99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the original publication has been replicated faithfully except as shown in the ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments near the end of the text4 ,to preserve the alignment of tables and headers1 this etext presumes a mono-spaced font on the user's device1 such as ,courier ,new4 ,words in italics are indicated like this4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 #a4 ,,blind-,,stamped ,,leather ,,binding ,,of ,,the ,,winchester ,,domesday ,,book4 ,,english1 #ab,,th ,,century4 ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,leather ,,from ,,the ,,french ,,of ,,georges ,,de ,r,,cy ,,by ,,maude ,,nathan ,,with ,,illustrations ,,and ,,examples ,,of ,,leather ,,decoration ,,from ,,various ,,sources ,,london ,,archibald ,,constable ,,co ,,ltd #aije ,,butler ,,tanner1 ,,the ,,selwood ,,printing ,,works1 ,,frome1 ,,and ,,london4 ,,translator',s ,,note ,in a preface which is omitted from this translation1 the author claims for his work a place between the books dealing solely with the history and development of the art of working in leather and those of which the object is to impart a knowledge of the technique of its various processes to amateurs who may be unable or unwilling to undertake a regular course of instruction4 ,he points out that leather1 in its adaptability to many different kinds of treatment1 is a material eminently suited to the interpretation of the style of decoration known as 8modern art40 ,in the ,french edition there are numerous reproductions of examples of leather decoration and of ornament intended for adaptation to leather-work4 ,in the following translation these illustrations and also a short chapter referring to them are omitted1 and some examples of leather-work derived from various ,english sources are substituted4 ,the text of the work has been generally somewhat abridged4 ,the fact that there are many technical and other terms in ,french that have no exact equivalent in our own language1 has rendered a free translation desirable1 but the meaning of the original text has been carefully preserved4 ,,contents ,,page ,,translator',s ,,note #e ,,introduction ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,leather ,,in ,,the ,,past #ac ,,chapter ,i ,,tools ,,and ,,leather #ae ,,chapter ,,ii ,,methods ,,of ,,working ,,in ,,leather #ai ,,chapter ,,iii ,,leather ,,mosaic #db ,,chapter ,,iv ,,dyes1 ,,patines ,,and ,,gilding #fd ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,design ,,and ,,colour #gf ,,appendix ,,leather ,,hangings ,,and ,,furniture #hj ,,note ,,some ,,extracts ,,from ,,the ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,leather ,,for ,,bookbinding1 ,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,arts1 ,,february1 #aijj #ij ,,index #if ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,illustrations ,,in ,,the ,,text ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,tracing-point #bj #b1 #c4 ,incising knife used downwards like a pencil #ba #d1 #e4 ,incising knife used upwards #bb #f1 #g4 ,incising knife held like a graver and pushed forward #bc #h4 ,executing a slanting cut when the edge of the leather is to be subsequently turned up #bd #i4 ,opener #be #aj4 ,enlarging the outline with the opener #be #aa4 ,slanting cut #bf #aa;a4 ,showing the difficulty of raising the inner edge ,a #bf #ab4 ,lowering the outer edge with a modeller #bi #ac4 ,ball-shaped steel tool with handle #cb #ad4 ,position of hands in embossing leather #cb #ae4 ,tool for working reed decoration #cd #af4 ,using a hand punch #cf #ag4 ,cutting-out knife #dj #ah4 ,paring knife #dc #ai4 ,paring knife #dc #bj4 ,paring leather #dd #ba4 ,cutting-out knife #df #bb4 ,cutting-out knife #df #bc4 ,cutting-out knife #df #bd4 ,cutting out inlay #dh #be4 ,using roller to secure adhesion of inlay #ea #bf4 ,first position of outlining tool #ec #bg4 ,second position of outlining tool #ec #bh4 ,gouge outliner #ef #bi4 ,outlining wheel #ef #cj4 ,gouge outliner #ef #ca4 ,straight outliner #ef #cb4 ,polishing mosaic #eg #cc1 #cd4 ,sticking inlay on morocco ground with tool 7,fig4 #cc7 instead of roller1 to avoid crushing the grain #fj ,,full-,,page ,,illustrations ,,plate ,page #a4 ,blind-stamped leather binding of the ,winchester ,domesday ,book4 ,english1 #abth century4 7,frontispiece7 ,,society ,,of ,,antiquaries1 ,,london4 #b4 ,casket covered with stamped leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,german1 #adth century4 #bb ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #c4 ,coffret covered with leather1 incised1 coloured and gilt4 ,french1 #adth century4 #bd ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #d4 ,casket covered with embossed leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,french1 early #aeth century4 #bh ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #e4 ,case of cut and embossed leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,italian1 #aeth century4 #cb ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #f4 ,blind-stamped morocco binding with gilt roundels and coloured cameo design4 ,celsus4 ,de ,medicina4 ,venice1 #adgg4 ,italian1 #aeth century4 #cg ,,british ,,museum4 #g4 ,case of cut and punched leather4 ,german1 #aeth century4 #dj ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #h4 ,brown leather binding1 cut and engraved1 with punched background4 ,german ,,ms4 ,chronicle of ,events4 ,german1 #aeth century4 #dd ,,bodleian ,,library1 ,,oxford4 #i4 ,cover of case for a cup in wood covered with leather1 cuir bouilli1 cut1 embossed1 painted and gilt4 ,italian1 about #aejj4 #di ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #aj4 ,cover of work-box of wood covered with embossed leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,german1 #afth century4 #ef ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #aa4 ,powder-flask of wood covered with leather1 cuir bouilli1 cut and embossed4 ,italian1 #afth century4 #ef ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ab4 ,shield of cut and embossed leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,italian1 #afth century4 #fj ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ac4 ,top of casket covered with brown calf1 cut and slightly embossed4 ,by ,florence ,hornblower4 ,modern ,english4 #fe ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ad4 ,embossed and punched brown calf binding4 ,rubiyt of ,omar ,khayym4 ,designed by ,mary ,g4 ,houston4 ,modern ,english4 #ff ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ae4 ,mirror case of punched black leather1 cuir bouilli4 ,executed by ,miss ,casella4 ,modern ,english4 #ga ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #af4 ,black morocco binding with applied panels of tooled1 cut1 painted and gilt calf4 ,le ,roman de ,tristan et ,iseut4 ,designed by ,robert ,engels4 ,modern ,french4 #gd ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ag4 ,binding of stained calf1 cut1 embossed1 tooled and patinated4 ,by ,henri ,godin4 ,modern ,french4 #gh ,,south ,,kensington ,,museum4 #ah4 ,gold-tooled and inlaid morocco binding4 ,the ,letters of ,princess ,lieven4 ,by ,s4 ,t4 ,prideaux4 ,modern ,english4 #hb #ai4 ,back and seat of chair in cut1 embossed and gilt cowhide with punched background4 ,executed by ,rosalie ,vigers from a design by ,frederick ,vigers4 ,modern ,english4 #hd #bj4 ,embossed calf binding4 ,book of ,common ,prayer4 ,executed by ,rosalie ,vigers from a design by ,frederick ,vigers4 ,modern ,english4 #hf ,,introduction ,,the ,,decoration ,,of ,,leather ,,in ,,the ,,past ,the following remarks1 without attempting a description in detail of the different phases through which the art of decorating leather has passed since its origin in primitive times1 deal with the treatment of leather solely from the decorative point of view1 the present volume being limited to the consideration of this aspect of the subject4 ,in all ages man has sought to develop to their fullest extent the possibilities of splendour in the materials of his dress1 and an important place in the wardrobes of our early ancestors was filled by skins shorn of hair1 thus lending themselves easily to decoration in many different ways4 ,the nomadic races1 described to us as at first riding their horses barebacked to the conquest of the ,west1 soon adopted ornamental trappings more suited to their position as conquerors1 as shown by the marvellous mosaics of piqu leather which from an early date constituted the foundation of the war-like equipment of the ,tartars and ,moguls4 ,in addition to magnificently woven materials and damascened arms1 the ,crusaders brought back with them to ,europe1 leather ornamented with wool1 silk and precious metals4 ,europe set itself to imitate this art of working in leather1 and found a source of faultless taste and purest models in ,spain1 then occupied by the ,moors4 ,for several centuries the art of decorating leather remained the speciality of ,spain4 ,the word 8cordwainer10 derived from ,cordova1 is a witness of this monopoly by the ,peninsula of everything connected with leather-work1 apart from the modelled and stamped leathers1 introduced into ,venice from the ,east4 ,other countries1 however1 were doing better work than that of imitating the celebrated manufactures of ,cordova4 ,in ,germany especially1 leather was discovered to be an ideal material for rendering the mantles and plumed helmets of heraldry1 while the marvels of carved and embossed leather preserved in the ,dijon ,museum are a proof of the interest taken in leather-work by the great decorative school of the court of ,burgundy4 ,in the ,middle ,ages precious stuffs adorned with enamels1 ivory and gold were discarded as covering for the beautiful manuscripts executed by the monks1 and in their place heraldic subjects in carved and modelled leather were introduced and lent a new character to books which were no longer the exclusive property of crowned heads4 ,the invention of printing afforded the ,renaissance movement the means of attaining its full development1 and soon called for a less archaic binding for its incunabula4 ,leather either decorated in mosaic or tooled in gold formed a perfect covering for these marvels of typography1 and from the end of the fifteenth century to the present revival of decorated leather both styles have been much in use4 ,there are various standard works on this subject1 which may be consulted by those desirous of studying its development further4 ,,chapter ,i ,,tools ,,and ,,leather ,,tools ,the few tools essential in leather-work are illustrated in the text1 where their use is described4 ,they comprise3 #a4 ,a ,lithographic ,stone or a ,slab of ,marble 7preferably the former74 #b4 ,a ,tracing-point and some #f;,h ,graphite ,pencils4 #c4 ,an ,incising ,knife4 #d4 ,modellers of different sizes4 #e4 ,an ,opener4 ,special tools1 ,punches1 ,wheels etc41 are treated of at greater length in dealing with the different processes in which they are used4 ,,choice ,,of ,,skins ,the art of working in leather is now so general that it is not difficult to obtain skins specially prepared for the purpose4 ,it is an essential qualification that nothing of a fatty nature be used in their preparation4 ,the tanning process of the best skins1 whether with a glossy surface artificially obtained by rolling or with a dull surface1 should be a very simple one4 ,oak and sumach tannins 7used especially for morocco leather7 are those which best preserve the suppleness and capillarity of leather4 ,the susceptibility of its colour to alteration from exposure to light is greatly influenced by the materials used in tanning4 ,oak wood and chestnut are the tannins least influenced by light4 ,skins tanned with cassaigre and mimosa1 light at first1 become darkened in a marked degree by exposure4#a #a ,see the observations on the importance of the tanning process in the preservation of leather1 in the ,note at the end of this volume4 ,so many varieties of leather are on the market that some guide will be found useful in selecting the most suitable for the different methods of decoration4 ,these methods may be classified as follows3 ,cut1 or engraved leather4 ,carved leather4 ,punched or hammered leather4 ,modelled leather4 ,modelled leather with punched background4 ,leather decorated by pyrogravure and pointogravure4 ,stamped leather4 ,open-work leather4 ,leather mosaic4 ,the leathers which may be used in these various styles of decoration are ,sheep-skin4 ,cow-hide4 ,calf4 ,ox-hide4 ,morocco4 ,russia4 ,pig-skin4 ,chamois4 ,vellum4 ,sheepskin does not lend itself either to incising or to carving and is only useful for cheap work2 it is very malleable and models easily1 but for that reason lacks the firmness of calf when modelled4 ,it is also not possible to get such good colour results with sheep-skin as with calf1 cow-hide1 or ox-hide4 ,it can be used for large work1 such as wall-hangings1 screens1 etc41 but is not recommended4 ,beginners1 however1 will find it useful on account of its low price4 ,cow and calf are the most suitable leathers for really artistic work4 ,cow-hide may be obtained with either a glossy or a dull surface2 the dull skins are sold specially prepared for decorating and give good results1 the smoothness of their surface making them particularly suitable for modelling and pyrogravure4 ,calf varies greatly in thickness and colour4 ,it should be noted that in carved and modelled work the advantages of great malleability in the material are more than counterbalanced by the disadvantages2 durable results cannot be obtained with very malleable leather which yields easily to the tool1 and since high relief can be worked without difficulty in comparatively thick leather by damping it1 its use is much to be preferred4 ,ox-hide is frequently as thick as strong cardboard and is the ideal leather for carving1 hammering and pyrogravure4 ,in cut decoration a better effect can be obtained with this leather than with thinner skins1 and being very firm1 it is equally suitable for modelling4 ,morocco leather1 which is mostly of the kind called 8,cape morocco10 is goat-skin with a grained surface produced by pressing hard seeds upon the skin while it is still damp from the tanning4 ,for bookbinding and similar purposes this grain is crushed by pressing hot plates heavily on the surface4 ,the only way of decorating leather so treated is by an inlay 7or literally onlay7 of skins of other colours1 and is known as ,leather ,mosaic4#b #b ,see the chapter on ,leather ,mosaic1 p4 #db4 ,the so-called ,russia leather is generally very light and soft and well adapted to modelling on wax4 ,it should not be cut4 ,pig-skin is very firm and was formerly much used for the fine stamped bindings of the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries4 ,it does not lend itself well to carving1 but is very suitable for pyrogravure because of the contrast between its light tint and the dark brown mark produced by the hot tool4 ,chamois leather1 which is not always prepared from the skins of deer or chamois1 is only suitable for flat ornament4 ,it may be decorated by pyrogravure or with stencilled ornament1 or used in its natural colour as background to an open-work pattern of leather of another colour4 ,vellum1 a very thin and stiff white skin1 can be decorated with brush or pen-work4 ,it is principally used for bookbinding4 ,those who wish to paint on vellum can draw their inspiration from the marvellous miniatures of the ,middle ,ages3 a description of this style of decoration1 however1 does not come within the scope of the present work4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,methods ,,of ,,working ,,in ,,leather ,,tracing ,,the ,,design ,,on ,,the ,,leather ,in this chapter the different processes which may be used in the decoration of leather will each be described in turn4 ,the preliminary operation of tracing the design on the leather is however common to them all4 ,the design should in the first instance be drawn on fairly thick tracing-paper or architect's linen4 ,this should then be fixed on the leather in such a way that it does not move during the transfer of the design1 but so that it is possible to lift it to ascertain the progress of the work4 ,it will be found convenient to fold the edge of the tracing-paper over the top edge of the leather and fix it with seccotine4 ,the leather must be wet in order to take the impression of the tracing4 ,a soft1 slightly damp sponge is passed several times evenly over the whole surface2 if only a part of the leather were wetted an aureole would form round that part and would leave a permanent mark4 ,when the leather has once been wetted all over there is no further fear of this1 and it may then be damped again in parts when necessary4 ,practice alone will make it possible to judge accurately the degree of saturation that each skin requires to bring it into a fit condition for working on2 speaking generally1 the water should have penetrated the leather so that the pressure of the tool will not bring it back to the surface4 ,neglect of this rule might result in staining the leather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4----,,tracing-,,point ,the design is transferred to the leather by means of a metal tracing-point 7,fig4 #a74 ,an agate or ebony point1 or an exceedingly hard #f;,h graphite pencil1 may also be used for the purpose4 ,the pencil possesses the additional advantage that it can be given a very fine point where an extra thin and sharp outline is required4 ,doubling the outline by going over it twice should be avoided4 ,from time to time the tracing-paper or linen should be raised to see that the design is being well marked on the leather4 ,the outline should be dark2 when it comes light it is a proof that the leather is too dry and requires damping again4 ,,incising ,,the ,,leather ,this being the first operation in working thick leather by carving1 engraving and modelling1 it will be dealt with before passing to the different processes peculiar to these methods of decoration4 ,the incising is done after the design has been traced4 ,there are numerous incising knives for the purpose which vary in shape and are manipulated in different ways2 no one of them can be specially recommended as notably superior to the rest1 and the artist should choose the one with which he feels most likely to succeed4 ,the knife illustrated in ,fig4 #b is used with a downward movement and is held----as shown in ,fig4 #c----very short1 so as to obtain a sufficient purchase over the blade which is guided by the middle finger4 ,the knife illustrated in ,fig4 #d is used upwards4 ,fig4 #e shows the manner in which it should be held to produce a vertical cut4 ,it will be found of great assistance in making a good firm cut to guide the right hand with the left hand as in ,fig4 #e4 ,when curved lines are to be cut1 the left hand must be used to turn the leather so as to present it in the most favourable position for the operation of the blade4 ,the third knife 7,fig4 #f7 is held like a graver with the handle supported against the palm of the hand and is pushed forward 7,fig4 #g74 ,it is useful in cutting curved lines over a large surface4 ,the depth of the incision should vary according to the effect to be produced by the subsequent operation1 but it should never exceed a third of the thickness of the skin4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,casket ,,covered ,,with ,,stamped ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli4 ,,german1 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b1 ,,fig4 #c4----;,,incising ,,knife ,,used ,,downwards ,,like ,a ,,pencil ,thin skins should rarely be cut1 and1 if they are cut1 the incision should barely penetrate the surface4 ,on ox-hide the depth of the cut may be considerable without danger of impairing the strength of the leather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d1 ,,fig4 #e4----;,,incising ,,knife ,,used ,,upwards ,when the leather is to be modelled in high relief1 the design should be well separated from the background in the cutting process4 ,the incision should also be deep when the outline is to be accentuated afterwards with a tool called an 8opener0 7,fig4 #i7 to produce an effect like the leading in stained glass4 ,should it be desired to raise and turn up the edge of the leather to simulate a leaf1 petal1 or piece of ribbon detached from the background1 the knife must be held slanting1 as in ,fig4 #h1 so as to make an almost horizontal cut4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f1 ,,fig4 #g4----;,,incising ,,knife ,,held ,,like ,a ,,graver ,,and ,,pushed ,,forward ,however thick the leather may be1 it is important that two lines should never be cut quite up to the point of intersection4 ,for example1 in cutting the outline of a leaf1 the points of the indentations should be left uncut to avoid the tendency of the part within the angle to project and turn back4 ,sufficient impression can be obtained with the modelling tool to give a finished effect to these points4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4----;,,executing ,a ,,slanting ,,cut ,,when ,,the ,,edge ,,of ,,the ,,leather ,,is ,,to ,,be ,,subsequently ,,turned ,,up ,the incision must be clean and sharp1 and absolutely vertical1 except where it is made slanting for the purpose described above4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,coffret ,,covered ,,with ,,leather1 ,,incised1 ,,coloured ,,and ,,gilt4 ,,french1 #ad,,th ,,century4 ,,cut ,,or ,,engraved ,,leather ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4----,,opener ,,fig4 #aj4----;,,enlarging ,,the ,,outline ,,with ,,the ,,opener ,leather with flat decoration in outline of even thickness is called cut1 or engraved leather4 ,the tool used to enlarge and accentuate the outline is called an opener4 ,it is like a straight modeller broadened in the centre and with a blunt point 7,fig4 #i71 or a small blade with the point cut off square and the angles rounded4 ,when the leather has been well wetted and the water has thoroughly soaked in1 the end of the opener is inserted in the incision and pushed along it with a very slight and gentle gliding movement4 ,the broader part of the opener will act as a wedge and widen the cut evenly4 ,openers can be had in various sizes to produce lines of different width4 ,when the design is to be modelled afterwards1 an opener should be used which broadens on the right side only2 held slightly slanting1 it will press down the outside edge of the incision which is to be sunk into the ground4 ,fig4 #aj shows the manner of holding the tool2 it should be worked backwards and forwards to make sure that the edges are evenly parted4 ,the left hand may help to guide the point to prevent it from slipping off the line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4----,,slanting ,,cut ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa;a4----,,showing ,,the ,,difficulty ,,of ,,raising ,,the ,,inner ,,edge 7,a7 ,to be able to accomplish satisfactorily this operation of opening the outline1 it will be found that the incision must be absolutely vertical4 ,supposing it to have been made slanting as in ,fig4 #aa1 it will be easy to sink the outer edge 7,b7 into the ground1 but when it comes to raising the inner edge 7,a7 an excess of material will be encountered which will offer stubborn resistance to being raised in a direction contrary to that of the incision 7,fig4 #aa;a74 ,the opener should not be moved at too great an angle in the incision as the point1 though blunt1 may yet be sharp enough to cut and spoil the modelling by raising the surface of the leather4 ,after it has been outlined1 the leather may be further decorated by variously tinting the parts within the lines1 if the style of the design will admit of such treatment2 an effect similar to leather mosaic is thus produced4 7,see ,chapter ,,iii47 ,pyrogravure1 or engraving with a hot tool 7see p4 #cf71 gives a very similar effect to that of cut or engraved leather1 the only difference in the appearance of the work thus decorated being due to the slight burr of the edges and the darkening of the line caused by the hot tool4 ,this effect of dark colour can1 however1 be added to cut leather by colouring the lines with a dye applied with a fine brush4 ,in order to prevent the colour penetrating and spreading beyond the lines1 the latter should be lightly coated with paste before the dye is applied4 ,,carved ,,leather ,great expertness is required in carving leather1 that is to say1 in producing lines so deep that the design stands out sufficiently from the background to allow of its being ornamented by independent lines less deeply worked4 ,some leather cases from the ,dijon ,museum1 which were exhibited at the ,petit ,palais in ,paris in the year #aijj1 are good examples of carving1 and the manner in which they are finished with touches of gold is very characteristic4 ,the style and method of production of these examples may well be imitated4 ,decoration on ogee-shaped lines is to be avoided1 as1 however artistically treated1 it is apt to bring to mind the stamped leather of the so-called 8,cathedral ,style10 specimens of which filled the libraries of the romantic period of about #ahcj4 ,besides the tools enumerated above1 some artists use the gravers and gouges employed in chasing metal and wood-carving1 but a great deal of practice is necessary for their proper handling1 and they cannot be recommended to the inexperienced worker4 ,pyrogravure is an alternative method of producing strongly accentuated lines1 and by the judicious use of punches an infinite variety of interesting background effects can be obtained4 ,before leaving the subject of carved leather1 mention must be made of cuir bouilli1 which was used in conjunction with it during the ,middle ,ages1 chiefly for sheaths and cases1 and is now unfortunately a lost art4#c ,mons4 de ,saint ,andr de ,lignereux1 in ,le ,cuir d',art franais1 tells us that the leather was boiled with gums and resins obtained from the ,east1 and moulded and cut while still soft from this treatment4#d #c ,an example of modern ,english work in leather treated in a somewhat similar manner is given in ,plate #ae4 #d ,le ,cuir d',art franais1 par ,saint ,andr de ,lignereux1 ,etampes1 #aijj4 ,,punches ,punches are steel or brass tools1 having at the point a design cut in relief or in intglio1 which are impressed on the leather either by the hand alone or with a hammer ,the design is thus reproduced on the leather with the impression contrary to that on the tool4 ,for hand pressure only1 they should be fixed in wooden handles to afford greater grip and power4 ,they may be used hot2 the design will then appear darkened on the leather4 ,punches are also employed in tooling with gold leaf1 or in burnishing the impression of their surface on groundwork gilded with shell gold4 ,,hammered ,,leather ,leather decorated entirely by means of punches is called hammered leather4 ,it is used in the style of decoration described later under the name of modelled leather with punched background1 and can also be employed with great advantage in conjunction with carved leather4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,casket ,,covered ,,with ,,embossed ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli4 ,,french1 ,,early #ae,,th ,,century4 ,,modelled ,,leather ,leather may be modelled in two ways2 with a cut outline or with the traced outline merely accentuated with the tracing-point or opener4 ,in the former case the leather must be fairly thick1 in the latter it may be thin calf or ,russia1 which is very soft and delicate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4----,,lowering ,,the ,,outer ,,edge ,,with ,a ,,modeller ,leather modelled after being cut should1 when finished1 have the appearance1 with regard to the relief1 of a metal or modelled wax plaque4 ,the leather takes the desired shape easily1 and should therefore be delicately handled4 ,the great charm of modelled leather lies in the softness of its forms1 and care must be taken to avoid irregularly cut outlines which disagreeably arrest the eye by failing to merge into the ground4 ,faulty incisions1 or those too deeply cut1 are liable to leave a light line between the modelled subject and the background1 due to the cut having exposed not only the surface1 but the inner substance of the leather4 ,this light line will also have a tendency to appear if the modelling is not done directly after the opening of the lines1 or if they are too widely opened1 or if the opener is too sharp and unduly deepens the cut4 ,the fault can be remedied by staining the line to match the surface of the leather4 ,,modelling ,,tools ,the tools used for modelling are not numerous2 two or three modellers1 more or less fine and of different curves1 7,fig4 #ab7 are sufficient4 ,a special tool1 called ,pied de ,biche 7hind's foot7 in allusion to its shape1 is also useful in depressing the ground at right angles to the modelling4 ,modellers may be either of nickelled steel or of brass1 provided that the convex side with which the leather is modelled be perfectly smooth4 ,it is better not to use ordinary steel which1 when the leather is wet1 might cause it to become stained through the rusting of the tool occasioned by the materials used in tanning4 ,it may also be mentioned here that when using acids for patine1#e steel tools should be kept away from the work4 ,hydrochloric acid in particular will rust them so badly in a single night as to make them unusable unless they are repolished4 #e ,see note to page #fd4 ,,embossing ,,leather ,when the leather is thick it must be thoroughly wetted on both sides2 it is then taken in the left hand1 the portion to be embossed being between the forefinger and thumb1 which are laid flat on the surface of the leather1 while the other three fingers form the under part of this species of clamp1 and ensure the leather remaining steady 7,fig4 #ad74 ,steel clamps are made for fixing the end of the leather to the table1 but the system of holding it in the hand is preferable1 except for very large work1 as it can be more readily moved about4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4----;,,ball-,,shaped ,,steel ,,tool ,,with ,,handle ,,fig4 #ad4----,,position ,,of ,,hands ,,in ,,embossing ,,leather ,a modeller or a tool consisting of a small steel ball with a handle 7,fig4 #ac7 is then worked backwards and forwards with more or less pressure on the back of the leather until the desired degree of relief is obtained4 ,it is possible to work very high relief by this method4 ,another way of embossing in high relief1 which we believe to be here described for the first time1 is as follows3 ,the outline of the design must first be traced on the flesh side of the leather4 ,this is done by placing blue transfer paper under the leather1 with the blue side uppermost1 while the design is being transferred to the surface of the leather with the tracing-point in the manner described on p4 #bj4 ,a chamois leather bag1 about #af #ab inches in size1 is filled with very fine1 carefully sifted sand1 and then sewn up as tightly as possible1 so that the surface is quite taut4 ,the bag is placed on the table1 and the leather face downwards upon it4 ,the steel ball is then rubbed to and fro1 on the flesh side of the leather1 at the point to be embossed1 and the relief is produced as the sand yields under the pressure of the tool4 ,the sand gives enough support to the leather1 however1 to prevent it stretching too much1 as it would be liable to do if merely extended over a frame4 ,the next process is to open the incisions4 ,this is not done till after the leather has been embossed in order not to further impair the strength of the leather at the outline1 already diminished to some extent by cutting4 ,the object of opening the incision is to facilitate the flattening of the outer edge so that it merges into the ground and the graduated modelling of the inner edge to form the softened outline of the ornament in relief4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,,case ,,of ,,cut ,,and ,,embossed ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli4 ,,italian1 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,to obtain this soft effect1 the modeller is gently passed from left to right over the angle formed by the inner edge of the incision and the surface of the modelling4 ,the tool may be lifted and the leather turned about to place it in the right position for this movement4 ,the leather is frequently wetted 7but not to such a degree1 however1 that the water oozes out of the surface when the modeller is used71 and assumes the substance of wax4 ,should it show a tendency to rise after it has been depressed1 it must be gone over again with the tool2 if the leather is of good quality1 it will keep the modelling permanently when it is once dry4 ,care must be taken to avoid making a false impression2 the least contact of the tool with the leather will leave a mark on the damp surface1 which it is not always possible to efface from beneath4 ,having dealt with cut and modelled leather1 we now turn to modelling without cutting1 the outline of the design being first simply marked out with the tracing-point1 or with the opener held very slanting to avoid wrinkling the surface of the skin4 ,this process should be adopted in preference to the preceding one1 for comparatively thin skins which would not bear cutting4 ,the relief may be obtained in the manner described above by working it up from the back of the leather1 or the leather may be laid surface upwards on a cake of wax and the design brought out in low relief by depressing the background with the tool4 ,better results are obtained with the latter method4 ,the wax is applied under the parts to be modelled1 which must be accurately marked out for this purpose on the under side of the leather1 and thin paper is pasted underneath it to keep it in place and prevent it sticking to the table2 or a very smooth1 thin tablet of wax is placed on stout cardboard under the entire piece of leather2 when in position1 the edges of the leather should be turned over and firmly fixed underneath the cardboard in such a manner as to prevent the wax forcing itself out under the pressure of the tool4 ,the wax must be prepared with spirit to expel the grease or contact with it would stain the leather4 ,after thoroughly wetting the leather1 the outline should be well accentuated with the opener and the design brought out by lowering the ground all round it with a fine modeller4 ,the modelling is then done by working the tool with varying pressure and is held in place by the wax4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4----,,tool ,,for ,,working ,,reed ,,decoration ,beginners are advised to start by copying a plaster cast1 in order to get a full understanding of the values of relief4 ,the subject of wax supports brings us to that of padding the relief to preserve its form1 which may be done in many different materials4 ,the padding may be made of a special wax treated like cement1 or of absorbent cotton-wool soaked in a paste made of flour and water1 or of cuttings of glove skins shredded very fine#f and mixed dry with talc1 flour1 dextrine1 etc41 forming a liquid paste when water is added which can easily be run into the hollows of the relief4 ,this paste solidifies rapidly1 and is not affected by damp4 ,cardboard or cork scraped very fine and mixed with paste or flour and water will also form a durable padding4 ,a special padding made with a round cotton cord dipped in flour mixed with cold water is employed for flower stems and the so-called reed decoration----a decoration consisting of a round line in relief of uniform width1 which lends itself to many combinations1 and is worked with the tool illustrated in ,fig4 #ae4 ,it may also be used in modelling the relief by pasting it first on the back of the leather and1 when dry1 moulding the leather with a modeller over the projection on the surface caused by its thickness4 #f ,dollage de gants4 ,,modelled ,,leather ,,with ,,punched ,,background ,when the leather has been cut before being modelled1 the punch completes the work of the modeller in sinking the outer edge of the incision into the background4 ,to do this perfectly1 the edge of the punch must be placed very exactly against the outline of the raised design2 the handle should be held slanting slightly to the left in working2 extra pressure will thus fall towards the right on that part which1 in spite of having been sunk by the modeller1 will always show a tendency to rise if the punch be used too flat upon the surface4 ,a hammer1 though useful in working certain punches which depend upon being deeply impressed to produce a good effect1 requires great sureness of hand when used as described above1 to prevent overstepping the limits of the outline1 and punches in wooden handles are much to be preferred for this work4 ,too deep an impression is avoided by their use1 and1 by guiding the end of the punch with the left hand1 it can be placed more surely in the right position and worked by the steady pressure of the wrist4 7,fig4 #af47 ,the most useful punches are those producing a powdered or a very small check pattern4 ,with these there is no need for the impressions to be arranged in any regular order2 it is indeed better that they should slightly overlap so that no part of the ground is left out4 ,the effect of some punches is dependent on their arrangement in combination2 others can be arranged independently to form a semis----a pattern made up by the repetition of some given figure at intervals4 ,wheels1 either plain or having a more or less broad surface engraved with any kind of pattern 7such as a check diaper1 pearling or arabesques71 are used for outlining or for continuous patterns1 or for producing imitations of shagreened leather4 ,an excellent effect can be obtained by varnishing the parts depressed by the punch to make the colour adhere1 and then painting them with gouache or bronzes4 ,by rubbing the leather afterwards with a woollen cloth1 the colour or bronze is easily removed from the unvarnished modelling4 ,,pyrogravure ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4----,,using ,a ,,hand ,,punch ,the tools employed in pyrogravure are based on the same principle as the instrument for thermo-cautery in surgery4 ,the apparatus in most general use consists of a platinum point mounted in a hollow metal handle connected by a rubber tube with a pear-shaped rubber blower4 ,this blower serves to inject through a tube the carburetted air from a small benzine reservoir attached to it4 ,the incandescence of the point is maintained by this constant injection1 and the lines are burnt more or less deeply according to the degree of incandescence1 and the pressure applied4 ,the great difficulty is to keep the line of even thickness throughout4 ,the points are to be had of different shapes according to the effect desired4 ,some are pierced at the end1 so that the carburetted air escaping leaves a mark on the leather similar to that which would be produced by a hot iron grazing its surface4 ,in this way a brown tint is obtained varying in darkness in proportion to the proximity of the point to the leather4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,,blind-,,stamped ,,morocco ,,binding ,,with ,,gilt ,,roundels ,,and ,,coloured ,,cameo ,,design4 ,,celsus4 ,,de ,,medicina4 ,,venice1 #adgg4 ,,italian1 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,there are also rather large blowers which are worked automatically by compressed air1 while others have a pedal action like a sewing machine4 ,it would be difficult to explain the many ways of handling the point so as to obtain different effects2 it should1 however1 always be held slightly inclined to the right4 ,it is shaped like an eagle's beak1 so that by using the point alone1 fine lines of more or less depth are obtained1 and by inclining it more to the right the rounded part will burn a larger surface of the leather4 ,very deep hollows can be made with the point highly heated4 ,pyrogravure is also an efficient way of depressing the ground work of thick leather when the point is worked with repeated touches over the surface4 ,with a light hand and an accurate knowledge of the degree of heat required to produce fine lines1 a skilful artist is able to draw with the point as if it were a pen4 ,the left hand plays a very important part in the process by controlling the injection of carburetted air through the blower1 and thereby regulating the heat of the point4 ,when the incandescence is automatically produced1 equal facility in varying the degree of heat according to the requirements of the work is not possible4 ,,pointogravure ,the following description is borrowed from ,mons4 ,e4 ,aumatre1 the inventor of another process for the decoration of leather to which he has given the name of pointogravure4 ,the implements required are two graving-points1 one large and one small1 a modeller and a spirit-lamp4 ,the design having been traced on the leather1 the whole of it is wetted with a sponge as described on page #ai4 ,the point is then heated in the spirit-lamp and passed lightly over the line4 ,it should be held like a pencil and heated sufficiently to produce a light brown mark on the leather1 and it should run smoothly without sticking4 ,the fine lines are drawn lightly and the point pressed more heavily for the deeper ones4 ,deep hollows can be made by sloping the tool1 and using its widest side4 ,the point being very small1 it requires frequent heating to keep it in a condition to produce satisfactory results4 ,it is not hot enough unless it runs smoothly on the leather and darkens the impression4 ,on the other hand1 overheating is to be avoided to prevent burning the surface of the leather4 ,this process skilfully carried out will produce shading1 hatching1 and lines of great delicacy1 also much softer effects than pyrogravure4 ,it lends itself equally well to the broad treatment of a design4 ,,stamped ,,leather ,it is beyond the scope of this work to describe the process of stamping leather with a steel die and a balance-press2#g we will therefore explain a method in which the steel die is replaced by thick cardboard or leather cut out in open-work1 and the balance-press by a small one worked by hand4 ,the cardboard or leather stencil1 laid on damp leather and placed in the press1 will sink in1 causing those parts of the leather which are against the open parts of the stencil to stand out in relief4 #g ,balancier4 ,there is another method which has been found particularly satisfactory in working a deep design on the board of a book-binding4 ,the design is drawn sharply in outline with a pen upon very white paper4 ,by a photographic process a metal block is produced from the drawing1 on which the outline appears in relief4 ,this block1 mounted on pasteboard or wood1 will form a die with which the design can be hollowed out of the leather by pressure in a copying-press1 and the result subsequently perfected by cutting or modelling4 ,another interesting process consists in etching a design deeply upon a copper-plate2 the lines are then filled in with printing ink1 the surplus removed with the palm of the hand1 and the plate wiped over with a soft rag1 preferably of flannel4 ,a piece of leather is then wetted and placed under the plate and the whole heavily pressed4 ,since a copying-press is not sufficiently heavy to produce the relief1 a bookbinder's press should be used and tightly screwed up4 ,when the leather has taken the impression sufficiently1 the whole is removed from the press1 and the copper-plate carefully raised1 avoiding tearing the leather if it should have stuck to the plate4 ,the design will then stand out in relief1 coloured black or red according to the ink used4 ,the ink must be thick enough not to spread over the leather under pressure4 ,there is also a method of stamping leather by means of two plaster casts prepared with stearine1 both bearing the same design1 one in relief and the other hollowed4 ,a thoroughly wetted piece of thin leather is placed between these two casts and well pressed1 the amalgam enabling the plaster to bear the pressure4 ,the leather should be allowed to dry between the casts1 or1 if preferred1 the hollow one may be removed4 ,the same principle can be applied without the hollow cast1 by modelling the leather with the modelling tool1 so that it takes the form of the cast in relief beneath it4 ,in some cases the plaster is left permanently under the leather to form the padding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4----;,,cutting-,,out ,,knife ,,open-,,work ,,leather ,the leather should be neatly and sharply cut out for open-work decoration1 and placed over a groundwork of leather1 stuff or metal3 the last material is well adapted by its contrast of colour to show up the ornament laid over it4 ,open-work leather is a good material for hangings1 and when destined for this purpose the design is sewn on the groundwork of leather or stuff with a sewing-machine1 or stuck with gutta-percha4 ,in the latter case the back of the leather is made quite smooth1 and a layer of gutta-percha is placed on it and made to stick by means of steam produced by heating a wet pad4 ,well pressed down with this pad the gutta-percha will stick to the leather1 and also cause it to keep in place on the groundwork1 to which it is made to adhere permanently by passing a hot iron over the surface4 ,a sheet of white blotting-paper is laid over the leather to protect it4 ,when the leather is worked in relief1 this proceeding must be reversed1 that is to say1 the leather is placed face downwards on a sheet of wadding with the material forming the groundwork uppermost1 and the hot iron is passed over the back of the material4 ,the relief can easily be worked on the leather before it is cut out4 ,the cutting out is done on a piece of strong cardboard with the knife illustrated in ,fig4 #ag4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,case ,,of ,,cut ,,and ,,punched ,,leather4 ,,german1 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,the borders of open-work leather can be ornamented by a sort of plaiting formed by lacing thin strips of soft leather through holes made with a punch4 ,a very effective decoration for furniture can be made with open-work leather over a panel of wood1 or a metal background4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,leather ,,mosaic ,until recently it seemed as if this pleasing art would have to remain the monopoly of a limited number of professional craftsmen working with numerous tools1 and reckoning a ten years' apprenticeship necessary to the attainment of proficiency in their craft4 ,but although there is small likelihood of amateurs entering the domain of the followers and emulators of artists such as ,john ,reynes1 ,florimond ,badier1 ,monnier1 ,padeloup and ,jubert1 ,mons4 ,eugne ,aumatre has invented a simpler process of leather mosaic1 for which fewer tools are required and which is within the reach of artist and amateur alike4 ,the following pages contain the result of the study of his method1 with the addition of some observations based on the practical experience of the author4 ,,leather ,,for ,,groundwork ,any skin may be used for the groundwork of leather mosaic1 but morocco1 and especially the kind called ,cape morocco1 is generally preferred1 because of the grained surface which shows up the inlaid decoration to the best advantage4 ,other skins1 however1 with either dull or glossy surfaces make good backgrounds for mosaic decoration1 and as they are generally fawn coloured1 they may first be stained to produce shaded groundwork very attractive in effect4 ,the old masters of leather mosaic made great use of fawn-coloured calf1 occasionally adding a touch of coloured lacquer to bring out the light parts of the design4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,leather ,,for ,,the ,,groundwork ,the first necessity in working leather mosaic is to have a flat and rigid surface to work upon2 it is indispensable therefore1 when the leather is not in itself sufficiently thick and firm1 to stretch it on cardboard4 ,this rather troublesome preparatory process is best confided to an expert2 we will1 however1 describe it for the benefit of those preferring to execute it themselves4 ,a strong1 smooth piece of cardboard called millboard is taken1 and the edges rubbed down with glass paper4 ,a thin coat of paste is applied on one side of the board and allowed to dry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4----,,paring ,,knife ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4----,,paring ,,knife ,the edges of the leather must now be thinned so that they will more readily stick when turned over and pasted under the board1 and also to avoid the unevenness which the normal thickness of the leather would produce underneath4 ,a paring-knife with a broad1 flat1 very sharp blade 7,figs4 #ah and #ai7 is used for this purpose2 its manipulation is difficult and requires long practice4 ,the handle is held against the palm of the hand1 and the fingers extending over the blade cause it to penetrate the leather superficially by a more or less strong pressure1 the object being to take off shavings from the back of the skin1 increasing towards the edge until the edge itself is reduced to the thickness of a cigarette paper4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4----,,paring ,,leather ,the leather is placed surface downwards on a lithographic stone or a slab of marble4 ,it is held stretched with the left hand1 the fingers being extended over it on the face of the stone1 and the thumb pressed against the side leaving the part just in front of the fingers free to be pared 7,fig4 #bj74 ,it is of the first importance for the success of this operation that the leather should be kept well stretched4 ,the knife is held almost horizontally to avoid cutting into the leather at too sharp an angle1 and is worked from left to right towards the edge4 ,the leather is then fastened to the cardboard by pasting either the whole of it or only the edges1 which are turned underneath4 ,in any case ordinary paste should be used2 seccotine or glue would sink into and harden the leather1 making the subsequent outlining process difficult4 ,when the piece of leather is so large that it would cause the board to warp when it dries1 some paper should be pasted on the other side of the board1 which will keep it flat by drawing it in the opposite direction4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,,brown ,,leather ,,binding1 ,,cut ,,and ,,engraved1 ,,with ,,punched ,,background4 ,,german ,,ms4 ,,chronicle ,,of ,,events4 ,,german1 #ae,,th ,,century4 ,the work is then put into the press or under heavy boards4 ,it is important that this should always be done after paste has been used4 ,when it is too large to put into a copying-press1 it should be laid upon a flat table and a sheet of nickelled or very smooth zinc placed against the part to be decorated4 ,the cardboard known as ,carton ,jacquart may be substituted for the zinc1 but there is a risk that the moisture of the paste penetrating the leather may cause it to swell1 notwithstanding its glaze4 ,the zinc plate or the board should not be smaller than the leather1 for in that case the pressure would produce a ridge round its edge4 ,the groundwork is ready to receive the ornament as soon as it is dry4 ,the different methods of working mosaic will now be explained in turn4 ,,monochrome ,,mosaic ,,on ,,calf ,in this style of decoration the leather used for the inlaid design is white or very light in tone1 and may be dyed subsequently to present the appearance of a mosaic made of variously coloured leathers4 ,,leather ,,for ,,inlaying ,the skins sold for this purpose are split sheepskins4 ,their extreme thinness renders them liable to stretch a great deal1 and therefore they are most difficult to cut out in any desired shape4 ,to obviate this difficulty1 the back of the leather is pasted over1 and it is then stretched on a board and fastened with drawing-pins to prevent it from shrinking as it dries4 ,but there is another and a better method----that of mounting the leather on paper4 ,,mounting ,,the ,,leather ,,on ,,paper ,some paste is made of very light and smooth flour1 diluted with half the quantity of water and beaten to a cream4 ,the water is added in small quantities while the mixture is being stirred4 ,canson paper1 or some other strong drawing paper1 is pasted over the whole surface of the leather1 so that it adheres lightly1 and can be removed afterwards without difficulty2 it is then placed under boards and allowed to dry thoroughly4 ,,tracing ,,the ,,design ,,on ,,the ,,paper ,the design is traced by means of carbon paper on the paper lining of the inlay leather4 ,a hard pencil should be used in order to produce very sharp lines4 ,,cutting ,,out ,,the ,,design ,cutting-out knives should possess a keen edge and a small blade1 and should be so shaped that they can be turned freely in any direction4 ,the knife illustrated in ,fig4 #ba combines all these qualities4 ,it consists of a very fine double-edged blade1 set loosely into a slit in a hard wood handle and secured with a few turns of thread2 a piece of leather over the whole 7,a7 keeps the blade in its place4 ,the handle being loose1 it is possible to give any minute movement to the blade1 which can also be taken out for sharpening when necessary4 ,it must be kept as sharp as a razor4 ,the extreme fineness of this blade facilitates cutting out the delicate parts of a design1 but if handled too vigorously it is apt to get out of shape4 ,the second tool 7,fig4 #bb7 is a stencil-cutter's knife1 and is very similar to the one described above except in size4 ,it is usually sold mounted in an ebony slide bound round with copper wire1 but can with advantage be mounted as in ,fig4 #ba1 in a split hard-wood handle4 ,one little known tool deserves mention for its flexibility and lightness4 ,this is a small scraper shaped like an unslit pen1 the blade widening from the point in two very fine edges like the head of a pike4 ,it is used by photographers and miniature painters1 and is sold by the dozen in small boxes4 ,when in use it is firmly fixed in a small pen-holder so that it does not turn when pressed upon 7,fig4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,,cutting-,,out ,,knives3 7,a71 ,,fig4 #ba1 ,,fig4 #bb1 ,,fig4 #bc ,the special knife illustrated in ,fig4 #ag is sometimes recommended1 but it is better adapted to cutting out thick skins for open-work decoration1 as the point of the blade is not sufficiently fine for use on thin leather4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4----;,,cutting ,,out ,,inlay ,the leather to be cut out is placed on a sheet of the cardboard used in mounting drawings1 which is firm1 but at the same time easily penetrated by the point of the tool4 ,the nature of the board on which the leather is laid is important1 for to ensure a clean cut1 the tool1 as it pierces the leather1 must not encounter a veined surface such as that of wood1 which might deflect the point4 ,the three middle fingers of the left hand hold the leather mounted on the paper upon the board1 the thumb and little finger supporting the whole underneath 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the part which is to be cut is turned towards the knife by the left hand1 the right hand being held in a fixed position with the knife1 slightly inclined to the right1 cutting the leather as it is presented by the other hand4 ,the lines must be cleanly cut in order that the subsequent operation of outlining may be successfully accomplished4 ,with every care in cutting out1 it may sometimes be found in detaching the cut portion that a small thread of the leather remains unsevered4 ,in this case it should be neatly cut through1 and on no account may it be pulled to make it give way1 which would result in spoiling the design by either tearing or stretching the leather4 ,when cutting out a design on a large scale it is not possible to hold the work in the manner just described2 a part of the design to be cut out is therefore placed flat on a large sheet of cardboard on a smooth table and can then be turned about as required under the point of the knife4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,,cover ,,of ,,case ,,for ,a ,,cup ,,in ,,wood ,,covered ,,with ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli1 ,,embossed1 ,,painted ,,and ,,gilt4 ,,italian1 ,,about #aejj4 ,when the inlay is of white or very light leather1 it is extremely difficult to conceal any joins occurring in the middle of lines2 care must therefore be taken that there are as few joins as possible1 and that they are arranged at points where they will easily disappear in lines of the design going in an opposite direction4 ,the centre of the design should be cut out first1 and then the outer lines1 reserving the more delicate parts1 such as flower stems1 for the last4 ,,pasting ,,the ,,inlay ,,on ,,the ,,groundwork ,when the inlay is of a nature that does not require placing in any very exact position1 as for instance a spray of flowers1 it will be sufficient to lay it on the groundwork and mark the principal points4 ,when it is to occupy a definite position1 forming the framework of a design1 for instance1 it is laid upon the groundwork exactly in the right place and then given a sharp turn in a copying-press1 great care being taken that it does not get displaced during the operation4 ,owing to the thickness of the supporting paper1 this will be sufficient to mark the outline of the design on the groundwork4 ,some very smooth starch paste is then applied with a flat brush on the exposed side of the cut out leather1 care being taken that every part1 however small1 is thoroughly pasted4 ,to facilitate this and to prevent the leather curling up when pasted1 it should first be fixed to a board with drawing-pins4 ,the portion of the ground which is to receive the inlay is damped with a soft sponge2 the inlay is then placed in position and pressed down with the palm of the hand1 a modeller being used for the finer parts4 ,if it should become displaced1 the greatest care must be used in correcting it4 ,with the small pincers used by artificial flower-makers1 the minutest pieces of leather can be taken up and replaced after being repasted1 if necessary4 ,,setting ,,in ,,the ,,inlay ,the next process is that of setting the inlay into the groundwork1 so that no relief remains4 ,this is done with the help of a roller with a long wooden handle held in both hands and pressed against the shoulder1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #be4 ,the paper on which the inlay is pasted plays an important part in this operation2 the greater its thickness1 the greater will be the pressure attainable1 and the deeper the penetration of the inlay into the damp background4 ,at first the roller is worked lightly with one hand only to ensure the uniform adherence of the inlay1 the movements being short1 and repeated several times over the same spot4 ,when afterwards pressing heavily over the whole surface1 a piece of thin1 tough paper between the roller and the work will prevent the inlay from curling up1 and the paper may be lifted from time to time to see that nothing is out of place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4----,,using ,,roller ,,to ,,secure ,,adhesion ,,of ,,inlay ,when the work is not too large1 it is easier and more effectual to use a copying-press instead of a roller for this operation1 which is then carried out in the following manner3 ,a piece of felt is laid in the press1 and over it a sheet of very smooth or nickelled zinc1 or1 failing this1 of ,carton ,jacquart4 ,the work is then laid on it and covered with a second sheet of nickelled zinc and some pasteboards4 ,the press is screwed up as tightly as possible4 ,the work must not remain in the press1 as if allowed to dry completely1 the subsequent removal of the paper pasted to the inlay would become extremely difficult4 ,to effect this removal1 the paper is dabbed with a damp sponge until it is ready to come off4 ,a point of the pincers is inserted underneath the paper which1 if sufficiently soaked1 should easily come away when the tool is slid gently along4 ,the paper1 as it becomes freed1 should frequently be cut off with scissors to facilitate the handling of the tool4 ,the leather1 being damp1 may possibly become unstuck and stretched during this process4 ,it must then immediately be repasted and replaced1 and the stretched part reduced to its original size by gently pushing it together with the modeller4 ,should it be found impossible to reduce it thus1 the part that is out of shape must be cut off and joined on again4 ,when the paper has been removed1 the whole surface is carefully washed over1 wetting it as little as possible1 so as not to cause the mosaic to become unstuck4 ,the work is then placed in the press1 or under boards1 until it is perfectly dry4 ,,outlining ,,the ,,mosaic ,outlining is the most delicate process in leather mosaic4 ,when well carried out it should be impossible to distinguish the line where the inlay joins the groundwork4 ,the extreme edge of the inlaid leather is pressed into the groundwork by means of a tool invented by ,mons4 ,aumatre1 producing a fine line the breadth of the edge of the tool selected4 ,this tool1 called an outliner 7,fig4 #bg71 has two blunt ends1 one rounded and the other square1 and is flat on one side and rounded on the other4 ,the rounded side of the tool affords extra pressure1 and should therefore be placed on the inner side of the line so that it serves to increase the depression of the edge of the inlay4 ,it is best to work the outline with the cold tool first1 and then to go over it again with the tool heated4 ,the inlay is lightly damped round the edges1 and the round end of the tool is placed half on the inlay and half on the groundwork4 ,the tool is held first inclined backwards 7as in ,fig4 #bf7 and then brought with pressure to a perpendicular position 7,fig4 #bg74 ,this will make a groove into which the edge of the inlay will disappear4 ,the square end of the tool is used for straight lines4 ,great care must be taken in placing the tool correctly2 no portion of the inlay may protrude beyond the flat side of the tool1 as any particle of the edge1 however minute1 which is not sunk in the groove would have to be cut off4 ,if the edge of the inlay does not extend up to the tool1 the error is still more troublesome to correct1 more particularly when the leather is of a delicate colour1 on account of the difficulty of matching the exact shade for joining it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4----;,,first ,,position ,,of ,,outlining ,,tool ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4----,,second ,,position ,,of ,,outlining ,,tool ,after this operation the edge of the outlining tool 7,fig4 #bh7 is inserted in the groove thus formed1 and worked with a short up and down movement4 ,a ruler will serve as a guide in working straight lines4 ,the round side of the tool is held slightly inclined towards the edge of the inlay4 ,the wheel illustrated in ,fig4 #bi may also be used1 but requires great sureness of hand for its successful manipulation4 ,gouge-shaped outlining tools with curves of different degrees 7,fig4 #cj7 are useful for little curved lines which are otherwise difficult to work2 also the tool represented in ,fig4 #ca1 for the lettering on bookbindings1 etc41 where the lines require to be sharply finished4 ,it must1 however1 rest with the artist to select the tools he considers most suitable for his work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4----;,,gouge ,,outliner4 ,,fig4 #bi4----,,outlining ,,wheel4 ,,fig4 #cj4----;,,gouge ,,outliner4 ,,fig4 #ca4----,,straight ,,outliner4 ,when the outline has been worked with the cold tool1 a hot one is used to go over it again to ensure perfect adhesion1 and to give an attractive brown tint to the lines4 ,the end of the outliner is heated over a spirit-lamp to a degree at which it can still be comfortably held in the hand1 and used as before4 ,if the tool does not run smoothly1 owing to the elasticity of the edge of the inlaid leather1 the latter may be lightly damped with a brush4 ,it will at first be found difficult to keep the tool at the right heat4 ,as a groundwork1 calf with a smooth surface is more sensitive to damage from an over-heated tool than split sheepskin4 ,it is useful to paste some of the inlay leather upon a spare piece of the leather of the groundwork1 with which to test the heat of the tool4 ,if the tool be too hot1 it will burn and penetrate the leather without pressure4 ,it can be cooled to the desired temperature on a wet sponge4 ,the next process in leather mosaic is that of colouring1 which is dealt with in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,it then only remains to give the finishing touch to the work by passing a polishing iron 7,fig4 #cb7 over the surface1 to polish it and make it perfectly even4 ,the tool is heated by holding the part which does not come in contact with the leather over the flame of a spirit-lamp4 ,the polished side should frequently be well rubbed on flannel1 and should any portion of its surface become dull1 the polish can be restored with fine emery paper4 ,the polishing iron1 when heated1 is held in the right hand and worked with little stroking movements1 bringing first the end and then1 by lowering the handle1 the back of its polished surface in contact with the leather4 ,the various positions of the tool during this operation closely resemble those of a vessel when it is pitching4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,cover ,,of ,,work-,,box ,,of ,,wood ,,covered ,,with ,,embossed ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli4 ,,german1 #af,,th ,,century4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,,powder-,,flask ,,of ,,wood ,,covered ,,with ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli1 ,,cut ,,and ,,embossed4 ,,italian1 #af,,th ,,century4 ,,polychrome ,,mosaic ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4----,,polishing ,,mosaic ,this style of decoration consists of different coloured leathers arranged upon a ground1 and is the only one that can properly be called leather mosaic4 ,the work of marking it out is a lengthy one and demands scrupulous exactitude4 ,a finished design is first painted in water-colours and marked with letters which are repeated on the pieces of coloured leather1 so that the exact place is indicated which they are to occupy in the design4 ,it is important in this style of mosaic to obtain a very correct tracing of the design on the groundwork4 ,on a smooth and light ground the tracing-point lightly worked will be sufficient2 when the ground is dark or has a grained surface1 red or white transfer paper should be used4 ,the most satisfactory method of marking the design is by impressing a stencil of thick paper1 but it cannot be employed with morocco leather for fear of crushing the grain too much4 ,a thick stencil1 however1 carefully used without exerting great pressure1 may give a sufficient result without spoiling the grain4 ,for polychrome mosaic on a smooth ground with an inlay of split sheepskin pasted on ,canson paper1 the method already described for working mosaic of one colour is the best1 but at the same time the directions which are given below for placing the differently coloured skins side by side in position should be followed4 ,,polychrome ,,mosaic ,,on ,a ,,morocco ,,groundwork ,morocco leather for inlaying is thinned with the paring-knife1 but it cannot be reduced to the excessive thinness of split sheepskin4 ,it possesses1 however1 the advantage that the extreme edges may be made thinner in proportion for laying one over the other at the point where they meet4 ,after it is pared1 the back of the leather is pasted over and it is pinned out on a board to dry4 ,the different parts of the design to be inlaid are then traced on the various coloured leathers1 and cut out in the manner already explained4 ,the difficulty of placing the pieces exactly edge to edge is so great that it is better to allow them to overlap very slightly1 but in order that this should not produce undue thickness at the point where they join1 the substance of the extreme edges must be further reduced with the paring-knife4 ,a small margin is left for this purpose in cutting out4 ,paring the edges to their thinnest possible substance will give a slightly jagged outline1 and the extra piece will thus more easily merge into the join than if sharply cut4 ,outlining with the hot tool will perfect the join4 ,,pasting ,,the ,,inlay ,,on ,a ,,morocco ,,groundwork ,to avoid crushing the grain of rough morocco1 the tool illustrated in ,fig4 #cc is used instead of the roller to secure the adhesion of the inlay to the groundwork1 in order that the pressure may be applied only upon the inlay4 ,damping the groundwork1 except where the ornament is placed1 should be avoided4 ,the tool is held pressed down with both hands as in ,fig4 #cd1 and rubbed backwards and forwards4 ,the work is then placed under boards4 ,,mosaic ,,on ,,modelled ,,leather ,the remarks on paring leather for polychrome mosaic apply also to paring the leather for covering a design in relief4 ,an extra margin is left round the edges1 which are 8slashed0 with the tool1 so that they may better embrace the form of the modelling1 the finer details of which are not worked until afterwards4 ,the leather is first placed dry in position over the modelling1 and smoothed over with a modeller1 so that it takes the form of the relief4 ,it will then be seen how much should be cut from the edges1 so that it may exactly fit into the outline when it is pasted on4 ,,inserted ,,mosaic ,this method of mosaic invented by ,mons4 ,aumatre possesses the advantage of being very durable1 owing to the edges of the inlay being secured between the two edges of the incision made in the groundwork4 ,the outline is deeply cut in the groundwork1 the incision well opened with the opener and then filled with paste4 ,the inlay is also pasted and the edges inserted in the incision4 ,a wheel or a large modeller is used to press down the edges1 and the outline is then gone over with a hot tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc1 ,,fig4 #cd4----,,sticking ,,inlay ,,on ,,morocco ,,ground ,,with ,,tool 7,,fig4 #cc7 ,,instead ,,of ,,roller1 ,,to ,,avoid ,,crushing ,,the ,,grain ,illustration3 #ab4 ,,shield ,,of ,,cut ,,and ,,embossed ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli4 ,,italian1 #af,,th ,,century4 ,,mosaic ,,in ,,relief ,the term mosaic is perhaps not very correctly applied to this style of decoration1 in which the shape of the design is indented1 by pressure1 on the damp surface of the groundwork1 and filled in with an inlay of leathers thick enough to stand out in relief1 and be subsequently carved4 ,a thin kind of cowhide#h specially prepared for embossed work is used4 ,the design is traced upon it in the manner described for carved leather1 and a preliminary modelling is executed indicating the outlines and veinings as strongly as possible4 ,the high reliefs may be embossed and lightly stuffed4 ,this done1 it is placed upon ,bristol board1 not less than half the thickness of the leather itself1 with a piece of red transfer paper face downwards in between4 ,the whole is firmly fixed upon a drawing board so that nothing can get displaced1 and the design is cut out with a stencil-cutter's knife 7,fig4 #bb74 ,if possible1 both leather and ,bristol board should be cut through at the same time1 but should the knife not penetrate the latter sufficiently to cut it through1 the outline will have been marked on it by the transfer paper and it may be cut out separately4 ,the leather and the board must1 however1 be absolutely identical in shape and very sharply cut4 ,with the die thus formed by the ,bristol board1 the morocco groundwork is depressed to receive the inlay4 ,it is thoroughly wetted and the water allowed to sink in4 ,the board is then placed in the exact position which the leather inlay is to occupy1 and covered with a very thick sheet of blotting-paper to protect the grain of the groundwork from being crushed too much4 ,the whole is well pressed in the copying-press until the die has sufficiently entered into the leather4 ,the leather inlay should then be tried in the hollow thus produced1 and trimmed where necessary if it be too large4 ,after pasting it thoroughly1 taking care not to omit any small points1 it is placed in position on the groundwork and worked into the hollow with a modeller4 ,the work is then placed under boards to dry2 a press would flatten the relief too much4 #h ,kip-skins4 ,when the paste is quite dry and the leather well stuck1 the carving may be proceeded with as described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,very characteristic effects are obtained by colouring leather worked in this manner4 ,,incrusted ,,mosaic ,the following description of a style of decoration1 called by ,mons4 ,belleville 8incrusted mosaic10#i is derived from the valuable work of that author1 entitled ,le ,cuir dans la ,dcoration ,moderne4 #i ,mosaque par ,incrustation4 ,in incrusted mosaic the design is not cut out and applied on the background1 but the different pieces of coloured leather forming the design and the leather of the background are placed side by side on the same plane4 ,when the ornament is simple and the background plain1 the design is traced on the groundwork1 carefully cut out1 and used as a pattern for cutting out the piece destined to replace it2 when the ornament is to embrace the whole surface1 the following method is recommended3 ,the design1 drawn on paper and coloured1 is fixed on a drawing-board and over it is placed a sheet of transparent paper1 or some thin muslin carefully sized and stretched4 ,an exact tracing of the design is made on rather stiff paper1 which is coloured or numbered to correspond with the pieces of the different leathers which are to compose the mosaic4 ,the tracing is then cut out1 separated1 and the pieces pasted on the corresponding leather1 either with the face on the flesh side of the leather1 or the back on its surface4 ,in the latter case it is very lightly done1 but if pasted on the flesh side it should be done securely1 as it will remain permanently4 ,when all these pieces are cut out of the leather they are pasted in their respective places on the design1 and the whole put in the press for about ten hours4 ,if the work has been well executed1 the lines where the pieces of leather come together will be hardly visible2 the next step is to accentuate them and make them regular4 ,this may be done either with a heated wheel giving a smooth even line1 which may1 if desired1 be subsequently gilded1 or by pyrogravure4 ,vigour and character can be imparted to the outline by the use of the latter process1 and the darkened colour of the burnt line is made more brilliant by polishing it with an agate burnisher4 ,in either case the tool must be worked accurately with its edge half on each side of the line4 ,the main advantage of the process of incrusted mosaic is that the grain of the leather employed is better displayed than in inlaid mosaic4 ,it is only suitable for work on a large scale4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,dyes1 ,,patines#aj ,,and ,,gilding #aj ,patine represents a veneer1 or wash of colour1 applied on the surface1 or in the hollows of leather1 to intensify its tone1 or to give artificial effects1 such as those of verdigris1 rust1 or antiquity4 ,partly owing to its nature1 and partly owing to the tanning process1 leather is susceptible to the action of the dyes used to colour it in degrees varying according to their composition and penetration4 ,we will not attempt to enumerate all the dyes that may be employed or to describe their composition4 ,excellent results can be obtained with ready made preparations1 and some brief remarks on the subject are all that is necessary for the purpose of this work4 ,practical experience alone is a reliable guide in the selection of dyes1 as1 whatever their base may be1 they all vary greatly in use4 ,it may be remarked that there are many aniline dyes which are more durable than vegetable ones1 although there are others which merit their reputation for instability4 ,the colour of dyed leather cannot be expected to remain unaffected by constant exposure to direct sunlight1 but it should not alter with ordinary use4#aa #aa ,see the remarks on ,leather for ,bookbinding in the ,note at the end of this volume4 ,it is obvious that1 in proportion as the colours sink into the leather1 they will lose in brilliancy1 but on the other hand1 this very absorption1 which allows colours to be superposed and appear translucent1 gives a depth rarely obtainable in materials of less capillarity4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,,top ,,of ,,casket ,,covered ,,with ,,brown ,,calf1 ,,cut ,,and ,,slightly ,,embossed4 ,,by ,,florence ,,hornblower4 ,,modern ,,english4 ,the following notes are intended merely as a general indication of the manner of treating the various substances used in colouring leather4 ,the substance sold by druggists under the name of potassium is very violent in its action and would burn the leather as well as the brushes used to apply it4 ,it should only be employed1 and that very sparingly1 for such purposes as black lettering4 ,pearl-ash should be used in preference1 but also with great caution1 or it will not only destroy the surface1 but rot the substance of the leather4 ,potash is soluble in water to saturation point1 that is to say1 a given quantity of water will not dissolve more than a given quantity of potash4 ,it is very difficult to measure the exact strength to use2 that which is barely sufficient to penetrate and colour a surface artificially made smooth by rolling1 will sink in where the leather has been cut or punched and immediately darken it considerably4 ,it is a good plan therefore to experiment on a spare piece of the leather4 ,potash lye is more easily used in the right proportion1 and may be employed for staining very light coloured leather4 ,soda has the same effect as potash1 except that it is a little less strong2 both substances have always been much employed in dyeing skins4 ,permanganate of potash is supposed to dye a mouse-grey colour1 but it is most uncertain in its action1 as it depends entirely on the porosity of the leather4 ,xanthin and catechol browns are pleasing in appearance1 but their effect is less rich than that obtained with potash4 ,they become improved by hard rubbing with encaustic4 ,sulphate of iron has a strong and persistent odour and is also somewhat injurious4 ,it is useful1 however1 and produces a colour varying from a light shade to an intense violet black4 ,when used over potash1 a dead black is obtained4 ,,reds ,alizarin1 the colouring principle of madder1 which can also be obtained from coal-tar1 is employed in many colour combinations and gives a fine durable red4 ,hydrochloric acid changes it to violet4 ,carthamine and cochineal also produce good reds2 the latter is turned orange by the action of hydrochloric acid4 ,hydrochloric acid turns ammoniacal cochineal pink1 but merely discolours the red made from archil4 ,direct extracts of red wood are unaffected by it4 ,the colouring matter of logwood1 extracted by treating the powder obtained from an aqueous decoction of the wood with spirit1 is sold as hematoxylin4 ,metallic salts convert it to a violet black1 salts of tin change it to pink1 alkalis to blue1 and acids to yellow4 ,durable pinks are obtained directly from carthamine1 the colouring matter of ,carthamus ,tinctorius4 ,,yellows ,the base of most fine yellows is picric acid4 ,the chromates of zinc and baryta give very permanent yellows1 which are particularly useful in mixing greens4 ,the vegetable yellows are less durable4 ,they include turmeric1 which is especially fugitive1 and quercitron2 the former is turned red1 and the latter brown1 by the action of hydrochloric acid4 ,orange tints are easily obtained by using red over yellow1 first allowing the yellow to dry completely2 or they can be bought ready prepared with alizarin4 ,mandarine and nasturtium tints can also be bought ready prepared1 or may be made by a mixture of vegetable colour1 such as saffron and arnotto4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,,embossed ,,and ,,punched ,,brown ,,calf ,,binding4 ,,rub,,iy,t ,,of ,,omar ,,khayy,m4 ,,designed ,,by ,,mary ,g4 ,,houston4 ,,modern ,,english4 ,,blues ,good and durable blues are obtained from indigo and alizarin4 ,,greens ,greens of every composition are fugitive1 especially those sold ready mixed4 ,better results are obtained by applying yellow and blue one over the other than by the direct application of the colour1 but when the range of tints thus afforded is too restricted1 recourse must be had to some of the numerous dyes varying in tint from greenish yellow to deep olive4 ,successive applications of sulphate of iron and picric yellow will produce the latter colour1 and a vegetable green1 which1 however1 is not very durable1 is made from buckthorn berries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all the dyes which have been just enumerated1 which form1 however1 but a very small proportion of those in existence1 are employed in dyeing textiles4 ,these materials have first to be treated with mordants such as tannin1 chrome or sumach1 in order that they may take the dye1 whereas leather is already prepared to receive it by the tanning process4 ,ordinary water-colours based on glycerine or albumen can be used in the decoration of leather1 but are recommended only for colouring small parts of a design1 partly because liquid colour is more easily applied over large surfaces1 and partly because1 being less transparent1 they do not lend themselves to the process of rubbing which plays so important a part in patine4 ,oil or spirit colours1 on the other hand1 possess a transparency which allows of their being used over a ground coloured with a different medium4 ,when the leather on which they are painted is undyed it should first receive a coat of paste4 ,colours sold under the name of patines grasses will produce a groundwork of great brilliancy1 if well rubbed before they are quite dry4 ,the use of gouache should be limited to the hollow parts of incised or punched leather4 ,gold and bronzes are also used with good effect4 ,,different ,,methods ,,of ,,colouring ,,leather ,colours obtained from potash and sulphate of iron----dark green1 dull red1 etc4----are much used for groundwork4 ,potash produces a warm brownish-red1 and tints1 varying in colour from a pale to a dark slate grey1 are obtained with sulphate of iron4 ,as already stated1 a coating of picric yellow over the latter will give a dull green4 ,in colouring large surfaces1 it is best to use soft sponges1 or small pads of cotton-wool covered with soft linen4 ,the pads can be held by the edges of the linen and the sponges may be mounted on handles1 but the best protection for the hands against staining is a pair of very soft rubber gloves like those used by surgeons4 ,the leather is first damped all over and the colour then applied in a succession of even washes4 ,care must be taken not to unduly darken any part of the leather by using too much colour1 bearing in mind that different parts of the skin will vary greatly in porosity4 ,in colouring groundwork with various superposed tints1 the actual results are often entirely different from those one has had reason to expect4 ,so far as is possible1 in order to prevent this from happening1 it is advisable not to mix the colours of different makers on the same piece of work without knowing their composition1 or first experimenting with them on a spare piece of the leather4 ,a second colour should never be added until the underneath one is dry1 or a muddy effect will result4 ,if the colour becomes too dark1 or if the second stain predominates unduly instead of merging into the underneath one1 the whole work1 fixed firmly on a board1 should be dipped in water and scrubbed with a very soft brush and some soft soap4 ,it should then be allowed to dry in the sun4 ,this method of making the colour lighter can only be used when the ornament is not in relief2 it has been found particularly successful in treating potash and sulphate dyes4 ,ox-hide1 light or fawn-coloured calf1 pigskin and white morocco are leathers suitable for colouring4 ,they are1 however1 very absorbent1 and will require an application of paste before staining4 ,this will also be found indispensable in colouring the white split sheepskins used in mosaic4 ,in staining leather for mosaic1 several successive applications of colour will be required1 especially in the case of greens which sink in quickly4 ,in addition to plain dyeing1 there are various methods of producing shaded groundwork1 marbling1 sprinkling1 etc4 ,,shaded ,,groundwork ,for shaded groundwork diluted colour is applied with a sponge or pad worked over the leather with a circular movement1 and the uniform tint thus obtained is darkened as required by further applications with stronger colour4 ,in shading a ground from one colour to another1 as for example from dark olive to malachite green1 orange red and pale yellow1 the edge of each colour1 as it is put on1 is covered with a piece of thick paper1 which must be firmly held in place1 in order to prevent the colours mixing where they come together4 ,,marbling ,a sponge with large holes is dipped in potash1 sulphate of iron1 or some other deep coloured dye1 and lightly applied over the surface of the leather so that parts of it corresponding to the holes in the sponge are left untouched2 or the first application of colour may be made evenly over the leather and the marbling worked1 as described1 in a second application4 ,many varieties of pattern can be obtained by moving the sponge in different ways4 ,leather may be bought ready marbled by a gelatine process4 ,,tree ,,marbling ,the leather is first lightly pasted over1 and drops of water1 more or less large1 are scattered upon it by jerking the handle of a small couch-grass whisk full of water against the left wrist held a few inches from the surface of the leather4 ,a very little colour is then taken in the brush and jerked in the same manner over the drops of water1 with which it will partially mix and give the effect of roots branching out in all directions4 ,variety can be obtained by applying the water with a sponge instead of the brush1 and the colour in large drops over the whole or certain parts only of the field1 or by using dyes of different colours which give curious effects in combining4 ,after applying the dye1 the surplus moisture is absorbed with blotting-paper4 ,the leather may be bleached to a light tint by means of an oil-paint brush dipped in decolorant#ab2 the bristles of the brush are pushed back with the finger and when released jerk the acid in fine drops over the surface4 ,the leather must be freshly and thoroughly damped so that the outline of the bleaching shades off into the ground4 #ab ,see page #ga4 ,,sprinkling ,sprinkling is done with a rather close iron grating and a long narrow brush like a plate-brush4 ,the dye is prepared on a flat plate and the brush dipped in it1 the superfluous liquid being removed against the edge of the plate4 ,the brush is rubbed backwards and forwards on the grating held horizontally a few inches above the leather over which it scatters a fine shower of the dye4 ,should the colour froth on the grating1 the brush must at once be rubbed upon oiled paper4 ,sprinkling may also be done with a vaporiser for fixing drawings1 but it is difficult to get a sufficiently fine shower so that the drops do not merge into each other4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,,mirror ,,case ,,of ,,punched ,,black ,,leather1 ,,cuir ,,bouilli2 ,,executed ,,by ,,miss ,,casella4 ,,modern ,,english4 ,the above process is a useful one when parts of the leather are to be 8reserved10 i4e41 to remain untouched by the dye4 ,for this purpose a piece of strong paper is cut to the shape of the part to be reserved and pasted lightly to the leather during the process of sprinkling1 after which it is damped and removed4 ,another method is to paint the reserved parts with one of the two preparations given by ,mons4 ,belleville in ,le ,cuir dans la ,dcoration ,moderne1 afterwards removing it with benzine or petroleum spirit3----8,eighty parts of colophony1 #d of yellow wax1 #f of spermaceti1 #d of tallow1 #fj of spirit of turpentine and #aj of alcohol40 ,or1 8,one hundred parts of virgin wax1 and the same of castor oil1 with #be of borax and #be of copal varnish40 99 99 99 99 99 ,instead of reserving the parts of the leather1 the dye may be removed subsequently by means of reagents called decolorants4 ,sulphuric1 hydrochloric1 oxalic1 nitric1 or muriatic acid diluted with water in the proportion of one in five1 can be used for this purpose1 but their effect should first be tried on a spare piece of the leather1 as it will vary according to the nature of the dye on which they are used4 ,it should be noticed that1 in mixing the acid1 the right quantity of water must be measured out and the acid carefully added drop by drop4 ,if water is poured into acid it causes an explosion4 ,the outline is traced rather deeply on the leather1 so that it is still visible after the groundwork has been dyed4 ,when the dye has sunk in1 the decolorant can be easily applied with a paint-brush4 ,on modelled leather dyed bronze green1 a rag or piece of cotton-wool dipped in decolorant and quickly passed over the relief1 will lighten the colour and produce the effect of bronze with the exposed parts rubbed lighter by use4 ,should the effect of the acid be too strong1 the colour may be again deepened by washing the leather over with a yellowish gold stain1 which will only take effect on the relief1 since it will merge into the darker colour of the rest of the work4 ,the same process may be employed on white calf with a light olive dye to obtain the effect of old ivory4 ,even when much diluted1 however1 the action of these acids must in the end be injurious to the leather4 ,they should be used with great care and never undiluted4 ,where possible1 washing the leather over afterwards with water will1 to some extent1 diminish their harmful effect4 ,stencilling is another process by which portions of the leather forming the ornament are reserved from the dye used in colouring the ground4 ,the design is cut out of a very thin sheet of copper or tin4 ,a large short-haired brush#ac is used to take the dye from a plate1 or pad1 and is then rubbed very lightly over the stencil firmly fixed on the leather4 ,only the parts unprotected by the stencil will take the colour4 ,the brush must not be too full or the dye would have a tendency to run under the stencil4 ,the most suitable dyes are glycerine inks and marking inks containing nitrate of silver4 ,a variety of colours may be mixed with glycerine for this purpose4 ,the ink thus obtained is transferred to a cloth pad1 such as is used by printers1 from which the brush will only take the required quantity4 #ac ,pompon4 ,when the leather is dry a lighter tint1 transparent enough to allow the stencilled design to be visible through it1 may be washed over the whole4 ,excellent effects of considerable richness can thus be produced4 ,the depth of colour is further increased by the process of rubbing1 which is necessary to the proper patine of leather4 ,if done with wax1 encaustic or varnish1 it is an effective protection for the surface of the leather against deterioration from outside causes4 ,with certain soft leathers1 if the colour has not sunk in deeply1 rubbing with the finger alone will give it great brilliancy2 with other leathers the rubbing will produce an effect in proportion to the degree of porosity of the skin4 ,it should always be done before the colour is dry1 but not until it has penetrated sufficiently into the leather not to return to the surface with the pressure4 ,the middle finger is used4 ,a certain amount of polish can be given to the leather by rubbing it only with the finger 7moistened with a little oil to allow it to slide easily71 or1 for a large surface1 with the side of the hand instead of the finger4 ,when a medium is used1 it is applied with a circular movement by means of flannel or rag2 a flannel brush consisting of a series of little flannel rolls1 which can be bought at a surgical instrument-maker's1 is very useful for a large surface requiring much rubbing4 ,pure wax1 which must be softened in the hand to make it spread evenly1 encaustic and spirit varnish are all efficacious in preserving the colour and increasing its transparency4 ,another method giving excellent results consists in applying opaque colour1 gouache or bronzes in the hollows of a design and removing the surplus of the colour by rubbing4 ,in this way an incised design can be boldly outlined in light on a dark ground1 and may afterwards be bleached within the outlines if desired4 ,after cutting the design on the leather1 the whole surface is washed over with potash or any other dark stain1 a coat of paste is then applied and immediately wiped off1 so that some of it only remains in the hollows4 ,when the paste is dry1 some rather liquid gouache is washed over and run into the lines1 any remaining on the surface being removed by vigorous rubbing with a damp rag4 ,the same process may be applied to the hollows of punched leather4 ,in using bronzes or gold in powder1 some spirit varnish or specially prepared varnish is necessary to make them adhere4 ,after applying the varnish1 the surface is wiped over to remove all except that which is deposited in the interstices1 and when this is sufficiently dry to hold the powder1 the latter is put on with a very soft1 short-haired brush and adheres to the varnish4 ,the surface is then rubbed in the manner already described4 ,all powder colours do not mix equally well with varnish2 green and blue bronzes often change colour when brought in contact with it4 ,gold and silver powder give good results1 used either dry or mixed with gum on shells4 ,chinese vermilion may also be employed with varnish1 but other colours are more suitable for this purpose when prepared in the form of gouache4 ,,gilding ,special manipulation is required for gold leaf applied to the decoration of leather4 ,for gilding over a whole surface1 as for instance an aureole round the head of a saint1 the following is the best method4 ,several layers of starch paste are painted with a brush over the part of the leather to be gilded1 and followed when dry by a little gelatine paste4 ,a coating of some special preparation is then applied and allowed to dry to the right condition to retain the gold leaf1 which varies according to the nature of the preparation2 the degree of moisture can be tested with the finger4 ,gold leaf is sold in small books and is exceedingly thin4 ,a flexible knife1 like a palette knife1 is used to manipulate it1 and a single leaf is laid on a cushion of deerskin stuffed with wadding1 and cut to the required size4 ,it is then placed over the preparation on the leather and lightly pressed down with a very soft1 round1 short-haired brush4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,,black ,,morocco ,,binding ,,with ,,applied ,,panels ,,of ,,tooled1 ,,cut1 ,,painted ,,and ,,gilt ,,calf4 ,,le ,,roman ,,de ,,tristan ,,et ,,iseut4 ,,designed ,,by ,,robert ,,engels4 ,,modern ,,french4 ,for gilding with hot tools a specially prepared powder made of resin or gum is used4 ,this powder melts with the heat of the tool and causes the gold leaf to adhere to the leather only where it comes in contact with the parts of the tool cut in relief4 ,the process is as follows3 ,some powder is lightly spread over the part of the leather to be gilded and a piece of gold leaf laid over it1 the tool is heated sufficiently to melt the powder without burning the leather and is carefully applied on the right spot1 the surplus gold being afterwards removed with the short brush4 ,the tools used by bookbinders are slightly convex1 so that firm and even pressure of the whole tool can be exerted by first inclining the handle towards the gilder1 and then raising it while still maintaining the pressure and inclining it at the opposite angle4 ,gold can also be applied with a brush in the form of powder suspended in liquid gum or spirit varnish4 ,if it does not spread evenly1 owing to there being too much liquid in proportion to the powder1 dry powder may be added where necessary with a short brush when the liquid is almost dry4 ,shell gold is applied with a slightly damped brush and1 when dry1 may be burnished with an agate or punch2 the design of the punch will stand out in bright gold on a ground of dull gold4 ,the pressure of the wrist is sufficient to work the punch and a hammer should not be used4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is an interesting field for the artist's enterprise in the discovery of new processes for the decoration of leather by means of colours and bronzes4 ,it is not possible within the limits of a single chapter to give a complete list of the many methods that may be employed4#ad #ad ,as a conclusion to this chapter1 the ,french edition quotes from the ,bulletin de la ,socit de l',encouragement pour l',industrie ,nationale some extracts from the ,report of the ,committee on ,leather for ,bookbinding1 published by the ,society of ,arts in ,london 7#aija71 which will be found in the ,note at the end of this volume4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,choice ,,of ,,design ,,and ,,colour ,the present chapter is devoted to some remarks on colour combination and the composition of ornament1 based on the personal experience of the author4 ,three colours1 for the groundwork1 ornament and high lights respectively1 will1 in many cases1 be found sufficient for a scheme of decoration4 ,a multitude of colours1 worked in great detail on a relatively small surface1 confuse the eye and hinder it from grasping the effect of the decoration as a whole4 ,only special styles of decoration1 such as ,moorish geometrical patterns1 allow of the use of a great variety of colours4 ,the circumstance already explained1 that in leather decoration dyes may be used one over the other1 enables interesting effects to be produced4 ,a design of sea1 with seaweed and fish1 can be effectively rendered entirely with sulphate of iron of varying strength4 ,a weak solution is washed evenly over the whole2 the waves are then drawn in with a flat brush dipped in a stronger solution1 and the dark outlines afterwards bleached with acid where they border the first tint4 ,the fish and seaweed in relief are similarly treated with decolorant1 and a light wash of yellow over the whole completes an effective decoration4 ,the foliage of the chestnut tree in autumn lends itself exceptionally well to decorative treatment1 both as regards form and colour4 ,the large variety of greens and yellows are most effective on a ground of brickdust red4 ,a groundwork of soft grey1 brightened by an underwash of very pale yellow1 is suitable for reserved or bleached designs4 ,deep carmine constitutes a rich colour for groundwork1 and is produced by using bright red over potash and deepening the effect by rubbing4 ,in planning a decoration1 the artist has generally some special effect in his mind which he wishes to reproduce4 ,it is not unusual1 however1 for the result to be totally different from what is anticipated1 since uncertainty constitutes one of the charms of the art of colouring leather4 ,these failures1 as they may be considered from one point of view1 often produce interesting effects and sometimes lead to valuable discoveries4 ,marbled leather should be decorated with flat ornament only4 ,figures in high relief belong properly to the domain of the sculptor and should be avoided in leather work1 much of its individuality lying in the value of the outline in producing an effect of relief4 ,some skilful artists produce in leather not only the relief1 but the turned over edges of petals1 etc41 and treat twisted ribbons in open-work2 the result1 though pleasing1 is essentially evanescent1 owing to the extreme fragility of the detached portions of the leather4 ,of all the uses to which leather work may be applied1 none offer greater scope to the inspiration of the artist than bookbinding4 ,it has become the fashion not only to provide a more or less rich covering for a beautiful edition1 but to suggest in its design the nature of the contents of the volume1 should these lend themselves to such treatment4 ,the artist1 however1 will do well to practise this principle with due restraint1 avoiding1 on the one hand1 what may be called anecdotal design1 and1 on the other1 an over subtle symbolism4 ,leather coffers1 when well executed1 constitute veritable works of art4 ,they present considerable difficulties in the mounting of the leather over the wooden coffer so that the lines of the ornament come exactly in the right place4 ,it is necessary that the lines forming the framework of the design should accurately correspond with the dimensions of the coffer to be covered4 ,a coffer usually consists of a box with a hinged lid2 the measure is taken by laying the leather round the whole2 the leather is then cut1 leaving a small surplus at the edges to be pared and folded over at the sides4 ,the join should be arranged for at the lower border and not at the intersection of the lid and the box4 ,the leather at this point is better left to be cut after it has been stuck on the wood in mounting4 ,when the leather is decorated in mosaic and consists of panels each enclosed within a patterned border1 the probability of its stretching when it is fixed on the wood1 must be taken into consideration2 ,cape morocco1 however1 if fairly thick will hardly stretch perceptibly4 ,during the process of outlining the design1 which is done before mounting the leather on the wood1 it should be stretched to its full extent on a flat board4 ,when the decoration is in relief1 the padding should be very firm1 so as to counteract the tendency to stretch during the process of mounting4 ,generally speaking1 designs based on naturalistic flowers do not give the most satisfactory effects in the decoration of coffers1 since the style is not suited to the restricted size of the panels1 even when the design ignores them and extends beyond4 ,designs in the modern style1 or ,gothic designs in the style of the fifteenth century1 or those based on the ,arabic decoration of the best period1 are much to be preferred2 in the last two styles punches used with a hammer will greatly assist in lowering the groundwork1 so that the design stands out in relief without the necessity of stuffing it1 as in embossed work4 ,by introducing gouache or bronzes into the impressions made with the punches1 rich effects of colour can be produced4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,,binding ,,of ,,stained ,,calf1 ,,cut1 ,,embossed1 ,,tooled ,,and ,,patinated ,,by ,,henri ,,godin4 ,,modern ,,french4 ,there are numerous other styles appropriate to the decoration of leather coffers4 ,in the decoration of large surfaces1 such as the panels of wall-hangings1 the artist is cautioned against the abuse of detail1 frequently the stumbling-block of the beginner4 ,he is recommended to exercise a wise restraint in his composition1 and to avail himself of the numerous resources of the conventional art of the modern school more particularly in their application to the ornamentation of large surfaces4 ,technical efficiency in the use of the tools is essential and must be gained by practice1 but may be said to be second in importance to a thorough knowledge of decorative design1 which can be attained only by the intelligent study of the best models4 ,the education of the eye is a considerable factor in the conventional interpretation of natural forms4 ,the artist cannot do better than to study the ancient ,japanese school1 which has found such favour with the initiators of the so-called 8,modern ,art10 and which affords the best examples of balance in design in its rejection of unnecessary detail in the interpretation of natural forms4 ,he may also find inspiration in the fields of ,egyptian and ,assyrian art1 in the interlaced patterns of the disciples of ,st4 ,dunstan1 and in the quaint renderings of leaves and flowers in the hangings and brocades of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,appendix ,,leather ,,hangings ,,and ,,furniture ,the origin of the use of decorated leather for hangings and furniture has been the subject of much controversy4 ,after consulting various books on the subject1 we believe1 as already stated1 that its introduction into ,spain may be attributed to the ,moorish conquerors about the eighth century4 ,in an ,arabian manuscript of the sixth century of the ,mohammedan era1 mention is made of the industry as flourishing in the town of ,ghadames in the ,sahara4 ,jehan de ,garlande1 author of a ,latin dictionary composed in #ajhj1 mentions ,cordouans first manufactured at ,cordova in the eleventh century4 ,about the same time1 the ,monk ,theophilus1 in his curious encyclopdia of the arts which unfortunately has not come down to us in its complete form1 gives the following description of the processes of gilding leather3---- 8,for laying on gold or silver1 take the clear liquid of white of egg beaten up without water1 paint some with a brush over the part which is to receive the gold or silver4 ,damping the end of the same brush in your mouth1 bring it in contact with a corner of the cut leaf 7of gold or silver74 ,then lifting it with extreme rapidity1 you lay it on the prepared place and spread it with a dry brush4 ,at this point you must take precautions against a draught1 you must hold your breath1 for if you breathe you will lose the leaf and find difficulty in recovering it4 ,when in position and dry you may1 if you wish1 put a second over it in the same way1 and then a third1 if it is wanted1 so as to be able to give a more brilliant polish with a burnisher4 8,you can1 if you wish1 apply the leaf on a ceiling or a wall2 in the same manner1 over a lining of tinfoil4 ,if you have neither gold nor silver1 you will use tinfoil1 which you will apply thus44440#ae #ae ,theophili ,presbyteri et ,monachi1 ,libri #c seu ,diversarum artium schedula4 ,chapter #bd4 ,until the middle of the seventeenth century1 hangings1 and even carpets1 of decorated leather formed an important item in those inventories of princely possessions which are such a reliable and inexhaustible source of information for the historian of the sumptuary arts4#af ,princes and other great personages depended largely on decorated leather and tapestries1 when moving from place to place1 to supplement the often hastily improvised decoration of their temporary apartments4 #af ,dictionnaire de l',ameublement et de la ,dcoration depuis le #acme ,sicle jusqu' nos ,jours1 by ,henry ,havard4 ,the enumeration of all the different processes by which the leather was ornamented would carry us beyond the limits of this appendix1 and we will confine ourselves to tracing in outline the development of the art of working in leather as applied to hangings and furniture during the last few centuries4 ,first in order of time we find skins covered with hair1 sewn together for carpets or hangings2 different kinds being placed side by side1 either irregularly1 or alternately to form a pattern4 ,we are not1 however1 here concerned with anything but leather proper1 that is to say1 skins with the hair removed1 and this was first decorated by means of a hot tool4 ,the addition of colour speedily followed4 ,dark coloured leathers were also sewn as borders on lighter ones1 and polished metal ornaments were added to brighten the leather groundwork1 a fashion borrowed from the method of joining and strengthening the accoutrements of war4 ,little by little1 as the custom spread of reproducing the human figure and animals1 attempts were made to carry out whole pictures on panels made of leather sewn together with the seams hammered flat4 ,but painted leather was still generally of comparatively small dimensions1 and it would seem that these pictures were designed chiefly for the ornamentation of chests4 ,the leather was first stretched over wooden panels1 several panels being sometimes placed side by side4 ,a special paste was used1 the object of which was to cause the leather to shrink when dry1 so as to make the panels adhere more closely together4 ,the following description by the ,monk ,theophilus of the paste used in his time for this sort of work may interest the reader3---- 8,panels for altars or doors are made thus3----,first join some boards carefully one by one with the help of the joining tool used by coopers or joiners4 ,they must be fastened together with cheese paste made in the following manner3----,some soft cow's-milk cheese is cut very thin and washed with hot water in a mortar with a pestle1 changing the water until it comes out clear4 ,the cheese after being pressed in the hand is put into cold water until it hardens4 ,it is then well crushed with a piece of wood on a smooth wooden table4 ,in this condition it is put back into the mortar to be carefully pounded with the pestle1 after having added water mixed with quicklime till it becomes thick like a sediment4 ,panels put together with this paste when dry1 stick so fast that neither damp nor heat can separate them4 ,they must then be made even with a special tool for this purpose4 ,this tool1 curved and sharp on the inside1 has two handles1 so that it may be used with both hands4 ,it is used to level panels1 doors and shields until they are perfectly smooth4 ,they are then covered with untanned mule-skin or ox-hide1 after it has been wetted and the hairs scraped off4 ,the water is partly squeezed out1 and while still damp it is stuck on with the cheese paste40#ag #ag ,theophili ,presbyteri et ,monachi1 ,libri #c seu ,diversarum artium schedula4 ,chapter #ag4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,,gold-,,tooled ,,and ,,inlaid ,,morocco ,,binding4 ,,the ,,letters ,,of ,,princess ,,lieven4 ,,by ,s4 ,t4 ,,prideaux4 ,,modern ,,english4 ,in the eleventh century we come to the first employment of gold leaf on decorated leather1 whence is derived the name1 8or basan10 which it afterwards received4 ,the passage describing the process of gilding has been quoted already 7page #hj71 but each master of the art no doubt introduced his own modifications4 ,with the introduction of gold1 leather decoration assumed a magnificence and importance hitherto unknown4 ,the heads of the saints were surrounded with golden haloes1 and the gold and silver embroideries of the sacerdotal ornaments were carried out in those metals on the leather4 ,a little later the knights are represented clad in brilliant armour with plumed helmets4 ,the correct rendering of the heraldic colouring of the coats of arms figuring on shield and target then necessitated the use of a more extended range of oil colours1 until1 little by little1 decorated leather grew to resemble the paintings of ,van ,orley4 ,meanwhile1 punches1 cut in relief or in intaglio and used with a hammer1 were adopted to break the monotony of the groundwork and throw up the relief of the ornament1 and the fashion also arose of embossing leather with a modelling tool or by means of stamps1 the latter method necessarily resulting in the substitution of repeating ornament for figures and landscapes4 ,leather manufactured in ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,flanders1 and later in ,england is almost always decorated in high relief with touches of gold1 the design being principally flowers1 foliage1 cupids1 pomegranates1 etc4 ,venice alone remained faithful to flat decoration with hollowed or merely darkened outline in the cameo-like medallions of classical scenes painted on groundwork whose design was borrowed from the gorgeous stuffs of the ,east4 ,the fashion imported from ,italy in the reign of ,francis ,i of breaking up surfaces with pilasters1 cornices1 medallions and ornaments in relief1 was instrumental in adding importance to small painted designs on leather rather than to hangings properly so called4 ,some of these leather paintings were like pictures and were used not only for wall decoration1 but as hangings for beds and even as bedspreads of state4 ,the custom of thus decorating beds lasted a long time4 ,pierre ,bnard1 an upholsterer by trade1 established in ,paris1 and author of a collection of songs dedicated to the 8,vertueuse ,royne ,marguerite10 first wife of ,henri ,,iv1 refers to the use of 8or basan0 in this manner as an evidence of wealth4 ,already under ,catherine de ,mdicis1 decorated leather had become extremely popular1 and was preferred to all other hangings for the embellishment of apartments2 its popularity lost nothing under the second wife of ,henry ,,iv1 in whose native country this style of decoration was also held in great favour4 ,in the reign of ,louis ,,xiii the influence of ,anne of ,austria brought ,spanish leather again into fashion4 ,from that time also1 leather gilt or stamped in its natural colour and ornamented with copper nails 7probably inspired by the marriage chests with their curious studded ornament7 was found in the mansions of the great and became the principal material for covering chairs4 ,the grandiose style of architecture of the time of ,louis ,,xiv called for the decoration of spaces framed in gorgeous pilasters and was favourable to the application of decorated leather in the style of ,brain4 ,but this did not long remain popular1 and leather was replaced by ,gobelin and other tapestries made in ,france1 whose introduction gave the deathblow to the manufacture of leather hangings4 ,from this period till the present day the art of gilding leather has been on the decline4 ,of this no further proof is needed than the following preface written in #agfb by ,fougeroux de ,boudaroy1 who had been commissioned by the ,academy to take over the work of research1 previously conducted by ,raumur1 on the subject of leather hangings3---- ,illustration3 #ai4 ,,back ,,and ,,seat ,,of ,,chair ,,in ,,cut1 ,,embossed ,,and ,,gilt ,,cowhide ,,with ,,punched ,,background4 ,,executed ,,by ,,rosalie ,,vigers ,,from ,a ,,design ,,by ,,frederick ,,vigers4 ,,modern ,,english4 8,flanders1 ,holland and ,england are reputed to have furnished the first gilt or silvered leather hangings seen in ,paris4 ,some attribute their invention to ,spain1 but without apparent reason1 since to-day there are in ,france no such hangings of ,spanish manufacture1 nor are they much known in that country4 ,the gilt leather hangings which come to us from ,flanders are nearly all made at ,lille1 ,brussels1 ,antwerp and ,mechlin2 those derived from the last-named place are the most prized of all4 ,some very fine ones which we have attempted to imitate are made in ,venice2 manufactures were also started at ,lyons and met with success4 8,it was only about two centuries ago that this trade was established in ,paris4 ,we owe it to some ,flemish workmen who settled in the capital and left successors there4 ,but on account of the nation's prejudice in favour of all that comes from abroad1 the hangings from ,holland and ,flanders were always preferred to those of our own manufacture1 although they did not surpass the latter in quality or in beauty4 8,though equalling those of ,holland and ,flanders1 it was not possible to find a sale for our hangings unless they were passed off as having been made in one or other of those provinces1 and this was frequently done by our manufacturers4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that certain gilt leather hangings from ,england and ,venice have never been equalled here4 ,we are forced to allow their superiority in brilliancy1 beauty of design and durability4 ,perhaps all that our workmen needed to be able to imitate them perfectly was to feel the assurance of greater constancy in our tastes1 and to witness the cessation of that affection and preference for everything foreign1 which might lead to the more favourable treatment of the native industry4 8,gilt leather hangings were at one time much sought after4 ,their qualities of being1 unlike woollen and other materials1 unaffected by damp and insects1 of retaining their brilliancy unimpaired by time1 of not attracting dust1 and of allowing it to be easily removed by washing with a sponge1 and finally1 of not lending themselves to the multiplication of the insects which in summer infest the capital and which find in other tapestries convenient nests for depositing their eggs1 were all advantages1 forming so many reasons for their being in demand and gaining for them a place in the apartments of the great1 of which they frequently constituted the ornament4 ,but to-day1 a change of taste and the dictates of fashion which outweighs even the advantages and conveniences of life1 have caused them to be almost forgotten and relegated them to the ante-rooms of a few county houses where some of the earliest are to be found1 nearly as beautiful as when they were first made in ,paris4 8,now that the art is less in vogue1 we think it a suitable time to describe it to the public1 thus following the intention of the ,academy of allowing nothing to be lost that may now or hereafter be useful to the cause of art4 ,we may at any time be desirous of returning to these older fashions1 no longer being able to vary them1 and this may be among those destined to return to favour4 ,at any rate1 it will be agreed that some of its processes merit description1 and might find their application in other arts and help in bringing them to perfection40 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,,embossed ,,calf ,,binding4 ,,book ,,of ,,common ,,prayer4 ,,executed ,,by ,,rosalie ,,vigers ,,from ,a ,,design ,,by ,,frederick ,,vigers4 ,,modern ,,english4 ,the same author describes minutely and very clearly the various processes in use at the time for gilding or silvering leather4 ,instead of silver-gilt1 which is necessarily very costly1 he recommends silver leaf burnished and covered with a varnish1 for which he gives the following recipe1 found by him1 as he modestly acknowledges1 among the papers of ,mons4 de ,raumur3---- 8,take four and a half pounds of colophony1 the same quantity of ordinary resin1 two and a half pounds of sandarach and two of aloes2 mix these four drugs together1 after having broken up those which are in large pieces1 and put them in an earthen pot on a good charcoal fire4 ,it is better for the fire to be of charcoal1 because it makes but little flame1 which would be dangerous if it should enter the vessel1 as the ingredients are very inflammable4 ,to guard against this accident and others of which we will speak later on1 the vessel must be chosen large enough not to be more than half-filled by the drugs already mentioned and the others yet to be added1 as will presently be explained4 ,it is well also for it to widen out at the top1 or to have a rim that will project the flame outwards4 ,these are small precautions which it is always better to take2 some1 however1 neglect them1 and make their varnish on a wood fire1 and then double attention must be given to prevent the drugs igniting4 8,melt all these drugs in the pot and stir them with a spatula so that they mix together and do not stick to the bottom4 ,when they are well melted1 pour in seven pints of linseed oil and mix it with the drugs1 using the spatula4 ,cook the whole1 stirring it from time to time to prevent as much as possible a kind of sediment which forms and does not mix with the oil from sticking to the bottom of the vessel4 ,when the varnish is cooked1 pass it through a cloth or strainer4 8,this quantity of varnish should1 according to workmen1 remain seven to eight hours on the fire to cook1 but this cannot be regarded as an invariable rule4 ,it will not take so long to cook on a large fire4 ,a better test used by workmen in manufacturing varnish is to take a few drops of the liquid with the spatula and lay it over silver leaf on some leather2 or else they take some of the varnish in a silver spoon and1 by trying it with the finger tip as if it were syrup1 find out if it is cooked enough4 ,if it ropes in cooling1 or if the finger has a tendency to stick when it is gently withdrawn1 it is a sign that it is sufficiently cooked1 that is to say that it has arrived at the consistency of a thickish syrup4 ,the varnish is then brown in colour1 and curiously enough when laid over silver it becomes transparent and gives the effect of brilliant gold40 ,while on the subject of gold groundwork made with gold or silver leaf or tin-foil covered with varnish to imitate the colour of gold1 it is curious to note how far back in the history of art its origin can be traced2 after the ,greeks1 the ,byzantines made use of and1 it may also be said1 abused it4 ,this want of moderation in the use of gold is to be met with long afterwards1 for it is mentioned in his book on painting by ,l4 ,benedetto ,alberti who died in ,rome in #adgb4ah #ah ,sunt qui auro immodice utantur1 quam aurum putent histori affere majestatem4 ,l4 ,b4 ,alberti1 ,de ,pictura1 ,book #b1 page #be1 ad finem ,vitruv4 ,elzevir4 f4 ,van ,orley1 ,raphael's pupil1 when painting his 8,last ,judgment0 at ,antwerp1 had his panel gilt in order to obtain 8a beautiful transparency40#ai #ai ,decamps4 ,vie des peintres flamands4 ,paris1 #agec1 #d vols4 ,vol4 #a1 page #ci4 ,we have quoted above the formula for golden varnish given by ,fougeroux de ,boudaroy which he ascribes to ,raumur4 ,it may be found interesting to compare with it that given by the ,monk ,theophilus in his ,diversarum ,artium ,schedula3---- 8,put some linseed oil in a small new pot2 add some gum arabic called fornis pounded very fine2 this gum is like very light incense1 but is more brilliant when broken up4 ,place it on a charcoal fire and cook it carefully without allowing it to boil1 until it is reduced by one third4 ,be very careful of flames1 for they are very dangerous1 and the preparation is difficult to extinguish if it once catches fire4 ,any painting coated with this varnish becomes brilliant1 beautiful and perfectly lasting4444 8,another method4 ,arrange three or four stones which will stand the fire without breaking1 or bricks may be used instead4 ,on these place a new pot1 pour into it some fornis mentioned above1 called by the ,romans 8glossa10 otherwise gum arabic4 ,over the opening of the pot1 put a smaller one having a little hole at the bottom2 fill in with clay so that no space remains between them4 ,carefully light a fire underneath the apparatus until the gum liquefies4 ,you will also have a thin tool with a handle which will serve to stir the gum and to find out the exact moment when it becomes perfectly liquid4 ,have a third pot on charcoal by you in which there is hot linseed oil2 when the gum is quite liquid1 so that a thread of it hangs from the tool when it is withdrawn1 pour in the hot oil1 stir with the tool1 and1 when in this condition1 cook all together without letting it boil1 take out the tool from time to time and spread a little of the mixture on wood or stone to try its density4 ,with regard to the proportion1 be careful that there are two thirds of oil to one of gum4 ,when it is cooked according to your judgment1 take it off the fire and1 covering it with care1 let it cool4 8,of the ,method of ,colouring ,tinfoil to give it the ,appearance of being ,gilt1 so that it may be used when ,gold cannot be had4 8,place the pieces 7of tinfoil7 side by side on the board1 fasten them one by one to the wood with wax1 so that they cannot get displaced1 spread over them with the hand a coating of the varnish described above1 and let them dry in the sun4 ,after that take some sticks of rotten wood cut in ,april1 slit in half and smoke dried4 ,peel off the outer bark and the second1 which is the colour of saffron2 scrape it into a clean vessel1 adding to it a fifth part of saffron1 macerate it well in old wine or ale2 after letting it stand during the night1 make it lukewarm the next morning4 ,when in this condition1 dip in the sheets of tinfoil one by one1 frequently taking them out until you find them assume a golden shade1 when you will again fix them on the wooden board and apply a coat of varnish as before2 when dry you will have sheets of tinfoil that you can use as you wish in your work44440#bj #bj ,diversarum artium schedula1 ,book #a4 ,chapters #ba and #cf4 ,although it may not be possible for an amateur1 incompletely equipped with the necessary implements1 to reproduce the marvellous work of a byegone age1 there are still many methods of decoration for him to attempt which will be equally attractive in modern surroundings4 ,,note ,,some ,,extracts ,,from ,,the ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,committee ,,on ,,leather ,,for ,,bookbinding1 ,,appointed ,,by ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,arts1 ,,february1 #aijj4 8,this ,committee met for the first time on ,may #c1 #aijj4444 ,its first step was to appoint two ,sub-,committees from amongst its members4 ,the first of these was to visit a selected number of libraries1 and to ascertain the comparative durability of the various bookbinding leathers used at different periods and preserved under different conditions4444 ,the second 444 was appointed to deal with the scientific side of the matter1 to ascertain the cause of any deterioration noticed1 and1 if possible1 to suggest methods for its prevention in the future4444 8,the first step taken by the 7first7 ,sub-,committee was to visit a number of libraries1 including that of the ,british ,museum1 the ,bodleian ,library1 ,oxford1 the ,university ,library1 ,cambridge1 the libraries of the ,athenum ,club1 of the ,patent ,office and of the ,chemical ,society1 also the valuable private library of ,mr4 ,huth4444 8,as regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decay prematurely1 the ,sub-,committee satisfied themselves that books bound during the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence of deterioration than those of an earlier date4 ,many recent bindings showed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten1 or even five years4 ,the ,sub-,committee came to the conclusion that there is ample justification for the general complaint that modern leather is not so durable as that formerly used4 ,to fix the date of the commencement of this deterioration was a difficult matter2 but they came to the conclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs of decay1 the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after #ahcj1 while some leathers seem to be generally good until about #ahfj1 after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse4 ,the deterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the nineteenth century may be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poor quality of the material4 8,with regard to the conditions under which books are kept1 ventilation1 lighting1 heating1 etc41 the ,committee were satisfied that in libraries where there was no artificial light used1 and where the ventilation was good1 the bindings were generally in a better state than elsewhere4 ,where gas is used the bindings are in the worst state noticed1 especially on the higher shelves4444 ,daylight and still more direct sunlight1 has a disintegrating effect on leather4444 8,as to the suitability of various leathers1 the ,sub-,committee came to the conclusion that of the old leathers 7fifteenth and sixteenth century71 white pigskin1 probably alum tanned1 is the most durable1 but its excessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leather unsuitable for most modern work4 ,old brown calf has lasted fairly well1 but loses its flexibility1 and becomes stiff and brittle when exposed to light and air4 ,some of the white tawed skins of the fifteenth and sixteenth century1 other than white pigskin1 and probably deerskin1 have lasted very well4 ,some fifteenth and sixteenth century sheepskin bindings have remained soft and flexible1 but the surface is soft and usually much damaged by friction4 ,vellum seems to have lasted fairly well1 but is easily influenced by atmospheric changes1 and is much affected by light4 ,early specimens of red morocco from the sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth century were found in good condition1 and of all the leathers noticed1 this seems to be the least affected by the various conditions to which it had been subjected4 ,in the opinion of the ,committee1 most of this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely allied tanning material4 ,morocco bindings earlier than #ahfj were generally found to be in fairly good condition1 but morocco after that date seems to be much less reliable1 and in many cases has become utterly rotten4 ,during the latter part of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare down calf until it was as thin as paper4 ,since about #ahcj hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used1 as1 whether thick or thin1 it appears generally to have perished4 ,sheepskin bindings of the early part of the century are many of them still in good condition4 ,since about #ahfj sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly to be found4 ,sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers and these imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worse condition than any of the other bindings1 except1 perhaps1 some of the very thin calf skin4 ,undyed modern pigskin seems to last well1 but some coloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished4 ,modern leathers dyed with the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned4 ,in nearly every case ,russia leather was found to have become rotten1 at least in bindings of the last fifty years4444 8,the work of the second ,sub-,committee1 which was composed of chemists specially conversant with the treatment of leather1 was directed specially to the elucidation of the following points2 an investigation of the nature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding2 an examination of the causes which produced this decay2 a research into the best methods of preparing leather for bookbinding2 and a consideration of the points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books4444 8,the ,sub-,committee made a number of tests and analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings1 as well as of leathers used for binding4 ,the ,committee found that the most prevalent decay was what they termed a red decay1 and this they think may be differentiated into old and new1 the old red decay being noticeable up to about #ahcj1 and the new decay since that date4 ,in the old decay the leather becomes hard and brittle1 the surface not being easily abraded by friction4 ,the older form is specially noticed in calf-bound books1 tanned presumably with oak bark4 ,the new form affects nearly all leathers1 and1 in extreme cases1 seems absolutely to destroy the fibres4 ,another form of deterioration1 more noticeable in the newer books1 renders the grain of the leather liable to peel off when exposed to the slightest friction4 ,this is the most common form of decay noted in the most recent leathers4 ,in nearly all samples of ,russia leather1 a very violent form of red decay was noticed4 ,in many cases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all parts exposed to light and air4444 8,an extensive series of experiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes of the decay of bindings4 ,the ,sub-,committee find that this is caused by both mechanical and by chemical influences4 ,of the latter some are due to the mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder1 others to the want of ventilation1 and to improper heating and lighting of libraries4 ,in some cases inferior leathers are finished 7by methods in themselves injurious7 so as to imitate the better class leathers1 and of course1 where these are used1 durability cannot be expected4 ,but in the main1 the injury for which the manufacturer and the bookbinder are responsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect of the means employed to give the leather the outward qualities required for binding1 than to the intentional production of an inferior article4444 99 99 99 99 99 8,we are of opinion that no special skin can be condemned in its original condition1 although goat1 seal1 pig1 and calf are probably superior in strength of texture to sheep4 ,sheepskins are1 however1 equally resistant to chemical agencies1 and being naturally soft and flexible1 are extremely suitable for use for purposes where they are not much exposed to mechanical wear4 8,fresh market skins1 dry skins1 or wet salted skins are much to be preferred to those known as #8drysalted1' since the crystallization of the salt which takes place in the drysalting process1 tends to weaken the structural fibre of the pelt4 ,no tainted or putrefied skins1 even if only slightly affected1 are suitable for the manufacture of bookbinding leather1 both for the same reason1 and because the weakness of grain so produced leads to uneven dyeing4 8,in the soaking of skins we would strongly condemn the use of old putrid soaks1 or the addition of salt to the soaks to assist in the softening1 as both methods weaken the skin4 444 ,violent mechanical treatment such as #8stocking' is injurious4444 8,the liming should be done in mellow1 weak limes4 ,old limes smelling strongly of ammonia1 and containing large quantities of bacteriological products1 must be avoided4444 8,special care should be taken with regard to the beamhouse work after unhairing and fleshing1 as1 by excessive or unsound puering and drenching of the skins1 their whole natural strength is frequently destroyed4444 ,great damage is frequently caused by the use of foul puers or foul bates1 in which putrefaction has taken place4 8,pure sumach is the tannage we would most strongly recommend for high class bookbinding4444 8,the tannage of bookbinding leathers must be a mellow one1 and must not be carried too far1 as we have found in many cases the cause of decay in tanned leather has been the fact that the leather was overloaded with tannin4 ,tanning has throughout a hardening effect on the leather fibre1 which1 if pushed too far1 ends in brittleness and loss of tenacity4444 8,we must absolutely condemn the use of any but mild vegetable acids in souring or scouring the leather1 or in the dye bath1 and as far as possible would avoid the use of acids and alkalis on tanned leather1 both being equally injurious4 8,it has been shown by careful experiment1 that even a minute quantity of sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour1 is at once absorbed by the leather1 and that no amount of subsequent washing will remove it4 ,in a very large proportion of cases1 the decay of modern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid used in the dye bath1 and retained in the skin4444 8,we 444 advise that the glazing of skins by friction in a damp #8seasoned' condition should be avoided4 8,the use of nitric acid as a preparation for glazing is absolutely destructive4444 8,the use of oxalic acid for washing backs of books1 or of leather for bookbinding1 is fatal to their durability4444 8,the sprinkling of leather with ferrous sulphate 7green vitriol71 either for the production of #8sprinkled' calf or #8tree' calf1 must be most strongly condemned1 as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather1 and free sulphuric acid is liberated which is still more destructive4444 8,the stretching of leather tightly over books in a wet condition 444 should be strongly condemned4444 8,it is shown conclusively that the catechol tannins1 which include turwar1 quebracho1 hemlock and larch barks1 and gambier1 are unsuitable for bookbinding leathers where durability is expected1 and that sumach yields a much more permanent leather1 while myrobalans occupy an intermediate place1 but nearly approaching sumach4 ,it is unfortunate that cassia bark1 which is the tanning material employed for ,east ,indian sheep and goat skins1 should have proved so unreliable1 since these leathers have been largely used in bookbinding without suspicion1 and are in other respects a cheap and good article4 ,with regard to sumach leathers themselves1 it is possible that some of the darkening noticed may be due to the presence of adulterants1 such as pistacia leaves1 in the sumach used1 as it is almost impracticable to obtain absolutely pure sumach1 and the pistacia tannin is allied to that of the cassia4 8,of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries1 gas fumes----no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid which they contain----are shown to be the most injurious1 but light and especially direct sunlight and hot air1 are shown to possess deleterious influences which had scarcely been suspected previously1 and the importance of moderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot be too much insisted on40 ,,index ,absorbent leather3 colouring1 #fi ,acid 3 hydrochloric1 #cj1 #ff1 #ga 3 muriatic1 #ga 3 nitric1 #ga 3 oxalic1 #ga 3 picric1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh 3 sulphuric1 #ga ,acids1 #ff as decolorants1 #ga 3 diluting1 #ga 3 effect of1 on steel tools1 #cj 3 injurious effect of1 on leather1 #gb ,alberti3 ,l4 ,b41 author of ,de ,pictura1 #hg ,albumen3 colours based on1 #fg ,alizarin1 #ff1 #fg ,alkalis1 #ff ,aniline dyes3 stability of1 #fd ,apparatus for pyrogravure1 #cf-cg ,archil1 #ff ,arnotto1 #ff ,aumatre3 ,mons4 ,e41 #ch1 #db1 #eb1 #ei ,baryta3 chromate of1 #ff ,bed-furniture3 leather1 #hd ,belleville3 ,mons41 author of ,le cuir dans la ,dcoration ,moderne1 #fb1 #ga ,bnard3 ,pierre1 author1 #hd ,brain3 leather decorated in style of1 #hd ,blacks1 #ff ,blues1 #fg1 #gd ,bookbinding 3 carved leather1 #ad 3 choice of design for1 #gg 3 crushed morocco for1 #ag 3 first use of leather for1 #ad 3 gold-tooled leather1 #ad 3 mosaic leather1 #ad 3 pigskin in1 #ag-ah 3 report of ,committee on leather for1 #ij-ie 3 vellum in1 #ah ,boudaroy3 ,fougeroux de 3 remarks on leather hangings1 #hd-hf 3 recipe for golden varnish1 #hf-hg ,bronzes1 #ce1 #fh1 #gc1 #gd1 #gh ,browns1 #fe ,brush 3 couch-grass1 #gj 3 flannel1 for rubbing leather1 #gc for gold leaf1 #gd for powder colours1 #gd for sprinkling1 #gj for stencilling1 #gb for tree marbling1 #gj ,buckthorn berries1 #fg ,burgundy3 leather decoration in1 #ad ,burnishers1 #fc1 #ge ,calf leather1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag 3 colouring1 #fi1 #gb for modelling1 #bi for mosaic1 #dc1 #ef 3 monochrome mosaic on1 #de ,canson paper1 #de1 #eh ,cape morocco1 #ag1 #db1 #gh ,cardboard for use in cutting out inlay1 #dh padding1 #cd ,carpets3 leather1 #ha ,carthamine1 #ff ,carthamus ,tinctorius1 #ff ,carton ,jacquart1 #de1 #ea ,carved leather1 #af1 #bg-bh bookbinding1 #ad 3 choice of design for1 #bg 3 gold on1 #bg in ,dijon ,museum1 #ad1 #bg ,carving 3 leather for1 #ag mosaic in relief1 #fa1 #fb 3 tools for1 #bg ,cassaigre tannin1 #af ,catechol1 #fe ,cathedral style1 #bg ,chairs3 leather1 #hd ,chamois leather1 #af 3 use and methods of decorating1 #ah ,chestnut tannin1 #af ,chinese vermilion1 #gd ,choice of design and colour1 #gf-gi ,choice of skins1 #ae-ah ,chromate of baryta1 #ff ,chromate of zinc1 #ff ,coal-tar1 #ff ,cochineal1 #ff ,coffers3 leather1 #gg-gi1 #hb 3 choice of design for1 #gh 3 mosaic for1 #gh 3 mounting leather for1 #gh 3 outlining design for1 #gh 3 padding relief for1 #gh 3 punched groundwork for1 #gh ,colour 3 applying1 to leather1 #fh-fi 3 choice of design and1 #gf-gi 3 combination of1 #gf-gg 3 for groundwork1 #fh1 #gg 3 influence of light on1 of leather1 #af1 #fd 3 influence of tanning process on1 of leather1 #ae-af1 #fd 3 introduction of1 into decoration of leather hangings1 #ha ,colouring absorbent leather1 #fi calf leather1 #fi1 #gb cut leather1 #bf-bg hollows of cut and punched leather1 #bg1 #ce1 #fe1 #fh1 #gc-gd1 #gh 3 leather for1 #fi leather for mosaic1 #db1 #fi leather3 methods of1 #fh-ge modelled leather1 #ga-gb monochrome mosaic on calf1 #de morocco leather1 #fi mosaic in relief1 #fb oxhide1 #fi pigskin1 #fi sheepskin1 #af split sheepskins1 #fi tinfoil to give it the appearance of being gilt1 #hi ,colours based on albumen1 #fg based on glycerine1 #fg for leather work1 #fd-fh for stencilling1 #gb 3 oil1 #fg1 #hc 3 powder1 used with varnish1 #gc-gd 3 spirit1 #fg 3 water1 #fg ,composition of ornament1 #gg-gi ,copper nails3 leather ornamented with1 #hd ,copper-plate etching on leather1 #ci ,cordouans1 #hj ,cordwainer1 #ad ,cork padding1 #cd ,cotton cord padding1 #cd ,couch-grass whisk1 #gj ,cowhide1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag for mosaic in relief1 #fa ,cuir bouilli1 #bh ,cushion for gold leaf1 #gd ,cut leather1 #af1 #be-bg 3 colouring1 #bf-bg 3 colouring hollows of1 #bg #fh1 #gc-gd 3 opening the outline of1 #bc1 #be-bf ,cutting 3 leather for1 #ag stamped leather1 #ci ,cutting out incrusted mosaic1 #fb-fc inlay3 cardboard for use in1 #dh inlay for mosaic1 #df-di inlay for mosaic in relief1 #fa inlay for polychrome mosaic1 #eh-ei open-work leather1 #dj ,cutting-out knives1 #dj1 #df-dh ,damping leather1 #ai-bj ,decolorants1 #gj-ga1 #gf on modelled leather1 #ga-gb 3 tracing design for1 #ga ,design based on chestnut tree1 #gf based on sea subjects1 #gf 3 detached portions of leather in1 #gg 3 choice of1 for bookbinding1 #gg 3 choice of1 for carved leather1 #bg 3 choice of1 for coffers1 #gg 3 choice of1 for large surfaces1 #gi 3 choice of1 for marbled leather1 #gg 3 choice of1 for modelled leather1 #gg in leather hangings and furniture1 #hb-hd 3 ,japanese school of1 #gi 3 study of1 #gi ,design and colour3 choice of1 #gf-gi ,dijon ,museum3 examples of carved leather in1 #ad1 #bg ,dollage de gants padding1 #cd ,dyes1 #fd-gd 3 aniline1 stability of1 #fd 3 superposed1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf 3 uncertain effect of1 on leather1 #gg 3 vegetable1 stability of1 #fd ,embossed leather1 see ,modelled leather ,encaustic3 rubbing leather with1 #fe1 #gb-gc ,england3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hc1 #he ,engraved leather1 see ,cut leather ,europe3 introduction of decorated leather into1 #ac1 #ad1 #hj ,flanders3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hc1 #he ,france 3 introduction of gilt or silvered leather hangings into1 #he 3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #he 3 popularity of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hd ,garlande3 ,jehan de1 author1 #hj ,germany3 leather decoration in1 #ad ,ghadames3 leather industry at1 #hj ,gilding1 #gd-ge1 #hj-ha1 #hc1 #hf 3 bookbinders' tools for1 #ge 3 decline of art1 #hd-hf outline of incrusted mosaic1 #fc 3 process described by ,theophilus1 #hj-ha ,gilt leather chairs1 #hd ,gilt or silvered leather hangings and furniture1 #hd1 #he-hf ,gilt panel for painting on1 #hg-hh ,gloves for protecting hands from dyes1 #fh ,glycerine 3 colours based on1 #fg inks1 #gb ,gobelin tapestries3 leather hangings and furniture replaced by1 #hd ,gold1 #fh1 #hc groundwork3 origin of1 #hg leaf1 #bh1 #gd-ge1 #hc leaf3 brush for1 #gd leaf3 cushion for1 #gd leaf first employed on leather hangings and furniture1 #hc leaf3 knife for1 #gd 3 liquid1 #ge on carved and embossed leather1 #bg powder1 #gc1 #gd1 #ge 3 punches used on1 #bh1 #ge 3 shell1 #bh1 #gd1 #ge 3 want of moderation in the use of1 #hg ,golden varnish 3 recipe for 7,boudaroy71 #hf-hg 3 recipe for 7,theophilus71 #hh ,gold-tooled leather bookbinding1 #ad ,gold-tooling1 #bh1 #gd-ge 3 powder for1 #gd ,gouache1 #ce1 #fh1 #gc1 #gd1 #gh ,grating3 sprinkling1 #gj ,greens1 #ff1 #fg1 #gd ,greys1 #fe ,hammered leather1 #af1 #bh ,hammering3 leather for1 #ag ,hematoxylin1 #ff ,heraldic decoration on leather1 #ad1 #hc ,holland3 manufacture of leather hangings in1 #he ,hydrochloric acid1 #cj1 #ff1 #ga ,incising1 #bj-bd1 #bf for inserted mosaic1 #fj for modelled leather1 #bb1 #cj knives1 #ae1 #bj-bd oxhide1 #bb slanting cut1 #bc1 #bd ,indigo1 #fg ,inks containing nitrate of silver1 #gb for stamping leather1 #ci for stencilling1 #gb 3 glycerine1 #gb ,inlaid leather1 see ,mosaic leather ,japanese school of design1 #gi ,kip-skins1 #fa ,knives 3 cutting-out1 #dj1 #df-dh 3 gold1 #gd 3 incising1 #ae1 #bj-bd 3 paring1 #dc 3 stencil-cutter's1 #df1 #fa ,leather 3 absorbent quality of1 #fd-fe bed-furniture1 #hd carpets1 #ha chairs1 #hd coffers1 #gg-gi1 #hb decoration in ,burgundy1 #ad decoration in dress1 #ac decoration in ,germany1 #ad decoration in ,spain1 #ac1 #ad1 #hj decoration in style of ,brain1 #hd decoration in the past1 #ac-ad decoration in war-like equipment1 #ac decoration3 introduction into ,europe1 #ac1 #ad1 #hj 3 first use of1 for bookbinding1 #ad hangings and furniture1 #hj-hi 3 heraldic decoration on1 #ad1 #hc industry at ,ghadames1 #hj 3 methods of working in1 #af1 #ai-da 3 report of ,committee on1 for bookbinding1 #ij-ie 3 ,spanish1 #hd 3 varieties of1 #af ,light3 influence of1 on colour of leather1 #af1 #fd ,lignereux3 ,mons4 de ,saint ,andr de1 author of ,le ,cuir d',art franais1 #bh ,lithographic stone1 #ae1 #dd ,logwood1 #ff ,lyons3 manufacture of gilt or silvered leather hangings at1 #he ,madder1 #ff ,marble3 slab of1 #ae1 #dd ,marbled leather3 choice of design for1 #gg ,marbling1 #fi-gj 3 tree1 #gj ,metal block for stamping leather1 #ci ,metal ornaments on leather hangings1 #ha ,metallic salts1 #ff ,mimosa tannin1 #af ,modelled leather1 #af1 #bh-cf 3 choice of design for1 #gg 3 colouring1 #ga-gb 3 decolorants on1 #ga-gb 3 incising for1 #bb1 #cj in hangings and furniture1 #hc 3 introduction into ,venice1 #ad 3 opening the outline of1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc-cd 3 softening the outline of1 #cb-cc with punched background1 #af1 #bh1 #cd-cf ,modellers1 #ae1 #bi1 #cj1 #ch ,modelling1 #cj-cd 3 ball-shaped steel tool for1 #ca1 #cb 3 leather for1 #ag1 #bi1 #fa leather on plaster cast1 #ci-dj mosaic in relief1 #fa reed decoration1 #cd 3 sandbag for1 #cb stamped leather1 #ci 3 tools for1 #bi-cb 3 tracing design for1 #cb1 #cc 3 wax for1 #cc-cd ,mordants1 #fg ,morocco leather1 #af 3 ,cape1 #ag1 #db1 #gh 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag 3 colouring1 #fi 3 crushed1 #ag for mosaic1 #db1 #eh1 #ei 3 grain of1 #ag groundwork3 pasting inlay on1 #ei groundwork3 polychrome mosaic on1 #eh-ei groundwork3 tool for sticking inlay on1 #ei1 #fj 3 paring1 for inlay of polychrome mosaic1 #eh-ei 3 tanning materials used for1 #ae ,mosaic1 #af1 #db-fc bookbinding1 #ad 3 calf leather for1 #dc1 #ef 3 colouring leather for1 #db1 #fi 3 cutting out inlay for1 #df-di for coffers1 #gh 3 incrusted1 #fb-fc 3 incrusted1 cutting out1 #fb-fc 3 incrusted1 gilding outline of1 #fc 3 incrusted1 outlining1 #fc 3 incrusted1 tracing design for1 #fb in relief1 #fa-fb in relief3 carving1 #fa1 #fb in relief3 colouring1 #fb in relief3 cowhide for1 #fa in relief3 cutting out inlay for1 #fa in relief3 depressing groundwork for inlay of1 #fa in relief3 leather for1 #fa in relief3 modelling1 #fa in relief3 tracing design for1 #fa 3 inserted1 #ei-fj 3 inserted1 incising leather for1 #fj 3 inserted1 outlining1 #fj 3 leather for groundwork of1 #ag1 #db-dc 3 leather for inlay of1 #de 3 monochrome1 on calf1 #de 3 morocco leather as groundwork of1 #db1 #eh1 #ei 3 mounting inlay on paper lining for1 #de-df on modelled leather1 #ei on modelled leather3 paring leather for1 #ei 3 outlining1 #eb-ef 3 pasting inlay on groundwork for1 #di-ej1 #ei 3 paring leather for1 #dc-dd 3 pincers for1 #ej 3 polishing1 #ef1 #eg 3 polychrome1 #eg-ei 3 polychrome1 cutting out inlay for1 #eh-ei 3 polychrome1 morocco leather as inlay for1 #eh 3 polychrome1 on morocco groundwork1 #eh-ei 3 polychrome1 outlining1 #ei 3 polychrome1 paring morocco leather for inlay of1 #eh-ei 3 polychrome1 split sheepskins for1 #eh 3 polychrome1 stencil for marking out1 #eh 3 polychrome1 tracing design for1 #eg-eh 3 preparation of leather for groundwork of1 #dc-de 3 removing paper lining from inlay of1 #eb 3 roller for1 #ej1 #ea 3 setting in the inlay of1 #ej-eb 3 tracing design for1 #df ,mosaics of piqu leather1 #ac ,mosaque par incrustation1 see ,incrusted mosaic ,muriatic acid1 #ga ,nitrate of silver3 inks containing1 #gb ,nitric acid1 #ga ,oak tannin1 #ae1 #af ,oil colours1 #fg1 #hc ,openers1 #ae1 #bc1 #be-bf ,opening the outline of cut leather1 #bc1 #be-bf of modelled leather1 #bf1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc-cd ,open-work leather1 #af1 #ah1 #dj1 #da 3 cutting out1 #dj 3 groundwork for1 #ah1 #dj1 #da hangings1 #dj in relief1 #dj 3 plaited ornament on borders of1 #dj-da ,or basan1 #hc1 #hd ,outliners1 #eb-ef ,outlining design for coffers1 #gh incrusted mosaic1 #fc inserted mosaic1 #fj mosaic1 #eb-ef polychrome mosaic1 #ei ,outlining-wheels1 #ae1 #ce1 #ed1 #ef1 #fc ,oxalic acid1 #ga ,oxhide1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag 3 colouring1 #fi 3 incising1 #bb ,padding relief1 #cd1 #dj for coffers1 #gh ,panel3 gilt1 for painting on1 #hg-hh ,paring knives1 #dc ,paring leather1 #dc-dd for inlay of polychrome mosaic1 #eh-ei for mosaic on modelled leather1 #ei ,paste3 recipe for1 for mounting leather on wooden panels 7,theophilus71 #hb ,patine1 #cj1 #fd1 #fg1 #gb ,patines grasses1 #fg ,pearl-ash1 #fe ,pencils3 #f;,h graphite1 #ae1 #bj ,permanganate of potash1 #fe ,pictures on leather1 #hb1 #hd ,picric acid1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh ,pied de biche1 #cj ,pigskin1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag-ah 3 colouring1 #fi 3 in bookbinding1 #ag-ah ,pincers for mosaic1 #ej ,pinks1 #ff ,piqu leather3 mosaics of1 #ac ,plaited ornament on borders of open-work leather1 #dj-da ,plaster cast3 modelling leather on1 #ci-dj ,plaster casts for stamping leather1 #ci ,plaster padding1 #dj ,pointogravure1 #af1 #ch 3 tools for1 #ch ,polishing iron1 #ef1 #eg ,polishing mosaic1 #ef1 #eg ,pompon1 #gb ,portugal3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hc ,potash1 #fe1 #ff1 #fh1 #fi1 #gc1 #gg ,potash-lye1 #fe ,potassium1 #fe ,powder colours1 3 brush for1 #gd used with varnish1 #gc-gd ,presses for stamping leather1 #ch1 #ci ,pressing leather after pasting1 #de ,punched backgrounds1 see ,punched groundwork ,punched groundwork1 #af1 #bh1 #cd-cf for coffers1 #gh in leather hangings and furniture1 #hc 3 modelled leather with1 #af1 #bh1 #cd-cf ,punched leather1 #af1 #bh 3 colouring hollows of1 #ce1 #fe1 #fh1 #gc-gd1 #gh ,punches1 #ae1 #bh1 #ce1 #gh1 #hc 3 patterns produced with1 #ce used on gold1 #bh1 #ge ,pyrogravure1 #af1 #bg1 #bh1 #cf-cg 3 apparatus for1 #cf-cg 3 leather for1 #ag1 #ah 3 outlining incrusted mosaic by1 #fc ,quercitron1 #ff ,raumur3 ,mons4 de1 #hd1 #hf1 #hh ,red wood3 extracts of1 #ff ,reds1 #ff ,reed decoration1 #cd 3 padding for1 #cd 3 tool for working1 #cd ,reserved ornament1 #ga-gb 3 colour for groundwork of1 #gg ,roller for mosaic1 #ej1 #ea ,rubbing leather1 #cf1 #fe1 #fg1 #gb-gd1 #gg 3 flannel brush for1 #gc with encaustic1 #fe1 #gb-gc with varnish1 #gb-gc with wax1 #gb-gc ,russia leather1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ag for modelling1 #bi ,saffron1 #ff ,salts 3 metallic1 #ff of tin1 #ff ,sandbag for modelling1 #cb ,scraper1 #df ,semis1 #ce ,setting in the inlay of mosaic1 #ej-eb ,shaded groundwork1 #db1 #fi ,sheepskin1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #af1 #ag 3 colouring1 #af ,shell gold1 #bh1 #gd1 #ge ,shell silver1 #gd ,silver leaf1 #hf powder1 #gd 3 shell1 #gd 3 use of1 on leather1 #hc ,skins3 choice of1 #ae-ah ,soda1 #fe ,spain 3 leather decoration in1 #ac1 #ad1 #hj 3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hc1 #he 3 introduction of leather hangings and furniture into1 #hj ,spanish leather1 #hd ,spirit colours1 #fg ,split sheepskins 3 colouring1 #fi for inlaying1 #de1 #ef for polychrome mosaic1 #eh ,sprinkling1 #gj-ga 3 brush for1 #gj 3 grating for1 #gj 3 preparation for reserving ornament during 7,belleville71 #ga 3 tracing design for1 #ga 3 vaporiser for1 #ga ,stamped leather1 #af1 #ch-dj chairs1 #hd 3 cutting1 #ci in hangings and furniture1 #hc1 #hd 3 introduction into ,venice1 #ad 3 modelling1 #ci ,stamping leather1 #ch-dj 3 inks for1 #ci 3 presses for1 #ch1 #ci with copper-plate1 #ci with metal block1 #ci with plaster casts1 #ci with stencil1 #ch ,stearine3 plaster casts prepared with1 #ci ,steel clamps for holding leather1 #ca ,stencil-cutter's knife1 #df1 #fa ,stencilling1 #gb 3 brush for1 #gb 3 inks for1 #gb 3 leather for1 #ah ,stone3 lithographic1 #ae1 #dd ,study of design1 #gi ,sulphate of iron1 #fe1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #gf ,sulphuric acid1 #ga ,sumach tannin1 #ae ,superposed dyes1 #fe1 #fh1 #gf ,tanning materials1 #ae1 #af ,tanning process1 #ae 3 influence of1 on colour of leather1 #ae-af1 #fd 3 leather prepared to receive dyes by the1 #fg ,theophilus1 author of ,diversarum ,artium ,schedula 3 process of gilding described by1 #hj-ha 3 recipe for colouring tinfoil to give it the appearance of being gilt1 #hi 3 recipe for golden varnish1 #hh 3 recipe for paste for mounting leather on wooden panels1 #hb ,tools1 #af 3 bookbinders'1 for gilding1 #ge 3 effect of acids on steel1 #cj for carving1 #bg for modelling1 #bi-cb for pointogravure1 #ch for pyrogravure1 #cf-cg for sticking inlay on morocco groundwork1 #ei1 #fj for working reed decoration1 #cd ,tracing design1 #ai-bj for decolorants1 #ga for incrusted mosaic1 #fb for modelling1 #cb1 #cc for mosaic1 #df for mosaic in relief1 #fa for polychrome mosaic1 #eg-eh for sprinkling1 #ga on flesh side of leather1 #cb1 #cc ,tracing-point1 #ae1 #bj ,tree marbling1 #gj 3 brush for1 #gj ,turmeric1 #ff ,van ,orley1 painter1 #hc1 #hg-hh ,vaporiser for sprinkling1 #ga ,varnish 3 recipe for golden 7,boudaroy71 #hf-hg 3 recipe for golden 7,theophilus71 #hh 3 rubbing leather with1 #gb-gc 3 use of1 with powder colours1 #gc-gd ,vegetable dyes3 stability of1 #fd ,vellum1 #af 3 characteristics and methods of decorating1 #ah in bookbinding1 #ah ,venice 3 introduction of modelled and stamped leather into1 #ad 3 manufacture of leather hangings and furniture in1 #hc1 #he ,vermilion3 ,chinese1 #gd ,water-colours1 #fg ,wax for modelling1 #cc-cd padding1 #cd 3 rubbing leather with1 #gb-gc ,wheels 3 outlining1 #ae1 #ce1 #ed1 #ef1 #fc 3 patterns produced with1 #ce ,xanthin1 #fe ,yellows1 #ff ,zinc3 chromate of1 #ff ,butler ,tanner1 ,the ,selwood ,printing ,works1 ,frome1 and ,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,transcriber',s ,,amendments ,transcriber's ,note3 ,blank pages have been deleted4 ,some illustrations have been moved and the corresponding entries in the lists of illustrations updated4 ,footnotes have been moved to follow the referencing paragraph4 ,the publisher's inadvertent omissions of important punctuation have been corrected4 ,duplicative front matter has been removed4 ,the following list indicates any additional changes made4 ,the page number represents that of the original publication and applies in this etext except for footnotes and illustrations since they may have been moved4 ,key3 fromto3 ,page ,change - ,to face ,page,page #ab painted and gilt calf4 ,le ,roman de ,tristan et ,iseul,iseut4 #ef of wood covered with embossed leather1 cuir bouillbouilli4 #hc of repeating ornament for figures and landscopeslandscapes4 99 99 99 99 99