ,rois en ,exil  we again meet 

with a number of well-known personages3 
the ,king of  ,hanover1 the ,queen of   
,spain1 the ,prince of ,orange1 the     
,queen of  ,naples1 ,don ,carlos4 ,elyse
 ,mraut1 the little prince's tutor1 is  
said to be the portrait of an excellent 
youth1 by name ,thrion1 also  entrusted 
with a prince's education1 and who was  
horrified to find  that he believed more
 firmly in the principles of legitimacy 
and  divine right than his pupil's      
parents4 ,the father of ,elyse ,mraut1  
the old ,legitimist peasant who sees his
 son's future insured because  the      
,comte de ,chambord promises to bear him
 in mind1 is no other than  ,a4         
,daudet's own father4 ,but all the real 
portraits are secondary  characters that
 form the background of the picture4    
,the leading  personages of the drama1  
,christian ,,ii41 the dethroned king of 
,illyria1  who takes his exile very     
lightly1 and forgets it by wallowing in 
the  mire of ,parisian dissipations2 his
 wife1 the noble ,frderique1 who  lives 

but for one thing1 the recovery of the  
throne of her husband and  son1 and in  
that hope endures every affront2 their  
trusty attendants1  the two ,rosens2 and
 finally ,john ,lvis1 the unscrupulous  
man of  business1 who knows the tariff  
of all the vices1 and with his wife     
,sphora1 takes advantage of the         
dissolute weakness of ,christian        
,,ii41--all these leading figures1      
though compounded of traits1 if not     
real at least profoundly true1 are the  
author's own creation4 ,they  are       
artistically superior1 moreover1 to     
those of the ,nabab1 more  complete1    
more lifelike even1 for they are        
stripped of such traits as  are too     
personal1 secondary1 fleeting1 contrary 
to actual reality1 and  wear rather the 
character of types4 ,types they truly   
are1 this king  and queen1              
representative of all the grandeur and  
vileness1 the  heroism and cowardice1   
the noble pride and foolish prejudice1  
dwelling  in the exiled sovereigns who  

came to ,paris1 some to weep for        
monarchy1  others to hold its carnival1 
some as to the centre of pleasure1      
others to that of political intrigue2   
and is there not a philosophy1          
historical and political1 in ,m4        
,daudet's novel1 in his picture  of     
,christian ,,ii4 forced to abdicate his 
royal pretensions after  sacrificing    
them to the love of an unworthy woman   
who has fooled him1  and ,frderique     
bidding farewell to all the hopes that  
centred in  her little ,zara1 forgetting
 everything besides being a mother1 and 
devoting all her powers towards rescuing
 her child from the sickness  that is   
killing him8 ,it is unfair to ,m4       
,daudet to say that he only  possesses  
the art of painting the chatoyant       
lights1 the picturesque  outside of     
,parisian life1 the dresses1 the        
furniture1 and the scenery2  to         
represent him as merely a skilful       
manufacturer of bimbeloterie4  ,we may  
tax him with abuse of description1 and  

that habit of  reportage peculiar to the
 daily press2 and it would be vain to   
look  in him for the sobriety that      
enhances the beauty of some immortal    
works of art2 but such sobriety is      
incompatible with an art which aims  at 
painting human life in all its aspects1 
all its details1 all its  colours4      
,neither ,shakspeare1 ,dickens1 nor     
,balzac is sober4 ,to be  sure ,m4      
,daudet is neither a ,dickens nor a     
,balzac1 but his delicate  sensibility  
makes him penetrate far below the outer 
crust1 to the  human ground of the      
characters1 and the life they live is a 
real one4  ,on account of this1 the     
first quality of a novelist1 one        
forgives the  brutality and the         
pretentious passages1 an imitation1 the 
one of ,m4  ,zola1 the other of ,m4 de  
,goncourt1 and the inequalities of a    
style  which is1 nevertheless1 in       
wonderful harmony with the world he     
paints4    ,that which constitutes ,m4  
,daudet's great superiority over other  

novelists of the realistic school1 is   
that he has no contempt for  humanity1  
that he always loves it1 often pities1  
and sometimes admires  it4 ,nothing can 
be more false1 more unpleasant1 or1 we  
may venture  to say1 more tiresome1 than
 the view taken by a certain would-be   
scientific pessimism of humanity1 as    
being nothing but a compound of         
vileness1 vapidness1 and folly4 ,m4     
,zola is learning it to his cost4       
,after the immense success of           
,l',assommoir1 due to the great power of
  the painter1 as also to the horror    
inspired by scenes of unparalleled      
crudeness1 he wished to outdo himself   
and depict in ,nana the  lowest depths  
of ,parisian corruption4 ,to make the   
impression the more  complete1 he has   
not let in a single breath of pure air2 
or introduced  a single character which 
was not insipidly stupid and sensual1   
enslaved by the lowest appetites1       
incapable of a single noble thought  or 
generous sentiment4 ,the effect on the  

public was weariness rather  than       
disgust4 ,le ,voltaire1 which had       
expected to make its fortune by         
bringing out the book in feuilletons1   
was greatly surprised to see  its       
circulation rapidly fail1 actually on   
account of ,m4 ,zola's novel4  ,we are  
afraid the same thing will happen with  
regard to the work  announced by ,m4    
,flaubert4 ,this great writer and       
conscientious  artist is unfortunately  
persuaded1 in spite of his admiration   
for ,i4  ,tourguneff 7that true painter 
of humanity1 of its virtues as of its   
vices71 that the novel should confine   
itself to the portrayal of the  mediocre
 and uniform mass which makes up the    
majority of men4 ,already  in           
,l',education ,sentimentale he sought to
 show the vulgarity and  coarseness that
 generally conceal themselves under what
 is called  love2 in the novel he is now
 engaged on he shows us two men         
brutalized  by the mechanical routine of
 a bureaucratic career1 studying every  

human science1 and finding in the study 
merely an occasion for the  better      
display of their incurable folly4 ,such 
mistakes committed  by men of genius    
cause us the better to appreciate less  
powerful  certainly1 but more human1    
works1 by writers who seek to render    
life  attractive to us1 such as ,a4     
,theuriet1 for instance1 who has just   
produced a new novel1 ,le ,fils ,mangars
 7,charpentier74 ,m4 ,theuriet is  one  
of the few ,french writers of fiction   
who1 instead of dealing  with the       
tragedies of guilty passion succeed in  
shedding a dramatic  interest over the  
affections and sufferings of pure young 
hearts4  ,in this he resembles the      
,english novelists4 ,innocent love forms
 the  groundwork of his books1 and      
constitutes their poetry and their      
charm4  ,le ,fils ,mangars is the first 
of a series of studies entitled ,nos    
,enfants1 dealing with the various      
complications arising out of the        
disagreement of parents and children4   

,in ,le ,fils ,mangars we are           
introduced to a father1 who has devoted 
all his efforts towards  amassing a     
fortune for his son1 has to that end    
made use of dishonest  means1 and finds 
his punishment in the loyalty of the one
 for whom  he committed the wrong4 ,his 
son refuses to benefit by the wealth    
dishonestly acquired1 and falls in love 
with the daughter of one of  the men his
 father has ruined4 ,this poignant theme
 is handled with the  airy and          
attractive delicacy that characterizes  
,theuriet's touch4    ,were the surly   
critics to be trusted1 we should not be 
leaving the  domain of fiction in       
turning to the new volume ,m4 ,renan has
 devoted  to the history of the sources 
of ,christianity1 entitled ,l',eglise   
,chrtienne 7,lvy74 ,it deals with the   
definitive constitution of the  ,church1
 at the moment when dogma forms itself  
by contact with1 and  in opposition to1 
the various heresies1 and the           
organization of  the hierarchy takes    

place4 ,it is true that ,m4 ,renan      
could1 if he so  wished1 be a wonderful 
writer of fiction4 ,with what art he    
brings on  his personages1 how admirably
 he infuses life into the thousand dry  
and scattered fragments collected by    
erudition1 and forms them into a        
co-ordinate and complete whole6 ,with   
what psychological penetration  he      
enters into the minds of his personages1
 and makes us familiarly  acquainted    
with the ,roman ,csars or the ,church   
,fathers6 ,what wealth  of imagination6 
what witchery of style6 ,at times he is1
 no doubt1 led  away by his imagination2
 too often the desire to invest old     
facts with  life and reality leads him  
to compare1 or even assimilate1 the     
present  with the past1 and1 in his     
exposition of ancient ideas1 to mix them
 up  with his own1 ideas so peculiar to 
our time and to ,m4 ,renan himself1     
that the intermixture produces a false  
impression4 ,it is daring to  ascribe   
the ,fourth ,gospel to ,cerinthus1 and  

still more so to regard  the letter of  
the ,lyons ,church on the martyrdom of  
,pothin and his  companions as a proof  
of the ,lyonnese being false-minded1 and
 to  connect the fact with the          
,socialist tendencies of modern ,lyons4 
,from  his comparing ,hadrian in some   
respects to ,nero1 we gather that ,m4   
,renan has yielded to the indulgence he 
had already testified towards  ,nero in 
his volume on ,l',antechrist1 an        
indulgence grounded on the  artistic    
tastes1 or rather pretensions1 of the   
royal stage-player4 ,but  these         
blemishes1 and occasional breaches of   
historical truth or good  taste1 ought  
not to blind us to the historical value 
of a work which1  if it be the work of a
 great artist1 is likewise that of a    
scholar of  the first order4 ,numbers of
 men can pore over texts and critics1   
but  to revive the past1 and introduce  
into the domain of history1 and  make   
the general public familiar with        
subjects reserved hitherto to           

theologians and critics by profession1  
is the work of a genius only4  ,scholars
 find much to censure in ,michelet's    
,histoire de ,franceau  moyen ,age2 but 
whatever its inexactitudes1 he is the   
only man who has  succeeded in restoring
 to life the ,france of bygone days4    
,and is not  life one of the most       
important elements of reality8 ,even an 
imperfect  acquaintance with a living   
man enables one to form a truer notion  
of the man than the most minute autopsy 
of a dead body4 ,moreover1  as regards  
the past we have not the whole body1 but
 only  scattered fragments2 the breath  
of genius must pass over these dry      
bones--restore to them flesh1 blood1    
colour1 movement1 and voice4    ,but    
genius can only do her magic work when  
the materials that are  to serve for    
this wonderful transformation have been 
collected  by erudition4 ,m4 ,renan     
would not have been able to construct   
his  historical monument had not ,german
 criticism prepared the way for  him4   

,erudition occasionally arrives at      
astonishing results by digging1  either 
in the earth which has swallowed up the 
ancient buildings or  in the dust of the
 archives4 ,here is an individual who   
played a very  important part in the    
fifteenth century in the struggle       
between ,france  and ,england1 who1     
though a stranger and fighting more     
especially as an  adventurer greedy of  
spoil1 helped to restore ,france to     
independence1  who was almost unknown1  
whose name was not mentioned in any of  
our  histories4 ,m4 ,i4 ,quicherat has  
brought him to life1 and ,rodrigue de   
,villandrando 7,hachette7 will see his  
name cited in all the histories  of the 
reign of ,charles ,,vii4 ,the book is a 
model of historical  reconstruction4 ,it
 is wonderful to see how1 with a series 
of scattered  indications1 most of them 
the very driest of documents1 not only  
the  incidents of a life1 but the       
features of a character1 can be pieced  
together again4    ,such a character as 

,rodrigue's is not very complicated1 it 
is true4  ,there are historical         
personages to penetrate the depths of   
whose  nature an accumulation of        
documents and testimony would be        
necessary4  ,such is ,napoleon1 whom    
each day throws some new light upon1 and
 on  whom1 after his having been        
magnified beyond all measure1 posterity 
will1 no doubt1 be called to pass severe
 judgment4 ,never was such  overwhelming
 testimony pronounced against him as in 
the ,mmoires de  ,madame de ,rmusat1 the
 first volume of which is just out4     
,mme4 de  ,rmusat was so placed as to be
 more thoroughly acquainted than any one
  with the character of ,napoleon4      
,lady-in-waiting to ,josephine1 and wife
  of one of ,napoleon's ,matres du      
palais1 she bowed for a long while  to  
the ascendancy of ,napoleon's genius1   
and the liking he testified  for her was
 sufficiently strong to awaken1 though  
unjustly1 the  momentary jealousy of    
,josephine4 ,the speaker is not an      

enemy1  therefore1 but an old friend who
 tries to explain at once her  adherence
 to the imperial rgime and the motives  
that caused her to  alter her political 
creed4 ,she is thus in the best state of
 mind1  according to ,m4 ,renan1 for    
judging a great man or a doctrine1 that 
of  having believed and believing no    
longer4 ,add to this the sweetness of   
mind natural to a woman1 and the kind of
 indulgence peculiar to times  when     
sudden political changes lead to        
frequent changes of opinion4 ,all  these
 considerations only render ,mme4 de    
,rmusat's testimony the more            
overwhelming for ,napoleon1 and its     
value is singularly increased on  its   
being seen to agree with that which all 
the sincere witnesses of  the time1 ,ph4
 de ,sgur1 ,miot de ,mlito1 as well as  
,sismondi1 lead us  to infer4 ,the      
genius of ,napoleon is not diminished1  
and nothing is  more remarkable than the
 conversations related by ,mme4 de      
,rmusat1  wherein he judges everything1 

literature1 politics1 and history1 with 
a haughty originality from the point of 
view of his own interests and  passions4
 ,some of his sayings relative to the   
government of men  are worthy of        
,machiavelli4 ,the reasonings whereby he
 explains and  justifies the            
assassination of the ,duc d',enghien    
would form a splendid  chapter to the   
,prince4 ,but from the moral point of   
view ,napoleon  strikes us as the most  
perfect type of a tyrant4 ,no moral law 
exists  for him2 he does not admit the  
obligation of any duty2 he does not     
even recognise those duties of a        
sovereign1 that subordination of  the   
individual to the interests of the      
,state1 which constitute the  greatness 
of a ,cromwell or a ,frederick ,,ii42 he
 recognises but one law1  that of his   
nature1 which insists on dominating and 
being superior to  everything that      
surrounds him4 ,quia nominor ,leo1 is   
his only  rule4 ,morals always have     
their revenge on those whose encroaching

  personality refuses to recognise laws4
 ,writers or sovereigns1 whatever  their
 genius1 relapse into falsehood and     
extravagance4 ,this was  ,napoleon's    
fate4 ,you are always conscious in him  
of the parvenu  acting a part--the      
commediante tragediante1 as ,pius ,,vii4
 put it4  ,he had fits of goodness1 of  
weakness even1 but his human and        
generous  sides had been crushed by his 
frightful egoism4 ,he liked to make     
those  he loved best suffer4 ,he treated
 his wife and his mistresses with       
brutal contempt2 he could no longer     
lament the death of those who  seemed   
dearest to him4 ,je n'ai pas le temps de
 m'occuper des morts1  he said to       
,talleyrand4 ,by the side of this great 
figure ,mme4 de  ,rmusat has1 in her    
,memoirs1 sketched many others--the     
frivolous1  good1 touching1 and         
unfortunate ,josephine2 the amiable     
,hortense  ,beauharnais1 the dry1 cold  
,louis1 ,napoleon's sisters1 jealous1   
proud1  and immoral2 and others--but all

 pale before the imperial colossus4     
,besides ,m4 ,daudet's novel1 ,m4       
,renan's new volume1 and the ,memoirs of
  ,mme4 de ,rmusat1 the last three      
months have witnessed another literary  
event of some consequence--the birth of 
an important ,review1 which  aims at the
 position occupied for thirty years past
 by the ,revue  des ,deux ,mondes4 ,the 
,nouvelle ,revue was started and is     
edited by a  woman1 ,mme4 ,edmond ,adam1
 known as a writer under the name of    
,juliette  ,lamber4 ,a new phenomenon   
this in the literary world1 the         
strangest  feature of it being that     
,mme4 ,adam has taken exclusively upon  
herself  the bulletin of foreign        
politics4 ,if the task of editing a     
,review be  arduous for a man1 who in   
the interest of his undertaking must    
brave  every enmity and quench his      
individual sympathies1 how much more  so
 for a woman whose staff of contributors
 is recruited from the  habitus of her  
salon1 and who must be constantly       

tempted to carry  into her official     
transactions the habits of gracious     
hospitality  which have made her house  
one of the most courted political and   
literary centres of ,paris8    ,the aim 
of the ,nouvelle ,revue also is to be up
 with the times2 it is  inclined to     
judge an article rather by the fame of  
the name at the end  of it than by its  
own intrinsic merit2 it will insert the 
superficial  lucubrations of ,general   
,turr or ,m4 ,castelar1 which but for   
the  signature are worthless4 ,it gives 
political questions an importance       
hardly appreciated by those who find all
 their political needs  supplied by the 
daily press1 and look to a ,review for  
literary or  scientific interests4      
,finally1 the chief obstacle in the way 
of the  ,nouvelle ,revue is that our    
best essayists are bound not only by    
chains of gratitude and habit1 but also 
by chains of gold1 to the  ,revue des   
,deux ,mondes4 ,nevertheless there is   
plenty of room in  our literary world   

for a new review1 so far at least as    
writers  are concerned4 ,if she makes   
talent her aim1 and not merely opinions 
agreeing with her own1 ,mme4 ,adam will 
not want for contributors4 ,to  get     
readers will be more difficult in a     
country of routine1 where  the ,revue   
des ,deux ,mondes has become an         
indispensable item of every  respectable
 family's household furniture4 ,until   
now the ,nouvelle  ,revue has been      
successful2 the sale has reached from   
#fjjj to #hjjj  copies per number1 and1 
without having yet published anything   
very  first-rate1 it has been fairly    
well supplied with pleasant articles4   
,the recollections of the singer ,duprez
 have hitherto been its greatest        
attraction4 ,a novel by ,mme4 ,grville1 
and articles by ,,mm4 de ,bornier1      
,bigot1 and de ,gubernatis also deserve 
mention4    ,perhaps1 after all1 our    
judgment is partial1 and the success of 
the  ,nouvelle ,revue is due to its     
attention to the immediate interests of 

the present1 and the space allotted to  
politics4 ,the number of those  who take
 an interest in literature daily grows  
smaller in ,france4  ,of those not      
absorbed by politics some forsake pure  
literature for  erudition1 and the      
greater number give themselves up to    
science4 ,it is  owing to the scholars  
that the ,revue ,philosophique is       
succeeding  so brilliantly2 all the     
scientific societies are flourishing1   
and  ,l',association pour               
l',encouragement des ,sciences again    
verified  its growing advancement at its
 late meeting at ,montpellier4 ,the     
geographical section1 recently founded1 
promises to become one of the  most     
active1 for geographical studies1 so    
long neglected in ,france1  have        
suddenly made an extraordinary start4   
,the ,geographical ,society  now has    
#agjj members1 and has built itself a   
magnificent htel2  the ,alpine ,club1 a 
geographical rather than a climbing     
society1 is  increasing so rapidly in   

numbers that it is impossible to give   
the exact figure4 ,it amounts to several
 thousand4 ,if unscrupulous  speculators
 have taken advantage of this           
reawakening zeal for  geographical study
 to publish a swarm of superficial and  
hastily  compiled handbooks1 and        
carelessly engraved maps1 some works of 
real  merit have appeared that do credit
 to our ,french editors4 ,and here  the 
firm of ,hachette holds the first rank4 
,la ,tour du ,monde is an  illustrated  
journal of travels1 admirably arranged  
and printed2 the  great ,historical     
,atlas and ,universal ,dictionary of    
,geography of ,m4  ,vivien de ,saint    
,martin have but one fault1 the         
excessive tardiness of  their           
publication4 ,m4 ,elise ,reclus's       
handsome work1 ,la ,terre et les        
,hommes1 on the contrary1 is issued with
 unexceptionable regularity4  ,the fifth
 volume1 now approaching completion1    
comprises the countries  of ,northern   
,europe1 principally ,russia1 which is  

now attracting the  attention of        
historians and politicians generally4   
,m4 ,reclus's point  of view is         
especially calculated to answer to the  
nature of the  present interest1 for he 
enters more particularly into the       
relations  of the people to the soil2 to
 the administrative geography1 details  
concerning which are to be found        
everywhere1 he pays only secondary      
attention1 devoting himself more        
especially to the physical geography1   
customs1 and institutions4 ,his book is 
more particularly a work on  geology1   
ethnography1 and sociology2 and therein 
lies its originality  and usefulness4   
,hachette is also engaged in publishing 
a map of ,france  that exceeds in beauty
 and precision everything that has ever 
been  produced of the kind until now4   
,it is drawn by the ,service des        
,chemins  ,vicinaux at the expense of   
the ,ministry of ,interior1 and will    
consist  of #dfg sheets4 ,the scale is  
#a_/ajjjjj4 ,the admirable engraver1 ,m4

  ,erhard1 has been entrusted with the  
execution1 which is beyond  criticism   
alike as regards fulness of detail1     
clearness1 and  colouring4 ,each sheet  
costs only #ge;c41 a moderate sum1      
considering the  exceptional merit of   
the work1 the most considerable of its  
kind since  the ,staff map4 ,a proof of 
the importance attached in these days to
 the  study of geography is the         
foundation of ,chairs of ,geography in  
several  of our ,faculties of           
,letters--,bordeaux1 ,lyons1 ,nancy--and
 a course of  lectures on historical    
geography at the cole des ,hautes tudes4
 ,this  course will be given by ,m4 ,a4 
,longnon1 whose works on ,les ,pagi de  
la  ,gaule and ,la ,gographie de la     
,gaule au sixime sicle1 have made  him a
 ,european authority4 ,by the combined  
use of the philological  laws of the    
transmutation of sounds1 historical     
documents1 and  archological data1 he   
has reached a precision it seemed       
impossible to  attain in these matters4 

,he may be said to have founded a new   
science1  and the happiest results are  
to be expected from his teaching4       
,there is always a lull in the artistic 
as in the literary and  scientific world
 during the summer and autumn1 so that  
there is little  of importance to be    
noted4 ,the designs sent in for the     
monument to  ,rabelais1 for the statue  
of the ,republic1 for a decorative      
curtain to  be executed by the          
,gobelins1 all public works opened to   
competition1  have been exhibited4 ,the 
question of such competitions was much  
discussed on the occasion4 ,it seems at 
first sight the best way of  securing   
the highest work1 but practically it is 
not so4 ,artists of  acknowledged merit 
do not generally care to enter into     
competition  with brother artists2 they 
shrink from the expense1 often          
considerable1 which1 in case of failure1
 is thrown away4 ,that  incurred1 for   
instance1 by the competitors for the    
statue of the  ,republic1 amounted to   

about #djjj francs1 and the premium     
awarded to  the three best designs to   
just that sum4 ,it would evidently      
always be  better1 when a really fine   
work is required1 to choose the artist  
most  capable of executing it well1 and 
leave him free to follow his own        
inspiration4 ,this method seems too     
little democratic for the days in  which
 we live1 so under colour of democracy a
 number of poor devils  are made to     
involve themselves in enormous expenses 
for nothing4    ,the most notable events
 of the last three months in the        
artistic world  have been the deaths of 
men variously famous4 ,m4 ,viollet ,le  
,duc leaves  behind him the twofold     
reputation of a learned archologist of  
the  first order and an archological    
architect still more remarkable4 ,he    
had fame1 indeed1 of a third kind--as a 
stirring and noisy politician1  who1    
from having been one of ,napoleon       
,,iii4's familiar associates1 and  a    
constant guest at ,compigne1 became one 

of the most advanced members  of the    
,municipal ,council of ,paris1 a        
courtisan of the multitude4  ,but one is
 glad to forget him under these         
unfavourable aspects and  to think of   
him only as the author of the two great 
historical  dictionaries of             
,l',architecture and ,le ,mobilier1 and 
the clever and  learned restorer of our 
medival monuments4 ,thanks to him1      
,notre ,dame  has been completed and    
finished1 and reconstituted in the very 
spirit  of the thirteenth century2      
thanks to him1 we have at ,pierrefonds  
the perfect model of a feudal castle4   
,an indefatigable worker1  this ,radical
 has allied his name in a manner as     
glorious as it is  indissoluble to the  
visible memorials of ,catholic and      
,monarchical  ,france4    ,of a         
slighter1 but perhaps more universal    
kind still was the  reputation of the   
caricaturist ,cham1 or1 to speak more   
correctly1  the ,viscomte de ,no4 ,son  
of a ,french peer known for his         

retrograde  opinions1 ,cham worked all  
his life for the ,republican papers1    
though  people say he adhered to his    
,legitimist opinions4 ,but he enjoyed   
an independence in the ,republican      
papers which would not have been        
allowed him by the reactionary press2   
and a caricaturist's first  condition is
 to have plenty of elbow-room to be able
 to give free  play to his humour4 ,the 
spring of ,cham's humour was            
inexhaustible4  ,an indifferent and     
monotonous draughtsman1 his mind was    
wholly and  entirely in the story of his
 drawings4 ,the war of ridicule he waged
  in #ahdh against the ,socialistic     
theories of ,proudhon1 ,pierre ,leroux1 
,cabet1 and ,considrant exercised an    
undoubted influence on the public  mind4
 ,his comic reviews of the annual ,salon
 contained1 amongst many  amusing       
follies1 some just and stinging         
criticisms4 ,cham leaves no  successor1 
,bertall1 who is a cleverer draughtsman1
 has none of his  wit2 ,grvin can only  

sketch with exquisite grace the ladies  
of the  demi-monde and the young fops of
 the boulevard2 ,gill's political       
caricatures are either bitter or        
violent4 ,the lively and good-natured   
raillery of ,cham has no doubt vanished 
for ever4    ,in conjunction with these 
two artists the name of a man should be 
mentioned1 who1 himself an indifferent  
artist1 was the unfailing  patron1 the  
providence of artists1 ,baron ,taylor1  
who died almost at  the same time as    
,cham4 ,he it was who taught artists to 
form themselves  into associations      
against want4 ,he was in particular the 
soul of the  ,socit des ,artistes       
,dramatiques1 and amongst the immense   
crowd that  attended his funeral were1  
no doubt1 hundreds indebted to him for  
an  easy career and a sure means of     
existence4    ,we are a long way removed
 from the time when the life of an      
artist was  one long struggle with      
misery1 when men of the first class     
continued  obscure or barely maintained 

themselves by their works4 ,many        
difficulties still remain no doubt1 but 
how much smoother the road  has become6 
,musicians1 more especially1 found      
themselves in those  days condemned to  
obscurity and oblivion4 ,now1 thanks to 
concerts and  theatres1 they can almost 
always have the public for their judges4
 ,the  ,opera is at present in the hands
 of an enterprising and intelligent     
director1 ,m4 ,vaucorbeil1 who is       
anxious to rescue it from the groove  it
 has been dragging on in for so long1   
with its current repertory of  two or   
three antiquated works1 barely bringing 
out a new one in four  or five years4   
,true1 we have not got beyond good      
intentions until  now1 ,m4 ,gounod still
 intending to retouch the ,tribu de     
,zamora1 ,m4 ,a4  ,thomas to finish his 
,franoise de ,rimini1 and ,m4           
,saint-,saens still  unsuccessful in    
getting his ,etienne ,marcel accepted4  
,besides the  ,grand ,opra there is     
,l',opra ,populaire located in the      

,gat's old  quarters1 which intends1 it 
is said1 to revive the lost traditions  
of  the lyric theatre1 and to be the    
theatre of the young generation and  of 
reform4 ,but at present it is to the    
,pasdeloup and ,colonne ,concerts  that 
the rising musical school owes the      
opportunity of making itself  heard1 and
 the ,parisian public its familiar      
acquaintance with foreign  works4 ,the  
great reputation ,m4 ,saint-,saens now  
enjoys was made at  ,colonne's ,concerts
 at the ,chtelet4 ,lately ,schumann's   
,manfred was  given there4 ,at the      
,cirque the ,symphonie ,fantastique1 by 
,berlioz1  was played with immense      
success1 also for the first time a      
pianoforte  concerto by the ,russian    
composer1 ,tschaikovsky1 and ,m4        
,pasdeloup  shortly intends to give a   
performance of the whole of the music of
  ,lohengrin4    ,considered apart from 
music1 the theatre is far from          
improving1 and  has1 moreover1 become   
the scene of performances that bear no  

relation  to dramatic art4 ,at the      
,nouveauts1 ,professor ,hermann1 of     
,vienna1 is  performing sleight-of-hand 
feats bordering on the miraculous2 at   
the  ,varits the ,hanlon-,lees have     
transformed the stage into a gymnasium1 
where they defy every law of equilibrium
 and gravity4 ,holden's  ,marionettes1  
also one of the great attractions of the
 day1 are not  more dislocated or agile 
than these wonderful mountebanks4 ,in   
the way  of new plays the great rage at 
present is ,jonathan1 ,m4 ,gondinet's   
latest work1 which is being played at   
the ,gymnase4 ,neither its wit  nor its 
cleverness1 any more than the talent of 
the actors1 are to  be denied2 but what 
are we to think of a dramatic art whose 
sole end  would seem to be to get       
accepted on the stage a story so        
scandalous  that a brief account of it  
would be intolerable8 ,by dint of       
shifts1  doubtful insinuations1 fun1 and
 spirit1 the sight of it is just        
rendered endurable4 ,no heed is paid to 

truth1 nor to either character  or      
manners4 ,it is the last utterance of   
the literary decadence4 ,we  thought    
that with ,bb we had reached the utmost 
limits of this kind  of piece4 ,to      
,jonathan is due the honour of having   
extended those  limits4    ,one feels   
grateful to those who1 like ,m4         
,claretie1 dare to shed a  purer        
atmosphere over the stage4 ,les         
,mirabeau is far from being  a          
masterpiece4 ,it exhibits1 like all ,m4 
,claretie's works1 rather a  careless   
facility1 but at the same time a true   
understanding of the  ,revolutionary    
period2 the tone is strong and healthy1 
and some  scenes1 in which ,mdlle4      
,rousseil shows herself a great actress1
 are  exceedingly dramatic4 ,it is given
 at an enterprising theatre1 the  ,thtre
 des ,nations1 which is devoting itself 
to historical  drama1 and1 in a double  
series of dramatic matines held on      
,sunday  afternoons1 is giving1 on the  
one hand1 a set of plays relating to    

every epoch of ,french history1 on the  
other1 a set of foreign plays           
translated into ,french1 and intended to
 promote the knowledge of  the dramatic 
works of other countries1 ancient as    
well as modern2 an  ingenious and happy 
undertaking1 to which we cannot but wish
 every  success4      ,g4 ,,monod4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,transcriber's ,note3    ,some of the   
words from the ,article1 ,hinduisn and  
,jainism contain  vowels with macron    
accents 7line above the letter74 ,these 
are  depicted as ,a1 a1 i1 u4 ,some     
words in the article  contain           
stand-alone acute accents1 which have   
been retained4    e4g41 ,asoka2         
,parsvanatha2 ,pajjusan2 ,sadhvini2     
,siva-ratri2 ,upasraya2      ,errata3   
,page #eee3 ',governmeut' corrected to  
',government'    444 was forced upon the
 ,government by the attitude of         
,russia4444    ,page #ehj3 'botantist'  
corrected to 'botanist'4    444 by the  
,german botantist1 ,hildebrand1444      

,page #fdb3 'is' corrected to ',is'     
444 in bonds and debentures8 ,is not    
part of the profit realized4444    ,page
 #gad3 ,extraneous 'the' removed4       
,besides the ,grand ,opra there is      
,l',opra ,populaire the located4444