,,nasa ,,sp-#ib ,significant ,a*ievem5ts 9 ,space ,biosci5ce #aieh-aifd ,sci5tific & ,te*nical ,in=mation ,division #aiff ,,national ,,a]onautics ,,& ,,space ,,adm9i/ration ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c4 ,= sale by ! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,docum5ts1 ,u4,s4 ,gov]nm5t ,pr9t+ ,(fice ,wa%+ton1 ,d4,c41 #bjdjb--,price #ee c5ts ,=eword ,?is volume is "o ( a s]ies :i* summ>ize ! progress made dur+ ! p]iod #aieh ?r\gh #aifd 9 discipl9e areas cov]$ by ! ,space ,sci5ce & ,applications ,program ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 ?is way1 ! contribution made by ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration is highlight$ aga9/ ! backgr\nd ( ov]all progress 9 ea* discipl9e4 ,succe$+ issues w docum5t ! results f lat] ye>s4 ,! initial issue ( ?is s]ies appe>s 9 #aj volumes 7,,nasa ,special ,publications #ia to #ajj7 :i* describe ! a*ievem5ts 9 ! foll[+ areas3 ,a/ronomy1 ,biosci5ce1 ,communications & ,navigation1 ,geodesy1 ,ionosph]es & ,radio ,physics1 ,meteorology1 ,p>ticles & ,fields1 ,planet>y ,atmosph]es1 ,planetology1 & ,sol> ,physics4 ,al?\gh we d n "h attempt to "n ^? :o h contribut$ to our program dur+ ^! fir/ #f ye>s1 bo? 9 ! exp]im5tal & !oretical rese>* & 9 ! analysis1 compilation1 & report+ ( results1 nev]!less we wi% to ackn[l$ge all ! contributions to a v fruitful program 9 :i* ?is c\ntry may take ju/ifiable pride4 ,hom] ,e4 ,newell ,associate ,adm9i/rator = ,space ,sci5ce & ,applications1 ,,nasa ,preface ,?is summ>y ( c]ta9 aspects ( ! space biology program ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration br+s toge!r "s results ( ,,nasa rese>* & ,,nasa-sponsor$ rese>* "u grants & contracts f #aieh ?r\gh #aifd4 ,closely relat$ rese>* ev5 ?\gh n sponsor$ by ,,nasa is also includ$4 ,! space biology program has _h a late />t 9 comp>ison ) ! space physics program1 & only a tok5 program exi/$ be=e #aifb4 ,mu* ( ! pres5t rese>* involves prep>ation ( space-flight exp]im5ts & obta9m5t ( adequate basel9e in=mation4 ,p]haps half ! rese>* results report$ are d]iv$ f ! ,,nasa program4 ,additional in=mation is includ$ f _m o!r s\rces1 especially ! ,u4,s4 ,air ,=ce ) its long hi/ory ( "w 9 aviation & a]ospace m$ic9e4 ,relatively few biological space-flight exp]im5ts h be5 und]tak54 ,^! h be5 to te/ life-support sy/ems & to demon/rate1 be=e mann$ space flight1 an animal's capability to survive4 ,few critical biological exp]im5ts h be5 plac$ 9 orbit by ,,nasa1 b a biosatellite program w soon make a detail$ /udy ( ! fundam5tal biological effects ( weightlessness1 biorhy?ms1 & radiation4 ,! se>* = extrat]re/rial life has be5 limit$ to gr\nd-bas$ rese>* & plann+ = planet>y & lun> l&+s4 ,life-detection exp]im5ts h be5 develop$ & te/$1 & an important & excit+ program is be+ plann$ to detect & /udy extrat]re/rial life1 if x exi/s4 ,int]e/ 9 space biology has be5 sl[ 9 develop+1 & !re has be5 "s caution & controv]sy 9 ! sci5tific community4 ,h[ev]1 increas$ int]e/ is />t+ to pu% =w>d ! fronti] ( ?is new & important sci5tific field1 & future outlook appe>s to be optimi/ic4 ,?is summ>y 0 writt5 & compil$ by ! memb]s ( ! ,biosci5ce ,programs ,division ( ! ,(fice ( ,space ,sci5ce & ,applications4 ,! report 0 edit$ & *apt]s #a1 #c1 #f1 & #g 7 writt5 by ,dale ,w4 ,j5k9s1 ,*ief1 ,environm5tal ,biology2 *apt] #b1 by ,gregg ,mamikunian1 ,/aff ,sci5ti/1 ,exobiology2 *apt]s #d & #h1 by ,ri*>d ,e4 ,belleville1 ,*ief1 ,behavioral ,biology2 & *apt] #e1 by ,george ,j4 ,jacobs1 ,*ief1 ,physical ,biology4 ,cont5ts page #a ,,backgr\nd 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444 #a #b ,,exobiology 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444 #e #c ,,environm5tal ,,biology 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 #bc #d ,,behavioral ,,biology 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444 #dc #e ,,molecul> ,,biology ,,& ,,bio9/rum5tation 444444444444444444444 #eg #f ,,flight ,,programs 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #fe #g ,,mann$ ,,space ,,flight 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 #gg #h ,,significance ,,( ,,! ,,a*ievem5ts 44444444444444444444444444444 #aaa ,,ref]5ces 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444 #aai *apt] #a ,backgr\nd ,! biological program ( ! ,national ,a]onautics & ,space ,adm9i/ration _h a late />t4 ,a small life sci5ces gr\p1 organiz$ 9 #aieh1 0 conc]n$ ) life support & use ( primates = sy/em & vehicle te/+ = ! ,m]cury program4 ,?ree small suborbital flights ( biological mat]ials 7 fl[n 9 space4 ,! ,biosci5ce ,program ,(fice ( ! ,(fice ( ,space ,sci5ce & ,applications 0 organiz$ 9 #aifb4 ,! goals ( ! ,biosci5ce ,program are3 7#a7 to det]m9e if extrat]re/rial life exi/s any:]e 9 ! sol> sy/em & to /udy its orig91 nature1 & level ( developm5t1 if x is pres5t2 7#b7 to det]m9e ! effects ( space & planet>y environm5ts on ,e>? organisms1 includ+ man2 7#c7 to conduct biological rese>* to develop life support & protective measures = ext5d$ mann$ space flight2 & 7#d7 to develop fundam5tal !ories 9 biology relative to orig91 developm5t1 & relation%ip to environm5t4 ,rese>* & developm5t has be5 c>ri$ out to design life-detection exp]im5ts & in/rum5ts = future flights to ,m>s & to develop exp]im5ts to /udy ! effects ( ! space environm5t on liv+ organisms4 ,a biosatellite program1 />t$ 9 #aifc1 has ! fir/ ( six flights s*$ul$ = #aiff4 ,space exploration has dem&$ a rigor\s developm5t1 especially 9 ! biosci5ces area4 ,inve/igation ( ! sol> sy/em = exotic life =ms1 ! environm5tal extremes to :i* ,e>? organisms 7includ+ man7 are be+ expos$1 ! possibilities = modification ( planet>y environm5ts by biological te*niques yet to be develop$1 & ! problems ( communication 9 biosy/ems are areas :i* h requir$ ref9em5t ( ! !oretical framework ( biology be=e progress c\ld be made rapidly en\gh to keep pace ) te*nological advances 9 transportation4 ,( all ! sci5ces1 biology alone has n yet b5efit$ f comp>isons ) ! univ]se beyond ,e>?4 ,x is reasonable to suppose t break?r\ghs might be made 9 biology on ! basis ( comp>isons ) life f o!r worlds4 ,organisms else:]e may h f\nd alt]natives to processes we ?9k ( z basic *>act]i/ics ( life4 ,9 contra/1 physical sci5ce has advanc$ suffici5tly to provide a great body ( laws :i* may be express$ 9 ma!matical t]ms1 & by :i* ph5om5a may be pr$ict$ ) complete accuracy4 ,a well-kn[n *>act]i/ic ( biological ph5om5a is v>iability4 ,! ,d>w9ian concept ( evolution is p]haps ! only p]vad+ g5]alization 9 biology4 ,?is concept has be5 support$ by evid5ce ( a h]$it>y me*anism 9 ! discov]y ( g5es & g5e mutations4 ,space biosci5ce repres5ts ! conv]g5ce ( ma9 discipl9es ) a s+le ori5tation1 ^: direction is det]m9$ by ! problems ( mann$ space travel :i* h1 9 turn1 creat$ a ho/ ( bio5g9e]+ problems conc]n$ ) support+ man 9 space4 ,=emo/ among ^! que/ions is ! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( extrat]re/rial life4 ,! field :i* is conc]n$ ) ! se>* = extrat]re/rial life has come to be call$ exobiology4 ,9 addition to ! *all5ge ( great te*nological problems :i* mu/ be solv$1 exobiology is s closely relat$ to ! c5tral sci5tific que/ions 9 biological sci5ce t x is consid]$ by "s to be ! mo/ significant pursuit 9 all ( sci5ce4 ,"o ( ! major opportunities already pres5t$ by ! advances 9 propulsion sy/ems is ! ability to escape f ! influ5ce ( ! ,e>?1 :i* has made possible ! /udy ( organism-environm5t relation%ips1 p>ticul>ly ! role t environm5tal /imuli play 9 ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( normal organization 9 liv+ sy/ems4 ,transc5d+ ev5 ^! =midable objectives ( space biosci5ce is an objective %>$ by all life sci5ces1 ! discov]y ( nature's s*eme = cod+ ! messages conta9$ 9 biological molecules4 ,extrat]re/rial biology seeks to f9d n only evid5ce ( life n[ pres5t1 b ! ve/igial *emicals ( its previ\s exi/5ce4 ,! ways & means h already be5 made available to /udy molecules on ^: long1 record$ messages is writt5 ! autobiography ( evolution--! hi/ory ( liv+ organisms ext5d+ back to ! beg9n+s ( life4 ,on ?is same basis1 x is n[ )9 ! realm ( sci5ce to =esee ! means ( pr$ict+ ! developm5t ( life f primordial1 nonliv+ *emical sy/ems4 ,closely alli$ to ! se>* = extrat]re/rial life is rese>* :i* seeks to id5tify ! mat]ials & ! conditions :i* are ! pr]equisites ( life4 ,space biosci5ce rese>* is n[ ext5d+ human k ( fundam5tal biological ph5om5a1 bo? 9 space & on ,e>?1 j z ! physical sci5ces explore o!r aspects ( ! univ]se4 ,! accompli%m5t ( biosci5ce objectives is totally dep5d5t ^u advances 9 ! te*nology ( space flight4 ,a highly develop$ laun*-vehicle capability is ess5tial to accompli% ! long-duration missions requir$ 9 ! se>* = extrat]re/rial life4 ,life on o!r planets 9 ! sol> sy/em 7) emphasis on ,m>s7 w be inve/igat$ by full exploitation ( space te*nology :i* w all[ bo? remote 7orbit]7 & direct 7l&]7 obs]vations ( ! planet>y atmosph]e1 surface1 & subsurface4 ,c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( t]re/rial life1 su* z gr[? & reproduction1 provide a basis = relatively simple exp]im5ts :i* may be us$ on e>ly missions to detect ! exi/5ce ( life on ,m>s4 ,lat] missions w provide ext5sive automatic laboratory capabilities = analyz+ _m samples tak5 f v>i\s dep?s & locations4 ,because ( ! hypo!tical nature ( curr5t exp]im5t designs1 x is likely t visual obs]vations ( ! planet w be requir$4 ,_m te*nical problems are involv$ 9 /or+ & transmitt+ ! l>ge am\nts ( data ov] planet>y di/ances4 ,su* visual obs]vations might v well be crucial 9 int]pret+ results f o!r exp]im5ts4 ,critical to all exploration ( ! ,moon & planets are ! requirem5ts to3 7#a7 prev5t contam9ation ( ! environm5t ) ,e>? organisms & pres]ve ! exi/+ conditions ( ! planet = biological exploration2 7#b7 provide /rict qu>ant9e = any?+ return$ to ,e>? f ! ,moon & planets4 ,! biological exploration ( ,m>s is a sci5tific und]tak+ ( ! greate/ significance4 ,its realization w be a major mile/one 9 ! hi/ory ( human a*ievem5t4 ,! *>act]ization ( life1 if pres5t1 & /udy ( ! evolution>y processes involv$ & _! relation%ip to ! evolution ( t]re/rial life w\ld h a great sci5tific & philosophical impact4 ,:at is at /ake is no?+ less ?an k ( our place 9 nature4 ,ext5d$ ,e>? orbital flights ) subhuman specim5s w be us$ to det]m9e ! effects on ,e>? organisms ( prolong$ weightlessness1 radiation1 & removal f ! influ5ce ( ! ,e>?'s rotation4 ,su* flights ( biosatellites & o!r suitable spacecraft are expect$ to3 7#a7 e/abli% biological specifications = ext5d+ ! duration ( mann$ space flight2 7#b7 provide a flexible means ( te/+ un=ese5 cont+5cies1 ?us provid+ an effective biological backup = mann$ missions2 7#c7 yield exp]im5tal data m rapidly by virtue ( ! great] numb] & exp5dability ( subjects2 7#d7 anticipate possible delay$ effects appe>+ 9 lat] life or 9 subsequ5t g5]ations1 ?r\gh use ( animal subjects ) m rapid developm5t & ag+2 7#e7 develop & te/ new physiological in/rum5tation te*niques1 surgical prep>ations1 prophylactic te*niques1 & !rapeutic proc$ures :i* are n possible on human subjects2 & 7#f7 provide a broad backgr\nd ( exp]i5ce & data :i* w p]mit m accurate int]pretations ( obs]v$ effects ( space flight on liv+ organisms1 includ+ man4 *apt] #b ,exobiology ,! possibility ( discov]+ an indep5d5t life =m on a planet o!r ?an ,e>? pres5ts an unequal$ *all5ge 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5tific se>*4 ,!re=e1 ! detection ( life )9 ! sol> sy/em is a major objective ( space rese>* 9 ! =eseeable future4 ,! sci5tific data pres5tly available conc]n+ ! possible exi/5ce ( a ,m>tian life =m & ! *emical con/itution ( ! surface ( ,m>s are disappo9t+ly few4 ,9 fact1 x is impossible to make a /atem5t ab\t any ( ! _m surface features1 o!r ?an ! pol> caps1 ) any degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,! obs]vational results h be5 acc\nt$ = by _m conflict+ hypo!ses :i* c only be resolv$ by ! accumulation ( new evid5ce4 ,! argum5ts support+ ! exi/5ce ( ,m>tian life 7ref4#a7 are bas$ on ! foll[+ obs]vations3 7#a7 ,! v>i\s colors1 includ+ gre51 exhibit$ by ! d>k areas 7#b7 ,! seasonal *anges 9 ! visual alb$o & pol>ization ( ! d>k areas 7#c7 ,! ability ( ! d>k areas to reg5]ate aft] an ext5sive du//orm 7#d7 ,! pres5ce ( absorption b&s at #c4c-c4g1 attribut$ to organic molecules ,conflict+ int]pretations ( ! above obs]vations h be5 advanc$4 ,! argum5t bas$ on ! colors is inconclusive1 & sev]al work]s h sugge/$ t ! color is a contra/ effect ) ! bright-r$di% cont95ts4 ,! meag] quantitative data h be5 discuss$ by pik 7ref4#b7 :o has r$uc$ ,kozyrev's photometric obs]vations ( ! v d>k area ( ,syrtis ,major to intr9sic reflectivities by all[+ = ! e/imat$ atmosph]ic att5uation & reflectivity4 ,kuip] 7ref4#c7 simil>ly demon/rat$ ! abs5ce ( ! ne>-infr>$ reflection maximum1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( mo/ gre5 plants1 indicat+ t *lorophyll 0 n responsible = ! color4 ,! second & ?ird argum5ts rema9 ! mo/ cog5t4 ,h[ev]1 s]i\s limitations are impos$ on ! second if ! sev]ity ( ! ,m>tian climate is consid]$4 ,fcas 7ref4#d7 has photometrically measur$ ! seasonal *anges 9 ! f9e /ructure ( ! d>k areas ( ,m>s & concludes t-- 7#a7 ,! d>k areas ( ,m>s %[ p]iodic v>iation ( int5sity foll[+ ! cycle ( ! d>k5+ elem5t 7#b7 ,! av]age int5sity ( ! d>k area1 n includ+ ! action ( ! d>k5+ waves1 increases f ! poles t[>d ! equator 7#c7 ,! action ( ea* ( ! d>k5+ waves decreases f ! poles t[>d ! equator4 ,?is decrease is balanc$ 9 ! equatorial zone by ! comb9$ action ( ! two d>k5+ waves alt]nately orig9at+ at ! two poles4 ,! me*anism ( ! d>kness-g5]at+ elem5t seems to be con/ant = all latitudes dur+ ! ,m>tian ye>4 ,! v>iation 9 int5sity has be5 expla9$ rec5tly by nonlife me*anisms = ,depressio ,hellespontica 7an area %[+ "o ( ! greate/ seasonal *anges7 7ref4#b74 ,simil> nonlife me*anisms may be applicable to ! o!r d>k regions1 &1 ?us1 ! d>k5+ c be us$ only z circum/antial evid5ce 9 support ( a ,m>tian life =m4 ,if inorganic int]pretations ( ! seasonal alb$o v>iation are accept$1 !n an inorganic int]pretation mu/ also be advanc$ = ! pol>ization v>iation4 ,two possibilities c be sugge/$3 7#a7 ,a *ange 9 surface texture1 caus$ by v>y+ absorption ( atmosph]ic con/itu5ts1 caus+ bo? ! alb$o & pol>ization to *ange 9 ! mann] obs]v$ 7#b7 ,a *ange 9 surface texture1 9 :i* ! surface mat]ial becomes r\gh]1 :i* also expla9s ! obs]v$ pol>ization data 7ref4#e7 ,! ?ird argum5t aga9/ ! reg5]ative feature ( ! d>k areas be+ a life process has be5 advanc$ by ,kuip] 7ref4#f74 ,x is bas$ on atmosph]ic circulation caus+ du/1 presumably lava1 to be bl[n on ! d>k areas ( ,m>s dur+ ! late summ]1 autumn1 & w9t]1 & !n remov$ dur+ ! spr+4 ,mamikunian & ,moore h rec5tly advanc$ ! simil> explanation t c>bonace\s *ondrites or a/]oidal matt] may induce ! obs]v$ ph5om5on if !y are abundant on ! planet's surface4 ,! pulv]iz$ *ondritic mat]ial w exhibit a high degree ( opacity due to localization &1 h5ce1 a *ange 9 pol>ization *>act]i/ics & a decrease 9 pol>ization foll[+ mix+ ( ! *ondritic mat]ial ) indig5\s surface m9]als4 ,! f\r? obs]vational argum5t1 ! ,s9ton b&s 7ref4#g71 has be5 %[n to be at lea/ d\btful4 ,rea1 ,belsky1 & ,calv9 7ref4#h7 record$ infr>$ reflection spectra = a l>ge numb] ( inorganic & organic samples1 includ+ m9]als & biological specim5s1 = ! purpose ( int]pret+ ! #c-to-#a spectrum ( ,m>s4 ,^! au?ors /ate t a previ\s sugge/ion t ! ,m>tian b&s be attribut$ solely to c>bohydrates is n a requir$ conclusion4 ,at ! same "t !y fail to pres5t a satisfactory alt]nate explanation1 & ! problem rema9s unsolv$4 ,m rec5tly1 ,rea et al4 7ref4#i7 not$ ! simil>ity betwe5 ! #c4eh & #c4fi m9ima 9 ! ,m>tian infr>$ spectra & ^? ( ,d,o-,,hdo-,h,o mixtures &1 p>ticul>ly1 ( ,,hdo4 ,) all ?is m>k$ disagreem5t 9 int]pret+ ! obs]vational data conc]n+ ,m>s1 x becomes cle>ly evid5t t an exp]im5tal approa* to ! detection ( life on ,m>s %\ld provide ! maximum positive in=mation possible4 ,"s life-detection exp]im5ts develop$ ) ,,nasa support h be5 summ>iz$ by ,quimby 7ref4#aj74 ,! s*ema ( ! biological exploration ( a planet is to conduct a s]ies ( complem5t>y exp]im5ts proce$+ f g5]al to specific4 ,! g5]al exp]im5ts w exam9e gross *>act]i/ics ( ! planet's environm5t & surface = det]m9+ ! probability ( an active biota 7life74 ,data f ! g5]al exp]im5ts w be significant 9-- 7#a7 ,def9+ ! nature ( specific exp]im5ts 9 :i* life detection is ! major objective2 & 7#b7 ,provid+ a high degree ( confid5ce 9 und]tak+ specific exp]im5ts1 s9ce indications f ! gross *>act]ization ( ! planet 9 "q w influ5ce ! *oice & design ( ! specific exp]im5ts4 ,! biological exploration ( planets is !n to be def9$ z ! se>* = ^? p>amet]s relevant to ! orig91 developm5t1 su/5ance1 & degradation ( life 9 a planet>y environm5t4 ,?is def9ition w give rise to a critical "q = ea* progressively specific & complex exp]im5t to det]m9e-- 7#a7 ,! exi/5ce ( life on ! planet 7#b7 ,! degree ( simil>ity or dissimil>ity 7/ructure & function7 ) respect to t]re/rial life 7#c7 ,! orig9 ( ?is planet>y life ,! imm$iate objective ( ! biological explorations ( ! planet is to def9e ! /ate ( ! planet>y surface1 :i* may exhibit ! foll[+ prop]ties3 7#a7 ,a prebiota 7def9$ z ! abs5ce ( life7 7#b7 ,an active biota 7def9$ z ! pres5ce ( life7 7#c7 ,an ext9ct biota 7def9$ z evid5ce ( =m] life7 ,! id5tification & ! detail$ *>act]ization ( ea* ( ! above /ages ( planet>y developm5t con/itute ! subject matt] ( ! biological exploration ( ! planets &1 specifically1 ,m>s4 ,,! ,,exp]im5tal ,,inve/igation ,,( ,,*emical ,,evolution ,attempts h be5 made to simulate & approximate models ( primitive ,e>? conditions = abiog5ic syn!sis1 & successful syn!sis ( ess5tial bio*emical con/itu5ts necess>y = ma9ta9+ life has be5 p>tly accompli%$4 ,urey 7ref4#aa7 has cle>ly po9t$ out ! possible role ( a r$uc+ atmosph]e 9 ! syn!sis ( prebiological organic molecules4 ,mill] 7ref4#ab7 syn!siz$ a v>iety ( am9o acids 9 a r$uc+ atmosph]e by means ( an electrical dis*>ge4 ,a v>iety ( organic comp\nds h be5 syn!siz$ by ! action ( v>i\s en]gy s\rces ^u r$uc+ atmosph]es1 & sev]al inve/igators h ext5d$ ! ,urey-,mill]-type reactions to syn!size nucleic acid compon5ts 7ref4#ac71 ad5os9e triphosphate 7ref4#ad71 & a ho/ ( biologically ess5tial organic comp\nds4 ,x is likely t 9 ! syn!sis ( organic moieties1 simple & specific molecules 7 fir/ produc$ :5 ! planets _h a r$uc+ atmosph]e4 ,fur!r complexity or degradation ( ! organic comp\nds produc$ v>i$1 dep5d+ on ! geo*emical *anges ( ! planet's surface1 ! atmosph]ic con/itu5ts1 ! degree ( int]action betwe5 surface & atmosph]e1 & ! rate ( ! organic syn!sis4 ,op>9 7ref4#ae7 pres5t$ ! mo/ detail$ me*anisms = ! spontane\s g5]ation ( ! fir/ liv+ organism aris+ 9 a sea ( organic comp\nds syn!siz$ 9 a r$uc+ atmosph]e on ,e>?4 ,x is g5]ally accept$ t1 "u favorable conditions1 life c arise by spontane\s g5]ation4 ,a prim>y requirem5t = ?is initiation is t !re be abundant organic comp\nds conc5trat$ 9 "o or m specific zones4 ,^! simple organic molecules w\ld und]go modification to develop a great] /ructural complexity & specificity1 f9ally giv+ rise to a liv+ organism4 ,!re=e1 because ( ! ease ) :i* organic comp\nds c be syn!siz$ "u r$uc+ conditions1 planet>y surfaces may conta9 an abundant s\rce ( simil> organic matt]4 ,h[ev]1 difficulties arise 9 po/ulat+ /eps = fur!r organization or modification ( ! above syn!siz$ organic matt] into a liv+ /ate4 ,mo/ ( ! orig9al organic matt] produc$ 9 ! prim>y r$uc+ atmosph]es ( ! v>i\s planets may h be5 q simil>4 ,h[ev]1 major v>iations betwe5 planets1 9 *emical evolution beyond ! prebiotic /age1 mu/ h be5 ! rule r ?an ! exception4 ,! prim>y int]e/ 9 ?is area ( rese>* has be5 ! realization ( ! possible exi/5ce ( organic molecules on planet>y surfaces &1 p>ticul>ly1 ,m>s4 ,p]t95t syn!sis may be ei!r biological or abiological4 ,rese>* conduct$ 9 ! simulation ( cosmo*emical syn!sis has us$ mo/ ( ! available sol> spectrum4 ,simulation exp]im5ts devis$ to /udy ! effects ( ^! en]gies on ! assum$ e>ly atmosph]e ( ! ,e>? h yield$ products t play a dom9ant role 9 molecul> & bio*emical organization ( ! cell4 ,calv9 7ref4#af7 irradiat$ wat] & c>bon dioxide 9 a cyclotron1 obta9+ =maldehyde & =mic acid4 ,mill] 7ref4#ag7 f\nd t :5 me?ane1 ammonia1 wat]1 & hydrog5 7 subject$ to a high-frequ5cy electrical dis*>ge1 sev]al am9o acids 7 produc$ along ) a v>iety ( o!r organic comp\nds4 ,corroborat+ exp]im5ts e/abli%$ t ! syn!sis ( am9o acids occurr$ readily4 ,! app>5t me*anism = ! production ( am9o acids is z foll[s3 aldehydes & hydrog5 cyanide are syn!siz$ 9 ! gas phase by ! electrical dis*>ge4 ,^! sub/ances react toge!r & also toge!r ) ammonia 9 ! wat] phase ( ! sy/em to give hydroxy & am9o nitriles1 :i* are !n hydrolyz$ to hydroxy & am9o acids4 ,among ! major con/itu5ts 7 asp>tic acid1 glutamic acid1 glyc9e1 -alan9e1 & -alan9e4 ,! ,mill]-,urey reaction mixture has be5 ext5d$ & sev]al modifications introduc$4 ,or 7ref4#ah7 introduc$ hydrog5 cyanide into ! sy/em z ! prim>y gas compon5t4 ,ad59e 0 obta9$ :5 ,or heat$ a conc5trat$ solution ( hydrog5 cyanide 9 aque\s ammonia = sev]al days at temp]atures up to #ajj ,c4 ,ad59e is an ess5tial compon5t ( nucleic acids & ( sev]al important co5zymes4 ,guan9e & urea 7 ! two o!r products id5tifi$ 9 ! hydrog5 cyanide reaction4 ,or fur!r obta9$ guan9e & uracil z products ( non5zymatic reactions by us+ c]ta9 pur9e int]m$iates z />t+ mat]ials4 ,ponnamp]uma 7ref4#ai7 also obta9$ ad59e ^u irradiation ( me?ane1 ammonia1 hydrog51 & wat]1 us+ a high-en]gy electron beam z ! s\rce ( en]gy ( irradiation4 ,^! results indicate t ad59e is v readily syn!siz$ "u abiotic conditions4 ,ad59e1 among ! biologically important pur9es & pyrimid9es1 has ! greate/ resonance en]gy1 ?us mak+ its syn!sis m likely & imp>t+ great] radiation /ability to ! molecule4 ,! =mation ( ad59e & guan9e1 ! pur9es 9 ,,rna & ,,dna1 by a relatively simple abiological process l5ds fur!r support to ! hypo!sis t ess5tial bio*emical con/itu5ts ( life may h orig9at$ on ,e>? by a gradual *emical evolution & selection4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! exam9ation ( planet>y surfaces--specifically ,m>s--pres5ts practical implications = curr5t rese>* on ! problem ( *emical evolution4 ,:5 ,ponnamp]uma et al4 7ref4#ad7 expos$ ad59e & ribose to ultraviolet light 9 ! pres5ce ( phosphate1 ad5os9e 0 produc$4 ,:5 ! ad59e & ribose 7 simil>ly expos$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ! e?yl e/] ( polyphosphoric acid1 ad5os9e diphosphate 7,,adp7 & ad5os9e triphosphate 7,,atp7 7 produc$4 ,! abiological =mation ( ,,atp 0 a major /ride along ! pa? ( *emical evolution1 s9ce ,,atp is ! pr9cipal free en]gy s\rce ( liv+ organisms4 ,op>9 7ref4#ae7 po/ulat$ t -am9o acids c\ld h be5 =m$ nonbiologically f hydroc>bons1 ammonia1 & hydrog5 cyanide at a "t :5 ! ,e>?'s atmosph]e conta9$ ^! sub/ances 9 high conc5trations4 ,op>9's hypo!sis has receiv$ /rong exp]im5tal support1 z evid5c$ by ! "w ( ,mill] 7ref4#ab74 ,b]nal 7ref4#bj7 has emphasiz$ ! role play$ by ultraviolet light 9 ! =mation ( organic comp\nds at a c]ta9 /age ( ! ,e>?'s evolution4 ,g5]ally x has be5 believ$ t ! fir/ prote9s or =eprote9 7 nonbiologically =m$ by ! polycond5sation ( pre=m$ free am9o acids 7ref4#ba74 ,akabori 7ref4#bb7 propos$ a hypo!sis = ! orig9 ( ! =eprote9 & speculat$ t x mu/ h be5 produc$ ?r\gh reactions consi/+ ( ! foll[+ ?ree /eps4 ,! fir/ /ep is ! =mation ( am9oacetonitrile f =maldehyde1 ammonia1 & hydrog5 cyanide4 ,,*,o ,,nh ,,hcn -------- ,h,n--,,*--,,cn ,h,o ,! second is ! polym]ization ( am9oacetonitrile on a solid surface1 probably absorb$ on clay1 foll[$ by ! hydrolysis ( ! polym] to polyglyc9e & ammonia4 x ,h,n--,,*--,,cn -------- 7--,,nh--,,*--,c--7 ,,nh x ,h,o ,v 7--,,nh--,,*--,,co--7 x ,,nh ,! ?ird /ep is ! introduction ( side *a9s into polyglyc9e by ! reaction ) aldehydes or ) unsaturat$ hydroc>bons4 ,akabori has demon/rat$ exp]im5tally ! =mation ( cy/9yl & cy/e9yl residue 9 8 above-po/ulat$ me*anism4 ,fox's !ory ( !rmal copolym]ization 7ref4#bc7 sugge/s t prote9s or l molecul> units c\ld h be5 =m$ 9 ! ,e>?'s cru/1 "u geo!rmal conditions4 ,! accumulat$ am9o acids 7 heat polym]iz$ & transport$ into ! prim>y oceans = fur!r modifications4 ,fox has obta9$ polym]s consi/+ ( all #ah am9o acids usually pres5t 9 prote9s4 ,! polym]ization is g5]ally done at #afj ,c to #bjj ,c1 al?\gh 9 ! pres5ce ( polyphosphoric acid x c be accompli%$ at temp]atures bel[ #ajj ,c4 ,molecul> weights increas$ f #cfjj 9 a prote9oid made at #afj ,c to #hfjj 9 "o made at #aij ,c4 ,fox %[$ t :5 hot saturat$ solutions ( !rmal copolym]s conta9+ ! #ah common am9o acids 7 all[$ to cool1 l>ge numb]s ( uni=m1 relatively firm1 & ela/ic sph]ules sep>ate4 ,^! range f #j4b to #fj 9 diamet] & are q uni=m )9 ea* prep>ation4 ,v>i\s *emical obs]vations sugge/ ! pres5ce ( peptide bonds 9 ! /ructural organization ( ^! prote9oids4 ,cont9u+ obs]vations ( ^! microsph]es h e/abli%$ fur!r *>act]i/ics t po9t to ! possibility ( _! int]pretation z a k9d ( primitive prote9 macromolecule ) self-organiz+ prop]ties1 su* t a primitive =m ( cell1 ) b\nd>y & o!r prop]ties1 might =m4 ,9 laboratory exp]im5ts ! behavior ( gram-negative & gram-positive microsph]es 9 dilute alkali p>allels t ( gram-negative & gram-positive bact]ia 7ref4#bc74 ,fur!rmore1 "t-lapse /udies indicate t ! prote9oid microsph]es und]go a septate k9d ( fission1 mimick+ cell division z %[n 9 figure #a4 ,cyto*emical /udies %[ t ! microsph]e's b\nd>y is membranelike 9 hav+ a primitive selectivity4 ,electron micrographs ( sections ( /a9$ microsph]es also indicate ! pres5ce ( a b\nd>y4 ,op>9 7ref4#ae7 /ates t ! type ( organization peculi> to life c\ld only result f ! evolution ( a multimolecul> organic sy/em sep>at$ f its environm5t by a di/9ct b\nd>y b con/antly int]act+ ) ?is environm5t4 ,9 8 concept ( coac]vates z precell models1 ,op>9 7ref4#bd7 indicates t pres5t-day protoplasm possesses a numb] ( features simil> to coac]vate /ructure4 ,^! coac]vates c\ld repres5t ! />t+ po9t = evolution lead+ to ! orig9 ( life4 ,moreov]1 9 ! c\rse ( _! evolution ! initial sy/ems may gradually become m complex4 ,op>9 also %[$ 7ref4#ae7 t mix+ solutions ( diff]5t prote9s & o!r sub/ances ( high molecul> weight produc$ ^! coac]vate droplets4 ,^! droplets are *>act]iz$ by ! =mation ( a surface lay] ) alt]$ /ructure & me*anical prop]ties1 ?us provid+ a some:at selective b>ri] 9 :i* to h\se a molecul> sy/em capable ( replication4 ,h[ev]1 ^! coac]vates are un/able /ructurally4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #a4--,prot5oid microsph]es und]go+ septate fission4 ,small microsph]es & filam5t\s associations !re( are also %[n 7ref4#be74 ,! ,,nasa program has fur!r provid$ consid]able impetus = cont9u+ rese>* ) respect to ! *emical evolution ( life1 s9ce its life-detection exp]im5ts may enc\nt] prebiological molecules 9 _! se>* = extrat]re/rial life on o!r planet>y surfaces4 ,9 ! area ( exobiological rese>*1 ! significant accompli%m5ts to date h be5-- 7#a7 ,! recon/ruction ( "s ( ! pa?ways :i* may h l$ to ! orig9 ( life1 by means ( laboratory simulation ( processes yield+ prebiological organic molecules 7#b7 ,! developm5ts 9 exp]im5tal & !oretical biology2 specifically1 ! role ( nucleic acid-prote9 int]actions 9 /orage & transmission ( in=mation bo? )9 liv+ cells & f g5]ation to g5]ation ( cells 7#c7 ,! suspect$ role ( ,,dna 9 in=mation /orage & ! developm5t ( new concepts ( ! cod+ me*anism 9 ,,dna t may lead to a univ]sal biological !ory embrac+ evolution>y1 z well z homeo/atic1 adaptation to environm5t & le>n$ behavioral sy/ems ,) ! ess5tial bio*emical con/itu5ts ( life & ! me*anism ( replication beg9n+ to be und]/ood1 ! *all5ge = ! syn!sis ( liv+ matt] by abiog5ic exp]im5tal te*niques has become to _m sci5ti/s ! ultimate goal ( ! sci5tific era4 ,,nasa has e/abli%$ an exobiology laboratory at ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t] 9 addition to ! sizable support ( rese>* at v>i\s academic c5t]s ( excell5ce = ! cont9uation ( abiog5ic syn!sis4 ,al?\gh rese>* on organo*emical evolution is 9 its infancy1 ! data f relatively few exp]im5ts h already creat$ an imm5se en?usiasm = k ( ! bio*emical pa?ways ( evolution4 ,?is k9d ( rese>* w ultimately elucidate ! t]re/rial evolution ( life &1 p]haps1 ! nature ( life on o!r planet>y bodies & ! di/ribution ( life 9 our galaxy4 ,?is program1 ) its va/ dem&s on ! sci5tific community at l>ge1 is coord9at$ ) relat$ endeavors ( a numb] ( ,f$]al ag5cies4 ,x is alli$ ) c]ta9 bio*emical /udies at ! ,national ,in/itutes ( ,heal? = ! ev5tual elucidation ( ! dynamic pa?ways 9 cosmo*emical syn!sis ( life's ess5tial bio*emical con/itu5ts4 ,,meteorites ,,& ,,organic ,,geo*emi/ry ,meteorites ,a significant area ( exobiological rese>* is ! inve/igation ( a special class ( /ony meteorites kn[n z c>bonace\s *ondrites4 ,x is increas+ly app>5t t almo/ all life-detection concepts rely on ! ev5tual analysis ( ! solid mat]ials t may be available on ,m>s & o!r planet>y surfaces4 ,cosmic du/ & meteorites are two classes ( mat]ial bodies t rea* ! ,e>? f out] space4 ,! c>bonace\s *ondrites are ! only extrat]re/rial mat]ials kn[n to conta9 organic c>bon4 ,! /udy ( meteorites has g5]at$ an a/oni%+ div]sity ( hypo!ses4 ,!re is agreem5t at only "o po9t3 t meteorites are pres]v$ *unks ( v anci5t1 p]haps primordial1 planet>y matt] & t :5 we are able to und]/& ! curi\s /ructures & *emical & isotopic v>iations 9 ! meteorites1 we w also "k a great deal ab\t e>ly planet>y 7& p]haps preplanet>y7 hi/ory4 ,meteorites provide a m repres5tative sample ( av]age planet>y matt] ?an ! highly diff]5tiat$ cru/ ( ! ,e>?4 ,al?\gh x is kn[n t ! meteorite p>5t bodies ceas$ to be geo*emically active %ortly aft] _! =mation1 "s #d billion ye>s ago1 !re is no cons5sus on ! nature ( ! meteorite p>5t bodies1 n ev5 on su* basic prop]ties z size1 location1 & multiplicity4 ,?is is n surpris+ because ! meteorite samples commonly available = /udy repres5t only ab\t #aj to #aj ( ! p>5t body4 ,c>bonace\s ,meteorites ,analysis & *>act]ization ( ! *emical con/itu5ts 7organic7 ( c>bonace\s *ondrites1 includ+ ! possible me*anism ( _! =mation1 may be expect$ to improve me?ods ( analyz+ samples f ! ,moon & planets & ( int]pret+ remote automat$ biological analyses on ! planets' surfaces4 ,c>bon has be5 detect$ 9 all meteorites analyz$2 h[ev]1 bo? ! am\nt & =ms pres5t v>y consid]ably4 ,among ! =ms ( meteorite c>bon are diamond1 graphite1 coh5ite 7,fe1,ni1,co7,c1 moissanite ,si,c1 calcite ,ca,c,o1 dolomite 7,ca1,mg7,,co1 bru5n]ite 7,mg1,fe7,,co4 ,a summ>y ( ! results ( c>bon analyses on l>ge numb]s ( meteorites is giv5 9 table ,i 7ref4#bf74 ,table ,i4--,meteorite ,c>bon ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,meteorite gr\p ,numb] ,mean c>bon cont5t1 analyz$ p]c5t by weight ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pallasites #aj #j4jh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ureilites #b 4#fi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,bronzite *ondrites #ab 4#je ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,hyp]/h5e *ondrites #h 4#jd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,en/atite *ondrites #h 4#bi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,c>bonace\s *ondrites #af #b4jd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,mo/ meteorites possess only traces ( c>bon1 & /udies ( ?is c>bon indicate t x is compos$ l>gely ( graphite1 coh5ite1 & moissanite1 ) "s diamond4 ,h[ev]1 /udies ( ! c>bon 9 ! c>bonace\s *ondrites h fail$ to detect any ( ^! =ms4 ,"s c>bonates are pres5t 9 a m9ority ( ! c>bonace\s gr\p1 b acc\nt = only a small p]c5tage ( ! total c>bon 7p]haps ab\t #aj p]c5t ( ! total ,c 9 type ,i only74 ,! c>bonace\s *ondrites conta9 organic c>bon4 ,! ^w organic is n us$ 9 a biological s5se1 m]ely z a *emical t]m to describe comp\nds ( c>bon o!r ?an c>bonates1 bic>bonates1 & c>bides4 ,no evid5ce has be5 f\nd ( any =m ( c>bon o!r ?an organic1 except = traces ( c>bonates4 ,v>i\s /udies h demon/rat$ possible me?ods ( e/imat+ ! total am\nt ( organic matt] pres5t 9 meteorites4 ,wiik 7ref4#bg7 has sugge/$ t organics c be e/imat$ by measur+ ! loss ( weight on ignition4 ,un=tunately1 ?is me?od has sev]al disadvantages & gives v l[ values4 ,corrections mu/ be made = weight ga9s due to oxidation ( r$uc$ con/itu5ts1 su* z ,fe,o1 ,fe1 ,ni1 & ,co1 & = weight losses due to ,h,o1 ,s1 etc4 ,! wat] loss is exce$+ly difficult to e/imate1 z "p comes f ! combu/ion ( organic hydrog5 & "p comes f ! loss ( m9]al-b\nd wat]4 ,! c>bon also proves difficult to combu/ completely1 & high temp]atures 7ov] #ajjj ,c7 are requir$ = effici5t conv]sion to ,,co4 ,9 "o /udy ! major fraction ( organic matt] remov$ prov$ to h a c>bon cont5t ( ab\t #dg p]c5t 7ref4#bh74 ,?us1 if all ! meteorite c>bon is pres5t z organic matt] ( approximately ?is composition1 total organics mu/ be approximately d\ble ! c>bon cont5t2 t is1 #b p]c5t by weight c>bon indicates #d p]c5t by weight organic matt]4 ,?is e/imate may be too l[1 = ,muell] 7ref4#bi7 has extract$ a major organic fraction conta9+ only #bd p]c5t c>bon2 h[ev]1 ?is "w has n be5 confirm$ = o!r meteorites4 ,briggs & ,mamikunian 7ref4#bf7 h po9t$ out t only #be p]c5t ( ! organic matt] has be5 extract$1 & only ab\t #e p]c5t ( ?is has be5 *emically *>act]iz$4 ,mo/ ( ?is #e p]c5t is a complex mixture ( hydroxylat$ aromatic acids toge!r ) hydroc>bons ( ! aliphatic1 napalicyclic1 & aromatic s]ies4 ,small am\nts ( am9o acids1 sug>s1 & fatty acids are also pres5t4 ,?us f>1 ^! *emical analyses po9t to an abiog5ic orig9 = ! organic matt]1 & no conclusive evid5ce exi/s ( biological activity on ! meteorite p>5t body4 ,microbiological inve/igations ( samples ( ! c>bonace\s *ondrites h yield$ only inconclusive evid5ce on ! problem ( organiz$ elem5ts4 ,sev]al ( ^! micro/ructures f diff]5t c>bonace\s *ondrites are illu/rat$ 9 a pap] by ,mamikunian & ,briggs 7ref4#cj74 ,x has be5 difficult to id5tify ! organiz$ /ructures1 & mo/ d n h morphologies id5tical to kn[n t]re/rial micro-organisms4 ,h[ev]1 !y may prove to be a v>iety ( m9]al gra9s1 droplets ( organic matt] & sulfur1 z well z a small am\nt ( contam9at+ t]re/rial debris4 ,a comp>ison betwe5 ! photographs ( ! organiz$ elem5ts obs]v$ 9 ! ,orgueil & ,ivuna meteorites & ! syn!tic prote9oid microsph]es obs]v$ by ,fox 7ref4#be7 po9t to simil>ities betwe5 ! two4 ,"o inf]5ce f ?is f9d+ is t ! organiz$ elem5ts 9 c>bonace\s *ondrites 7 nev] alive b1 r1 %\ld be consid]$ z natural exp]im5ts 9 molecul> evolution4 ,also1 ^! simil>ities /r5g!n ! belief t ! laboratory exp]im5ts are simil> to ! natural exp]im5ts 9 space4 ,9 coop]ation ) ! ,smi?sonian ,a/rophysical ,obs]vatory1 ,,nasa has a network to track meteors 9 ! ,midwe/ 7,s\? ,dakota1 ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 ,oklahoma1 ,i[a1 ,miss\ri1 & ,ill9ois74 ,photographs ( meteor trails are us$ = sci5tific /udy1 & attempts are made to track & recov] meteorites = exam9ation = traces ( organic mat]ial ( extrat]re/rial orig94 ,fundam5tal rese>* 9 t]re/rial organic geo*emi/ry has %[n t anci5t s$im5ts & drill core samples subject$ to organic analysis conta9 c]ta9 /able bio*emical compon5ts ( pa/ life4 ,?is pres]v$ record is significant n only 9 /udies ( e>ly-life *emical pa?ways b also 9 /udies ( ! int]action ( organic matt] ) ! geological factors4 ,s9ce life on any planet>y body w int]act ) ! soil1 or surface mat]ial1 x is ( int]e/ to und]/& ! relation%ip4 ,,concepts ,,= ,,detection ,,( ,,extrat]re/rial ,,life ,x is n possible to pres5t completely conv9c+ evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( extrat]re/rial life4 ,! problem (t5 r$uces to probabilities & to e/imates ( obs]vational reliability4 ,9 almo/ all cases ! evid5ce is optimi/ically consid]$ /rongly sugge/ive (--or1 at ! wor/1 n inconsi/5t )--! exi/5ce ( extrat]re/rial life4 ,alt]natively1 !re is a pessimi/ic view t ! evid5ce advanc$ = extrat]re/rial life is unconv9c+1 irrelevant1 or has ano!r1 nonbiological explanation4 ,9 /udies ( ! laboratory syn!sis ( life-relat$ comp\nds & its significance conc]n+ ! orig9 ( life1 sev]al results seem to sugge/ t organo*emical syn!sis is a g5]al process1 occurr+ p]haps on all planets :i* reta9 a r$uc+ atmosph]e4 ,! temp]ature ranges mu/ be su* t precursors & reaction products are n !rmally dissociat$4 ,! reaction rates = ! syn!sis ( m complex organic molecules dim9i% to a negligible value :5 ! temp]ature range is bel[ #ajj ,c4 ,besides ! planet>y p>amet] ( temp]ature1 an ev5 m fundam5tal necessity = a liv+ /ate exi/s--a liquid solv5t sy/em4 ,= t]re/rial life =ms1 wat] s]ves ?is purpose4 ,wat] has ?is & o!r prop]ties ( biological significance because ( hydrog5 bond+ betwe5 adjac5t molecules 9 ! liquid /ate4 ,ultraviolet radiation c\ld s]ve z an extrat]re/rial en]gy s\rce = organic syn!sis4 ,rese>* %[s t1 :ile an atmosph]e is important1 liv+ sy/ems c survive a wide range ( ambi5t pressures & are little affect$ by a wide range ( magnetic field /r5g?s4 ,oxyg5 is n a pr]equisite = all liv+ sy/ems4 ,:ile x is sometimes conclud$ t free oxyg5 is ne$$ = all b ! simple/ organisms1 less effici5t metabolic processes c\pl$ ) high] food collection effici5cy--or a m sluggi% metabolism--w\ld seem to d j z well4 ,e>? is ! only planet 9 ! sol> sy/em on :i* molecul> oxyg5 is kn[n to be pres5t 9 l>ge am\nts4 ,s9ce plant photosyn!sis is ! prim>y s\rce ( atmosph]ic oxyg51 x seems safe to inf] t no o!r planet has l>ge-scale plant photosyn!sis accompani$ by ! production ( oxyg54 ,! possibility ( ! exi/5ce ( extrat]re/rial life raises ! important "q ( man's be+ able to detect x4 ,rese>* on extrat]re/rial life detection is pr$icat$ on ! ability to develop ways to detect x ev5 :5 ! liv+ sy/ems are bas$ on pr9ciples entirely diff]5t f ^? on ,e>?4 ,! sub/itution ( v>i\s molecules = ^? ( kn[n biological significance to liv+ organisms z we "k !m has be5 inve/igat$2 ! sub/itution ( ,,nh = ,,oh 9 ammonia-ri* environm5ts leads to a div]se1 & biologically v promis+1 *emi/ry4 ,! hypo!sis t silicon may replace c>bon does n support ! con/ruction ( extrat]re/rial g5etics bas$ on silicon comp\nds4 7,silicon comp\nds p>ticipate 9 r$i/ribution reactions :i* t5d to maximize ! r&omness ( silicon bond+1 & ! /able ret5tion ( g5etic in=mation ov] long "t p]iods is ?us v improbable47 ,evid5ce relevant to life on ,m>s has be5 summ>iz$ by ,sagan 7*4 #a ( ref4#aj73 ,! ,orig9 ( ,life ,9 ! pa/ decade1 consid]able advances h be5 made 9 our k ( ! probable processes lead+ to ! orig9 ( life on ,e>?4 ,a succession ( laboratory exp]im5ts has %[n t ess5tially all ! organic build+ blocks ( contempor>y t]re/rial organisms c be syn!siz$ by supply+ en]gy to a mixture ( ! hydrog5-ri* gases ( ! primitive t]re/rial atmosph]e4 ,x n[ seems likely t ! laboratory syn!sis ( a self-replicat+ molecul> sy/em is only a %ort "t away f realization4 ,! syn!ses ( simil> sy/ems 9 ! primitive t]re/rial oceans mu/ h occurr$--collections ( molecules :i* 7 s con/ruct$ t1 by ! laws ( physics & *emi/ry1 !y =c$ ! production ( id5tical copies ( !mselves out ( ! build+ blocks 9 ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,su* a sy/em satisfies _m ( ! crit]ia = ,d>w9ian natural selection1 & ! long evolution>y pa? f molecule to advanc$ organism c !n be und]/ood4 ,s9ce no?+ except v g5]al primitive atmosph]ic conditions & en]gy s\rces are requir$ = su* syn!ses1 x is possible t simil> ev5ts occurr$ 9 ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,m>s & t life may h come into be+ on t planet sev]al billions ( ye>s ago4 ,its subsequ5t evolution1 9 response to ! *ang+ ,m>tian environm5t1 w\ld h produc$ organisms q diff]5t f ^? :i* n[ inhabit ,e>?4 ,simulation ,exp]im5ts ,exp]im5ts h be5 p]=m$ 9 :i* t]re/rial micro-organisms h be5 introduc$ into simulat$ ,m>tian environm5ts1 ) atmosph]es compos$ ( nitrog5 & c>bon dioxide1 no oxyg51 v little wat]1 a daily temp]ature v>iation f #bj to -#fj ,c1 & high ultraviolet fluxes4 ,x 0 f\nd t 9 e sample ( t]re/rial soil us$ !re 7 a few v>ieties ( micro-organisms :i* easily surviv$ on ,m>s4 ,:5 ! local abundance ( wat] 0 increas$1 t]re/rial micro-organisms 7 able to gr[4 ,indig5\s ,m>tian organisms may be ev5 m effici5t 9 cop+ ) ! app>5t rigors ( _! environm5t4 ,^! f9d+s und]score ! necessity = /]iliz+ ,m>s entry vehicles s z n to p]=m accid5tal biological contam9ation ( t planet & obscure ! subsequ5t se>* = extrat]re/rial life4 ,direct ,se>*es = ,life on ,m>s ,! e>ly evid5ce = life on ,m>s--namely1 reports ( vivid gre5 coloration & ! s-call$ canals--are n[ kn[n to be l>gely illusory4 ,!re are ?ree major areas ( contempor>y inve/igation3 visual1 pol>imetric1 & spectrographic4 ,z ! ,m>tian pol> ice cap rec$es ea* spr+1 a wave ( d>k5+ propagates ?r\gh ! ,m>tian d>k areas1 %>p5+ _! outl9es & increas+ _! contra/ ) ! surr\nd+ des]ts4 ,^! *anges occur dur+ p]iods ( relatively high humidity & relatively high daytime temp]atures4 ,a relat$ d>k coll>1 n due to simple damp5+ ( ! soil1 foll[s ! edge ( ! pol> cap 9 its regression4 ,occasional nonseasonal *anges 9 ! =m ( ! ,m>tian d>k regions h be5 obs]v$ & sometimes cov] va/ areas ( surface4 ,obs]vations ( ! pol>ization ( sunlight reflect$ f ! ,m>tian d>k areas indicate t ! small p>ticles cov]+ ! d>k areas *ange _! size di/ribution 9 ! spr+1 :ile ! p>ticles cov]+ ! bright areas d n %[ any analog\s *anges4 ,f9ally1 infr>$ spectroscopic obs]vations ( ! ,m>tian d>k areas %[ ?ree spectral features :i*1 to date1 seem to be int]pretable only 9 t]ms ( organic matt]1 ! p>ticul> molecules giv+ rise to ! absorptions be+ hydroc>bons & aldehydes4 ,h[ev]1 see p4 #g & ,rea et al4 7ref4#i74 ,tak5 toge!r1 ^! obs]vations sugge/1 b d n conclusively prove1 t ! ,m>tian d>k areas are cov]$ ) small organisms compos$ ( famili> types ( organic matt]1 :i* *ange _! size & d>kness 9 response to ! moi/ure & heat ( ! ,m>tian spr+4 ,we h no evid5ce ei!r = or aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( m advanc$ life =ms4 ,!re is mu* m in=mation :i* c be g>n]$ f ! gr\nd1 balloons1 ,e>? satellites1 ,m>s flybys1 & ,m>s orbit]s1 b ! critical te/s = life on ,m>s c only be made f l&+ vehicles equipp$ ) exp]im5tal packages4444 ,results ( ,kaplan et al4 7ref4#ca7 indicate t ,m>s has no detectable oxyg51 b does conta9 small am\nts ( wat] vapor1 m abundant c>bon dioxide1 possibly a l>ge surface flux ( sol> ultraviolet radiation1 & e/imat$ daily temp]ature v>iations ( #ajj ,c at _m latitudes4 ,/udies h %[n t t]re/rial micro-organisms c survive ^! extremely h>% environm5ts4 ,fur!rmore1 a v>iety ( physiological & ecological adaptations might enable ! biota to survive ! l[ nighttime temp]atures & intracellul> ice cry/allization4 ,less evid5ce is available to support ! possibility ( extrat]re/rial life on o!r planets4 ,! ,moon has no atmosph]e1 & extremes ( temp]ature *>act]ize its surface4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,moon c\ld h a lay] ( subsurface p]mafro/ b5ea? :i* liquid wat] might be trapp$4 ,! temp]atures ( ^! /rata might be biologically mod]ate4 ,/udies by ,davis & ,libby 7ref4#cb7 on ! atmosph]e ( ,jupit] support ! possibility ( ! production ( organic matt] 9 its atmosph]e 9 a mann] analog\s to ! processes :i* may h l$ to ! syn!sis ( organic molecules 9 ! ,e>?'s e>ly hi/ory4 ,x is difficult to assess ! possibility t life has evolv$ on ,jupit] dur+ ! #d- or #e-;billion-ye> p]iod 9 :i* ! planet has reta9$ a r$uc+ atmosph]e4 ,! "q ( extrat]re/rial life & ( ! orig9 ( life is int]wov54 ,discov]y ( ! fir/ & analysis ( its nature may v well elucidate ! second4 ,! olde/ =m ( fossil kn[n today is t ( a microscopic plant simil> 9 =m to common algae f\nd 9 ponds & lakes4 ,sci5ti/s "k t simil> organisms fl\ri%$ 9 ! anci5t seas ov] #b billion ye>s ago4 ,h[ev]1 s9ce algae are a relatively complex =m ( life1 life 9 "s simpl] =m c\ld h orig9at$ mu* e>li]4 ,organic mat]ial simil> to t f\nd 9 mod]n organisms c be detect$ 9 ^! anci5t deposits z well z 9 mu* old] ,precambrian rocks4 ,al?\gh ! planets n[ h diff]+ atmosph]es1 9 _! e>ly /ages ! atmosph]es ( all ! planets may h be5 ess5tially ! same4 ,! mo/ widely held !ory ( ! orig9 ( ! sol> sy/em /ates t ! planets 7 =m$ f va/ cl\ds ( mat]ial conta9+ ! elem5ts 9 _! cosmic di/ribution4 ,x is believ$ t ! syn!sis ( organic comp\nds prec$+ ! orig9 ( life on ,e>? occurr$ be=e its atmosph]e 0 trans=m$ f hydrog5 & hydrides to oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,?is !ory is support$ by laboratory exp]im5ts ( ,calv9 7ref4#af71 ,mill] 7ref4#cc71 & ,or 7ref4#cd74 ,! ,e>?'s pres5t atmosph]e consi/s ( nitrog5 & oxyg5 9 addition to relatively small am\nts ( o!r gases2 mo/ ( ! oxyg5 is ( biological orig94 ,"s ( ! atmosph]ic gases1 9 spite ( _! l[ am\nts1 are crucial = life4 ,! ultraviolet-absorb+ ozone 9 ! upp] atmosph]e & c>bon dioxide are examples ( su* gases4 ,significant 9 ! se>* = extrat]re/rial life are ! data 7e4g41 planet's temp]ature7 transmitt$ by ,m>9] ,,ii1 :i* 0 laun*$ f ,cape ,canav]al on ,augu/ #bg1 #aifb1 & flew pa/ ,v5us on ,decemb] #ad1 #aifb4 ,m>9] ,,ii's measurem5ts %[$ temp]atures on ! surface ( ,v5us ( ! ord] ( #hjj ,f1 too hot = life z kn[n on ,e>?4 ,! "q ,is life limit$ to ?is planet8 c be consid]$ on a /ati/ical basis4 ,al?\gh ! size ( ! sample 7"o planet7 is small1 ! /ati/ical argum5t = life else:]e is believ$ by _m to be v /rong4 ,:ile ,m>s is g5]ally consid]$ ! only o!r likely habitat ( life 9 our sol> sy/em1 ,%apley 7ref4#ce7 has calculat$ t m ?an #ajj million />s h planets suffici5tly simil> 9 composition & environm5t to ,e>? to support life4 ,( c\rse1 yet unkn[n factors may significantly r$uce or ev5 elim9ate ?is probability4 ,,spacecraft ,,/]ilization ,! se>* = extrat]re/rial life ) unmann$ space probes requires ! total /]ilization ( ! l&+ capsule & its cont5ts4 ,sci5ti/s agree t t]re/rial organisms releas$ on o!r planets w\ld int]f]e ) exobiological explorations 7refs4 ref4#cf-ref4#dc74 ,any flight t infects a planet ) t]re/rial life w compromise a sci5tific opportunity ( almo/ unequal$ proportions4 ,/udies on microbiological survival 9 simulat$ deep-space conditions 7l[ temp]ature1 high ultraviolet flux1 & l[ dose levels ( ioniz+ radiation7 indicate t ^! conditions w n /]ilize contam9at$ spacecraft 7refs4 ref4#dd-ref4#dh74 ,fur!rmore1 _m t]re/rial spore=m]s & "s vegetative bact]ia1 especially ^? ) ana]obic gr[? capabilities1 readily survive 9 simulat$ ,m>tian environm5ts 7refs4 ref4#di-ref4#ed74 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t a s+le micro-organism ) a replication "t ( #cj days c\ld1 9 #h ye>s ( su* replication1 equal 9 numb] ! bact]ial population ( ! ,e>?4 ,?is pot5tial c\ld result n only 9 competition ) any ,m>tian life1 b 9 dra/ic *anges 9 ! geo*emical & atmosph]ic *>act]i/ics ( ! planet4 ,to avoid su* a disa/]1 c]ta9ly ! fir/1 & probably _m succe$+ l&]s on ,m>s1 mu/ be /]ile--devoid ( t]re/rial life 7ref4#ee74 ,s9ce ! space environm5t w n 9 itself kill all life abo>d1 ! l&] mu/ leave ! ,e>? 9 a /]ile condition4 ,! /]ility ( an object implies ! complete abs5ce ( life4 ,! pres5ce ( life or ! lack ( /]ility may be prov52 b ! abs5ce ( life or /]ility _c be prov51 = ! "o viable organism t negates /]ility may rema9 undetect$4 ,_m indu/rial products :i* mu/ be gu>ante$ z /]ile _c be te/$ = /]ility 9 a nonde/ructive mann]4 ,a simil> situation exi/s 9 det]m9+ ! /]ility ( a spacecraft4 ,c]tification ( /]ility--bas$ on exp]i5ce ) ! /]iliz+ process us$1 k ( ! k9etics ( ! dea? ( micro-organisms1 & computation ( ! probability ( a survivor f assays = /]ility--is ! only accurate approa* to def9+ ! /]ility ( su* treat$ items4 ,macroscopic life c be readily detect$ & kept f or remov$ f ! spacecraft1 b ! detection & removal ( microscopic & submicroscopic life is an extremely difficult task4 ,! de/ruction ( micro-organisms c be a*iev$ by v>i\s *emical & physical proc$ures4 ,/]iliz+ ag5ts h be5 evaluat$ n only = _! ability to kill microbial life on surfaces & seal$ inside compon5ts1 b also = ! ag5ts' effects on spacecraft reliability z well 7refs4 ref4#ef-ref4#ei74 ,( ! available ag5ts1 only heat & radiation w p5etrate solid mat]ials4 ,radiation is exp5sive1 haz>d\s1 difficult to control1 & app>5tly damages m mat]ials ?an does heat4 ,heat1 !re=e1 has be5 select$ z ! prim>y me?od ( spacecraft /]ilization & w be us$1 except 9 specific in/ances :]e radiation may prove to be less detrim5tal to ! reliability ( critical p>ts 7ref4#fj74 ,! /]ilization ( spacecraft is a difficult problem if flight reliability is n to be impair$4 ,! developm5t ( heat-resi/ant p>ts w enable ! design & manufacture ( a heat-/]ilizable spacecraft4 ,)\t c>eful microbiological monitor+ ( manufacture & assembly proc$ures1 _m bact]ia c\ld be trapp$ 9 p>ts & subassemblies4 ,to p]mit /]ilization at ! l[e/ temp]ature-"t regim5 t w insure kill ( all organisms1 ! microbiological load inside all p>ts & subassemblies mu/ be held to a m9imum4 ,! role ( indu/rial clean rooms 9 r$uc+ ! biological load on spacecraft is curr5tly be+ def9$4 ,,nasa-support$ /udies indicate t biological contam9ation 9 indu/rial clean rooms = ext5d$ "t p]iods is ab\t #a log>i?m less 7t5fold r$uction71 comp>$ ) conditions 9 a well-op]at$ microbiological laboratory 7ref4#fa74 ,) ! use ( clean-room te*niques & p]iodic decontam9ation by l[ heat cycles or e?yl5e oxide treatm5t1 x %\ld be possible to br+ a spacecraft to ! po9t ( /]ilization ) ab\t #aj organisms on bo>d 7ref4#fj74 ,! /]ilization goal e/abli%$ = ,m>s l&]s is a probability ( less ?an #a 9 #aj #jjj 7#aj7 t a s+le viable organism w be pres5t on ! spacecraft4 ,laboratory /udies ( ! k9etics ( dry-heat kill ( resi/ant organisms %[ t at #ace ,c ! numb] ( bact]ial spores c be r$uc$ #a log>i?m 7#ij p]c5t7 = e #b h\rs ( exposure 7refs4 ref4#eh & ref4#fb74 ,! r$uction 9 microbial c\nt ne$$ is ! log>i?m ( ! maximum numb] on ! spacecraft 7#aj7 plus ! log>i?m ( ! reciprocal ( ! probability ( a survivor 7#aj71 or a total ( #aj log>i?ms ( r$uction 9 microbial c\nt4 ,?us1 ) an additional #b log>i?ms add$ z a safety factor1 a total ( #ab log>i?ms ( r$uction 9 c\nt has be5 accept$ z a safe value :i* c be a*iev$ by a dry-heat treatm5t ( #ace ,c = #bd h\rs4 ,?is is ! heat cycle t is curr5tly "u /udy & be+ develop$ = use 9 spacecraft /]ilization 7ref4#fj74 ,h[ev]1 o!r heat treatm5ts at temp]atures z l[ z #aje ,c = p]iods ( #cjj h\rs or long] are "u /udy 7ref4#fc74 ,bas$ on results to date1 x is reasonable to believe t a full complem5t ( heat-/]ilizable h>dw>e w be available :5 ne$$ = planet>y exploration4 ,e ef=t is be+ made to improve ! /ate ( ! art to a po9t :]e spacecraft c n only )/& /]ilization temp]atures1 b w be ev5 m reliable ?an ! pres5t /ate-(-!-art h>dw>e t is n heat$4 *apt] #c ,environm5tal ,biology ,,biological ,,effects ,,( ,,weightlessness ,,& ,,z]o ,,gravity ,high priority has be5 giv5 to /udies ( weightlessness4 ,gravity is "o ( ! mo/ fundam5tal =ces t acts on liv+ organisms1 & all life on ,e>? except ! smalle/ appe>s to be ori5t$ ) respect to gravity1 al?\gh c]ta9 organisms are m responsive to x ?an o!rs4 ,! gravity =ce on ,e>? is #a g1 b ?is =ce may be exp]im5tally v>i$ f z]o g1 or weightlessness1 to _m ?\s&s ( g's4 ,z]o gravity or decreas$ gravity occurs dur+ freefall1 9 p>abolic trajectory1 or dur+ orbit ar\nd ! ,e>?4 ,gravitational =ce decreases by ! squ>e ( ! di/ance away f ! ,e>?'s c5t]4 ,x is r$uc$ ab\t #e p]c5t at ab\t #bjj nautical miles' altitude4 ,gravitational =ce great] ?an #a g c be obta9$ by accel]ation1 decel]ation1 or impact4 ,x also c be increas$ by us+ a c5trifuge :i* adds a radial accel]ation vector to ! #a g ( ,e>?4 ,on ! gr\nd1 ! biological effects ( gravity h be5 /udi$ at #a g1 & exp]im5tally1 =ces ( _m g h be5 produc$4 ,9 addition1 modifications ( ! effects ( ! #a-;g =ce h be5 induc$ by susp5sion ( ! organism 9 wat] or by horizontal immobilization ( an erect animal su* z man4 ,! biological effects ( su* modification h be5 ( significant value 9 und]/&+ "s ( ! possible consequ5ces ( human exposure to ! z]o-g environm5t ( space4 ,weightlessness 9 an ,e>?-orbit+ satellite occurs :5 ! cont9u\s accel]ation ( ,e>?'s gravity is exactly c\nt]balanc$ by ! cont9u\s radial accel]ation ( ! satellite4 ,9 su* a weightless /ate1 organisms are lib]at$ f _! natural & cont9u\s ex]tion aga9/ #a g1 b ?is lib]ation may c>ry ) x c]ta9 s]i\s physical p5alties4 ,"s ( ! physical processes :i* probably h ! greate/ biological effects are 7#a7 convective fl[ ( fluid1 e4g41 protoplasmic /ream+1 transport ( nutri5t mat]ials1 oxyg51 wa/e products1 & ,,co f ! imm$iate environm5t ( ! cell1 & 7#b7 s$im5tation occurr+ )9 cells2 sub/ances ( high] d5sity s$im5t 9 a gravitational field1 & ^? ( light] d5sity rise4 ,a sep>ation ( p>ticles ( diff]5t d5sities probably occurs4 ,! removal ( gravity w\ld *ange a di/ribution ( p>ticles l mito*ondria by #aj p]c5t 7ref4#fd74 ,gravity has effects on ! physical processes involv$ 9 mitosis & meiosis4 ,/udy "u weightlessness might contribute to our und]/&+ ( ! g5]al cellul> in=mation-relay process4 ,a gravitational effect is kn[n 9 ! embryonic developm5t ( ! frog ,rana sylvatica4 ,aft] f]tilization1 ! eggs rotate 9 ! gravitational field s t ! black animal hemisph]e is upp]mo/4 ,developm5t becomes abnormal if ?is position is di/urb$4 ,if ! egg is inv]t$ foll[+ ! fir/ cleavage & held 9 ?is position1 two abnormal animals result1 unit$ l ,siamese tw9s4 ,?is ph5om5on appe>s to be relat$ to ! gravitational sep>ation ( l[- & high-d5sity compon5ts ( ! egg4 ,! size ( ! egg is ab\t #a to #b mm & is susp5d$ 9 wat] ( ab\t ! same d5sity4 ,?is sy/em is v s5sitive to gravity2 &1 "u weightlessness1 ! sep>ation ( diff]5t d5sity compon5ts might be irregul>1 lead+ to ab]rant developm5t4 ,:5 c]ta9 aquatic insect eggs are inv]t$1 subsequ5t developm5t results 9 %ort5$ abnormal l>vae4 ,! directional gr[? ( plant %oots & plant roots is probably due to ?is s$im5tation ph5om5on1 p>ticul>ly ! effect on movem5t ( aux9s 7ref4#fe74 ,free convection fl[ is a major transport process1 & "u its influ5ce ! mix+ ( sub/ances is mu* m effective ?an :5 diffusion op]ates alone4 ,free convection fl[ is a macroscopic ph5om5on :i* increases n only ) g1 b v>ies also approximately ) ! five-f\r?s p[] ( ! bulk conc5tration involv$4 ,:e!r or n convection is important at ! microscopic level rema9s an exp]im5tally unsolv$ "q4 ,! ,gra%(f numb] limits free convection to ! macroscopic doma94 ,x w\ld appe> 9 weightlessness t ! contribution ( free convective fl[ w\ld be small & t only diffusion %\ld occur4 ,?is ph5om5on w\ld cause equilibration to occur mu* m sl[ly ?an t occurr+ ) free convection & diffusion4 ,! abs5ce ( convective transf] raises a problem z to h[ nutri5ts may be obta9$ & wa/e products remov$ 9 liv+ cells dur+ weightlessness4 ,9 a liquid sub/rate1 nutri5ts & oxyg5 w\ld be deplet$1 & wa/e products w\ld accumulate ar\nd ! cell4 ,abs5ce ( gravity may h f>-rea*+ consequ5ces 9 ! homeo/atic aspects ( cell physiology4 ,! out/&+ *>act]i/ics ( liv+ cells :i* are mo/ likely to be influ5c$ by ! abs5ce ( gravity are ! ability ( ! cell to ma9ta9 its cytoplasmic membrane 9 a functional /ate1 ! capacity ( ! cell to p]=m its normal functions dur+ ! mitotic cycle1 & ! capacity ( ! cytoplasm to ma9ta9 ! con/ant rev]sibility ( its sol-gel sy/em 7ref4#ff74 ,two-phase sy/ems1 e4g41 air-9-wat] & air-9-oil1 possess entirely diff]5t *>act]i/ics at z]o g ?an at #a g4 ,^! physical diff]5ces 9 phase int]action c\ld well be suspect$ ( int]f]+ ) ! ori5tation & fl[ patt]n ( cell con/itu5ts1 ?us h9d]+ ! cellul> processes involv$ 9 ! movem5t1 metabolism1 & /orage ( nutri5ts & wa/e4 ,on ! basis ( !oretical calculations1 weightlessness c be expect$ to h "s effect ev5 on "o individual cell if its size exce$s #aj microns 9 diamet] 7ref4#fd74 ,cell colonies might be affect$4 ,9 l>g] cells !re may be a r$i/ribution ( enzyme-=m+ sy/ems :i* give rise to pol>ization4 ,! l[ surface t5sion ( ! cell membrane l5ds itself to hydro/atic /ress di/ortion1 imply+ an alt]ation 9 p]meability & ?us an almo/ c]ta9 alt]ation ( cell prop]ties "u l[ gravity conditions4 ,ano!r aspect ( gravity t affects ! gr[? & developm5t ( liv+ organisms is ! directionality ( ! gravitational field4 ,9 fact1 "s plants are s s5sitive t !y are able to direct _! gr[? ) z little /imulus z a #aaj gravitational field4 ,inve/igations ( plant gr[? 9 alt]$ gravitational fields are und]way at ,argonne ,national ,laboratory & ,d>tm\? ,college4 ,! ,argonne ,laboratory has design$ & develop$ a #d-pi1 or omnidirectional1 cl9o/at4 ,by rotat+ a plant s t ! =ce ( gravity is di/ribut$ ev5ly ov] all possible directions1 ! directional effects ( gravity are elim9at$1 simulat+ "s aspects ( ! z]o-g /ate4 ,x 0 %[n t c]ta9 plants grew m sl[ly & _h few] & small] leaves1 :ile o!rs _h ab\t #be p]c5t great] replication ( fronds & _h great] elongation ( c]ta9 plant p>ts4 ,x w be extremely int]e/+ to comp>e ^! effects "u z]o-g conditions 9 orbit+ spacecraft4 ,! effect ( gravity 9 transport+ gr[? hormones 9 plants has be5 demon/rat$ at ,d>tm\? ,college us+ radioc>bon-label$ gr[? hormones4 ,plant geotropisms & gr[? movem5ts h be5 /udi$ & biosatellite exp]im5ts develop$4 ,anatomy is consid]$ a d]ivative adaptation to gravity 7ref4#fg74 ,a l>ge backgr\nd ( plant rese>* exi/s on ! effect ( ori5tation on plant responses4 ,in=mation f cl9o/at exp]im5ts is consid]$ susceptible ( extrapolation to l[ gravity conditions because ! ?re%old p]iod = gravitational trigg]+ is relatively long4 ,once ov] critical m9imum dim5sions1 ! major effects ( l[ gravity w\ld be assum$ to occur 9 ^? het]ocellul> organisms t develop 9 m or less fix$ ori5tation ) respect to t]re/rial gravity & :i* respond to *anges 9 ori5tation ) relatively long induction p]iods2 ^! are ! high] plant ord]s4 ,on ! o!r extreme are ! complex primates :i* respond rapidly1 b ^: multiplicity ( organs & correlative me*anisms are susceptible to malfunction & disorganization4 ,x may be sugge/$ t ! het]ocellul> l[] plants & inv]tebrates w be less affect$4 ,p]turbations ( ! environm5t to :i* ! exp]im5tal organism is expos$ mu/ be limit$ or controll$ to r$uce unc]ta9ties 9 int]pretation ( ! results4 ,at ! same "t1 ! introduction ( kn[n p]turbations may assi/ 9 isolat+ ! effects due solely to gravity4 ,/udy ( de novo diff]5tiation & o!r ph5om5a imm$iately aft] syngamy may be ( p>ticul> importance4 ,/udy ( anatomical *anges aft] exposure ( ! organism to l[ gravity is important4 ,,biological ,,effects ,,( ,,space ,,radiation ,?is section includes "p ( ! ,summ>y ( ! ,panel on ,radiation ,biology ( ! ,environm5tal ,biology ,committee ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d1 ,,nas_/,,nrc 7#aifc71 & results ( rese>* by ! ,biosci5ce ,programs1 ,,nasa4 ,radiation s\rces 9 space are ( ?ree types3 galactic cosmic radiation1 ,van ,all5 belts1 & sol> fl>es ) an int5se proton flux4 ,cosmic radiation has high] en]gy levels ?an radiation produc$ by manmade accel]ators4 ,! ,panel on ,radiation ,biology1 :ile recogniz+ ! ne$ = radiobiological /udies ( an appli$ nature ) ref]5ce to mann$ flight programs1 /at$ t x w\ld be %ortsight$ = ! ,unit$ ,/ates to conf9e its ef=ts to ! solution ( imm$iate problems s9ce1 9 ! long run1 successful exploration ( space w be aid$ by ! contributions ( basic rese>*4 ,bo? ! imm$iate biological rese>* program & ! cont9u+ program = basic /udies %\ld be built ^u ! l>ge body ( exi/+ k ( radiation effects4 ,! attitude t all radiobiological exp]im5ts ne$ be repeat$ 9 ! space environm5t %\ld be resolutely reject$4 ,s9ce fundam5tal radiobiology _c be p]=m$ easily 9 space1 x has be5 recomm5d$ t1 :]ev] possible1 ^! inve/igations be c>ri$ out 9 gr\nd laboratories 9 pref]5ce to fly+ laboratories4 ,space environm5t does v>y f ! t]re/rial environm5t1 b ! v>iations are n s great z to lead to ! expectation ( /rik+ly diff]5t biological effects ( radiation 9 space4 ,h[ev]1 x is conceivable t radiations ^: effects are well kn[n "u t]re/rial conditions may h "s unsuspect$ biological effects :5 comb9$ ) unusual features ( ! space environm5t3 e4g41 z]o g4 ,previ\s space radiobiological /udies h dep5d$ solely on v l[ & inaccurately measur$ doses ( ambi5t space radiation4 ,x has be5 difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 ! obs]v$ response levels & ! r&om noise2 ?us1 exp]im5ts h be5 inconclusive4 ,biological ,effects ( ,heavy ,ions & ,mesons ,! biological effects ( heavy ions 7especially ,z#b7 & mesons are ( specific int]e/ to space radiobiology4 ,controll$ ,radiobiological ,exp]im5ts 9 ,space ,!re is ! remote possibility t ! radiobiological response may be modifi$ by factors z yet unkn[n & p]haps n susceptible to t]re/rial /udy4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 design$ to settle ?is matt] includ+ ! exposure ( biological mat]ials dur+ space flight :i* meet ! foll[+ crit]ia ( reliability3 7#a7 ! use ( well-kn[n biological sy/ems1 e4g41 mutation induction or *romosome breakage2 7#b7 ! use ( a suffici5t numb] ( individuals 9 ! exp]im5t to gu>antee /ati/ical precision on ! results2 7#c7 ! exposure ( ! sy/em to kn[n quantities & qualities ( radiation2 7#d7 ! use ( adequate controls4 ,high-altitude balloon asc5ts ( ! #aicj's initiat$ /udy ( ! biological effects ( cosmic rays4 ,!y 7 limit$ to ! exploration ( second>y cosmic radiation effects4 ,aft] ,_w ,w> ,,ii1 ! rese>* ext5d$ to ! use ( ,v-#b rockets fir$ f ! ,:ite ,s&s ,prov+ ,gr\nd4 ,int]e/ return$ to balloons & a significant program 0 und]way by #aiej1 fir/ us+ mice & !n ham/]s1 fruit flies1 cats1 & dogs4 ,^! flights gave no evid5ce ( radiation damage4 ,h[ev]1 x 0 realiz$ t ! flights 7 too f> s\? to obta9 a significant exposure1 & m nor!rly flights began 9 #aiec4 ,mice & gu9ea pigs 7 fl[n on ^! lat] flights4 ,*ase 7ref4#fh7 %[$ ! mo/ unequivocal results to t "t1 a /ati/ically significant increase 9 light hairs on black animals & ! /reaks ( :ite hair up to #aj times wid] ?an expect$4 ,bra9 lesions 7 detect$ 9 ! gu9ea pigs fl[n on ,man ,high 9 #aieg4 ,_m o!r types ( biological mat]ial 7 s5t al(t 9 an ef=t to fur!r corroborate exi/+ in=mation & to inve/igate g5etic & developm5tal effects ( cosmic radiation4 ,f ! e>li] ,v-#b rocket flights to ! ,jupit] missile laun*+s ( ! monkeys ,able & ,bak]1 cosmic-ray rese>* 0 cont9u$1 b ! %ort flight durations ( ^! vehicles did n provide sub/antial in=mation4 ,! ,,usaf ,discov]] satellite program has giv5 impetus to cosmic-ray rese>* & provid$ = long] /aytimes4 ,x has be5 difficult to sep>ate radiation effects f o!r space-flight factors3 !re=e1 "s ( ! alt]ations obs]v$ are /ill subject to debate4 ,vibration1 accel]ation1 & weightlessness appe> to be ! ?ree mo/ important additional p>amet]s4 ,measurem5ts ( radiation dosage h be5 made by *emical & photographic dosimetry1 ion *amb]s1 & biological dosimetry4 ,all evid5ce to date indicates t radiation exposure levels are n haz>d\s to man at pres5t orbital altitudes up to #bjj nautical miles4 ,mo/ biological mat]ials fl[n s f> h be5 = ! express purpose ( inve/igat+ space-radiation levels & effects4 ,! biological mat]ials h rang$ f tissue cultures to entire organisms & f phage & bact]ial cells to man4 ,! /udies h requir$ mu* ( ! space & weight res\rces allott$ biology by ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y h be5 accompani$ by gr\nd-bas$ controls4 ,! ,vo/ok s]ies provid$ ! foll[+ data3 7#a7 ,a small1 b /ati/ically significant1 increase 0 obs]v$ 9 ! p]c5tage ( *romosome ab]rations 9 ! rootlet cells ( air-dri$ :eat & pea se$s aft] g]m9ation4 ,9 ?is case only1 ! increase did n dep5d on flight duration4 7#b7 ,lysog5ic bact]ia exhibit$ an increase ( g5etic alt]ations & increas$ phage production4 ,l5g? ( flight 0 associat$ ) increas$ bact]iophage production by ! lysog5ic bact]ia4 ,!re 0 an increase ( recessive le?als c\pl$ ) nonconv]g5ce ( *romosomes 7sex l9k$7 9 ! fruit fly4 ,a /imulation ( cell division 9 :eat & pea se$s 0 obs]v$4 ,cultures ( human cells expos$ to space-flight factors did n diff] significantly f t]re/rial controls ) respect to su* indicators z prolif]ation rate1 p]c5tage ( mortality & morphological1 antig5ic1 & cultural prop]ties4 ,repeat$ flights ( ! id5tical ,he,la cells reveal$ t !re 0 a long] lat5t p]iod = re/oration ( gr[? capacity ?an 9 cells c>ri$ into space once or n fl[n at all4 7#c7 ,! mo/ def9ite radiation effects obs]v$ 7 only reveal$ 9 g5etic te/s4 ,no h>mful influ5ce on ^? *>act]i/ics affect+ ! viability ( ! organism has be5 discov]$4 ,! ,air ,=ce ,discov]] s]ies laun*$ f ! we/ coa/ _h a few successful flights incorporat+ organisms4 ,) sev]e environm5tal /ress & long recov]y times1 data on radiation exposure 7 equivocal up to ,discov]] ,,xvii & ,,xviii :5 cultures ( human tissue 7 fl[n1 recov]$1 & assess$ = radiation exposure effects4 ,comp>ison ) gr\nd-bas$ controls reveal$ no measurable diff]5ces4 ,radiation dosimetry f ! ,m]cury s]ies e/abli%$ t m9imal exposures 7 enc\nt]$ at ^? orbital altitudes4 ,a typical example is ! ,,ma-#h flight ( ,w4 ,m4 ,s*irra1 ,jr41 dur+ :i* ! body surface dosage 0 less ?an #cj millirads4 ,,nasa has support$ fundam5tal radiation /udies at ! ,oak ,ridge ,national ,laboratory & ! ,lawr5ce ,radiation ,laboratory4 ,emphasis has be5 plac$ on ! biological effects ( high-en]gy proton radiation & p>ticulate radiation f accel]ators4 ,at ! ,,nasa ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t] ext5sive fundam5tal /udies are be+ c>ri$ out on ! effects ( radiation1 especially 9 ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,x has be5 demon/rat$ t deposits accumulate 9 ! bra9 foll[+ exposure to l>ge doses ( ioniz+ p>ticle radiation z well z aft] ,x-irradiation4 ,^! deposits1 ref]r$ to z a *emical lesion1 result f an accumulation ( glycog54 ,! =mation ( ^! deposits dur+ exposure to l>ge doses ( ,x-irradiation 0 n increas$ 9 environm5ts ( #ii4e p]c5t oxyg5 & increas$ atmosph]ic pressure4 ,,simulation ,,( ,,planet>y 7,,m>tian7 ,,environm5ts ,attempts h be5 made to simulate to "s degree ! v>i\s p>amet]s ( ! ,m>tian environm5t1 su* z atmosph]ic composition1 pressure1 radiation flux1 temp]atures1 & ! day-night z well z seasonal cycles4 ,c]ta9 factors = ,m>s _c yet be simulat$1 su* z soil composition1 gravitational field1 magnetic field1 & electrical field4 ,caution is requir$ 9 int]pret+ all simulation exp]im5ts4 ,h[ ,e>? organisms respond to simulat$ ,m>tian environm5ts probably has no?+ to d ) life on ,m>s1 b ^! exp]im5ts may %[ :e!r or n any?+ 9 ! environm5t ( ,m>s makes life z we "k x impossible4 ,we mu/ expect t on ,m>s1 life w h evolv$ & h adapt$ ov] long p]iods ( "t "u conditions :i* are q diff]5t f conditions on ,e>?4 ,! simulation exp]im5ts also provide "s in=mation ab\t ! possibility ( contam9at+ ! planet ,m>s1 or any planet1 ) organisms f ,e>?4 ,9 addition1 !y give u "s clues ab\t ! possibilities ( adaptation & evolution ( life "u ^! conditions4 ,f an evolution>y po9t ( view1 if life has develop$ on ,m>s1 we expect x to h evolv$ at lea/ to a microbial /age4 ,on ,e>?1 micro-organisms are ! mo/ ubiquit\s & num]\s =ms ( life4 ,?is fact %\ld be consid]$ 9 /udy+ extrat]re/rial bodies4 ,micro-organisms h be5 select$ z ! be/ te/ organisms1 & bact]ia & fungi h be5 us$ because !y are durable & easy to gr[4 ,also1 because ( _! rapid gr[?1 _m g5]ations c be /udi$ 9 a relatively %ort p]iod ( "t4 ,! organisms include *emoautotrophic bact]ia1 :i* are able to syn!size _! cell con/itu5ts f c>bon dioxide by en]gy d]iv$ f inorganic reactions2 ana]obic bact]ia1 :i* gr[ only 9 ! abs5ce ( molecul> oxyg52 photoautotrophic plants su* z algae1 li*5s1 & m complex se$ plants2 & small t]re/rial animals4 ,organisms h be5 collect$ f tundra1 des]t1 hot spr+s1 alp9e1 & sal9e habitats to obta9 species ) specializ$ capabilities to cons]ve wat]1 balance osmotic discrepancies1 /ore gases1 accommodate to temp]ature extremes1 & o!rwise meet /resses4 ,an attempt is made 9 ^! simulation exp]im5ts to ext5d ^! processes across ! possible ov]lapp+ micro5vironm5ts :i* ,e>? & ,m>s may %>e4 ,sci5ti/s h develop$ v>i\s special environm5tal simulators1 includ+ ,m>s j>s & ,m>s>iums4 ,^! h made possible controll$ temp]atures1 atmosph]es1 pressures1 wat] activities1 & soil conditions = duplicat+ assum$ ,m>tian surface4 ,a complex simulator1 develop$ by ,"y et al4 7ref4#eb71 reproduces ! =mation ( a p]mafro/ lay] ) "s wat] ti$ up 9 ! =m ( ice b5ea? ! soil surface4 ,?is simulator s]ves z a model to /udy ! wave ( d>k5+1 ?us support+ ! hypo!sis t ! pole-to-equator wave ( d>k5+ is correlat$ ) ! availability ( subsurface wat]4 ,! simulator is a heavily insulat$ #b-;cu-ft capacity *amb] ) an int]nal pressure ( #j4a atm4 ,! *amb] conta9s a soil mixture ( limonite & s& & an atmosph]e ( c>bon dioxide & nitrog54 ,) ! use ( a liquid nitrog5 heat ex*ang] at "o end & an ext]nal batt]y ( infr>$ lamps at ! o!r end1 ! temp]ature simulates t ( ,m>s f pole to equator4 ,!rmoc\ples ?r\gh\t ! soil monitor ! temp]atures 9 ! *amb]4 ,zhukova & ,kondratyev 7ref4#fi7 design$ a /ructure measur+ #ajjaejahj cm4 ,micro-organisms 7 plac$ at ! surface ( a copp] b> made 9 a special groove sep>at$ by glass clo?4 ,copp] 0 select$ z "o ( ! be/ heat-conduction mat]ials p]mitt+ a rapid *ange ( temp]ature4 ,! l[] end ( ! b> 0 imm]s$ into a mixture ( dry ice & e?yl alcohol1 :i* made x possible to create a temp]ature ( -#fj ,c4 ,heat+ 0 p]=m$ by an inc&esc5t spiral4 ,z ! k conc]n+ ! ,m>tian environm5t becomes m ref9$1 sci5ti/s c m accurately simulate ?is environm5t "u controll$ conditions 9 ! laboratory4 ,det]m9ation ( ! effects ( ! ,m>tian environm5t on ,e>? organisms w p]mit bett] !orization on ! =ms ( life we might f9d on ,m>s & w p]mit u to e/imate ! pot5tial survival ( ,e>? contam9ants on ,m>s4 ,h[ev]1 until ! environm5tal conditions ( ,m>s are def9$ m accurately1 ! exp]im5ts mu/ be *ang$ cont9ually to fit newly det]m9$ conditions4 ,!re=e1 exi/+ simulation data are made less valid = comp>ison4 ,! data result+ f ! simulation exp]im5ts = ,m>s h be5 compil$ 9 table ,,ii1 & ! exp]im5ts are summ>iz$ bel[4 ,! e>lie/ simulation /udies 7 c>ri$ out by ! ,air ,=ce1 & ! /udies dur+ ! pa/ #f ye>s h be5 support$ by ,,nasa4 ,rec5tly1 ^! /udies h receiv$ less support or h be5 t]m9at$ 9 favor ( critical /udies on ! effects ( biologically important environm5tal extreme factors on ,e>? organisms4 ,^! critical /udies p]mit e/abli%+ ! extreme environm5tal factor p>amet]s 9 :i* ,e>? life c gr[ or survive4 ,^! data w h valuable application to ! consid]ation ( life on any planet1 to ! design ( life-detection in/rum5ts1 to ! /]ilization ( space vehicles1 & to ! problem ( contam9ation ( planets4 ,"s exploratory exp]im5tal /udies are 9 progress to /udy ! capabilities ( organisms to gr[ "u ! assum$ conditions on ,jupit]4 ,^! include /udies at high pressure ) liquid ammonia1 me?ane1 & o!r r$uc+ comp\nds4 ,e>ly exp]im5ts simulat+ ,m>tian conditions us+ soil bact]ia 7 c>ri$ out by ,davis & ,fulton 7ref4#gj7 at ! ,air ,=ce ,s*ool ( ,aviation ,m$ic9e1 ,san ,antonio1 ,tex4 ,mix$ populations ( soil bact]ia 7 put 9 ,m>s j>s ) ! foll[+ conditions3 #fe-mm ,hg pressure1 #a p]c5t wat] or less1 nitrog5 atmosph]e1 s&/one-lava soil1 & a temp]ature day-night cycle ( #be to -#be ,c4 ,! moi/ure 0 controll$ by desiccat+ ! soil & add+ a giv5 am\nt ( wat]4 ,exp]im5ts1 conduct$ up to #aj mon?s1 demon/rat$ t obligate a]obes di$ quickly4 ,! ana]obes & spore=m]s surviv$4 ,al?\gh a small increase 9 ! total numb] ( organisms indicat$ gr[?1 ! increases 9 ! numb] ( bact]ia may h be5 due to break+ up clumps ( dirt4 ,rob]ts & ,irv9e 7ref4#ga7 report$ t1 9 a simulat$ ,m>tian environm5t1 colony c\nts ( a spore=m+ bact]ium1 ,bacillus c]eus1 increas$ :5 #h p]c5t moi/ure 0 add$4 ,moi/ure 0 consid]$ m important ?an temp]ature or atmosph]ic gases inasmu* z a simulat$ ,m>tian micro5vironm5t conta9+ #h p]c5t moi/ure p]mitt$ g]m9ation & gr[? ( endospores ( ,clo/ridium sporog5es4 ,increases 9 colony c\nts ( ,bacillus c]eus appe>$ to be influ5c$ by temp]ature cycl+ 7ref4#gb74 ,table ,,ii4--,survival & ,gr[? ( ,organisms 9 ,simulat$ ,planet>y 7,m>tian7 ,environm5ts ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,species ,survival1 ,moi/ure ,temp]ature1 mon?s ,c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,conditions on ,m>s3 #adg -#gj to #cj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,ana]obic #f ,l[1 -#fj to #bj spore=m]s 7,ca,s,o7 ,clo/ridia1 ,bacillus planos>c9a ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,ana]obic #f ,l[1 -#fj to #bj nonspore=m]s 7,ca,s,o7 ,pseudomonas1 ,rhodopseudomonas ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,ana]obes ,gr[? ,v wet -#ge to #be ,a]obact] a]og5es1 ,pseudomonas sp4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,clo/ridium1 #aj #a -#be to #be ,corynebact]ia p]c5t ,?9 %ort rod or less ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bacillus c]eus #b #j4e -#be to #be p]c5t soil ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,clo/ridium sporog5es #a #h4d -#be to #be 7gr[?7 p]c5t ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,clo/ridium botul9um #aj ,lyophiliz$ -#be to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,klebsiella pneumoniae #f ,lyophiliz$ -#be to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bacillus subtilis v>4 #d #b p]c5t -#be to #be globigii ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,s>c9a aurantiaca #d #j4e p]c5t -#be to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,clo/ridium tetani #b or less #a p]c5t -#fj to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,asp]gillus nig] ,ov] #f hr ,v dry -#fj to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,asp]gillus oryzae ,ov] #f hr ,v dry -#fj to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mucor plumbeus ,ov] #f hr ,v dry -#fj to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,rhodotorula rubra ,ov] #f hr ,v dry -#fj to #be ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,pea1 bean1 tomato1 rye1 #j4c ,moi/ #be sorghum1 rice4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,w9t] rye #j4f ,moi/ -#aj to #bc ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,table ,,ii4--,survival & ,gr[? ( ,organisms 9 ,simulat$ ,planet>y 7,m>tian7 ,environm5ts ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,species ,atmosph]ic ,n1 ,,co1 ,sub/rate pressure1 p]c5t p]c5t mm ,hg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,conditions on ,m>s3 #he1 #c to #cj #beae1 #aa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ana]obic #gf #ie #e ,air-dri$ spore=m]s soil ,clo/ridia1 ,bacillus planos>c9a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ana]obic #gf #ie #e ,air-dri$ nonspore=m]s soil ,pseudomonas1 ,rhodopseudomonas ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ana]obes #gfj #ajj 787 ,difco ,a]obact] infusion a]og5es1 bro? ,pseudomonas sp4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,clo/ridium1 #fe #ajj 787 ,soil ,corynebact]ia ,?9 %ort rod ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,bacillus c]eus #fe #id #b4ba ,s&/one soil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,clo/ridium sporog5es #fe #id #b ,enri*$ soil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,clo/ridium botul9um #fe #ie #j to ,lava soil #j4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,klebsiella pneumoniae #fe #ie #j to ,lava soil #j4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,bacillus subtilis v>4 #he #ie #j4c ,m$ia globigii ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,s>c9a aurantiaca #he #ie #j4c ,des]t soil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,clo/ridium tetani #he #ie #j4c ,soil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,asp]gillus nig] #gf #ie4e #j4be ,glass clo? on copp] b> ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,asp]gillus oryzae #gf #ie4e #j4be ,d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,mucor plumbeus #gf #ie4e #j4be ,d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,rhodotorula rubra #gf #ie4e #j4be ,d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,pea1 bean1 tomato1 rye1 #ge #ajj #j ,filt] sorghum1 rice4 pap] ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,w9t] rye #gf #ih #j4bd ,soil ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,/udies ( ! effects ( simulat$ ,m>tian environm5ts on spore=m+ ana]obic bact]ia 7 c>ri$ out by ,hawrylewicz et al4 7ref4#di74 ,!y %[$ t ! encapsulat$ facultative ana]obe1 ,klebsiella pneumoniae1 surviv$ "u simulat$ ,m>tian atmosph]e = #f to #h mon?s1 b 7 less virul5t ?an ! fre%ly isolat$ organisms4 ,spores ( ! ana]obe ,clo/ridium botul9um surviv$ #aj mon?s 9 ! simulator4 ,hag5 et al4 7ref4#ec7 f\nd t ! addition ( moi/ure to dry-simulat$ ,m>tian soil did n improve ! survival ( ,bacillus subtilis or ,pseudomonas a]ug9osa4 ,bacillus c]eus spores surviv$1 ) add$ organic m$ium plus moi/ure1 b no g]m9ation ( ! spores result$4 ,hawrylewicz et al4 7ref4#di7 put rocks f ,ant>ctica be>+ v>i\s li*5s 9 simulat$ ,m>tian conditions 9 a l>ge desiccator4 ,!y f\nd t ! algal portion ( a li*51 ,treb\xia erici1 %[$ only slight resi/ance to ! ,m>tian environm5t4 ,!y also po9t$ out ! effect moi/ure _h on ! physical condition ( li*5s4 ,! und]surface ( a li*5 has great wat]-absorb+ capability1 & ! slighte/ am\nt ( moi/ure on a rock surface is absorb$ by ! li*5 :i* c turn gre5 9 #ae m9utes4 ,s*] et al4 7ref4#ea7 expos$ des]t soils to simulat$ environm5tal conditions & diurnal cycles ( ,m>s4 ,! atmosph]e consi/$ ( #ie p]c5t nitrog5 & #e p]c5t c>bon dioxide 7no oxyg57 & 0 dri$1 us+ calcium sulfate z a desiccant4 ,! total atmosph]ic pressure 0 #j4a atm4 ,! temp]ature rang$ f -#fj to #bj ,c 9 #bd-;h\r cycles4 ,"o h\r 0 sp5t at ! maximum & at ! m9imum temp]atures4 ,! *amb]s 7 irradiat$ ) ultraviolet1 #becg 1 ) a dose ( #aj ergs_/cm1 :i* is comp>able to a daily dose f\nd on ,m>s1 & easily exce$s ! mean le?al dose = unprotect$ bact]ia4 ,soil aliquots 7 remov$ weekly & incubat$ at #cj ,c4 ,! scor+ 0 done bo? a]obically & ana]obically4 ,spore=m+ obligate & facultative ana]obes1 includ+ ,clo/ridium1 ,bacillus1 & ,planos>c9a1 & nonspore=m+ facultative ana]obes1 includ+ ,pseudomonas & ,rhodopseudomonas1 7 f\nd4 ,! exp]im5tal *amb]s 7 froz5 & ?aw$ cyclically up to #f mon?s4 ,organisms t 7 able to survive ! fir/ freeze-?aw cycle 7 able to survive ! entire exp]im5t4 ,! ultraviolet irradiation did n kill subsurface organisms1 & a ?9 lay] ( soil s]v$ z an ultraviolet %ield4 ,all ( ! samples %[$ survivors4 ,"y et al4 7ref4#eb7 assum$ t wat] is pres5t on ,m>s1 at lea/ 9 micro5vironm5ts1 & t nutri5ts w\ld be available4 ,! prim>y objective ( _! exp]im5ts 0 to det]m9e ! likelihood ( contam9at+ ,m>s ) ,e>? organisms %\ld a space probe f ,e>? enc\nt] an optimum micro5vironm5t 9 t]ms ( wat] & nutri5ts4 ,! exp]im5ts us$ bact]ia 9 liquid nutri5t m$ia4 ,! environm5t consi/$ ( a c>bon dioxide-nitrog5 atmosph]e1 & ! temp]ature cycl+ 0 -#gj to #be ,c1 ) a maximum "t above freez+ ( #d h\rs4 ,a]obact] a]og5es & ,pseudomonas sp4 grew 9 nutri5t m$ium "u ,m>tian freez+ & ?aw+ cycles4 ,atmosph]ic pressure 0 n a significant factor 9 ! gr[? ( bact]ia "u ^! conditions4 ,silv]man et al4 7ref4#dg7 /udi$ bact]ia & a fungus "u extreme--b n ,m>tian--conditions4 ,spores ( five te/ organisms 7,b4 subtilis v>4 nig]1 ,b4 megat]ium1 ,b4 /e>o!rmophilus1 ,clo/ridium sporog5es1 & ,asp]gillus nig]7 & soils 7 expos$ :ile "u ultrahigh vacuum to temp]atures ( f -#aij to #agj ,c = #d to #e days4 ,up to #be ,c !re 0 no loss 9 viability2 at high] temp]atures1 diff]5ces 9 resi/ivity 7 obs]v$4 ,at #hh ,c1 only ,b4 subtilis & ,a4 nig] surviv$ 9 appreciable numb]s2 at #ajg ,c1 only ,a4 nig] spores surviv$2 none 7 recov]able aft] exposure to #abj ,c4 ,b4 subtilis surviv$ at atmosph]ic pressure & #ij ,c = #e days1 b none ( ! o!r spores 7 viable alt] #b days4 ,f\r gr\ps ( soil organisms 7mesophilic1 a]obic1 & ana]obic bact]ia1 molds1 & act9omycetes7 7 simil>ly te/$ 9 ! vacuum *amb]4 ,f "o sample only act9omycetes surviv$ #abj ,c1 :ile "o o!r soil sample yield$ viable bact]ia aft] exposure to #agj ,c4 ,sev]al organisms resi/$ #abj ,c 9 ultrahigh vacuum = #d to #e days4 ,:5 irradiat$ ) gamma rays f a cobalt #fj s\rce1 diff]5ces 7 obs]v$ betwe5 vacuum-dri$ spores irradiat$ :ile "u vacuum & ^? expos$ to air imm$iately be=e irradiation4 ,a r$uction ( f "o-?ird to "o-n9? ( ! viability ( spores irradiat$ 9 vacuum occurr$ ) vacuum-treat$ spores irradiat$ 9 air4 ,siegel et al4 7ref4#gc71 9 approximate simulations ( ,m>tian environm5ts1 /udi$ tol]ances ( c]ta9 se$ plants1 su* z cucumb]s1 corn1 & w9t] rye1 to l[ temp]atures & l[]$ oxyg5 t5sions4 ,l[]$ oxyg5 t5sions enhanc$ ! resi/ance ( se$l+s1 p>ticul>ly cucumb] & rye to freez+1 & l[]$ ! m9imum temp]ature requir$ = g]m9ation4 ,g]m9ation ( se$s 9 ! abs5ce ( liquid wat] has also be5 /udi$4 ,9 ?is case1 se$s ( x]ophytes h be5 susp5d$ 9 air at #ge-mm ,hg pressure above wat]4 ,! air 0 ?us saturat$4 ,g]m9ation 0 sl[ b did occur4 ,siegel et al4 7refs4 ref4#gc & ref4#gd7 f\nd t ! gr[? rate ( sev]al high] plants 0 enhanc$ by c]ta9 gases usually ?\ght to be toxic1 su* z ,n,o4 ,?is f9d+ is significant inasmu* z ! pres5ce ( nitrog5 oxides 9 ! ,m>tian atmosph]e has be5 cit$ z evid5ce = ! nonexi/5ce ( plants on t planet by ,kiess et al4 7ref4#ge74 ,exploratory survival te/s %[$ t v>i\s mature plants1 z well z ! l>vae1 pupae1 & adult specim5s ( a coleopt]an insect1 7 undamag$ :5 expos$ to at lea/ #dj h\rs ( an atmosph]e conta9+ #if4e p]c5t ,n,o1 #j4g p]c5t ,o1 & #b4h p]c5t ,n4 ,li*5s are ( int]e/ because ( _! ability to survive & ?rive "u extreme environm5tal conditions on ,e>?4 ,biological activity ( sl[-gr[+ li*5s 0 detect$ by metabolic gas ex*ange1 ,,co detection be+ especially conv5i5t4 ,siegel po9ts out t ?is me?od is s5sitive & nonde/ructive1 to be pref]r$ to /a9+ te*niques1 :i* at pres5t are limit$ because !y are only semiquantitative1 subjective1 & de/ructive ( ! li*54 ,a ,russian /udy ( simulat$ planet>y environm5ts has be5 p]=m$ ) good simulation b = p]iods ( only #b to #f h\rs4 ,comm5ts on simulation exp]im5ts made by ,zhukova & ,kondratyev 7ref4#fi7 are pres5t$ z foll[s3 ,on ! basis ( mod]n conceptions on ,m>tian conditions x is difficult to imag9e t high] =ms ( animals or plants exi/ on ! planet4 ,a ,m>tian *ange ( seasons simil> to t ( our planet emp[]s u to ?9k t !re is a circulation ( an organic sub/ance on ,m>s1 :i* _c exi/ )\t p>ticipation ( microbic =ms ( life4 ,microorganisms are ! mo/ probable inhabitants ( ,m>s al?\gh ! possibility is n exclud$ t _! physiological features w be v specific4 ,t is :y ! solution ( ! problem conc]n+ ! "* ( life on ,m>s is ( exceptional int]e/4 ,b /ill ! answ] to ?is "q c be v]ifi$ only by simulat+ ,m>tian conditions1 tak+ into acc\nt ! in=mation obta9$ f a/rophysici/s4 ,exp]im5ts aim$ at creat+ artificial ,m>tian climatic conditions h be5 />t$ q rec5tly2 _! numb] is n l>ge s9ce !y _c be comb9$ ) ! results ( num]\s exp]im5ts inve/igat+ ! effect ( extreme factors on microorganisms4 ,! result ( ! effect ( su* physico*emical p>amet]s ( ! m$ium z pressure1 %>p temp]ature *anges1 ! abs5ce ( oxyg5 & insolation1 dep5ds on _! comb9ation & simultaneity4 ,^! examples conv9c+ly %[ t :ile simulat+ ,m>tian conditions "o %\ld /rive to ! mo/ compreh5sive complex ( simultane\sly act+ factors4 ,! creation ( individual climatic p>amet]s act+ successively leads to absolutely diff]5t1 (t5 opposite results4 ,x %\ld be m5tion$ also t refusal to imitate insolation & ! p]=mance ( exp]im5ts ) specim5s ( soil :i* itself has protective effect on cells ( microorganisms1 b n ) pure culture ( bact]ia1 are usual %ortcom+s 9 ! bulk ( /udies on ?is problem4 ,x appe>s t organisms f ,e>? might survive 9 l>ge numb]s :5 introduc$ to ,m>tian environm5t4 ,:e!r ^! organisms w be capable ( gr[? & explosive contam9ation ( ! planet 9 a biological s5se or n is highly que/ionable4 ,! likelihood ( an organism f ,e>? f9d+ ideal conditions = gr[? on ,m>s seems extremely l[4 ,h[ev]1 ! likelihood ( an organism f ,e>? s]v+ z a contam9ant = any life-detection device fl[n to ,m>s = ! purpose ( se>*+ out c>bon-bas$ life is consid]ably high]4 ,! *ance t life has orig9at$ & evolv$ on ,m>s is a completely sep>ate "q & mu* m difficult to answ]4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to attempt to det]m9e possible evolution>y tr5ds :i* might occur on a planet by means ( selection ( organisms 9 a simulat$ planet>y environm5t4 ,rapid g5etic selection comb9$ ) radiation & *emicals to spe$ up mutation rate "u ^! conditions %\ld reveal possible evolution>y tr5ds "u ! planet>y environm5tal conditions4 ,?is c\ld be attempt$ aft] ! planet>y environm5ts are m accurately def9$4 ,,extreme ,,& ,,limit+ ,,environm5tal ,,p>amet]s ,,( ,,life ,! "q ( ! exi/5ce ( extrat]re/rial life is "o ( ! mo/ important & int]e/+ biological que/ions fac+ mank9d & has be5 ! subject ( mu* controv]sial discussion & conjecture4 ,_m ( ! quantitative1 & ev5 qualitative1 environm5tal con/itu5ts ( ! planets also are /ill subjects ( controv]sy & speculation4 ,be/ guesses ab\t a relatively unkn[n planet>y environm5t1 comb9$ ) lack ( in=mation ab\t ! capabilities ( ,e>? life to gr[ 9 extreme environm5ts1 d n provide ! basis = mak+ in=m$ sci5tific e/imates4 ,life on ,e>? is usually consid]$ to be relatively limit$ 9 its ability to gr[1 reproduce1 or survive 9 extreme environm5tal conditions4 ,:ile _m common plants & animals 7includ+ man7 are q s5sitive to1 or incapable (1 surviv+ sev]e *emical & physical *anges or extremes ( environm5t1 a l>ge numb] ( micro-organisms are highly adapt$ & fl\ri% 9 environm5ts usually consid]$ le?al4 ,c]ta9 *emoautotrophic bact]ia require high conc5trations ( ammonia1 me?ane1 or o!r *emicals to gr[4 ,ana]obic bact]ia gr[ only 9 ! abs5ce ( oxyg54 ,besides adapt+ to ! extremes ( environm5ts on ,e>?1 life is also capable ( gr[+ & reproduc+ "u extreme environm5tal conditions n normally enc\nt]$3 e4g41 f a few rad ( radiation 9 normal habitats to #aj or m rad f artificial s\rces1 f #j4e gauss ( ,e>? magnetism to #afg #jjj gauss 9 manmade magnetic fields1 & f #a-;g =ce ( gravity to #aaj #jjj g4 ,! extreme ranges ( physical & *emical environm5tal factors = gr[?1 reproduction1 & survival = ,e>? micro-organisms are ph5om5ally l>ge4 ,life is ubiquit\s on ,e>? & is f\nd 9 almo/ e possible environm5t1 includ+ ! mo/ sev]e habitats1 f ! bottom ( ! ocean to ! highe/ m\nta9 tops & f cold ,arctic habitats to hot spr+s1 z well z 9 volcanic crat]s1 deep wells1 salt flats1 & m\nta9 sn[fields4 ,e>? life has become adapt$ to1 & has invad$1 ne>ly e habitat1 no matt] h[ sev]e4 ,! physiological & morphological adaptations ( life are exce$+ly div]se & complex4 ,surpris+ly1 ! extreme p>amet]s or ranges ( ! physical & *emical environm5tal factors p]mitt+ gr[?1 reproduction1 & o!r physiological processes ( ,e>? organisms h n be5 critically compil$4 ,a p>tial compilation ( c]ta9 select$ environm5tal factors has be5 made by ,vall5tyne 7ref4#gf74 ,a compilation ( available publi%$ data on c]ta9 environm5tal extremes1 p>ticul>ly f rec5t ,,nasa-support$ rese>* 7compil$ by ,dale ,w4 ,j5k9s1 9 press71 is pres5t$ 9 tables ,,iii to ,,vi4 ,^! data c s]ve z a />t+ po9t = a m int5sive lit]ature review by speciali/s1 critical evaluation1 /&>dization ( end po9ts1 & especially to po9t out areas :]e critical exp]im5tation is urg5tly ne$$4 ,?is critical compilation involves a review ( a v broad & complex range ( subjects involv$ 9 _m diff]5t discipl9es ) widely scatt]$ lit]ature4 ,s9ce ! effects ( _m ( ! specific environm5tal factors are h>mful1 x is difficult to select a po9t on a scale f no effect to dea? & use "s crit]ia to say t normal or ev5 m9imal gr[? & reproduction are occurr+4 ,! effects ( environm5tal factors are dep5d5t on 7#a7 ! specific factor1 times1 7#b7 ! conc5tration or en]gy1 times1 7#c7 ! "t ( exposure or application ( ! factor4 ,_m reports1 especially old] ones1 d n give all ( ! necess>y data to p]mit prop] evaluation4 ,a complicat+ factor is t ! effect ( ea* factor dep5ds on ! o!r factors be=e1 dur+1 & aft] its application4 ,! condition ( ! organism itself is a great v>iable4 ,prop] evaluation requires ! critical review by a v>iety ( biological speciali/s1 physici/s1 & *emi/s4 ,to det]m9e ! pot5tial ( ,e>? organisms to survive or gr[ "u o!r planet>y environm5tal conditions1 a numb] ( exp]im5ts h be5 c>ri$ out attempt+ to simulate planet>y environm5ts1 especially ( ,m>s1 z review$ previ\sly4 ,:ile ! results are ( real int]e/1 !y d n provide mu* basic in=mation4 ,fur!r1 z ! ,m>tian environm5t is m accurately def9$1 ! exp]im5tal conditions are *ang$4 ,9 addition1 "s exp]im5t]s h alt]$ c]ta9 factors1 su* z wat] cont5t1 to all[ = pot5tial microhabitats or = areas :i* might conta9 m wat] at c]ta9 times4 ,table ,,iii4--,extreme ,physical ,environm5tal ,factors ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,physical ,m9imum ,organism factors ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,temp]ature -#cj ,c ,algae 7photosyn!sis71 p9k yea/ 7gr[?7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,magnetism #j-ej gamma 7#aj ,human gauss7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,gravity #j g ,human1 plants1 animals ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,pressure #aj mm ,hg 7#e days7 ,mycobact]ium smegmatis ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,micr[ave #j ,w_/cm ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,visible #j ft-c ,animals1 fungi1 bact]ia ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ultraviolet #j erg_/cm ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,x-ray #j rad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,gamma ray #j rad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ac\/ic #j dyne_/cm ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,table ,,iii4--,extreme ,physical ,environm5tal ,factors ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,physical ,maximum ,organism ,activity factors ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,temp]ature #ajd ,c 7#ajjj ,desulfovibrio ,gr[s & r$uces atm7 desulfuricans sulfate ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,magnetism #afg #jjj ,neurospora #a hr--no effect1 gauss ,arbacia ,arbacia ,drosophila developm5t delay$ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,gravity #djj #jjj g ,asc>is eggs #a hr--eggs hat*1 #dj #aaj #jjj g ,es*]i*ia coli days' gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,pressure #adjj atm ,m>9e organisms ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,micr[ave #bdej ,mc_/sec ,drosophila #fh hr1 gr[? n #j4c to #a affect$ ,w_/cm ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,visible #ej #jjj ft-c ,*lorella1 ,seconds1 #ag #jjj ft-c high] plants recurr5tly cont9u\s ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ultraviolet #aj erg_/cm1 ,bean embryos ,suppress$ gr[? #becg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,x-ray #baj rad ,bact]ia ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,gamma ray #b4deaj rad ,microcoleus ,cont9u$ gr[? ,phormidium ,syne*ococcus ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ac\/ic #adj db or ,man ,?re%old ( pa9 #fejj dyne_/cm at #j4jb to #d4h kcs_/sec ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,table ,,iv4--,extreme ,l[ & ,high ,temp]ature ,effects ,p]mitt+ ,life ,processes ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,m9imum ,organism ,activity or condition temp]ature1 ,c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#aa ,bact]ia ,gr[? 7on fi%7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ab ,bact]ia ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ab ,molds ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ae ,pyramidomonas ,swimm+ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ae ,dunaliella sal9a ,swimm+ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ah ,mold ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ah ,yea/ ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ah ,asp]gillus ,gr[? 79 glyc]ol7 glaucus ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ah to -#bj ,mold ,gr[? 79 fruit juice7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#ah to -#bj ,pseudomonads ,gr[? 79 fruit juice7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#bj ,bact]ia ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#bj ,bact]ia ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#bj ,bact]ia ,lum9esc5ce developm5t accel]at$ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#bj to -#bd ,insect eggs 7diapause7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#cj ,algae ,photosyn!sis ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#cj ,p9k yea/ ,gr[? 7on oy/]s7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#cj ,li*5s ,photosyn!sis ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#bj to -#dj ,li*5s & conif]s ,photosyn!sis ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- -#dd ,mold spores ,sporulation & g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,table ,,iv4--,extreme ,l[ & ,high ,temp]ature ,effects ,p]mitt+ ,life ,processes ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,maximum ,organism ,activity or condition temp]ature1 ,c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #gc ,!rmophilic organisms ,gr[? 7,p metabolism7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #gc ,phormidium 7alga7 ,acclimatiz$ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #gj to #gc ,bacillus calidus ,gr[? & spore g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #gj to #gd ,bacillus cyl9dricus ,gr[? & spore g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #gj to #ge ,bacillus to/atus ,gr[? & spore g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #hj ,bacillus ,cultur$ 9 laboratory /e>o!rmophilus ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #hc ,sulfate-r$uc+ ,f\nd 9 a well bact]ia ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #hi ,sulfate-r$uc+ ,f\nd 9 oil wat]s bact]ia ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #fe to #he ,sulfate-r$uc+ ,cultur$ 9 laboratory bact]ia ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #hi ,micro-organisms ,f\nd 9 hot spr+s ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ie ,bacillus coagulans ,9 #hj m94 sporulation activation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aaj ,bacillus coagulans ,9 #f m91 sporulation activation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ajd ,desulfovibrio ,gr[ & r$uce sulfate desulfuricans at #ajjj atm ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,table ,v4--,extreme ,temp]ature ,limits ( ,survival ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,m9imum ,organism temp]ature ,c ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#aij ,yea/ bact]ia1 #aj species ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#aig ,treb\xia erici f li*5s ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#aig ,protozoa1 ,anguillula ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#beb ,yea/s1 molds1 bact]ia1 #aj species ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#bec ,black currant1 bir* ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#bgc ,bact]ia1 _m species ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#bgc ,bact]ia1 _m species ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#bgb ,desiccat$ rotif]s ---------------------------------------- ---------- -#bfi ,human sp]matozoa ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,table ,v4--,extreme ,temp]ature ,limits ( ,survival ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,maximum ,organism ,"t ( exposure temp]ature ,c ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #adj ,bact]ial spores #e-;hr imm]sion ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #agj-bjj ,desiccat$ rotif]s #e m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aea ,desiccat$ rotif]s #ce m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aej ,clo/ridium tetani #ahj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #agj ,a]obic bact]ia1 molds4 #e days at act9omycetes #fajmm ,hg ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #abg 7dry7 ,bact]ia 79 activat$ *>coal7 #fj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aaj 7wet7 ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #djj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #abj ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #djj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ada ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #gj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #afj ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #ae m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ahj ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #b m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ahh ,bacillus subtilis v>4 nig] #a m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #abj 7wet7 ,bacillus /e>o!rmophilus #be m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #abj 7dry7 ,bacillus /e>o!rmophilus #ajj m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ada ,bacillus /e>o!rmophilus #ab m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #afj ,bacillus /e>o!rmophilus #b m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #aff ,bacillus /e>o!rmophilus #a m9 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,table ,,vi4--,extremes ( ,*emical ,environm5tal ,factors ,p]mitt+ ,gr[? or ,activity ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,*emical ,m9imum ,organism factor ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,o #j ,he,la cells1 ,cephalobus1 ana]obic bact]ia ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,o 7ozone7 #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h,o ,aw #j4dh ,pleurococcus vulg>is ---------------------------------------- -- ,aw #j4e ,x5opsylla *eopis 7prepupae7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h,o #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,he #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,co #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,co #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,* #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,*,o #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,*,,oh #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,n #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,no #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,no #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,n,o #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,ar #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,na,cl1 ,na,,s1 ,na,h,c,o ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h,s #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,h,,s #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,cu ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,zn ---------------------------------------- ---------------- p,h #j ,acontium velatum ,?iobacillus ?ioodixans ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,eh -#dej m,v ,sulfate-r$uc+ bact]ia at p,h #i4e ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,table ,,vi4--,extremes ( ,*emical ,environm5tal ,factors ,p]mitt+ ,gr[? or ,activity ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,*emical ,maximum ,pressure1 ,"t1 ,organism ,activity factor atm days ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,o #ajj #a ,plants1 ,gr[? animals ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,o #ajj ppm #e ,armill>ia ,gr[? 7ozone7 --------------------------- mellea ----------------- #ejj ppm #e ,light emission ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,h #ajj ,v>i\s ,g]m9ation plants ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,h,o ,aw #a4j #a ,v>i\s ,gr[? aquatic organisms ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,h,o #j4cd ,rye ,g]m9ation enhanc$ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,he #ajj ,:eat1 rye1 ,g]m9ation rice ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,co #ajj ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #hj #a4a #d ,hydrog5omonas ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,co #ajj #a4a #d ,rye ,gr[? & g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,* #ajj #a4a #d ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,*,o #ej ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,*,,oh #ej ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,n #ajj 4#a #aj ,v>i\s plants ,g]m9ation & root gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,no #ah 4#jah #aj ,sorghum1 rice ,g]m9ation & root gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,no #ah 4#jah #aj ,rye1 rice ,g]m9ation & root gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,n,o #ajj #a4b #d ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #if4e #a4g ,rye ,g]m9ation ------------------------------------ ,t5ebrio ,survival molitor ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,ar #ajj #a4b #b ,rye ,g]m9ation ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,na,cl1 #fg ,photosyn!tic ,gr[? ,na,,s1 bact]ia ,na,h,c,o ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,h,s #j4if ,desulfovibrio ,gr[? g_/lit] desulfuricans ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,h,,s #g ,acontium ,gr[? velatum ------------------------------- ,?iobacilli ,gr[?1 reproduction ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,cu #ab ,?iobacillus ,gr[? g_/lit] f]rooxidans ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,zn #ag ,?iobacillus ,gr[? g_/lit] f]rooxidans ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ p,h #ac ,plectonema ,gr[? no/ocorum ------------------------------- ,nitrobact] ,gr[? ------------------------------- ,nitrosomonas ,gr[? ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,eh #hej m,v ,iron bact]ia ,gr[? at p,h #c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ *apt] #d ,behavioral ,biology ,,effects ,,( ,,! ,,space ,,environm5t ,,on ,,behavior ,,nasa 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aieh1 %ortly aft] ! ,russian laun*+ ( ! second ,e>? satellite ,sputnik ,,ii1 ! fir/ vehicle to c>ry life into orbit ar\nd ! ,e>?4 ,?is accompli%m5t 0 prec$$ by ! pione]+ "w ( ,h5ry et al4 7ref4#gg71 9 :i* animals 7 expos$ briefly to l[-gravity /ates 9 ,a]obee rockets4 ,a motion-picture cam]a photograph$ ! behavior ( two :ite mice 9 rotat+ drums dur+ ?is s]ies ( flights1 :i* m>k$ ! fir/ "t t simple psy*ological te/s 7 made on animals 9 ! weightless condition4 ,:ile ?is behavioral exp]im5t 0 relatively simple1 x provid$ ! basic concepts = rec5t /udies :i* involv$ rotation ( animals dur+ ! weightless /ate4 ,subsequ5t flights su* z ,project ,,mia 7,m\se-9-,able7 reflect$ a preoccupation ) physiologic measures 7refs4 ref4#gh & ref4#gi71 al?\gh ! flights ( ,bak] & ,able includ$ preflight & po/flight p]=mance /udies 7ref4#hj74 ,able's behavior 0 record$ 9 detail on 9-flight film1 b none ( ! behavior 0 program$ or "u exp]im5tal control4 ,! fir/ flights 9 :i* behavior or p]=mance 0 explicitly program$ 7 ^? ( ,sam & ,miss ,sam 9 flights ( ! ,little ,joe rocket ) ! ,m]cury capsule1 laun*$ f ,wallops ,isl& 9 #aiei & #aifj 7ref4#ha74 ,! fir/ major space a*ievem5t 9 ! behavioral sci5ces 0 ! successful 9-flight measurem5t ( ! behavior ( ! *impanzee ,ham 9 e>ly #aifa1 9 :i* ! pretra9$ animal p]=m$ ?r\gh\t ! flight4 ,! second a*ievem5t along ^! l9es 0 9 #aifb :5 ! *impanzee ,enos made sev]al orbits ar\nd ,e>? & p]=m$ cont9u\sly on a complex behavioral task4 ,! tasks :i* ! animals p]=m$ dur+ ^! flights h be5 describ$ 9 detail by ,belleville et al4 7ref4#hb71 & ! results ( ! 9-flight p]=mance h be5 pres5t$ by ,h5ry & ,mosely 7ref4#hc74 ,^! e>ly flights provid$ mu* ( ! te*nological framework on :i* curr5t biological exp]im5ts on organisms dur+ flights ( ext5d$ duration are bas$4 ,due l>gely to ! ef=ts ( ,grunzke 7refs4 ref4#hd & ref4#he71 ! app>atus ne$$ to su/a9 animals dur+ space flight1 su* z z]o-g wat]+ & fe$+ devices1 are n[ commonplace 7ref4#hf74 ,advanc$ sy/ems ( program+ /imulus pres5tations & record+ responses1 develop$ = ,project ,m]cury1 may n[ be se5 9 _m basic rese>* laboratories ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,sev]al o!r notewor?y advances h be5 made z an outgr[? ( ! ,m]cury animal flights4 ,imm$iately be=e ! orbital flight ,,ma-#e1 9 :i* ! *impanzee ,enos 0 employ$1 x 0 unexpect$ly f\nd t ?is #e-ye>-old animal 0 hyp]t5sive4 ,subsequ5t c5trifuge /udies %[$ t its vascul> responses exce$$ ^? ( a control gr\p4 ,consid]ation ( ! animal's preflight exp]i5ce l$ to speculation conc]n+ ! orig9 ( ?is hyp]t5sion4 ,an explanation ( ! high-blood-pressure responses detect$ 9 ,enos has be5 pursu$ by ,meehan et al4 7ref4#hg74 ,p]si/5t hyp]t5sion has be5 produc$ 9 o!r laboratory *impanzees re/ra9$ 9 ! same mann] z ^? p>ticipat+ 9 space flight & expos$ to dem&+ p]=mance tasks1 a demon/ration :i* has important implications = prolong$ mann$ space flight & = c>diovascul> m$ic9e 9 g5]al4 ,/udies m directly conc]n$ ) behavior & p]=mance h be5 ext5d$ f ^? ( ,project ,m]cury4 ,^! ext5sions h be5 9 ! foll[+ directions3 7#a7 ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( complex behavioral rep]toires "u conditions ( full environm5tal control1 7#b7 ! ref9em5t ( behavioral te*niques = assess+ s5sory & motor processes1 & 7#c7 ! ma9t5ance ( su/a9$ p]=mance "u conditions ( long-t]m isolation & conf9em5t & prelim9>y ext5sion ( su* exp]im5tal analysis to man4 ,num]\s /udies ) primate subjects1 includ+ sev]al at ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t]1 h be5 devot$ to develop+ me?ods = ma9ta9+ optimum p]=mance 9 environm5ts ) limit$ s\rces ( /imulation4 ,monkeys1 baboons1 & *impanzees1 = example1 h be5 isolat$ = p]iods ( long] ?an #b ye>s ) no decrem5t 9 p]=mance on complicat$ behavioral tasks 7ref4#hh74 ,! behavioral te*niques us$ 9 ^! /udies are closely relat$ to ^? employ$ on human subjects "u ,,nasa sponsor%ip at ! ,univ]sity ( ,m>yl& 7ref4#hi74 ,! ess5ce ( ^! te*niques is 9 ! prop] program+ ( environm5tal /imuli 7ref4#ij74 ,x is n suffici5t to provide ! subject ) 8 physiological requirem5ts = survival1 b he mu/ be giv5 ! psy*ological motivation = us+ ^! provisions4 ,?is /atem5t1 ( c\rse1 is an ov]simplification ( ! problem1 b x s]ves to illu/rate ! ess5ce ( ^! exp]im5tal programs4 ,gravity has long be5 kn[n z "o ( ! major factors influ5c+ v>i\s life processes & ! ori5tation ( bo? plants & animals4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *all5g+ problems ( space rese>* has be5 to def9e ?is influ5ce m precisely4 ,relat$ to ! effect ( gravity on liv+ processes is ! problem ( ! effects ( weightlessness4 ,( p>ticul> int]e/ to psy*ologi/s are ! possible modifications an alt]$ gravitational environm5t might produce 9 behavioral patt]ns basic to ! animal's ma9t5ance & survival1 su* z eat+1 s5sory & discrim9ative processes1 developm5t & maturation1 & le>n+ capacity 7ref4#ia74 ,"o prom95t me?od ( /udy+ gravitational effects is to simulate an increase 9 gravity by c5trifugation4 ,smi? et al4 7ref4#ib7 & ,w+et et al4 7ref4#ic7 h inve/igat$ ! effects ( long-t]m accel]ation on birds1 prim>ily *ick5s1 :ile ,wund] 7refs4 ref4#id & ref4#ie7 & 8 c[ork]s 7refs4 ref4#if-ref4#ii7 h us$ fruit flies1 mice1 rats1 ham/]s1 & turtles4 ,! g5]al f9d+s are t1 :5 animals are subject$ to a prolong$ p]iod ( accel]ation ( mod]ate int5sity1 !y exhibit decreas$ gr[?1 delay$ maturation1 & an increase 9 ! size ( c]ta9 muscles & organs1 dep5d5t on ! species4 ,) reg>d to ! decreas$ gr[? effect1 ! data ( ^! inve/igators %[ "s exceptions4 ,:5 ! gravitational increase is kept bel[ a c]ta9 limit1 gr[? 0 great] ?an t ( controls 9 ! fruit fly1 turtle1 m\se1 & *ick54 ,! limit bel[ :i* enhancem5t ( gr[? 0 obs]v$ v>i$ ) ! species /udi$4 ,! data on food intake d n pres5t a consi/5t picture4 ,wund] 7ref4#id7 f\nd t food intake 9 accel]at$ mice 0 m>k$ly r$uc$ f t ( nonaccel]at$ control animals4 ,smi?1 h[ev]1 f\nd t 9 *ick5s1 food intake increas$ up to #cf p]c5t ov] controls & has d]iv$ an expon5tial relation betwe5 food intake & accel]ation4 ,aft] six g5]ations ( selective bre$+1 ,smi? has produc$ a /ra9 ( *ick5s bett] adapt$ to prolong$ exposure to high g4 ,a v relevant f9d+ ( _! rese>* ) birds 0 t exposure to *ronic accel]ation 9 "s way appe>s to int]f]e ) habituation to rotatory /imulation4 ,*ick5s :o 7 be+ subject$ to *ronic accel]ation 7 giv5 repeat$ rotatory /imulation te/s to e/imate _! labyr9?9e s5sitivity4 ,?is /udy reveal$ t c5trifug$ animals %[$ a m>k$ r$uction 9 labyr9?9e s5sitivity4 ,?is result appe>$ to p]si/ aft] ! accel]ation 0 t]m9at$4 ,9 animals :o develop$ gait or po/ural difficulties z a result ( accel]ation1 !re 0 no evid5ce ( a po/ny/agmus 9 response to ! rotatory /imulation te/1 :i* ! inve/igators po9t out may be evid5ce ( a lesion 9 ! labyr9? or its neural pa?ways4 ,smi? has implicat$ social factors z int]f]+ ) accel]ation effects4 ,8 subjects 7 typically accel]at$ f\r or six to a cage4 ,:5 gr\ps 7 mix$ midway ?r\gh ! exp]im5t1 !y exhibit$ a high] mortality rate & incid5ce ( accel]ation symptoms ?an did gr\ps ^: con/itu5cy rema9$ un*ang$4 ,at ! ,u4,s4 ,naval ,s*ool ( ,a]ospace ,m$ic9e1 num]\s /udies h be5 conduct$ on ! effects ( sl[ rotation on ! behavior & physiology ( humans & animals 7ref4#ajj74 ,rotation initially produces decrem5ts 9 p]=mance1 b adaptation to a rotat+ environm5t ensues q rapidly 7refs4 ref4#aja-ref4#ajc74 ,p]ceptual di/ortion1 ny/agmus1 nausea1 & o!r signs ( discom=t are common responses to sl[ rotation4 ,^! symptoms are g5]ally r$uc$ ) cont9u$ exposure 7adaptation74 ,int]e/+ly1 h[ev]1 adaptation is delay$ :5 ! subjects are expos$ to a fix$ ref]5ce outside _! rotat+ environm5t4 ,at ,,nasa-,ames1 rod5ts h be5 us$ 9 exp]im5ts by ,weissman & ,selde5 to delimit ! /imulus effects ( rotation4 ,9 ^! exp]im5ts ! subjects mu/ discrim9ate betwe5 diff]5t spe$s ( rotation 9 ord] to obta9 food re9=cem5t4 ,! results ?us f> provide evid5ce t ^! animals are capable ( discrim9at+ betwe5 ! diff]5t spe$s at :i* !y are be+ rotat$4 ,! range ( spe$s /udi$ 0 #j-be rpm1 ) te/s ( discrim9ation be+ made at int]vals ( less ?an #e rpm4 ,exp]im5ts su* z ^! w lead to ! developm5t ( te*niques = measur+ rotational s5sitivity 9 _m species1 includ+ man4 ,! optimum configuration ( mann$ spacecraft w dep5d1 9 "p1 ^u biom$ical consid]ations4 ,a volum9\s lit]ature n[ exi/s on ! possible haz>ds to man ( prolong$ exposure to z]o-g conditions4 ,%\ld prolong$ weightlessness prove to be a s]i\s detrim5t to heal?1 consid]ation mu/ be giv5 to design concepts :i* provide artificial gravity4 ,no data exi/ on ! m9imum gravity requirem5ts necess>y to su/a9 basic biological functions = ext5d$ p]iods4 ,a limit ( #j4b g has be5 giv5 z ! l[] level at :i* man c walk unaid$ 7ref4#ajd74 ,x has also be5 recomm5d$ t angul> velocity be ma9ta9$ at ! l[e/ possible level 9 ord] to m9imize ! occurr5ce ( ve/ibul> di/urbances4 ,^! recomm5dations are bas$ on human-factor requirem5ts1 r ?an ^u biological consid]ations1 :i* may significantly modify ^! values4 ,9 rec5t /udies1 a te*nique has be5 devis$ :i* promises to provide reliable crit]ia = biological acceptability1 s9ce x is bas$ on fundam5tal biological & behavioral pr9ciples4 ,z animals progress up ! evolution>y /ale1 _! survival dep5ds less & less ^u /]eotyp$ physiological reactions :i* occur 9 reflex fa%ion1 9 response to environm5tal /imulation4 ,9 high] organisms1 survival dep5ds m ^u ! capacity ( organisms to modify _! behavior4 ,at ! highe/ levels ( functional effici5cy1 ! ultimate =m ( adaptation is se5--! manipulation ( ! environm5t by ! organism4 ,developm5ts 9 behavioral sci5ce n[ p]mit u to utilize ! adaptive behavior ( animals to inve/igate _m problems ( biological int]e/4 ,rec5t /udies on ! self-selection ( gravity levels repres5t a fur!r attempt to exploit ! adaptive capacities ( animals1 9 ord] to provide in=mation relevant to problems ( space exploration4 ,"o su* project all[s animals to select _! own gravity environm5t 9 an app>atus design$ to create g-=ces ?r\gh c5trifugal action by rotation at #fj rpm 7ref4#aje74 ,! surface ( ?is c5trifuge is p>abolic1 s t ! resultant ( ! c5trifugal g & ! ,e>?'s gravity is always normal to ! surface4 ,:5 ! animal moves away f ! c5t]1 increas+ ! radius ( rotation1 x is expos$ to increas+ gravity4 ,motion t[>d ! c5t] r$uces ! gravity level4 ,by ?is means1 an animal is free to select its own gravity environm5t4 ,:5 ! animal moves t[>d or away f ! c5t]1 he is mov+ f "o tang5tial velocity to ano!r4 ,he is !re=e act$ ^u by a ?ird =ce--due to ,coriolis accel]ation4 ,! effects ( ,coriolis =ces are a major problem difficult to elim9ate 9 /udies su* z ^!1 b !y mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! design ( spacecraft :i* produce artificial gravity by rotation4 ,motion ( ! head 9 any direction n p>allel to ! c5trifugal =ce vector w\ld result 9 biz>re /imulation ( ! semicircul> canals & consequ5t motion sickness4 ,?is effect is likely to become ev5 m pron\nc$ if ! s5sitivity ( ^! organs is increas$ by prolong$ exposure to r$uc$ gravity4 ,me?ods su* z ^! are curr5tly be+ develop$ = conduct+ a ref9$ psy*ophysical analysis ( gravity1 includ+ /udies by ,lange & ,brod]son on ! p]ception ( angul>1 l9e>1 & ,coriolis accel]ation4 ,! results ( animal /udies su* z ^! w be ( great value 9 arriv+ at a decisive judgm5t conc]n+ ! ne$ = artificial gravity 9 a mann$ orbit+ space /ation1 or o!r vehicles design$ = long-t]m occupancy4 ,to aid 9 ! int]pretation ( 9-flight data1 o!r /udies are und]way to det]m9e ! functions ( ! ve/ibul> sy/em1 z a pr9cipal bra9 c5t] relat$ to ori5tation 9 space & to ! physiology ( po/ure & movem5t1 z well z ) ! influ5ces ( accel]ation1 rotation1 & weightlessness4 ,exp]im5ts are pres5tly be+ conduct$ on monkeys & cats 9 ord] to trace ^! complex neurological connections & to det]m9e _! functional organization4 ,,biological ,,in=mation ,,sy/ems ,! nature ( memory has be5 ! subject ( consid]able speculation 9 ! pa/4 ,x has long be5 felt intuitively t ret5tion ( in=mation 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em involves ei!r an alt]ation ( preexi/+ mat]ial or /ructure1 or1 alt]natively1 syn!sis ( mat]ials n pres5t previ\sly4 ,! cellul> site ( op]ational alt]ation 0 unkn[n b1 aga9 intuitively1 0 felt to be closely associat$ ) ! synapses4 ,! problems fac$ by e>ly inve/igators 7 great2 b nev]!less mu* in=mation relevant to ! "q ( biological in=mation /orage 0 obta9$4 ,) ! relatively rec5t adv5t ( m ref9$ tools & me?odologies1 !re has be5 rapid progress4 ,a significant am\nt ( ! "w :i* has be5 conduct$ 9 ! area ( biological in=mation & communication sy/ems is easily classifi$ z basic rese>* 7refs4 ref4#ajf-ref4#aji74 ,?is discussion w be limit$ to ^? aspects closely relat$ to ! fields ( molecul> biology & exp]im5tal psy*ology1 :i* seem to h univ]sal application to all kn[n animal life =ms4 ,/udies involv+ ! basic pr9ciples ( acquisition1 process+1 /orage1 & retrieval ( in=mation 9 liv+ sy/ems are emphasiz$4 ,e>ly ,"w ,e>ly speculations on ! op]ational nature ( memory h be5 bas$ ^u relatively little exp]im5tal evid5ce4 ,*>les ,d>w9 obs]v$ t dome/ic rabbits _h small] bra9s ?an _! wild c\nt]p>ts1 & attribut$ ?is to lack ( ex]cise ( _! intellect1 s5ses1 & volunt>y movem5ts4 ,un=tunately1 subsequ5t /udies ( ! bra9s ( m5 ) greatly diff]+ intellectual capability did n sub/antiate ! hypo!sis4 ,idiots sometimes _h l>g] bra9s ?an g5iuses4 ,lat]1 an idea propos$ by ,ramon y ,cajal came into favor4 ,s9ce bra9 cells did n increase 9 numb] aft] bir?1 he propos$ t memory involv$ ! e/abli%m5t ( new & m ext5d$ int]cortical connections4 ,un=tunately1 me?ods 7 n available to te/ ?is hypo!sis adequately & x has rema9$ until q rec5tly 9 ! realm ( conjecture4 ,ano!r major hypo!sis 0 t !re 7 two or m /ages 9 ! in=mation /orage process4 ,! f9al =m ! in=mation took 9 ! bra9 0 call$ a bra9 engram1 or memory trace4 ,h[ev]1 prior to ! =mation ( ! engram1 a transitory process d5ot$ z rev]b]ational memory 0 po/ulat$ to exi/ = a relatively %ort "t 7m9utes to h\rs7 7refs4 ref4#ajf & ref4#ajg74 ,?is hypo!sis 0 us$ by ,paul+ to expla9 :y an eld]ly *airman ( a bo>d c\ld brilliantly summ>ize a complex #h-;h\r meet+ & yet1 aft] its conclusion & 8 return to 8 (fice1 n ev5 rememb] hav+ att5d$ ! meet+4 ,?us1 ?is individual's rev]b]ational memory function$ well1 b advanc$ ye>s _h s]i\sly impair$ 8 bra9's ability to =m a p]man5t engram4 ,simil>1 al?\gh less dramatic1 obs]vations 9 o!r situations are n uncommon4 ,a wide v>iety ( exp]im5ts h be5 conduct$ to /udy ?is aspect ( memory & to relate x to ! process :]eby ! in=mation is trans=m$ to a m /able =m 7refs4 ref4#aaj-ref4#aab74 ,m rec5tly1 ! concept ( a specific bio*emical activity dur+ ! process ( long-t]m /orage ( in=mation has ga9$ consid]able favor4 ,initially1 nei!r ! site nor ! nature ( ! *ange 0 well def9$4 ,q rec5t /udies by ,kre* et al4 7refs4 ref4#aac & ref4#aad71 ,b5nett et al4 7ref4#aae71 ,ros5zweig et al4 7refs4 ref4#aaf & ref4#aag7 support ! view t alt]ation ( ! levels ( acetyl*ol9e/]ase at cortical synapses play an important role 9 in=mation /orage4 ,^! /udies w be discuss$ 9 a lat] section4 ,h[ev]1 ^! au?ors d n claim t ! *anges obs]v$ are unambigu\sly relat$ to ! /orage ( memory4 ,x may well be t ! alt]ations obs]v$ are 9 "s way relat$ to ?is process b are /ill second>y to "s o!r1 m basic1 process4 ,an alt]native hypo!sis is t ! in=mation resides 9 its ultimate =m 9 "s m c5tral /ructure ( ! neurone ?an ! synapse4 7,x has ev5 be5 po/ulat$ t ! basic in=mation is /or$ 9 nonneuronocortical mat]ial47 ,p]haps ,hal/ead 0 ! fir/ to po/ulate ! involvem5t ( nucleoprote9 9 ?is process 7ref4#ajg74 ,f ! bio*emi/'s po9t ( view1 ?is is an extremely attractive hypo!sis4 ,bo? prote9s & nucleic acids possess suffici5t possible p]mutations ( /ructure to p]mit /orage ( a lifetime's accumulation ( in=mation 9 an organ ! size ( ! bra94 ,f ! previ\sly kn[n ability ( ! nucleic acids to code g5etic in=mation1 !y are ! prime suspects4 ,h[ev]1 f ! kn[n regulatory ability ( nucleic acids 9 specific prote9 syn!sis1 x is possible t ! f9al repository is prote94 ,rec5t ,bio*emical ,/udies ,among ! =emo/ inve/igators ( ! *emi/ry & bio*emi/ry ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is ,holg] ,hyd5 at ! ,univ]sity ( ,gteborg1 ,sw$54 ,he & o!rs 7refs4 ref4#aah-ref4#abj7 h = _m ye>s p]=m$ elegant microanalytical /udies ( s+le n]ve cells4 ,! evid5ce :i* ,hyd5 has obta9$ is consi/5t ) ! hypo!sis t ! initial electrical rev]b]ations 9 ! bra9 induce a *ange 9 ! molecul> /ructure ( ! ribonucleic acid 7,,rna7 ( ! neurones :i*1 9 turn1 leads to a subsequ5t deposition ( specific prote9s4 ,x is well kn[n f o!r inve/igations t a major role ( ,,rna 9 any type ( cell is to specify & m$iate syn!sis ( ! prote9 enzymes ( ! cells4 ,?us1 9 ?is hypo!sis1 x is only necess>y to po/ulate ! modification ( bra9 ,,rna by ! activities associat$ ) rev]b]ational memory4 ,p>ticul>ly p]t95t to ?is hypo!sis are obs]vations t-- 7#a7 ,l>ge n]ve cells h a v high rate ( metabolism ( ,,rna & prote9s1 &1 ( ! somatic cells1 are ! l>ge/ produc]s ( ,,rna4 7#b7 ,ve/ibul> /imulation by passive means leads to an increase 9 ! ,,rna cont5t ( ! ,deit]s n]ve cells ( rabbits 7ref4#aba74 ,! prote9 cont5t ( ^! cells is also increas$4 7#c7 ,*anges 9 ! ,,rna composition ( neurones & glia ( ! bra9/em occur dur+ a le>n+ situation4 ,animals 7 tra9$ ov] a p]iod ( #d to #e days to climb a /eeply incl9$ wire to obta9 food4 ,! big n]ve cells & ! glia ( _! lat]al ve/ibul> app>atus 7 analyz$1 s9ce ! ,deit]s neurones pres5t 9 ?is /ructure are directly connect$ to ! middle e>4 ,! am\nt ( ,,rna 0 f\nd to be increas$ 9 ! n]ve cells2 &1 m significantly1 ! ad59e-to-uracil ratio ( bo? ! nucle> ,,rna ( n]ve cells & glia cells became significantly increas$ 7ref4#aai74 ,a v>iety ( control exp]im5ts 7 conduct$4 ,al?\gh !re 0 an increase 9 ,,rna cont5t ( ^! cells 9 animals expos$ to passive /imulation1 !re 0 no *ange 9 ! ratio ( ad59e to uracil4 ,n]ve cells f ! reticul> =mation1 ano!r portion ( ! bra91 _h only an increas$ cont5t ( ,,rna ) no base-ratio *ange4 ,animals subject$ to a /ress exp]im5t involv+ ! ve/ibul> nucleus %[$ only an increase 9 cont5t ( ,,rna4 ,litt]mates liv+ 9 cages on ! same diet z le>n+ animals %[$ no *ange 9 cont5t ( ,,rna4 ,?us1 x w\ld appe> t ! *ange 9 ! base ratio ( ! ,,rna syn!siz$ is n due to increas$ neurone function p] se1 b is m directly relat$ to ! le>n+ process4 ,! fact t ?is 0 nucle> ,,rna implies t x 0 imm$iately relat$ to *romosomal ,,dna4 7#d7 ,neuronal ,,rna ) *ang$ cytos9e-guan9e ratios syn!siz$ dur+ a %ort p]iod ( induc$ prote9 syn!sis c\ld be block$ by act9omyc9 ,d4 ,x 0 conclud$1 !re=e1 t ! ,,rna 0 imm$iately ,,dna dep5d5t & directly relat$ to ! g5etic app>atus4 ,rats :i* 7 normally "r h&$ 7 =c$ to modify _! h&$ness 9 ord] to obta9 food4 ,! ,,rna ( n]ve cells 9 t "p ( ! cortex1 ^: de/ruction de/roys ! ability to transf] h&$ness1 0 analyz$4 ,a significant increase 9 ,,rna ( n]ve cells ( ! fif? to six? cortical lay]s on ! "r side ( ! bra9 0 obs]v$4 ,! correspond+ n]ve cells on ! opposite side ( ! same bra9 s]v$ z controls4 ,!re 0 an increase 9 ,,rna & a significant increase 9 ! pur9e bases relative to ! pyrimid9e bases 9 ! le>n+ side ( ! cortex4 ,:5 ! animals 7 n =c$ to le>n a new proc$ure1 only an increase ( ,,rna 0 obs]v$1 ) no *ange 9 base ratio4 ,frank ,morrell1 head ( ! ,neurology ,dep>tm5t at ,/an=d ,m$ical ,s*ool1 has also be5 active 9 ?is field dur+ ! pa/ #f ye>s4 ,he has f\nd t if a prim>y epileptic lesion is induc$ on "o side ( ! cortex1 a second>y mirror lesion ev5tually develops 9 ! contralat]al homolog\s cortex4 ,?is second>y lesion1 :i* %[$ self-su/a9+ epilepti=m dis*>ge1 c\ld be isolat$1 :]eupon ! epilepti=m dis*>ge disappe>$4 ,?is 0 int]pret$ z le>n$ behavior ( ! second>y lesion4 ,f *anges 9 ! /a9+ prop]ties ( ! second>y lesion1 ,morrell conclud$ t *anges 9 ,,rna _h occurr$ 9 ! cell4 ,*anges 9 ! composition ( ! ,,rna c\ld n be %[n by ^! te*niques4 ,at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley1 ,drs4 ,ros5zweig1 ,b5nett1 & ,kre* h conduct$ ext5sive /udies relat$ to ?is topic4 ,^! inve/igators h direct$ _! ef=ts t[>d demon/rat+ alt]ations 9 ! c]ebral cortex ( animals expos$ to cont9u+ le>n+ situations or cont9u\sly depriv$ ( s5sory /imulation4 ,9 a rec5t publication 7ref4#aaf71 :i* also summ>izes a consid]able am\nt ( previ\s "w1 !y report /udies :i* demon/rate ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,rats giv5 enri*$ exp]i5ce develop1 9 comp>ison ) _! re/rict$ litt]mates1 great] weight & ?ickness ( cortical tissue & an associat$ proportional increase 9 total acetyl*ol9e/]ase activity ( ! cortex4 7#b7 ,! ga9 9 weight ( cortical tissue is relatively l>g] ?an ! increase 9 enzymatic activity4 ,acetyl*ol9e/]ase activity increases 9 o!r portions ( ! bra9 ev5 ?\gh tissue weight decreases4 7#c7 ,! *anges appe> 9 a v>iety ( l9es ( rats1 al?\gh diff]+ 9 am\nt betwe5 /ra9s4 7#d7 ,! *anges are obs]v$ 9 bo? ! "y & adult animals4 ,! previ\s /udies 7 comp>isons betwe5 exp]i5ce-enri*$ animals & animals ma9ta9$ 9 isolation4 ,animals :i* 7 h\s$ 9 colonies1 b giv5 no special treatm5t1 %[$ int]m$iate effects 9 ^? situations /udi$4 ,! ,b]keley gr\p emphasiz$ t ! f9d+ ( *anges 9 ! bra9 subsequ5t to exp]i5ce does n prove t ! *anges h any?+ to d ) memory /orage1 b d e/abli% ! fact t ! bra9 c respond to environm5tal pressure4 ,h[ev]1 ! results are compatible ) ! hypo!sis t long-t]m memory /orage involves ! =mation ( new somatic connections among neurones4 ,calculations ( ! am\nt ( additional mat]ial requir$ to p]mit ?is to exi/ are compatible ) ! increases obs]v$4 ,a numb] ( inve/igators h /udi$ ! effects ( antimetabolites & drugs on ! le>n+ process4 ,s9ce _! specific metabolic effects are kn[n 9 o!r tissues1 ! rationale is t if ^! mat]ials d int]f]e ) memory1 !n specific types ( metabolic activities may be implicat$ 9 ! deposition ( ! engram4 ,"o ( ! initial /udies ( ?is type 0 conduct$ by ,d+man & ,sporn 7ref4#abb71 pres5tly at ! ,national ,in/itute ( ,m5tal ,heal?4 ,!y %[$ t #h-;azaguan9e1 a pur9e antagoni/1 inject$ intra-ci/]nally 0 incorporat$ into ! ,,rna ( ! bra9s ( rats4 ,associat$ ) ?is incorporation 0 an impairm5t ( ! maze-le>n+ ability ( ! animals4 ,^! f9d+s h be5 confirm$4 ,flexn] & 8 associates inject$ puromyc91 an inhibitor ( prote9 syn!sis1 into ! bra9s ( mice1 :i* 7 !n tra9$ to p]=m 9 a maze4 ,losses ( %ort-t]m or long-t]m memory 7 obta9$1 dep5d+ ^u ! site ( ! injection4 ,! results indicate t ! hippocampal region is ! site ( rec5t memory4 ,! hippocampal region is ( int]e/ 9 connection ) memory processes = a numb] ( o!r reasons4 ,adey et al4 7ref4#abc7 & 8 gr\p obs]v$ a transi5t fall 9 electrical imp$ance 9 ?is region :5 cats le>n$ to p]=m 9 a ,t-maze 9 response to a visual cue4 ,x 0 suppos$ t ! electrodes 7 situat$ )9 glial cells ( ! d5dritic zone ( ! hippocampal pyramidal cell lay]4 ,ext9ction ( ! le>n$ habit aboli%$ ! briefly evok$ imp$ance *anges1 :i* subsequ5tly reappe>$ ) retra9+4 ,a numb] ( o!r /udies m or less indirectly implicate ,,rna 9 ! le>n+ processes4 ,= in/ance1 9 ret9al cells ( rabbits rais$ 9 d>kness1 !re 0 virtually no ribonucleoprote9 z comp>$ ) normal am\nts 9 ! cells ( animals rais$ 9 light 7ref4#abd74 ,fur!r1 ma9t5ance ( normal electrical activity ( isolat$ p]fus$ cat bra9s is highly dep5d5t ^u ! pres5ce ( ! ribonucleic acid precursors1 urid9e & cytid9e1 9 ! p]fusate 7ref4#abe71 & sev]e d]angem5ts occur if any ( a v>iety ( pyrimid9e antagoni/s are add$ 7ref4#abf74 ,brief electrical /imulation ( cat cortical tissue causes an increase 9 nucleic acid cytid9e & ad59e1 ?us indicat+ a syn!sis ( alt]$ polynucleotides4 ,f9ally1 injections ( ,,rna 9 animals h %[n int]e/+ effects4 ,:5 giv5 at a dose ( #aaf mg_/kg daily = #a mon?1 rats %[$ an enhanc$ response & great] resi/ance to ext9ction 9 a %ock-motivat$ behavioral response4 ,x has be5 %[n by ano!r gr\p t injections ( ,,rna enhance ! ability ( "y animals to le>n v>i\s tasks4 ,plan>ia h be5 us$ 9 a v>iety ( /udies :i* seem to be> on ! problem ( memory4 ,q rec5t evid5ce by ,b5nett1 ,calv91 & _! associates has ca/ some:at ( a pall ov] ! /udies2 nev]!less1 ! "w may h "s validity4 ,int]e/ 9 ! use ( flatworms1 p>ticul>ly plan>ia1 = /udy ( memory began ) a demon/ration by ,mc,connell t ^! simple animals c\ld und]go condition+ 7ref4#abg74 ,subsequ5tly1 x 0 f\nd t "s condition+ 0 reta9$ :5 ! animal 0 transect$ & all[$ to reg5]ate4 ,! ret5tion ( tra9+ 0 f\nd 9 bo? new animals1 al?\gh ! v simple bra91 really only two ganglia1 0 9 ! head section 7ref4#abh74 ,app>5tly1 "s diffusely di/ribut$ compon5t ( ! animal 0 responsible = ret5tion ( le>n+4 ,evid5ce has accumulat$ to indicate t ?is mat]ial is ,,rna4 ,among ?is evid5ce is ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,! two halves ( a tra9$ plan>ia 7 all[$ to reg5]ate 9 a solution conta9+ ,,rna-de/roy+ enzymes4 ,:]eas ! head ends reta9$ "s tra9+1 no ret5tion 0 obs]v$ 9 ! animals d]iv$ f ! tail end 7ref4#abi74 7#b7 ,:5 pieces ( tra9$ plan>ia 7 f$ to untra9$ animals1 ! untra9$ cannibal requir$ a %ort] "t to become tra9$ to a crit]ion4 ,x w\ld appe> t ! dige/ive sy/em ( plan>ia is s simple t ! mat]ial responsible = ! transf] ( ! in=mation 0 n brok5 d[n4 7#c7 ,:5 ,,rna1 obta9$ f tra9$ plan>ia1 is inject$ into ! dige/ive tract ( untra9$ animals1 !re is a transf] ( in=mation4 ,,neurophysiology ,exc]pt f ref4#acj4 ,neurophysiological /udies conc]n ! functions ( ! n]v\s sy/em--9 p>ticul> ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em 7,,cns7--"u normal1 simulat$1 & actual flight conditions4 ,( p>am\nt importance is ! ma9t5ance ( equilibrium & ori5tation 9 ?ree-dim5sional space4 ,! ability ( man & 8 close relatives among ! v]tebrates to ma9ta9 ^! functions dep5ds on an integrat$ s5sory input f ! ve/ibul> organ2 ! eyes2 ! int]oceptors ( ! muscles1 t5dons1 jo9ts1 & visc]a2 & ! ext]oceptors ( ! sk94 ,c]ta9 p>amet]s ( ! environm5tal & space-flight conditions dra/ically affect man's ability to ma9ta9 equilibrium & spatial ori5tation4 ,c5trifugal =ces modify or rev]se ! directional vector ( gravity4 ,l9e> accel]ation may increase enorm\sly1 z may angul> /imulation4 ,! s5sory organs li/$ above are unreliable "u su* conditions4 ,! v organ :i* is design$ specifically to furni% in=mation on spatial ori5tation may malfunction 9 man :ile he is 9 flight4 ,?us1 ) respect to s5sory ori5tation1 ^! labyr9?9e organs are by no means precision in/rum5ts4 ,! use ( classical hi/ological me?ods & ! obs]vation ( equilibrium di/urbances result+ f op]ative int]f]5ce ) ! int]nal e> h 9 ! pa/ be5 ! two pr9cipal s\rces ( k conc]n+ ! /ructure & function ( ! labyr9?1 b ! answ]s giv5 to v>i\s que/ions v>y consid]ably 9 _! value4 ,! developm5t ( electrophysiological te*niques & ! ref9em5t 9 rec5t ye>s ( ! ultra/ructural analysis by means ( ! electron microscope may all[ m precise exp]im5tal /udies ( ! correlation ( function & /ructure4 ,be=e consid]+ ve/ibul> impulses 9 _! bulb> & desc5d+ sp9al pa?ways1 a rec5t /udy conc]n+ ! g5]ation ( impulses 9 ! labyr9? mu/ be m5tion$4 ,von ,bekesy's f9d+ 7ref4#aca7 ( ! direct curr5t pot5tials 9 ! co*lea ar\s$ speculation ab\t ! exi/5ce ( simil> labyr9?9e pot5tials4 ,su* dc pot5tials 7 also detect$ 9 ! semicircul> canal ( ! gu9ea pig by ,tr9ck] 7ref4#acb71 :o measur$ ! pot5tial *anges 9 ! endolymph1 surface ( ! cupula1 or side ( ! cri/a dur+ cupul> deflection4 ,x seems likely1 h[ev]1 t ! effects d n repres5t ! physico*emical *anges 9 ! cupula b ! electrical pot5tials 9 ! n]ve & n]ve end+s ( ! cri/a4 ,attempts at diff]5tiat+ ^! effects h fail$ s f>4 ,great expectations are br\ght by ! advances ( micro*emi/ry1 microphysiology1 & physical *emi/ry ) reg>d to ! excitatory processes1 ! g5]ation ( ! n]ve impulse4 ,q ap>t f a ne$ to und]/& ve/ibul> n]ve dis*>ges & patt]ns m adequately 9 su* t]ms1 ! analysis ( ! ve/ibul> sy/em has 9 ! pa/ reveal$ g5]al biological pr9ciples :i* 7 n readily disc]nible ?r\gh ! exam9ation ( o!r tissues 7ref4#acc74 ,! neural connections ( ! ve/ibul> organ consi/ ( num]\s *a9s ( neurons1 reciprocally l9k$ 9 _m ways & hav+ _! synapses 9 v>i\s anatomical nuclei4 ,all ! *a9s "w 9 intimate collaboration1 & ! f9al patt]n ( reflex responses is attributable l>gely to ! highly complex integrat+ activity ( ! c5t]4 ,! labyr9?9e function is automatic1 c>ri$ out 9 a reflex fa%ion3 9 o!r words1 mo/ly bel[ ! level ( consci\sness4 ,! bra9 c5t]s ?r\gh :i* ! labyr9? elicits ! v>i\s appropriate muscul> reactions ( ! head1 body1 limbs1 & eyes--! right+1 ! po/ural1 & ! ocul> reflexes--repres5t an intricate me*anism4 ,be=e we c hope = a satisfactory und]/&+ ( _! functional organization1 we w h to "k _! anatomy 9 m detail4 ,?us1 we are confront$ ) a fruitful field = ! exploration ( basic me*anisms ( neuronal activity4 ,major advances d9+ ! la/ ye>s h provid$ u ) new in=mation ab\t ! neuroanatomy ( ! ve/ibul> sy/em 7refs4 ref4#acd-ref4#acg74 ,ve/ibul> impulses ent]+ ! bra9/em asc5d & desc5d ! neuroaxis & cross ! midl9e4 ,x 0 previ\sly believ$ t ! ve/ibul> app>atus _h only subcortical projections4 ,rec5tly1 h[ev]1 x has be5 e/abli%$ by means ( electrophysiological me?ods t ! organ is repres5t$ by a projection area 9 ! c]ebral cortex ( "s animals 7refs4 ref4#ach-ref4#ada74 ,! use ( brief electrical /imulation ( ! ve/ibul> n]ve 9 ord] to elicit a cortical response has be5 ( great value = ! mapp+ ( ^! areas4 ,among a great v>iety ( s5sory receptors1 ! ve/ibul> ones are capable ( evok+ ! mo/ widespread somatovisc]al effects ?r\gh\t ! body4 ,moreov]1 ve/ibul> effects seem to be imp]i\s & less dep5d5t ^u ! /ate ( read9ess ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ! ext5sive di/ribution ( ve/ibul> effects1 !re are _m opportunities = c5tral integration4 ,proprioceptive & ve/ibul> sy/ems are bo? kn[n to be active 9 po/ure & locomotion2 /reams ( impulses aris+ f ! receptors 9 ea* ( ^! sy/ems mu/ conv]ge to influ5ce ! activity ( ! f9al common pa?4 ,! /ate ( ! motor c5t]s ( ! sp9al cord1 z affect$ by ve/ibul> /imulation1 has be5 te/$ by dorsal root & o!r s5sory input int]v5tions4 ,^! exp]im5ts h provid$ u ) insight into ! me*anisms conc]n$ ) ! ve/ibul> control ( sp9al reflexes 7refs4 ref4#adb-ref4#adf74 ,x has long be5 kn[n t ! ve/ibul> app>atus is ess5tial = ! developm5t ( motion sickness4 ,commonplace subjective exp]i5ce ( nausea relates to visc]al *anges m$iat$ ?r\gh autonomic eff]5t pa?ways & may ultimately involve rhy?mic somatic n]ve dis*>ges to skeletal muscles responsible = ret*+ & vomit+4 ,h[ev]1 v little is kn[n ab\t ! c5tral n]v\s me*anisms responsible = elaboration ( ! :ole syndrome4 ,s9ce ! ma9t5ance ( ve/ibul> bomb>dm5t = "s l5g? ( "t seems ess5tial = ! developm5t ( motion sickness1 "o w\ld presume ?is to be an in/ance ( sl[ temporal summation4 ,exp]im5tal f9d+s demon/rate a p[]ful effect ( temporal summation ^u somatic motor outfl[ dur+ ve/ibul> /imulation 7ref4#adg71 & n ^u p>asympa!tic outfl[4 ,! practical implication ( ^! /udies is closely relat$ to physiological effects ( weightlessness4 ,bas$ on exp]im5tal evid5ce f %ort weightless p]iods obta9$ 9 aircraft1 x 0 conclud$ t :5 ! exposure becomes long]1 !re may develop m9or physiologic di/urbances :i*1 if cumulative or irritat+1 may cause or enhance psy*iatric symptoms 7ref4#adh74 ,al?\gh ! z]o-g condition1 p] se1 does n cause spatial disori5tation if visual cues are provid$1 ! a/ronauts report$ a tempor>y loss ( ori5tation dur+ ! orbital flight :ile !y 7 engag$ 9 activities :i* div]t$ _! att5tion4 ,h[ev]1 no di/urb+ s5sory inputs 7 obs]v$ dur+ ! weightless p]iod4 ,viol5t head maneuv]s )9 ! limit$ mobility ( ! helmet 7 p]=m$ 9 e direction )\t illusions or v]tigo4 ,! subjective s5sations ( tumbl+ =w>d aft] su/a9] eng9e cut(f report$ by ! ,m]cury a/ronauts1 & ,titov's motion sickness attacks1 :i* 7 p>ticul>ly dismay+ dur+ head movem5ts1 7 well )9 ! entire range ( psy*osomatic exp]i5ces already obta9$ dur+ a]odynamic trajectories 7ref4#adi74 ,int]e/+ly en\gh x n[ appe>s t ! otoli?ic output 9 mammals includ+ man is ! diff]5tial ( l9e> accel]ation1 & !re=e unaffect$ by z]o g4 ,( int]e/ 9 ?is connection are ! problems :i* may be enc\nt]$ dur+ & foll[+ long-t]m exposure to weightlessness4 ,al?\gh !re is no evid5ce ( adv]se effects on op]ative behavior1 ! possibility ( biological di/urbances on a cellul> or subcellul> level1 :i* may cause a det]ioration ( ! somatic basis1 has be5 repeat$ly /ress$4 ,:e!r effects ( ?is sort w occur or :e!r ! organism w be able to adapt is /ill an op5 "q4 ,s9ce motion s5sitivity bas$ on ve/ibul> /imulation diff]s widely among individuals1 ! selection ( a/ronauts may solve ! problem ( z]o-g ve/ibul> di/urbance4 ,reports f ! ,,ma-#h 7,sigma #g7 & ,vo/ok ,,iii & ,,iv flights seem to support ?is assumption4 ,moreov]1 exp]im5ts are be+ made 9 ! sl[ rotation room at ! ,naval ,s*ool ( ,aviation ,m$ic9e to /udy ! ,coriolis effects :i* arise :5 artificial gravity is produc$ by angul> accel]ation4 ,s9ce man c adapt to wave motion on %ipbo>d )9 a few days1 a simil> process may be expect$ to occur 9 ! case ( long-t]m weightlessness 7ref4#aej74 *apt] #e ,molecul> ,biology & ,bio9/rum5tation ,to support biological inve/igations 9 space & to accumulate basel9e data ne$$ = mann$ space flight1 ,,nasa has conduct$ a program 9 laboratory rese>* & !ory4 ,a multidiscipl9>y approa* has includ$ su* fields z ecology1 physiology1 organic & biological *emi/ry1 eng9e]+1 electronics1 & optics4 ,emphasis 9 ?is program has be5 plac$ on qualitative & !oretical r ?an purely descriptive rese>*1 & ! inve/igation ( fundam5tal biological ph5om5a at all levels1 f ! molecul> to ! total life =m4 ,,molecul> ,,biology ,rese>* 9 molecul> biology has includ$ *emical1 physical1 biological1 & !oretical inve/igations ( prebiological conditions on ,e>? &1 possibly1 on o!r planets2 /udies ( cellul> inclusions2 g5etic mat]ial 7,,dna & ,,rna7 & cod+2 z well z en]gy transf] 9 biological sy/ems4 ,! und]/&+ ( prebiological conditions on ,e>?1 & possible conditions on o!r planets1 dep5ds ^u ! nature ( ! complex *emical species :i* might be enc\nt]$4 ,sci5ti/s h %[n t biologically important comp\nds1 su* z am9o acids1 c be g5]at$ by apply+ an electrical dis*>ge1 ultraviolet radiation1 or heat to a gase\s mixture4 ,biologically int]e/+ comp\nds c be remov$ f su* a sy/em by cond5sation or absorption2 h[ev]1 9 ! limit$ "t & space available 9 su* exp]im5ts1 _m comp\nds are n produc$ 9 suffici5t quantity to be measur$4 ,! ,national ,biom$ical ,rese>* ,f\ndation 7,,nbrf7 & ! ,national ,bureau ( ,/&>ds 7,,nbs7 are conduct+ an inve/igation on equilibria 9 multielem5t sy/ems4 ,! di/ribution ( molecul> species at equilibrium is indep5d5t ( ! way equilibrium 0 rea*$ & is dep5d5t only on pressure1 temp]ature1 & elem5tal composition4 ,_m ( ! conditions :i* might h aris5 naturally c be approximat$ by !rmodynamic equilibrium4 ,comp\nds :i* c be =m$ at equilibrium ne$ no special me*anism to expla9 _! pres5ce4 ,h[ev]1 special me*anisms h to be s\ght = ^? comp\nds :i* c\ld n be s produc$ & :i* w\ld h be5 requir$ = ! /ructure & nutrition ( ! fir/ liv+ organisms4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( precise k ( ! composition ( ! primitive planet>y atmosph]es1 equilibrium conc5trations ) a wide range ( temp]atures1 pressures1 & elem5tal compositions are be+ inve/igat$ by ,,nbrf & ,,nbs4 ,^! inve/igators h po/ulat$ t ! maximum atmosph]ic pressure may h approa*$ #ajj atm if ! primitive ,e>? 0 suffici5tly hot & if an appreciable portion ( ! wat] on ,e>?'s surface today 0 pres5t on primitive ,e>?4 7,if ! pres5t oceans 7 to evaporate1 ! surface pressure w\ld be approximately #cjj atm47 ,l[ pressures ( #aj atm & temp]atures betwe5 #ejj & #ajjj ,k are be+ us$4 ,a l>ge range ( ,n1 ,o1 ,c1 & ,h compositions are be+ inve/igat$ = int]e/+ & plausible comb9ations ( factors4 ,9 ^! calculations an ,,ibm #gjij comput] is be+ us$ to obta9 data on a v l>ge numb] ( comb9ations ( *emicals4 ,o!r *emical species w be add$ z ! rese>* cont9ues4 ,"s results ( ?is /udy give an insight into ! v>iety ( biologically significant *emicals :i* might h exi/$ dur+ ,e>?'s primitive prebiological condition or may n[ exi/ on ! surfaces & 9 ! atmosph]es ( o!r planets 7refs4 ref4#aea-ref4#aec74 ,! g5]al me?od describ$ by ,:ite et al4 7ref4#aeb71 m9imiz+ ! free en]gy ( ! sy/em1 0 us$4 ,! solution 0 approa*$ by an it]ative process1 />t+ ) an initial guess ( conc5trations ( ! comp\nds4 ,at ea* /ep1 ,m#a l9e> equations are solv$ :]e ,m is ! numb] ( elem5ts 9 ! sy/em4 ,9 addition to li/+ ( ! conc5trations ( all comp\nds includ$ 9 ea* problem1 ! results ( ?ree-elem5t problems h be5 express$ on a triangul> composition diagram = conv5i5ce4 ,a co>se grid ( #fj po9ts is us$ to survey all elem5tal compositions1 ) f9] grids be+ us$ 9 regions ( p>ticul> int]e/4 ,! calculat$ conc5trations ( ! comp\nds at ea* composition are /or$1 & f9ally a s]ies ( triangul> diagrams is pr9t$ out1 ea* %[+ ! conc5trations ( z _m z f\r comp\nds at ! grid po9ts4 ,figure #b %[s ! results obta9$ 9 ! ,c1 ,h1 & ,o sy/ems4 ,organic comp\nds 9 conc5trations great] ?an #aj mole fraction are f\nd ev]y:]e except :]e free ,o1 is pres5t4 ,solid c>bon !oretically becomes /able along ! l[] da%$ l9e at #ejj ,k4 ,h[ev]1 reactions produc+ x are v sl[4 ,! sup]saturat$ region beyond ! l9e ( pot5tial c>bon =mation 0 also inve/igat$4 ,a ?re%old 0 f\nd :]e polynucle> aromatic comp\nds are suffici5tly conc5trat$ to =m a liquid phase4 ,^! conditions may h be5 involv$ 9 ! primordial =mation ( asphaltic petroleum4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #b4--;,equilibrium diagram = ! sy/em ,c-,h-,o4 ,jukes & associates 7ref4#aed7 at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia at ,b]keley h be5 inve/igat+ ! code = am9o acids 9 prote9 syn!sis1 ! key = translat+ ! sequ5ce ( bases 9 ,,dna into ! sequ5ce ( am9o acids 9 prote9s4 ,! am9o acid code 0 solely a matt] ( !ory until ,nir5b]g & ,mat?aei 7ref4#aee7 at ! ,national ,in/itutes ( ,heal? c>ri$ out a crucial exp]im5t4 ,?is exp]im5t bridg$ ! la/ rema9+ gap sep>at+ !oretical g5etics & te/-tube bio*emi/ry4 ,x n[ became exp]im5tally possible to se>* = codes = all #bj am9o acids conc]n$ 9 ! syn!sis ( prote9s4 ,! am9o acid bases ( ,,dna are3 ,a1 ad59e2 ,c1 cytos9e2 ,g1 guan9e2 ,t1 ?ym9e2 & ,u1 uracil1 :i* replaces ?ym9e 9 ,,rna4 ,!re are only #af ways ( arrang+ ,a1 ,c1 ,g1 & ,t 9 pairs4 ,= ?is & o!r reasons x is ?\ght t a triplet ( ?ree consecutive bases is ne$$ to code = ea* am9o acid4 ,! sequ5ces ( bases 9 a /r& ( ,,dna are kn[n to be unre/rict$ ) respect to ! ord] 9 :i* !y occur2 app>5tly any "o ( ! f\r bases c be next to any ( ! o!r f\r1 al?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ea* base mu/ be pair$ ) ! correspond+ complem5t>y base 9 ! adjac5t /r&4 ,s9ce ! same fre$om is true ( ! am9o acid sequ5ces 9 ! polypeptide *a9s ( prote9s1 any "o ( ! #bj am9o acids c occur next to any o!r4 ,moreov]1 ! sequ5ces 9 ,,dna are subject to mutational *anges 9 :i* "o base replaces ano!r1 or bases are add$ to or delet$ f ! ,,dna4 ,su* re>rangem5ts plus ! possibility ( l5g!n+ ( ,,dna molecules are num]\s en\gh to acc\nt = all ! g5etics ( liv+ =ms s9ce ! fir/ appe>ance ( life on ,e>?4 ,mo/ ( our k is bas$ on exp]im5ts ) syn!tic ,,rna c>ri$ out ) extracts ( ,e4 coli4 ,! majority ( ! "w has be5 at ,nir5b]g's laboratory at ! ,national ,in/itutes ( ,heal? & at ,o*oa's laboratory at ,new ,york ,univ]sity 7ref4#aee74 ,v>i\s comb9ations ( ,a1 ,c1 ,g1 & ,u 7 us$ 9 prep>+ ! syn!tic ,,rna molecules t are us$ 9 exp]im5ts to explore ! code4 ,^! molecules are made by incubat+ a mixture ( ribonucleoside diphosphates ) a specific enzyme1 polynucleotide phosphorylase4 ,an important prop]ty ( ?is enzyme is t x cond5ses ! nucleoside diphosphates into polynucleotide /r&s conta9+ r&om sequ5ces dep5d+ on ! proportion ( ea* base4 ,= example1 if ! enzyme 7 furni%$ ) a mixture ( #e p>ts ( ,a & #a "p ( ,c1 x w\ld make /r&s conta9+1 on ! av]age1 #be sequ5ces ( ,,aaa1 #e ( ,,aac1 #e ( ,,aca1 #e ( ,,caa1 & #a ea* ( ,,acc1 ,,cac1 & ,,cca4 ,! proportion ( triplets )9 ! /r&s ( a polynucleotide is reflect$ 9 ! proportion ( am9o acids 9 polypeptides t are obta9$ 9 ! cell-free sy/em4 ,mo/ ( ! pres5t k ( ! am9o acid code is bas$ on ?is concept4 ,all ! propos$ codes h be5 discov]$ by ?is exp]im5tal approa* :]e syn!tic ,,rna molecules are us$ z artificial mess5g] ,,rna4 ,repres5tative ( ano!r class ( activities 9 molecul> biology is ! exam9ation ( passive ion flux across axon membranes4 ,?is "w is be+ done by ,goldman at ! ,national ,naval ,m$ical ,c5t]4 ,! "q ( /imulus transmission by n]ve tissue is f> f simple1 & ! ion conc5trations associat$ ) n]ve membranes is a significant "p ( ! answ]4 ,because ! space environm5t may v well produce alt]ations 9 ^! ion pot5tials1 an inve/igation ( _! natures & significance becomes extremely important4 ,a work+ !ory is n[ be+ develop$ z a result ( ?is /udy4 ,vital cell processes1 *emical trans=mations1 & me*anisms t provide en]gy = cell ma9t5ance & activity h be5 /udi$ by ,kies[ 7refs4 ref4#aeg & ref4#aeh7 at ! ,naval ,m$ical ,rese>* ,in/itute4 ,! common objective ( all phases ( ?is project is ! elucidation ( reaction /eps 9 :i* en]gy & matt] are trans=m$ 9 liv+ sy/ems4 ,comp>$ ) photosyn!tic organisms1 *emosyn!tic bact]ia (f] di/9ct advantages = ! /udy ( en]gy assimilation4 ,^! /udies h l$ to ! foll[+ exp]im5tal f9d+s4 ,) ! en]gy f oxidation ( nitrite1 ,,no-- to nitrate1 ,,no-- z an inorganic s\rce1 & ) add$ organic *emical en]gy f ! hydrolysis ( ad5os9etriphosphate 7,,atp7 to ad5os9$iphosphate 7,,adp7 & inorganic phosphate1 *emosyn!tic bact]ia are capable ( r$uc+ diphosphopyrid95ucleotide 7,,dpn7 to ,,dpnh1 9 a c\pl$ oxidor$uction-dephosphorylation4 ,?us1 9 ! crucial /ep ( *emosyn!sis1 ,,atp is consum$1 n produc$4 ,h[ev]1 9 simultane\sly proce$+ cell respiration1 ! en]gy donor1 ,,dpnh1 is oxidiz$ & g5]ates m ,,atp ?an is requir$ = ,,dpn r$uction4 ,?is bre$] cycle = ,,dpnh--) diff]5t ratios ( cell respiration & biosyn!sis--results 9 a net production ( ei!r ,,dpnh1 or ,,atp1 or bo?4 ,production ( ,,dpnh 9 ! cycle leads imm$iately to ! assimilation ( ,c f ,,hc,o--4 ,^! obs]vations expla9 ! bact]ia's en]gy s\rce )\t ! classical hypo!ses ( ei!r direct phosphorylation or direct ,,co r$uction by inorganic *emical or electromagnetic en]gy4 ,! cycle trans=ms ! free en]gy ( nitrite oxidation into ! free en]gy ( ! organic comp\nds4 ,cell respiration & elem5t>y biosyn!sis proce$ ?r\gh /ructure-b\nd enzyme sy/ems 9 ! same fraction ( subcellul> p>ticles4 ,?ree compon5ts1 two cyto*romes & "o flavoprote91 h be5 id5tifi$4 ,a !rmodynamic analysis ( ! ,,dpnh bre$] cycle appe>s to be atta9able by measurem5ts ( r$ox pot5tials & calorimetric det]m9ations ( heats ( reaction4 ,/udies are also be+ conduct$ by ,poll>d & associates at ,p5nsylvania ,/ate ,univ]sity 9 an attempt to =mulate a !oretical basis = ! description ( ! processes ( syn!sis1 gr[?1 division1 & diff]5tiation ( ! liv+ cell4 ,su* a !ory w\ld be basic to an und]/&+ ( v primitive life =ms or prebiological mat]ial :i* might be f\nd else:]e 9 ! univ]se4 ,= ^! purposes1 /udies are be+ und]tak5 9 macromolecul> reproduction :i* diff] f ! /udies involv+ cellul> g5etic mat]ial4 ,!ories conc]n+ ! problem ( replication ( cellul> /ructures & in=mation /orage 9 two-dim5sional sy/ems are be+ develop$4 ,!ories are also be+ develop$ ab\t ! me*anisms :i* control & regulate receptor & enzymatic activities )9 ! cell4 ,"o /udy involv$ ! rate ( mutation 9 cells & dispos$ ( ! sugge/ion t ! process ( mutation consi/s ( a tunnel+ ( proton f "o base to ano!r 9 ,,dna4 ,su* a sugge/ion c no long] be advanc$ z a major explanation ( mutations4 ,"w is also be+ conduct$ on ! c5trifugation ( cells ( ,e4 coli4 ,x has be5 %[n t cells expos$ to z little z #ajj g h a modification 9 _! function4 ,?is has be5 look$ at f ! po9t ( view ( ?ym9e uptake1 :i* w\ld be conc]n$ ) ! =mation ( ,,dna1 & also f ! po9t ( view ( ! induction ( an enzyme1 :i* w\ld correspond to ! transcription ( ! ,,dna4 ,prelim9>y exp]im5ts 9 ! latt] case indicate consid]able c5trifugation effect4 ,! ?ym9e uptake is affect$1 b n ne>ly z mu* z =m]ly ?\ght4 ,fur!r "w is 9 progress 9 ?is area4 ,important "w has be5 complet$ on ! cells ( ,e4 coli gr[n on maltose1 :i* c be induc$ to produce betagalactosidase by ! addition ( ?iome?yl galactoside4 ,if cells are irradiat$ %ortly aft] induction1 ! transcription ( ! ,,dna ceases & ! enzyme produc$ by ! mess5g] ,,rna is obs]v$ to rea* a maximum4 ,?is enables ! calculation ( ! half-life ( un/able mess5g] ,,rna4 ,! half-life = ?is decay is readily measurable1 & values are giv5 ov] a temp]ature range ( #ag ,c 7#e4b m9imum7 to #de ,c 7#j4ef m9imum74 ,^! agree v well ) half-lives measur$ by o!rs by induc+ = %ort times & measur+ ! c\rse ( enzyme =mation4 ,! rate ( transcription is involv$ 9 ! k9etics ( cessation ( enzyme induction1 & ! rate ( transcription c be measur$4 ,arrh5ius plots = ?is rate & ! rate ( decay are giv51 & ! activation en]gies measur$ are ab\t #af #jjj cal_/mole4 ,! cessation ( transcription is l9k$ to ! degradation1 possibly ( only "o /r&1 ( ,,dna4 ,poll>d has sugge/$ t "o important action ( ioniz+ radiation is conc]n$ ) ! transcription ( ! g5etic message into ,,rna4 ,clayton & ,adl] 7ref4#aei7 %[$ t induc$ catalase syn!sis 9 ,rhodopseudomonas sph]oides is inhibit$ by l[ doses ( ,x-rays1 giv+ exp]im5tal support to ! idea4 ,poll>d & ,vogl] 7ref4#afj71 us+ cells 9 :i* ! process ( induction involv$ p]mease1 %[$ t !re is "s s5sitivity to gamma radiation4 ,novelli et al4 7ref4#afa7 f\nd a r$uc$ s5sitivity z comp>$ ) colony =mation1 b x is /ill a consid]able s5sitivity4 ,! process ( induction ( an enzyme indicates t ! transcription ( ! g5etic message is repress$ by some?+ :i* c be act$ on by a small molecule1 ! induc]1 to remove repression & p]mit ! =mation ( mess5g] ,,rna1 :i* !n acts to make ! enzyme4 ,! mess5g] ,,rna und]goes decay ?r\gh a process :i* is /ill n cle>4 ,v elegant measurem5ts by ,kepes 7ref4#afb7 %[ t = ! mess5g] ,,rna = betagalactosidase1 ! half-life is #a4jb m9 at #cg ,c & #b4je m9 at #be ,c4 ,! "t ( onset ( enzyme =mation aft] induction 0 f\nd to be ab\t #c m9utes4 ,if ! process ( transcription is inde$ s5sitive to ioniz+ radiation1 !n ! irradiation ( cells :i* h j be5 induc$ %\ld %[ =mation ( ! enzyme to ! ext5t ( =mation ( new mess5g] ,,rna )9 a few m9utes1 plus ! =mation ( ! enzyme :ile ! mess5g] ,,rna is decay+4 ,?is patt]n 0 f\nd by ,clayton & ,adl]4 ,! exp]im5ts conduct$ by ,poll>d & associates amplify & ext5d _! "w & also agree ) ! "w ( ,kepes 7ref4#afb74 ,,bio9/rum5tation ,f]n&ez-,moran 7refs4 ref4#afc-ref4#afe71 at ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 has devis$ a new multielectrode electro/atic l5s :i* he has incorporat$ into an electron microscope4 ,?is necessitat$ ! developm5t ( a novel high-voltage p[] s\rce & voltage regulator ( extreme /ability & accuracy4 ,"s promis+ "w has n[ be5 done on sup]conduct+ l5ses4 ,9 a s]ies ( exp]im5ts ) a simple electron microscope )\t pole pieces1 us+ high-field sup]conduct+ niobium-zirconium sol5oid l5ses 9 an op5 air core1 liquid helium ,dew>1 electron microscopic images ( te/ specim5s h be5 record$ :ile op]at+ at #cb #bjj gauss 9 a p]si/5t curr5t mode1 ) regulat$ accel]at+ pot5tials ( #d to #h kilovolts4 ,^! prelim9>y exp]im5ts h demon/rat$ ! exceptional /ability ( ! images 7bo? %ort t]m & long t]m7 ov] a p]iod ( #d to #h h\rs & ! relatively high quality ( ! images4 ,progress has be5 made on ! viscosimet] = high intr9sic viscosities4 ,?is is n[ work+1 & ! viscosity ( ,,dna prep>ations has be5 measur$4 ,x is hop$ to use ! viscosimet] to /udy ! v>iation 9 ,,dna viscosity z a function ( ! cell cycle4 ,an in/rum5t is "u developm5t by ,wald at ! ,univ]sity ( ,pittsburgh to automatically analyze cytog5etic mat]ial &1 ?us1 ext5d cytog5etic me?odology bo? = rese>* & z a biological monitor+ proc$ure1 us+ automatic electronic scann+ & comput] analysis ( *romosomes4 ,*romosomal ab]rations c ?us be monitor$ "u unusual & abnormal conditions su* z weightlessness & radiation1 s9ce *romosomes are v s5sitive to /ress situations4 ,9 ?is device a sample w be prep>$ & automatically ins]t$ "u a microscope l5s4 ,! device w !n scan1 id5tify1 & photograph on #ce-mm film a pr$et]m9$ numb] ( mitotic cells & process ! film4 ,! data w be record$ "u ! direct control ( a digital comput]4 ,! comput] w p]=m a detail$ quantitative analysis ( ! pictorial data4 ,significant ef=t has be5 exp5d$ 9 ! developm5t ( in/rum5tation = measur+ & record+ electrophysiological in=mation4 ,"o su* in/rum5t1 develop$ by ! ,frankl9 ,in/itute1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa41 is a temp]ature-s5s+ microprobe4 ,?is microprobe is an implantable & remote broadca/+ in/rum5t4 ,^! developm5ts are associat$1 9 "p1 ) tra9+ programs s t compet5t individuals may be tra9$ n only 9 electronics b also 9 ! biological uses ( ! devices !y con/ruct4 ,a project ( int]e/1 conduct$ at ! ,/an=d ,rese>* ,in/itute1 is ! inve/igation ( ! uses ( an extremely s5sitive me?od = measur+ magnetic susceptibility hav+ ! possibility ( detect+ macroscopic quantum effects 9 macromolecules ( biological int]e/4 ,good progress has be5 made 9 ! fir/ #ae mon?s ( a project devot$ to ! developm5t & initial use ( equipm5t specifically design$ = ?is purpose4 ,a new sup]conduct+ circuit1 toge!r ) sup]conduct+ magnetic %ields1 has be5 con/ruct$4 ,?is app>atus c measure ! magnetic susceptibility ( small organic samples at temp]atures betwe5 #a & #cjj ,k 9 fields up to #dj #jjj gauss4 ,x c detect flux *anges ( #aj gauss-cm1 :i* is equival5t to detect+ a *ange 9 specific susceptibility ( #a 9 #aj 9 a #ajj-mg sample "u an appli$ field ( #aj #jjj gauss4 ,sev]al hundr$ prelim9>y measurem5ts 7 made on samples ( coron5e4 ,! mo/ reliable ( ^! 7 9 agreem5t ) publi%$ values ( ! magnetic susceptibility ( coron5e4 ,exp]i5ce dur+ ^! measurem5ts l$ to *anges :i* h result$ 9 an app>atus well suit$ to ! measurem5ts on macromolecules4 ,an improv$ v]sion ( ! sup]conduct+ circuit n[ available %[s promise ( a fur!r improvem5t 9 s5sitivity by a factor ( m ?an a ?\s& 7ref4#aff74 ,liv+ organisms possess _m unique processes & sy/ems :i* are complex & poorly und]/ood4 ,! new !oretical approa*es1 comb9$ ) laboratory /udies1 are expect$ to result 9 advances :i* w exp& bo? our sci5tific & te*nological horizons4 *apt] #f ,flight ,programs ,,balloons ,biological & m$ical exp]im5ts c>ri$ out on balloon flights1 bo? mann$ & unmann$1 ant$ate ! e/abli%m5t ( ,,nasa4 ,aside f ! e>ly use ( balloons 9 flights t c\ld be call$ simply flight-survival /udies1 balloons h made important contributions to our pres5t k ( ! effects ( cosmic radiation & to v>i\s aspects ( space travel4 ,! a*ievem5ts ( ! ,/rato-,lab & ,man ,high s]ies by ! ,u4,s4 ,navy & ,air ,=ce include a weal? ( in=mation on balloon travel & on ! survival ( man at altitudes close to & above #ajj #jjj feet4 ,g5]ally1 balloon laun*es ( animals1 :i* rea*$ a maximum 9 #aiec :5 #bc balloons 7 releas$1 h e/abli%$ ! feasibility ( a program ( ext5d$ mann$ balloon flights to high altitudes4 ,atmosph]ic life /udies outside ! area ( cosmic radiation effects h be5 comp>atively few4 ,results f two mann$ flights1 ,/rato-,lab ,i & ,,ii1 indicate t ! flights did produce pron\nc$ *anges 9 :ite blood cell c\nt2 h[ev]1 ! data sugge/ t ^! *anges 7 due to psy*ological r ?an physical /ress4 ,exposure to altitudes above #ij #jjj feet = a total ( #fb h\rs did n produce any g5]al behavioral *ange 9 two ,java monkeys1 accord+ to o!r balloon flights4 ,_m ( ^! flights 7 effective 9 te/+ equipm5t1 telemet]+ devices1 & 9 po9t+ ! way = o!r flights4 ,/ratoscope ,i & ,,ii1 orig9ally und]tak5 by ! ,(fice ( ,naval ,rese>* 7,,onr71 are projects involv+ v>i\s a/ronomical obs]vations ) ! aid ( a balloon-borne telescope & television & cam]a sy/ems4 ,,nasa coop]at$ ) ,,onr on ,/ratoscope ,,ii 7#cf-;in* telescope comp>$ ) ,/ratoscope ,i's #ab-;in* telescope7 :i* has already result$ 9 significant discov]ies ab\t ! nature ( ! planets & />s4 ,wat] vapor has be5 id5tifi$ 9 ! atmosph]e ( cool r$ />s & an analysis ( ! ,m>tian spectra %[$ a great] abundance ( c>bon dioxide ?an _h previ\sly be5 believ$4 ,s9ce ! balloon-borne telescope 0 c>ri$ beyond ,e>?'s obscur+ atmosph]e1 ! ,/ratoscope projects h yield$ valuable photographs ( ! ,sun1 />s1 & v>i\s planets4 ,,rockets ,,& ,,satellites ,hi/orically1 biological exp]im5ts abo>d rockets & satellites h be5 limit$ to a piggyback & non9t]f]5ce basis on milit>y rockets4 ,= ! pa/ few ye>s1 h[ev]1 z ! ef=t t[>d mann$ space flight lead+ to lun> & ,m>tian l&+s increas$1 m att5tion 0 devot$ to exp]im5ts design$ to %[ ! effects ( ! space environm5t on liv+ sy/ems4 ,z 9 ! balloon flight programs1 ! ,u4,s4 ,army1 ,navy1 & ,air ,=ce play$ an important role1 rea*+ :at might be consid]$ a high po9t ) ! successful laun* & recov]y ( a balli/ic rocket exp]im5t ) monkeys ,able & ,bak]4 ,a]obee rockets z well z ,?or ,,irbm's c>ri$ biological payloads consi/+ ( mice & monkeys on six laun*es1 contribut+ to our k ( ! effects ( weightlessness & radiation on high] animals4 ,van d] ,wal & ,"y 7ref4#gh7 us$ ,?or-,able comb9ations to s]ve z boo/]s = lift+ a #bj-p\nd biocapsule to a peak altitude ( #adjj miles & ov] a di/ance ( ab\t #ecjj miles f ,cape ,canav]al to ! we/ coa/ ( ,africa4 ,weightlessness 0 atta9$ = a p]iod ( almo/ #dj m9utes4 ,dur+ re5try into ! atmosph]e1 a peak decel]ation ( ab\t #fj g 0 rea*$4 ,ea* ( ! ?ree capsules fl[n c>ri$ "o m\se 7,m\se-9-,able72 two ( ! mice 7 in/rum5t$ = he>t-rate telemetry4 ,al?\gh all ?ree mice 7 lo/1 ! two exp]im5ts ) ,laska & ,b5ji yield$ physiological results4 ,! exp]im5t]s design$ effective in/rum5tation = regi/]+ ! electrical activity ( ! m\se's he>t ?r\gh a s+le commutat$ telemetry *annel4 ,records 7 obta9$ = bo? animals dur+ v>i\s portions ( ! flight4 ,! results indicate t bo? animals 7 alive :5 ! nose cones hit ! wat]4 ,two ,s\? ,am]ican squirrel monkeys 7,gordo & ,bak]7 & a rhesus monkey 7,able7 7 laun*$ into space f ,cape ,canav]al 9 #aieh & #aiei by ,u4,s4 ,army ,jupit] missiles4 ,! vehicles rea*$ spe$s ( approximately #aj #jjj mph & altitudes ( #cjj miles on flights :i* la/$ ab\t #ae m94 ,"t c\rses ( c>diac & respiratory rates 7ref4#hj7 ( ! two squirrel monkeys %[$ t ! noise ( ! eng9e at lift(f imm$iately produc$ an increase 9 _! he>t rates4 ,respiration also increas$ tempor>ily1 b sl[$ lat] ) increas+ accel]ation4 ,he>t rates fluctuat$ consid]ably dur+ laun* accel]ation1 :i* rea*$ ab\t #ae g at cut(f4 ,! p]iod ( free flight & weightlessness 0 *>act]iz$ by pron\nc$ fluctuations ( he>t activity 9 ! po/accel]ation phase4 ,!reaft]1 ! he>t rate ( ,bak] rema9$ relatively con/ant1 :]eas ! c>diac activity ( ,gordo fluctuat$ m>k$ly & decreas$ sl[ly almo/ to ! end ( 8 flight4 ,slight *anges1 :i* 7 transi5t & n pa?ological 9 nature1 7 also not$ 9 ! electroc>diogram4 ,gordo's respiration 0 v %all[ dur+ maximum laun* accel]ation1 :5 ,bak]'s rea*$ its highe/ value1 only to be approximat$ aga9 dur+ re5try :5 =ces ( ab\t #ce g 7 enc\nt]$4 ,able's c>diac & respiratory rates indicat$ t1 aft] an initial />tle reaction1 ! he>t rate dropp$ transi5tly & !n increas$ /eeply1 rea*+ a maximum ( #bei dur+ ! #aj-second int]val at peak accel]ation4 ,respiration increas$ only slightly ?r\gh\t ! laun*+ phase4 ,!re 0 a p]iod ( ta*yc>dia dur+ po/accel]ation weightlessness1 aft] :i* ! he>t rate decl9$ /eadily & 0 di/urb$ only by sev]al />tl+ missile ev5ts4 ,at ! end ( ! subgravity phase1 ,able's c>diac rate 0 slightly bel[ normal4 ,al?\gh ! p]iods ( high g =ce & free flight 7 %ort1 ! extremes 7 consid]able1 & ! *anges f "o /ate to ! next 7 rapid4 ,9 spite ( ?is1 ! c>diovascul>1 hemodynamic1 & electroc>diographic ph5om5a 7 rem>kably well ma9ta9$4 ,app>5tly ! animals 7 n 9 s]i\s plight at any "t4 ,t psy*ological factors ent]$ into ! obs]v$ ph5om5a is cle>ly evid5t f ! increase 9 c>diac rate associat$ ) ! noise ( ! eng9e prior to lift(f & also f ! c9ematographic record ( facial expressions4 ,nev]!less1 ! integrat$ responses indicat$ t ! animals' physiological /ates rema9$ suffici5tly normal to insure a safe flight4 ,,little ,,joe ,,flights ,! fir/ /ep 9 an attempt at animal v]ification ( ! adequacy ( ! ,m]cury flight program 0 ! developm5t ( two te/s by ,,nasa 9 collaboration ) ! ,u4,s4 ,air ,=ce ,s*ool ( ,aviation ,m$ic9e 9 :i* !re w\ld be a biom$ical evaluation ( ! accel]ations exp]i5c$ dur+ ! abort ( a ,m]cury flight at & %ortly aft] lift(f4 ,^! flights 7 laun*$ at ! ,,nasa ,wallops ,/ation ) a ,little ,joe solid-fuel laun* vehicle4 ,two ,little ,joe laun*es 7 made ) activation ( ! escape rockets dur+ ! boo/ phase to secure maximum accel]ation2 only a brief p]iod ( weightlessness 0 atta9$4 ,! fir/ laun* 0 on ,decemb] #d1 #aiei1 & ! o!r on ,janu>y #ba1 #aifj4 ,a #cf by #ah-;in* seal$1 #abe-p\nd1 cyl9drical capsule conta9+ ! subject1 an #h-p\nd ,macaca mulatta1 ! necess>y life-support sy/em1 & associat$ in/rum5tation 0 fl[n 9 a boil]plate model ( ! ,m]cury spacecraft4 ,! rhesus monkeys 7 nam$ ,sam & ,miss ,sam4 ,! flight pr(ile includ$ maximum accel]ations ( ab\t #aj to #ab g & p]iods ( ab\t #c m9utes at #jj4jb g4 ,! peak altitude obta9$ 9 ! la/ balli/ic flight 0 ab\t #bhj #jjj feet4 ,! exp]im5tal capsule 0 pressuriz$ at #a atmosph]e ) #ajj p]c5t oxyg5 at ! />t ( ! exp]im5t & fell to j bel[ a half atmosph]e ( oxyg5 due to brea?+ dur+ flight4 ,! capsule temp]ature 0 kept betwe5 #aj & #bj ,c 9 bo? flights4 ,! measurem5ts tak5 f ! rhesus monkeys 7 ! electroc>diogram1 respiration1 body temp]ature1 eye movem5ts1 & b> press+1 b only p>tial results 7 obta9$ 9 ! fir/ flight4 ,oxyg5 t5sion1 total pressure1 capsule temp]ature1 & relative humidity 7 record$4 ,bo? animals 7 recov]$ alive & did n %[ pa?ologic alt]ations 9 _! physiologic & psy*ological reactions4 ,,m]cury ,,animal ,,te/ ,,flights ,9 ! ,m]cury animal te/ program a ,r$/one missile c>ri$ ! *impanzee ,ham on a balli/ic flight to a height ( #aee miles to provide animal v]ification ( ! success ) :i* ! ,m]cury sy/em c\ld be appli$ to mann$ flight4 ,! male *impanzee 0 tra9$ to p]=m a two-phas$ reaction task dur+ ! #af m9utes ( flight4 ,! *impanzee ,enos 0 put into orbit = #c h\rs & #bj m9utes4 ,results ( ! two flights gave ! foll[+ in=mation3 7#a7 ,pulse & respiration rates dur+ bo? ! balli/ic 7,,mr-#b7 & ! orbital 7,,ma-#e7 flights rema9$ )9 normal limits ?r\gh\t ! weightless /ate4 ,effectiv5ess ( he>t action1 z evaluat$ f ! electroc>diograms & pressure records1 0 also unaffect$ by ! flights4 7#b7 ,blood pressures1 bo? art]ial & v5\s1 7 n significantly *ang$ f preflight values dur+ #c h\rs ( ! weightless /ate4 7#c7 ,! p]=mance ( a s]ies ( tasks involv+ cont9u\s & discrete avoidance1 fix$ ratio responses = food rew>d1 delay$ response = a fluid rew>d1 & solution ( a simple oddity problem 0 unaffect$ by ! weightless /ate4 7#d7 ,animals tra9$ 9 ! laboratory to p]=m dur+ simulat$ accel]ation1 noise1 & vibration ( laun* & re5try 7 able to ma9ta9 p]=mance ?r\gh\t an actual flight4 ,f ! results ( ! ,,mr-#b & ,,ma-#e flights1 ! foll[+ conclusions 7 drawn3 7#a7 ,! num]\s objectives ( ! ,m]cury animal te/ program 7 met4 ,! ,,mr-#b & ,,ma-#e te/s prec$$ ! fir/ balli/ic & orbital mann$ flights1 respectively1 & provid$ valuable tra9+ 9 c\ntd[n proc$ures & range monitor+ & recov]y te*niques4 ,! bio9/rum5tation 0 effectively te/$ & ! adequacy ( ! environm5tal control sy/em 0 demon/rat$4 7#b7 ,a #g-m9ute 7,,mr-#b7 & a #c-;h\r 7,,ma-#e7 exposure to ! weightless /ate 7 exp]i5c$ by ! subjects 9 an exp]im5tal design :i* left visual & tactile ref]5ces unimpair$4 ,!re 0 no significant *ange 9 ! physiological /ate or p]=mance ( ! animals z measur$ dur+ a s]ies ( tasks ( grad$ motivation & difficulty4 7#c7 ,que/ions 7 answ]$ conc]n+ ! physical & m5tal dem&s t ! a/ronauts w\ld enc\nt] dur+ space flight1 & x 0 %[n t ^! dem&s w\ld n be excessive4 7#d7 ,x 0 also demon/rat$ t ! "y *impanzee c be tra9$ to be a highly reliable subject = space-flight /udies4 ,! suborbital balli/ic flight ( ,ham on ,janu>y #ca1 #aifa1 0 ! prelude to ,alan ,r4 ,%ep>d's suborbital space flight1 :ile ! orbital flight ( ,enos on ,novemb] #bi1 #aifa1 prec$$ ! orbital flight ( ,john ,h4 ,gl5n4 ,! fact t we n[ categorize ^! ev5ts z belong+ to ! r di/ant pa/1 al?\gh !y occurr$ only ab\t #d ye>s ago1 s]ves to emphasize ! pace ( developm5t 9 ! exploration ( space4 ,:ile ! *impanzee program may pale 9 ! light ( subsequ5t successes1 its sci5tific & te*nological contribution %\ld n be ov]look$4 ,! significance ( ?is project c be fully appreciat$1 & its contribution judg$1 only by consid]+ ! lack ( k exi/+ at ! "t ( its conception4 ,9 addition to its ess5tial tra9+ function1 ?is project v]ifi$ ! feasibility ( mann$ space flight ?r\gh op]ational te/s ( ! ,m]cury life-support sy/em4 ,x demon/rat$ t complex behavioral processes & basic physiological functions rema9$ ess5tially unp]turb$ dur+ brief exposures to space flight4 ,! ,m]cury *impanzee program m>k$ ! fir/ "t t physiological & behavioral assessm5t te*niques 7 comb9$ = evaluat+ ! functional effici5cy ( ! total organism 9 space4 ,p]haps ! ultimate contribution ( ?is program 0 9 provid+ ! framework ( k ^u :i* future sci5tific exp]im5ts on biological organisms1 expos$ to flights ( ext5d$ durations1 mu/ be bas$4 ,biosatellite exp]im5ts design$ to seek m subtle & elusive effects ( prolong$ space flight on biological function+ w require ev5 m ref9$ & difficult te*niques1 b w dep5d heavily on ! gr\ndwork laid 9 ^! e>ly /eps ( ,project ,m]cury4 ,a summ>y ( ! m important animal suborbital & orbital flights dur+ ! p]iod #aieg to #aifd is pres5t$ 9 table ,,vii4 ,9 ano!r ,,nasa-support$ flight1 ,,n]v #a1 v>i\s exp]im5ts 7 c>ri$ 9 a suborbital flight ( #bj m9utes4 ,neurospora molds %[$ a surpris+ly high level ( mutation1 b ! control molds also _h high rates4 ,! ,discov]] ,,xvii & ,,xviii flights1 to :i* ! ,air ,=ce contribut$1 result$ 9 _m int]e/+ f9d+s relative to ! responses ( liv+ sy/ems to space flight4 ,on ! ,discov]] ,,xvii flight1 samples ( human gamma globul9 & rabbit antis]um specific = human gamma globul9 %[$ an increase 9 reactivity1 & samples ( synovial & conjunctival cells %[$ no *anges 9 _! cytological *>act]i/ics4 ,discov]] ,,xviii 0 laun*$ dur+ a massive sol> fl>e :i* la/$ = ! fir/ #ac h\rs ( ! #dh-orbit1 #c-;day flight4 ,neurospora conidia1 n]ve tissue1 algae1 human bone m>r[1 eyelid tissue1 gamma globul91 & canc] cells 7 put 9 orbit4 ,! results indicat$ t biological specim5s may be able to )/& radiation f sol> fl>es ) a m9imum ( %ield+ & t alum9um %ield+ may be bett] ?an lead4 ,9 #aidi1 ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 began a sy/ematic1 un9t]rupt$ rese>* program 9 biological space exp]im5tation4 ,!y h /udi$ ! effects ( physical /ress1 immune reactions1 psy*obiology & behavior1 g5etics1 & responses to environm5tal factors su* z spacecraft dynamics & ambi5t radiation4 ,! organisms & biological mat]ials includ$ tobacco mosaic & influ5za viruses2 ,t#b & ,t#d bact]iophage2 ,bacillus a]og5es2 lysog5ic bact]ia2 ,clo/ridium butyricum2 ,es*]i*ia coli2 act9omycetes2 yea/s2 ,*lorella pyr5oidosa2 se$s ( fir1 p9e1 onion1 corn1 lettuce1 :eat1 cabbage1 c>rot1 buck:eat1 cucumb]1 beet1 ,euonymus1 f5nel1 mu/>d1 pea1 broad bean1 tomato1 & nutmeg2 ,tradescantia paludosa2 ,asc>is eggs2 snail spawn2 ,drosophila melanoga/]2 loa* roe2 frog eggs & sp]m2 gu9ea pigs2 mice2 rats2 ham/]s2 rabbits2 dogs2 monkeys2 human & rabbit sk92 ,he,la tissue cultures & o!r tissues 7refs4 ref4#afg & ref4#afh74 ,table ,,vii4--,orbital & ,suborbital ,animal ,flights = #aieg-fd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,ye> ,animal subject ,flight pr(ile ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,unit$ ,/ates ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aieh ,mice ,wickie1 #adjj miles4 ,none ( ! ?ree ,laska1 & flights 7 recov]$4 ,b5ji ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aieh ,squirrel monkey #cjj-mile maximum altitude ov] a ,old ,reliable #acjj-mile di/ance via a ,jupit] rocket4 ,n recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aiei ,rhesus monkeys #cjj-mile maximum altitude ov] a ,able & ,bak] #aejj-mile di/ance via a ,jupit] rocket4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aiei ,black mice #ejj seconds ( weightlessness 9 ,discov]] ,,iii via a ,?or-,able rocket4 ,! ,discov]] vehicle did n g into orbit & ! animals 7 lo/4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aiei ,rhesus monkey #ec-mile altitude 9 ,little ,joe4 ,sam ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifj ,rhesus monkey #i-mile altitude 9 ,little ,joe4 ,miss ,sam ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifj ,c-#eg black mice #fej-mile altitude ov] a #ejjj-mile di/ance via ,atlas ,,rvx-#b;,a4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifa ,*impanzee ,ham #aef-mile altitude ov] a #dad-mile di/ance via a ,r$/one boo/]1 ,m]cury capsule4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifa ,*impanzee ,enos #b ,e>? orbits4 #ahc m9utes ( weightlessnessat an apogee ( #adf miles &a p]igee ( #ii miles4 ,atlas boo/]1 ,m]cury capsule4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,soviet ,union ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aieh ,dogs ,belyanka #bhj-mile altitude 9 h]metically & ,pe/raya seal$ cab94 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aiei ,dog ,otyazhnaya ,ov] #ajj-mile altitude4 ,recov]$4 & a rabbit ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifj ,dogs ,belka & #af ,e>? orbits 7#bd h\rs7 via ,/relka1 #ba ,sputnik ,v4 ,fir/ successful recov]y black & #ba :ite ( liv+ creature f orbital mice flight4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifj ,dogs ,p*elka & #af ,e>? orbits 7#bd h\rs74 ,mu%ka ,spacecraft de/roy$ dur+ re5try4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifa #a dog1 mice1 #a ,e>? orbit at an apogee ( #aee gu9ea pigs1 & miles & a p]igee ( #aad miles4 frogs ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifa ,dog ,laetzpo*ka #a ,e>? orbit4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,france ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifa ,rat ,hector #ie-mile attitude 9 a capsule boo/$ by a ,v]onique rocket4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aifc ,cat ,felicette #ie-mile altitude 9 a capsule boo/$ by a ,v]onique rocket4 ,ov] #e m9 ( weightlessness4 ,recov]$4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,! ,,nasa ,,biosatellite ,,program ,f ref4#afi4 ,! space environm5t (f]s a unique opportunity to /udy ! basic prop]ties ( liv+ ,e>? organisms ) new tools & op5s up new areas ( rese>* = :i* biological !ory fails to provide adequate pr$ictions4 ,unique compon5ts ( ! space environm5t ( biological importance are weightlessness or greatly decreas$ gravity1 ! imposition ( an environm5t disconnect$ f ,e>?'s #bd-;h\r rotation 7p>ticul>ly its effect on biorhy?ms71 & cosmic radiation ) en]gies & p>ticle sizes unmat*$ by any?+ produc$ artificially on ,e>? 7ref4#afi74 ,z progress is made 9 ! mann$ exploration ( space1 ! biological effects ( its unique environm5tal factors become ( great] importance4 ,x is ess5tial to det]m9e ! effects ( space environm5t on man's ability to p]=m physical & m5tal tasks4 ,9 addition1 x is necess>y to develop ^? sy/ems requir$ = 8 survival & = 8 physiological & psy*ological well-be+1 bo? 9 space & 9 8 subsequ5t resumption ( normal life patt]ns4 ,despite ne>ly a c5tury ( rese>* & developm5t 9 environm5tal physiology1 a numb] ( ph5om5a w be enc\nt]$ 9 long-t]m space flight ) :i* we h _h nei!r ! exp]i5ce t w\ld enable u to pr$ict ! effects nor to develop ! necess>y protective or rem$ial measures 7ref4#agj74 ,_m ( ! exp]im5tal programs 9 biosci5ce are be+ c>ri$ out or plann$ s t ! delet]i\s effects ( ^! ph5om5a may be det]m9$1 pr$ict$1 or avoid$ be=e !y are enc\nt]$ 9 mann$ flight4 ,biological exp]im5tation has be5 c>ri$ out 9 orbit+ spacecraft by ,soviet & ,am]ican sci5ti/s prep>atory to mann$ space flight4 ,^! fir/-g5]ation exploratory exp]im5ts _h ! foll[+ objectives3 7#a7 ,to discov] :e!r complex organisms c\ld survive space conditions & to te/ life-support sy/ems 7#b7 ,to det]m9e :e!r complex organisms 7dogs & primates7 c\ld survive laun*1 orbital space flight1 re5try1 & recov]y 7#c7 ,to det]m9e ! effects ( space radiation & any obvi\s effects ( weightlessness on biological organisms ,^! biological /udies indicate t mann$ space flight 0 practicable1 & ! v>i\s cosmonaut & a/ronaut flights h prov5 ! validity ( ! results4 ,! ,national ,academy ( ,sci5ces' ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d summ] /udy 7ref4#aga7 recomm5d$ t-- ,,nasa %\ld exploit special features ( ! space environm5t z unique situations = ! g5]al analysis ( ! organism-environm5t relation%ips includ+1 especially1 ! role environm5tal inputs play 9 ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( normal organization 9 ! liv+ sy/em4 ,,nasa %\ld support /udies 9 gr\nd-bas$ & 9 orbit+ laboratories biosatellites on ! biological effects ( gravity fields bo? above & bel[ normal4 ,?is %\ld be consid]$ a major responsibility ( ,,nasa 9 ! area ( environm5tal opportunities4 ,,nasa %\ld support /udies ( biological rhy?ms 9 plants & animals includ+ man z "p ( its ef=t 9 environm5tal biology4 ,inve/igate by obs]vation ( rhy?ms 9 organisms 9 space 9 7a7 pol> & equatorial l[ orbits2 7b7 orbits less ?an1 equal to & great] ?an #bb1jjj miles4 ,prop]ly design$ exp]im5ts %\ld be conduct$ to explore ! effects ( diff]5t environm5tal factors :5 ^! imp+e simultane\sly on te/ organisms4 ,! ,panel on ,gravity ( ! ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d 7ref4#fg7 /at$ t ! major effects ( l[ gravity w\ld be expect$ 9 het]ocellul> organisms t develop 9 m or less fix$ ori5tation ) respect to t]re/rial gravity & :i* respond to *anges 9 ori5tation ) relatively long induction p]iods1 includ+ ! high] plants4 ,on ! o!r extreme are ! complex primates :i* respond rapidly1 b ^: multiplicity ( organs & correlative me*anisms make ! occurr5ce ( malfunction & disorganization probable1 b n c]ta94 ,! ,panel recomm5d$ emphasis on e>ly embryog5esis & hi/og5esis1 p>ticul>ly ( plants dur+ exposure to l[ gravity1 & anatomical /udies aft] l[ gravity4 ,!y /at$ t p]turbations ( ! environm5t to :i* ! exp]im5tal organism is expos$ mu/ be limit$ or controll$ to r$uce unc]ta9ties 9 int]pretation ( results4 ,at ! same "t1 ! introduction ( kn[n p]turbations may assi/ 9 isolat+ ! effects due solely to gravity4 ,gr\nd-bas$ cl9o/ats & c5trifuges %\ld be us$ 9 conjunction ) ! exp]im5ts1 & an attempt %\ld be made to extrapolate effects ( l[ gravity ) ! cl9o/at4 ,! /udy ( ! effects ( unique or unkn[n space environm5tal factors w probably yield unexpect$ results :i* may dra/ically modify future te*nical approa*es4 ,! results f ^! biosatellite /udies w h broad application to long] t]m1 mann$ space flight1 includ+ mann$ space /ations & lun> & planet>y exploration4 ,! biosatellite program is a second-g5]ation s]ies ( c>efully plann$ & select$ exp]im5ts1 includ+ "s highly sophi/icat$ exp]im5ts :i* h requir$ sev]al ye>s ( basel9e /udy & equipm5t developm5t4 ,^! orbit+ recov]able biosatellites w provide opportunities = critical te/+ ( major biological hypo!ses 9 ! areas ( g5etics1 evolution1 & physiology4 ,! sci5tific community %[$ great int]e/ 9 ! biosatellite program1 & sci5ti/s f univ]sities1 indu/ry1 & ,gov]nm5t h submitt$ #ahe flight exp]im5ts involv+ primates & o!r mammals1 v]tebrate & inv]tebrate animals1 micro-organisms1 & plants4 ,! select$ biosatellite exp]im5ts include /udies at ! cellul>1 tissue1 & organism levels1 includ+ embryological developm5t & gr[? exp]im5ts at ! tissue level & physiological1 behavioral1 reproductive1 & g5etic /udies at ! organism level4 ,! exp]im5ts are divid$ into six categories3 7#a7 ,primates 7#b7 ,mammals 7nonprimate7 7#c7 ,animal1 cellul>1 & egg 7#d7 ,plant morphog5esis1 photosyn!sis1 & gr[? 7#e7 ,biorhy?m 7#f7 ,radiation ,tw5ty exp]im5ts h be5 select$ = flight to /udy ! effects ( weightlessness & decreas$ gravity dur+ #c- to #cj-;day orbital p]iods4 ,! exp]im5ts include a wide v>iety ( plants & animals f s+le-cell$ organisms to high] plants & animals4 ,! effects ( weightlessness on ! primate w be /udi$1 especially ! c5tral n]v\s1 ! c>diovascul>1 & ! skeletal sy/ems dur+ #cj-;day orbits4 ,exp]im5ts h be5 select$ to /udy ! g5etic & somatic effects ( weightlessness comb9$ ) a kn[n s\rce ( radiation 7,sr7 to det]m9e if !re are any antagoni/ic or syn]gi/ic effects 7ref4#agb74 ,exp]im5ts are also includ$ = /udy+ ! effects ( ! unique environm5t ( ! ,e>?-orbit+ satellite & removal f ! ,e>?'s rotation 9 relation to biological rhy?ms ( plants & animals4 ,six biosatellites are includ$ 9 ! pres5tly approv$ program1 ) ! fir/ flight 9 #aiff4 ,!y w be laun*$ f ,cape ,k5n$y by ! improv$ two-/age1 ?ru/-augm5t$ ,?or-,delta into a ne>ly equatorial circul> orbit at an altitude ( #ahj-bjj miles = p]iods up to #cj days4 ,recov]y w be by ,air ,=ce airplane dur+ capsule_/p>a*ute desc5t4 ,! spacecraft weigh #ajjj-abjj p\nds1 h a #bhj-p\nd recov]able capsule &1 :ile 9 orbit1 w n exp]i5ce great] ?an #a_/aj #jjj g ( accel]ation4 ,! life-support sy/em w provide an environm5t at sea-level pressure ( #hj p]c5t nitrog51 #bj p]c5t oxyg51 & no m ?an #j4e p]c5t c>bon dioxide ) a temp]ature ( #ge ,f #e ,f4 ,all exp]im5ts are 9 v>i\s /ages ( developm5t or te/+ & flight te/ h>dw>e has be5 & is be+ con/ruct$4 ,! exp]im5ts & h>dw>e are be+ subject$ to preflight te/s simulat+ laun* & recov]y /resses4 ,rhesus1 pigtail1 & squirrel monkeys h be5 subject$ to ! dynamic =ces ( ! simulat$ flight "u conditions ( complete1 p>tial1 & no re/ra9t4 ,?ree types ( c5trifuges h be5 us$ to simulate ! flight pr(ile4 ,primates 7 fully in/rum5t$ ) deep bra9 electrode implants1 implant$ ca!t]s1 & o!r implant$ s5sors4 ,dur+ c5trifugation1 motion pictures 7 tak54 ,^! primates 7 semire/ra9$ 9 =m-fitt$ c\*es :i* all[$ movem5t ( ! body :ile fac+ ! accel]ative =ce 9 a v5trodorsal position 7eyeballs 974 ,9 ?is s]ies ( te/s1 all primates 7 normal foll[+ ! te/s & exhibit$ no unusual behavior or effects4 ,x-rays %[$ t implant$ ca!t]s & electrodes rema9$ 9 place1 & !re 7 no movem5ts caus+ tissue damage4 ,h[ev]1 :5 ! primates 7 plac$ ) _! backs t[>d ! accel]ative =ce1 dorsov5tral 7eyeballs out71 ! animals suff]$ visible damage4 ,at #f g !re 0 no visible /ress1 b at #h g swell+ ( ! l[] eyelids 0 noticeable4 ,at #aa g bo? eyelids 7 swoll5 %ut4 ,9 ! biosatellite program1 primates w be plac$ 9 ! semire/ra9t c\*es 9 a position fac+ accel]ative =ces1 v5trodorsal 7eyeballs 971 to prev5t ^! effects4 *apt] #g ,mann$ ,space ,flight ,,bioreg5]ative ,,life-,,support ,,sy/ems ,plac+ a man 9 space requires a complete life-support sy/em capable ( supply+ suffici5t oxyg51 food1 & wat] & remov+ excess c>bon dioxide1 wat] vapor1 & human body wa/es4 ,9 addition1 ! oxyg51 c>bon dioxide1 & pressure mu/ be ma9ta9$ at a suitable level4 ,any accumulat$ toxic products & noxi\s odors mu/ be remov$4 ,9 ! spacecraft ! human is conf9$ 9 a re/rict$ environm5t 9 :i* x is necess>y to e/abli% a balanc$ microcosm or clos$ ecological sy/em4 ,?is is an enorm\s biological & bio5g9e]+ problem4 ,weight1 size1 simplicity ( op]ation1 & reliability p>ticul>ly are important factors4 ,= relatively %ort missions involv+ "o or sev]al a/ronauts1 food1 oxyg51 & wat] c be /or$ & made available z requir$1 & ! v>i\s wa/e products c be /or$4 ,on long] missions1 p>ticul>ly ^? involv+ m ?an "o a/ronaut1 effici5t *emical or biological reg5]ative sy/ems w be requir$4 ,any reg5]ative sy/em introduces a fix$ co/ 9 weight ( process+ equipm5t & en]gy requirem5ts4 ,*emical1 or p>tially reg5]ative1 me?ods = provid+ brea?+ oxyg5 by ! reg5]ation ( metabolic products su* z wat] vapor & c>bon dioxide include ! !rmal decomposition ( wat] & ,,co1 photolysis & radiolysis ( wat]1 electrolysis ( fus$ c>bonates & aque\s solutions1 & ! *emical r$uction ( ,,co ) ,h1 foll[$ by electrolysis ( ! wat] =m$4 ,*emical reg5]ative sy/ems h be5 develop$ to remove excess c>bon dioxide & wat] vapor f ! atmosph]e4 ,nonbiological reg5]ative sy/ems are "t limit$ by ! am\nt ( food1 wat]1 & oxyg5 t c be c>ri$ or recov]$4 ,^! physical-*emical processes %[ great pot5tial1 b !y also pres5t _m difficulties1 includ+ requirem5ts = extremely high temp]atures & consid]able am\nts ( p[]1 ! =mation ( highly toxic mat]ials1 & high susceptibility to inactivation4 ,none ( ! pres5tly /udi$ nonbiological processes c function z completely z a bioreg5]ative sy/em4 ,all ^! nonbiological sy/ems h unreali/ic supply requirem5ts & produce unusable wa/es4 ,consequ5tly1 = long planet>y missions ! bioreg5]ative sy/ems1 ?\gh also beset ) problems1 are pot5tially f> sup]ior to _! physical & *emical c\nt]p>ts4 ,table ,,viii %[s av]age daily metabolic data = a #gj-kg a/ronaut4 ,a man brea!s ab\t #aj cubic feet ( air p] m9ute1 or #djj #jjj lit]s1 daily4 ,! expir$ air conta9s ab\t #d p]c5t c>bon dioxide4 ,man normally brea!s air conta9+ #j4jc p]c5t ,,co1 b c )/& com=tably ab\t #a4e p]c5t ,,co4 ,any?+ 9 excess ( #a4e p]c5t w produce labor$ brea?+1 heada*es1 &1 if greatly exce$$1 dea?4 ,a man exhales ab\t #a4a p\nds ( wat] p] day & ?is1 9 addition to wat] f p]spiration & o!r s\rces1 mu/ be remov$ f ! air4 ,table ,,viii4--,av]age ,daily ,metabolic ,data = a #gj-kg1 #be-,ye>-,old ,a/ronaut ,) ,normal ,spacecrew ,activity ,f ref4#agc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,o input1 kg #j4hfb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,co output1 kg #a4jef ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,dr9k+ wat]1 lit]s #b4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,food rehydrat+ wat]1 lit]s #a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,caloric value ( food1 kcal #cjjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,wat] output3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ur9e1 lit]s #a4f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,respiration & p]spiration1 lit]s #b4ac ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,feces1 kg #j4ji ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,total heat output1 ,btu #aa #ajj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,two types ( biological reg5]ative sy/ems h be5 propos$4 ,! photosyn!tic clos$ ecological sy/em 0 propos$ z e>ly z #aiea4 ,?is involves ! use ( s+le-cell$ algae or high] plants1 includ+ float+ aquatic & t]re/rial plants1 & requires ! int]action ( light en]gy ) ,,co & ,h,o to produce ,o & plant cells4 ,ano!r sy/em1 propos$ 9 #aifa1 involves electrolysis ( wat] into oxyg5 & hydrog51 & ! concurr5t use ( ,hydrog5omonas bact]ia :i* take up hydrog51 "s oxyg51 c>bon dioxide1 & ur9e yield+ wat] & bact]ial cells4 ,table ,,ix4--,requirem5ts = ,reg5]ative ,life-,support ,sy/ems ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,requirem5ts _/ ,requirem5ts _/ #a man #c m5 7#bgj man-day ,sy/em mission7 --------------------------------------- ,weight1 ,p[]1 ,weight1 ,p[]1 kg k,w kg k,w ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,p>tial *emoreg5]ative #ccb #a4ge ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,li,o,h #abe #a4dj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,na,o,h #aee #g4fh ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,co-,h #cd 4#cf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,full bioreg5]ative--algae3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,artificial illum9ation #aaf #aj4dj #eia #be4jj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,sol> illum9ation #ajc #a4gj #cef 4#fj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,electrolysis-hydrog5omonas #ee 4#be #abi #b4fj ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,f ref4#agd4 ,f ref4#age4 ,f ref4#agf4 ,includes in/rum5tation & food /orage4 ,! values giv5 9 table ,,ix indicate relative weights & p[]s requir$ by v>i\s sy/ems to provide ! gase\s environm5t = mann$ space cab9s4 ,if "o consid]s op]at+ temp]atures & haz>ds1 o!r sy/ems may (f] advantages :i* (fset ! weight & p[] advantages ( ! hydrog5 r$uction ( ,li,o,h sy/ems4 ,rese>* is be+ conduct$ by ,,nasa on life-support-sy/em te*nology applicable to missions plann$ = #bj ye>s 9 ! future4 ,life-support sy/ems include ! requirem5ts = supply+ brea?+ gases1 control ( contam9ants 9 ! cab9 atmosph]e1 wat] reclamation1 food supply1 & p]sonal hygi5e4 ,! discipl9es involv$ 9 su* sy/ems include biology & microbiology1 cryog5ic fluid h&l+ at z]o g1 heat transf]1 & !rmal integration ) o!r sy/ems1 su* z p[]4 ,! physiological1 psy*ological1 & sociological problems ( ! crew are also be+ consid]$4 ,photosyn!tic ,sy/em ,gre5 plants conta9 *lorophyll :i* captures light en]gy !rmodynamically requir$ to conv]t c>bon dioxide & wat] into c>bohydrate :i* c subsequ5tly be trans=m$ into o!r foods su* z prote9 & fat4 ,dur+ ?is process1 c>bon dioxide is consum$1 & an approximately equal am\nt ( oxyg5 gas is lib]at$4 ,z a fir/ approximation1 photosyn!sis is ! rev]se ( ! oxidative metabolism ( animal life3 ,oxidation ,c,h,o #f,o -------------- #f;,,co #f;,h,o heat ,photosyn!sis #f;,,co #f;,h,o light -------------- ,c,h,o #f,o ,! photosyn!tic process 9 plants & respiration dur+ photosyn!sis h be5 /udi$ int5sively1 & sev]al metabolic pa?ways h be5 elucidat$4 ,me*anisms are be+ /udi$ to expla9 ! inhibitory effect ( /rong visible light on ?is process4 ,?is program may lead to ! use ( *loropla/s or *lorophyll )\t cells 9 future photosyn!tic bioreg5]ative sy/ems = long-t]m space travel4 ,"o ( ! prime consid]ations ( a clos$ ecological sy/em is t ! environm5tal gases %all rema9 physiologically tol]able to all ( ! ecologic compon5ts4 ,ideally1 a photosyn!tic gas ex*ange organism %\ld possess a high ratio ( gas ex*ange to total mass 7consid]+ all equipm5t & mat]ial incid5tal to gr[?1 h>ve/+1 process+1 & utilization72 & a controllable assimilation rate to ma9ta9 /eady-/ate gas composition4 ,x %\ld also be 7#a7 am5able to conf9+ qu>t]s :i* may be impos$ by inflexibility ( rocket or space /ation design2 7#b7 g5etically & physiologically /able & highly resi/ant to anticipat$ /resses2 7#c7 edible & capable ( supply+ mo/ or all human nutritional requirem5ts2 7#d7 capable ( utiliz+ raw or appropriately treat$ organic wa/es2 & 7#e7 am5able to wat] recycl+ z dem&$ by o!r compon5ts ( ! ecosy/em4 ,high] ,plants ,ef=ts to utilize multicellul> plants z photosyn!tic gas ex*ang]s h be5 some:at neglect$1 s9ce x has be5 assum$ by _m t algae w\ld be m effici5t4 ,! family ,lemnaceae 7duckwe$s7 are small primitive aquatic plants ) a m9imum ( tissue diff]5tiation4 ,practically all ( ! cells ( ! plant conta9 *lorophyll & are capable ( photosyn!tic activity4 ,!y reproduce pr9cipally by asexual budd+ ( p>5t leaflike fronds4 ,!y c be gr[n readily on moi/ surfaces 7ref4#agg7 on almo/ any m$ium suitable = ! gr[? ( autotrophic plants4 ,) duckwe$s ! problems ( gase\s ex*ange & h>ve/+ are simplifi$ & ! volume ( m$ium c be greatly decreas$ z comp>$ ) algae4 ,ney 7ref4#agg7 obta9$ a v high gas ex*ange rate ) duckwe$s4 ,us+ small cultures "u controll$ optimal conditions ( temp]ature1 light 7#fjj-ajjj ft-c71 & ,,co1 conc5tration1 he e/imat$ t #b4c m ( frondal surface ( duckwe$1 at a gas ex*ange rate ( #aj4h lit]s m_/hr w\ld provide suffici5t gas ex*ange = "o man4 ,?is w\ld produce ab\t #be grams ( dry plant mat]ial p] h\r4 ,a few nutritional /udies h be5 c>ri$ out ) duckwe$s4 ,nakamura 7ref4#agh7 consid]$ ,wolffia z a possible s\rce ( food = space travel & f\nd t x conta9$ c>bohydrate #be-fj p]c5t1 prote9 #h-aj p]c5t1 fat #ah-bj p]c5t1 m9]als #f-h p]c5t 7all dry weights71 & vitam9s ,b1 ,b1 & ,c1 ) ,c ! mo/ abundant4 ,"o ( ! desirable features ( a duckwe$ sy/em is t ! gas ex*ange is direct betwe5 ! atmosph]e & ! plant & does n require dissolv+ ! respiratory gases 9 a bulky fluid sy/em :i* introduces special eng9e]+ difficulties 9 z]o- or l[-gravity conditions4 ,9 ! design ( equipm5t = photosyn!tic /udies1 c>eful consid]ation %\ld be giv5 to ! mat]ial us$ 9 ! con/ruction ( ! unit4 ,mo/ pla/ic mat]ials are subject to photo-oxidative degradation1 ) ,,co z "o ( ! products4 ,:5 air is recirculat$ ?r\gh pla/ic tub+ & transp>5t rigid pla/ics 9 ! pres5ce ( light1 consid]able quantities ( ,,co are giv5 (f4 ,) high-int5sity illum9ation su* z sunlight1 a ,,co buildup ( sev]al hundr$ p>ts p] million is n uncommon4 ,also1 plant pigm5ts su* z ! c>ot5oids & *lorophylls w react simil>ly :5 expos$ to light ( high int5sity4 ,if ! plants die1 !n ,,co is releas$ q rapidly4 ,at ,colorado ,/ate ,univ]sity ! responses ( plants to high-int5sity radiation 7ultraviolet to infr>$7 are be+ /udi$4 ,plants f high m\nta9tops t are expos$ to great] ultraviolet light are be+ /udi$ = specializ$ adaptations4 ,! effect ( temp]ature on photosyn!sis is be+ explor$4 ,v>i\s plants are also be+ /udi$ "u g]m-free conditions4 ,scre5+ ( high] plants = possible use 9 bioreg5]ative sy/ems at ,connecticut ,agriculture ,exp]im5t ,/ation result$ 9 ! selection ( corn1 sug>cane1 & sunfl[]4 ,"u optimal conditions x has be5 %[n t #ajj to #acj ft ( leaf surface are requir$ to support an a/ronaut4 ,plants consid]$ z possible food s\rces include soybeans1 peanuts1 rice1 & tomatoes1 :i* c be comb9$ ) algae to give a well-balanc$ & reasonably v>i$ diet4 ,hydroponic sy/ems use l>ge quantities ( wat]1 b progress is be+ made 9 r$uc+ ?is4 ,! possibility ( us+ animals 9 ! clos$ ecological sy/em is op5 to "q1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! abs5ce ( gravity1 & mu* "w rema9s to be done on us+ plant mat]ials z animal food & on ! disposal ( wa/es4 ,animals :i* h be5 consid]$ are cru/aceans1 fi%1 *ick5s1 rabbits1 & goats4 ,algae ,algae h ! fa/e/ gr[? rate & are among ! mo/ effici5t plants = oxyg5 & food production4 ,x has be5 amply demon/rat$ by ,my]s 7ref4#agi7 & o!r work]s t ,*lorella c be us$ 9 a clos$ ecological sy/em to ma9ta9 animals su* z mice & a monkey4 ,! use ( algae = supply+ ,o & food1 & = remov+ ,,co & odors has be5 consid]$ by _m au?ors = use 9 spacecraft1 space plat=ms1 & = e/abli%+ bases on ! ,moon or ,m>s4 ,e/imates ( total effici5cy are bas$ on extrapolat$ laboratory data & v>y widely1 s9ce _m diff]5t types ( data h be5 us$ z a basis = ^! e/imates4 ,! respir$ air conta9+ ab\t #d-e p]c5t ,,co is bubbl$ into ! ,*lorella culture1 at ei!r atmosph]ic or increas$ pressure4 ,air conta9+ a high p]c5tage ( oxyg5 & saturat$ ) moi/ure is releas$ f ! algal sy/em4 ,! use ( algae = sev]al purposes might require f "o to ?ree sep>ate algal sy/ems4 ,= food production1 ,*lorella produces #ej p]c5t prote9 & #ej p]c5t lipids 9 high-nitrog5 m$ia4 ,9 l[-nitrog5 m$ia1 x produces #he p]c5t lipids4 ,prop] *oice ( ,*lorella /ra9s & m$ia w produce n only ! necess>y calories b also ! necess>y specific nutri5ts requir$4 ,c]ta9 /ra9s are m effective 9 ,o production1 & o!rs 9 ! use ( ur9e & o!r wa/es4 ,"s ( ! e>ly e/imates1 us+ ,*lorella gr[n at #be ,c1 = supply+ ^! requirem5ts = a s+le man 9 space include ! foll[+3 #afh kg ( algal susp5sion 7ref4#agi71 #bjj kg ( algal susp5sion & #ej kg ( equipm5t includ+ pumps 7refs4 ref4#ahj & ref4#aha71 & #ajj kg ( algal susp5sion & #ej cubic feet = equipm5t & gas ex*ange 7ref4#ahb74 ,us+ ! blue-gre5 alga ,syne*ocy/is1 #fjj kg ( algal susp5sion w\ld be requir$1 accord+ to ,gaf=d & ,craft4 ,^! e/imates are bas$ on prelim9>y /udies1 are q high1 & are n ( real practical value4 ,o!r /udies h indicat$ an extremely effici5t algal sy/em :i* (f]s a real pot5tial = a practical & effective gas ex*ang] 7ref4#ahc74 ,a !rmophilic /ra9 ( ,*lorella ) an optimum gr[? temp]ature ( #ci ,c & an optimum temp]ature = photosyn!sis ( ab\t #dj ,c c increase its cell mass #aj #jjj-;fold p] day4 ,:5 op]at+ at "o-half maximum effici5cy1 ?is alga produces #ajj times its cell volume ( oxyg5 p] h\r4 ,burk et al4 7ref4#ahc7 /ate3 ,future eng9e]+ developm5t %\ld lead to a space requirem5t1 p] adult p]son1 ( no m ?an #c to #e cubic feet ( algal culture1 equipm5t1 & in/rum5tation = adequate purification ( air4 ,! requirem5ts ( ?is sy/em w\ld require additional en]gy 9 ! =m ( light & ( small am\nts ( nitrog5\s & m9]al mat]ial = ! algae4 ,! light s\rce us$ by ,burk et al4 7ref4#ahc7 is a tung/5 filam5t qu>tz lamp ! size ( a p5cil1 :i* has a long life1 produces a lum9\s flux #e-aj times great] ?an sunlight on ,e>?1 & op]ates at a #aj-ab p]c5t light effici5cy4 ,rese>* is be+ c>ri$ out on algal reg5]ative sy/ems by ab\t #dj or #ej laboratories 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,nasa is support+ sev]al basic /udies on photosyn!sis1 ! physiology ( algae1 & eng9e]+ pilot-plant developm5t4 ,mu* ( ! rese>* on algae is be+ support$ by ! ,air ,=ce4 ,mo/ algal /udies h be5 c>ri$ out 9 small units & ! data obta9$ h be5 us$ z a basis = extrapolat+ logi/ic values = ! use ( ^! organisms 9 mann$ space vehicles4 ,my]s 7ref4#agi7 has %[n t ! quantity ( algae necess>y to support a man 7) an assum$ ,o requirem5t ( #fbe lit]s p] day7 w\ld yield ab\t #fjj-gjj grams dry weight ( new cells p] day4 ,if algal gr[? 9 mass cultures c\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 a /eady-/ate conc5tration ( #b4e gram dry weight p] lit] ) su* a gr[? rate z to yield #aj grams weight p] lit] p] day1 ! volume ( algal culture w\ld be #fj-gj lit]s & ! total mass ( ! sy/em w\ld approximate #bjj-bej p\nds4 ,us+ an #h-lit] sy/em1 ,w>d et al4 7ref4#agf7 h produc$ algal conc5trations ( #e-g grams ( dry algae p] lit] ) a high-temp]ature algal /ra94 ,! maximum gr[? rate obs]v$ ) ! culture 0 #j4cge gram dry weight p] lit] p] h\r1 or #i grams dry weight p] lit] p] day4 ,?is 0 accompli%$ by us+ #a-;c5timet] lay]s ( culture & a light int5sity ( #hjjj foot-c&les4 ,! culture sy/em consi/$ ( a rectangul> pla/ic *amb] hav+ an area ( #j4e squ>e met] & illum9at$ on ea* side to an int5sity ( #djjj foot-c&les 7cool-:ite74 ,to produce #be lit]s ( oxyg5 p] h\r1 an area ( #h4c squ>e met]s 7#he squ>e feet7 w\ld be requir$4 ,! major problem 9 l>ge-scale production ( algae is t ( illum9ation4 ,conv]sion ( electricity to light has an effici5cy ( only #aj to #bj p]c5t4 ,9 addition1 ! maximum effici5cy ( light utilization by ,*lorella algae lies 9 ! range ( #ah-bb p]c5t4 ,?is results 9 a maximum effici5cy ( only #d p]c5t = photosyn!tic sy/ems4 ,ano!r problem involv$ 9 conv]sion ( electricity to light is ! production ( heat :i* has to be remov$ ev5 ) !rmophilic algae4 ,) a human dem& ( #fjj lit]s ( oxyg5 p] day1 ! m9imum electrical requirem5t becomes #d k,w4 ,no l>ge-scale culture has yet be5 manag$ at any?+ close to ?is m9imum figure4 ,ano!r problem is ! poor p5etration ( light into conc5trat$ cultures ( algae4 ,?is necessitates con/ruction ( l>ge tanks ( only ab\t -in* ?ickness4 ,?is results frequ5tly 9 f\l+ ( ! surfaces ( ! tank by algae & makes ! removal ( ! excess algae difficult4 ,production ( #a lit] ( oxyg5 results 9 ! production ( #a gram dry weight ( algae4 ,al?\gh a small am\nt ( ,,co is produc$ by "s algae1 x c probably be remov$ by catalytic oxidation4 ,o!r problems include mutation & g5etic drift ( ! algae & ! necessity = ma9ta9+ bact]ia-free cultures4 ,!re are also difficulties 9 ma9ta9+ a /]ile culture if ur9e is to be us$ z a nitrog5 s\rce4 ,:ile !re is a pot5tial = us+ algae z food1 m rese>* is requir$ be=e x c be det]m9$ :at quantity & me?ods ( process+ c be us$4 ,rese>* & developm5t on algae is mu* great] ?an on bo? ! high] plants & ! electrolysis-,hydrog5omonas sy/ems toge!r4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! photosyn!tic & electrolysis-*emosyn!tic sy/ems is ! way electrical en]gy is made available to ! organisms4 ,9 ! photosyn!tic sy/em1 electrical en]gy is conv]t$ to light :i* ! algae or plants trans=m into *emical en]gy4 ,9 ! *emosyn!tic process1 electrical en]gy is trans=m$ into ! *emical en]gy ( hydrog5 gas :i* is us$ by ! bact]ia4 ,bo? organisms use ! *emical en]gy available to !m to syn!size cell mat]ial ) simil> degrees ( effici5cy4 ,! problem is to make ! conv]sion ( electricity to available *emical en]gy z effici5t z possible4 ,9 photosyn!tic sy/ems mu* en]gy is lo/ 9 ! conv]sion ( electricity to light1 a process only #aj-bj p]c5t effici5t at be/4 ,:5 ?is is comb9$ ) ! loss f ! ineffici5t use ( light by plants1 an ov]all effici5cy ( ab\t #d p]c5t is obta9$4 ,9 ! electrolysis-,hydrog5omonas sy/em1 ! two /eps are v effici5t4 ,electrolysis cells c op]ate at up to #he p]c5t effici5cy & ! ov]all effici5cy c be up to sev5 times t ( a photosyn!tic sy/em4 ,,electrolysis-,,hydrog5omonas ,,sy/em ,electrolysis is c>ri$ out 9 a clos$ unit conta9+ an electrolyte 7,,koh solution7 ) an anode & a ca?ode4 ,^! cells produce a maximum yield 7#fj-hj p]c5t or m7 9 gas production p] unit ( p[] consumption4 ,accord+ to ,dole & ,tampl9 7ref4#ahd71 a unit capable ( produc+ en\gh oxyg5 to su/a9 "o man w\ld be highly reliable1 weigh approximately #ah kg1 & require a p[] input ( #j4be k,w4 ,"o approa* to z]o-gravity op]ation is to rotate ! electrolysis cell z describ$ by ,clif=d & ,mc,callum 7ref4#ahe7 & ,clif=d & ,fau/ 7ref4#ahf74 ,! smalle/ kn[n electrolysis cell "u developm5t uses ?is artificial gravity to sep>ate oxyg5 f ! anode & electrolyte1 :ile ! dry hydrog5 gas p]meates ?r\gh ! foil ca?ode1 fabricat$ f palladium-silv] alloy4 ,?is electrolysis cell1 :i* w\ld provide brea?+ oxyg5 = ?ree m51 has a volume ( #a4d lit]s1 weighs #d4e kg1 & requires #j4fg k,w1 exclud+ auxili>y equipm5t1 & has an effici5cy ( #hd p]c5t4 ,! *emosyn!tic conv]sion is c>ri$ out by ! hydrog5 bact]ia4 ,by ! oxidation ( molecul> hydrog51 suppli$ f ! electrolysis ( wat]1 en]gy is made available = biosyn!sis4 ,! g5]ation ( ?is biological en]gy is m$iat$ by ! /able enzyme hydrog5ase :i* is pres5t 9 ! bact]ia4 ,on ! av]age1 ! oxidation ( #d moles ( ,h is requir$ = ! conv]sion ( #a mole ( ,,co 7! h\rly production ( a man74 ,! removal ( ?is am\nt ( ,,co w\ld ?us require ! cleavage ( #d moles ( wat]4 ,9 addition1 to supply oxyg5 = human respiration 7at a rate ( #a mole ( ,o p] h\r7 ! cleavage ( two additional moles ( wat] is requir$4 ,!re=e1 ! *emosyn!tic reg5]ation & human respiration toge!r w\ld require1 on ! av]age1 ! splitt+ ( #f moles ( wat] p] h\r4 ,! mat]ial balance = electrolysis1 biosyn!sis1 & human metabolism1 ) gram molecul> weights 9 p>5!ses1 are %[n 9 equations 7#a7 to 7#c71 respectively3 #f;,h,o -------------- #c,o #f;,h 7#ajh7 -------------- 7#if7 7#ab7 7#a7 ,! bact]ial syn!sis requires #f moles ( ,h1 #b moles ( ,o1 & #a mole ( ,,co 7f ! a/ronaut71 z %[n 9 equation #b3 #f;,h #b,o ,,co -------------- ,,*,o #e;,h,o 7#ab7 7#fd7 7#dd7 -------------- 7#cj7 7#ij7 7#b7 ,! respiration ( ! a/ronaut requires #a food mole 7,,*,o7 repres5t+ ab\t #abj kcal1 & #a mole ( ,o1 z %[n 9 equation #c3 ,,*,o ,o -------------- ,,co ,h,o 7#cj7 7#cb7 -------------- 7#dd7 7#ah7 7#c7 ,! metabolic data 9 table ,,viii %[ t ! ,,co ( ! a/ronaut & ! bact]ia mu/ balance at ab\t #a4jef kg p] day4 ,! wat] relations are n completely balanc$1 b are fairly close4 ,ab\t #b4f lit]s p] day ( wat] are split by electrolysis4 ,! a/ronaut has an intake ( #c4e lit]s ( wat] p] day1 #b4e lit]s = dr9k+ & #a lit] = prep>+ dehydrat$ food4 ,! output is ab\t #a4f lit]s ( ur9e & #b4a lit]s ( wat] ( respiration & p]spiration p] day1 or a total output ( #c4g lit]s1 ) ! #j4b-lit] excess due ma9ly to wat] ( metabolism4 ,! bact]ia-produc$ wat]1 am\nt+ to #b4b lit]s p] day1 & ! excess f ! a/ronaut w\ld supply #b4d lit]s t[>d balanc+ ! #b4f lit]s ( wat] electrolyz$4 ,bact]ial ,culture ,hydrog5 bact]ia are *>act]iz$ by _! ability to metabolize & multiply 9 a /rictly inorganic m$ium1 :5 suppli$ ) ,h1 ,,co & ,o 9 requir$ am\nts4 ,!y c be gr[n 9 bat* culture or 9 cont9u\s culture us+ diff]5t me?ods ( supply+ entire m$ium or compon5ts on a dem& fe$ sy/em4 ,a m$ium 0 develop$ = bat* culture ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha by ,repaske 7ref4#ahg7 ) quantitation ( a numb] ( compon5ts includ+ trace m9]als4 ,exp]im5ts by ,bong]s 7ref4#ahh7 %[$ t a simplifi$ m$ium1 us+ laboratory-grade *emicals1 c\ld be us$4 ,a def9ite requirem5t 0 f\nd = magnesium & f]r\s iron 7,fe74 ,! optimal gr[? requirem5ts obs]v$ = ,hydrog5omonas eutropha are %[n 9 table ,x4 ,table ,x4--,optimum ,gr[? ,requirem5ts ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,culture p>amet] ,optimum value ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,cell d5sity1 g 7dry weight7_/lit] #aj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,temp]ature1 ,c #ce ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,pressure1 atm #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------- p,h 7phosphate buff]7 #f4h 7#f4d-h4j7 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,h1 p]c5t #ge ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,o1 p]c5t #ae ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,,co1 p]c5t #aj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,urea ,,co7,,nh71 g_/lit] #a ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,mg,s,o#g;,h,o1 g_/lit] #j4a ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,fe7,,nh77,,s71 g_/lit] #j4jjh ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,! effects ( temp]atures rang+ f #bj to #db4e ,c on ! gr[? rates ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha 7 /udi$ by ,bong]s 7ref4#ahi71 & ! optimal temp]ature 0 f\nd to be ab\t #ce ,c4 ,exp]im5ts at #be & #ce ,c indicat$ t ! effici5cy ( en]gy conv]sion 0 ess5tially id5tical at bo? temp]atures4 ,hydrog5omonas requires1 z "p ( its sub/rate1 a mixture ( ?ree gases3 hydrog51 oxyg51 & c>bon dioxide4 ,exp]im5ts 7 p]=m$ by ,bong]s 7ref4#ahi7 to det]m9e ! tol]ation limits ( ! ?ree gases4 ,gr[? rates 7 f\nd to be id5tical :5 hydrog5 v>i$ f #e to #hj p]c5t4 ,ne>ly id5tical gr[? 0 obta9$ :5 ,,co p>tial pressures 7 #e to #fj p]c5t1 be+ slightly l[] at high] p>tial pressures4 ,! organism 0 highly s5sitive to oxyg5 conc5tration4 ,dissolv$ oxyg5 conc5trations above #j4ac m,m 7 f\nd to inhibit cell division2 en]gy utilization 0 also affect$ by oxyg5 conc5tration4 ,at #j4b m,m oxyg5 conc5tration1 ! effici5cy ( en]gy conv]sion 0 approximately half ! value obs]v$ ) #j4je m,m4 ,ano!r p>amet] ( importance is ! total volume ( susp5sion :i* w\ld be requir$ to balance ! metabolic ne$s ( "o man4 ,! volume ( susp5sion is det]m9$ by ! conv]sion capacity ( a unit volume4 ,?is capacity is a function ( ! cell conc5tration2 h5ce1 ! m cells t c be pack$ 9 a unit volume ( susp5sion 7& adequately provid$ ) ,h1 ,o1 & ,,co71 ! less ! volume ( susp5sion requir$4 ,results ( exp]im5ts by ,bong]s 7refs4 ref4#aij & ref4#aia7 on conv]sion capacity-d5sity relation%ips %[ t ! rate ( ,,co conv]sion obta9$ ) susp5sions up to approximately #aj grams 7dry weight7 p] lit] is l9e> ) relation to d5sity4 ,?is indicates t ! supply ( ,h1 ,o1 & ,,co is adequate4 ,^u a fur!r increase 9 cell conc5tration1 ! conv]sion rate /ill increases b n l9e>ly4 ,! highe/ am\nt ( ,,co tak5 up p] lit] ( susp5sion 0 approximately #b lit]s p] h\r4 ,at ^! v high cell conc5trations1 ! relation%ip betwe5 rate ( conv]sion & d5sity is no long] l9e>4 ,?is is demon/rat$ :5 ! conv]sion rate is calculat$ p] unit cell weight in/ead ( p] unit susp5sion volume4 ,! rate p] gram dry weight p] lit] decreases f #adf to #fh ml ( ,,co p] h\r4 ,) a susp5sion at a d5sity ( approximately #aj grams1 ! conv]sion ( #a4a lit]s ( ,,co p] lit] p] h\r is obta9$4 ,at a ,,co output ( #bb lit]s p] man p] h\r1 #bj lit]s ( susp5sion w\ld be suffici5t to balance ! gas ex*ange ne$s ( "o man4 ,at high] cell conc5trations1 less volume ( susp5sion w\ld suffice if gas equilibration c\ld be ma9ta9$ at ! high] consumption rates to avoid ana]obic conditions :i* c\ld lead to a %ift 9 metabolism4 ,9 ! f9al analysis1 ! te*nical problem ( gas transf] f ! gas to ! liquid phase det]m9es ! optimal cell conc5tration &1 !re=e1 ! requir$ susp5sion volume4 ,f data pres5tly available1 x c be conclud$ t1 us+ ! sl[-gr[+ ,h4 facilis1 ! volume ( susp5sion requir$ to support "o man is ab\t #ejj lit]s4 ,us+ ,h4 eutropha1 ,s*legel 7ref4#aib7 calculat$ a susp5sion volume ( #ff lit]s ) #a gram dry weight ( bact]ia p] lit]4 ,9 rec5t ,,nasa-support$ rese>*1 ! am\nt ( culture m$ium has be5 e/imat$ us+ improv$ cultivation me?ods & conditions4 ,= bat* culture1 ! data %[ t f #aj to #ff lit]s w\ld be requir$ p] man1 ) a be/ practical e/imate ( #bj lit]s at #i to #aj grams dry weight ( bact]ia p] lit] 7ref4#aia74 ,= cont9u\s culture us+ ! turbido/at1 ! pres5t data indicate a dem& = "s #cj lit]s ( susp5sion1 & a volume ( #bj lit]s 7at approximately #aj grams dry weight ( bact]ia p] lit]7 z a reali/ic goal4 ,9 ! =ego+ section1 ! mat]ial balance = gases & wat] 0 discuss$4 ,x 0 %[n t a close mat* c\ld be obta9$ ) ^! compon5ts ( ! clos$ environm5t4 ,less abundant1 ?\gh no less important1 are ! nonwat] compon5ts ( ur9e & feces4 ,! ur9e is important = ! cont5t ( fix$ nitrog5 & o!r products ( man's metabolism & s]ves z a v effective sub/rate = cultivation ( hydrog5 bact]ia4 ,maximum closure ( ! sy/em necessitates utilization ( ! urea 9 ur9e z a nitrog5 s\rce4 ,! av]age man produces #a4b to #a4f lit]s ( ur9e p] #bd-;h\r p]iod4 ,?is conta9s ab\t #j4jjjje gram p] lit] ( iron1 #j4aac gram p] lit] ( magnesium1 & #bd4e grams p] lit] ( urea 7ref4#aic74 ,z %[n 9 table ,x1 ea* lit] ( bact]ial m$ium requires #j4jjh gram p] lit] ( ,fe7,,nh77,,s71 ab\t #j4a gram ( ,mg,s,o#g;,h,o1 & #a4j gram p] lit] ( urea4 ,9 comp>+ ! daily ur9e output ) ! e/imat$ requir$ +r$i5ts ( a bact]ial m$ium1 a relatively close balance is obs]v$1 ) ! exception ( iron4 ,= ! fixation ( #bd moles ( ,,co 7#bhh grams ( ,c7 produc$ p] man p] day1 ! production ( ab\t #fdj grams dry bact]ial mass is requir$4 ,at an av]age ,n-cont5t ( #ab p]c5t1 ! nitrog5 requirem5t w\ld be "s #ajj grams4 ,a comp>ison ( daily output 7ur9e7 & daily requirem5t by ! bact]ial susp5sion reveals t only #aj to #cc p]c5t ( ?is am\nt c\ld be recov]$ f av]age ur9e4 ,to obta9 a mat]ial balance1 ei!r ! man mu/ be f$ a prote9-ri* diet or ! bact]ial susp5sion mu/ be gr[n "u conditions :i* lead to ! production ( a cell mass relatively l[ 9 prote9 cont5t4 ,exp]im5ts h indicat$ t nitrog5 />vation ( ! bact]ial culture might be a promis+ solution4 ,culture /ag+ 7cultivation "u nitrog5-ri* conditions1 foll[$ by cultivation 9 ! abs5ce ( sub/rate nitrog5 & subsequ5t h>ve/+ = food process+7 w probably be ! mo/ promis+ means ( nitrog5 economy 9 ! clos$ environm5t4 ,z discuss$ 9 a foll[+ section1 a biomass ( relatively high lipid cont5t c be obta9$ "u conditions ( nitrog5 />vation4 ,cont9u\s ,culture ( ,hydrog5omonas ,bact]ia ,gr[? ( hydrog5 bact]ia 9 a bat* culture1 aft] an initial p]iod ( adju/m5t1 becomes /eady & rapid dur+ ! expon5tial gr[? phase4 ,?is /eady /ate ( gr[? is tempor>y & ceases :5 nutri5t sub/rate or gas conc5trations drop to limit+ values4 ,= long p]iods a cont9ual supply ( nutri5ts mu/ be provid$4 ,gr[? !n occurs "u /eady-/ate conditions = prolong$ p]iods1 & su* factors z p,h1 conc5tration ( nutri5t1 oxyg51 & metabolic products 7:i* *ange dur+ bat* culture7 are all ma9ta9$ con/ant 9 cont9u\s culture4 ,two me?ods c be us$ = control ( cont9u\s cultures3 ! turbido/at & ! *emo/at4 ,9 ! turbido/at1 regulation ( m$ium input & cell conc5tration is controll$ by optically s5s+ ! turbidity ( ! culture4 ,! dilution rate v>ies ) ! population d5sity ( ! culture & ma9ta9s ! d5sity )9 a n>r[ range4 ,organisms gr[ at ! maximum rate *>act]i/ic ( ! organism & ! conditions4 ,! gr[? rate c be *ang$ by modify+ ! nutri5t m$ium1 gas conc5tration1 or incubation temp]ature4 ,a disadvantage ( ! turbido/at is t all nutri5t conc5trations 9 ! culture *amb] are necess>ily high] ?an ! m9imum1 result+ 9 ineffici5t utilization ( nutri5ts4 ,! turbido/at sy/em = cont9u\s culture ( ,hydrog5omonas bact]ia1 develop$ by ,battelle ,memorial ,in/itute 7ref4#aid71 includes electrolysis ( wat] 9 a sep>ate unit4 ,hydrog5 & oxyg5 are f$ sep>ately up to ! po9t ( injection into ! culture vessel1 & ! mix$ volume is kept v small to m9imize am possibility ( explosion4 ,h[ev]1 ! two gases may be inject$ simultane\sly if !re is a dem& = bo?4 ,9 ! *emo/at1 gr[? ( ! organisms is limit$ by ma9ta9+ "o ess5tial nutri5t conc5tration bel[ optimum4 ,a con/ant fe$ ( m$ium1 ) "o nutri5t 9 limit+ conc5tration & ) con/ant removal ( culture at ! same rate1 is us$ to a*ieve ! /eady /ate4 ,! dilution rate is set at an arbitr>y value1 & ! microbial population is all[$ to f9d its own level4 ,by appropriate sett+ ( ! dilution rate1 ! gr[? rate may be held at any desir$ value f slightly bel[ ! maximum possible to ne>ly z]o4 ,?is con/itutes a self-regulat+ sy/em & all[s selection ( a desir$ gr[? rate4 ,a comb9$ electrolysis-*emo/at me?od1 develop$ by ,magna ,corp41 ma9ta9$ ! hydrog5-produc+ electrode ( an electrolysis cell 9 ! bact]ial culture4 ,re/+ cells ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha consum$ hydrog5 produc$ at ! ca?ode ( an electrolysis cell built into a specially con/ruct$ ,w>burg flask4 ,attempts to immobilize ,hydrog5omonas cells on a por\s conductor 7 p>tially successful4 ,?is sy/em c\ld l[] ! volume requirem5ts comp>$ ) ^? = ! isolat$ subsy/ems4 ,disadvantages ( ?is integrat$ sy/em include electrolysis ( ! bact]ial m$ium1 possibly result+ 9 toxic breakd[n products1 & ! possible effects ( electric p[] & ! ,,koh electrolyte on ! bact]ia4 ,! ma9 disadvantage ( an integrat$ sy/em w\ld be ! disp>ity betwe5 optimal conditions = effici5t electrolysis & effici5t bact]ial conv]sion1 p>ticul>ly temp]ature & p,h1 ) ! comb9ation possibly result+ 9 consid]ably high] p[] & weight dem&s4 ,bo? cont9u\s-culture approa*es are be+ /udi$ ) ,,nasa support4 ,! turbido/at (f]s ! greate/ pot5tial effici5cy 9 weight & volume1 b uses nutri5t mat]ials less effici5tly & is m complex4 ,! *emo/at is less effici5t 9 weight & volume1 b has great] simplicity & reliability4 ,hydrog5omonas eutropha has be5 gr[n 9 #ae-lit] bat* cultures & 9 #b4a-lit] cont9u\s cultures4 ,a #bj-lit] cont9u\s culture1 suffici5t to balance ! requirem5ts ( a man1 is "u developm5t4 ,! pot5tial problem areas 9 l>ge-scale cont9u\s production ( ! bact]ia include assur+ g5etic /ability1 prev5t+ or controll+ bact]iophage & =eign bact]ial contam9ation1 & prev5t+ het]otrophic gr[? caus$ by exposure to organic mat]ial f ! ur9e4 ,g5etics ( hydrog5 bact]ia & phage infection h be5 /udi$ by ,de,cicco4 ,rese>* on ^! problems indicates t !y are n ( major importance1 b cause significant effects & mu/ be elim9at$ or controll$4 ,bact]ial ,composition & ,nutrition ,hydrog5omonas bact]ia c be us$ = at lea/ "p ( ! a/ronauts' diet4 ,! wa%$ bact]ia h a mild ta/e & are be+ /udi$ = _! total en]gy cont5t1 prote9 & lipid dige/ibility1 & vitam9 cont5t4 ,c>bon & nitrog5 balances1 & respiratory quoti5t are to be det]m9$ 9 animals f$ ! bact]ia z _! sole food s\rce4 ,no toxic con/itu5ts h be5 discov]$4 ,sonicat$ & cook$ bact]ia1 :5 f$ to :ite rats z #ab p]c5t ( ! solids ( a nutritionally balanc$ diet1 7 eat5 readily & produc$ no ill effects4 ,net utilization ( ! prote9 appe>s to be some:at l[] ?an case9 & ab\t ! same z legume prote9s4 ,! composition ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha is %[n 9 table ,,xi4 ,! composition ( ! bact]ia v>ies ) ! age & gr[? phase ( ! cells & ) ! m$ium & gas available4 ,x is possible to modify ! gr[? conditions to gr[ ! type ( bact]ia desir$ = nutritive purposes4 ,hydrog5omonas cells conta9 ab\t #ge p]c5t wat]4 ,( ! dry weight1 ab\t #gd p]c5t is prote91 calculat$ z #f4be times ! nitrog5 cont5t4 ,table ,,xi %[s ! am9o acid composition to be comp>able ) o!r bact]ial prote9s1 except = high] tryptophan & me?ion9e values4 ,table ,,xi--,analysis ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha ,cells ,gr[n 9 ,cont9u\s ,culture ,f ref4#aid ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,con/itu5t ,p]c5t by weight ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,moi/ure #gd4ee ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,fat 4#dd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,a% #a4gc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,nitrog5 #c4jb 7wet7 ------------------- #aa4hg 7dry7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,prote9 7,n #f4be7 #ah4ij 7wet7 ------------------- #gd4bf 7dry7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,am9o acids 7dry weight7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,alan9e #d4dg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,arg99e #c4da ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,asp>tic acid #d4cb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,cy/9e 4#jh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,glutamic acid #g4fg ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,glyc9e #b4gf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,hi/id9e 4#ie ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,isoleuc9e #b4ag ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,leuc9e #d4jd ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,lys9e #b4fe ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,me?ion9e #a4ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,ph5ylalan9e #b4bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,prol9e #b4jf ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,s]9e #a4hj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,?reon9e #b4ae ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,tryptophan 4#gh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,tyros9e #a4gi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,val9e #c4jc ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,trace am\nts ( ! foll[+ 7 also f\nd3 me?ion9e sulfoxide1 citrull9e1 alpha-am9o-n-butyric acid1 homocitrull9e1 glucosam9e1 galactosam9e1 me?ion9e sulfoxim9e1 e?ion9e1 & e?anolam9e4 ,! lipid cont5t ( rapidly gr[+ cells is normally q l[ 7#j4de to #b4c p]c5t crude e!r extractable lipids74 ,! mo/ important lipid is poly-beta-hydroxybutyric acid1 :i* is /or$ "u ! gr[+ conditions ( insuffici5t nitrog5 or oxyg5 supply 7refs4 ref4#ahg & ref4#aia74 ,"u ^! conditions1 ?is unusual polym] con/itutes up to #hj p]c5t ( ! dry weight4 ,:ile ! monom] itself1 beta-hydroxybutyric acid1 is rapidly & effici5tly us$ 9 cell metabolism1 ! nutritive value ( ! polym] is yet to be det]m9$4 ,! fatty acids f\nd include lauric1 myri/ic1 palmitic1 palmitoleic1 heptadeca5oic1 ,c#ag saturat$7871 /e>ic1 l9oleic1 & l9ol5ic787 7ref4#aie74 ,application to ,spacecraft ,sy/em ,a bioreg5]ative life-support sy/em w be requir$ 9 long mann$ space flight1 especially ) sev]al a/ronauts su* z w\ld be requir$ = a mann$ mission to ,m>s 9 ! #aihj "t p]iod4 ,:ile almo/ #ae ye>s is a long leadtime1 ! biological rese>* & eng9e]+ problems are =midable1 & a sy/em w\ld h to be develop$ at lea/ #e ye>s be=e ! mission4 ,! p[] & weight requirem5ts = bo? *emical & biological reg5]ative life-support sy/ems 7 pres5t$ 9 table ,,viii4 ,^! %\ld be consid]$ t5tative be/ e/imates bas$ on pres5t data4 ,! use ( bioreg5]ative sy/ems 9 spacecraft sy/ems has be5 /udi$ by ,bong]s & ,kok 7ref4#age7 :o put ! electrolysis-,hydrog5omonas sy/em 9 prop] p]spective ) ! foll[+ /atem5t3 ,! bioreg5]ative sy/ems are m or less 9 a transitory phase betwe5 rese>* & developm5t4 ,! p[] data c be consid]$ fairly accurate1 at lea/ )9 #bj p]c5t4 ,! po/ulat$ weight data1 h[ev]1 repres5t approximations1 p>ticul>ly ) respect to auxili>y equipm5t & con/ruction mat]ials4 ,also omitt$ are ! weight p5alties mo/ probably involv$ 9 ! process+ ( ! solid output ( ! ex*ang]s1 elegantly def9$ z pot5tial food4 ,fur!r rese>* is requir$ 9 ?is area to evaluate ! reg5]ative sy/ems1 especially ! bact]ia1 ) respect to ?is pot5tial4 ,fur!rmore1 z yet !re is no exp]im5tal pro( t ! gr[? rates ( ! heavy bact]ial susp5sions c be realiz$ 9 a l>ge design1 det]m9$ on a relatively small scale ) fairly precise control ( physiological conditions & gas ex*ange4 ,?is aspect may affect consid]ably ! weight involv$ 9 a *emosyn!tic balanc$ sy/em4 ,nev]!less1 at pres5t1 ?is approa* /ill seems mo/ promis+4 ,,cab9 ,,atmosph]es ,includes "p ( ref4#aif4 ,9 ! fir/ ,u4,s4 mann$ space flight program1 ,project ,m]cury1 & 9 ! face ( v sev]e weight limitations1 a cab9 atmosph]e ( pure oxyg5 at "o-?ird atmosph]ic pressure 0 adopt$4 ,?is *oice probably repres5t$ ! greate/ simplification :i* c\ld be a*iev$ readily &1 at ! same "t1 provide protection aga9/ "s ( ! risks ( rapid decompression4 ,al?\gh brea?+ pure oxyg5 at high] pressures 0 kn[n to be att5d$ by "s undesirable physiological effects1 ! %ort duration ( ! flights to be und]tak51 & ! l[ pressure employ$1 sugge/$ t no h>mful results w\ld result 9 ?is case4 ,t ^! expectations 7 g5]ally borne out is n[ hi/ory4 ,prep>ations = space flights ( long] duration--_m weeks or mon?s--pres5t simil> problems & require special att5tion to ph5om5a :i* may be ei!r undetectable or ( trivial significance on a "t scale ( a few days4 ,physiological ,crit]ia 9 ! ,*oice ( ,cab9 ,atmosph]e ,if ma9t5ance ( normal respiratory function 7 ! only consid]ation1 a cab9 atmosph]e ( ab\t sea-level composition & pressure might be an ideal & /raight=w>d *oice = mann$ spacecraft4 ,9 fact1 ?is atmosph]e has be5 us$ 9 ! mann$ space flights conduct$ by ! ,u4,s4,s4,r4 ,no o!r atmosph]e has be5 %[n to be m satisfactory f ! physiological po9t ( view1 & ! t$i\s respiratory /udies :i* %\ld accompany ! use ( o!r atmosph]es c be avoid$4 ,nev]!less1 ! =midable problems ( spacecraft design & ! necess>y precautions = safegu>d+ ! crew f accid5t require t o!r atmosph]ic compositions & pressures be consid]$4 ,= example1 if a cab9 at #a-;atm pressure 7 decompress$ to space suit pressure 7#j4c atm71 ! occupants w\ld develop decompression sickness2 i4e41 b5ds4 ,sev]al eng9e]+ consid]ations argue = l[ cab9 pressures & pure oxyg5 composition4 ,among ^! are /ructural design1 weight ( atmosph]ic gas /orage & control equipm5t1 & ! difficulty ( contriv+ pressure suits :i* all[ op]ation at pressures ne> "o atmosph]e4 ,su* dep>tures f ! normal human gase\s environm5t1 h[ev]1 require ! demon/ration ( an acceptable level ( safety & physiological p]=mance4 ,! limits ( ! composition & pressure ( acceptable cab9 atmosph]es are !n set by-- 7#a7 ,a pure oxyg5 atmosph]e at a pressure :i* w provide an alveol> oxyg5 p>tial pressure equal to t provid$ by air at sea level 7#b7 ,a mix$ gas 7oxyg5 & in]t gas7 atmosph]e hav+ a pressure & composition t w all[ decompression to ! highe/ acceptable suit pressure )\t ! risk ( b5ds ,a num]ical value = ! l[] limit 7#a7 is approximately #j4b atm ( pure oxyg54 ,! upp] limit 7#b7 is det]m9$ by ! op]at+ pressure & composition ( ! space-suit atmosph]e & may be ( ! ord] ( #j4e atm = a cab9 atmosph]e ( #ej p]c5t oxyg54 ,x is necess>y to det]m9e ! a/ronaut's ability to survive & p]=m 8 duties 9 any atmosph]e select$4 ,atelectasis & ,pulmon>y ,edema ,localiz$ or diffuse collapse ( alveoli 9 ! lungs may1 if ! condition p]si/s1 lead to art]ial hypoxia :i* may be extremely undesirable "u ! /resses ( space flight4 ,! alveoli are probably un/able :5 pure oxyg5 is brea!d2 !y t5d to collapse if !re is blockage ( ! airways1 especially at l[ pressures4 ,?is collapse occurs because ea* ( ! gases pres5t 9 ! alveoli 7oxyg51 wat] vapor1 & c>bon dioxide7 is subject to prompt & complete absorption f ! alveoli by ! blood4 ,! alveoli are normally /abiliz$ aga9/ collapse by ! pres5ce ( in]t & relatively insoluble gas 7nitrog57 & an int]nal coat+ ( lipoprote9 sub/ances ) l[ surface t5sion4 ,!oretical & exp]im5tal results /rongly sugge/ ! desirability ( us+ oxyg5-in]t gas atmosph]es = long missions to avoid atelectasis & o!r gas absorption ph5om5a1 su* z retraction ( ! e>drum4 ,h[ev]1 fur!r exp]im5tal evid5ce is requir$ bo? to confirm ?is po9t & to e/abli% its upp] limit ( suitability ( pure oxyg5 atmosph]es4 ,at ,ohio ,/ate ,univ]sity 9 #aifb1 sci5ti/s /udi$ ! effect on "y rats expos$ = #bg days to #ajj p]c5t oxyg5 7) no nitrog571 at a r$uc$ b>ometric pressure equival5t to #cc #jjj feet altitude4 ,! rats %[$ no diff]5ce 9 gr[? rate1 oxyg5 consumption1 food & wat] intake1 or behavior f control rats 9 air at #a atm4 ,oxyg5 ,toxicity ,x has long be5 kn[n t brea?+ pure oxyg5 at normal atmosph]ic pressure (t5 produces pulmon>y irritation & o!r toxic effects bo? 9 man & animals4 ,?is k has occasion$ conc]n ov] ! use ( pure oxyg5 atmosph]es 9 spacecraft4 ,! effect ( #ajj p]c5t oxyg5 at a simulat$ altitude ( #bf #jjj feet = #f weeks 0 /udi$ us+ :ite rats at ,oklahoma ,city ,univ]sity "u a ,,nasa grant4 ,radioactive c>bon te*niques reveal$ a #ae-p]c5t r$uction ( metabolism 9 ! #ajj-p]c5t oxyg5-expos$ rats1 comp>$ ) rats 9 air at #a atmosph]e4 ,!re 0 a #bj-p]c5t decrease 9 lipid metabolism 9 ! liv] comp>$ ) controls1 b no decrease 9 he>t metabolism4 ,!re 0 no gross *ange 9 body weight4 ,! ,:ite ,leghorn *ick betwe5 #b & #g weeks old is m>k$ly resi/ant to ! toxic effects ( #a atm ( ,o4 ,cont9u\s exposure 7,ohio ,/ate ,univ]sity7 = z long z #d weeks did n cause dea?s1 obvi\s morbidity1 or any signs ( pulmon>y damage on gross autopsy4 ,nev]!less1 ! hyp]oxia _h "s adv]se effects1 prim>ily r$uc+ ! gr[? rate to betwe5 ?ree-f\r?s to "o-f\r? ( normal2 r$uc+ fe$ intake p] unit body weight to ?ree-f\r?s ( normal2 sl[+ respiratory rate by #cj p]c5t2 decreas+ ery?rocytes1 hemoglob91 & hematocrit by #i to #ab p]c5t2 & caus+ rev]sible hi/ological *anges 9 ! lungs4 ,art]ial ,o t5sions 7 elevat$ ov] #cjj-mm ,hg1 b art]ial p,c,o & blood p,h 7 unaffect$4 ,no residual effects 7 not$ ^u return to air brea?+4 ,x is possible t ! anatomical peculi>ities ( ! avian lung play "s role 9 ! *icks' resi/ance to hyp]oxia1 b x is also possible t ?is resi/ance is a function ( age1 simil> to ! tol]ance %[n by ! "y rat b n ! adult4 ,c>bon ,dioxide ,tol]ance ,/udies ( ,,co tol]ance 9 subm>9e crews indicate t no loss ( p]=mance is involv$ if ! conc5tration 9 air at normal pressure does n exce$ #a4e p]c5t ) exposures ( #cj to #dj days4 ,h[ev]1 bio*emical adaptive *anges 7 obs]v$ at ?is conc5tration4 ,in]t-,gas ,compon5ts ,if o!r inve/igations e/abli% ! ne$ = an in]t gas 9 mann$ spacecraft atmosph]es1 gases o!r ?an nitrog5 may be consid]$4 ,comp>$ ) nitrog51 ! physical prop]ties or helium & neon (f] advantages ) respect to solubility 9 body fluids1 /orage weight1 & !rmal prop]ties4 ,/udies at ,ohio ,/ate ,univ]sity 9 #aifd1 "u a ,,nasa grant1 %[$ t helium sub/itut$ = nitrog5 9 a clos$ conta9] causes humans to feel cold at a normally com=table temp]ature4 ,/udies ) animals h %[n t 9 a helium atmosph]e !re is great] heat loss due to ! increas$ conduct+ capacity & probably great] evaporative capacity4 ,9 #f days at #ba p]c5t oxyg5 & #gi p]c5t helium at #a-;atmosph]e pressure1 "y rats grew at ! same rate z controls1 b drank m wat]1 excret$ m ur9e1 & _h a high] rate ( food & oxyg5 consumption ?an controls 9 air at #a atmosph]e4 ,m5 are be+ te/$ on a bicycle ergomet] 9 saturat$ & l[ relative humidity helium atmosph]es to /udy heat balance4 ,mice 7 expos$ to #hj p]c5t argon & #bj p]c5t oxyg5 cont9u\sly at #a-;atmosph]e pressure = #ce days at ,oklahoma ,city ,univ]sity4 ,c>bon #ad /udies ( metabolism %[$ a slight sl[+ & a tw(old to ?reefold increase 9 fat deposition4 ,b5ds ,decompression1 :e!r accid5tal 7due to damage ( ! spacecraft7 or int5tional 7z 9 ! use ( ! pressure suit outside ! capsule71 c>ries ! risk ( b5ds if ! in]t gases dissolv$ 9 ! tissues & body fluids come out ( solution4 ,! magnitude ( ?is risk is det]m9$ to a v consid]able ext5t by-- 7#a7 ,individual susceptibility 7#b7 ,! ext5t to :i* ! nitrog5 7or o!r in]t gas7 conc5trations ( tissues & body fluids h be5 r$uc$ 7#c7 ,! magnitude & rate ( ! in]t-gas1 p>tial pressure *ange on decompression ,! probability ( gett+ b5ds is r$uc$ by-- 7#a7 ,selection ( b5ds-resi/ant individuals 7#b7 ,?or\gh d5itrog5ation be=e flight 7#c7 ,limitation ( decompressive pressure *anges by appropriate *oice ( cab9 atmosph]e pressure & composition 7#d7 ,space-suit pressure sett+ ,9 "s cases1 fur!r improvem5ts might be obta9$ by us+1 9 ! cab9 atmosph]e1 an in]t-gas compon5t :i* has a l[] solubility 9 tissue & body fluids or less t5d5cy ?an nitrog5 to =m bubbles4 ,fire ,haz>d ,exp]i5ce indicates t fires 9 pure oxyg5 atmosph]es1 ev5 at l[ pressures 7e4g41 #a_/c atm71 are extremely difficult to ext+ui%4 ,:ile ?is ph5om5on has no?+ to d ) respiratory physiology1 ! risk on flights ( long duration may be s s]i\s z to dem& special measures4 ,unless effective c\nt]measures c be devis$1 ?is risk may argue v /rongly aga9/ ! use ( su* atmosph]es 9 ! future4 ,fur!r exp]im5tal inve/igation is requir$4 ,accel]ation ,effects on ! ,lungs & ,pulmon>y ,circulation ,=ces produc$ by high accel]ation ov]di/5d "o "p & compress ano!r "p ( ! lungs4 ,blood fl[ dim9i%es 9 "s p>ts ( ! lungs & increases 9 o!rs4 ,fluid leaks f ! blood into ! tissues & into ! air sacs 9 p>ts ( ! lungs4 ,^! effects cause difficulty 9 brea?+1 l[ art]ial oxyg5 saturation1 & impair$ consci\sness dur+ high su/a9$ accel]ation &1 to a less] ext5t1 aft] its cessation4 ,!y mu/ be consid]$ :5 select+ ! be/ gas to be brea!d1 s9ce a high p>tial pressure ( oxyg5 is favorable = consci\sness1 b a l[ in]t-gas conc5tration dur+ accel]ation is unfavorable = rapid lung recov]y aft]w>d4 ,,physiological ,,problems ,a /udy ( ! mann$ space flights & laboratory obs]vations to date sugge/s t dur+ long p]iods ( weightlessness1 "s physiological difficulties may arise :i* may produce s]i\s effects on human p]=mance4 ,al?\gh rec5t exp]i5ce gives no gr\nds = expect+ insup]able difficulties1 nei!r ! quantity nor quality ( ! available obs]vations p]mits ! conclusion t long-t]m exposure to weightlessness w n h s]i\s consequ5ces4 ,! critical role to be play$ by ! a/ronaut dem&s t e ef=t be made to id5tify 9 advance ^? ph5om5a :i* may affect p]=mance1 & to /udy _! qualitative & quantitative relation%ips s t prop] precautions c be tak54 ,lawton 7ref4#aig71 9 review+ ! lit]ature on prolong$ weightlessness1 f\nd few in/ances 9 :i* physiological function 0 truly gravity dep5d5t4 ,he /at$ t ! physiological sy/ems likely to be mo/ affect$ by weightlessness 7 ! musculoskeletal sy/em1 ! c>diovascul> sy/em1 & ! equilibrium s5ses4 ,subsequ5t exp]i5ce prov$ ?is to be ! case4 ,mc,cally & ,lawton 7ref4#aih7 analyz$ ! data f exp]im5ts s9ce #aifa & conclud$ t mu* m basic laboratory "w is necess>y4 ,/udies us+ immobilization1 imm]sion1 & cab9-conf9em5t te*niques 7 recomm5d$ approa*es t[>d simulat+ weightlessness4 ,mu* ( ! difficulty 9 obta9+ precise in=mation ( anticipat$ problems arises f a lack ( k ( normal mammalian physiology4 ,_m ( ^! defici5cies c be rem$i$ 9 ! laboratory4 ,9 space-flight developm5t1 h[ev]1 two di/9ct inve/igational approa*es c be adopt$4 ,! fir/ ( ^! may be *>act]iz$ z empirical & increm5tal2 t is1 ! capabilities ( ! a/ronaut are explor$ 9 successive flights involv+ relatively mode/ increases 9 difficulty or sev]ity ( ! environm5tal conditions4 ,9 ?is way x is hop$ to asc]ta9 ! human limitations )\t runn+ too great a risk4 ,! second approa* c be describ$ z fundam5tal3 det]m9+ by a s]ies ( controll$ exp]im5ts ! effects ( exposure to space-flight conditions ^u comp>ative mammalian physiology1 ) emphasis on man4 ,a fundam5tal und]/&+ ( ! obs]v$ effects w\ld be s\ght s t pr$ictions = new situations & possible ways to control !m c\ld be made ) confid5ce4 ,x is n possible n[ to pr$ict = flights ( #cj days or m-- 7#a7 ,! effects ( sudd5 reimposition ( re5try accel]ations & t]re/rial gravity 7#b7 ,*anges 9 body fluid di/ribution & composition 7#c7 ,! effects ( viol5t physical ef=t on respiratory & c>diovascul> sy/ems 9 prolong$ weightlessness 7#d7 ,c5tral n]v\s sy/em functions1 especially coord9ation1 skill$ motor p]=mance1 judgm5t1 & sleep-wakefulness cycles ,,nasa has emphasiz$ t plann+ = mann$ space programs involves a sy/ematic ext5sion f physiological obs]vations 9 animals to man1 & f9ally ! e/abli%m5t ( man z "p ( ! man-vehicle sy/em design4 ,moreov]1 ^! /udies require ! evaluation ( c5tral n]v\s1 c>diovascul>1 respiratory1 ga/ro9te/9al1 & o!r sy/ems z a matrix 9 mutual int]dep5d5ce4 ,!re is p>ticul> int]e/ 9 ! effects ( weightlessness on flights exce$+ #cj days4 ,mammalian flights ( ab\t #cj days also m]it att5tion1 includ+ ! developm5t ( ! life-support sy/ems :i* mu/ prec$e su* a program4 ,developm5t ( facilities = biological exp]im5ts may well be an important requirem5t = /udies 9 anticipation ( mann$ flights ( long] duration ?an ,apollo4 ,unless ! biological satellite programs ( ! type m5tion$ above are successful 9 provid+ ! necess>y data1 a mann$ orbit+ laboratory may also be important 9 /udies ( %ort] range4 ,g5]al ,/udies ( ,biological ,rhy?micity ,! effects ( weightlessness on ! organism z a :ole may be manife/$ by important *anges 9 c]ta9 integrat$ behavioral patt]ns hav+ an inh]5tly rhy?mic "*4 ,modifications 9 basic behavioral patt]ns & p]=mance may occur z disruptions ( rhy?mic physiological ph5om5a1 :i* are !mselves ! end product ( int]relat$ functional activity 9 a numb] ( physiological sy/ems1 su* z ! neuro5docr9e1 c>diovascul>1 & c5tral n]v\s sy/ems4 ,measurem5ts ( int]dep5d5t compon5ts ( biological rhy?micity are beg9n+ to be analyz$ by me?ods well e/abli%$ 9 physics--includ+ correlation & spectral analyses1 & phase modulation & v>iance 9 rhy?mic processes4 ,a wide v>iety ( physiological functions c be treat$ z p]iodic v>iables 9 ! analysis1 includ+ rhy?micities 9 c>diac output & blood pressure1 respiration1 bra9 waves1 & ! sl[] tides ( appetite1 & sleep-wakefulness4 ,! importance ( su* inve/igations argues = _! inclusion 9 =?com+ flight programs4 ,_! exp]im5tal simplicity is an additional advantage4 ,biorhy?ms h be5 discuss$ 9 m detail 9 ! section on ,environm5tal ,biology4 ,effects ( ,weightlessness on ! ,c>diovascul> ,sy/em ,e>lobe oximetry1 indirect measurem5ts ( blood fl[ & ( blood pressure by f+] ple?ysmography or imp$ance ple?ysmography1 & balli/oc>diographic te*niques h pot5tial application to mann$ space flight4 ,adaptation to prolong$ exposure to weightlessness or to lun> gravity may cause difficulties :5 ! a/ronaut is expos$ aga9 to re5try =ces & t]re/rial gravity4 ,x is possible t ^! adaptive *anges may ?us produce unacceptable effects on p]=mance or cause risk to life4 ,x is important to obta9 exp]im5tal evid5ce on ?is subject4 ,x is common k t foll[+ a /ay 9 b$1 dizz9ess1 fa9tness1 & weakness *>act]ize aris+1 & t a feel+ ( g5]al weakness may p]si/ = sev]al days4 ,! ph5om5on has be5 inve/igat$ 9 a numb] ( laboratories4 ,"o approa* has be5 to put heal?y "y subjects to b$1 & ev5 9 ext5sive ca/s = p]iods ( #b or #c weeks or m4 ,two major f9d+s h em]g$ f ^! /udies4 ,fir/1 a sub/antial adju/m5t 9 ! blood circulatory sy/em occurs1 :i* is t]m$ ! hypodynamic /ate4 ,second1 !re is a l>ge decrease 9 ! skeletal & muscle mass ( ! body4 ,!re are two k9ds ( evid5ce = ! hypodynamic /ate3 measurem5t ( p>amet]s ( circulatory function1 & measurem5t ( ! response ( ! individuals to a quantitatively impos$ mild gravitational load4 ,aft] #c weeks 9 b$1 o!rwise heal?y p]sons exhibit an increase ( m ?an #bj p]c5t 9 he>t rate2 a r$uction ( #aj to #bj p]c5t 9 total blood volume1 prim>ily z a result ( r$uction ( plasma volume2 & a decrease 9 he>t size ( ab\t #h p]c5t4 ,c\pl$ ) ^! c>diovascul> *anges is a r$uction ( #aj p]c5t 9 ! basal metabolic rate4 ,x appe>s z ?\gh ! circulation & metabolism are reset to a l[] functional level comm5surate ) ! r$uc$ dem&s plac$ on ! :ole organism4 ,aft] #c weeks ( b$ re/1 all ( ! subjects te/$ %[$ pron\nc$ or?o/atic hypot5sion4 ,aft] tilt+1 ! av]age he>t rate increas$ by #cg beats p] m9ute1 ! sy/olic blood pressure fell "s #ab-mm ,hg1 & "s ( ! subjects fa9t$4 ,! measurem5ts 7 cont9u$ = #af days aft] ! b$-re/ p]iod1 & x 0 r\nd t recov]y 0 n q complete :5 ! exp]im5t 0 t]m9at$4 ,!re is little "q t 9 prolong$ exposures to ! weightless /ate1 !re is a fair probability ( ext5sive circulatory adju/m5ts1 ! s]i\sness ( :i* _c yet be =etold4 ,:ile x is likely t ! a/ronauts w adapt successfully to long p]iods ( weightlessness at "s new circulatory functional level1 ! remote possibility exi/s t ! circulatory *anges may be progressive to ! po9t ( ultimate failure4 ,metabolic ,effects ( ,weightlessness ,)\t metabolic in=mation1 accurate plann+ ( environm5tal sy/ems = long flights is difficult4 ,importance is also atta*$ to e>ly evaluation ( weightlessness effects on body-fluid equilibria4 ,! results ( ,e>? orbital flights & ( t]re/rial wat]-imm]sion exp]im5ts sugge/ ! occurr5ce ( undesirable *anges1 al?\gh no effects lead+ to op]ational incapacity h yet aris54 ,9 bo? recumb5cy & imm]sion1 a simil> r$i/ribution ( body fluids occurs4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t recumb5cy may affect an extracellul> fluid-volume receptor me*anism :i* by decreas+ aldo/]one secretion by ! adr5al gl&1 w\ld decrease sodium reabsorption by ! r5al tubules4 ,aldo/]one excretion decreases dur+ recumb5cy & dur+ /&+ 9 wat]1 b increases :ile /&+ 9 air4 ,!re is also evid5ce = c>diac atrial volume receptor me*anisms :i* respond to increas$ fill+ ( ! left atrium ) reflex inhibition ( release ( pituit>y antidiuretic hormone 7,,adh71 result+ 9 diuresis 7,h5ry-,gau] reflex74 ,alt]$ fluid equilibrium 9 buoyant /ates is accompani$ by %ifts 9 intracellul> & extracellul> electrolyte di/ribution1 especially sodium & potassium4 ,evid5ce f recumb5cy /udies indicates a /rong correlation betwe5 loss ( erect po/ure or weight be>+ & excretion ( calcium /ores 9 bone4 ,a bone ,x-ray d5sitometry me?od has be5 develop$ by ,mack1 at ,texas ,woman's ,univ]sity1 = accurately det]m9+ ! loss ( bone m9]al 7#b p]c5t accuracy7 9 humans & animals4 ,! heel bone & sp9e are ,x-ray$ us+ a calibrat$ alum9um w$ge z a /&>d4 ,?is te*nique w be us$ = preflight & po/flight analysis ( ! primate be+ fl[n 9 ! #cj-;day biosatellite4 ,comp>ative appraisal ( bone m9]al behavior 9 a/ronauts p>ticipat+ 9 ! ,gem9i & ,apollo programs w be invaluable = future flight missions4 ,b$ re/ & immobilization /udies by ,mack h %[n loss ( skeletal m9]al & increas$ calcium 9 ! ur9e & excreta4 ,f\r b$-re/ /udies1 ea* ext5d+ = #b weeks1 comp>$ diff]5t levels ( calcium intake4 ,f\r m5 7 us$ 9 ea* /udy & s]v$ z _! own controls dur+ ext5d$ ambulatory p]iods4 ,dur+ #b-week p]iods1 up to #aj p]c5t ( calcium m9]al 0 lo/ f ! heel bone4 ,calcium 0 also det]m9$ 9 ! ur9e & feces4 ,9 o!r /udies1 isometric ex]cises r$uc$ loss ( bone m9]al dur+ b$ re/4 ,excretion ( calcium 9 ! ur9e is accompani$ by risk ( its deposition z calculi or kidney /ones 9 ! ur9>y tract4 ,curr5tly1 *anges 9 calcium metabolism result+ f weightlessness ov] p]iods up to #b weeks is n consid]$ a haz>d requir+ precaution>y measures4 ,flights 9 excess ( #b weeks1 h[ev]1 con/itute a problem s]i\s en\gh to w>rant /udy on ! #aa-;day orbital flights & ! #cj-;day biosatellite primate mission4 ,!rapeutic immobilization1 po/-poliomyelitis immobility1 & exp]im5tal re/ra9t 9 normal subjects lead to a negative calcium balance1 ) hyp]calciuria4 ,c5tral ,n]v\s ,sy/em ,functions 9 ,weightlessness ,! wide range ( individual tol]ances to ! di/urb+ effects ( ve/ibul> /imulation has emphasiz$ ! importance ( ?is factor 9 a/ronaut selection4 ,at ! same "t1 ve/ibul> functions mu/ be consid]$ jo9tly ) visual task p]=mance1 s9ce bo? h special significance = su* maneuv]s z vehicle dock+4 ,ve/ibul> function 9 ! weightless /ate rema9s almo/ completely unkn[n4 ,limit$ evid5ce f animal & mann$ space flights sugge/s t head turn+1 result+ f ve/ibul> /imulation1 may s]i\sly int]f]e ) visuomotor p]=mance1 b t susceptibility to ^! di/urbances is significantly diff]5t betwe5 individuals & t p>tial adaptation occurs relatively quickly4 ,,nasa is curr5tly collect+ ext5sive basel9e electro5cephalogram data "u controll$ conditions 9 a =m suitable = ma!matical analysis4 ,data are be+ tak5 f ab\t #bjj subjects 9 major national & ov]seas c5t]s4 ,x is int5d$ t ?is /udy w assi/ 9 a/ronaut selection & monitor+ 9 space4 ,/udies on _m effects ( weightlessness on n]v\s functions require monitor+ ( ! autonomic n]v\s sy/em1 includ+ su* autonomic effects z ga/ro9te/9al activity1 secretion1 lacrimation1 salivation1 sweat+1 & ! c5tral control ( respiration4 ,ur9>y e/imations ( cate*olam9es & #e-;hydroxy9doleacetic acid w\ld provide important data on autonomic sy/em activity if collect$ 9 flight & comp>$ ) preflight & po/flight controls4 ,major areas h be5 outl9$ 9 :i* prolong$ weightlessness may be expect$ to int]f]e ) p]=mance1 judgm5t1 &1 ultimately1 *ances ( survival4 ,^! include c>diovascul>1 metabolic1 c5tral n]v\s1 psy*ophysiological1 & biorhy?mic effects4 ,!y h be5 dealt ) sep>ately & 9 sequ5ce1 b h n be5 int5d$ to be view$ z hi]>*ic4 ,! relative sc>city ( data necess>ily precludes su* an evaluation4 ,soviet exp]i5ce ) z]o gravity & weightlessness has increas$ _! emphasis on ?is space-flight factor & 0 an important topic at ! ,may #aifd ,,cosp> meet+4 ,discussion ( ! po/flight m$ical /atus ( ,bykovsky 7#e-;day flight7 & ,t]e%kova 7#c-;day flight7 reveal$ a conc]n = ! significance ( prolong$ weightlessness & ! pres5ce ( po/flight physical debility & fatigue foll[+ ,vo/ok flights #c ?r\gh #f4 ,^! *anges p]si/$ = sev]al days4 ,among ! physiological conditions s+l$ out = m5tion 7-- 7#a7 ,body fluids-- ,cosmonauts h %[n a po/flight weight loss ( #a4i to #b4d kg app>5tly result+ f a r$i/ribution ( body fluid 9 response to elim9ation ( ! hydro/atic pressure gradi5ts caus$ by ,e>? gravity4 ,!re is ! sugge/ion t ?is r$i/ribution is complete )9 ! fir/ #bd h\rs ( flight4 ,titov is report$ to h be5 dehydrat$ alt] 8 flight ) e>ly hemoconc5tration4 ,^! f9d+s directly support pr$ictions made f gr\nd-bas$ rese>*4 7#b7 ,c>diovascul>-- ,po/flight or?o/atic ta*yc>dia is report$ = ,titov z long z #bc h\rs aft] l&+2 at #dh h\rs !re 0 significant residual intol]ance to ! upright po/ure4 ,cosmonauts h demon/rat$ a #bj- to #ce-p]c5t increase 9 oxyg5 consumption dur+ ! /&>d po/flight ex]cise te/4 ,9 bo? ( ^! areas !re 0 a return to normal )9 ! po/flight p]iod ( /udy4 ,! ,soviets h cont9u$ _! biological exp]im5ts 9 space ) ! ,vo/ok_/,vo%kod s]ies4 ,fix+ ( hi/ologic specim5s 9 flight by ,bykovsky demon/rat$ a critical role = man & made possible an exp&$ exp]im5tal program4 ,biopackages h become m complex ) ea* succe$+ flight4 ,) ! exception ( po/flight or?o/atic intol]ance aft] ! ?ird & f\r? ,m]cury flights1 *anges z a result ( exposure to a z]o-gravity environm5t h n be5 not$ by ,u4,s4 inve/igations 9 space4 ,gr\nd-bas$ rese>* proce$s "h at an advanc$ pace & is support$ 9 l>ge measure by bo? ! ,,usaf & ,,nasa4 ,a /udy ( ! relation%ips among r5al & sy/emic hemodynamics1 neurohumoral c>diovascul> regulation1 & r5al excretory function 9 diff]5tly position$ subjects is und]way1 z are /udies ( accel]ation tol]ance4 ,,depress$ ,,metabolism ,9 anticipation ( prolong$ mann$ space flights1 ,,nasa has sponsor$ rese>* relat$ to metabolism depression4 ,! daily food requirem5ts1 = example1 ( a/ronauts dur+ a voyage ( sev]al mon?s c con/itute a major portion ( ! weight & /orage capacity ( ! spacecraft4 ,a some:at promis+ & fundam5tal approa* to ?is problem is ! r$uction ( ! a/ronauts' daily metabolic requirem5ts4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t a/ronauts on prolong$ space missions be put 9 a /ate ( susp5d$ animation until _! de/9ation is rea*$4 ,?\gh ?is s\nds fanta/ic1 #aj ye>s ago no cell _h be5 froz5 to cryog5ic temp]atures & surviv$4 ,today x is commonplace = tissues to be froz51 /or$ at l[ temp]atures1 & ?aw$ & !n to ma9ta9 _! viability & function4 ,animal metabolism may be depress$ by r$uc+ body temp]ature1 z 9 hib]nation & hypo!rmia4 ,o!r means by :i* metabolism c be l[]$ include drugs & electron>cosis4 ,hib]nation is a non/ressful /ate & results 9 a great decrease 9 metabolism4 ,h[ev]1 human be+s are n hib]nators1 & mu* rese>* is ne$$ be=e ! me*anism ( hib]nation is und]/ood1 & ! possibility ( induc+ x 9 humans evaluat$4 ,hypo!rmia is ! direct cool+ ( ! body to temp]atures :]e metabolism is sub/antially depress$4 ,extracorporeal circulation sy/ems comb9$ ) cool+ are 9 r\t9e use 9 mo/ m$ical c5t]s ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,hypo!rmia is n an ideal solution1 h[ev]1 s9ce g5]al body hypo!rmia is a /ressful condition4 ,ph>macologic induction ( hypo!rmia c be accompli%$ by su* drugs z *lorpromaz9e & h>bamil4 ,o!r drugs c be us$ to depress metabolism1 b all h "s disadvantage4 ,9 rec5t ye>s !re has be5 a gr[+ int]e/ 9 electron>cosis1 ! induction ( sleep by an electric curr5t4 ,al?\gh pot5tially valuable1 ?is me?od is f> f r\t9e application4 ,out/&+ advances h be5 made 9 metabolism suppression4 ,rec5t progress 9 ! bio*emi/ry & physiology ( hib]nation & hypo!rmia h %[n t ! oxyg5 requirem5ts ( individual mammals1 organs1 & tissues c be r$uc$4 ,:5 ! *emical composition ( ! blood & ! c>diac output are suffici5t to meet cellul> requirem5ts1 regulatory me*anisms rema9 effective & animal survival is assur$4 ,9 contra/1 :5 oxyg5 transport is int]rupt$1 a r$uction 9 cellul> activity occurs & regulation is impair$4 ,9 induc$ hypo!rmia1 ! l[ temp]ature sl[s ! rates ( all processes & modifies ! action ( metabolites & o!r sub/ances4 ,?is 9 itself is n h>mful1 z %[n by ! true hib]nat+ animal 7e4g41 gr\nd squirrel71 b w become disa/r\s z soon z anoxia & *emical imbalance beg9 to develop4 ,! ph5om5on ( natural hib]nation is be+ inve/igat$ 9 ! laboratory 9 ! hope t ! unusual tol]ance ( hib]nat+ animals to r$uc$ metabolism & l[ body temp]ature may "s day be produc$ artificially 9 ord9>y laboratory animals & man4 ,exp]im5ts ) ! gr\nd squirrel1 a typical hib]nator1 %[ t ! artificially cool$ gr\nd squirrel does n tol]ate su* long p]iods ( l[ body temp]ature z does a naturally hib]nat+ animal4 ,o!r /udies ( ! br[n adipose tissue 7fat71 :i* is pres5t 9 mo/ hib]nat+ mammals1 %[ x to be ess5tial to hib]nation4 ,indications t br[n fat has a !rmog5ic role 9 rats expos$ to l[ temp]atures sugge/ t ?is may be ! case 9 true hib]nators 7ref4#aii74 ,ar\sal ( ! hib]nat+ animal by cold is trigg]$ by sympa!tically activat$ !rmog5esis 9 areas ( br[n fat s locat$1 relative to ! vasculature1 t ! heat is transf]r$ to areas ( ! body conc]n$ ) normal metabolic & n]v\s activity4 ,soviet "w comp>+ v>i\s depress$ metabolic /ates & resi/ances to accel]ation %[s deep w9t] hib]nation to be mo/ effective1 foll[$ by deep hypo!rmia1 & drug n>cosis z ! lea/ effective4 ,exp]im5tal evid5ce is be+ accumulat$ to %[ t hib]nation & hypo!rmia some:at protect animals aga9/ radiation4 ,cl9ical /udies on irradiation ( canc] pati5ts indicate t l[]+ ! body temp]ature r$uces cellul> metabolism & ?us decreases tissue s5sitivity to gamma radiation 7ref4#bjj74 ,! use ( prolong$ hypo!rmia1 hib]nation1 drugs1 & electron>cosis appe>s to hold "s pot5tial = r$uc+ a/ronauts' metabolic requirem5ts4 ,if "o or mote ( ^! me?ods become practical1 human requirem5ts = food & oxyg5 c\ld be dra/ically r$uc$4 ,simultane\sly1 ^! me?ods may af=d radiation protection & accel]ation tol]ance4 ,,nutrition ,,9 ,,space ,includes "p ( ref4#bja4 ,see also ref4#bjb4 ,! human body c use food /ores s t ! nutritional requirem5ts c be r$uc$ = a %ort "t4 ,?is w v>y widely among individuals & ea* individual may exhibit *>act]i/ic patt]ns ( nutritional behavior4 ,dur+ r$uc$ food intake1 muscul> effici5cy may n *ange significantly ov] a p]iod ( #d to #f days2 un=tunately1 h[ev]1 m5tal activity beg9s to decl9e aft] #bd h\rs4 ,fe$+ requirem5ts c be divid$ into two categories3 %ort t]m 7= missions ( less ?an #ba days7 & long t]m4 ,s9ce dehydration c occur 9 a matt] ( h\rs "u adv]se conditions1 wat] requirem5ts mu/ be consid]$ z a special case4 ,wat] ,requirem5ts ,wat] requirem5ts are extremely critical & ! am\nt suppli$ %\ld n "u any circum/ances be kept to a m9imum4 ,r1 a l>ge m>g9 ( safety %\ld be all[$4 ,pres5t data on wat] requirem5ts %[ a v /rong dep5d5ce ^u suit inlet temp]atures4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( an accurately controll$ suit temp]ature1 wat] requirem5ts c easily d\ble4 ,if ?is %\ld occur1 ! mission w\ld probably h to be abort$1 s9ce x is d\btful if electrolyte balance w\ld be ma9ta9$ at su* high rates ( wat] loss4 ,normal or ev5 extreme conditions ( ! t]re/rial environm5t usually include diurnal v>iation 9 temp]ature :i* may modify wat] ne$s4 ,^! conditions w n be obta9$ 9 ! spacecraft4 ,9 addition to gr\nd-bas$ exp]im5ts1 measurem5ts ( wat] intake %\ld be made "u actual flight conditions4 ,data f %ort-t]m flights %\ld be us$ = extrapolation to long] missions4 ,=mula ,diets ,! tacit assumption :i* n[ prevails1 ,a/ronauts ev5 on %ort-t]m missions require a diet ( great v>iety1 is app>5tly n well support$4 ,9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 p live on a monoton\s diet consi/+ ( only a few types ( food ) no app>5t ill effects1 provid$ _! nutritional requirem5ts are satisfi$4 ,exp]im5tal evid5ce f _m s\rces 7e4g41 ! ,army ,m$ical ,rese>* & ,nutrition ,laboratory7 %[s t individuals c be kept on a s+le disagreeable =mula diet = z long z #fj to #ij days )\t h>m4 ,s9ce highly motivat$ individuals are *os5 = space flights1 x is unlikely t !y w\ld object to ! monotony ( a =mula diet & w\ld probably pref] its simplicity4 ,also1 !re are def9ite possibilities ( develop+ a mu* m acceptable =mula ?an pres5t types4 ,!re is no reason to anticipate adv]se effects f ! use ( =mula diets 9 %ort-t]m flights4 ,=mula diets w\ld be extremely desirable = %ort-t]m flights4 ,a =mula diet 7a rehydrat$ liquid =mula c\ld be us$7 w\ld consid]ably r$uce ! numb] ( manipulations & ! "t requir$ = 9-flight prep>ation1 comp>$ to a v>i$ diet4 ,^! two improvem5ts c\ld contribute mat]ially to ! safety ( a flight1 s9ce ! a/ronauts w\ld n be preoccupi$ ) food prep>ation = s long a p]iod1 & ! food c\ld be disp5s$ )\t remov+ suit compon5ts1 su* z gloves4 ,/orage requirem5ts c\ld be simplifi$ ) ?is type ( diet4 ,weight1 h[ev]1 w\ld n be l[]$ )\t ! developm5t ( m ref9$ =mulas ?an ^? n[ available4 ,=mula diets c\ld readily be adapt$ to ! det]m9$ metabolic requirem5ts ( ! individual a/ronaut4 ,packag+ problems w be simplifi$ by us+ =mula diets1 :i* c easily be giv5 a v>iety ( flavors & colors4 ,wa/e ,! problem ( wa/e production is intimately relat$ to nutrition & c be solv$ or simplifi$ by diet>y *anges4 ,any diet %\ld be adju/$ = ! m9imum production ( feces1 be=e & dur+ ev5 %ort flights4 ,wat] w be seque/]$ by accumulation 9 ! feces1 & ! net loss1 "u normal conditions1 w\ld be approximately #dj to #fj grams p] man p] day4 ,flatus c be a s]i\s problem1 s9ce consid]able conc5trations ( toxic gases may accumulate4 ,! purification sy/em = ! recirculat$ atmosph]e mu/ be able to remove ^!1 al?\gh ! diet %\ld be plann$ to m9imize ! problem4 ,! collection ( ur9e & its /orage is ( importance1 p>ticul>ly on %ort-t]m flights1 & individual packag+ & label+ ( ur9e specim5s w be necess>y = ! analyses4 ,metabolism ,an accurately measur$ intake ( nutri5ts1 calories1 & wat] is necess>y = det]m9+ metabolic dem&s impos$ 9 any space flight4 ,!re is insuffici5t k to pr$ict total metabolic requirem5ts "u ! num]\s /resses :i* c be anticipat$4 ,simulator /udies are ( great importance ev5 = %ort-duration flights4 ,! two mo/ important v>iables to be consid]$ 9 e/abli%+ ! m9imal diet are prote9 & en]gy requirem5ts4 ,,nasa is support+ rese>* at ! ,univ]sity ( ,cali=nia 7,b]keley7 to det]m9e ^! requirem5ts & to e/imate individual v>iation 9 heal?y "y m54 ,! possibility ( m9imiz+ ne$ ?r\gh biological adaptation is be+ explor$4 ,x is difficult to e/imate ! m9imum prote9 requirem5t ( an adult man4 ,! g5]ally accept$ crit]ion ( m9imum adequate prote9 nutrition 9 ! adult is ! ma9t5ance ( nitrog5 balance at m9imum intake4 ,! m9imum prote9 requirem5ts dep5d on endog5\s nitrog5 loss4 ,analysis ( ! little data available indicates a be/ e/imate ( #b mg ( nitrog5 p] kilocalorie ( basal en]gy exp5diture4 ,h[ev]1 ?is figure is high] ?an t not$ 9 exp]im5ts 9 "s human subjects4 ,aft] m9imum nitrog5 requirem5ts & m9imum am9o acid requirem5ts h be5 e/abli%$1 /udies w be direct$ t[>d inve/igat+ caloric re/riction & adaptation to re/riction ( calories4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t caloric re/riction 9 animals & man results 9 app>5t decreas$ en]gy ne$ = ! same activity4 ,?is app>5t p>adox has nev] be5 expla9$4 ,x has be5 %[n t !re is adaptation to repeat$ episodes ( caloric re/riction bo? 9 animals & man1 s t subsequ5t p]iods ( caloric re/riction result 9 decreas$ rate ( weight loss1 nitrog5 loss1 & long] survival4 ,additional exp]im5ts are urg5tly requir$ to det]m9e ! metabolic dem&s = m9]als--9 p>ticul>1 ! metabolic balance ( calcium1 potassium1 sodium1 & phosphorus4 ,"u conditions ( high wat] consumption1 l>ge m9]al losses are to be expect$4 ,failure to replace ^! c cause an imbalance :i* c\ld impair ! effici5cy ( ! individual to ! ext5t ( endang]+ ! flight4 ,analysis ( samples tak5 9 flight1 bo? ( ur9e & feces1 %\ld be made4 ,respiratory quoti5ts c be det]m9$ 9 flight1 blood samples %\ld be tak5 be=e & imm$iately aft] flight = analyz+ select$ compon5ts 79 simulator /udies ^! c\ld be tak5 p]iodically71 & nutritional intakes 7:i* w\ld be facilitat$ by =mula diets7 mu/ be measur$ & analyz$4 ,%ort-,range ,te*nology ,!re are _m practical difficulties 9 provid+ = food /orage & accessibility 9 spacecraft4 ,! packag+ ( food mat]ials1 bo? dehydrat$ & liquid1 has proce$$ satisfactorily "u ! sup]vision ( ! ,food & ,conta9] ,in/itute4 ,if packag+ mat]ials are to be made to )/& v high relative humidities & l>ge v>iations 9 temp]ature1 additional inve/igations are requir$1 s9ce su* conta9]s are n yet available4 ,9 packag+1 s]i\s consid]ation mu/ be giv5 to ! ease ) :i* ! food may be rea*$ & eat54 ,if dehydrat$ =mula foods are to be f$ on %ort-t]m missions1 additional "w is requir$ on ! rehydration ( su* =mulas4 ,pres5t me?ods ( wat] measurem5t "u weightless conditions are n satisfactory1 & bett] me?ods w h to be contriv$4 ,long-,t]m ,nutritional ,problems ,!re is a de>? ( metabolic in=mation1 ev5 = %ort-duration flights1 )\t :i* *anges 9 metabolic patt]ns to long] flights _c be extrapolat$4 ,h[ev]1 us+ scatt]$ in=mation1 c]ta9 *anges :i* may be enc\nt]$ c be hypo!siz$4 ,decalcification ( bone & *anges 9 wat]-hold+ capacity ( ! body may be anticipat$4 ,x is also possible t *anges 9 proportion ( fat to lean body mass c\ld be exp]i5c$ & %\ld be consid]$ 9 nutritional plann+4 ,nutritional requirem5ts dep5d on size1 p>ticul>ly lean body mass1 sex1 physiological /ate1 & individual metabolic rates4 ,!re=e1 individuals = space flight %\ld be scre5$ ) ^! factors 9 m9d if x is desirable to m9imize food intake 9 long flights4 ,! factors :i* influ5ce ! total nutritional requirem5ts ( ! individual also influ5ce 8 m5tal & physical responses to /ress4 ,syn!tic ,foods ,! developm5t ( food mat]ials o!r ?an ^? d]iv$ directly f animal or vegetable orig9 is ( int]e/4 ,advantages ( su* diets may be l[ residue1 ease ( /orage1 rehydration1 & manipulation4 ,exp]im5ts ) *emically def9$ syn!tic diet = humans h be5 c>ri$ out by ,m$ical ,sci5ces ,rese>* ,f\ndation1 ,san ,mateo1 ,calif4 ,! complete liquid diet is compos$ ( requir$ am9o acids1 fat1 c>bohydrate1 vitam9s1 & m9]als4 ,a cubic foot ( ! diet 7#ej p]c5t solids 9 ,h,o7 supplies #bejj calories p] day = #a mon?1 & has be5 giv5 a v>iety ( artificial flavors4 ,?is syn!tic diet has be5 f$ to human volunte]s = #f mon?s 9 a pilot /udy at ! ,cali=nia ,m$ical ,facility1 ,vacaville1 ,calif41 & ! results are be+ review$4 ,s*w>z ,biorese>*1 ,inc41 is /udy+ ! /orage1 /ability1 & packag+ ( *emically def9$ syn!tic diets = human & animal flights4 ,food ,production 9 ,space ,long-t]m fe$+ 9 space dep5ds ^u a payload ( /or$ food unless food is produc$ dur+ flight4 ,if suffici5t propulsive en]gy is available1 ! duration ( missions us+ /or$ food may be q long4 ,h[ev]1 9 em]g5cies 9 :i* a mission la/s long] ?an plann$1 survival may dep5d on ! ability to produce food extrat]re/rially4 ,ev5tually x w be desirable or necess>y to produce food beyond ! conf9es ( ,e>?4 ,! nutritional requirem5ts ( ! crew w be influ5c$ by su* factors z activity1 physical & psy*ological /ress1 individual size ( ! memb]s1 & individual metabolic rates4 ,! food intake w h to be adju/$ to meet ^! requirem5ts4 ,x is necess>y to "k ! nutritional requirem5ts ( ea* a/ronaut & ! way 9 :i* ^! are alt]$ by ! conditions ( space flight 9 ord] to e/imate ne$s on long missions4 ,)\t ?is in=mation1 ! food supplies = ! long] flights may be too mu*1 too little1 or improp]ly balanc$4 ,:]e dep5d5ce w\ld n be on /or$ food alone1 b on food produc$ en r\te1 m exact in=mation on requirem5ts is ne$$ to det]m9e ! capacity ( food production units4 ,9 ! discussion ( bioreg5]ative sy/ems1 x 0 sugge/$ t food mat]ials c\ld be produc$ by photosyn!tic organisms 7e4g41 algae1 duckwe$1 & o!r high] plants7 or by nonphotosyn!tic organisms 7e4g41 ,hydrog5omonas74 ,9 contra/ to ! use ( liv+ organisms1 reprocess+ wa/e mat]ials by *emical treatm5t or ! actual syn!sis ( high-en]gy comp\nds has be5 sugge/$4 ,no *emical sy/em has yet be5 demon/rat$ z workable = ! economical production ( food 9 space1 & ! sy/ems consid]$ produce mat]ials :i* may be conv]t$ to food1 b are n food z su*4 ,algal cultures h _h ! mo/ ext5sive inve/igation z food 9 space1 b ! te*nical problems ( us+ ?is mat]ial z a food s\rce h n yet be5 solv$4 ,x is app>5t f ! inve/igations to date t algae w require treatm5t be=e !y c be us$ z food4 ,9 limit$ trials1 difficulties h be5 exp]i5c$ ) am9o acid defici5cies1 dige/ibility1 high residues1 & ga/ric di/ress4 ,process+ me?ods :i* w\ld be applicable 9 space travel & ! possibility ( second>y conv]sion by o!r animals or plants %\ld be sy/ematically inve/igat$4 *apt] #h ,significance ( ! ,a*ievem5ts ,,significance ,,to ,,sci5ce ,"o ( ! mo/ critical rese>* areas ( ! space program is biosci5ce4 ,( bo? practical & philosophical significance 9 explor+ ! orig9s ( life & ! possibilities ( life on o!r planets1 biosci5ce also promises mu* 9 m$ical aspects4 ,space (f]s biologi/s completely new environm5tal factors1 su* z ! effects ( z]o gravity & ( removal f ,e>?'s rotation4 ,^! effects h be5 /udi$ 9 attempts to advance und]/&+ ( basic me*anisms ( physiology & biological rhy?ms4 ,^! /udies c be ( great value 9 deal+ ) problems ( disease & metabolic disord]s4 ,biological rese>* is fundam5tal to ! problem ( successfully protect+ & su/a9+ man 9 ! peculi> & ho/ile space environm5t4 ,und]/&+ human requirem5ts & v>iations 9 _! response to v>i\s environm5tal factors (f]s value 9 m$ical rese>* = human survival & com=t4 ,! _m te*nological discov]ies & advancem5ts 9 electronic & eng9e]+ equipm5t greatly enhance m$ical diagnosis1 treatm5t ( disease1 & ! ext5sion ( human life4 ,! life sci5ces1 biology & m$ic9e1 are fundam5tal to ! success ( mann$ exploration ( space1 :i* m>ks a unique & significant developm5t 9 ! long hi/ory ( man's conque/ ( new fronti]s4 ,^? :o pione]$ o!r fronti]s on l& & sea & 9 ! air 7 n =c$ to await biological & m$ical rese>*4 ,ev5 ! pione]s ( a]ial flight began _! ef=ts )\t fir/ seek+ biom$ical data4 ,! se>* = su* data foll[$ flight exp]i5ce &1 inde$1 0 made only aft] problems arose4 ,project ,m]cury1 ,,nasa's fir/ program = mann$ space flight1 /imulat$ imm$iate & ext5sive /udies 9 ! life sci5ces to su/a9 man 9 space4 ,be=e a vehicle c\ld be design$ to c>ry an a/ronaut into space1 anticipat$ biom$ical problems associat$ ) space flight 7 /udi$4 ,life-support sy/ems 7 design$ to (f] adequate protection f environm5tal /resses peculi> to space1 su* z z]o gravity1 removal f ,e>?'s rotation1 & high-en]gy cosmic radiation4 ,^! life-support sy/ems us$ k already ga9$ f rese>* = mann$ space flight by ! ,u4,s4 ,air ,=ce4 ,our entry into space has put u at ! ?re%old ( fundam5tal & f>-rea*+ discov]ies 9 ! biological realm :i* h pr(\nd implications = o!r areas ( human ?\ght & endeavor4 ,z man goes f>!r into space1 ! haz>ds increase2 b pa/ accompli%m5ts indicate t ! road ahead holds m promise ?an p]il & t ! vi/as ( k t may be =ese5 are z va/ z space itself4 ,almo/ ev]y?+ :i* n[ c be said ab\t ! effects ( extrat]re/rial environm5ts & ab\t life on ! ,moon or ! planets lies 9 ! realm ( pure speculation4 ,!re is "o pr$iction1 h[ev]1 t c be made ) consid]able c]ta9ty by reason ( hi/orical prec$5t--! opportunity to inve/igate a totally new area1 su* z is (f]$ by space exploration1 is c]ta9 to produce a bur/ ( sci5tific int]e/ z soon z ! pa? is *>t$ by a few pione]s4 ,ov] ! next few decades a progressively l>g] proportion ( biological int]e/ w turn to space4 ,we may well expect t ! discov]ies made "h w revolutionize "s ( our concepts ( biology4 ,x %\ld be fully realiz$ t ! accumulation & dissem9ation ( biological & o!r sci5tific in=mation is n only ( great value to sci5ce & humanity b is ( trem5d\s import to ! pre/ige ( ! ,nation4 ,,significance ,,= ,,practical ,,applications ,x c be pr$ict$ z confid5tly = space biology z = o!r space sci5ces t ! economic co/s w be amply repaid 9 ! long run by applications ( space-ori5t$ biote*nology to o!r fields ( biology & m$ic9e4 ,!re are inevitable sub/antial1 ?\gh indirect1 contributions ( ,,nasa's cont9u+ ef=ts 9 space biology4 ,,nasa-support$ biological rese>* has _m practical applications & sp9(fs :i* contribute to ! fields ( heal? & m$ic9e1 food & agriculture1 & indu/ry & manufactur+4 ,"s ( ^! are pres5t$ to %[ ! range & value ( applications :i* h result$ f basic & appli$ biological rese>*4 ,9 addition to ^? li/$ are _m o!rs f ! biosatellite program1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! fields ( bio5g9e]+ & m9iaturization4 ,heal? & ,m$ic9e ,sol> cells1 :i* h p[]$ space sy/ems1 are n[ be+ us$ z a p[] s\rce 9 /udies on bra9 function4 ,a m9iaturiz$ sol> cell develop$ by ,g5]al ,electric provides en\gh p[]1 "u ord9>y h\se lights1 to /imulate an animal's bra9 & to telemet] respiratory1 c>diovascul>1 & bra9-wave data :ile ! animal is all[$ to move ab\t freely4 ,su* a sy/em is n[ us$ by ! ,national ,in/itute ( ,m5tal ,heal? ,laboratory at ,re!sda1 ,md4 ,sci5ti/s at ! ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t] h devis$ a new te*nique = /udy+ organic comp\nds1 :e!r syn!siz$ 9 ! laboratory or produc$ by a liv+ sy/em4 ,?is te*nique is bas$ on a prop]ty ( matt] call$ optical activity4 ,previ\s me?ods ( measur+ optical activity h be5 plagu$ by l[ s5sitivity4 ,! new me?od is _m tunes m s5sitive & repres5ts a real contribution to mod]n analytical in/rum5tation4 ,/udies on calcium metabolism & b$ re/ simulat+ weightlessness are add+ k on ! prev5tion ( dem9]alization ( ! skeleton2 treatm5t ( ,paget's disease & o/eoporosis prev5tion ( muscul> atrophy2 ! cause & treatm5t ( r5al calculi 7kidney /ones72 optimal calcium = ! human diet2 & ! factors influ5c+ calcium absorption1 metabolism1 & excretion4 ,! results w h great importance 9 bone heal+ & repair1 c>e & treatm5t ( fracture cases1 treatm5t ( p>aplegics1 & treatm5t ( polio pati5ts & simil> cases4 ,^! grant /udies at ,texas ,woman's ,univ]sity h also prov5 t ! ,x-ray bone d5sitometry me?od c accurately detect *anges 9 ! skeleton4 ,a prim>y objective ( ! planet>y exploration program is ! detection ( possible extrat]re/rial life4 ,! /udy ( ! fundam5tal prop]ties ( liv+ ?+s on ,e>? is re/rict$ to ! type ( life :i* has evolv$ & surviv$ "h4 ,life :i* has be5 expos$ to totally diff]5t environm5tal conditions may h m>k$ly diff]5t physiological *>act]i/ics4 ,! impact ( ! new in=mation obta9able f ! /udy ( extrat]re/rial life ^u ! sci5ces ( m$ic9e & biology w unque/ionably be ( fundam5tal & f>-rea*+ importance4 ,advancem5t 9 ! treatm5t ( disease & ! problems ( ag+ are among ! _m possible consequ5ces4 ,new developm5ts 9 su* te*niques z ultraviolet spectrophotometry1 pol>imetry1 & gas *romatography w f9d use 9 ! detection ( bio*emicals & o!r comp\nds 9 hospitals & 9 toxicology & pa?ology laboratories4 ,!y w also be useful 9 /udies ( atmosph]ic pollutants su* z smog4 ,/udies ( ! *emi/ry ( liv+ sy/ems1 molecul> biology1 & biophysics ( cellul> processes w create a bett] und]/&+ ( ! basic me*anisms ( life1 lead+ to an und]/&+ ( bo? inh]it$ & acquir$ disease1 especially neopla/ic conditions & *emical di/urbances incid5t to m5tal disease4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,pittsburgh is conduct+ a /udy to increase ! availability ( cytological te*nique 9 rese>* & z a monitor+ proc$ure by develop+ an automatic electronic scann+ device us+ comput] analysis = record+1 c\nt+1 & sort+ *romosomes4 ,/ructural *anges 9 blood cell *romosomes c indicate ! degree ( radiation damage z well z damage result+ f v>i\s environm5tal /resses4 ,accord+ly1 ?is in/rum5t1 :5 develop$1 c be us$ z a radiation dosimet] 9 civil def5se by swiftly detect+ ! degree & type ( *romosomal ab]rations 9 blood cells4 ,?us1 casualties 9 nucle> attack c\ld be quickly detect$ & treat$4 ,?is sy/em w\ld also be useful = nucle> indu/rial plants & = milit>y maneuv]s4 ,9 m$ic9e1 v>i\s disease tr5ds c\ld be monitor$4 7,*romosomes exhibit anomalies 9 leukemia & m5tal ret>dation z well z 9 o!r /ates47 ,9 space exploration & exp]im5tation1 ! device c spot monitor radiation dose levels z well z *anges result+ f any ( ! environm5tal /resses exp]i5c$ 9 space4 ,?is app>atus c be modifi$ = use z an extrat]re/rial-life-detect+ in/rum5t by scann+ ! gr[? ( cells 7or cellul> inclusions71 comput+ rates1 & telemet]+ *anges to ! rese>*]4 ,inve/igations ( rhy?mic ph5om5a ( v>i\s physiological sy/ems c result 9 k ( ! utmo/ importance to m$ic9e4 ,rhy?mic ph5om5a are f\nd 9 ! c>diovascul> sy/em ( normal humans4 ,*anges 9 ^! rhy?ms h ! pot5tial ( =etell+ abnormalities 7he>t disease1 art]ioscl]osis7 be=e outw>d signs are manife/$1 all[+ = e>li] diagnosis1 treatm5t1 & control or cure4 ,! spacecraft /]ilization program requires ! use ( rooms hav+ ! l[e/ atta9able level ( bact]ial contam9ation4 ,! rate ( dissem9ation ( bact]ia f ! humans 9 ! room is basic to ! problem4 ,data on ?is matt] are be+ obta9$ ?r\gh support ( ! ,communicable ,disease ,c5t] ( ! ,u4,s4 ,public ,heal? ,s]vice4 ,! f9d+s are affect+ ! measures us$ 9 surgical practice to l[] infection rates4 ,/udies on ! physiology ( hib]nation 9 mammals are important to und]/& temp]ature regulation & ! me*anism ( survival at l[ body temp]atures4 ,! purpose ( ?is type ( rese>* is to und]/& & use r$uc$ metabolic activity 9 a/ronauts on future ext5d$ space flight4 ,o!r applications involve /udies ( ! me*anisms ( injury & freez+ biological organisms1 = improv+ te*niques 9 hypo!rmic surg]y1 pa?ology1 & pres]vation ( tissue = human graft+4 ,food & ,agriculture ,ga!r+ agricultural in=mation by remote s5s+ ( ,e>?'s surface f aircraft1 balloons1 & satellites has a pot5tial application 9 rese>* & developm5t4 ,curr5t ne$s = data ga!r$ 9 ?is way include crop & live/ock surveys = m>ket+ plann+2 soil mapp+2 crop disease1 insect1 & we$ surveys2 soil cons]vation managem5t & rese>*2 & crop acreage control programs4 ,z population & _w trade increase1 ! ne$s w become ev5 m int5se = regul>ly s*$ul$ synoptic surveys ( ! _w's agricultural l&s = crop plant+s & h>ve/s2 det]m9+ ! condition ( crops z affect$ by dr\ght1 disease1 or insect outbreaks2 & /udies ( ! l&s suitable = agricultural developm5t 9 und]develop$ c\ntries4 ,! only way t worldwide synoptic surveys c be made is by us+ orbit+ plat=ms4 ,! ,,nasa nutrition program = develop+ diets = prolong$ mann$ & animal space flight l5ds itself to civil def5se purposes2 milit>y maneuv]s :]e space & weight are prime consid]ations2 pol> & des]t exploration2 r$uc+ hung] 9 und]develop$ c\ntries2 & detect+ metabolic diseases z well z diseases ( infancy & old age4 ,= space rese>* su* a diet c be us$ on prolong$ mann$ space flights1 animal exp]im5ts 9 space1 mann$ orbit+ laboratories1 & space & planet>y /ations4 ,/udies on ! packag+ & /ability ( foods "u v>i\s conditions ( humidity1 temp]ature1 & radiation w lead to bett] process+ & /orage4 ,le>n+ h[ microbial spores are transport$ by air is important to biology1 agriculture1 & m$ic9e4 ,besides spread+ crop de/ruction1 microbial spores produce all]gic responses 9 "s human be+s4 ,to obta9 ! facts1 n only ! biology ( micro-organisms b also ! wea!r factors t induce ! flight ( mature spores mu/ be kn[n4 ,?us1 bo? biological & meteorological problems are involv$4 ,data obta9$ "u a ,,nasa contract ) ! ,g5]al ,mills ,electronic ,division 7n[ "p ( ,litton ,indu/ries1 ,inc47 indicate t spores ( fungi are pres5t 9 l[ numb]s 9 ! /ratosph]e4 ,a res]voir ( spores exi/s :i* _c be br\ght d[n by ! normal scrubb+ me*anisms ( ra9fall & o!r meteorological di/urbances 9 ! troposph]e4 ,?is f9d+ has important implications = r$uc+ ! spread ( agricultural crop diseases & = protect+ p]sons suff]+ f all]gies4 ,?is project has indicat$ ! necessity = design+ novel biological sampl]s = use 9 ! /ratosph]e4 ,su* sampl]s w aid 9 det]m9+ v>i\s pollutants ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! ,,nasa program = develop+ /]ile spacecraft = ! biological exploration ( ,m>s w contribute improv$ me?ods ( /]ilization t c be appli$ to ! cann+ indu/ry4 ,/udies on /]ilization at l[ temp]atures = long p]iods ( "t are be+ support$ by ,,nasa at ! ,massa*usetts ,in/itute ( ,te*nology & ! ,communicable ,disease ,c5t] & ! ,sanit>y ,eng9e]+ ,c5t] ( ! ,public ,heal? ,s]vice4 ,! develop+ capability is mak+ possible ! heat /]ilization ( products t nev] be=e c\ld be ?or\ghly /]iliz$4 ,9 prep>+ = missions to se>* = extrat]re/rial life1 rese>* on ! psy*rophilic or cold bact]ia1 on halophytic or salt bact]ia1 & on specializ$ bact]ia & o!r organisms gr[+ 9 extreme environm5ts is def9+ ! extremes "u :i* life c exi/4 ,increas$ k ab\t organisms t c gr[ 9 or on refrig]at$1 dri$1 or salt$ foods & o!r mat]ials %\ld h practical applications = food /orage & pres]vation4 ,rese>* on psy*rophilic bact]ia is be+ conduct$ by ,:irlpool ,corp4 & ! ,,nasa ,ames ,rese>* ,c5t]4 ,!oretical /udies ( ,m>tian life involve inve/igations ( plant & bact]ial spores4 ,_m ( ^! =ms are spoilage organisms & "s produce le?al tox9s4 ,?is "w has pot5tial importance = food process+ & = obta9+ m precise k ( h[ w\nds become infect$4 ,! program = inve/igat+ possible =ms ( life on ,m>s includes a ?or\gh /udy ( ana]obic micro-organisms4 ,?is rese>* has l$ to ! discov]y ( new types ( nitrog5-fix+ bact]ia o!r ?an ! famili> types f\nd 9 ! root nodules ( legum9\s plants4 ,?us1 x may be possible to use ^! microorganisms1 or ! pr9ciples involv$1 9 ! incorporation ( vital atmosph]ic nitrog5 into t]re/rial soils :i* are n[ unproductive4 ,indu/ry & ,manufactur+ ,batt]ies t h be5 develop$ 9 ! space program to endure high /]ilization temp]atures = ext5d$ times w h greatly increas$ %elf life at normal /orage temp]atures & w be s]viceable aft] _m h\rs ( bak+ at high temp]atures4 ,curr5tly1 ! highe/ quality tape record]s are subject to imp]fect reproduction because ! tapes are heat labile2 i4e41 !y s(t5 & /ret* :5 w>m4 ,! developm5t ( high-quality magnetic tapes = space-data record]s is an outgr[? ( ! mat]ials develop$ to meet spacecraft /]ilization requirem5ts4 ,^! improv$ tapes w be useful = all types ( record+--indu/ry1 automation controls1 home1 & /udio4 ,,outlook ,,= ,,biosci5ce--,,major ,,problems ,! problems und]tak5 are among ! mo/ *all5g+1 if n ! mo/ *all5g+1 man faces on ! space fronti]4 ,^! include ! que/ = ! orig9 ( life1 ! explanation ( life & life processes1 ! elucidation ( ! environm5t's role 9 e/abli%+ & ma9ta9+ normal organization 9 liv+ organisms1 ! possibility ( extrat]re/rial life on o!r planets--! conc]n ( exobiology4 ,! greate/ promise = _! solution lies 9 advances 9 biological !ory r ?an o!r av5ues ( rese>*2 !re=e1 x is =tunate t ! ne$ to solve !m has come at a "t :5 developm5ts 9 exp]im5tal biology are at a high level4 ,9 addition1 te*nological developm5ts 9 electronics & eng9e]+ are provid+ new & wond]ful in/rum5ts = ?is great exploration into ! s\rces ( life4 ,_m ( ^! h _h practical application t has made possible important advances 9 m$ical diagnosis & treatm5t4 ,! broad national space goals initially *>t$ by ,,nasa h gone beyond space flight 9 ne>-,e>? orbit to lun> & int]planet>y exploration by man & ma*9e4 ,= su* missions1 m int5sive & compreh5sive rese>* 9 ! life sci5ces is ne$$4 ,be=e mann$ voyages = ext5d$ p]iods into deep space w be possible1 solutions mu/ be f\nd = problems su* z ! developm5t ( bioreg5]ative life-support sy/ems1 communication ) nonhuman species1 & ! developm5t ( new me?ods = transf]r+ k to ! human bra94 ,! problems are all ( ! type t c\ld p]haps be solv$ by truly great advances 9 biological !ory1 & probably n by any o!r av5ue4 ,ref]5ces ref4#a ,rea1 ,d4 ,g43 ,! ,evid5ce = ,life on ,m>s4 ,nature1 vol4 #bjj1 #aifc1 p4 #aad4 ref4#b pik1 ,e4 ,j43 ,spectroscopic ,evid5ce ( ,vegetation on ,m>s4 ,iri% ,a/ron4 ,j41 vol4 #e1 #aieh1 pp4 #ab-ac4 ref4#c ,kuip]1 ,g4 ,p43 ,visual ,obs]vations ( ,m>s1 #aief4 ,a/rophys4 ,j41 vol4 #abe1 #aieg1 p4 #cjg4 ref4#d ,fcas1 ,j4 ,h43 ,seasonal ,evolution ( ! ,f9e ,/ructure ( ! ,d>k ,areas ( ,m>s4 ,planet>y ,space ,sci41 vol4 #i1 #aifb1 p4 #cga4 ref4#e ,dollfus1 ,a43 ,int]pretation ( ! ,pol>ization ( ,light ,reflect$ by ! ,diff]5t ,regions ( ! ,surface ( ,m>s4 ,compt4 ,r5d41 vol4 #bcc1 #aiea1 p4 #dfg4 ref4#f ,kuip]1 ,g4 ,p43 ,on ! ,m>tian ,surface ,features4 ,publ4 ,a/ron4 ,soc4 ,pacific1 vol4 #fg1 #aiee1 p4 #bga4 ref4#g ,s9ton1 ,w4 ,m43 ,spectroscopic ,evid5ce = ,vegetation on ,m>s4 ,a/rophys4 ,j41 vol4 #abf1 #aieg1 p4 #bca4 ref4#h ,rea1 ,d4 ,g42 ,belsky1 ,t42 & ,calv91 ,m43 ,int]pretation ( ! #c- to #d-,micron ,infr>$ ,spectrum ( ,m>s4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #ada1 #aifc1 p4 #ibc4 ref4#i ,rea1 ,d4 ,g42 ,o',le>y1 ,b4 ,t42 & ,s9ton1 ,w43 ,m>s & ! ,orig9 ( ! #c4eh- & #c4fi-,micron ,m9ima 9 ! ,infr>$ ,spectra4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #adg1 #aife1 p4 #abhf4 ref4#aj ,quimby1 ,f4 ,h43 ,concepts = ,detection ( ,extrat]re/rial ,life4 ,,nasa ,,sp-#ef1 #aifd4 ref4#aa ,urey1 ,h4 ,c43 ,! ,planets4 ,_! ,orig9 & ,developm5t4 ,yale ,univ4 ,press 7,new ,hav571 #aieb4 ref4#ab ,mill]1 ,s4 ,l43 ,me*anism ( ,syn!sis ( ,am9o ,acids by ,electric ,dis*>ge4 ,bio*im4 ,biophys4 ,acta1 vol4 #bc1 #aieg1 p4 #dhj4 ref4#ac ,or1 ,j43 ,syn!sis ( ,ad59e ,f ,ammonium ,cyanide4 ,bio*em4 ,biophys4 ,res4 ,commun41 vol4 #b1 #aifj1 p4 #djg4 ref4#ad ,ponnamp]uma1 ,c42 ,sagan1 ,c42 & ,m>9]1 ,r43 ,syn!sis ( ,ad5os9e ,triphosphate ,"u ,possible ,primitive ,e>? ,conditions4 ,nature1 vol4 #aii1 #aifc1 p4 #bbb4 ref4#ae ,op>91 ,a4 ,i43 ,! ,orig9 ( ,life4 ,macmillan ,co4 7,new ,york71 #aich4 ref4#af ,calv91 ,m43 ,r$uction ( ,c>bon ,dioxide 9 ,aque\s ,solutions by ,ioniz+ ,radiation4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #aad1 #aiea1 p4 #daf4 ref4#ag ,mill]1 ,s4 ,l43 ,a ,production ( ,am9o ,acids ,"u ,possible ,primitive ,e>? ,conditions4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #aag1 #aiec1 pp4 #ebh-ebi4 ref4#ah ,or1 ,j43 ,/udies 9 ,exp]im5tal ,cosmo*emi/ry4 ,ann4 ,n4 ,y4 ,acad4 ,sci41 vol4 #ajh1 #aifc1 pp4 #dfd-dha4 ref4#ai ,ponnamp]uma1 ,c43 ,*emical ,evolution & ! ,orig9 ( ,life4 ,nature1 vol4 #bja1 #aifd1 pp4 #ccg-cdj4 ref4#bj ,b]nal1 ,j4 ,d43 ,! ,physical ,basis ( ,life4 ,r\tl$ge ,kegan-,paul 7,london71 #aiea4 ref4#ba ,fox1 ,s43 ,anhydrocopolym]ization ( ,am9o ,acids ,"u ! ,influ5ce ( ,hypo!tically ,primitive ,t]re/rial ,conditions4 ,f$]ation ,proc41 vol4 #ac1 #aied1 p4 #baa4 ref4#bb ,akabori1 ,s43 ,on ! ,orig9 ( ! ,=e-,prote94 ,9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,life on ! ,e>?4 ,a4 ,i4 ,op>9 et al41 eds41 ,p]gamon ,press 7,new ,york71 #aiee1 p4 #ahi4 ref4#bc ,h>ada1 ,k42 & ,fox1 ,s4 ,w43 ,! ,!rmal ,syn!sis ( ,am9o ,acids ,f a ,hypo!tically ,primitive ,t]re/rial ,atmosph]e4 ,9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,prebiological ,sy/ems & ,_! ,molecul> ,matrices4 ,academic ,press 7,new ,york & ,london71 #aife4 ref4#bd ,op>91 ,a4 ,i43 ,bio*emical ,processes 9 ! ,simple/ ,/ructures4 ,9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,life on ! ,e>?4 ,p]gamon ,press 7,new ,york71 #aiei4 ref4#be ,fox1 ,s4 ,w43 ,simulat$ ,natural ,exp]im5ts 9 ,spontane\s ,organization ( ,morphological ,units = ,prote9oid4 ,9 ,! ,orig9 ( ,prebiological ,sy/ems & ( _! ,molecul> ,matrices4 ,academic ,press 7,new ,york71 #aife4 ref4#bf ,briggs1 ,m4 ,h42 & ,mamikunian1 ,g43 ,organic ,con/itu5ts ( ! ,c>bonace\s ,*ondrites4 ,space ,sci4 ,rev41 vol4 #a1 #aifc1 p4 #fdg4 ref4#bg ,wilk1 ,h4 ,b43 ,composition ( ,"s ,/ony ,meteorites4 ,geo*im4 ,cosmo*im4 ,acta1 vol4 #i1 #aief1 p4 #bgi4 ref4#bh ,briggs1 ,m4 ,h43 ,organic ,extracts ( ,"s ,c>bonace\s ,meteorites4 ,life ,sci5ces1 vol4 #b1 #aifc1 p4 #a4 ref4#bi ,muell]1 ,g43 ,int]pretation ( ! ,micro/ructures ( ,c>bonace\s ,*ondrites4 ,nature1 vol4 #aif1 #aifb1 p4 #ibi4 ref4#cj ,mamikunian1 ,g42 & ,briggs1 ,m4 ,h43 ,"s ,micro/ructures ( ,complex ,morphology ,obs]v$ 9 ,prep>ations ( ,c>bonace\s ,*oridrites ,made ,"u ,/]ile ,conditions4 ,nature1 vol4 #aig1 #aifc1 p4 #abde4 ref4#ca ,kaplan1 ,l4 ,d42 ,mun*1 ,g42 & ,sp9rad1 ,h43 ,an ,analysis ( ! ,spectrum ( ,m>s4 ,a/rophys4 ,j41 vol4 #aci1 #aifd1 p4 #a4 ref4#cb ,davis4 ,d4 ,r42 & ,libby1 ,w4 ,f43 ,positive ,ion ,*emi/ry4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #add1 #aifa1 p4 #iia4 ref4#cc ,mill]1 ,s4 ,l43 ,production ( ,"s ,organic ,comp\nds ,"u ,possible ,primitive ,e>? 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,/udies on ,microbial ,spores & ,"s ,consid]ations = ! ,/]ilization ( ,spacecraft ,compon5ts4 ,develop4 ,ind4 ,microbiol41 vol4 #f1 #aifd1 pp4 #bfh-bgf4 ref4#fj ,hall1 ,l4 ,b42 & ,bru*1 ,c4 ,w43 ,proc$ures ,necess>y = ! ,prev5tion ( ,planet>y ,contam9ation4 ,9 ,life ,sci5ces & ,space ,rese>* ,,iii1 ,m4 ,flork91 ed41 ,nor?-,holl& ,publ4 ,co4 7,am/]dam71 #aife4 ref4#fa ,portn]1 ,d4 ,m42 ,h(fman1 ,r4 ,k42 ,deck]1 ,h4 ,m42 & ,phillips1 ,c4 ,r43 ,! ,level ( ,microbial ,contam9ation 9 a ,clean ,room ,dur+ a ,"o-,ye> ,p]iod4 ,rept4 #aa-fe on ,,nasa ,int]ag5cy ,agreem5t ,r-#ce1 #aifd4 ref4#fb ,bru*1 ,c4 ,w43 ,"s ,biological & ,physical ,factors 9 ,dry-,heat ,/]ilization3 ,a ,g5]al ,review4 ,9 ,life ,sci5ces & ,space ,rese>* ,,ii4 ,m4 ,flork9 & ,a4 ,dollfus1 eds41 ,nor?-,holl& ,publ4 ,co4 7,am/]dam71 #aifd4 ref4#fc ,bru*1 ,c4 ,w43 ,dry-,heat ,/]ilization = ,planet>y-,impact+ ,spacecraft4 ,te*4 ,rept4 on ,spacecraft ,/]ilization4 ,jet ,propulsion ,lab41 #aife4 ref4#fd ,poll>d1 ,e43 ,pilot ,!oretical ,/udy ( ! ,effect ( ,weightlessness & ,d5sely ,ioniz+ ,radiation on ,s+le ,cells4 ,progr4 ,rept4 on ,contract ,ns,g-#ahb-fb4 ,,nasa1 #aifb4 ref4#fe ,lyon1 ,c4 ,j43 ,aux9 ,transport 9 ,leaf ,ep9a/y4 ,plant ,physiol41 vol4 #ch1 #aifc1 pp4 #efg-egd4 ref4#ff ,mc,kinney1 ,r42 ,montgom]y1 ,p4 ,o',b42 & ,gell1 ,c4 ,f43 ,a ,/udy ( ! ,effects ( ,z]o ,gravity on ,cell ,physiology4 ,9 ,physical & ,biological ,ph5om5a 9 a ,weightless ,/ate4 ,second ,,aas ,symp4 ,phys4 ,biol4 ,ph5om5a ,"u ,z]o ,gravity ,conditions4 ,e4 ,t4 ,b5$ikt & ,r4 ,w4 ,halliburton1 eds41 ,advan4 ,a/ronaut4 ,sci41 vol4 #ad1 #aifc1 pp4 #bia-cjf4 ref4#fg ,committee on ,environm5tal ,biology3 ,report ( ,panel on ,gravity4 ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d1 ,natl4 ,acad4 ,sci4-,natl4 ,res4 ,c\ncil1 #aifd4 ref4#fh ,*ase1 ,h4 ,b43 ,cutane\s ,effects ( ,prim>y ,cosmic ,radiation4 ,j4 ,aviation ,m$41 vol4 #be1 #aied1 p4 #chh4 ref4#fi ,zhukova1 ,a4 ,i42 & ,kondratyev1 ,i4 ,i43 ,on ,artificial ,m>tian ,conditions ,reproduc$ = ,microbiological ,inve/igations4 ,9 ,life ,sci5ces & ,space ,rese>* ,,iii1 ,m4 ,flork91 ed41 ,nor?-,holl& ,publ4 ,co4 7,am/]dam71 #aife1 pp4 #abj-abf4 ref4#gj ,davis1 ,i42 & ,fulton1 ,j4 ,d43 ,microbiological ,/udies on ,ecological ,consid]ations ( ! ,m>tian ,environm5t4 ,,usaf ,,sam ,review1 vol4 #b1 #aiei1 p4 #fj4 ref4#ga ,rob]ts1 ,t4 ,s42 & ,irv9e1 ,l4 ,a43 ,/udies ,) a ,simulat$ ,m>tian ,environm5t4 ,g]m9ation & ,gr[? 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,rat4 ,an ,inquiry ,into ! ,bio*emical ,basis ( ,memory4 ,j4 ,psy*iatric ,res41 vol4 #a1 #aifa1 pp4 #a-aa4 ref4#abc ,adey1 ,w4 ,r42 ,kado1 ,r4 ,t43 ,didio1 ,j42 & ,s*9dl]1 ,w4 ,j43 ,imp$ance ,*anges 9 ,c]ebral ,tissue ,accompany+ a ,le>n$ ,discrim9ative ,p]=mance 9 ! ,cat4 ,exp4 ,neurol41 vol4 #g1 #aifc1 pp4 #bhb-bic4 ref4#abd ,brattg>d1 ,s4 ,o43 ,acta ,radiol4 ,suppl41 vol4 #if1 #aieb1 p4 #a4 ref4#abe ,geig]1 ,a43 ,correlation ( ,bra9 ,metabolism & ,function by ! ,use ( a ,bra9 ,p]fusion ,me?od ,9 ,situ4 ,physiol4 ,rev41 vol4 #ch1 #aieh1 pp4 #a-bj4 ref4#abf ,geig]1 ,a43 ,metabolism ( ! ,n]v\s ,sy/em4 ,d4 ,ri*t]1 ed41 ,p]gamon ,press 7,new ,york71 #aieg4 ref4#abg ,?ompson1 ,r42 & ,mc,connell1 ,j43 ,classical ,condition+ 9 ! ,plan>ian ,dugesia dorotocephala4 ,j4 ,comp4 ,physiol4 ,psy*ol41 vol4 #dh1 #aiee1 p4 #fe4 ref4#abh ,mc,connell1 ,j4 ,v42 ,jacobson1 ,a4 ,l42 & ,kimble1 ,d4 ,p43 ,effects ( ,reg5]ation ,^u ,ret5tion ( a ,condition$ ,response 9 ! ,plan>ian4 ,j4 ,comp4 ,physiol4 ,psy*ol41 vol4 #eb1 #aiei1 p4 #a4 ref4#abi ,corn+1 ,w4 ,c42 & ,john1 ,e4 ,e43 ,effects ( ,ribonuclease on ,ret5tion ( a ,condition$ ,response 9 ,reg5]at+ ,plan>ians4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #acd1 #aifa1 p4 #acfc4 ref4#acj ,g]a!wohl1 ,s4 ,j42 & ,g]n&t1 ,b4 ,e43 ,physiological & ,behavioral ,sci5ces1 ,vol4 #a1 ,,nasa ,,sp-#aa1 #aifb1 pp4 #cii-dac4 ref4#aca ,von ,bekesy1 ,g4 ,j43 ,,dc ,pot5tials & ,en]gy ,balance ( ! 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,mean ,life ( a ,galactosidase-,specific ,mess5g] ,,rna4 ,bio*im4 ,biophys4 ,acta1 vol4 #gf1 #aifc1 p4 #bic4 ref4#afc ,f]n&ez-,moran1 ,h43 ,new ,approa*es 9 ,correlative ,/udies ( ,biological ,ultra/ructure by ,high-,resolution ,electron ,microscopy4 ,j4 ,roy4 ,microscop4 ,soc41 vol4 #hc1 #aifd1 p4 #ahc4 ref4#afd ,f]n&ez ,moran1 ,h43 ,electron ,microscope-,m$ic9es ,rese>*3 ,tool ( ,unfulfill$ ,promise4 ,j4 ,am4 ,m$4 ,assoc4 #ahi1 #aifd1 p4#ca4 ref4#afe ,f]n&ez ,moran1 ,h43 ,electron ,microscope ,) ,high ,field ,sup]conduct+ ,sol5oid ,l5ses4 ,proc4 ,natl4 ,acad4 ,sci4 ,u4,s41 vol4#ec1 #aife1 p4 #dde4 ref4#aff ,deav]1 ,b4 ,s4 ,jr42 ,sw$lund1 ,j4 ,b42 & ,bradley1 ,h4 ,jr43 ,magnetic ,prop]ties ( ,"s ,macromolecules ( ,biological ,int]e/4 ,f9al ,rept4 ,,phu #dfdd4 ,/an=d ,res4 ,in/41 #aifd4 ref4#afg ,sisakyan1 ,n4 ,m43 ,problems ( ,space ,biology4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,,ussr ,acad4 ,sci4 ,publ4 ,h\se 7,mosc[7 #aifb4 ref4#afh ,sisakyan1 ,n4 ,m4 & ,yazdovskiy ,v4 ,i413 ,problems ( ,space ,biology4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,ussr ,acad4 ,sci4 ,publ4 ,h\se 7,mosc[71 #aifd4 ref4#afi ,j5k9s ,d4 ,w413 ,! 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,developm5t ( ,life ,support ,sy/ems4 ,am4 ,biol4 ,tea*]1 vol4 #be1 #aifc1 pp4 #eab-eba4 ref4#agg ,ney ,l4 ,f43 ,gas ,ex*ange by ! ,duckwe$ ,family4 ,,onr ,contract ,no4 ,nonr-#bhhg7jj71 ,/an=d ,res4 ,in/41 #aifj4 ref4#agh ,nakamura1 ,h43 ,a ,/udy ( ,wolffia z a ,new ,food4 ,rept4 ,microalgal ,res4 ,in/4 ,japan41 vol4 #a1 #aifj1 pp4 #g-ac4 ref4#agi ,my]s1 ,j43 ,basic ,rem>ks on ! ,use ( ,plants z ,biological ,gas ,ex*ang]s 9 a ,clos$ ,sy/em4 ,9 ,epitome ( ,space ,m$ic9e4 ,j4 ,aviation ,m$41 vol4 #be1 #aied1 pp4 #djg-daa4 ref4#ahj ,b[man1 ,n4 ,j43 ,! ,food & ,atmosph]e ,control ,problems on ,space ,vessels4 ,j4 ,brit4 ,int]planet4 ,soc1 vol4 #ab1 #aiec1 pp4 #aah-abc4 ref4#aha ,b[man1 ,n4 ,j43 ,! ,food & ,atmosph]e ,control ,problems on ,space ,vessels4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,! ,use ( ,algae = ,food & ,atmosph]e ,control4 ,j4 ,brit4 ,int]planet4 ,soc4 ,vol4 #ab1 #aiec1 pp4 #aei-aff4 ref4#ahb ,bas%am1 ,j4 ,a43 ,exp]im5ts ,) ,photosyn!tic ,gas ,ex*ang]s4 ,proc4 ,_w ,symp4 ,appl4 ,sol> ,en]gy1 ,pho5ix1 ,ariz41 #aiee1 pp4 #ce-ej4 ref4#ahc ,burk ,d42 ,hobby1 ,g42 & ,gau*]1 ,t43 ,clos$-,cycle ,air ,purification ,) ,algae4 ,proc4 ,fir/ ,int]n4 ,symp4 ,subm>9e ,space ,m$4 ,macmillan ,co4 7,new ,york71 #aieh4 ref4#ahd ,dole1 ,s4 ,h42 & ,tampl91 ,a4 ,r43 ,! ,sabati] ,reaction = ,inorganic ,recov]y ( ,oxyg5 9 ,mann$ ,space ,capsules4 ,9 ,clos$ ,circuit ,respiratory ,sy/ems ,symp4 ,te*4 ,rept4 #fj-egd1 ,wright ,air ,develop4 ,div41 #aifj1 pp4 #bci-bhg4 ref4#ahe ,clif=d1 ,j4 ,e42 & ,mc,callum1 ,j43 ,rese>* on ! ,electrolysis ( ,wat] ,"u ,weightless ,conditions4 ,,amrl-,te*4 ,doc4 ,rept4 #fb-dd1 #aifb4 ref4#ahf ,clif=d1 ,j42 & ,fau/1 ,c43 ,rese>* on ,electrolysis ( ,wat] ,) a ,hydrog5 ,diffusion ,ca?ode ,to ,be ,us$ 9 a ,rotat+ ,cell4 ,,amrl-,te*4 ,doc4 ,rept4 #fb-id1 #aifb4 ref4#ahg ,rupaske1 ,r43 ,nutritional ,requirem5ts = ,hydrog5omonas eutropha4 ,j4 ,bact]iol1 vol4 #hc1 #aifb1 pp4 #dah-dbb ref4#ahh ,bong]s1 ,l43 ,*emosyn!tic ,gas ,ex*ang]4 ,qu>t]ly ,progress ,rept4 ,no4 #d on ,,nasa ,contract ,n,a,sw-#iga1 #aife1 #bc pp4 ref4#ahi ,bong]s1 ,l43 ,*emosyn!tic ,gas ,ex*ang]4 ,ann4 ,rept4 on ,,nasa ,contract ,n,a,sw-#gac1 #aifd1 #dd pp4 ref4#aij ,bong]s1 ,l43 ,*emosyn!tic ,gas ,ex*ang]4 ,rept4 ,,rm #aec-aifc4 ,m>t9-,m>ietta ,space ,sy/ems ,div4 7,baltimore1 ,md471 #aifc ref4#aia ,bong]s1 ,l43 ,su/a9+ ,life 9 ,space--,a ,new ,approa*4 ,a]ospace ,m$41 vol4 #ce1 #aifd1 pp4 #aci-add4 ref4#aib ,s*legel1 ,h4,g43 ,die ,v]w5dung von ,h-oxydi]5d5 ,bakt]i5 zur ,reg5]i]ung d] ,atemluft4 ,raumfahrt=s*ung1 ,bd4 #h4 ,nr4 #b1 #aifd1 pp4 #fe-fg4 ref4#aic ,webb4 ,p41 ed43 ,bioa/ronautics ,data ,book4 ,,nasa ,,sp-#cjjf1 #aifd4 ref4#aid ,fo/]4 ,j4 ,f42 & ,lit*field1 ,j4 ,h43 ,a ,cont9u\s ,culture ,app>atus = ! ,microbial ,utilization ( ,hydrog5 ,produc$ by ,electrolysis ( ,wat] 9 ,clos$-,cycle ,space ,sy/ems4 ,biote*4 ,bio5g41 vol4 #f1 #aifd1 pp4 #dda-def4 ref4#aie ,callaway4 ,d42 & ,m>g51 ,s43 ,nutritional ,prop]ties ( ,hydrog5omonas eutropha4 ,semiann4 ,progr4 ,rept41 ,,nasa ,grant ,,ngr-#je-jjc-7jhi71 #aife4 ref4#aif ,work+ ,gr\p on ,gase\s ,environm5t = ,mann$ ,spacecraft3 ,summ>y ,report4 ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d4 ,,nas_/,,nrc1 #aifc4 ref4#aig ,lawton1 ,r4 ,w43 ,physiological ,consid]ations ,relevant to ! ,problem ( ,prolong$ ,weightlessness4 ,a/ronaut4 ,set4 ,rev41 vol4 #d1 #aifb1 pp4 #a-af4 ref4#aih ,mc,cally1 ,m42 & ,lawton4 ,r4 ,w43 ,! ,pa?ophysiology ( ,disuse & ! ,problem ( ,prolong$ ,weightlessness3 ,a ,review4 ,,amrl-,te*4 ,doc4 ,rept4 #fc-c1 ,a]ospace ,m$4 ,div4 7,wright-,patt]son ,,afb1 ,ohio71 #aifc4 ref4#aii ,smi?1 ,r4 ,e42 & ,hock1 ,r4 ,j43 ,br[n ,fat3 ,!rmog5ic ,effector ( ,ar\sal 9 ,hib]nators4 ,sci5ce1 vol4 #adj1 #aifc1 p4 #aii4 ref4#bjj ,/or]4 ,j4 ,b42 & ,hempelman ,l4 ,h43 ,hypo!rmia & ,increas$ ,survival ,rate ( ,infant ,mice ,irradiat$ ,) ,x-rays4 ,am4 ,j4 ,physiol41 vol4 #aga1 #aieb1 pp4 #cda-cdh4 ref4#bja ,work+ ,gr\p on ,nutrition & ,fe$+ ,problems3 ,summ>y ,report4 ,space ,sci5ce ,bo>d4 ,man-9-,space ,comm41 ,,nas_/,,nrc1 #aifc4 ref4#bjb ,anon43 ,conf]5ce on ,nutrition 9 ,space & ,relat$ ,wa/e ,problems4 ,,nasa ,,sp-#gj1 #aifd4 99 ,u4,s4 ,,gov]nm5t ,,pr9t+ ,,(fice #aiff - ,o - #gih #ebj ,transcription note ,! foll[+ typographic errors h be5 correct$3 - 99p4 #b1 l4 #af399 to be call$ #8exobiology4 ---- to be call$ exobiology4 - 99,table ,,iii4- ,ultraviolet_/,maximum399 #aj erg_/cm1 #becg ---- #aj erg_/cm1 #becg - 99p4 #eh1 l4 #ad-ae399 approximately #cjj atm7 ---- approximately #cjj atm47 - 99p4 #hj1 l4 -#b399 7#fjj-ajjj ftc7 ---- 7#fjj-ajjj ft-c7 - 99p4 #hg1 l4 #a399 #j4b-m,m ---- #j4b m,m - 99p4 #ii1 l4 #a-b399 fa9tsess ---- fa9tness - 99p4 #ajd1 l4 #b399 hib]ation ---- hib]nation - 99p4 #aaf1 l4 #ai399 processs+ ---- process+ - 99p4 #aba1 l4 #a399 ,h(fman1 ,r4 ,k41 ---- ,h(fman1 ,r4 ,k42 - 99p4 #abd1 l4 -#aj399 ,ros5szweig ---- ,ros5zweig - 99p4 #abh1 l4 #bi399 ,,amrl ,te*4 ,doc4 ,rept4 ---- ,,amrl-,te*4 ,doc4 ,rept4 ,v>iant spell+3 ,bo? =ms microorganism & micro-organism h be5 reta9$1 z quot$ f diff]5t s\rces or bibliographic ref]5ce titles4 ,tables3 ,:]e necess>y1 ! wid?s ( columns h be5 adju/$1 & "s tables h be5 split to accommodate ! wid? re/rictions on ?is text =mat4 ,split tables h _h blank l9es ins]t$ 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! 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